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REPORT

OF THE

FIFTY-FIRST MEETING

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;

YORK IN AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER 1881.

LONDON :
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMAKLE STREET.
1882.

Office of the Association: 22 Atpumari) ~tREET, Lonpon, W.

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SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
AND PARLIAMENT STREET

CONTENTS.

BLD) ree
Page
OsszEcts and Rules of the Association ............ssssccecsscsececeeseeeceeenceeees XXV
Places and Times of Meeting and Officers from commencement.............++ XXXii
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from com-
MRERICOMOMG ss azrdu.cgetesbeenactee< theca cscs tees dees sbrmaebbka as chidecesacaesdcalee eam XXX1xX
PM ITE MMICCLUTOS sas cavcasetecescescoWbsanseccenasberwcsatoncc seve ustensastwedssvaceeoude lit
Lectures to the Operative Classes......... ......004 SOL HCE PEED Cea liv
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the York Meeting ............... ly
Ne Rama ANI sc pad bers oko wa cs 95 vacgeeeBe cya green sheesh hs haan caagimeth oPen gis lvii
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at Annual Meetings............ lyili
iets, Bod Council, 1881-82: ..--. 2.52... --acasevacnneporseneseothensecesusicastancen, 1X
Report of the Council to the General Wommnigtaait des co.c: a<.ctee eee Ixi
Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports and
BURA GU UMETRCD « ofeoe satan cossatscdieus. sdutcoveegeesdebsdsvssieneieetealacs Lxili
REISE ROP RENNES, ASE eas ain vat. Sedna lattes Gad sea abe uals duypqo decease Ixx
Places of Meeting in 1882 and 1883..........:ccccssssscscsesesseseessescsessseseees Ixxi
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants
BPPEEDS CLOMMIME EFT DOSER Zee ot o> Jsnos. ooreSaccckns weds oc ocedde a dlsiasietiere Seoae eases Ixxii
Arrangement of the General Meetings................ssceecscecsecseecosscscsceseees Ixxxii

Address by the President, Sir Jonn Lussocr, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., D.C.L.,
Ue des yacice nis canes svassanatenccantcvcnsem ee ees 1

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor SyLvEsrER, Professor Cay-
LEY, and Professor SAtmon, for the calculation of Tables of the Fundamental

I 0,60, SIE TATE OLIAG ches vssensn set -onsons case reasnsioupsunmcsscae senses 55
Re a on Recent Progress in Hydrodynamics.—Part I. By W. M. Hicks,
Ieee sigasnnnd mispemamah.< spire bass ¢sinat A michopnd 4p can dep at-home eaS 57

Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Wit~1Am Tomson, Professor
Roscozr, Dr. J. H. Guapsronz, and Dr. ScuusTER (Secretary), appointed
for the purpose of collecting information with regard to Meteoric Dust, and
to consider the question ‘of undertaking regular observations in yarious
localities Bee bec cee RSASSGrENOe >) wiRbno ddl -CbReHOMdso Sabon opacradpack Aeoaas 88

iv CONTENTS.

Page

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. Samurn Haveuton,
M.D., F.R.S., and BensamMin WILLIAMSON, F'.R.S., appointed for the Cal-
culation of Sun-heat Coefficients. Drawn up by Dr. Havexton ............

Fourteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor EvERErr, Pro-
fessor Sir Witt1am THomson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor Ramsay, Pro-
fessor GEIKIE, Mr. J. GuAIsHER, Mr. PencEtLy, Professor Epwarp Hutt,
Dr. Crement Lz Neve Foster, Professor A. S. Herscuet, Professor G.
A. Lzsour, Mr. A. B, Wynne, Mr. Gattoway, Mr. JosrpH Dickinson,
Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. E. Wrrnerep, and Mr. A. Srrawan, appointed
for the purpose of investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Tem-
perature downwards in various Localities of Dry Land and under Water.
Drawn up by Professor EVERETT (Secretary) .......csscsseessscsscssssseeseceeseens

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. H. Darwin, Professor Sir
Wut1aM Txomson, Professor Tarr, Professor Grant, Dr. Sremens, Pro-
fessor Purser, Professor G. ForseEs, and Mr. Horace Darwiy, appointed
for the Measurement of the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity ...............0.000

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Captain Annery, Professor
W. G. Apams, and Professor G. Cary Fostsr, appointed to carry out an
Investigation for the purpose of fixing a Standard of White Light............

Final Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor A. S. Herscmet, Pro-
fessor W. E. Ayrton, Professor P. M. Duncan, Professor G, A. Lezour,
Mr. J. T. Dunn, and Professor J. PERRY, on Experiments to determine the
Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks, showing especially the Geological
Aspects of the Investigation: << .0:.5.0..........+.casheneeeesaueeeeanees Sas Ruananeya ag

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. James Heywoop, F.R.S., Mr.
Wut11aM SHAEN, Mr. SrepHEN Bourne, Mr. Ropert WiILkKinson, the Rey.
W. Detany, Professor N. Srory Masketyne, M.P., F.R.S., Dr. Strvanvs P,
Tuompson, Miss Lypra E. Brecxsr, Sir Jonn Luszock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.,
Professor A. W. WixiLiAmson, F.R.S., Mrs. Avausta WeEssreER, and Dr. J.
H. Guansrong, F.R.S. (Secretary), on the manner in which Rudimentary
Science should be taught, and how examinations should be held therein, in
Bilementary Schools, .....0..s.cecessese+sesccsssec0s capes smennencecs s=eeesn an aemmmene dss

Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. C. WILLIAMSON
and Mr. W. H. Batty, appointed for the purpose of investigating the
Tertiary Flora of the North of Ireland. Drawn up by Wit11am HELLIER
Baty, F-L:S:, F:G.S., M.R.LA® (Secretary) <.....-30s-scese+=pueesaanenmater sees

Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. H. Grapsrone, Dr. W. R. E.
Hopexinson, Mr. W. CARLETON WILLIAMs, and Dr. P. P. Bepson (Secre-
tary), appointed for the purpose of investigating the Method of Determining
the Specific Refraction of Solids from their Solutions ..........+essseeseeeeeeeee

Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir Wint1aM THOM-
son, Dr. J. MERRIFIELD, Professor OsBoRNE REYNOLDs, Captain DoveLas
Garon, Mr. J. N. SHoorsrep (Secretary), Mr. J. F. Deacon, and Mr.
Rogers FrExp, appointed for the purpose of obtaining information respect-
ing the Phenomena of the Stationary Tides in the English Channel and in
the North Sea ; and of representing to the Government of Portugal and the
Governor of Madeira that, in the opinion of the British Association, Tidal

_ Observations at Madeira or other islands in the North Atlantic Ocean would
be very valuable, with a view to the advancement of our knowledge of
the Tides in the Atlantic Ocean.............:sscsesscssesecescenereecessseeecescrscnsces

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor P. M. Duncan, F.R.S.,

89

126

155

and Mr. G. R. VrvE, appointed for the purpose of reporting on Fossil
161

Polyzoa. Drawn up by Mr. Vine (Secretary) ........++ Uvsde ote esvhs.sdeueeeeee

Report of the Committee, consisting: of Dr. M. FosrEr, the late Professor
otiesTon, Mr. Pre-Sarru, Professor Huxtzy, Dr. CARPENTER, Dr. GwWxN

CONTENTS. Vv

Page
Jerrreys, Mr. F. M. Batrour, Sir C. WYVILLE Tromson, Professor Ray
Lanxester, Professor AttMan, and Mr. Percy SLADEN (Secretary), ap-
ointed for the purpose of aiding in the maintenance of the Scottish Zoo-
eal BUPA TTCHAE ode. cose coccaccusenttiesmacmsnes sand ds neatine eSsencroraenseccssnnresacnecss 177

port of the Committee, consisting of Dr. M. Foster, Professor RoLLESTON,
Mr. Dew-Suaru, Professor Huxtey, Dr. Carpenter, Dr. Gwyn JEFFREYS,
Mr. Sctarer, Mr. F. M. Barrour, Sir C. WYvILLE Tuomson, Professor
Ray Lanxester, Professor ALLMAN, and Mr, Percy SLADEN (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of arranging for the occupation of a Table at the
Zoological Station at Naples ..........:sssesssseeeeeeesssssssreceeseesteeenacecensnees 178

teport of the Committee, consisting of Mr. J. A. Harvie Brown, Mr. JOHN
ORDEAUX, and Professor Newron, appointed at Swansea for the purpose
of obtaining (with the consent of the Master and Brethren of the Trinity
House, and of the Commissioners of Northern Lights) observations on the
Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Lightships, and of reporting on the
same, at York, in 1881 .........ssccceccesesessseeereenesescceanuensssereraeneescscanees 189

Report of the Committee, consisting of Lieut.-Colonel GopwIN-AUSTEN,
br. G. Harrzavs, Sir J. Hooxer, Dr. Ginruer, Mr. SEEBOHM, and Mr.
ScLaTER, appointed to take steps for investigating the Natural History of
SOCotra ......ccecevesscccsccccnccscesccccccscecsnccscesescnesecscascnscsstercceeccesscascesens 194

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Scrarer, Mr. Howard SAUNDERS,
and Mr. Tatsetron Dysr, appointed for the purpose of investigating the
Natural History of Timor-laut ..........ccccesesseseceeeeeeeeseeeenenenees seeneeeeees 197

Report on the Marine Fauna of the Southern Coast of Devon and Cornwall.
By Spence Bare, F.R.S., and J. Brooxrne Rows, WUE. Sotictuag!s, (ceptaekc los

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. C. Ramsay and Professor
oun Miunz (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating the
Earthquake Phenomena of Japan .......ssssseeeseeseentseseesecseeeeeeecsssennen ees 200

Ninth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor PREsTWIcH, Professor
T. McK. Hucuzs, Professor W. Boyp Dawxrys, Professor T. G. Bonney,
the Rey. H. W. Crosser, Dr. Deanr, and Messrs. C. E. Dz Rance, D.
Macxrntosu, R. H. Trppeman, J. E. Lur, J. Prant, W. PENGELLY, W.
Motyyevx, H. G. Forpam, and W. TERRILL, appointed for the purpose
of recording the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size,
and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting
other matters of interest connected with the same, and taking measures
for their preservation. Drawn up by the Rev. H. W. Crosskey, Secretary 204

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. Lerra ADAMs, the
Rey. Professor Haveuron, Professor Borp Dawxrns, and Dr. JoHN
Evans, appointed for the purpose of exploring the Caves of the South of
ME co csncatacectancssso-ccessagsseecccccenssearionnscecseesscceencssnecocescnscnsesee 218

Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir F. J. Bramweztt, Dr. A. W.
ILLIAMSON, Professor Sir WILLIAM THomson, Mr. Sr. Jon Vincent Day,

Dr. C. W. Sremens, Mr. C. W. Merrirretp, Dr. Nerison Hancock, Mr.
Axet, Captain Dovetas Gatron, Mr. E. H. Carsurr, Mr. Macrory, Mr.
H. Trueman Woop, Mr. W. H. Bartow, and Mr. A. T. ATCHISON, ap-
one for the purpose of watching and reporting to the Council on Patent

CGISIAGION .......csessscccrececensceanscccsscveaseecsscneceseenescssecssenesecaransceeens 222

Report of the Anthropometric Committee, consisting of Mr. F. Gaxron, Dr.
EDDOE, Mr. BraBroox (Secretary and Reporter), Sir G. Camppett, Dr.
Farr, Mr. F. P. Frttows, Major-General Prrr-Rivers, Mr. J. Park
Harrison, Mr. James Herwoop, Mr. P. Hatrert, Professor LEonE LervI,
Dr. F. A. Manomep, Dr. Murrueap, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr. CHARLES
Roserts, and the late Professor ROLLESTON ..... LOG ARE bee USE Pai de vee 225

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Luonr Lev1, Mr. STEPHEN

vi CONTENTS.

Page
Bourne, Mr. Brirrarn, Dr. Hancock, Professor Jrvons, and Mr. F. P.
FExLLows, appointed for the purpose of inquiring into and reporting on the
resent Appropriation of Wages, and other sources of income, and considering
ow far it is consonant with the economic progress of the people of the
United Kingdom. Drawn up by Professor LEONE LEVI .............c00ceeeeeee 272

Report of a Committee, consisting of James GuaisHer, F.R.S., F.R.AAS.,
E. J. Lows, F-.R.S., Professor R. 8. Batt, F.R.S., Dr. Wartrr Fiiext,
F.G.S., and Professor A. S. Herscuet, M.A., F.R.A.S., on Observations
of Luminous Meteors during the year 1880-81 ...............seceenececececsecsees 290

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayiny, F.R.S., Professor

. G. Sroxs, F.R.S., Professor H. J. S. Surra, F.R.S., Professor Sir

Wiut11am Tomson, F.R.S., Mr. James GratsHEr, F.R.S., and Mr. J. W.
L. GuaIsHER, F.R.S. (Secretary), on Mathematical Tables.............00.0000 303

Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor E. Hunt, the Rev.
H. W. Crossxey, Captain Dovetas Garton, Mr. James GLAISHER, Professor
G. A. Lepour, Mr. W. Motynrvx, Mr. G. H. Morton, Mr. W. PENGELLY,
Professor J. Prestwicu, Mr, J. Purant, Mr. JAmEs Parker, Mr. I. Roperts,
Mr. 8. Srooxz, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. W. Wuiraxsr, and Mr. C. E.
Dr Rance (Reporter), appointed for the purpose of investigating the Cir-
culation of the Underground Waters in the Jurassic, New Red Sandstone,
and Permian Formations of England, and the Quality and Quantity of the
Water supplied to towns and districts from these formations ................. 309

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor DEwar, Dr. WILLIAMSON,
Dr. Marsnati Warts, Captain Abnry, Mr. Sronry, Professor W. N.
Harttery, Professor McoLrop, Professor Canby Fosrmr, Professor A. K.
Hontineton, Professor Emerson Reynoxps, Professor RErNoip, Professor
Liveine, Lord Rayieren, Dr. ARTHUR ScHustTER, and Mr. W. CHANDLER
Roserts (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of reporting upon the present
state of our Knowledge of Spectrum Analysis ...........:seeceseeecseeeneeeens ene 317

Interim Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing practical
Standards for use in Electrical Measurements, the Committee consisting of
Professor G. Carty Foster, Mr. C. Hocxry, Professor Sir Wiii1AmM THoM-
son, Professor Ayrton, Mr. J. Perry, Professor W. G. Apams, Lord
RayzeEr1eH, Professor F. Jpnxin, Dr. O. J. Loner, Dr. Joun Hopxryson,

Dr. Murruean, Mr. W. H. Presce, and Mr. HERBERT TAYLOR.....-......06- 423

On some New Theorems on Curves of double Curvature. By Professor Srurm 440
Observations of Atmospheric Electricity at the Kew Observatory during 1880,

By G. M. Wutpprs, B.Sc., F.R.A.S., F.M.S., Superintendent...............00 443
On the Arrestation of Infusorial Life by Solar Light. By Professor Joun
TYNDALL, F.R.S........ $4 bvescdacceceqeedonnieusdestuahsbebsanwevessysepte sneer! 450
On the Effects of Oceanic Currents upon Climates. By the Rev. Samven
Haveuton, M.D., F.R.S. ...... boacncucsastateeesces ibs cssboe Scecsdscaganeenspenmenerttes 451
On Magnetic Disturbances and Earth-currents. By Professor Wi1LtIaAM
GEY rs) Am AMS, ARES Aiseias sah adeoncelssaclee dbueee cnadee snecseetinen tates eaeeemen omnes 463

On some applications of Electric Energy to Horticultural and Agricultural
purposes. By C, Wm. Siemens, D.C.L., LL.D.,F.R.S., Mem. Inst. C.E. 474

On the Pressure of Wind upon a Fixed Plane Surface. By Toomas Hawxs-

TAY NOPE MEL. Seacedvodewecdesiiita seas iassces daveadleebater tenet renetceetee tener 480
On the Island of Socotra. By Bay1tey Batrour, Sc.D., M.B., Regius Pro-
fessor of Botany, University of Glascow .........sceceececesecnceeeesees Aero. . 482

On some of the Developments of Mechanical Engineering during the last
half-century. By Sir FREDERICK BRAMWELL, V.P. Inst. C.E., F.R.S. ...... 494

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section AWA-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.

Page

Address by Professor Sir Witt1am Tomson, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.L.
and E., President of the Section ..........ssssseesessseseeeeneeseserenescesaueeeees 513

1. On the Possibility of the Existence of Intra~Mercurial Planets. By
BALFOUR STEWART, LL.D., FURS. ....ccseeeeeceseceneeeeseeneceeeensscesceesenees 518

2, On the Photographic Spectrum of Comet ‘b’ 1881. By WILLIAM
Hueerns, D.C.L., LL.D., FURS, .......::ccccceeeeseseeneseencecsceeeersereeeceeaes 520
8. On a Prismatic Optometer. By TEMPEST ANDERSON, M.D, 8:50. - se -ace 621

4, On the Effects of the Lunar and Solar Tide in increasing the Length of

‘5,

o

the Sidereal Day. By the Rev. Samust Haveuron, M.D., F.R.S. ...... 528

On the Effects of Oceanic Currents upon Climates. By the Rev. SaAMuEL
HAUGHTON, M.D., FURS. ......ccseccesscarsceeencceeeeceeeseransceassennsssanecesens 523

. On some applications of Electric Energy to Horticultural and Agricul-

tural purposes. By Dr. C. Wit. SIEMENS, F.RS......cceeeeeesseeeeeeeee sence 524

. On Hydrocarbons in the Solar Atmosphere. By Captain ABNEY, R.E.,
F.R.S.

Re
RENE er aE eS HS i ron scs Sane wilpenwetens das ennmeensses quaseesmenieat’ 524

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2

PuysicaAL DEPARTMENT.

. On Surface-tension and Capillary Action. By Professor OssorNE Rey-

WOLDS, FRAG, .......0ccccccsscssrccnccsccesscansonsccscscccsascensesesssensansocscenses 524

. On some Colour Experiments. By Lord Rayreren, F.RAS...........0eeee 526
. On a Question in the Theory of Lighting. By Lorp Rayzzten, F.R.S, 526
. On some uses of Faure’s Accumulator in connection with eRe by

Electricity. By Professor Sir Witt1aM THomson, M.A., F.R.S. ......... 526

. On the Economy of Metal in Conductors of Electricity. By Professor Sir

WItriaM THOMSON, M.A., FLR.S. occ. ceceeceeecncencesceeceereeeeecseeneeaeans 526

. On the proper Proportions of Resistance in the Working Coils, the Electro-

Magnets, and the External Circuits of Dynamos. By Professor Sir
WILLIAM THOMSON, M.A., FURS. ...ccceceececeecseeeeeee eee eees pe isesidaet bk aactet 528

. On the Application of Electricity to the Localisation of a Bullet in a

Wound. By W. H. PREECE, FURS. ...cccssssssecsescessssscssenssenesesesenens 581

. On some of Bell and Tainter’s recent Researches and their Consequences.

By W. Lant CARPENTER, B.A., F.C.S. ....ccscecccssneseceseeeeneeeseesanenenees 531

Vill CONTENTS.

Page:
9. On the Electric Conductivity and Dichroic Absorption of Tourmaline.
By Professor Syuvanus P. THompson, B.A., D.Sc. .........ccveerccceeeoonses 531

10, On the arrangement of Cometic Perihelia with reference to the Sun’s
march in space. By HENRY “MUIRHEAD, M.D. ........0.ssccccsesessseceeeeeees 532'

MatTHEemATICAL DEPARTMENT.

1. Second Report of the Committee appointed for the calculation of Tables

of the Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms............seseeseseeeeees 532
2. Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables..............:..sseseeseeene 582:

3. Report on Recent Progress in Hydrodynamics.—Part I. By W. M. Hicks,
PACE hea cacema eheror Macc edes de cks<adsdnt ot akc tsoeeeetre ds tetanse sie xpeaasaaes 532.

4, Sur un critérium de Steiner relatif 4 la théorie des sections coniques. Par
IVI PEA Acree Ea ge eee iss eee teak cok cher > ack dcsiees earache dues ocawscnes ox c@eageeeeeaen 532

5. Some new Theorems on Ouryes of double Curvature. By Professor
PSU RM Petes eter tidh ecalsairUsiactpeses< av ciiec'éxscvensisne caw sas h= sae eee 534

6. On Congruencies of the Second Order and Second Class. By Dr. T.
PAR CHMRMELURST el EUS. \ssesaccciuesorsescetascasse ssereves sposenvesscecanvadseseettrey 534

7. Sur les faisceaux de forme biquadratique binaire ayant une méme
Jacobienne. Par CYPARISSOS STEPHANOS ..........csssccssccccssecccscesenness 584

8. Ona Diagram connected with the Transformation of Elliptic Functions,
By HProfessor OAV UMS ENS “vctccscceessosveseecSssdscoccseascatcenaserececteneens 584

9. A partial Differential Equation connected with the simplest case of Abel’s
ireorenit tsy /relessoOr CAYLEY EES; | voces sosscesenoseecsnscee onsen anaaeee 5384

10, On the Differential Equations satisfied by the Modular Equations. By
IPROTOSEOTMELS eres TOMITH, My At, aE WsSettse. sc sesdeasescecosvoeseteneesssneneeenee 535:

11, On the q-Series in Elliptic Functions. By J. W. L. GuatsHer, M.A,
OG areas secatee nda naue oaths <apece sper staveansees-caess sfevse.bu es socs. 36 eae en 535

12, On the Elucidation of a Question in Kinematics by the aid of Non-
Euclidian Space. By Roperr 8. Barz, LL.D., FURS... eee eee eee 535)

13, On a Theorem relating to the Description of Areas. By WI-LIAM
Wootsry Jonnson, Professor of Mathematics in the Naval Academy,

PACU SU) NS, siecceseronsvaniensdeaccWnackeseedasi + cemsseaeissm seus toss s=5- cee 536:
14, On the Equation of the Multiplier in the Theory of Elliptic Transforma-

fon: «By Professor H.J..S; Sire, MA, pF URAS,......00.....0csessseenaeeeney 538
15. On a Linear relation between two Quadratic Surds. By Professor

BAL F578. OME MA. 5 BoD de sd epavdiraph icon vb osvencengencceseunel se eae 538
16. Ona Class of Binodal Quartics. By Professor R. W. Gunuss, M.A....... 538:

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.

1, On a Class of Differential Equations. By Professor HaLPHEN ............ 538:
2. On the Aspects of Points ina Plane. By Professor HALPHEN ............ 538.
3. Ona Connection between Homographies in a Straight Line and Points in a
Space.; By OvPARISsOs STMPHA NOS. «. 205505 seneeh bpasexceosaverubhasndeseneteounee 538
4, On Inyolutional (1 1) Correspondence. By Professor GunEse, M.A. ...... 539

5, On the Velocity Function of a Liquid due to the Motion of Cylinders and
Surfaces of Revolution, By A. G. GREENHILL.........ccccceecseceeceesceseees 540

CONTENTS. ix

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.

PuysicAL DEPARTMENT.

Page
1. Report of the Committee on Meteoric Dust...........csce.cseseeseeereeteeee eons 540
2. Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations in the English Channel
BG NON OLLNNSEd teeaecace i oseececocansoccsdnccsdecscencessseeserccedscesieseersizpe=se 540:
3. Report of the Committee on Underground Temperature ...,.........+s+000+ 540:
4, Report of the Committee on the Calculation of Sun-heat Coefficients...... 540
5. Observations of Atmospheric Electricity at the Kew Observatory during
1880. By G. M. Wurpptn, B.Sc., F.R.AAS. ......ceeseecescesceecseeesceneeeees 540
6. On a Universal Sunshine Recorder Stand. By G. M. Wurppte, B.Sc.,
[PL LEid ISB Bedoconbederocheea ac aanecry EEE Ceaee Iero cob caee OceHiceocs socueenosba acree eco 540
7. On the Calibration of Mercurial Thermometers by Bessel’s Method. By
Professors T. E. THorps, Ph.D., F.R.S., and A. W. Ricxer, M.A. ...... 540:
8. On the General Coincidence between Sun-spot Activity and Terrestrial
Magnetic Disturbance. By the Rev. F. Howzert, F.R.AAS. ..........000e 541
9. On Magnetic Disturbances and Earth-currents. By Professor W. GRYLLS
FMM SED Ey eme eee ree Rene Sacer a mcctets Sermaljsecccee seat eeerinesse teres snsesince 542:
10. On the Arrestation of Infusorial Life by Solar Light. By Professor

RUCHHINE PVNDAUaM this EU Se cstscctiesccecsscetenceccsecectesscccccaceseesarcecsdtessssnsems 543

. On a new Integrating Anemometer. By the Rey. J. M. Wixson, M.A.,

EITC MELet (Sy EL Titai HUA Wanielet tose scc coe tec: pecScncuttecscsccsvacebacceccossccssisesiossices 548.

. On the Isothermals of the British Isles. By Atex. Bucwan, M.A,

Baas Hiematenisisseracistesvorassattavocetscecsst end caucesiecsscveceaaseisnavssnenasvadsesels 544

. On the Diurnal Period of Hailstorms. By Atex. Bucwan, M.A.,,

SEDI sa Sin ceasteeerese cescensesesetesesecsciicepsd stoecseel secnccinescascvsccengesenc-nepess 544.

. On the Sunspot Period, and Planetary Tides in the Solar Atmosphere.

ESypeH als: SEIDMONDS\<s.escccccercsrccsccecocceceeece eccovaesdatac= saws sasencusrnnr=aane 544

. Some Laws which regulate the Succession of Mean Temperature and

Rainfall in the Climate of London. By H. Courtenay Fox, M.R.C.S.... 544

. On the Blowing Wells near Northallerton. By Tuomas FArRiey,

1 iy Sk] Bh cbbcanedonceanedadaasengc6ccds veceao oohocne scuoASHpaeEHUSCocbansHecreconcsceREet 544

. Some Remarks on Artificial Flight. By Frep. W. Brearey, Hon.

Secretary of the Aeronautical Society..........csssseseseceeeecrececsseneeveneeees 545,

. On the desirability of observing Occultations of Stars, of the first and

other bright magnitudes, from places where they are to be seen near the
horizon. By H.S. WiritaMs, M.A.) FRLAGS. oo... cccscceecccsncceseneee 547

MATHEMATICAL DEPARTMENT.

. Sur la représentation des rotations autour d’un point par des points de

TVespace. By CYPARISSOS STEPHANOS ......ccsscsecceeceseneceeceecnsceseescesens 547

. On the Polar Planes of a point with respect to four Quadrie Surfaces.

By W. Sporriswoope, M.A., Pres. R.S. ......cceseeseeeeeeeeeeeee suliaeeeeto nt! 547

. On the Extension of the Theory of Screws to the Dynamics of any

material system. By Rozrrt 8. Batt, LL.D., F.R.S., Royal Astronomer
Gb, Ure] ame eee epee iews <psisns anes sit enispinc i ssapnaisananernoneaisoseien seeana sae sa dem aust 547

. On a Property of a small Geodesic Triangle on any surface. By Professor

ETS, Jin OR MCMEH NIG Non Li Lee Set apinspcandcansione.sinnian tececeabeb epbicaeee ce speibeaadas 548

CONTENTS.

Page

. On the General Analogy between the formule of singly and doubly

Periodic Functions. By J. W. L. Gratsopr, M.A., F.R.S. oe eee 548

6. Sur les Séries Hypergéométriques. By Professor iaeeeen asl. Ceeeebereates 561
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

1. Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards .........s.ccssssceeecveveenens 551
2. Report of the Committee for the Measurement of the Lunar Disturbance

GIy OVA VAL Y deco gcesssacenccacstose sens staraesses ele coste «5 ok teeay aneests ccs ceeeeeeenee Ss 551
3. On the Rainfall Observations made upon York Minster by Professor John

UPS VE BGS aye Garde IVMONA ER IRSS: ccsccoratesssecacnnanesneneeh banners 561
4, On Volta-Electric Inversion. By Professor Sr.vanus P. THomrson, B.A.,

eames Persea aeciees aetna te ona ccen tc necens dh eat <cvsotscaas-desst sashes osessnetee eemeare 552
5. On the Rotational Coefficient in various Metals. By E. H. Hat......... 552
6. On a Dynamometer Coupling. By Professors W. E. Arron, F.R.S., and

SOHINB EE Wo bseDieeccrces sea sek Sclesoaios dacs ics ase cose solv deve seuss cancun eee mmeeeneres 553

. On an Early Attempt at a Secondary Battery. By Dr. C. W. Sremens,
F.R.S.

. On a Problem in Stream Lines. By Professor A. W. Ricker, M.A....... 554
. On Potential due to Contact. By S. Lavineron Harz, B.A., D.Se.,

Scholar of St. John’s College, Cambridge

. On the Electric Discharge through Colza Oil. By A. MAcFARLANE,

Be veg OSs Puls — ott ecccive ance oad dhndayoeessuasubes seiassssecsseshent ene 556

k Pension graphique de la Formule des Piles, Discussion. Par le

Professeur C., M. Garret, Agrégé de Physique 4 la Faculté de Médecine
de Paris, Ingénieur des Ponts wh COR MISSOOS, 3....se+s-snssersescveee eae 556

. On an Easy Method of making Carbon Cells for Galvanic Batteries.

Rem CaS M ONDE ID, otvnndccsnccaoaycnancieas shascdlven sugcees te aecere enn 557

. On an Antimonized Cellular Carbon Galvanic Battery. By W. Symons,

SB Te eee aiaas <OcGid Sn cairns noudius supe tec aapeeses Lskcos thSxadess< obs tee ane 557

. On the Absolute Sine Electrometer. By Professor G. M. Mrncutn, M.A. 558

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

1. Report of the Committee on a Standard of White Light ..............ccc006 559
2. Report of the Committee on Luminous Meteors............s:sssseeeessereereees 559
3. Report of the Committee on the Thermal Conductivity of Rocks............ 559
4, A Contribution to the History of the Algebra of Logic. By the Rev. R.

PP ATeiey, ENEGIS. acc. onsnceo=stewsansaanepeuestawetides<vdeasscegadasesiae tty Aen 559
5. On the Illuminating Powers of Incandescent Vacuum Lamps with

measured Potentials and measured Currents. By Professor Sir Winr1AM

Tomson, M.A., F.R.S., and James T. Borromtry, M.A. ..........ceee0e0e 559
6

. On Rae ee A with Pebrid ont By Professor Sir WixL14mM THOMSON,

SI Airy ETE, oatbacet dep. ansi'e seven scien sasiee napwancees tela sane puetapnabatees Soonaan 561

. On ae Dynamical Theory of Radiation. By Professor ARTHUR SCHUSTER,

gee Uo ee 561

. On a — Electrometer and some preliminary Experiments on Voltaic

Action... By Js BROWN: ccc. .ovevcswessvewwebusegsentbs ce owehuctvealsccucers SOM mene 562

CONTENTS. xl
Page

. On a Wave Apparatus for Lecture purposes, to illustrate Fresnel’s concep-

tion of Polarised Light. By C. J. WoopwaRD, B.Sc. ........cccseceeeeeeeees 563

. On a Microscope with arrangements for illuminating the sub-stage. By

BIDAR OHOSSLEY, FR ALS 2 (.bie ce. cause ones csccovestoscusedsacssccsed-semaeaaks 563

. On a New Polarising Prism. By Professor Srrvanus P. THompson,

Re iil isa AY cata ctaiutl Conde. ciylaals decor ion bedded hah ale 563

12. On an Overlapping Spectroscope. By James Lovn, F.R.A.S., F.G.S. ... 564
13. On Change of Density at the Melting Point. By Jamms Love, F.R.A.S.,

DMS cece csanacead cee se cajaniace as <csesiswsacur ct cacmes aan snaptecenage-G8-socnsseetranr 564
14, On Drops and Capillarity. By Dr. T. Wo0DS ...........ssceeececeeeseeeeeees 565
15. On Binaural Audition.—Part III. By Professor Sirvanvs P. THompson,

ea circ sais anieninre ais Splash on 2s asic as nsaneco nn ans cnnanonnes SCAM LAe Seiaieean 565
16. On Differential Resolvents. By the Rev. Roperr Harxey, F.R.S.......... 565
17. An Analysis of Relationships. By A. Macrarianz, M.A., D.Sc.,

2.

3.

MUESTRA coer. epee oan 2 2 ulead Ry sat ARNE 2; aeonb tmaaaaade talaeee 566

Srotion B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.

. Report of the Committee on the Method of Determining the Specific

Refraction of Solids from their Solutions..........cssccscescscscccecssccescesececs 567

On a Process for Utilising Waste-products and Economising Fuel in the
Extraction of Copper. By J. DIXON ...:.......cccccsscsessscccecerercesenecseess 567

On Metallic Compounds containing Bivalent Hydrocarbon Radicals.
Be GALT pees yidis SAICU BATS |suscovssecte.codcbacdecsssateaUooscss sevledeesnwsaeees alias 567

Address by Professor A. W. Wittramson, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.,

4,

5.

EVERICENE OL GHHOYSECHION 2aesedecccdes seas sddeaccdeccd eb pacdat vceecdedkabebicce wees cence 568

On the Chemical Action between Solids. By Professor T. E. THores,
EAE s Se Raaeteosscesasndduetsdevasites ats scenes taduanenssecs 20s occesedaeawsoe shee 580

On ‘hs First Two Lines of Mendelejefi’s Table of Atomic Weights. By
VV CRVAUELD ON SW HAEU:SoLCL, dveteisubictteds danish ddosaslecateule cece debe stl sesdsnees cclddeces 580

. On the Occlusion of Gaseous Matter by Fused Silicates at High Tem-

peratures, and its possible connection with Voleanic Agencies. By
I. LOwWTHIAN BELL, F.R.S. .........ceseeeeeeeees Pes cakdasihedsastaacbnitt wxcten sade 580.

. On the Siliceous and other Hot Springs in the Volcanic District of the

North Island of New Zealand. By Wm. Lanr Carpenter, B.A., B.Sc.,
ation nSeanl eee nna - ae rioi edn pauksen de nsashon dh aadde saandetehve Banas ~aiekarsiiy 580

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2

. Second Report of the Committee upon the present state of our Knowledge

Ob Spectram AMALVECIS q...cicscsassscecsdsccsvesteuscoacavecaaass ceduenigedeceniancrsaes 582

. On the Fluid Density of certain Metals. By Professor W. CHANDLER

RopeRts, F.R.S., and T. WRIGHTSON ..........cssccesoscosecsccssncencsescsceess 582

. On the Oxides of Manganese. By V. H. VELEY, B.A. ......ccceseceeceeeeeees 582
. On the Inferences deducible from high Molecular Weights, as exhibited age

the Oxides of Manganese. By Professor W. Opiine, F.RAS. ...........0665

. On Manganese Nodules, and their Occurrence on the Sea-bottom. By

De Ly FR AA: Ih os caste de Bawees a waereriae bbs Odes cedbbwel odbbind fivedd eased. 583

. On Brewing in Japan. By Professor R. W. ArKrnson, B.Sc. (Lond.) ... 585

xii

CONTENTS.

. On Peppermint-camphor (Menthol) and some of its Derivatives, By

Professor R. W. Arxrnson, B.Sc. (Lond.), and H. YosHrpa

. On the Sodium-alum of Japan. By Professor Epwarp Divers, M.D. ... 586:
. On the Occurrence of Selenium and Tellurium in Japan. By Professor

EDWARD DIVERS, MSDs c.. sdssostvoctte dete. cemataeseee cssseeesincen trot aekeuenereee 586:

. On the Chrome Iron Ore of Japan. By Professor Epwarp Divers, M.D. 587

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.

On certain Points in Modern Progress in Chemical Knowledge. By
Professor H. E, ARMSTRONG, Ph.D., F.R.S. .........cccceccseceeceecencenceeees 589:

. On the alleged Decomposition of the Elements. By Professor Dewar,

IMLAN, 5 Es Rui ye orto zeeeratsne ae tanvles sleeves Tevere c's ve's'estelst SCHORD ECAH UDIHOSOUE TOL ATHAeSS 589

3. On the Production of Crystals by the Action of Metals in Carbon Disul-
phide in Sealed Tubes. By PHitip BrawaM, F.C.S...........0sececeseeeeenene 589°
4, On the Separation of Hydrocarbon Oils from Fat Oils. By Atrrep H.
AUTATaR git OU Suertcticets esis assisineco.scaaascisox's ddiceoa coeedstedelacapencecadeeeeeen soamee ene 589°
5. On some Phenomena which appear to be of the Nature of Chemico-
Magnetic Action. By Wiittam THOMSON, F.R.S.E. .........ccecceeceeceees 590:
6. On the Specific Refraction and Dispersion of Light by Liquids. By J. H.
RSAPRSTONE, Ein D)-5 BES ..0s0%ssacieenactin cesses sce sate sien suite heclsenerneete een 591
7. On Molecular Attraction. By F. D. Brown, B.Sc. ..........sscseceseceeceees 592:
8. Note on a new Method of Measuring certain Chemical Affinities ............ 592
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
1, On the present state of Chemical Nomenclature. By Professor A. W.
IWAGKETAMSON;-E0.D;) FARIS; ssp. voascwos cope cb hoccsde aber ceuscdestete Cones 593.
2. On Alterations in the Properties of the Nitric Ferment by Cultivation.
By R. Wartneton, F.C.S........... sue ouiseewep seuh «tdediemdonavemtsdeeee dee aeeEnen 693,
3. On the Effect of the Spectrum of Silver Chloride. By Captain ABnezy,
Re ae pea DUAN g, sc rantion fs «abn. ved pin'e'ona'depaal ssrarht chines sas tet eyiah tiie ete 594
4, Some Remarks on Crystallogeny. By Professor J. P. CoOKE ...........006 595
5, On the Action of Zine and Magnesium on Acidified Solutions of Ferric
Sulphate. By Professor T. E. THorps, Ph.D., F.R.S. .........cescceeeeeeeees 595.
6. On the Reducing Action of Zinc and Magnesium on Vanadium Solutions.
By Professor TH... Roscoxz, LL.D., FURS. .1......5....0s0: Aude essne ee ee 596
7. On the Determination of the Relative Atomic Weights of Manganese,
Oxygen, and Silver. By Professor Drwar, M.A., F.R.S., and A. Scort,
SP gages daa nm asle oi sdisie nessa ve eescintodans abe stpteupagvaneaasoes ets scene mam 596
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
1. On Some Vapour Density Determinations. By Professor Duwar, M.A.,
EUS 75 ANG AGS COLT ES At DSC. ces. caces osuncstoes sececsteeatene tor eeemeteniaaeen 597

. On Vapour Density Determinations. By Professor THorpx, Ph.D., F.R.S. 597

3. Note on the Phosphates of Lime and Ammonia. By J. ALFRED WaNKLYN 597
4, On a New System of Blowpipe Analysis. By Lieut.-Colonel Ross......... 598
5. On Colliery Explosions. By WiiLtAM GALLOWAY..........0.+006 as'ene thee gee .. 598
6

. On the Double Iodide of Mercury and Copper. By Professor Srrvanus

IP; A OMRSON, IB ZAG DSCs, «sib. sb lscccdessews'sl sccele ove sedenesles sve scomepnay seen. GOO

CONTENTS.

7, Analyses of the Water and Gas from Blowing Wells near Northallerton.

By T. FAIRigy, FLRS.E. ...cccceceesseeeeesseetennteeceeeeneeceeesreceseeeenesenens 601
8. On Experiments with isareea on the Barley Crop of 1881. By W.
HVARGNMUACADAM 0c ce6-bacoiecnlorcdea acct nned debe siqseSsoininyyclesids «0's nsjslesls soleandte 602
9. On the Hydration of Salts and Oxides. By CO. F. Cross, IBIS CWSES \... Biaoees 602
10. On Cellulose and Coal. By C. F. Cross, B.Sc., and E. J. BEVAN........4... 603
11. On the New Element, Actinium. By Dr. T. L. Purrson, F.C.8. .....-... 603
12. On Bowkett’s Thermograph. By Wa. Lanr CaRPEntER, B.A., B.Se.,
TEC, SARGERAS erase Seren atti Betroct Sco cocra cerce rrsenct oo 604
Section C.—GEOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
Address by ANDREW CromsBre Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., President
of the Section ........cccecceccecceeeeceeetecenseesneesecseeeeceeseeceeesseauenssee sen ens 605
1. On the Laurentian Beds of Donegal and of other parts of Ireland. By
Professor Epwarp Hux, LL.D., F.R.S., Director of the Geological
Survey of Ireland.........c.:ssssessseessesseeseesesecesececesceseseqesaesensessenseeeess 609
2. On the Laurentian Rocks in Ireland. By G. H. Kinawan, M.R.LA., &c. 609
3. Life in Irish and other Laurentian Rocks. By C. Moors, F.G.S. ......... 610
4, On the occurrence of Granite zn siti, about 20 miles 8.W. of the Eddy-
stone. By A. R. Hunt, M.A., F.GIS.........ccseceeeesesesceeneeetccseeeeeeeenees 610
5, Some Observations on the Causes of Volcanic Action. By Professor
J. PRESTWICH, M.A., F.R.S. ........cesecsecessceseeceecneeeeeecesnccsccesesecesesees 610
4. The Connection between the Intrusion of Volcanic Rock and Volcanic
Eruptions. By Professor SoLis, MGA SUR. Ee Sebivecsessontestsnaeamsces(ctcste 613
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2
1. On the Influence of Barometric Pressure on the Discharge of Water from
Springs. By Batpwry Larnam, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., F.MLS. ........... 614
2, Glacial Sections at York, and their relation to the later deposits. By
AB DAC UNTO TAR Kees ZAS, ES 90.5 Ber Sst cceseciseescaswatceseneeascaseesiecsiecseeese> 614
3. On the Bridlington and Dimlington Glacial Shell-beds. By G. W.
Tb hatrsepaveret SRA E acbeadurenonodacoto sc ecnaee cnbede eeaatodanosciader nlocbScndnopece Se ABooe 616
A, On Sections of the Drift obtained from the new Drainage Works of Drif-
field. By J. R. MORTIMER.............csccecceececeeeereeeeeeueneeteeecerseesesseeees 617
5, On the Subsidences above the Permian Limestone between Hartlepool
and Ripon. By A. G. Cameron, Geological Survey of England and
Aer GSMA NEEM Re cies .cPudtavats Heeciasde biome ctemacemiacdoosentydathacks suedttete ss 617
6. The Glacial Deposits of West Cumberland. By J. D. Keyvatt, C.E.,
PIG pra eeedtT EE © Secs sadetcdscasdssueie see. s.adur-antesddaeentievees ots cena 617
‘7, On Simosaurus pusillus (Fraas), a step in the Evolution of the Plesio-
sauria. By Professor H. G, Seeley, FR.S., F.LS. .....-sesesseeeeseeeeeeeees 618

8. On a Restoration of the Skeleton of ‘sedis épter yx, With some remaris on
the differences between the Berlin and London specimens. By Professor
H. G. Sez ey, F.R.S., F.L,S.

POUUUUOEOROEOCT OOOO CI TTT eee)

618

xiv CONTENTS.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
Page

: On Asterosmilia Reedi, a new species of coral from the Oligocene of

Brockenhurst, Hants. By Professor P. Martin Duncan, F.R. Boaivis..s..) B18

. On the Strata between the Chillesford Beds and the Lower Boulder Clay,

‘The Mundesley and Westleton Beds.’ By Professor J. Prestwicu,
IMPACRPBEU Ss, cpa as aldose asus oopedasd seo cesip> ndweasss cathenessne top aay aaateenaeneet eee 620

. On the Extension into Essex, Middlesex, and other Inland Counties, of

the Mundesley and Westleton Beds, in relation to the age of certain hill-
gravels and of some of the valleys of the South of England. By Pro-
fessor. PRESTWICH G MSA: EF R:Ss:\icicoc.dcicesdsadesneccddes sect semaenneee eects 620

. A preliminary account of the working of Dowkerbottom Cave, in Craven,

during August, 1881. By E. B. Pouton, M.A., F.G.S. ......0cessasecsarsee 622

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.

. Seventh Report on the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the

Jurassic, New Red Sandstone, and Permian Formations of England, and
the Quality and Quantity of the Water supplied to various towns and

distmctatirom these formations .2.....0.d..ustseccccwsccevesce<tedecssteevesterconees 623

2. Third Report on the Tertiary (Miocene) Flora of the Basalt of the North
CMIUCENTIGL ost cian’ nae e obaso sy coteon dee dseggatanecebocdas tvs secetes cacee svaesemeduectne ate 623
3. On the Formation of Coal. By Epwarp Werumrep, F.G.S., F.C.S....... 623

4. Preliminary Remarks on the Microscopie Structure of Coal. By Professor
WO WaEntAMeOn, HRS... 85otccgasies sss cascseactoeecevetecs ocotteeemenereenas 625
5. On the Halifax Hard Seam. By W. Casi, F.G.S. .........csececeseeeeeeeees 626
6. Researches in Fossil Botany. By James SPENCER .........ccsceseeeeeeseeeeeees 627
7. Notes on Astromyelon and its root. By JAMES SPENCER ..........00s0e-eeeee 628

8. On the Palzeozoic Rocks of North Devon and West Somerset. By W. A.
E. Ussuer, F.G.S., Geological Survey of England and Wales............... 629
9. The Deyono-Silurian Formation. By Professor E. Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S. 631

10. On Evaporation and Eccentricity as Co-factors in Glacial Periods. By
thepltev sierra, MA... sccoscsscsartesiedseunerserst erence? qaessnetes cesses amemeten 631

11. On the Discovery of Coal-Measures under New Red Sandstone, and on the

so-called Permian Rocks of St. Helen’s, Lancashire. By A. STRAHAN,
M.A., F.G.S., Geological Survey of England and Wales ...............-.0-5 632

12. On the Tine Bagshot Sands of Hordwell Cliff, Hampshire. By E. B
TOWER DEB BGG oo. see cals se seesnrsaaeoseagonbooesysimunnn ad sneso nei 633

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

1. Ninth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ...... 633
2, ROPOLU ONY HOSS POLYZO8...+....s0-cssusceosecssoee casjensesun pees opts chlyseeeeeenemase 633

3. On ‘Flots.’ By J. R. Daxyns, M.A., Geological Survey of England and
DVS DICH. caine mB ne re canescis alsbaig/n\< <0) ge’ ajediciges os 9/o bine 93s shoe cedalee oe eee eee 634

4, Remarks upon the Structure and Classification of the Blastoidea. By
IRPELERBERT OARPINTIR, IM. A 22 ..sdeae0iSecaesdeeecigsssncdesse sacs cle taeeeee eam 634

5. On the Characters of the ‘Lansdown Encrinite’ (Millericrinus Prattii,
Gray; sp.) By BP. HERBERT. CARPENTER, M.A. .......csesooscoecscncdscndveeras 635

6. On the Lower Keuper Sandstone of Cheshire. By A. Srraman, M.A.,
F.G.8., Geological Survey of England and Wales ..............sessceaseeceeees 635

7. On a Discovery of Fossil Fishes in the New Red Sandstone of Nottingham.

SVE VV JERON, dic Oien sas aocaes seiokeasaasaasaicdaasichis c+ aiteuhio te a tvs eteme ameaeee 637

~

CONTENTS. xv

Page

8. On the Rheeties of Nottinghamshire. By E. Witson, F.G.S. ...........066 637°
9. The Great Plain of Northern India not an old Sea-basin. By W. T.

BEANFORD, F'.R.S., F.G.S., &0........cccceccoccrccscensescrescnccnccsinescesceseenecs 638.

10. The Gold Fields, and the Quartz-outcrops of Southern India. By
Wurm Kine, Deputy Superintendent (for Madras), Geological Survey
PHMMITIUH Resets ee ee san cee waceaviseaecs cisiad saenans'svelccsvecnaccaca¥auasianras donslsvuclcsiese 639

11. On the Geology of the Island of Cyprus. By R. Russett, C.E. ............ 640:

12. Observations on the two types of Cambrian beds of the British Isles (the
Caledonian and Hiberno-Cambrian), and the conditions under which they
were respectively deposited. By Professor Epwarp Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S. 642:

13. On the Lower Cambrian of Anglesea. By Professor T. McK. Hucuns,

AVN ORILEA CRISIS Bjoctrcncenh: cor 8c Reet ape ene LSE ek Goan cone ce SH SABRAper inal Adee atiaa 643.
14. On the Gnarled Series of Amlwch and Holyhead in Anglesea. By

Professor T. McK. Hueuus, M.As, F.G.S. ...........cccscsccesscsceccecesecroees 644
15. The Subject-matter of Geology, and its Classification. By Professor |

Rees OTA OMAN HE GES. Sake saacleiincmneweensoets nadeudes secnsed sauces catatiet 644:
16. On the Exploration of a Fissure in the Mountain Limestone at Raygill.

By James W. Davis, F.G.S., FLAS. : .....cccccseeceeeccosncscnsecesensessnenenees 645

17. On the Zoological position of the genus Petalorhynchus, Ag., a Fossil
Fish from the Mountain Limestone. By James W. Davis, F.GS.,
TEL TG Si cocendbcead cee pes pevacdsa 0c SUaEBE Go ScD oAcHErOgBEc DoE EDC Arn eSILSHEeSSnrrant aapeen 646:

18. On Diodontopsodus, Davis, a new genus of Fossil Fishes from the
Mountain Limestone, at Richmond, in Yorkshire. By Jamzus W. Davis,

OL Bey ry eve ceasdnecusageddoountinn aves times cochigsecpieneae oncereunyevaceadae ane 646:
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

1. Report on the Earthquake Phenomena of Japan ...... ccssscseceneceeeeeeeees 646°
2. A Contribution to Seismology. By Joun Mitnz, F.G.S., and THomas

MME Ni 5 2B, Peal Ne wast anctanstethegs Ons oa anchteluhdsansea ase eecalsupaenstesn dee 646:
3. Final Report on the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks, showing

especially the Geological Aspects of the Investigation ...............ssseeee0 647°
4. On an International Scale of Colours for Geological Maps. By

W. Toptzy, Geological Survey of England and Wales.................se00+ 647°
5. On the Glacial Geology of Central Wales. By Watrer Karrine, M.A.,

F.G.S., Keeper of the York Museum .................csceseneeseeeeees mahal ten 648,
6. On some points in the Morphology of the Rhabdophora. By Jouw

EL OPIGIN SONS IE La ist Ck ae oseee te sacdstrevecescccocsecdueesaetscherteresboceste: ces 649

7. On some Ores and Minerals from Laurium, Greece. By H. Storzs, F.G.S. 650:
8. Notes on the Cheshire Salt-field. By C. KE. Dz Rance, F.G.S., Assoc.

Tatts COE] S ba aroclde se oud Sc aE CECDEC RC AU RECS ASE Caan ann Be era UPN Chel et aeeg 650»
9. On some sections in the Lower Paleozoic Rocks of the Craven District.
ya el Pp NUARE es Ac, HvGuse csssttasqsscesagccceosacedavesencacecessciesseedeseess 650»

Section D.—BIOLOGY.
DEPARTMENT OF ZoOLOGY AND Borany.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.

Address by RicHarp Owen, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., F.Z.8., President of the Section

Xvi CONTENTS.

Page

1. Report of the aa for the Investigation of the Natural History of
SOLO GT eeh ns «a ceciotiseterectl<celsdciesee aenecobcecnilc «ce ties voce axial taal tetene teas sts a 661

2. Report of the Committee for the Investigation of the Natural History of
PUT OP Va Seaewesaticnses detvasdetbiss scossscWakes oclecaausesisnoenaeusnckieaesenme -emame 661
3. Report on the Record of Zoological Literature ..........cseseceneceeeeneeeneees 661

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.

1. Jurassic Birds and their Allies. By Professor O. C. MARSH............0s0008 661

2. On the use of the Chitinous Elements or Appendages of the Cheilosto-

b©

matous Polyzoa in the Diagnosis of Species. By Grorer Busx, F.R.S, 662

. On the Botany of Madagascar. By J. G. Barner, F.R.S., F.LS. ......... 668
. On the Colours of Spring Flowers. By Atrrep W. Benyert, M.A.,

Ge EMIL. Swyccuncenoceadswcecaesoteoe ts sheave oorea «saat eter dc ota aseey es kone eeetces 666

. On the Constancy of Insects in their Visits to Flowers. By ALFRED W.

SEMIN DT) Ms Arg (ES Cay Ets Lian joincise oceiviownncien sk ovat ovens deeded b see eapsenenncectaes 667

. On the Mode in which the Seed of Stipa buries itself in the ground. By

Sir JOHN WOBBOCK, Bart.,, M.P., FRAG. 1 .:5 .coedecessceecebaee okie ees aes 668

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.

. On the Insect House in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London.

By P. L. Scrarer, M.A., Ph.D., F.B.S., Secretary to the Zoological
SOCieby, Gl WNONAOM Ss .c.ccesecnncceceeensonsccsesecanenessaets (cca nestee eset anne 668

. On the Birds which have bred in the Barnsley and South Yorkshire

District. By THOMAS) ISTO) soc...snen. vecssesecaschapr-+son-heees co eeer eee eee 670

. On the Foot of Birds, and on the Use of the Serrated Claw. By Purp

MeO: Kae MODE: code r050 0D abiees Deen ccee saneaasdcheces bate tee einer one eee 670

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5

. On the Anatomy and Classification of the Petrels, based upon those

collected by H.M.S. ‘Challenger.’ By W. A. Forses, B.A., F.LS.,
F.ZS.

Be ADEE REC E 30, asco ODO CEET ER EEREEREICCUR CICA IacMNSaaGAbo soccer. 671
2. On some Permanent Larval Forms among the Crinoidea. By P. Hurserr
CARPENTER, M.A. .. ......eceeeee Seles buss ocascesrcnnacl ences 7<sdcesce ats 671
3. Note on the British Comatwe. By P. Herserr Carpenter, M.A, ...... 672
4, On the Affinities of Proneomenia. By Dr. A. A. W. HuBRECHT ......... 673
5. Report on the Migration of Birds ...............-csnssecedseessensaneneppasmeesement 675
6. On some Points in the Development of Osmunda regalis (Linn.). By

OAS SP. HOB RARKa EMI Ore teeteecceess.cse12++02s 00 scsesecersqs-cse eee 675

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

1. On the Sense of Colour among some of the Lower Animals. By Sir

JOHN) LUBBOCK, Bari Vib Pe gh Rid. .c2..sc0a0000++ «oe sdnaceecconeeaeanetearenter 676
2, Report of the Committee on the Zoological Station at Naples ............... 677
8. Report of the Committee on the Scottish Zoological Station ..........++++. 677
4. On our present Knowledge of the Fauna inhabiting British India and its

on

Dependencies. By W. @? Brannorp, FURS. ..2.2..+.-sc<0n00<0/oe 677

. On a Fossil Stem from the Halifax Coal-measures. By THomas Eee

B.A., B.Sc., and WILLIAM CAsH, F.G.S........c0.cceceeeeeeenssceeceecececeeneees 679

CONTENTS. XVil

Page
6. Notes on Chlamydomyxa. By P. A. GEDDES..........::sceeseeeeeasceeceeeeees 680
7, On a New Sub-Class of Infusorians. By P. A. GEDDES ..........s0eeeeeeeee 680

8, On the Improvement of Freshwater Fisheries. By Lieut.-General Sir
James BH. ALEXANDER, Knt., O.B., FUR.S.B. .20......ccscecscsscscescevecsseneee 680

9. On some Vestiges of the Ancient Forest of part of the Pennine Chain.
By JOsEPH LUCAS ...,....ccccseeccnsseccsececcesceeesceesescenensceseesseueescssenvees 680

10. Report on the Marine Fauna of the Southern Coast of Devon and Corn-
SOC candagiedeboslc Bude nbecadoeds aAcee OSE RSBABBH TERT ste Ost Ane BBetibenCRRCREarOCSan Pom 68]

DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
Address by Professor W. H. Frower, L.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., F.L.S., F.GS.,

Pres. Z.S., Chairman of the Department............csscsccsesssessestescesceseees 682
1, Report on the Exploration of the Caves of the South of Ireland ......... 689

. On the Stature of the Inhabitants of Hungary. By Dr. Beppor, F.R.S.. 689

tS

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.

1, The Viking’s Ship, discovered at Sandefjord in Norway, 1880. By J.
IR IR STONE MCACS BS 1a.92, Ol. ccccces--cosvanescccsaactecssscceasconcencen 689

2. On Excavations in the Earthwork called Danes’ Dyke at Flamborough,

and on the Earthworks of the Yorkshire Wolds. By Major-General
Prrr-Rrvers, F.R.S. (formerly Colonel Lane-Fox) ............eceeeeseeceeees 690

8. On the Application of Composite Portraiture to Anthropological purposes.
eee HRMS CONETUN, EUE RI 4 00ers $1.0. rie caccsttkescatevesedsceaisietsenpasngn 690

4, Account of the Discovery of Six Ancient Dwellings, found under and
near to British Barrows on the Yorkshire Wolds. By J. R. Mortimer... 691
5, On the Origin and Use of Oval Tool-stones. By W. J. KNOWLES ......... 692

4, On the Discovery of Flint Implements in stratified gravel in the Nile

Valley, near Thebes. By Major-General Prrr-Rivers, F.R.S. (formerly
Colonel Lane-F Ox) .oe....sesseseeeesssssseeceeteceeceeceesesenseessseeeeaenseeseesones 693

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.

1. Report of the Anthropometric Committee ............cccssececsseeceneeeeeeenees 693
2. Ona Collection of Racial Photographs. By J. Park Harrison, M.A....... 693
8. On Scandinavian and Pictish Customs on the Anglo-Scottish Border. By
MEME IVE BUS OAC, BREE y csvacececstu de vesspccestcaduseeAcidldvessaceecscecssce 693
4, On some Objects recently exhumed in Britain, of apparently Phcenician
fein, by Dr. Parewie PSUR BRAGS, CI loin s.cseceeneasaceensecencs 695

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.

1. Notes on the Geographical Distribution of Mankind. By Miss A. W.
SES (HAND Mec cscs cebeasaaactee ashe saas eprint: Tavocth ss aad te ciynddancetidath + Clase «Fpl 695
. On the Papuans and the Polynesians. By C. Sranmnanp WAKE............ 696
. On Excavations in a camp called Ambresbury Banks in Epping Forest.
By Major-General Prrt-Rivers, F.R.S. (formerly Colonel Lane-Fox) ... 697
-4, On the Relation of Stone Circles to Outlying Stones or Tumuli or Neig¢h-
bouring Hills, with some inferences therefrom. By A. L. Lewis ......... 697
1881. uy

é& bo

xviil CONTENTS.

6.

10.
11.

Page
Notes on some specimens of Saw-cuts and Drill-holes in hard Stones of
Primeval Egyptian period. By W. FLINDERS PETRIE .......+++6++ eaeoievet 69
On the Numeral and Philological relations of the Hebrew, Phcenician, or

Canaanitic Alphabet and the Language of the Khita Inscriptions. By
TLYDE CLARKE......cccscsescnscecceeecesccccueceneeeccssencesecsesanseesesenneeaeenees 698

. The Early Colonisation of Cyprus and Attica, and its relation to

Babylonia. By HYDE OLARKE..........ccccseeeeeecseesesseeeneneceeesennneeeseeees 698.

. On the Animism of the Indians of British Guiana. By Evrrarp F. nr

DILTLSERTOM See RCE ene hrc cr aoe susie cae cbecds crs ecctwodsnneeeten esas aatamamaeetm 699:

. Origin and Primitive Home of the Semites. By G, BErRTIN................. 699
. On the Utilisation of the Memory. By Grorcr Harris, LL.D., F.S.A. 699
. On the Cultivation of the Senses. By Grorcr Harris, LL.D., F.S.A... 699

TUESDAY, SHPTEMBER 6.

. Traces of Man in the Crag. By H. Sropus, F.G.S. ..........ccececesennseneee 700:
. The Results of recent further Excavations in the Caves of Cefn, near

St. Asaph, North Wales. By Professor T. McK. Hucuss, M.A., and
Mrs. Witt1ams Wynn 700

CORR eee ee eee eee meee SHER HEHE EEE E HEE E HEE HEHE EEE EH EEE E EEE EE EES

. Exhibition of a Roman Bronze galeated Bust. By Professor T. McK.

PENI PRIS IN Atterc.crescesesacos rest so cee cians see es once ois no ape OeS0s gece cnes cae nee 701

. Exhibition of Four Bronze Socketed Spears, probably ancient, from

China. By Professor T. McK. Huaues, M.A. a.......ccseceeeeees poacgeetosee 701

. On a supposed Inscribed Stone, near Llanerchymedd, in Anglesea. By

Professor a, MGK, FLUGHES, M.A... . .cwasesesoscspueetedusccadteccstecaeaemneeenene 701

. On some late Celtic Engravings on a Slate Tablet, found at Towyn. By

rPARK TLARRISON, McA oc... .sc0snscnceussabenentipescsr an cedtenamesitees Semaine 701

. On the Physical Characters and Proportions of the Zulus. By C.

Roserts, F.R.C.S., and Grorer W. Broxam, M.A., F.L.S., Assistant
Secretary of the Anthropological Institute 702

OOOO eee ewer een eee eee eee Pee eee

. Exhibition of Stone Implements from Asia Minor. By Hyp CrarKe ... 703
. On certain Discoveries of Bronze Implements in and about Leeds. By

EVOFUNIEROLMUES iasccsecssuieCcacscecessseccetsecececeboeeseseeceras somteeteaee === Eman 703

On the Profile of the Danes and Germans. By J. Park Harrison, M.A. 7035:

On a remarkable Human Skull found near York. By Epwarp ALLEN,
TRC USS “cadedcdacbeuCCeDBaRe aUoaR DE REL CU RGB REDE ELH eaacer coscndboscosces Banoo 22500 704

DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.

¢
Address by Professor J. 8. Burpon Sanpzrson, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Chair-

iL

MMAMCOL TNS WOPALEMENE tovcssccscevedsescsccess o/ eve secre acdeeneaeneneneeaceee cians 705:
On the Development of the Colour-sense. By Dr. Montagu Luppock ... 715:

2. On the Function of the Two Ears in the Perception of Space. By

Professor Sirvanus P. THompson, B.A., D.Sc. .

. A Contribution to the Question on the Influence of Bacilli in the Pro-

duction of Disease. By Professor J. Cossan Ewart, M.D. ...........000-+ cal

. On a little-known Cranial Difference between the Catarrhine and Platyr-

Thine Monkeys, “By Wi." A. FORBES, BoA. \:...ce0c0.cccbesceveancuninecesnmenemnmen LG

CONTENTS. xix

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
Page

. On the Homology of the Conario-hypophysial Tract, or of the so-called

‘ Pineal’ and ania, Glands.’ Po, Professor R. Owen, M.D., C.B.,
E.R.S. paaanlevuasdandaachpeavgcses pexvescacscee weesevs-coosccesscosa CLD

. On the ae of eerie in Hees eh Ligamentum iste is en

scribed as wanting. By Professor Struruers, M. HDi terohs cvien agit.) 720

. On the Correspondence between the Articulations of the ae | and

Metatarsal Bones in Man. By Professor SrrutueErs, M.D.......... .-...... 721

. On the Pronephros of Teleosteans and Ganoids. By F. M. a

DENS ted NE: Sis oi MR EE A ON 721

. On the Digastric Muscle, its Modifications and Functions. By G. E.

IOERONIMT Peete tec mee ees rc eee. tot ie Lea OTE A 9, SO, LOM 722

. On the Causes and Results of assumed Cycloidal Rotation in Arterial Red

NSC ee Lye LUA NY ae VV OOLMOOMBE) 20 cecekis totes soe dvnrensdicelssbehauncMocupesuati 722

. Observations on the Incubation of the Indian Python (Python molurus).

ER View Aug ORIBIOS, 3.00 vk cess cs taexunep satesmeee dass duds eae ouetadeces@oasee SesAbeRS 723

. On the Effect of the Voltaic Current on the Elimination of Sugar. By

SVs Et SOMONE, ME: JH ROU ees castings sth sha taueaar sash teasuassatonsetadty 724

. On the Structure A Homologies of the Suspensory Ligament of the

Fetlock in the Horse, Ass, Ox, Sheep, and Camel. By D. J. Cunnie-
TELL, Gh bol 5B) 1 ae lO Sen i a a Re a a an genes See 726

Section H.—GHOGRAPHY.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1,

Address by Sir J. D. Hooxsr, K.C.8.1., C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.RB.S.,

“uy

2.
3.

V.P.LS., F.G.S., F.R.G. S., President of the Section ......-...sccsecssss, 727
The minenmneat of Exploring Expeditions Now and Fifty Years Ago.
Re pameeAMUCHT ED CATO Ebay Mac yr cas ves puscaccop Soegeuns ose coerce oetpe tghde yale dae 738
Isochronic Postal Charts. By Francts Gatton, F.R.S. .........cccceeeeeeee 740
On the Geographical Work of the Palestine Exploration Fund. By
PERSEMCANP AEG SSMUENDMOEIS. sce c's bien tsaseh dee soyie «eds, faVicassasdpdas daca fo4tee uae 741

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2,

. On the Progress of Geography in Asia during the last fifty years. By

Sir RIcHarp TEMPLE, Barts, G.O.9 0s. BR.GS). oss asaktteea eae, lecdtond. TAL

. On the Hot-lake District and the incor Scenery and Fjords of New

Zealand. By Wm. Lanr Carpenter, B.A., B.Sc., F.O.S. o........ccceseees 742

. On Oceanic or Maritime Discovery, Explor aon and Research. By Captain

(RR a) OL Fey end AN Go ill ot RA Sa A le na 742

mie the River Gambia. (By BR. 1, Ootm, .ccccorsusscgepeacacscieccesscccocasecsses 742

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5

. On the Progress of Arctic Research since the Foundation of the British

Association. By Crements R. Marxuam, C.B., F.R.S. . 743

. On the Commercial Importance of Hudson's aoe with Reeth 0 on Posten

Surveys and Investigations. By Roprrr BELL, M.D. ..........ccceeceseeeeee 745
a2

xx CONTENTS,

Page
3. On the Island of Socotra. By Professor Bayruy Barrour, M.D.......... 746
4, A Journey to the Imperial Mausolea east of Peking. By F. 8. A.

—

PBOURINH Sb.taitedasivaee Aha cevhnextans thease BRT aioe boy bet OLE 746

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

. Comparative sketch of what was known in Africa in 1830 with what is

known in 1881. By Lieut.-Colonel J. A. Grant, C.B., FLRS. .....ceeeeee 746
. Some Results of Fifty Years’ Exploration in Africa. By the Rey.

EVORACH \VVALLMER «sepsis csesatavenprorsssssacvapnassuset ie’ Seana Reon sengitacuusin ood 746
. On a recent Visit to the Gold Mines of the West Ooast of Africa. By

Commander CAMERON, R.N. .......scsececesees ec RORY aeeneeaviane api pcaahetcsanmmyiial:
. An Account of a recent Visit to Dahomey, By the Rev. J. Mizu ...... 747

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1,

. On Societies of Commercial Geography. By Epwarp J. Warnmrston ... 748
. Corn or Cattle: a Comparison of the Economic Results of Agriculture

and Oattle-raising in relation to National Food-supply. By Witr1am E.
Are EA RON, MU St laig tb sSUNay fascite seven eukaurcedesecsscattatvecvaccnestsyne seesscee 240

. Report of the Committee on the manner in which Rudimentary Science

should be taught, and how Examinations should be held therein, in
Elementary Schools.........sssessssseseeees WovudinedeKbled alvaRdvenssensncion sleneeeienyys . 750

. Agricultural Statistics and Prospects. By Wm. Borny, M.R.A.S. ......... 750
. A General Banking Law for the United Kingdom. By Wm. Wusrearra 751

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2

Address by the Right Hon. M. E. Granr Durr, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S.,

Ih.

2.
3.

tS

F.R.G.S., Governor of Madras, President of the Section ......cccccscceeeeeee 752 .

Notes on the Mere System, and the Tenure of Land in the Dravidian
Villages of the Dekhan. By Sir Watrpr Extioz, K.C.8.L, F.RS. ...... 758

Report of the Anthropometric Committee .........scersssscececscesssesseseesree 759

On the Relation of the Gold Standard in Rea to the International
Money Market. By Hyp Crarxn, V.P.S.S. . sath ee J tesecmeetese Oe

. The Silver Question, and the Double versus “ne Single ‘Guandahdt “By

WAL, WESTGARTE. ..coacccnethitenresedeaktutuebecis woscubeetsantrtaiiieaeenye sidecases COD

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.

. Results to be attained by applying to the Transfer of Land in this Country

the methods employed in the British Colonies. By Sir Rongrr
TORRENS; KOM Ghccncecscssessstdvcen nsstesetetnecceusoosetendnness sseteet eraiennane 760

. The Economic Influence of the Drinking Customs upon the Nation’s Well-

emg; By sWiLirane ODE. 5.0. so iveetesecssundeth os ete enesepanceseae?vask see 760

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER. 5.

. Protection in Young Communities; Recorded Results in Victoria and New

South Wales. By Gnoren Bapen-Powntt, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.S.8. ...... 760

CONTENTS. xxi

Page
' 2, Report of the Committee for inquiring into the present Appropriation of
ages and other sources of income, and considering how tar it is con-
sonant with the economic progress of the people of the United Kingdom... 761

3. On the Remedies proposed for Disputes about Wages. By the Rev. W. H.
SRI NOMI O MIEN Nh scMraaCicareane ie ntienarcncaaysrasnctentsCesspgneuccacmlongs vase 761

4, The Depression in Agriculture; its Effects and its Lessons. . By Hanry

MOG MEOORU ri, (irvusivshstiseateycacuvcccscrobsdscwacscssevoucccusecaeesceesccrmsesnye sone 761
LUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
1. On the Free Public Libraries of Manchester and Notting Hill, London,
PEED ELE LWOODS © okSr sis cecspvereuvevvesrtuocveverdspsdnsnares pica deh tens daede 762
2. On the Progress of British Commerce in a Generation. By E. J.
METI Teicicuy degni rns savnhal seoWheinakiphasnessaesygacouncubhib heaeas SiC2 + suarenn 763
3. Some Results of the Removal of the Malt Tax. By H. Sropms.............. 765
4, Bankruptcy in its Economic Bearings. By J. MACDONELD ...........00es0e 765
5. On Economics and Statistics, viewed from the standpoint of the Pre-
liminary Sciences. By Parrick Guppms, FAR.S.E. oc. ceeeeeeee eee 765

Section G.—MECHANICAL SCTENCE.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
Address by Sir W. Armsrrone, C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., President of
MUIPMOOULUL Gugeasscstaccesssance soertratosnnicnCarnsncneabe Gh Sependdecsheantes push yee 767

Observations on the Improvements of the Mieelesipg River, and on the pro-
“ell Ship Railway across the Isthmus of ehuantepec, Mexico. By
PRI Es, META DH OE tccaaniaiahns aussie cag esc peoceqeca umole’ ches oiationbedsnuste 774

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
1. Some of the Developments of Mechanical Engineering during the last half-
century. By Sir FJ. Bramwett, M.LC.E., F.R. Realist eae 774
2. On the Automatic Sounder. By Jans aie POE ws cchak ssiccep <5 sith 774

8. On the Economical Effect of using Cheap Gas for Gas-motors, with a
description of Apparatus for producing such Gas. By J. Enmrson

MPEG gh tanisicnina niaelts Aja auborstodecessartnensivachsaWvasthtyseype Oye venanse ven 775
4, On Continuous Door-locks and Footboards for Railway Carriages. By R.

PGW ELM cn vss vey casecdssunsenentpananertecavecenedtsevaceevivoentuscervaabanedigueccavens 776
5. On a new Integrating Anemometer. By the Rev. J. M. Witson, M.A.,

and H. S. HELp SHAW..........0c0008 Gapecudintbcsenesawensanseuenctatybuvesees swe ne 4G

6. The Advantages of Ex-focal Light in first-order Dioptric Lighthouses.
By J. R, Wrenam 776

TEPEETEEEUEECEL TT eee eee EEE eee reer eee

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.

1. On Telegraphic Photography. By Suztrorp Brower, M.A., LL.B....... tx
2. On the Swan Incandescent Lamp. By J. W. SWAN ......:cceeeeeeeeeee seen ees 778

8. On Electric Lighting as applied to Coal Mines. By AnpREw Jamieson... 778
4, On a Screw Gauge for Electrical Apparatus. By W. H. Prencn, b.R.S. 779

5. On the Value of Quadriform Gaslights for Lighthouses in comparison with
the Electric Light. By J. R. WIGHAM ........csceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeenneeeeerens 779

XXxil CONTENTS.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

e Page
1. Report of the Committee on Patent Legislation ...........::ssseesseeeeeeee POs 779
2. Report of the Committee on the Steering of Screw Steamers .................. 779
3. Report of the Committee on Wind Pressure...............ssececseeeeecteeeeaeeees 779
4 Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations in the English Channel and

EHBSENGEDOUISOR «saat dnueudacverecoh che eecnescverenuuconesesaaihate ecee peat eee eee Rene 779
5. On some applications of Electric Energy to Horticultural and Agricultural
Purposes. “By Dri! We. SreMENS, FOR-S, .....s-caccacssnssaceeoueeemmnteene 779
6. On the Transmission of Power by Electricity. By J, N. SHooLBrep,
EME or Semtnestehescsoraekessrsccdssocss osccsccoeseured camara scessc a aaaeeae eae 779
7. On the Relative Value of Incandescent Electric Lights. By J. N. SHoot-
BRED OME Seu eta setins tac soncasdosesoeonece os came eroneneereees seameassuaonoscens 780
8. On the Society of Arts Patent Bill. By Sir F. J. Bramwett, M.LC.E.,
POEL S Raceveaiavecteesthoee.ceecceccssceveeCosvecceusetuecc¥esaenp eh atiGrGhe thee eme De 780

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
1. On Coal and the Abatement of Smoke in Large Towns. By W. R. E.

SUISIES S oignety ets. + eeaevevdicsen sims cnsieeasspocecer(ecccsaondadasee=sace sehcrsoiaeaeeeee 780
2. On British Shipping and the Tonnage Laws. By Captain Brprorp

RM MEMES ore ce wade casas .iehn ha cisa «ma, ivemebe 05 tayp on tenant ere en Bienes 780
3, On the Pressure of Wind upon a Fixed Plane Surface. By THomAs

EVA ARS TITY 5) C,H"! Rie sci tecseeasvecsecds ccaccdoddatieneconetecete cue rean ne Enenrte 780
4, On a new form of Lightning Conductor, which can be easily tested. By

SAME D AGEN ANG ate tas op sa nea sdeaies diseons aelerabaeees te caeaeetnmaenees Semesters Hep. T0380
5. On an Organisation for the Systematic Gauging of the Wells, Springs, and

Rivers of Great Britain. By Josep Lucas, F.G.S...........cccceesceeseeeves 781
6. On a Dynamometer Coupling. By Professors W. E. Ayrron, F.R.S., and

Be ram eP MER YD. Bs io. nccsssdapecsesccgresscoteeetattteana teeth nt ttee eee 781

7. On the Lawyer's Marine Pocket Case. By Captain Beprorp Pru, R.N. 781
INDEX

List OF PLATES.

PLATES I, anp II.

Illustrative of the Report of the Committee on the Tertiary Flora of the North
of Ireland.

PLATES III. ann IV.
Illustrative of the Report of the Anthropometric Committee.

PLATE V.

Illustrative of the Report of the Committee on the present state of our Knowledge
of Spectrum Analysis.

PLATE VI.

Illustrative of the Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing practical
Standards for use in Electrical Measurements.

PLATE VII.

Tilustrative of Mr. G. M. Warertr’s Communication, ‘Observations of Atmo-
spheric Electricity at the Kew Observatory during 1880.’

PLATES VIII., IX., X., XI., XIL., ann XIII.

Illustrative of Professor Wi~t1am Gryztis ApAMs’s Communication, ‘On
Maenetic Disturbances and Earth-currents.’

PLATE XIV,

Ilustrative of Dr. Hueerns’s Communication, ‘On the Photographic Spectrum of
Comet “b” 1881.’

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“

OBJECTS AND RULES

OF

THE ASSOCIATION.

OBJECTS.

Tue Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.

RULES.

‘Admission of Members and Associates.

All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to
become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to
conform to its Rules. 5

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Associa-
tion, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.

e Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.

Lire Mempers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association.

Annuat Susscripers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and

XXV1 RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

‘all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis: but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at
any subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion
the sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Asso-
ciation.

Assocrates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratwitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.

The Association consists of the following classes :—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership
after intermission of Annual Payment. |

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |

5, Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’)
price, according to the following specification, viz. :—

1. Gratis —Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a com-
position for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a fur-
ther sum of ''wo Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since
1845, a further sum of Five Pounds.

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a compo-
sition.

Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publi-
cation Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds
as a composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum
as a Book Subscription.

Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume
for that year only. |]

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets)
any of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up
to 1874, of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per
volume.!

Application to be made at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle
Street, London, W.

Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
t-A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, £10 the set.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXVli

Meetings.

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two
years in advance; and the arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the
Officers of the Association.

General Committee.

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—

Cuass A. Permanent MEMBERS.

1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.

2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must
be sent to the Assistant Secretary at least one month before the Meeting
of the Association. The decision of the Cowneil on the claims of any
Member of the Association to be placed on the list of the General Committee
to be final.

Crass B. Trmporary Mumpers.

1. The President for the time being of any Scientific Society publish-
ing Transactions or, in his absence, a delegate representing him; and the
Secretary of such Society.! Claims under this Rule to be sent to the
Assistant Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.

2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.

3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.

4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.

Organizing Sectional Committees.”

The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their
names are submitted to the General Committee for election.

From the time of their nomination they constitute Organizing Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and.
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections, and of preparing Reports
thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be

1 Revised by the General Committee, Sheffield, 1879.

* Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.

8 Notice to Contributors of Memoirs.—Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which
they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organizing Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become
necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several Communications, that each Author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir,
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,

XXvili _ RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first
meeting. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ew officio members
of the Organizing Sectional Committees.!

An Organizing Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
11 a.m., to nominate the first members of the Sectional Committee, if
they shall consider it expedient to do so, and to settle the terms of their
report to the General Committee, after which their functions as an
Organizing Committee shall cease.”

Constitution of the Sectional Committees.?

On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the
General Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to’ meet, at
2 p.M., in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees.
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
number from day to day.

The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day, in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.

Business of the Sectional Committees.

Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 p.m, on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to
11 A.M., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association,
and specified below.

The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—

1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.

2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the
Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly.

3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organiz-
ing Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees.*

At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis.

and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
IDELOLO:. tess s Seems eek oennee , addressed thus—‘ General Secretaries, British Associa-
tion, 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. For Section ........’ If it should be incon-
venient to the Author that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is
requested to send information thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors
who send in their MSS. a full three weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers
are accepted, will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their
Reports and Abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual
Volume unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Assistant
Secretary, before the conclusion of the Mecting.

1 Added by the General Committee, Sheftield, 1879.

2 Revised by the General Committee, Swansea, 1880.

% Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.

4 These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XX1x
a
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association and
printed in the last volume of the Transactions. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organizing Committee.!. The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed. At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 A.M. on Thursday in
the Journal.

On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 A.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.

Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.

Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Oopies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the Sec-
tional Meetings, to the Assistant Secretary.

The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ew officio tem-
porary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxvii), and will receive,
on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets entitling
them to attend its Meetings.

The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the state
and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or Com-
mittees for the execution of such Reports or researches; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.

In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and
one of them appointed to act as Secretary, for insuring attention to business.

Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.

The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant Secretary for pre-
sentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be done, the
Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.

N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sec-
tions must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they

1 This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, 1871.

Xxx RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. ,

can be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by
the General Committee.

The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report
has been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting
to whom a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the Com-
mittee of Recommendations in every case where no such Report has been
received. !

Notices regarding Grants of Money.

Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been
entrusted by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches.
in science, are required to present to each following Meeting of the
Association a Report of the progress which has been made; and the
Individual or the Member first named of a Committee to whom a money
grant has been made must (previously to the next Meeting of the Associa-
tion) forward to the General Secretaries or Treasurer a statement of the
sums which have been expended, and the balance which remains dispos-
able on each grant.

Grants of money sanctioned at any one Meeting of the Association
expire a week before the opening of the ensuing Meeting: nor is the
Treasurer authorized, after that date, to allow any claims on account of
such grants, unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by
the General Committee.

No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of
the British Association without special permission from the General Com-
mittee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in
accordance with the rules of the Association.

In each Committee, the Member first named is the only person entitled
to call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Williamson, University College,
London, W.C., for such portion of the sums granted as may from time to
time be required.

' In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the members.

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the con-
tinuation of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain
unpaid on the former grant for the same object.

All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Associa-
tion are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle
Street, Piccadilly, London, W., when not employed in carrying on scien-
tific inquiries for the Association.

Business of the Sections.

The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation from
10 to 11 daily. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto can be used for
no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association.

At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken, and the reading of communi-
cations, in the order previously made public, commenced. At 3 P.M. the
Sections will close.

Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into:
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.

1 Passed by the General Committee at Sheffield, 1879.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXh

A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.

Duties of the Doorkeepers.
1.—To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.
9.—To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Assistant Secretary.
3.—Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.
No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the programme, p. 1.

. Duties of the Messengers.

To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed, dur--
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms. :

Committee of Recommendations.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-.
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the-
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.

Local Committees.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers:
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

Officers.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,.
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
Council.

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The-
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.

Papers and Communications.

The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to.
reserve his right of property therein.

Accounts.

The Accounts of the Association shall be andited annually, by Auditors.
appointed by the General Committee.

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PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

XXXix

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.

Date and Place

Presidents

—s

Secretaries

1832.
1833.

1834.

1835.
1836,

1837.
1838.

1839, Birmingham
1840.

1841.

1842.

1843.
1844,

1845.
1846.

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

COMMITTEE

Cambri

scene

dge

Edinburgh

Dublin

Bristol

Liverpool...

Newcastle

Glasgow ...

Plymouth
Manchester

Cambridge

Southamp-

ton.

1847.

Oxford

1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham

1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.

Edinburgh

Ipswich ...

Belfast

1854, Liverpool...

1855.
1856.
1857.

1858.

Glasgow ...

Cheltenham

Dublin

seeeee

weeeee

OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.,

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS
Rey. Dr. Robinson

Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S.
Sir D, Brewster, F.R.S.

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S....

Prof. Forbes, F.R.S.........0+8.

Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S. ......

Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
E.R.S.

Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.I.A.

The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S.

The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely.

Sir John F. W. Herschel,
Bart., F.R.S.

Rey. Prof. Powell, M.A.,
F.R.S.

Lord Wrottesley, F.RB.S. ......

William Hopkins, F.R.S.......

Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.

Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
F.R.S., &e.

Prof. W. Thomson, M.A.,
F.R.S. L. & E.

The Very Rey. the Dean of
Ely, F.R.S.

Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
B.S.

Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A.,

F.R.S. L. & E.
Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.

Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.LA.

Rev. W. Whewell,
V.P.R.S.

D.D.,

Rev. H. Coddington,

Prof. Forbes.
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.

AND PHYSICS.

Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof,
Wheatstone.

Prof. Forbes, W. 8S. Harris, F, W.
Jerrard.

.|W. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,

Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Babine,
Prof. Stevelly.

J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.

Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith.

Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.

..|J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.
...|Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof, Stevelly.

Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof, Stevelly, G.
G. Stokes.

John Drew, Dr.
Stokes.

Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.

Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.

W.J.Macquorn Rankine, Prof.Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
8. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,

Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,

Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof,
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
Tyndall,

C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull,

Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof,
‘Tyndall.

Stevelly, G. G.

xl

REPORT—1881.

Dat

1859.

1861
1862
1863,

1864.

e and Place

Aberdeen...

ae eeweres

Presidents

The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
F.R.S.
Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.B.S....

E.R.S.

Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.B.S.

Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.

1865. Birmingham) W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,

1866.
1867.
1868.

1869

1870.

1871.

1872

1873.

1874

1875
1876

1877

1878.

1879
1880

1881.

1832.

Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich ...
Exeter

Liverpool...

Brighton...
Bradford ...
Belfast......

eeeeee

. Sheffield ...
. Swansea ...

Oxford

F.R.A.S.

Prof. Wheatstone,
E.R.S.

D.C.L.,

..-| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,

F.R.S.

J. Tyndall,
F.R.S.

Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

J. Clerk Maxwell,
LL.D., F.R.S.

LL.D.,

M.A.,

W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.B.S.
Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, F.R.S.

Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
M.R.1A.

Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

..| Prof, Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,

DC. L., F-R.S.

Pres. Physical Soc.

Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
George Johnstone Stoney,
M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A.,
F.R.S.

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S.

Secretaries

J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J. 8. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. G C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J.-S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rey.N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T. Whitley..

Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.

Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H.J.S.Smith,
Rev. 8. N. Swann.

Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,.
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.

Prof. G. C. Foster, Rey. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.

Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.

Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.

..-| Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,

Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.

Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.

Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S. Herschel.

J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir. ,

Prof. W. F’. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.
Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. 0. J. Lodge.
A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.

O. J. Lodge, D. McAlister.

W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. McAlister.
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Prof. 0. J. Lodge,

D. McAlister, Rev. W. Routh.

CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.

John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1833. Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
1834, Edinburgh | Dr. Hope..............0008 Sebendeee Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison.

James F. W. Johnston.
Prof. Miller.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

xli

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY-

Date and Place

1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol

seeeee

1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle

1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.

Manchester

Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton
1847. Oxford......
1848.
1849.
1850.
1851.
1852.

Swansea ...
Birmingham
Edinburgh
Ipswich ...
Belfast......

1853. Hull.........
1854.
1855.
1856.

Liverpool
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

1857. Dublin

seeeee

1858.

weeeee

1859.
1860.

seeeee

1861.
1862.

Manchester
Cambridge

1863. Newcastle

1864.
1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee

1868. Norwich ...

1869. Exeter

1870. Liverpool...

.| Prof.

Presidents

Secretaries

Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ......

Rey. Prof. Cumming .........
Michael Faraday, F.R.S.......
Rev. William Whewell,F.R.S.

Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S.

Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. .........
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Prof. Apjohn, M.R.I.A.........
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S.......
Rev. Prof. Cumming .........

A
Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,
Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ......
John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......
Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E.
Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S.
Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.

Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F.RB.S.

Prof. W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.

Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.8.

Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...

Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.

Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S.

Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S......

Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.

Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
F.R.S.

W.Odling, M.B.,F.R.S.,F.C.S.

Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,
V.P.R.S.

H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.

T. Anderson,
F.R.S.E.

Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.,
F.C.S.

Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S.

M.D.,

Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,
F.RB.S., F.C.S.

—

Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.
Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera- |
ath.

Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds.

Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas.
Richardson.

Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B, Melson.

Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.

J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M.
Tweedy.

Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.

R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.

Dr. L. Playfair, E. Solly, T. H. Barker.

R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,
E. Solly.

Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.

B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.

T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.

R. Hunt, G. Shaw.

Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.

T. J. Pearsall, W. 8S. Ward.

Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.

H. S. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.

Dr. Edwards, Dr.Gladstone, Dr.Price.

Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.

J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.

Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.

Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.

J. S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.

H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.

Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.

A.V.Harcourt,Prof.Liveing,R.Biggs.

A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof.
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.

J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.

A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.

Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.
Russell, Dr. Atkinson.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher.
Dr. W. J. Russell.

xiii

REPORT—1881.

Date and Place

1871.
1872.

1873.

1874,

1875.

1876,
1877.
1878,

1879.
1880,

1881.

Edinburgh
Brighton ..
Bradford ...

Glasgow ...
Plymouth..
Dublin ......

Sheffield ...

Swansea ..

BV Gls con's

.| Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...

Presidents

Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.

Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S....

Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S8.E., F.C.S.

A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,
F.RB.S., F.C.S.

W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. .........

.| F, A. Abel, F.R.S., F.C.S. °...

Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S.

.| Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,

F.R.S.

Prof. A. W. Williamson, Ph.D.,

E.R.S.

Secretaries

J.T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
E. Thorpe.

.| Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.

W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.

Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.

Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.

Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.

W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.

Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.

W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T, Wills.

H. 8. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts, J.
M. Thomson.

H. B. Dixon, Dr. W. R. Eaton Hodg-
kinson, P. Phillips Bedson, J. M.
Thomson.

P. Phillips Bedson, H..B. Dixon,

T. Gough.

GEOLOGICAL (ann, tntiz 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, Ill,—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY,

1832,
1833.
1834.

1835.

1836.

1837.

1838.

1839.

1840.

1841,
1842,
1843.
1844,
1845,
1846.

Oxford

Cambridge.
Edinburgh .

Dublin
Bristol

Liverpool...

Newcastle...

Birmingham

Glasgow .

Plymouth...
Manchester

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......
G. B. Greenough, F.R.S.......
Prof. Jameson

Sete ate reereeenee

John Taylor.

W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.

Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie,
Rev. J. Yates.

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

Ieee MATILUUN Ge sce ape seen eneeeces

Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—

eat aphy, R. I. Murchison,
B.S.

Rev Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—
Serra B.Greenough,
E.R.S.

C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—
Geography, Lord Prudhope.

Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geography, G.B. Greenough,
F.R.S.

.| Charles aoe F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
E.R.S.

H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.

Richard KE. Griffith, F.R.8.,
M.R.I.A.

Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres.
Geol. Soe.

Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury, T.
J. Torrie.

Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.— Gco-
gregh Ys Captain H. M. Denham,
R.N

W.c. “Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geography, Capt. Washington.

George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick-
land, Charles Darwin.

W. J. Hamilton, D, Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.

W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D.,
R. Hutton.

.|E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.

Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.

Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
land.

Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.

Cambridge.|Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,|Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
F.RB.S.

Rey. W. Thorp.

Southamp- | Leonard Horner,F.R.S.—Geo-|Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,

ton

graphy, G. B, Greenough,
F.R.S.

Prof. Oldham.— Geography, Dr. C.
T. Beke.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES

OF THE SECTIONS. xliii

Date and Place Presidents

1847. Oxford...... Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S.
.1848. Swansea .../Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,

F.R.S.

1849.Birmingham|Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S.,

F.G.S.

1850. Edinburgh')/Sir Roderick I. Murchison, |

F.R.S.

SECTION C (continued).

1851. Ipswich ...) WilliamHopkins,M.A.,F.R.S.

1852. Belfast...... Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E.,
F.R.S.
1853. Hull........: Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.........

1854. Liverpool..|Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S.
1855. Glasgow ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S....

1856. Cheltenham| Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S....

1857. Dublin...... The Lord Talbot de Malahide
1858. Leeds ...... William Hopkins,M.A.,LL.D.,
F.B.S.
1859. Aberdeen...|Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

1860. Oxford...... Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,
F.RB.S., F.G.8.

1861. Manchester |Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.B.S.

1862. Cambridge |J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.
1863. Newcastle |Prof. Warington W. Smyth,

F.R.S., F.G.5.

1864, Bath......... Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,
E.RB.S., F.G.8.

1865. Birmingham|Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,
K.C.B.

1866. Nottingham|Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,
F.RB.S.

1867. Dundee ...|Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.,
F.G.8.

1868. Norwich ...|R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.B.S., F.G.S.

1869. Exeter ...... Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

1870. Liverpool... |Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
1871. Edinburgh |Prof, A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Secretaries

Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C,

Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
Starling Benson, Prof.
Prof. Ramsay. .
J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof,
A. C. Ramsay.
A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
Prof. Nicol.

Oldham,

— GEOLOGY.

C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod
Searles Wood.

James Bryce,. James MacAdam,
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.

Prof, Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.

Nicol.

Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright,

Prof, Harkness,
Robert H. Scott. ;

Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
Shaw.

Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
D. C. L. Woodall.

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T,
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert

Jones, H. C. Sorby.

E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
Sorby, Themas Sopwith.

W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C
Sorby, W. Pengelly.

Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.

R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
sor, G. H. Wright.

Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
Woodward.

Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,

Rev. H. H. Winwood.

W. Pengeliy, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.

R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny

Gilbert Sanders,

Hughes, L. C. Miall.

1 At a meeting of the General Committee held in 1850, it was resolved ‘ That
the subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology,
to constitute a separate Section, under the title of the “Geographical and Ethno-

. logical Section,”’ for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page xlvii.

xliv

REPORT—1881.

Date and Place

1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.

1832.
1833.
1834.

1835.
1836.
1837.

1838.

Presidents

Secretaries

F.R.S.

Bradford ...|/Prof. J. Phillips, D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Belfast...... Protea pElOLL se Mi aAGy HE acs,
¥.G.S.

IBristoll..i... Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E.,
F.G.S.

Glasgow ...|Prof. John Young, M.D. ......

Plymouth...)W. Pengelly, F.R.S. ......0.s006

Dublin...... John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.

Sheffield ...|Prof.P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Swansea ...|H. C. Sorby, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

NVOTKS -csssc00 A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.RB.S.

Oxiord sy...
Cambridge!
Edinburgh .

Dublin
Bristol

sees

Liverpool...

Newcastle

1839. Birmingham

1840.

1841.
1842.

1843.
1844,

1845.
1846.

1847.

Glasgow ...

Plymouth...
Manchester

Cambridge
Southamp-

Brighton...JR. A. C. Godwin-Austen,|L. C. Miall, George Scott, William

Topley, Henry Woodward.

L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
Topley.

F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman.

L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Top-
ley.

J. Armstrong, F. W. Rudler, W.
Topley.

Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.

EH. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.

W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.

W. Topley, W. Whitaker.

J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker.

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.

Rey. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ...
Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S.
Prot, Grahaye.-: seaesesdeeteeees

SECTION

Ae Rew ete meee eer te tens

W. 5S. MacLeay
Sir W.-Jardine, Bart. .........

Prot. Owens... cececesseece
Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......

John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.

Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-
bert, LL.D., F.L.S.

William Thompson, F.L.S....

Very Rev. the Dean of Man-
chester.

Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....

Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,
F.R.S.

H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.

Rev. Prof. J. S. Henslow.
C. C. Babington, D. Don.
W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.

D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.

J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, 8.
Rootsey.

C. C. Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson.

J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
Dr. Richardson.

E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.

Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.

J.Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.

Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
Turner.

G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.
Patterson.

Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
Dr. Lankester.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
Wooldridge.

Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
Wollaston.

SECTION D (continwed).—zOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.

_ [For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsec-
tions and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. xlvi.]

1848.

1849. Birmingham | William Spence, F.R.S.

Swansea

.-- |L. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S..........|Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-

frey, Dr. Lankester.
‘Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell,

* At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. xlvi.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES

Date and Place Presidents

1850. Edinburgh

1851, Ipswich ...|Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,
F.B.S.
1852. Belfast...... We Opilby sc... cesadeccstecstecqsw
1853, Hull....... ..|C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
1854. Liverpool...| Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
1855. Glasgow ...| Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E.
1856. Cheltenham | Thomas Bell, F.R.S8., Pres. L.8.
1857. Dublin...... Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,
F.R.S.
1858, Leeds ...... C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
1859. Aberdeen...|Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.
1860. Oxford...... Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....
1861. Manchester | Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S.

1862.
1863.

Cambridge | Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.
Newcastle |Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....

seen e eee

1864, Bath.........

Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S.
1865. Birmingham|T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ...

SECTION D (continued)

1866. Nottingham)Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.
—Physiological Dep., Prof.
Humphry, M.D., F.R.S.—
Anthropological Dep., Alf.
R. Wallace, F.R.G.S.

...|Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. B.S.
—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
George Busk,.M.D., F.R.S.

1868. Norwich ...|Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.

—Dep. of Physiology, W.
H. Flower, F.R.S.

1867. Dundee

1869. Exeter George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.
—Dep. of Bot. and Zool.,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Hthno., E. B. Tylor.

1870. Liverpool...|Prof.G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,

F.R.S., F.L.8.—Dep. of
Anat. and Physiol., Prof. M.
Foster, M.D., F.L.8.—Dep.
of Hthno., J. Evans, F.R.S.
1871. Edinburgh |Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and
Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.
Prof. W. Turner, M.D.

oeneee

Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E. |

OF THE SECTIONS. xlv

Secretaries

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E,
Lankester.

Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.

|Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester,

|Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.

William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.

Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.

Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.

Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. EH.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.

Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.

W.S. Church, Dr.: E. Lankester, P.
L. Selater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.

Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H,
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.

.|H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.

Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.

,—BIOLoey.!

Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B,
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.

C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8, Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.

Dr. T. S. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T,
Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.

Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
tram.

Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,

| Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
kester.

Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
King.

1 At a meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved :—‘ That the title
of Section D be changed to Biology ;’ and ‘That for the word “Subsection,” in the
rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word “ Department” be substituted.’

xlvi REPORT—1881.

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries

——-

1872. Brighton ...)SirJ. Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.—| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,| Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,| Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, E. Ray
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,| Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.

Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S.

1873. Bradford ...| Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of|Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof. Ru-| RB. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
therford, M.D.—Dep.of An-|_ Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.| H. Lamprey. i

1874. Belfast...... Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of| W.T. Thiselton- Dyer, R. O. Cunning-
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,| ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
C.B.,Pres.R.S.—Dep.ofAn-| Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W-
throp., Siz W.R.Wilde, M.D.| Rudler.

1875. Bristol ...... P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of|E. R. Alston, Dr. MeKendrick, Prof.
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof.Cle-| W. BR. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
land, M.D., F.R.S.-—Dep. of} Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston,} W. Spencer.

M.D., F.RB.S.
1876. Glasgow ...|A. Russel Wallace, F.R.G.S.,|E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.
, F.L.8.—Dep. of Zool. and\| Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.
Bot., Prof. A. Newton, M.A.,] Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and| son.
Physiol., Dr. J. G. McKen-
drick, F.R.S.E.

1877. Plymouth... |J.GwynJeffreys,LL.D.,F.R.S.,]E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
F.L.S.—Dep. of Anat. and| Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Physiol., Prof. Macalister,| Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
M.D.—Dep. of Anthropoil.,| FF. W. Rudler.

Francis Galton, M.A.,F.R.S.

1878. Dublin ...... Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—|Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.| Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.| Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.
of Anat. and Physiol., R.

McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.
1879, Sheffield ...|Prof. St. George Mivart,| Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
‘ F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,| J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
K. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Schiifer.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.

1880. Swansea ...|A. C. L. Giinther, M.D.,F.R.S.|G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-| Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-
siol., F. M. Balfour, M.A.,} wick.

F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.

TSS ew VOLK sess. s003 Richard Owen, C.B., M.D.,|G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.

F.R.S.— Dep.of Anthropol.,| W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,

Prof. W. H. Flower, LL.D.,}_ W. North, John Priestley, Howard

F.R.S.— Dep. of Anat. and| Saunders, H. E. Spencer.

Physiol., Prof. J. 8. Burdon

Sanderson, M.D., F.R.S.

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

1833. Cambridge |Dr. Haviland...................-. |Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget.

1834. Edinburgh | Dr. Abercrombie ............... \Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.
SECTION E. (UNTIL 1847.)—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.

1835. Dublin ...... IDraPritchards! a: dcenetest esas Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.

1836. Bristol ...... Dr. Roget, F.R.S. ............ ..| Dr. Symonds.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES

1846.Southampton| Dr. Pritchard

1847.
1848.
1849.

OF THE SECTIONS. xlvii

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1837. Liverpool...) Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ......... Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
1838. Newcastle |T. E. Headlam, M.D. ......... |T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
1839. Birmingham John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S....| Dr. G, O. Rees, F. Ryland.
1840. Glasgow ...|James Watson, M.D. ......... Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof.
Reid.
1841. Plymouth...'P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. | Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. S.
| Sargent.
1842. Manchester | Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.|Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
1843. Cork ........+ Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ...;Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
1844 York.......... d..6, Pritehara. MEDS, ccesass-c I. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.
1845. Cambridge |Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ...... |Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster.
1846. Southamp- |Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...|C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
ton gent.
1847. Oxford! ...|Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......;Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P.
: Ormerod.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1850. Edinburgh | Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
1855. Glasgow ...| Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. | Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
1857. Dublin...... |Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ...... Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.
1858. Leeds ...... Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,|C. G. Wheelhouse.
F.R.S.
1859. Aberdeen...' Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.| Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.
1860. Oxford...... Prof. G. Rolleston, M.D.,|Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward
| F.L.S. Smith.
1861. Manchester Dr. John Davy, F.R.S.L.& E.| Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
1862. Cambridge C. H. Paget, M.D.............+.- G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
1863. Newcastle 'Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.|Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
SG DALI. ccsccese 'Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D.,|J. 8. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.
| F.R.S.
1865. Bieminghm.?|Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,|Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,
| F.R.S. Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C,
p. xlii.]

ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION PD.

Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A...

aoe | eee w wees e rence nensaeseesesseseeseesasee

Oxford ......
Swansea
Birmingham

nee ewww were seen nea eee eens ee ees eeee

Dr. King.

Prof. Buckley.

G. Grant Francis.
Dr. R. G. Latham.

1850. Edinburgh |Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm| Daniel Wilson.
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.

Ipswich ...;Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.,
Pres. R.G.S.

Belfast...... Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,
F.B.S.

13 U0 Uaee eee R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S.

R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson; Dr«
Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
Shaw.

R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.
Norton Shaw.

Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
Thne, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Liverpool...|Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
: F.R.S.

Glasgow ...|Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,
F.R.S.

Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr.
Norton Shaw.

1 By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were.
incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Phy-.

siology’ (see p. xl
Geography.

iv). The Section being the

n vacant was assigned in 1851 to,
2 Vide note on page xlv.

xlviii

Date and Place

1856.
1857.
1858.

1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.

1863.
1864.

REPORT—1881.

Presidents

Secretaries

Cheltenham|Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson,

aeeeee

Aberdeen...

seeeee

K.C.B.

Rey. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,
Pres. R.I.A.

Sir R.I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,
F.RB.S.

Rear - Admiral Sir James
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

Manchester| John Crawfurd, F.R.S..........

Cambridge | Francis Galton, F.R.S..........

Newcastle

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,|

F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.

1865. Birmingham | Major-General Sir H. Raw-

1866.
1867.

1868.

1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.

1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.

1881.

linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.

Nottingham|Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,

Dundee

Norwich .

Exeter

Liverpool...

.| Capt. G.

LL.D.

.|Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.

H. Richards, R.N.,
F.R.S.

R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.

Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Cull, S. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.

Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O’Calla-
ghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
Wright.

Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.

Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.

iJ. W. Clarke, Rev. J. Glover, Dr.
Hunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T.
Wright.

C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson.

H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.
R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet, C.
R. Markham, Thomas Wright.

H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R.
Markham, S. J. Mackie, R. Stur-
rock.

R.

T. Baines, H. W. Bates, C. R. Mark-
ham, T. Wright.

SECTION E (continued).—GEOGRAPHY.

Sir Bartle Frere,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.

K.C.B.,)H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,

J. H. Thomas.

Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,/H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.

LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., EGS.

Mott, Clements R. Markham.

Edinburgh Colonel Yule, C. B: 2: R.G.S. Clements R. Markham, A. Buchan,

Brighton ...

Bradford ...

Belfast......

Bristol

Glasgow ...

Francis Galton, F.R.S..........
Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.

Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.

Lieut. - General Strachey,
R.E.,C.8.1.,F.B.S8., F.R.G.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S.

Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S...

Plymouth...| Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.,

Dublin

Sheffield ...

Swansea ...

F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
son, LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E.
Clements R. Markham, C.B.,

F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.
Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,
C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.
Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.L,
C.B., F.R.S.

J. H. Thomas, A. Keith Johnston.

'H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,

Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.

E.G. Ravenstein, B. C. Rye, J. H.
Thomas.

H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, F. F.
Tuckett.

.|H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. Miphew
Wood.

H. W. Bates, F. E. Fox, E. C. Rye.

John Coles, E. C. Rye.

H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C,

Rye.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye.

J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates.

Date and Place

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES

Presidents |

OF THE SECTIONS. xlix

Secretaries

STATISTICAL SCIENCE.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.

J. E. Drinkwater.
Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.

W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,

James Heywood.

W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.

Tayler.

W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.

F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.

C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
Rawson.

Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.

Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.

Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.

J. Fletcher; J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
cock.
J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.

J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.

Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
Neison.

Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
Stark.

J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.

Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
MacAdam, jun. ;

Edward Cheshire, Wm. Newmarch.

K. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.

1833. Cambridge | Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. .........
1834, Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart.......
SECTION F.—STATISTICS,
1835. Dublin...... Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......
1836. Bristol...... Sir Chas, Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.
1837. Liverpool...| Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon.........
1838. Newcastle |Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........
1839. Birmingham| Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........
1840. Glasgow ...|Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P.,|
F.R.S.
1841. Plymouth...| Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S.......
1842. Manchester |G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...
21843. Cork ......... Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...
1844. York......... Lieut.- Col. Sykes, F-.R.S.,
F.L.S.
1845. Cambridge | Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam
1846. Southamp- |G. R. Porter, F.R.S. ............
: ton
1847, Oxford...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.
1848. Swansea ...|J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S.
1849. Birmingham] Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton......
1850. Edinburgh |Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,
V.P.R.S.E.
1851. Ipswich ...|Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...
1852. Belfast...... His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin.
“LUGTTR E15 hv Be James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.
1854. Liverpool...)Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. .........
1855. Glasgow ...|R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ...

1856.

1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.

1881.

SECTION F (continued ).—ECONOMIC

J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.

SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

Cheltenham | Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. |Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.

Dublin......

Dublin, M.R.1.A.
Leeds ....... Edward Baines ........ecccsseess
Aberdeen...| Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ......
Oxford... Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......

Cc

W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
M. Tartt.

His Grace the Archbishop of| Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.

Newmarch.

T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, 5S. Brown,

Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M,
Smith, Dr. John Strang.
Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Rev. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.

REPORT—1881.

Date and Place

Presidents

Secretaries

1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.

1880.
1881.

1836.
1837.
1838.
1839.
1840.

1841.
1842.

1843

1844.
1845.

Manchester | William Newmarch, F.R.5....

Canibridge | Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........

Newcastle .| William Tite, M.P., F.R.S....

|

' David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,

E. Macrory, Rey. Prof. J. E. T.

Rogers.

|H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.

T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,.
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.

|E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy.

iG. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
|R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.

Macrory.
|Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.

|Rev. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.

Edmund Macrory, Frederick Purdy,

| Charles T. D. Acland.

Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.

iJ. G. Fitch, James Meikle.

J..G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.

J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.

Prof. Donnell, Frank P. Fellows,
Hans MacMordie.

F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.

A. M‘Neel Caird, T. G. P. Hallett,
| Dr. W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W.

W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim..
W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.

Prof. Adamson, R. E. Leader, C.

N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.
C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.

Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.

C. Vignoles, _ T..

J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,.

.|Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.

J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J.
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.

James Thomson, Robert Mallet.

Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.

Bavaeesmeress William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,

F.R.S.
Birmingham| Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,

M.P. E. Macrory.
Nottingham] Prof. J. E. T. Rogers............
Dundee .....| M. E. Grant Duff, M.P. .......

| Warden.

Norwich ....|Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit.

Actuaries.
Exeter ...... Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-

cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.
Liverpool...| Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.
Edinburgh | Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves ......... |
Brighton ...| Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....
Bradford ...| Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.
Belfast......] Lord O’ Hagan .......0..+.-.0006
Bristol ...... James Heywood, M.A., F.R.S.,

Pres.8.5S. Macrory.
Glasgow ...|SirGeorge Campbell, K.C.S.L,|

M.P.

Jack.

Plymouth...| Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue
Dublin. .ss Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,

M.R.LA.
Sheffield ...|G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.

8.8. Molloy.
Swansea ...]G. W. Hastings, M.P...........
MOD cede Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant Duff,

M.A., F.R.S. Moss.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

. SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
Bristol...... | Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.| T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.
Liverpool...| Rev. Dr. Robinsor............

Newcastle {Charles Babbage, F.R.S.......|R. Hawthorn,
Webster.

Birmingham Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.| W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.

Stephenson. Webster.
Glasgow ....|Sir John Robinson .............

C. Vignoles.

Plymouth (John Taylor, F.R.S. ...........
Manchester | Rev. Prof. Willis, F.R.S.......
Corks jfhccse |Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.LA....
OT Kiveoecsees |John Taylor, F.R.S. .........00
Cambridge George Rennie, F.R.S,

Rev. W. T. Kingsley.

1846.Southampton Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.| William Betts, jun., Charles Manby.

1847.
1848.

Oxford:......
F.R.S.
Swansea

F.R.S.

Rey. Professor Walker, M.A.,|J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.

.... Rev. Professor Walker, M.A.,]R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1849

1850
1851
1852

1853.

1854
1855

1856.
1857.

1858

1860.

1861

1862
1863

1864
1865

1866
1867
1868

1869
1870

1871
1872
1873

1874
1875

1876. Glasgow

. Birmingham
. Edinburgh

. Ipswich .....
. Belfast

. Liverpool...
. Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

. Leeds

sence

. Manchester

Cambridge
. Newcastle

- Bath.........
. Birmingham

. Nottingham
. Dundee......

. Norwich ...

PERELOE e360.
. Liverpool...

. Edinburgh
. Brighton ...

. Bradford ...

. Belfast

. Bristol

1877. Plymouth...

1878

. Dublin

_ 1879. Sheffield ...

1880. Swansea ...

1881. York

see eeeeee

Presidents

Secretaries

Robert Stephenson, M.P.,
F.R.S.

Rev. R. Robinson .............+.

William Cubitt, F.R.S..........

John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,
F.RB.S.

William Fairbairn,
F.R.S.

John Scott Russell, F.R.S.

C.E.,|

W. J. Macquorn Rankine
C.E., F.R.S.
George Rennie, F.R.S. .........

Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
F.R.S.

William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ...

Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.RB.S.

J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....

Wn. Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.|

Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.|

J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. .........

Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.,
E.R.S.

Thomas Hawksley, V.P.Inst.
C.E., F.G.S.

Prof.W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.

Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.

John Head, Charles Manby.

John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.

James Oldham, J. Thomson, W.
Sykes Ward.

John Grantham,
Thomson.

L. Hill, jun., William Ramsay, J.
Thomson.

C. Atherton, B. Jones, jun., H. M,
Jeffery.

Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.

J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.

R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H,
Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F'. Harrison,
Henry Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,
H. Wright.

W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.

P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer.

P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.

P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W.
P. Marshall, Walter May.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
A. Tarbottom.

P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.

J. Oldham, J.

G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S.

C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..........
Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S.

Prof, Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, C.E.

seer eeeee

W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. .........

Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.R.S.E.
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.

...|C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ......

Edward Woods, C.E.

Peewee

Edward Easton, C.E. .........

J. Robinson, Pres Inst. Mech.
Eng.
James Abernethy, V.P. Inst.
C.E., F.R.S.E.
Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
c2

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C.
Manby, W. Smith.

P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.

H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.
King, J. N. Shoolbred.

H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie, J.
P. Smith.
H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,
J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman, E.
H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw, J.
N. Shoolbred.

A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.

W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.

W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar, J.
N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.

A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N,
Shoolbred.

A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.

A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.

hii

REPORT—1881.

List of Evening Lectures.

Date and Place

1842. Manchester

1843. Cork

1844. York

1845. Cambridge

1846, Southamp-
ton.

1847. Oxford

aeneee

1848. Swansea ...
1849, Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh

1851. Ipswich ...

1852. Belfast......

1853. Hull.........

1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...

1856. Cheltenham

1857. Dublin......

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

Charles Vignoles, F.R.S.......

Sir M. I. Brunel
Ree VEUTGHISON.cessc.seeseeone
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.B.S.......
Prof. HE. Forbes, F.R.S..........

sete eeseewenee

DPVRODINSOM cc. cossccaseeheoeee
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........
Dr. Falconer, F.R.S....... Bic

G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ........
Wire GLOVE E isSesdcesceswoce

Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.B.S.
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S.......

Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S....
John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......

W. Carpenter, M.D., F.RB.S....
Dre Harada, PRIS 842,28 22.2
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.

Dr) Mantel pWAR. Son. ...sceset oc |
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. |

G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal

Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S8,

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.,|
F.G.S8.

Robert Hunt, FR.S:.....0..000.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.B.S.
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......

Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson

Col. Sir H. Rawlinson .........

Week) Grove, HRS... ee

Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S.

The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.

The Thames Tunnel.

The Geology of Russia.

The Dinornis of New Zealand.

The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Augean Sea.

The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.

Geology of North America.

The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.

Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.

Geology of Russia.

--| Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles.
-| Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.

Properties of the Explosive substance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.

Shooting Stars.

Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.

The Dodo (Didus ineptus).

Metallurgical Operations of Swansea
and its neighbourhood.

Recent Microscopical Discoveries.

Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.

Transit of different Weights with
varying velocities on Railways.
Passage of the Blood through the
minute vessels of Animals in con-

nexion with Nutrition.

Extinct Birds of New Zealand.

Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.

Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.

Recent discoveries in the properties
of Light.

Recent discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.

Some peculiar Phenomena in the
Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.

|The present state of Photography.
| Anthropomorphous Apes.

Progress of researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.
Characters of Species.

..| Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities

and Ethnology.

Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform research up to the pre-
sent time.

Correlation of Physical Forces.

...| The Atlantic Telegraph.

Rey. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L.

Recent Discoveries in Africa,

Date and Place

1858.
1859.

1860.
1861.
1862.

1863.

1864.

LIST OF EVENING

LECTURES. iii

Lecturer

Manchester
Cambridge

Newcastle

ait sacusssoc

1865, Birmingham

1866. Nottingham

1867.

1868.
1869.
1870.

1871.
1872.

1873.
1874.

1875.
1876.
1877.

Dundee......

Norwich ...
Exeter ......

Liverpool...

Edinburgh

Brighton ...

Bradford ...

Belfast ......

Bristol

Glasgow ...

Plymouth...

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L....
Rey. Dr. Robinson, F.R.8. ...

Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.
Prof.W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S.
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.

Prot OdlimesHeRIS, ..s<ccses.os
Prof. Williamson, F.R.S.......

James Glaisher, F.R.S.........

Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S. .......0e00-
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ......
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S..........

William Huggins, F.R.8.

Drid. D> Hooker, E:R.8-%..:.-
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.......

Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.
J. Fergusson, F.B.S..........-+-

Dr. W. Odling, F.B.S..........
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S....

Prof, J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.8.

FB. A. Abel, F.R.S.......csceceeee

BE. B. Tylor, F.RS. s...ccese0

Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. K. Clifford............

Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,
E.R.S.
Prof. Huxley, WOR.S. <cccss...
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S..........
Broke Tart, WanScbsse.ccecwses
Sir Wyville Thomson, F.R.S.
W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,
E.RB.S.

Prof. Odling, F.R.S............+

Subject of Discourse

The Ironstones of Yorkshire.

The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.

Geology of the Northern Highlands.

Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.

Physical Constitution of the Sun.

Arctic Discovery.

Spectrum Analysis.

The late Eclipse of the Sun.

The Forms and Action of Water.

Organic Chemistry.

The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to Dy-
namics.

The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.

The Chemical Action of Light.

Recent Travels in Africa.

Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.

...|The results of Spectrum Analysis

applied to Heavenly Bodies.
Insular Floras.
The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.

The present state of knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
Archeology of the early Buddhist

Monuments.
Reverse Chemical Actions.

‘Vesuvius.

The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebule.

The Scientific Use of the Imagination.

Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
tion with Naval Architecture.

Some recent investigations and ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.

The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilization.

Insect Metamorphosis.

The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.

Coal and Coal Plants.

Molecules.

Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects.

The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.

The Colours of Polarized Light.

Railway Safety Appliances.

Force.

The Challenger Expedition.

The Physical Phenomena connected
with the Mines of Cornwall and
Devon.

The new Element, Gallium.

liv

REPORT—1881]1.

1878.

1879.
1880.

1881.

1867.
1868.
1869.

1870.

1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.

1877.
1879.
1880.
1881.

Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse

Mublin’ 5... |G. J. Romanes, F.L.S. .........| Animal Intelligence.

Prot Dewar phebusse ves. deseo Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.

Sheffield ...|W. Crookes, F.R.S. ............ Radiant Matter.
| Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.| Degeneration.

Swansea ...|Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins,| Primeval Man.

F.R.S.
| Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... Mental Imagery.
MWorks..cscras ‘Prof. Huxley, Sec. B.S. The Rise and Progress of Palzeon-
tology.
W. Spottiswoode, Pres. R.S. |The Electric Discharge, its Forms
and its Functions.
Lectures to the Operative Classes.

Dundee...... | Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.| Matter and Force.

Norwich ...| Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. |A Piece of Chalk.

Exeter ...... Prof, Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Experimental illustrations of the
| modes of detecting the Composi-
| tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
| Bodies by the Spectrum,

Liverpool... Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P., Savages.
| F.R.S. |

Brighton ....W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S. Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.

Bradford ... C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Fuel.

Belfast ...... Perot. Onlin eiurit, Seccuecsrdeess The Discovery of Oxygen.

BTISGOL ween Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. A Piece of Limestone.

Glasgow ... Commander Cameron, C.B., A Journey through Africa,

R.N.

Plymouth ....|\W. Hi. Preecetay scasesaeesie<ace Telegraphy and the Telephone.

shefield .:-)| Wawa A'vrbome cen esccs ne cae ace Electricity as a Motive Power.

Swansea ... H. Seebohm, F.Z.S. ............ The North-East Passage.

Or sos. ccs Prof. Osborne Reynolds, Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
|) HLS: flakes.

lv

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
YORK MEETING.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Professor Sir William Thomson, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Professor J. C. Adams, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. ; Professor
Ball, LL.D., F.R.S.; Professor Cayley, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.; Pro-
fessor G. Carey Foster, F.R.S.; J. W. L Glaisher, M.A., F.RB.S. ;
Rev. S. Haughton, M.D., F.R.S.; T. Archer Hirst, Ph.D., V.P.R.S. ;
Professor Bartholomew Price, M.A., F.R.S.; Professor H. J. S. Smith,
M.A., F.R.S.; W. Spottiswoode, M.A., LL.D., Pres. B.S.

Secretaries.—Professor W. HE. Ayrton, F.R.S.; Professor Oliver J. Lodge,
D.Se.; Donald McAlister, M.A., M.B., B.Sc. ( Recorder); Rev. W.
Routh, M.A.

. SECTION B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Professor A. W. Williamson, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.

Vice-Presidents—I. Lowthian Beli, F.R.S.; Professor J. Dewar, M.A.,
F.R.S.; Professor E. Frankland, D.C.L., F.R.S.; J. H. Gilbert,
Ph.D., F.R.S.; J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S.; A. G. Vernon
Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S.; Professor W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S.;
Professor H. E. Roscoe, B.A., F.R.S.; Professor W. J. Russell,
F.R.S. ; Professor T. E. Thorpe, Ph.D., F.R.S.

Secretaries—P. Phillips Bedson, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Recorder); Harold B.
Dixon, M.A., F.C.S.; T. Gough, B.Sc., F.C.S.

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.

President.—Andrew Crombie Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S., V:P.G.S., Director-
General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, and of the
Museum of Practical Geology.

Vice-Presidents.—Professor P. M. Duncan, M.B., F.R.S.; R. Etheridge,
F.R.S.; J. Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.; Professor E. Hull, LL.D., F.R.S.;
W. Pengelly, F.R.S.; Professor J. Prestwich, M.A., F.R.S.; H.C.
Sorby, LL.D., F.R.S.; Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.; T.
Wright, M.D., F.R.S.

Secretaries.—J. HE. Clark, B.Sc., F.G.S.; W. Keeping, M.A., F.G.S. ;
W. Topley, F.G.S. (Recorder) ; W. Whitaker, B.A., F.G.S.

lvi REPORT—1881.

SECTION D.—BIOLOGY.

President.—Richard Owen, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS.,
E.G.8., F.Z.S8.

Vice-Presidents—Professor W. H. Flower, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S.,.
F.L.S., F.G.8S., Pres. Z.S.; Professor J. S. Burdon Sanderson,
M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.; Professor Acland, M.D., F.R.S.; Professor
Balfour, M.D., F.R.S.; J. Beddoe, M.D., F.R.S.; W. Bowman, M.D.,
F.R.S.; Professor Asa Gray; Professor Huxley, LU.D., Sec. B.S. ;
Professor A. Newton, F.R.S.; P. L. Sclater, Ph.D., F.R.S.

Secretaries—G. W. Bloxam, M.A., F.L.8S. (Recorder); W. A. Forbes,
B.A., F.Z.8.; Rev. W. C. Hey, M.A.; Professor M‘Nab, M.D.
(Recorder); W. North, B.A., F.C.S.; John Priestley (Recorder) ;.
Howard Saunders, F.L.S., F.Z.S.; H. HE. Spencer.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.

President.—Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.1., C.B., M.D., D.C.L, LLD.,
F.B.S., V.P.LS., F.B.G.S.

Vice-Presidents—Sir Alexander Armstrong, K.C.B., F.R.S.; Professor
I. Bayley Balfour, D.Se.; Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S.; Clements
R. Markham, C.B., F.R.S. ; Admiral Sir E. Ommanney, C.B., F.R.S. ;
Sir Richard Temple, Bart., G.C.S.I. ; Professor Sir Wyville Thomson,
D.Sc., F.R.S.

Secretaries —J. W. Barry; H. W. Bates, F.R.S., Assistant-Sec. R.G.S.
(Recorder).

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

President—The Right Hon. M. E. Grant Duff, M.A., LL.B., F.R.S.,
F.L.S., F.R.G.S., Governor of Madras.

Vice-Presidents—The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor of York; the Right
Hon. Lord Houghton, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.; the Lord
Reay ; James Heywood, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.S., F.8.8.

Secretaries.—Constantine Molloy (Recorder) ; W. W. Morrell; J. F. Moss.

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents—J. Abernethy, Pres. Inst. C.E.; W. H. Barlow, F.R.S.;
J. F. Bateman, F.R.S.; Sir Henry Bessemer, F.R.S.; Sir Frederick
Bramwell, F.R.S.; Captain James B. Eads, C.H.; Edward Easton,
C.H.; T. Hawksley, F.R.S.; C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.

Secretaries.—A. T. Atchison (Recorder) ; J. F. Stephenson; H. Trueman
Wood.

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lviii REPORT— 1881.

Table showing the Attendance and Receipts

Date of Meeting Where held Presidents Old Life | New Tiife
Members | Members
MS SGMSE Duel 20 iasn|) WOLK cauiexencwcninncisieme The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L.
1832; June) 19)...’ Oxford <.....seces-ss The Rey. W. Buckland, F.R.S.
1833, June 25...) Cambridge ......... The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S. ar
1834, Sept. 8 ...| Edinburgh ......... Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L....... a
1835, Aug. 10 ...| Dublin ............... The Rev. Provost Lloyd, LL.D. af
SoG pause, 22°; ..| DLIStOL ..c..nccseseeen The Marquis of Lansdowne ... ;
1837, Sept. 11 ...] Liverpool ............ The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S. a6
1838, Aug. 10 ...| Newcastle-on-Tyne| The Duke of Northumberland A
1839, Aug. 26 ...] Birmingham......... The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt ee
1840, Sept. 17 ...} Glasgow .......2.00- The Marquis of Breadalbane... oes
1841, July 20...| Plymouth ............ The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. 169
1842, June 23 ...! Manchester ......... The Lord Francis Egerton...... 303
NSA spp ae omy cca I OOLK vecsaaceessenseees The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S....... 109
MSAA Sept. 26 ws.) VOLK .cccecccccarsesses The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D. ... 226
1845, June 19 ...| Cambridge ......... Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. 313
1846, Sept. 10...) Southampton ...... Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. 241
Asa roeUNe: 2d oof OXtOLG | sescspceasssen Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart....... 314
1848, Aug. 9 ...| Swansea ..........<. The Marquis of Northampton 149
1849, Sept. 12 ...) Birmingham......... The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. 227
1850, July 21 Edinburgh seeseyees Sir David Brewster, K.H....... 235
Nebo aly ©} .-| Mos wichinersertensssrc= G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal 172
1852, Sept. L 22.|MBClASt co.ssccseenvess Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. 164
iUeraya ISI oye ape alot WPUULS Bes sees ceceenticcs William Hopkins, F.R.S. ...... 141
1854, Sept. 20 ...| Liverpool ............ The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. 238
1855, Sept. 12 ...] Glasgow ............ The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ... 194
1856, Aug. 6 ...| Cheltenham ......... Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D. 182
185%, AUS, 26. .e-] DUDUMN..ccecsdes cease The Rev.Humphrey Lloyd, D.D. 236
1858; Sept. 22 ...| Leeds: ......0ccvc. sce Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L... 222
1859, Sept. 14 ...) Aberdeen ............ H.R.H. the Prince Consort ... 184
L860; June: 27in..1) ORLOTE ees ceces.cnc: The Lord Wrottesley, M.A. ... 286
1861, Sept. 4 .. | Manchester ......... WilliamFairbairn,LL.D.,F.R.S. 321
1862, Oct. 1 ...| Cambridge ......... The Rev. Professor Willis, M.A. 239
1863, Aug. 26 ...! Newcastle-on-Tyne} Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B. 203
1864, Sept. 13) ...|| bale eseeseascesseseess Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A. 287
1865, Sept. 6 ...| Birmingham......... Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D. 292
1866, Aug. 22 ...! Nottingham ......... William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S. 207
1867, Sept. 4 ...| Dundee............... The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B. 167
1868, Aug. 19 ...| Norwich .....,...... Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. 196
8695 Ang; 18° ...|)Brxeten! s..cuscesescers Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L. ...... 204
1870, Sept. 14 ...) Liverpool ...... ..... Prof. ©. Hi. Huxley; L.D.-...... 314
LS TyAue. 2... Hdinbureh ecsesss Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D. 246
1872, Aug. 14 ...| Brighton ............ Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ... 245
USis; sept. 17 ...| Bradford ...c.cc..c. Prof. A. W. Williamson, F’. RS. 212
Isa ane. 19 ...| Belfast .....0cc:cces Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.B.S. 162
NS ipseAtio 25),..|) Bristol -.ccatsenen ses SirJohn Hawkshaw,C.E. »E.R.S.| 239
ISG, Sept.6 ...| Glascow ..c..cc..<+- Prof, T. Andrews, M.D., F.B.S. 221
L8it, Aug. 15 ...| Plymouth ............ Prof, A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. 173
US7s; Aus. 14...) Dublin .......ccceces. W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S. 201
1879, Aug. 20 ...| Sheffield ............ Prof.G. J. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. 184
1880, Aug. 25 ...| Swansea ............ A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F. ReSes. 144
MSSiepae SL 6.3 VOLK .....ccsenvenecens Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.RS 272

ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS. lix

‘Annual Meetings of the Association.

Attended by Sums paid on

- : Pune == vale» of “

Old New | : Grants for ear
‘Annual | Annual Asso- | Ladies For- | Total pees the Scientific
Rrcbers Members Ses ee ee cerns | Purposes
| 8 gids ||) Lea leie d

Se : SiGe) stake | he ee noseecoeoe 1831

.... il Betta (ais het ar! eet a. 1832

» és B00. | vvstecterud IP casweranns, 1833

ae 1298 saiesnnecs 20 0 0} 1834

HS Bee PS accces 167 O O | 1835

BE MSHOR |S ecteecses 435 O 0 | 1836

nt sae SA Ori lide accees 922 12 61] 1837

1100* aa ZAQO I> scccecace 932 2 2 | 1838

wale 34 TASS ey faanesecae 1595 11 0 | 1839

ate Sa ese 40 116355 ergy jeemtoceadocc 1546 16 4 | 1840

317 bot 60* aaa BOS Nh Seetcamre we 1235 10 11 } 1841

376 33T Sole 28 Sy Pa ereakas > se 1449 17 8 | 1842

185 35 160 ss aaah MER Seeds ses 1565 10 2 | 1843

190 9T 260 “ss ida Sell Meise dees 981 12 8 | 1844

22 407 172 35 OPS wah cectacs 831 9 9 | 1845

39 270 196 - 36 STI. “le heticstesee 685 16 0 | 1846

40 495 203 53 T3200 Mr Avec eae 208 5 4 | 1847

25 376 197 15 819 707 0 0 275 1 8 | 1848

; 33 447 237 22 1071 963 0 0 159 19 6] 1849

bs 42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 0 345 18 0 | 1850

, AT 244 | 141 37 710 620 0 0 391 9 7 | 18d5L

; 60 | 510 || 292 9 1108 1085 0 0 304 6 7 | 1852

57 | 367 236 6 876 903 0 0 205 0 O| 1853

121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0 380 19 7 | 1854

101 1094 | 543 26 2133 2311 0 0 480 16 4 | 1855

48 412 346 9 1115 1098 0 0 734 13 9 | 1856

120° 900 569 26 2022 2015 0 0 507 15 4 | 1857

91 710 509 13 1698 1931 0 0 618 18 2 | 1858

179 | 1206 821 22 2564 2782 0 0 684 11 1 |} 1859

59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0 766 19 6 | 1860

125 _ 1589 791 15 3138 3944 00] 1111 5 10] 1861

57 ) 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 0 | 1293 16 6 } 1862

209 | 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10 | 1863

103 | att9. | 1058 13 2802 2965 0 0 | 1289 15 8 | 1864

149 766 | 508 23 1997 2227 0 0} 1591 7 10 | 1865

105 960 | ual 11 2303 2469 0 0] 1750 13 4 | 1866

118 1163 CO, 771 7 2444 2613 00] 1739 4 O | 1867

117 720 682 45t | 2004 2042 00! 1940 0 O | 1868

107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 0 | 1622 0 0] 1869

195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 0 0} 1572 O O |} 1870

127 / 976 754 21 2463 2575 00 | 1472 2 6] 1871

80 | 937 912 43 2533 2649 00] 1285 O 0] 1872

99 | 796 601 11 1983 2120 0 0} 1685 O O |} 1873

85 | 817 630 12 1951 1979 0 0 | 1151 16 O} 1874

93 884 - 672 17 2248 2397 0 0 960 0 0O | 1875

185 1265 712 25 2774 3023 00] 1092 4 2 | 1876

59 446 283 11 1229 1268 00/1128 9 7] 1877

93 | 1285 674 17 2578 2615 0 0 725 16 6 | 1878

74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 0 | 1080 11 11 | 1879

41 389 147 12 915 899 0 0 fo kia pL OSU.

176 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 0 476. a0 1. | LSsh

* Ladies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843.
Tickets of Admission to Sections only. t Including Ladies.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1881-82.

PRESIDENT.
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres. L.S., F.G.S,

VICE-PRESIDENTS.
His Grace the ARCHBISHOP OF YorK, D.D., F.R.S. | Professor G. G. Stokes, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,

The Right Hon. the Lorp Mayor or York. Sec. R.S.

The Right Hon. Lord HoucuHron, M.A., D.C.L., | Sir Jonn HawKsuHaw, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
E.R.S. F.R.G.S, ALLEN THOMSON, Esq., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E.

The Ven, Archdeacon CrEYKn, M.A. Professor ALLMAN, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L.& E.,.

The Hon. Sir W. R. Grovn, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. F.LS.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
C. W. SIEMENS, Esq., D.C.L., LL.D. F.R.S., F.C.8, M.I.C.E.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

The Right Hon. the Lord Mount-TEMPLE. F, A. ABEL, Esq., C.B., F.R.S., V.P.C.S., Director of
Captain Sir F. J. Evans, K.C.B., F -RAAS., F.R.GS., the Chemical Establishment of the War Depart-
Hydrographer to the Admiralty. ment.
Colonel A. C. Cooke, R.E., C.B., F.R.G.S., Director- | Professor Dr CHAUMONT, M.D., F.B.S.
General of the Ordnance Survey. PuHitip Luriny SciaTer, Esq., M.A., Ph.D...
WyYnDHAM §S. Porta, Esq. F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.

Professor PRESTWICH, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT SOUTHAMPTON:
CO. W. A. JELLICOR, Esq. JOHN E. Lm Fruves, Esq. Morris Minus, Esq.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT SOUTHAMPTON.
J. BLoUNT T'Homas, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ABEL, F. A., Esq., C.B., F.R.S. Hueers, W., Esq., F.R.S.

ADAms, Professor W. G., F.R.S. HuGHEs, Professor T. McK., F.G.S.
BATEMAN, J. F., Esq., C.E., F.R.S. JEFFREYS, J. GWYN, Esq., F.R.S.
CAYLEY, Professor, ¥.R.S. NEWTON, Professor A., F.R.S.

DE La RUE, WARREN, Esq., F.R.S. PENGELLY, W., Esq., F.R.S.

Evans, Captain Sir F. J., C.B., F.R.S. PERKIN, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.

Evans, J., Esq., F.R.S. Pirr-RIvers, General A., F.R.S.
Foster, Professor G. C., F.R.S. PRESTWICH, Professor, F.R.S.
GLAISHER, J. W. L., Esq., F.R.S. RAYLEIGH, Lord, F.R.S.

Harcourt, A. VERNON, Esq., F.R.S. SANDERSON, Prof. J. S. Burpon, F.R.S.
Hastines, G. W Esq., M.P. Sorsy, Dr. H. C., F.R.S.

HAwksHAW, J. CLARKE, Esq., F.G.S. THUILLIER, Gen. Sir H. E. L., 0.S.1., F.R.S.

HeEYwoop, J., Esq., F.R.S,

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Capt. Doveias GALron, O.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W..
FRANCIS MAITLAND Batrour, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Trinity College, Cambridge.
SECRETARY.

Professor T. G. Bonnry, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., 22 Albemarle Street, London, W.

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., University College, London, W.C.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

General Sir EpwArp Saprne, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., F.B.S.

Sir Joun Luppock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres. L.S.

WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, Hsq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres. B.S.

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.

The Duke of Devonshire. | Sir William R, Grove, F.R.S. Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S.

The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.G. Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S.
Sir G. B. Airy, Sir Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L. Dr. T. Andrews, F.R.S.

General Sir E, Sabine, K.C.B. Prof. Stokes, M.A., D.C.L, Dr. Allen Thomson, F.R.S.

The Earl of Harrowby. Prof. Huxley, LL.D., Sec. R.S. W. Spottiswoode, Hsq., Pres. R.S.
The Duke of Argyll. Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, D.C.L, Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S.
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. Dr, Carpenter, C.B,, F.R.S. Sir A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S..

Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D.| Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.

GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.

F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., Pres. R.S. | George Griffith, Esq., M.A.
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S, Dr. Michael Foster, F.R.S. P. L. Sclater, Esq., F.R.S.
Gen, Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B., F.R.S.

AUDITORS.
Dr. W. J. Russell, F.R.S. | Professor G. C. Foster, F.R.S.

lx

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Report of the Council for the year 1880-81, presented to the General
Commutiee at York, on Wednesday, August 31, 1881.

The Council have received reports during the past year from the
General Treasurer, and his account for the year will be laid before the
General Committee this day. In consequence of the omission to appoint
Auditors at the General Committee at Swansea, the accounts for the past
year have been audited by Auditors nominated by the Council.

The Council have nominated the Lord Mayor of York, Lord Houghton,
and the Ven. Archdeacon Creyke to be Vice-Presidents for the Meeting
at York.

Mr. Sclater informed the Council in December last that he would not
be able to hold the office of General Secretary after the York Meeting.
The Council much regret the loss of Mr. Sclater’s valuable services.
They have resolved to recommend that Mr. F. M. Balfour, F.R.S., of
‘Cambridge, be appointed one of the General Secretaries in the place of
Mr. Sclater.

Towards the end of last year, the Council took into consideration the
duties and position of the Assistant Secretary, and during the course of
their deliberations Mr. Gordon tendered his resignation of the office.
‘The Council, in accepting the resignation, resolved to continue his salary
to the end of the financial year. In making arrangements to fill up the
appointment, the Council further reconsidered the question of the position
held by the Assistant Secretary. It will be in the recollection of the
‘Committee that Mr. Gordon was appointed to a different position from
that held by Professor Phillips and Mr. Griffith. The duties of the office
were somewhat modified, and it was thought that by requiring more
continuous attendance from the Assistant Secretary, it would be possible
to dispense with the assistance of the clerk. The arrangement did not,
however, answer the intended purpose; and the Council have resolved to
nominate Professor Bonney, M.A., F.R.S., to fulfil the duties of the office
of Assistant General Secretary, as defined by Professor Phillips in his
memorandum dated May 3, 1861, with the title of Secretary, at a salary
of 300/. per annum, with 25/. for travelling expenses.

The Council have to deplore the loss of Sir Philip de Malpas Grey
Egerton, Bart., F.R.S., who had been a member of the Association since
its commencement, and who held the office of Trustee for many years.
The Council have nominated Mr. Spottiswoode as Trustee, in the place of
Sir Philip Egerton.

Invitations for 1883 will be presented from Leicester, Southport,
Oxford, Birmingham, Aberdeen, Nottingham; and an invitation to
Worcester has been received for 1884.

lxil REPORT—1881.

The Council announce with great regret the loss that they have
sustained during the past year by the death of Professor Rolleston, F.R.S.
One vacancy having been thus caused in their body, there remain only
four names which it is necessary to remove from the list.

The Council propose that, in accordance with the regulations, the four
retiring members shall be the following :—

Mr. Easton. Prof. Roscoe.
Mr. Newmarch. Mr. Warington Smyth.

The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary members
of Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are dis-
tinguished by an asterisk in the following list :—

Abel, F. A., Esq., C.B., F.R.S. Huggins, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Adams, Professor W. G., F.R.S. ° | Hughes, Professor T. McK., M.A.
Bateman, J. F., Esq., C.E., F.R.S. | Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, Esq., F.R.S.
Cayley, Professor, F.R.S. Newton, Professor A., F.R.S.
*De La Rue, Warren, Esq., F.R.S. | Pengelly, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Evans, Captain Sir F. J., C.B.,| Perkin, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.

?

E.R.S. Pitt-Rivers, General A., F.R.S.
Evans, J., Esq., F.R.S. *Prestwich, Prof., F.R.S.
Foster, Professor G. C., F.R.S. Rayleigh, Lord, F.R.S.

Glaisher, J. W. L., Esq., F.R.S. Sanderson, Professor J. 8S. Burdon,
*Harcourt, A. Vernon, Esq., F.R.S. F.RS.

*Hastings, G. W., Esq., M.P. Sorby, Dr. H. C., F.R.S.
*Hawkshaw, J. C., Esq., F.G.S. Thuillier, General Sir H. E. L.,
Heywood, J., Esq., F.R.S. C.S.L, F.R.S.

xiii

RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
York Meetinec 1n AuGust AnD Sepremper, 1881.

[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the
Secretary, except there is a specific nomination. ]

Inwolving Grants of Money.

That the Council of the Association be requested to communicate with
the President and Council of the Royal Geographical Society as to the.
complete Exploration of the Snowy Mountain District of Eastern
Equatorial Africa, and be authorised to subscribe a sum of 1001. towards
such exploration.

That Mr. G. H. Darwin, Sir William Thomson, Professor Tait,
Professor Grant, Dr. Siemens, Professor Purser, Professor G. Forbes,
and Mr. Horace Darwin be a Committee for the purpose of Measuring
the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity; that Mr. G. H. Darwin be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 15/. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.

That Professor Schuster, Sir William Thomson, Professor H. E.
Roscoe, Professor A. S. Herschel, Captain W. de W. Abney, Mr. R. H.
Scott, and Dr. J. H. Gladstone be a Committee for the purpose of inves-
tigating the practicability of collecting and identifying Meteoric Dust,
and of considering the question of undertaking regular observations in
various localities ; that Professor Schuster be the Secretary, and that the
sum of 20/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Professor Sylvester, Professor Cayley, and Professor Salmon
be a Committee for the purpose of Calculating Tables of the Funda-
mental Invariants of Algebraic Forms; that Professor Sylvester be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 80/. be placed at their disposal for the

urpose.

i That Mr. Robert H. Scott, Mr. J. Norman Lockyer, Professor H. J.
8. Smith, Professor G. G. Stokes, Professor Balfour Stewart, and Mr.
G. J. Symons be a Committee for the purpose of co-operating with the
Meteorological Society of the Mauritius in their proposed publication
of Daily Synoptic Charts of the Indian Ocean from the year 1861; that
Mr. R. H. Scott be the Secretary, and that the sum of 501. be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.

That Professor G. Carey Foster, Mr. C. Hockin, Sir William
Thomson, Professor Ayrton, Mr. J. Perry, Professor W. G. Adams,
Lord Rayleigh, Professor F. Jenkin, Dr. O. J. Lodge, Dr. John Hopkin-
son, Dr. A. Muirhead, and Mr. W. H. Preece be reappointed a Committee for
the purpose of constructing and issuing practical Standards for use in
Electrical Measurements ; that the names of Mr. Herbert Taylor, Pro-

lxiv REPORT—1881:

fessor Everett, and Professor Schuster be added to the Committee ;
that Dr. A. Muirhead be the Secretary, and that the sum of 100/. be placed
at their disposal for the purpose.

That Professor Dewar, Professor A. W. Williamson, Dr. Marshall
Watts, Captain Abney, Mr. Stoney, Professor W. N. Hartley, Professor
McLeod, Professor Carey Foster, Professor A. K. Huntington, Professor
Emerson Reynolds, Professor Reinold, Professor Liveing, Lord Rayleigh,
Professor Schuster, and Mr. W. Chandler Roberts be reappointed a Com-
mittee for the purpose of reporting upon the present state of our know-
ledge of Spectrum Analysis; that Mr. W. Chandler Roberts be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 51. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.

That Professors Balfour Stewart, Riicker, and T. E. Thorpe be a
‘Committee for the purpose of reporting on the Methods employed in the
‘Calibration of Mercurial Thermometers ; that Professor Riicker be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 20/. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.

That Professor Roscoe, Mr. Lockyer, Professor Dewar, Professor
Liveing, Professor Schuster, Captain Abney, and Dr. Marshall Watts be
a Committee for the purpose of preparing a new series of Wave-lengths
Tables of the Spectra of the Elements; that Dr. Marshall Watts be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 50/. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.

That Dr. Hugo Miller, Professors Williamson, Frankland, Roscoe,
and Odling, and Mr. H. B. Dixon be a Committee for the purpose of
drawing up in a tabular form the varieties of chemical names which have
come into general use, for indicating the causes which have led to their
adoption, and for considering what can be done to effect some conver-
gence of the views on Chemical Nomenclature obtaining among English
and foreign chemists; that Mr. H. B. Dixon be the Secretary, and that
the sum of 101. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Professors Odling, Huntington, and Hartley be a Committee for
the purpose of investigating by means of Photography the Ultra-Violet
Spark Spectra emitted by Metallic Elements, and their combinations
under varying conditions ; that Professor W. N. Hartley be the Secretary,
and that the sum of 25], be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. J. Evans, the Rev. J. F. Blake, Professor T. G. Bonney,
Mr. W. Carruthers, Mr. F. Drew, Professor G. A. Lebour, Professor L.
C. Miall, Mr. F. W. Rudler, Mr. EH. B. Tawney, Mr. W. Topley, and Mr.
W. Whitaker be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of carrying on
the Geological Record ; that Mr. Whitaker be the Secretary, and that the
sum of 100J. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Professor A. C. Ramsay, Mr. Thomas Gray, and Professor John
Milne be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of Investigating the
Harthquake Phenomena of Japan; that Professor Milne be the Secretary,
and that the sum of 251. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. H. C. Sorby, Professor W. J. Sollas, and Professor William
Ramsay be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating the
‘Conditions under which ordinary Sedimentary Materials may be converted
into Metamorphic Rocks ; that Professor Sollas be the Secretary, and that
the sum of 10/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Professor W. C. Williamson and Mr. W. Cash be a committee
for the purpose of investigating the’ Fossil Plants of Halifax; that Mr. W.

RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. lxv

Cash be the Secretary, and that the sum of 15/. be placed at their disposal
for the purpose.

. That Professor A. C, Ramsay, Professor J. Prestwich, Professor T.
McK. Hughes, and Mr. W. Topley be a Committee for the purpose of
assisting in the preparation of an International Geological Map of Europe;
that Mr. W. Topley be the Secretary, and that the sum of 251. be placed
at their disposal for the purpose.

That Professor H. Hull, the Rev. H. W. Crosskey, Captain Douglas
Galton, Professors G. A. Lebour and J. Prestwich, Messrs. James Glaisher,
E. B. Marten, W. Molyneux, W. Pengelly, James Plant, James Parker,
J. Roberts, S. Stooke, G. J. Symons, W. Whitaker, E. Wethered, and
C. E. De Rance be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Cir-
culation of the Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations of
England, and the Quality and Quantity of the Waters supplied to various
towns and districts from these formations; that Mr. C. E. De Rance be
the Secretary, and that the sum of 15J. be placed at their disposal for
the purpose.

That Professor W.C. Williamson and Mr. W. H. Baily be reappointed a
Committee for the purpose of Collecting and Reporting upon the Tertiary
Flora of Beds associated with the Basalt of the North of Ireland; that Mr.
Baily be the Secretary, and that the sum of 20J. be placed at their dis-
posal for the purpose.

That Dr. H. C. Sorby and Mr. G. R. Vine be a Committee for the
purpose of reporting on the British Fossil Polyzoa; that Mr. Vine be
the Secretary, and that the sum of 10J. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.

That Professor A. Leith Adams, Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Dr.
John Evans, Mr. G. H. Kinahan, and Mr. R. J. Ussher be reappointed a
Committee for the purpose of carrying out Explorations in Caves in
Carboniferous Limestone in the South of Ireland; that Mr. R. J. Ussher
be the Secretary, and that the sum of 10/. be placed at their disposal for
the purpose.

That Professor A. H. Green, Professor L. U. Miall, Mr. J. Brigg, and
Mr. J. W. Davis be a Committee for the purpose of assisting in the
Exploration of Raygill Fissure ; that Mr. J. W. Davis be the Secretary,
and that the sum of 20/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. F. M. Balfour, Professor Newton, Professor Huxley, Mr.
Sclater, Professor Ray Lankester, Professor Allman, Dr. M. Foster, and
Mr. P. Sladen be a Committee for the purpose of arranging for the
Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples; that Mr.
P. Sladen be the Secretary, and that the sum of 80J. be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. Burdon Sanderson, Dr. M. Foster, and Professor HE. A.
Schiifer, be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Albuminoid
Substances of Serum; that Professor E. A. Schiifer be the Secretary,
and that the sum of 10/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. Pye-Smith, Dr. M. Foster, and Dr. Burdon Sanderson be
reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Influence
of Bodily Exercise on the Elimination of Nitrogen (the experiments to
be conducted by Mr. North); that Dr. Burdon Sanderson be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 501. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose, the previous grant not having been expended.

eae Dr. M. Foster, Dr. Pye-Smith, Professor Huxley, Dr. Carpenter,

1881. d

lxvi REPORT—1881.

Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. F. M. Balfour, Sir Wyville Thomson, Professor
Lankester, Professor Allman, and Mr. P. Sladen, be a Committee for the
purpose of aiding in the maintenance of the Scottish Zoological Station ;
that Mr. P. Sladen be the Secretary, and that the sum of 40/. be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. J. Cordeaux, Mr. J. A. Harvie Brown, Professor Newton,
Mr. R. M. Barrington, Mr. A. G. More, Mr. J. Hardy, and Mr. P, Kermode
be a Committee for the purpose of obtaining (with the consent of the
Master and Elder Brethren of the Trinity House and of the Commis-
sioners of Northern Lights) observations on the Migrations of Birds at
Lighthouses and Lightships, and of reporting upon the same at South-
ampton in 1882; that Mr. Cordeaux be the Secretary, and that the sum
of 15/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Lieut.-Colonel Godwin-Austen, Dr. G. Hartlaub, Sir J. Hooker,
Dr. Giinther, Mr. Seebohm, and Mr. Sclater be a Committee for
the purpose of investigating the Natural History of Socotra and the
adjacent Highlands of Arabia and Somali-land; that Mr. Sclater be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 100/. be placed at their disposal for the

urpose.
‘ That Mr. W. T. Thistleton-Dyer, Mr. Howard Saunders, and Mr. Sclater
be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Natural History of
Timor-laut ; that Mr. Thistleton-Dyer be the Secretary, and that the sum
of 1007. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. Stainton, Sir John Lubbock, and Mr. E. C.Rye be reappointed
a Committee for the purpose of continuing a Record of Zoological Litera-
ture; that Mr. Stainton be the Secretary, and that the sum of 100/. be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Professor Flower, Dr. Beddoe, Mr. F. Galton, Mr. Park Har-
rison, Dr. Muirhead, General Pitt-Rivers, Mr. F. W. Rudler, and Mr. C.
Roberts be a Committee for the purpose of obtaining Photographs of the
Typical Races composing the British Empire, with a view eventually to
their publication; that Mr. Park Harrison be the Secretary, and that
the sum of 101. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. F. Galton, Dr. Beddoe, Mr. Brabrook (Secretary and
Reporter), Major-General Pitt-Rivers, Mr. J. P. Harrison, Mr. J. Hey-
wood, Professor Leone Levi, Dr. F. H. Mahomed, Sir Rawson Rawson,
and Mr. C. Roberts be a Committee for the purpose of carrying out the
recommendations of the Anthropometric Committee of last year, espe-
cially as regards the Anthropometry of children and of females, and the
more complete discussion of the collected facts; and that the sum of
501. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

Not Involving Grants of Money.

That Mr. W. Hicks be requested to continue his Report on Recent
Progress in Hydrodynamics.

That Captain Abney, Professor W. G. Adams, Professor G. C. Foster,
Lord Rayleigh, Mr. Preece, Professor Schuster, Professor Dewar, Pro-
fessor Vernon Harcourt, and Professor Ayrton be a Committee for the
purpose of fixing a Standard of White Light; and that Captain Abney
be the Secretary.

That Sir William Thomson, Professor Tait, Dr. Siemens, Sir Frede-
rick Bramwell, and Mr. J. T. Bottomley be a Committee for the purpose

RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xvii

-of continuing Secular Experiments on the Elasticity of Wires; ©» that
Mr. Bottomley be the Secretary.

That Mr. Spottiswoode, Professor Stokes, Professor Cayley, :’rofessor
Smith, Sir William Thomson, Professor Henrici, Lord Rayleigh, and
Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher be a Committee on Mathematical Notation and
Printing; and that Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher be the Secretary.

That Professor Cayley, Professor Stokes, Professor H. J. S. Smith,
Sir Wiliiam Thomson, Mr. James Glaisher, and Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher
‘be a Committee on Mathematical Tables; and that Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher
be the Secretary.

That Professor W. E. Ayrton, Dr. O. J. Lodge, Mr. J. E. H. Gordon,
-and Mr. John Perry be a Committee for the purpose of actually measur-
ing the specific inductive capacity of a good Sprengel Vacuum, and the
‘specific resistance of gases at different pressures; and that Professor W.
E. Ayrton be the Secretary.

That Professor Everett, Sir William Thomson, Mr. G. J. Symons,
Professor Ramsay, Professor Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. Pengelly, Pro-
fessor E. Hull, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, Professor A. S. Herschel, Mr. G.
A. Lebour, Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr. Galloway, Mr. Joseph Dickinson,
Mr. G. F. Deacon, and Mr. A. Strahan be a Committee for the purpose
-of making determinations of Underground Temperature; and that Pro-
fessor Everett be the Secretary.

That Professor J. Prestwich, Professor T. McK. Hughes, Professor
W. Boyd Dawkins, Professor T. G. Bonney, the Rev. H. W. Crosskey,
Dr. Deane, and Messrs. C. E. De Rance, D. Mackintosh, R. H. Tiddeman,
-J. H. Lee, James Plant, W. Pengelly, W. Molyneux, H. G. Fordham, and
W. Terrill be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of recording the
position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin
-of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting other
matters of interest connected with the same, and taking measures for
their preservation ; and that the Rev. H. W. Crosskey be the Secretary.

That Professor H. G. Seeley be requested to report on the Organisa-
‘tion of the Plesiosauria.

That Mr. C. E. De Rance, Sir John Hawkshaw, and Messrs. R. B.
Grantham, J. B. Redman, W. Topley, J. W. Woodall, and W. Whitaker
be a Committee for the purpose of inquiring into the rate of Hrosion
of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales, and the influence of the artificial
abstraction of shingle and other material on that action; and that
Mr. W. Topley be the Secretary.

That Mr. R. Meldola, General Pitt-Rivers, and Mr. Wm. Cole be a
Committee for the purpose of investigating the ancient earthwork in
Epping Forest known as Loughton Camp ; and that Mr. W. Cole be the
Secretary.

That Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. Percy B. Sladen, and Sir Wyville Thom-
son be a Committee for the purpose of a Zoological Exploration of the
‘Sea-bed lying north of the Hebrides; and that Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys be the
Secretary.

That Mr. J. Glaisher, the Rey. Canon Tristram, and the Rev. F. Law-
rence be a Committee for the purpose of promoting the survey of Hastern
Palestine now on foot under the management of the Palestine Exploration
.Fund ; and that Mr. J. Glaisher be the Secretary.

That Professor Leone Levi, Mr. Stephen Bourne, Dr. Hancock, Sir
-Antonio Brady, Professor Jevons, Mr. F. P. Fellows, Mr. E. J. Watherston,

d2

Ixvili REPORT—1881.

Mr. Pearson. Hill, Mr. Geo. Baden Powell, and Mr. Jeremiah Head be re-
appointed a Committee for the purpose of continuing the inquiry into and
completing the report upon the appropriation of wages and other sources.
of income, and considering how far it is consonant with the economic
progress of the United Kingdom; and that Professor Leone Levi be
the Secretary.

That the Committee on Science Teaching in Elementary Schools, con-
sisting of Mr. James Heywood, Mr. Shaen, Mr. Stephen Bourne, Mr.
Robert Wilkinson, the Rev. W. Delany, Professor Maskelyne, Dr.
Silvanus P. Thompson, Miss Lydia E. Becker, Sir John Lubbock,
Professor A. W. Williamson, Mrs. Augusta Webster, and Dr. Gladstone
(Secretary), with power to add to their number, be reappointed for the
ensuing year to watch and report on the workings of the proposed
Revised New Code and of other legislation affecting the teaching of
science in elementary schools.

That Sir Joseph Whitworth, Dr. Siemens, Sir F. J. Bramwell, Mr.
A. Stroh, Mr. Beck, Mr. W. H. Preece, Mr. E. Crompton, Mr. H. Rigg,
Mr. A. Le Neve Foster, Mr. Latimer Clark, Mr. H. Trueman Wood, and
Mr. Buckney be a Committee for the purpose of determining a gauge for
the manufacture of the various small screws used in Telegraphic and
Electrical Apparatus, in Clockwork, and for other analogous purposes;
and that Mr. H. Trueman Wood be the Secretary.

That Sir Frederick Bramwell, Dr. A. W. Williamson, Professor
Sir William Thomson, Mr. St. John Vincent Day, Dr. C. W. Siemens,
Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Dr. Neilson Hancock, Mr. Abel, Captain Douglas
Galton, Mr. Newmarch, Mr. E. H. Carbutt, Mr. Macrory, Mr. H.
Trueman Wood, Mr. W. H. Barlow, and Mr. A. T. Atchison be re-
appointed a Committee for the purpose of watching and reporting to
the Council on Patent Legislation; and that Sir Frederick Bramwell be
the Secretary.

That the Committee, consisting of Mr. James Glaisher, Mr. C. W.
Merrifield, Sir F. J. Bramwell, Professor O. Reynolds, Professor W.
Cawthorne Unwin, Mr. Rogers Field, and Mr. A. T. Atchison be reap-
pointed to consider and report upon the best means of ascertaining the
effective Wind Pressures to which buildings and structures are ex-
posed ; and that Mr. A. T. Atchison be the Secretary.

Communications ordered to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report of
the Association.

Professor Halphen’s paper, ‘Sur les Séries Hypergéométriques,’ and
that of Professor Sturm, ‘On some New Theorems on Curves of Double
Curvature.’

Mr. Whipple’s paper, ‘On Observations of Atmospheric Hlectricity at
the Kew Observatory during 1880.’

Professor Tyndall’s paper ‘On the Arrestation of Infusorial Life by
Solar Light.’

Dr. S. Haughton’s paper, ‘On the Effects of Oceanic Currents upon
Climates.’

Professor W. G. Adams’s paper, ‘On Magnetic Disturbances.’

Dr. C. W. Siemens’ paper, ‘On some Applications of Electric Energy
to Horticulture and Agriculture.’

Professor Bayley Balfour’s paper, ‘On the Island of Socotra.’

RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. lxix
Sir F. J. Bramwell’s paper, ‘On some of the Developments of
Mechanical Engineering during the last half-century.’
Mr. T. Hawksley’s paper, ‘On the Pressure of Wind upon a Fixed

Plane Surface.’

_ Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration.

That the Council be requested to consider the number and position of
delegates from Scientific Societies, and the regulations which should be
adopted for governing their relations to the Association.

That the Council be requested to consider how far it may be expedient
to take steps to ascertain the feeling of foreign Scientific Associations as
to the advisability of holding an International Scientific Congress.

lxx REPORT—1881.

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes
by the General Committee at the York Meeting in August and
September 1881. The Names of the Members who are en-
titled to call on the General Treasurer for the respective Grants

are prefixed.

The Council.—Exploration of Mountain District of Eastern
NR SOPIAY ATCIOR i. Ao aeeaawaice she ches tates dee eeae sat atten

Mathematics and Physics.

*Darwin, Mr. G. H.—Lunar Disturbance of Gravity
Schuster, Dr. A.—Meteoric Dust

*Sylvester, Prof.—Fundamental Invariants (partly renewed)
Scott, Mr. R. H.—Synoptic Charts of the Indian Ocean

*Foster, Prof. G. C.—Standards for use in Hlectrical Measure-

see ween nes

ei ee i i i i a ay

ments (partly ronewed) 5. +. c<te 028s -ocaqaccns «asa: 00odeetee
Chemistry.
*Dewar, Prof.—Present state of knowledge of Spectrum
SE RU IRS eis ic ata nner se Epes cis ROR DEER ceed Ps Weak soilen ORaON
Stewart, Prof. Balfour.—Calibration of Mercurial Thermo-
PEROT Ms oie wiv's sss on nnn ode nas eee mane tmeae sense be Caos acnaa eee
Roscoe, Prof.—Wave-length Tables of Spectra of Elements
Miller, Dr. Hugo.—Chemical Nomenclature...............-...65
Odling, Prof.— Photographing the Ultra-Violet Spark
COULD ois -ts ¢ alii ds sic « aaeinsnrbunieeeecreee apes cet aeeh os Coe tee aT aeamen
Geology.
*Hvans, Dr. J—Record of the Progress of Geology ............

*Ramsay, Prof.—Earthquake Phenomena of Japan ............

*Sorby, Dr. H. C.—Conditions of Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic Rocks ..................s0eeee0es

Williamson, Prof. W. C.—Fossil Plants of Halifax............
Ramsay, Prof. A. C.—Geological Map of Europe..... .........
*Hull, Prof. E.—Circulation of Underground Waters .........
*Williamson, Prof. W. C.—Tertiary Flora associated with the
Basalts of the North of Ireland

CGEM CRIT WAT 5 oa-0.0 0 02cb 2b eee eRe eee ate ae

eee eee eee ee

* Reappointed.

£ -s. id:
100 0 0
15 0 Oo
20 0 0
80 0 0
50 0 O
100 0 0
m0 20
20 0-0
5ODOF 20:
10) 0:0
25 0 0
100 0 0
Zone - 0
LOMO) 20
15 0 0
ye 0)
15 0° 0
20 0 0
685 0

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY.

ey ty oe
MPEOUA NG LOT WATO. s.1...ccscccesces sud ved asves Mestcntte Mee sicat 685 0 0
*Sorby, Dr.—British Fossil Polyzoa..........ccccecseceneeeeeeceeees 10 0 0
Adams, Prof. A. Leith.—Carboniferous Limestone Caves in
Beere ema etretT SOE, dt eee aks tne tac ee tole toe cacdicaalles sé0 10). 0-0
Green, Prof.—Exploration of Raygill Fissure ................4. 20 0 0
Biology.
*Balfour, Mr. F. M.—Table at the Zoological Station at
NT ean ed ag ties oa Na Fas gains aE RENN ner S en <0 ad Hosarsce sat 80 0 0
Sanderson, Dr. Burdon.—Albuminoid Substances of Serum 10 0 0O
*Pye-Smith, Dr.—Influence of Bodily Exercise on the Elimi-

PRED OE UN EERO MCN feist £25 AeRs ois <0 ledee dete e bra visinn dees oaee meee 50 0 0
Foster, Dr. M.—Zoological Station in Scotland ............... 40 0 0
*Cordeaux, Mr. J—Migration of Birds .......50.....ccceeee eee ees ky FOS 0
*Godwin-Austen, Lieut.-Col.— Natural History of Socotra ... 100 0 0
Thiselton-Dyer, Mr.—Natural History of Timor Laut......... 100 0 0
*Staintun, Mr.—Record of Zoological Literature ............... 100 0 0
Flower, Prof—Photographs of Typical Races .................. LO
Statistics.

*Galton, Mr. F.—Anthropometry............c..csccesesssscseceeeses 50 0 O

£1280 0 0

* Reappointed.

The Annual Meeting in 1882.

The Meeting at Southampton will commence on Wednesday,
August 23, 1882.

Place of Meeting in 1888.

The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1883 will be held at Oxford.

lxxil

REPORT—1881.

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes.

£ 8. a.
1834.
Tide Discussions .......-.++++- 20 0 0
1835
Tide Discussions .......+....4++ 62 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
£167 0 0
1836.
Tide Discussions .......... selos (= 'O
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
Thermometric Observations,
ECP iiccstnee ces cadenaeaeenmessoreee 50 0° 0
Experiments on long-con-
tinued Heat ........scseceecee iL, 0
Rain-Gauges ..... Taian aveslcs's 9137 0
Refraction Experiments ...... 15 0 0
Lunar Nutation........ ........ 60 0 0
Thermometers ........e0eseeeeee 16 6 0
£435 0 0
1837.
Tide Discussions ....... roca es lh)
Chemical Constants ............ 2413 6
Lunar Nutation..........ss.0000 70 0 0
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0
Tides at Bristol ..............0.0. 150 0 O
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature............ 93 3 O
Vitrification Experiments ... 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ............ 8 4 6
Barometric Observations...... 30 0 0
IBATOMICLELS\ccesccesesitess vecsnces 1118 6
£922 12 6
1838.
Tide Discussions ............... 29 0na0
British Fossil Fishes ..,...... 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations
and Anemometer gies
OU recesenareceusteaterc seis. + 100, 10
Cast Iron (Strength of) . 60 0
Animal and Vegetable Sub-
stances (Preservation Of,)cc.. 21O eet
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 1
IBTIStOL DIGes saevcsccscusetescesee 50 0
Growth of Plants ..........-.-< 75 0
VETCIN RIVETS: jccarneesnste-s een
Education Committee ......... 50 0
Heart Experiments ............ 5 3
Land and Sea Level............ 267 8
ShEAM-VESSES......sarceeececeeege 100 0
Meteorological Committee SIE)
£932 2 2
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology ............ 110 0 O
Meteorological Observations
ab Plymouth, &c. ....0..2.... 63 10 0

aAxonooncoce oo

Coe Bods
Mechanism of Waves ...... avs 144) 2 0
|) Bristol Didests/svseseeseteieee 35 18 6

| Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature............ aL tO
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 7
Cast-Iron Experiments......... 100 0 0
Railway Constants .......... Ae
Land and Sea Level............ 274 1 4
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 0
Stars in Histoire Céleste..... a LS IG
Stars in) iacaille\ =... 22...c.aee 1 507.0
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue ... 16616 6
Animal Secretions............... 10 10 O
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 0
Atmospheric Air .........e0000. 16) 0
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3.0 0
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 0

Hourly Meteorological Ob-

servations, Inverness and
RGM PUSSIC as se eunseeelseentosees 49 7 8
Fossil Reptiles .........s0ss000. WS? 2g
Mining Statistics ............... 50 0 0
£1595 11 0

1840.

IBUIStOLTWGeS \.pececsstareseneeean 100 0 0
Subterranean Temperature... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments ............ 18 19 «0
Lungs Experiments ............ 813 0
Tide Discussions ..........0.00 50 0 0
Land and Sea Level............ 61nd
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 24210 0
Stars (Dacaille) <0... -+-+-.s9e =e 415 0
Stars (Catalogue) ..........c0.6+ 264 0 0
Atmospheric:Aar ....c<s-esscees 1515 0
Water on Iron ...... Coasacane LOPZO SO
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 20) 0
Meteorological Observations. 5217 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population............ 100 0 0
School Statistics ............... 50 0 0
Forms of Vessels ............+0. 184 7-0

Chemical and Electrical Phe-
TIOMON A se ce- ose ccc esaSarseeene 40 0 0

Meteorological Observations
ab Plymouth ivectieccesssasmes 80 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9
£1546 16 4

1841.

Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 0

Meteorology and Subterra-
neanTemperature .........+4- 8 8 0
Actinometers .........-...eseeeees 10 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ............ 17 7 0
NCTIGUE OISOUS ar eessace-te ce cessor 6) 30! “0
Veins and Absorbents ........ «Ser 18
Mid InaRivers 232.0.0stssseeseer 5 0 0

GENERAL STATEMENT.

hs UE
Marine Zoology ...........sseseee To 12) 8
Skeleton Maps ............se000- 20 0 0
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 18 0 0
Stars (Lacaille) .................. 1 5 0
Stars (Nomenclature of )...... 1719 6
Stars (Catalogue of)............ 5 20) On O
Water OM ETON © ........s.0-.c000s 50 0 O
Meteorological Observations

BIBRUTIVERTICSS .\,..c0cecsccseces 20505 10
Meteorological Observations

(reduction Of) <.........0.cs6 25 0 0
sHossil Reptiles ...............00 50 0 O
Foreign Memoirs ............... 62 0 6
Railway Sections ........... tus oo 1 «0
Forms of Vessels ............... 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations

BCPELVINOUGD! J. ....cccesccecess 55 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-

INSEE MEE Ra Sele cess dvnided ve cstsis wc 100 0 0
PGES at Weith, .......s00cscsesr0 50 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations...... 9 6 3
Races of Men................ssc006 5 0 0
Radiate Animals ............... 20 0

£1235 10 11

1842,

Dynamometric Instruments... 113 11 2
Anoplura Britannie ............ 5212 0
Tides at Bristol.............0.... 59 8 O
Gases on Light .. ..........0.06. 30 14 7
MCDTONOMELETS 00.0 .scesseesseees 26 17 6
Marine Zoology..............2.: se FAO
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 O
Statistics of Education ...... 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-

MMOS s csie3idacevccscasnssegiod 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 0 O
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
Railway Sections ............... 161 10 0
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 0
Fossil Reptiles (publication

MERC POLL) at neces -vcwsecs sass 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels ............... 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on

EES ere ter cise ce vase sstiseieeas 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments

SOBEL MOTD, ...0cesseesssae00» 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dyna-

mometric Instruments ..,... 99 0 0
MOTCEIOL WANG: sos.cssecsiscesee 10 0 0
Light on Growth of Seeds ..,. 8 0 O
Vital Statistics ...............60 50 0 0
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O

£1449 17 8

1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature
of Stars

| Reduction of Stars, British

Association Catalogue
Anomalous Tides, Frith of
WONG csc .asseseacacssaseas esse
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
IMVEINMESS) a waascanactys odesece
Meteorological Observations
ab Plymouth) yorscscssescs sce
Whewell’s Meteorological
Anemometer at Plymouth .
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
TOWED a2. sash eccvasse mente docs
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations
Meteorological
and Gratuities ........... ...
Construction of Anemometer
abemVverness'...<..2ccss+snus er
Magnetic Co-operation.........
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory
Action of Gases on Light......
Establishment at Kew Obser-
vatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries ...
Experiments by Captive Bal-
loons

eee ee err

Instruments

see eeeeseree

Publication of Report on Fos-
Sil Reptiles eccceascesencrceaste
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections
Registration of Earthquake
SHOCKS _....c00 Seauastencecesee
Report on Zoological Nomen-
CLaUe eas ccm en ecesucunns orelens
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester......
Vegetative Power of Seeds...
Marine Testacea (Habits of).
Marine Zoology ...........+...00
Marine Zoology ...........2.0+0+.
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents
Vital Statistics
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels
Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ......
Morin’s Instrument and Con-
stant Indicator
Experiments on the Strength
of Materials

eee eet

beens

seeeee

eee ee eee eeeeeee

Eo ech
25 0 0
120 0 0
“i128
55 0 0
10 0 0
20 0 0
30 0 O
39 6 0
5612 2
10 8 10
50 0 0
1816 1
133 4 7
81 8 0
20 0 O
40 0 0
147 18 3
30 0 0
10 0 0

4 4 6
5 3 8
10 0 0
10 0 0

214 11
100

“1

f=)
S27 eS SSS
oo SoS BD Oo

100
100
69 14 10
60 0 0

“£1565 10 2

lxxiv REPORT—1881.
ee a: | £ 8. de
1844. Electrical Experiments at
Meteorological Observations Kew Observatory ........... 43 17 8.
at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0 Maintaining the Establish-
Completing Observations at ment in Kew Observatory 149 15 0:
Plymouth: Sreeecccssestesiee 35 0 0 | For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0
Magnetic and } Meteorological Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 0
Co- SODETALLON as.ceeesren ee sn 25 8 4/1 The Actinograph .............. 15 0 0
Publication of the British Microscopic Structure of
Association Catalogue of Shells! ©. .,cceses sesaecahet ae senme 20 0 0
ISUALS) canon anaeceeeneeeneeaetens 35 0 0 | Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843", 10., 0.0
Observations on Tides on the Vitality of Seeds ......... 1848 2 0 7
East Coast of Scotland ... 100 0 0 | Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0.0
Revision of the Nomenclature Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
OLAS tars? net eee teres 1842 2. 9° 6 Physiological Action of Medi-
Maintaining the Establish- CINES gee encseee-eoeene tee 20 0 O
ment in Kew Observa- Statistics of Sickness and
LORY: wocsisceoentc omen eeeecasens ss Mortality in York.. ......... 20 0 0
Instruments for Kew Obser- Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 1514 8
VALONY, socgrecticac cease csesisses so 56 7 3 £831 9 9
Influence of Light on Plants 10 0 0 ,
Subterraneous Temperature
AUITCLANG! foc. sesso ccveass vas se 5 0 0 Je pes
Coloured Drawings of Rail- British Association Catalogue
i Ol SEALS! p.aceshesseseceees 1844 211 15 0
WAY, ECHIOUS! cv ecccaccccecces Ho 7e 6 : a
Investigation of Fossil Fishes Fossil Fishes of the London
ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 O Clay..... eee eeneeweeeeeeccese sees 100 0 0
Registerine the Shocks of Computation of the Gaussian
Earthquakes ............ 1842 23 1110 | _ Constants for 1829 %........ 50 0 0
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20 0 0 | Maintaining the Hstablish-
Radiata and Mollusea of the ment at Kew Observatory 146 16 7
Aigean and Red Seas 1842 100 0 0 Strength of Materials _ PP Sep acc 60 O O
Geographical Distributions of Researches in Asphyxia_ Spa }2° 616 2
Marine Zoology......... 1842 010 © | Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and Vitality of Seeds veeccpwne 1844 2 15 10
orapall esa. 10 0 0 | Vitality of Seeds .........1845 712 3
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... L007 10 Marine Zoology of Cornwall 100 0
Experiments on the Vitality Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 0
etieeus ioc teen 9 0 0 | Exotic Anoplura ......... ee i
Experiments on the Vitality Expenses attending Anemo-
ot igyac Eee 1842 i ee} meters....... oecnsaes nacececcesee 187 CRG
Exotic Anoplura ............... 15 0 © | Anemometers’ Repairs......... ake
Streneth of Materials ......... 100 0 © | Atmospheric Waves ............ Eee
Completing Experiments on Captive Balloons ......... 1844 819 8
the Forms of Ships ......... 100 0 0 | Varieties of the Human Race
Inquiries into Asphyxia ...... 10 0 O Age 5 Ries
Investigations on the Internal Statistics of Sickness an
Constitution of Metals ...... 50 0 0 | Mortality in York..........+. ee s0L
Constant Indicator and Mo- £685 16 0
rin’s Instrument ...... 1842 10 0 0
£981 12 8 1847.
Computation of the Gaussian
1845. Constants for 1829............ 50 0 O
Publications of the British As- Habits of Marine Animals... 10 0 0
sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6 Physiological Action of Medi-
Meteorological Observations CGINES) ioc ste tvateeecesas ast e.s ove . 20 OST
CPL VORM ESS 0 -cmcessasaarcaacee 30 18 11 | Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 O
Magnetic and Meteorological Atmospheric Waves ............
Co-operation ..........c..c0006 16 16 8 | Vitality of Seeds ............... cae femal
Meteorological Instruments Maintaining the Establish-
at Edinburgh piston oeenisaive sissies iy ah ks) ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6
Reduction of Anemometrical £208 5 4
_ Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0

GENERAL STATEMENT,

£
1848.

8.

d.

Atmospheric Waves ...........- Seed
Witality of Seeds ............... 915 0
Completion of Catalogue of

EEE sr sc conscccsoacsesosssiess 70 0 O
On Colouring Matters ......... 5 0 0
On Growth of Plants ......... 15 0 0

£275 1 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at

Kew Observatory ............ 50 0.0
Maintaining Hstablishment

cit GIAGNOS BRE Stee sseode- conosco 76 2 5
Vitality of Seeds ............... Bie 8) tk
On Growth of Plants ......... 5 0 0
Registration of Periodical

BBENOMENS,..2.060s.0ceeceees ee 10 0 0
Bill on Account of Anemo-

metrical Observations ...... gy Be)

£159 19 6
1850.
Maintaining the Hstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0 0
Periodical Phenomena......... 15 0 O
Meteorological Instruments,

PEA CN Ie os valscivccdeconceasebissces 25 0 0

£345 18 O
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

(includes part of grant in

EA) ee coe ioe sata cxf aaaace od e's 309 2 2
Mheory of Heat ........0...cc000e 20) oie
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-

mals and Plants............... 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............... D6) 4
Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries......... 12 0 0
Researches on Annelida ...... LO OM0

£391 79) 7
1852.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

Gneluding balance of grant

OUND) \iccrancccccecessweerester 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduc-

tion of Heat ..........ceeeeces Deanne
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 0
Researches on the British An-

LVSUNG E RMpee oc coor Eocgnicqniouccad 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds .........c00e0 10 6 2
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 O

£30 6 7

£3.
1853.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0:
Experiments on the Influence
of Solar Radiation ......... 15* 07 O:
Researches on the British An-
LODIKG Einegnhcdopastedecabooc acon A ORs 0;
Dredging on the East Coast
OL SCObANG suesuecceusece meas 10 0 ©@
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0
£205 0 O
1854.
Maintaining the LEstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of
former Qrant).......seseecseeee 330 15 £
Investigations on Flax......... TORO
Effects of Temperature on
Wrought Iron..............266+ 10 0 O
Registration of Periodical
PHENOMENA... 2... 0eseeeereres 10 0 O
British Annelida ..........0008 10 10% 0
Vitality of Seeds ..............5 5 2 3
Conduction of Heat ............ 4° 2 0
£380 19 7
1855.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 O
Earthquake Movements ...... 10 0 0
Physical Aspect ofthe Moon 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds ..............- LON ee
Map of the World............... 15 0 O»
Ethnological Queries ......... SeeQasO
Dredging near Belfast......... 4000

£480 16 4
1856.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
tory :—
US 545 acces £75 0 O
1855.00... 2500 <0) Oapoee eh!
Strickland’s Ornithological

STV MLOMV INS) Resets selessisete nase 100 0 O
Dredging and Dredging

HOPIMG) se ocecscetecenasee tenance des 9 13,9
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical

Phenomena,,.......2.lescssecen« 10 0 0
Propagation of Salmon......... 10 0 0

: £734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 350 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-

TMGUIES) ects oe vecisntaewosdeceachines = 40 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 10 0 9%
Dredging on the West Coast

Of Scotland’ <.. 65.0 .ciccesorcesee 10 0 0

Ixxvl
=e CRAG
Investigations into the Mol-

lusca of California ......... LOO, 0
Experiments on Flax ......... 5-10! 0
Natural History of Mada-

DASCAD rics ceaavasaisleseint salseene sna 20 0 0
Researches on British Anne-

WG Ate seestidiadssds sags speeds io. as 2551050
Report on Natural Products

imported into Liverpool... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Sal-

INO e terasseesscncsevndeetdersacse 10° 0) 0
Temperature of Mines......... fs} AY)
‘Thermometers for Subterra-

nean Observations.........0+ DURA
Eiihe=BOabS \secesssssecrsuseesanees 5 0 0

£507 15 4
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-

WANES eae tecan cas clseaarasae cove ss 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast

BES COUMANG...->crcveesss sees ave 10-020
Dredging near Dublin......... 50-10
Vitality of Seeds ...........000- 5 5 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 1813 2
Report on the British Anne-

Lida, e200 Bccosracdsccacrcreonec 25 0 0
Experiments on the produc-

tion of Heat by Motion in

IIUTGS. .c.sscccenaicssedsessssese 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Pro-

ducts imported into Scot-

Ua etenwavevsecsswsecceccstccesste LOD 00

£618 18 2
1859.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 15 0 0
Osteology of Birds ............ 50 0 O
Hrish Tonicatalt.,dn.ccsecsss+ce 5 0-0
Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 0
British Meduside ............... 5 0 0
Dredging Committee ......... 5) Ore0
‘Steam-vessels’ Performance... 5 0 O
Marine Fauna of South and

West of Ireland...:........... 10 0 0
Photographic Chemistry ...... 10% 0! 0
Lanarkshire Fossils ............ 20° 70rer
Balloon Ascents.........cccss.es- 39 11 O

£684 11 1
1860.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment of Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... L660
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 15 0 0
Tnquiry into the Performance

of Steam-vessels ............ 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow

Sandstone of Dura Den ... 20 0 0

REPORT—1881.

PG Wir
Chemico-mechanical Analysis

of Rocks and Minerals...... 2p ORO
Researches on the Growth of

Plants)... css.<ssas cesses paeeeeees 10 0 O
Researches on the Solubility

OL, Salts: .sccccowesesonrosseeree 30 0 0
Researches on theConstituents

of Manures .cc-s.csscieerene 25.0 0
Balance of Captive Balloon

ACCOUNTS.....-<c:00ss+seseeesees 13 6

- it 19 6
1861.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment of Kew Observatory.. 500 0 0
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0 0
Dredging North and East

Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0 0
Dredging Committee :—

1860...... £50 0 0

1861......£22 0 9 } 7 ee
Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0° 0
Solubility of Salts ............ 20 0 0
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 0
Fossils of Lesmahago ......... 15 0 0
Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0
Chemical Alloys .......0cs00..6 20. 0 0
Classified Index to the Trans-

ACUIONS.. -2te0s.stessesceaeen eee 100 0 0
Dredging in the Mersey and

DQ6 -...5 easdessutesnssessones ores 5 0 0
Dip Circle Wee: i. scn scene cdeneate 30 0 0
Photoheliographic Observa-

IONS). see auses cose cseosnns iene 50 0 0
Prison. Diet). 5.0.:220: cssncsteseee 20 0 0
Gauging. of Water............0+ 10 0 0
Alpine Aseents je..cs+--.ssceseeee 6 5 10
Constituents of Manures ...... 25 0 0

£1111 5 10
1862.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment of Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Patent Ioaws......c-teiveseeeeeas’ Ze) 60
Mollusca of N.-W. of America 10 0 OQ
Natural History by Mercantile

Marine © tiviis<.svesccsennessueee D0 0
Tidal Observations ............ 25 0 O
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40 0 0
Photographic Pictures of the

DUN: jis saseeve te geaesoneeeeteeore 150 0 0
Rocks of Donegal.............06 25 0 0
Dredging Durham and North-

mmibenland):,. ceeccrs.sccdtentes 25 0 0
Connexion of Storms ......... 20 0 0
Dredging North-east Coast

Of, Scotland!) ster.s:scneresesce 6 9 6
Ravages of Teredo ............ 311 0
Standards of Electrical Re-

BISUANCE cess ch vies Pee 50 0 0
Railway Accidents ............ 10 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Dredging Dublin Bay ......... 10 0 0

ae a ee

EE

GENERAL STATEMENT,

£ 3. d.
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0 O
STATO disse rescccesecsveces 20 0 0
Gauging of Water.............. 1210 O
Steamships’ Performance...... 150 0 O
Thermo-Electric Currents ... 5 0 O
£1293 16 6
1863.

Maintaining the LEstablish-

ment of Kew Observatory... 600 0 0
Balloon Committee deficiency 70 0 0
Balloon Ascents (other ex-

PETSES) ...ceeecrscereeeccrceeee 25 0 0
EPENGAG AN anspsacinntsachcacnseette 25 0 0
OAL HOSSIS: 2... 0. .0c-ccccuseoseos 20 0 0
Herrings...... pease Maaanns demaeeuhe eakenO)
Granites of Donegal............ 5 0 0
PETISODUDICH, ...sescoeassssevenses 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

PIIGWUS: cvanaviceaccccccctwascessens 13 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 50 0 0
Dredging North-east coast of

Estar ul cat Oita aeelads ase aise stemnce'ne 25 0 0
Dredging | Northumberland

AMGMDULHAM “1...2 socacescenose 17 3 10
Dredging Committee superin-

PEHGGCTICE, | <sccaeaoesesusens scan LOM ORO
Steamship Performance ...... 100 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 O
Carbon under pressure ......... 10 0 0O
Volcanic Temperature ......... 100 0 O
Bromide of Ammonium ...... 8 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 O

Construction and Distri-

Pee DOU Wa daee ta ansarvecddsevescccs 40 0 0
Luminous Meteors ...scssc. Uiea0 10
Kew Additional Buildings for

Photoheliograph .........066 100 0 0
Thermo-Electricity ..... 5083655 155510; 10
Analysis of Rocks ............ 8 0 O
BEEUATOVG As ccevesccucsssscsscecseess 10 0 0

£1608 3 10
1864.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Worl Hossils: .............00 ees Ae OO
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

RES ise rccsnsccssdccsucsesscnsse 20 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 75 0 0
Dredging Northumberland... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ...... 10 0 0
Standards of Electric Re-

AM AIICE Mitsasccracocvesesvecns=sis 100 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ............ 10 0 0
BIGAT CIDA Gece tactedannconsess eeLOMeOMO
PS eu171' 8) Gulsieaeicaiess aeons nce ay KU 0)
Nitrite of Amyle ............... 10 0 0
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 O O
IRAITI-GAUGES <cecssacrseuerecers a SEAS)
Cast-Iron Investigation ...... 20 0 0

lxxvii
£ 8. id.

Tidal Observations in the
EUWIMDGLH aces ccececsoess er osees 50 0 0
Spectral Rays..<...csc.ccssscereos #0110 10
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 0
“£1289 15 8
1865. 7

Maintaining the Establish-

ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 100 0 0
Ely rO1Gaheetsatacpss*aroseecsen- JS 70) 0
Rain-Gauees! s..,..s.sessspneveure 30 0 0
Tidal Observations in the

IHlaomMPeD enawe<coscess. ACDERRENE 6 8 0
Hexylic Compounds ............ 20 0 0
Amyl Compounds ............... 20 0 0
itis Hy LONAresenecscencatssccsese se 25 0 0
American Mollusca ............ Sita) 0
Organic ACidS\\.-...:.:...c..50e 20 0 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10 0 0
UY LETUS ees osteas cc sneeeerts 50 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0
Malta Caves Researches ...... - 30 0 0
Oyster Breeding ..........0.008 25 0 0
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150 0 O
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100 0 O
Moon’s Surface Observations 35 0 0
Marine Fauna ............. accas si ext,
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25 0 0
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50 0 0
Zoological Nomenclature...... 5 0 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies

TUM VWVAUCT elasteccctecesectae race 100 0 0
Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8 10 10
Luminous Meteors ............ 40 0 0

£1591 7 10
1866.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Lunar Committee............... 6413 4
Balloon Committee ............ 50 0 0
Metrical Committee........... meDOee On O
British Rainfall, :..;....css-ss0ss 50 0 0
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16 0 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed... 15 0 O
Luminous Meteors ............ 50 0 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20 0 0
Chemical Constitution of

Castine Jen oeccseese sens 50 0 0
Amyl Compounds ............... 25 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0
Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30 0 0
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200 0 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon

andliGornwallld.cccrsdenccsgsescc 25 0 6
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25 0 0
Dredging Hebrides Coast ... 50 0 O
Dredging the Mersey ......0.. Be O) sO
Resistance of Floating Bodies

Wy WALL yecnchteeveweecccecna«s 50 0 O
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-

CAll Steps sean eatastautee sons teers 20 0 0

‘xxviii

£ 3s. d.
Rigor Mortis ....ccccccccoreeree 10 0 O
Irish Annelida ..........0..-. ae elo OO
‘Catalogue of Crania............ 50 0 0

Didine Birds of Mascarene
Nan Seetecmins seecesescsceede+ ses BOL 100
‘Typical Crania Researches ... 30 0 O
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100 0 0
£1750 13 4
—

1867.
‘Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600
Meteorological Instruments,

Palestine.......... efoneebiasis sles’ 50
‘Lunar Committee ........ Ane cone 120
Metrical Committee............ 30
‘Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 100
‘Palestine Explorations......... 50
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30
Bripish Raimtall,s.ccss.+cecace a 00
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ... 25
Luminous Meteors ............ 50
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-Beds 30
Dredging Shetland ............ 75

Steamship Reports Condensa-

TAO eeidieasvcias, rdanveseecemwace 100
Electrical Standards............ 100
Ethyl and Methyl series ...... 25
Fossil Crustacea ...cccssccesee 25
Sound under Water ............ 24
North Greenland Fauna ...... 75

Do. Plant Beds. 100

Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25
Patent Laws

Niabial Sat aks x ag ocoooocoocoecocoeo ©

1868.
‘Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600

Wunar Committee ............... 120
Metrical Committee............ 50
Zoological Record ............08 100
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150
Steamship Performances ...... 100
SEPANG EVAN AN co iccciewenecseistue 50
Luminous Meteors..............5 50
COTSAMICTA CIOS csvsscescceprcnsce 60
BROSSUCHUSTACEA, ..o.ccceceesesece 25
INTERV CULES 2c. «-cese0escaseoee 25
Mereury and Bile ............... 25
Organic Remains in Lime-
BIONERROCKS®*'..:cecceeteecs ese 25
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 50
Greenland Explorations ...... 100
HGS SIBE LOTS, cee sesiessbassaee's os 25
Tidal Observations ............ 100

Underground Temperature... 50
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances

So ocooooocooco ooocoooocoococo

‘So ooooooooo oococoooeooeco

REPORT—1881

£

Secondary Reptiles, &c.
British Marine Invertebrate
Fauna .......

ween ee ee ewereseaesee

8. da.

seseseeeedD O 0
100 0 O

“£1940 0 0

1869.
Maintaining the LEstablish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600

Lunar Committee...........s00.6. 50
Metrical Committee.............0. 25
Zoological Record ............ «» 100
Committee on Gases in Deep-

well water ..... aineweucnen eose «2D
British Rainfall.............00: ss 50
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,

(Cae canbe A IoRe Ere or ecas vere BO

Kent’s Hole Explorations......
Steamship Performances ...... 30

Chemical Constitution of
Cast Iron.ccccecasswesseteenee . 80
Tron and Steel Manufacture 100
Methyl (Seriesierc.e.sctessceeeenee 30
Organic Remains in Lime-
stone Rocks necastestaeeeee 10
Earthquakes in Scotland..... «LO
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 30
Hossil\ Bora, can. sessseeoueereeees 25
Tidal Observations .......... +=. 100

Underground Temperature... 30
Spectroscopic Investigations

SS Oo. OO OC Oo Oo oS ooo, oSo- ooo

ooo oocecec oco ooo ce eocooco

of Animal Substances ...... 5
Organic ACIAS .....cscsscesesens 12
Kiltoncan Hossils ete.seeevenaee 20
Chemical Constitution and

Physiological Action Rela-

tions) {tas seaceceeeere eee 15 0 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilization of Sewage ........ > -101-0- 10
Products of Digestion ......... 10 0 0

£1622 0 0
1870.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment of Kew Observatory 600 0 0O
Metrical Committee............ 25 0 0
Zoological Record............60 100 0 0
Committee on Marine Fauna 20 0 0O
Wars IN HISHES \saeclessnesvceee IOVS ON 0)
Chemical Nature of CastIron 80 0 QO
Luminous Meteors ...........5 30: 10. 40
Heat in the Blood............... 15 0-0
lahorertslomi erenhonee lll paeene ns. eee 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

TPOMEECC., eae cucoeenei cen suk rea te 20 0 0
British Fossil Corals............ 50 0 O
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150 0 0
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 40 0
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 1b 0 0
OSS IUGHMLOYAe teucsc ca pucesnaheesree ome) wilh
Tidal Observations ............ 100 0 9g
Underground Temperature... 50 0 Q
Kiltorcon Quatries Fossils ... 20 0 9

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£ 8. d.
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilization of Sewage ......... 50 0 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 30 0 0
vOnny River Sediment ......... 3 0 0
Mechanical Equivalent of
181270) aoocogdaegunapeibsrsacconboede 50 0 0
£1572 0 O

1871.
Maintaining the HEstablish-
ment of Kew Observatory 600
“Monthly Reports of Progress

ni Soc so So aoc oO ic cioc-ae SoS) Soo VS

are ao orc Cre Oi omc oie (1S So

THCHOMOISULY 5 ...<0ccchesecseee 100
Metrical Committee............ 25
‘Zoological Record............606 100
‘Thermal Equivalents of the

Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10
Tidal Observations ............ 100
MUOSSTICHIONA: (<5: cccccsscceeseeeces 25
Luminous Meteors ............. 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 25
‘Heat in the Blood......... poaene 7
Bripish Rainfall... ..cccesescces 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150
Fossil Crustacea ............005 25
Methyl Compounds ............ 25
Tinnar Objects ..........e.00.-+ 20
‘Fossil Coral Sections, for

Photographing ............+0. 20
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 20
Moab Explorations ............ 100
‘Gaussian Constants ..........+. 40

£1472
1872.
Maintaining the LEstablish-

ment of Kew Observatory 300
Metrical Committee............ 75
Zoological Record............... 100
Tidal Committee ............... 200
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25
Organic Chemical Compounds 25
Exploration of Moab............ 100
‘Terato-Embryological Inqui-

PRS MNectces sida aaiasl< acne cv alesadeo'e 10
‘Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100
Luminous Meteors ............ 20
‘Heat in the Blood............... 15
Fossil Crustacea ............068 25
Fossil Elephants of Malta ... 25
ETHER ICCES. ssvccesesessesases 20
Inverse Wave-Lengths......... 20
eribishy Ratntall.i...ds.ssesscsess 100
Poisonous Substances Antago-

UTS 5 steaks Asis “once 10
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-

Riv GlON, (GcOmeeemeahes ccveces ox 40
Mathematical Tables ......... 50
‘Thermal Conductivity of Me-

USIKE eae REO cascosecncrocae 25

£1285

ee en ooooooooo oocoooeososo

oOo coo © coocoocoeoooeo ceoceeco

£ 8. d.
1873.

Zoological Record...........+ . 100 0 0
Chemistry Record..............+ 200 0 0
Tidal Committee ............... 400 0 0
Sewage Committee ,........... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25.0 0
Fossil Elephants ............... 25 0 O
Wave-Lengths ...............+8. 150 0 O
British Rainfall...............00« 100 0 0
Essential Oils.............0.000eee 30 0 O
Mathematical Tables ......... LOCO ase:
Gaussian Constants .........+0 10 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Underground Temperature... 150 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20 0 0
Timber Denudation and Rain-

Pal sos deccash-avas sosnduewescnege 20 0 0

Luminous Meteors............... 30 0 O
£1685 O O
1874.
Zoological Record.............. 100 0 0
Chemistry Record............... 100 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0
Elliptic Functions............... 100 0 0
Lightning Conductors ......... 10 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

Rocks ...... pagssoacaseeaneeaone 10 0 0
Anthropological Instructions,

CoC Aa aaatsceakdsdsaetsrasecezene 50 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
British Rainfall: s5..cscctccceses 100 0 0O
Essential Oils..............sceeees 10 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Mauritius Meteorological Re-

SEATCH Ya. teceedemertess seven soe 100 0 0
Magnetization of Iron ......... 20 0 0
Marine Organisms............... 30 0 0
Fossils, North-West of Scot-

Tein eciwshcsseeccecescres decsescte 210 0
Physiological Action of Light 20 0 0
TradessUmiOns. tesvccerstecees ace 25 0 0
Mountain Limestone-Corals 25 0 0
Birraticr Blocks) tascasccscscedeene LOW OD 0
Dredging, Durham and York-

shire Coasts: ..-evesc.sseas-<s 28 5 0
High Temperature of Bodies 30 0 0
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... RO
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-

MIGASUTERS « eniedecitessavncas pet's los 10

£1151 16 O

1875.
Hliptic Functions ..............- LOOL SO 0
Magnetization of Iron ......... 200,050
IBTIMISh Balntalles vesaccdnenscen 120 0 O
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Chemistry Record..............< 100 0 O

lxxx

£8. d.
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

PHOSphonic AGIA: s, c.c00-..-505 105.0 0
Isometric Cresols ............60+ 20 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 15:50
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Development of Myxinoid

FHBHES Premeadiesencsssese cade yawned 20 0 0
Zoological Record............00+ 100 0 0
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 0
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 O

£960 0 O

1876.

Printing Mathematical Tables 159 4 2
Pritish Raimtall ss. coscccrcscssss 100 0 0
WINS Saver scerarsecercrss'es'enny 915 0
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Isomeric Cresols ............00. 10,0550
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate or Ethyl Sodaceto-

BC CUAC css iasteneatcescdur ete OOO
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid.............. 13 0 0
Exploration of Victoria Cave,

DEMO P Me neciucmntstesaccesessst 100 0 0
Geological Record............... 100 0 O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of

RD CSE. Savve sens sac'sgeascteinee 10 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... LOms0
Zoological Record............065 100 0 O
Close SM are 5 hawctasetasetiaien’s 5 0 0
Physiological ActionofSound 25 0 0
Zoological Station......... smerse tno yO\-.0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15:40). 0
Physical Characters of Inha-

bitants of British Isles...... 13 15 0
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0
Effect of Propeller on turning

of Steam Vessels ..5:.....00+ Bn OL AIO

£1092 4 2
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acids in

Munerals' 2. s..gccduepseceteenen 20 0 0
Elliptic Functions ............ 250 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

ROCKS'. 35 shs.cecne sense etree Seat airy
Zoological Record.............6. 100 0 0
Krent/s'\ Cavern: 2..s:cesss.-serees TOOT OG
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Luminous WGHTSONES cade seoensce 30 0 0
Elasticity of Wires ............ 100 0 0
Dipterocarpz, Report on...... 20 0 0

REPORT—1 881.

£85 4d.
Mechanical Equivalent of
Heath, cs. eecas seeds <aaeeaeeee eee 35 0 0
Double Compounds of Cobalt
and Nickell isc. .saseeseeeeee Se OFr0
Underground Temperatures 50 0 O
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 0 O
Underground Waters in New
Red Sandstone ........ ...... 1051030
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
acetate .icdictnvscceneeers seat $10) 1 OKO
British Earthworks cose epetanas 25 0 0
Atmospheric Elasticity in
a bocht: eee eee ey id. {0/4 0
Development of Light from
Coal-gas. jujes us. tdecenseertee 20 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid.....s<s-ssess LS cba
Geological Record............ «- 100 0.0
Anthropometric Committee 34.0 0
Physiological Action of Phos-
PHOTIC ACIG kc .s.seeeeeees 15.0; 0
£1128 9 7
1878.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0
Geological Record..........0..+ 100 0 O
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Syeres
Recorder t.<..0s:1sens eee 100°
Zoological Station at Naples fo? 4010
Investigation of Underground
Waters Uohspesnesmocasedenesneaene 1b) O10
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
SLLUCKUMC Sta oeewetersssteeaeeae 30 0 0
Calculation of Factor Table
of Fourth Million........ sooo LOO 701916:
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0
Chemical Composition and
Structure of less known
AllicalOidsy. nc scascetnes ceeeeeee 25 0 0
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0
Zoological Record .......-....s 22100: 0210
Fermanagh Caves Exploration 15 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of
ROCKERS cccucsessuscesecsteecnt eee 416 6
Luminous Meteors............+ 10 ~/0)1.0
Ancient Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples ............... TO OMO
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland 20 0 0
Ilustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth ............ LT 0.0
Record of Zoological Litera-
LILIES. Fs aorion ACOA ERE ERE Ree oAs: 100 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£ 3. d.
Exploration of Caves in
EIEN ec alsssesasscceseccesses 50 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Record of the Progress of
BRNO tons cacccccacscerecsests 100 0 0
Fermanagh CavesExploration 5 0 0
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts............... 25 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions... 150 0 O
Circulation of Underground
Waters......-.. “Ser day Ope 10 0 0
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 0
Improvements in Astrono-
renvenl CLOCKS (ii ieciss..kiesas. 30 0 O
Marine Zoology of South
BGO en seesiedsex seca tes op can cbr 20 0 0
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat ........ ee eG
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum........ 40 0 0
Tables of Sun-heat Co-
PUCHOUES) jth eb ccs suatde«anesvo4s 30 0 0
Datum Level of the Ordnance
BIG ere ccncaccas condsscsocceetss 100. 0
Tables of Fundamental In-
variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-
servations in Madeira ...... LOR O
Instrument for Detecting
Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22 0 0
Instruments for Measuring
the Speed of Ships ......... 7 8:
Tidal Observations in the
English Channel ............ 10 0 0
£1080 11 11
1880.
New Form of High Insulation
EE a wees ese heescseiciessassentees 10 0 O
Underground Temperature... 10 0 0
Determination of the Me-
chanical ie aa of
REA TEe cence tscccsetesessss'ss sone tee) 0}
Elasticity of Wires .......... DON 0) a4)
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Lunar Disturbance of ig oe 30 0 O
Fundamental Invariants ..... 3 5 0

1881.

oS. ds
Laws of Water Friction ...... 20 0 0
Specifie Inductive Capacity

of Sprengel Vacuum......... 20 0 0
Completion of Tables of Sun-

heat Co-efficients ............ 50 0 O
Instrument for Detection of

Fire-damp in Mines ......... LOMVON 0
Inductive Capacity of Crystals

and Paraffines ....:.......... cE Aiea 7
Report on Carboniferous

Polyz0al 4s. ese. cess eedetos 10 0 O
Caves of South Ireland ...... TO;EO 0
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-

SPOS) CRRA eee renrcetiecsee 10.50) G
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50 0 0
Geological Record............... 100 0 O
Miocene Flora of the Basalt

of North Ireland ............ 15 0 0
Underground Waters of Per-

mian Formations ............ UU)
Record of Zoological Litera-

DULG waseeaenncses seeks hee scenes 100 0 0
Table at Zoological Station

ab Naplesiivescs:. pvscesdeecs tens foro 0
Investigation of the Geology

and Zoology of Mexico...... 50 0 0
Anthropometry .........s.-ses0e 50 0 O
Patent Waws" on. 6. o..:..dccceress aE nOee)

Dipl 1h ot

1881.

Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Underground Temperature... 20 0 0
High Insulation Key............ 5 0 0
Tidal Observations ............ 104/00
Fossil Polyzoa .....csssssssecses 10 0 O
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 O
Earthquakes in Japan ......... 25 0 0
Tertiary Flora ....... socsecce ene) 2O0RtO) 0
Scottish Zoological Station... 50 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 75 0 O
Natural History of Socotra... 50 0 0
Zoological Record...........+.+: 100 0 0
Weights and Heights of

Eman! Bemps 2. resteseer 30 0 O
Electrical Standards........ ... 25 0 0
Anthropological Notes and

QueHGS! “a ccessnwcsongenivers eee OO
Specific Refractions ............ (eee!

£476 3 1

XXxli REPORT—1881.

General Meetings.

On Wednesday, August 31, at 8 p.m., in the Exhibition, Andrew
Crombie Ramsay, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., Director-General of
the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, and of the Museum of
Practical Geology, resigned the office of President to Sir John Lubbock,
Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres. L.S., F.G.S., who took the
Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see page 1.

On Thursday, September 1, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the
Assembly and Concert Rooms.

On Friday, September 2, at 8.30 p.m., in the Exhibition, Professor
Huxley, LL.D., Sec. R.S., delivered a Discourse on ‘The Rise and Pro-
gress of Paleontology.’

On Monday, September 5, at 8.30 p.m., in the Exhibition, William
Spottiswoode, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres. R.S., delivered a Dis-
course on ‘ The Electric Discharge, its Forms and its Functions.’

On Tuesday, September 6, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the Ex-
hibition.

On Wednesday, September 7, at 2.30 p.m., the concluding General
Meeting took place in the Exhibition, when the Proceedings of the
General Committee, and the Grants of Money for Scientific purposes,
were explained to the Members.

The Meeting was then adjourned to Southampton. [The Meeting
is appointed to commence on Wednesday, August 23, 1882. ]

ADDRESS.

ASN

ADDRESS
BY
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK, Barr, MP.,
F.R.S., D,C.L., LGL.D., Pres. Livy. Soc.,
PRESIDENT.

In the name of the British Association, which for the time I very un-
worthily represent, I beg to tender to you, my Lord Mayor, and through
you to the City of York, our cordial thanks for your hospitable invitation
and hearty welcome.

We feel, indeed, that in coming to York we are coming home.
Gratefully as we acknowledge and much as we appreciate the kindness
we have experienced elsewhere, and the friendly relations which exist
between this Association and most—I might even say, all—our great
cities, yet Sir R. Murchison truly observed at the close of our first meet-
ing in 1831, that to York, ‘as the cradle of the Association, we shall
ever look back with gratitude; and whether we meet hereafter on the
banks of the Isis, the Cam, or the Forth, to this spot we shall still fondly
revert.’ Indeed, it would have been a matter of much regret to all of us,
if we had not been able on this, our fiftieth anniversary, to hold our
meeting in our mother city.

My Lord Mayor, before going further, I must express my regret,
especially when I call to mind the illustrious men who have preceded me
in this chair, that it has not fallen to one of my eminent friends around
me, to preside on this auspicious occasion. ‘Conscious, however, as I am
of my own deficiencies, I feel that I must not waste time in dwelling on
them, more especially as in doing so I should but give them greater
prominence. I will, therefore, only make one earnest appeal to your
kind indulgence.

The connection of the British Association with the City of York does
not depend merely on the fact that our first meeting was held here. It
originated in a letter addressed by Sir D. Brewster to Professor Phillips,
as Secretary to your York Philosophical Society, by whom the idea
was warmly taken up. The first meeting was held on September 26,

1881. B

2 REPORT—1881.

1831, the chair being occupied by Lord Milton, who delivered an address,
after which Mr. William Vernon Harcourt, Chairman of the Committee
of Management, submitted to the meeting a code of rules which had
been so maturely considered, and so wisely framed, that they have re-
mained substantially the same down to the present day.

Of those who organised and took part in that first meeting, few, alas !
remain. Brewster and Phillips, Harcourt and Lord Milton, Lyell and
Murchison, all have passed away, but their memories live among us.
Some few, indeed, of those present at our first meeting we rejoice to see
here to-day, including one of the five members constituting the original
organising Committee, our venerable Vice-President, Archdeacon Creyke.

The constitution and objects of the Association were so ably de-
scribed by Mr. Spottiswoode, at Dublin, and are so well known to you,
that I will not dwell on them this evening. The excellent President of
the Royal Society, in the same address, suggested that the past history
of the Association would form an appropriate theme for the present
meeting. The history of the Association, however, is really the history
of science, and I long shrank from the attempt to give even a pano-
ramic survey of a subject so vast and so difficult; nor should I have
ventured to make any such attempt, but that I knew I could rely on the
assistance of friends in every department of science.

Certainly, however, this is an opportunity on which it may be well
for us to consider what have been the principal scientific results of the
last half-century, dwelling especially on those with which this Association
is more directly concerned, either as being the work of our own members,
or as having been made known at our meetings. I have, moreover,
especially taken those discoveries which the Royal Society has deemed
worthy of a medal. It is of course impossible within the limits of a single
address to do more than allude to a few of these, and that very briefly.
In dealing with so large a subject I first hoped that I might take our
annual volumes as a text-book. This, however, I at once found to be
quite impossible. For instance, the first volume commences with a
Report on Astronomy by Sir G. Airy; I may be pardoned, I trust, for
expressing my pleasure at finding that the second was one by my father,
on the Tides, prepared like the preceding at the request of the Council,
then comes one on Meteorology by Forbes, Radiant Heat by Baden Powell,
Optics by Brewster, Mineralogy by Whewell, and so on. My best course
will therefore be to take our different Sections one by one, and endea-
vour to bring before you a few of the principal results which have been
obtained in each department.

The Biological Section is that with which I have been most intimately
associated, and with which it is, perhaps, natural that I should begin.

Fifty years ago it was the general opinion that animals and plants
came into existence just as we now see them. We took pleasure in
their beauty ; their adaptation to their habits and mode of life in many

ADDRESS. *

cases could not be overlooked or misunderstood. Nevertheless, the book
of Nature was like some richly illuminated missal, written in an unknown
tongue. The graceful forms of the letters, the beauty of the coloring,
excited our wonder and admiration; but of the true meaning little was
known to us; indeed we scarcely realised that there was any meaning to
decipher. Now glimpses of the truth are gradually revealing them-
selves; we perceive that there is a reason—and in many cases we know
what that reason is—for every difference in form, in size, and in color;
for every bone and every feather, almost for every hair. Moreover, each
problem which is solved opens out vistas, as it were, of others perhaps
even more interesting. With this important change the name of our illus-
trious countryman, Darwin, is intimately associated, and the year 1859
will always be memorable in science as having produced his work on
‘The Origin of Species.” In the previous year he and Wallace had
published short papers, in which they clearly state the theory of natural
selection, at which they had simultaneously and independently arrived.
We cannot wonder that Darwin’s views should have at first excited
great opposition. Nevertheless from the first they met with powerful
support, especially, in this country, from Hooker, Huxley, and Herbert
Spencer. The theory is based on four axioms :—

‘1. That no two animals or plants in nature are identical in all
respects.

‘2. That the offspring tend to inherit the peculiarities of their
parents.

‘3. That of those which come into existence, only a small number
reach maturity. f

‘4. That those, which are, on the whole, best adapted to the circum-
stances in which they are placed, are most likely to leave descendants.’

‘Darwin commenced his work by discussing the causes and extent
of variability in animals, and the origin of domestic varieties ; he showed
the impossibility of distinguishing between varieties and species, and
pointed out the wide differences which man has produced in some cases—
as, for instance, in our domestic pigeons, all unquestionably descended
from a common stock. He dwelt on the struggle for existence (since
become a household word), which, inevitably resulting in the survival of
the fittest, tends gradually to adapt any race of animals to the conditions
in which it occurs.

While thus, however, showing the great importance of natural
selection, he attributed to it no exclusive influence, but fully admitted that
other causes—the use and disuse of organs, sexual selection, &c.—had to
be taken into consideration. Passing on to the difficulties of his theory he
accounted for the absence of intermediate varieties between species, to a
great extent, by the imperfection of the geological record. Here, however, I
must observe that, as I have elsewhere remarked, those who rely on the
absence of links between different species really argue in a vicious circle,
because wherever such links do exist they regard the whole chain as a

B2

4 REPORT—1881.

single species. The dog and jackal, for instance, are now regarded as
two species, but if a series of links were discovered between them they
would be united into one. Hence in this sense there never can be links
between any two species, because as soon as the links are discovered the
species are united. Hvery variable species consists, in fact, of a number
of closely connected links.

But if the geological record be imperfect, it is still very instructive.
The further paleontology has progressed, the more it has tended to fill
up the gaps between existing groups and species: while the careful
study of living forms has brought into prominence the variations
dependent on food, climate, habitat, and other conditions, and shown
that many species long supposed to be absolutely distinct are so closely
linked together by intermediate forms that it is difficult to draw a
satisfactory line between them. Thus the European and American bisons
are connected by the Bison priscus of Prehistoric Europe; the grizzly
bear and the brown bear, as Busk has shown, are apparently the
modern representatives of the cave bear; Flower has pointed out the
paleontological evidence of gradual modification of animal forms in the
Artiodactyles ; and we may almost say, as a general rule, that the earliest
known mammalia belong to less specialised types than our existing species.
They are not well-marked Carnivores, Rodents, Marsupials, &c., but rather
constitute a group of generalised forms from which our present well-
marked orders appear to have diverged. Among the Invertebrata, Car-
penter and Williamson have proved that it is almost impossible to divide
the Foraminifera into well-marked species; and, lastly, among plants,
there are large genera, as, for instance, Rubus and Hieracium, with
reference to the species of which no two botanists are agreed.

The principles of classification point also in the same direction,
and are based more and more on the theory of descent. Biologists en-
deavour to arrange animals on what is called the ‘natural system.’ No
one now places whales among fish, bats among birds, or shrews with mice,
notwithstanding their external similarity ; and Darwin maintained that
‘community of descent was the hidden bond which naturalists had been
unconsciously seeking.’ How else, indeed, can we explain the fact that
the framework of bones is so similar in the arm of a sare the wing
of a bat, the fore-leg of a horse
neck of a giraffe and that of an elephant contain the same naan of ver-
tebree P

Strong evidence is, morcover, afforded by embryology ; by the presence
of rudimentary organs and transient characters, as, for instance, the
existence in the cal of certain teeth which never cut the gums, the
shrivelled and useless wings of some beetles, the presence of a series of
arteries in the embryos of “the higher Vertebrata exactly similar to thosé
which supply the gills in fishes, even the spots on the young blackbird,
the stripes on the lion’s cub ; these, and innumerable other facts of ih
same character, appear to be incompatible with the idea that each species.

ADDRESS. 5

was specially and independently created; and to prove, on the coitt.ury,
that the embryonic stages of species show us more or less clearly the
structure of their ancestors.

Darwin’s views, however, are still much misunderstood. I believe
there are thousands who consider that according to his theory a sheep
might turn into a cow, or a zebra into a horse. No one would more
confidently withstand any such hypothesis, his view being, of course, not
that the one could be changed into the other, but that both are descended
from a common ancestor. 2

No one, at any rate, will question the immense impulse which Darwin
has given to the study of natural history, the number of new views
he has opened up, and the additional interest which he has aroused in,
and contributed to, Biology. When we were young we knew that the
leopard had spots, the tiger was striped, and the lion tawny; but why
this was so it did not occur to us to ask; and if we had asked no one
would have answered. Now we see at a glance that the stripes of the
tiger have reference to its life among jungle-grasses; the lion is sandy,
like the desert; while the markings of the leopard resemble spots of
sunshine glancing through the leaves. Again, Wallace in his charming
essays on natural selection has shown how the same philosophy may be
applied even to birds’ nests—how, for instance, open nests have led to the
dull color of hen birds; the only British exception being the kingfisher,
which, as we know, nests in river-banks. Lower still, among insects,
Weismann has taught us that even the markings of caterpillars are full of
interesting lessons; while, in other cases, specially among butterflies,
_ Bates has made known to us the curious phenomena of mimicry.

The science of embryology may almost be said to have been created in
the last half-century. Fifty years ago it was a very general opinion that
animals which are unlike when mature, were dissimilar from the begin-
ning. It is to Von Baer, the discoverer of the mammalian ovum, that we
owe the great generalisation that the development of the egg is in the
main a progress from the general to the special, that zoological affinity is
the expression of similarity of development, and that the different great
types of animal structure are the result of different modes of develop-
ment—in fact, that embryology is the key to the laws of animal develop-
ment,

Thus the young of existing species resemble in many cases the mature
forms which flourished in ancient times. Huxley has traced up the
genealogy of the horse to the Miocene Anchitherium, and his views have
since been remarkably confirmed by Marsh’s discovery of the Pliohippus,
Protohippus, Miohippus, and Mesohippus, leading down from the Eohippus
of the early tertiary strata. In the same way Boyd-Dawkins has called
attention to the fact that just as the individual stag gradually acquires more
and more complex antlers: having at first only a single prong, in the next
year two points, in the following three, and so on; so the genus, as a
whole, in Middle Miocene times, had two pronged horns ; in the Upper

6 REPORT—1881.

Miocene, three; and that it is not till the Upper Pliocene that we find
any species with the magnificent antlers of our modern deer. It seems
to be now generally admitted that birds have come down to us through
the Dinosaurians, and, as Huxley as shown, the profound break once
supposed to exist between birds and reptiles has been bridged over by
the discovery of reptilian birds and bird-like reptiles; so that, in fact,
birds are modified reptiles. Again, the remarkable genus Peripatus,
so well studied by Moseley, tends to connect the annulose and articulate
types.

Again, the structural resemblances between Amphioxus and the Asci-
dians had been pointed out by Goodsir; and Kowalevsky in 1866
showed that these were not mere analogies, but indicated a real
affinity. These observations, in the words of Allen Thomson, ‘ have pro-
duced a change little short of revolutionary in embryological and zoolo-
gical views, leading as they do to the support of the hypothesis that the
Ascidian is an earlier stage in the phylogenetic history of the mammal
and other vertebrates.’

The larval forms which occur in so many groups, and of which the
Insects afford us the most familiar examples, are, in the words of
Quatrefages, embryos, which lead an independent life. In such cases as
these external conditions act upon the larvee as they do upon the mature
form; hence we have two classes of changes, adaptational or adaptive,
and developmental. These and many other facts must be taken into
consideration ; nevertheless naturalists are now generally agreed that em-
bryological characters are of high value as guides in classification, and
it may, I think, be regarded as well-established that, just as the con-
tents and sequence of rocks teach us the past history of the earth, so is
the gradual development of the species indicated by the structure of the
embryo and its developmental changes.

When the supporters of Darwin are told that his theory is in-
credible, they may fairly ask why it is impossible that a species in the
course of hundreds of thousands of years should have passed through
changes ‘which occupy only a few days or weeks in the life-history of
each individual ?

The phenomena of yolk-segmentation, first observed by Prevost and
Dumas, are now known to be, in some form or other, invariably the pre-
cursors of embryonic development; while they reproduce, as the first
stages in the formation of the higher animals, the main and essential
features in thie life-history of the lowest forms. The ‘blastoderm,’ as
it is called, or first germ of the embryo in the egg, divides itself into
two layers, corresponding, as Huxley has shown, to the two layers into
which the body of the Cclenterata may be divided. Not only so, but
most embryos at an early stage of development have the form ofa cup,
the walls of which are formed by the two layers of the blastoderm.
Kowalevsky was the first to show the prevalence of this embryonic
form, and subsequently Lankester and Heckel put forward the hypo-

ADDRESS. 7

thesis that it was the embryonic repetition of an ancestral type, from
which all the higher forms are descended. The cavity of the cup is sup-
posed to be the stomach of this simple organism, and the opening of the
cup the mouth. The inner layer of the wall of the cup constitutes the
digestive membrane, and the outer the skin. To this form Heckel gave
the name Gastrea. It is, perhaps, doubtful whether the theory of
Lankester and Heckel can be accepted in precisely the form they pro-
pounded it; but it has had an important influence on the progress of
embryology. I cannot quit the science of embryology without allud-
ing to the very admirable work on ‘ Comparative Embryology’ by our
new general secretary, Mr. Balfour, and also the ‘Elements of Hm-
bryology ’ which he had previously published in conjunction with Dr. M.

Foster.
In 1842, Steenstrup published his celebrated work on the ‘ Alternatio

of Generations,’ in which he showed that many species are represented by
two perfectly distinct types or broods, differing in form, structure, and
habits; that in one of them males are entirely wanting, and that the re-
production is effected by fission, or by buds, which, however, are in some
cases structurally indistinguishable from eggs. Steenstrup’s illustrations
were mainly taken from marine or parasitic species, of very great interest,
but not generally familiar, excepting to naturalists. It has since been
shown that the common Cynips or Gallfly is also a case in point. It had
long been known that in some genera belonging to this group, males are
entirely wanting, and it has now been shown by Bassett, and more
thoroughly by Adler, that some of these species are double-brooded ; the
two broods having been considered as distinct genera.

Thus an insect known as Neuroterus lenticularis, of which females
only occur, produces the familiar oak-spangles so common on the under
sides of oak-leaves, from which emerge, not Neuroterus lenticularis, but
an insect hitherto considered as a distinct species, belonging even to
a different genus, Spathegaster baccarum. In Spathegaster both sexes
occur ; they produce the currant-like galls found on oaks, and from these
galls Neuroterus is again developed. So also the King Charles oak-
apples produce a species known as Teras terminalis, which descends
to the ground, and makes small galls on the roots of the oak. From these
emerge an insect known as Biorhiza aptera, which again gives rise to the
common oak-apple.

Many butterflies, again, are dimorphic, existing under two, or even
three, distinct forms—one that of the winter, the other of the summer
brood or broods. Weismann has adduced strong reasons for thinking
that during the glacial period these species were one-brooded only, and
existed in the present winter form ; that, as the climate improved, the
period of warmth became sufficient to allow the development of a second
brood, and led to the gradual rise of the summer form.

He and Edwards haye shown that, while, by the application of cold,
pup, which would naturally have produced the summer form, can be

8 REPORT—1881.

made to assume the winter dress ; it is, on the contrary, far more difficult
to change the winter into the summer colouring.

In some cases—as for instance in the very curious Leptodora crystallina
(a fresh-water crustacean, inhabiting deep lakes and reservoirs, and
which, as its name denotes, is almost perfectly transparent)—though the
two forms are almost exactly similar in their mature state, the mode of
development is very different ; for, while the winter form goes through a
well-marked metamorphosis, in the. summer-brood the development is
direct.

It might seem that such enquiries as these could hardly have any:
practical bearing. Yet it is not improbable that they may lead to very
important results. For instance, it would appear that the fluke which pro-
duces the rot in sheep, passes one phase of its existence in snails or
slugs, and we are not without hopes that the researches, in which our
lamented friend Prof. Rolleston was engaged at the time of his death,
and which Mr. Thomas is continuing, will lead, if not to the extirpation,
at any rate to the diminution, of a pest from which our farmers have so
grievously suffered. ;

It was in the year 1839 that Schwann and Schleiden demonstrated
the intimate relation in which animals and plants stand to each other,
by showing the identity of the laws of development of the elementary
parts in the two kingdoms of organic nature. Analogies indeed had
been previously pointed out, the presence of cellular tissue in certain
parts of animals was known, but Caspar F. Wolff's brilliant memoir had
been nearly forgotten ; and the tendency of microscopical investigation
had rather been to encourage the belief that no real similarity existed ;
that the cellular tissue of animals was essentially different from that of
plants. This had arisen chiefly, perhaps, because fully formed tissues
were compared, and it was mainly the study of the growth of cells which
led to the demonstration of the general law of development for ail or-
ganic elementary tissues.

As regards descriptive biology, by far the greater number of species
now recorded have been named and described within the last half-cen-
tury, and it is not too much to say that not a day passes without add-
ing new species to our lists. A comparison, for instance, of the edition
of Cuvier’s ‘Regne Animal,’ published in 1828, as compared with the
present state of our knowledge, is most striking.

Dr. Giinther has been good enough to make a calculation for me.
The numbers, of course, are only approximate, but it appears that while
the total number of animals described up to 1831 was not more than
7,000, the number now is at least 320,000.

Lastly, to show how large a field still remains for exploration, I
may add that Mr. Waterhouse assumes that our museums contain not
fewer than 12,000 species of insects which have not yet been described,
while our collections do not probably contain anything like one-half
of those actually in existence. Further than this, the anatomy and habits
even of those which have been described offer an inexhaustible field for

ADDRESS: )

research, and it is not going too far to say that there is not a single
species which would not amply repay the devotion of a lifetime.

One remarkable feature in the modern progress of biological science
has been the application of improved methods of observation and experi-
ment; and the employment in physiological research of the exact mea-
surements employed by the experimental physicist. Our microscopes
have been greatly improved: achromatic object-glasses were introduced
by Lister in 1829 ; the binocular arrangement by Wenham in 1856 ; while
immersion lenses, first suggested by Amici, and since carried out under
the formula of Abbe, are most valuable. The use of chemical re-agents
in microscopical investigations has proved most instructive, and another
very important method of investigation has been the power of obtaining
very thin slices by imbedding the object to be examined in paraffin or
some other soft substance. In this manner we can now obtain, say, fifty
separate sections of the egg of a beetle, or the brain of a bee.

At the close of the last century, Sprengel published a most suggestive
work on flowers, in which he pointed out the curious relation existing
between these and insects, and showed that the latter carry the pollen
from flower to flower. His observations, however, attracted little notice
until Darwin called attention to the subject in 1862. It had long
been known that the cowslip and primrose exist under two forms, about
equally numerous, and differing from one another in the arrangements of
their stamens and pistils ; the one form having the stamens on the summit
of the flower and the stigma half-way down; while in the other the rela-
tive positions are reversed, the stigma being at the summit of the tube
and the stamens half-way down. ‘This difference had, however, been re-
garded as a case of mere variability; but Darwin showed it to be a
beautiful provision, the result of which is that insects fertilise each flower
with pollen brought from a different plant; and he proved that flowers
fertilised with pollen from the other form yield more seed than if fer-
tilised with pollen of the same form, even if taken from a different plant.

Attention having been thus directed to the question an astonish-
ing variety of most beautiful contrivances has been observed and de-
scribed by many botanists, especially Hooker, Axel, Delpino, Hildebrand,
Bennett, Fritz Miiller, and above all Hermann Miiller and Darwin
himself. The general result is that to insects, and especially to bees, we
owe the beauty of our gardens, the sweetness of our fields. To their
beneficent, though unconscious action, flowers owe their scent and color,
their honey—nay, in many cases, even their form. Their present shape
and varied arrangements, their brilliant colors, their honey, and their
sweet scent are all due to the selection exercised by insects.

In these cases the relation between plants and insects is one of mutual
advantage. In many species, however, plants present us with complex
arrangements adapted to protect them from insects; such, for instance,
are in many cases the resinous glands which render leaves unpalatable ;
the thickets of hairs and other precautions which prevent flowers from

10 REPORT—1881.

being robbed of their honey by ants. Again, more than a century ago,
our countryman, Ellis, described an American plant, Dionza, in which the
leaves are somewhat concave, with long lateral spines, and a joint in the
middle, which closes up with a jerk, like a rat-trap, the moment any
unwary insect alights on them. The plant, in fact, actually captures and
devours insects. This observation also remained as an isolated fact until
within the last few years, when Darwin, Hooker, and others have shown
that many other species have curious and very varied contrivances for
supplying themselves with animal food.

As regards the progress of botany in other directions, Mr. Thiselton
Dyer has been kind enough to assist me in endeavouring to place the
principal facts before you. Some of the most fascinating branches of botany
—morphology, histology, and physiology scarcely existed before 1830. In
the two former branches the discoveries of von Mohl are pre-eminent. He
first observed cell-division in 1835, and detected the presence of starch
in chlorophyll-corpuscles in 1837, while he first described protoplasm, now
so familiar to us, at least by name, in 1846. In the same year Amici
discovered the existence of the embryonic vesicle in the embryo sac,
which develops into the embryo when fertilised by the entrance of the
pollen-tube into the micropyle. The existence of sexual reproduction
in the lower plants was doubtful, or at least doubted by some eminent
authorities, as recently as 1853, when the actual process of fertilisation
in the common bladderwrack of our shores was observed by Thuret,
while the reproduction of the larger fungi was first worked out by De
Bary in 1863.

As regards lichens, Schwendener proposed, in 1869, the startling
theory, now however accepted by some of the highest authorities, that
lichens are not autonomous organisms, but commensal associations of a
fungus parasitic on an alga. With reference to the higher Cryptogams it
is hardly too much to say that the whole of our exact knowledge of their
life-history has been obtained during the last half-century. Thus in the
case of ferns the male organs, or antheridia, were first discovered by
Niageli in 1844, and the archegonia, or female organs, by Suminski in
1848. The early stages in the development of mosses were worked out
by Valentine in 1833. Lastly, the principle of Alternation of Generations
in plants was discovered by Hofmeister. This eminent naturalist also,
in 1851-4, pointed out the homologies of the reproductive eae in
mosses, vascular cryptogams, gymnosperms, and angiosperms.

Geographical Botany can hardly be said to have had any scientific
status anterior to the publication of the ‘Origin of Species.’ The way
had been paved, however, by A. de Candolle and the well-known essay
of Edward Forbes—‘ On the Distribution of the Plants and Animals
of the British Isles,’—by Sir J. Hooker’s introductory essay to the
‘Flora of New Zealand,’ and by Hooker and Thomson’s introductory
essay to the ‘ Flora Indica.’ One result of these researches has been to
give the coup-de-grdce to the theory of an Atlantis. Lastly, in a lecture

ADDRESS. ll

delivered to the Geographical Society in 1878, Thiselton Dyer himself
has summed up the present state of the subject, and contributed an
important addition to our knowledge of plant-distribution by showing
how its main features may be explained by migration in latitude from
north to south without recourse being had to a submerged southern conti-
nent for explaining the features common to South Africa, Australia, and
America.

The fact that systematic and geographical botany have claimed a
preponderating share of the attention of British phytologists, is no doubt
in great measure due to the ever-expanding area of the British Empire,
and the rich botanical treasures which we are continually receiving from
India and our numerous colonies. The series of Indian and Colonial Floras,
published under the direction of the authorities at Kew, and the ‘ Genera
Plantarum’ of Bentham and Hooker, are certainly an honor to our
country. To similar causes we may trace the rise and rapid progress of
economic botany, to which the late Sir W. Hooker so greatly contributed.

In vegetable physiology some of the most striking researches have
been on the effect produced by rays of light of different refrangibility.
Daubeny, Draper, and Sachs have shown that the light of the red end
of the spectrum is more effective than that of the blue, so far as the decom-
position of carbon dioxide (carbonic acid) is concerned.

Nothing could have appeared less likely than that researches into the
theory of spontaneous generation should have led to practical improve-
ments in medical science. Yet such has been the case. Only a few
years ago Bacteria seemed mere scientific curiosities. It had long been
_ known that an infusion—say, of hay—would, if exposed to the atmo-
sphere, be found, after a certain time, to teem with living forms. Even
those few who still believe that life would be spontaneously generated
in such an infusion, will admit that these minute organisms are, if not
entirely, yet mainly, derived from germs floating in our atmosphere ; and
if precautions are taken to exclude such germs, as in the careful experi-
ments especially of Pasteur, Tyndall, and Roberts, everyone will grant
that in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred no such development of life
will take place. In 1836-7 Cagniard de la Tour and Schwann indepen-
_ dently showed that fermentation was no mere chemical process, but was

due to the presence of a microscopic plant. But, more than this, it has
been gradually established that putrefaction is also the work of micro-
scopic organisms. Thirty years, however, elapsed before these important
discoveries received any practical application.

At length, however, they have led to most important results in Surgery.
One reason why compound fractures are so dangerous is because, the skin
being broken, the air obtains access to the wound, bringing with it
innumerable germs, which too often set up putrefying action. Lister
first made a practical application of these observations. He set himself
to find some substance capable of killing the germs without being itself
too potent a caustic, and he found that dilute carbolic acid fulfilled these

1g REPORT—1881.

conditions. This discovery has enabled many operations to be performed
which would previously have been almost hopeless,

The same idea seems destined to prove as useful in Medicine as
in Surgery. There is great reason to suppose that many diseases,
especially those of a zymotic character, have their origin in the germs
of special organisms. We know that fevers run a certain definite course.
The parasitic organisms are at first few, but gradually multiply at the
expense of the patient, and then die out again. Indeed, it seems to
be thoroughly established that many diseases are due to the exces-
sive multiplication of microscopic organisms, and we are not without hope
that means will be discovered by which, without injury to the patient,
these terrible, though minute, enemies may be destroyed, and the disease
thus stayed. Bacillus anthracis, for instance, is now known to be the
cause of splenic fever, which is so fatal to cattle, and is also communi-
cable toman. At Bradford, for instance, it is only too well known as
the woolsorter’s disease. If, however, matter containing the Bacillus
be treated in a particular manner, and cattle be then inoculated with it,
they are found to acquire an immunity from the fever. The interesting
researches of Burdon Sanderson, Greenfield, Koch, Pasteur, Toussaint,
and others, seem to justify the hope that we may be able to modify
these and other germs, and then by appropriate inoculation to protect
ourselves against fever and other acute diseases.

Ferrier’s researches, in continuation of those of Fritsch and Hitzig,
have enabled us to localize the functiun of various parts of the brain. His
results have not only proved of great importance in surgery, and in many
cases led to successful operations, by pointing out the exact source of the
mischief, but an exact knowledge of the brain is also of the greatest
importance in the treatment of neryous diseases. Echeverria has col-
lected 165 cases of traumatic epilepsy, of which 64 per cent. were cured
by removing a portion of the skull, the site for the operation and the exact
nature of the lesion being indicated by cerebral localization.

The history of Anesthetics is a most remarkable illustration how long
we may be on the very verge of a most important discovery. Ether,
which, as we all know, produces perfect insensibility to pain, was
discovered as long ago as 1540, The anesthetic property of nitrous
oxide, now so extensively used, was observed in 1800 by Sir H. Davy,
who actually experimented on himself, and had one of his teeth painlessly
extracted when under its influence. He even suggests that ‘as nitrous
oxide gas seems capable of destroying pain, it could probably be used
with advantage in surgical operations.’ Nay, this property of nitrous
oxide was habitually explained and illustrated in the chemical lectures
given in hospitals, and yet for fifty years the gas was never used in
actual operations. No one did more to promote the use of anesthetics
than Sir James Y. Simpson, who introduced chloroform, a substance
which was discovered in 1831, and which for a while almost entirely

ADDRESS. 13

/

superseded ether and nitrous oxide, though, with improved methods of
administration, the latter are now coming into favour again.

The only other reference to Physiology which time permits me to
make, is the great discovery of the reflex action, as it is called, of the
nervous centres. Reflex actions had been long ago observed, and it had
been shown by Whytt and Hales that they were more or less independent
of volition. But the general opinion was that these movements indicated
some feeble power of sensation independently of the brain, and it was
not till the year 1832 that the ‘ reflex action’ of certain nervous centres
was made known to us by Marshall Hall, and almost at the same period
by Johannes Miiller.

Few branches of science have made more rapid progress in the last
half-century than that which deals with the ancient condition of Man.
When our Association was founded it was generally considered that the
human race suddenly appeared on the scene, about 6,000 years ago, after
the disappearance of the extinct mammalia, and when Europe, both as
regards physical conditions and the other animals by which it was in-
habited, was pretty much in the same state as in the period covered
by Greek and Roman history. Since then the persevering researches of
Layard, Rawlinson, Botta and others have made known to us, not only
the statues and palaces of the ancient Assyrian monarchs, but even their
libraries; the cuneiform characters have been deciphered, and we can not
only see, but read, in the British Museum, the actual contemporary re-
cords, on burnt clay cylinders, of the events recorded in the historical
books of the Old Testament and in the pages of Herodotus. The re-
searches in Eeypt also seem to have satisfactorily established the fact
that the pyramids themselves are at least 6,000 years old, while it is ob-
vious that the Assyrian and Egyptian monarchies cannot suddenly have
attained to the wealth and power, the state of social organisation, and
progress in the arts, of which we have before us, preserved by the sand
of the desert from the ravages of man, such wonderful proofs.

In Europe, the writings of the earliest historians and poets indicated
that, before iron came into general use, there was a time when bronze was
the ordinary material of weapons, axes, and other cutting implements,
and though it seemed & priori improbable that a compound of copper and
tin should have preceded the simple metal iron, nevertheless the researches
of archeologists have shown that there really was in Europe a ‘ Bronze
Age,’ which at the dawn of history was just giving way to that of ‘ Iron.’

The contents of ancient graves, buried in many cases so that their
owner might carry some at least of his wealth with him to the world of
spirits, have proved very instructive. More especially the results obtained
by Nilsson in Scandinavia, by Hoare and Borlase, Bateman, Greenwell,
and Pitt-Rivers, in our own country, and the contents of the rich cemetery
at Hallstadt, left no room for doubt as to the existence of a Bronze Age;
but we get a completer idea of the condition of Man at this period from
the Swiss lake-villages, first made known to us by Keller, and subsequently

14 REPORT—1881.

studied by Morlot, Troyon, Desor, Riitimeyer, Heer, and other Swiss
archeologists. Along the shallow edges of the Swiss lakes there flourished,
once upon a time, many populous villages or towns, built on platforms
supported by piles, exactly as many Malayan villages are now. Under
these circumstances innumerable objects were one by one dropped into
the water; sometimes whole villages were burnt, and their contents
submerged ; and thus we have been able to recover, from the waters of
oblivion in which they had rested for more than 2,000 years, not only the
arms and tools of this ancient people, the bones of their animals, their
pottery and ornaments, but the stuffs they wore, the grain hhey had
stored up for future use, even fruits and cakes of ” ead.

But this bronze-using people were not the earliest occupants of
Europe. The contents of ancient tombs give evidence of a time when metal
was unknown. This also was confirmed by the evidence then unexpectedly
received from the Swiss lakes.* By the side of the bronze-age villages
were others, not less extensive, in which, while implements of stone
and bone were discovered literally by thousands, not a trace of metal was
met with. The shell-mounds or refuse-heaps accumulated by the ancient
fishermen along the shores of Denmark, and carefully examined by
Steenstrup, Worsaae, and other Danish naturalists, fully confirmed the
existence of a ‘Stone Age.’

We have still much to learn, I need hardly say, about this Stone-age
people, but it is surprising how much has been made out. LHvans truly
observes, in his admirable work on ‘ Ancient Stone Implements,’ ‘ that so
far as external appliances are concerned, they are almost as fully repre-
sented as would be those of any existing savage nation by the researches
of a painstaking traveller.’ We have their axes, adzes, chisels, borers,
scrapers, and various other tools, and we know how they made and how
they used them; we have their personal ornaments and implements of
war; we have their cooking utensils; we know what they ate and what
they wore ; lastly, we know their mode of sepulture and funeral customs.
They hunted the deer and horse, the bison and urus, the bear and the
wolf, but the reindeer had already retreated to the North.

No bones of the reindeer, no fragment of any of the extinct mammalia,
have been found in any of the Swiss lake-villages or in any of the thousands
of tumuli which have been opened in our own country or in Central and
Sonthern Europe. Yet the contents of caves and of river-gravels afford
abundant evidence that there was a time when the mammoth and rhinoceros,
the musk-ox and reindeer, the cave lion and hyena, the great bear and the
gigantic Irish elk wandered in our woods and valleys, and the hippopo-
tamus floated in our rivers; when England and France were united, and
the Thames and the Rhine had a common estuary. This was long sup-
posed to be before the advent of man. At length, however, the dis-
coveries of Boucher de Perthes in the valley of the Somme, supported as
they are by the researches of many continental naturalists, and in our
own country of MacHnery and Godwin-Austen, Prestwich and Lyell,

-

ADDRESS, as,

Vivian and Pengelly, Christy, Hvans and many more, have proved that
man formed a humble part of this strange assembly.

Nay, even at this early period there were at least two distinct races
of men in Europe; one of them—as Boyd Dawkins has pointed ont—
closely resembling the modern HEsquimanx in form, in his weapons and
implements, probably in his clothing, as well as in so many of the
animals with which he was associated.

At this stage Man appears to have been ignorant of pottery, to have
had no knowledge of agriculture, no domestic animals, except perhaps
the dog. His weapons were the axe, the spear, and the javelin; I do not
believe he knew the use of the bow, though he was probably acquainted
with the lance. He was, of course, ignorant of metal, and his stone
implements, though skilfully formed, were of quite different shapes from
those of the second Stone age, and were never ground. This earlier Stone
period, when man co-existed with these extinct mammalia, is known as
the Paleolithic, or Harly Stone Age, in opposition to the Neolithic, or
Newer Stone Age.

The remains of the mammalia which co-existed with man in pre-
historic times have been most carefully studied by Owen, Lartet, Riiti-
meyer, Falconer, Busk, Boyd-Dawkins, and others. The presence of the
mammoth, the reindeer, and especially of the musk-ox, indicates a severe,
not to say an arctic, climate—the existence of which, moreover, was
proved by other considerations ; while, on the contrary, the hippopotamus
requires considerable warmth. How then is this association to be ex-
plained ?

While the climate of the globe is, no doubt, much affected by geo-
graphical conditions, the cold of the glacial period was, I believe, mainly
due to the greater excentricity of the earth’s orbit combined with the
effects of precession of the ecliptic. The result of the latter condition
is a period of 21,000 years, during one half of which the northern hemi-
sphere is warmer than the southern, while during the other 10,500 years
the reverse is the case. At present we are in the former phase, and there
is, we know, a vast accumulation of ice at the south pole. But when the
earth’s orbit is nearly circular, as it is at present, the difference between
the two hemispheres is not very great; while, on the contrary, as the
excentricity of the orbit increases, the contrast between them increases
also. This excentricity is continually oscillating within certain limits,
which Croll and subsequently Stone have calculated for the last million
years. At present the excentricity is ‘016 and the mean tempera-
ture of the coldest month in London is about 40°. Such has been the
state of things for nearly 100,000 years; but before that there was a
period, beginning 300,000 years ago, when the excentricity of the orbit
varied from *26 to °57. The result of this would be greatly to increase
the effect due to the obliquity of the orbit; at certain periods the climate
would be much warmer than at present, while at others the number of
days in winter would be twenty more, and of summer twenty less, than

16 REPORT—1881.

now, while the mean temperature of the coldest month would be lowered
20°. We thus get something like a date for the last glacial epoch, and
we sce that it was not simply a period of cold, but rather one of ex-
tremes, each beat of the pendulum of temperature lasting for no less than
21,000 years. This explains the fact that, as Morlot showed in 1854,
the glacial deposits of Switzerland, and, as we now know, those of Scot-
land, are not a single uniform layer, but a succession of strata indicating
very different conditions. I agree also with Croll and Geikie in thinking
that these considerations explain the apparent anomaly of the co-existence
in the same gravels of arctic and tropical animals; the former having
lived in the cold, while the latter flourished in the hot, periods.

It is, I think, now well established that man inhabited Europe during
the milder periods of the glacial epoch. Some high authorities indeed
consider that we have evidence of his presence in pre-glacial and even
in Miocene times, but I confess that I am not satisfied on this point.
Even the more recent period carries back the record of man’s existence
to a distance so great as altogether to change our views of ancient
history.

Nor is it only as regards the antiquity and material condition of man
in prehistoric times that great progress has been made, If time
permitted I should have been glad to have dwelt on the origin and
development of language, of custom, and of law. On all of hess the
comparison of the itis lower races still inhabiting so large a portion
of the earth’s surface, has thrown much light; while even in the most
cultivated nations we find survivals, curious fancies, and lingering ideas ;
the fossil remains as it were of former customs and religions, embedded
in our modern civilisation, like the relics of extinct animals in the crust
of the earth.

In geology the formation of our Association coincided with the appear-
ance of Lyell’s ‘ Principles of Geology,’ the first volume of which was
published in 1830 and the second in 1832.. At that time the received
opinion was that the phenomena of Geology could only be explained
by violent periodical convulsions, and a high intensity of terrestrial
energy culminating in repeated catastrophes. Hutton and Playfair had
indeed maintained that such causes as those now in operation, would, if
only time enough were allowed, account for the geological structure of
the earth ; nevertheless the oppesite view generally prevailed, until Lyell,
with rare sagacity and great eloquence, with a wealth of illustration
and most powerful reasoning, convinced geologists that the forces now
in action are powerful enough, if only time be given, to produce results
quite as stupendous as those which Science records.

As regards stratigraphical geology, at the time of the first meeting of
the British Association at York, the strata between the carboniferons lime-
stone and the chalk had been mainly reduced to order and classified, chiefly
through the labours of William Smith. But the classification of all the

ADDRESS: 17

strata lying above the chalk and below the carboniferous limestone re-
spectively, remained in a state of the greatest confusion. The year 183]
marks the period of the commencement of the joint labours of Sedgwick
and Murchison, which resulted in the establishment of the Cambrian,
Silurian, and Devonian systems. Our Pre-Cambrian strata have recently
been divided by Hicks into four great groups of immense thickness,
and implying a great lapse of time; but no fossils have yet been
discovered in them. Lyell’s classification of the Tertiary deposits; the
result of the studies which he carried on with the assistance of Deshayes
and others, was published in the third volume of the ‘ Principles of
Geology’ in 1833. The establishment of Lyell’s divisions of EHocene,
Miocene, and Pliocene, was the starting-point of a most important series
of investigations by Prestwich and others of these younger deposits ; as
weil as of the post-tertiary, quaternary, or drift beds, which are of special
interest from the light they have thrown on the early history of man.

A full and admirable account of what has recently been accomplished
in this department of science, especially as regards the paleozoic rocks,
will be found in Etheridge’s late address to the Geological Society.

The thickness of the sedimentary strata implies an enormons lapse of
time, but the amount of subsequent destruction which has taken place is
scarcely less surprising. Ramsay, for instance, has shown that in Wales
from 9,000 to 11,000 feet of solid rock have been removed from large’
tractsof country. Faults or cracks there extend for miles, with the strata
on one side raised in some cases as much as 10,000 feet above the same
strata on the other, and yet there is not on the surface the slightest
vestige of this gigantic dislocation.

The long lines of escarpment again, which stretch for miles across our
country, and were long supposed to be ancient coast lines, are now ascer-
tained, mainly through the researches of Whitaker, to be due to the dif-
ferential action of aerial causes.

Before 1831 the only geological maps of this country were William
Smith’s general and county maps, published between the years 1815 and
1824, In the year 1832 De la Beche made proposals to the Board of
Ordnance to color the ordnance-maps geologically, and a sum of 300/. was
granted forthe purpose. Out of this small beginning grew the important
work of the Geological Survey.

The cause of slaty cleavage had long been one of the great difficulties
of geology. Sedgwick suggested that it was produced by the action of
erystalline or polar forces. According to this view miles and miles of
country, comprising great mountain masses, were neither more nor less
than parts of a gigantic crystal. Sharpe, however, called attention to
the fact that shells and other fossils contained in slate rocks are com-
pressed in a direction at right angles to the planes of cleavage, as if the
rocks had been seized in the j jaws of a gigantic vice. Sorby first maintained
that the cleavage itself was due to pressure. He observed slate rocks con-

taining small plates of mica, and that the effect of pressure would tend to
1881. ¢

18 REPORT—1881.

arrange these plates with their flat surfaces perpendicular to the direction
of the pressure. Tyndall has since shown that the presence of flat flakes
is not necessary. He proved by experiment that pure wax could be made
by pressure to split into plates of great tenuity, which he attributes mainly
to the lateral sliding of the particles of the wax over each other; and
thus the result of pressure on such a mass is to develop a fissile structure
similar to that produced in wax on a small scale, or on a great one in
the slate rocks of Cumberland or Wales.

The difficult problem of the conditions under which granite and cer-
tain other rocks were formed was attacked by Sorby with great skill
in a paper read before the Geological Society in 1858. The microscopic
hollows in many minerals contain a liquid which does not entirely fill the
hollow, but leaves a small vacuum; and Sorby ingeniously pointed out
that the rock must have solidified at least at a temperature high enough
to expand the liquid so as to fill the cavity. Sorby’s important memoir
laid the foundation of microscopic petrography, which is now not only
one of the most promising branches of geological research, but which has
been successfully applied by Sorby himself, and by Maskelyne, to the study
of meteorites.

As regards the physical character of the earth, two theories have been
held: one, that of a fluid interior covered by a thin crust; the other, of
a practically solid sphere. The former is now generally considered by
physicists to be untenable. Though there is still much difference of
opinion, the prevailing feeling on the subject has been expressed by
Professor Le Conte, who says, ‘the whole theory of igneous agencies—
which is little less than the whole foundation of theoretic geology—must
be reconstructed on the basis of a solid earth.’

In 1837 Agassiz startled the scientific world by his ‘ Discours sur
l’ancienne extension des Glaciers,’ in which, developing the observation
already made by Charpentier and Venetz, that boulders had been transported
to great distances, and that rocks far away from, or high above, existing
glaciers, are polished and scratched by the action of ice, he boldly asserted
the existence of a ‘glacial period,’ during which Switzerland and the
North of Europe were subjected to great cold and buried under a vast
sheet of ice.

The ancient poets described certain gifted mortals as privileged to
descend into the interior of the earth, and have exercised their imagi-
nation in recounting the wonders there revealed. As in other cases,
however, the realities of science have proved more varied and surprising
than the dreams of fiction. Of the gigantic and extraordinary animals
thus revealed to us by far the greatest number have been described during
the period now under review. For instance, the gigantic Cetiosaurus
was described by Owen in 1838, the Dinornis of New Zealand by the
same distinguished naturalist in 1839, the Mylodon in the same year,
and the Archopteryx in 1862.

In America, a large number of remarkable forms have been described,

ADDRESS. 19

mainly by Marsh, Leidy, and Cope. Marsh has made known to us the
Titanosaurus, of the American (Colorado) Jurassic beds, which is,
perhaps, the largest land animal yet known, being a hundred feet in
length, and at least thirty in height, though it seems possible that even
these vast dimensions were exceeded by those of the Atlantosaurus. Nor
must I omit the Hesperornis, described by Marsh in 1872, as a carnivorous,
swimming ostrich, provided with teeth, which he regards as a character
inherited from reptilian ancestors; the Ichthyornis, stranger still, with
biconcave vertebra, like those of fishes, and teeth set in sockets; while
in the Kocene deposits of the Rocky Mountains the same indefatigable
paleontologist, among other very interesting remains, has discovered
three new groups of remarkable mammals, the Dinocerata, Tillodontia,
and Brontotheride. He has also described a number of small, but very
interesting Jurassic mammalia, closely related to those found in our
Stonesfield Slate and Purbeck beds, for which he has proposed a new
order, ‘ Prototheria.’ Lastly, I may mention the curiously anomalous
Reptilia from South Africa, which have been made known to us by
Professor Owen.

Another important result of recent paleontological research is the
law of brain-growth. It is not only in the higher mammalia that
we find forms with brains much larger than any existing, say, in Miocene
times. The rule is almost general that—as Marsh has briefly stated it—
‘all tertiary mammals had small brains. We may even carry the
generalisation further. The cretaceous birds had brains one-third smaller
than those of our own day, and the brain-cavities of the Dinosauria of
the Jurassic period are much smaller than in any existing reptiles.

As giving, in a few words, an idea of the rapid progress in this de-
partment, I may mention that Morris’s ‘Catalogue of British Fossils,’
published in 1845, contained 5,300 species; while that now in pre-
paration by Mr. Etheridge enumerates 15,000.

But if these figures show how rapid our recent progress has been,
they also very forcibly illustrate the imperfection of the geological
record, giving us, I will not say a measure, but an idea, of the im-
perfection of the geological record. The number of all the described
recent species is over 300,000, but certainly not half are yet on our lists,
and we may safely take the total number of recent species as being not
less than 700,000. But in former times there have been at the very least
twelve periods, in each of which by far the greater number of species
were distinct. True, the number of species was probably not so large in
the earlier periods as at present; but if we make a liberal allowance for
this, we shall have a total of more than 2,000,000 species, of which about
25,000 only are as yet upon record; and many of these are only represented
by a few, some only by a single specimen, or even only by a fragment.

The progress of paleontology may also be marked by the extent to
which the existence of groups has been, if I may so say, carried back in
time. Thus I believe that in 1830 the earliest known quadrupeds were

C2

20 REPORT—1881.

small marsupials belonging to the Stonesfield slates; the most ancient
mammal now known is Microlestes antiquus from the Keuper of Wir-
temberg: the oldest bird known in 1831 belonged to the period of the
London Clay, the oldest now known is the Archeopteryx of the Solen-
hofen slates, though it is probable that some at any rate of the footsteps
on the Triassic rocks are those of birds. So again the Amphibia have
been carried back from the Trias to the Coal-measures; Fish from the
Old Red Sandstone to the Upper Silurian; Reptiles to the Trias; Insects
from the Cretaceous to the Devonian; Mollusca and Crustacea from the
Silurian to the Lower Cambrian. The rocks below the Cambrian, though
of immense thickness, have afforded no relics of animal life, if we except:
the problematical Eozoon Canadense, so ably studied by Dawson and
Carpenter. But if paleontology as yet throws no light on the original
forms of life, we must remember that the simplest and the lowest organ-
isms are so soft and perishable that they would leave ‘not a wrack
behind.’ I will not, however, enlarge on this branch of science, because
we shall have the advantage on Friday of hearing it treated with the
skill of a master.

Passing to the Science of Geography, Mr. Clements Markham has re-
cently published an excellent summary of what has been accomplished
during the half-century.

As regards the Arctic regions, in the year 1830 the coast line of Arctic
America was only very partially known, the region between Barrow Strait
and the continent, for instance, being quite unexplored, while the eastern
sides of Greenland and Spitzbergen, and the coasts of Nova Zembla,
were almost unknown. Now the whole coast of Arctic America has been
delineated, the remarkable archipelago to the north has been explored,
and no less than seven north-west passages—none of them, however,
unfortunately of any practical value—-have been traced. The north-
eastern passage, on the other hand, so far at least as the mouths of the
great Siberian rivers, may perhaps hereafter prove of commercial im-
portance. In the Antarctic regions, Enderby and Graham Lands were
discovered in 1831-2, Balleny Islands and Sabrina Land in 1839, while
the fact of the existence of the great southern continent was established in
1841 by Sir James Ross, who penetrated in 1842 to 78° 11’, the southern-
most point ever reached.

In Asia, to quote from Mr. Markham, ‘our officers have mapped the
whole of Persia and Afghanistan, surveyed Mesopotamia, and explored
the Pamir steppe. Japan, Borneo, Siam, the Malay peninsula, and
the greater part of China have been brought more completely to our
knowledge. Eastern Turkestan has been visited, and trained native ex-
plorers have penetrated to the remotest fountains of the Oxus, and the
wild plateaux of Tibet. Over the northern half of the Asiatic Continent
the Russians have displayed great activity. They have traversed the wild
steppes and deserts of what on old atlases was called Independent Tartary,

ADDRESS. 21

have surveyed the courses of the Jaxartes, the Oxus, and the Amur, and
have navigated the Caspian and the Sea of Aral. They have pushed their
scientific investigations into the Pamir and Kastern Turkestan, until at
last the British and Russian surveys have been connected.’

Again, fifty years ago the vast central regions of Africa were almost
a blank upon our best maps. The rudely drawn lakes and rivers in maps
of a more ancient date had become discredited. They did not agree
among themselves, the evidence upon which they were laid down could
not be found, they were in many respects highly improbable, and they
seemed inconsistent with what had then been ascertained concerning the
Niger and the Blue and White Niles. At the date of which I speak,
the Sahara had been crossed by English travellers from the shores of
the Mediterranean; but the southern desert still formed a bar to travellers
from the Cape, while the accounts of traders and others who alone had
entered the country from the eastern and western coasts were considered
to form an insufficient basis for a map.

Since that time the successful crossing of the Kalahari desert
to Lake Ngami has been the prelude to anera of African discovery.
Livingstone explored the basin of the Zambesi, and discovered vast
lakes and waters which have proved to be those of the higher
Congo. Burton and Speke opened the way from the West Coast, which
Speke and Grant pursued into and down the Nile, and Stanley down
the course of the middle and lower Congo; and the vast extension of
Egyptian dominion has brought a huge slice of equatorial Africa within
the limits of semi-civilisation. The western side of Africa has been
attacked at many points. Alexander and Galton were among the first to
make known to us its western tropical regions immediately to the north
of the Cape Colony; the Ogowé has been explored ; the Congo promises
to become a centre of trade, and the navigable Saas of the Niger, the
Gambia, and the Senegal are familiarly known.

The progress of discovery in Australia has been as remarkable as
that in Africa. ‘The interior of this great continent was absolutely
unknown to us fifty years ago, but is now crossed through its
centre by the electric telegraph, and no inconsiderable portion of it is
turned into sheep-farms. It is an interesting fact that General Sabine,
so long one of our most active officers, and who is still with us,
though, unfortunately, his health has for some time prevented him
from attending our meetings, was born on the very day that the
first settler landed in Australia.

In hydrography our charts have been immensely improved. The study
of rivers and of the physical geography of the sea may indeed almost
be said to have come into existence as a science during the last fifty
years, and in the words of Jansen, it was Maury ‘who, by his wind and
current charts, his trade-wind, storm, and rain charts, and last, but not
least, by his work on the physical geography of the sea, gave the first
great impulse to all subsequent researches,’

22 REPORT—1881.

But the progress in our knowledge of geography is, and has been, by
no means confined to the improvement of our maps, or to the discovery
and description of new regions of the earth; but has extended to the causes
which have led to the present configuration of the surface. To a great
extent indeed this part of the subject falls rather within the scope of
geology, but I may here refer, in illustration, to the distribution of lakes,
the phenomena of glaciers, the formation of volcanic mountains, and the
structure and distribution of coral islands.

The origin and distribution of lakes is one of the most interesting
problems in physical geography. That they are not scattered at random,
a glance at the map is sufficient to show. They abound in mountain
districts, are comparatively rare in equatorial regions, increasing in num-
ber as we go north, so that in Scotland and the northern parts of
America they are sown broadcast.

Perhaps @ priori the first explanation of the origin of lakes which
would suggest itself, would be that they were formed in hollows resulting
from a disturbance of the strata, which had thrown them into a basin-
shaped form. Lake-basins, however, of this character are, as a matter
of fact, very rare; as a general rule lakes have not the form of basin-
shaped synclinal hollows, but, on the contrary, the strike of the strata
often runs right across them. My eminent predecessor, Professor
Ramsay, divides lakes into three classes:—(1) Those which are due to
irregular accumulations of drift, and which are generally quite shallow.
(2) Those which are formed by moraines, and (3) those which occupy
true basins scooped by glacier-ice out of the solid rock. To the latter
class belong, in his opinion, most of the great Swiss and Italian lakes.
Professor Ramsay attributes their excavation to glaciers, because it is of
course obvious that rivers cannot make basin-shaped hollows surrounded
by rock on all sides. Now the Lake of Geneva, 1,230 feet above the
sea, is 984 feet deep, the Lake of Brienz is 1,850 feet above the sea, and
2,000 feet deep, so that its bottom is really below the sea-level. The
Italian lakes are even more remarkable. The Lake of Como, 700 feet
above the sea, is 1,929 feet deep. Lago Maggiore, 685 feet above the
sea, is no less than 2,625 feet deep. It will be observed that these lakes,
like many others in mountain regions—those of Scandinavia, for instance
—lie in the direct channels of the great old glaciers. If the mind is at
first staggered at the magnitude of the scale, we must remember that the
ice which scooped out the valley in which the Lake of Geneva now re-
poses, was once at least 2,700 feet thick; while the moraines were also
of gigantic magnitude, that of Ivrea, for instance, being no less than 1,500
feet in height. Professor Ramsay’s theory seems, therefore, to account
beautifully for a large number of interesting facts.

The problem is, however, very complex; and, while admitting the
force of Professor Ramsay’s arguments, there are, no doubt, other causes
which have exercised a considerable influence in the arrangement and
configuration of lakes; for instance—as has been ably argued by our

ADDRESS, 23

new secretary, Professor Bonney—irregular movements of upheaval along
lines athwart the valleys.

Passing from lakes to mountains, two rival theories with reference to
the structure and origin of volcanoes long struggled for supremacy.

The more general view was that the sheets of lava and scoris
which form volcanic cones—such, for instance, as Alitna or Vesuvius—
‘were originally nearly horizontal, and that subsequently a force operating
from below, and exerting a pressure both upwards and outwards from a
- central axis towards all points of the compass, uplifted the whole stratified
mass and made it assume a conical form, giving rise at the same time, in
many cases, to a wide and deep circular opening at the top of the cone,
called by the advocates of this hypothesis a ‘ crater of elevation.’

This theory, though, as it seems to us now, it had already received its
death-blow from the admirable memoirs of Scrope, was yet that most
generally adopted fifty years ago, because it was considered that com-
pact and crystalline lavas could not have consolidated on a slope
exceeding 1° or 2°. In 1858, however, Sir C. Lyell conclusively showed
that in fact such lavas could consolidate at a considerable angle, even
in some cases at more than 30°, and it is now generally admitted that
though the beds of lava, &c., may have sustained a slight angular
elevation since their deposition, still in the main, volcanic cones have
acquired their form by the accumulation of lava and ashes ejected
from one or more craters.

The problems presented by glaciers are of very great interest. In
1843 Agassiz and Forbes proved that the centre of a glacier, like
that of a river, moves more rapidly than its sides. But how and why do
glaciers move at all? Rendu, afterwards Bishop of Annecy, in 1841
endeavoured to explain the facts by supposing that glacier ice enjoys a
kind of ductility. The ‘viscous theory’ of glaciers was also adopted,
and most ably advocated, by Forbes, who compared the condition of a
glacier to that of the contents of a tar barrel poured into a sloping
channel. We have all, however, seen long narrow fissures, a mere fraction
of an inch in width, stretching far across glaciers—a condition incom-
patible with the ordinary idea of viscosity. The phenomenon of regelation
was afterwards applied to the explanation of glacier-motion. An obser-
vation of Faraday’s supplied the clue. He noticed in 1850 that when
two pieces of thawing ice are placed together they unite by freezing at
the place of contact. Following up this suggestion Tyndall found that
if he compressed a block of ice in a mould it could be made to assume
any shape he pleased. A straight prism, for instance, placed in a groove
and submitted to hydraulic pressure, was bent into a transparent semi-
circle of ice. These experiments seem to have proved that a glacial
valley is a mould through which the ice is forced, and to which it will
accommodate itself, while, as Tyndall and Huxley also pointed out, the
‘veined structure of ice’ is produced by pressure, in the same manner as
the cleavage of slate rocks,

24 REPORT—1881.

It was in the year 1842 that Darwin published his great work on
‘Coral Islands.’ The fringing reefs of coral presented no special difficulty.
They could be obviously accounted for by an elevation of the Jand, so
that the coral which had originally grown under water, had been raised
above the sea-level. The circular or oval shape of so many reefs, how-
ever, each haying a lagoon in the centre, closely surrounded by a deep.
ocean, and rising but a few feet above the sea-level, had long been a
puzzle to the physical geographer. The favourite theory was that these
were the summits of submarine volcanoes on which the coral had grown.
But as the reef-making coral does not live at greater depths than about
twenty-five fathoms, the immense number of these reefs formed an almost
insuperable objection to this theory. The Laccadives and Maldives, for
instance—meaning literally the ‘lac of islands’ and the ‘thousand islands’
—are a series of such atolls, and it was impossible to imagine so great a
number of craters, all so nearly of the same altitude. Darwin showed,
moreover, that so far from the ring of corals resting on a corresponding
ridge of rock, the lagoons, on the contrary, now occupy the place which
was once the highest land. He pointed out that some lagoons, as for
instance, that of Vanikoro, contain an island in the middle; while other
islands, such as Tahiti, are surrounded by a margin of smooth water,
separated from the ocean by a coral reef. Now, if we suppose that
Tahiti were to sink slowly, it would gradually approximate to the con-
dition of Vanikoro; and if Vanikoro gradually sank, the central island
would disappear, while on the contrary the growth of the coral might
neutralise the subsidence of the reef, so that we should have simply an
atoll, with its lagoon. The same considerations explain the origin of the
‘ barrier reefs,’ such as that which runs, for nearly one thousand miles,
along the north-east coast of Australia. Thus Darwin’s theory ex-
plained the form and the approximate identity of altitude of these coral
islands. But it did more than this, because it showed us that there
were great areas in process of subsidence, which, though slow, was of
great importance in physical geography.!

Much information has also been acquired with reference to the
abysses of the ocean, especially from the voyages of the Porcupine and the
Challenger. The greatest depth yet recorded is near the Ladrone Islands,
where a sounding of 4,575 fathoms was obtained.

Ehrenberg long ago pointed out the similarity of the calcareous mud
now accumulating in our recent seas to the chalk, and showed that the
green sands of the geologist are largely made up of casts of foraminifera.
Clay, however, had been looked on, until the recent expeditions, as
essentially a product of the disintegration of older rocks. Not only,
however, are a large proportion of siliceous and calcareous rocks either
directly or indirectly derived from material which has once formed a
portion of living organisms, but Sir Wyville Thomson maintains that

‘I ought to mention that Darwin’s views have recently been questioned by
Semper and Murray,

ADDRESS. 25

this is the case with some clays also. In that case the striking remark
of Linnaeus, that ‘fossils are not the children but the parents of rocks,’
will have received remarkable confirmation. I should have thought it,
I confess, probable that these clays are, to a considerable extent, com-
posed of volcanic dust.

It would appear that calcareous deposits resembling our chalk do not
occur at a greater depth than 3,000 fathoms ; they have not been met with
in the abysses of the ocean. Here the bottom consists of exceedingly fine
clay, sometimes coloured red by oxide of iron, sometimes chocolate by
manganese oxide, and containing with Foraminifera occasionally large
numbers of siliceous Radiolaria. These strata seem to accumulate with
extreme slowness: this is inferred from the comparative abundance of
whales’ bones and fishes’ teeth ; and from the presence of minute spherical
particles, supposed by Mr. Murray to be of cosmic origin—in fact, to be
the dust of meteorites, which in the course of ages have fallen on the
ocean. Such particles no doubt occur over the whole surface of the
earth, but on land they soon oxidise, and in shallow water they are covered
up by other deposits. Another interesting result of recent deep-sea
explorations has been to show that the depths of the ocean are no mere
barren solitudes, as was until recent years confidently believed, but, on
the contrary, present us many remarkable forms of life. We have, how-
ever, as yet but thrown here and there a ray of light down into the

ocean abysses :—
Nor can so short a time sufficient be

To fathom the vast depths of Nature’s sea.

In Astronomy, the discovery in 1845 of the planet Neptune, made
independently and almost simultaneously by Adams and by Le Verrier,
was certainly one of the very greatest triumphs of mathematical genius.
Of the minor planets four only were known in 1831, whilst the number
now on the roll amounts to 220. Many astronomers believe in the
existence of an intra-mercurial planet or planets, but this is still an
open question. The Solar System has also been enriched by the dis-
covery of an inner ring to Saturn, of satellites to Mars, and of additional
satellites to Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

The most unexpected progress, however, in our astronomical know-
ledge during the past half-century has been due to spectrum analysis.

The dark lines in the spectrum were first seen by Wollaston, who noticed
a few of them; but they were independently discovered by Fraunhofer,
after whom they are justly named, and who, in 1814, mapped no fewer
than 576. The first steps in ‘spectrum analysis,’ properly so called, were
made by Sir J. Herschel, Fox Talbot, and by Wheatstone, in a paper read
before this Association in 1835. The latter showed that the spectrum
emitted by the incandescent vapour of metals was formed of bright lines,
and that these lines, while, as he then supposed, constant for each metal,
differed for different metals. ‘We have here,’ he said, ‘a mode of dis-
criminating metallic bodies moro readily than that of chemical examination,

26 REPORT—1881.

and which may hereafter be employed for useful purposes.’ Nay, not
only can bodies thus be more readily discriminated, but, as we now
know, the presence of extremely minute portions can be detected, the
svoyo00 Of a grain being in some cases easily perceptible.

It is also easy to see that the presence of any new simple sub-
stance might be detected, and in this manner already several new elements
have been discovered, as I shall mention when we come to Chemistry.

But spectrum analysis has led to even grander and more unexpected
triumphs. Fraunhofer himself noticed the coincidence between the
double dark line D of the solar spectrum and a double line which he
observed in the spectra of ordinary flames, while Stokes pointed out
to Sir W. Thomson, who taught it in his lectures, that in both cases
these lines were due to the presence of sodium. To Kirchhoff and
Bunsen, however, is due the independent conception and the credit of
having first systematically investigated the relation which exists between
Fraunhofer’s lines and the bright lines in the spectra of incandescent
metals. In order to get some fixed measure by which they might
determine and record the lines characterising any given substance, it
occurred to them that they might use for comparison the spectrum of
the sun. They accordingly arranged their spectroscope so that one-half
of the slit was lighted by the sun, and the other by the luminous gases
they proposed to examine. It immediately struck them that the bright
lines in the one corresponded with the dark lines in the other—the
bright line of sodium, for instance, with the line or rather lines D in
the sun’s spectrum. The conclusion was obvious. There was sodium
in the sun. It must indeed have been a glorious moment when that
thought flashed across them, and even by itself well worth all their
labour.

But why is the bright line of a sodium flame represented by a black
one in the spectrum of the sun? To Angstrim is due the theory that a
vapour or gas can absorb luminous rays of the same refrangibility only
which it emits when highly heated; while Balfour Stewart independently
discovered the same law with reference to radiant heat.

This is the basis of Kirchhoff’s theory of the origin of Fraunhofer’s
lines. In the atmosphere of the sun the vapours of various metals are
present, each of which would give its characteristic lines, but within
this atmospheric envelope is the still more intensely heated nucleus
of the sun, which emits a brilliant continuous spectrum, containing rays
of all degrees of refrangibility. When the light of this intensely heated
nucleus is transmitted through the surrounding atmosphere, the bright
lines which would be produced by this atmosphere are seen as dark
ones.

Kirchhoff and Bunsen thus proved the existence in the sun of hydro-
gen, sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron, nickel, chromium, manganese,
titanium, and cobalt; since which Angstrém, Thalen, and Lockyer have
considerably increased the list.

ADDRESS. 27

But it is not merely the chemistry of the heavenly bodies on which
light is thrown by the spectroscope ; their physical structure and evolu-
tional history are also illuminated by this wonderful instrument of
research.

It used to be supposed that the sun was a dark body enveloped in
a luminous atmosphere. The reverse now appears to be the truth. The
body of the sun, or photosphere, is intensely brilliant ; round it lies the
solar atmosphere of comparatively cool gases, which cause the dark lines
in the spectrum; thirdly, a chromosphere,—a sphere principally of
hydrogen, jets of which are said sometimes to reach to a height of
100,000 miles or more, into the outer coating or corona, the nature of
which is still very doubtful.

Formerly the red flames which represent the higher regions of the
chromosphere could be seen only on the rare occasions of a total solar
eclipse. Janssen and Lockyer, by the application of the spectroscope,
have enabled us to study this region of the sun at all times.

It. is, moreover, obvious that the powerful engine of investigation
afforded us by the spectroscope is by no means confined to the substances
which form part of our system. The incandescent body can thus be
examined, no matter how great its distance, so long only as the light is
strong enough. That this method was theoretically applicable to the
light of the stars was indeed obvious, but the practical difficulties were
very great. Sirius, the brightest of all, is, in round numbers, a
hundred millions of millions of miles from us; and, though as big as sixty
of our suns, his light when it reaches us, after a journey of sixteen
years, is at most one two-thousand-millionth part as bright. Nevertheless
as long ago as 1815 Fraunhofer recognised the fixed lines in the light
of four of the stars, and in 1863 Miller and Huggins in our own
country, and Rutherford in America, succeeded in determining the dark
lines in the spectrum of some of the brighter stars, thus showing that
these beautiful and mysterious lights contain many of the material
substances with which we are familiar. In Aldebaran, for instance, we
may infer the presence of hydrogen, sodium, magnesium, iron, calcium,
tellurium, antimony, bismuth, and mercury; some of which are not yet
known to occur in the sun. As might have been expected the composi-
tion of the stars is not uniform, and it would appear that they may
be arranged in a few well-marked classes, indicating differences of
temperature or, in other words, of age. Some recent photographic spectra
of stars obtained by Huggins go very far to justify this view.

Thus we can make the stars teach us their own composition with
light which started from its source before we were born—light older
than our Association itself.

Until 1864, the true nature of the unresolved nebulxw was a matter of
doubt. In that year, however, Huggins turned his spectroscope on to
a nebula, and made the unexpected discovery that the spectra of some
of these bodies are discontinuous—that is to say, consist of bright lines

28 REPORT—1881.

only, indicating that ‘in place of an incandescent solid or liquid body
we must probably regard these objects, or at least their photo-surfaces,
as enormous masses of luminous gas or vapour. For itis from matter
in a gaseous state only that such light as that of the nebule is known
to be emitted.’ So far as observation has yet gone, nebule may be
divided into two classes: some giving a continuous spectrum, others one
consisting of bright lines. These latter all appear to give essentially the
same spectrum, consisting of a few bright lines. Two of them, in Mr.
Huggins’ opinion, indicate the presence of hydrogen: one of them agrees
in position with a line characteristic of nitrogen.

But spectrum analysis has even more than this to tellus. The old
methods of observation could determine the movements of the stars so
far only as they were transverse to us; they afforded no means of
measuring motion either directly towards or away from us. Now
Doppler suggested in 1841 that the colors of tke stars would assist us
in this respect, because they would be affected by their motion to and
from the earth, just as a steam-whistle is raised or lowered as it ap-
proaches or recedes from us. Everyone has observed that if a train
whistles as it passes us, the sound appears to alter at the moment the
engine goes by. This arises, of course, not from any change in the
whistle itself, but because the number of vibrations which reach the ear
in a given time are increased by the speed of the train as it ap-
proaches, and diminished as it recedes. So, like the sound, the color
would be affected by such a movement; but Doéppler’s method was prac-
tically inapplicable, not only because the amount of effect on the color
would be hardly sensible, but also for other reasons ; indeed, as we did
not know the true color of the stars, we had no datum line by which to
measure.

A change of refrangibility of light, however, does occur in conse-
quence of relative motion, and Huggins successfully applied the spectro-
scope to solve the problem. He took in the first place the spectroscope
of Sirius, and chose a line knownas F, whichis due to hydrogen. Now, if
Sirius was motionless, or rather if it retained a constant distance from the
earth, the line F would occupy exactly the same position in the spectrum
of Sirius as in that of the sun. On the contrary, if Sirius were ap-
proaching or receding from us, this line would be slightly shifted either
towards the blue or red end of the spectrum. He found that the line
had moved very slightly towards the red, indicating that the distance
between us and Sirius is increasing at the rate of about twenty miles a
second. So also Betelgeux, Rigel, Castor, and Regulus are increasing
their distance ; while, on the contrary, that of others, as for instance of
Vega, Arcturus, and Pollux, is diminishing. The results obtained by
Huggins on about twenty stars have since been confirmed and extended
by Mr. Christie, now Astronomer Royal, in succession to Sir G. Airy, who
has long occupied the post with so much honour to himself and advantage
to science,

—E— —

ADDRESS. 29

To examine the spectrum of a shooting star would seem even more
difficult. Alexander Herschel first succeeded in doing so, and determined
the presence of sodium; since which Von Konkoly has recognised the
lines of magnesium, carbon, potassium, lithium and other substances, and
it appears that the shooting stars are bodies similar in character and com-
position to the stony masses which sometimes reach the earth as aérolites.

Some light has also been thrown upon those mysterious visitants, the
comets. The researches of Prof. Newton on the periods of meteoroids led
to the remarkable discovery by Schiaparelli of the identity of the orbits
of some meteor-swarms with those of some comets, The similarity of
orbits is too striking to be the result of chance, and shows a true cos-
mical relation between the bodies. Comets, in fact, are in some cases at
any rate groups of meteoric stones. From the spectra of the small comets
of 1866 and 1868, Huggins showed that part of their light is emitted by
themselves, and reveals the presence of carbon in some form. A photo-
graphic spectrum of the comet recently visible, obtained by the same
observer, is considered by him to prove that nitrogen, probably in com-
bination with carbon, is also present.

No element has yet been found in any meteorite, which was not
previously known as existing in the earth, but the phenomena which they
exhibit indicate that they must have been formed under conditions very
different from those which prevail on the earth’s surface. I may mention,
for instance, the peculiar form of crystallised silica, called by Maskelyne,
Asmanite ; and the whole class of meteorites, consisting of iron generally
alloyed with nickel, which Daubrée terms Holosiderites. The interesting
discovery, however, by Nordenskidld, in 1870, at Ovifak, of a number of
blocks of iron alloyed with nickel and cobalt, in connection with basalts
containing disseminated iron, has, in the words of Judd, ‘afforded a very
important link, placing the terrestrial and extra-terrestrial rocks in closer
relations with one another.’

We have as yet no sufficient evidence to justify a conclusion as to
whether any substances exist in the heavenly bodies which do not occur
in our earth, though there are many lines which cannot yet be satisfac-
torily referred to any terrestrial element. On the other hand, some
substances which occur on our earth have not yet been detected in the
sun’s atmosphere.

Such discoveries as these seemed, not long ago, entirely beyond
our hopes. M. Comte, indeed, in his ‘Cours de Philosophie Posi-
tive,’ as recently as 1812, laid it down as an axiom regarding the
heavenly bodies, that ‘Nous concevons la possibilité de déterminer leurs
formes, leurs distances, leurs grandeurs et leurs mouvements, tandis que
nous ne saurions jamais étudier par aucun moyen leur composition
chimique ou leur structure minéralogique.’ Yet within a few years
this supposed impossibility has been actually accomplished, showing how
unsafe it is to limit the possibilities of science.

Itis hardly necessary to point out that, while the spectrum has taught

30 REPORT—1881,

us so much, we have still even more to learn. Why should some
substances give few, and others many, lines? Why should the same
substance give different lines at different temperatures? What are
the relations between the lines and the physical or chemical pro-
perties ?

We may certainly look for much new knowledge of the hidden actions
of atoms and molecules from future researches with the spectroscope. It
may even, perhaps, teach us to modify our views of the so-called simple
substances. Prout, long ago, struck by the remarkable fact that nearly
all atomic weights are simple multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen,
suggested that hydrogen must be the primordial substance. Brodie’s
researches also naturally fell in with the supposition that the so-called
simple substances are in reality complex, and that their constituents occur
separately in the hottest regions of the solar atmosphere. Lockyer con-
siders that his researches lend great probability to this view. The whole
subject is one of intense interest, and we may rejoice that it is occupying
the attention, not only of such men as Abney, Dewar, Hartley, Liveing,
Roscoe and Schuster in our own country, but also of many foreign
observers.

When geology so greatly extended our ideas of past time, the con-
tinued heat of the sun became a question of greater interest than ever.
Helmholtz has shown that, while adopting the nebular hypothesis, we
need not assume that the nebulous matter was originally incandescent ;
but that its present high temperature may be, and probably is, mainly
due to gravitation between its parts. It follows that the potential energy
of the sun is far from exhausted, and that with continued shrinking it
will continue to give out light and heat, with little, if any, diminution for
several millions of years.

Like the sand of the sea, the stars of heaven have ever been used as
effective symbols of number, and the improvements in our methods of
observation have added fresh force to our original impressions. We now
know that our earth is but a fraction of one out of at least 75,000,000
worlds.

But this is not all. In addition to the luminous heavenly bodies, we
cannot doubt that there are countless others, invisible to us from their
greater distance, smaller size, or feebler light; indeed we know that
there are many dark bodies which now emit no light or comparatively
little. Thus in the case of Procyon, the existence of an invisible body
is proved by the movement of the visible star. Again I may refer to the
curious phenomena presented by Algol, a bright star in the head of
Medusa. This star shines without change for two days and thirteen
hours; then, in three hours and a half, dwindles from a star of the
second to one of the fourth magnitude; and then, in another three and
a half hours, reassumes its original brilliancy. These changes seem
certainly to indicate the presence of an opaque body, which intercepts at
regular intervals a part of the light emitted by Algol.-

ee ———— ———_

ADDRESS. 3l

Thus the floor of heaven is not only ‘thick inlaid with patines of
bright gold,’ but studded also with extinct stars; once probably as brilliant
as our own sun, but now dead and cold, as Helmholtz tells us that our sun
itself will be, some seventeen millions of years hence.

The connection of Astronomy with the history of our planet has been
a subject of speculation and research during a great part of the half-
century of our existence. Sir Charles Lyell devoted some of the opening
chapters of his great work to the subject. Haughton has brought his
very original powers to bear on the subject of secular changes in climate,
and Croll’s contributions to the same subject are of great interest. Last,
but not least, I must not omit to make mention of the series of massive
memoirs (I am happy to say not yet nearly terminated) by George Dar-
win on tidal friction, and the influence of tidal action on the evolution of
the solar system.

I may perhaps just mention, as regards telescopes, that the largest
reflector in 1830 was Sir W. Herschel’s of 4 ft., the largest at present
being Lord Rosse’s of 6 ft.; as regards refractors the largest then had a
diameter of 11} in., while your fellow-townsman Cooke carried the size
to 25 in., and Mr. Grubb, of Dublin, has just successfully completed
one of 27 in. for the Observatory of Vienna. It is remarkable that the
two largest telescopes in the world should both be Irish.

The general result of astronomical researches has been thus eloquently
summed up by Proctor :—‘The sidereal system is altogether more
complicated and more varied in structure than has hitherto been
supposed; in the same region of the stellar depths co-exist stars of many
orders of real magnitude; all orders of nebule, gaseous or stellar,
planetary, ring-formed, elliptical, and spiral, exist within the limits of the
galaxy ; and lastly, the whole system is alive with movements, the laws
of which may one day be recognised, though at present they appear too
complex to be understood.’

We can, I think, scarcely claim the establishment of the undu-
latory theory of light as falling within the last fifty years; for
though Brewster, in his ‘ Report on Optics,’ published in our first volume,
treats the question as open, and expresses himself still unconvinced,
he was, I believe, almost alone in his preference for the emission theory.
The phenomena of interference, in fact, left hardly any—if any—
room for doubt, and the subject was finally set at rest by Foucault’s
celebrated experiments in 1850. According to the undulatory theory
the velocity of light ought to be greater in air than in water, while if
the emission theory were correct the reverse would be the case. The
velocity of light—186,000 miles in a second—is, however, so great that,
to determine its rate in air, as compared with that in water, might
seem almost hopeless. The velocity in air was, nevertheless, determined
by Fizeau in 1849, by means of a rapidly revolving wheel. In the
following year Foucault, by means of a revolying mirror, demonstrated

32 REPORT—1881.

that the velocity of light is greater in air than in water—thus completing
the evidence in favour of the undulatory theory of light.

The idea is now gaining ground, that, as maintained by
Clerk-Maxwell, light itself is an electro-magnetic disturbance, the
luminiferous ether being the vehicle of both light and electricity.

Wiinsch, as long ago as 1792, had clearly shown that the three
primary colors were red, green, and violet; but his results attracted little
notice, and the general view used to be that there were seven prin-
cipal colors—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet; four
of which—namely orange, green, indigo, and violet-—were considered
to arise from mixtures of the other three. Red, yellow, and blue were
therefore called the primary colors, and it was supposed that in order
to produce white light these three colors must always be present.

Helmholtz, however, again showed, in 1852, that a color to our
unaided eyes identical with white, was produced by combining yellow
with indigo. At that time yellow was considered to be a simple color,
and this, therefore, was regarded as an exception to the general rule,
that a combination of three simple colors is required to produce white.
Again, it was, and indeed still is, the general impression that a com-
bination of blue and yellow makes green. ‘This, however, is entirely
a mistake. Of course we all know that yellow paint and blue paint
make green paint; but this results from absorption of light by the semi-
transparent solid particles of the pigments, and is not a mere mixture of
the colors proceeding unaltered from the yellow and the blue particles :
moreover, as can easily be shown by two sheets of colored paper and a
piece of window glass, blue and yellow light, when combined, do not giwe
a trace of green, but if pure would produce the effect of white. Green,
therefore, is after all not produced by a mixture of blue and yellow.
On the other hand, Clerk-Maxwell proved in 1860 that yellow could
be produced by a mixture of red and green, which put an end to
the pretension of yellow to be considered a primary element of color.
From these and other considerations it would seem, therefore, that the
three primary colors—if such an expression be retained—are red, green,
and violet.

The existence of rays beyond the violet, though almost invisible to
our eyes, had long been demonstrated by their chemical action. Stokes,
however, showed in 1852 that their existence might be proved in
another manner, for that there are certain substances which, when
excited by them, emit light visible to our eyes. To this phenomenon
he gave the name of fluorescence. At the other end of the spectrum
Abney has recently succeeded in photographing a large number of lines
in the infra-red portion, the existence of which was first proved by Sir
William Herschel.

From the rarity, and in many cases the entire absence, of reference
to blue, in ancient literature, Geiger—adopting and extending a suggestion
first thrown out by Mr. Gladstone—has maintained that, even as recently

ADDRESS. 33

as the time of Homer, our ancestors were blue-blind. Though for my
part Iam unable to adopt this view, it is certainly very remarkable that
neither the Rigveda, which consists almost entirely of hymns to heaven,
nor the Zendavesta, the Bible of the Parsees or fire-worshippers, nor
the earlier books of the Old Testament, nor the Homeric poems, ever
allude to the sky as blue.

On the other hand, from the dawn of poetry, the splendours of the
morning and evening skies have excited the admiration of mankind. As
Ruskin says, in language almost as brilliant as the sky itself, the whole
heaven, ‘ from the zenith to the horizon, becomes one molten, mantling sea
of colour and fire; every black bar turns into massy gold, every ripple
and wave into unsullied shadowless crimson, and purple, and scarlet, and
colours for which there are no words in language, and no ideas in the
mind—things which can only be conceived while they are visible; the
intense hollow blue of the upper sky melting through it all, showing here
deep, and pure, and lightness; there, modulated by the filmy, formless
body of the transparent vapour, till it is lost imperceptibly in its crimson
and gold.’

But what is the explanation of these gorgeous colors ? why is the
sky blue? and why are the sunrise and sunset crimson and gold? It
may be said that the air is blue, but if so how can the clouds assume
their varied tints? Briicke showed that very minute particles suspended
in water are blue by reflected light. Tyndall has taught us that the
blue of the sky is due to the reflection of the blue rays by the minute
particles floating in the atmosphere. Now if from the white light of the
sun the blue rays are thus selected, those which are transmitted will be
yellow, orange, and red. Where the distance is short the transmitted
light will appear yellowish. But as the sun sinks towards the horizon
the atmospheric distance increases, and consequently the number of the
scattering particles. They weaken in succession the violet, the indigo,
the blue, and even disturb the proportions of green. The transmitted
light under such circumstances must pass from yellow through orange
to red, and thus, while we at noon are admiring the deep blue of the sky,
the same rays, robbed of their blue, are elsewhere lighting up the evening
sky with all the glories of sunset.

Another remarkable triumph of the last half-century has been the
discovery of photography. At the commencement of the century Wede-
wood and Davy observed the effect produced by throwing the images of
objects on paper or leather prepared with nitrate of silver, but no means
were known by which such images could be fixed. This was first effected
by Niepce, but his processes were open to objections, which prevented
them from coming into general use, and it was not till 1839 that Daguerre
invented the process which was justly named after him. Very soon a
further improvement was effected by our countryman Talbot. He not
only fixed his ‘ Talbotypes’ on paper—in itself a great convenience—but,
by obtaining a negative, rendered it possible to take off any number of

1881, D

34 REPORT—1881,

positive, or natural, copies from one original picture. This process is the
foundation of all the methods now in use; perhaps the greatest improve-
ments having been the use of glass plates, first proposed by Sir John
Herschel; of collodion, suggested by Le Grey, and practically used by
Archer ; and, more lately, of gelatine, the foundation of the sensitive film
now growing into general use in the ordinary dry-plate process. Not only
have a great variety of other beautiful processes been invented, but the
delicacy of the sensitive film has been immensely increased, with the
advantage, among others, of diminishing greatly the time necessary for
obtaining a picture, so that even an express train going at full speed can
now be taken. Indeed, with full sunlight ;3, of a second is enough, and
in photographing the sun itself ¢5}55 of a second is sufficient.

We owe to Wheatstone the conception that the idea of solidity is
derived from the combination of two pictures of the same object in slightly
different perspective. This he proved in 1833 by drawing two outlines
of some geometrical figure or other simple object, as they would appear
to either eye respectively, and then placing them so that they might be
seen, one by each eye. The ‘stereoscope,’ thus produced, has been greatly
popularised by photography.

For 2,000 years the art of lighting had made little if any progress.
Until the close of the last century, for instance, our lighthouses contained
mere fires of wood or coal, though the construction had vastly improved.
The Eddystone lighthouse, for instance, was built by Smeaton in 1758 ;
but for forty years its light consisted of a row of tallow candles stuck
ina hoop. The Argand lamp was the first great improvement, followed
by gas, and in 1863 by the electric light.

Just as light was long supposed to be due to the emission of material
particles, so heat was regarded as a material, though ethereal, substance,
which was added to bodies when their temperature was raised.

Davy’s celebrated experiment of melting two pieces of ice by rubbing
them against one another in the exhausted receiver of an air-pump had
convinced him that the cause of heat was the motion of the invisible
particles of bodies, as had been long before suggested by Newton,
Boyle, and Hooke. Rumford and Young also advocated the same view.
Nevertheless, the general opinion, even until the middle of the present
century, was that heat was due to the presence of a subtle fluid known as
‘caloric,’ atheory which is now entirely abandoned.

Melloni, by the use of the electric pile, vastly increased our knowledge
of the phenomena of radiant heat. His researches were confined to the
solid and liquid forms of matter. Tyndall studied the gases in this respect,
showing that differences greater than those established by Melloni
existed between gases and vapours, both as regards the absorption and
radiation of heat. He proved, moreover, that the aqueous vapour of our
atmosphere, by checking terrestrial radiation, angments the earth’s
temperature, and he considers that the existence of tropical vegetation—
the remains of which now constitute our coal-beds—may have heen due to

er

ADDRESS. 35

the heat retained by the vapours which at that period were diffused in
the earth’s atmosphere. Indeed, but for the vapour in our atmosphere, a
single night would suffice to destroy the whole vegetation of the temperate
regions. ;

Inspired by a contemplation of Graham Bell’s ingenious experi-

‘ments with intermittent beams on solid bodies, Tyndall took a new

and original departure; and regarding the sounds as due to changes
of temperature he concluded that the same method would prove applic-
able to gases. He thus found himself in possession of a new and
independent method of procedure. It need perhaps be hardly added that,
when submitted to this new test, his former conclusions on the inter-
action of heat and gaseous matter stood their ground.

The determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat is mainly due
to the researches of Mayer and Joule. Mayer, in 1842, pointed out the
mechanical equivalent of heat as a fundamental datum to be determined
by experiment. Taking the heat produced by the condensation of air as
the equivalent of the work done in compressing the air, he obtained a
numerical value of the mechanical equivalent of heat. There was,
however, in these experiments, one weak point. The matter operated
on did not go through a cycle of changes. He assumed that the
production of heat was the only effect of the work done in com-
pressing the air. Joule had the merit of being the first to meet this
possible source of error. He ascertained that a weight of 1 Ib. would
have to fall 772 feet in order to raise the temperature of 1 lb. of water by
1° Fahr. Hirn subsequently attacked the problem from the other side, and

showed that if all the heat passing through a steam-engine were turned

into work, for every degree Fahr. added to the temperature of a pound of
water, enough work could be done to raise a weight of 1 lb. to a height of
772 feet. The general result is that, though we cannot create energy
we may help ourselves to any extent from the great storehouse of nature.
Wind and water, the coal-bed and the forest, afford man an inexhaustible
supply of available energy.

It used to be considered that there was an absolute break between
the different states of matter. The continuity of the gaseous, liquid, and
solid conditions was first demonstrated by Andrews in 1862.

Oxygen and nitrogen have been liquefied independently and at the
same time by Cailletet and Raoul Pictet. Cailletet also succeeded in
liquefying air, and soon afterwards hydrogen was liquefied by Pictet
under a pressure of 650 atmospheres, and a cold of 170° Cent. below
zero. It even became partly solidified, and he assures us that it fell on
the floor with ‘the shrill noise of metallic hail.’ Thus then it was shown
experimentally that there are no such things as absolutely permanent gases.

The kinetic theory of gases, now generally accepted, refers the elasticity
of gases to a motion of translation of their molecules, and we are assured
that in the case of hydrogen at a temperature of 60° Fahr. they move
at an average rate of 6,225 feet in a second; while, as regards their size,

D2

36 REPORT—1881.

Loschmidt, who has since been confirmed by Stoney and Sir W. Thom-
son, calculates that each is at most =>p9's000 Of an inch in diameter.

We cannot, it would seem at present, hope for any increase of our
knowledge of atoms by any improvement in the microscope. With
our present instruments we can perceive lines ruled on glass 5 545pth
of an inch apart. But, owing to the properties of light itself, the
fringes due to interference begin to produce confusion at distances of
zaiyp and in the brightest part of the spectrum at little more than
sosooth they would make the obscurity more or less complete. If indeed
we could use the blue rays by themselves, their waves being munch
shorter, the limit of possible visibility might be extended to ;sy555; and
as Helmholtz has suggested, this perhaps accounts for Stinde having
actually been able to obtain a photographic image of lines only ;>5,5ppth
of an inch apart. It would seem then that, owing to the physical
characters of light, we can, as Sorby has pointed ont, scarcely hope
for any great improvement so far as the mere visibility of structure is
concerned, though in other respects no doubt much may be hoped for.
At the same time, Dallinger and Royston Pigott have shown that, so
far as the mere presence of simple objects is concerned, bodies of even
smaller dimensions can be perceived.

According to the views of Helmholtz, the size of the smallest particle
that could be distinctly defined, when associated with others, is about
sosooth of an inch. Sorby estimates that a particle of aloumen of this size
contains 125 millions of molecules. In the case of such a simple compound
as water the number is 8,000 millions. Even, then, if we could construct
microscopes far more powerful than any we now possess, they would not
enable us to obtain by direct vision any idea of the ultimate molecules
of matter. Sorby calculates that the smallest sphere of organic matter
which could be clearly defined with our most powerful microscopes would
contain many millions of molecules of albumen and water, and it follows
that there may be an almost infinite number of structural characters in
organic tissues, which we can at present foresee no mode of examining.

The Science of Meteorology has made great progress; the weather,
which was formerly treated as a local phenomenon, being now shown to
form part of a vast system of mutually dependent cyclonic and anti-
cyclonic movements. The storm-signals issued at our ports are very
valuable to sailors, while the small weather-maps, for which we are mainly
indebted to Francis Galton, and the forecasts, which anyone can obtain
on application either personally or by telegraph at the Meteorological *
Office, are also of increasing utility.

Hlectricity in the year 1831 may be considered to have just been
ripe for its adaptation to practical purposes; it was but a few years
previously, in 1819, that Oersted had discovered the deflective action
of the current on the magnetic needle, that Ampére had laid the founda-
tion of electro-dynamics, that Schweizzer had devised the electric coil or

ADDRESS. 37

multiplier, and that Sturgeon had constructed the first electro-magnet.
Tt was in 1831 that Faraday, the prince of pure experimentalists,
announced his discoveries of voltaic induction and magneto-electricity,
which with the other three discoveries constitute the principles of nearly
all the telegraph instruments now in use ; and in 1884 our knowledge of
the nature of the electric current had been much advanced by the in-
teresting experiment of Sir Charles Wheatstone, proving the velocity of
the current in a metallic conductor to approach that of the wave of light.

Practical applications of these discoveries were not long in coming to
the fore, and the first telegraph line on the Great Western Railway from
Paddington to West Drayton was set up in 1838. In America Morse is
said to have commenced to develop his recording instrument between
the years 1832 and 1837, while Steinheil, in Germany, during the same
period was engaged upon his somewhat super-refined ink-recorder, using
for the first time the earth for completing the return circuit; whereas in
this country Cooke and Wheatstone, by adopting the more simple device
of the double-needle instrument, were the first to make the electric tele-
graph a practical institution. Contemporaneously with, or immediately
succeeding these pioneers, we find in this country Alexander Bain, Bre-
guet in France, Schilling in Russia, and Werner Siemens in Germany,
the last having first, in 1847, among others, made use of gutta-percha
as an insulating medium for electric conductors, and thus eleared the
way for subterranean and submarine telegraphy.

Four years later, in 1851, submarine telegraphy became an accom-
plished fact through the successful establishment of telegraphic
communication between Dover and Calais. Submarine lines followed in
rapid succession, crossing the English Channel and the German Ocean,
threading their way through the Mediterranean, Black, and Red Seas,
until in 1866, after two abortive attempts, telegraphic communication
was successfully established between the Old and New Worlds, beneath
the Atlantic Ocean.

In connection with this great enterprise and with many investigations
and suggestions of a highly scientific and important character, the name
of Sir William Thomson will ever be remembered. The ingenuity
displayed in perfecting the means of transmitting intelligence through
metallic conductors, with the utmost despatch and certainty as regards
the record obtained, between two points hundreds and even thousands of
miles apart is truly surprising. The instruments devised by Morse,
Siemens, and Hughes have also proved most useful. .

Duplex and quadruplex telegraphy, one of the most striking achieve-
ments of modern telegraphy, the result of the labours of several in-
ventors, should not be passed over in silence. It not only serves for the
simultaneous communication of telegraphic intelligence in both directions,
but renders it possible for four instruments to be worked irrespectively
of one another, through one and the same wire connecting two distant
places,

38 REPORT—1881.

Another more recent and perhaps still more wonderful achievement
in modern telegraphy is the invention of the telephone and microphone,
by means of which the human voice is transmitted through the electric
conductor, by mechanism that imposes through its extreme simplicity.
In this connection the names of Reiss, Graham Bell, Edison, and Hughes
are those chiefly deserving to be recorded.

Whilst electricity has thus furnished us with the means of flashing
our thoughts by record or by voice from place to place, its use is now
gradually extending for the achievement of such quantitative effects as
the production of light, the transmission of mechanical power, and the
precipitation of metals. The principle involved in the magneto-electric
and dynamo-electric machines, by which these effects are accomplished,
may be traced to Faraday’s discovery in 1831 of the induced current, but
their realisation to the labours of Holmes, Siemens, Pacinotti, Gramme,
and others. In the electric light, gas-lighting has found a formidable
competitor, which appears destined to take its place in public illumination,
and in lighting large halls, works, &c., for which purposes it combines
brilliancy and freedom from obnoxious products of combustion, with
comparative cheapness. The electric light seems also to threaten, when
sub-divided in the manner recently devised by Edison, Swan, and others,
to make inroads into our dwelling-houses.

By the electric transmission of power, we may hope some day to
utilise at a distance such natural sources of energy as the Falls of
Niagara, and to work our cranes, lifts, and machinery of every descrip-
tion by means of sources of power arranged at convenient centres. To
these applications the brothers Siemens have more recently added the
propulsion of trains by currents passing through the rails, the fusion
in considerable quantities of highly refractory substances, and the use of
electric centres of light in horticulture as proposed by Werner and William .
Siemens. By an essential improvement by Faure of the Planté Secondary
Battery, the problem of storing electrical energy appears to have received
a practical solution, the real importance of which is clearly proved by Sir
‘William Thomson’s recent investigation of the subject.

It would be difficult to assign the limits to which this development of
electrical energy may not be rendered serviceable for the purposes of man.

As regards mathematics I have felt that it would be impossible for
me, even with the kindest help, to write anything myself. Mr. Spottis-
woode, however, has been so good as to supply me with the following
memorandum.

In a complete survey of the progress of science during the half-century
which has intervened between our first and our present meeting, the part
played by mathematics would form no insignificant feature. To those
indeed who are outside its enchanted circle it is difficult to realise the
intense intellectual energy which actuates its devotees, or the wide
expanse over which that energy ranges. Some measure, however, of its

ADDRESS. 39

progress may perhaps be formed by considering, in one or two cases,
from what simple principles some of the great recent: developments have
taken their origin.

Consider, for instance, what is known as the principle of signs, In
geometry we are concerned with quantities such as lines and angles; and
in the old systems a proposition was proved with reference to a particular
figure. This figure might, it is true, be drawn in any manner within
certain ranges of limitation; but if the limits were exceeded, a new
proof, and often a new enunciation, became necessary. Gradually, how-
ever, it came to be perceived (e.g. by Carnot, in his ‘Géometrie de
Position,’) that some propositions were true even when the quantities were
reversed in direction. Hence followed a recognition of the principle (of
signs) that every line should be regarded as a directed line, and every
angle as measured in a definite direction. By means of this simple con-
sideration, geometry has acquired a power similar to that of algebra, viz.
of changing the signs of the quantities and transposing their positions, so
as at once, and without fresh demonstration, to give rise to new propo-
sitions.

To take another instance. The properties of triangles, as established
by Euclid, have always been considered as legitimate elements of proof ;
so that, when in any figure two triangles occur, their relations may be
used as steps in a demonstration. But, within the period of which I am
speaking, other general geometrical relations, e.g. those of a pencil of
rays, or of their intersection with a straight line, have been recognised as
serving a similar purpose. With what extensive results this generalisa-
tion has been attended, the Géometrie Supérieure of the late:'M. Chasles,
and all the superstructure built on Anharmonic Ratio as a foundation,
will be sufficient evidence.

Once more, the algebraical expression for a line ora plane involves two
sets of quantities, the one relating to the position of any point in the line
or plane, and the other relating to the position of the line or plane in
space. The former set alone were originally considered variable, the latter
constant. But as soon as it was seen that either set might at pleasure be
regarded as variable, there was opened out to mathematicians the whole
field of duality within geometry proper, and the theory of correlative
figures which is destined to occupy a prominent position in the domain of
mathematics.

Not unconnected with this is the marvellous extension which the
transformation of geometrical figures has received very largely from
Cremona and the Italian school, and which in the hands of our country-
men Hirst and the late Professor Clifford, has already brought forth such
abundant frnit.. In this, it may be added, there lay—dormant, it is true,
and long unnoticed—the principle whereby circular may be converted into
rectilinear motion, and vice versd,—a problem which until the time of
Peaucillier seemed so far from solution, that one of the greatest mathe-
maticians of the day thought that he had proved its entire impossibility.

40 REPORT—1881.

In the hands of Sylvester, of Kempe, and others, this principle has
been developed into a general theory of link-work, on which the last word
has not yet been said.

If time permitted, I might point out how the study of particular
geometric figures, such as curves and surfaces, has been in many instances
replaced by that of systems of figures infinite in number, and indeed of
various degrees of infinitude. Such, for instance, are Plicker’s com-
plexes and congruencies. I might describe also how Riemann taught us
that surfaces need not present simple extension without thickness ; but.
that, without losing their essential geometric character, they may consist
of manifold sheets; and thus our conception of space, and our power
of interpreting otherwise perplexing algebraical expressions, become
immensely enlarged.

Other generalisations might be mentioned, such as the principle of
continuity, the use of imaginary quantities, the extension of the number
of the dimensions of space, the recognition of systems in which the
axioms of Euclid have no place. But as these were discussed in a recent
address, I need not now do more than remind you that the germs of the
great calculus of Quaternions were first announced by their author, the
late Sir W. R. Hamilton, at one of our meetings.

Passing from geometry proper to the other great branch of mathe-
matical machinery, viz. algebra, it is not too much to say that within
the period now in review there has grown up a modern algebra which
to our founders would have appeared like a confused dream, and whose
very language and terminology would be as an unknown tongue.

Into this subject I do not propose to lead you far. But, as the
progress which has been made in this direction is certainly not less than
that made in geometry, I will ask your attention to one or two points
which stand notably prominent.

In algebra we use ordinary equations involving one unknown quan-
tity ; in the application of algebra to geometry we meet with equations,
representing curves or surfaces, and involving two, or three, unknown
quantities respectively ; in the theory of probabilities, and in other branches
of research, we employ still more general expressions. Now the modern
algebra, originating with Cayley and Sylvester, regards all these diverse:
expressions as belonging to one and the same family, and comprises them
all under the same general term ‘quantics.’ Studied from this point of
view, they all alike give rise to a class of derivative forms, previously
unnoticed, but now known as invariants, covariants, canonical forms, etc.
By means of these, mathematicians have arrived not only at many pro-
perties of the quantics themselves, but also, at their application to physical
problems. It would be a long and perhaps invidious task to enumerate
the many workers in this fertile field of research, especially in the schools
of Germany and of Italy ; but it is perhaps the less necessary to do so,
because Sylvester, aided by a young and vigorous staff at Baltimore,
is welding many of these results into a homogeneous mass in the

ADDRESS. 4}

classical memoirs which are appearing from time to time in the
* American Journal of Mathematics.’

In order to remove any impression that these extensions of algebra
are merely barren speculations of ingenious intellects, I may add that,
many of these derivative forms, at least in their elementary stages, have
already found their way into the text-books of mathematics; and one
class in particular, known by the name of determinants, is now introduced
as a recognised method of algebra, greatly to the convenience of all those
who become masters of its use.

In the extension of mathematics it has happened more than once that
laws have been established so simple in form, and so obvious in their
necessity, as scarcely to require proof. And yet their application is often
of the highest importance in checking conclusions which have been
drawn from other considerations, as well as in leading to conclusions
which, without their aid, might have been difficult of attainment. The
same thing has occurred also in physics; and notably in the recognition
of what has been termed the ‘ Law of the Conservation of Energy.’

Energy has been defined to be‘ The capacity, or power, of any body,
or system of bodies, when ina given condition, to do a measurable quantity
of work.’ Such work may either change the condition of the bodies
in question, or it may affect other bodies; but in either case energy is
expended by the agent upon the recipient in performance of the work.
The law then states that the total amount of energy in the agents and
recipients taken together remains unaltered by the changes in question.

Now the principle on which the law depends is this: ‘that every kind
of change among the bodies may be expressed numerically in one standard
unit of change, viz., work done, in such wise that the result of the
passage of any system from one condition to another may be calculated
by mere additions and subtractions, even when we do not know how the
change came about. This being so, all work done by a system may be
expressed as a diminution of energy of that system, and all work done
upon a system as an accession of energy. Consequently, the energy lost
by one system in performance of work will be gained by another in having
' work done upon it, and the total energy, as between the two systems, will
remain unchanged.

There are two cases, or conditions, of energy which, although sub-
stantially the same, are for convenience regarded separately. These may
be illustrated by the following example. Work may be done upon a body,
and energy communicated to it, by setting it in motion, e.g. by lifting it
against gravity. Suppose this to be done by a spring and detent ; and
suppose further the body, on reaching its highest point, to be caught so
as to rest at that level ona support. Then, whether we consider the body
at the moment of starting, or when resting on the support, it has equally
received an accession of energy from the spring, and is therefore equally
capable of communicating energy to a third body, But in the one case
this is due to the motion which it has acquired, and in the other to the

42 REPORT—1881.

position at which it rests, and to its capability of falling again when the
support is removed. Energy in the first of these states is called ‘ Energy
of Motion,’ or ‘ Kinetic Energy,’ and that in the second state, ‘Energy of
Position,’ or ‘ Potential Energy.’ In the case supposed, at the moment of
starting, the whole of the energy is kinetic ; as the body rises, the energy
becomes partly potential and partly kinetic; and when it reaches the
highest point the energy has become wholly potential. Ifthe body be
again dropped, the process is reversed.

The history of a discovery, or invention, so simple at first sight, is
often found to be more complicated the more thoroughly it is examined.
That which at first seems to have been due to a single mind proves to
have been the result of the successive action of many minds. Attempts
-more or less successful in the same direction are frequently traced out ;
and even unsuccessful efforts may not have been without influence on
minds turned towards the same object. Lastly also, germs of thought,
originally not fully understood, sometimes prove in the end to have been
the first stages of growth towards ultimate fruit. The history of the law
of the conservation of energy forms no exception to this order of events.
There are those who discern even in the writings of Newton expressions
which show that he was in possession of some ideas which, if followed
out in a direct line of thought, would lead to those now entertained on
the subjects of energy and of work. But however this may be, and
whosoever might be reckoned among the earlier contributors to the general
subject of energy, and to the establishment of its laws, it is certain that
within the period of which I am now speaking, the names of Séguin,
Clausius, Helmholtz, Mayer, and Colding on the Continent, and those
of Grove, Joule, Rankine, and Thomson in this country, will always be
associated with this great work.

I must not, however, quit this subject without a passing notice of a
conclusion to which Sir William Thomson has come, and in which he is
followed by others who have pursued the transformation of energy to some
of its ultimate consequences. The nature of this will perhaps be most
easily apprehended by reference to a single instance. In a steam engine,
or other engine, in which the motive power depends upon heat, it is well
known that the source of power lies not in the general temperature of the
whole, but merely on the difference of temperature between that of the
boiler and that of the condenser. And the effect of the condenser is to
reduce the steam issuing from the boiler to the same temperature as that of
the condenser. When this is once done, no more work can be got out of
the engine, unless fresh heat be supplied from an outside source to the:
boiler. The heat originally communicated to the boiler has become
uniformly diffused, and the energy due to that difference is said to have
been dissipated. The energy remains in a potential condition as regards
other bodies; but as regards the engine, it is of no further use. Now
suppose that we regard the entire material universe as a gigantic engine,
and that after long use we have exhausted all the fuel (in its most general

ADDRESS. 43

sense) in the world; then all the energy available will have become dis-
sipated, and we shall have arrived at a condition of things from which
there is no apparent escape. This is what is called the ‘ Dissipation of
Energy.’

Prof. Frankland has been so good as to draw up for me the following”
account of the progress of Chemistry during the last half-century.

Most of the elements had been discovered before 1830, the majority
of the rarer elements since the beginning of the century. In addition to
these the following five have been discovered, three of them by Mosander,
viz.:—lanthanum in 1839, didymium in 1842, and erbium in 1843.
Ruthenium was discovered by Claus in 1843, and niobium by Rose in
1844. | Spectrum Analysis has added five to the list, viz.:—Czsium and
rubidium, which were discovered by Bunsen and Kirchhoff in 1860; thal-
lium, by Crookes in 1861; indium, by Reich and Richter in 1863; and
gallium, by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875.

As regards theoretical views, the atomic theory, the foundation of
scientific chemistry, had been propounded by Dalton (1804-1808). The
.three laws which have been chiefly instrumental in establishing the true
atomic weights of the elements—the law of Avogadro (1811), that equal
volumes of gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure
contain equal numbers of molecules ; the law of Dulong and Petit (1819),
that the capacities for heat of the atoms of the various elements are
equal; and Mitscherlich’s law of isomorphism (1819), according to which
equal numbers of atoms of elements belonging to the same class may
replace each other in a compound without altering the crystalline form
of the latter, had been enunciated in quick succession; but the true ap-
plication of these three laws, though in every case distinctly stated by
the discoverers, failed to be generally made, and it was not till the rectifi-
cation of the atomic weights by Cannizzaro, in 1858, that these important
discoveries bore fruit.

In organic chemistry the views most generally held about the year
1830 were expressed in the radical theory of Berzelius. This theory,
which was first stated in its electro-chemical and dualistic form by its
author in 1817, received a further development at his hands in 1834
after the discovery of the benzoyl-radical by Liebig and Wohler. In the
same year (1834), however, a discovery was made by Dumas, which was
destined profoundly to modify the electro-chemical portion of the theory,
and even to overthrow the form of it put forth by Berzelius. Dumas
showed that an electro-negative element, such as chlorine, might replace,
atom for atom, an electro-positive element like hydrogen, in some cases
without much alteration in the character of the compound. This law of
substitution has formed a necessary: portion of every chemical theory
which has been proposed since its discovery, and its importance has
increased with the progress of the science. It would take too long to
enumerate all the theoretical views which have prevailed at various times

44 REPORT—1881.

during the past fifty years; but the theory which along with the radical
theory has exercised most influence on the development of the views now
held, is the theory of types, first stated by Dumas (1839) and developed
in a different form and amalgamated with the radical theory by Gerhardt
and Williamson (1848-1852). It is, however, the less necessary to refer
in detail to these views, seeing that in the now prevailing theory of atomi-
city we possess a generalisation which, while greatly extending the scope
of chemical science in its power of classifying known and predicting
unknown facts, includes all that was valuable in the generalisations
which preceded it. The study of the behaviour of organo-metallic
compounds in chemical reactions led to the conclusion that various
metallic elements possess a definite capacity of saturation with regard to
the number of atoms of other elements with which they can combine,
and demonstrated this regularity of atom-fixing power in the case of
zine, tin, arsenic, and antimony. A serious obstacle, however, in the
way of determining the true atomicities of the elements was the general
employment of the old so-called equivalent weights which were by most
chemists confonnded with the atomic weights. This difficulty was
removed by the rectification of the atomic weights, which, though begun
by Gerhardt as early as 1842, met for a long time with but little recog-
nition, and was not completed till the subject was taken up by Cannizzaro
in 1858. The law of atomicity has given to chemistry an exactness
which it did not previously possess, and since its discovery and recog-
nition chemical research has moved very much on the lines laid down by
this law.

Chemists have been engaged in determining, by means of decom-
positions, the molecular architecture, or constitution as it is called, of
various compounds, natural and artificial, and in verifying by synthesis
the correctness of the views thus arrived at.

It was long supposed that an impassable barrier existed between
inorganic and organic substances: that the chemist could make the
former in his laboratory, while the latter could only be produced in the
living bodies of animals or plants,—requiring for their construction not
only chemical attraction, but a supposed ‘ vital force.’ It was not until
1828 that Wohler broke down this barrier by the synthetic production of
urea, and since his time this branch of science, in the hands of Hofmann,
Wurtz, Berthelot, Butlerow, and others, has made great strides. In-
numerable natural compounds have thus been produced in the labora-
tory-—ranging from bodies of relatively simple constitution, such as the
alcohols and acids of the fatty series, to bodies of such complex mole-
cular structure as alizarin (the principal colouring matter of madder),
coumarin (the odoriferous principle of the tonqua bean), vanillin, and
indigo. The problem of the natural alkaloids has also been attacked, in
some cases with more than partial success. Methylconine, which occurs
along with conine in the hemlock, has been recently prepared artificially
by Michael and Gundelach, this being the first instance of the synthesis

ADDRESS. 45

of a natural alkaloid. A proximate synthesis of atropine, the alkaloid of
the deadly nightshade, has been accomplished by Ladenburg. I+ seems
further probable that at no distant date the useful alkaloids, such as
quinine, may also be synthesised, inasmuch as quinoline, one of the pro-
ducts of the decomposition of quinine and of some of the allied bases,
has recently been prepared by Skraup by a method which admits of its
being obtained in any quantity.

Much also has been done in the way of building up compounds the
existence of which was predicted by theory. Indeed the extent to which
hitherto undiscovered substances can be predicated is doubtless the
greatest triumph achieved by chemists during the past fifty years.

As yet, however, only the statical side of chemistry has been de-
veloped. Whilst the physicist has been engaged in tracing, for the
gaseous condition at least, the paths of the molecules and calculating
their velocities, the chemist, whose business is with the atoms within
the molecule, can point to no such scientific conquests. All that he
knows concerning the intramolecular atoms, and all that he expresses
in his constitutional formule is, the particular relation of union in which
each of these atoms stands to the others—which of them are directly
united (as he expresses it) to other given atoms, and which of them are
in indirect union. Of the relative positions in space occupied by these
atoms, and of their modes of motion, he is absolutely ignorant. In like
manner in a chemical reaction the initial and final conditions of the
reacting substances are known, but the intermediate stages—the modes
of change—are for the most part unexplained.

The feeling that no number, however great, of successfully solved
problems of constitutional chemistry (as at present understood), and
no number of syntheses, however brilliant, of natural: compounds, could
raise chemistry above the statical stage—that the solution of the dyna-
mical problem cannot be arrived at by purely chemical means—has led
many chemists to approach the subject from the physical side. The
results which the physico-chemical methods, as exemplified in the laws
already alluded to of Dulong and Petit, Avogadro, and Mitscherlich,
have yielded in the past, offer the best guarantee of their success in
the future. And the advantages of many of the physical methods are
obvious. Every purely chemical examination—whether proximate or
ultimate—of a compound, presupposes the destruction of the substance
under examination : the chemist ‘murders to dissect.’ But observations
on the action of a substance on the rays of light, on the relative volumes
occupied by molecular quantities of a substance, on its velocity of trans-
piration in the liquid or gaseous state—these teach us the habits of
the living substance. The rays of light which have threaded their way
between the molecules of a body have undergone, in contact with these
molecules, various specific and measurable changes, the nature and
amount of which are assuredly conditioned by the mass, form, and other
properties of the molecules: the plane of polarisation has been caused to

46 REPORT—1881.

rotate; a particular degree of refraction has been imparted; or rays of
certain wave-lengths have been removed by absorption, their absence
being manifested by bands in the absorption-spectrum of the substance.
The volumes occupied by molecular quantities are dependent partly on the
size of the molecules and partly on that of the intermolecular spaces.

The duty of the physical chemist is to endeavour to co-ordinate his
physical observations with the known constitution of compounds as
already determined by the pure chemist. This endeavour has in various
branches of physical chemistry been to some extent successful. Le Bel
has found that among organic compounds those only possess action on
the plane of polarised light which contain at least one asymmetric car-
bon atom—that is to say, a carbon atom which is united to four different
atoms or groups of atoms. The researches of Landolt, of Gladstone,
and of Briihl on the specific refraction of organic liquids, have shown
that from the known constitution of a liquid organic compound it is
possible to calculate its specific refraction. Noel Hartley, in an examina-
tion of the absorption-spectra of organic liquids for the ultra-violet rays,
has demonstrated that certain molecular groupings are represented by
particular absorption-bands, and this line of inquiry has been extended,
with very interesting results, to the ultra-red rays by Abney and Festing.
It is obvious that these methods may in turn be employed to determine
the unknown constitution of substances. The same holds true of the
investigations of Kopp with regard to the molecular volumes of liquids at
their boiling-points, in which he has established the remarkable fact that
some elements always possess the same atomic volume in combination,
whereas, in the case of certain other elements, the atomic volume varies
in a perfectly definite manner with the mode of combination. This in-
vestigation has lately been extended with the best results by Thorpe and
by Ramsay. Thermo-chemistry, also, which for a long time, at least as
regards that portion which relates to the heat of formation of compounds,
consisted chiefly of a collection of single equations, each containing three
unknown quantities, is beginning to be interpreted by Julius Thomsen,
whose experimental work in this field is well known. Many other
methods of physico-chemical research are being successfully prosecuted
at the present day, but it would go beyond the bounds of this summary
even to enumerate these.

The concordant results obtained by these widely differing methods
show that those chemists who have devoted themselves, frequently amid
the ridicule of their more practical brethren, to ascertaining by purely
chemical methods the constitution of compounds, have not laboured in
yain, But the future doubtless belongs to physical chemistry.

In connection with the rectification of the atomic weights it may be
mentioned that a so-called natural system of the elements has been intro-
duced by Mendelejeff (1869), in which the properties of the elements
appear as a periodic fanction of their atomic weights. By the aid of this
system it has been possible to predict the properties and atomic weights

ADDRESS. 47

of undiscovered elements, and in the case of known elements to determine
many atomic weights which had not been fixed by any of the usual
methods. Several of these predictions have been verified in a remarkable
manner. A periodicity in the atomic weights of elements belonging to
the same class had been pointed out by Newlands about four years before
the publication of Mendelejeff’s memoir.

In mechanical science the progress has not been less remarkable
than in other branches. Indeed to the improvements in mechanics we
owe no small part of our advance in practical civilization, and of the
increase of our national prosperity during the last fifty years.

This immense development of mechanical science has been to a great
extent a consequence of the new processes which have been adopted in
the manufacture of iron, for the following data with reference to which I
am mainly indebted to Captain Douglas Galton and Mr. Stuart Rendel.
About 1830, Neilson introduced the Hot Blast in the smelting of iron,
At first a temperature of 600° or 700° Fahrenheit was obtained, but
Cowper subsequently applied Siemens’ regenerative furnace for heating
the blast, chiefly by means of fumes from the blast farnace, which were
formerly wasted ; and the temperature now practically in use is as much
as 1,400° or even more: the result is a very great economy of fuel and
an increase of the output. For instance, in 1830, a blast furnace with
the cold blast would probably produce 130 tons per week, whereas now,
600 tons a week are readily obtained.

Bessemer, by his brilliant discovery, which he first brought before the
British Association at Cheltenham in 1856, showed that Iron and Steel
could be produced by forcing currents of atmospheric air through fluid
pig metal, thus avoiding for the first time the intermediate process of
puddling iron, and converting it by cementation into steel, Similarly by
Siemens’ regenerative furnace, the pig metal and iron ore is converted
directly into steel, especially mild steel for shipbuilding and boilers; and
Whitworth, by his fluid compression of steel, is enabled to produce steel in
the highest condition of density and strength of which the metal is capable.
These changes, by which steel can be produced direct from the blast
furnace instead of by the more cumbersome processes formerly in use,
haye been followed by improvements in the manipulation of the metal.

The inventions of Cort and others were known long before 1830, but
we were then still without the most powerful tool in the hands of the
practical metallurgist, viz., Nasmyth’s steam-hammer,

Steel can now be produced as cheaply as iron was formerly ; and its
snbstitution for iron as railway material and in shipbuilding, has resulted
in increased safety in railway travelling, as well as in economy, from its
vastly greater durability. Moreover, the enlarged use of iron and steel,
which has resulted from these improvements in its make, has led to the
adoption of mechanical means to supersede hand labor in almost every
branch of trade and agriculture, by which the power of production has

48 REPORT—1881.

been increased a hundredfold, while at the same time much higher pre-
cision has been obtained. Sir Joseph Whitworth has done more than any
one else to perfect the machinery of this country by the continued efforts
he has made, during nearly half-a-century, to introduce accuracy into the
standards of measurement in usein workshops. He tells us that when he
first established his works, no two articles could be made accurately alike
or with interchangeable parts. He devised a measuring apparatus, by
which his workmen in making standard gauges are accustomed to take
measurements to the sg}5, of an inch.

Tn its more immediate relation to the objects of this Association, the
increased importance of iron and steel has led to numerous scientific
investigations into its mechancial properties and into the laws which
govern its strength; into the proper distribution of the material in con-
struction ; and into the conditions which govern the friction and adhesion
of surfaces. The names of Haton Hodgkinson, Fairbairn, Barlow,
Rennie, Scott Russell, Willis, Fleeming Jenkin, and Galton are promi-
nently associated with these inquiries.

The introduction of iron has, moreover, had a vast influence on the
works of both the civil and military engineer. Before 1830, Telford had
constructed an iron suspension turnpike-road bridge of 560 feet over the
Menai Straits; but this bridge was not adapted to the heavy weights of °
locomotive engines. At the present time, with steel at his command, Mr.
Fowler is engaged in carrying out the design for a railway bridge over
the Forth, of two spans of 1,700 feet each; that is to say, of nearly one
third of a mile in length. In artillery, bronze has given place to wrought
iron and steel; the 68-pound shot, which was the heaviest projectile fifty
years ago, with its range of about 1,200 yards, is being replaced by a shot
of nearly a quarter-ton weight, with a range of nearly five miles; and
the armour-plates of ships are daily obtaining new developments.

But it is in railroads, steamers, and the electric telegraph that the
progress of mechanical science has most strikingly contributed to the
welfare of man.

As regards railways, the Stockton and Darlington Railway was
opened in 1825, but the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, perhaps the
first truly passenger line, dates from 1830, while the present mileage of
railways is over 200,600 miles, costing nearly 4,000,000,000/. sterling.
Tt was not until 1838 that the Sirius and Great Western first steamed
across the Atlantic. The steamer, in fact, is an excellent epitome of the
progress of the half-century; the paddle has been superseded by the
screw ; the compound has replaced the simple engine ; wood has given place
to iron, and iron in its turn to steel. The saving in dead weight, by this
improvement alone, is from 10 to 16 per cent. The speed has been in-
creased from 9 knots to 15, or even more. Lastly, the steam-pressure has
been increased from less than 5 lbs. to 70 Ibs. per square inch, while the
consumption of coal has been brought down from 5 or 6 lbs. per horse-power
to less than 2. It is a remarkable fact that not only is our British

ADDRESS. 49

shipping rapidly on the increase, but it is increasing relatively to that
of the rest of the world. In 1860 our tonnage was 5,700,000 against
7,200,000 ; while it may now be placed as 8,500,000 against 8,200,000;
so that considerably more than half the whole shipping of the world
belongs to this country.

If I say little with reference to economic science and statistics it is
because time, not materials, are wanting.

I scarcely think that in the present state of the question I can be
accused of wandering into politics if I observe that the establishment of
the doctrine of free trade as a scientific truth falls within the period
under review.

In education some progress has been made towards a more rational
system. When I was a boy, neither science, nor modern languages, nor
arithmetic formed any part of the public school system of the country.
This is now happily changed. Much, however, still remains to be done.
Too little time is still devoted to French and German, and it is much to
be regretted that even in some of our best schools they are taught as dead
languages. Lastly, with few exceptions, only one or two hours a week
on an average are devoted to science. We have, I am sure, none of us
any desire to exclude, or discourage, literature. What we ask is that, say,
six hours a week each should be devoted to mathematics, modern lan-
guages, and science—an arrangement which would still leave twenty
hours for Latin and Greek. I admit the difficulties which schoolmasters
have to contend with; nevertheless, when we consider what science has
done and is doing for us, we cannot but consider that our present system
of education is, in the words of the Duke of Devonshire’s Commission,
little less than a national misfortune.

In ‘agriculture the changes which have occurred in the period since
1831 have been immense. The last half-century has witnessed the in-
troduction of the modern system of subsoil drainage, founded on the ex-
periments of Smith of Deanston. The thrashing and drilling machines
were the most advanced forms of machinery in use in 1831. Since then
there have been introduced the steam-plough; the mowing-machine; the
reaping-machine, which not only cuts the corn but binds it into sheaves ;
while the steam-engine thrashes out the grain and builds the ricks.
Science has thus greatly reduced the actual cost of labour, and yet it has
increased the wages of the labourer.

It was to the British Association, at Glasgow in 184], that Baron
Liebig first communicated his work ‘On the Application of Chemistry to
_ Vegetable Physiology,’ while we have also from time to time received
accounts of the persevering and important experiments which Mr. Lawes,
with the assistance of Dr. Gilbert, has now carried on for more than
forty years at Rothamsted, and which have given so great an impulse to
agriculture by directing attention to the principles of cropping, and by
leading to the more philosophical application of manures.

1881. E

50 REPORT—1881.

I feel that in quitting Section F so soon, I owe an apology to our
fellow-workers in that branch of science, but I doubt not that my short-
comings will be more than made up for by the address of their excellent
President, Mr. Grant-Duff, whose appointment to the Governorship of
Madras, while occasioning so sad a loss to his friends, will unquestion-
ably prove a great advantage to India, and materially conduce to the -
progress of science in that country.

Moreover, several other subjects of much importance, which might
have been referred to in connection with these latter Sections, I have
already dealt with under their more purely scientific aspect.

Indeed, one very marked feature in modern discovery is the manner
in which distinct branches of science have thrown, and are throwing,
light on one another. Thus the study of geographical distribution of
living beings, to the knowledge of which our late general secretary, Mr.
Sclater, has so greatly contributed, has done much to illustrate ancient
geography. ‘The existence of high northern forms in the Pyrenees and
Alps indicates the existence of a period of cold when Arctic species
occupied the whole of habitable Europe. Wallace’s line—as it has been
justly named after that distinguished naturalist—points to the very
ancient separation between the Malayan and Australian regions; and
the study of corals has thrown light upon the nature and significance of
atolls and barrier-reefs.

In studying the antiquity of man, the archeologist has to invoke the
aid of the chemist, the geologist, the physicist, and the mathematician.
The recent progress in astronomy is greatly due to physics and chemistry.
In geology the composition of rocks is a question of chemistry and physics;
the determination of the boundaries of the different formations falls within
the limits of geography ; while paleontology is the biology of the past.

And now I must conclude. I fear I ought to apologise to you for
keeping you so long, but still more strongly do I wish to express my
regret that there are almost innumerable researches of great interest and
importance which fall within the last fifty years (many even among those
with which our Association has been connected) to which I have found it
impossible to refer. Such for instance are, in biology alone, Ovwen’s
memorable report on the homologies of the vertebrate skeleton,
Carpenter’s laborious researches on the microscopic structure of shells,
the reports on marine zoology by Allman, Forbes, Jeffreys, Spence Bate,
Norman, and others ; on Kent’s Cavern by Pengelly, those by Duncan on
corals ; Woodward on crustacea ; Carruthers, Williamson, and others on
fossil botany, and many more. Indeed no one who has not had occasion
to study the progress of science throughout its various departments can
have any idea how enormous—how unprecedented—the advance has been.

Though it is difficult, indeed impossible, to measure exactly the extent
of the influence exercised by this Association, no one can doubt that it
has been very considerable. For my own part, I must acknowledge with
gratitude how much the interest of my life has been enhanced by the

ADDRESS. y 51

stimulus of our meetings, by the lectures and memoirs to which I have
had the advantage of listening, and above all, by the many friendships
which I owe to this Association.

Summing up the principal results which have been attained in the last
half-century we may mention (over and above the accumulation of facts)
the theory of evolution, the antiquity of man, and the far greater anti-
quity of the world itself; the correlation of physical forces and the con-
servation of energy ; spectrum analysis and its application to celestial
physics; the higher algebra and the modern geometry; lastly, the in-
numerable applications of science to practical life—as, for instance, in
photography, the locomotive engine, the electric telegraph, the spectro-
scope, and most recently the electric light and the telephone.

To science, again, we owe the idea of progress. The ancients, says
Bagehot, ‘had no conception of progress; they did not so much as
reject the idea; they did not even entertain it.’ It is not, I think, going
too far to say that the true test of the civilisation of a nation must now
be measured by its progress in science. It is often said, however, that
great and unexpected as the recent discoveries have been, there are certain
ultimate problems which must ever remain unsolved. For my part I would
prefer to abstain from laying down any such limitations. When Park
asked the Arabs what became of the sun at night, and whether the sun was
always the same, or new each day, they replied that such a question was
childish and entirely beyond the reach of human investigation. I have
already mentioned that, even as lately as 1842, so high an authority as
Comte treated as obviously impossible and hopeless any attempt to
determine the chemical composition of the heavenly bodies. Doubtless
there are questions, the solution of which we do not as yet see our way
even to attempt; nevertheless the experience of the past warns us not
to limit the possibilities of the future,

But however this may be, though the progress made has been so rapid,
and though no similar period in the world’s history has been nearly so
prolific of great results, yet, on the other hand, the prospects of the
future were never more encouraging. We must not, indeed, shut our
eyes to the possibility of failure; the temptation to military ambition ;
the tendency to over-interference by the state; the spirit of anarchy and
socialism; these and other elements of danger may mar the fair prospects
of the future. That they will succeed, however, in doing so, I cannot
believe. I cannot but feel confident that fifty years hence, when
perhaps the city of York may renew its hospitable invitation, my suc-
cessor in this chair—more competent, I trust, than I have been to do
justice to so grand a theme—will have to record a series of discoveries
even more unexpected and more brilliant than those which I have, I fear
so imperfectly, attempted to bring before you this evening, for assuredly
one great lesson which science teaches is, how little we yet know, and how

much we have still to learn.
B2

REPORTS

ON THE

STATH OF SCIENCE.

Px %
SRO 1.

/ <t. ~ .
“Us8y 19

Bm Mae ee ol Sone ox on a
Rey Te Pe LOR i

‘

REPORTS

ON THE

STATE OF SCIENCE.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor SYLVESTER, Profes-
sor CAYLEY, and Professor Saumon, for the calculation of Tables
of the Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms.

THE principal work performed by aid of the grant to the Committee
during the past year has been the calculation of the irreducible invariants
and covariants appertaining to the binary quantics of the 12th order by
Mr. F. Franklin, of Baltimore, under the direction of Professor Sylvester.
A brief synopsis of the result of this enormous computation is annexed.

Tasie of the Grounp-rorMs to the Binary Octavic Form.

Orders in) o | 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 10 | 12| 14 |16|18)20| 22) 24) 26 | 28 | 30} 34

1p — foe p—pe} ey fj] = | eH HH I I

2} 1/—|] 1}/—] 1}/—] 1 1 1 —|—}—|—|—
gg PP Sa IAS i vn a pl )- t aK
yet re PSS me WE a8 Re Sy ek Va ie i a
Rees rae) DB) 405)) ag furor gh 6M) QoMae lt Ge Biba} Wel Dp ee pe
€ 6} 4/ 4} 9] 11| 12 | 14 | 10} 12/3 })5 |—|—|—|—|—]—|—
Me 7[e56S)|) 10} 15} 20) 18.) 2161 > (hn8el ay) ahs | ali [lise]
= |) 8| 7| 16] 24} 29) 21 | 21 | —| —|—|—|—|—|— —|—|—|—
‘= | 9] 9/ 28] 33] 37/15 | —}| —| —|—|—]|--|—|—|— Ll pie tha
2 | 10| 14| 39/ 41} 30) —| —| —} —]—}—]—|—|—|— mes fee
Bmeiiets| 53.40) — | — | —.|— h— |= || |= py | ee
AQ | 12} 19] 56) 7] —| —| —| —| — Eich VO

emi eee ee | See ee a

|) ECR a GS ag ay (AR Cas) ley es ee ey pe
948 = | 109) 252| 179/136] 80 | 68 | 33 | 35 |13)17; 7) 8|3)4)1/2) 1

Total No. of Ground-forms (counting in the quantic itself and the absolute constant)
= 949,

It may be noticed that the highest order in the variables which ap-
pears in this table is 34, coinciding with the ‘superior limit’ furnished

56 REPORT—1881.

by M. Camille Jordan’s law; so that in this, as has also been proved to
be the case for all the forms of the 10th and lower orders, this so-called
limit to the order is the actual highest order itself.

The computation of the ground-forms to the binary quantic of the
11th order, on account of the immense length of the caleulations which
it would involve, has not been undertaken. It is to be hoped that this
may some day be accomplished, as it is probable that the generating func-
tion for this case would, like that for the 7th order, reveal some pecu-
liar features not observable in the generating function for quantics, the
orders of which are multiples of 2, 3, or 5.

Since the publication of the lists of ground-forms (calculated by aid
of the British Association grant) in the ‘American Journal of Mathe-
matics,’ Dr. Von Gall, of Mainz, has rendered a very important service
to algebraical science by applying the German method to the ascertain-
ment of the ground-forms of the binary quantic of the 8th order, and
his final results have been brought into perfect accordance with those
contained in the lists above referred to, with the exception of one single
form of the deg-order 10-4, which he has not been able to decompose, but
which ought to be reducible if the fundamental postula e employed in
the English method is valid. It became, therefore, a matter of great
importance to demonstrate that no ground-form of such deg-order can
exist, for this will probably be the last occasion when it will be possible
to compare the results obtained by the two methods.

Accordingly, Professor Sylvester, in conjunction with Mr. Morgan
Jenkins, has calculated certain of the ground-forms for a particular func-
tion of the 8th order, and has thereby been able to demonstrate the
impossiblity of the existence of a ground-form of the deg-order in ques-
tion. This impossibility is made to depend ultimately on the fact that
the minor determinants of the 10th order belonging to a matrix 11 places
wide and 10 deep de not all vanish, and the correctness of the figures
appearing in this matrix is demonstrated by showing that a certain de-
terminant of the 11th order, formed by adding on another line of figures
to this matrix, does vanish, which is practically effected by testing its
value in respect to various numerical moduli. The calculations have
been made independently by Mr. Sylvester and Mr. Jenkins, and concur
in proving (to the highest degree of moral certainty) the correctness of
the previous work. The non-existence of the doubtful ground-form may
accordingly be regarded as now placed beyond all reasonable doubt.

A summary of the method employed, and the calculations to which
that method leads, has been sent for insertion in the ‘Comptes Rendus’
of the Institute of France, and the whole of the work will be reproduced
in detail in the forthcoming Number of the‘ American Journal of Mathe-
matics.’

RECENT PROGRESS IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 57

Report on Recent Progress in Hydrodynanics.—Part I.

By W. M. Hicks, M.A.

Av the meeting of the Association at Swansea, last year, I was requested
to draw up a report on the recent progress of hydrodynamics. I have
interpreted this to extend back to the time of the last report to the
Association, in 1846, by Professor Stokes. Though the period is
somewhat extended, and necessitates a report perhaps excessively long,
yet it seemed to me that this objection would be counterbalanced by tke
advantage of the different reports to the Association forming a connected
series. The period separates itself naturally into three divisions, of about
ten years each: from 1846 to the publication of Helmholtz’ paper on vortex
motion, in 1856; from then to the appearance of Thomson & Tait’s
‘Natural Philosophy,’ in 1866, which introduced a new general method
into the treatment of hydrodynamics, by the application of the
Lagrangian Equations of. Motion; and from the last period up to the pre-
sent time. I propose to consider the progress under the two heads of
(1.) General Theory and (JI.) Special Problems, though stress of other
engagements has prevented my completing the second part in time for
this meeting. I hope, however, to complete it before the next meeting
of the Association.

Under each head I have striven to keep as much as possible the
historical order in which the subjects have been developed, though, for
the sake of continuity, it has sometimes been necessary to deviate slightly
from this rule. It has not been an easy matter, out of such a rich field
of investigation, to decide what to include and what to leave out; but it
is hoped that the most important results obtained during the last forty
years will be found referred to, although the report does not pretend to
be in any sense a complete bibliography of hydrodynamics. Several
subjects, whose boundaries are not sharply defined, have been neglected
altogether, as they would almost require reports to themselves; such are,
for instance, the theory of sound and tides. The experimental side, also,
has not been considered, except in a few cases, in the way of reference.
These restrictions have been rendered necessary to keep the length of the
report within reasonable bounds.

I. Genxerat THEORY.

Under this head I propose to notice successively (a) treatment of
General Equations for a perfect fluid,-(b) Vortex Motion, (c) Discontinuous
Motion, (d) General Motion of solids in fluid (e) Viscosity, (f) Waves in
liquids.

(a) General Equations of motion of a perfect fluid.

In 1856, Clebsch published a paper! (it is signed ‘ August, 1854’)
on the motion of an ellipsoid in fluid. The first part of the paper is
devoted to a transformation of the ordinary equations when there is a
velocity potential to moving axes, and thence to orthogonal curvilinear
co-ordinates. He expresses the surface conditions in terms of the same
co-ordinates, and shows that the velocity potential is a linear function of
the quantities which would now be called generalised velocities and
rotations. He then gives the pressures in the same generalised form,

1 Crelle, 1856.

58 REPORT—1881.

and shows how they are simplified when the body has three planes of
symmetry. Jor this case he finds the generalised equations of motion in
terms of the pressures exerted on the surface of the solid, and considers
separately pure translation and pure rotation. Amongst results, he
notices that the fluid moves in ‘stream lines’ (in Faden), that the effect
of the fluid is to cause an apparent increase of mass, different in different
directions, a diminution of gravity; and states the following laws :—
‘The form of the curves on which the particles of the fluid appear to
move relatively to the centre of gravity of the body depends only on the
form of the body and the curve on which its centre of gravity moves.’
These results had already, several years before, been given by Stokes.!

In the next year appeared another paper, by the same author, On a
general transformation of the hydrodynamical equations.2, This is ex-
ceedingly general, and starts with the consideration of equations analogous
to the hydrodynamical equations in » variables, viz. :—

du du
=—! 4+ a4, —!4+4u,—
v)

ae au
d * dat ;

aE ea te bib? s

&c., together with
3 EI pe am Rn eT rar 1h)

dz, da, dz,
He takes n arbitrary functions a, a), ... + @,-—1, of the variables,
forms their Jacobian, and takes the minors of ao, to, eer Calling
%, dae

these A,,4,,... , they satisfy the equation

@A, 5- dAy

—! +— 0

dex, mi dz, a
The transformation now consists in making a, ... a, , the dependent
variables, being connected with the old ones by the equations wu, = Aj, &c.,

which is possible, since the equation (1) is satisfied. Introducing the
quantity T, defined by the equation 2T = A?, + .. + A?,, he proves
that the above equations are equivalent to others of the form

d da da dA

— (V-T)=A, — + A, — a era ern (

day ( ) day ates day ie dae (2)
where A, .. . are functions of a, ... a, _,. If the motion is steady,

these produce

dE
+r. =F see -1)) Sn = 3
we A (a a, 1) A da

The investigation is necessarily complicated, and the reader is referred,
for the full working out, to the paper itself. He shows, amongst other
things, that when the motion is steady, the equations are the conditions

that \| ... (T—F)dz, ... dx, is a maximum or minimum, Intro-

ducing the condition w, = me, &c., he shows that for steady motion,

the integrals are a, = const: &c., and that these give the lines of motion.
After reducing the foregoing results to the case of three variables, he shows
how to transform the independent variables to others. Lastly, he applies

1 «On some cases of fluid motion,’ Camb. Phil. Trans., viii. 2- Crelle, liv.

; RECENT PROGRESS IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 59

the theory developed above to the cases of two-dimensional motion, and
of symmetrical motion in planes throngh an axis. In the first case, the
4, @ give—one the planes in which the motion takes place, the other the
function introduced by Earnshaw (stream function) ; in the second case
the planes through the axis and Stokes’ stream function. It is interesting
to see how these functions appear, though introduced in such a different
manner from those of Earnshaw and Stokes. The two-dimensional
stream function was also employed by Meissel, in a short paper,
‘Ueber einen speciellen Fall des Ausflusses vom Wasser in einer verticalen
Ebene,”' apparently without being acquainted with its previous use by
Earnshaw and Stokes. Rankine, also, has used it in his paper on plane
water lines,? where it enters as expressing the flow across any line.

In the paper above referred to, Clebsch had reduced the case for
steady motion to one of making the energy a minimum, but he had not
succeeded in obtaining an analogous result for non-steady motion. This
question he takes up in a paper, published in Crelle,? ‘ Ueber die Integra-
tion der hydrodynamischen Gleichungen,’ but attacks the problem in a quite
different but original way. He introduces three functions, ¢, ~, m, so
that udz + vdy + wdz = d¢+ mdi. These can represent any general
motion of which a fiuid is capable; and the. velocities and vortex
components, at any point, are given by equations of the form

_ dg, a
u= re + m In’ &e.,

ox — A(m. ¥) an
COMES arts
or, expressed in quaternion language, vortex =} V ym yy. As in the.
arlier paper, he considers first the general case of any number of variables,

but we need only state the result as applicable to hydrodynamics. If
V denote the force potential, » the pressure, and p the density, the

equations make
alt (v — ®) dx dy dz dt
Pp

@ Maximum or minimum where

Vi Pa Pema the tet wt)
and uw, v, w are expressed as above. The integrals of the equations
u=%, v= 7, w = #, are shown to be m = const., / = const., and a third.
It is clear, from the equation vortex =4V (ym. yw), that the vortex

| filaments are given by the intersections of the surfaces m= const.,

w= const., and its strength is} T ym. Tyw sin 9, where @ is the angle
between the surfaces, or
2\ fd?
La st hele ) \ sin 0.

j dm? . dm? . dm
oa ee = =
3 a/ { (a t dy a; dz dx

Between these two last papers of Clebsch, appeared the well-known
md remarkable paper of Helmholtz in the same journal> on the integrals
f the hydrodynamical equations which correspond to vortex motion.
‘This will presently be noticed more fully under vortex motion, but atten-

1 Pogg. Ann., 95, 1855. 2 Transactions Royal Soc., 1864. 3 Crelle, Ba. lvi.
4 This is really the same as Hamilton’s theory of least action. * Crelle, lv.

60 REPORT—1881.

tion may be drawn here to the new method by which he expressed the
velocities of a fluid in the case of the most general motion by means of
functions L,M,N which give the velocities from
u=dP/de + dN/dy — dM/dz, &e.
The L,M,N are in reality the tensors of the three rectangular com-
ponents of a vector, now called a vector potential; in fact, the velocities
are here expressed by a quaternion potential. Culling the potential q, the
conditions ! are
vq = (0) Svq =)

Velocity =yq =o (say)

Rotation = hy*q = }ve
For vortex rings symmetrical about an axis, Helmholtz transforms the
vector potential into another, which is nothing else than Stokes’ stream
function for such motions divided by the distance from the axis.

The next great advance in theory was due to the publication in 1867
of Thomson and Tait’s ‘Natural Philosophy.’ Here, for the first time,
Lagrange’s equations of motion were applied, though without any direct
proof that the equations were applicable to cases in which there is an
infinite degree of freedom and in which a portion of the generalised co-
ordinates do not appear. Objections were raised by several mathema-
ticians to this application, amongst whom may be mentioned Purser? and
Boltzmann.? As a matter of fact the equations are only directly applicable
under the conditions mentioned below. in the second edition, published in
1879, this question was considered under a general theory of ‘ignoration of
co-ordinates.’ Starting with the expression for the energy containing all
the generalised velocities, the generalised equations for the co-ordinates
ignored are written down and integrated once on the supposition that the
force components corresponding to the ignored co-ordinates do not occur.
These give a number of equations, containing the velocities, equal in
number to the ignored co-ordinates, and of the form—linear function of
the velocities = constant. By means of these, therefore, the ignored
velocities can be eliminated from the expression for the energy. This is
done, and Lagrange’s equations for the non-ignored co-ordinates are
transformed to apply to the energy as expressed in the new form.
Naturally this is more complicated than the ordinary Lagrangian form,
but when we have to do with fluid motion, where the motion commences
from rest, or can be brought to rest without application of force com-
ponents corresponding to the ignored co-ordinates, the constants intro-
duced in the first integration are all zero. When this is the case the
transformed Lagrangian equations reduce to the ordinary form. The
half-dozen pages devoted to fluid motion in the first volume have altogether
transformed the methods of hydrodynamics, and possibly have been a
cause why the papers of Clebsch already referred to have been allowed to
fall into neglect.4 _

All the foregoing investigations have proceeded on the method of the
so-called Euler’s equations, ¢.e. where the velocities at different points of

1 Quarterly Journal, xiv. p. 284.

2 «On the applicability of Lagrange’s equations in certain cases of fluid motion,’
Phil. Mag. (5), vi. p. 354.

%*Ueber die Druckkrifte, welche auf Ringe wirksam sind, die in bewegte
Fliissigkeit tauchen,’ Borch, \xxiii. p. 111.

4 For further notices on the equation of motion see p. 16, below.

RECENT PROGRESS IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 61

the space filled by the fluid are sought in terms of the time and position.
We have now to refer to a remarkable simplification introduced into the
equations of motion in the ‘ Lagrangian’ form, where the position of any
particle at any time is sought in terms of the time and its initial position.
This was effected by Weber’ in 1868. Integrating the equation by
parts with respect to the time between the limits o and ¢, they take the
form
Ol dat idi-aidy Gon Ozh ntle yk

dt da a) dt da dt da da

where (#y) is the position of the particle at time ¢, whose initial
position was (abc), and whose initial velocities were wp) v9 wy); where also
is given by

: o = Force potential — | lk + 4 (vel)?.
; p
: In the particular case where the initial velocities have a potential
1% +d\/da, . . . can be written dy/da, . . . , and the equations
/ with the equation of continuity give four equations to determine the four
unknown functions # y z and x, of the first order but second degree, This?
forms an easy proof of the theorem, once a velocity potential, always
one.

We have already seen how Clebsch attacked the theory of the general
motion of a fluid, by employing three functions om, where

ude +vdy +wdz=d~o+mdi,

and it was pointed out that’m and w by their intersections give vortex
lines. ‘It is clear then that these surfaces must form two families which
contain the same particles of fluid at all times. The general problem of
taking as independent variables any system of surfaces always contain-
ing the same particles was taken up by Mr. Hill,? apparently without a
knowledge of Clebsch’s researches. He starts by taking any three in-
dependent sets of such surfaces (say P,Q,R) which must be three inde-
pendent solutions of the equation
. af df df af _ ou
Naitbatnt Tia! Hat tdey A
Transforming the equations to independent variables P.Q.R, and taking
the circulation round elementary circuits, he shows that

udex+vdy +wdz=f, dP + f.dQ + f;dR + dK
where f, f, f; are definite functions of P,Q,R. Further, the pressure is
given by

L $V —3(w? + v + wo?) elspa th
p 5, dt
After proving that the vortex lines are the intersections of two surfaces
which satisfy 6f/dt = 0, Q and R, are chosen to besuch. This introduces a
considerable simplification and enables us to write the former equation in
the form wu da + v dy + wdz=dy + \dW where ¢d/dt = 0,0/6t = 0. The
velocities are now in the form given by Clebsch, but the expression for
the pressure appears at first sight different. This is not so in reality, as
| «Ueber eine Transformation der hydrodynamischen Gleichungen,’ Credle, 1xviii.
: ? Lamb’s treatise On the Motion of a Fluid, p. 18.

: **On some properties of the equations of hydrodynamics,’ Quart. Jour. of Math.
Feb. 1880; vol. xvii.

62 REPORT—1881.

may be easily shown. In Clebsch’s form dy/dt = — (ul,+ vp,+ wi)
since oW/dt = 0. Putting in this and substituting for w v w their values, it
reduces to

Fe i ah Oey ped hie gta te a bm? (Lb? | 2 2

p v= dt (9. + py he p. )+4m W,, Eh Y, or v. )
which is the same as Hill’s form reduces to, with the sign of V changed,
when their values are substituted for wv w. In the latter part of the
paper is proved a theorem analogous to Helmholtz’ law in vortex motion,
as to the constancy of vortex strength x section along a vortex filament.!
Expressed in quaternion symbols, which enable us to see the meaning
much more clearly, if Q,R be the surfaces which by their intersections
give the filaments, it is easy to show that

(area of section of filament) x TV (AQ.AR) = const.

Combining this with the expression for the vortex $V (ym.yw) given
above, and limiting Q.R to the case where they give the vortex filaments,
Helmholtz’ law follows as a case of a more general theorem. A speciai
case of the preceding was worked out by Mr. Craig? towards the end of
the same year. The case only of steady motion is considered and that
only when of the three surfaces two are chosen to give the vortex lines.
As this part of the paper is almost the same as Hill’s, modified so as
to leave out of consideration the unsteadiness of the motion, there is
no need to refer to it further here. The latter part of the same paper
will be noticed again under vortex motion.

A most powerful method of attacking particular problems in fluid
motion is that known as the method of images. The conception appears
to have been first introduced by Stokes? in 1843, in considering the
problem of the motion of a sphere in presence of a plane, but the theory
received no extension until Thomson’s discovery of the electrical image
of a point of electricity in presence of a conducting sphere again drew
Stokes’ attention to the matter, the result being a short note in the
‘British Association Report’ for 1847, in which he gives the image in a
sphere of a doublet whose axis passes through the centre of the sphere.
The general cases for a source of fluid and for a doublet with its axis in
any direction have been published by the writer, and for a vortex by
Mr. Lewis.5 The images in two dimensions for a circle have been long
known, but I have not been able to discover by whom first used. The
images for ellipses are also known.® These will be referred to again
under the head of special problems.

Maximum and Minimum Theorems. Uniqueness of Solution, §c.

Before going further, it may be well to refer here to one or two points
in the history which are of importance and which have not yet been
touched upon. It has been shown how Clebsch deduced a maximum and
minimum theorem on the equations of motion; but the first, so far as I
am aware, to give any such general theorem peculiar to hydrodynamics,

1Tt is not stated quite correctly, as he speaks of the product of a vector and an
area being constant, instead of the tensor of a vector.

2¢Methods and results. General properties of the equations of steady motion,’
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. Washington, 1881.

3«QOn some cases of fluid motion,’ Camb. Phil. Trans., viii.

4 On the motion of two spheres in a fluid,’ Roy. Soc. Trans., pt. ii. 1880.

5 ¢ On the images of vortices in a spherical vessel,’ Quart. Jour., xvi.

§« On functional images in ellipses,’ Quart. Jowr., xvii,

RECENT PROGRESS IN HYDRODYNAMICS, 63

was Thomson,’ in 1849. The theorem as enunciated by him is, ‘If the
bounding surface of a liquid primitively at rest be made to vary in a
given arbitrary manner, the vis-viva of the entire liquid at each instant
will be less than it would be if the liquid had any other motion consistent
with the given motion of the bounding surface.’ This theorem was
afterwards, in Thomson and Tait’s ‘Natural Philosophy,’ extended to
dynamical problems in general. From this theorem, he states three
corollaries—(1) The condition that wdz + vdy + wdz must be a complete
differential is, in addition to the kinematical conditions, sufficient to
determine the motion. (2) The motion of the fluid at any time is inde-
pendent of the preceding motion, and depends solely on the given form
and normal motion of the bounding surface at the instant. (3) If the
bounding surface be brought to rest, the liquid will at the same instant
be reduced to rest. None of the theorems contained in these corollaries
were new. But the first corollary forms, I believe, the first definite proof
of the uniqueness of the solution obtained when the fluid is irrotational
and the normal motion of the surface is given. Former writers, though
convinced of its truth, had not succeeded in arriving at a formal proof
of it. In 1843, Stokes? writes that it is a recognised principle, that
when a problem is determinate, any solution which satisfies all the
requisite conditions is the solution of the problem; and then states that
the problem is determinate—a proof based on experiment. The second
and third are also proved by Stokes in the same paper, and by Cauchy.?
The theorem that the velocity cannot be a maximum at any point of the
fluid was given by Maxwell* in a Senate House paper, and in his
lectures at Cambridge, though not stated in the hydrodynamical form.
Thomson also gives the now well-known application of Green’s theorem
to the energy of irrotational motion within a boundary. The analogous
expressions for the energy, and its variation with the time in the case of
rotational motion, were given by Helmholtz in his vortex paper, and for
irrotational motion in multiply continuous space by Thomson.®

(6) Vortex Motion.

During the last forty years, without doubt, the most important
addition to the theory of fluid motion has been in our knowledge of
the properties of that kind of motion where the velocities cannot be
expressed by means of a potential. Certainly, before this we knew some-
thing. Stokes’ researches had shown the kinematical nature of the
motion—the rotation of its small parts®°—and we also knew that it

“Notes on Hydrodynamics,’ Camb. and Dubl. Math. Jour. iv. p. 90.

* *On some cases of fluid motion,’ Cumb. Phil. Trans. viii.

* «Mém. sur la Théorie des Ondes,’ Mém. des Sav. Etrangers (1827).

4 Sen. Ho., Thursday afternoon, 1873.

> «Vortex motion,’ Roy. Soc. Edin. Trans., xxv.

° «On the theories of the internal friction of fluids in motion,’ &c., Camb. Phil.
Trans. viii.

As to the true nature of this rotation, reference may be made to a discussion
between Helmholtz and Bertrand in the Comptes Rendus, \xvi. and lxvii (1868).
Bertrand’s objection reduced itself to a question of the use of the word rotation.
The nature of the small displacements of a continuous medium are very fully treated
in Thomson and Tait’s Natural Philosophy. The reader who desires to enter more
fully into the theory of the above laws will find much to interest him in the follow-
ing papers, not mentioned in the text :—

H. J. Nanson, Messenger of Math., (2), iii. p. 120 and (2) vii. p. 182.

C. W. Merrifield, Tbid. (2) iv. p. 105

H. Lamb, Ibid. (2) vii. p, 41, shows the connection between
Helmholtz’s and Thomson’s methods of proofs.

64 _REPORT—1881.

could not be set up or destroyed by a system of conservative forces; but
this was almost all. Helmholtz first gave us clear conceptions in his
well-known paper! referred to above. He introduced the idea of vortex-
lines (curves whose tangents at any point coincide in direction with the
axis of rotation at that point), and vortex-filaments (the portions of fluid
in a tube whose surface is generated by vortex-lines passing through an
infinitely small curve). Helmholtz’ laws are then proved—(1) Each vortex
remains continually composed of the same elements of fluid. (2) The pro-
duct of the section at any point of a filament into the magnitude of the
rotation at the point is constant for all time and forall points of the
filament. Also (3) a vortex-filament must be closed or have its ends on
the boundary of the surface. The next part of the paper is devoted to
finding expressions for the velocity when the rotations at every point of
the fluid are known; in other words, to finding solutions of the four
differential equations.?

du, dv, dw

dv dy rEg int?
dw dv 2

— = = 2% &c., &e.
dy dz aac

which reduce to three on account of the relation
di /dw + dn/dy + de/dz = 0

supposed existing between the given quantities ¢, n, c. The introduction
of the functions L, M, N, has been noticed above. It is shown that they
are the potential functions of distributions of magnetic matter, whose
density at any point is £/27, »/27,c/27, and thence that each rotating
element of fluid (a) implies in each other element (b) of the same
fluid a velocity which follows the same law as the force exerted on
a particle of magnetism at (b) by the element of an electric current at (a),
in the axis of rotation.

In the same paper, examples are given of the motion of the fluid due
to infinite straight vortices and to circular vortex-filaments. It must be
remembered that the results here given refer to the cyclic motion of the
fluid as determined by the supposed distribution of magnetic matter, and
do not give the most general motion possible. Helmholtz shows. that
this motion in the case of straight parallel vortices is such that, regarding
their strengths as positive or negative masses, according as they rotate in
one or the other direction, their centres of gravity remain at rest. When
two vortices are of equal and opposite strength they move forward
together with constant velocity and ata constant distance. This solves
also the case where a single vortex is in a fluid bounded by an infinite
plane, to which it is parallel. -The results for circular rings are more
complicated, and since in nature the section must be finite, an indeter-
minateness enters on account of the distribution of rotation within it.

N. Jonkoffsky, Moseauer Math. Sammi. viii.

E. Beltrami, ‘Sui principi fondamentali dell’ idrodinamica,’ Mem. di Bologna, i.

The two latter treat systematically the kinematics of the motion. Beltrami,
amongst other things, compares the motion of an element of fluid with what it would
have been if suddenly solidified, and the loss of energy thereby.

1 Crelle, lv., translated in Phil. Mag. (4) 33, p. 485.

2 Helmholtz employs the opposite sign for & 7, ¢.

RECENT PROGRESS IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 65

The problem to determine this distribution, so that the motion shall be
steady and the ring remain of the same mean size and shape, is one of
extreme difficulty and has not yet been successfully attempted. If we
regard a ring whose axial section is small, compared with the radius
of the axis, he shows that a single such ring moves forward, with
approximate constant aperture, with very great velocity in the direction
of the fluid motion through the ring itself. When there are two on the
same axis, and rotating in the same direction, they travel in the same
direction and thread each other alternately. If they have equal and
opposite rotations, they approach one another indefinitely, and widen
indefinitely as they do so. This is the case of a ring whose plane is
parallel to an infinite rigid plane ina fluid. But it is to be remarked
that, as stated thus, it is only partially true. This is clearly only the case
when the fluid motions through the rings are directed towards each
other. If they are directed from each other, they will move from each
other, contracting as they do so to a certain limiting radius, which is
determinate in terms of any simultaneous radius, strength, and distance.!

The permanent character of vortex motion in a perfect fluid has
suggested to Sir W. Thomson? a theory of the constitution of matter in
which atoms consist of small vortex-rings, whose axes may be knotted
into any degree of multiple continuity, the beknottedness (as Tait calls
it)* being a permanent character of the atom. The linesof its spectrum
would thus depend on the vibrations of the atom, either of the section
or axis. In the paper in which this speculation was brought forward,
Thomson notes how the motion of the fluid may be set up by a surface
impulse over a diaphragm, across the opening of the ring. The ring will
carry forward with it a mass of fluid in irrotational motion, and the
whole impulse of the motion is equal to the resultant impulse on the
diaphragm. These ideas of the impulse of the motion, and the genera-
tion of cyclic moticn, were worked out more fully in a paper presented
to the Royal Society of Kdinburgh, of which only a fragment‘ has been
published. In the latter part of this paper, the principles of vortex
motion are developed in a quite different way from that followed by
Helmholtz, viz., from the fundamental proposition that the ‘circulation ’
in a circuit in the fluid is the same for all circuits which can be con-
tinuously deformed into one another without leaving the irrotational
part of the fluid. From this all the known theorems are easily deduced.
Amongst fresh results may be mentioned the proof that the motion of a
liquid moving irrotationally within an +1 ply connected space is
determinate when the normal velocity at every point of the boundary and
the values of the circulation in the n circuits are given; and the theorem
that the circulation round any closed curve in the fluid is equal to twice
the surface-integral of the resolved part of the vortices perpendicular to

* For very interesting practical illustrations, the reader is referred to the follow-
ing papers, by W. B. Rogers:—American Journal of Science and Art (2), xxvi. p. 246.
This was published in 1858, without knowledge of Helmholtz’s mathematical
researches. Reusch, Pogg. Ann. cx. p. 309 (1860); Osborne Reynolds, Watwre, xiv. p.
477 (1876), also Proc. Royal Institution, viii. p. 272; Oberbeck, Wied. Ann. ii. p. 1
(1877): This deals with jets, but contains interesting examples of the formation of
rings by incipient jets; R. §. Ball, Zansactions of the Royal Irish Academy, xxv.
p. 135.

* «Vortex Atoms,’ Proc. Ray. Soc. Edin., vi. p. 94 (1867); Phil, Mag. (4) 34.

§ On Knots,’ Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., xxviii. p. 145.

: ‘Vortex Motion,’ Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. xxv, (1860).

y

66 REPORT—1881.

the surface over any surface whose boundary is the curve. This gives at
once Helmholtz’s theorem that the surface-integral of the same quantity
over any closed surface is zero. Looking at the general question of the
production of cyclic motion, and noticing that the diaphragm closing the
aperture of a ring may be of any shape, it is easy to see that the impulse
of the motion of a closed filament of infinitely small section is the
resultant of a uniform distribution of pressure ( = cyclic constant) over
three plane areas which are the projections of the core of the ring on
any three planes at right angles.

The general question of the steady motion and stability of vortex-
rings has also been considered by Sir W. Thomson in a paper before the
same Society, of which, unfortunately, only an abstract! has been published.
The theory is based on the proposition (only to be stated for its truth to
be evident,) that if when the vorticity? and impulse are given the kinetic
energy is @ maximum or minimum, the motion is steady and stable; if it
isa maximum-minimum (minimax), the motion is steady, but may be
stable or unstable. Unfortunately, the simple circular Helmholtz ring has
its energy a minimax, so that from this it is not possible to rigorously
decide the question of its stability for all possible displacements, although
when the aperture is not too small compared with the section of the core,
experiment would lead us to believe that it is stable. For displacements,
symmetrical about its axis, it is clear that for some determinate distribu-
tion of the vorticity the energy must be a maximum, and the motion
stable. Very interesting too are the illustrations given of the steady
motion of non-plane vortex-filaments. When the number of twists in
the axis of a vortex is large, the core is approximately a helix wound ona
circular tore, and approximate expressions are obtained in this case for
the radii of the axis and section of the tore in terms of the number of
twists, the circulation and the components of the given impulse.

The method introduced of considering the question of stability as a
problem of maximum and minimum energy enables us to arrive ab many
general results which at first sight appear very remarkable, as, for
example, the complete annulment of the energy in certain cases by opera~
tions on the boundary alone. An extremely interesting illustration of the
transformation of a vortex motion with stability of maximum energy to
one with stability of minimum energy by operations on the boundary
alone, which withdraw energy, was given by the same author before
the British Association at its meeting at Swansea? in 1880. Approach-
ing the subject from another point of view Lamb‘ had proved that in
steady motion it is possible to draw a system of surfaces, each of which
is covered by a network of vortex lines and stream lines, and that
between any two near surfaces of the system g w sin 0. y is constant
where g denotes the velocity along a stream line, w is the rotation, 0 the

1 «Vortex Statics.’ Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., ix. p. 59; and Phil. Mag., (5) x. p. 97.

® The <‘ vorticity’ of a vortex is given, when supposing it analysed into an infinite
number of infinitely small filaments, the volume of each filament and its circulation
are given. This does not suppose that the arrangement of the filaments is given.

3 ¢On maximum and minimum energy in vortex motion,’ British Association
Reports for 1880, p. 473 ; also Nature, xxii. p. 618. See also a practical illustration,
given at the same meeting of the British Association, ‘ On an experimental illustration
of minimum energy in vortex motion,’ Brit. Ass. Rep., 1880, p. 491: and Wature,
Xxili. p./69.) .

4 « On the conditions of steady motion of a fluid,’ Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. ix. p.
91 (1878).

RECENT PROGRESS IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 67

angle between q and w, and v is the normal distance at the point of the
two surfaces.

The problem of the most general vibration of a straight columnar
vortex of constant vorticity has been treated by Thomson.' If fluid be
revolving irrotationally in a fixed cylinder, there will be a cylindric space
along the axis, either empty, or filled with fluid in rotational motion. In
the former case, suppose the surface disturbed so that the generating
lines and normal sections are deformed into harmonic curves of different
wave-lengths, the wave-lengths of the cross section being of course sub-
multiples of the undisturbed circumference. Then Thomson shows
that two velocities of propagation are possible, of the form—angular
velocity =w (t= /N)/i where w is the angular velocity of points on the
inside surface of the fluid, 7 is the number of crests in a normal section,
and N depends only on the number of crests in unit length along a
generating line. One set, therefore, travels in the same direction as the
rotation, the other in the same or opposite direction, according to the
magnitude of N. For the special case, where the containing vessel is
infinitely large, and the distance between the crests on a generating line
large compared with the circumference of the hollow N= 1 + k? (1159
— log k) where & denotes this ratio. Here the slow wave for the case
t = 1 travels in the reverse direction to the rotation. Of more importance
than the foregoing is the case of the small vibrations of a vortex column
in an infinite irrotationally moving liquid. The periodic times for given
harmonic initial disturbance are given by the roots of a transcendental
equation, which has an infinite number of roots. This is much simplified
when _the disturbance is only longitudinal. When the distance between
successive swellings of the core is large compared with the circumference,
the velocity of propagation corresponding to the smallest root is about 3
of the circular velocity at the surface of the vortex. When there is no
longitudinal displacement, the angular velocity of sectional waves is (i — 1)
x ang. vel. of the vortex, where 7 denotes as before the number of crests
on thé circumference. The time of pulsation of a hollow vortex enclosed
in a flexible cylindrical shell, over whose surface the pressure is constant
has been given by the writer.”

Mr. F. D. Thomson * has proved an interesting theorem relating to a
steady motion within cylindrical surfaces. Suppose a cylindrical vessel,
of any sectional form, and the contained fluid.to be rotating as a rigid body,
and that the vessel itself is suddenly brought to rest, then the resulting
motion of the fluid will be steady. Another proof has been given by
Stokes,‘ but it is easily seen to be a consequence of the uniform distribution
of vorticity and Helmholtz’ laws.

Quite lately, two papers have been published respectively by Craig®
and Rowland® almost simultaneously. They both seem to have been
struck by the fact that if the same operations are performed on the com-
ponents of rotation that are performed on the components of velocity to
deduce the rotations, functions are obtained which satisfy the equation of

1 ¢ Vibrations of a columnar vortex,’ Phil. Mag. (5), x. p. 155.

? Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., iii. p. 283.

3 «Some cases of fluid motion,’ Ox. Cam. Dub. Mess. Math. iii. p. 238, iv. p. 37.

4 Reprint, vol. i. p. 7 (1880). :

° ‘Methods and results, &c.’ United States Coast Survey, Washington, 1881.

® *On the motion of a perfect incompressible fluid when no solid bodies are
present,’ Amer, Jour. of Math. iii, p. 226.

F2

68 REPoRtT—1881.

continuity, and they are thus led to introduce what they call different
orders of motion. The functions produced after n such operations give
the nth order of motion. If the functions of the n th order are expressible
by means of a scalar potential, then the functions of a higher order do not
occur. Looked at from the point of view as an investigation of the dis-
tribution of vorticity in a fluid motion whose vector-potential is given, it
may be possibly of some value, but I cannot help thinking that both
Prof. Rowland and Dr. Craig have somewhat overvalued its importance.!

(c) Discontinuous Motion. Jets.

In a fluid in motion the pressure is, in’ general, given as a
continuous function of position, and may, therefore, so far as the
analytical treatment is concerned, become zero or negative. But, in
this case, clearly, the fluid will cease to be continuous, and free
surfaces will be set up inside the fluid,” or surfaces on the two sides of
which the tangential motions are different. It is curious that so evident
a fact as this seems not to have been noticed by mathematicians in general
until it was pointed out by Helmholtz,’ in 1868, though Stokes* had drawn
attention to it twenty years before. He had already, in his before-
mentioned paper on vortex motion, considered, in passing, the case where
the tangential motions are different on the two sides of a surface, and
had shown how the motions ought to be represented mathematically, by
supposing the surface a continuous vortex-sheet, the vortex-axis at any
point being parallel to the resultant of the two tangential velocities. In
the later paper he points out that wherever fluid is flowing across a sharp
edge, the velocity at the point, on the ordinary theory, would be infinite,
and the pressure negative infinity, consequently a surface of separation
be established. This would also be the case with gases; but a
curious exception occurs, provided they obeyed Boyle’s law alone, and
did not change their temperature on account of change of volume.
Here log p takes the place of p, and, clearly, log p may become negative
without necessitating a break of continuity in the fluid. This paper is
particularly important, as containing the first successful attempt at the
solution of a problem where discontinuity ensues. It is evident that
along any surface of discontinuity the pressures on both sides must be
the same ; and if the fluid on one side be at rest, under the action of no

1 The results are most easily proved and their meaning most clearly seen by the
quaternion method. If g be the quaternion potential, o the velocity, then (Y. Jour.
Math. xiv. p. 284),

Ving—=0" Syo=0 “¢= 77, =,
2)>=Vo=p, whence Svp,=0
and Pn =VVPn-1= VO ,» SVpn =0
Also if p, is derivable from a scalar potential yp, = 0, or all successive orders
must vanish. The only question now of any interest seems to me to be the investi-
gation of the effect on the nature of the motions when the m2 operation gives zero
result ; but whether this is important remains doubtful.

2 Thus consider a sphere in motion, in an infinite non-gravitating fluid, whose
surface is under a constant pressure. The fluid will move in the well-known manner,
and_the sphere with constant velocity, provided the velocity be not greater than
/2p/p. If it is greater, there will be a hollow formed in the rear until the sphere
has been reduced to this limiting velocity.

8 «Ueber discontinuirliche Fliissigkeitsbewegungen,’ Monatsb. der hk. Ahad. Berl.,
1868, p. 215, translated in the Phil. Mag. (4), 36, p. 337.

4 «On the Critical Values of the Sums of Periodic Series,’ Cam. Phil. Soc. Trans.
viii. p. 533, or reprint, p, 310,

RECENT PROGRESS IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 69

external forces through its mass, or if there be no fluid, the pressure
along the surface must be constant, and, therefore, also the velo-
city. Helmholz illustrates this by considering the function # + yi =
A {¢ + Yi + exp ( + W)}. This gives the lines of flow of electricity in
an infinite conducting sheet, in which two parallel non-conducting lines are
drawn stretching from the points (—A, + Ar) to — o. It is, therefore,
the solution, so far as the equation of continuity is concerned, for fluid
flowing from between two infinite parallel walls into an infinite fluid; but
the conditions at the mouth break up the fiuid. He then, by adding
o + ri, a function of ¢ + i, to the former expression, determines g, 7,
so that when ) = +7, the velocity may be constant along the free
surface. The value obtained is

o+7i=Ai[/{—2exrp d+ pi— cap 2(o + Yi)}
+2 sin {t/t eap (> + Yr)} ].
It is then easy to show that the expression for # + yi gives the motion
from an infinite fluid into a canal with parallel walls, extending to infinity
in the negative direction. Ata great distance from the entrance, in the
canal, the fluid tends to flow in a stream whose breadth is half that of
the canal.

In Helmholtz’ example it seems a happy chance by which a suitable
function is found. Kirchhoff! remedied this want of method, to some
extent, in a paper which contains several further examples of discontinuous
motion. Denoting by z the complex « + yi, and by w, ¢ + WW, the
conditions are—for the rigid boundaries, = constant; and, for the free
boundary, i) = same constant, and the velocity constant. To this end he
puts
& =f (w) + V{(fo)?—1j
and chooses f (w), so that for a certain value’of W, and a certain interval
of ¢, f (w) is real, and lies between the limits + 1 and —1. For these
values, then,

dar _ dy _ se 2

aig 1 > Ge = Vv {l— (fu)*}

or the velocity is constant, and equal to unity. The equation in dz/dw
will always give w as a many-valued function of z; now the region of z
is the space occupied by the fluid, and since in this space one branch of
the function must not pass over into another, the region must be so
chosen that within it f (w) is single-valued, or, if it is not so, it must be
made so by cuts from the branch points to infinity, along YW = const., and
again ./ {( fw)? — 1} made single-valued by cuts from its branch points,
along the curves) = const. through them. The boundary of the region of
w consists, then, of lines) = const.,and ¢ = — oto@=-+ o,and within .
it f (w) must nowhere be infinite. In this case the lines J will be stream
lines, parts of which form rigid walls, and the other parts free surfaces.
In his treatise on mechanics,” he has introduced the subject in a slightly
differert and improved manner. The dz/dw of the foregoing represents
the inverse velocity at the point z; hence, along a straight rigid boundary,
¢ = dz/dw is constant in direction, whilst along a free surface it is
constant in magnitude; in other words, as z moves along a bounding

1 «Zur Theorie freier Fliissigkeitsstrahlen,’ Crelle, 1xx. p. 289.
* Vorlesungen iiber mathematische Physik, Leipzig,

70 REPORT—1881.

stream line, ¢ describes a broken path, viz., a curve, which corresponds
to the rigid walls; and part of a circle, which corresponds to the free
surface, For the region of w are taken two constant values of , and
varying between — co and + o. The boundary of ¢ chosen is a crescent,
one of whose ares has its centre at the origin, and is to correspond to
the free surfaces. Marking on this the points which correspond to the
infinite branches of the walls and free surfaces respectively, the points
of the crescent will correspond to the ends of the walls where ¢ changes
from a given direction to a given magnitude. The problem now is to
find the relation between ¢ and w, that the regions of c, w may be
transformed into one another, so as to be similar in their corresponding
small elements. Several extremely interesting problems are solved in
these two papers.!

In one case only Kirchhoff determined the pressure exerted per unit of
length of an infinitely long plane strip immersed perpendicular to a
stream, but this is the only practical application he makes of his results.
Lord Rayleigh? has deduced several most interesting conclusions by
means of Kirchhoff’s formule. He finds expressions for the mean
pressure on a lamina held obliquely in a stream, and the position of the
centre of pressure. The distance of the centre of pressure from the
middle is # 1 cos a / (4 + 7 sin a), where a is the inclination of the
plane of the lamina to the direction of the stream. For a=0; this
divides the breadth in the ratio 11:5; consequently, a blade swinging
about an axis nearer the front edge than 5/11 the breadth will be in
stable equilibrium ; if further from the front edge, the stable positions
of equilibrium will be inclined at angles a, on either side, given by the
above formula; whilst, if pivoted at the centre, the only position is
perpendicular to the stream. He finds that the greatest pressure transverse
to the stream is for an inclination nearly equal to 39°.

The problem of the vena contracta is a very old one, and is a case
of the discontinuous motion we have been noticing. Hanlon® and
Maxwellt have applied the principle of momentum to its consideration ;
the former deduced that the contraction must be ‘5, whilst the latter
showed that it must slightly exceed this. Rayleigh,® by slightly varying
the circumstances, and supposing the finid-issuing from a nozzle of
sufficient length projecting into the fluid, has deduced that, for this case,
the coefficient of contraction is almost exactly ‘5. Considering also the
case of fluid issuing from a finite cylinder through a similar nozzle, he
has shown that the section of the nozzle is a harmonic mean between the
sections of the cylinder and the jet.

It is by no means easy to illustrate rigorously, by experiment, all the
results deduced from the foregoing theory ; for, apart from the extreme
instability which is a general characteristic of jets and allied motions,
‘other disturbing influences arise from capillary action, in the case of jets
into another fluid or vacuum, which tends to break up a column into
drops, and from fluid friction, even in the case of two portions of the
same fluid moving past each other, where the influence of surface-tension

1 See under special problems.

* British Assoc., Glasgow; also, ‘On the Resistance of Fluids,’ Phil. Mag. (5) ii.
p. 430.

§ «The Vena Contracta,’ Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., iii. p. 4.

* Remarks on the preceding paper, @d., p. 6.

5 «Notes on Hydrodynamics,’ Phil. Mag. (5) ii. p. 441.

RECENT PROGRESS IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 71

would not be felt. Experimentally the subject has been very fully
investigated,' but no attempt has been made towards a general theoretical
investigation of the stability of such motions. Lord Rayleigh has,
indeed, considered some general aspects of the question in two important
papers, in the ‘ Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society,’? some
of the results of which it may be well to state here. In the first, he
shows that, in the case of cylindrical columns, the disturbing cause due
to surface-tension has most effect when, for harmonic disturbances, the
ratio of wave-length to diameter is about 4°508 ; and also determines the
rate of falling away from steadiness for small harmonic disturbances in
the cases of plane and cylindrical sheets of discontinuity. The results
lead to the supposition, as is pointed out in the second paper, that the
sensitiveness of sensitive jets would increase indefinitely with the pitch,
which is not, in general, true. The explanation he finds in the operation
of the viscosity of the fluid, which, for water, is found to be such that, if
a plane surface of discontinuity existed at any moment, ihen, after the
lapse of one second, there would be a layer of transition, consisting of
vortex motion, of a thickness of half a centimeter. In this paper the
fluid is treated as frictionless, but the jets as containing vortex motion,
and in two dimensions. For a layer of given thickness, with velocities
V and —V on the two sides, and uniform vorticity between, the motion is
unstable when the wave-length of disturbance is great in comparison
with the breadth, and stable when the wave-length is small, For a jet
in fluid, at rest, with its centre moving with velocity V, and velocity
decreasing uniformly to zero on either side, the motion is stable for
symmetrical disturbances, or when the wave-length is small compared
with the breadth of the jet, and unstable when it is great. In general,
in a case where the velocity increases continually or decreases continually
between the fixed boundaries of the fluid, a jet will be stable.

Another kind of discontinuous motion, viz. the propagation of a
shock through a slightly compressible liquid, has been treated by
Christoffel, in a manner founded on that of Riemann. In such a case
there will be a surface of discontinuity in the fluid, which moves forward,
and such that the pressure, density, and velocity are different on the
two sides, If w be the normal velocity of progression of a point of the
surface, 2), p,, Qs, po, the normal velocities and densities of the flwid on
the two sides, then the equation of continuity is

P: (Q) — w) = py (Qy — ),
po it is easily shown that the dynamical equations are three of the
orm—
p2(Q, — w)(u, — uy) + (p; — po) cosa = 0,
where u.v.w are components of . a, 3, y its direction and p the pressure.

’ See chiefly Savart, Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, liv. lv.; and Magnus, Pogg.
Ann, Ixxx. xev. evi. ; also Phil. Mag. (4) i. A very full historical account is given
by Plateau, in his Statique expérimentale et théorique des liquides, tome ii. ch, xii.
to which the reader isreferred. Since the appearance of this, Oberbeck has published
a paper on the same subject, in Wied. Ann. ii. p,1 (1877); and Ridout, Nature, xviii.
p. 604. See also Zneye. Brit. Art Hydraulics by W. C. Unwin.

? «On the Instability of Jets,’ Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., x. p. 4; ‘On the stability
or instability of certain fluid motions,’ Zb. p, 57.

* * Untersuchungen tiber die mit dem Fortbestehen linearer partieller Differential-
gleichungen vertraglichen Unstetigkeiten.’ Brioschi, Annali di Matematica, viii.
p. 81.

72 : REPORT—1881.

These equations are made linear on the supposition that the compres-
sibility is small, and so that if p=p)(1+s) and p=py + poa?s,
quantities of the order 1/a, and sQ are neglected. It follows easily that
every point of the surface progresses with a velocity a, so that different
positions of the surface at different times form a system of parallel surfaces.
Supposing the hydrodynamical equations to hold on both sides and up
to the surface of discontinuity, he then shows how to determine the
function S = s, — s, on which the solution for O depends. In the latter
part of the paper reflection at a rigid wall is considered. Rankine! has
also touched on the same theory.

(d) General Theory of the Motion of Solids in Fluid.

Already, in 1843, had Stokes? proved that if a body symmetrical with
respect to two planes at right angles to each other moved in a fluid
parallel to their intersection under the action of no forces the resultant
pressure of the fluid on it would vanish, provided the body and fluid were
originally at rest—in other words, that there is no rotational motion in the
fluid. If, on the contrary, its motion were accelerated, it would experience
a resultant pressure equal to » x acceleration x mass of fluid displaced
by the body, where » depends alone on the form of the body and not its size.
A special case of this was also proved in 1854 by Hoppe,® apparently
without knowledge of Stokes’ paper. The case considered was that of
a solid of revolution, the equation of whose meridian section could be
thrown into a particular form.’ The fact that in every body there are
three directions which possess the same property was explicitly stated
and proved by Kirchhoff in his paper referred to below.

The starting point for the investigation of the motion here considered
was given by the publication in 1867 of Thomson and Tait’s ‘ Natural
Philosophy.’ Here the authors applied the Lagrangian equations of
motion of a dynamical system directly to the energy of the fluid, ex-
pressed as a quadratic fenction of the component velocities of the body,
which, referred to axes fixed in the body, has constant coefficients. By
this means the general properties of the motion of a solid of revolution
in a fluid, and moving in one plane, are deduced with the greatest ease.
In the general case there are twenty-one constant coefficients which may
be supposed known, and may either be found by analysis (theoretically
at least) or by experiment (just as coefficients of self- and mutual in-
duction in the case of electric currents) by finding the impulses necessary
to generate the unit velocities and their combinations two-and-two. The
general theory of the impulse as applied to fluid motion has been very
fully developed by Sir W. Thomson! in his paper on vortex motion, before
referred to.

We have already seen (p. 4) how he has shown that when the
motion can be produced from rest by application of forces to the solids

1 «The thermodynamic theory of waves,’ Trans. Roy. Soe. 1870.

? “On some cases of Fluid Motion,’ Zrans. Camb. Phil. Soc., viii. p. 105; also in
Reprint of Papers, p. 50. Fora proof of this from the theory of stream lines and
many illustrations of other points in fluid motion, see Froude in Nature, xiii.

**Vom Widerstande der Fliissigkeiten gegen die Bewegung fester Korper,’ Pogg.
Ann., 93 (1854) ; also ‘ Determination of the motion of conoidal bodies through an
incompressible fluid,’ Quart. Jour. Math, i. p- 301,

4 See under special problems,

> Trans R.S.E., xxv,

RECENT PROGRESS IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 73

alone, Lagrange’s equations are applicable directly to the expression for
the energy. Now in this, the coefficients are, in general, functions of the
angular co-ordinates of the body referred to fixed axes. If the energy
be expressed in terms of the velocities referred to axes fixed in the body,
the expression has constant coefficients. It is therefore advantageous
to determine the form of the equations of motion when the energy is so
expressed. This had been effected by him in 1858,! but was not pub-
lished until 1871.2. At the same time also, the form of the equation for
the motion of a single solid, with any number of apertures in it and
cyclic motion through them, a case in which the conditions of direct
applicability of Lagrange’s equations are not satisfied, were deduced.
When there are several solids, of which some at least have apertures, the
equations are naturally more complicated. The equations of motion for
this case were published* by the same author in March, 1872; they have
also been proved in a different manner in the new edition of Thomson
and Tait’s ‘ Natural Philosophy,’ and have been already referred to.

I adduce here some of the chief results of the above analysis as
developed by Sir W. Thomson. In the ‘ Natural Philosophy’ was con-
sidered the case of the motion of a solid of revolution in an infinite fluid
so as always to keep its axis in one plane. A certain fixed point in the
axis (the centre of reaction) determinate when the form and distribution
of mass in the body is known, moves in a sinuous line cutting the line of
resultant impulse at equal intervals, and the body swings about the
centre of reaction according to the law of the quadrantal pendulum. If
A, B are the impulses necessary to produce unit velocity along and per-
pendicular to the axis, and p the impulsive couple to produce unit rotation,
then the length of the simple pendulum keeping time with the swinging
of the body is quAB/<?(A — B), & being the resultant impulsive force of
the motion. This is on the supposition that there is no perforation with
cyclic motion through it. An example of this latter was solved in the
same manner for a circular tore with no rotation round its axis, in the
paper ‘On the motion of free solids through a liquid.’ Here, when the
ring is projected with a rotation round a diameter, its axis oscillates
rotationally according to the law of a horizontal magnetic needle carry-
ing a bar of soft iron rigidly attached to it parallel to the magnetic axis.
In the same paper Thomson has also treated the question of the general
motion of a solid of ‘complete isotropy with helicoidal quality.’ The
point P about which the body is isotropic moves uniformly in a circle or
spiral so as to keep at a constant distance from the axis of the impulse,
and the components of angular velocity round any three rectangular axes
are constant.

In the ‘ vortex motion’ he has shown, from general reasoning, that if
a solid moves from a great distance past a fixed obstacle to a great

* Referred to by Rankine (1863) ‘ On plane water lines in two dimensions,’ Trans.
Roy. Soc. (1864). Reprint of Rankine’s Papers, p. 495.
**On the motion of free solids through a liquid,’ Proc. RS. Edinburgh, vii.
p. 384. See also p. 60.

* «On the motion of rigid solids in a liquid circulating irrotationally through per-
forations in them or in any fixed solid,’ bid. p. 668.

‘The following is Thomson’s example of such an isotropic helicoid: ‘Take a
uniform sphere and place on it projecting vanes in the proper positions—e.g., cutting
at 45° each at the middles of the twelve quadrants of any three mutually perpen-
dicular great circles.’ Of course the vanes in practice must not have sharp angles,
else discontinuous motions will mask the effects, ,

74. ‘ REPORT—1881.

distance on the other side it will have its path turned towards or from
the fixed obstacle according as the direction of the impulse is in the same
direction as, or the opposite to, that of translation. This follows at once
after it is proved that the effect of the fixed obstacle is to add an impul-
sive component towards itself. In the paper which treats of polycyclic
motion with several solids is given an example of a sphere moving in a
fluid in which there are infinitely fine immovable curves round which
polycyclic motion exists. Here the sphere moves as a material particle,
whose mass is equal to the mass of the sphere and half the fluid dis-
placed, under the action of the impressed forces, and in a field of force
whose potential is W, where W is the work done in moving the sphere to
an infinite distance from the cores of the polycylic motions; or the
difference of the fluid energies in the cases when the sphere is not
present, and when it is. When the core is an infinite straight line, the
paths of globules arbitrarily projected are Cotes’s spirals.

I have thought it well to refer to those papers of Thomson’s together,
as they form a connected series, although between their publications im-
portant essays have appeared from other investigators. -The first of these
requiring mention is Kirchhoff, who taking up the question of the general
motion of a body of revolution as treated in Thomson and Tait applied
the same methods to extend their results when the motion is not con-
fined to one plane. His investigation! was published in March, 1870.
He deduced by analysis alone the Eulerian? form of the equations of
motion in the same form as Thomson’s. Taking the origin at the centre
of reaction he obtains equations for the velocities and the co-ordinates
which enable them to be expressed as elliptic functions of the time.
Considering more closely the case already solved in Thomson and Tait’s
treatise, he finds explicitly the velocities in terms of the time, and ex-
presses the constants in terms of the constants of the kinetic energy and
the initial motion. Two cases present themselves which depend on the
energy-constants, and each of these subdivides into two subcases accord-
ing to the initial motion. These may be expressed thus. If it requires
a less impulse to produce unit velocity along the axis than perpendicular
to it, then the velocity along the former is expressible by means of the
sn functions and vice versd. Calling the larger and smaller impulses A, B
respectively, each case divides into two subeases, according as the ratio
of the energy due to rotation bears to the energy due to the other velocity
a greater or less ratio than (A — B)/B which corresponds to the case of
the rotation and velocity being expressed by dn, en respectively, or vice
versd. Kirchhoff finds also that it is possible to project a solid of revolu-
tion with rotation round a line perpendicular to its axis, so as to describe
a circular helix—a result, which by Thomson’s theory of the impulse, is
at once seen to be true. In the same volume Kirchhoff’ considered the
forces between any two infinitely thin rings with circular section through
which cyclic motion is taking place, and proved that the apparent forces
between them are equal to those which would exist between them if they
were conductors and electric currents flowed along them. The same

'< Ueber die Bewegung eines Rotationskérpers in einer Fliissigkeit,’ Borch., 1xxi.
p. 237. :
? Thomson has proposed to keep the term ‘Hulerian’ for equations of motion
referred to axes fixed in the moving body. '

$ ¢ Ueber die Kriifte, welche zwei unendlich diinne starre Ringe in einer Fliissigkeit
scheinbar auf einander austiben kiénnen,’ Borch., 1xxi. p. 262.

RECENT PROGRESS IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 75

question was taken up by Boltzmann! later, who has considered the case
of non-circular section. He notices that Kircbhoff’s analogy is not
exact, as the forces due to the motion of the rings vanish in the case of

fluid motion.
Kirchhoft’s investigation of the solid of revolution was completed

- in 1877 by Kopcke,? who did for the general case of a solid of revolution

what Kirchhoff had done for Thomson and Tait’s solution. He succeeded
in expressing the elements of the motion and the position at any moment
by means of the elliptic and © functions, using a quadric transformation
to reduce the functions in wu, the velocity along the axis, to the canonical
form. In this also two chief cases occur distinguished as in the simpler
case mentioned above. The same end was also attained by a somewhat
different process by Greenhill.*

In the case of any solid whatever, we obtain at once three integrals in
the form of constant energy, constant impulsive force, and constant
impulsive couple. Clebsch noticed that if a fourth integral could be
obtained, a fifth could be at once deduced by the principle of the last
multipler; and the last integral, giving the value of ¢, be then found by
quadratures. In the ‘Mathematische Annalen’* for 1871, soon after
Kirchhoff’s paper, he set himself the problem to discover when the equa-
tions admitted (a) of a linear integral, (6) of a quadric integral not com-
pounded of the first three integrals. Instead of the velocities, he takes
the momenta for dependent variables. Writing 2, @, #3, for the
component impulsive forces of the motion and yj, Yo, y3, for the com-
ponent impulsive couples, the energy can be expressed in the form T, +
T,+T; where T,, T; are quadric functions of the (#) and (y) respec-
tively, and T, contains only products of an # into a y, which he proves
may by a proper choice of the origin be such that the coefficients of 2; y;
and #;y;are the same. For a linear integral the condition found is that
T must be expressible in the form °—

A(@)" + 9") + ayes? +b (ay, +22 Yo) + Basys + e(y1? + yo”)

+ eyys”
when y;=const. is an integral. This includes Kirchhoff’s case and
Thomson’s isotropic helicoid. For a quadric integral three cases appear,
one of which reduces to the square of the above; the other two are that
T must be expressible in either of the forms
T, +2 (@yy, + %2 Yo + e343) te (Yt yo? +493") (@)
OF Ay)? + yey” + ages? + by? + boys” + bays? +A (a1

+ @oo + %3Y3)- (2)
h Gai Og az — a, By ag
where Fy + Role + ae 0)

when the integrals are respectively
for (a) AT, (y) — A =const.

1* Ueber die Druckkriifte, welche auf Ringe wirksam sind, die in bewegte Flissig-
keit tauchen,’ Borch., |xxiii. p. 111.

**Zur Discussion der Bewegung eines Rotationskérpers in einer Fliissigkeit,’
Math. Annalen., xii. p. 387.

$ ¢ Motion of an ellipsoid in liquid,’ Quart. Jowr. Math., xvi.p. 242.

ai die Bewegung eines K6rpers in einer Flissigkeit,’ Math. Ann., iii.
p. é

; In other words, the solid must be similar to itself turned through one right
angle,

76 REPORT—1881.

where A is a quadric function of the (x) whose coefficients (A;,) are the
minors of the determinant formed by the coefficients (a;,) of T, (dis-
criminant of T,) and for (8)

As =z. as

8 gy? -- SS Og? Sh Se 3? +(y)" + Yo + ys) = const.

by — bs b, — by b, — by

The case where the last condition is satisfied has been investigated by
Weber! when the impulse of the motion reduces to a single foree—in other
words, when the state of motion can be produced by a single blow
applied to a point rigidly connected with the body. Out of the sixteen
Theta functions of the first order of two variables, it is possible, in several
ways, to choose nine, whose ratios to a tenth, multiplied by proper con-
stants, are suitable to express the direction cosines of one set of rectan-
gular axes to another. Weber shows that, taking the two variables to be
linear functions of the time at + (6, a ¢+/3,, and those nine ratios to
represent the direction cosines of the axes fixed in the body, to the axes
fixed in the space, it is possible, if Clebsch’s last condition above is satis-
fied, to determine the constants, so that three other ratios may represent
the rotations about the set of axes fixed in the body, and the remaining
three the. rotations about the axes fixed in space, provided the motion is
such that there is no impulsive couple. There remain four constants to
be determined by the initial conditions, viz., two relations between three
moduli of the Theta functions and the two constants /3 3,. Four cases
occur as in the previous investigations, which depend on the initial state.
These are distinguished in the latter part of the paper. He also treats
the equations in another way by direct integration by means of hyper-
elliptic integrals.

The motions of a solid abont a fixed point in fluid under the action of
no forces, and about a fixed axis under the action of gravity, have been
investigated by Michaelis.?

In a remarkably suggestive paper in the ‘ Proceedings of the London
Mathematical Society,’* Lamb has applied Ball’s theory of screws to the
question of the steady motion of any solid in a fluid. It is easy to see
that there are a simply-infinite system of steady motions, each being a screw
motion, whose axis lies on a certain skew surface. The axis of each
screw must coincide with the axis of the generating wrench, but their
pitches are not necessarily the same. If the ratio of the impulsive force
to the rotation set up is given, there are three screws of steady motion
perpendicular to each other, though not necessarily intersecting. Amongst
the infinite system of permanent screws, it is possible to choose sets of
six mutually conjugate screws amongst which there is one set which
contains three of infinite pitch (which correspond to the three steady
translations), and three others which are such that the necessary gene-
rating wrenches have zero pitch, 7.e. reduce to impulsive couples. ‘This
latter set of three is important, as by its means it is possible to construct
the motion when the generating wrench reduces to any couple whatever.
The following is Lamb’s method of representing the motion. The three

1 «Anwendung der Thetafunctionen zweier Verinderlicher auf die Theorie der
Bewegung eines festen Korpers in einer Flissigkeit,’ Math. Annalen, xiv. p. 173.

* «Mouvement d’un solide dans un liquide,’ Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences
exactes et naturelles, Harlem, viii. ;

* *On the motion of a solid through an infinite mass of liquid,’ Proc. Lond. Math,
Soc., viii, p. 273 (1877),

RECENT PROGRESS IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 77

séts of screws just mentioned do not in general intersect, but their axes
lie along the alternate edges of a parallelopiped. Take the centre of
this parallelopiped, and call it O. Then the motion of the body is
compounded of the motion of O, and a motion about O. Describe
about O, as centre, a certain ellipsoid, which, as in Poinsot’s
representation, gives the motion relative to O by rolling on a
plane with angular velocity proportional to the instantaneous axis OI.
The motion of O is then represented by drawing round O another deter-
minate quadric. Suppose OI cuts the quadric in P, and OM is the
perpendicular from O on the tangent plane at P; then the motion is
completely represented by supposing the Poinsot ellipsoid and plane to
move bodily in the direction of OM with a velocity proportional to
OI/(OP. OM). For particular forms of the body this naturally
simplifies very much; for instance, in the case of an isotropic helicoid,
any screw through O is a permanent one. The motion is stable about
two of these fundamental screws and unstable about the third. Some of
Lamb’s results have since been obtained by Craig.! The steady motion
of a solid of revolution has also been treated by Greenhill,? who has given
an expression for the least rotation about the axis of a prolate solid of
revolution that it may keep its point in front. An investigation similar
to Greenhill’s was given by Craig * about the same time.

The general theory of the motion of more than one body in a fluid has
not hitherto received much attention. Many special problems have been
solved, especially the case of two or more spheres by several writers. But
these, beyond those referred to above, will best be noticed later under
special problems. Most of the qualitative results obtained for spheres, no
doubt hold good for solids in general. We may then expect that bodies
vibrating in a fluid will appear to act on one another with forces varying
according to inverse powers of the distance higher than the second, while
pulsating bodies (or bodies changing their volume periodically) will have
the chief part of their action proportional to the inverse square of the
distance.

(e) Viscous Fluids.

The general theory of viscous fluids presents difficulties which can
scarcely even yet be said to be settled. The equations of motion have not
the same degree of certainty as in the case of perfect fluids, partly on
account of the difficulty of finding a satisfactory theory on which friction
is to be explained, and partly on the difficulty, as Stokes has pointed out,
of connecting the oblique pressures on a small area with the differentials
of the velocities. In the last report to the Association Professor Stokes
has given a clear description of the various methods by which, up to 1846,
Navier, Poisson, St. Venant, and he himself had attacked the problem.
Since then several others have investigated the subject with results most
of which can be expressed in (what may be called) the typical form—

— Ayu — Bw
dz

p. — — =

where 6 denotes the cubical compression. In Stokes’ form, which is that

1 «The motion of a solid in a fluid, Amer Jour. Math., ii. p. 167.

* * Motion of an ellipsoid in fluid,’ Quart, Jour. Math., xvi. p. 255, and xvii. p. 86;
also for numerical applications to gunnery, see papers by the same author in the
Proc. Royal Artillery Inst. x. xi.; and art. ‘Hydrodynamics,’ Hneyc. Brit., 9th edit.

* ©On the motion of an ellipsoid in fluid,’ Amer. Jowr. Math. ii. p. 271,

78 REPORT—1881.

generally received, A=3B. O. E. Meyer! (1861) assumes that the
friction on a small plane in a given direction in the plane is proportional
to the rate of variation perpendicular to the plane of the component of
velocity in the given direction, whilst there is a normal part, proportional
to the rate of variation perpendicular to the plane, of the component per-
pendicular to the plane. This is not so stated in his preliminary hy-
pothesis, but is what his initial expressions imply. Considering then a
small parallelopiped da dy dz, he arrives at the above form of equation if
B is put zero, which agrees with the results found by previous investiga-
tors for incompressible fluids only. Stefan ? (1862) applies directly the
methods of elasticity to a small tetrahedron treating the forces as functions
of the nine differential coefficients of w v w, and shows, as in the theory of
elastic solids, that the forces are of the form—

pet 9, du _ fdu , dv
d= AO + 2p &e. i (Ge + ie) &e
He now attempts to find a relation between ) and » on the following
hypothesis. Drawing a small plane through the direction of the velocity
at any point, then the friction must fall in this plane and be parallel to the
direction of the velocity. From this it results that \ =o. Stokes’ cor-
responding assumption was that a uniform expansion of any element does
not require a re-arrangement of the molecules, which leads to \ = — 2 2/3.
Stefan’s equations then give, in the typical form, B=o. From a totally
different point of view has Maxwell * approached the subject when the
fluid in question is gaseous. He bases his theory of viscosity on the
travsference of momentum from one layer to another by the moving
particles of a gas, treating a gas according to the kinetic theory. He
obtains precisely the same expressions as Stokes. But this investigation
of Maxwell’s is far more important from another point of view, in that he
attempts to express the unknown constant of internal friction in terms of
known properties of the medium. The first attempt towards this was
made in his first paper‘ on the kinetic theory of gases (1860), where on
the same bases as to the cause of friction he calculates the constant on the
supposition that the atoms of a gas are spherical and perfectly elastic,
with the result that the constant is proportional to the square root of the
absolute temperature and is independent of the density. O. EH. Meyer®
(1865) also arrived at similar results from the same data. But this does
not agree with experience, and Maxwell returns to the question again in
the paper already mentioned. The fact that the coefficient of viscosity
is independent of the density follows, whatever be the law of repulsion
between the particles, but the law of its variation with the temperature
depends on the law of force. Maxwell has chosen the inverse fifth, from
which it results that the coefficient is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature. Maxwell’s result in this case is that A = kp/p where k is a
constant depending only on the mass of a molecule and the force between
two molecules at unit distance. He has also given an expression for the

1 ‘ Ueber die Reibung der Fliissigkeiten,’ Borch, lix. p. 229. He acknowledges
in 1874 (Borch. \xxviii. p. 131) that the investigation is not general.

2 «Ueber die Bewegung fliissiger Korper,’ Sitz. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xlvi. p. 8.

8 «Qn the dynamical theory of gases,’ Trans. Roy. Soc., 1867, p. 81.

4 ¢T]lustrations of the dynamical theory of gases,’ Phil. Mag., 1860, January and

uly.
> «Ueber die innere Reibung der Gase,’ Pogg. Ann. cxxv.

RECENT PROGRESS IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 79

coefficient in a mixture of gases. Later experiments ! have shown that
the proportionality of the viscosity to absolute temperature does not hold
for all gases. But Maxwell’s work shows in any case that the connection
between them depends on the law of force, which is certainly a complicated
one, and not likely @ priori to be the inverse fifth. Possibly for an
attractive force the viscosity might decrease with increase of temperature,
and if so would form an answer to Stefan’s objection against making the
same explanation of friction a basis fora theory of the viscosity of liquids.
Lamb, in his treatise on hydrodynamics, deduces the equation by a method
based on those of Stokes and St. Venant. Boussinesq ? applies the
equations for an elastic solid directly.

M. Levy 3 attempts to show that the stress cannot be represented by
functions of the form :—

du\” dv . du\”
= — : Xp — ==
i = 205 an) , &e é Cz aa a ) fe

but that the exact expressions are of the form—

X= p + 245% +220, 0"(S"), de.

a v 2n dv du
rele + 3% V") is ay, :
whilst M. Kleitz,‘ arriving at the same result as to the error of the ordinary
method of expressing the stresses, starts by supposing the constants to vary
for different small planes round a point, and tries to find the law of this
variation. Meyer ° has also deduced equations of motion on the supposi-
tion that the action between two particles takes time to act.

In the ‘ Proceedings’ of the London Mathematical Society, Butcher ©
has attempted to develop a general theory which would comprise the
theory of elastic solids and perfect fluids as particular cases. He supposes
a body composed of small groups of molecules differing from one another,
which he divides into two classes: (A) which recover their original form
after being subjected to a strain less than a certain amount, and (B) those
in which this hmiting strain is zero. When only A groups are present we
have an elastic solid ; when A and B groups are present the body partially
returns to its original configuration after a strain, but the amount of its
return is a function of the previous duration of the strain; if the body
does not return at all, B groups only are present, and we get a viscous
or perfect fluid according as the acting stress is finite or infinitesimally
small, With varying proportions of A and B groups appear different

1 For a discussion of this point the reader is referred to O. E. Meyer’s Die Kine-
tische Theorie der Gase. Breslau, 1877, p.157. Also for a full abstract of what is
known experimentally on the subject.

? «Mémoire sur l’influence des frottements dans les mouvements réguliers des
fluides.’ Liouville (2) xiii. p. 377.

* ‘Rapport sur un Mémoire de M. Maurice Lévy relatif 4 l‘hydrodynamique des
liquides homogénes, particulitrement 4 leur écoulement rectiligne et permanente.’
Comptes Rendus, \xviii. p. 582.

4 «Rapport sur un Mémoire de M. Kleitz, intitulé études sur les forces moléculaires
dans les liquides en mouvement, et application 4 Vhydrodynamique.’ Comptes
Rendus, \xxiv. p. 426.

5 «Zur Theorie der inneren Reibung,’ Borch. lxxviii. p. 130. Zusatz zu der
Abhandlung ‘ Zur Theorie der inneren Reibung, Borch. lxxx. p. 315.

6 « On viscous fluids in motion,’ Proc. Lond, Math. Soc., viii. p. 103.

80 REPORT—1881.

proportions of elasticity, plasticity, and viscosity. For viscous fluids, or
where B groups only are present, the equations of motion are found on
the supposition that in any element the groups not thrown out behave
as elastic solids, whilst those thrown out behave as perfect fluids, z.e. are
only in a state of contraction or dilatation, and that a strain of the element
is the sum of the strains of the first as an elastic solid, and of the second
as dilatations. The final equations obtained are :—

f aN GU as \ Du\ _

1, {(u+arang) row) + o(e- Beas,
dt

with two others, where / is the ratio of the number of groups thrown out

per unit of time to those not thrown out, and », & are the rigidity and

resistance to dilatation respectively for the elastic groups. With / large

or viscosity small, this becomes—

| Ree ee _ Du i
es vu t e(X Hr )=o

whilst for 7 small (as in Canada Balsam), it is—

dé Du
' Sree ok 2 een (E
+ gv) NY u +o pr) 0

Mr. Butcher also forms the equations of motion for plastic solids on
similar principles.

Bobylew ! has transformed Stokes’ form of the equations of motion of
a viscous fluid to curvilinear co-ordinates, and has given expressions for the
pressure at any point of a viscous fluid, and its rate of variation with the
time, analogous to those given by Helmholtz for a perfect fluid. Simpler
proofs of the same formule have been given since by Forsyth ® and Craig.°
When the motion at the boundary is zero, the rate of variation takes the

simple form — 4m ||| w2dadydz, where w is the rotation at the point

(w.y.z). It is clear, therefore, that with no motion at the boundary, or
in an infinite fluid at rest at infinity, there must be dissipation of the
energy of motion. Lipschitz 4 has also given expressions for the pressure
within a viscous fluid under the action of external and internal attraction.

None of these theories can be regarded as perfectly satisfactory ; even
Stokes’, which has been most generally accepted, introduces stresses,
whose appearance, simply on the theory of friction acting on the surface
of an element of fluid, it is difficult to understand. Take, for instance,
the motion given by w=aa, v=0, w=0 in a compressible fluid; this gives
a stress, due to friction, perpendicular to a small plane parallel to the
plane of yz, where certainly no force can arise from friction, if we
suppose it to act on the surfaces only. The method employed by Max-
well, and suggested by Stefan afterwards for extension to liquids, would
seem the more hopeful road, but we must wait until the motions of
the molecules of liquids are better understood than at present. On a

1 « Rinige Betrachtungen tiber die Gleichungen der Hydrodynamik,’ Math. Ann.

vi. p. 72. ;
y ‘On the motion of a viscous incompressible fluid,’ ess. Math. ix. p. 134.
° Journal of the Frankland Institute, October, 1880. Also ‘On certain possible
cases of steady motion in a viscous fluid,’ Amer. Jowr., lil. p, 269.
4 ‘Determinazione della pressione nell’ interno d’un fluido incompressibile soggetto

ad attrazioni interne ed esterne,’ Brioschi, Ann. (2) vi.

RECENT PROGRESS IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 8]

theory of this kind it is easy to see that forces will exist whose appear-
ance on any theory of surface-friction in the equations of stress is here
objected to. There can, however, be little doubt that for small motions
at least the ordinary equations give trustworthy results. Maxwell, in a
note published at the end of a paper by Rohrs' has pointed out a way to
obtain limits of error in some particular cases by the consideration of
error-forces.

The question of steady motion in viscous fluids has been considered
by Craig,” who has proved that if everywhere y7é, G7n, ve (4, 0, ¢, being
components of rotation) be zero, or in other words if yu dw+v*v dy+
vw dz be a perfect differential, the motion is steady. In this paper
several interesting transformations of the equations of motion, and of
the dissipation function are given. Oberbeck* had before this shown that
when the motion is very small and steady, the vanishing of yf, y7n, Yc is
a necessary consequence.

Helmholtz‘ has given a method by which in certain cases the motions
of one fluid with given conditions can be directly deduced from that of
another fluid whose motion is geometrically similar. Denoting by u v w
the velocities at time ¢, at the point (2.y.z) of a fluid whose density is p,
pressure p, and coefficient of viscosity », and using dashed letters to
denote the same quantities for another fluid, he points out that when
there are no external forces the equations of motion are also satisfied by
Pi=GP, Pi=r p, m=nu, &e., w=ga/n, &e. 5 p,=n*rp + const., t;=qt/n?
where q. r. n are three constants, two of which, qg. r,are determined by the
nature of the fluids, the other, n, is arbitrary for an incompressible fluid, but
for a compressible fluid x must be the ratio of the velocity of sound in the
second fluid to that in the first. In incompressible viscous fluids, in which
bodies are immersed, » will be determined by the ratios of the coefficients
of slipping at their surfaces. If this coefficient is zero, or if there is no
viscosity, we may take into consideration the action of gravity, but then
n*=q. The resistances to the motion of similar bodies in the fluids are
in the ratio q?r:1, whilst the rates of work done in overcoming these
resistances are as nq?r : 1. Many interesting results flow at once from
the foregoing considerations, e.g., the fact that in waves on the surface of
a heavy incompressible fluid, the velocity of propagation of similar waves
in similar vessels is always, whatever their form, proportional to the square
root of the wave-length; this follows at once by putting g=n? whence
®,=n"z, t;=nt. Helmholtz applies these considerations to the relations
between ships and their horse-power, birds and their. muscular power,
and works out with numerical! details the relations between ships and
similarly shaped balloons, with reference to volume, horse-power, and
tonnage. For these results the reader is referred to the paper itself.

: * ‘Spherical and Cylindrical Motion in Viscous Fluid,’ Proc. LZ. Math. Soc. v.
p. 125.

2 «Viscous Fluids,’ Jowr. Frankland Inst., Oct. 1880, p. 217. ‘On certain possible
cases of steady motion in a viscous fluid,’ Amer. Jowr. Math. iii. p. 269. A similar
statement is also given by Graetz (Zeits. f. Math. wu. Phys. xxiv. p. 239: ‘ Einige Siitze
iiber Wirbelbewegungen in reibenden Fliissigkeiten’), but with an evident error as to
non-possibility of production of vortices in such a motion by conservative forces.

* * Ueber stationire Fliissigkeitsbewegungen mit Beriicksichtigung der inneren
Reibung,’ Borch. 1xxxi. p. 62.

* “Ueber ein Theorem, geometrisch ihnliche Bewegungen fliissiger Kérper
betreffend, nebst Anwendung auf das Problem, Luftballons zu lenken,’ Monatsber.
Berl. (1873) p. 501,

1881. G

82 - - kuport—1881.

The principle may be compared with that of Newton’s principle of
dynamical similitude. An example illustrating Helmholtz’ results is
given by Rayleigh! on the analogy between the two dimensional vibra-
tions of air in a cylindrical tube of any section, and the liquid waves
contained in a vertical cylindrical vessel of the same section.

f. Waves in Liquids.

The subject of waves was one which received much attention amongst
English mathematicians about the period between 1840 and 1850, and the
labours of Green, Kelland, Earnshaw, and Airy have been noticed by
Professor Stokes in the last report to the Association. Almost imme-
diately after this report he himself read a paper before the Cambridge
Philosophical Society ‘On the Theory of Oscillatory Waves,’? in which
was investigated the form and properties of waves which are propagated
without change of form and irrotationally. It appeared that with these
conditions® given, to a given velocity of propagation corresponded one
definite form ; when the height is small compared with the wave-length,
the wave-form is the curve of sines; but if the height is comparable with
the wave-length this is not the case, but the crests of the waves are
steeper than the hollows, and this difference becomes more prominent
the shallower the fluid is. A curious result of the analysis is that the
fluid particles, in addition to a motion of oscillation have also a small one
of translation, which depends on the square of the ratio of the height to
wave-length, a result which Rayleigh* has shown to depend directly on
the absence of molecular rotation of the wave. In this paper Stokes
carried the approximation to a second order for finite depths, and to a
third order when the depth of fluid is infinite. In the reprint of his
papers’ (1880) he adds a supplement to the above in which a totally
different method is employed. Instead of taking the rectangular co-
ordinates of a particle as independent variables and expressing the
velocity potential thereby as usual, the velocity potential and streain
functions are taken as independents and the co-ordinates of a point
sought in terms of them. This so much simplifies the calculation that
it is an easy matter to press the approximation to the fifth order for
infinitely deep fluids, and to the third order for those of finite depth. In
infinitely deep fluids a wave-form of length 27/m and height 2a+ 3m? a®
the velocity of propagation (c) is given by®

c2 = £ (1 + ma? + Smita)
m

1 ©On Waves, Phil. Mag. (5) i. p. 275.

2 Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc. viii. p. 441. Alsc reprint, vol. i. p, 197.

3 Tt will be seen below that another condition is implied, viz., the finiteness of
wave-length,

4 *On Waves,’ Phil. Mag. (5) i. p. 270.

5 Mathematical and Physical Papers. G. G. Stokes, Vol. I. Cambridge
University Press.

‘ If h = height of crest above the trough and A = wave-length

ee OS ( 1: re + a)

>

Qn r “—
awh? m?)),2 27,2 xv 1h 27,2 tT é
Wipe a gel ae 18 Neg lu 5g ee cos 27”
rn rx : ~ ar 2A 2? A
27,8 37,4 ”
4- el Gog Ces Poe Bae acre

RECENT PROGRESS IN HYDRODYNAMICS.- 83

and the form of the wave to the fourth order by
y +4ma? — i mat =a cos me — 4 ma? (1 + 43 ma”) cos 2 mex
+ 3 ma’ cos 3 ma — 4 m®at cos 4me....

This embraces so far as the third order the results of the earlier paper.
To the third order this agrees with the expansion for a trochoid, and
therefore the curve approximates to Gerstner’s and Rankine’s form men-
tioned below.!_ In the same paper Stokes also considers the analogous
problem for the waves at the common surface between two liquids. When
the fluids are confined by horizontal rigid walls there is as before only
one form of wave, for given velocity of propagation, and the velocity (c)
is given by 27c?= gd (p —p!) {po tanh 2rh/AX +p! tanh 2h!/d}-!
where fh, h' are the thicknesses of the fluids, and the meanings of the
other constants are evident. The case is different when the upper fluid
has a free surface. Here either for given wave-length or for given
velocity of propagation there are two possible systems of wave-forms.
One of these, when the lower fluid is deep, corresponds to that form,
which is propagated on a single surface, and this whatever the depth of
the upper fluid. The other form is propagated with velocity given by
2c? = gh (p — p') (p tanh 2rh'/A 4- p!)-!.

Only one definite series of waves of permanent type can be pro-
pagated in a fluid in which no vortex motion is present; but it does not
follow that this is the only permanent form which is possible in a perfect
fluid. One other at least is known, which was first discovered by
Gerstner? in 1802, and afterwards independently by Rankine* in 1862.
The latter gives a most elegant geometrical proof that a trochoidal form
of wave is a possible one, and that the velocity of propagation is
/ (gA/2r). Here the motion of any particle is a uniform one in a circle,
the radius of the circle diminishing with the depth. Ina later note* he
discovers the essential difference between this mode of wave-motion and
that considered by Stokes. It lies in the fact that the exact trochoidal
waves possess molecular rotation. Stokes notices this in the reprint of
his own papers® and points out that in order that such waves may be
excited in a perfect fluid by operations on the surface alone a preparation
must be laid in the shape of a horizontal velocity decreasing from the
surface downwards according to the law ewp(—4zk/h) where i is a
function of the depth given by

ra Ankh
depth = i: = { 1 — exp = ) \
The physical interest therefore of these motions is not so great as has
been sometimes thought.

The same objection, amongst others, lies against an attempt by Hagen®

' The theory of periodic waves has been treated by Boussinesq in a very long
paper inthe Wém. par divers Savants, xx. p. 509. He does not seem to have been
acquainted with much of the work done outside France.

**Theorie der Wellen,’ Abhand. der Konigl. Bihmischen Gesellschaft der Wiss.

1802. Also printed separately, Prague, 1804, Also in Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik,
Bd. 32, p. 412, ‘

*¢On the exact form of waves near the surface of deep water,’ Trans. Roy. Soc.
1863. Also Reprint, p. 481. St, Venant reproduces in the C.R., 1xxi, p. 186, a some-
what similar proof by M. Belanger, given by the latter in 1828.

4 Reprint, p. 494.

° Appendix A to Oscillatory Waves, p. 219.

*¢ Ueber Wellen auf Gewiissern von gleichmiissiger Tiefe.’— Math. Abhand. hinig.
Akad. d. Wiss, Berlin (1861), p.1, This is a long drawn-out paper.

G2

84 ruPorT—1881.

to develop a somewhat similar theory for a fluid of finite depth. fn the
trochoidal waves in deep fluids all the particles describe circles with
uniform velocities. Hagen starts by assuming the path to be an ellipse
distorted so that the higher and lower halves are raised from the sym-
metrical position, 7.e. the paths are given by

easing, y = fcosd + ycos*¢

where ¢ is a function of the time and a,3,y are constants for each
particle. He also assumes that particles in a vertical line always remain
so. The condition of constant pressure at the surface as expressed by
him is only approximately satisfied. St. Venant! has given for stationary
waves a theory similar to that of Gerstner’s for progressive waves, and
has also attempted to develop a theory for progressive and stationary
waves when the fluid is of a finite depth, but unfortunately his theory
does not satisfy the equation of continuity.

The limiting form of trochoidal waves being the cuspidal, it is clear
that permanent waves could exist whose crests would be infinitely fine, a
result contradicted by experience if we suppose the theory actually to
apply to waves as ordinarily seen, that is in irrotational motion. This
alone would show that they cannot be taken as the type of naturally
produced waves. In another wave-form considered by Rankine,?

p = 2ry/X — exp (— 2ry]X) cos 2ra/A

the steepest form cuts itself at 90°; but this is a forced wave, that is the
pressure along the surface is not constant. The velocity of propagation
here also is / (g\/27). Inasupplement to this paper? he attempts to
prove that all waves in which molecular rotation is null must begin to
break when the two slopes of the crest meet at aright angle. But this
has been criticised by Stokes* who has very neatly proved that if such a
sharp angle is possible it must be one of 120°; and this is borne out by
the fact that the analytical series for the permanent type of irrotational
periodic waves seems to become divergent as the wave approaches the
form with a crest of 120°.

The question of permanent types of waves of longitudinal disturbance
through the medium, properly belongs to the domain of the theory of
sound. It has been investigated by Stokes,> Harnshaw,® Riemann,’ and
Rankine.’ The essential difference between this case and the preceding
is that the medium must fulfil the condition p*dp/dp = const. HWarnshaw
regarded this as unrealisable ; but Rankine has shown that with a given
law of conduction of heat, there are types of waves which can be pro-

1 «Sur la houle et le clapotis,’ Compt. Rend., \xxiii., p. 521, 589.

7 ‘Summary of the properties of certain stream-lines,’ Phil. Mag. (4), xxviii.
p. 282.

8 Phil. Mag. (4), Xxix., p. 25.

4 Math. and Phys. Papers. App. B., ‘Considerations relative to the greatest
height of oscillatory irrotational waves which cah be propagated without change of
form,’ p. 225.

5 «On a difficulty in the theory of sound,’ Phil. Mag. (3), xxxiii. p. 349.

6 «On the mathematical theory of sound,’ Zrans. Roy. Soc. (1860), p. 133.

7 «Ueber die Fortpflanzung ebener Luftwellen,’ Gott., Abhand. Math. Class., vili.

. 43.
**On the thermodynamic theory of waves of finite longitudinal disturbance,’
Trans, Roy. Soc,, 1870. Also Reprint, p. 530.

RECENT PROGRESS IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 85

pagated so that this condition is satisfied. Itis curious that sudden waves
of condensation are permanent, whilst those of rarefaction are not so.

When the length of the wave is very great compared with the depth
of the fluid, it is clear that the vertical motion of any particle is very
small compared with the horizontal. A theory based on the neglect of
the vertical motion is called a theory of long waves, and had been very
fully treated by Lagrange, Airy, and others. If in addition to small ratio
of depth to length, the ratio of height of wave to depth is also small,
then to the first order of these quantities the wave is of a permanent
type. But if the height of the wave has a finite ratio to depth of fluid
Rayleigh ! has shown that it is impossible for the waves to maintain their
form. In order that it should do so the force of gravitation ought to
vary as the inverse cube of the height above the bottom of the fluid. In
the same paper he points out that in a canal of slowly varying section, if
the velocity of the stream be less than tbat of a free wave, a contraction
of the channel produces a decrease in wave-height, and vice versd. The
opposite happens if the velocity of the stream is greater than that of a
free wave.

The theory of irrotational waves of permanent type, considered by
Stokes, proceeds on the assumption that an infinite series of similar
waves follow one another, or that the wave-length is finite; and we have
seen how, in this case, the solution is unique for given velocity of
propagation. But this theory does not take account of the question
whether a solitary wave can be thus propagated ; in fact, it is clear that
the functions determining such a wave must not be expressible as a series
of circular functions, as the motion is essentially non-periodic. That
such waves exist has been known for a long period, since the experiments
_of Scott-Russell brought to light the wave called by him the solitary
wave. In the last report, Stokes has mentioned Harnshaw’s attempt at
giving a mathematical theory of this kind of wave, and has pointed out
the objection to it, that it requires a finite change of velocity and pressure
at the beginning and end of the wave. Rayleigh has noticed that the
cause of this is that Harnshaw’s wave contains molecular rotation, whilst
the fluid beyond the wave is at rest. A satisfactory theory has been
given by Boussinesq,? when the curvature of the wave-profile is of such
a magnitude that d‘y/det may be ueglected. He deduces that the
velocity of the wave is given by gh where h is the primitive depth of
the fluid, which is Russell’s result, as’ found by experiment. The form
of the profile is given by y= a sech? 2/(3a/4 h3), a being the height
of the wave above the original surface. The centre of gravity of this
wave is at one-third of its height above the undisturbed level.
Boussinesq introduces a quantity, connected with any swelling of fluid
propagated along the surface, which he calls the moment of instability.
For all swellings of equal energy this momenti s least when the swelling
is the solitary wave, which keeps its form; when the moment is not
quite a minimum, the form of the swelling will oscillate about the
permanent form given above. It follows, from the analysis, that a
negative permanent wave is impossible, a result also of Russell’s

1¢On Waves,’ Phil, Mag. (5), i., p. 257 (1876).

2<Théorie des ondes et des remous qui se propagent le long d’un canal rec-
tangulaire horizontal, en communiquant au liquide contenu dans ce canal des vitesses
sensiblement pareilles de Ja surface au fond,’ Liouville (2), xvii. (1872), p, 55,

86 REPORT—1881.

experiments. The paths! described in solitary waves by particles of the
fluid are parabolic ares with axes vertical, constant horizontal chord
equal to the quotient of the volume of the wave by the primitive depth,
and height proportional to the initial height of the particle above the
bottom ; being, for a particle at the surface, equal to the height of the
wave. The latus rectum at the surface is four-thirds the primitive depth
of the fluid, and varies for other particles inversely as their height above
the bottom, and is independent of the height of the wave. Rayleigh?
also gave, independently, a few years later, a theory of the solitary wave
agreeing with that of Boussinesq’s.

Rankine® has attempted to determine the velocity of propagation of
any possible kind of wave in a liquid of limited or unlimited depth
simply from the fact that the free surface is one of constant pressure.
But, in reality, he implicitly assumes that the waves are of a permanent
type. He proves that the velocity of propagation is equal to that
acquired by a body in falling through half the virtual depth. In this, the
velocity of the wave is defined as the mean of the velocities with which
the form advances relatively to particles in the crest and trough
respectively, and the virtual depth as follows: Suppose a stream flowing
with a velocity equal to the difference of the velocities of the particles at
the crest and trough ; then the depth of stream, in order that the amount
of horizontal disturbance should equal the whole amount of horizontal
disturbance in the actual fluid between two vertical planes, through the
crest and trough respectively, is the virtual depth. We have seen how
an analogous theorem can be deduced from the theory of dynamical
similarity.

In all the foregoing, the waves have been regarded as following each
other in infinite series, or the whole extent of the fluid has been taken
into consideration. The theory would have to be modified, therefore,
when waves are propagated into fluid at rest. This happens, for instance,
with the trail of waves from the bow of a boat, or the group of waves
formed on the surface of water by periodically disturbing it for a
short interval. It is then observed that the waves are not of the same
size, but that they advance in a group, of which the largest are in the
middle, and that the group itself progresses with only half the velocity
of the waves themselves. If a single wave be observed, it is seen to die
gradually out, while others are formed in its rear. The explanation of
this was given by Osborne Reynolds, at the meeting of this Association
at Plymouth, in 1877.4_ The energy of a liquid trochoidal wave is half
kinetic and half potential, the latter of which is transmitted at the rate
of its amount in unit of length x the velocity of the wave. It is then easy
to see that, in a group of waves, which slightly decrease in size towards
the front, the form of wave is transmitted twice as fast as the energy,
and the velocity of the group is only one-half that of the waves composing
it. The propagation of groups of waves had been considered before
Reynolds, by Rayleigh,® who treated them as compounded of two infinite
trains of waves, of equal amplitude and slightly different wave-length ;

1 « Addition au Mémoire sur la Théorie,’ &c. iow. (2) xviii. p. 47.

2 «On Waves,’ Phil. Mag. (5) i. p. 262.

* «On Waves in Liquids,’ Proc. Roy. Soc., xvi. p. 344 (1868).

4 The paper is published in Watwre, xvi. p. 343: ‘On the rate of progression of
groups of waves, and the rate at which energy is transmitted by waves.’

5° Theory of Sound, vol, i. p. 246.

RECENT PROGRESS IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 87

and showed that if Vis the velocity of propagation of a wave-form of
length 27/k%, the velocity of the groupisd (kV)/dk. In the ‘Proceedings
of the Mathematical Society,’! Rayleigh extends Reynolds’s theory to other
types of waves, and attempts to show how his expressions for the velocity
may result from the theory of the latter. If the velocity of the wave
vary as the nth power of its wave-length, the velocity of group-propa-
gation is (1 — ) times the velocity of the wave (V); thus, for deep-water
waves it is }V; for aérial waves, V (beats travel with the same velocity
as the notes); and for waves due to capillary action on the surface
it is 3V.

The theory of these latter waves has been given by Thomson.? The
velocity of propagation with air of density c, above water whose super-
ficial tension is T is /(g,\/27 +2xT,/A) where g, =g(1 —o)/1+4 0)
andT, = T/(1+<). Solong as the wave-length is less than 27 /(T,/g,)
the velocity of propagation increases as the wave-length diminishes, and
the-capillary tension has most effect in producing the motion, while if the
wave-length is greater, the velocity of propagation increases with the
wave-length, and gravity has most effect. Thomson proposes to confine
the name ripples to fluid waves whose wave-length is less than this
critical value. The velocity of propagation is then a minimum and
/(2V/ (g:T;) ). For water, this gives a velocity of 23 centimeters per
second for a wave-length of 1:7 centimeters. This result agrees well with
some experiments made by him on sea water. When wind acts on the
surface, the results are modified, the wave-velocity with a wind-velocity
equal to V is equal to oV/(1 + co) = {w? — oV*(1+ o) ~?}* where w is
the velocity, without wind. The discussion of this formula leads to
interesting results ; for instance, that the surface of still water is unstable
if the velocity of the wind exceeds

Je SO):

This accounts for the fact that a small breath of wind sweeping over the
surface of still water dims the surface only while it lasts, for the capillary
Waves die away at once through the viscosity of the water. The values of
the velocity of propagation of capillary waves on water without air, have
been found by Kolacek,? apparently without knowledge of Thomson's
work.

Some very elegant illustrations of Huyghen’s principle as applied to
liquid waves have been given by Hirst. He has developed the differen-
tial equations for the line of ripple due to any centres, or lines of
disturbance, which give small waves, as, for instance, the ripples just
mentioned, on the surface of fluid moving in any manner; and has
applied them particularly to the case where the centre of disturbance
describes a circle uniformly on still water. The results are compared
with experiment, with full agreement between theory and practice.

The theories of straight waves in a vertical square cylinder, and of

1 «On progressive waves,’ Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., ix. p. 21. He states that the
theory is originally due to Stokes.

2 «Hydrokinetic Solutions,’ parts 3, 4, 5, Phil. Mag. (4) xiii. p. 368.

3 ‘Ueber den Einfluss des capillaren Oberflichendruckes auf die Fortpflanzungs-
geschwindigkeit von Wasserwellen,’ Wied. Ann. v. p. 425. J

4 <On Ripples and their relation to the velocities of currents,’ Phil. Mag. (4), xxi.
p. 1 and 188.

88 REPORT—1881.

cylindrical waves in circular vessels, have been investigated by Rayleigh!
and compared with his own experiments and those of Professor Guthrie?
published in 1875. The question has also been investigated by Giesen.3
Kirchhoff* has considered plane waves in a rectangular trough whose
sides are equally inclined to the vertical, the crests of the waves being
parallel to the sides,

Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Wituiam THomson,
Professor Roscor, Dr. J. H. GuLapstTongE, and Dr. ScHusTEeR
(Secretary), wppointed for the purpose of collecting information
with regard to Meteoric Dust, and to consider the question of
undertaking regular observations in various localities.

Tus Committee was appointed for the double purpose of examining the
observations hitherto recorded on the subject of meteoric dust, and of
discussing the possibility of future more systematic investigations.

With regard to the first point, we note that in a paper presented to
the Royal Astronomical Society > in 1879, Mr. Ranyard has given what
appears to be a pretty complete account of the known observations as to
the presence of meteoric dust in the atmosphere.

It appears that in the year 1852 Professor Andrews found native iron
in the basalt of the Giant’s Causeway. Nordenskjold found particles of
iron, which in all probability had a cosmic origin, in the snows of Fin-
land and the icefields of the Arctic regions. Dr. T. L. Phipson, and,
more recently, Tissandier, found similar particles deposited by the winds
on plates exposed in different localities. Finally, Mr. John Murray dis-
covered magnetic particles raised from the deposits at the bottom of the
sea by H.M.S. Challenger. These particles were examined by Professor
Alexander Herschel, who agreed with Mr. Murray in ascribing a cosmic
origin to these particles. For fuller details and all references we must
refer to Mr. Ranyard’s paper.

Some interesting papers have also been published by Professors
Silvestri and Tacchini.®

There can be little doubt that magnetic dust, which in all probability
derives its origin from meteors, has often been observed, though it ought
to be mentioned that some writers have come to a contrary conclusion,”
The question arises in what way we can exercise our knowledge on these
points to an appreciable extent.

A further series of occasional observations would in all probability
lead to no result of great value unless the observations were continued

1 ¢On Waves,’ Phil. Mag. (5), i. p. 257 (1876).

? On Stationary Liquid Waves,’ Phil. Mag. (4), 1. pp. 290. 377 (1875); see also
Rayleigh in Wature, xii. p. 251.

% «Versuch einer mathematischen Darstellung der Fliissigkcitswellen,’ Schl. Zeits.
Jiir Math., xxii. p. 133.

4 «Ueber stehende Schwingungen einer schweren Flissigkeit,’ Wied. Ann., x.
p. 34; also Monatsber, d. kh. akad. d. Wiss, zu Berl., May 15,1879. For experiments
bearing on this theory see a paper by Kirchhoff and Hansemann in the same journal,
‘ Versuche tiber stehende Schwingungen des Wassers,’ ib., p. 337.

§ Monthly Notices, xxxix. p. 161 (1879).

® Annali della Meteorologia, Parte III. 1879.

1 Flogel, Zeitschrift fiir Meteorologic, August 1881,

ON THE CALCULATION OF SUN-HEAT COEFFICIENTS. 89

over a considerable length of time, and carried on in places specially
adapted for the purpose.

For we know that meteoric dust does fall, and further observations
ought, if possible, to be directed rather towards an approximate estimate
of the quantity which falls within a given time. Difficulties very likely
will be found in the determination of the locality in which the observa-
tions should be conducted. The place ought to be sheltered as much as
possible against any ordinary dust not. of meteoric origin. The lonely
spots best fitted for these observations are generally accessible to occa-
sional experiments only, and do not lend themselves easily to a regular
series of observations. Nevertheless, experiments continued for a few
months at some elevated spot in the Alps might lead to valuable results.

The Committee would like to draw attention to an instrument which
might be well fitted for such observations. It was devised by Dr.
Pierre Miquel for the purpose of examining, not the meteoric particles,
but organic and organised matters floating about in the air. A descrip-
tion, with illustrations, will be found in the ‘ Annuaire de Montsouris’ for
1879.

Two forms of the instrument are given. In the first form, which is
only adapted to permanent places of observation, an aspirator draws a
quantity of air which can be measured through a fine hole. The air
impinges on a plate coated with glycerine, which retains all solid matter.
By means of this instrament we may determine the quantity of solid
particles within a given volume of air. .

The second more portable form does not allow such an accurate
quantitative analysis. The instrument is attached to a weathercock, and
thus is always directed against the wind, which traverses it, and
deposits, as in the other permanent form, its solid matter on a glycerine
plate. An anemometer placed in the vicinity serves to give an approxi-
mate idea of the quantity of air which has passed through the apparatus.
These instruments have been called aeroscopes by their inventor.

But perhaps the simpler plan of exposing a large horizontal surface
covered with glycerine, and examining the dust deposited on it, will
prove the most efficient for the purpose which the Committee has in
view.

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. SAMUEL
Haucuton, M.D., F.R.S., and Bentamin WiLuiAMson, F.R.S., ap-
pointed for the Calculation of Sun-heat Coefficients. Drawn
up by Dr. Haucuron. ;

Tx Committee placed upon the table the volume of calculations relative
to the equator, as a specimen of the five volumes which will ultimately
be placed, for reference, in the library of Trinity College, Dublin; and
explained the method by which the reductions had been made.

The formule, by means of which the calculations were made, have
been published in the British Association Report for the Sheffield meeting
(1879), and the Royal Irish Academy have undertaken the publication of
all the summarised results in detail, so that it will not be necessary to ask
the Association to undergo the expense of printing them.

90 REPORT—1881.

Note on Method of Reduction.

1°. Time spent by the sun in every zone of altitude, one degree broad,
on each day of the year, is calculated.
2°. These all added together should give a sum equal to half the year,
or
262,980 minutes.
They actually give
263,020 minutes,
being an error of 40 minutes in the whole year.
3°. Supposing the error equally distributed in all the ninety zones; a
correction is made by a multiplier, and the approximate true time spent
by the sun in each zone is found.
4°, These times are then multiplied by the heat-coefticients of each
zone, already published (Sheffield).
5°. The total heat received is represented by 27,038°425,
6°. The total heat received, if there were no atmosphere, is
40,171°391.
7°. The heat received at the earth’s surface at the equator is there-
fore only 67:55 per cent. of that received at tho surface of the atmo-
sphere,

Fourteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor EVERETT,
Professor Sir WiLL1amM THomson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor
Ramsay, Professor Grikir, Mr. J. GLAISHER, Mr. PENGELLY,
Professor Epwarp Hutt, Dr. CLEMENT LE NEVE Foster, Professor
A. §. HERSCHEL, Professor G. A. Lesour, Mr. A. B. WYNNE,
Mr. GaLLoway, Mr. JoserH Dickinson, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr.
E. WETHERED, and Mr. A. StrauaN, appointed for the purpose
of investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Tempera-
ture downwards in various Localities of Dry Land and under
Water. Drawn wp by Professor EvERert (Secretary).

Six observations in the Talargoch Lead Mine, Flintshire, were given in
last Report, and another has since been taken at a point distant 400
yards to the S.S.W. from Station VI. there mentioned. The depth
beneath the surface of the ground is 220 yards, and the position is in a
level going west from the engine-shaft. It was 3 yards from the fore-
breast, and had only been exposed nine days. The level was dry and
there was not much circulation of air. The thermometer (one of the
Committee’s slow-action instruments) was inserted in a hole 25 inches
deep, which was plugged with rag and 12 inches of clay after its inser-
tion. It was withdrawn and read on three several occasions, July 19, 23,
and 27, and on each occasion the temperature found was 62° Fahr.

Assuming, as in last year’s Report, that 48° is the mean temperature
at the surface, this would give an increase of 14° in 660 feet, or of 1° for
47 feet. The rock is white limestone with a little chert.

Comparing this observation with the other six, which exhibited great
discordances among themselves, the discordance is still further increased,

ON THE RATE OF INCREASE OF UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 91

this last station being relatively hotter than any of the others. Though
only 24 feet deeper than Station VI., it is 3:°2° warmer; and Station VI.
was itself exceptionally warm.

It is evident that there are local sources of disturbance which render
this spot unsuitable for obtaining average results. The observation itself
may be relied upon as correct, having been made by the captain of the
mine, Mr. J. Lean, who assisted Mr. Strahan in last year’s observations.

Mr. E. Garside, engineering student, Queen’s College, Belfast, has
continued his observations in the East Manchester coal-field.

In Ashton Moss Colliery, the temperature was observed on June 27 at
the depth of 930 yards, and found to be 85:3°, the thermometer being
inserted in a hole 2 inches in diameter and 3} feet deep, drilled for the
purpose in hard blue shale which lies below the Great Mine coal seam,
being newly-opened ground, dry, and free from cracks. The hole was
allowed to stand ten or fifteen minutes, that the heat of drilling might
partially escape, and one of the Committee’s slow-action thermometers
was then inserted with proper plugging, and left in for six hours. It
was not considered advisable to leave it longer, as, ‘owing to the great
crush and unsettled state of the ground,’ there might haye been difficulty
in extracting it, Up to the time at which the thermometer was withdrawn,
no disturbance of the solidity of the ground had occurred. The tunnel,
and especially this part of it, was free from the action of any strong air-
current.

Assuming 49° as the surface-temperature, we have here an increase of
36°3° in 2,790 feet, which is at the rate of 1° in 76:9 feet.

Earlier observations were taken, at the depths of 871 and 897 yards,
by the colliery engineer ; but Mr. Garside reports that the thermometer
with which they were taken was an ordinary cheap one with wood scale,
and that on examination the tube was found to be a little loose in the
scale. It seems best therefore to neglect them as unreliable.

In reference to an apprehension which was expressed that the heat of
drilling had not had sufficient time to escape, Mr. Garside writes that he
has on several occasions made a second observation in the same hole in
places where he knew that the strata would stand and not crack, and he
has always found the temperature unchanged ; but thatit is impossible to
repeat the observation at such great depths as that of Ashton Moss, as in
a few hours the holes became crooked.

Mr. Garside’s next observation was at Bredbury Colliery (in the
county of Cheshire), at the depth of 340 yards. A hole was drilled, as
before, in dry warren earth (an argillaceous rock) free from cracks or
bit in New Mine south level ; and the temperature, observed as before,
was 62°,

Assuming (as above) 49° as the surface-temperature, we have here an
increase of 13° in 1,020 feet, which is at the rate of 1° in 78°5 feet.

The distance from Ashton Moss Colliery is three or four miles, and
the two shafts are sunk through the same coal-measures, one being near
the outcrop, and the other more on the deep.

Making no assumption as to surface-temperature, but comparing the
two observations with each other, we have an increase of 23°3° in 1,770
feet, which is at the rate of 1° in 76:0 feet. The consistency of these
results is eminently satisfactory.

On a subsequent date, July 19, Mr. Garside took the temperature at
Nook Pit, belonging to the Broad Oak Colliery Company, at the depth of

92 REPORT—1881.

350 yards, in the floor of the Royley Mine. It is in newly opened ground,
free from cracks or other visible irregularities, at the far end of the newly
opened North Level. The depth of the hole, which was in hard warren
earth, and the other conditions of observation, were the same as before,
and the temperature observed was 623° Fahr.

Taking the surface-temperature as 49°, this gives an increase of 133°
in 1,050 feet, or of 1° for 79 feet.

All these stations, as well as Dukinfield, where Mr. Garside last year
obtained results in good agreement with those now presented, are within
a few miles of each other and close to the river Tame, which is here the
boundary between Lancashire and Cheshire. Mr. Garside calls attention
to the great quantity of water which is found in some parts of the rock
overlying the coal-measures in this district, a source which is largely
drawn upon for water-supply, and suggests, with much show of reason,
that its presence may account for the slowness of the rate of increase
shown by all these observations.

Mr. James M‘Murtrie, general manager of the Radstock Collieries, near
Bath, has taken observations in three different pits belonging to these
collieries. The instrument used in each case was one of the Committee’s
slow-acting thermometers, placed in a hole drilled 2 feet deep, which was
plugged with about 4 inches of clay. A moderate current of air was
passing. The level, in each case, was dry and free from cracks, and the
face at the place where the hole was drilled had only been exposed a day
or two. The rocks overhead consist of lias above, then new red sand-
stone, and under this the shales and sandstones of the coal-measures. The
mines, speaking generally, are comparatively dry, and the strata were
perfectly dry where the temperatures were taken. There are no great hills
near, the Mendips being about six miles distant, and the surface rises
about one in fifty towards them, leaving out of account local undulations.
The strata in all three cases were nearly level.

In Wells May Pit, the thermometer was left two days in a hole drilled
in the sandstone rock at the depth of 560 feet, and read 61°7°.

In Ludlow’s Pit, it was left two days in a hole drilled in the Bull Vein
coal, at the depth of 1,000 feet, and read 63°.

In the same pit it was left five days ina hole drilled in the Middle
Vein coal, at the depth of 810 feet, and read 63°.

All these observations were taken in June and July of the present
year. Arranging them in order of depth, and assuming the surface-
temperature to be 50°, the result stands thus :—

Depth Temperature Excess over Feet per

in feet Fahy. surface degree
560 : < 61:7 - Z ition, - ; 48
810 ty ; 63 ‘ 3 13 ; : 62

1000 é : 63 - : 13 ; - 77

They exhibit a large amount of irregularity, which is not easily
accounted for. The mean result may be taken as 1° in 62 feet. Mr.
Wethered’s observations in the Kingswood Collieries, near Bristol (see
‘Report’ for 1879), gave about 1° in 68 feet.

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAVITY. 93

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. H. Darwin,
Professor Sir Witt1am THomson, Professor Tart, Professor GRANT,
Dr. SrEMENS, Professor PursER, Professor G. Forpes, and Mr.
Horace Darwin, appointed for the Measurement of the Lwnar
Disturbance of Gravity.

On an instrument for detecting and measuring small changes in the direction
of the force of gravity, by Guoras H. Darwin, M.A., F.R.S., formerly
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Horace Darwin, M.A.,,
Assoc. M. Inst. O.E.

[This report is written in the name of G. H. DARWIN merely for the sake of verbal
convenience. |

I. Account of the experiments.

Wn feel some difficulty as to the form which this report should take,
because we are still carrying on our experiments, and have, as yet,
arrived at no final results. As, however, we have done a good deal of
work, and have come to conclusions of some interest, we think it better
to give at once an account of our operations up to the present time,
rather than to defer it to the future.

In November, 1878, Sir William Thomson suggested to me that
I should endeavour to investigate experimentally the lunar disturbance
of gravity, and the question of the tidal yielding of the solid earth.
In May, 1879, we both visited him at Glasgow, and there saw an
instrument, which, although roughly put together, he believed to contain
the principle by which success might perhaps be attained. The instrument
was erected in the Physical Laboratory of the University of Glasgow.
We are not in a position to give an accurate description of it, but the
following rough details are quite sufficient. ’

A solid lead cylinder, weighing perhaps a pound or two, was suspended
by a fine brass wire, about 5 feet in Jength, from the centre of the lintel
or cross-beam of the solid stone gallows, which is erected there for the
purpose of pendulum experiments. A spike projected a little way out
of the bottom of the cylindrical weight; a single silk fibre, several
inches in length, was cemented to this spike, and the other end of the
fibre was cemented to the edge of an ordinary galvanometer-mirror.
A second silk fibre, of equal length, was cemented to the edge of the
mirror at a point near to the attachment of the former fibre. The other
end of this second fibre was then attached to a support, which was
connected with the base of the stone gallows. The support was so
placed that it stood very near to the spike at the bottom of the pendulum,
and the mirror thus hung by the bifilar suspension of two silks, which
stood exceedingly near to one another in their upper parts. The instru-
ment was screened from draughts by paper pasted across between the two
pillars of the gallows; but at the bottom, on one side, a pane of glass
was inserted, through which one could see the pendulum-bob and
galvanometer-mirror.

It is obvious that a small displacement of the pendulum, ina direction
perpendicular to the two silks, will cause the mirror to turn about a
vertical axis.

94 REPORT—1881.

A latip and slit were arranged, as in a galvanometer, for exhibiting
the movement of the pendulum, by means of the beam of light reflected
from the mirror.

No systematic observations were made, but we looked at the instrament
at various hours of the day and night, and on Sunday also, when the
street and railway traffic is very small.

The reflected beam of light was found to be in incessant movement,
of so irregular a character that it was hardly possible to localise the
mean position of the spot of light on the screen, within 5 or 6 inches.
On returning to the instrument after several hours, we frequently found
that the light had wandered to quite a different part of the room, and we
had sometimes to search through nearly a semicircle before finding it
again.

~ Sir William Thomson showed us that, by standing some 10 feet away
from the piers, and swaying from one foot to the other, in time with the
free oscillations of the pendulum, quite a large oscillation of the spot of
light could be produced. Subsequent experience has taught us that con-
siderable precautions are necessary to avoid effects of this kind, and the
stone piers at Glasgow did not seem to be well isolated from the floor, and
the top of the gallows was used as a junction for a number of electric
connections.

The cause of the extreme irregularity of the movements of the pendulum
was obscure; and as Sir William Thomson was of opinion that the instru-
ment was well worthy of careful study, we determined to undertake a
series of experiments at the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge. We
take this opportunity of recording our thanks to Lord Rayleigh! for his
kindness in placing rooms at our disposal, and for his constant readiness
to help us.

The pressure of other employments on both of us prevented our
beginning operations immediately, and the length of time which we have
now spent over these experiments is partly referable to this cause,
although it is principally due to the number of difficulties to be overcome,
and to the quantity of apparatus which has had to be manufactured.

In order to avoid the possibility of disturbance from terrestrial
magnetism, we determined that our pendulum should be made of pure
copper.2, Mr. Hussey Vivian kindly gave me an introduction to Messrs.
Kilkington, of Birmingham; and, although it was quite out of their
ordinary line of business, they consented to make what we required.
Accordingly, they made a pair of electrolytically-deposited solid copper
cylinders, 54 inches long, and 2? inches in diameter. From their
appearance, we presume that the deposition was made on to the inside of
copper tubes, and we understand that it occupied six weeks to take place.
In November, 1879, they sent us these two heavy masses of copper, and,
declining any payment, courteously begged our acceptance of them.
Of these two cylinders we have, as yet, only used one; but should our
present endeavours lead to results of interest, we shall ultimately require
both of them.

T'wo months before the receipt of our weights, the British Association
had reappointed the Committee for the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity,
and had added our names thereto. Since that time, with the exception

' Professor Maxwell had given us permission to use the ‘pendulum room,’ but we
had not yet begun our operations at the time of his death.

* We now think that this was probably a superfluity of precaution.

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAVITY. 95

of compulsory intermissions, we have continued to work at this subject.
My brother Horace and I have always discussed together the plan on
which to proceed; but up to the present time much the larger part of
the work has consisted in devising mechanical expedients for overcoming
difficulties. In this work he has borne by very far the larger share ; and
the apparatus has been throughout constructed from his designs, and
- under his superintendence, by the Cambridge Scientific Instrument
Company.

Near the corner of a stone-paved ground-floor room in the Cavendish
Laboratory there stands a very solid stone gallows, similar to, but rather
more massive than, the one at Glasgow. As it did not appear thoroughly
free from rigid connection with the floor, we had the pavement raised all
round the piers, and the earth was excavated from round the brick
basement to the depth of about 2 feet 6 inches, until we were assured
that there was no connection with the floor or walls of the room, excepting
through the earth. The ditch, which was left round the piers, was
found very useful for enabling us to carry out the somewhat delicate
manipulations involved in hanging the mirror by its two silk fibres.

Into the middle of the flat ends of one of our copper weights (which
weighed 4,797 grammes, with spec. gr. 8°91) were screwed a pair of
copper plugs; one plug was square-headed and the other pointed. Into
the centre of the square plug was soldered a thin copper wire, just capable
of sustaining the weight, and intended to hang the pendulum.

A stout cast-iron tripod was made for the support of the pendulum.
Through a hole in the centre of it there ran rather loosely a stout iron rod
with a screw cut on it. A nut ran on the screw and prevented the rod
from slipping through the hole. The other end of the copper wire was
fixed into the end of the rod.

The tripod was placed with its three legs resting near the margin of
the circular hole in the centre of the lintel of the gallows. The iron rod
was in the centre of the hole, and its lower end appeared about six inches
below the lower face of the lintel. The pendulum hung from the rod by
a wire of such length as to bring the spiked plug within a few inches of
the base of the gallows. This would of course be a very bad way of
hanging a pendulum which is intended to swing, but in our case the dis-
placements of the end of the pendulum were only likely to be of a magni-
tude to be estimated in thousandths or even millionths of an inch, and it
is certain that for such small displacements the nut from which the
pendulum hung could not possibly rock on its bearings. However, in
subsequent experiments we improved the arrangement by giving the nut
a flange, from which there projected three small equidistant knobs, on
which the nut rested.

The length of the pendulum from the upper juncture with the iron rod
down to the tip of the spike in the bob was 1482 c.m.

An iron box was cast with three short legs, two in front and one
behind ; its interior dimensions were 15 x 15 x 174. c.m.; it had a tap at
the back; the front face (15 x 174) was left open, with arrangements for
fixing a plate-glass face thereon. The top face (15 x 174) was pierced
by a large round hole. On to this hole was cemented an ordinary
earthenware 4-inch drain pipe, and on to the top of this first pipe there
was cemented a second. The box was thus provided with a chimney
144 cm. high. The cubic contents of the box and chimney were about
34 gallons.

96 rEPort-—1881,

The box was placed standing on the base of the gallows, with the
chimney vertically underneath the round hole in the lintel. The top of
the chimney nearly reached the lower face of the lintel, and the iron rod
of the pendulum extended a few inches down into the chimney. The
pendulum wire ran down the middle of the chimney, and the lower half
of the pendulum bob was visible through the open face of the iron box.
The stone gallows faces towards the 8.E., but we placed the box askew
on the base, so that its open face was directed towards the 8.

The three legs of the box rested on little metal dises, each witha conical
hole in it, and these discs rested on three others of a somewhat larger size.
When the box was set approximately in position, we could by an arrange-
ment of screws cause the smaller dises to slide a fraction of an inch on the
larger ones, and thus exactly adjust the position of the box and chimney.

A small stand, something like a retort stand, about 4 inches high,
stood on a leaden base, with a short horizontal arm clamped by a screw on}
to the thin vertical rod. This was the ‘fixed’ support for the bifilar
suspension of the mirror. The stand was placed to the EH. of the pendulum
bob, and the horizontal arm reached out until it came very close to the
spike of the pendulum.

The suspension and protection from tarnishing of our mirror gave us
much trouble, but it is useless to explain the various earlier methods
employed, because we have now overcome these difficulties in a manner to
be described later. The two cocoon fibres were fixed at a considerable
distance apart on the edge of the mirror, and as they were very short they
splayed out at nearly a right angle to one another. By means of this
arrangement the free period of oscillation of the mirror was made very
short, and we were easily able to separate the long free swing of the pen-
dulum from the short oscillations of the mirror.

The mirror was hung so that the upper ends of the silks stood BBthin
an eighth of an inch of one another, but the tip of the spike stood } or +}; of
an inch higher than the fixed support. The plate-glass front of the box

was then fixed on with indiarubber packing.

It is obvious that a movement of the box parallel to the front from E.
to W. would bring the two fibres nearer together ; this operation we shall
describe as sensitising the instrument. A movement of the box perpen-
dicular to the front would cause the mirror to show its face parallel to the
front of the box; this operation we shall describe as centralising. As
sensitising will generally decentralise, both sets of screws had to be
worked alternately.

The adjusting screws for moving the box did not work very well ;
nevertheless, by a little tronble we managed to bring the two silks of the
bifilar suspension very close to one another.

After the instrument had been hung as above described, we tr ied a
preliminary sensitisation, and found the pendulum to respond to a slight
touch on either pier. The spot of light reflected from the mirror was very
unsteady, but not nearly so much so as in the Glasgow experiment; and
we were quite unable to produce any perceptible increase of agitation by
stamping or swaying to and fro on the stone floor. This showed that the
isolation of the pier was far more satisfactory than at Glasgow.

We then filled the box and pipes with water. We had much trouble
with slow leakage of the vessel, but the most serious difficulty arose from
the air-bubbles which adhered to the pendulum. By using boiled water
we obviated this fairly well, but we concluded that it was a great mistake

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAVITY. 97

to have a flat bottom to the pendulum. This mistake we have remedied
in the final experiment described in the present paper.

The damping effect of the water on the oscillations of the pendulum
and of the mirror was very great, and although the incessant dance of
the light continued, it was of much smaller amplitude, and comparatively
large oscillations of the pendulum, caused by giving the piers a push,
died out after two or three swings. A very slight push on the stone piers
displaced the mean position of the light, but jumping and stamping on
the pavement of the room produced no perceptible effect. If, however,
one of us stood on the bare earth in the ditch behind, or before the
massive stone pier, a very sensible deflection of the light was caused ;
this we now know was caused by an elastic depression of the earth, which
tilted the whole structure in one or the other direction. A pull of a few
ounces, delivered horizontally on the centre of the lintel, produced a clear
deflection, and when the pull was 8lbs., the deflection of the spot of light
amounted to 45 c.m. We then determined to make some rough systematic
experiments.

The room was darkened by shutters over all the windows, and the
doors were kept closed. The paraffin lamp stood at three or four feet to
the S.E. of the easterly stone pier, but the light was screened from the
pier.

We began our readings at 12 noon (March 15, 1880), and took eight
between that time and 10.30 p.m. From 12 noon until 4 p.m. the lamp
was left burning, but afterwards it was only lighted for about a minute to
take each reading. At 12 the reading was 595 m.m., and at 4 P.M. it
was 936 m.m.!; these readings, together with the intermediate ones,
showed that the pendulum had been moving northwards with a nearly
uniform velocity. After the lamp was put out, the pendulum moved
southward, and by 10.30 p.m. was nearly in the same position as at noon.

During the whole of the two following days and a part of the next we
took a number of readings from 9 A.M. until 11 p.m. The observations
when graphically exhibited showed a fairly regular wave, the pendulum
being at the maximum of its northern excursion between 5 and 7 P.M.,
and probably furthest south between the.same hours in the morning.
But besides this wave motion, the mean position for the day travelled a
good deal northward. We think that a part of this diurnal oscillation
was due to the warping of the stone columns from changes of temperature.
An increase of temperature on the south-east faces of the piers carried
the lintel towards the north-west, and of this displacement we observed
only the northerly component. The lamp produced a very rapid effect,
and the diurnal change lagged some two hours behind the change in the
external air. The difference between the temperatures of the 8.H. and
N.W. faces of the pier must have been very slight indeed. At that time,
and indeed until quite recently, we attributed the whole of this diurnal
oscillation to the warping of the piers, but we now feel nearly certain that
it was due in great measure to a real change in the horizon.

We found that warming one of the legs of the iron tripod, even by
contact with the finger, produced a marked effect, and we concluded that
the mode of suspension was unsatisfactory.

1 I give the numbers as recorded in the note-book, but the readings would some-
times differ by 2 or 3 m.m. within half-a-minute. The light always waves to and
fro in an uncertain sort of way, so that it is impossible to assign a mean position
with any certainty.

881. H

98 REPORT—1881.

Although we had thus learnt that changes of temperature formed
the great obstacle in the way of success, there were a good many things
to be learnt from the instrument as it existed at that time.

After the box and pipes had been filled for some days the plate-glass
front cracked quite across, and a slow leakage began to take place; we
were thus compelled to dismount the whole apparatus and to make a
fresh start.

It is obvious that to detect and measure displacements of the pendulum
in the N. and S. direction, the azimuth of the silks by which the mirror
is suspended must be H..and W., and that although any E. and W. dis-
placement of the pendulum will be invisible, still such displacement will
alter the sensitiveness of the instrument for the N. and S. displacements.
In order to obviate this we determined to constrain the pendulum to
move only in the N. and 8. azimuth.

Accordingly we had a T-piece about 4 inches long fixed to the end of
the iron rod from which the pendulum hung. The two ends of a’ fine
copper wire were soldered into the ends of the T-piece ; a long loop of
wire was thus formed. The square-headed plug at the top of the
pendulum-bob was replaced by another containing a small copper wheel,
which could revolve about a horizontal axis. The bearings of the wheel
were open on one side.

When the wheel was placed to ride on the bottom of the wire loop,
and the pendulum-bob hooked on to the axle of the wheel by the open
bearings, we had our pendulum hanging by a bifilar suspension. The
motion of the pendulum was thus constrained to take place only perpen-
dicular to the plane of the wire loop.

The iron tripod was replaced by a slate slab large enough to entirely
cover the hole in the lintel of the gallows. Through the centre of the
slab was a round hole, of about one inch in diameter, through which
passed the iron rod with the T-piece at the lower end. The iron rod was
supported on the slate by means of the flanged nut above referred to.
There was also a straight slot, cut quite through the slab, ranning from
the central hole to the margin. The purpose of this slot will be explained
presently.

In the preceding experiment we had no means of determining the
absolute amount of displacement of the pendulum, although, of course,
we knew that it must be very small. There are two methods by which
the absolute displacements are determinable ; one is to cause known small
displacements to the pendulum and to watch the effect on the mirror ;
and the second is to cause known small horizontal forces to act on the
pendulum. We have hitherto only employed the latter method, but we
are rather inclined to think that the former may give better results.

The following plan for producing small known horizontal forces was
suggested by my brother.

Suppose there be a very large and a very small pendulum hanging by
wires of equal length from neighbouring points in the same horizon ; and
suppose the large ‘and the small pendulum to be joined by a fibre which
is a very little shorter than the distance between the points of suspension.
Then each pendulum is obviously deflected a little from the vertical, but
the deflection of the small pendulum varies as the mass of the larger, and
that of the larger as the mass of the smaller. If m be the mass of the
small pendulum, and M of the large one, and if a be the distance between
the points of suspension, then it may be easily shown that if a be in-

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAVITY. 99

creased by a small length ca, the increase of the linear deflection of the
large pendulum is mca/(m+M). If l be the length of either pendulum,
the angular deflection of the larger one is méa/l(m+ MM), and this is
the deflection which would be produced by a horizontal force equal to
méa/i(m+M) of gravity. It:s clear, then, that by making the inequality
between the two weights 7 and M very great, and the displacement of the
point of suspension very small, we may deflect the large pendulum by as
small a quantity as we like. The theory is almost the same if the two
pendulums are not of exactly the same length, or if the length of one of
them be varied.

Now in our application of this principle we did not actually attach the
two pendulums together, but we made the little pendulum lean up agaiust
the large one ; the theory is obviously just the same.

We call the small pendulum ‘the disturber,’ because its use is to
disturb the large pendulum by known forces. A small copper weight for
the disturber weighed 752 grammes, and the large pendulum-bob, with its
pulley, weighed 4831°5. Therefore the one was 6600 times as massive as
the other. The disturber was hung by a platinum wire about 7j5;th of
an inch in diameter, which is a good deal thinner than a fine human
hair.

We must now explain how the disturber was suspended, and the
method of moving its point of suspension.

Parallel to the sides of the slot in the slate slab there was riveted a
pair of brass rails, one being V-shaped and the other flat; on these rails
there slid a little carriage with three legs, one of which slid on one rail,
and the other two on the other. A brass rod with an eyelet-hole at the
end was fixed to the centre of the carriage, and was directed downwards
so that it passed through the centre of the slot. The slot was directed
so that it was perpendicular to the T-piece from which the pendulum hung,
and the brass rod of the little carriage was bent and of such length, that
when the carriage was pushed on its rails until it was as near the centre of
the slab as it would go, the eyelet-hole stood just below the T-piece, and
half-way between the two wires. A micrometer screw was clamped to
the slab and was arranged for making the carriage traverse known lengths
on its rails, and as the wires of the pendulum were in the EH. and W.
plane, the carriage was caused to travel N. and 8. by its micrometer
screw.

One end of the fine platinum wire was fastened to the eyelet, and the
other (as above stated) to the small disturbing weight. The platinum
wire was of such length that the disturber just reached the pulley by
which the big pendulum hung. We found that by pushing the carriage
up to the centre, and very slightly tilting it off one rail, we could cause
the disturber-weight to rest on either side of the pulley at will. If it
was left on the side of the pulley remote from the disturber-carriage, it
was in gear, and the traversing of the carriage on its rails would produce
a small pressure of the disturber on to the side of the pulley. If it was
left on the same side of the pulley as the disturber-carriage, the two
pendulums were quite independent and the disturber was out of gear.

On making allowance for the difference in length between the pen-
dulum and the disturber, and for the manner in which the thrust was
delivered at the top of the pendulum, but omitting the corrections for
the weights of the suspending wires and for the elasticity of the copper
wire, we found that one turn of the micrometer screw should displace the

H2

100 kEPOR?—188i1.

spike at the bottom of the pendulum through 0:0001 mm. or .4,/;99th of
an inch. The same displacement would be produced by an alteration in
the direction of gravity with reference to the earth’s surface by ;)5th of a
second of arc.

A rough computation showed that the to and fro motion of the
pendulum in the N.S. azimuth, due to lunar attraction, should, if the
earth be rigid, be the same as that produced by 2? turns of the micro-
meter screw.

We now return to the other arrangements made in re-erecting the
instrument.

A new mirror, silvered on the face, was used, and was hung in a
slightly different manner.

The fluid in which the pendulum was hung was spirits and water.
The physical properties of such a mixture will be referred to later. In
order to avoid air-bubbles we boiled 34 gallons of spirits and water
for three hours in vacuo, and the result appeared satisfactory in that
respect.

After the mirror was hung, the plate-glass front to the, box was fixed
and the vessel was filled by the tap in the back of the box. The disturber
was not introduced until afterwards, and we then found that the pen-
dulum responded properly to the disturbance.

As the heat of a lamp in the neighbourhood of the piers exercised a
large disturbance, we changed the method of observing, and read the
reflection of a scale with a telescope. The scale was a levelling staff
divided into feet, and tenths and hundredths of a foot, laid horizontally
at 15 feet from the piers, with the telescope immediately over it.

Since the amount of fluid through which the light had to pass was
considerable, we were forced to place a gas-flame immediately in front of
the scale; but the gas was only kept alight long enough to take a
reading.

After sensitising the instrument we found that the incessant dance
of the image of the scale was markedly less than when the pendulum
was hung in water. A touch with a finger on either pier produced
deflection by bending the piers, and the instrument responded to the
disturber.

The vessel had been filled with fluid for some days, and we had
just begun a series of readings, when the plate-glass front again cracked
quite across without any previous warning. Thus ended our second
attempt.

In the third experiment (July and August, 1880) the arrangements
were so nearly the same as those just described that we need not refer to
them. The packing for the plate-glass front was formed of red lead,
and this proved perfectly successful, whereas the indiarubber pack-
ing had twice failed. As we were troubled by invisible leakage and
by the evaporation of the fluid, we arranged an inverted bottle, so as
always to keep the chimney full. We thought that when the T-piece at
the end of the shaft became exposed to the air, the pendulum became
much more unsteady, but we now think it at least possible that there
was merely a period of real terrestrial disturbance.

From August 10 to 14 we took a series of observations from early
morning until late at night. We noted the same sort of diurnal oscilla-
tory motion as before, but the outline of the curve was far less regular.
This, we think, may perhaps be explained by the necessity we were under

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAVITY. 101

of leaving the doors open a good deal, in order to permit the cord to pass
by which Lord Rayleigh was spinning the British Association coil.

Notwithstanding that the weather was sultry the warping of the
stone columns must have been very slight, for a thermometer hung close
to the pier scarcely showed a degree of change between the day and
night, and the difference of temperature of the N. and 8. faces must have
been a very small fraction of a degree. At that time, however, we still
thought that the whole of the diurnal oscillation was due to the warping
of the columns.

We next tried a series of experiments to test the sensitiveness of the
instrument.

As above remarked the image of the scale was continually in motion,
and moreover the mean reading was always shifting in either one direc-
tion or the other. At any one time it was possible to take a reading to
within ,th of a foot with certainty, and to make an estimate of the
yipth of a foot, but the numbers given below are necessarily to be
regarded as very rough approximations.

As above stated, the gallows faced about to the S.H., and we may
describe the two square piers as the EH. and W. piers, and the edges
of each pier by the points of the compass towards which they are
directed.

On August 14, 1880, my brother stood on a plank supported by the
pavement of the room close to the 8.W. edge of the W. pier, and, light-
ing a spirit lamp, held the flame for ten seconds within an inch or two of
this edge of the pier. The effect was certainly produced of making the
pendulum-bob move northwards, but as such an effect is fused in the
diurnal change then going on, the amount of effect was uncertain. He
then stood similarly near the N.H. edge of the E. pier, and held the
spirit flame actually licking the edge of the stone during one minute.
The effect should now be opposed to the diurnal change, and it was so.
Before the exposure to heat was over the reading had decreased ‘15 feet,
and after the heat was withdrawn the recovery began to take place
almost immediately. We concluded afterwards that the effect was equi-
valent to a change of horizon of about 0/"15.

When the flame was held near but not touching the lintel for thirty
seconds, the effect was obvious but scarcely measurable, even in round
numbers, on account of the unsteadiness of the image.

When a heated Jump of brass was pushed under the iron box no
effect whatever was perceived, and even when a spirit flame was held
so as to lick one side of the iron box during thirty seconds, we could not
be sure that there was any effect. We had expected a violent disturb-
ance, but these experiments seemed to show that convection currents in
the fluid produce remarkably little effect.

When a pull of 300 grammes was delivered on to the centre of the
lintel in a southward direction, we determined by several trials that the
displacement of the reading was about ‘30 feet, which may be equal to
about 0/3 change of horizon.

Two-thirds of a watering-can of water was poured into the ditch at
the back of the pier. In this experiment the swelling of the ground
should have an effect antagonistic to that produced by the cooling of the
back face of the pier, and also to the diurnal changes then going on.
The swelling of the ground certainly tilted the pier over, so that the
reading was altered by ‘10 foot. A further dose of water seemed to haye

102 REPORT—1881.

the same effect, and it took more than an hour for the piers to regain their
former position. As the normal diurnal change was going on simulta-
neously, we do not know the length of time during which the water con-
tinued to produce an effect.

On August 15 we tried a series of experiments with the disturber.
When the disturber was displaced on its rails, the pendulum took a very
perceptible time to take up its new position, on account of the viscosity
of the fluid in which it was immersed.

The diurnal changes which were going on prevented the readings
from being very accordant amongst themselves, but we concluded that
twenty-five turns of the screw gave between ‘4 foot and °3 foot alteration
in the reading on the scale. From the masses and dimensions of the
pendulum and disturber, we concluded that 1 foot of our scale corre-
sponded with about 1’’ change in horizon. ‘Taking into account the
length of the pendulum, it appeared that 1 foot of our scale corresponded
with j,\55th of a mm. displacement of the spike at the bottom of the
pendulum. Now asa tenth of a foot of alteration of reading could be
perceived with certainty, it followed that when the pendulum point
moved through +33,,th of a mm. we could certainly perceive it.

During the first ten days the mean of the diurnal readings gradually
increased, showing that the pendulum was moving northwards, until the
reading had actually shifted 8 feet on the scale. It then became neces-
sary to shift the scale. Between August 23 and 25 the reading had
changed another foot. We then left Cambridge. On returning in
October we found that this change had continued. The mirror had,
however, become tarnished, and it was no longer possible to take a
reading, although one could just see a gas flame by reflection from the
mirror.

Whilst erecting the pendulum we had to stand on, and in front of,
tke piers, and to put them under various kinds of stress, and we always
found that after such stress some sort of apparently abnormal changes in
the piers continued for three or four hours afterwards.

We were at that time at a loss to understand the reason of this long-
continued change in the mean position of the pendulum, and were reluc-
tant to believe that it indicated any real change of horizon of the whole
soil; but after having read the papers of MM. d’Abbadie and Planta-
mour, we now believe that such a real change was taking place.

By this course of experiments it appeared that an instrument of the
kind described may be brought to almost any degree of sensitiveness.
We had seen, however, that a stone support is unfavourable, because
the bad conductivity of stone prevents a rapid equalisation of tempera-
ture between different parts, and even small inequalities of temperature
produce considerable warping of the stone piers. But it now seems
probable that we exaggerated the amount of disturbance which may
arise from this cause.

A cellar would undoubtedly be the best site for such an experiment,
but unfortunately there is no such place available in the Cavendish
Laboratory. Lord Rayleigh, however, placed the ‘balance room’ at
our disposal, and this room has a northerly aspect. There are two
windows in it, high up on the north wall, and these we keep boarded up.

The arrangements which we now intended to make were that the
pendulum and mirror should be hung in a very confined space, and
should be immersed in fluid of considerable viscosity, The boundary of

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAVITY. 103

that space should be made of a heat-conducting material, which should
itself form the support for the pendulum. The whole instrument,
including the basement, was to be immersed in water, and the basement
itself was to be carefully detached from contact with the building in
which it stands. By these means we hoped to damp out the short oscil-
lations due to local tremors, but to allow the longer oscillations free to
take place; but above all we desired that changes of temperature in the
instrument should take place with great slowness, and should be, as far
as possible, equal all round.

We removed the pavement from the centre of the room, and had a
circular hole, about 3 feet 6 inches in diameter, excavated in the ‘made
earth,’ until we got down to the undisturbed gravel, at a depth of about
2 feet 6 inches.

We obtained a large cylindrical stone 2 feet 4: inches in diameter and
2 feet 6 inches in height, weighing about three-quarters of a ton. This
we had intended to place on the earth in the hole, so that its upper sur-
face should stand flush with the pavement of the room. But the excava-
tion had been carried down a little too deep, and therefore an ordinary
flat paving stone was placed on the earth, with a thin bedding of cement
underneath it. The cylindrical block was placed to stand upon the
paving stone, with a very thin bedding of lime and water between the
two stones. The surface of the stone was then flush with the floor. We
do not think that any sacrifice of stability has been made by this course.

An annular trench or ditch a little less than a foot across is left round
the stone. We have lately had the bottom of the ditch cemented, and
the vertical sides lined with brickwork, which is kept clear of any con-
tact with the pavement of the room. On the S. side the ditch is a little
wider, and this permits us to stand in it conveniently. The bricked
ditch is watertight, and has a small overflow pipe into the drains. The
water in the ditch stands slightly higher than the flat top of the cylin-
drical stone, and thus the whole basement may be kept immersed in
water, and it is, presumably, at a very uniform temperature all round.

Before describing the instrument itself we will explain the remaining
precautions for equalisation of temperature.

On the flat top of the stone stands a large barrel or tub, 5 feet 6
inches high and 1 foot 10 inches in diameter, open at both ends. The
diameter of the stone is about 2 inches greater than the outside measure
of the diameter of the tub, and the tub thus nearly covers the whole of
the stone. The tub is well payed with pitch inside, and stands on two
felt rings soaked in tar. Five large iron weights, weighing altogether
nearly three-quarters of a ton, are hooked on to the upper edge of the
tub, in order to make the joint between the tub and the stone watertight.
Near the bottom is a plate-glass window; when it is in position, the
window faces tothe 8. This tub is filled with water and the instrument
stands immersed therein.

We had at first much trouble from the leakage of the tub, and we
have to thank Mr. Gordon, the assistant at the Laboratory, for his ready
help in overcoming this difficulty, as well as others which were per-
petually recurring. The mounting of the tub was one of the last things
done before the instrument was ready for observation, and we must now
return to the description of the instrument itself.

We used the same pendulum-bob as before, but we had its shape
altered so that the ends both above and below were conical surfaces,

104 REPORT—1881.

whilst the central part was left cylindrical. The upper plug with its
pulley is replaced by another plug bearing a short round horizontal rod,
with a rounded groove cut in it. The groove stands vertically over the
centre of the weight, and is designed for taking the wire of the bifilar
suspension of the pendulum ; when riding on the wire the pendulum-bob
hangs vertically.

Part of this upper plug consists of a short thin horizontal arm about
an inch long. This arm is perpendicular to the plane of the groove, and
when the pendulum is in position, projects northwards. Through the
end of the arm is bored a fine vertical hole. This part of the apparatus
is for the modified form of disturber, which we are now using.

The support for the pendulum consists of a stout copper tube 2%
inches in diameter inside measure, and it just admits the pendulum-bob
with 2th inch play all round. The tube is 3 feet 6 inches in height, and
is closed at the lower end by a diaphragm, pierced in the centre by a
round hole, about + inch in diameter. ‘he upper end has a ring of brass
soldered.on to it, and this ring has a flange to it. The upper part of the
brass ring forms a short continuation # of an inch in length of the
copper tube. The ring is only introduced as a means of fastening the
flange to the copper tube.

The upper edge of the brass continuation has three V notches in it at
120° apart on the circumference of the ring. A brass cap like the lid of
a pill-box has an inside measure } inch greater than the outside measure
of the brass ring. The brass cap has three rods which project inwards
from its circumference, and which are placed at 120° apart thereon.
When the cap is placed on the brass continuation of the upper tube, the
three rods rest in the three V notches, and the cap is geometrically fixed
with respect to the tube. A fine screw works through the centre of the
cap, and actuates an apparatus, not easy to explain without drawings, by
which the cap can be slightly tilted in one azimuth. The object of
tilting the cap is to enable us to sensitise the instrument by bringing the
silk fibres attached to the mirror into close proximity.

Into the cap are soldered the two ends of a fine brass wire; the
junctures are equidistant from the centre of the cap and on opposite sides
of it; they lie on that diameter of the cap which is perpendicular to the
axis about which the tilting can be produced.

When the pendulum is hung on the brass wire loop by the groove in
the upper plug, the wires just clear the sides of the copper tube.

It is clear that the tilting of the cap is mechanically equivalent to a
shortening of one side of the wire loop and the lengthening of the other.
Hence the pendulum is susceptible of a small lateral adjustment by
means of the screw in the cap.

To the bottom of the tube is soldered a second stout brass ring; this
ring bears on it three stout brass legs inclined at 120° to one another,
all lying in a plane perpendicular to the copper tube. From the extre-
mity of each leg to the centre of the tube is 85 inches. The last inch of
each leg is hollowed out on its under surface into the form of a radial V

roove.
< There are three detached short pieces of brass tube, each ending below
in a flange with three knobs on it, and at the upper end in a screw with a
rounded head, These three serve as feet for the instrument. These
three feet are placed on the upper surface of our basement stone at 120°
apart, estimated from the centre of the stone. The copper tube with its

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAVITY. 105

legs attached is set down so that the inverted V grooves in the legs rest
on the rounded screw-head at the tops of the three feet, and each of the
feet rests on its three knobs on the stone. The bottom of the copper tube
is thus raised 54 inches above the stone. By this arrangement the copper
tube is retained in position with reference to the stone, and it will be
observed that no part of the apparatus is under any constraint except
such as is just necessary to geometrically determine its position.

The screws with rounded heads which form the three feet are
susceptible of small adjustments in height, and one of the three heads is
capable of more delicate adjustment, for it is actuated by a fine screw,
which is driven by a toothed wheel and pinion. The pinion is turned by
a wooden rod, made flexible by the insertion of a Hook’s joint, and the
wooden rod reaches to the top of the tub, when it is mounted surrounding
the instrument.

The adjustable leg is to the N. of the instrument, and as the
mirror faces S. we call it the ‘back-leg. When the copper support
is mounted on its three legs, a rough adjustment for the verticality of
the tube is made with two of the legs, and final adjustment is made by
the back-leg.

It is obvious that if the back-leg be raised or depressed the point of
the pendulum is carried southwards or northwards, and the mirror turns
accordingly. Thus the back-leg with its screw and rod affords the
means of centralising the mirror. The arrangements for suspending the
mirror must now be described.

The lower plug in the pendulum-bob is rounded and has a small

horizontal hole through it. When the pendulum is hung this rounded
plug just appears through the hole in the diaphragm at the bottom of
the copper tube.
' A small brass box, shaped like a disk, can be screwed on to the bottom
of the copper tube, in such a way that a diameter of the box forms a
straight line with the axis of the copper tube. One side of the box is of
plate glass, and when it is fastened in position the plate glass faces to
the S. This is the mirror-box; it is of such a size as to permit the
mirror to swing about 15° in either direction from parallelism with the
plate-glass front.

The fixed support for the second fibre for the bifilar suspension of the
mirror may be described as a very small inverted retort-stand. The
vertical rod projects downwards from the underside of the diaphragm,
a little to the E. of the hole in the diaphragm ; and a small horizontal
arm projects from this rod, and is of such a length that its extremity
reaches to near the centre of the hole. This arm has a small eyelet-hole
pierced through a projection at its extremity.

The mirror itself is a little larger than a shilling and is of thin plate
glass; it has two holes drilled through the edge at about 60° from one
another. The mirror was silvered on both sides, and then dipped into
melted paraffin; the paraffin and silver were then cleaned off one side.
The paraffin protects the silver from tarnishing, and the silver film seen
through the glass has been found to remain perfectly bright for months,
after having been immersed in fluid during that time. A piece of platinum
wire about + 55th of an inch in diameter is threaded twice through each
hole in opposite directions, in such a manner that with a continuous piece
of wire (formed by tying the two ends together) a pair of short loops are
formed at the edge of the mirror, over.each of the two holes. When the

106 REPORT—1881,

mirror is hung from a silk fibre passing through both loops, the weight of
the mirror is sufficient to pull each loop taut.

A single silk fibre was threaded through the eyelet-hole at the end of
the blunt point of the pendulum-bob, and tied in such a way that there
was no loose end projecting so as to foul the other side of the bifilar
suspension. The other end of the silk fibre was knotted to a piece of
sewing silk on which a needle was threaded.

The pendulum was then hung from the cap by its wire loop, outside
the copper tube, and the silk fibre with the sewing silk and needle
attached dangled down at the bottom. The cap, with the pendulum
attached thereto, was then hauled up and carefully let down into the
copper tube. The sewing silk, fibre, and blunt end came out through the
hole in the diaphragm. :

We then sewed with the needle through the two loops on the margin
of the mirror, and then through the eyelet-hole in the little horizontal
arm. ‘The silk was pulled taut, and the end fastened off on to the little
vertical rod, from which the horizontal arm projects.

The mirror then hangs with one part of the silk attached to the
pendulum-bob and the other to the horizontal arm.

The two parts of the silk are inclined to one another at a considerable
angle, so that the free period of the mirror is short, but the upper parts
of the silk stand very close to ore another. The mirror-box encloses the
mirror and makes the copper tube watertight.

There is another part of the apparatus which has not yet been ex-
plained, namely, the disturber. This part of the instrument was in reality
arranged before the mirror was hung.

We shall not give a full account of the disturber, because it does not
seem to work very satisfactorily.

In the form of disturber which we now use the variation of horizontal
thrust is produced by variation in the length of the disturbing pendulum,
instead of by variation of the point of support as in the previous experi-
ment, It was not easy to vary the point of support when the pendulum
is hung in a tube which nearly fits it.

The disturber-weight is a small lump of copper, and it hangs by fine
sewing silk. The silk is threaded through the eyelet in the horizontal
arm which forms part of the upper plug of the pendulum; thus the
disturber-weight is to the N. of the pendulum. The silk after passing
between the wires supporting the pendulum has its other end attached to
the cap at the top at a point to the S. of the centre of the cap. Thus
the silk is slightly inclined to the plane through the wires. The arrange-
ment for varying the length of the disturbing pendulum will not be
explained in detail, but it may suffice to say that it is produced by a third
weight, which we call the ‘ guide weight,’ which may be hauled up or let
down in an approximately vertical line. This guide weight determines by
its position how much of the upper part of the silk of the disturber shall
be cut off, so as not to form a part of the free cord by which the disturb-
ing weight hangs.

The guide weight may be raised or lowered by cords.which pass
through the cap. If the apparatus were to work properly a given amount
of displacement of the guide weight should produce a calculable horizontal
thrust on the pendulum. The whole of the arrangements for the disturber
could be made outside the copper tube, so that the pendulum was lowered
into the tube with the disturber attached thereto.

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAVITY. 107

After the mirror was hung and the mirror-box screwed on, a brass cap
was fixed by screws on to the flange at the top of the copper tube: This
cap has a tube or chimney attached to it, the top of which rises five inches
above the top of the cap or lid from which the pendulum hangs. From
this chimney emerges a rod attached to the screw by which the sensitising
apparatus is actuated, and also the silk by which the guide weight is
raised or depressed.

The copper tube, with its appendages, was then filled with a boiled
mixture of filtered water and spirits of wine by means of a small tap in
the back of the mirror-box. The mixture was made by taking equal
volumes of the two fluids; the boiling to which it was subjected will of
course have somewhat disturbed the proportions. Poiseuille has shown!
that a mixture of spirits and water has much greater viscosity than either
pure spirits or pure water. When the mixture is by weight in the pro-
portion of about seven of water to nine of spirits, the viscosity is nearly
three times as great as that of pure spirits or of pure water. As the
specific gravity of spirits is about ‘8, it follows that the mixture is to
be made by taking equal volumes of the two fluids. It is on account cf
this remarkable fact that we chose this mixture in which to suspend
the pendulum, and we observed that the unsteadiness of the mirror was
markedly less than when the fluid used was simply water.

The level of the fluid stood in our tubular support quite up to the top
of the chimney, and thus the highest point of the pendulum itself was
5 inches below the surface.

The tub was then let down over the instrument, and the weights
hooked on to its edge. The plate-glass window in the tub stood on the
S. opposite to the mirror-box. The tub was filled with water up to
nearly the top of the chimney, and the ditch round the stone basement
was also ultimately filled with water. The whole instrument thus stood
immersed from top to bottom in water.

Even before the tub was filled we thought that we noticed a diminu-
tion of unsteadiness in the image of a slit reflected from the mirror. The
filling of the tub exercised quite a striking effect in the increase of
steadiness, and the water in the ditch again operated favourably.

We met with much difficulty at first in preventing serious leakage of
the tub, and as it is still not absolutely watertight, we have arranged a
water-pipe to drip about once a minute into the tub. A small overflow
pipe from the tub to the ditch allows a very slow dripping to go into the
ditch, and thus both vessels are kept full to a constant level. We had
to take this course because we found that a rise of the water in the ditch
through half an inch produced a deflection of the pendulum. The ditch,
nica s be remembered, was a little broader on the 8. side than else-
where.

In May, 1881, we took a series of observations with the light, slit and
scale. The scale was about 7 feet from the tub, and in order to read it
we found it convenient to kneel behind the scale on the ground. I was
one day watching the light for nearly ten minutes, and being tired with
kneeling on the pavement I supported part of my weight on my hands a
few inches in front of the scale. The place where my hands came was
on the bare earth from which one of the paving stones had been removed.
I was surprised to find quite a large change in the reading. After

Poggendorf’s Annaten, 1843, vol. 58, p. 437.

108 REPORT—1881.

several trials I found that the pressure of a few pounds with one hand only
was quite sufficient to produce an effect.

It must be remembered that this is not a case of a small pressure
delivered on the bare earth at say 7 feet distance, but it is the difference
of effect produced by this pressure at 7 feet and 8 feet; for of course the
change only consisted in the change of distribution in the weight of a
small portion of my body.

We have, however, since shown that even this degree of sensitiveness
may be exceeded.

We had thought all along that it would ultimately be necessary to
take our observations from outside the room, but this observation im-
pressed it on us more than ever; for it would be impossible for an observer
always to stand in exactly the same position for taking readings, and my
brother and I could not take a set of readings together on account of the
difference between our weights.

In making preliminary arrangements for reading from outside the
room we found the most convenient way of bringing the reflected image
into the field of view of the telescope was by shifting a weight about the
room. My brother stood in the room and changed his position until the
image was in the field of view, and afterwards placed a heavy weight
where he had been standing; after he had left the room the image was in
the field of view.

On the 8.W. wall of the room there is a trap-door or window which
opens into another room, and we determined to read from this.

In order to read with a telescope the light has to undergo two reflec-
tions and twelve refractions, besides those in the telescope; it has also to
pass twice through layers of water and of the fluid mixture. In con-
sequence of the loss of light we found it impossible to read the image of
an illuminated scale, and we had to make the scale self-luminous.

On the pavement to the S. of the instrument is placed a flat board on
to which are fixed a pair of rails; a carriage with three legs slides on
these rails, and can be driven to and fro by a screw of ten threads to the
inch. Backlash in the nut which drives the carriage is avoided by means
of a spiral spring. A small gas-flame is attached to the carriage ; in front
of it is a piece of red glass, the vertical edge of which is very distinctly
visible in the telescope after reflection from the mirror. The red glass was
introduced to avoid prismatic effects, which had been troublesome before.
The edge of the glass was found to be a more convenient object than a
line which had been engraved on the glass as a fiducial mark.

The gas-flame is caused to traverse by pulleys driven by cords. The
cords come to the observing window, and can be worked from there. A
second telescope is erected at the window, for reading certain scales
attached to the traversing gear of the carriage, and we find that we can
read the position of the gas-flame to within a tenth of an inch, or even
less, with certainty.

From the gas the ray of light enters the tub and mirror-box, is
reflected by the mirror, and emerges by the same route; it then meets a
looking-glass which reflects it nearly at right angles and a little upwards,
and finally enters the object-glass of the reading telescope, fixed to the
sill of the observing window.

When the carriage is at the right part of the scale the edge of the
red glass coincides with the cross wire of the reading telescope, and the
reading is taken by means of the scale telescope.

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAVITY. 109

Arrangements had also to be made for working the sensitiser, cen-
traliser, and disturber from outside the room,

A scaffolding was erected over the tub, but free of contact therewith,
and this supported a system of worm-wheels, tangent screws, and pulleys
by which the three requisite movements could be given. The junctures
with the sensitising and centralising rods were purposely made loose,
because it was found at first that a slight shake to the scaffolding
disturbed the pendulum.

The pulleys on the scaffolding are driven by cords which pass to the
observing window.

On the window-sill we now have two telescopes, four pulleys, an
arrangement, with a scale attached, for raising and depressing the guide
weight, and a gas tap for governing the flame in the room.

After the arrangements which have been described were completed we
sensitised the instrument from outside the room. The arrangements
worked so admirably that we could produce a quite extraordinary degree
of sensitiveness by the alternate working of the sensitising and _ central-
ising wheels, without ever causing the image of the lamp to disappear
from the field of view. This is a great improvement on the old arrange-
ment with the stone gallows.

We now found that if one of us was in the room and stood at about
16 feet to the S. of the instrument with his feet about a foot apart, and
slowly shifted his weight from one foot to the other, then a distinct
change was produced in the position of the mirror. This is the most
remarkable proof of sensitiveness which we have yet seen, for the instru-
ment can detect the difference between the distortion of the soil caused
by a weight of 140 Ibs. placed at 16 feet and at 17 feet. We have not as
yet taken any great pains to make the instrument as sensitive as possible,
and we have little doubt but that we might exceed the present degree of
delicacy, if it were desirable to do so.

The sensitiveness now attained is, we think, only apparently greater
than it was with the stone gallows, and depends on the improved optical
arrangements, and the increase of steadiness due to the elimination of
changes of temperature in the support.

From July 21 to July 25 we took a series of readings. There was
evidence of a distinct diurnal period with a maximum about noon, when
the pendulum stood furthest northwards; in the experiment with the
stone gallows in 1880 the maximum northern excursion took place
between 5 and 7 P.M.

The path of the pendulum was interrupted by many minor zigzags,
and it would sometimes reverse its motion for nearly an hour together.
During the first four days the mean position of the pendulum travelled
southward, and the image went off the scale three times, so that we had
to recentralise it. In the night between the 24th and 25th it took an
abrupt turn northward, and the reading was found in the morning of the
25th at nearly the opposite end of the scale.

On the 25th the dance of the image was greater than we had seen it
at any time with the new instrument, so that we went into the room to
see whether the water had fallen in the tub and had left the top of the
copper tube exposed; for on a previous occasion this had appeared to
produce much unsteadiness. There was, however, no change in the state
of affairs. A few days later the image was quite remarkable for its
steadiness.

110 nerort—1881.

On July 25, and again on the 27th, we tried a series of observations
with the disturber, in order to determine the absolute value of the scale.

The guide weight being ata known altitude in the copper tube we took
a series of six readings at intervals of a minute, and then shifting the
guide weight to another known altitude, took six more in a similar
manner; and so on backwards and forwards for an hour,

The first movement of the guide weight produced a considerable dis-
turbance of an irregular character, and the first set of readings were
rejected. Afterwards there was more or less concordance between the
results, but it was to be noticed there was a systematic difference
between the change from ‘up’ to ‘down’ and ‘down’ to ‘up.’ This
may perhaps be attributed to friction between certain parts of the
apparatus. We believe that on another occasion we might erect the dis-
turber under much more favourable conditions, but we do not feel sure
that it could ever be made to operate very satisfactorily.

The series of readings before and after the change of the guide weight
were taken in order to determine the path of the pendulum at the critical
moment; but the behaviour of the pendulum is often so irregular, even
within a few minutes, that the discrepancy between the several results
and the apparent systematic error may be largely due to unknown
changes, which took place during the minute which necessarily elapsed
between the last of one set of readings and the first of the next. The
image took up its new position deliberately, and it was necessary to wait
until it had come to its normal position.

Between the first and second set of observations with the disturber, it
had been necessary to enter the room and to recentralise the image. We
do not know whether something may not have disturbed the decree of
sensitiveness, but at any rate the results of the two sets of observations
are very discordant.!

The first set showed that one inch of movement of the gas-flame,
which formed the scale, corresponds with +1;th of a second of arc of
change of horizon ; the second gave }th of a second to the inch.

As we can see a twentieth of an inch in the scale, it follows that a
change of horizon of about 0/005 should be distinctly visible. In this
case the point of the pendulum moves through z5},5th of a millimeter.
At present we do not think that the disturber gives more than the order
of the changes of horizon which we note, but our estimate receives a
general confirmation from another circumstance.

From the delicacy of the gearing connected with the back-leg, we
estimate that it is by no means difficult to raise the back-leg by a
millionth of an inch. The looseness in the gearing was purposely kept
so great that it requires a turn or two of the external pulley on the
window-sill before the backlash is absorbed, but after this a very small
fraction of a turn is sufficient to move the image in the field.

We are now inclined to look to this process with the back-leg to
enable us to determine the actual value of our scale, but this will require
a certain amount of new apparatus, which we have not yet had time to
arrange. In erecting the instrument we omitted to take certain measure-
ments which it now appears will be necessary for the use of the back-leg
as a means of determining the absolute value of our scale, but we know
these measurements approximately from the working drawings of the

1 See, however, the postscript at the end of this part.

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAVI1Y. 111

instrument. Now it appears that one complete revolution of a certain
tangent-screw by which the back-leg is raised should tilt the pendulum-
stand through almost exactly half a second of arc, and therefore this
should produce a relative displacement of the pendulum of the same
amount. We have no doubt but that a tenth of the turn of the tangent-
screw produces quite a large deflection of the image, and probably a
hundredth of a turn would produce a sensible deflection. Therefore,
from mere consideration of the effect of the back-lee we do not doubt
but that a deflection of the pendulum through ajj,th of a second of
aré is distinctly visible. This affords a kind of confirmation of the
somewhat unsatisfactory deductions which we draw from the operation
of the disturber.

Postscript.—The account of our more recent experiments was written
during an absence from Cambridge from July 29 to August 9. In this
period the gradual southerly progression of the pendulum-bob, which was
observed up to July 28, seems to have continued; for on August 9 the
pendulum was much too far 8. to permit the image of the gas-flame to
come into the field of view of the telescope. On August 9 the image was
recentralised, and on the 9th and 10th the southerly change continued ;
on the 11th, however, a reversal northwards again occurred. During
these days the unsteadiness of the image was much greater than we have
seen it at any time with the new instrument. There was some heavy
rain and a good deal of wind at that time. We intend to arrange a scale
for giving a numerical value to the degree of unsteadiness, but at present
it is merely a matter of judgment.

It seems possible that earthquakes were the cause of unsteadiness on
August 9, 10, and 11, and we shall no doubt hear whether any earth-
quakes have taken place on those days.

After August 11 we were both again absent from Cambridge. On
August 16 my brother returned, and found that the southerly progression
of the pendulum-bob had reasserted itself, so that the image was again
far out of the field of view. After recentralising he found the image to
be unusually steady.

This appeared a good opportunity of trying the effect of purely local
tremors.

One observer therefore went into the room and, standing near the
instrument, delivered some smart blows on the brickwork coping round
the ditch, the stone pavement, the tub, and the large stone basement
underneath the water. Little or no effect was produced by this. Very
small movements of the body, such as leaning forward while sitting in a
chair, or a shift of part of the weight from heels to toes, produced a
sensible deflection, and it was not very easy for the experimenter to avoid
this kind of change whilst delivering the blows. T'o show the sensitiveness
of the instrument to steady pressure we may mention that a pressure
of three fingers on the brick coping of the ditch produces a marked
deflection.

On August 17 I returned to Cambridge, and noted, with my brother,
that the image had never been nearly so steady before. The abnormal
steadiness continued on the 18th. There was much rain during those days.

On the afternoon of the 19th there was a high wind, and although
the abnormal steadiness had ceased, still the agitation of the image was
rather less than we usually observe it.

The image being so steady on the 17th, we thought that a good oppor-

112 REPORT—1881.

tunity was afforded for testing the disturber. At 6.15 p.m. of that day
we began the readings. The changes from ‘up’ to ‘down’ were made as
quickly as we could, and in a quarter of an hour we secured five readings
when the guide weight was ‘up,’ and four when it was ‘ down.’

When a curve was drawn, with the time as abscissa, and the readings
as ordinates, through the ‘ up’s,’ and similarly through the ‘down’s,’ the
curves presented similar features. This seems to show that movement of
the disturber does not cause irregularities or changes, except such as it
is designed to produce.

The displacement of the guide weight was through 5 c.m. on each
occasion.

The four changes from ‘up’ to ‘down’ showed that an inch of scale
corresponded with 0/0897, with a mean error of 0/0021; the four from
‘down’ to ‘up’ gave 0/0909 to the inch, with a mean error of 0/’-0042.
Thus the systematic error on the previous occasions was probably only
apparent. :

Including all the eight changes together, we find that the value of an
inch is 0/’-0903 with a mean error of 0':0030.

A change in the scale reading amounting to a tenth of an inch is
visible without any doubt, and even less is probably visible. Now it will
give an idea of the delicacy of the instrument when we say that a tenth
of an inch of our scale corresponds to a change of horizon! through an
angle equal to that subtended by an inch at 384 miles.

Il. On the work of previous observers.

In the following section we propose to give an account of the various
experiments which have been made in order to detect small variations of
horizon, as far as they are known to us; but it is probable that other
papers of a similar kind may have escaped our notice.

In a report of this kind it is usefal to have references collected
together, and therefore, besides giving an account of the papers which
we have consulted, we shall requote the references contained in these

apers.

ij oa Poggendort’s ‘ Annalen’ for 1873 there are papers by Professor
F. Zollner, which had been previously read before the Royal Saxon
Society, and which are entitled ‘ Ueber eine neue Methode zur Messung
anziehender und abstossender Kriifte,’ vol. 150, p. 151, ‘ Beschreibung und
Anwendung des Horizontalpendels,’ vol. 150, p. 134. A part of the
second of these papers is translated, and the figure is reproduced in the
supplementary number of the ‘ Philosophical Magazine ’ for 1872, p. 491,
in a paper ‘On the Origin of the Earth’s Magnetism.’

The horizontal pendulum was independently invented by Professor
Zollner, and, notwithstanding assertions to the contrary, was probably for
the first time actually realised by him; it appears, however, that it had
been twice invented before. The history of the instrument contains a
curious piece of scientific fraud, of which we shall give an account below.

The instrument underwent some modifications under the hands of
Professor Zéllner, and the two forms are described in the above papers.

1 We use the expression ‘change of horizon’ to denote relative movement of
the earth, at the place of observation, and the plumb-line. Such changes may arise
either from alteration in the shape of the earth, or from displacement of the plumb-
line; our experiments do not determine which of these two really takes place.

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAYITY. 113

The principle employed is as follows:—There is a very stout vertical
stand, supported on three legs. At the top and bottom of the vertical
shaft are fixed two projections. Attached to each projection is a fine
straight steel clock spring ; the springs are parallel to the vertical shaft
of the stand, the one attached to the lower projection running upwards,
and that attached to the upper one running downwards, The springs
are of equal length, each being equal to half the distance between their
points of attachment on the projections.

The springs terminate in a pair of rings, which stand exactly opposite
to one another, so that a rod may be thrust through both.

A glass rod has a heavy weight attached to one end of it, and the
other end is thrust through the two rings. Therings are alittle separated
from one another, and the glass rod stands out horizontally, with its
weight at the end, and is supported by the tension of the two springs.
It is obvious that if the point of attachment of the upper spring were
vertically over that of the lower spring, and if the springs had no
torsional elasticity, then the glass rod would be in neutral equilibrium,
and would stand equally well in any azimuth.

The springs being thin have but little torsional elasticity, and
Professor Zollner arranges the instrument so that the one support is very
nearly over the other. In consequence of this the rod and weight have
but a small predilection for one azimuth more than another. The free
oscillations of the horizontal pendulum could thus be made extra-
ordinarily slow ; and even a complete period of one minute could be easily
attained,

A very small horizontal force of course produces a large deflection of
the pendulum, and a small deflection of the force of gravitation with
reference to the instrument must produce a like result. He considers
that by this instrument he could, in the first form of the instrument,
detect a displacement of the horizon through 0/"00035; in the second his
estimate is 0/001.

The observation was made by means of a mirror attached to the
weight, and scale and telescope.

The maximum change of level due to the moon’s attraction is at St.
Petersburg 0/0174, and from the sun 0’-0080 [C. A. F. Peters, ‘ Bull.
Acad, Imp. St. Pétersbourg,’ 1844, vol. 3. No. 14]; and thus the instru-
ment was amply sensitive enough to detect the lunar and solar disturb-
ances of gravity.!

Professor Zdllner found, as we have done, that the readings were never
the same for two successive instants. The passing of trains on the rail-
way at a mile distant produced oscillations of the equilibrium position.

1 We are of opinion that M. Zéllner has made a mistake in using at Leipsig
Peters’ results for St. Petersburg. Besides this he considers the changes of the
vertical to be 00174 on each side of a mean position, and thus says the change is
0’-0348 altogether. Now a rough computation which I have made for Cambridge
shows that the maximum meridional horizontal component of gravitation, as due to
lunar attraction, is 4:12 x 1075 of pure gravity. This force will produce a deflec-
tion of the plumb-line of 00085, and the total amplitude of meridional oscillation
will be 00170. The maximum deflection of the plumb line occurs when the
moon’s hour-angle is + 45° and + 135° at the place of observation. ‘The change at
Cambridge when the moon is $.H. and N.W. is 0”0216. The deflection of the plumb
line varies as the cosine of the latitude, and is therefore greater at Cambridge than at
St. Petersburg. Multiplying -021§ by sec 51°43’ cos 60° we get ‘0174, and thus my
caloulation agrees with Peters’.

1881. I

114 ~ REPORT—1881.

He seems to have failed to detect the laws governing the longer and
wider oscillations performed. Notwithstanding that he took a number of
precautions against the effects of changes of temperature, he remarks
that ‘the external circumstances under which the above experiments
were carried out must be characterised as extremely unfavourable for this
object (measuring the lunar attraction), so that the sensitiveness might be
much increased in pits in the ground, provided the reaction of the glowing
molten interior against the solid crust do not generate inequalities of the
same order.’

Further on he says that if the displacements of the pendulum should
be found not to agree in phase with the theoretical phase as given by the
sun’s position, then it might be concluded that gravitation must take a
finite time to come from the sun.

It appears to me that such a result would afford strong grounds for
presuming the existence of frictional tides in the solid earth, and that
Professor Zéllner’s conclusion would be quite unjustifiable.

Earlier in the paper he states that he preferred to construct his instru-
ment on a large scale, in order to avoid the disturbing effects of convection
currents. We capnot but think, from our own experience, that by this
course Professor Zéllner lost more than he gained, for the larger the
instrument the more it would necessarily be exposed in its various parts
to regions of different temperature, and we have found that the warping
of supports by inequalities of temperature is a most serious cause of
disturbance.

The instrument of which we have given ashort account appears to us
very interesting from its ingenuity, and the account of the attempts to
use it are well worthy of attention, but we cannot think that it can ever
be made to give such good results as those which may perhaps be attained
by our plan or by others. The variation in the torsional elasticity of the
suspending springs, due to changes of temperature, would seem likely to
produce serious variations in the value of the displacements of the pendu-
lum, and it does not seem easy to suspend such an instrument in fluid in
such a manner as to kill out the effects of purely local tremors.

Moreover, the whole instrument is kept permanently in a condition of
great stress, and one would be inclined to suppose that the vertical stand
would be slightly warped by the variation of direction in which the
tensions of the springs are applied, when the pendulum bob varies its
position.

In a further paper in the same volume, p. 140, ‘Zur Geschichte
des Horizontalpendels,’ Zéllner gives the priority of invention to M.
Perrot, who had described a similar instrument on March 31, 1862,
(‘Comptes Rendus,’ vol. 54, p. 728), but as far as he knows M. Perrot
did not actually construct it.

He also quotes an account of an ‘ Astronomische Pendelwage,’ by
Lorenz Hengler, published in 1832, in vol. 43 of ‘ Dingler’s Polytechn.
Journ.,’ pp. 81-92. In this paper it appears that Hengler gives the
most astonishing and vague accounts of the manner in which he detected
the lunar attraction with a horizontal pendulum, the points of support
being the ceiling and floor of a room 16 feet high. The terrestrial rotation
was also detected with a still more marvellous instrument.

_Zollner obviously discredits these experiments, but hesitates to
characterise them, as they deserve, as mere fraud and invention.

The university authorities at Munich state that in the years 1830-1

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAVITY. 115

there was a candidate in philosophy and theology named Lorenz Hengler,
of Reichenhofen, ‘ der weder friiher noch spiiter zu finden ist.’

At p. 150 of the same volume Professor Safatik contributes a ‘ Bei-
trag zur Geschichte des Horizontalpendels.’ He says that the instru-
ment takes its origin from Professor Gruithuisen, of Munich, whose
name has ‘ keinen guten Klang’ in the exact sciences.

This strange person, amongst other eccentricities, proposed to dig a
hole quite through the earth, and proposes a catachthonic observatory.
Gruithuisen says, in his ‘Neuen Analekten fiir Erd- und Himmelskunde’
(Munich, 1832), vol. 1, part i.: ‘I believe that the oscillating-balance
(Schwung-wage) of a pupil of mine (named Hengeller), when constructed
on a large scale, will do the best service.’

Some of the most interesting observations which have been made
are those of M. d’Abbadie. He gave an account of his experiments in a
paper, entitled ‘ Ktudes sur la verticale,’ ‘ Association Frangaise pour
Vavancement des Sciences, Congrés de Bordeaux, 1872,’ p. 159. As this
work is not very easily accessible to English readers, and as the paper
itself has much interest, we give a somewhat full abstract of it. He has
also published two short notes with reference to M. Plantamour’s obser-
vations (noticed below), in vol. 86, p. 1528 (1878), and vol. 89, p. 1016
(1879), of the ‘Comptes Rendus.’ We shall incorporate the substance of
his remarks in these notes in our account of the original paper.

When at Olinda, in Brazil, in 1837, M. d’Abbadie noticed the varia-
tions of a delicate level which took place from day to day. At the end of
the two months of his stay there the changes in the H. and W. azimuth
had compensated themselves, and the Jevel was in the same condition as
at first; but the change in the meridian was still progressing when he
had to leave.

In 1842, at Gondar, in Ethiopia, and at Saqa, he noticed a similar
thing. In 1852 he gave an account to the French Academy (‘ Comptes
Rendus,’ May, p. 712) of these observations, as well as of others, by
means of levels, which were carried out in a cellar in the old castle of
Audaux, Basses Pyrénées.

Leverrier, he says, speaks of sudden changes taking place in the level
of astronomical instruments, apparently without cause. Airy has proved
that the azimuth of an instrument may change, and Hough notes, in
America, capricious changes of the Nadir.

Henry has collected a series of levellings and azimuths observed at
Greenwich during ten years, and during eight of the same years at Cam-
bridge (‘Monthly Notices, R.A.S.,’ vol. 8, p. 134). The results with
respect to these two places present a general agreement, and show that
from March to September the western Y of the transit instrument falls
through 2/5, whilst it deviates at the same time 2’ towards the north.
Ellis has made a comparison of curves applying to Greenwich, during
eight years, for level and azimuth. He shows that there is a general
correspondence with the curves of the external temperature (‘ Memoirs
of the R. Ast. Soc.,’ vol. 29, pp. 45-57).

In the later papers M. d’Abbadie says that M. Bouquet de la Grye
has observed similar disturbances of the vertical at Campbell Island,
lat. 52° 34’ §.. M. Bouquet used a heavy pendulum governing @
vertical lever, by which the angle was multiplied.'_ He found that the

1 I do not find a reference to M. Bouquet in the R.S. Catalogue of scientific
papers, It appears from what M. d’Abbadie says that certain observations have

12

116 REPORT—1881.

great breakers on the shore at a distance of two miles caused a deviation
of the vertical of 1’"1. On one occasion the vertical seems to have varied
through 3/’:2 in 3} hours.

M. d@’Abbadie also quotes Elkin, Yvon Villarcean, and Airy as having
found, from astronomical observations, notable variations in latitude,
amounting to from 7” to 8”.

As M. d’Abbadie did not consider levels to afford a satisfactory
method of observation of the presumed changes of horizon, he deter-
mined to proceed in a different manner.

The site of his experiments was Abbadia, in Subernoa, near Hendaye,
The Atlantic was 400 meters distant, and the sea level 62 meters below
the place of observation. The subsoil was loamy rock (roche marneuse),
belonging to cretaceous deposits of the South of France, Notwithstanding
the steep slope of the soil, water was found at about 5 meters below the
surface.

In this situation he had built, in 1863, a concrete cone, of which the
external slope was one in ten (une inclinaison d’une dixiéme)., The con-
crete cone is truncated, and the flat surface at the top is 2 meters in
diameter. It is pierced down the centre by a vertical hole or well
1 meter in diameter. This well extends to within half a meter of the top,
at which point the concrete closes in, leaving only a hole of 12 centi-
meters up to the flat upper surface.

From the top of the concrete down to the rock is 8 meters, and the
well is continued into the rock to a further depth of 2 meters: thus
from top to bottom is 10 meters.

A tunnel is made to the bottom of the well in order to drain away the
water, and access of the observer to the bottom is permitted by means of
an underground staircase. Access can also be obtained to a point half-
way between the top and bottom by means of a hole through the con-
crete. At this point there is a diaphragm across the well, pierced by a
hole 21 centimeters in diameter. The diaphragm seems to have been
originally made in order to support a lens, but the mode of observation
was afterwards changed. The diaphragm is still useful, however, for
allowing the observer to stand there and sweep away cobwebs.

The cone is enclosed in an external building, from the roof of which,
as I understand, there hangs a platform on which the observer may
stand without touching the cone; and the two staircases leading up to
the top are also isolated.!

On the hole through the top of the cone is riveted a disk of brass
pierced through its centre by a circular hole 21 mm. in diameter. The
hole in the disk is traversed across two perpendicular diameters by fine
platinum wires; at first there were only two wires, but afterwards there
were four, which were arranged so as to present the outline of a right-
angled cross. ‘The parallel wires were very close together, so that the
four wires enclosed in the centre a very small square space.

At the bottom of the wellis puta pool of mercury. The mercury
was at first in an iron basin, but the agitation of the mercury was found
sometimes to be so great that no reflection was visible for an hour to-

been made with pendulums in Italy, but that it does not distinctly appear that the
variations of level are simultaneous over wide areas, No reference is given as to
the observers.

* This passage appears to me a little obscure, and I cannot quite understand the
arrangement, ; f E

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAVITY. 117

gether. At the suggestion of Leverrier the iron basin was replaced by
a shallow wooden tray with a corrugated bottom, and a good reflection
was then generally obtainable. Immediately over the mercury pool
there stood a lens of 10 c.m. diameter and 10 meters focal length,
and over the brass disk there stood a microscope with moveable mi-
crometer wires in the eyepiece, and a position circle. The platinum
wires were illuminated, and on looking through the microscope the
observer saw the wires both directly and by reflection. The observations
were taken by measuring the azimuth and displacement of the image of
the central square relatively to the real square enclosed by the wires.

One division of the micrometer screw indicated a displacement of
vertieal of 0’’03, so that the observations were susceptible of consider-
able refinement.

The whole of the masonry was finished in 1863, and M. d’Abbadie
then allowed the structure five years to settle before he began taking
observations. The arrangements for observing above described were
made in 1868 and 1869.

In the course of a year he secured 2,000 observations, and the results
appear to be very strange and capricious.

Throughout March, 1869, the perturbations of the mercury were so
incessant, that observations (taken at that time with the iron basin) were
nearly impossible ; on the 29th he waited nearly an hour in vain in trying
to catch the image of the wires. Two days later the mercury was
perfectly tranquil. On April 6 it was much agitated, although the air
and sea were calm. A tranquil surface was a rare exception.

In 1870 the corrugated trough was substituted for the iron basin ;
and M. d’Abbadie says :—

‘Cependant, ni le fond inégal du bain rainé ni sa forme ne m’ont
empéché d’observer, ce que j’appelle des ombres fuyantes. Ce sont des
bandes sombres et paralléles qui traversent le champ du microscope avec
plus ou moins de vitesse, et qu’on explique en attribuant au mercure des
ondes tres ténues, causées par une oscillation du sol dans un seul sens.
Le plus souvent ces ombres semblent courir du §.E. au N.O., approxi-
mativement selon l’axe de la chaine des Pyrénées; mais je les ai obser-
vées, le 15 Mars 1872, allant vers le 8.0. A cette époque le mercure
était, depuis le 29 février, dans une agitation continuelle, comme mon
aide lavait constaté en 1869, aussi dans le mois de Mars.’!

He observed also, from time to time, certain oscillations of the
mercury too rapid to be counted, which he calls ‘tremoussements.’
There were also sudden jumpings of the image from one point to another,
oF ean indicating a sudden change of vertical through 0/49
0 0°65.

_ He observed many microscopic earthquakes, and in some cases the
image was carried quite out of the field of view.

He also detected the difference of vertical according to the. state
of the tide in the neighbouring sea; but the change of level due to this
cause was often masked by others occurring contemporancously.

From observations during the years 1867 to 1872 (with the exception
of 1870) he finds that in every year but one the plumb-line deviated
northwards during the latter months of the year, but in 1872 it deviated
to the south.

‘ M. d’Abbadie writes to me that this phenomenon was ultimately found to
result from air-currents (Nov. 5, 1881).

118 REPORT—1881.

He does not give any theoretical views as to the causes of these
phenomena, but remarks that his observations tend to prove that the
causes of change are sometimes neither astronomical nor thermometrical.

The most sudden change which he noted was on October 27, 1872,
when the vertical changed by 2/4 in six hours and a quarter. Between
January 30 and March 26 of the same year the plumb-line deviated 4/5
towards the south.

We now come to the valuable observations of M. Plantamour, which
we believe are still being prosecuted by him. His papers are ‘Sur le
déplacement de la bulle des niveaux 4 bulle d’air,’ ‘Comptes Rendus,’
June 24, 1878, vol. 86, p. 1522, and ‘Des mouvements périodiques du
sol accusés par des niveaux 4 bulle d’air,’ ‘Comptes Rendus,’ December 1,
1879, vol. 89, p. 937.

The observations were made at Sécheron, near Geneva, at first at the
Observatory, and afterwards at M. Plantamour’s house. After some
preliminary observations he obtained a very sensitive level and laid it on
the concrete floor of a room in which the variations of temperature were
very small. The azimuth of the level was E. and W., and the observa-
tions were made every hour from 9 a.m. until midnight. Figures are
given of the displacement of the bubble during April 24, 25, and 26, 1878.
The results indicate a diurnal oscillation of level, the E. end of the level
being highest towards 5.30 p.m.; the amplitudes of the oscillations were
8-4, 11/2, 15’'75 during these three days. It also appeared that there
was a gradual rising of the mean diurnal position of the HE. end during
the same time.

The level was then transported to a cellar in M. Plantamour’s
house, when the temperature only varied by half a degree centigrade.
The bubble of the level often ran quite up to one end. A new and larger
level was obtained, together with the great ‘chevalet de fer,’ which is
used by the manufacturers in testing levels. Both levels were placed E.
and W., at about two meters apart. During May 3 and 4, 1878, the
bubble travelled eastward without much return, and it is interesting to
learn that simultaneous observations by M. Turretini, at the Level
Factory, three kilometers distant, at Plainpalais, showed a similar
change.

Between May 3 and 6 the level actually changed through 17”. Up
to the 19th the level still showed the eastward change.

M. Plantamour remarks that the eastern pier of a transit instrument
is known to rise during a part of the year, but not by an amount com-
parable with that observed by him, and that the diurnal variations are
unknown.

After further observations of a similar kind one of the levels was
arranged in the N. and §. azimuth.

The same sort of diurnal oscillations, although more irregular, were
observed, but the hours of maximum were not the same in the two levels.
During the four days May 24 to 28 the maximum rising of the north
generally took place about noon. This is exactly the converse of what
we have recently observed.

In the second paper he remarks :

‘Dans le sens du méridien, les mouvements diurnes sont trés rares
irréguliers et toujours trés faibles, le niveau en accuse parfois, quand il
n’y en a point de |’est a l’ouest, et inversement, quand ces derniers sont
tres prononcés, on n’en apergoit que trés rarement du sud au nord.’

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAVITY. 119

In our experiment of March 15 to 18, 1880, we found that the
pendulum stood furthest north about 6 P.M., so that at that time the S.
was most elevated; and in the short series of observations during the
present summer the maximum elevation of the S. took place about noon.

On October 1, 1878, M. Plantamour began a new series of observa-
tions, which lasted until September 30,1879. The levels were arranged
in the two azimuths as before, and the observations were taken five times
a day, namely, at 9 A.m., noon, 3,6,and 9 p.m. The mean of these five
readings he takes as the diurnal value.

During October and November the eastern end of the level fell, which
is exactly the converse of what happened during the spring of the same
year; he concludes that the eastern end falls when the external tempera-
ture falls.

When a curve of the external temperature was placed parallel with
that for the level, it appeared that there was a parallelism between the
two, but the curve for the level lagged behind that for temperature by a
period of from one to four days.

This parallelism was maintained until the end of June, 1879, when it
became disturbed. From then until the beginning of September the E.
rose, but in a much greater proportion than the rise of mean temperature.
It must be noted that July was a cold and wet month.

Although the external temperature began to fall on August 5, the
E. end continued to rise until September 8. This he attributes to an
accumulation of heat in the soil. The total amplitude of the annual
oscillation from H. to W. amounted to 28/08. :

There was also a diurnal oscillation in this azimuth which amounted
to 3/2 on September 5. The east end appeared to be highest between 6
and 7.45 p.m., and lowest at the similar hour in the morning.!

The meridional oscillations were much smaller, the total annual
amplitude being only 4/89, From December 23, 1878, until the end of
April, 1879, there was a correspondence between the external temperature
curve and that for N. and S. level. We have already quoted the remark
on the diurnal meridional oscillations.

M. Plantamour tells us that in 1856 Admiral Mouchez detected no
movement of the soil by means of the levels attached to astronomical
instruments. On the other hand, M. Hirsch established, by several years
of observation at Neuchatel, that there was an annual oscillation of
a transit instrument from E. to W., with an amplitude of 23’, and an
azimuthal oscillation of 75’. Similar observations with the transit
instrument were made at the observatory at Berne in the summer of 1879.

It is to be regretted that M. Plantamour does not give us more
information concerning the manner in which the iron support for the
levels was protected from small changes of temperature, nor with regard
to the effect of the observer’s weight on the floor of the room. We have
concluded that both these sources of disturbance should be carefully
eliminated.

1 Tt seems that M. Plantamour sent a figure to the French Academy with the
paper, but no figure is given. This figure would doubtless have explained the mean-
ing of some passages which are somewhat obscure. Thus he speaks of the mini-
mem occurring between 6 and 7.45, but it is not clear whether minimum means E.
highest or H. lowest. {interpret the passage as above, because this was the state of
things in the observations recorded in the first of the two papers, There is a similar
difficulty about the meridional oscillations,

120 hePort—1881,

Some interestitig observations were made at Pulkova on a subject
cognate to that on which we are writing. M. Magnus Nyrén contributed,
on February 28, 1878, an interesting note to the Imperial Academy of
St. Petersburg, entitled ‘Erderschiitterung beobachtet an einem feinem
Niveau 1877 Mai 10.2! On May 10 (April 28), 1877, at 4.16 a.m.,
a striking disturbance of the level on the axis of the transit was observed
by M. Nyrén in the observatory at Pulkova. The oscillations were
watched by him for three minutes; their complete period was about
20 seconds, and their amplitude between 1/°5 and 2’. At 4.35 a.m.
there was no longer any disturbance. He draws attention to the
fact that it afterwards appeared that one hour and fourteen minutes
earlier there had been a great earthquake at Iquique. The distance
from Iquique to Pulkova is 10,600 kilometers in a straight line, and
12,540 kilometers along the are of a great circle. He does not posi-
tively connect the two phenomena together; but he observes that if
the wave came through the earth from Iquique to Pulkova it must have
travelled at the rate of about 2:4 kilometers per second. This is the
speed of transmission through platinum or silver.

M. Nyrén thinks the wave-motion could not have been so regular
as it was, if the transmission had been through the solid, and suggests
that the transmission was through the fluid interior of the earth.

It appears to us that this argument is hardly sound, and that it would
be more just to conclude that the interior of the earth was a sensibly
perfectly elastic solid; because oscillations in molten rock would surely
be more quickly killed out by internal friction than those in a solid.
However, M. Nyrén does not lay much stress on this argument. He
also draws attention to the fact that on September 20 (8), 1867,
M. Wagner observed at Pulkova an oscillation of the level, with an
amplitude of 3’, and that seven minutes before the disturbance there
had been an earthquake at Malta. On April 4 (March 23), 1868, M.
Gromadzki observed an agitation of the level, and it was afterwards
found that there had been an earthquake in Turkestan five minutes before.

Similar observations of disturbances had been made twice before,
once by M. Wagner and once by M. Romberg; but they had not been
connected with any earthquakes—at least with certainty.

Dr. C. W. Siemens has invented an instrument of extraordinary
delicacy, which he calls an ‘Attraction-meter.’ An account of the
instrument is given in an addendum to his paper ‘On determining the
depth of the sea without the use of the sounding-line’ (‘ Phil. Trans.,’
1876, p. 659). We shall not give any account of this instrument, because
Dr. Siemens is a member of our committee, and will doubtless bring any
observations he may make with it before the British Association at some
future time.

III. Remarks on the present state of the subject.

Although our experiments are not yet concluded, it may be well to
make a few remarks on the present aspects of the question, and to state
shortly our intentions as to future operations.

Our experiments, as far as they go, confirm the results of MM.
d’Abbadie and Plantamour, and we think that there can remain little

' Bull. Acad, St. Pét., vol, 24, p. 567.

ON tHE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAVITY. 121

doubt that the surface of the earth is in incessant movement, with
oscillations of periods extending from a fraction of a second to a year.

Whether it be a purely superficial phenomenon or not, this considera-
tion should be of importance to astronomical observers, for their instru-
ments are necessarily placed at the surface of the earth. M. Plantamour
and others have shown that there is an intimate connection between the
changes of level and those of the temperature of the air ; whence it follows
that the principal part of the changes must be superficial. On the other
hand, M. d’Abbadie has shown that it is impossible to explain all the
changes by means of changes of temperature. It would be interesting
to determine whether changes of a similar kind penetrate to the bottom
of mines, and Gruithuisen’s suggestion of a catachthonic observatory
seems worthy of attention, although he perhaps went rather far in the
proposition that the observatory should be ten or fifteen miles below the
earth’s surface.

It may appear not improbable that the surface of the soil becomes
wrinkled all over, when it is swollen by increase of temperature and by
rainfall. If this, however, were the case, then we should expect that
instruments erected at a short distance apart would show discordant re-
sults. M. Plantamour, however, found that, at least during three days,
there was a nearly perfect. accordance between the behaviour of two sets
of levels at three kilometers apart; and during eight years there appeared
to be general agreement between the changes of level of the astrono-
mical instruments at Greenwich and Cambridge. It would be a matter
of much interest to determine how far this concordance would be main-
tained if the instrument of observation had been as delicate as that used
by M. d’Abbadie or as our pendulum.

M. Plantamour speaks as though it were generally recognised that
one pier of a transit circle rises during one part of the year and falls at
another.! But if this be so throughout Europe, we must suppose that
there is a kind of tide in the solid earth, produced by climatic changes ;
the rise and fall of the central parts of continents must then amount to
something considerable in vertical height, and the changes of level on the
easterly and westerly coasts of a continent must be exactly opposite to
one another. We are not aware that any comparison of this kind has
been undertaken. The idea seems of course exceedingly improbable, but
we understand it to be alleged that it is the eastern pier of transit instru-
ments in Europe which rises during the warmer part of the year. Now
if this be generally true for Europe, which has no easterly coast, it
is not easy to see how the change can be brought about except by a
swelling of the whole continent.

We suggest that in the future it will be thought necessary to erect
at each station a delicate instrument for the continuous observation of
changes of level. Perhaps M. d’Abbadie’s pool of mercury might be best
for the longer inequalities, and something like ovr pendulum for the
shorter ones; or possibly the pendulum when used in a manner which

_ Wwe intend to try might suffice for all the inequalities.

«Dans l’opération au moyen de laquelle on vérifie ’horizontalité de l’axe d’une
lunette méridienne, il parait qu’on remarque bien un léger mouvement d’exhausse-
ment de l’est pendant une partie de l’année, mais il n’est pas aussi considérable que
celui qu’accuse mon niveau, et l’on n’a jamais remarqué, que je sache, une oscillation
_ diurne comme celle qu’a indiquée le niveau dans le pavillon.’— Comptes Rendus, June
24, 1878, vol, 86, p. 1525,

122 REPORT—1881.

At present the errors introduced by unknown inequalities of level are
probably nearly eliminated by the number of observations taken; but it
could not fail to diminish the probable error of each observation, if a
correction were applied for this cause of disturbance from hour to hour,
or even from minute to minute. If the changes noted by M. Plantamour
are not entirely abnormal in amount, such corrections are certainly suffi-
cient to merit attention.

In our first set of experiments we found that stone piers are exceed-
ingly sensitive to changes of temperature and to small stresses. Might it
not be worth while to plate the piers of astronomical instruments with
copper, and to swathe them with flannel? We are not aware as to the
extent to which care is taken as to the drainage of the soil round the
piers, or as to the effect of the weight of the observer’s body ; but we draw
attention to the effect produced by the percolation of water round the
basement, and to the impossibility we have found of taking our obser-
vations in the same room with the instrument,

In connection with this subject we may notice an experiment which
was begun 34 years ago by my brother Horace. The experiment was
undertaken in connection with my father’s investigation of the geological
activity of earthworms, and the object was to determine the rate at which
stones are being buried in the ground in consequence of the excavations
of worms.

The experiment is going on at Down, in Kent. The soil is stiff red
clay, containing many flints lying over the chalk. There are two stout
metal rods, one of iron and the other of copper. The ends were
sharpened and they were hammered down vertically into the soil of an
old grass field, and they are in contact with one another, or nearly so.
When they had penetrated 8 feet 6 inches it was found very difficult to
force them deeper, and it is probable that the ends are resting on a flint.
The ends were then cut off about three inches above the ground.

A stone was obiained like a small grindstone, with a circular hole in
the middle. This stone was laid on the ground with the two metal rods
appearing through the hole. Three brass V grooves are leaded into the
upper surface of the stone, and a moveable tripod-stand with three
rounded legs can be placed on the stone, and is, of course, geometrically
fixed by the nature of its contact with the V’s. An arrangement with a
micrometer screw enables the observer to take contact’ measurements of
the position of the upper surface of the stone with regard to the rods.
The stone has always continued to fall, but during the first few months
the rate of fall was probably influenced by the decaying of the grass
underneath it. The general falling of the stone can only be gathered
from observations taken at many months apart, for it is found to be in a
state of continual vertical oscillation.

The measurements are so delicate that the raising of the stone pro-
duced by one or two cans full of water poured on the ground can easily
be perceived. Between September 7 and 19, 1880, there was heavy rain,
and the stone stood 1:91 mm. higher at the latter date than at the former.
The effect of frost and the wet season combined is still more marked, for
on January 23, 1881, the stone was 4°12 mm. higher than it had been on
September 7, 1880.

The prolonged drought of the present summer has had a great effect,
for between May 8 and June 29 the stone sank through 5°79 mm. The
opposite effects of drought and frost are well shown by the fact that on

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAVITY. 123

January 23 the stone stood 8°62 mm. higher than on June 29, 1881.
The observations are uncorrected for the effect of temperature on the
metal rods, but the fact that the readings from the two rods of different
metals always agree very closely inter se, shows that such a correction
would amount to very little.

The changes produced in the height of the stone are, of course,
entirely due to superficial causes; but the amounts of the oscillations
are certainly surprising, and although the basements of astronomical
instruments may be very deep, they cannot entirely escape from similar
oscillations.

In his address to the mathematical section at the meeting of the
British Association at Glasgow in 1876, Sir William Thomson tells
us! that Peters, Maxwell, Nyrén, and Newcomb? have examined the
observations at Pulkova, Greenwich, and Washington, in order to discover
whether there is not an inequality in the latitude of the observatories
having a period of about 306 days. Such an inequality must exist on
account of the motion in that period of the instantaneous axis of rotation
of the earth round the axis of maximum moment of inertia. The in-
equality was detected in the results, but the probable error was very
large, and the epochs deduced by the several investigators do not agree
inter se. It remains, therefore, quite uncertain whether the detection of
the inequality is a reality or not. But now we ask whether it is not an
essential first step in such an enquiry to make an elaborate investigation
by a very delicate instrument of the systematic changes of vertical at each
station of observation ?

We will next attempt to analyse the merits and demerits of the various
methods which have been employed for detecting small changes in the
vertical.

The most sensitive instrument is probably the horizontal pendulum of
Professor Zéllner, and its refinement might be almost indefinitely in-
ereased by the addition of the bifilar suspension of a mirror as a means of
exhibiting the displacements of the pendulum-bob. If this were done it
might be possible to construct the instrument ona very small scale and
yet to retain a very high degree of sensitiveness. We are inclined to
think, however, that the variation of the torsional elasticity of the sus-
pending springs under varying temperature presents an objection to the
instrument which it would be very difficult to remove. The state of
stress under which the instrument is of necessity permanently retained
seems likely to be prejudicial.

Next in order of sensitiveness is probably our own pendulum, em-
bodying the suggestion of Sir William Thomson. We are scarcely in a
position as yet to feel sure as to its merits, but it certainly seems to be
capable of all the requisite refinement. We shall give below the ideas
which our experience, up to the present time, suggest as to improvements
and future observations.

Although we know none of the details of M. Bouquet de la Grye’s
pendulum actuating a lever, it may be presumed to be susceptible of
considerable delicacy, and it would be likely to possess the enormous

1 B. A. Report for 1876, p. 10. For ‘Nysen’ read ‘ Nyrén.’

2 Peters’ paper is in Bull. St. Pet. Acad., 1844, p. 305, and Ast. Nach. vol. 22,
1845, p. 71, 103, 119. Nyrén’s paper is in Mém. St. Pet. Acad. vol. 19, 1873, No. 13,
With regard to Maxwell, see Thomson and Tait’s Wat. Phil. 2nd edit. part 1, vol. 1,
An interesting letter from Newcomb is quoted in Sir W. Thomson’s address.

124 REPORT—1881.

advantage of giving an automatic record of its behaviour. On the other
hand the lever must introduce a very unfavourable element in the friction
between solids.

M. d’Abbadie’s method of observation by means of the pool of mercury
seems on the whole to be the best which has been employed hitherto.
But it has faults which leave ample fields for the use of other instruments.
The construction of a well of the requisite depth must necessarily be
very expensive, and when the structure is made of a suflicient size to
give the required degree of accuracy, it is difficult to ensure the relative
immobility of the cross wires and the bottom of the well.

Levels are exceedingly good from the point of view of cheapness and
transportability, but the observations must always be open to some
doubt on account of the possibility of the sticking of the bubble from
the effects of capillarity. The justice of this criticism is confirmed by
the fact that M. Plantamour found that two levels only two meters
apart did not give perfectly accordant results. Levels are moreover,
perhaps, scarcely sensitive enough for an examination of the smaller
oscillations of level. Dr. Siemens’ form of Jevel possesses ample sen-
sibility, but is probably open to the same objections on the score of
capillarity.

In the case of our own experiments we think that the immersion of the
whole instrument in water from top to bottom has proved an excellent
precaution against the effects of change of temperature, and our experience
leads us to think that much of the agitation of the pendulum in the
earlier set of experiments was due to small variations of temperature
against which we are now guarded.

The sensitiveness of the instrument leaves nothing to be desired, and
were such a thing as a firm foundation attainable, we could measure the
horizontal component of the lunar attraction to a considerable degree of
accuracy. We believe that this is the first instrument in which the vis-
cosity of fluids has been used as a means of eliminating the effects of
local tremors. In this respect we have been successful, for we find
that jumping or stamping in the room itself produces no agitation of the
pendulum, or at least none of which we can feel quite sure. We are
inclined to try the effect of fluids of greater viscosity, such as glycerine,
syrup of sugar, or paraffin oil. But along with such fluids we shall
almost inevitably introduce air-bubbles, which it may be hard to get rid
of. Ifa fluid of great viscosity were used, we should then only observe
the oscillations of level of periods extending over perhaps a quarter to
half a minute. The oscillations of shorter periods are, however, so
inextricably mixed up with those produced by carriages and railway
trains, that nothing would be lost by this.

In connection with this point Mr. Christie writes to me, that ‘In the
old times of Greenwich Fair, some twenty years ago, when crowds of
people used to run down the hill, I find the observers could not take
reflection observations for two or three hours after the crowd had been
turned out..... We do not have anything like such crowds now, even
on Bank holidays, and I have not heard lately of any interference with
the observations.’ If the observers attributed the agitation of the mer-
cury to the true cause, the elasticity of the soil must be far more perfect
than is generally supposed. It would be surprising to find a mass of
glass or steel continuing to vibrate for as long as two hours after the
disturbance was removed. May it not be suspected that times of agita-

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUNAR DISTURBANCE OF GRAVITY. 125

tion, such as those noted by M. d’Abbadie, happened to coincide on two
or three occasions with Greenwich Fair ?

As the sensitiveness of our present instrument is very great, although
the sensitising process has never been pushed as far as possible, we think
that it will be advantageous to construct an instrument on half, or even
less than half, the present scale. The heavy weights which we now
have to employ will thus be reduced to one-eighth of the present amount.
The erection of the instrument may thus be made an easy matter, and
an easily portable and inexpensive instrument may be obtained.

Our present form of instrument has several serious flaws. The image
is continually travelling off the scale, the gearing both internal and ex-
ternal to the room for observing is necessarily complex and troublesome
to erect, and lastly we have not yet succeeded in an accurate determina-
tion of the value of the scale.

We are in hopes of being able to overcome all these objections. We
propose to have a fixed light, which may be cast into the room from the
outside. This will free us from the obviously objectionable plan of having
a gas-flame in the room, and at the same time will abolish the gearing
for traversing the lamp on the scale. We should then abolish the dis-
turbing pendulum and thus greatly simplify the instrament. The read-
ings would be taken by the elevation or depression of the back-leg, until
the image of the fixed light was brought to the cross wire of the observing
telescope.

The ease with which the image may be governed with our present
arrangements leads us to be hopeful of the proposed plan. The use
of the back-leg will, of course, give all the displacements in absolute
measure.

The only gearings which it will be necessary to bring outside the
room will be those for sensitising and for working the back-leg. The
sensitising gearing when once in order will not have to be touched
again. -

is The objections to this plan are, that it is necessary to bring one of the
supports of the instrument under very slight stresses, and that it will not
be possible to take readings at small intervals of time, especially if a more
viscous fluid be used.

Our intention is to proceed with our observations with the present
instrument for some time longer, and to note whether the general
behaviour of the’ pendulum has any intimate connection with the
meteorological conditions. We intend to observe whether there is a
connection between the degree of agitation of the pendulum and the
occurrence of magnetic storms. M. Zéllner has thrown out a suggestion
for vote sort of observation, but we find no notice of his having acted
on it.

We shall also test how far the operation by means of the back-leg
may be made to satisfy our expectations.

We have no hope of being able to observe the lunar attraction in the
present site of observation, but we think it possible that we may devise
a portable instrument, which shall be amply sensitive enough for such a
purpose, if the bottom of a deep mine should be found to give a suffi-
ciently invariable support for the instrument.

The reader will understand that it is not easy to do justice to an

1 Phil. Mag. Dec. 1872, p. 497.

126 REPORT—1881.

incomplete apparatus, or to give a very satisfactory account of experi-
ments still in progress; but as it is now two years since the Committee
was appointed, we have thought it best to give to the British Association
such an account as we can of our progress.

Second Report of the Commvittee, consisting of Captain ABNEY,
Professor W. G. Apams, and Professor G. CarEy Foster, ap-
pointed to carry out an Investigation for the purpose of fixing
a Standard of White Light.

Since the last meeting of the Association but little progress has been
made in the investigations. Though several series of experiments have
been made, no definite conclusion on the subject has been arrived at by
your Committee. Owing to the accidental omission to present a report to
the last meeting, the recommendation embodied in the communication
which was printed in the last annual volume could not be carried out.
(See ‘ Reports Brit. Assoc,’ 1880, p. 119.)

Final Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor A. S. HErR-
SCHEL, Professor W. E. Ayrton, Professor P. M. Duncan, Professor
G. A. Lesour, Mr. J. T. Dunn, and Professor J. PERRY, on
Experiments to determine the Thermal Conductivities of certain
Rocks, showing especially the Geological Aspects of the Investi-
gation.

In bringing to a close the series of Reports which it has submitted during
the past series of years since 1874, the Committee has endeavoured to
collect and to compare together the several exact and well-deduced
results from observations arrived at hitherto by various independent
experimenters and investigators in the subject of its inquiry, so as to
show at once the present position of the experimental research and the
most essential points in which it requires further extensions and improve-
ments.

The method pursued by Professor Everett in his work on ‘ Units and
Physical Constants,’ of expressing all the well-determined data of phy.
sical experiments in terms of the centimétre, the gramme, and the second
as a common system of units, is adopted in forming the general list of
absolute and relative thermal conductivities by different observers, which
the Committee has met with and collected together in the simple order
and arrangement of a classified Table of thermal properties of rocks pre-
sented with this Report. Many of the data presented in the Table are
therefore already furnished in the uniform and well-authenticated form
required, in Professor Everett’s work. But the result of the present
comparison has afforded the Committee such positive grounds of confi-
dence in the general accuracy of the values found by its long-continued
series of experiments, that it has been enabled by that means to assign
absolute values to the relative ones of several important lists of thermal

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 127

conductivities which, on account of their relative values only, could not
receive admission to the store of absolute data furnished by Professor
Everett’s descriptions and reductions. In relation to this procedure the
example of Péclet has been followed in the present list, who, in 1841,
adopting relative numbers found by Despretz in 1821 and 1827, assigned
absolute values to Despretz’s series, by means of his own absolute deter-
mination of the thermal conductivity of one of the substances (statuary
marble) examined by Despretz. The values so assigned conjointly by
Péclet and Despretz are marked ‘ Despretz (a)’ in the Table. But ina
later relative list of Despretz, of a few specimens of rocks tested in 1852
(not used, apparently, by Péclet in his general list of 1853), the value
given for marble, for reduction of Despretz’s earlier list, is not adhered
to in the present Table, but the average conductivity found by a number
of experiments of the Committee on different marbles is used instead of
it, and Despretz’s relative values thus converted into absolute ones are
marked ‘ Despretz ((), 1852,’ in the present list.

A similar course had to be pursued in the case of two important
relative researches published almost simultaneously in 1856 and 1857
by Helmersen of St. Petersburg, and Hopkins of Cambridge, on
thermal rock-conductivities. To the relative quantities given by those
researches for vein-quartz and white statuary marble respectively, the
average values of the absolute conductivities of those rocks found by the
Committee’s repeated observations of them, are assigned (with a slight
deviation in the latter case for the reasons recognised below), to convert
the other relative quantities of the two researches into absolute measure,
and to allow of their being compared on a common scale with other absolute
determinations in the general list.

The work of Helmersen terminated in recording the observed tem-
peratures along bars of the tested specimens one and a-half inch
square and eighteen inches long, heated at one end, according to
Despretz’s method. Four thermometers being distributed at equal
distances along the bars, it was found that in the worst-conducting bars
the logarithmic decrement of temperature was so far from uniform and
constant, that abandoning the doubtful measurement of its true value in
each of them, Helmersen was contented to conclude from his experiments
that vein-quartz was the best conducting material of those which he
examined.

As, however, unusual care was bestowed on Helmersen’s experiments,
the relative quantities which they denote are yet of great value for
corroborative estimations. The decrements for each bar, and for each
interval between the four thermometers, was therefore deduced from
them, and by a mode of reduction to a mean decrement for each bar used
independently of each other by two of the Committee to reduce the
observations with the best presumptive regard to their respective weights,
to relative conductivities, the following two series of numbers were
obtained :—

Mica Serpen- Sand- Lime-
Rock Specimen Quartz Schist Granite Marble Porphyry tine stone stone

Relative I. 00710 -00501 -00356 -00510 -00448 -00555 -00471 -00466
Conductivity,

{i

II. 00688 -00563 -00375 -00412 -00371 -00458 -00508 -00399

Of these two series preference has been given to the latter, as it gives
more weight to the thermometric intervals near the source of heat, thar

128 REPORT—1881.

to those near the cool end of the bars, where the stationary temperatures
shown by the thermometers inserted in the bars were, in general, very
little in excess of the temperature of the surrounding air. The numbers
in this series were divided by 0°72 to make that for quartz correspond
to the thermal conductivity 0°0096, found for that substance as the
average result of the Committee’s experiments described in former years
in these Reports. The constant rate of logarithmic decrement in the
quartz-bar, in fact, shows that its conductivity was more exactly measured
by that quantity than in the case of the other bars whose rates of
logarithmic decrement were very variable.

The processes of experiment used by Hopkins and by Less to compare
together the thermal conductivities of two considerable series of rocks,
were those of Fourier and of Péclet, with some slight modifications, and
they differ principally from the latter, and from that employed in the
experiments of these Reports, in not affording the absolute, but only
the relative, conductivities of the tested plates. In both mercury was
used to establish direct contact between the plates and the heater and
cooler between which they were interposed ; and the heat traversing the
plate from below in the former, escaped to the surrounding air from the
bright fluid surface of the upper covering of mercury whose temperature,
and that of the mercury below the plate was at the same time observed.
In Less’s experiments the heat which passed downwards escaped to the
outer air from a blackened copper plate pressed (like a heated one above)
against the rock plate with a wet-junction of mercury. A thermopile
placed opposite to the radiating-plate enabled its temperature to be
observed.

The numbers (relative ones) 763 and 769, found by Less for Italian
and Carrara marbles are higher than the Committee’s absolute (signifi-
cant) numbers (57 and 61) of white marbles from Italy and Sicily; the
same being in general the case throughout the two lists., The numbers
of Less’s list have all been diminished by one-tenth to assimilate them
to and incorporate them in the present general list. But no altera-
tion of the significant relative numbers obtained by Hopkins from his
experiments was found to be required, the slightly defective number, 53,
for statuary marble being compensated, especially in some granites and
hard rocks, by a little excess of the relative numbers above those obtained
by the Committee as absolute ones for quartz and granite. Accordingly,
in the general list the relative numbers given by Hopkins have been used
directly in a proper decimal place to give average absolute values of the
conductivities which he found for certain different groups of common
descriptions of rock tested in his experiments.

Other observations, especially those of Péclet and Neumann, are
originally absolute determinations.

Of the original memoirs from which these data were extracted, and
also of a long series of other papers relating to measurements of thermal
conductivity, which mainly comprise the past history of its experimental
investigation, a descriptive index and digest was drawn up for the
Committee by Mr. Dunn. Of this abstract, as it supplies references, and
further particulars of the experiments which have just been described,
and as it affords a condensed review of the progress of experiment on the
physical properties which here claim attention, the titles and substances

‘of the publications which have most eminently extended and advanced
the subject are added at the end of this Report, as an Appendix.

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS, 129

The appearance, in the first quarter of this century (in the year 1822),
of Fourier's work on the laws of heat-conduction, and later on (in the
year 1835) the production by Poisson of a similar treatise, together with
publications by these and by Rudberg, Quetelet, Kuppffer, and other
writers of distinction on the same subject in the interval between those
dates, directed the attention of those concerned in investigations of terres-
trial physics to a new method of enquiry regarding the debated question
of the globe’s internal temperature. Between the upholders of the rival
theories of the carth’s original igneous, or aqueous consolidation, the reality
of the argument of the gradual increase of temperature with depth
below the surface of the earth was clearly demonstrated and established
ab about that time by the works of Cordier in France, and of Fox and
Henwood in England, on the temperature of mines in deep workings at
many different localities of the globe. The evidence which this, now
universally established phenomenon presents in the views of Fourier’s
theory of a waste (presumably constant) of the globe’s internal heat, has
pointed not only to an extremely high present, but also to a much higher
past internal temperature ; and the verification and extension of Fourier’s
theory by legitimate and practicable experimental trials is a course of the
greatest speculative, and, without doubt, also of the greatest practical,
consequence and interest to geologists. It is a meritorious recollection of
its earliest proceedings that, among its first few years’ recommendations,
the British Association assisted and substantially endorsed these views by
directing at that time the establishment in Edinburgh, under a Meteoro-
logical Committee, of which Professor Forbes, Professor Phillips, Colonel
Sykes, Dr. Apjohn, and other distinguished men of science were most
efficient members, of the three series of rock- and earth-thermometers in the
trap-rock of the Calton Hill, the sand of the Botanical Garden, and the
sandstone of Craigleith Quarry, near Edinburgh, which were read and

_ Yecorded weekly, and finally reduced to thermal data for the five years
following their establishment, from May 1837 to May 1842, by Professor
Forbes.' The two last of these thermometer-sets were then abandoned, but
the weekly readings of that in the Royal Observatory grounds on the
Calton Hill in Edinburgh were continued uninterruptedly, until the recent
destruction of the instruments, for forty years.

_ The records of five years during which observations were recorded at
all the three sets of thermometers by Professor Forbes, and of thirteen
following years, were similarly reduced to thermal data, in the year
1860, by Sir W. Thomson ;? and Professor Everett also calculated from
@ seventeen years’ period of the same observations a coefficient of con-

’ 1

—

of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xvi. p- 219.—The co-
efficients of conductivity there arrived at are given, like Poisson’s, in French métres
and the year ; for trap, sand, and sandstone, #= 11-120, 8-260, 29-884 ; requirine for
reconversion to Paris-feet (the unit of depth of the thermometers) to be multiplied
by 9°477, the square of the number of Paris-feet in a. métre, giving 105-38, 78:28,
°283°21. ‘Comparing these figures with those in Paris-feet, 124:2, 78:31, 319-3 given
by Sir W. Thomson’s discussion on the page quoted below, it will be seen that Sir W.
-Thomson’s citations of Forbes’s values (‘111-2, 82-6, 298:3 *) at that place, are
erroneous in having only been multiplied by 10, instead of by 9°477, for their con-
version ; and that the two results for sand are, in fact, almost identicai, while sensible
differences do actually exist in the values found by Professor Forbes and Sir William
Thomson for trap-rock and Craigleith sandstone. The values of Forbes’ data entered
in the present Table are those furnished directly by the original conclusions as above,
| of his above-quoted Memoir. -

| eI = XXll. p. 405.et.seq., (the.concluded data.on p. 425),

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136 REPORT—1881.

ductivity for the Trap of Calton Hill scarcely distinguishable in its value
from that found by Sir W. Thomson.!

Transforming these determinations to centimétres, grammes, and
seconds from the units of the Paris-foot and year in which they are
expressed, the corresponding values of the absolute thermal coefficients
so obtained for Calton Hill trap-rock are arranged with those obtained
from the Committee’s experiments, in the accompanying general list.
Similar values in the same list denote also, in comparison with the Com-
mittee’s observations, the absolute conductivities (by unit-weight of water
and by unit-volume of the rocks) found by the two independent methods
for the sandstone of Craigleith quarry and for the sand of the experi-
mental garden, near Hdinburgh, where the other thermometers were
planted.

The directly measured values are in general, in these cases, in such
very fair agreement with the thermal conductivities found by computa-
tions, that the verifications which they afford of those results are also a
substantial confirmation of the theory upon which they are founded.
Angstrém’s reductions of the 10 feet deep Upsala earth-thermometers in
moist clay afford the same conclusion ; and indeed the agreement pre-
sented by the series of Despretz’s, Helmersen’s, and Neumann’s observa-
tions, and especially by Messrs. Ayrton and Perry’s experiment on a
sphere of trachyte, made by methods based on Fourier’s theory, with the
direct results of various forms of Péclet’s method used in the other
determinations of the table, plentifully attest and abundantly substantiate
the same physical agreement.

There are, indeed, as great difficulties in determining thermal
conductivities from earth-thermometer observations, as in successful
applications of the processes of direct experiment. For while in the latter
artificial temperature and heat-supplies are difficult to keep constant and
to measure accurately, in the former case the natural periodical variations -
which furnish observational results for computation, are uncertain in
their separate and combined intensities and effects from year to year. It is
only on the average of several years’ records that the annual, semi-annual,
and other quicker oscillations of temperature at the earth’s surface can be
regarded as sufficiently constant for a single average period to be severally
followed downwards by calculation, as individual heat-waves among the
deep-sunk thermometers. In this case the same rate of decrease per foot
of logarithmic amplitude, and of angular lead of the maximum or minimum
phase of the descending heat-wave, would be found for all the annual, semi-
annual, and other quicker portions of the oscillation at the surface. The
same value of the earth’s conductivity, at any place, would be found from
all these periods. But the varying character, at any place, of the yearly
oscillations of temperature at the earth’s surface from year to year, pre-
cludes the possibility in general of such perfectly accordant calculations,
for records not extending over more than one or two years. Reductions,
like Sir W. Thomson’s and Professor Everett’s, for records extending over
periods of seventeen or eighteen years, show very close approximations to
it. But in briefer periods the effect on range and retardation near the
surface, produced by half-yearly and other faster oscillations, is not always
found to be compatible with that attributable to the yearly one, from
secular changes of greater period than either being accidentally combined

» Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xxii, p. 437,

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 137

with them, of which only long-continued observations can by a final
average eliminate the inconstant actions.

With all the loss of certainty which thence arises, the records of
earth-thermometers for one or two years only have frequently been
reduced, so as to afford approximate coefficients of amplitude-decrease
and retardation, from which corresponding conductivities in terms of the
heat capacity of a unit-volume of the rock-substance, and of the centi-
métre, gramme, and second, as fundamental units, are easily calculated,
when the fundamental units are known in which the concluded coefficients
were expressed. Coefficients of this kind were deduced by Kuppffer
from Ott’s extensive three-year observations at Ziirich about the years
1760-62, and from Dr. Leslie’s, at Raith, near Edinburgh, in 1816 and
1817. The equivalents of these coefficients given in the table in the

column of the ratio aa assume the units in which they were originally
c

expressed to have been, the Paris-foot in the former, and the English-
foot in the latter reduction, those having been apparently (in the absence
of other intimations in Kuppffer’s work), the scale-units of depth of
the Ziirich and Raith thermometers used and adopted by Kuppffer in
his calculations. The conductivity derived directly from the recorded
loss of range, which was nearly the same in one year as in the other,
between the two deepest (4 feet and 8 feet deep) thermometers at Raith
in 1816 and 1817, differs so much from that belonging to the higher
seated ones (at 1 foot, 2 feet, and 4 feet deep), and from Kuppffer’s
mean value of the rate of logarithmic decrement for the whole of the
records at the different depths, that in view of the probability of the
lowest pair of thermometers being least of all affected in their ranges
by temperature-oscillations of short periods at the surface, a separate

entry is given in the Table of the value of the zatiol” derived from

c
the two lowest thermometers only, on the supposition here adopted of its
being more certainly dependable than that arrived at from all the ther-
mometer indications together, without any choice or preference.

Another logarithmic rate instanced by Kuppffer in the same paper as
the last two, is deduced from three’ years observations at Strasburg, by
Hemmschneider, in 1821-23, of a thermometer fifteen feet below the sur-
face of the earth. This reduction seems to be as doubtful and uncertain

as that last described, and the equivalent conductivity kis as high
Cc

(0:01267) as that denoting Kuppffer’s mean rate for the Raith thermo-
meters is low (0°00444) among ordinary values. But from Rudberg’s
one- to three-feet deep thermometer records in the Observatory plain of
coarse sand at Stockholm, three reductions for one year each, 1832-33,
1833-34, and 1834 alone (the last two by Quetelet and Angstrém) give
conductivity equivalences 0:0060, 00071, and 0:0093 very divergent but
generally resembling those found by Forbes and Thomson, ‘0067, -0079,
and ‘0087 for Calton Hill trap-rock and garden-sand. The Committee’s
experiments gave ‘0036 for dry, and ‘0144 for thoroughly water-saturated
fine siliceous sand. But the source of divergence in the apparent geo-
thermal conductivity at Stockholm was more probably, as Angstrém
recognised, in comparing Quetelet’s with his own result, the irregular
course of temperature at the locality in two successive years, than possible

138 REPORT—1881.

variations at the place of the soil’s dryness or wetness during the same
time. The high value of the stratum-conductivity, found by Quetelet, in
two years at Brussels, for earth of the deep-sunk thermometer bed, estab-
lished and observed there in 1834 and 1835 (0:0120), may, perhaps, for
the same reason, be in some measure accidental; but no errors of the
same kind can be easily supposed to affect the widely different value
(00057) which Angstrém’s reduction in 1851, of seven years’ records of
the deep-sunk thermometers, at Upsala, gave for the uniform bed of
sandy clay in which those thermometers are placed.

The surface-stratum conductivity given by Poisson’s reduction, in his
‘ Théorie Mathématique de la Chaleur,’ of Arago’s unpublished earth-
thermometer observations in Paris (00083), and that assigned by Ang-
strém’s discussion of Caldecott’s observations for three years of deep-sunk
thermometers in ‘ laterite,’ at Trevandrum (0:0074), are both of average
or ordinary magnitudes. Two values, however, obtained subsequently
by Angstrom, apparently from earth-thermometer records at Upsala,
for wet clay and argillaceous sand (00047 and 0:0045), are again re-
markably low quantities compared with the well-established conductivities
in terms of heat-capacity by volume (0:0205 or 0:0231) found by Forbes
and Thomson to belong to Craigleith sandstone.

Of the existence, therefore, in different rocks and soils, of great
diversity in their powers of transmitting heat-waves, or periodical and
other fluctuations of temperature, the hitherto conducted observations of
earth-thermometers have given abundant proofs and illustrations. It
redounds, indeed, especially to the well-earned scientific prestige of the
British Association that this result has been arrived at by one of its
earliest initiatives and promotions of scientific objects in no small degree ;
for by its timely establishment and careful choice of the sites of the
Edinburgh rock- and earth-thermometers, a thermal property of the pure
Craigleith coal-measure sandstone has been revealed, to which no other
earth-thermometer records and reductions yet made have hitherto pre-
sented any parallel. The geothermal conductivity of this kind of sand-
stone is nearly twice as great as that of any other earth-stratam hitherto
tested with thermometers, and five or six times as great as that of moist
clay and argillaceous earth tested by the same mode of observation.

An error of reduction which affected all the Committee’s absolute
conductivity-determinations, was noticed after the production in the
volume of these Reports for the year 1878, of the last general table
of the Committee’s observations. The necessary correction which it
entailed upon the list was notified in the following report (in the volume
of these Reports for the year 1879), and corrected values of several of
the results before obtained were then communicated. The required
corrections have now been applied to the whole of the measurements
contained in the last general table, and the numerous trials made in
several cases of rocks of the same class and geological description have
been incorporated, owing to the close similarity which in general subsists
between them, into single average results for the several distinct classes
or geological kirids of rock. The comparison which can thus be formed
in the accompanying general list between these measurements and those
obtained by other methods and researches is in general very satisfactory,
and exhibits in many cases corroborations of very excellent accordance.

The confirmations desired by Poisson of the applications of Fourier’s
theory to the problem of heat and temperature-distribution and changes

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 139

in the interior of the globe, by instrumentally measured values of the
thermal coefficients to which they either lead, or which, on the other
hand, they require for their extensions, are now at least partially sup-
plied. But it must be admitted that many imperfections of experimental
methods, as well as intricacies of the theory’s applications, still remain to
be removed before the confirmation and assistance which one branch of
the subject of heat-conduction can derive from and may usefully offer to
the other, can yet be satisfactorily affirmed to be complete.

Upon this point, which embraces the geological aspect and objects of
the present investigation in its widest sense, much more might be written
and comprised in this report which the Committee has noted and col-
lected in its work of original reference and research. But as these notes
and historical reviews would lead to the extension of this report much
beyond its contemplated length, the Committee deems it necessary, in its
concluding report, to confine itself to the results of recent work and pub-
lications which bear most immediately upon the experimental part of
the problem regarding whose progress and recent investigations it has,
during the long period now terminated of its frequent reappointment,
chiefly endeavoured to record the useful acquisitions, and to present to-
gether an outline of the best existing information.

APPENDIX.

Abstracts of Papers relating to the Conduction of Heat, and a List of
Authors’ Names and Writings on the Subject. By J.T. Dunn.

Dalton, ‘Ann. Chim.’ (1), 45, 177 (1803).—Method of determining point of maxi-
mum density of H,O by thermometers.

Despretz, ‘Ann. Chim, Phys.’ (2), 19, 97 (1821).—The first of the well-known
memoirs. Results: Cu 12; Fe, Zn, Sn, 5; Pb, 2; marble, 3; brick clay,
porcelain, 3. :

Despretz, ib. (2) 36, 422 (1827).—-Extension of former results, with numerical details
of experiments. Good conductors satisfy Fourier’s exponential law, but the
successive quotients with bad conductors differ widely. Figures :—

Au 1000 . Cu8982 . Sn 303°9 . Porcelain 12'2
Pt 981 . Fe3743 . Pb 1796 . Brick and) 114
Ag 973 . 4Zn3630 . Marble 236 . firebrick J

Fourier, ib. (2) 37, 291 (1828).—Conducting powers of thin films. A thermometer is
immersed in Hg in a conical iron vessel with a flexible skin-bottom. This
haying been warmed to a suitable temperature is placed on the film or lamina
lying on a block of constant temperature, and the fall of the thermometer noted
Comparative results only. An air-thermometer has the lower half of its bulb in
contact with the lamina, which again is in contact with a hot body of constant
temperature, while the upper half of the thermometer-bulb is im contact with
melting ice. Order of conductivity given by the temperature which the ther-
mometer takes up.

De la Rive and Decandolle, ib. (2) 40, 91 (1829).—Conductivity of woods. Same
method as Despretz. End of bar cased in tinplate and heated by spirit lamp.
Order of conductivity only. Allier (Crategus aria), walnut, oak, pine, poplar
(long.). Walnut, oak, pine (trans.), Cork (long.).

Lamé, ib. (2) 53, 190 (1833).—Theoretical remarks on isothermal surfaces.

Despretz, ib. (2) 71, 206 (1839).—Liquids. Heated from surface in deep cylinder.
Temperatures of thermometers follow same law asin solid bar. At same level
temperature diminishes from axis towards side, and thence to middle of wall.
With cylinders of different diameters temperature-differences agree with theory.

140 REPORT—1881.

Péclet, ib. (3) 2, 107 (1841).—The well-known method. Result for Pb k=3:84
(1 kilo. H,O 1° C. 1 sq. m. 1 mm. 1 sec.). Hence, from the results of Despretz,
Au=21:28, Pt=20:95, Ag=20°71, Cu=19:11, Fe=7:95, Zn=7-74, Marble=-48,
Porcelain = ‘24, Fireclay = °23.

Senarmont de, ib. (3) 21, 457, and 22, 179 (1848).—Crystals. Covered with wax,
and heated either by spot of sunlight, by voltaic ignition of Pt wire bored
through, by stream of hot air through silver tube, or by conduction in silver rod.
Conductivity varies much as optic elasticity does. In cubic system, surface
is a sphere ; in square prismatic or rhombic, ellipsoid of revolution, with unequal
axis coinciding with axis of symmetry; in rectangular prismatic, ellipsoid axes
coinciding with axes of crystal; in monoclinic, ellipsoid with one axis in axis of
symmetry, others not predicable ; in anorthic, no axis predicable.

Senarmont de, ib. 23, 257. Stress and conductivity. Glass, porcelain, and flint

compressed, and the old method used, Axis in direction of compression always
shortened, and wice versa.

Wiedemann and Franz, ib. 41, 107 (1854). Metals. The method of Langberg,
using thermopile with mechanical means of ensuring contact, and calibrating the
indications by direct comparison with thermometer. Results in air differ slightly
from those in vacuo.

Pt 8-4
Ag 100:0 . 3rass 23:1 - Fe 11:9 > Pd 63
Cu 73°6 . ee all * Steel 11°6 . Rose 2°8
Au 53:2 : Sn 145 . Pb 8:5 ° Bi es

Wiedemann, ib. 45, 377 (1855).—Same method applied to junction of two metals.
Appeared at first that there was a sudden fall at the junction when better con-
ductcr was hotter, but none when bad conductor was hotter. This, however,
found to be due to rate of communication of heat to thermo-pair, and when

thermo-pair was immersed in Hg in each bar no difference of temperature was
found at the junction.

Gouillaud, ib. (8) 48, 47 (1856).—Metals (Fe, Zn, Pb). Despretz’ method, only
using longer bars. Verifies experimentally the formule y=Te™, and
y =Ae™ + Be between the limits for which Newton’s law holds, Verifies also
the law of thicknesses as Despretz did-for liquids. Deduces and verifies that the
constant A in expression—y =A (e*%*—e~*) +Te*—varies directly as the ex-
cess of temperature of the source, and shows that without sensible error the
formula may be put in the form (2E being the thickness of the bar and / its
2—ak
or = — 2al QX_ ¢-ax —Ax
length), ¥ ae aE (e=—e*) + Te,
Wiedemann, ib. (3) 58, 126 (1860).—Alloys. Calvert and Johnson’s paper appears
to show that with alloys the thermal and electric conductivities do not agree
as with metals. According to these results they do. Thermal conductivity

determined by W. and F.’s method, electrical by Wheatstone’s Bridge comparison
with zine wire.

Th. El.

Cu . e ° ° ° . ° . 26 793
8Cu 12Zn., . ° . . - 2 2t3 25°5
65 » ° . . . . . . 29:9 30°9
4:7 » . . . . ° ° 31-1 29°2
21 ae ° . ° . . . 25'S 25:4
Zn . . ° ° . : . « 28:1 27:3
Sn . . ° A . 4 ° . 15-2 17:0
38n 1Bi. . : ° ° ° 1 LOL 9:0
Sn) 3 Bi 2 ‘ . ° ‘ fo) nD? 4:4
s LePby . ° . . . He 4} 2:0
Rose’s metal ; ; é Avaltar te 3-9

(1 Sn, 1 Pb, 2 Bi) g
With Cu Zn alloys, conductivity is nearly same as that of Zn. With Sn Bi
alloys, conductivity is about the mean of those of constituents.

Neumann, ib. (3) 66, 183 (1862).—Variable state observed. For metals, bars pro-
vided with thermo-pairs near either end heated to stationary state, then sum and

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 141

difference of thermo-currents observed periodically while cooling. (Sum depen-
dent on h, difference on k.) For bad conductors, cubes or spheres with central
and external thermo-pairs similarly treated. (To convert units to Péclet’s, multi-
ply by ‘0848 ; to Angstrém’s, by 0509.)

K

eD K
Oil . . e ° ° slcod Ciiert . ° e . - 1306
Sulphur . e ° . 168 |} Brass . 5 : . . 356
Ice . . ; o Slash: Zi. A 4 . . 362
Snow : e . 4:2 German silver . = : rie)
Frozen soil . c ¢ ‘ C pelos

° + 10:3 | Fe. .

Sandstone 3 °

Large-grained granite .

Serpentine (Zoplitz) °

Angstrém, ib. 67, 379 (1863).—Bar, exposed at one section to periodic heating and
cooling, and K deduced from observations of periodic temperatures at other
portions. Cu 54°62, Fe 9:77 (grm. cm. min.).

Jannettaz, ib. (4) 29, 5 (1873).—Crystals. Method essentially de Senarmont’s,
but modified and improved in details (plates of apparatus given). Confirms,
on a large number of crystals, the general results obtained by de Senarmont as
to relation of axes of conductivity to crystallographic axes and cleavage.

T. Thompson, ‘ Nich. Journ.’ 1, 81 (1802). Regarding convection. Experiments to
prove that the motions of amber in Rumford’s experiment do not imply currents
in the fluid. Two layers of fluid, coloured and colourless, superposed and con-
taining solid particles. On heating, the solid particles travel beyond the coloured
into the colourless fluid, without being accompanied by coloured fluid.

Murray, ib. 1, 165, and 241. Conduction in fluids. Rumford’s experiments with
heating from below inconclusive, prove only that not all the transference of heat
in a fluid is conduction. Heating from above, by hot oil poured on water, or
brass ball immersed in it over thermometer-bulb, thermometer rose. But this,
perhaps, partly from conduction by sides. That sides do conduct shown by
jacketing cylinder with outer one filled with water and containing thermo-
meter, outer thermometer likewise rose. To obviate errors from this, made
vessel of ice with thermometer frozen through side, filled with oil or Hg, and
warmed by hot water poured into can floating or suspended on surface of liquid.
Thermometer rose in all cases. Not radiation, because when hot water sus-
pended just over surface of fluid without touching, rise of thermometer exceed-
ingly slight.

Traill, ib. 12, 132 (1805).—Fluids. Turned wood vessel, with thermometer, and lid
bored with hole to admit hot iron cylinder, resting by flange on edge of hole.
With different liquids, thermometer took different times to rise 3°; had sides of
vessel alone operated, times should have been equal.

Rumford, ib. 14, 353 (1806). Heats water-surface from the point of a cone just
dipping into it, and fails to raise the temperature of a thermometer beneath.
Admits, however, that thermometer might have been raised, had heated particles
of water been prevented from rising up outside of the cone.

Langberg, ‘ Ph. Mag.’ (3), 20, 161 (1846).—Metals, Cu, Steel, Sn and Pb. No ther-
mometers, but thermo-pair applied to surface. Bars (or wires) about 36 mm.
long, and 1:7 x 1 mm. section. Law of Biot found not to hold. But ? as to
correctness of thermopile indications, from thinness of bars and long contact.

Wiedemann, ib. (4) 10, 393 (1855).—See ‘ A.C.P.’ (3), 45, 377. Longer and more
detailed abstract here.

Thomson, ib. (4) 22, 23 and 121 (1861).—Reduction of underground temperature
observations, and deduction of K for the rocks: in the three Edinburgh stations.
See Trans. R.S.E, xxiii. (1860) p. 426, and these Reports (on ‘Conductivity ’) for
1875.

Neumann, ib. 25, 63 (1863).—Translation from ‘ A.C.P.’ (3), 66, 183.

Angstrém, ib. 25, 130.—Cf. Pogg. 114, 513, of which this is a translation, fuller than
the abstractin ‘ A.C.P.’ (3) 67, 369, In addition to figures for Cu and Fe, deduces

142 REPORT—1881,

from Upsala observations of underground hemperature (‘ Act, Reg. Soc, Sci.
Ups.’ 8. 8, 1,211) for

Argillaceous sand = 26952 Bea dped ys - C.,. 4416 . K... °2053

Moist clay : 7 e2toos : im : 4448 = 2264

Reduced to B.A. units, multiplying re ——., we get ‘00342 and 00377 as the values
of K.

Gripon, ib. 32, 547 (1866).—Mercury, by Péclet and Despretz’ method. Results 1°67
(Pb = 3°84, Péclet); 3°54 (Ag = 100).

Guthrie, ib. 35, 283 (1868).—Liquids: film of liquid sustained by adhesion between
two flat plates ; one the lower surface of heating steamer, the other the upper
surface of ‘bulb’ of air-thermometer. Order of conductivity only: Hg, water,
oil of turpentine, glycerine, amyl iodide, nitro-benzene, aniline.

Paalzow, ib. 36, 469 (1868).—Liquids. Despretz’ method, using glass vessel (60 mm.
diameter), and four thermometers. Order of conductivity only: Hg, H,O, Sat.
CuSO,, H,SO, (1:25), Sat. ZnSO,, Sat. NaCl.

McFarlane, ib. 43, 392 (1872).—External conductivity (emissive power) of Cu.
Ratio of polished to blackened surface, for differences from 5° to 60° C., nearly
constant at *690.

Mayer, ib. 44, 257 (1872).—Application of double iodide of Hg and Cu, which changes
colour at 7 0°C., to determine crystal conductivities after de Senarmont’s method. +

Weber, ib. 481.—Fe and German silver ; used Neumann’s modification of Angstrém’s
method, bringing the two ends of a bar alternately for stated periods to tempera-
tures u, and u,, and observing by thermopairs the constant temperature ultimately
attained by the middle point, and the difference of temperature between points
distant 1 and 4 of the whole length of the bar from one end. These give two
relations between % and k (mathematical exposition given in paper) whence
values of # and # are deduced.

For Fe, k = ‘1485, 2 = :000266 (@ 39°C.)
For German silver, % = ‘08108, 2 = 000304 (@ 31° C.)

Rumford, ‘ Ph. Trans.’ 1804, 23.—Holes in glaciers filled with water, how explained.
Reply to Murray’s and Thompson’s remarks on his former experiments, No
experiments.

Hopkins, ib. 1857, 805.—Rocks, 5-in. disc, about 14 — 2” thick, surrounded by a
square block of substance of similar conductivity, resting i in contact with Hg, and
having upper surface covered with layer of Hg. Lower Hg heated by steam or
otherwise, and when stationary state had supervened, temperatures of lower and
upper Hg (taken as those of lower and upper surface of rock) read along with
atmospheric temperature. Comparative values of % thus obtained.

Calcareous powder - 5 . ‘056 | Millstone-grit, Dukenfield, 120 ft. -51
Argillaceous , . . . 070 . » deeper . 6 - ‘65
Siliceous «2150 oh » 1,300 ft.v. hard . °726
50% Arg. and 50% Sil. powder en ecldO » Chapel-le-Frith . ‘75
Chalk, well- dried . 3 4 Sel 70 Fr + Py, J wei%6
Clunch, very wet . . 3 . °300 | Blue hard sed. rock Penmaenmawr ‘5
"38 ” ” 6
Oolites from Ancaster . f eye Slate, Charnwood Forest . «Ok
‘37 ~+| Granite : ; : < . 53
Statuary marble . ‘ . ‘53 | Scotch granite . «bd
Blue mountain limestone, Derby . °55 | ‘Welsh granite’ (so- called) . 3260
Dry clay e : - : - °27 | Scotch large- grained granite Puen i
Very dry . - : . - ‘23 | Basalt, L. Katrine . - - ‘53
Moist . A 4 . ‘37 | Syenite, Charnwood Forest . 85
New red sandstone. ; i . ‘25 | Hard close-grained rock do.. » 99
5 Gvet)« - ‘ : - ‘60 | Igneous rock, L. Katrine . - 1:00
Freestone - 3 . ‘33 | Basalt do. ; 7 Roo
Building sandstone : c . °43 | Mountsorrel granite . 5 «780
Millstone grit Crave 3 x . °376 | Spermaceti . suet ‘ - *086

* grit i ; eooe i) Waker : - . : . O72

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 143

Effect of pressure and temperature on conductivity practically nil. Effect of
discontinuity to lessen conductivity, but not to any great extent where good
contacts exist between discontinuous portions. Effect of moisture largely to
increase conductivity, attaining a maximum before saturation of the rock is
reached.

Calvert and Johnson, ‘Ph. Trans.’ 1858, 349, and 1859, 831.—Metals, alloys, and
amalgams. Square bars, with one end immersed in hot, other in cold, water,
both of known temperature. Means taken to obviate passage of heat between
calorimeters, except through bar, and rise of temperature of cold water in given
time noted. Relative results only, and probably only order of conductivity since
influence of sp, heat must have been considerable. Long table of resulting
figures. Action of compound bars compared with that of alloys,

Guthrie, ib. 1869, 637.—Liquids. Same apparatus as in ‘Ph. Mag.’ 4, 35, 283, but
modified by having cone surfaces of Pt, ground quite plane, and with an arrange-
ment for regulating and measuring distance between. Figures for relative
‘resistances’ given. No. of ht.-units arrested per minute by 1 sq. dm., 1 mm.
thick, T (of air) being 20°:17 C. and A T 10°C., as follows :—

Water . : - : - 0106 ; Amyl acetate : ; - ‘1060
Glycerine. . : - ‘0407 | Amylamine . ; é . *1075
Acetic acid . - : . ‘0888 | Amyl alcohol : : . 1084
Acetone ‘ © ; . ‘0902 | Oil of turpentine . : . 1245
Ethyl oxalate : - . ‘0938 | Butyl nitrate é t - +1258
Sperm oil . . : . °0938 | Chloroform . ; : . +1283
Alcohol . ; : : . ‘0963 | Bichloride of carbon . . ‘1369
Ethyl] acetate < ‘ . ‘0963 | Mercury amyl ‘ . 1369
Nitrobenzol . : : . °1045 | Ethylene dibromide . . 1395
Amyl oxalate 2 . . ‘1060 | Amyl iodide . : i - +1407
Butyl alcohol i : . ‘1060 | Ethyl iodide . 4 : - 1505

Thomson, W. ‘Camb. Math. Journ.’ 3, 25.—Motion of heat ina sphere. 3,71. Motion
of heat in homogeneous solids. 3, 171. Linear motion of heat. 3, 206. Ditto,
part 2. 4,33. Equations of motion of heat referred to curvilinear co-ordinates.
4, 67: Some points in the theory of heat. 4, 179. Orthogonal isothermal] surfaces.

Stefan, ‘Chem. Soc. Jour.,’ 25, 591 (1872).—Gases: Abstract of method. Results
for air K = ‘000056 (c.g.s.) Conducting power of a gas independent of density.
K for hydrogen = seven times K for air.

Mayer, ‘ Sill. Amer. Jour.’ (3) 4, 37 (1872) Cf.‘ Ph. Mag.’ (4), 44, 257.

Forbes, ‘ P.R.S.E.’ 1, 5 (1833).—Conducting powers of metals for heat and electricity.
Order for heat determined by Fourier’s contact-thermometer: Au, Ag, Cu, Brass,
Fe, Zn, Pt, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi.

Forbes, ib. 1, 223 (1838).—Results of observation of underground thermometers ; and
ib. 1, 343 (1841).—Same discussion continued. Order of conductivity. Sand-
stone, sand, trap, beginning with the best.

Forbes, ‘ P.R.S.E.’ 4, 607 (1862). Conductivity of Fe. Loss of heat at different tem-
peratures by radiation and convection determined directly. Conductivity then
calculated for different temperatures ; approximate results, K = (c.g.s.) 0°, 206;
50°, "186; 100°, -166 ; 150°, -1455 ; 200°, -127.

Th. 5, 369 (1865).—Further reductions and observations with the same bars,
and also with another of different make.

1862 1865 1865
(mew bar)
0° ° F 206 5 - 207 - ‘ 153
50° ‘ . “186 : - “TT < ° 1395
100° ° ° 166 c , 157 . ° 129
150° . . “1455 Cs : 145 . F 123
200° ‘ ° 127 4 : 136 7 ; 118

250° . a - 128 3 4 “114

Tait, ib. 8, 55 (1873).—Note on Angstrém’s method of determining conductivity, with
some approximate determinations,

144 REPORT—1881.

Forbes, G. ib. 62.—Conductivity of ice and other substances. Rate of formation of
plate of ice measured, formed in water of 0° C. by vessel with flat bottom con-
taining freezing mixture. Similar method adopted for other substances. Results

(c.g.8.)

Ice, par. to axis .

» perp. to axis.
Black marble F
White ,, 4
Slate . . she

‘00223 | Kamptulicon . 5 « °00011
‘00213 | Vulc. Caoutchouc “00009
‘00177 | Horn . : 5 : - ‘000087
‘00115 | Beeswax . F c - 000087
00081 | Felt . : 5 a - 7000087

ecsce ee © @

Snow . 5 2 -00072 | Vulcanite . ‘ A » ‘000080
Cork . - . ; “00072 | Haircloth . : I - *000040
Glass . - LMG ts . °00050 | Cotton wool (div.) . - 7000043
Pasteboard . é : . 00045 zs > (comp.). - °000033
Carbon 5 4 “ . °00040 | Flannel i ; -000035

Roofing felt. | . . -00033| Coarselinen . . . 000030

Firwood, ax. : “ - °00030 | Quartz (par. to ax.) . » 00092

u tang. és « *00009 3 ; . 00024
Boiler cement . . - 00016 a 3 ‘ - 00056
Paraffin : : 5 » 00014 ts : = - 700083
Sand . 3 5 - » 00013 »» (perp. to ax.). + 00400
Sawdust . A : « ‘00012 3 : 5 - 00442

Figures all very low, save that the one for ice agrees with De la Rive’s.
Figures for quartz show conductivity five times as great across axis as along it.
Playfair, ‘ Trans. R.S.E.’ 6, 353 (1812).—Cooling of a sphere. Simple mathematical
treatment of the question of terrestrial temperature.
Forbes, ‘ Trans. R.S.E.’ 23, 133 (1862) and 24, 73 (1865). c. ‘ Proc.’ 4, 607 and 5, 369.
—Details of experimental method and of the calculation of the results. :
Helmersen, ‘ Ann. Chim. Phys.’ (3), 46, 126 (1856).—Rocks (from Altai). Despretz’
method: bars, 456™™ x 38™™- square; four thermometers 67™™ apart, and holes
filled with Hg; bars covered with black to equal surface; hot end in contact
with boiling H,0.

Average K ;1

relative (as-

sumed abso-

Y V2 V5 4 K lute) values

Quartz 1945 . 48 . 21 . Ll . 5836 7758 12680 { al

uartz. ; : . . (00710)

Quartzose mi- } ; ; : : 6186

ca schist Li-Se dtl. lien 7 . 4984 6841 6734 (00501)
Fine-grained

granite, 86.24 . 8 . “3 . 3255 4393 5611 if (ooase

little mica L )

Wh.finegrnd.. gy | 91 . ‘85 . “4 « 2909 6481 e331 { 6240
marble f

Porphyry (a- ;

phanite 855. 22 « 75. 35 . 2877 4578 9128 eholis
with albite) )
Hard serpen- | dos es : ' ; f 6868
ea Vo 785. 215. 95. 45. 8161 7948 9496 1 C.o9555)
Fine-grnd. s.

pecan: | 87 . 23 "105 . -7 . 2995 8623 32250 ene
gill. cement J 71)
Timestone eur TB) « 91. SPPeTS). 985 weAiS110. 5001 9138 Ganeee}

1 The average values here found differ (as above described in this report) from
those entered in the general list, in being obtained from the three swecessive ob-
served thermometric intervals ; while those adopted in the list are similarly deduced
from the three temperature-intervals all reckoned from the first, or hottest of the
four thermometric readings 2-,.

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 145

L. De la Rive, ‘ Ann. Chim. Phys.’ (4), 1, 504 (1864): also ‘ Bibl. Univ. de Genév,'
1864.—Conductivity of ice. Plates of glass, ice, iron, fixed in wooden tube, and
interspaces filled with He. Outside of glass, H,O @ 0° C., outside of Fe, cooled
turpentine. Thermometer between glass and ice falls, and when it reaches mini-

K (lee) obtained 1:76. K (glass)

K (glass)
got by Péclet’s method, using water at 0° C: and mercury on opposite sides. Re-
sults for glass, (0013, ice, ‘0023 (c.g.s). Paper then discusses rate of increase of
thickness of ice ina lake. (See Forbes, ‘ P.R.S.H.’ 8, 62.)

Tyndall, ‘Ph. Trans.’ 1853, 217.—Woods and organic bodies. Comparative results
only. Results in ‘ Heat a mode of motion.’

Despretz, ‘Compt. rend.’ 7, 833 (1838).—Passage from one solid to another. Cu
and §n fixed end to end (pressed together). Temperature of junction calculated
from each bar: Cu thus about 1°°5 hotter.

Despretz, ib. 35, 540 (1852).—New determinations of K for metals, &c. Answer to
objections raised by Langberg and others to the former results.

mum flow across glass = flow across ice, hence -

Cast iron ; : ; ’ a ; ‘ oboo4
Tron : 4 ; ; ; F eee OLF
Statuary marble : ; é ; : 5 PBS
Lithographic stone : . . : - 2-100
Pierre de Tonnerre ; ; ; - ue
Pine wood c ~ ‘ : : - 290

Schumeister, ‘Chem. Soc. Jour.’ 34, 831 (1878).—Conductivity of cotton, wool, and
silk. K, (air = 1) for cotton 37, wool 12, silk 11.

Littrow, ‘Wien. Ber.’ 1875, 4, ‘ Chem. Soc. Jour.’ 28, 1150 (1875).—Soils. Thermo-
meters bedded in the soils at different distances from the source of heat in an
india-rubber cylinder. Finely divided soil conducts worse than coarser. Organic
matter diminishes conductivity. Wet soils conduct better than dry.

Less, ‘ Poge.’ Erginzb. 8.—Rocks and woods. Plate gripped between mercury-wetted
copper bottom of steam vessel and mercury-wetted upper surface of equal-sized
blackened Cu plate. When stationary state of things reached, thermopile exposed
to radiation from Cu plate, and deflections give relative conductivity.

A Supplementary List of Original Notices and Memoirs on Subjects relating
to Conduction of Heat. By J.T. Duyn.

‘Comptes Rendus.’

Author Reference Nature of contents

Henwood . : . . - vol. 1 p. 343 Temperature in mines.
Liouville . : < 3 622 Mathematical

¥ < = ‘ 5 3 653 ay
Despretz . : . ii 833 Junction of two solids

”» : . ’ F . 7 933 Liquids
Péclet . ;. 8 627
Despretz . F 8 838 Liquids

3 ‘ ; ; : F 8 879 o
Senarmont , : ; F 25 459

eS : 3 3 : ; 25 707
Duhamel . : : t : 25 870 Mathematical
Desains . % . . 26 212 ‘ Diffusion of heat?
‘Masson and Jamin . : ‘ 31 14 3 of
Desains : : ’ ; ; 33 444 + A‘
‘Despretz . : - A 35 540
Gouillaud . 3 : 3 35 699 Metals
Jamin A - : ; 3 36 994
Duhamel . - : 7. 43 1 Mathematical

Calvert and J ohnson 5 - 47 1069
1881. I,

146 REPORT—1881.

‘Comptes Rendus.’

Author Reference Nature of contents
Morin 3 : i . vol. 61 p. 477 Mathematical
Gripon. ; : : ; 63 21 Mercury
Morin ‘ 3 : F ; 66 1332 Mathematical
Calvert and Johnson ; : 68 192 Alloys of Cu and Sn
Boussinesq : ; . B 69 329 Mathematical
Jamin and Richard . : 3 75 105 ‘ Refroidissement des gas’
. ; Sy hel a ams 453 if ic
Jannettaz 75 94 Crystals
5 : 75 1501 35
‘Ann, Sci. Lomb. Veneto.’
Fusiniere . : s F 3 2 141 Conduction in a bar
‘Turin Mem. Acad.’
Senebier . . 3 ; . 1804 51
’ «Jour. des Mines.’
Biot . - ; : : 17 203
‘ Moniteur Scient.’
Despretz . ‘ ; ‘ - 13 254 Two superposed liquids
‘Paris Mém. Acad. Sci,’
Cordier . : : : : 7 473 Terrestrial temperature
‘Genty. Mém. Soc, Phys.’
Decandolle ; é : : 4 70 Woods
‘Moigno. Cosmos,’
Despretz . 3 . : é 1 706
‘ Paris Heole Polyt. Jour,’
Duhamel . . : 5 : 13 356 Mathematical
As ; ‘ ; : : 14 20, 67 5S
Lainé ; ‘ : : . 14 194
Liouville, ‘Journ. Math.’
Duhamel . ; : : : 4 63 Mathematical
Lamé : 5 ‘ : : 2 147 =
Liouville . F : : : 13 72 ‘5
Gergonne, ‘ Ann. Math.’
Liouville . - : : ; 2) 133 Mathematical
‘Mém. Sav. Etrang,’
Lané ; ; ; : ; 5 174
+ 5 418
*L'Institut.’
Thomas and Laurens . 5 1 if
‘St. Pétersb. Acad. Sci. Mém.’
Ostrogradsky . é : : 1 123 Mathematical
= Sale ‘ ; : : 3 353 .
Lenz : : : : : 14 54 Temperature and conductivity of
metals
Quetelet, ‘Corresp. Math.’
Pagani : : ‘ 3 3 237 Mathematical
2 5 5 ¥ : 4 384 ‘s
‘ Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat.’
Angstrém . : : : ; 22 321
‘ Gilbert’s Annals.’
Rumford . i a: 5 - 1 214 Fluids

‘ hie amie om 2 249 er
Deluc = ‘ A i 1 4164 ;

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 147

Author
Pollock (1843) .

Schroder (1839) 5 104
‘Manch. Lit. and Phil.’ :
Calvert (1860) . 2 165 Amalgams
‘Manch, Phil. Soc. Mem.’
Dalton (1802) 5 373 Fluids
‘Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin.’
Forbes : : Ae Edinburgh earth-thermometers.
4 4 607 ‘Iron
a ' 5 369 Conduction in a bar
oy Geo. 8 62 Ice, &c.
‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin,’
Playfair (1812) 6 353 Conduction in a sphere
Forbes. : 24 73 Conduction in a bar
‘Quart. Journ. Sci.’
Fox (1822) 12 339 Terrestrial temperature
‘Glasgow Phil. Proc.’
Gordon (1844) . 2 140 Terrestrial temperature
‘ Edinburgh Journal of Science ’ and ‘ New Phil. Jour,’
Henwood (1829) ‘E.J.8.’ 10 323 Temperature in mines
5 (1861) POneN.ehvds, ol 173 a in Chilian do
‘Cornwall Geol. Soc. Trans.’
Henwood (1843) 5 246 Temperature in Cornish mines
‘Gehlen. Jour.’
Senebier 7 307
‘ Berlin Akad. Ber.’
Langberg . 1845 268
Magnus 1868 158
a3 1868 249
‘Wien, Akad. Ber.’
Stefan 47 326
5 65 45 Gases
‘Deut. Chem. Ges. Ber.’
Mohr 4 85 Gases
Clausius j 4 269 Pe
‘ Bull. Géol. Soc. Paris.’
Jannettaz ‘ 1873 117 Crystals
*Crelle Jour.’
Amsler 42 327
‘Paris, Bureau Long. Ann.’
Arago : , 1834 171 Terrestrial temperature
‘Bibl. Univ.’ °
Anon (1816) 3 Ti Experiments relative to trans-
mission of heat
Arago 7 4 165 Terrestrial temperature
Schroder . . 19 162
‘Journ. de Phys.’
Aubuisson de Voisins 4 62 443 Terrestrial temperalue

‘London Elect. Soc. Proc.’

Reference Nature of contents
. vol. 9 p. 66

Sturgeon, ‘ Ann. Elec.’

L2

148 REPORT— 1881.
‘Paris Soc. Philom Bull,’
Author Reference Nature of contents
Biot . “ 1801 p. 36 Fluids
5 en 1804 215
ay lie 3 = > eel Gites 21 Newton’s law
Dupretz (? Despretz) | 5 . 182 113 Solids
‘Upsal. Nov. Act. Soc. Sci.’
Angstrom . : : : ; 1 147 Terrestrial temperature
5 ; 3 51
‘Stockholm Ofversicht.’
Meesirom.. fs waa Uns 3
& 19 21
* Poggendorff.’
Fischer . : - (18380) 507 Platinum
Schroder . : A ; : 46 135 ?
Despretz . : - 3 5 46 484 Junction of two solids
Péclet - 4 - - : 55 167
Langberg ¢ 5 : é 66 1
Miller. : ; : 3 73 474 Heat or electricity ?
Desains . : f aR, 74 147 2
Wiedemann & Franz : é 89 497 Metals
Wiedemann ; : : : 95 Sl nn
* 3 : : = LOS 393 Alloys
Pfaff , : ; : Sage 3} 647 Crystals
Angstrém . : - ay Le: 512 Metals
Clausius é ¢ ; ile 1 Gases
Angstrém ; ; . ~ AAS 423
es ‘: A : : a eS 628
Magnus . R : «e falons 45
Kirchhoff . ; : : ieelioe Lae Conductivity and sound
Paalzow . i : ; ables 618 Fluids
Despretz : : . 142 626 Two superposed fluids
Weber : : : 3 . | 16 257 Tron and German silver
Beetz : Jubel 23 Gases
Hermann . 2 A - Bye = Maat 1li7 Mercury

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. James Heywoon, F.R.S.,
Mr. WiLi1AM SHAEN, Mr. STEPHEN BourNnE, Mr. RoBerRT WIL-
KINSON, the Rev. W. DE.any, Prof. N. Story MAsKELYNE, M.P.,
F.RS., Dr. Strvanus P. THompson, Miss Lyp1a E. BECKER, Sir
Joun Lussock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON,
F.R.S., Mrs. AuGusta WEBSTER, and Dr. J. H. GLADSTONE, /.R.S.,
(Secretary), on the manner in which Rudimentary Science
should be taught, and how examinations should be held therein,
in Elementary Schools.

Your Committee, as constituted at Swansea, believed that it would be

very desirable to add to their number Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Professor

Williamson, F.R.S., and Mrs. Augusta Webster, Member of the London

School Board, eath of whom is well known to have taken a deep interest

in the subject for which the Committee was appointed. Each of these

acceded to the request, and the Committee, so constituted, present the
following report.

Rudimentary science is taught in public elementary schools in the
form of—I. Object lessons. II. Class subjects under article 19, c. 1, of
the New Code. III. Specific subjects under Schedule IV. of the same

ON RUDIMENTARY SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCILOOLS. 149

Code. IV. Science subjects preparatory to entering classes in connection
with science schools.

I. Object lessons are attempted in a large number of infant schools,
and in some instances are very effective in developing the perceptive
powers and intelligence of the children ; but in other cases they are too
formal, and left too much to the junior teachers. In boys’ and girls’
schools they frequently appear upon the time-table, especially where, as
in the schools of the London Board, they are looked upon as a necessary
part of the instruction: but they are generally given in an unsystematic,
and often in an unsatisfactory manner.

II. The teaching of science as a class subject under the Code only
commenced last October, and thus no examinations have yet been held
under it. Natural history, physical geography, natural philosophy, &c.,
are mentioned in article 19, c. 1, and it is stated that the instruction
should be given ‘through reading lessons, illustrated, if necessary, by
maps, diagrams, specimens, &c.;’ but the teachers are limited to two
subjects, and the old subjects, grammar, history, geography and needle-
work, naturally retain their place in the great majority of the schools.
Suitable reading-books for these rudimentary science subjects have
scarcely yet come into existence.

Ill. The specific subjects of the fourth schedule include mechanics,
animal physiology, physical geography, botany, and domestic economy,
but only two subjects may be taken (or three if the child has passed
Standard VI.); and the schedule also includes English literature,
mathematics, Latin, French, and German. Literature is a general
favourite ; and domestic economy is obligatory in girls’ schools if any
specific subject is taken at all; so that the chance of any of the others
being introduced is very much diminished. It must also be remembered
that these subjects are only allowed to be taught to children in the fourth
standard and upwards; while only about one-fifth of the children in the
boys’ and girls’ schools are to be found at present in these standards.
According to the Report of the Committee of Council for Education
recently issued, there were 476,761 children presented for examination in
these standards, of whom the following numbers only were examined in
the science subjects :—

Mechanics . ‘ F . . ° : . 2,109
Animal physiology . ‘ ; ‘ : . 24,725
Physical geography . : . . : . 34,288
Botany ; - : , : : : ‘ 1,853
Domestic econom ‘ BO Da

Out of 489 boys’ and girls’ departments under the London School

Board, the specific science subjects were taken up, as follows, during the
year 1880 :—

Mechanics in . ‘ : , ‘ 4 departments
Animal physiology in : 123 si
Physical geography in : sapelcl2, ‘5
Botany in ; ; 4 4 ; Deter)
Domestic economy in. : wip fhe

. ”

Mr. Hance, of the Liverpool School Board, has favoured us with an
account of the systematic scientific instruction which is given in the
Board schools of that town by a special science staff. The subject selected
for the boys is mechanics as defined in the new code, with a considerable
development in the direction of elementary physics. It has been in

150 reportT— 1881.

operation since 1877, and the results for the year 1880-81 are given in the
following table :—

7 Number Percentage of
Year 1880-81. | presented Number passed | passes
loc he 797 449 55-46
append ue : : : 398 261 65°59
wy ORT. : 3 ; 122 82 67°21
Total | 1317 785 | 59°6

Domestic economy is also taught to the girls in a similar manner.

In Birmingham 1200 scholars are receiving scientific instruction in the
schools of the Board, and it is stated that the teachers uniformly find
that ‘it added interest to the work of the school, that the children were
eager to be present, and that the lessons were enjoyed, and were in fact
giving new life to the schools.’ The Board have found the results so
satisfactory that they are now furnishing their newest school with a Jabora-
tory and lecture-room.

IV. As to science-teaching which does not fall under the provisions of
the New Code it is not probable that any large amount is attempted. In
Manchester, however, the Board gives instruction to 404 children, all of
“ whom have passed Standard VI., the highest ordinary standard, in the
following subjects :—

Physiology.

Acoustics, Light and heat,

Magnetism and electricity.

Chemistry ,
My practical.

Botany.

This teaching is illustrated by means of good apparatus, &ec., and
has had a very beneficial effect upon the science and art classes of the
town.

When it is considered that the provisions of the Code naturally form,
in almost all cases, the extreme limit of what will be attempted in the
schools, it is important that they should be placed as high as possible.
This will be a great advantage to the stronger schools, and no disadvantage
to the weaker ones, as the higher branches of science-teaching will of
course be optional.

Your Committee have, therefore, arrived at the following conclu-
sions :—

I. As to object lessons. That itis very desirable that Her Majesty’s
Inspectors should take object lessons into account in estimating the
teaching given in an infant sehool; and that they should examine the
classes in the graded schools wherever object lessons are given.

II. As to class subjects. That the teaching of such subjects as natural
history, physical geography, natural philosophy, &c., should not neces-
sarily be ‘through reading lessons,’ as oral lessons ‘illustrated by maps,
diagrams, specimens, é&c.’ are undoubtedly better when given by a
teacher duly qualified to handle these subjects. They are of opinion,
also, that it will be desirable to allow a larger number of class subjects
to be taken up in any particular school, and to give in such case a pro-
portionately increased grant.

ON RUDIMENTARY SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. hon

III. As to specific science subjects. That a knowledge of the facts of
nature is an essential part of the education of every child, and that it
should be given continuously during the whole of school life from the
baby class to the highest standard. Of course in early years this teaching
will be very rudimentary; but by developing the child’s powers of per-
ception and comparison it will prepare it for a gradual extension of such
knowledge. They consider also that the early teaching must be very
general, while the later may be more specific ; they think, however, that
the science subjects as given in Schedule IV. are fairly open to objection,
as being somewhat too ambitious in their nomenclature and in their
scope, and that they ought not to be attempted unless the child has had
a previous training in natural knowledge before entering the fourth
standard. Thus the specific scientific subjects ought not to be distinct, as
they practically are at present, from the previons teaching ; greater lati-
tude of choice might be allowed in them; and while they should not
afford technical instruction they should prepare the way for any technical
classes or schools into which the children may subsequently enter. In
regard to domestic economy they are of opinion that most of the points
embraced in the schedule would be useful to boys as well as to girls.

IV. As to examinations. That in the appointment of Her Majesty’s
Inspectors some knowledge of natural science should be considered as
absolutely requisite ; that in examining the children they should direct
their inquiries so as to elicit not so much their knowledge of special facts
as their intelligent acquaintance with the world of nature around them ;
and that this may be much better done by oral examination than by paper
work.

Postscript.—Since this report was in the printer’s hands, Mr. Mundella,
the Vice-President of the Committee of Council on Hducation, has laid
upon the table of the House of Commons certain proposals for revision of
the Code. Your Committee is very glad to observe that these proposed
changes are generally in the direction indicated in the above recommen-
dations. Thus, in Infant Schools the full grant will not be paid unless
there be provided ‘a systematic course of simple lessons on objects, and
on the phenomena of nature, and of common life;’ the children in
Standard I. may share in the benefit of elementary science teaching ; and
the instruction of the children in the subsequent standards in scientific
subjects need not necessarily be given ‘ through reading lessons.’ Your
Committee regrets that a stronger inducement has not been held out
to introduce rudimentary science as a class subject; or rather, that the
prominence given to English grammar and the recitation of poetry will
exclude the new lessons on elementary science from schools where
geography continues to be taken up. It is to be feared, indeed, that if
these proposals should be adopted in their present shape, the children of
Standard IV. will have even less chance of instruction in natural know-
ledge than they have at present, for they will not be allowed to take up
any science as a specific subject, while their taking elementary science as
a class subject will be very problematical. Your Committee, therefore,
while expressing great satisfaction with the general scope of these pro-
posals, would urge that the knowledge of nature be put on an equal
footing in our schools with the analysis of the mother tongue, and that
any two of the proposed three class subjects may be taken.

152 REPORT—1881.

Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. C.
Wituiamson and Mr. W. H. Batty, appointed for the pur-
pose of investigating the Tertiary Flora of the North of Ireland.
Drawn wp by WiLL1AM HELLER BalLy, F.L.S., F.G.S., MRA.
(Secretary ).

[Puates I. & II.]

TuE present Report is an account of the continuation of work conducted

by the Secretary, the results of which have been laid before the British

Association at their last and a previous meeting.

The still further opening up of the iron ore deposits in the County of
Antrim has enabled us to continue the investigation of the plant-remains
associated with it.

By the identification of these plant-remains we are enabled to fix the
period at which they lived as being Lower Miocene, and thus to deter-
mine the age of the great flow of basalt which is estimated at fifty miles
long by thirty wide, and consequently to extend over about 1,200
square miles of the north of Ireland, attaining in some places a thickness
of 900 feet. They also afford strong evidence of being contemporaneous
with other volcanic districts, such as those of the island of Mull, on the
west coast of Scotland, and North Greenland, where mid-Huropean
plants, such as these, once flourished.

Most abundant amongst these plant-remains in the North of Ireland
is the sequoia, a species of cypress allied to the great Wellingtonia—
Sequoia sempervirens and S. gigantea of California. The species from
these deposits is closely allied to the fossil Sequoia Langsdorfi, but has
been considered sufficiently distinct to receive the specific designation
of Sequoia Du Noyeri. Another species from the ironstone nodules
found on the shores of Lough Neagh is evidently identical with Sequoia
Couttsie, common at Bovey Tracey, also occurring on the Baltic shores
and at North Greenland.

Impressions of what appear to be the cones of Sequoia and other
fruits are not unfrequent in the sedimentary ochreous deposits of Bally-
palady, and at the same place are masses of wood, evidently coniferons,
which may probably have belonged to the Sequoia.

Mr. Walter Jamieson, manager of the Eglinton Company of Glasgow’s
Mining Works at Glenarm, has kindly furnished us with much valuable
information respecting the Miocene deposit there, which is worked by
that company in connection with the aluminiferous earth or bauxite,
and contains an abundance of plant-remains from which on our various
visits we have obtained many interesting specimens. He estimates these
deposits, under the Upper Basalt, at not less than 50 or 60 feet in thick-
ness, and states that at Cullinane, near Glenarm, in the course of the
mining operations carried out under his direction, he had been fortunate
enough to find upwards of twenty specimens of fossilised wood of large
size. One of these deserves special mention, as being the root and about
five to six inches of the erect stem of a tree which was found under about
50 feet of basalt. He describes it as ‘having a decidedly charred
appearance, its upper portion being in immediate contact with the basalt,
and the stem and root imbedded, to their full extent, in the aluminous
clay.’ On a recent visit to Glenarm, this gentleman exhibited to us frag-
ments of several of these large trunks of trees which he had collected,
some showing knots. One of these pieces of wood measured in its flat-

ON THE TERTIARY FLORA OF THE NORTH OF IRELAND. 153

tened state 20 inches across; its diameter would probably have been
about six feet in an uncompressed state. These large woody trunks were
found lying at various angles in the aluminous earth. The character of
this wood still remains to be determined.

Branches of a cypress, and pine cones, with grasses and reed-like
plants, are not unfrequent in these deposits.

Leaves and seeds or fruit of Dicotyledonous trees are most frequent.
We have been enabled to identify several of these with fossil plants
from the island of Mull, @ningen, and North Greenland.

A list of all the species named and identified to the present time is
appended to this report; and as there are others we have, for want of
sufficient material, only been able to name generically, it may be thought
desirable to continue this investigation, which has added so largely to our
hitherto meagre Miocene Flora of the British Islands.

LIST OF SPECIES.—NORTH OF IRELAND.

CRYPTOGAMA. Fungi.
Sphzria concentrica (Mass.) Flor. Senégalliese . e Sandy Bay, Lough Neagh.
Filices.
Hemitelites Frazeri (Baily) B. A. Report, 1879 . : i 5
CONIFER. Order Cupressine.
Cupressoxylon Pritchardi, Silicified Wood . 5 : Shores of Lough Neagh, &c.
Cupressites McHenrici (Baily), ‘ Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. |
mexvepl. U5, fic. 5). . : i ei, Pe has if;
Taxodium sp. : 4 * :
Order Abietine.
Sequoia Du Noyeri (Baily), ‘Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. 7
Bes pl. 15, fig. re ¢ ‘ y) e : 4 ; n 2. Ballypalady and Glenarm.

Ballypalady, Co. Antrim.

” ”

J Sandy Bay, Bovey Tracey,

Sequoia Couttsie (Heer) . ° ° 5 . N. Greenland, Baltic

: ‘ t ih Shores.
eit Gan: J Pua ye Aa vie aie a Ballypalady.
Pinus Graingeri (Baily), ‘B. A. Rep.’ 1880, pl. 2, fig. 3 oh
Fam. Tavxine.
Torellia rigida (Heer) . . ° . 5 and Spitzbergen.

MONOCOTYLEDONES.

Fam. Graminee.

Phragmites Giningensis (Ad. Brong.) . Boley; meen, N-

Greenland, Spitzbergen.

» Sis es . 8 : ‘ : “ Ballypalady.
Poacites sp. . ; 5 : " A . 5 a
Tride.
Tris latifolia? (Heer) . : F : . . . 5 Spitz. Baltic.
DICOTYLEDONKES.
Fam, Salicine.
Salix sp. : . : : : ; . 5 5 Ballypalady.
Populus sp. . 5 t . . 5 : : »
Betulacee.
Alnus Kefersteini ? (Goepp.) - . . . : e and Baltic.
Cupulifere.
4 f Lough Neagh, Island of
Corylus McQuarrii (Forbes) . : . . . mela Mull, Pe hicth Greenland:
See SDs, ie ‘ ° 5 2 : : - S Lough Neagh and Glenarm.
? Fagus sp. . : . , : ‘ F C Ballypalady.
Quercus sp. . . - 5 - 5 4 = 4 Glenarm,
Moree. :

Platanus Guillelmz (Goepp.) . ° . . ° Cone and

154 neport—1881.

Lawrinee.
? Sassafras sp. . » i 2 : ‘ A 5 Glenarm,
Aceracee.
Acer sp. 4 . é A - ; . 7 ep
Hricacee.
Andromeda sp. .- : “ : ; ; : Ballypalady.
Caprifoliacee.
: es : Ballypalady, Spitzbergen
Viburnum Whymperi (Heer) d 5 é 4 . { era ae Ba tei as cen,
Araliacee.
Avalsabrowniana(Eeer)y tees 8 | Lees eee and N.
5 on eae Glenal Riv Loug!
Saas (Heer), ‘ IB. A. Report,’ 1880, pl. each nant ie rica
2, fig. 7, a ° - : . : . 5 lend,
Magnoliacee.
Magnolia glauca?(Heer) . . : : : J Ballypalady and N\. Gneen-

L land.

Menispermacee ?
MeClintockia Lyalli (Heer) - . ; ; ; Glenarm and N. Greenland.
fGlenarm, Ballypalady and

” trinervis (Heer) . 5 : . \. North Greenland.
Lthamnee.
Rhamnus sp. : ‘ . ; : : : : Ballypalady and Glenarm.
Juglandce. minis
Juglans acuminata? (A. Braun). GAs! Area eo meme eo:

Other leaves are at present undetermined; some of them apparently
belong to Ficus, Myrica, Cinnamonium, Olea, Fraxinus, Laurus, &c.

In Messrs. Tate and Holden’s communication to the Geological
Society of London on iron ores associated with the basalts of the N.K. of
Treland, ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. xxvi. pp. 151, &c., the following
additional identifications are given on their authority :—‘ Platanus
aceroides, Sequoia Langsdorfi, species of Juglans, Fagus, Laurus, &c.,
from ash-beds on the shores of Lough Neagh, and from the sedimentary
ochreous beds at Ballypalady we have collected the following unrecorded
forms :—Encalyptus oceanica, Ung. Hakea sp., Celastrus sp. Daphno-
gene Kanii, Heer? Graminites, sp. ce.’

Iixplanation of the Plates.

PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Phragmites sp.

In ironstone, from near Glen Conway, bed of
Glenavy river, Lough Neagh. Collection of
Rev. Canon Grainger, D.D.

» 4, McClintockia trinervis (Heer), Ballypalady. Collection of Nat. Hist. Museum

of Science and Art, Dublin.

» 5. Ficus sp., allied to F. lanceolata (Heer), Flor. Mioc. Balt. pl. 22, figs. 1, 2.

Ballypalady. Coll. Nat. Hist. Mus. Science and Art, Dublin.
» 6. a,b. Fruit? allied to Sparganium stygium (Heer), Foss. Flor. of N. Green-
land. ‘Phil. Trans.’ pl. 42, figs. 4, 5.

PLATE II.

» 2. Alnus (allied to A. gracilis)
3. Nyssa ornithobroma (seed)

Fig. 1. Quercus sp., showing reticulated structure, Glenarm.
,» 2. Alnus Kefersteinii? (Goepp.), Flor. Mioc. Balt. pl. 19, figs. 1-13, Glenarm.
» 3. Platanus Guillelma? (Goepp.), Foss. Flor. N. Greenland, pl. 59, fig. 4 0,
Glenarm. ;
» 4, Sassafras? sp., allied to S. Ferretianum (Massalonga), Foss. Flor. N. Green-

land, pl, 50, figs. 1, 2, Glenarm,

j a fon |
aimee

8
oO
iS}
A
S
>
S
&
i
&

Mustrating the Report on the Tertiary (Miocene) Flora é&¢
cof the Basalt cf the North of Ireland

__ b1*Report Brit. Assoc. 7861.

5 d1S¢Report Brit: Assoc: 7867 Plate il,

WH.B Forster & C°Lith Dublin.
IUustrating the Report on the Tertiary (Miocene) Flora €&e,
of the Basalt of the North of Ireland

ON THE SPECIFIC REFRACTION OF SOLIDS. 155

Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. H. GLADSTONE,
Dr. W. R. E. Hopaxtnson, Mr. W. CarLeton WILLIAMS, and
Dr. P. P. Benson (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of
investigating the Method of Determining the Specific Refraction
of Solids from their Solutions.

Tu specific refraction of a substance, 7.e., the index of refraction, minus
unity divided by the density, is, according to Messrs. Gladstone and Dale,
a property uninfluenced by the passage from the solid to the liquid state.
Further, since the specific refraction of a mixture of liquids is the mean
of those of its constituents, it.follows that the specific refraction of a
solid may be deduced from that of a solution containing it ; the specific
refraction of the solvent being known. In support of the method of
determining the specific refraction of a solid, based upon these observations,
these authors have advanced some direct proof (‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1869,
pp. 13, 14), and also a large amount of collateral evidence.!_ The method
has, however, been called in question, more especially by Janovsky
(Sitzungsber. Wien. ‘ Akademie,’ Ixxxii. 1880, 148), who denies the possi-
bility of determining the refractive index of a solid from solution. Hence it
was thought desirable to submit the method to further examination, (1) to
test the accuracy of the statement made by this investigator, and (2) to
ascertain how far this method is applicable to determine the specific and
molecular refraction of solid compounds.

In order to test the method, the specific refraction of liquid phenol has
been determined and compared with that obtained from its solution in
alcohol and glacial acetic acid. Further, the specific refractions of rock
salt, borax, and boric acid in the solid state have been compared with
the values obtained from their aqueous solutions. The instrument used to
determine the refractive indices was a spectrometer obtained from Becker
(Meyerstein’s successor) ; its graduated circle is divided into tenths of a
degree, and by means of verniers these divisions are further divided,
so that readings can be made to one second. The refractive indices have
been determined for the hydrogen lines a, 3, and y, in some cases for
the sodium line also; from these, by the aid of Cauchy’s formula, the
index of refraction (A) for a ray of light of infinite wave-length has
been calculated. The refractive indices are deduced from at least four
readings ; the refractive indices, calculated in two sets of observations
from such readings, differing from one another in the fifth place of
decimals only.

In the case of liquids, a hollow prism was used of about 15 ccm.
capacity, closed by two plates of glass, the surfaces of which were
parallel. The prism has an aperture for the insertion of a thermometer,
by means of which the temperature of the liquid under experiment may
be ascertained. The thermometer used was one of Geissler’s, graduated
to two-tenths of a degree, and, consequently, readings to one-tenth of a
degree could be made with accuracy. The temperature of the liquid
in the prism was raised to and maintained at the point desired, by means
of the circulation of warm water through a series of glass tubes placed
at the back of the prism and under the table upon which it stood.

The specific gravities of liquids and solutions were determined in an

1 Dr. Gladstone’s article, Phil. Mag., 1881, pp. 54-60.

156 REPORT—1881.

apparatus similar in form to that used by Sprengel, by means of which
great accuracy can be attained. The specific gravities are given in relation
to water at 4°.

The specific refractions of the alcohol, glacial acetic acid, and the
distilled water used in the following experiments were determined with
special care, and gave the following results :—

Ref, in. for A Spec. gray. Act
|
Alcohol at 20° C 5 : U3b 157 08019 | 4384
i, at 25° C ; 2 134954 ‘ 07976 | “4382
= eee se eS z =e |—
Acetic Acid at 20° . : 136389 1:0559 | 3438
Water at 20° . 2 ; 1:32402 099831 “3246

I. Ingquid phenol, and phenol in alcoholic and acetic acid solutions.

The phenol used in these experiments was pure, as ascertained by its
boiling point. The values obtained for the specific refraction of liquid
phenol at 40° and 45°, viz., 4850 and -4848, are closely approximate to
that obtained by Briihl (‘ Journ. Chem. Soc.,’ abst., 1880, p. 782) for
phenol at 20°, viz., ‘4862. Further, these results agree very well with
the mean of the specific refractions obtained from the alcoholic and acetic
acid solutions.

The following table contains the numbers obtained; the specific
gravities were taken at the temperature of observation, water at 4° being
taken as unit :—

Temp. of Spec. gray. Boal
Description of substance Observa-| H,O at a B ¥y A d
tion 4°=1 For
| phenol
RaqaidePherol 40° 1:0591 | 1°53618]1°55496, — 151375 | -4850
ae or Ge : 45° | 1-0545 |1-53386|1:55263) — [1-51144 |-4848
|
| Alcoholic solution

25° 0°8487 | 1°39003) 1°39841) 1°40317| 1-37984 | -4828

I. 2064 9 Phenol {| 202 | 0:8540 | 1-39212| 1-40036) 1-40534) 1:38186 | -4801
; L

ee 20° | 0-887 | 1-41584|1-42578| 1-43147| 1-40371 |-4854
Eg ae { 25° | 0-883 | 1-41371|1-42348|1-42952| 1-40144 |-4856

Til. 48°85 % Phenol .| 20° 0°9213 | 1-43680) 1-44827| 1:45523) 1-42247 | -4799

Acetic acid solution
IV. 25°38 % Phenol . BO? 1:0594 | 1:41585} 1°42572 1:43159) 1403612 -4900
V. 36:47 % ” . 20° 1:0617 | 1°43498) 1:°44613 1:45291) 1-421039, -4883

Experiments made with phenyl ether (PhO) yielded results similar to
those obtained with phenol. The refractive index for Fraunhofer’s line
A of liquid phenyl ether at 24° was found to be 1:5702, and its specific

ON THE SPECIFIC REFRACTION OF SOLIDS. 157

gravity at the same temperature was found to be 1:0744; hence its
specific refraction for this ray is 5307. An alcoholic solution, containing
50:6 per cent. of phenyl ether, gave ‘5265 as the specific refraction for the
same line A.

II. Rock salt in solid state and in aqueous solution.

Rock salt was chosen for these experiments for the following reasons :—
(1) the fact that it can be obtained in large transparent masses, (2) its
refraction is not influenced by its crystalline form, (3) its easy solubility in
water. For the determination of its refractive index a prism was cut from
a piece of a colourless and clear specimen ; and the prism then ground and
polished. The angle of the prism was determined by aid of the image of
the illuminated slit reflected from the two faces, and the refractive indices
for a, 3, and y determined in the usual manner. The specific gravity of
the prism was determined by weighing it first in air, and then in pure
benzene. In the preparation of the aqueous solutions, portions of the
rock salt from which the prism had been cut were used. The following
table contains the numbers obtained, and the specific refractions of salt for
A :—

Temp. of | Spec grav. Axl
Description of substance Observa-| H,0 at a B y A
tion oa | | For rock
salt

Rock salt . ° = 15° 2°1641 | 154095 1°55384) 1-56128 1°52515) *2426
Aqueous solution. | |

I. 13-625 % salt . : | 20° 1:0979 |1°35488) 136711 —_ 134652) “2587

II. 12°02 % salt . at. 20° 1:087 | 1:35208) 1:35881| 1:36244| 1°34402! -2570
| |

IIT. 16°88 % salt - 20° | 1-108 1°35728) 1°36422) 1:°36805 ese "2415

The specific refraction deduced from the aqueous solution, taking the
mean of (I.), (II.), and (III.), is greater by -0098 than the value obtained
for the solid directly. Further, the results from (1.), (I1.), and (III.) do
not exhibit such agreement amongst themselves as was found in the case
of phenol, the extreme difference being ‘0172.

Ill. Fused borax in the solid state and in aqueous solution.

Fused borax is one of the few soluble substances which can be easily
obtained in large transparent masses. After many futile attempts, it was at
last found possible to obtain it in the form of prisms. This end was attained
by casting liquid borax, which had been maintained in a state of fusion
for a considerable time (in order to remove the air-bubbles), in a mould
made of silver plates. The most successful experiments were made with
borax which, before pouring into the mould, had been allowed to cool
down, so as to render it comparatively viscous. The prisms so obtained
were, after annealing, ground and polished. The refractive indices of
three such prisms have been determined ; their specific gravities were
determined as in the case of rock salt. The borax used in the preparations
of the aqueous solutions was a portion of the same used to make the
prisms. The following table contains the numbers obtained :-—

158 REPORT—188].

Temp. of |Spec. grav. ASa
Description of substance bec ae _ a B Na line D A ee
ror borax
Borax Prism (1) . Peta stats 2°373 =| 1:51537 | 1°52139] 1:51323 | 1°50325) -2120
% C (2) ‘ A 16° 2°368 | 1:51222 | 152068] 1:51484 150187 ‘2118
ae give (3) : a oh Lae 2°370! 151398 1:52269 151615 1°50332) °2124
Ornedts Poitaon x a B y
(1) 2:423 9 borax. 20° 10209 | 1:33589 | 134188] 1°34506 | 1:32876) :2187
(2) 3°653 ee | 20° | 10331 |1-38819 | 134417] 1-34738 | 1-33104| 2121
(3) 2077 9% borax .| 20° | 10185 |1:33520 |1-34110| 134458 | 1-32795| -2013
(4) 2:504 % borax "i 20° 1-0292 1336025) 1°34195 1345005 1-32904 2168
(5) 2405 9% ome : 20° 1:02038 133655 1:34161) 1°34511 1/32816 *2074

The results for the prisms of borax agree very well with one another,
the greatest difference being ‘0006, and the mean 2120 may therefore be
taken as the specific refraction of fused borax. The mean of the values
obtained for borax dissolved in water is 2112, which differs from the
value obtained for the solid by ‘0008; the greatest difference, however,
exhibited by these numbers being ‘0174.

IV. Fused boric acid in the solid state and in solution.

Prisms of boric acid were cast in a similar manner to those of borax ;
and their refractive indices and specific gravities determined in the same
manner. The aqueous solutions were prepared with portions of the boric
acid used to make the prisms.

The results obtained are contained in the following table :—

| Temp. of |Spec. grav. AS
Description of substance Observa-| HO at | a B Na line D | A d
tion ehet For boric

acid

— — =I |

) |
Prism of boric acid (1) | 14:4° 1848 | 1:46220/ 1-46860) 1-46303 1:45437| -2458

2nd Prism . i wales] 1853 | 146245 147024 146427 145292
oo Saati | — | y. B y ; | = H
q) 1-93 0, boric ean \ee2X0}2 Lol 133345 1:33938 134250 132641 +2383 |
(2) 1:932 9% 5; ih 20° 10109 133349 1:33937 134255 1:32642} :2383
(3) 1-68 % a fi # ~ 20° | 1-096 1338365 1-33958| 1-34277 132656) +2560

Comparing the mean of the specific refractions of the two prisms, viz.,
‘2451, with the mean of the values obtained for boric acid dissolved in
water, viz., "2442, the latter is seen to be ‘0009 greater in the former.

1 This specific gravity is the mean of the determinations for the other two prisms.

ON THE SPECIFIC REFRACTION OF SOLIDS. 159

Here again, as in the case of salt and borax, the extreme difference
between specific refractions obtained by the second method is a number
affecting the second place of decimals, viz., ‘0177.

V. Fused sodium metaphosphate in the solid state and in solution.

The attempts made to determine the specific refraction of solid sodium
metaphosphate, by a method similar to that adopted in the case of borax
and boric acid, were frustrated by the hygroscopic nature of this
substance, which rendered it impossible to polish the prisms, which were
cast as before. Nevertheless, a close approximation to its refractive
index, for a ray of light of infinite wave-length, has been attained, by a
method which, by a more careful application, will probably yield exact
results. This method consists in making a mixture of two liquids, one
more and the other less refractive than the solid, until there is no
apparent difference between the refraction of the solid and liquid. The
refractive index of the liquid is then determined for a, 3, and y, and the
refractive index (A), for a ray of light of infinite wave-length, calculated
from these.

Such a mixture of aniline and amyl alcohol gave 147518 for A, and
one of bromobenzene and amy] alcohol gave 1°45747 for A. The specific
gravity of sodium metaphosphate (fused) was found to be 2°503. Hence
its specific refraction is -1898, calculated from the first value of A, and
-1827 from the second. The mean of these values, viz., "1862, differs by
-0023 from the mean of the specific refractions deduced from its aqueous
solution.

The following table contains the results obtained from aqueous
solutions of sodium metaphosphate of different strengths :-—

A-1
ee ee 5 NaPo, Observe “HO at a B y A petat
5366 9% 20° 1:0412 / 1:33721| 1:34317| 1:34637|1:330115) -1826
4:01 % ; 20° 1-029 1:33570 | 134169 | 134513 | 132847. 1894
8769 % 20° 1:0673 | 1°34135 134738 | 135076 1-33403 "1919 |
8509 % 20° 1:0652 134104 134705 185070 | 1°33359 | “1901
Mean . : : | "1885

A-—1l

C

The extreme difference in the values of

is ‘0093, about the same

difference as observed in other cases.

The results of these experiments serve to substantiate the statement
of Messrs. Gladstone and Dale, at any rate, as far as singly-refractive
solids are concerned. By the aid of the method' used to determine the
refractive index of solid sodium metaphosphate, some clue will, it is to be
hoped, be obtained, as to how far this statement affects doubly-refractive
solids.

1 The mean of two determinations of the specific refraction of rock salt by this

method was found to be ‘2374; and the mean of two determinations for borax gave
-2108, values differing but slightly from those obtained for solid rock salt and borax.

160 REePoRT—1881.

Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir WILLIAM
Tuomson, Dr. J. MERRIFIELD, Professor OsBorNE REYNOLDs,
Captain Doucias Gatton, Mr. J. N. SHOOLBRED (Secretary), Mr.
J. F. Deacon, and Mr. Rocers FIELD, appointed for the purpose
of obtaining information respecting the Phenomena of the
Stationary Tides in the English Channel and in the North Sea;
and of representing to the Government of Portugal and the
Governor of Madeira that, in the opinion of the British Associa-
tion, Tidal Observations at Madeira or other islands in the North
Atlantic Ocean would be very valuable, with a view to the ad-
vancement of our knowledge of the Tides im the Atlantic Ocean.

Your Committee consider that the special works for which they were
appointed have been carried out.

In this, their final report, they beg to mention that the pamphlet-notice
of the tidal observations, named in last year’s Report as having been pre-
pared for those Continental observers who rendered valuable assistance
to the Committee in obtaining a portion of the observations, has been
circulated.

It appears to be considered to contain valuable information, and as
forming the basis, or starting pot for common action in the future;
when the subject of the phenomena of these stationary tides receives the
attention it deserves, and whenever it may appear desirable to study the
entire question in a close and thorough manner.

No official reply has been received by the Committee (indeed it was
hardly to be expected) in answer to the inquiries made by it respecting an
international datum for tidal observations, and as to future concerted
action amongst the various maritime Governments respecting a more
extended series of tidal observations.

Nevertheless, the advantage of a common international datum, which
has for some time been desired, seems to be acknowledged; and though
the datum suggested by the Committee has in no way been recognised as
such, yet no objections of any moment have been raised against it; while
considerable value seems to be attached to it, as having at least done much
to advance the desired object, if not to offer the actual solution which is
most desirable.

With regard to the second object of the Committee :—to urge the
desirability of the Azores Islands as a station, where a series of valuable
observations might be carried out upon the tides of the North Atlantic
Ocean, it has already been stated that the Portuguese Government
readily took up the idea, and had established a self-registering tide-gauge
in the Bay of Funchal.

Another incidental duty which fell to the lot of the Committee was to
urge upon the Board of Trade the importance of a self-registering tide-
gauge at Dover.

That department of the Government, as already reported, set up at its
own expense the desired instrument, which is working regularly and
giving satisfaction; so that, before long, a series of permanent records
may be expected from this most important station, which will serve as
data for future observations, when required.

ON £OSSIL POLYZOA. 161

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor P. M.
Duncan, F.R.S., and Mr. G. R. Vine, appointed for the purpose
of reporting on Fossil Polyzoa. Drawn wp by Mr. VINE
(Secretary).

Arrgr many laborious researches, Naturalists, generally, have accepted
Dr. Allman’s Gymnoimata, for one at least of the orders of the Class
Polyzoa. In this order the ‘ Polypide is destitute of an epistome (foot) : 7
and the lophophore is circular.’! The order is divided into three sub-
orders :—

I. Cheilostomata, Busk. = Celleporina, Ehrenberg.
II. Cyclostomata, ,, = Tubuliporina, Milne-Ed., Hagenow,

} a Johnston.
III. Ctenostomata, ,, Moe TP.

The whole were ‘founded by Professor Busk on certain structural
peculiarities of the cell.” Only species belonging to two of these sub-
orders are found fossil, and to these alone I shall direct attention.

I. Cuetmostomata.—Polyzoa belonging to this sub-order are ‘ distin-
guished by the presence of a moog opercular valve.’* This, however,
is not a character on which the Palxontologist can rely for evidence ;
but there are others. The ova are usually matured in external ‘ mar-
supia,’ or ova-cells; there are also appendicular organs—avicularia and
vibricula; and later investigations have proved the existence of peculiar
perforations in the cell-walls, which Reichert called ‘Rosettenplatten,’ and
Hincks ‘communication-pores.’ Through these openings the ‘endo-
sarcal’ cord of Joliet,’ in the living Polyzoa, passed from cell to cell.
The aperture, or mouth of the cell, though variously shaped, is always
sub-terminal. To prove that Polyzoa (judging from the calcareous
remains) of this sub-order were present in the Palsozoic seas, it is
necessary that some one or other of the above-named characters should
be present in the species introduced as Cheilostomatous.

II. Cycrosromara—tThe simplicity of structure in this sub-order
precludes elaborate description. There are, however, a few points of
special structure to which it may be as well to direct attention. The cells
are invariably tubular, or nearly so; the mouths are circular, and,
generally speaking, of the same diameter as the cell. The cell-mouths
in many of the Cyclostomata are covered by calcareous opercula, in both
recent and fossil species, and these are considered to be—by Mr. F. D.
Longe —of an analogous character with the corneous opercula of the
Cheilostomata. Be this as it may—all the Cyclostomatous opercula are
calcareous—and their use has not yet been definitely made out.

In his classification of the British Marine Polyzoa, Mr. Hincks bases his
genera and species, to a large extent, upon the shape and character of the
cell and cell-mouth,—the habit of species is only of secondary importance.
To working naturalists amongst living species his carefully worked-out

} Hincks’ Brit. Marine Polyzoa, p. cxxxvi. ? Ibid. p. cxxiv.

3 «Corneous’; Waters on the use of the Opercula. Proceed. of Manchester Lit. and
Phil. Soc., 1878. (Italics mine.)

4 Nervous Tissue, Miiller. 33 : ted “m3 ;

5 Oolitic Polyzoa, F. D. Longe, F.G.8., Geo. Mag., January, 1881. See also Hincks’
Brit. Marine Polyzoa, Introduction, p. cy, and pp. 460-1. ; :
M

162 REPORT—1881,.

divisions are of supreme importance, and the Paleontologist may do well
to carry over the leading idea of Smitt and Hincks when working out
fossil species, especially so when dealing with Palsozoic types. It may
be well, too, to caution the student in his use of the generic names of the
earlier authors. These have to be revised according to modern usage. In
every case where I could retain the original designation of the author of
genera and species I haye done so, but it seems to me to be folly to
perpetuate a nomenclature which does not indicate generic affinity. In his
otherwise carefully written ‘Introduction,’ Mr. Hincks says, ‘There is
evidence, however (as I learn on the excellent authority of Mr. R.
Ktheridge, Jun.), of the existence of a few Cheilostomatous genera at
least within this epoch (Palzozoic), and probably the group is represented
in the Silurian division of it’!—a conclusion, which after the most
careful research, I am unable to agree with.

In this, as in my former Report, I shall revise the whole of the genera
and species that have been introduced since the time of Goldfuss into the
nomenclature of Silurian and Devonian literature. I would prefer to
deal only with British species, but as many papers describing new genera
and species, from foreign sources, have been published in this country, I
cannot do otherwise than review, if not revise, these as well. But
whereas, in my former Report I dealt generally with material in my own
cabinet, in this I shall refer largely to the Polyzoa in the magnificent
collection of the School of Mines, Jermyn Street. For this purpose I have
handled, and noted down particulars of every specimen in the collection,
from the Lower Silurian to the Devonian. This I have been enabled to
do through the kindness of Mr. Etheridge, F.R.S., and Mr. E. T. Newton,
Assistant Naturalist of the School of Mines.

Professor Duncan has expressed a wish that in this Report I should
draw up a suggestive Terminology, that would be in keeping with modern
usage and applicable to Paleozoic species. In accordance with the spirit
of this request the following terms may be accepted generally. In it I
have followed the leading of Busk and Hincks, without wholly neglecting
the terms used by our leading Palzontologists.

Zoarium.—‘ The composite structure formed by repeated gemmation,’

=Polyzoarium and Polypidom of authors. ~

Zoecrum or cell. ‘The chamber in which the Polypide is lodged.’

Cana@cium. ‘The common dermal system of a colony.’ Applicable
alike to the ‘ Frond,’ or ‘ Polyzoary,’ of Fenestella, Polypora,
Phyllopora, or Synocladia: or to the associated Zocecia and
their connecting ‘interstitial tubuli,’ of Ceriopora, Hyphas-
mapora, and Archxopora, or species allied to these.

FENESTRULES. The square, oblong, or partially rounded openings in
the zoarium,—connected by non-cellular dissepiments,—of Fenes-
tella, Polypora, and species allied to these.

FENESTRE applied to similar openings, whenever connected by the
general substance of the zoarium—as in Phyllopora, Clathro-
pora, and the Permian Synocladia.

Brancues. The cELu-bearing portions of the zoarium of Glauconome,
Fenestella, Polypora, or Synocladia; or the off-shoots from the
main-stem of any species.

DissEPIMENTSs. Bars which connect the branches of Fenestella, &e.

' Brit. Mar. Poly., p. cxviii. Adding in a note ‘ Of recent genera Stomatopora and

Diastopora appear to occur in the Silurian Rocks.’ nas

ON YFOSSIL POLYZOA. 163

Gonacium. ‘A modified zocecium or cell, set apart for the purposes of

reproduction.’

Gonocyst. ‘ An inflation of the surface of the zoarium in which the

embryos are developed.’ Modern terms from the Rev. Thos,
Hincks.

I have no desire to discuss my use of the term ‘ Polyzoa’ instead of
‘Bryozoa.’ I use it as a matter of choice after carefully considering all
that has been said by my friend Mr. Waters, Hincks, Busk and others.
After all the question of priority is still an open one, and those of my
readers who desire to consult authorities will find ample material in a
paper ‘On the Priority of the term Polyzoa for the Ascidian polypes’
Busk, ‘ Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1852, Rev. T. Hincks’ ‘ Brit. Marine Polyzoa,’
p. exxxii, and A. W, Waters’ ‘Ann. Nat, Hist.,’ January, 1880.

te Sub-order CuErLostomata, Busk.

Genus Hippothoa, Lamx.

Hippothoa inflata, Nicholson, ‘ An. Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ February, 1871,
Pl. xi. fig. 4.
Alecto inflata, Hall, ‘Pal.’ New York, vol. i. p. 77, pl. xxvi. figs. 7a—7b.

This species of Hall’s has been reworked from fresh material, by
Nicholson. The slight figures given by him show a habit nearly akin to
Hippothoa abstersa, Busk, fig. 6, pl. 22, Busk’s ‘ Crag Polyzoa,’ only rather
more swollen at the distal part of the cell. In the cell-mouth of Busk’s
figure the peristome is sinuated : in Nicholson’s figure it is circular. There
is also a resemblance to Goldfuss’ Aulopora dichotoma, Tab. 65, Fig. 2. I
know of no species of Hippothoa, recent or fossil, with which it can be ©
otherwise favourably compared. Generically it has no affinity with the
Hiprornoiwe of Busk, and without doing violence to the generic character
of Hippothoa as given by Hincks,! it cannot be placed with the genus.
The species, Nicholson says, is abundant in the Cincinnati Group of the
Hudson River formation, near Cincinnati, Ohio.

Genus Retepora, Imperato.

Ever since this genus was introduced in 1559, it has been used by
authors indiscriminately for all manner of fenestrated polyzoa. Lamarck,
in 1815, fixed the type of Linneus, Millepora cellulosa, calling it R. cellulosa,
and since then, the name Retepora has been used for a genus of the
Escuartipm. None of the so-called Retepora of the Paleozoic era have
any affinity with this family, or even with the genus as now understood.
The word should be entircly abandoned for every species of Paleozoic
Polyzoa.

1836. Escharina, Milne-Kdwards.
1847. Escharopora, Hall.

As both these genera have been used by authors? for Palzozoic
species it may be as well to draw attention to its misuse. The types L’.
recta and the var. nodosa Hall compares with Hschara? scalpellum—now
Ptilodictya scalpellum, Lonsd., and the Escharina of Milne-Edwards, in

1 Brit. Mar. Poly., p. 286. :

2 Escharina angularis, Lonsd., Morris Catalogue. Zscharipora recta, Hall, Pal,
New York, vol. i. D
M2

164 REPORT—1881.

part, is the Microporella of Hincks, a genus which includes species
selected from no fewer than ten genera of recent and fossil Polyzoa.

Laying aside the genus Ptilodictya, I have no knowledge of any other
Palzozoic Polyzoa that can be, even provisionally, placed with the Cheilo-
stomata. After careful consideration I am reluctantly obliged to say that
at present there is no evidence that the sub-order existed in any of the
Paleozoic seas, and further, the evidence is very doubtful until we reach
the Mesozoic era. Notwithstanding this decision I shall be amongst the
first to acknowledge the earlier existence of types if well-defined evidence
is brought to bear in the diagnosis of new discoveries.

Taking into consideration the shape and character of the cell as pre-
senting, apparently, an Hscharide type, I think I cannot do better than
begin this Report with a revision of the whole of the Ptilodictya. M‘Coy!
places this genus as the fourth in his Family Escharide ; Berenicea being
the third genus in the family. From the characters given, ‘ cells shal-
low, oblong, or ovate, often provided with an operculum, capable of being
closed by special iuscles,’ M‘Coy evidently believed that the Palzxo-
zoic species could be naturally placed in this Family. The true Escua-
RIDH are of later date, probably not older than the Lower Oolite, and
then not as a typical, but only as a kind of passage group. Leaving the
classification as an open question at present, I shall take Lonsdale’s defi-
nition for the group as redescribed by M‘Coy :—

1839. Ptilodictya, Lonsdale.
1847. Stictopora, Hall.

‘Zoarium’ thin, calcareous, foliaceous, or branching dichotomously ; branches
sometimes coalescing: a thin, laminar, flattened, concentrically wrinkled
central axis; set with oblique, short, subtubular, or ovate cells on both
sides, with prominent oval mouths, nearly as large as the cells within ;
branches often flattened, with the margin solid, sharp-edged, striated, and
without cells ; the boundary ridges of the cells square or rhomboidal.’
This genus is very fairly represented by specimens in the School of
Mines. There are no fewer than ten species named, and three marked
‘New Sp.’ awaiting description. Accepting the work of other authors,
I can do no more than furnish notes on them, just as they are named.
The first specimen is P. dichotoma, Portlock, in the Wyatt-Edgell Col.,
and is found in the Lower Llandeilo flags, and the species ranges into
the Upper Llandeilo and Caradoc. In the Caradoc, also, we have the
P. acuta, Hall, which, if correctly identified, is very widely distributed in
the American and English Silurians of the same horizon ; and P. explanata,
M‘Coy. Three Species undescribed, but bearing MS. names by Mr.
Ktheridge : P. papillata, P. ramosa, P. scutata. In the Lower Llandovery
we have the P. fucoides, M‘Coy, a species having a very limited range.
In the Upper Llandovery we have P. lanceolata, Lonsd., which ranges
through the Wenlock Shale, Wenlock Limestone, Lower Ludlow and
Aymestry Limestone. There is a departure from the type in P. scalpellum
(Hschara? scalpellwm, Lonsd.); it is marked as appearing in the Upper
Llandovery and Wenlock Limestone. Hall, in the first vol. of the ‘Pal.,’
New York, figures and describes P. (Stictopora) acuta, which he compares
with this species of Lonsdale. In this species, too, there seems to be no
central laminar axis. It is found in the Trenton Limestone. With regard

' Brit. Paleozoic Fos. 2 Corallum, Lonsdale, MCoy’s Pal. Fos.

ON FOSSIL POLYZOA. 165

to Ptilodictya lanceolata, Lonsd., and P. lanceolata, Goldfuss, there seems
to be a little confusion in our varied identifications of species. In the
Catalogue of Cambrian and Silurian Fossils,’ all the P. lanceolata found
in the Upper Llandovery to the Upper Ludlow series, with the exception of
one species found in the Wenlock Limestone, are ascribed to Lonsdale. The
Wenlock species is identified as that of P. lanceolata, Goldfuss. This con-
fusion is to be regretted, and in justifying the course taken by Mr. H. T.
Newton in the Catalogue, I would suggest that the Wenlock shale species
receive a new name—P. Lonsdalia. There are many characters in this
species distinct from the species described by Goldfuss as Fustra lanceo-
lata. .There is also a pressing necessity that the types of Ptilodictya
should become fixed, either as a genus or as a family.

Ptilodictya scalpellum is a type somewhat different from that of other
species, and under a family name—Pritopicrma#—lI should reconsider
my own reference to this genus of the carboniferous Sulcoretepora.”

Professor Nicholson® has added much to our knowledge of this group,
by the publication in this country of his papers on American forms. He
has also founded two new genera to take in what he considers to be allied

types. The Upper Sil. species, which are new, are: 1. P. falciformis, Nich -

allied to Escharopora recta, Hall. His species, however, differs from
Flustra (Ptilodictya) lanceolata, Goldf. P. gladiola and P. sulcata, Billings,
2. P. emacerata, Nich., a beautifully delicate species, with ‘ elliptical cells,
their long axes corresponding with that of the branches, six or seven in
the space of one line measured longitudinally.’ ‘This Nicholson con-
siders to closely resemble P. fragilis, Billings, and it is possible that it
may be only a variety of Billings’ species.’* 3. P. flagellum, Nich.:
This also resembles P. gladiola, Billings, and it also very closely re-
sembles the P. Lonsdalia of our own Wenlock shale, excepting that
the ‘attenuated base’ of our own species is rarely ‘ flexuous,’ but more
often truncated and round. 4. P. fenestelliformis, Nich.: All these
species are typical, having the non-poriferous margins and. the central
laminar axis. One species—Ptilodictya ? arctiopora, Nich.—has affinities
with P. raripora, Hall; but Nicholson doubts the possibility of keeping
these two species with the genus. The cells closely resemble some of
the characters of our own Silurian species, but as there is evidently a
departure from the original types, it may be as well to study these passage
forms, if such they be, more carefully than they have yet been done. 5.
P. cosciniformis,> Nich.: Hamilton formation, Bosanquet, Ontario.

For species allied to Ptilodictya, Nicholson has founded two new genera,
and adopted one from Hall.

1874. Tceniopora, Nicholson, Geological Mag. 1874.
‘a Clathropora, Hall, 53 Pn i
1875. Heterodictya, Nicholson < » 1875.

In Teniopora we have a zoarium that is a flattened, linear, calcareous
expansion, with cells on both sides, the branches of which are dichotomous.
There is a median ridge on each face of the zoarium having a longitudinal
direction, on the lateral halves of which the cells are developed. These
are longitudinally placed in rows of from three to five, The margins are

1 Mus. of Practical Geology, 1878.

2 Carboniferous Polyzoa, B. A, Rep. 1880, 2nd page of Report.
3 An. hag. Nat. Hist. March, 1875. 4 Thid. p. 179.

5 Nicholson, Geo. Mag. Jan, 1875.

~~ s , : 4
Se BE PO PR IT.
Buf RO VY, EY Mrwter ,
fa f Aa ss eam

LF a dt wt
ee en een al ae ee
”

g «

oo

as

166 REPORT—1881.

usually plain and non-celluliferous. Two species are described: 7’. exigua,
Nich., and T. penniformis, Nich., both from the Hamilton group.

In Olathropora the zoarium is a kind of membranous flattened ex-
pansion, with rounded or oval fenestrz of considerable size. The cells are
on both sides, separated by a thin laminar axis. The fenestra are
surrounded by a striped non-celluliferous margin. One species is de-
scribed—O. intertexta, Nich—from the Corniferous Limestone, but in
some respects it resembles P. cosciniformis, Nich., of which mention has
already been made.

In Heterodicta the zoarium forms a simple, flattened, unbranched, two-
edged frond, with sub-parallel sides. The cells are in two series; the
central cells are perpendicular to the base, the lateral cells are oblique.
‘In the only species known—2H. gigantea, Nich.—the cells of a few of the
median rows of the frond are straight .... and, as I am only ac-
quainted with an exceedingly large species, I should, however, suspect
that Flustra (Ptilodictya) lanceolata, Goldf., will very probably turn out
to be an example of this genus.’ !

The material for a thorough revision of this genus is ‘not easily
accessible. Many ofthe Bala series are beautiful casts only, and the Upper
Silurian species are often bedded in blocks of the Dudley Limestone ; and I
think it very unwise to disturb the present nomenclature without suffi-
cient reason.” The MS. names of Mr. Robert Etheridge require con-
firmation, and the best way to do this would be to describe and figure
them. The new genera of Professor Nicholson may in the future em-
brace some few of the forms already described, but we can hardly super-
sede the clear definitions of Lonsdale’s types as given by M‘Coy. In the
Lower Ludlow rocks specimens of P. lanceolata, Goldf., often break up,
showing the concentrically wrinkled central axis. In the Girvan District
—Scotland—at least two distinct species of this genus may be found—
P. costellata, M‘Coy, and P. dichotoma, Portl.

1844. Myrraroripz, M‘Coy. Family name only.

This is the third family of M‘Coy’s very restricted classification of
Paleeozoic Polyzoa. It embraces the Retepora, Lamk. = to Elasmopora,
King. The family includes Glauconome, Goldfuss, restricted by Lons-
dale, and the genus Fenestella, Lonsdale. It is impossible to retain the
family name in the present Report.

1849. Phyllopora, King.

There are unquestionably present in both the American and British
Paleozoic rocks, species of Polyzoa having some of the inosculating
characters of Retepora cellulosa. These can neither be referred to
Fenestella nor Polypora. My objections to the term Retepora for these
have already been expressed. King, also, in his Permian Fossils, has ex-
pressed his dislike to this term, and he suggests another word to be used
instead—Phyllopora. I prefer this, especially as it has been consecrated
by two good workers—Salter and De Koninck. The earliest appear-
ance of the genus, so far as I am acquainted, is in the Lower Llandeilo®

1 Geological Mag. 1875.

? Since writing the above I have been able to study, very carefully, the leading
types of Palzozoic Ptilodictya. Ina future paper on the Family PrrLopicTip# I
shall be able to correct many inaccuracies of our ordinary nomenclature.

§ School of Mines, iv. 4 in Catalogue of Camb, and Sil. Fossils.

ON FOSSIL POLYZOA. 167

flags at Ffairfach. The species is unnamed and it forms one of the
specimens of the Wyatt-Edgel collection. The general habit of the
specimen is somewhat like Retepora. We have only the reverse of a
portion of the zoarium, but in several places the branches are worn and
the cells exposed, but not with sufficient distinctness to make out their
actual structure. The fenestrx are oval and irregular, and the branches
anastomose without dissepiments. A fine large specimen—reverse only
—of this type is marked ‘Bryozoa,’ in case vii. 6/44 of the School of
Mines, and as ‘ Bryozoon’ in the ‘Catalogue of Cambrian and Silurian
Fossils,’ p. 105. All the other specimens are very fragmentary, but in
the Devonian series there is a matrix of a very fine species. If better
fragments could be found in the Devonian rocks, good facilities for the
closer study of this type of Palaeozoic Polyzoa would be offered.

De Koninck refers two specimens, doubtfully, to this genus!—P. ?
Haimeana, De Kon. ; and P. ? cribellwum, De Kon.. These are amongst the
Indian Fossils of Dr. Fleming. In the monograph of Permian Fossils
Mr. King refers, and fully describes, P. Hhrenbergi, Geinitz, as belonging
to this genus. In his paper on the Permian rocks of South Yorkshire,?
Mr. Kirkby refers fragments of the same species to Retepora Ehrenbergi
(Phyllopora). The genus is a comparatively rare one, and well-authenti-
cated specimens are also rare. ‘'o this genus I refer Nicholson’s species*
—Phyllopora (Retepora) Trentonensis. It is well described, seeing that his
specimens were mere fragments. Salter has already referred to this
genus—M‘Coy’s Retepora (Phyllopora) Hisengeri—in his catalogue of
Silurian Fossils.

1821? Berenicea, Lamaroux.

This genus for the present I have allowed to remain with the family
Diastoporide+—not as Diastopora, but as provisional. So far as the
Paleozoic species are characteristic of the genus we may take M‘Coy’s
description.? He says, ‘the cells resemble Cellepora, but are not piled,’
but with more justness, ‘They also resemble the cells of Stictopora
(Ptilodictya), but are parasitic and confined to one side. They differ from
Discopora by each cell being separated by a small space from its neigh-
bour.’ Berenicea irregularis, Lonsdale (Silurian Sys.), and B. heterogyra,
M‘Coy, are distinct types. The Discopora favosa, Lonsd., Wenlock Lime-
stone, approach nearer to the Ceramopora type of Hall and Nicholson.®

1828. Discopora, Flem. ?

Two types of this genus, as understood by Lonsdale, are found in the |
Wenlock series of Fossils at the School of Mines. One, D. favosa,
Lonsd., is a beautiful little dome-like species with cells very regularly
disposed radiating from the centre. The other is much largerand marked
Discopora favosa ? Lonsd. Both are good types, and they will ultimately
find their proper place in our classification. But as Discopora (Patinella |
and Discoporella of Busk) it will be at present impossible to retain them,
unless under very severe limitation.

1849. FENEsTEULIps, King.
After the three very able papers of Mr. G. W. Shrubsole, it will be
useless to dwell at much length upon this family. With the whole of Mr.

1 Quart. Journ, Geo. Soe. vol. xix. 1862. 2 Journ. of Geo. Soc. vol, xvii. 1861.
3 Geo. Mag. Jan. 1875, pl. 2, figs. 4-46. 4 Quart. Jowrn. Geo. Soc, Aug 1880.
5 Paleozoic Fos. ® Geo, Mag. 1874-5,

168 REPORT—1881.

Shrubsole’s work [ am inclined, generally, toagree. He may be blamed for
the limitation of species, but the fault lies not with him, but with authors
who have introduced into our scientific literature specific names for frag-
ments that were really portions only of other species. This has already
been pointed out, but much yet remains to be done before the family can
be considered to be completely revised. It may then be necessary to
reintroduce one or two species which are now regarded as synonyms, and
also to establish two or three new ones. For the present I can do no
other than report on the literature and species which have not yet found
a place in the revisions of Mr. Shrubsole.

Gorgonia assimilis, Lonsd., Murch Sil.
Fenestella x Cat. Cambrian and Sil. Fos. School of Mines.

This species has been alluded to in Mr. Shrubsole’s second paper
(p. 247). In the above catalogue it may be found among the Caradoc
and Wenlock Limestone series of Polyzoa. This species has not been
described, and there seems to be a doubt whether it should be referred to
Fenestella or Retepora (Phyllopora).!

Many of the earlier specimens—Caradoc and Up. Llandovery—are
very indistinct, and complete identification seems to be impossible. The
type is a peculiar one, but after going over the specimens I can make out
the following characters. The zoarium is irregular and dichotomously
branching, no regular dissepiments or fenestree. The frequent bifurca-
tions of the branches, by infringing upon the lower branches, are the
only means by which fenestre are formed ; the number of pores on either
side of these vary from ten to thirteen. I cannot therefore suppose that
these earlier Fenestella assimilis of the Catalogue are in any way related to
Fenestella reteporata, Shrubsole, of the Wenlock Limestone. So far as I
am able to judge from the specimens, they are totally distinct.

The whole of the type specimens of Upper Silurian Fenestella, Mr,
Shrubsole has gone over carefully ; but as many of these were mere frag-
ments of the reverse, showing no cell-arrangement, he found them alto-

, gether valueless for accurate definition. In consequence of this revision the

whole of the Upper Sil. FrnesteLLiz ig put down by him as follows :—

Fenestella rigidula, M‘Coy, ‘ Brit. Pal. Fos.’ p. 50, pl. i. C. fig. 19.
3s reteporata, Shrubsole, ‘Qt. Jour. Geo. Soc.’ May, 1880.
bes lineata Ae

ds 2 ” ”? ”? ”
= intermedia 2

” ” ? ”
All these species are found in the Wenlock Limestone, Dudley, and two
of them—if not three—in the Niagara Limest., Lockport, America.

Of the Devonian Fenestella but few species are recorded. But as
Professor Nicholson has published his papers in this country, we are
largely indebted to him for what little is known, besides those that are
figured and described by Goldfuss and Phillips.

1826-33. Retepora (Fenestella) prisca, Gold.2 Eifel.
39? 9 3 ” antiqua, ” red
1841. Fenestellaantiqua; anthritica; and Hemitrypa oculata, Ph.*

1 «A Review of the Carb. Fenestellide,’ Quart. Jowrn. of Geo. Soc. May 1879; ‘A
Review of the Various Species of Up. Sil. Fenestellide, Quart. Jowrn. Geo. Soc. May,
1880; ‘ Further Notes on Carb. Fenestellide,’ ibid. May, 1881.

2 Petrefac. Ger. tab. 36, fig. 19, tab. 9, fig. 10,

3 Phillips’ Pale. Fos. Devon, Se.

ON FOSSIL POLYZOA. 169

1874. Fenestella magnifica, Nichol. ‘Geo. Mag.’ 1874, pl. ix.
” ” marginalis, ” ” ” ” ?
” ” filuformis ” ”? ” ” 29
= Retepora (Fenestella) Phillipsi i bi 3
Many, if not all, of these species are founded upon fragments, or on the
reverse only of specimens ; and according to the laxness or rigidness with
which they are examined, their value in a scientific criticism is of variable
importance. They are nevertheless links in the chain of evidence, and
until they are displaced by better specimens, which, of course, will allow
of better work, they should find a place in this Report. Nicholson, with
others, uses the term Retepora very indifferently. Speaking of R&R.
Phillipsi, he says, ‘ This is a genuine Retepora, and in its general form and
its biserial cells is closely allied to &. prisca, Gold., which I have found
abundantly in the Corniferous Limestone of Ontario.’ As I have already
placed Goldfuss’s R. prisca with the FrenusTeniips, I cannot do otherwise
with this one.
In addition to this species Nicholson founded two new genera for
Devonian Fenestella :—

1874. Cryptopora, ‘An. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Feb. 1874.
? Carinopora 9 ” ” 9 7

Two species—Oryptopora mirabilis, Nich., and Carinopora Hinder—
Nicholson places to these new genera. With all due respect for Professor
Nicholson and his work, I must take his admission that these are
apparently Fenestellide, and as such there was, I am inclined to think, no
need for founding new genera for their reception. The author refers to
Hemitrypa, and, in one sense, compares his genera with the genus of
M‘Coy. Unfortunately for the fate of all three genera, we have only
true Fenestella encrusted by a coral, and the diagnosis of the species
given by both authors is encumbered with partly coraline and partly
polyzoal structures. All the illustrations which Professor Nicholson gives
are structures found in typical Fenestella,! with the exception of Fig. 2 g,
p. 81. Here the ‘carina,’ or keels, are apparently united by ‘stolons,’
which may bé sections of the tabule only of the encrusting coral. Fig.
f is without this ‘stoloniferous’ connection, but both are sections of
branches cut through perpendicular to the surface, and showing the
largely developed keel, with the transverse section of the cells. Fig. 2 is
one of these, isolated. It would be better to view the structures reversed.
Figs. d and e are evidently ordinary Fenestella, and the sections above
described are portions of the same frond.? The development of the keel
is remarkable, and speaking of CO. Hindei Nicholson says, ‘ The thickness
of the frond, measured at right angles to its plane of growth, is one line
or a little more, nearly two-thirds of this being accounted for by the great
internal keels.’ This is equalled by the species F. Lyelli, Dawson, which
is figured and partly described in ‘ Acadian Geology.’*

1826-33. Glauconome disticha, Goldf. Petr. Germ.
1874-5. Ramipora, Toula, Permo-Carbon. Fossilien.4
? 1878. > Hochstettert, Toula, Bigsby, Devonian Carboniferous.
1879. - » var. Oarinata, R. Eth. Jun. ‘ Geo. Mag.’ 1879.
’ See the illustration in the An, Mag. of N. Hist. Feb. 1874,
? IT wish the reader to refer to Nicholson’s paper as given above,
* Carb. Limestone, pp. 288-9.
* See Arctic Pal, Polyzoa, R, Etheridge, Jun., 1878. Jour. Geo, Society.

170 REPORT—1881.

I arrange these genera and species, not because they are allies, but
because they are the reverse of that. The genera are as distinct as
genera can be, yet they have been confounded by authors. The G.
disticha of Goldfuss is, I think, distinctly an Upper Silurian type. The Bala
type of Glauconome is a different genus; and Ramipora, as described by
Toula, has five or six rows of irregular pores. The genus Ramipora
is a Permo-Carboniferous type, and although having some facial resem-
blance to the species from the Bala beds, and figured as Ramiépora, var.
carinata, Eth. Jun.', by Mr. Robert Etheridge, Jun., the two forms differ
in many respects considerably. Ramipora is much larger naturally than
the Bala Glawconome; the cells are differently arranged. In the Lower
Silurian species, both the primary and the secondary branches bear two
rows of alternately arranged cells. Having handled and carefully examined
the specimen in the School of Mines, figured by Mr. R. Etheridge, jun.,
Ramipora Hochstettert, var. carinata, Kth., I can bear willing testimony to
the faithful delineation of this beautiful type.

There are several specimens of this as yet undescribed genus in the
collection already named, and their study will afford a good general idea
of the varying habit of the species.

1844. Polypora, M‘Coy.

Zoarium a delicate, reticulated, calcareous expansion. Branches round,
from three to five rows of cell-openings—margins usually not projecting,
branches connected (occasionally) by thin dissepiments.

This genus is represented by only one species, P. crassa, Lons., in the
Wenlock Limestone, Dudley. The genus was more fully represented in
America in the Devonian strata,—in our own country—in the Arctic
regions—and India during the Carboniferous epoch. Professor Nicholson ?
describes and figures three species: P. pulchella, Nich., P. tenella, Nich.,
P. tuberculata, Nich. Asa P. tuberculata has been previously described
by Prout? the name of Nicholson is rather unfortunate, as there is a
difference in the two species, for Nicholson says his is allied to P. verucosa,
M‘Coy, and as such it differs from Prout’s P. tuberculata, if the identifica-
tions of the Messrs. Young be correct. P. pulchella and P. tenella are
nearly allied to P. Halliana, Prout, which occurs ‘in the St. Lonis
Group of Illinois, and which I have likewise detected in the Corniferous
formation of Ontario.’—Nicholson.

I have now gone over all the genera wherein the cell-characters are
either ovate or sub-tubular, without saying arbitrarily that these genera
and species belong to the CycLostomaTa. I have begun with the species
having the nearest apparent affinities with the CuerLostomaTA, and then
allowed the others to fall in, in a consecutive order. This temporary
arrangement will be better for the present, and this will allow time for a
proper classification when the whole of the Paleozoic Polyzoa have been
more Closely studied. The following genera I have not the least hesita-
tion in placing with the Cyclostomata as at present understood.

1859. CycLosromata, Busk.

‘Cell tubular; orifice terminal, of same diameter as the cell, without
any moveable apparatus for its closure ; consistence calcareous.’ 4
) Geo. Mag. 1879. 2-New Devonian Fossils, Gieo. Mag., 1874.

$ Trans. of Acad. of Science, St. Louis, Geo. Mag., June, 1874.
‘ Monograph of the Crag Polyzoa, p. 9.

ON FOSSIL POLYZOA. 171

1825. Stomatopora, Bronn.
1821. Alecto, Lamx. 1826. Aulopora (pars.) Goldfuss.

*Zoarium closely adnate throughout, simple or irregularly branched ;
branches linear or ligulate ; cells disposed in a simple series or in more or
less regular transverse rows of from two to four.’!

A few types of this genus are present in the Palsozoic rocks of this
country—in the Devonian of Hifel—and in America.

James Hall, in his ‘ Pal.’ of New York, vol. i., records the existence of
Alecto inflata in the Trenton Limestone. This is a very simple serial
species of a most remarkable type. From the same stratum he records
another species, Aulopora arachnoidea, altogether different from the first
type. Except that Hall calls these species ‘ corals,’ there are not in his
descriptions any characters that would prevent them being properly
placed with the Polyzoa. I have already alluded to this species, A. inflata,
Hall, when writing of Hippothoa. I now restore it to its proper place.

1874. Alecto auloporides, Nich.?
,» frondosa = Aulopora frondosa, James.
1874. ,, confusa, Nich.

These seem to be true Stomatopora (Alecto of Busk), and their exist-
ence is recorded by Nicholson as appearing in the Lower Silurian or
Hudson River Group. One species, A. auloporides, as a branching form,
survives into the Niagara Limestone. In the Caradoc series of Fossils in
the School of Mines, a small specimen of Polyzoa is marked Heteropora,
allied to H. crassa. This is a very peculiar species, but in no way related
to Heteropora as now understood. The cells are short and tubular,
alternately placed on the sides of the branch, very similar to the figure given
by Nicholson. Having carefully examined the specimen, I therefore—
ee y Piece it as a variety, at least, of Stomatopora auloporides,

ich,

I have, since the above was written, discovered no less than three
distinct species of Stomatopora in the Upper Silurian Shales of Shropshire.
One I have figured and described—S. dissimilis, Vine.* Of the others I have
not yet sufficient details to allow of description. I have also discovered
two species of Ascodictyon,® full details of which will be published. In
King’s Monograph of Permian Fossils, pl. 3, fig. 13, a figure is given of
—apparently—a badly preserved specimen of Stomatopora. It very much
resembles the species of Hall, but no cell-mouths are given. King names
it Aulopora (Stomatopora) Voigtiana, King.

1839. Diastopora (Aulopora) consimilis, Lonsd.

A species of Polyzoa, named as above, is in the Ketley Collection at
the School of Mines. It is found in the Wenlock Limestone series, but
no locality is given. This is the Awlopora consimilis Lonsd. of the Silurian
System, pl. 15, fig. 7. I have found fragments in the washings of
Mr. Maw.® Another specimen of the same species, from the Wenlock
Limestone, Dudley, encrusting a small coral, is in the cabinet of

? Busk, Cyclostomata, p. 22.

? Paper read at Brit. Assoc., Belfast ; printed, An. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1875.

3 Catalogue of Silurian Fos., p. 44, case vii. 4.

4 Geo. Soc. Pap. read June 22, 1881.

5 Nicholson, An. Mag. Nat. Hist., June, 1877.

® In plate 15, Silurian System, reproduced as pl, xli., Siduria, ed, 1859, marked 7,
Diastopora ? consimilis, probably a Bryozoon.

172 REPORT—1881.

Mr. Longe, of Cheltenham. In the Devonian collection of Polyzoa, at the
School of Mines, a species marked Berenicea M‘Ooyii, Salter, Middle
Devonian, Padstow, bears a very close resemblance to this Silurian type.
Unfortunately the Devonian specimen is very poorly preserved, but I
can trace in the zoarium a sufficient number of cells to afford me some
idea of the general character. The specimen in Mr. Longe’s cabinet I
have carefully studied, and I now give a description with very accurate
measurements.

Zoaria encrusting by a single layer a fragment of coral. Zowcia
tubular, rather regular, in series. As several colonies are found upon the
same coral, a remarkably irregular character is given to the associated
zoaria. For the purpose of this diagnosis I isolate a single colony. Cell-
mouths circular, with a well-formed peristome, and slightly less than the
diameter of the tubes. Six zowcia occupy the space of a line measured
across the mouths of the cells, and two and half, to three, lengthwise in
the same space.!

The habit of Lonsdale’s species in the School of Mines, and also
Salter’s Devonian Berenicea, is that of the ordinary Diastopora. The
habit of the species here described, and also the measurements, correspond
with Nicholson’s <Alecto confusa. If these be true -Diastopora—for I
cannot ignore the existence of D. consimilis and Berenicea M‘Coyii—we
have a true tubular Diastopora carried backward in time to the Wenlock
Limestone ; consequently the Berenicea which I left provisionally with
the Diastoporide,? will be displaced by undoubted tubular species. The
measurement of Alecto confusa, Nich., is five cells to the line, measured
across the mouth.* This is slightly less than my own, and may be
accounted for by the more compact arrangement of the cells in the Dudley
specimen.

1826. Ceriopora, Goldfuss.
Several species of this genus are given as Upper Silurian by authors,
Ceriopora affinis, Goldfuss.
35 granulosa, 3
zs punctata, a

and Nicholson in his New Devonian Fossils adds Ceriopora ? Hamiltonensis,
of which he says, ‘ This beautiful little fossil (about five cells occupy the
space of a line vertically) occurs in great abundance in some of the beds
of the Hamilton Formation. It is allied to C. punctata, Gold., and
Millepora interporosa, Phill. (‘Geo. of York.’) I am at present un-
able to decide as to its true generic affinities, and have simply referred it
provisionally to Ceriopora.’ I will also leave it and the other species
alone for the present. The whole of the Cerioporide will have to be re-
vised, and species from the Silurian to the Crag will have to be re-worked.

1821. Spiropora, Lamx.
In some of the shale-washings supplied to me by Mr. Maw from strata
below the Wenlock Limestone, I have come across many beautiful frag-

1 This was written in December, 1880, a copy of which was furnished shortly
after to Mr. Longe, for his correction and approval for publication in this Report, as
Alecto confusa, Nicholson? var. vegularis. I have seen since that a paper has been
read by him on Diastopora, at the Geological Society, May, 1881. I have no desire to
press my own name in preference to his, seeing that I wrote my description previously
to the examination of Lonsdale’s and M‘Coy’s Silurian and Devonian species in the
School of Mines.

2 Review of the Fam. Diastoporide, Quart. Jowr. Geo. Soc., Aug. 1880.

3 Nicholson does not say this, but I infer it from his remarks.

ON FOSSIL POLYZOA. Lis

ments of this genus, which will enable me to carry back the type to
Silurian times. Mr. R. Tate has already carried back the genus to
the Lias,! but the specific differences between the Liassic and Silurian
forms are very marked. The Silurian species I shall describe under the
name of Spiropora regularis, Vine.

1874. Botryllopora, Nicholson.?

This curious genus, founded by Nicholson for Devonian species, is
allied to Defrancia and Lichenopora, but unlike either. The author says
‘T have been unable to refer these singular Polyzoa to any existing group,
and have therefore been compelled to found a new genus for their recep-
tion. YZoarium calcareous, sessile, and encrusting, forming systems of
small circular discs, the upper surfaces of which are marked with radiat-
ing ridges, upon which the cells are carried. Hach disc is attached by its
entire lower surface, slightly convex above, with a central nonporiferous
space, round which a number of radiating poriferous ridges occupy an
exterior, slightly elevated zone. Cells forming a double series on each
-ridge, immersed. with rounded mouths, which.are not elevated in any
part of their circumference above the general surface.’ *

‘One species is given, B. socialis, Nich. Pl. ix. fig. 16, and it is not of
very rare occurrence in the Hamilton Formation. Ihave not seen among
any of our own Paleozoic Polyzoa any approach to this genus. It may
be well to direct attention to the characters, because workers may find
even this amongst the group of our hitherto most neglected fossils.

In my first Report (‘ British Carboniferous Polyzoa,’ 1880*) I said that
“to the Paleontologist the study of the Palseozoic Polyzoa opens up many
very important biological details; for the connection of the Polyzoa with
the Graptolites is a question that must be dealt with in detail.”

Since this was written I have gone over much that has been written
in this country on this debatable subject. Professor Huxley, Mr. Salter,
‘and Professor H. Alleyne Nicholson have severally occupied themselves
cwith this question of affinity. Mr. Salter says, ‘1 think Professor Huxley
first suggested the resemblance to Defrancia’° ; his own opinion, how-
ever, was very decidedly expressed. ‘The point I would chiefly call
attention to is that there is a complete series up to the most compound
in this remarkable family’; and after pointing out the varied features of
the leading types of the Giraptolitide, he concludes by saying ‘ Dendrograptus
has the branches numerous, unsymmetrical, and crowded, while Dictyonema
completes the series by showing the numerous rod-like stems each with
their cells in double rows, connected by numerous transverse bars into a
network like that of Fenestella, to which, indeed, I believe it forms the
passage group.’® Professor Nicholson, after examining in detail the
various points raised by Mr. Salter, says, ‘'The “ polyzoarium ” (of the
Polyzoa) is commonly more or less highly charged with lime, and this is
especially the case with the fossil-forms. The polypary of the Graptolites,
on the other hand, are invariably corneous (or chitinous).’7 Notwithstand-
ing these varied opinions, I very reluctantly reviewed the whole of the
points mooted by Nicholson and others, and then submitted my notes to

1 Spiropora liassica, Tate, Geo. Mag., 1875.

2 Canadian Jour., No. 80, Geo. Mag., 1874, p. 23. 3 Ibid. p. 23.
4 British Association Reports.

5 Memoirs of the Geological Survey—North Wales, p. 328, 1866.

6 Thid. " British Graptolitida, p. 85.

1881.

REPORT

174

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175

ON FOSSIL POLYZOA.

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176 _REPORT—1881.

Mr. Lapworth’s scrutiny before publication. He has gone over every one
of these notes critically, and, as his decision is adverse to my own views
(founded to a large extent upon facial resemblances), I cannot do other-
wise than bow to his dictum. ‘If the Polyzoa and the Graptolithina
had a common ancestor—a view I have always been disposed to adopt
myself—it must have existed at an antiquity far more greatly removed
from Silurian times than Silurian time is from our own ages; for the
differences which then separated the two groups appear to have been
almost as gigantic in importance as those which divide the Hydrozoa and
Polyzoa of the present day.’

For the purpose of comparison I append a list of the leading genera
of the Graptolites with the genera of Polyzoa found in the same forma-
tions.

Vertical Range of Graprouirss, according, to Nicholson, Lapworth, and
' Catalogue of Cambrian and Silurian Fossils, School of Mines.

(L.) Lapworth. (N.) Nicholson. (8.M.C.) School of Mines Catalogue.

Formation. Genera only given, with corresponding increase of Polyzoa.
Cambrian. Oldhamia antiqua, Forbes ; 0. radiata, Forbes (S.M.C. p. 8).
Up. Lingula Flags. | Dictyonema sociale, Salter (S.M. p. 12), also in Tremadoc slates

: (N.)
Arenig and Llan- | Dichograptus, Didymograptus, Tetragraptus, Climacograptus,
deilo, Diplograptus, Graptolithus, Rastrites, Dictyonema? Phyllo-

graptus, Graptolithus (8.M.C. pp. 17-18), Trigonograptus,
Ptilograptus, Dendograptus, Callograptus, Dictyograptus
(Lap.) PoLyzoA: Phyllopora, Ptilodictya (Lower Llandeilo),
Branching polyzoon (8.M.C. p. 20), hardly distinguishable in
form from Graptolithina, only it is caleareous.

Up. Llandeilo. Didymograptus, Tetragraptus, Climacograptus, Diplograptus,
Dicranograptus, Graptolithus, Rastrites, Dictyonema, Pro-
tovireularia, Helicograptus, Pleurograptus, Dicellograptus,
Cyrtograptus (8.M.C. pp. 23-24). Ponyzoa: Ptilodictya
and Fenestella ? n.p. (Ibid. p. 28).

Caradoc. Climacograptus, Diplograptus, Dicranograptus, Dendograptus,
Graptolithus ($.M.C, p. 31). PoLyzoA: Berenicea, Fenes-
tella, Glauconome, Phylopora, Ptilodictya, great increase of
species (Ibid. p. 44).

Lower Llandovery | No Graptolites in 8. M. C., Climacograpsus one sp., Graptolites
priodon, Bronn (Nich. Mono. pp. 97, 98). PoLyzoA: Fenes-
tella ? Glauconome innexa, Phyllopora, Ptilodictya.

Up. Llandovery Graptolithus priodon, Dictyonema (8.M.C. p. 69). POLYZOA :
Ptilodictya, Fenestella.
Wenlock Shale Cladograptus, Cyrtograptus, Graptolithus, Retiolites, Dictyo-

nema (S8.M.C. p. 81). Pouyzoa: Fenestella, Ptilodictya
(Stomatopora species. Vine).

Wenlock Limestone | Gaptolithus priodon, Bronn (8.M.C. p. 93), Graptolites colonos,
Retiolites, Cyrtograpsus, Ptilograpsus (Nich. p. 98). PoLy-
ZOA: great increase of species, see list.

Lower Ludlow Dendograptus, Graptolithus (8.M.C. p. 115). Four species
recorded both in Catalogue and the same by Nicholson.
Upper 5, Graptolithus sp. recorded (8S. M. Cat. p. 128).

1 Concluding remark in Mr. Lapworth’s letter to me, May 16, 1881.

ON THE SCOTTISH ZOOLOGICAL STATION. 177

Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. M. Foster, the late
Professor Rotieston, Mr. Pyr-Smiru, Professor Hux.ey, Dr.
CARPENTER, Dr. GWYN JEFFREYS, Mr. F. M. Batrour, Sir C.
WYVILLE THomson, Professor RAY LANKESTER, Professor ALLMAN,
and Mr. Percy SuavEN (Secretary), appointed for the purpose
of aiding in the maintenance of the Scottish Zoological Station.

Tur Committee beg to report that with the aid of the grant (501.) voted
last year, they have been able to assist in the maintenance of the Station
whilst at Cromarty. The most important work undertaken during this
period has been the ‘ Observations on the Locomotor System of the
Echinodermata,’ by Mr. Romanes and Professor Ewart. The paper con-
taining the results of the investigations, having been constituted the
Croonian Lecture, was read at the meeting of the Royal Society, held on
March 24. A short account of the work was given in ‘ Nature,’ No. 597,
vol. 23; and an abstract will appear in the ‘Proceedings of the Royal
Society.’

The authors report that during their investigations they directed
attention chiefly to the structure and function of the ambulacral and
nervous systems. By injection, they satisfied themselves :—

(1) That the ambulacral was independent of the blood-vascular system,
and that both systems were in communication with the external medium
at their common origin in the madreporic plate—the blood-vascular sys-
tem being in freer communication with the exterior than the ambulacral
system.

: (2) That in the common Holothurian, the ambulacral fluid passed
from the circular canal into five small] sinuses, from which it might either
enter the radial canals or the large sinuses at the bases of the tentacles.

Of the nervous system, it was shown that in Echinus the lateral
branches from the radial trunks escaped with the pedicels and blended
with an external sub-epidermic plexus, which extended on to the spines and
pedicellarie.

In the physiological part of the paper it was pointed out—

(1) That the natural movements of the echini exhibit great co-or-
dination, and further, that Echinoderms when inverted always right
themselves.

(2) That Echinoderms endeavour to escape from injury ina direct
line from the source of irritation.

(3) That the pedicels, spines, and pedicellarize approximated when
any part of the surface of the shell was irritated.

(4) That severe internal or external irritation had a powerful influence
on the spines and pedicels.

(5) That starfish and echini, when their eye-spots are intact, crawl
towards the light.

(6) That detached rays of starfish act in the same way as the entire
animal, while division of the radial nerves destroys co-ordination among
the rays.

(7) That if echini be divided into several portions, the pedicels, spines,
and pedicellarize of these portions continue to exhibit local reflex irrita-
bility ; and ifa portion contains an entire row of pedicels, it is able to
hai and, when inverted, to right itself.

. N

178 REPORT—1881.

(8) That the pentagonal nerve-ring, through having no influence
on the pedicellariz or on the local reflex action of the spines, has a more
centralizing function than any other part of the nervous system.

The work of the Station is being continued this autumn at Oban.
The Committee again respectfully solicit assistance and urge the renewal
of the grant.

During the autumn of 1880, a total sum of 1207. was spent in connec-
tion with the Zoological Station while at Cromarty. The 50/. voted by
the British Association was partly used for providing apparatus and
reagents, and partly for paying for the use of a steam-launch and for
boatmen.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. M. Foster, Professor
Rouueston, Mr. Dew-SmituH, Professor HuxLey, Dr. CARPENTER,
Dr. Gwyn JEFFREYS, Mr. Scuater, Mr. F. M. Batrour, Sir C.
WYVILLE THomson, Professor Ray LANKESTER, Professor ALLMAN,
and Mr. Percy SiavEeN (Secretary), appointed for the pwrpose
of arranging for the occupation of a Table at the Zoological
Station at Naples.

Your Committee have the pleasure of reporting the continued success
and prosperity of the Zoological Station at Naples. During the past
twelve months a greater number of naturalists have availed themselves
of the facilities there afforded for investigation than in any previous
year. This of itself is an encouraging testimony to the excellent
management of the establishment, and also forms an index of the con-
tinued and increasing support accorded to the Station by all the chief
Kuropean nations. It may be said truly, and without exaggeration, that
no institution could be more cosmopolitan in its principles of organisa-
tion, or fulfil more admirably the purpose of its existence. The biologists
of all civilised countries are under a debt of gratitude to Professor
Dohrn for the energy and self-sacrifice he has bestowed on this noble
undertaking.

Each annual report issued from the Station contains an account af
some general improvement made in the laboratories, or of the addition
of new appliances or apparatus likely to be of service to the working
naturalist; in fact, every opportunity is taken by the Directorate to
provide whatever the developments of modern methods of investigation
render indispensable, or even desirable, for the success of a student.

(Laboratory).—It is scarcely necessary for this Committee to specify
in detail the various items added to this department during the past year,
and of which a full account is to be found in the last ‘ Bericht tiber die
Zoologische Station’ by Dr. Dohrn, published in the ‘ Mittheilungen aus
der Zool. Station,’ Bd. ii., Heft 4. It will suffice to mention that the
recent additions to the laboratory comprise micro-spectroscopic and
polariscopic apparatus, a new Du Bois-Reymond section apparatus, and
also a valuable series of chemico-physiological apparatus; the latter
through the munificence of the Berlin Academy, by whom an excellent
microscope (of Hartnack’s make) has likewise been presented. This
instrument will naturally be placed in the first instance at the disposal
of the occupant of the Academy table.

The general arrangements for the circulation and distribution of sea-

ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLIS. 179

water throughout the establishment have been considerably improved.
In all the small separate work-rooms, tanks similar to those in the large
laboratory have been erected, and the number of small portable breeding
aquaria has also been increased. The aérating apparatus, which have
now been in use for some time, having proved so satisfactory for develop-
mental investigations, a larger apparatus of the same description is about
to be constructed, in order to supply a current of air of greater strength
and capable of subdivision.

(Library).—The library is being continually increased by the ex-
change of publications with other institutions and by donations from
authors, whilst a number of the older systematic works and descriptions
of travels have recently been purchased. A new appendix to the library
catalogue is issued in the ‘ Mittheilungen,’ Bd. ii., Heft 4.

(Publications).—The various publications undertaken by the Station,
and brought out under its auspices, are now well before the scientific
public, and have already received a worthy and well-merited meed of

raise.
3 (1) Of the series entitled ‘Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel’
two monographs have been issued since the last report, viz., ‘Die
Ctenophoren des Golfes von Neapel’ by Dr. Carl Chun, and ‘Le Specie
del Genere Fierasfer nel Golfo di Napoli’ by Dr. Carlo Emery, Three
monographs are announced to appear during the present year, viz. :—

Monographie der Pantopoda (Pyenogonidee), by Prof. Anton Dohrn.

Die Corallineen, by Graf zu Solms-Laubach.

Monographie der Gattung Balanoglossus, by Dr. J. W. Spengel.

Of these the two first-mentioned are now in the press, and the plates
of Dr. Andres’ monograph on the Actiniz, which will be published sub-
sequently, are already in the lithographer’s hands. A list of twenty-two
monographs has been promised for this series up to the present date.

(2) Of the ‘ Mittheilungen aus der Zoologischen Station zu Neapel,’
vol. ii. is now completed, and vol, iii., part i., is in the press. Many
valuable memoirs have already been published in this periodical.

(8) The ‘ Zoologischer Jahresbericht’ for 1879 was issued at the end
of last year, and that for 1880 is already im the press. The ‘ Bericht’
for 1879 occupied 1,250 pp. and formed two thick volumes, comprising
the labours’ of thirty-six referees. The present Report will not be less
bulky, but will be issued—with a view to the convenience of many
naturalists—in four parts. These will be independently paged, and may
be purchased separately. The division of the work will be as follows :—
Part 1. "Lower Animals; 2. Arthropoda; 3. Mollusca; 4. Vertebrata.

(Submarine Collecting).—During the past two years very important
service has been rendered to the Station by the introduction of diving,
not only as a means of collecting, but also of investigating in situ the
fauna and flora of shallow and moderate depths. As the application of
this method to Natural History purposes is novel, the following particulars
may not be without interest.

Nearly three years ago, Dr. Dohrn conceived the idea that some of
the modern appliances for diving might be made use of for the purposes
of the Zoological Station ; and being at that time in Berlin, a journey was
forthwith taken to Kiel, for the purpose of making preliminary experi-
ments. The water was not especially clear where the descent was made,
in consequence of the bottom being somewhat muddy; nevertheless,
shells and other objects were to be seen distinctly, and the conviction was

N2

180 REPORT—1881.

established that in the clear water of the Mediterranean, advantageous
results would be obtained by the employment of diving. On returning
to Italy Dr. Dohrn made application to the Italian Minister of Marine
for the loan of a ‘Scaphander’ apparatus, a request which was granted
with the greatest liberality. By means of these appliances Dr. Dohrn
and several of the gentlemen of his staff have been enabled during the
last two years to investigate, by actual inspection, the coast and sea-bed
at the following localities:—The neighbourhood surrounding the Castel
dell’ Uovo, the sea-bed of the Chiaja and Mergellina, all the coast and
grottos of Posilippo, the Secca della Gajola, the whole of the circum-
ference of Nisita, the bay of Baja between Pozzuoli and Capo Miseno,
the coasts of Procida and Vivara, the Secca di Vivara, different points of
the coast of Ischia, also a few at Ventotene and Ponza, as well as some
places round Capri, the Blue Grotto, the Siren Islands, and some grottos
at Amalfi. These explorations are continued as often as the weather
permits.

Practice and experience have enabled several improvements to be
effected ; and, indeed, much more depends upon the successful manage-
ment of the diving apparatus than upon the possession of the apparatus
itself.

It is of primary importance that the diver should bea strong man,
able to carry, when out of water, his 165 lbs.—the weight of the dress
and its appurtenances. This is a factor upon which so much rests that
it needs especial notice. In water, however, the apparatus becomes
naturally lighter to carry the deeper the diver proceeds, and even in
four or five fathoms he is able to move about quite conveniently with
it. For the satisfactory attainment by diving of the objects of a zoologist
or botanist, free movement on the sea-floor is unquestionably a sine
qua non.

The mere fact of descending or of being let down is comparatively
unproductive if the diver is not able to seek out special localities where
animal and plant life is richest and most varied; and he would even be
led to conclude that uniformity of character exists on the sea-floor. In
order that the diver may move about freely and without impediment, the
boat which carries the air-pump must always follow his course,—this
being shown by the bubbles of air which ascend from the helmet and
are continually bursting on the surface of the water. The diving-boat
should be large and strong, and will require the following complement.
Two men for rowing, two for keeping the pump continually in motion,
and, as this is fatiguing work, it will be desirable to carry an extra man
as relief, especially if more than one person is diving; whilst another
man, making five or six in all, is needed to attend to the diver’s signal
rope, for the purpose of communication,—the signs being given by pulling
or jerking at this rope. For further convenience, it is desirable to have
a small jolly-boat near by, carrying tubs and buckets for the reception
of the stones, rock-fragments, or other booty which the diver sends up
in the net or fish-basket which is let down to him repeatedly. The diver
himself is armed with hammer and chisel, and will be able, if only
cautious that none of the glasses in his helmet are broken accidentally,
to remain an hour or two at the bottom of the sea, according as he may
wish or as his powers last. Currents are his greatest enemy, and these
are sometimes so strong as to knock the diver down, or if within reach
of the action of the waves he may be pitched about hither and thither

ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 181

with such force that a strong man becomes fatigued in half an hour and
has to be drawn up again. In a tidal sea these forces must be regarded
as great hindrances to the convenient use of diving apparatus.

It is scarcely necessary to indicate the special advantages which are
likely to accrue from the use of diving as an agent in Natural History
research ;—they are of themselves self-evident. By this means it is
possible to explore fissures, cavities, or the under-side of overhanging
rocks, and similar parts of the sea-bottom which are naturally inaccessible
either to the trawl or the dredge. The examination of all such places
is of the greatest importance for the collection of Sponges, Hydroids,
Actiniz, Bryozoa, and all sessile organisms; as well as for Planarians,
Nudibranchs, and other Mollusca; and for the Alge, perhaps, chief of
all. Furthermore, by the aid of a diving apparatus important material,
of the description just enumerated, may be readily procured in large
quantities, whilst the association and variations of organisms may be
studied with the greatest accuracy. Notes can be written, or even
sketches made, by the diver without difficulty ; and direct observations
obtained on the conditions of environment. A more definite knowledge
of the distribution of a marine Fauna and Flora is thus rendered possible
than by any other means of investigation; and we have here a method
of approaching many problems which had hitherto seemed inaccessible,
and whose solution has been wholly hypothetical.

Amongst the rarities recently procured may be mentioned:—
Rhodosoma (Chevreulius) callense, Heller, the northern Lophogaster typicus,
Sars, several new forms of parasitic Bopyride, as well as various
Scopelide.

(The Preservation of Specimens).—This has always been an important
feature in the general routine of the Station. Hxperience and careful
investigation have brought about numerous improvements in the methods
of treating different groups of organisms ; and success has been attained
in various cases which had hitherto been regarded as impracticable. In
testimony of the excellence of manipulation, it may be mentioned that at
the International Fishery Exhibition, held at Berlin, in 1880, a First
Prize and Gold Medal were awarded to the Zoological Station for the
preservation of marine animals.

(The British Association Table).—During the past year, two naturalists
have occupied the British Association table, viz., Mr. Francis G. Penrose
and Mr. Allen Harker. These gentlemen have furnished reports of the
investigations undertaken by them during their occupancy of the table,
in accordance with the requirements of this Committee. These reports
will be found appended below ; and it is gratifying to note that interesting
results outspringing from the studies there specified will, in all probability,
be published shortly.

Application has been made for the use of the table, during the coming
year, by Mr. Patrick Geddes, by whom important results, from a previous
short oceupation of this table, in 1879, have already been published.
Mr. Geddes is now desirous of prosecuting certain special investigations ;
these will extend over a longer period, and Mr. Geddes will be
accompanied by an assistant, whose services are rendered necessary by
the nature of the investigations about to be undertaken.

With the foregoing facts and details before them, your Committee
would most strongly urge the renewal of the grant for the ensuing year.
They would further recommend that the amount be increased to 90J., in

182 REPORT—1881.

consideration of the additional advantages now afforded to the occupier
of a table, as specially mentioned in the last report.

I. Report on the Occupation of the Table by Mr. Allen Harker.

By the kind permission of the Committee, I occupied the British
Association’s table, at the Zoological Station, at Naples, from the 14th
Feb. to the 20th May, 1881. For the first few weeks I devoted my
attention to a general study of the comparative Morphology of the
organs of circulation and respiration in the Polychatous Annelids, more
especially in the sedentary forms (Tubicola). I then confined myself to
the examination of one particular group, the family Maldanide, and the
closely allied Ammocharide, and continued my researches on these
families, as represented in the Bay of Naples, during the remainder of
my stay. I studied the histology of the remarkable coloured bands
(ceintures of Claparéde) which adorn some of the anterior segments in
the various species of Maldanide, with a view to tracing their relation
Gf any) to the function of respiration. With that object I made some
2,000 sections, and prepared a large amount of material, which I am still
engaged in working out. The results I purpose publishing as soon as
they are completed. The frequent occurrence in the Bay of the singular
Ammochares fusiformis, Della Chiaja, and its close relationship with
the Maldanide, led me to make a careful study of it, in the hope of
elucidating some points in its anatomy which had been left incomplete
by Claparede. I succeeded in tracing the nervous system, in continuous
sections of the whole animal, which had (by that method) escaped the
notice of the illustrious author of ‘Les Annelides du Golfe de Naples.’
The advantage of having so large a supply of this species enabled me to
examine some thousands of specimens, and to note some interesting
variations in the form of the branchial apparatus: these, too, I hope to
make public shortly, together with drawings of the special features
observed, ~

T had a further opportunity of studying the habits of Phyllocheetopterus
pergamentaceus, and extending the observations of Claparéde on the
structure of its tubes. I was (during the whole of my stay) kept
supplied with abundant material, which is so indispensable to the study
of my subject.

In addition to the opportunity afforded of carrying out my studies
under the most favourable and perfect of conditions, I am indebted to my
visit to the Station for much valuable knowledge of new and improved
methods of manipulation in biological research, which cannot fail to be
of lifelong service. An opportunity of putting some of that knowledge
to a very practical use has been afforded me since my return, in fitting
up a small biological laboratory, at the Royal Agricultural College, at
Cirencester, where I haye been largely guided by my Naples experiences.

While it would be merely superfluous to add one word in praise of
the Station, I shonld fail in my duty were I not to record my deep
gratitude for the uniform and kindly assistance rendered by the whole of
the staff, and for the great interest which Professor Dohrn took in my
work, and the very valuable advice and assistance he was ever ready to
afford me.

For the permission to oceupy the table I beg to tender my sincere
thanks.

ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 183

Il. Report on the Occupation of the Table by Mr. Francis G. Penrose.

I asked for permission to use the British Association’s table at
the Zoological Station at Naples, so that, as I was obliged to leave England
by medical advice at the beginning of this year, for three months,
I might, if possible, employ a portion of my time in endeavouring to get
some practical idea of general marine zoological work, especially with
reference to the numerous invertebrate larval forms: their mode of
capture, appearance, and the means in use at the Station of preserving
them and showing their structure. The only point which I proposed to
myself for special investigation was the vascular system of Lamellibranchs,
which had been suggested to me by Professor Lankester in connection
with Solen lequmen. ;

Many eminent naturalists—as Lacaze-Duthiers, Agassiz, Langer—
have studied the subject, and have demonstrated many points, both in
the general course of the circulation and the channels through which the
blood passes. In doing so they have almost invariably had recourse to
artificial injection, which, though it hag shown a great deal of much
importance, has not proved entirely successful, probably because the
arterial and venous portions of .the-circulatory system appear not to be
connected by definitely-walled capillary passages, but that the blood finds
its way, after leaving the arteries, amongst and between the various
tissues and organs of the body, and is only re-collected into true
sanguiniferous tubes near the great vena cava.

So that further investigation was still necessary, to decide such
questions as to whether any blood passes into the cavity of the pericar-
dium; and, if so, what becomes of it ? Whether the apertures which con-
nect the vascular system with the exterior are only for the inception of
external fluid; or whether, under any circumstances, liquid contained in
the vessels is able to pass outward through them? In fact, whether the
liquid which is so copiously thrown out by a Lamellibranch, on con-
traction, consists of blood, or of any portion of the blood-fluid ? Solen
legumen seemed to be particularly favourable for the study of these
questions, as the blood of this animal, besides possessing ordinary
colourless corpuscles, is particularly rich in bright red corpuscles,
discovered by Professor Lankester, and shown by him to contain
hemoglobin, which forms a perfectly natural injection ; and, as will be
seen from what has been said above, this is a point of very great
importance. Unfortunately, notwithstanding the exertions made to
obtain for me as many individuals of this species as possible, but very
few were forthcoming, and those were nearly all full-grown, which were
not very suitable, owing to the want of transparency and to the practical
difficulties of manipulation,—the slightest injury rendering the individual
useless for the research. But, from what I saw in them, I venture to
think that, had it been possible to obtain younger specimens, they would
have enabled me to settle those questions I was hoping to answer. As a
definite result, I consider that (at any rate, in the only individual that
allowed me a favourable examination) there were not any red corpuscles
in the cavity of the pericardium, excepting, of course, those contained
within the heart. In conclusion, I have to thank the staff at the Station
for the constant facilities and assistance they afforded me.

184

REPORT—1881.

III. A List of the Naturalists who have worked at the Station from the end
of June, 1880, to the end of June, 1881.

| Duration of Occupancy

v 5 a State or Universit

ee Naturalist’s Name | whose Table “f

List was made use of Arrival Departure
146 | Prof. Emery . | Italy ° July 21, 1880 | Nov. 11, 1880
147 | Cand. Koster . | Bavaria . Aug. 24 ,, (Ooi aS
148 | Prof. Gasco ; Italy . SEU. 55, WeeeD. ws

ms- <i

ame To ree ee 1 Strasburg eee
150 | Dr. Gaule | Saxony LO IS, re

151 | Prof. Salensky . | Russia Fy a: en June 11, 1881
152 | Prof. Kroneker - | Berlin Academy . az Oct. 29, 1880
153 | Dr. G. Colasanti ./| Italy . A po 4) Oe aes
154 | Dr. Weyl . | Berlin ‘Academy . Octelom Mar. 16, 1881
155 | Prof. R. Kossmann . | Baden. : ey i

156 | Herr G. M. Bedot Switzerland NOV OME G5 Sl ae
157 | Dr. G. C. J. Vosmaer | Holland SS ERO chs Feb. 19 ,,
158 | Dr. A. Della Valle . | Italy . ° - | Jan. 1, 1881

159 | Dr. A. Andres Italy . A . a eal ee

160 | Barone R. Valiante. | Italy . Se 55 ;

161 | Mr. F.G. Penrose . British Association eels, Mar. 23'— .,
162 | Mr. W. H. Caldwell. | Cambridge. Webra 2);

163 | Dr. Ulianin . . | Russia hte. 435 June li ,,
164 | Mr. Allen Harker . BritishAssociation “pe May 21 ,,
165 | Dr. Carl Friedliinder | Prussia . ao lire ae Mar, sO. 5,
166 | Dr. J. W. van Wyhe | Holland , Pi Ass June ale
167 | Dr. J. Carriére Strasburg March ‘ie Wess April 23 ___,,
168 | Dr. E. Zacharias Hamburg A op cs Oe” as
169 | Dr. J. Brock Bavaria . < en ay Se Cee ss
170 | Prof. W. Flemming. Prussia : , =) La 53 LI ee
L71,| Drsva Mereschkovsky Russia seam 2T

172 | Dr. J. MacLeod Belgium . «=| March: 9) 5,

(73 DrC. Chun. Saxony P a Ss ss Ste ass
174 | Prof. Selenka . Wiirtemberg aya Ue 5, gees
175 | Dr. Griesbrecht - | Prussia April 2. ,,

| 176 | Prof. Ed. van Beneden| Belgium Ste TOs

| 177 | Cand. E.Géldy _—. | Switzerland init 18 same

| 178 | Dr. H. Kraepelin Hamburg : eri Ha June 3 4;
179 | Professor v. Kock . | Darmstadt . | Udviary, M25 see

IV. A List of Papers which have been published from August, 1878, up to
the end of 1880 by the Naturalists who have occupied Tables a the

Professor Salenski .

Mr. M. Marshall ,

Zoological Station.

6 sér. t. 5, 1877.

Journ. Mier. Science,’ vol. xix.

Etudes sur les Bryozoaires entoproctes.

The Morphalogy of the Vertebrate Olfactory Organ.

* Ann. Science. Nat.’

* Quart.

Professor Merkel
Mr. A. Waters :

Professor Grenacher

Ueber die Endigungen der sensiblen Nerven in der Haut der
Wirbelthiere. Rostock, 1880.

On the Bryozoa of the Bay of Naples.
Nat. Hist.’ vol. iii.

Untersuchungen tiber das Sehorgan der Arthropoden.
tingen, 1879.

‘Ann. and Mag.
Got-

ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES.

Professor Ulianin—
Professor O. Schmidt

Dr. Falkenberg 4

Dr. Gabriel . -
Mr. G. Bullar .

Mr. F. M. Balfour .
Professor Kimer .

Dr. E. Taschenberg

” . .

Dr. A. Lang .

Professor Schmitz .

Dr.C. Chun . =

Professor E. Metsch-
nikoft

»” . .

” . .

Prof. v. Rougemont.
Prof. C. Emery .

Dr. v. Ihering 4

” e .

Mr. Percy Sladen

185

Sur le genre Sagitella. ‘Arch. Zool. Expérim.”’ t. 7.

Zusatz zu Dr. Keller’s Aufsatz itber neue Ccelenteraten aus
dem Golf von Neapel. ‘Arch, f. Mikr. Anat.’ Bd. 18.

Ueber eudogene Bildung normaler Seitensprossen in der Gat-
tungen Rytiphlcea, etc. ‘Nachr. Kon. Ges. Wiss.’ Gottingen,
1879.

Ueber primitives Protoplasma.
1878.

On the Development of the Parasitic Isopoda.
Roy. Soc.’ 1878.

Monograph on the Development of Elasmobranch Fishes.
London, 1878.

Versuche iiber kiinstliche Theilbarkeit von Beroe ovata.
‘Arch. f. Mikr. Anat.’ Bd. 17.

Helminthologisches Zeitsch. f. d. ges. Naturwissensch, 1878.

Beitrage zur Kenntniss ectoparasit. mariner Trematoden.
‘Abh. Naturf. Ges.’ Halle, 1879.

Didymozoon, eine neue Gattung in Cysten lebender Trema-
toden. Ibid.

Die Dotterfurchung von Balanus. ‘ Jenaische Zeitschr.’ Bd. 12.

Die Metamorphose der Nauplius- Larven von Balanus, etc.
‘Mittheil. d. Aarg. Naturf. Ges.’ 1878.

Untersuchungen zur vergl. Anatomie u. Hist. des Nerven-
systems der Plathelminthen. I, ‘ Mittheil. Zoolog. Station,
Neapel,’ Bd. 1.

‘Ber. Schles. Gesellsch.’

‘ Phil. Trans.

Ueber den Bau der Zellen bei den Siphonocladiaceen. ‘ Sitz.-
Ber, niederrh. Ges, f. Nat. u. Heilk. zu Bonn,’ 1879.
Untersuchungen tiber die Zellixerne der Thallophyten. Ibid.

Untersuchungen iiber die Structur des Protoplasmas und der
Zellkerne der Pflanzenzellen. Ibid. 1880.

Bildung der Sporangien bei der Algengattung Halimede.
Ibid.

Die im Golf von Neapel erscheinenden Rippenquallen.
‘ Mittheil. Zool. Station, Neapel.’ Bd. 1.

Die Ctenophoren des Golfs von Neapel und der angrenzenden
Meerestheile. ‘Fauna u. Flora d. Golfs v. Neapel,’ herausg.
v. d. Zool. Station. Leipzig, 1880.

Spongiologische Studien. ‘ Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool.’ Bd. 32.

Ueber die intracellulire Verdauung bei Ccelenteraten. ‘ Zool.
Anzeiger,’ 1880.

Bericht tiber seinen Aufenthalt im Auslande (russisch).
Odessa, 1880.

Ueber Helicopsyche.

La Cornea dei Pesci Ossei.
Econ.’ Palermo, 1878.

Contribuzioni all’ Ittiologia. Reale Accad. dei Lincei, 1878.

Le Specie del genere Fierasfer nel Golfo di Napoli. ‘ Fauna
u. Flora d. Golfs v. Neapel,’ herausg. v. d. Zool. Station.
Leipzig, 1880.

Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Nudibranchien des Mittelmeeres.
§ Malakozool. Blatter,’ N. F. Bd. 2.

Graffilla muricicola, eine parasitische Rhabdoccele. ‘ Zeitschr.
f. wiss. Zool.’ Bd. 34.

On a Remarkable Form of Pedicellaria, etc.
Nat. Hist. 1880.’

‘Zool. Anzeiger,’ 1878.
Dal ‘Giorn. di Scienze Nat. ed

‘Ann, and Mag.

Dr. A. A. W. Hubrecht Vorliufige Resultate fortgesetzter Nemertinen-Untersuchun-

” . .

” . .

a>. . .

gen. ‘Zool. Anzeiger,’ 1879.

The Genera of European Nemerteans critically revised.
‘Notes Leyden Mus.’ 1879.

Vorloopig Overzigt natuurh. Onderzoek, etc.
Stat. te Napels, etc. Leyden, 1879.

Zur Anatomie u. Physiologie des Nervensystems der Nemer-
tinen. ‘Naturk. Verh. d. Koninkl. Akad.’ Deel. XX.

in het Zool.

186

Dr. W. Hubrecht ,

bE} e °
Dr. Della Valle °
Mr. P. Geddes.

rel: ‘Andres i
Dr. Berthold .

Dr. Solger

Dr. Keller ‘ :

3 . e

ry e e

Professor Selenka .

” e e

Professor O. u. R.
Hertwig
Professor v. Koch

Dre ae
kowski

” e .

Meresch-

Professor I", Todaro

Professor A. Gitte .

Dr. W. Vigelius
ry) e .

” o °

Prof. G. Duplessis .

” . .

” e e

Dr. Brock : :
Dr. A. Batelli . .
Dr. Foetinger . ;

” . .
Dr. J. W. Spengel .
Prof. C. Hoffmann .
Dr. Ludwig , C

REPORT—1881.

The Peripherical Nervous System in Palzo- and Schizo-—

Nemertini, one of the layers of the body-wall. ‘Quart.
Journ. Micros. Se.’ 1880.
Het peripherisch Zenuwstelsel der Nemertinen, ‘Tidschr_

Ned. Dierk. Vereen.’ Deel V.
Sui Coriceidi Parassiti e sull’ Anatomia del genere Licho-
molgus. ‘ Mittheil Zool. Station, Neapel,’ Bd. 2.
Sur la Chlorophylle animale. ‘Arch. Zool. Expérim.’ t. 8.
Observations sur le Fluide périviscéral des Oursins. Ibid.
Intorno all’ Edwardsia Claparedii. R. Accad. d. Lincei, 1879.
Zur Kenntniss der Siphoneen und Bangiaceen, ‘ Mittheil.
Zool. Station, Neapel,’ Bd. 2.
Neue Untersuchungen zur Anatomie der Seitenorgane der
Fische. I. Die Seitenorgane der Chimera. ‘Arch. f.
Mikrosk. Anat.’ Bd. 17. II. Die Seitenorgane der Sela-

chier. Ibid. III. Die Seitenorgane der -Knochenfische.
Ibid. Bd. 18.

Zur Entwicklungsgesch. der Chalineen.- ‘Zool. Anzeiger,’
1879.

Studien iiber Organisation u. Entwicklung der Chalineen.
‘Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool.’ Bd. 33.

Neue Ccelenteraten aus dem Golf von ea
Mikr. Anat.’ Bd. 18.

Keimbliatter und Organanlage bei olaniden:
Physik. Med. Soe.’ Erlangen, 1879.

Keimblitter und Organanlagen der Echiniden.
wissensch. Zool.’ Bd. 33.

Die Actinien anat. u. histol. mit bes. Ber: gy = lagoons
untersucht. Jena, 1879.

Bemerkungen itiber das Skelet der Rorallen,
Jahrbuch,’ Bad. 5. °

Sur la Structure de quelques Coralliaires.
1880.

Sur lOrigine et le Développement de l’Quf chez la Méduse
Bucope avant de la fécondation. Ibid.

Sui primi Fenomeni dello Sviluppo delle Salpe.
demia d. Lincei,’ 1880.

Bemerk. zur Entw.-Gesch. der Echinodermen,
1880.

Ein neuer Hydroidpolyp. Ibid. :

Vorloopig Verslag van de Werkzamheden, ete. (Cephalopoden-
Anatomie.)

Ueber das Excretionssystem der Ceplialopodén.
Archiv.’ 1880.

Untersuchungen an Thysanoteuthis rhombus.
Station Neapel,’ Bd. 2.

Observations sur la Cladocoryne flocconeuse. Ibid.

Catalogue provis. des Hydroides médusipares, etc.

Hydroides médusipares du Golfe de Naples.
Vaud.’ 2° sér. vol. xvii.

Versuch einer Phylogenie der dibranchiaten Cephalopoden.
* Dissert. Morphol. Jahrbuch,’ Bd. 6.
Istolog. della Pelle dei Pesci Teleostei.

Industr.’ Firenze, 1880.
Sur la Découverte de l’Hémoglobine dans le systéme aquifére
d’un Echinoderme. ‘ Bull. Acad. Ruy. Belg.’ 2° sér. t. 49.
Sur l’Existence de l’Hémoglobine chez les Echinodermes.
‘Archives de Biologie,’ vol. i.

Die Geruchsorgane und das Nervensystem der Mollusken.
‘Zeitschr f. wissensch. Zool.’ Bd. 35.

Vorliiufige Mitth. zur Ontogenie der Knochenfische.
Anzeiger,’ 1880.

Die Bildung der Hihiillen bei Antedon rosacea. Ibid.

§ Arch. £.
*Sitzber. d.

*Zeitschr. f.

‘Morphol.

Comptes Rendus,”

‘Reale Acca-

‘Zool. Anzeiger,’

* Niederl.

‘ Mittheil. Zool.
Tbid.

*‘ Bull. Soc.

» *Rivista Scientifica-

‘Zool.

“L \od

ON

Rendus,’ 1880.

Sur l’Action des Poissons chez les Céphalopodes.

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES.

187

‘Comptes

» Del’Influence de Milieux alealins ou acides sur les Céphalo-

podes. Ibid.

.» De J’Influence des Lumiéres colorées sur le Développement des
Animaux. Ibid.

‘ ‘Mitth. Zool. Station, Neapel,’ Bd. 2.

V. A List of Naturalists to whom Specimens have been sent from the end of
June, 1880, to the end of June, 1881.

1880.

1881.

June

”

”
July

Prof. Weismann, Freiberg, i. B.
F. von Czeschka, Gratz. .
Professor Kiihne, Heidelberg
Dr. Krukenberg, Heidelberg
Musée Royal, Brussels :
Senator Romer, Hildesheim
Naturw. Cabinet, Stuttgart
Prof. E. K. Hoffmann, Leyden
Prof. Lankester, London .

Dr. HE. B. Aveling A

Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell, London
Prof. Kiihne, Heidelberg .
Dr. Spengel, Gottingen .
Prof. Weismann, Freiberg, i. B.
Zool. Institut, Heidelberg. ‘
Dr. Fraisse, Tutzing. ‘ 2
Dr. W. Lecke, Stockholm 7
Prof. A. M. Marshall, Manchester
P. de Loriol, Chalet des Bois .
Naturh. Museum, Hamburg .,
Zoolog. Museum, Hanover .

Dr. Eger, Vienna.

Dr. Graette, Zool. Station, Trieste
Dr. Spengel, Gottingen .
Prof. von Siebold, Munich
Prof. Emery, Cagliari.
Nicolai-Gymnasium, Leipzig
H.N. Moseley, London .
Senator Romer, Hildesheim
Prof. Steindachner, Vienna
Prof. Plateau, Ghent co
Prof. Ehlers, Gottingen .
Naturh. Museum, Schaffhausen.
Prof. Grenacher, Rostock . .
Dr. W. F, Vigelius, Dordrecht .
E. Graebke, Potsdam : °

Dr. Eger, Vienna ..
Kgl. Gymnasium, Leipzig

Prof. van Beneden, Liittich
Prof. von. Siebold, Munich
Prof. T. J. Parker, New Zealand
Rev. A. M. Norman, Durham
Zoolog. Institut, Strasburg
Dr. Eger, Vienna, a
E. Graebke, Potsdam. <
Dr. Everts, Haag. °
University, Leyden . :
Balt. Verein f. Thierzucht,
Griefswald

e
‘ Liceo Genovesi, Naples . .
.

Hydroida. .
Cephalopoda ,
Fish-eyes. .
Amphioxus .
Various classes
Select preparations.
Select preparations.
Material for dissection
Pontobdella, Amphiglena
Various classes
All classes

Eyes of Mustelus
Chiton. Ostrea
Hydroida L
Various classes
Gastropoda.
Various classes
All classes
Echinodermata
Various classes
Ctenoph., Echinod., Crus-

.
e
°
.
.
°
.

=) ere, eee ee ee (Se
©. sles) je, 8 6 eis. -@ <a)’

tacea . < : .
Allclasses. . .
Living Amphioxus .
Vermes . 6 .
Argentina

Select preparations
All classes . °
Aleyonium . ‘
Fishes. . .
Fishes. . .
Hydromedusa . .
Toxopneustes .
Various classes
Eyes of Cephalopoda.

Cephalopoda é .

Coelent., Echinod., Crus-
tacea . . .

Various classes ‘

All classes
Elementary collection
Ascidize . . ‘
Ophiura . .
All classes :
Crustacea :
Mollusca, 3
Various classes
Mollusca. E
Cestum . s
Ascidize .
Various classes

Lire

120
10
28
27

510

260
19°45
38°35
37°70

3

13°25
219-19
8-10
49°33
652°19
20°5
242

155

188

1881.

Feb.
April

”

28
9
28

28
28
28

REPORT—1881.

Kgl. Cadetten-Corps, Munich .

Hohere Biirgerschule, Dordrecht

Prof. Ausserer, Staats Gym-
nasium, Gratz.

Fric, Naturalienhindler, Prague

Prof, Eimer, Tiibingen

Dr. Chun and Dr. Fraisse, Leip-
zig

Prof. van Beneden, Liittich .

M. Goeldi, Schaffhausen :

Prof, Cattie Arnhem, Holland .

Dr. Carpenter, London ; .

Zoolog. Institut, Leipzig . 5

Dr. Taschenberg, Halle .
Rey. A. M. Norman, Durham
Zool. Institut, Giessen

Zool. Institut, Wurzburg .
Prot. Weismann, Freiberg, i aif B.
Dr. Eger, Vienna . . c
Prof. Butschli, Heidelberg -
Prof. Dames, Berlin .
Dr. E. B. Aveling, London

H. N. Moseley, London :
Naturhist. Museum, Hambure .

C. Giinther, Berlin 5 3
F. M. Balfour, Cambridge

F Lire
Elementary collection . 75
Coelent., Echinod. , Pap cot y(n
Elementary collection 134:23
Various classes 5 « SBS
Annelida, Coelenterata . 162°95
Various classes - a 129%
Select preparations . « 402°25
Various classes 4 . 84°85
Selachii . 5 F 57°50
All classes 265°85

Cephalopoda, Echinoder-

mata “ . 331°75
Various classes, for anatomy 68°50
Echin., Crust., Sponges 152°82
Various classes, for anatomy 164°5
Various classes, for anatomy 13215

Hydroida 2°85
Coelent., Vermes 3 OT
Amphioxus, Hippocampus 17°66

Heads of Fishes . ana

Various classes 5 . 150°93
Various classes 825°
All classes, except Mol-
lusca . c , . 24673
Radiolaria - F . 4
Various . > . 102°40
8492°57

VI. A List ‘of Naturalists to bho Microscopic Preparations have been sent
from the end of June, 1880, up to June, 1881.

1880, July 1
Nov. 30

1881.

10

Lire

Prof. Fiirbringer, Amsterdam 12 preparations 35°75
A. Myévre, Nice .. “ : 5 - 20 ” 44°50
Dr. A. Valle, Trieste f A : ae LS 8 31:50
Dr. Guida, Naples. . 4 : ; Aerie] ” 2°50
Maurice Bedot, Geneva . ‘ 2 ” 3°
L. Dreyfus, London all anatomical preparations 563-50
Percy Sladen, Halifax 28 preparations 60°
Prof. L. von. Schmarda, Vienna . 62 A. 144-25
Prof. Berlin, Amsterdam : . 59 * 131°50
Prof. Salensky, Kasan . ‘ 5 33 ” 73:0
Dr. Vigelius, Dordrecht . : . 7 ” 17°
Prof. Huxley, London .. é 3 . 49 - 118°50
Prof. Heller, Innsbruck . 25 5 58°75
Prof. Waldeyer, Strasburg 2 12 PI 27°64
Prof, Ausserer, Gratz 3 j 28 A 60°
Prof. van Bambeke, Ghent é . 68 PA 157°
Prof. Emery, Bologna . : 59 : 134°50
Wallroth & Co., London . 124 o 259°75
Prof. Schneider, Breslau . 76 5 150°75
Prof. EH. van Beneden, Liége . 50 119-
Prof. P. van Beneden, Louvain 50 3 Lats
Dr. Bouvin, Utrecht .. A A Sts oA! % 8:

“ Bees 5 60°

Zoolog. Institut, Budapest . .

2377°39

ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 189

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. J. A. Harvie Brown,
Mr. JoHN CorDEAUX, and Professor NeEwron, appointed at
Swansea for the purpose of obtuining (with the consent of the
Master and Brethren of the Trinity House, and of the Com-
missioners of Northern Lights) observations on the Migration
of Birds at Lighthouses and Lightships, and of reporting on
the same, at York, in 1881.

Printed schedules for filling in observations, accompanied by letters
of instruction (similar to those laid on the table), were issued by
Mr. Cordeaux and Mr. Harvie Brown to 83 stations on the east coast of
Scotland and England and the Channel Islands, a large proportion of
these being light-vessels, situated far from land in the North Sea.

On the west coast of Scotland and the Western Isles, including the
Isle-of-Man, Mr. Harvie Brown supplied papers to 38 stations.

And on the West Coast of England Mr. Philip Kermode, of Ramsey,
Isle-of-Man (whose kind assistance the Committee desire gratefully to
acknowledge), issued papers to 39 lighthouses and lightvessels.

Altogether the stations from which co-operation was asked number
160.

From these, returns have been received from 103, namely: east coast
stations, 46; west coast stations, 57. From several stations letters
have also been received, stating that the scarcity, or total absence of
birds, has prevented any return being,sent in.

Schedules, letters of instructions, were also forwarded, through
Mr. Alexander Buchan (Secretary, Scottish Meteorological Society,
Edinburgh) to three stations, two in Iceland and one in Faroe. A fourth,
more northern station, is secured on Fair Island for 1881, Mr. William
Lawrence having kindly undertaken the work. The Faroe station has
failed this year, but the Committee hope better things from it next.

The Committee have also made arrangements with Mr. Alexander
Goodman More, of Glasnevin, Dublin, and Mr. Richard M. Barrington,
of Fassaroe, Co. Wicklow, to undertake the working of the Irish coast in
1881, and beg leave to suggest that these gentlemen, as well as Mr. Philip
Kermode, before mentioned, and Mr. James Hardy, of Old Cambus,
Berwickshire (who has rendered great assistance to the Committee in
the Scotch stations), be added to the Committee, should it be re-appointed.

Great credit is due to the various observers for the careful and
painstaking manner in which the greater proportion of the returned
schedules have been sent in. The observations taken are a decided
improvement on those of the preceding year, when the men were new to
the work; and they exhibit generally, in a marked degree, the intelligent
interest taken in the inquiry. The work, it must be remembered, is
entirely voluntary, and often carried on under circumstances of consider-
able difficulty and discomfort.

The Committee beg to express their best thanks to the Master and
Elder Brethren of the Trinity House, and the Commissioners of Northern
Lights, for their ready co-operation and- assistance, through their officers.
and men, in the inquiry. Indeed, without the help thus afforded, the
observations could never have been obtained.

The best returns, as might have been expected, have been sent in

190 REPORT—1881.

from isolated stations, at lighthouses on islands and skerries off the
coast, as well as from the lghtvessels. Lighthouses situated some
distance inland, or surrounded by houses, make few returns, or none.

In presenting their report, your Committee are aware that the
inquiry is as yet in its infancy. Their work, so far, has been mainly to
collect and tabulate sufficient data, from which they have every reason
to expect that, at some future time, reliable facts may be deduced on the
migratory movements of birds in their spring and autumn migrations.
The results of the observations taken so far, in 1879 and 1880, have
proved so satisfactory and unexpected that the Committee have been able,
with tolerable certainty, to arrive at the following conclusions :—

On the east coasts of England and Scotland, as in 1879, the main
line of migration has been a broad stream from east to west, covering
the whole of the English and Scotch east-coast; this is the line mainly
followed by the Passeres. Taking this line as a basis, we find birds
also oceasionally coming from points north of east, but, in the vast
majority of instances, the migration has had a decidedly southerly trend,
coming from points south of east, and even direct from the southward.
In 1879 the main body of immigrants crossed at the most southern
stations, at the narrowest parts of the North Sea, and direct into our
south-eastern counties; in 1880 the main body has been tolerably
equally divided between the mid and south-eastern counties. During
the principal month of migration, October, the wind blew persistently,
day by day and week by week, from northerly and norti-easterly
quarters, and to this cause we may fairly attribute, to some extent, the
deflection of migrants to the south ; on the north-east coast of England
and the stations on the east-coast of Scotland birds are reported as
comparatively scarce, and in some instances absent altogether.
A reference to the meteorological charts in the ‘Times’ shows that, in
the autumn of 1880, the prevailing winds and gales were from the east
and north-east, and while these winds do not appear to have compressed
the horizontal lines so much as the north-westerly did, in 1879, the birds
appear to have passed at greater elevations and, in many cases, to have
been borne far to the westward of these islands. The migration does not
appear to have come in such great throbs or ‘ rushes’ in 1880 as in 1879,
but to have been more dispersed and more regular; this, no doubt, is a
natural consequence of the waves being more spread out in 1880 than in
1879.

Independent of the broad stream of immigrants coming directly
from the east, there is, in the autumn, always a steady stream of
migrants which closely follow the coast-line from north to south,
composed of birds either moving from more northerly districts of our
islands, or of such immigrants coming from the east as strike the coast
in more northern latitudes, and then follow it to the south. The great
KE. to W. stream of migration is mainly composed of some few
well-known species, which regularly come to us in the autumn, the great
body undoubtedly remaining to winter. Placed in order of rotation,
according to their numerical superiority or otherwise, we find the Skylark,
Starling, Hooded Crow and Rook, the Song Thrush, Blackbird, Fieldfare
and Redwing; and then Sparrows (both the common species and tree-
sparrow), and Linnets, and Chaffinches compose the bulk of the immigrants.
Others, as the Redstart, Wheatear, Whinchat and Stonechat, and other
soft-billed insect-eaters, although coming from the eastward, after striking

ON THE MIGRATION OP BIRDS. 191

the coast, persistently follow the shore-line to the south. All the waders
and other shore-birds, as well as Geese, Ducks, Divers, and Gulls, and
sea-fowl generally, move from north to south—cutting the line of the
Passeres at right angles. As a rule, the sea-fowl migrate some distance out
at sea, the waders along the coast. Although, as yet, the Committee
have no stations, except Heligoland, on the European side of the North
Sea, it may fairly be presumed that there is similarly another stream of
birds passing down the coast-line of Europe. Migration, as observed on
that island for many years, by that veteran ornithologist, Herr Gitke,
points to the undoubted fact that the line followed by birds is, as a rule,
from E. to W., and doubtless some portion of these Heligoland birds
keep moving westward or south-westward till, eventually, they strike
our east coast. There are, however, many species which appear to make
Heligoland the western boundary of their autumn wanderings, and
crossing, as they do, that island in enormous numbers, must eventually
follow the coast-line to the south, for the simple reason that they never
occur on our own coast, except as very rare and occasional wanderers.
Such are the White-Wagtail and Blue-headed Wagtail of the Continent,
the Blue-throat, Ortolan, Lapland Bunting, Richard’s Pipit, and, in a
less degree, the Pied-flycatcher and Shore-lark. These, then, must all
pass southward along the European coast, as do, doubtless, an immense
majority of those countless Sparrow-hawks, Siskins, and more familiar
birds, which cross that island in the autumn migration; and just as,
occasionally, some species, whose line of migration lies further eastward
still, turn up on the old rock as wanderers from the regular track, so do,
occasionally, now one and now another of the regular Heligoland
immigrants get blown across to our side.

The observations taken at some of the southern stations, in 1879 and
1880, show that, in the autumn, there is what may be called a double
stream of birds, crossing each other near the entrance to the English
Channel, that is, from the Essex and Kent coast towards the 8.H. on the
French and Belgian coast, and again, in the opposite direction, from
Belgium to the coast of Kent. During the severe weather in the early
part of December, 1880, flocks of birds came to us direct from the
French coast, or from 8. to N. These latter must be considered purely
local migrations, caused by sudden outbursts of severe weather,

It is a curious fact that, in nearly every case of birds passing the
Casquets off Alderney, in the past autumn, they were travelling in a
N.W. direction, or from the French to the English coast, a line of
migration which does not seem to be in proper accord with that
we should imagine migrating birds would, or rather ought to, take.
On reference to the chart of the Channel, it is apparent that any flocks
leaving the French coast at or near Cape de la Hogue, and crossing
Alderney, when once off the Casquets, might as readily and easily steer
their course for the Start Point, on the English side, as across the wide
break in the French coast for Port Sillon, each being about equal distances
from the Casquets. Not the least interesting portion of the full report
refers to the large flocks of birds seen during the autumn of 1880 far
out over the Atlantic. The great easterly gales, continuing for weeks
together over the Atlantic and North of Europe, so disastrous to our
shipping, undoubtedly carried many migrants far to the westward, and
the mortality amongst them must have been very great indeed, to judge
from the few records that haye arrived from seagoing vessels. These

192 REPORT—1881.

gales have also, no doubt, affected the direction of the migration to a
considerable extent, and indications of this agency may be found in the
occurrence, on our shores, of many rare wanderers, in the autumn of
1880.

Notwithstanding the enormous number of immigrants arriving, as
shown in the schedules returned from each station, it is quite certain that
these returns only represent an almost inappreciable percentage of the
actual number on passage. On days of uncertain light, or on clear, fine,
starlight nights, when migration is carried on at a considerable height,
immense numbers of birds might pass any of the stations for hours
without being observed; and it is quite possible that, if the whole 300
miles of the east-coast line of England were studded with floating posts
of observation at the distance of half-a-mile, equal average results would
have been obtained ; the present stations on the light-vessels affording no
more especial line of advantage than any other imaginary line drawn
across the North Sea.

As, in 1879, birds have crossed at all hours of the day and night, and
in all winds and weathers. The returns also show, as did the preceding,
that they seldom fly dead to windward, except with very light breezes,
and that strong opposing winds are invariably prejudicial to their passage.
The line of flight mostly adopted is within three or four points of the
wind; they will go on well with a beam-wind, or some points even aft of
beam, if not too strong. Small weak-winged birds have often, as noticed
on the light-vessels, great difficulty in making head against strongly-
opposing winds. If the wind changes during the actual passage, birds
have been observed to change the direction of their flight to suit the
wind. Even the strong-winged wild geese and swans are observed, when
well-up in the wind, to drift to one side a little, having the appearance of
flying left shoulder first instead of head first.

Birds are noticed at the stations as sometimes flying high, sometimes
low ; often with northerly and easterly winds they fly high, and with
winds in opposite quarters, low. The state of the weather at the time of
migration has more, we think, to do with the height at which birds travel
than the direction of the wind. On clear light nights they travel high,
asarule; but in fog, rain or snow, or in thick murky weather, low—not
many feet above the waves. On thick dark nights, indeed, lost birds will
wheel for hours round a light-vessel, but with the first break in the
clouds, the stars appearing, or streak of early dawn, are on their course
again to the nearest land. At times birds are seen passing high in air,
almost beyond the ken of human vision, and when clouds or fogs rapidly
lift or clear off during the time of migration, the said migration appears
often to cease to mortal vision, indicating an ascent to a higher level.
Birds are also known to descend upon Heligoland and the light-vessels
almost perpendicularly from the sky, indicating a course of migration at
a great height. The height at which birds travel in foggy weather, or in
snow or rain, has probably a good deal to do with the various numerical
returns of those killed at lanterns. Broadly speaking it is the brightest,
whitest, fixed lights which, having most influence in penetrating fog or
haze, attract the most birds. In 1877, at Skerryvore, in the month of
October, the number of birds killed was 600, chiefly the common thrush
and the ring-ousel. This year the mortality has been heavy at some of
the light-vessels. At the Casquets, off Alderney, on October 7, from
11 pm. to 3 am., S.S.E., rain, land-rails, water-rails, woodcocks, ring-

ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 193

ousels, song-thrushes, and swallows were seen around the light. Of
these there struck the glass: one land-rail, one water-rail, four ring-
ousels, and 100 swallows, At the Casquets, which is a revolving light,
the larger birds follow the rays, but do not often strike the glass.
Some of the reporters state extreme height above the sea, as a cause of
birds seldom or never striking the glass, or being seen hovering around
the light. Certainly returns show a preponderance of deaths first at
light-vessels, whose average height above the sea is only a few feet;
secondly, at such stations as the Bell-rock, Dhuheartach or Skerry-
vore, whose lanterns are not higher than sixty or seventy feet above
the sea.

With such favourable passages as light head-winds afford, the
migrants are so little fatigued that they do not alight on reaching land,
but keep on their course to the interior. At other times with adverse
winds they drop on reaching the shore, being hardly able to struggle to
land,

The observations show beyond doubt that all birds are migratory (if
we except our common game-birds, and perhaps the green woodpecker).
Even such comparatively weak-winged birds as the gold-crested wren,
common wren, the titmice, hedge-sparrow, common sparrow, and redbreast
change their locality, crossing the North Sea in large numbers. At
Heligoland, Herr Giitke remarks (in the very comprehensive and highly
interesting notes sent to us), ‘Up towards the end of July, all young
sparrows disappeared from the island,’ and ‘up to the middle of Sep-
tember nearly all old sparrows had quitted: the island.’ On October 10
there was ‘an influx of fresh sparrows,’ probably arriving from some
more northern region.

As a rule, the young of the year migrate some weeks in advance of
the old birds; this holds good with all orders and almost all species. In
the spring the males often migrate in advance of the females. In spring,
birds migrate, with rare exceptions, at night, and as the weather is then
finer, and the nights shorter and clearer, do not fly low and run their heads
so much against the lanterns of lighthouses and lightships. The spring
migration is also carried on much more leisurely, migrants: proceeding
by easy slopes northward, and there are none of those great ‘waves’
or ‘rushes’ which are so characteristic of the autumn migration. The
notes on spring migration taken in 1879 and 1880 point also to the con-
clusion that, at this season, migrants strike the glasses of lanterns from
11 p.m. to the dawn of day, the majority after midnight, and not also in
the early hours of night, as is the case in the autumn,

It is remarkable how suddenly the stream of migration commences
running, and how suddenly it stops again; it may be from 8 a.m. to 1 p.m.
there is a continual stream of various migrants arriving on our coasts,
and then, or at least for that day, migration is apparently over, and not
another bird is seen.

The time of migration of any particular species extends over a con-
siderable period. Sometimes it is over four or five weeks, in other cases
going on for months or even half-a-year. Indeed, birds seem to be
crossing the North Sea all the year round, and no sooner does the ebb of
the autumn migration cease—and it is prolonged into February—than
the flood sets in, and birds are passing northward again. In every case
of normal migration, any given species will continue to pass day by day,
or week after week, till it attains the maximum in a ‘great rush,’ the

1881, ; te fc) e

194 REPORT—1881.

main body passing, and after this falls away, till the migration of that
species ceases or is completed.

Independent of the normal or ordinary migration we have frequently
local migrations, due to sudden changes of weather, or in search of fresh
feeding-grounds. These ‘great rushes’ of immigrants coming helter-
skelter on to our coasts, are, as will be seen from the Report, often accom-
panied, or followed very closely, with outbursts of severe weather; and
a sudden increase of cold in winter will almost clear a whole district
of birds.

In 1879 the maximum of immigrahts crossed the North Sea between
the 12th to the 23rd of October; in 1880, between the 15th and end of
the same month; in both years, perhaps the greatest number on any
given day on the 17th of the month. It is a curious fact that the
stomachs of migratory birds on their first landing never contain any
food.

This is as much as can beset forth in an abstract. A full and detailed
account of the Migration of Birds in the Autumn of 1880, will be found
in the General Report, which contains much interesting matter bearing
on migration. It may be added finally, that in endeavouring to arrive
at any conclusions regarding the causes of migrational phenomena in
1880, as set forth in the General Report, the Committee have taken
more account of the vertical area of birds’ flight in 1880 than in 1879,
and have compared the effects of prevailing north-west winds in 1879
pressing laterally upon the lines of migration with those of 1880, which
being easterly and north-easterly, have had the contrary effect of spread-
ing out the migratory wave, or at least not deflecting it to the same
extent, and also causing birds to migrate at greater elevations, and where
the gales have been most severe to bear them away above the range of
vision and carry vast numbers out to sea, until, weary and exhausted,
they have ceased to be able to guide themselves, and involuntarily
lowered, to be picked up senseless and stunned on board the ships, or to
perish in thousands in the ocean. And, lastly, the Committee have
hinted at the wideness of the migratory waves depending upon the
pressure of the starting-points, or upon, perhaps, a larger north and
south area occupied in the breeding season of 1880.

The data, however, are not yet sufficient, nor have the observations
been carried on sufficiently long, to arrive at any positive conclusions as to
the how and the why of the whole matter. The Committee must, there-
fore, for the present, be satisfied to say nothing more, but trust that the
Association will enable it to continue the collection of facts.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Lieut.-Colonel Gopwin-
AusTEN, Dr. G. Harriaus, Sir J. Hooker, Dr. GiintHER, Mr.
SEEBOHM, and Mr. ScLaTER, appointed to take steps for investi-
gating the Natural History of Socotra.

Tue debt due to Professor Balfour for the balance of the osta of the

expedition (231. 12s. 2d.), and the sum of ls. 3d. for petty expenses, have

been paid out of the sam of 50/. granted at the Swansea meeting, leaving
balaner of 267. 7s. 10d: in the hands of the Committee. This has been

t ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF SOCOTRA. 195

increased by the proceeds of the sale of the duplicate birds (7J. 10s.)
and land shells (3/. 2s.), making a balance of 36/. 19s. 10d. now in the
hands of the Committee for future operations.

The greater part of the zoological collection made by Professor Balfour
has now been worked out, chiefly by the. Assistants in the Zoological
Department of the British Museum, to which institution the first complete
series of zoological specimens of every class has been assigned.

The following reports on these collections have been published in the
‘Proceedings’ of the Zoological Society of London :—

1. On the Birds collected in Socotra by Professor I. Bayley Balfour.
By P. L. Sclater and Dr. G. Hartlaub.. ‘P.Z.S.’ 1881, p. 165.

2. On the Lepidoptera collected in Socotra by Professor I. B. Balfour.
By Arthur G. Butler. ‘ P.Z.S.’ 1881, p. 175.

3. On the Land Shells of the Island of Socotra, collected by Professor
Bayley Balfour. By Lieut.-Colonel H. H. Godwin-Austen. Part I.
‘P.Z.8.’ 1881, p. 251.

4, Descriptions of the Amphisbenians and Ophidians collected by
Professor I. Bayley Balfour in the Island of Socotra. By Dr. A. Giinther.
‘P.Z.8.’ 1881, p. 461.

5. Notes on the Lizards collected in Socotra by Professor I. Bayley
Balfour. By W.T. Blanford. ‘P.Z.S.’ 1881, p. 464.

6. On the Coleopterous Insects collected by Professor I. Bayley Balfour

-in the Island of Socotra. By Charles O. Waterhouse. ‘P.Z.S.’ 1881,

p- 469.

7. On the Hymenoptera collected by Professor I. Bayley Balfour in
Socotra. By W. F. Kirby. ‘P.Z.S.’ 1881, p. 649.

8. On the Land Shells of the Island of Socotra collected by Professor
I. Bayley Balfour. By Lieut.-Colonel H. H. Godwin-Austen, Part I.
Helicacea. ‘ P.Z.S.’ 1881, p. 802.

The following are some of the more remarkable points touched upon
in these reports :—

The Birds, reported upon by Mr. Sclater and Dr. Hartlaub, are found
to belong to thirty-six species—generally ‘North-east African in character,
being mostly such as are included in Heuglin’s ‘“‘ Ornithologie Nord-ost-
Afrikas.”’ Six, however, are peculiar to the island, the most remarkable of
them being a new form of sparrow with a very thick bill, which is named
by Messrs. Sclater and Hartlaub Rhynchostruthus socotranus.

Mr. Butler’s report on the Butterflies and Moths captured by Professor
Bayley Balfour and his assistants in Socotra, tells us that of the thirteen
species of which examples were brought, not less than seven were new
toscience. ‘Of the new forms five are allied to previously-recorded types
from the following localities:—one from the Comoro Islands, one from
South-west Africa, one from Zanzibar, and two from Arabia. Without
the help of these last two it would therefore have been impossible for
anyone not acquainted with it to guess at the locality from which this
collection had been obtained.’

The Reptiles collected by Professor Balfour in Socotra have been
worked: out by Dr. Giinther and Mr. W. T. Blanford, Dr. Giinther taking
the Snakes and Amphisbenians, and Mr. Blanford the remaining Lacer-
tilians. Both of these collections were found to be of considerable
interest. Among the snakes is a new form allied to Tachymenis, which
Dr. Giinther has proposed to call Ditypophis;and-a new species of Zamenis
(Z, socotree). Both these indicate an allidnce with the cireum-Mediter-

02

196 REPORT—1881. -

ranean fauna. On the other hand the Socotran Sand-Asp (Echis colorata)
belongs to an Arabian and Palestine species, while the Amphisbeena of
Socotra (Pachycalamus brevis, gen. et sp. nov.) has its nearest allies in
Eastern and Western Tropical Africa. Of the six species of lizards of
which examples were in Mr. Blanford’s series, three proved to be new to
science.

As regards the Land Shells of Socotra, which are of special interest,
we annex a special report upon this branch of the subject drawn up by
Lient.-Colonel Godwin-Austen, one of the Committee.

From this report and from what has been already stated, it will be
obvious that, although the collections made by Professor Balfour. were
very small in each group—in some cases almost of a fragmentary
character, the results in every case present features of great interest. It
is obvious that, judging from what is thus known, Socotra must possess
—what was thought scarcely probable by many at the time the scheme
for exploring it was first started—an indigenous fauna of considerable
extent, and well worthy of further investigation. As regards the flora
of Socotra we have said nothing, because Professor Balfour, who has
himself undertaken the investigation of the botanical collections, has not
yet completed his task. But a preliminary examination has shown, we
believe, that his series embraces about 150 absolutely new flowering
plants, amongst which are from fifteen to twenty representatives of new
genera—so that it is manifest that, like the fauna, the flora of Socotra
possesses a strong autochthonous element.

Under these circumstances, we trust that the Committee for the
investigation of the Natural History of Socotra may be re-appointed, with
its sphere extended so as to embrace the adjoining highlands of Arabia and
Somali-land, without the exploration of which it is not possible that a
true understanding of the flora and fauna of Socotra can be arrived at;
and that the sum of 200]. may be assigned to the Committee for this
purpose.

APPENDIX.

Report on the Socotran Land and Freshwater Shells collected by Professor
Batroor, by Lieut.-Colonel H. H. Gopwiy-Austen, F.2.S.

Since the last meeting of the British Association the land and freshwater
shells of Socotra, which were assigned to me to work out, have been nearly
all described, and quite come up to the expectations I was led to form of
them at a first inspection. The Cyclostomacez were described in a paper
which was read before the Zoological Society in February, 1881, illustrated
by two plates ; the Pulmonata, in June, also illustrated by two plates. In
the first paper, we find that no less than seven species of Otopoma (Africo-
Arabian) were brought home, of which four are quite new, viz., O. balfouri,
complanatum, conicum, and turbinatum: Tropidophora (Madagascar-Rod-
riguez), two species, 7’. socotrana and balfouri: Lithidion (Arabia), one
species, L. marmoroswm, and a Oyclotopsis (Southern India—Seychelles),
perhaps the most interesting form discovered by Professor Balfour in this
island, which I have named ornatus. This is another example of the con-
nection between Southern India on one side of the Arabian Sea and Africa
on the other. The Pulmonata are more numerous and mostly belong to
a sub-genus of the Bulimuli, Achatinelloides, Nevill, created for the very

ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF TIMOR-LAUT. 197

common Socotran shell Bulimulus socotorensis of Pfeiffer. All the allied
species on the island I have put into this group until we know more
about the land shells of the mainland near Cape Guardafui. We have
altogether ten species in this genus; some of them very prettily marked
forms. One group of Bulimulus is very peculiar, and in form and colora-
tion approaches B. velutinus, Pfr., from the Seychelles Islands.

Of the genus Hnnea we have one form already known, passamiana,
Petit, and a new species which I have named after Professor Balfour.

Of the Stenogyride there are some fine shells; one elongate form,
which is used as a pipe by the natives of the island, I have named
fumificatus; the other species are gollonsirensis, adonaensis, jessica, and
enodis. A Subulina with hairy epidermis (hirsuta) closes the list, with one
Pupa(rupicola). These twenty-two together with eleven operculated species
give a total of thirty-three. It is a curious fact that there is not a single
Heliz in the collection. The freshwater shells I have not yet had time to
work out. A number of small forms have been brought home on the water
plants that were collected, and these I have been taking out. I find among
them examples of the following genera and species :—

Planorbis, no less than three species, cne large.

Bithinea, one very small form.

Melania, four or five ; one very beautiful spined species, reminding one
of a similar form from Ceylon. One Cerithiwm occurred with these.

T have alluded to how little is known of the mainland of Africa, near
Cape Guardafui. When this has been examined, and it is very necessary it
should be, we shall know more as regards the range of some of these
Socotran forms; and I hope that the British Association will be able to
assist a naturalist to visit this district.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. ScLaTerR, Mr. Howarp .
SauNDERS, and Mr. THIsELTON DyER, appointed for the purpose
of investigating the Natural History of Timor-laut.

Ix a letter addressed to Sir Joseph Hooker, Director of the Royal
Gardens, Kew, Mr. H. O. Forbes wrote from Sumatra, offering, if some
assistance could be forwarded him, to attempt an expedition to Timor-
laut for the purpose of investigating its natural history— an object,’ as
Mr. Forbes states, ‘the accomplishment of which is desired both by
botanists and zoologists.’ An application on Mr. Forbes’s behalf was
accordingly made to the British Association, and a sum of 50/. was voted
by the General Committee at the Swansea Meeting to be placed at the
disposal of the Committee, to whom the conduct of the matter was
entrusted..

The action taken by the Association was communicated to Mr.
Forbes} and the letter, of which a copy is annexed, was received in reply.
This is the most recent information which the Committee possess as to his
plans. It is somewhat doubtful whether, owing to insufficiency of funds,
he was able to start. At any rate, the grant made at Swansea remains
in the hands of your Committee.

The expedition is obviously attended with some difficulty, if not
danger. Its success must be largely dependent on fortunate accident.

198 REPORT—1881.

Your Committee, however, think that there is a reasonable chance of
the work being done, and therefore recommend their reappointment, and
that a further sum of 100J. be placed at their disposal.

S. SUMATRA,

December 8, 1880.
Sir JosrpH Hooxer,-

Dear Sir,—Accept my warmest thanks for the kind interest you
have taken in my intended visit to Timor-laut, which has obtained for
me a grant of 501. from the Council of the British Association.

For the present I am engaged in Sumatra, but about the end of
February, or beginning of March, I intend to return to Batavia, in order
to make my way to Timor-laut. His Excellency the Governor-General
kindly placed at my disposal such ships of the Dutch Navy as might be
on the Amboina Station going down towards the Tenimber Islands. I
have, however, given up the hope of being able to accomplish my object if
I travel by this means, as the islanders are at best not very friendly, and
by landing from a man-of-war I am not likely to meet with greater
favour. | mean, therefore, to attempt the journey in one of the Arab
prahus instead, which go there to purchase horses. I have been fortunate
in securing the friendly assistance of the highest rank Arab in Java, a
very clever influential man (the Native Master of Ceremonies to the
Governor), whose brother is one of the largest traders to the Eastward
Islands. He has offered to send forward intimation of my coming, and to do
his best to secure, as far as he can, the goodwill towards me of the natives,
with whom his countrymen deal.

Neither the time of my departure nor of my return can I positively
fix ; the former date depends on the state of the monsoon, which these
few years back has been very irregular, the latter on the amount of
goodwill which the natives show towards me. If I find them not very ill-
affected towards strangers, I may extend my stay over the dry monsoon,
and domy best to hold out till the return of the trading season at the
end of next wet monsoon.

If, therefore, the British Association grant be placed at my disposal,
I shall draw upon it only on my actual departure for Timor-laut. Not-
withstanding the very bad character given to the Tenimber Islanders by
the Dutch officials, I have good reason to think that the perils are much
exaggerated ; and | hope for the best.

Again offering you, and those who so kindly supported the application
made on behalf of the exploration of Timor-laut, my best thanks,

Believe me, yours obediently,
(Signed) H. O, Fores.

Report on the Marine Fauna of the Southern Coast of Devon and
Cornwall, by SPENCE Bate, F.R.S., and J. BRooxinc Rowe, F.L.S.

In presenting our report on the exploration of the marine fauna of the
south-western coast of England, we beg to state that we have carried on
a series of dredgings off the coast between Plymouth and Falmouth, more
especially off the district known as the Dudman,

ON THE MARINE FAUNA OF SOUTH DEVON AND CORNWALL. 199

Here, in from forty to sixty fathoms, we have invariably met with
some of our most interesting forms, such as are considered of the rarer
species belonging to our British fauna.

Hitherto among crustacea we have taken species of Nika, Typton,
Nephropsis, Caridina, Callianassa, and other forms that have generally
been considered as very rare, and this year we have taken, at a depth
of fifty-five fathoms, a considerable number of Pagurus sculptimanus of
Lucas, a species that the late Prof. Bell has described in his ‘ History of
British Stalk-eyed Crustacea,’ under the name of Pagurus forbesii, under
the impression that it was an undescribed form—a single specimen of
which was sent to him with others from the coast of Falmouth.

This is the first time that this species has been taken in British
waters since Bell received his specimen, which is now in the British
Museum (whither we propose sending some of the recently dredged
specimens), from the late Dr. Cocks, some thirty-five or forty years since ;
a fact that appears to suggest that the word ‘rare,’ as used in relation
to our knowledge of species, merely represents our want of knowledge of
the natural habitat of the animal.

An example of this may be seen in the following passage from Pro-
fessor Bell’s work on Polybius henslowii, ‘ which is very local in its dis-
tribution, and probably nowhere existing in great numbers’; whereas
I have recently been informed by Mr. F. Day, that it has been thrown up
on the shores of Mount’s Bay, this spring, after a strong south-western
gale, in such quantities that it is thought that along the shore there
could not have been less that two tons in weight.

Again, the little crustacean which Bell has described as Thysanopoda
couchii, and of which he states, on the authority of Couch, that it is found
in ‘myriads in the stomach of the mackerel and other fish,’ Mr. Couch
had not found since, although he was in the habit of searching the
stomachs of mackerel and other fishes. Our experience is confirmatory
of that of Mr. Couch, inasmuch as we have only obtained it one season,
and then in abundance from the stomachs of fish. And recently we have
had our attention drawn to a parallel fact m the Indian seas, from
whence Professor Milne-Edwards described, under the name of Acetes
indicus, in 1829, a small crustacean, that, as far as we are aware, has not
been noticed since; yet Sir Walter Hlliot has given us a carefully drawn
figure of the same, with the remark that it was found in the stomach of
a very large Dicerobetes, taken off the coast of Malabar in such quantities
that basketfuls were carried away by the fishermen, and thousands left
scattered about the shore.

In referring still to the crustacea we beg to draw attention to the
fact that many of the specimens recorded from this locality—that is, from
the deeper water at the entrance of the English Channel—are species that
are common to the Mediterranean Sea, while others, such as Munida-
bamficus, as also others of less noticeable forms, have their centre of
radiation near the arctic zones.

Although it has been several times demonstrated that deep-sea species
have a large geograpical distribution, yet it is interesting to observe that
some of our long-shore species have been represented by specimens that
appear to be identical in the eastern seas. Thus the common Crangon
vulgaris has its representative at Japan, or one that cannot, on the closest
analysis, be distinguished from it. This is also found to be the case with
one of our specimens of Oaprella (Caprella equilibra) as well as other species.

300 REPORi—i881.

We are therefore much inclined to believe that by a series of deep-water
explorations—by which we mean the dredge and deep-water tow-nets,
situated so as to sweep the sea at each successive fifty fathoms of water
—very interesting and valuable results would be obtained. It is our
strong conviction that many of the specimens recorded from very great
depths are inhabitants of mid-water rather than dwellers at the sea-
bottom, from whence they are supposed to have been brought.

Hitherto we have had at our command only fishermen’s trawlers and
shore-boats ; but to explore the deep water that surrounds the south-
western limits of Cornwall and the Scilly Islands would require vessels
of larger tonnage and greater power than we have been able to procure
with the grant placed at our disposal.

Among the fish and other animals, numerous specimens of various
species have been procured. Those that are the most seldom met with on
our coast have been preserved ; and here we would like to record that
specimens of fish and crustacea which have been preserved, as recommended
by us at the meeting of the British Association at Brighton, and have been
so kept for several years, are soft and flexible, and retain much of the
colours of living specimens.

Numerous annelids and zoophytes have also been obtained, but we
have not to record any that appear to be new or differ from those that
have been reported by us in the lists already published.

As soon as our specimens are all arranged and tabulated, we hope to
forward some to the British Museum, and present the rest to the Museum
of the Plymouth Institution.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. C. Ramsay and
Professor JOHN MILNE (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of
imvestigating the Earthquake Phenomena of Japan.

Tue Seismological work which I have been engaged upon since the British
Association generously placed the grant of 25/. in the hands of Andrew
Ramsay, Esq., and myself as an assistance towards the investigation of
the earthquake phenomena of Japan, has been partly a continuance of
experiments and observations commenced four years ago, and partly the
commencement of experiments more or less new.

The results of work which has been accomplished has been almost
wholly read before the Seismological Society of Japan, and will very
shortly appear in its Transactions.

The work which I have been engaged upon since receiving the grant
has been as follows :—

I, Attempts to determine the area from which the shakings so often felt in
Tokio and Yokohama emanate.

To do this, instruments intended to record the direction and maximum
amplitude of an earthquake were placed at four points, from 10 to 20
miles apart, round the upper portions of Yedo Bay. For the shakings
of January 7, 22, and 24 of this year, lines drawn parallel to the direction

ON THE EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 201

of motion at these different stations intersect each other in a number of
points between Yokohama and Kanasawa.

Although several other earthquakes have had their origin localised in
the same district, there remain several, the origin of which has not been
localised, the records of direction being probably in many cases, and
certainly in some, a confusion of normal and transverse vibrations.

Asa confirmation of these results, I find by a careful series of time
observations made by myself in Tokio and in Yokohama, by Mr. W. H.
Talbot, for the accuracy of which we are indebted to the telegraph
department who daily furnished us with a time-signal, that many shocks
have been felt about 30 seconds in the latter place before they were felt
in the former.

The facts that in Yokohama small earthquakes are sometimes felt
which are not recorded in Tokio, and also that at the time of a severe
shock the vertical motion appears to be greater in Yokohama than in
Tokio, may also be taken as indications that the origin of many of the
recent earthquakes has been nearer to Yokohama than to Tokio.

In order to make the localisation of the various shocks more certain,
I have very recently established instruments in Tokio and Yokohama
which give graphical records of both the normal and transverse vibrations.
When similar instruments have been established at the remaining stations,
the complete distinction between these two sets of vibrations may, inde-
pendently of the interest that these records have of themselves, assist us
to determine the origin of nearly all the earthquakes we feel.

The district where several shocks have had their origin already
localised is one showing numerous faults, and one which shows exceed-
ingly clear evidence of recent elevations. As it is very possible that this
district may still be rising, one probable inference we might make is that
faults are still being formed, and are due to the elevations, and that
the earthquakes are to us the announcement of the formation of these
fractures. .

As confirmatory of this idea we may say that, first, the records of
earthquakes, as written by our seismographs, usually commence gently,
then have several maxima and minima, and finally die out as they com-
menced ; and secondly, the testimony of our feelings leads us to believe
that there is a sliding, jolting kind of motion, as might be produced by one
mass of rock slipping over another.

Further, I may remark that recently, since having more perfect in-
struments which record each successive vibration of the earth, both in
regard to time and space, I have recorded shocks in Tokio with a motion
almost entirely east and west, whilst the time observations showed that
they must have come from the south, which is the faulted district.

Assuming that these records are correct, and I have no reason to
believe that they are not so, it would seem that from the faulted district
in the south it is possible to receive an earthquake consisting only of
transverse vibrations.

_ Such an earthquake we can imagine might be produced by a fault
giving rise to an elastic wave of distortion.

If the earthquakes were produced by a blow we should have a wave
of compression with normal vibrations, followed by a wave of distortion,
-with transverse vibrations.

Observations bearing on these points I hope to carry out during the
coming year.

202 REPORT—1881.

II. Observations to determine the nature of Harthquake-motion.

With the help of specially contrived seismographs, so far as my ob-
servations have hitherto gone, itis shown—Ist. That the actual horizontal
motion of an earth-particle at the time of an earthquake is very much
smaller than we anticipated from our senses, being seldom over a few
millimétres and often under one millimetre.

/2ndly. The backward and forward motion of the ground is very ir-
regular, both in regard to space and time.

3rdly. That there are seldom more than two or three complete vi-
brations per second.

These observations, I am pleased to say, have been confirmed by a
more complete series of records than my own, obtained by Professor
Ewing.

Athy. A motion often takes place in more than one direction. Both
at the Yokohama station and the Tokio station records have been
obtained of two sets of irregular ellipses crossing each other nearly at
right angles, these ellipses being drawn by the pointer of a seismograph
moving over a smoked glass plate at rest beneath it.

For the same earthquake this difference in direction may be experienced
at one station, but not at another, 15 or 20 miles distant.

From records obtained it would seem possible that at Yokohama both
transverse and normal vibrations may be recorded, whilst at Tokio, six-
teen miles distant, only the former are recorded. As these latter obser-
vations need confirmation, I hope during the coming year to be able,
with the help of a few similar instruments placed at different stations, to
obtain records of a series of shakings, to show the relation between the
dying out of one set of vibrations as compared with the dying out of
another.

Ill. Lhe recording of Harth-tremors.

With the help of a specially-contrived instrument, by which a motion
of the earth equal to the ;,);th of an inch can be definitely recorded, I
am able to say that in Tokio there are very many small disturbances in
the ground, which are not registered with any of our ordinary seismo-
graphs.

My object in recording these small motions is to see, first, whether
they are in any way connected with the larger motions which we call
earthquakes, just as the crackling of a stick is connected with its break-
ing; and, second, whether there is any periodicity connected with these
small movements, it being possible, for example, that influences which
produce the tides in the ocean may perhaps be sufficient to produce earth
crackles, whilst they may not (excepting where they are, so to speak,
like the last straw upon a camel’s back) produce an earthquake.

As Yokohama appears to be nearer to the origin of many of our
earthquakes than Tokio, and also because, as compared with Tokio, it
stands upon the rock, I have quite recently taken two of my tremor
instruments there. One of them has been placed in the hands of Mr. W.
H. Talbot, and the other with Mr. H. Pryer, these gentlemen having
very kindly undertaken to keep a record of their movements.

ON THE EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 203

IV. An endeavour to find out the relative extent of motions and variation
in direction of an earthquake in passing over a limited area, the contour
and geological structure of which is irregular.

To work out this problem I have distributed six similar seismometers
on the hills and in the valleys near my house. Since being established
only four earthquakes have been recorded. Until a number of shocks
have been felt I can hardly speak of what the result of this investigation
may be.

V. The carrying out of a long series of experiments on artificial earth-
quakes in the alluvium of the Tokio plane.

These experiments were carried out jointly with my colleague Mr.
Thomas Gray.

These earthquakes were produced by allowing a heavy iron ball to
fall from various heights up to 35 feet. ‘The results obtained were as
follows :—

1. A partial determination. of the effects of cuttings (like a deep
pond) and hills upon the transmission of vibrations. Small hills seemed
to produce but little effect in stopping transverse vibrations, but a pond
to a certain extent cut off both transverse and normal vibrations.

2. A complete graphical separation of normal from transverse vibra-

tions.
3. A determination of the relative amplitudes of normal and trans-
verse vibrations as observed at points differently situated with regard to
the origin of the shock. It appeared that although near to the origin
the amplitude of the normal vibrations was greater than that of the
transverse ones; as we made observations at more distant stations these
normal motions diminished more rapidly than the latter. Roughly
speaking, the amplitude of the normal vibrations was inversely as the
distance from the origin of the shock. The transverse vibrations
diminished in amplitude more slowly.

4, There appeared to be usually about siz vibrations per second.
The normal vibrations were the more rapid.

5. The average velocity of the normal vibrations was 438 feet per
second, whilst that of the transversal movements was only 357 feet.

6. At a distant station (250 feet) four or five dissimilar vibrations
would be first recorded, and then the same four or five vibrations would
be repeated in the same order as first recorded. At times this cyclic-
like action was very distinct.

7. The experimental determination (by bending and twisting) of the
elastic moduli, &ec., of several common Japanese rocks. These experi-
ments were performed in conjunction with my colleague, Mr. Thomas
Gray, in the physical laboratory of the Imperial College of Engineering.

{In addition to the work which I have mentioned as being before me
for the coming seismic season, I shall endeavour to increase the stations
where time-observations have been made from two to three or four, at all
of which telegraphic signals can be received. I do this, firstly, because
I find from experience the important part taken by time-observations in
the interpretation of the best of our records; and, secondly, because
they may perhaps be the means of showing us the true relations existing
between normal and transversal movements.

204 REPORT— 1881.

In conclusion I must remark that had I not, previotisly to the time
at which I received the grant of the British Association, been engaged
in recording earthquakes, and spent much time in experimenting with
various instruments, testing each with a long series of actual earth-
quakes (see ‘Transactions of the Seismological Society of Japan’),
I should not have been in the position to carry out the work which has
here been referred to.

As I have established a small earthquake observatory, and have by
several years’ experience determined upon instruments which appear to
me to be best suited for some of the more important seismological
investigations, have obtained and taught observers at various stations,
and, lastly, have received the co-operation of several friends—one of whom,
Mr. W. H. Talbot, has also established a special observatory—I sincerely
hope that the British Association will see fit to extend its previous grant
for the working out of seismic problems in a district which, amongst
all others, is one of the very best for carrying on such observations.

Ninth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor PRESTWICH,
Professor T. McK. HuGues, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Professor
T. G. Bonney, Rev. H. W. Crosskry, Dr. DEANE, and Messrs. C.
E. DE Rance, D. Macxintosu, R. H. TrppEman, J. E. LEE, J. PLANT,
W. PENGELLY, W. MoLyNneux, H. G. ForpHam, and W. TERRILL,
appointed for the purpose of recording the position, height above
the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of the Erratic
Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters
of wnterest connected with the same, and taking measures for
their preservation. Drawn wp by the Rev. H. W. CRossKEY,
Secretary.

Durine the past year this Committee has pursued the researches entrusted
to it; and is able to record the following additional instances of the
occurrence of Hrratic Blocks.

Cumberland.—Mr. T. A. Colfox furnishes the Committee with the
following particulars respécting granite and sandstone boulders found
while excavating for the new docks at Maryport, parish of Dearham,
Cumberland.

The granite boulders vary in size from small pebbles to a ton or
thereabouts in weight.

Those of the New Red Sandstone, which occur at a lower level, vary
from half a ton to two tons or more.

The granite boulders are rounded ; those from the New Red Sandstone
have sharp angles. No ruts, groovings, or other marks are visible.

The nearest granite occurs in the Kirkcudbrightshire hills on the
other side of the Solway, 15 or 20 miles distant, nearly due north; the
New Red Sandstone is the stone of the district.

The granite specimens are numerous, but only four or five of the New
Red Sandstone ones have been found. The former were resting on the
top of a bed of sandy clay, underlying the sand and shingle of the fore-
shore, at a depth of 10 to 15 feet below the surface; the latter occur in

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 205

the bed of clay itself, 15 or 16 feet above the New Red Sandstone rock,
similar to the boulders themselves, which underlies the clay.

The height of the group of granite boulders was 2 feet or 3 feet
below low water at ordinary spring tides.

About three acres have been at present excavated.

Yorkshire.—In previous reports a description has been given of Shap
Granite Boulders, found in the neighbourhood of Filey.

One of these Shap Granite Boulders has now been removed to the
University Museum, Oxford, and placed, with a descriptive inscription,
on the lawn in front.

It was found near the edge of the cliff about half a mile N. of the old
church, Filey, Yorkshire.

It measures 3 ft. 1 in. x 3 ft. 7 in. x 1 ft. 9 in., and is subangular or
rounded.

It has apparently been moved, although nothing is known respecting
this point.

Shap, near Penrith, the nearest place where a red porphyritic granite
of the same character is found, is 108 miles distant, bearing W.N.W.
from Filey.

The boulder described rested on Oolitic strata, at a height of about
150 feet above the sea.

Anglesea.—Professor T. McK. Hughes draws the attention of the
Committee to a boulder which occurs near the centre of Anglesea. It is
chiefly interesting as having been by some considered an inscribed stone ;
but the supposed characters are entirely due to rock-structure.

It consists of bands of porphyritic hornblende diabase, occurring
along master joints in ordinary hornblende diabase ; with cross joints
terminated at the master joints, and having the appearance of runic
characters. It measures 7 ft. x 5 ft. 4 in. x 4 ft.3 in. It occurs in a
field on E. of the railway opposite Cae Scynan, about # mile S. of
Llanerchymedd, Anglesea, and may have been derived from a dyke near
Gorphwysfa, about 7 miles distant.

Attention has already been called to this boulder by the Rev. W.
Wynn Williams in the ‘ Archeologia Cambrensis.’

Leicestershire—Mr. J. Plant continues, as follows, his reports to. the
Committee on the erratic blocks of this county.

In the parish of Knighton, on the Clarendon Park Hstate, Leicester,
are two boulders, the longest 5 ft. x 43 ft. x 3 ft. 9in.; the smallest 4ft. x
3 ft. Lin. x2ft. 3in. They are subangular and not known to have been
moved. They are derived from Mount Sorrel, W. of N. a few degrees,
7 miles distant. The two blocks are of granite, and lie close together at
a height of 300 feet above the sea-level, and were found under 8 feet
of mottled drift clay in digging out foundations of houses.

In the parish of Stoughton, on the ‘ Dairy Farm,’ near Leicester, are
two blocks of granite, the longest being 4 ft. x 3 ft. x 24 ft. They are
subangular and not known to have been moved by man, and are derived
from Mount Sorrel, 9 miles N.W. They lie together on the surface, 360
feet above the sea-level.

In the parish of Evington, on the Lodge Farm, Leicester, are three
blocks of granite, the longest 44 ft. x 24 ft. x 1ft; the smallest, 3 ft. x
24 ft. x 1 ft.; they are subangular, and have been derived from Mount
Sorrel, 7 miles N.W. The three blocks lie close together on the surface,
360 feet above the sea-level.

206 rnEPortT—1881.

In the parish of Aylestone, Leicester, is a group of syenite boulders;
the longest is 4 ft. x 3 ft. x 1}ft., and is rounded. It was derived from’
Groby, 5 miles N.W., and lies exposed on the surface, 190 feet above the
sea-level.

A number of boulders in this locality have been described in my
previous report, which are far below the height at which they must have
been originally deposited. They are now found lying in the alluvium of
the valley of the river Soar, having subsided to their present position as
the débris was washed away by floods from age to age.

On the estate of Spinney Hills, at Lodge Farm, Leicester, is a group of
boulders of millstone grit and granite, the longest 5 ft. x 2 ft. 6 in. x
- 1 ft. 9in.; the smallest, 2 ft. x 1 ft. x1 ft. The largest block (millstone grit)
is very much rounded, the others (granite) are subangular and angular.
There are faint striz on the millstone grit. The millstone grit may be derived
from Stanton, near Melbourne, Derbyshire; the granites from Mount Sorrel.
The former is about 35 miles N.W.; the latter 6 miles N.W.. The granite
blocks are the most numerous. They are 320 feet above the sea-level.

These boulders were in a deposit of stiff tenacious clay drift, 8 feet
deep, and were found lying upon the denuded surface of the rheetic beds,
which were uncovered in making a new road. The boulders are found on
the S.H. face of the hill, although they have travelled from the N.W.

In the parish of St. Margaret’s, on the estate of Abbey Meadow,
Leicester, are three blocks of granite, the longest being 2 ft. x 2 ft. x 1 ft.;
the smallest, 1} ft. x 1ft. x 1 ft. They are rounded and subangular, and
were derived from Mount Sorrel, 6 miles N. They were exposed in
excavating a new river-bed, and were found lying under 8 feet of coarse
pebbly drift (which forms an extensive deposit all over this area), at a
height of 165 feet above the sea-level.

In the parish of Rothley, on the estate of Rothley Temple, Leicester,
is a group of four granite boulders, the longest 3 ft. x 2 ft. Gin. x 2 ft. ;
the smallest, 2ft. 6in. x 2ft. x 2ft. They are subangular, and were
derived from Mount Sorrel, 2 miles due north. They lie exposed on
the surface, 280 feet above the sea-level.

In the parish of St. Margaret’s, on the Great Northern new line of
railway, Willowbrook, Leicester, are four boulders, the longest 3ft. x
2 ft. x 2ft.; the smallest 2 ft. x2 ft. x 1ft.3in. The millstone-grit blocks
are rounded ; the altered slate are angular, the granites sub-angular.

The millstone grit may be derived from Stanton, Derbyshire ; the altered
slate from Swithland; the granite fron Mount Sorrel. Stanton is 35 miles
N.W.; Swithland 5 miles N.W.; Mount Sorrel 6 miles N.

These boulders were uncovered in excavations for the line of railway,
and were found at various depths in a drift composed almost entirely of
rounded pebbles, 175 feet above the sea-level. Numerous other erratics,
but of smaller dimensions, are found scattered throughout the mass.
The depth exposed at various points of this coarse pebbly drift varies
from 10 to 20 feet, but as the solid rock was in no case reached, it must be
much deeper. This deposit must be of immense extent, it having been
found at various points over an area of 2 miles by 15 miles. The pebbles
constituting this pebbly drift are very much rounded and polished.

In the parish of St. Mary’s, on the Victoria Park estate, Leicester, is
a widely extended group of boulders; the longest 14 ft. x 1ft. x 1ft.;
the smallest eube of about 10 inches. Many of them are rounded, sub-
angular, and angular. They were derived from localities all round, this

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 207

county except the south side, extending from 6 to 60 miles, and from all
points of the compass except from the south. .

They comprise granites, syenites, slates, grits, sandstones, mountain
limestones, oolitic limestones, lias limestones, marl-stones, chalk-flints,
coal and coal-shales, &c.

The group is 290 feet above the sea-level and covers about 100 acres ; the
number counted was 500. They were turned out.in an extensive system
of draining carried out over the whole area to a depth of 44 to 7 feet, in
widths varying from 1} to 2 feet. All occur in drift, gravel, sand, and
clay. Many thousands of erratics must lie concealed under the remainder
of the area.

The great ‘ Erratic,’ called the ‘ Holy stone,’ at Humberstone (briefly
alluded to in the Second Report for 1874, and more fully described in
the Sixth Report for 1878), one of the largest yet discovered in the mid-
land counties, is now entirely uncovered, and some fine photographs (on
a large scale) have been taken of it. The block is pentagonal in shape,
the sides are quite vertical, and are of the following dimensions in length,
7 ft., 6 ft. 4 in., 5 ft., 5 ft. and 4 ft. 4 in. It may be observed that two of
the sides of 5 feet each are opposite to each other. The depth of the
sides is 5 feet. The longest axis is 10 feet, and the next in length (and
at right angles to it) is 9 feet.

The vertical sides and corners of the block are as fresh as if recently
quarried, and no groovings can be seen upon them. The upper surface
(the longer axis of which lies N. and 8.) has several deep irregular
grooves running N. and §., but these are considered to have been done
since the block was deposited, as it is thought, from reasons that cannot
be here entered upon, that it has been very much higher, and that a
considerable portion of the upper part has been worn away by natural
and artificial causes.

The bottom of the block cannot be seen without turning it over, and
this would be a work of some labour. Careful calculation makes the
weight nearly 21 tons.

The block rests on a denuded bed of the rhetic formation, and the
material around it, which nearly covered it, is of recent accumulation,
so that originally it is thought to have stood quite exposed. The height
of the hill from which it is considered to have been brought is about 400
feet above the level of the sea, and is situated 6 miles N.W. The hill-
side on which the block now rests is about 240 feet above the sea, and
there is a river valley between these two points (at right angles to the
line of transit of the block) which is only 110 feet above the level of the
Bea.

The proprietor, in obliging compliance with the request of the Com-
mittee, will take measures for its preservation.

Hertfordshire.—Mr. H. George Fordham, F.G.S., presents the following
report on the Erratic Blocks of the parish of Ashwell.

[Ordnance Maps—t-inch, Sheet 46. N.E., and 25-inch, Parish Map.]

The village of Ashwell lies in the middle of the parish, on the Chalk
Marl and the lowest beds of the Lower Chalk, at the foot of a ridge of Lower
Chalk hills, from which the river Cam, or Rhee, rises on the east side of the
village.

To the north the parish is flat, consisting of Chalk Marl, through which
the river cuts a narrow channel, and it just reaches the Gault in its ex-
treme northern point, about 2? miles from the village.

208 REPORT—1881.

The village itself is about 160ft. above sed-level (B c
church = 1625 ft,). sree

South and south-east of the village the ground rises rapidly i
ridge above referred to—highest point, about half-a-mile fon the a
(Clay Bush Hill), 329 ft.—and this ridge runs S.H,, at right angles to the
main line of hills formed by the upper beds of the Chalk, constitutin
ye edge of the London basin, until it joms this high eround near Kel
shall.

The ridge near Ashwell bends away towards the north-west, and
gradually loses its elevation. It forms the line of division between the
valley of the Cam, or Rhee, and that of the Ivel, which latter stream
flows into the Ouse.

There do not appear to be any boulders on the flat ground north of
the village, nor on the low hills in other parts of the parish, and the onl
locality for boulders within the parish seems to be the upper part of the
ridge of high ground already described. The whole of the higher part of
this ridge, within the parish, is covered with clays and gravels of glacial
origin ; and it is clear from the uneven appearance of the surface, that
the ground during long periods has been worked to obtain materials for
road-making and other purposes ; and to a small extent it is still so worked
From this source, we may fairly assume, has been derived the large quan-
tity of pebbles and boulders which we now find in all parts of the village
of Ashwell. Indeed, at the present day, boulders are brought down from
time to time from the one gravel-pit now open.

The boulders and pebbles, of which the following is a catalogue, and
which are found in different parts of the village, must be therefore
considered as belonging to the ridge above the village, from which there
is every reason to suppose they have all, at one time or another, been
obtained, from a height of from 270 ft. to 529 ft. above the sea.

The catalogue includes all the larger blocks, and such smaller ones as
appear to be representative in point of material, or of any interest from
external characteristics.

The measurements and descriptions of external appearances are from
my own observations; for descriptions of the rocks I am indebted to
Professor Bonney, to whom specimens haye been submitted. He writes
that, as they reached him when away for some time from books and
collections, he has not attempted to name the few and generally im-
perfectly preserved or exposed fossils which he has noticed.

Boulders lying at the end of barrel-washing shed, Ashwell Brewery.

1. Roughly cubical, angles but little worn, surfaces nearly flat and
somewhat smoothed. Fine sandstone: may be either carboniferous or
jurassic. 15}in. x 12in. x lljin.

2. Irregular shape, much rounded and smoothed on two sides (probably
by man). Fine sandstone: carboniferous or jurassic. 15in. x 104in
x Sin. Ds
3. Rounded fragment, breaking into slabs along planes of bedding.
Ferruginous calcareous sandstone: neocomian, or possibly carboniferons.
10 in. in longest diameter.

4. Irregular shape, smoothed and worn. Fine sandstone: neocomian
or possibly carboniferous. 12in. x 9in. x 5 in. ‘

5. Irregular, slightly smoothed. Fine, hard sandstone: possibly
inferior oolite, if not, probably carboniferous. 1lin. x 7in. x 6in,

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 209

6. One side flat, the other sides irregular and smoothed. Hard sand-
stone: possibly oolitic. llin. x 10in. x 10in.

7. Very irregular in shape, smoothed, rounded, and marked with lines
of bedding. Ferruginous sandstone : oolite, or neocomian. 17 in. x 134 in,
x Sin.

8. Rounded and smoothed. Ferruginous sandstone: oolite or car-
boniferous. 8in. x 6in. x 4in.

9. Somewhat wedge-shaped, with two of its faces flat. Generally
smoothed and worn. Compact limestone: probably carboniferous.
9}in. X Yin. x 5d in,

10. Roughly prismatic, irregular surface, slightly worn. Fine, ferru-
ginous sandstone: inferior oolite or neocomian. 12 in. x 7in. x 6in.

11. Somewhat broadly wedge-shaped, with several perfectly flat and
smoothed plane surfaces. Basalt. 10in. x 9in. x 6in.

12. Irregular and smoothed. Fine, hard, rather ferruginous sandstone :
possibly inferior oolite. 12in. x 8in. x 4din.

13. Broken end of boulder, rounded, one surface nearly flat. Sand-
stone: carboniferous or jurassic. 6in. x Gin. x 4d in.

14, Oval, smoothed and worn, all the angles worn off and most of the
faces smoothed and flat. Evidently much rolled and worn. Traces of
parallel grooving on one face: compact sandstone. 15in. x 12in. x 8in.

15. Long-shaped, rounded and: worn, with one long flat face,
P scratched: compact sandstone. 18in. x llin. x 7Lin.

16. Roughly prismatic, irregular surfaces, rounded. Ferruginous
sandstone: oolitic or neocomian. 15in. x 10in. x 8 in.

17. Prismatic, angles rounded. Somewhat pyramidal in shape.
13hin. x 12in. x 64 in.

Boulder at corner of stable, Ashwell Brewery Yard.

18, Rounded, much worn by atmospheric action and ill-usage, and the
Surface consequently rough and broken. Coarse sandstone, rounded,
glazed grains: neocomian. 16in. x 12in. x 9 in.

Boulders in pavement near wall of garden, Ashwell Brewery Yard.

19. Small boulder. Basalt, rather decomposed. 7in. x 7in. x ?.
20. Pebble, oval and worn. Ferruginous sandstone: probably neoco-
mian. 6in. x 24in x ?,

Boulders bedded in the ground ang side of garden wall, Ashwell Brewery
ard.

21. Oval, worn. Fine, hard sandstone: carboniferous or oolite.
1lin. x 6in. x ?,

22. Roughly rectangular, with uneven, smoothed upper surface. Sand-
stone with carbonaceous markings. llin. x 7din. x ?

23. Apparently a fragment of larger boulder, with flat surface of
fracture. Other sides smoothed and rounded, Compact limestone :
carboniferous or oolitic. 13in. x 7in. x 64 in.

24, Smoothed and rounded. Compact limestone: mountain lime-
stone(?). 10in. x 6Lin. x ?.

25. Smoothed, uneven upper surface, nearly flat. Angles but little
worn. Basalt. Jin. x 64in, x ?.

1881, P

210 REPORT—1881.

26. Roughly rectangular, smoothed, angles little rounded. Basalt.
74 in. X Zin. x P.

27. Long-shaped, pointed at one end, worn, but without any definite
plane surfaces. Several rounded knobs on different parts of the surface.
Basalt. lin. x 7in..x 6in.

28. Worn, cuboidal. Ferruginous sandstone. 10in. x 7in. x P.

29. Cubical, slightly worn angles, and surfaces nearly flat and smooth.
Coarsish ferruginous sandstone. 8in. x 7 in. x ?.

80. Very uneven surfaces, covered with little knobs and depressions,
broken on one side. Crystalline; a coarse gneiss with black mica.
8h in. X Zin. X 5$in.

31. Smoothed and much worn, marked in some parts by irregular,
broad grooves. Hard sandstone: possibly oolitic. 12in. x 7in. x 7 in.

32. Flat, smooth upper surface, angles but little worn. Hard sand-
stone: carboniferous or oolite. 10}in. x 6 in. x ?.

33. Rounded and smoothed. A crystalline rock, not in very good
condition for examination: contains felspar crystals :—? a porphyritic
gneiss. 7in. X din. x P.

Boulders forming edge of path, outside end of garden, entrance to Ashwell
Brewery Yard.

34, Cubical, smoothed, angles slightly rounded, and sides nearly flat.
Fine sandstone: carboniferous or oolite. 13in. x 14in. x ?. (Notedin
Fifth Report of the Committee.)

35. Subangular, surfaces smoothed. Ferruginous sandstone: neoco-
mian or oolite. Zin. x 55in. x ?.

36. Rounded, worn. Calcareous, ferruginous sandstone: probably
oolite. Sin. xX Zin. x ?P.

37. Rounded, flattish, worn. Ferruginous sandstone: neocomian or
oolite. 74in. X 7}in. x Sin.

38. Flattish, smooth, rectangular, angles worn. Hard sandstone:
carboniferous or oolite. 105in. x 8}in. x 6 in.

39. Nearly spherical, worn; surface slightly uneven, but well rounded
as a whole. Hard, ferruginous sandstone: probably oolitic. 10} in.
x, Jin. x, Ps

40. Upper surface flat, otherwise rounded. Coarse sandstone: rather
like a millstone grit. 115in. x 1lin. x P. j

41, Rounded, somewhat rectangular pebble, well-worn. Ferruginous
sandstone: probably neocomian. 6in. x 4in. x ?.

42, Rounded, with several flat surfaces. Ferruginous sandstone ;
well-rounded grains: probably neocomian. 13in. x 84 in x P.

43. Subtriangular, rounded and smoothed. Hard sandstone: car-
boniferous or oolite. 10in. x 7$in. x ?.

44, Rectangular, with rounded angles and smoothed surfaces. Sand-
stone: neocomian or oolite. 13in. x 7in. x ?.

45. Oval, rounded and worn. Sandstone: probably oolitic. 16 in.
x Min. xX ?.

46. Somewhat rectangular, angles rounded, sides nearly flat. Sand-
stone: carboniferous or oolite. 13in. x 7in. x P

47, Long, subangular, stratified slab. Ferraginous sandstone: pro-
bably oolite. 19in. x 55in. x P.

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 211

48. Rectangular, sides flat, angles but little worn. Fine, ferruginous
sandstone: probably neocomian. 12 in. x 5in. x?.

49. Rectangular, but much worn, and angles rounded. Ferruginous
sandstone : neocomian or oolite. 9 in. x din. x P.

50. Rounded. Ferruginous sandstone: neocomian or oolite, 7 in.
SirariaiexX Poco,

51. Broken slab, with sharp angles round one face, but otherwise
much worn and smoothed. Basalt.. 18in. x 5in. x P.

52. Flattish, smoothed, worn, surface irregular. Sandstone: probably
jurassic. Sin. x 9in. xX Sin.

53. Roughly prismatic, with angles rounded and faces smoothed.
Sandstone, with annelid markings. Yin. x Gin. x 6in,

54, Subangular, prismatic slab, angles rounded and whole surface
smoothed. Hard, ferruginous sandstone: carboniferous or oolite. 15 in.
Ons XP

55. Rounded, smoothed. Ferruginous sandstone: probably oolitic.
9in. x Gin. x P.

56. Rounded and smoothed. Sandstone: probably neocomian, 8 in.
x Zin, X 45 in.

57. Subangular, worn. Ferruginous, calcareous sandstone: neocomian
or oolite. lin. x 6in. x P.

58. Broken fragment, rounded and worn. Compact limestone: pro-
bably carboniferous limestone. 54in. x Gin. x ?.

59. Subangular, irregular, little worn. Pink-red, mottled, ferruginous
sandstone: neocomian or oolite. 6in. x 7in. x 4 in.

60. Piece of somewhat worn chalk-marl [doubtfully a boulder. ]
17 in. x 9in. x Gin,

Slab in pavement in front of botler-room door, Ashwell Brewery.

61. Upper surface smooth and flat, angles rounded. Compact sand-
stone. 2lin. x 16in. x P. ;

Boulder lying at end of barn opposite office, Ashwell Brewery.

62. One end broken, otherwise much rounded and smoothed. Coarse
sandstone or grit. 15in. x llin. x 6in.

Boulder lying on S. side of entrance to Ashwell Brewery Yard.

63. Irregularly-shaped, faces flat and smoothed, angles but little worn.
Hard, compact sandstone. 18in, x 12in. x ?.

Boulder on N. side of entrance to Ashwell Brewery Yard, against corner of
house. [Since moved into stable yard adjoining. |

(This is the large boulder referred to in the Fifth Report :—the measurements are
now taken somewhat differently.)

64, Rounded and much worn, without any particular regularity of
shape. When moved the lower portion of the surface, where it had not
been exposed, was much less worn, and rather uneven. Sandstone:
corresponds in character with hand-specimens of mill-stone grit. 2 ft. 10 in.
x 2ft.8in. x 2 ft.0 in,

P2

212 rEPoRT—1881:;

Boulders from large heap of pebbles at end of stable, Ashwell Brewery
Yard.

65. Irregularly prismatic, angular, angles slightly worn. White
quartzite, probably derived from pebbles in Bunter. [It is somewhat
doubtful whether this is a boulder ; possibly it has been brought here with
building materials, or in some similar way.] 12in. x 7in. x 4} in.

66. Broken, rounded pebble. Appears to be a dark felsite or por-
phyrite: possibly from the Cheviots. 4 in. x 4in. x din,

67. Rounded pebble. Basalt. Gin. x 4in. x 3in.

Boulder at corner of house at angle of road to The Bury, in Mill Lane.

68. Worn and smoothed slab, showing lines of bedding, and weathering
iron-red. Coarse, deep red, ferruginous sandstone, with rounded grains:
neocomian. 2ft.Qin. x 2ft.Qin. x 1ft.0 in,

Boulders used as stepping-stones at the Springs.

69. Irregularly-shaped, angles well rounded, and sides smoothed.
Top much worn by use as a stepping-stone. Hard ferruginous sandstone,
weathering red. 2 ft. 4in. x 1 ft. 10 in. x 1 ft. 5 in.

70. Irregularly-shaped, worn and smoothed. Coarse, rather ferru-
ginous sandstone. 2 ft. lin. x 1 ft. 5 in. x 1 ft. 4 in.

Boulders on side of road, at the W. end of ‘ The Cricketers’ Beerhouse.

71. Flat, roughly hexagonal slab, top quite smooth and flat, sides and
angles worn. Compact, light-yellow sandstone. 2 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 11 in.

x 1 ft..0'im.
72. Rounded, many-sided block, surface rough and granular from

exposure. Granite, with black mica, not unlike that of Criffell. 16 in.
x l4in. x P.

Boulder at corner of ‘ The Waggon and Horses,’ near the Spring Head.

73. Smooth, worn and rounded, shape somewhat irregular. Basalt ;
weathering dark blue. 21 in. x 18 in. x 12 in.

Boulder in Greater Hodwell, at corner of garden wall, opposite the
Lock-up.
74. Long, flattish, worn and smoothed. Hard, fine sandstone:
carboniferous or oolite. 2 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. Gin. x P.

Heap of boulders forming fernery, in extreme H. corner of garden of Brewer's
House, Ashwell Brewery.

75. Rounded, weather-worn, arid marked irregularly by small cracks :
doubtfully scratched on upper stirface. Carboniferous limestone. 11 in.
x 8in. xX 7 in.

76. Much rounded, nearly oval in shape. Coarse grit: probably
neocomian. 8 in. x 7} in. x 5 in.

77. Irregularly-shaped, smoothed. Fine ferruginous sandstone: car-
boniferous or oolite. Yin. x 8h in. x 5 in,

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND, 213

78. Apparently a broken fragment, Irregular shape, somewhat angular,
worn on one face. Carboniferous limestone, containing fossils (spirifere).
S3a, x 7 in, x 5 in.

79. Roughly rhomboidal, worn and smoothed, Sandstone; carboni.
ferous or oolite. 16 in. x 11} in. x 8 in.

80. Wedge-shaped, with flat, smoothed faces, and rounded angles.
Fine sandstone: probably oolitic. 8 in. x 7 in. X 5 in.

81. Prismatic in shape, angles rounded, and faces smoothed, Coarsish,
loose sandstone. 13} in. x 6 in. X 45 in,

82. Broken end of a sandstone boulder, similar in character and
material to 81. 65 in. x 6 in. X 3 in.

83. Thick slab, one face perfectly flat and smooth, and opposite face
nearly so, angles rounded. Sandstone. 15 in. x 12 in, x 5} in.

84, Prismatic block, angles rounded, faces smoothed and worn.
Sandstone. 14 in. x 7 in, x 45 in.

85. Much wornand rounded. Slightly ferruginous sandstone : possibly
carboniferous. 20 in, (?) x 16 in. x 8 in.

86. Rounded, worn. Ferruginous sandstone: probably neocomian.
12 in. (?) x Zin. x 4 in.

87. Prismatic, flat, smoothed faces, angles little worn. Ferruginous
sandstone: probably neocomian. 16 in. x 7 in. X 7 in.

88. Much worn and smoothed. Ferruginons grit: probably neocomian.
20 in. X 14 in. x 7 in.

89. Rounded, worn, pear-shaped. Limestone: probably carboniferous.
15 in. x 11} in. x 7 in.

90. Worn, somewhat prismatic in shape, angles rounded and sides
flat. Basalt. 15 in. x 10 in. x 74 in.

91. Much rounded and smoothed, almost to the extent of being
polished. Hard, white, fine-grained sandstone: probably carboniferous.
17 in. x 10 in. x 8 in.

.92. Rounded and worn. Fine, compact sandstone. 9 in. x 6 in,
x 4 in.

93. Broken fragment, smoothed on one face. Black limestone;
carboniferous. 104 in, x 8 in. x 5 in.

94. Rhomboidal, faces flat, angles little worn. Ferruginous sandstone :
probably oolitic. 12 in. x 6in. x 54 in.

95. Rectangular slab, upper face flat and smoothed, lower rather
rounded. Hard, rather ferruginous sandstone: probably oolitic. 121 in,
x 9in. x 53 in.

96. Elongated rhomb, flat, smoothed surfaces, and angles rounded,
Hard sandstone: probably oolitic. 114 in. x 6in. x 6 in.

97. Flat-topped, somewhat angular slab. Ferruginous sandstone;
possibly neocomian or oolitic. 103 in. x 9 in. x 4 in.

98. Smoothed and rounded slab. Hard sandstone: carboniferous or
oolite. Qin. x 6}in. x 34 in.

99. Roughly cuboidal, surface uneven, and slightly worn. Basalt.
7 in. x 64 in. x 6 in.

100. Rounded, slightly smoothed. Fine ferruginous sandstone:
probably oolitic. 10 in."x 7} in. x 44 in.

101. Rounded, smoothed. Hard sandstone: probably oolitic. 8 in.
x 6 in. x ?.

102. Rounded. Fine, hard sandstone: might be neocomian or ports
landian, 84 in, x 7 in, x ?.

214 REPORT—1881.

Boulders in High Street, in front of Jessamine Farm.
At N. corner of garden, in front of house.

103. Smoothed, rounded, faces nearly flat. Basalt. 2 ft. 6in. x 1 ft.
8 in. x 1 ft. 6 in.

At W. corner of garden.

104. Flat, roughly triangular slab, edges rounded, upper surface
broken. Fossiliferous limestone: probably oolitic. 2 ft. 2 in. x 2 ft.
Oin. x 9 in.

Boulder at side of step of door of ‘The Australian Cow’ Beerhouse, at
corner of High Street and Lime Kiln Lane. :

105. Long block, irregular shape, much worn, and angles rounded.
Coarse grit ; probably millstone grit. 2 ft. 5 in. x 1 ft. 8in. x 11 in,

Boulders along side of road, against wall of lime-kiln pit, at the top of
Bear Lane.

106. Irregular, rounded. Ferruginous sandstone ; neocomian or oolite.
19 in, x 14 in. x. 12 in.

107. Rectangular, angles but little worn, sides nearly flat. Sandstone:
probably oolitic. 14 in. x 12 in. x ?.

108. Rounded, flattish oval. Part of septaria; possibly from Oxford
or Kimmeridge clay. 2 ft. 0in. x 1 ft. 4 in. x P.

109. Rounded, somewhat oval, smoothed. Fine limestone: carboni-
ferous or neocomian, 16 in. x 13 in. x ?.

110. Rounded, smoothed,slightly cuboidal in shape, angles well-worn.
Sandstone: probably millstone-grit series. 12 in. x 11 in. x ?.

111. Similar to 108. Broken and buried in the ground, but
apparently about the same size.

112. Rounded, cuboidal. Sandstone: probably millstone-grit series.
12 in. x 11 in. x 10 in.

113. Rounded, flattish block. Sandstone: neocomian or oolite. 10 in.
x 9in. x 55 in.

Heap of boulders at junction of roads opposite lime-kiln, at the top of
Bear Lane.

These have all been recently brought down from the gravel-pit on the
S. side of Clay Bush Hill.

The workmen state that they are all found in the upper part of the
gravel-beds.

[114 to 122, described below, have been taken away to be built into
a wall alongside of the river where it passes under the high road outside
the lower end of The Bury close. ]

114. Flat slab, surface well-smoothed, and angles rounded. Very
hard, fine ferruginous sandstone: possibly carboniferous, 3 ft.0in. x
2 ft. 0 in. x 6 in. :

115. Subangular, faces flat. Sandstone: possibly carboniferous,
21 in. x 123 in. x 11 in.

116. Worn, rounded, flattish block. Sandstone: possibly oolitic.
2 ft. 14 in. x 1 ft. 5 in. x 1 ft. 1 in.

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 215

117. Rounded, worn. Hard sandstone: possibly carboniferous. 17 in,
x 14 in, x 12 in.

118, Slightly rounded, triangular block, sides flat and smooth, Sand-
stone, probably oolitic. 2ft.1in. x 1 ft. 7 in. x 1 ft. 0 in.

119. Sub-angular, irregular shape. Fine sandstone, 12 in, x 11 in,
x 10 in.

120, Sub-angular, rectangular block, with flat faces and planes of
bedding parallel to plane of longest face. Basalt. 11 in, x 83 in. x 65
in.

121. Smoothed and rounded slab, Sandstone: neocomian or oolite,
14 in. x 9 in. x 55 in.

122. Flat-faced, many-sided, sub-angular block. Basalt. 10 in. x 7 in,
x 5 in.

123. Sub-angular, wedge-shaped. Basalt. 85 in. x 7 in. x 5 in,

124. Broken, rounded fragment. Basalt. 5 in. x 5 in. x 3 in,

125. Rounded, many-sided block. Basalt. 8 in. x 53 in. x 4} in,

Boulders and pebbles forming Rockery, Sc., in the Rectory Garden.

[It is doubtful whether Nos. 126 to 155 all belong to Ashwell, as some of them
are said to have been brought from a brickpit at Stotfold, Bedfordshire, three miles
S.W. It is not, however, clear which, or how many, belong to Stotfold. |

126, Roughly triangular, worn, Fine, hard sandstone, probably car-
boniferous. 15 in. x 12 in. x ?.

127. Rough block, with surface much broken, but in some parts
smoothed, and general outline rounded. Possibly a piece of septarian
concretion from Oxford or Kimmeridge clay, 15 in. x 12 in. x P.

128. Flat, triangular pebble, angles worn. Fossiliferous, impure
limestone: very like Lias marlstone. 10 in. x 7 in. x 4 in.

129, Flattish, stratified, worn and rounded, with a few short, deep
furrows (probably artificial). Sandstone. 22 in. x 15 in. (?) x 6 in. (?)

130. Angular block, very little worn. Coarse sandstone: probably
millstone grit. 17 in. x 12 in. x 7 in. (?)

131. Roughly rectangular, surface uneven and broken, but somewhat
worn. Hard sandstone, with plant-remains (?): probably jurassic, 14 in.
mL in. xP:

132. Rounded, worn pebble. Sandy limestone: probably jurassic.
9 in. x 74 in, x 5S in.

133. Rounded, worn, flattish fragment. Ferruginous, slightly cal-
careous sandstone: probably neocomian. 10 in. x 83 in. xX 3 in.

134, Little-worn slab, Ferruginous sandstone: probably neocomian.
12 in. x 44 in, x 2 in.

135. Worn, smoothed, broken slab, slightly scratched, Limestone
with fossils: probably jurassic. 7 in. x 7 in, x 2 in.

136, Rough, broken pebble, Limestone, with fossils: jurassic, 4 in.
x 4in. x 3 in.

137. Broken piece, much rounded on original surface; apparently a
piece of a nearly spherical boulder; a few scratches and grooves, Lime-
stone: probably jurassic. 9 in. x 6 in. x 3} in.

138. Rough, broken, somewhat smoothed on one side. Coarse grit,
with small, rounded quartz pebbles: millstone grit. 64 in. x 6 in. X 4 in.

139. Flat slab, angles rounded and whole surface smoothed, except
lower side. Fine hard sandstone: possibly carboniferous. 63 in. x 6 in.
x 2 in.

216 REPORT—1881.

140. Triangular, broken fragment; one face well-smoothed, and
scratched and grooved in various directions. (Very probably these
markings are not ancient). Limestone: probably jurassic. 85 in. x 7 in,
x 2 in.

141. Wornand smoothed, wedge-shaped. Felstone, either orthoclase-
felsite or porphyrite. ? Cheviots or S. Scotland. 75in. x 55in, x 3in.

142, Rough, angular slab (possibly not a boulder). Jimestone, with
fossils: probably mesozoic. 19 in. x 9 in. x ?.

143. Similar to 142. 2 ft.6in.(?) x 8 im. x ?.

144. Broken, worn piece. Limestone: carboniferous. 8 in. x 9 in,
x 6 in.

145. Rounded, worn pebble, Very hard fossiliferous limestone: pro-
bably Lias Marlstone. 9 in. x 7 in. x ?.

146. Rough, irregularly-shapéd pebble, very slightly worn. Sandy
limestone: very like Lias marlstone, with pecten (? eequivalvis), 9 in.
x6 in. x 53 in.

147. Rounded, worn, flattish boulder. Fossiliferous limestone: pro-
bably identical with 140. 12 in. x 10 in. (?) x 6 in.

148. Smoothed, rounded, and slightly scratched, broken piece, Lime-
stone: carboniferous or mesozoic. 8} in. x 7 in. x 5 in.

149. Angular, rough, cubical block, very little worn. Limestone:
small pecten on surface. 16} in. x 12 in. x 11 in.

150. Rough, flat-topped slab, worn on lower side, appears to have
been broken on upper face. Chiefly decomposed felspar, with a fine
chloritic mineral, decomposed mica or possibly hornblende. So poor in
quartz as hardly to be worthy of being called gneiss. 2 ft. 0 in. x 1 ft.
2in. (P) X 7} in.

151. Worn, rounded, surface uneven. Basalt. 8in.(?) x 74in. x 6in,

152. Broken, rough, angular fragment. Calcareous sandstone, with
serpula, ostreea or exogyra, &c. Jurassic. 124 in. x 10 in. x ?.

153. Rounded, cuboidal block, surface rough. Calcareous mudstone,
with ostrea or gryphea. Jurassic, very like Lias Marlstone. 13 in. x
91 in. x ?.

~ 15¢, Rounded, with nearly flat faces. Coarse ferruginous sandstone,
with rounded quartz grains. Neocomian. 15 in. x 10 in. x ?.

155. Flat slab, angles worn. Limestone: probably carboniferous,
104 in. x 10 in. x 3 in,

156, Angular, broken slab. Limestone: jurassic. 12 in. x 10 in. x
3 in.

157. Much smoothed, worn slab. Fine sandstone: probably car-
boniferous. 9 in. x 9 in. x 3 in.

158. Angular slab, possibly slightly worn. Argillaceous limestone,
with fossils: probably Lias. 11] in. x 10 in. x 4 in.

159. Worn, faces nearly flat, and angles a little rounded. Ferru-
ginous sandstone: probably neocomian. 13 in. x 10} in. x 7 in.

160. Flat, worn slab. Sandstone: perhaps carboniferous. 114 in.
x 9 in. x 5 in. (?)

161. Triangular, worn slab, smooth, and angles but little rounded.
Ferruginous sandstone: probably neocomian. 11 in. x 7 in. x 6 in.

162. Flattish, worn block. Fine, hard sandstone: probably car-
boniferous. 10 in. x 53 in x 44 in.

163. Irregularly triangular, smooth, bedded slab. Fine, hard ferru-
ginous sandstone: probably carboniferous. 9 in. x 64 in. x 4 in.

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 217

164. Much worn and rounded pebble, with a few scratches. Com-
pact, white sandstone. 10 in. x 6 in. x P,

165. Rounded, broken piece. Fine sandstone. 9 in. x 7 in. x 4& in.

166. Rectangular, broken slab (probably not a boulder). Oolitic
limestone. 12 in. x 10 in. x 3 in.

167. Rounded, smoothed and worn. Hard sandstone: probably
neocomian. 10} in. x 9 in. x ?.

168. Rounded, worn. Fine sandstone: probably jurassic. 11 in.
(about) x 74 in. x ?.

169. Wedge-shaped, worn pebble. Ferruginous, calcareous sand-
stone: probably jurassic, 74 in. x 6 in. x 4 in.

170. Rough, slightly worn. Limestone, with serpula: jurassic. 83 in.
x 7 in. x 6 in.

171. Rough slab, little worn. Ferruginous sandstone: neocomian
or possibly inferior oolite ironstone. 13 in. x 64 in. x 8} in.

172. Prism-shaped, faces flat and smoothed, angles a little worn.
Basalt. 10 in. x 54 in. x 5 in,

173. Worn slab. Coarse grit; perhaps neocomian. 10} in. x 7} in.
x 3in.

174. Broken slab, hardly worn, Sandstone. 9} in. x 8 in. x 3$in.

175. Rounded, nearly spherical, smoothed. Limestone, with serpula,
&c. Jurassic. 11 in. x 8in. x 7 in.

176. Worn, rounded, smooth pebble. Hardsandstone. 8} in, x 7 in.
x 3 in.

177. Irregularly-shaped, worn, angles but little rounded off. Basalt.
124 in. x 7 in. x 63 in,

178. Slightly worn fragment of a slab. Rather ferruginous sand-
stone. 11} in. x 5 in. X 3 in.

179. Long, smoothed and worn boulder. Sandstone. 11} in. x 5} in.
x 3 in.

180. Rough, irregular, little-worn pebble. Fine sandstone: probably
carboniferous. 7 in. x 7 in. x 6 in.

181. Flat, broken slab, little worn. Fine sandstone: possibly jurassic,
13 in. x 9} in. x 5 in.

182. Rounded, worn, smoothed, nearly oval pebble. Sandstone:
probably neocomian. 8 in. x 6in. x 5$in,

183. Rectangular, little-worn block. Fine, hard sandstone: probably
carboniferous. 11 in. x 64 in. x ?.

184, Worn slab. Coarse sandstone or grit: millstone grit, almost
certainly. 11 in. x 9 im. x 4 in.

185. Wedge-shaped, worn pebble, with flat faces, and angles little
yi: Fine, ferruginous sandstone: probably neocomian. 94in. x 7 in.
xX # 1m.

oo Irregularly-shaped, smoothed and worn. Basalt. 16in. x 9in.
x 8 in.

187. Worn, rough block. Fine ferruginous sandstone: probably neo-
comian. 10 in, x 6 in. x 6 in.

188. Worn, smoothed. Fine sandstone: possibly jurassic. 2 ft. 0 in.
x 1 ft. 33 in. x ?.

It will be observed that none of these specimens are local. The
general derivation is from the Oolites of the Midlands and from Car,
honiferous and other rocks of more northern districts.

218 REPORT—1881.

Denbighshire.—The Committee have received the following communi-
cation from Mr. D, Mackintosh, F.G.S. :—

I lately found a large boulder of Eskdale granite 164 feet above the
highest level of the parent rock in situ. It lay amidst many millstone
grit boulders on the summit of the mountain ridge south of Minera,
Denbighshire, at a height of about 1,450 feet above the sea.

Height above the Sea of Hrratic Chalk-flints.—I lately found many
chalk-flints associated with pebbles of Eskdale granite, &c., more than
1,100 feet above the sea on the EH. side of the mountain south of Minera,
Mr. John Aitken has lately informed me that he found wnworked as well
as worked chalk-flints more than 1,000 feet above the sea on the western
side of the Pennine hills. It is well known that chalk-flints occur in the
drift on Moel Tryfan in North Wales up to a great altitude. During late
visits to the mountain I found them as high up as 1,350 feet above the
sea, or about 350 feet higher than the chalk in situ in Ireland. That the
chalk-flints were transported by ice, and that they are not the insoluble
residue of chalk which once existed im situ, is evident from the extent to
which they are intimately associated with undoubted erratic stones, and
from their not being associated with insoluble silicified chalk fossils.
It is at the same time very difficult to conceive of chalk itself having once
extended over an area so large as that which is more or less strewn with
flints without leaving patches in protected situations.

Passage of Boulders through Gaps.—Many large boulders from the Arenig
Mountains have found their way through the gap in the Minera moun-
tain range which is traversed by the road leading from Mountain Lodge
(W. of Ruabon), to the World’s End (N. of Liangollen.)!

The Committee earnestly repeat their request for the assistance of
local observers to enable them to catalogue the rapidly disappearing
Erratic Blocks of the country with as much completeness as possible. A
large part of the most interesting specimens are especially liable either
to be destroyed as nuisances on the land, or utilised as building materials ;
and unless especial attention be paid to them during the next few years,
no accurate record of their position and character will remain,

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. LEITH
Apams, the Rev. Professor Hauauron, Professor Boyp Dawkins,
and Dr. Joun Evans, appointed for the purpose of exploring the
Caves of the South of Ireland.

Report on the Caves and Kitchen-middens near Cappagh, Co. Waterford, by
R. J. UssHer.

Since the explorations reported to the British Association last year,
made in a cave at Carrigagower near Middleton, in company with Mr.
J. J. Smyth, of Rathcoursey, I had the pleasure of excavating in his

1 In and E. of that gap they are strewn in a manner more easily explained by
floating ice than land ice, as it is more difficult to conceive of land ice (after passing
through the gap), continuing its course in a narrow stream for several milesin an
easterly direction, than it is to conceive of floating ice doing the same.

ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE CAVES OF THE SOUTH OF IRELAND. 219

company a spot on the townland of Ballyhonock, not far from Castle
Martyr, in the Co. Cork, where in a piece of rocky uncultivated ground
we found a kitchen-midden containing bones of domesticated animals,
charcoal, sea-shells, a quern stone, sharpening stones, and several other
relics of man. Beneath the above, or mixed with them, we found a
number of human bones, both of adults and young children (there were
six or eight of the latter), apparently the remains of bodies that had
been entire when deposited there. Previous to our excavations there had
been discovered at the same spot one of the dumbbell-shaped stones,
cupped at each end, that have been found in other places in Ireland, It
is now in the Cork Institute.

I also excavated the kitchen-midden of a rath at Bewley, in the
Co. Waterford, where I found, among charcoal, slag, burned stones and
numerous broken bones of ox, goat, pig, horse, and red deer, a quantity
of broken pieces of hand-made pottery of rude make, full of quartz
grains and representing a number of vessels of considerable size, charred
and burned sometimes internally and sometimes externally. This pottery
was all broken, and generally in a most friable condition. Shells of the
fresh-water mussel were also found in this refuse-heap, and a human
metacarpal or metatarsal bone; but the most remarkable object I met
with there was a rude stone hatchet formed from a waterworn flattish
stone, adapted for the purpose by breaking it across and chipping its
broad broken extremity to an edge, two deep indentations being also
made at opposite sides, evidently to hold a ligature or attachment for a
handle. ;

Continuing my researches along the scarp where the bone-cave of
Ballynamintra is situated, I found in and around the mouth of a small
cave on the townland of Ballynameelah another kitchen-midden with
bones of the usual domestic animals and red deer, charcoal, slag, flint-
chips, sea-shells, some pieces of iron, pieces of a jet bracelet, a fine ring
of bronze, probably an ear-ring, portion of a bone comb of a type to be
described, a carved bone whorl, and a number of whetstones,

In the month of May last I commenced operations in a rath situated
on a high rocky knoll that forms the scarp opposite to that containing
the bone cave. This rock is called Carrigmurish, or the Rock of Maurice.
A tradition exists that a highwayman named Maurice Conway lived there,
who was put to death on the rock for his crimes. The rath consists of a
ring fence in a ruinous condition, and contained a depression flanked
on one side by a rock that appeared hollow beneath, This hollow I
found at once to contain the kitchen-midden of the rath, and now that
it is excavated to the depth of some thirty feet it is shown to have filled
a cave, descending at an angle of 50° or so, of considerable size, This
cavity was choked with earth and stones containing large quantities of
charcoal, bones, and other relics. The larger bones were almost all
broken, to extract the marrow. The animals represented were a small
breed of oxen (the foreheads of which were broken in), pigs, goats, asses,
red deer, and in a few instances dogs, cats, and domestic fowl. Some of
the canine bones were of large size. Pieces of the antlers of red deer
were plentiful. These were generally cut in lengths with a saw, the cuts
being made at both sides and the piece then broken off. Several articles
of antler were found, marling-spikes or piercers, pins, whorls, and beads.
An interesting series of narrow scoops occurred, one class of which are
made of the tibise of goats and another of those of fowl. Pins of the

220 REPORT—1881.

latter bones were also plentiful, but wanted the polish observable on
those made of antler, which were more carefully finished and had either
a notched groove, an eye, or a head otherwise carved for attachment by a
string. Of the bone articles there are several combs with teeth on both
sides, whose middle portion is formed of three plates of bone fastened
together with rivets of bone and in one instance of iron. A knife-handle
of antler, polished and ornamented with small circles, held an iron blade,
some of which remains. A portion of a large polished jet bracelet, as well
as of a smaller one, was also found, and two bits of coloured iridescent
glass,

A bronze pin and other objects of bronze were also found.

Tron objects were numerous, especially small curved knife-blades
thick at the back. There is one long slender knife or poniard, a spear-
head eleven inches long, and the head of a smaller spear, a series of
slender rods and pins of iron, two of the latter with iron rings attached
to them, large-headed iron nails, a rude buckle, a portion of a crucible
or helmet, and the share of a wooden plough with wood adhering. One
of the most interesting objects of iron is a small saw with the end curved
up like that of askate. This is inserted in a wooden back, which doubt-
less served as the handle, and explains why the pieces of antler were not
cut through, as would be done by a modern saw-blade.

Stone objects were also numerous; a quern, a round mace or hammer-
head with a hole for inserting a handle, spindle-whorls, a small stone
bead, a large assortment of whetstones, one of which was beautifully cut
and pierced by a hole for attachment, burnishing stones, globular and
dise-shaped pebbles, which probably served as sling-stones, and one of
which has a cross cut on it, also a number of marine pebbles, probably
selected for their colouring, and crystals. With these sea-pebbles may be
mentioned shells of oysters, limpets, whelks, cockles, scallops, and other
marine molluscs. Slabs of sandstone, and in some cases of silurian rock,
foreign to the locality, frequently occurred, arranged evidently for hearths,
at different levels in the cavity, which doubtless became buried under sub-
sequent débris.

A large amount of the kitchen-midden is believed to remain un-
disturbed, probably quite as much as the excavated material. Ata depth
of more than twenty feet the cavity was found to extend very much and
not to be filled with earth. On exploring the open part with lights, large
chambers were discovered, from one of which by a steep descent we
made our way into the extensive system of galleries shown in the accom-
panying plan, which has been dialled and laid out by Mr. Duffin, County
Surveyor, who has given me the most valuable assistance. The dialling
shows the directions and lengths of the chambers and galleries already
known, but time did not allow of making a detailed survey. When the
dialling was laid out on the surface it was found that the point R is
very near the face of the scarp, and that persons within the cave could
here communicate by sounds with those without. Here a convenient
entrance can be made into the caverns. On the surface of the different
galleries were found broken bones of domestic animals similar to those
in the kitchen-midden, as well as charcoal. As a rule a stalagmite floor
extends throughout, exhibiting in places large pillars, domes, cones,
dammed-up pools of clear water, and similar phenomena. This stalag-
mite floor rests on a deposit of cave-earth several feet in depth, which it
ia desirable to excavate and remove to daylight for thorough examination,

ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE CAVES OF THE SOUTH OF IRELAND. 221

considering the interesting remains discovered in the adjoining cavern.
This work will, however, be a matter of great labour, and require con-
siderable time.

The excavation of the kitchen-midden above described was difficult,
owing to the depth from which the large amount of material had to be
lifted, in a box or buckets, by means of a pulley, windlass, and other
plant.

The grant of 10/. made in 1879 has been expended, as well as a great
part of another grant of 501. made by the Royal Irish Academy. To
thoroughly explore all the galleries would cost a very large sum, but if
the British Association were to grant us a sum of 50/. we could make a
good commencement, quite sufficient to show what the fauna of the cave-
earth may have been.

Tiough plan of Caverns at Ballynamintra, with dialling by W. EB. L’Estrance
Durrin, County Surveyor.

Dialling of Carrigmurish.

LSkviicuT caLty K

STAIRCAS:!

A/Foor oF SLIDE i
STEEP SLOPE 7
FILLED WITH v)

KITCHEN
MIDDEN.

SCALE 120 FEET#SI1 INCH

222 REPORT—1881.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir F. J. BRAMWELL, Dr.
A. W. Wituramson, Professor Sir WiLut1AmM THomson, Mr. Sr.
Joun Vincent Day, Dr. C. W. Stemens, Mr. C. W. MERRIFIELD,
Dr. Nemson Hancock, Mr. AseL, Captain DouGLAs GaALTon,
Mr. E. H. Carsutr, Mr. Macrory, Mr. H. Trueman Woop,
Mr. W. H. Bartow, and Mr. A. T. AtcHison, appointed for the
purpose of watching and reporting to the Council on Patent
Legislation.

Tue Bill of this Session, 1881, by Mr. Anderson, Mr. Brown, Mr Hinde

Palmer, and Mr, Broadhurst, was read and considered.

This Bill, which as it stands is a mere sketch, and not likely to prove
a working piece of legislation, is identical with the Bill introduced last
year by the same gentlemen, and referred to in the last Report (B. A.
Report, 1880, p. 318) of this Committee. It was, however, read a second
time in the House of Commons and consequently reached a further stage
than in 1880.

The Bill proposes the appointment of a Chief Commissioner and
assistants. It would reduce the fees considerably, that on application to
10s. and on sealing to 1J. It extends the period of provisional protection
to twelve months. It gives a patentee power to add (apparently by way
of supplement) to his original patent.

The Committee certainly approve the proposal to appoint paid Com-
missioners. They think the proposed reduction in fees much too large.
They approve the principle of letting a patentee amend his patent, but
it would be necessary that proper provision should be made. The clause
in the Bill would be quite unworkable.

The Committee have also to report that a carefully prepared Bill has
been published by the Council of the Society of Arts for discussion, with
the view of its being introduced into Parliament next year.

The principal alterations in the law which would be made by the
Society of Arts’ Bill are shown in the following memorandum, which
appeared in the Journal of the Society for August 12, 1881 :—

Commissioners of Patents——The Patent-office would be removed from
under the charge of the present Commissioners, who are the Lord
Chancellor, the Master of the Rolls, and the Law Officers. Three Com-
missioners would be appointed on account of their special knowledge.

Application for Letters Patent.—Method of granting same.—The method
of application for a patent would be somewhat as follows :—The applicant
would file a provisional specification, which would be referred to examiners
appointed for the purpose. They would see that the invention was
proper subject-matter for a patent; that the specification fairly described
the invention, and that it was generally intelligible and properly drawn.
They would not inquire into novelty or utility. They would report, and
their report would be shown to the applicant before being seen by the

‘Commissioners. The applicant would then have an opportunity of con-
ferring with the examiners as to any required alterations. Provisional
protection would be granted immediately on receipt of the application,
and would last for nine months. Before the end of that time the appli-
cant would be required to file a complete specification, fully describing
his invention. This would be referred to the examiners, and treated in
the same manner as the provisional specification. The applicant would
be enabled to amend his specification in accordance with the recom-
mendation of the examiners, and on his doing so a patent would be

ON PATENT LEGISLATION. 223

granted. If the examiners reported that the application was in respect
of matters which could not properly be made the subject of a patent, and
if the applicant still persisted, a patent would still be granted, but the
objections of the examiners would be endorsed upon the specification.
Duration of Patent—The duration of Letters Patent would be in-
_creased to seventeen years—the duration being as now contingent upon
the payment of fees at or before the expiration of each period.
Fees.—The fees would be half the present amounts, namely :—

£ S
Fee for Provisional Protection « é . ‘ . ‘ 2/10
Fee for Grant . . . ‘ - ° ‘ . se ee O10
Fee at expiration of fourth year . . ° ° sf o00LU
Fee at expiration of eighth year . ‘ F ; « 60°*0

Existing System.—Under the present law there is practically no ex-
amination whatever. Applications for patents are referred to one of the
two law officers, who reports whether a warrant may be issued for the
granting of Letters Patent. The only point upon which the law officer
decides is whether the invention is proper subject-matter for a patent, 7.e.
whether it comes within the definition of the Statute of Monopolies
(21 Jae. I., cap. 3) of being ‘a new manufacture within this realm.’ The
complete specification, upon which the patent is really granted, is never
examined at all by anybody.

Subject-matter.—The following is the definition of ‘subject-matter’
adopted in the Bill :—

(a) Any manufacture or any product not being a natural product ;

(b) Any machine or any means of producing any manufacture product
or result ;

(c) Any process or method of producing any manufacture product or
result ;

(d) Any part of a machine means process or method of producing
any manufacture product or result.

At present the ancient definition of the Statute of Monopolies is in
force, but, as a matter of fact, the question of subject-matter depends
wholly on the decisions of the Courts. ,

Opposition.—Under the proposed Bill, opposition to the granting of
Letters Patent would be limited to persons who could state that the
applicant had obtained the invention from them by means of fraud. Under
the present law any person can oppose, the general ground of opposition
being that the person opposing already has a patent for the same or nearly
the same invention.

Amendment.—The Bill provides that the inventor should be entitled to
amend his specification after it had been first filed. Under the present
system this power is very restricted.

Prolongation.—It is proposed to continue the system of prolonging
patents in special cases, the Bill being framed in such a manner as to give
greater facility for this than now exists. Under the present system, pro-
longations are granted by the Privy Council, and are considered a matter
of special favour, whereas the effect of the new Bill would, it is hoped,
be to give them as a right to any inventor who could show just cause for
having his privilege prolonged, on the ground of his not having had
sufficient reward, or the time having been insufficient to enable him to
bring his invention into action, or similar grounds, The period for which
a patent could be prolonged would be diminished by the three years which
the Bill would add to its original term,

224 REPORT—1881.

Obligatory Licenses—The Bill would compel a patentee to gratt
licenses in cases where it could be clearly shown that the invention was
not being worked in such a way as to supply the reasonable wants of the
public; but the elause has been so worded as to prevent any improper
interference with the rights of the patentee over what is considered to be
his own private property.

Trial of Patent Cases.—The Bill would provide for the trial of patent
cases in an entirely new manner. They would be tried, in the first
instance, before one of the Commissioners, and an appeal would lie to the
whole body. The Commissioners would have power to call in assessors,
and would have such other powers as would enable them to try the cases
fully. It is hoped that this would greatly simplify the patent litigation,
and would prevent the enormous expense which is now incurred by having
to bring complicated questions of law and fact before a jury, who are
probably ignorant of the scientific or mechanical considerations involved.
It may be noted that one great source of expense is the preparation of
models, which are only necessary to illustrate mechanical questions to
persons unaccustomed to deal with such questions. For experts in such
matters, drawings would be sufficient ; indeed, an engineer would generally
much prefer proper drawings to any model of a machine.

Anticipation.—It is proposed that a mere publication more than thirty
years old, unaccompanied by use within the thirty years, should not be
considered sufficient to invalidate a patent. The object of this is to
remove the hardship, which now not infrequently occurs, of a patent being
invalidated, or a patentee being put to great expense in order to prove
his claim, by the discovery of some ancient and probably incomplete
description, a description which in many cases could not have been put
into operation at the time it was made for want of necessary appliances to
carry it into effect.

Patents to Foreigners.—It is proposed that patents should be granted
to foreigners, or persons resident abroad, on precisely the same terms as
those on which they are granted to British subjects resident in the
United Kingdom. At present patents are granted to British subjects
in respect of communications from abroad; that is to say, the theory is,
@ person travelling abroad sees a useful invention, brings it home, and
patents it in England, such person not being, in any sense, the inventor,
In practice, patents for communications from abroad are nearly always
taken out by patent agents, whose clients are resident out of tne country,
and the patent, as soon as it is taken out, is assigned to the real foreign
inventor. Cases of injustice have occurred through the action of this
system, in which a patent has been granted to a person who had no moral
right to it, but who anticipated the original inventor in obtaining the
English patent.

Effect of Foreign Patents on English Patents.—At present an English
patent lapses at the expiration of any foreign patent taken out by the
same inventor for the same invention. It is proposed in the Bill that
English patents should not in any way be affected by foreign patents.

The Committee request that they may be re-appointed, in order to
watch the progress of this Bill through Parliament, as well as that of
any other Bill for the amendment of the Patent Law which may be
introduced.

The Committee have not expended any of the sum of 51. placed at
their disposal last year, but they would be glad to have the grant
renewed.

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 225

Report of the Anthropometric Committee, consisting of Mr. F.
Gatton, Dr. Beppor, Mr. Brasroox (Secretary and Reporter),
Sir G. CampsBeLL, Dr. Farr, Mr. F. P. FELLows, Major-General
Pirt-Rivers, Mr. J. Park Harrison, Mr. JAamMEs HEywoop, Mr.
P. HAuuett, Professor LEONE Levi, Dr. F. A. MaAnomep, Dr.
MUuIRHEAD, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr. CHARLES RosBerts, and
the late Professor ROLLESTON.

[PLATES III. AND IV.]

1.—The Committee were first appointed in 1875, and instructed to
continue the collection of observations on the systematic examination of
heights, weights, &c., of human beings in the British Empire, and the
publication of photographs of the typical races of the empire. It may be
convenient to recapitulate briefly what the Committee have done in
previous years.

2.—In the first year they prepared schedules and instructions and
had them printed, and purchased a small outfit of instruments to send
to places where measurements were to be made. The co-operation of
inspectors of the army, of the navy, of factories, and of pauper schools
was secured.

3.—In the second year the Committee obtained a series of measure-
ments of the 2nd Royal Surrey Militia from Colonel Lane Fox (now

General Pitt-Rivers) and circulated copies of his report as a model for

other observers. They further revised the instructions, prepared a book

of lithographed patterns of hair colours, added to the collections of
instruments for lending, and initiated the work of collecting typical
photographs.

4.—In the third year the collection of statistics was actively pro-
ceeded with, and returns were obtained of a few well-defined classes, as
boys in Westminster school, letter-sorters in the Post Office, criminals, &.

Tables were prepared from these, and a Report by Mr. Galton on the

returns of criminals was printed and circulated. Progress was made in

the collection of photographs.

5.—In the fourth year the Committee continued the collection and
tabulation of observations. They had by that time obtained statistics of
about 12,000 individuals, which were sufficiently complete to justify the
publication of tables of average height and weight, and of the ratio of
weight to height. They had been furnished by the Warden of Christ’s

Hospital with the records in his possession which enabled Sir Rawson

Rawson, one of the members, to construct a series of tables, serving as a

model for similar observations. Mr. Roberts prepared for the Committee

a series of tables and charts, showing the relation of height and weight

in the several classes of the English population, as compared with the

observations of Americans and Belgians published by Drs. Bowditch,

Baxter, and Quetelet respectively.
6.—In the fifth year the Committee were able to double the number

of observations, and to reduce them to order by adopting a scheme of

classification. -‘hey selected from the returns those which related to a

standard class living under the most favourable conditions with respect

to fresh air, exercise, and wholesome and sufficient food, and prepared

a series of tables relating to that class. They also digested the returns

relating to the colour of hair and eyes in the standard class, and sum-

sig ee the statistics of height and weight from persons of country
881. Q

226 REPORT—1881.

origin and town origin respectively. They availed themselves of the
observations made during several years at Marlborough College to show
the usefulness of such systematic records.

7.—In the present year, the sixth of their existence, the Committee have
not carried on operations under favourable circumstances. The returns
obtained in relation to the several classes are now of sufficient number
to make it desirable to subject them to scientific arrangement by skilled
computers, but the small fund at the disposal of the Committee (80/.)
has not been sufficient to enable this to be done completely.

8.—The same cause has prevented the incurring any expense in
grants towards actual observations, which, as they involve skill and care
and time, ought, in many cases, to be paid for. The whole of the returns
collected during the year have been due to obliging voluntary assistance.

9.—The Committee think it an important part of their duties to show
how observations should be made, and how they should be used when
obtained. From this point of view, they are inclined to hope that their
labours have been very successful.

10.—It is confidently anticipated that many of the persons who have
been furnished with the forms and instructions adopted by the Committee,
and to whom these reports are accessible, will proceed with the collection
and recording of observations on the definite system laid down, and that,
by this means, valuable results will be obtained and made available even
after the Committee have ceased operations.

11.—This remark applies particularly to the case of the public and other
schools and institutions which have furnished information to the Com-
mittee, as recorded in the present and previous reports. In each of these
it is hoped that the practice of keeping an anthropometric record will be
continued.

12.—On page 3 is a statement of the additional returns which have
been furnished to the Committee during the present year.

13.—The special thanks of the Committee are due to the contributors,
mentioned in the list, whose zealous assistance in a matter necessarily
involving a great expenditure of time and tronble deserves most hearty
acknowledgment.

14.—Adding these returns to those referred to in the previous reports,
the aggregate number of original observations furnished to the Committee
is as follows :—

Number of observations
Year Sex Of birth- Of age, |Of colour of : ‘
place and | height, and| hair and OF ae of /OF ep ength o¢ eyesight
origin weight eyes on sum

1879 | Male 5,254 11,745 4,011 6,321 2,131 1,368
1880 | Male 3,206 11,956 3,511 5,766 1,686 1,260
1881 Male 796 5,877 867 789 1,521 315
Female 368 403 403 403 338 13
Total 5s 9,624 29,981 8,792 13,279 5,676 2,956

15.—Upon the main branch of the inquiry, therefore, that of the
relation of height and weight to age, the Committee have collected, in
round numbers, 30,000 original observations. To these have to be
added the 50,000 or more observations independently collected by Mr.
Charles Roberts, one of the most active members of the Committee.

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REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 229

16.—Mr. Roberts has rendered his colleagues very essential help by
the preparation of the diagrams and a great number of the elaborate
tables in the former Reports of the Committee, and has contributed to the
present Report the paper on the general result of the observations, which
is given in the Appendix.

17.—Mr. Roberts’s Tables (I.-IV.) show the general result of the
observations collected by the Committee as to (1) height, (2) weight, (3)
chest-girth, (4) strength.

18.—The height of 38,953 persons is recorded in Table I., the hori-
zontal black lines in which indicate the curve of growth formed by the
‘mean’ height at each age, which is 3 feet 5 inches at the age of 5, and
becomes 5 feet 8 inches at the age of 50.

19.—The weight (with clothes, for which about 7 lbs. may be allowed)
of 26,560 persons is recorded in Table II. The horizontal black lines in
this Table indicate the curve of increase in weight formed by the ‘ mean’
weight at each age, which is 4st. 9 lbs. at the age of 10, and becomes
11 st. 81 Ibs. at the age of 70.

20.—The chest-girth of 17,883 persons is recorded in Table III., the
horizontal black lines in which indicate the curve of increase formed by
the ‘mean’ chest-girth at each age, which is 26 inches at the age of 10,
and becomes 364 inches at the age of 40.

21.—The strength, as indicated by the drawing power of the arm, in
5,039 persons is recorded in Table IV., the horizontal black lines in which
indicate the curve formed by the variations of the ‘mean’ drawing power
at the successive ages, rising from 35 Ibs. at age 11 to 80 Ibs. at
ages 25-30, and falling again to 70 lbs. at the age of 50.

22.—In using Mr. Roberts’s tables, however, it is important to bear
in mind that he employs the term ‘mean’ not in the ordinary sense of an
arithmetical mean or average, but as representing ‘ the value at which the
largest number of observations occur,’ or that of ‘greatest frequency.’
The arithmetical average is found by him in adults to exceed the ‘mean’
in general by about half an inch.

23.—In ‘Tables V. and VI. Mr. Roberts is able to show the results
of a comparison as to the ‘average’ height and weight of the several
classes of the population, distinguished as (1), the professional classes,
including town and country ; (2), the commercial classes in towns; (3),
the labouring classes in the country ; (4), the artisans in towns.

94.—Table V. relates to height, which is taken without shoes. The
relative position of the four classes stands in the order stated ; classes 1
and 2 being taller, and classes 3 and 4 shorter, than the general popula-
tion. This relation is maintained throughout, and the table affords
material for study as to the comparative effects of occupation and town
and country life on growth.

25.—Table VI. relates to weight, which is taken with clothes. The
relative position of the four classes still stands nearly in the same order,
class 1 being heavier and class 4 lighter than the general population, but
class 3 very nearly coincides with the general average, and is in general
superior in weight to class 2. In other words, the rural occupation of
the country labourer gives him the advantage in weight over the town
tradesman, though the latter has the advantage in height.

26.—Class V. of the classification adopted by the Committee in the
Report for 1880—the indnstrial workers or sedentary trades in towns;
and Class VI., the specially-selected occupations, have not furnished
returns in sufficient number tn he available for comparison.

230 REPORT—1 881.

27.—The chairman of the Committee, Mr. Francis Galton, contributes
to the Appendix to this Report a paper on the range in height, weight,
and strength of the different classes at every age. He measures the
range, not between the maximum and minimum valués recorded, which
afford no safe basis for comparison, but through an extension of the
principle by which the so-called ‘ probable error’ is ascertained. Thus,
he first arranges the cases in the order of their magnitude, then he
cuts off a certain fractional portion of them from either end of the series,
and measures the difference between the maximum and minimum of the
intermediate group. The ranges given are between the upper and the
lower tenths and between the upper and the lower fourths, the value of
the latter range being identical with twice the ‘ probable error.’

28.—Inspector-General Lawson contributes to the Appendix to this
Report a valuable paper giving the results of the earlier portion of the
observations furnished to the Committee on eyesight.

29.—The total number of observations of eyesight collected by the
Committee has been 2,956; many of which, as will be seen by Dr. Law-
son’s paper, are not considered trustworthy. Sufficient, however, have
now been derived from various independent sources to form a fair average.

30.—This inquiry as to eyesight has led the Committee to consider
the very important question of colour-blindness, which has been ascer-
tained in Germany and America to affect 1 in 25 of the male population,
and which probably exists in this country to a greater extent than is
suspected by most people.

31.—To facilitate the collection of statistics relating to colour-blind-
ness, the Committee accepted an offer which a member, Mr. Roberts,
was "enabled by the kindness of the Norwegian professor, Daae, to make,
that he should prepare for publication an English edition of that profes-
sor’s tests for colour-blindness, as published in Berlin; also a description
of Professor Holmgren’s method, with a revised series of the eyesight
tests and popular instructions of his own.

32.—This work has been published in a compact form,! and its applica-
tion might even be made a parlour pastime, since it requires no special
qualification in the observer, who may indeed be a colour-blind person him-
self. ‘I'he Committee hope that this little book may be widely circulated
and freely used. This book of tests is in use at Marlborough College,
and Mr. Roberts contributes to the Appendix of this report an analysis of
the observations made on the whole of the boys and masters, 600 in
number, at present in the College, by the Rev. T. A. Preston, a gentleman
to whom the Committee are indebted for many valuable contributions to
their store of anthropometric observations.

33.—Mr. Roberts has remarked on this important subject that ‘some
unnecessary alarm will be felt by travellers if they are led to believe that
colour-blindness is as prevalent among engine-drivers as other men of
their own class, and that one person in every twenty-five is subject to
this defect. As a matter of fact, the severer forms of colour-blindness
are quickly eliminated from the railway services, either by the conscious
inability of the men to distinguish the signals to which they are daily
and almost hourly subjected, or by the minor accidents they fall into,
which leads their employers to dismiss them as careless, incompetent, or
intemperate servants. It is, however, most desirable that this clumsy and

1 The Detection of Colowr-blindness and Imperfect Eyesight. By Mr. Charles
oberts, F.R.C.S. Published, at 5s., by Mr. Bogue, 3 St. Martin’s Place, W.C.

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. “ 231

dangerous process of elimination should be superseded by a searching,
trustworthy method of testing the colour-sense, especially in fresh candi-
dates for employment on railways and steam-vessels, and it is a disgrace
to our country—which was the first to discover and investigate the sub-
ject of colour-blindness and to point out its dangers—that it should be
the last to recognise its practical importance. But the subject has a
much wider bearing than the regulation of traffic by sea and land. As
many arts and occupations can only be carried on successfully by persons
who possess a normal colour-sense, the testing of the eyesight, whether
for colours or objects, should take place in childhood, and before a youtin
has wasted much time in acquiring technical knowledge which his faulty
sight precludes him from using to the same advantage as his more fortu-
nate competitors. . Every parent should be cognisant of the condition of
the colour-sense of his children, in order that he may provide the colour-
blind ones with suitable occupations. Fortunately the art of testing the
colour-sense is a very simple one, and is quite within the capacity of a
schoolmaster or parent of ordinary intelligence, as it requires neither a
knowledge of the theory of colour-blindness (which, indeed, is not yet
agreed on by specialists) nor of medicine or surgery.’

34.—Upon the portion of the reference to them which relates to the
‘ publication of photographs of the typical races of the Empire,’ the Com-
mittee have not at present anything to add to previous reports. It was
intended that a portion of the grant made to the Committee should
be applied towards this branch of their work, but the more urgent needs
of the general anthropometric work have absorbed the whole of it.
Dr. Beddoe, however, has presented a set of photographs of pure High-
landers, and a collection of Irish types has been made by Mr, Park
Harrison.

35.—The total expenditure of the Committee during their six years’
operations has been only 243/. 15s., or about 401. a year. This has in-
eluded the preparing, printing, and circulating of many thousands of
papers of instructions, forms of returns, cards and other publications, and _
of a costly series of colour-types; besides the judicious payment of small
sums, in a few cases, as remuneration to the observers, where their posi-
tion in life (as regimental sergeants &c.) rendered it desirable; the
purchase of photographs and negatives of photographs and of several sets
of instruments for making measurements, and the cost of clerical labour
in abstracting the returns. The Committee venture to think that they
have not improvidently administered the fund at its disposal.

36.—The Committee could, indeed, not have accomplished the work
at so small a cost but for the obliging exertions of some of the members,
notably Sir Rawson W. Rawson and Mr. Roberts. They have also to
acknowledge the services of several gentlemen, not members of the
Association, who have kindly consented to act as advisers to the Committee,
viz.:—Dr. Bain, Dr. Balfour, Inspector-General Lawson, Dr. Waller
Lewis, and Dr. Ogle.

37.—It remains to note briefly the work still to be done by the Com-
mittee in the event of their reappointment.

38.—First, it is exceedingly desirable that more complete details
should be obtained with regard to the earlier ages from birth to 10 years,
a period in which the rate of growth and development is probably more
affected by external circumstances than in after-life, and which therefore
lends itself more readily to classification.

232 REPORT—1881.

39.—Secondly, it is of great importance to proceed with the inquiry
into anthropometric facts relating to females, which has been commenced
with much zeal by the mistresses of some of the high schools for girls,
and which by their example may be extended among the various classes
of girls’ schools throughout the kingdom.

40.—Thirdly, a larger number of statistics are required of individuals
belonging to class V.—town industrial workers—to form an average for
comparison with the other classes.

41.—Fourthly, further observations should be obtained on the colour
sense and on eyesight.

42,—Fifthly, the materials already existing should be more completely
worked out, especially those referring to the colour of hair and eyes, as
well as the physical proportions of the population in different geographical
districts, or districts inhabited by persons of different racial origin.

43,—Lastly, the encouragement in public and private schools and es-
tablishments of systematic weighing and measuring on fixed principles
should be continued.

44,.—The Committee have, in conclusion, to state that the assistant-
secretary, Mr. J. Henry Young, has performed his duties with marked
intelligence and zeal.

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 233

APPENDIX.

Mr. C. Roserts, who has prepared the Tables from I. to VII. for the
Committee, has contributed the following explanations and remarks :—

Tables I. (height), IT. (weight), III. (chest-girth), and IV. (strength),
are intended to show the chief physical characters of the British race:
hence the whole number of observations are given to show the range or
variation of the stature, weight, &c., at each age, and the relative number
of individuals at each height, weight, &c.; the mean height, chest-girth,
weight, and strength being indicated by the horizontal lines crossing the
columns of figures where the largest number of observations occur.

Tables V. and VI. show the average stature and weight of different
classes of the nation,—classes which have been differentiated by social or
sanitary surroundings and peculiar occupations.

It is necessary to call attention to the difference between the average
and the mean as employed in these tables. An average is obtained by
dividing the sum of the values observed by the number of observations,
while the mean is the value at which the largest number of observations
occur (‘the value of greatest frequency.’) An average is influenced by
exceptional cases, but a mean disregards exceptional cases and is entirely
dependent on the predominating numbers; hence I have employed the
mean to distinguish the racial type, and the average the variations to
which the race is subject by the modifying influences of local and excep-
tional causes. To determine the racial type of a nation by means of an
average it would be necessary to have all classes of the community
represented in their due proportions; but the unequal distribution of
occupations renders this impossible, unless a general census were taken.
Eyen within narrow limits it is almost impossible to obtain observations
of all the individuals of a class, as the taller and better-developed members
readily submit to measurement, while the shorter and imperfectly-de-
veloped evade examination, and the sick and deformed are passed over
altogether. On the other hand, the determination of the racial type by
the mean is free from these sources of error, as we disregard both the ill-
developed and the over-developed individuals, and depend entirely on
those which represent the medium development of the class or nation. -
Table VII., giving the stature of adult men of different classes of the
British population shows the difference between the average and the
mean. In those classes, where all the individuals have been accessible
and no selection has been attempted, the average and the mean stature
are almost identical; but in the case of the recruits for the army, where
all the men below a certain standard are excluded, the average is an inch
higher than the mean stature. The average in this case implies that
recruits are of the same type as the agricultural classes (Class III.), but
the mean shows that they are really of the type of the town artisan
class (Class IV.) from which we know they are chiefly drawn. This
also explains why the average stature of the general population (Table V.)
is half an inch higher than the mean stature (Table I.)

234 REPORT—1881.

The tables show some new and interesting facts in connection with
the physical development of the body at different periods of life. Below
the age of ten years the observations are very imperfect, but from that
age up to sixty years they are very numerous, and fairly representative of
all classes of the population.

The accompanying chart (PI. I1I.) shows graphically the variations in
the mean height, chest-girth, weight, and strength of the general population
with advancing age, and the relation of these qualities to each other ; and
the following figures show their actual value :—

Relative Increase in the Size, Weight, and Strength of the Body from
5 to 70 years of age.

‘ |
Age Height Girth Weight (arawing power)
Ks D
inches inches lbs. Ibs.
5 us
: ron No observa-
8 9-0 tions at ditto ditto
9 20 these ages
10 2:0 “= — —
11 2:0 “5 5:0 --
12 2:0 DS v5 25
13 2°5 5 7:5 2°5
14 2°5 1-0 5 2°5
15 2-0 1:0 100 5:0
16 2-0 2-0 15:0 75
17 15 2:0 175 75
18 10 Dd 75 5:0
19 5 *b —- 2°65
20 — — 2°5 2°5
21 *5 "b — 2°5
22 — -— 2°5 2°5
23 — “5 — —
24 — — 2°5 —
25-30 -_— 5 — 2°5
30-40 po ae 2-5 —25) 2 |
40-50 — 5 2°5 —25>3 |
50-60 5 No observa- 2:5 —50) 5 |
60-70 — tions at these 2°5 ose |
70- -- J ages. 2°5 | _—

1. After the age of 10 years the greatest increase in stature takes
- place at 13 and 14; in chest-girth at 16 and 17; in weight at 15, 16, and
17; and in strength at 15, 16, 17, and 18 years. The chest-girth and the
strength have a more direct relation to the weight than to the stature.

2. The stature increases rapidly to the age of 21, after which there is
a very slow, but decided increase, in all classes (see Table V.), up to the
age of 70 years.

3. The weight increases rapidly up to the age of 19, after which it
continues to increase slowly but uniformly up to the age of 70 years.

4, The chest-girth increases at a rate similar to that of the weight up
to the age of 50 years (the limit of the Committee’s observations).

5. The strength increases rapidly and ata rate similar to that of the
weight up to the age of 19, more slowly and regularly up to 30, after
which it declines at an increasing rate to the age of 60 years.

j Chart showing Britian given in Tables LIM andlV.

RSet

232

iss s 5 |108Years 11% 124% 2530 30-40 «40-50 __50-60__ 60-10 z
| | ORE [| | pet

Peden 7 eae | FL Be H eee a eratulal 7
nu GU0 GU SUUUDESE SELL” 2=seBmaBEES

One Cy 4
canna Pits] a LI Z goa

Rc
|

EEE

caaae
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HEE

| [
| a ie
ane SEeGRuBnaE E rth H
ERGs SBEBHeR LI Snaee ees
gh Boaae eee ae egies
eee + H GEE RSESe
= =|
SHEE EP EEES N H
SES tt et A
SaSeSeR000055 So oi
aataea fea stalatalel tate =
7 r
BEER H
7. Te oe a a a =
er ots | | (tt | | Hanes,
SS Renee | Sie a -
mai est PELE
CLO (ane eo>n s lial | | | HES eee
BEE HEE EEE EEE EEE EEE
PERE EEE EEE EEE Bona ames Po ie
ERE EERSS Cee ee a — |
it |__| loa a sen aan Male ete | [oh] [ol
[go igoi titi ititri ti a D60 CS 5000S RRS
SEs o Ri Be eee |
SES S0800885 77 Le See EEE
SoS SS555S5o-008|Se5nn |_| pp | |
Se | | ere | 4 [| -}—- = BSNS
Oh eee Tess ee | a | lee | eae (|
FPS > 10 Se ee Ree
See) 20 cee sae See eRe
pus seeeeuedunes seseguueeueeeeuesseseseseetsads
1 1 eee ees Sees eee eee
5 C. Roberts ‘ Spottiswoode &C°Lith London.

Plate III

we Brit Rsece I88F

the general population of Great Britian given in Tables IMM ard lV

hts, and Strength of

ig

Chart showing the mean Heights, Chest-Girths, W

Age in Years

pattisvcsde kO*Tith Landon.

Mustrating the Report of the Anthropometric Qmanittee

M YearwJ18

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTER. 235

The increase of stature throughout life as shown by Tables I. and V.
‘is a new and unexpected fact, but it is obviously due to the survival of
‘the taller and better developed members of the population, and the elimina-
tion by disease or death of the smaller and feebler ones. Quetelet has
stated that man attains his maximum height at the age of 30 years and
maintains it up to 50 years, after which it begins to recede, and at 90 it
has lost three inches. This may be true of individuals if measured from
year to year, but it does not appear to be true of the population in the
aggregate. The loss of stature resulting from the degeneration and loss
of tissues, and the stooping position assumed by old people, is more than
counterbalanced by the survival of a greater number of individuals who
are above the average in height. The uniform increase in the weight and
chest-girth throughout adult life also confirms this view.

The Tables do not show distinctly at what period man attains his full
stature, and much difference of opinion exists on this subject. Some
French writers (Barnard, Allaire, &c.) maintain that growth in height
goes on until the 32nd or 35th year, and Dr. Baxter arrives at the same
conclusion from the statistics of the United States Army; while most
English writers (Danson, Aitken, Roberts, &c.) regard the 25th as the
year of mature growth, and Dr. Beddoe places it as early at the 28rd
year, admitting, however, that a slight increase may take place after this
age. The difference of opinion on this subject arises, no doubt, from the
faulty method of relying on the measurements of many different indivi-
duals, instead of measuring the same individuals from year to year until
growth ceases, The elimination of the weak and ill-developed by death,
the difficulty of following the same class, and all the members of the class,
through successive years, and the selection of special classes (7.e. recruits,
whose ages are never certain), invalidate all conclusions as to the period
of maturity, drawn from statistics of measurements of many different
persons ; but, allowing for these sources of error and judging by the run
of the curves formed by the means and averages in Tables I. and V.,
it is probable that little actual growth takes place after the age of 21,
and that it entirely ceases by the 25th year. It is evident, moreover,
from Table V., that the full stature is attained earlier in the well-fed.
and most favoured class (Class I.) than in the ill-fed and least favoured
classes of the community.

236 REPORT—1881.

TasLe I.—Showing the Srarure (without shoes)
Whole number of Observations, The horizontal

Age last
Height
BAN MGSicCege Ba 1 eo= | 10= emo 185 | Tas eS amebe
ey abt in.
6 5 100,18 i) — A ae | = —}|}—|]—
6 4 76- =. a |) Sy eS a= — So || AS
6 3 75- ae se) | ee es = — iki) =
6 2 74— S20 Se Sees | = | = — || = 2
6 1 Woe =a Sse Shay). — co oo te
6 0 i= | iia ie eee) i me 1 2] 19
5 11 l= eee Ye mea ee | a eee ee 1 ¥ 5| 19
5 10 70- 25) Si SSeS a) = Ake APRS.
5 9 69- SE RN a eS ee |p ae 18 | 33 | 102
pS 68- Sy bh Pe eae ioe ee |e |) 2 16 | 48 | 160
5 ey 67- Eee een et |e | ee es il) es 6 32 | 120 | 235
5 6 66- SF Sa ee ee eee 7 60 | 168 | 240
5 5 65- = | i 13 | 112 | 228 | 2938
5 4 64— SSP eS fp bee ee | 2 28 | 136 | 332 | 389
5 3 63- eo | hae a | | 6 47 | 192 | 353 | 336
5 2 62- = ee eee ip 12 85 | 256 | 495 | 278
eel 61- aes 1| 28| 131 | 378 | 461 | 299
5 0 60- ee 10} 55] 205 | 399 | 405 | 168
411 59- en ee 1} — | 18] 86] 279 | 465 | 317 | 109
4 10 58- a eect ee ee | 5 | 881150] 305 | 514 | 242] 72
4 9 57- —|—}]—-—|] — 2) 15] 80] 206 |=—402—) 351 | 127] 48
48 56- ea ee ns bam 8] 31] 104] 276] 373 | 239] 72] 20
CEE / 55- See Wee 8| 73] 210} 314] 371 | 138] 38 4
4 6 54- —|— 1] 23] 111 | 296 | 295 | 246 58} 20 3
4 5 53- = 4] 48 | 208 | 294 | 279 | 116 83] 10 1
aA. 52- —}; —|/ — 5 | 107 | 296 | 321 | 278 66 16 2 2
4 3 51- = 31 | 167 | 316 | 267 | 138 37 9 2) —
4 2 50- = ip SS 2| 60} 245 |"300 | 228 | 107 11 Ey ie
4 1 49- — 1] 11 | 133 | 270 | 254 | 186 | 34 8 2 1
4 0 48- 3 2{ 361189] 299 |177| 56] 26 Sati slg— fs
311 47— — 6| 67] 242 | 221 | 94] 35 les _ c=
3 10 46- — | 19 | 198 |7247,| 160 | 45) 15 2 =e =
3.9 45— 2) 25) 1421 186| 67] 24 1 i = |e
3 8 44— 7} 50/173 | 129} 24 4/—] — — |
33 ate 43- 17} 68]105| 56] 13 si — 1; — ee
3 6 42- 241-691 76| 25 1 1}; —{ — —
35 41— 48 | 56] 32 8 2};—]/—]—-] —-— =
364 40- 32 | 18] 10 5} —}—f—]|—-] — —|—|—
3 3 39- 29! 10| — 1 oe ee ee = || ee
3 2 38- 10 2 1 ee aa = ee ee
From 3-1 37-38 5 2 1)/—/]/—/]—]J]—]— == es

Total . . . « . « {174} 328 | 784 [1322] 1656 | 1952 | 2107 | 2306) 2742 | 3429) 3495 | 2786

Mean Height . . . |41:0} 43:0} 45-0} 47:0] 49-0} 51:0} 53-0] 55:0} 57:5 | 60°0| 62:0} 64:0

Increase . . . « «| — | 2°00} 2:00] 2:00) 2:00} 2:00} 2:00} 2°00} 2:50 | 2.50} 2:00} 2:00

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 237

of the General Population of Great Britain.
black lines show the mean stature for each age.

i... wit ) 7
Birthday

Centi-

’ eee er ser Lh ie métres
17- 18- 19- | 20- | 21- | 22- | 23- | 24~ |25-30/30-40/40-50/50-60|60-70| 70-

_ _ _ — — — — — — _ _ —_— 195*5-

_ 1 1g ES 1 1 1) — 1 — — _— 193-0-

2 Z _ 2 3 1 3}; — 1 —} — 1} 190°5-

4 3 1 3 3 2 2 1 9 4; — —_ 187-9-

2 7 10 6 16} 11 12 5 26 4 2; — 185-4—

11 32 24 14 26] 15 10 18 55 4 1 2] 182-8-

} 51 60 52 42 42| 43 25 24 88 22 2 1} 180:3—

| 131 134 83 53 97| 57 49 37| 152 15 1 2) 177-8-

1 200 235 128 85 93} 82 63 55)" 2s 26 5 PA aly fayp—

‘ 254 282 186 | 112 107} 90 95 78| 245 33 5 L | 1272-:7=

5 347 329 232 | 129 [—=109)—=96 |—105|—=101/—321\——332 33 6 1} 170-1-

, 355 |—312— | 203 | 130 140) 96 98 81) 288 28 9 1 | 167-6-

» ——372—| 5319 183 | 121 95| wo 81 68} 2438 19 5] — 165°1-

d F 320 221 161 99 54) 46 78 61; 153 12 1 1 | 162-5-

. 283 195 104 63 23| 29 18 42 74 11 22 160-0-

203 132 61 34 11 S) 3 24 39 8 ee 157°4-—

118 47 23 19 8 1 4 2 15 4 1) — | 154-9-

; 62 15 9| — ie Bl 4 2) 3) eee

19 5 1 ihe ee i})) oe: 6 —|—|— | 149-8

17 3 — — — — — _ 1 — a — 147:3-

a —_— 1 ol ge — — — 1 _— = — 144-7—

; s|5 = SD Me | | nD r= —| =} — | 1422

75 ae ee Ny (pre ce eed pe —}—| — |] 139-7-

= ae |. = 187-1-

— | ene = 134-6-

= Sao es Pe ec | ee a eee — 132-0-

ETH Ri Ra | beets tet oae || eter lee ye — 129-5-

’ Eo = — = ae = = — — = 127:0-

a= = = aes ae = RAF = — — 124-4—

= — a: = a at a Be — — —_— 121°9-

— a ~ = ae! = — _ 119-4-

— = | ESR PS tS ee ee a 116-9-

= = aed) EN EN ea be ~ 114°3-

= pene | SS epee ea. am | EL a == 111-7-

— —_— — — — _ — — —_ 109-2—

— — 106°6-

ee ee ee —|-|]— 104-1-

_ — ae ee Re 0) | ee | a ee 101-6-

_ _ _— _ a — — _— — — 99:0-

— waded —_ = = = s&s =s == — 96°5-

= = — = = = = = —— —) 93° 9—

| 2764 2336 |1463| 915] 824] 652] 658] 602 1935 | 2152 | 1293 88953

| 65°5 66°5 | 67:0 | 67-25] 67-5} 67:5] 675 | 67-5 67:5 | 675] 67°5 _

1881.

REPORT

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REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE.

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REPORT—1881,

240

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REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 241

The following is a copy of the drawing and instructions issued by the Committee
to observers in collecting statistics of strength :—

The above figure represents the position in which the strength of arm should be
tested. The right or left arm, whichever is the stronger, should be used to draw,
and the other to resist. The resisting arm must be free, and extended straight from

the side, as nearly as possible in the line of the shoulders, and the hand of the other
arm brought back towards the ear, as an archer uses a bow.

1881. , R

. 242 REPORT—1881.

Taste V.—Showing the average Srarure (without shoes) of different
classes of the Population of Great Britain.

General Class I. Class I. Class Tit. Class IV.

Population. Professional Commercial Labouring TOSS EC rats)

All Classes. Classes. Classes. Classes, Towns

eee Town and Country}/Town and Country Towns Country

2 SR"aS] & |RSS] 2 lems es | 2 iqmsla) 2 lgne| aa
Birth| — a vf. hs ee it = _ — = 100 | 19°34} —
fs ES sche ae ae = = 3 = = =
9_ aes us ee pas ae em. = &: =a ant 4
oe = — = oe = ou ae 2 au Re, z= = eam cs aoe
4= = — a = = = Ese — — — — = 21 | 38°45) —
5- z= — ae = = = — = = a _— = 37 | 41°09] 2°64
c= 40 | 43-28} 2°19
7- 3 | 4616 53 | 45-71] 2°43
8- — 16 | 47°31] 1:15} 268 | 47°03] — 176 | 47-06 | 1:35
9- —_ S| S| =e 81 | 50°18] 2-87] 418 | 49°06| 2-03] 358 | 48-94] 1:88
10- 1551) 51°84) — 101 | 53°69} — 331 | 52°04] 1-S6] 783 | 50°93} 1-87| 336 | 50°72) 1°78

11- 1766} 53°50] 1:66] 242 | 55°23| 154] 687 | 53°76| 1-72] 597 | 52°32] 1-39] 240 | 52:68] 1:96
12- 1981) 54°99} 1-49] 490 | 57:29] 2:06} 902 | 55°29] 1-53] 395 | 53°67] 1:35] 194 | 53-72] 1-04
13- 2743) 56°91| 1-92] 869 | 59:08] 1:79] 857 | 57°43} 2-14] 403 | 55°31] 1-64] 614 | 55°81] 2:09
14- 3428) 59°33] 2-49] 966 | 61:29] 2:21] 800 | 59:47] 2-04 9 | 57-94] 2-63} 1653 | 58°61} 2°80
15- 3507) 62°24] 2-91] 974 | 63°61] 2°32] 544 | 62°19] 2-72] 515 | 61°82] 3-88] 1465 | 61°36 | 2°75
16- 2780| 64:31] 2:07] 1102 } 66°23] 2°62} 110 | 64:55] 2-36] 177 | 63°62] 180] 1391 | 62°85] 1-49
17— 2745) 66:24] 1-93] 1852 | 67°81] 158] 107 | 66:59] 9-04 75 | 65°87} 2:95] 711 | 64°70) 1°85
18— 2305] 66°96] +73] 1724 | 68:26| -45 62 | 67°44) +85] 148 | 66°53] +66} 371 | 65°60} °90
19- 1435] 67-29] -33] 951 | 68'58| °32 63 | 67°55] -11| 143 | 66°87) +34] 277 | 66°17] 57

20- 880} 67°52] +23] 461 | 69:08] — 61 | 67°58]. -03| 183 | 66°93] -06| 175 | 66°50] °33
21- | 757/ 67°63] -11] 364] 68-70] -12} 51 | 67-79] -21] 177] 67-15] -92| 165 | 6655] -05
22- | 558] 67-68] -05| 297 | 68-94] — | 53 | 67°82] -c3| 169 | 67-35] -20| 109 | 66-60] -05
23- | 592] 67-48} — | 114] 68-73] -03| 59 | 67-42| — | 274 | 67:38] -o3} 145 | 66-40] —
24~ | 517] 67-73| -05| 57 | 68-82] -09] 62 | 6809] -27] 258 | 67-47| -o9| 140 | 6655] —
25- 47 | 67-93} — | 218] 6752] -o5| 92 | 66-40) —
26- 47 | 68:07} — | 194 | 67-46] — 74 | 66-46] —
27- |}-1794| 67:80] -07| 107 | 69-14] +32]) 27] 6813] -o4| 162 | 67-76] -21| 66 | 66-67) -07
28- | 33 | 67°65| — | 208 | 67-31) — 59 | 66°65| —
29- 26 | 67-96] — | 163 | 67-54] — | 53 | 66-82] “15
30-35 85 | 67-70| — | 745 | 6759| — | 180 | 66-65) —
35-40 } 1886] 6800] 20) 52 | 69-61] -37 { s2| e807] — | 031 | 6z62| — | 111 | 7-08) -26
40-50) 1148) 67-96] — | 46 | 69:38) — | 79] 6809} — | 943] 6756] — | 80] 6680; —
50-60] 198] 67-92) — | 13] 6950|/ — | 16 | 67-69] — | 147 | 68-06] -30) 22 | 66-45] —
60-70] 44) 67-41) — 5 | 69-10) — 3| 6616] — | 34] 67-88] — 2 | 66-50) —
70- GEE) SPSS Yes ye 1] 6850} — | 11 | 69:95

ie, 31607 ee Orne | | 5195 | alee (84g ||). | oan

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 243

Taste VI.—Showing the average Wetcut (including clothes) of different
classes of the Population of Great Britain.

General Class I. Class Il. Class IIT. Class TV.
Population. Professional Commercial Labouring ieticnrik
All Classes. Classes. Classes. Classes, nants
foe Town and Country|Town and Country Towns Country
eat = Sa =r =
ay| 4 los |¢ Se Nous jie Bas loses ait cs a 193°) 9 a \ Hoos |S
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a a SS Es eed | 3 24
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8- = | agg} 5a3°| — |" Ws | 537) —
a g1 | 60:3] —| 345 | 612] 59] 296] 583) 46
10- | 1464) 67:5] — g2 | 740] — | 370 | 652] £9] 721 | 67:0] 58} 281] 640] o7
11- | 1599| 720] 45] 195] 787] 47 | 686 | 680| 28) 553] 729 | 52] 175] 69:0 | 50
12- | 1786] 767) 4:7| 369| 849] 62| 905 | 732] 52) 366| 75:9] 3:7] 146] 73:0] £0
1s- | 2443] 82-6| 5-9| 621 | 91:6 | G7 | 854 | 801] 69 | 328] 79-7] 38] 640] 79:0} 60
14 | 2952] 92:0] 94] 748 }1022 |10-6 | 799 | 89:5 | 94 9 | 892} 95} 1396 | 873} 83
is—- | siis| 102-7] 10-7! 652 }114+3 }12°1 | 344 | 99:4 | 9°9 | 676 | 100-6 |11-4 | 1446 | 96-4 | 91
16- | 2235] 119°0| 16-3] 834 |129°5 |152 | 55 |117-2 |17°8 | 169 | 117-2 | 16-6 | 1177 | 1122 | 15°8
17- | 2496] 130°9| 11-9] 1705 | 141-7 | 12-2 | 38 | 128-8 | 11°6 80 }131°5 [14:3 | 673 |121°5 | 9°3
18- | 2150) 137-4] 65| 1638 |146-4] 4:7] 39 |1351| 63] 135 |1387]| 7-2] 338 |1293 | 78
19- 1438] 1396] 2:2] 940 |148:5 | 91] 69 |138°6 | 35 | 140 |140-2| 15} 289 |131-1 | 1°8
20- 851] 143:3] 37] 451 |159-4| 3-9 | 52 [1401 | 15] 175 |1443 | 4:1] 173 |186-4 | 53
21- 738| 145-2] 1:9| 365 {1527 | -3| 52 |143°9} 38 | 164 |147-8 | 3:5] 157 | 136-2 | —
22 542| 146-9] 1:7] 215 |152:8| +1] 51 |145°5 | 16] 16711506 | 2:8] 109 | 1886 | 2-2
be 551| 1478] °9| 112 |1515 | — | 57 |1468 | 1:3) 279 |152°8 | 2-2] 103 |140:2 | 16
24 483| 148:0| 2} 56|1496] — | 57 |147-1|- 3 | 260 /151-9| — | 120 |1434) 32
25- 45 11485 | 14] 224 |154:1 |] 13] 61/1399 | —
26- | (x 1541 | 56 | 192 |1541 | — 58 | 1422 | —
27- |\1559| 1523 4:3) 115 |156-3] 3:5 |426 |149-2] — | 171 |156-7| 26] 56 | 146-9] 65
28- | iF 1561 | 2:0] 213 |1551] — | 50/1480} 11
29- ag |154:3 | — | 161 ]1580] 1:3] 46 |1481] ‘1
30-35) 964] 1598] 75] 04/1715 |152| 87 [1585] 2:4] 700 ]159-2] 12] 153 | 1501] 2°0
35-40) 840] 1643] 45| 9411735] — | 80 |1e66] si] 631 |1e05 | 13 | 105 |1565) 6-4
40-50) 1040} 163-3] — 44 |1725 | 10] 72 |1686] 2:0} 911 |1620|] 15] 113 | 151-7) —
50-60, 179] 1661] 18] 131745 | 2:0] 16 |1734] 4:8) 129|1709] 89 | 21 |1456 | —
60-70 35] 1581] 2-0 5 | leas | — 3 {1657} — 2411709 | — 3 [130-8 | —
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Saas Msc! 1 ES REE EE) (foment | (ae i a |
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REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 245

Mx. Franets Ganron who has prepared the Tables VIII. to X. on the Range
in Height, Weight, and Strength, has contributed the following remarks
upon them.

In determining the range I have employed and extended the method
by which the so-called ‘ probable error’ is found. That is to say, the
observations in each series were arranged in the order of their respective
magnitudes, beginning with the lowest and ending with the highest. A
definite fraction was then cut off from either end of the series ; the values
at the exact points where the divisions took place were ascertained by
interpolation, and the difference between these gave the range of the in-
termediate portion.

The fractions so cut off were—(1) a half; this gave simply the median
yalue: (2) a quarter; this gave the upper and lower ‘ quartile’ values,
and consequently the ‘interquartile’ range (which is equal to twice the
‘probable error’): (3) a tenth; this gave the upper and lower ‘ decile’
values, and consequently the ‘interdecile’ range. The following are the
definitions of these terms, Median, Quartile, and Decile :—

The Median, in height, weight, or any other attribute, is the value
which is exceeded by one-half of an infinitely large group, and which the
other half falls short of.

The Upper Quartile is that which is exceeded by one-fourth part of an
- infinitely large group, and which the remaining three-fourths fall short
of. Conversely for the Lower Quartile.

The Upper Decile is that which is exceeded by one-tenth of an in-
finitely large group, and which the remaining nine-tenths fall short of.
The Lower Decile is the converse of this; one-tenth falls short of it, and
nine-tenths exceed it.

Each line of the annexed tables is to be read as in the following
instance, taken from the fourth line of Table VIIIa.

Example :—869 observations were made of boys of the professional
elasses, of 13 years of age, whence it appears that—

(1) There are as many boys above the height of 59-0 inches as below
it. This Median value differs from the Average value by 01 inch,
which shows a trifling want of symmetry in the distribution of the
heights.

(2) One-fourth of the boys exceeds the height of 60:9 inches, and
another fourth falls short of 57-1 inches; in consequence, the difference
of 3°8 inches defines the range in height of the intermediate two-fourths,
or middle half, of the boys.

(8) One-tenth of them exceeds 62:8 inches, while another tenth falls
short of 55:4 inches. The difference between these numbers is 7*4, which
defines the range in height of the intermediate eight-tenths, or three-
quarters of the boys.

(4) The highest measurement actually taken in these 869 observa-
tions was 71‘5 inches (reckoning to the nearest inch), and the lowest was
similarly 49-5 inches, showing a difference of 22 inches.

The information as to the extreme values that happen to have been
observed in these 869 cases, is avowedly of little solid value. Their
magnitude depends to a great degree upon the accident of this particular
series happening to include, or not to include, one very exceptional
instance of great stature and another of small stature. It is beyond the
power of statistical science to determine the extreme values that might
possibly be observed.

246 REPORT—1881.

On the other hand, the Median, Decile, and Quartile values possess a
trustworthiness of the same order as that of the Average or Arithmetic
Mean values. They are not sensibly affected by a solitary accident, and
a moderately large series of observations is sufficient to determine them
with as much precision as is needful for ordinary statistical purposes.

A small error in the position of the medians, quartiles, &c., causes an
error in their values proportional to the tangent of the circumscribing curve
at the corresponding points. Qn protracting the curves for height, weight,
and strength from their tabular values, it appears that the tangents at
the quartiles are but little greater than those at the medians, but that the
tangents at the deciles are about twice as great. Again, the tangents at
corresponding points in two of these curves, drawn from different num-
bers of observations (the ordinates relating to the successive values being
supposed in all cases to stand at the same distances apart), must vary
inversely as the number of observations. Consequently, in order to as-
certain decile values in the series with which we are now dealing, with
the same accuracy as medians and quartiles, we require to have about
twice the number of observations.

It appears to be well worth while to print, not only summary tables of
results, as Table VIII. for the height, and Table IX. for the weight, but
to supplement these by other tables going more into detail and referring
to the classes separately. So much has been written on the applicability
of the Exponential Law of Error to statistical results, that it is important
to publish material for the more complete discussion of the subject. Into
the discussion itself, this is hardly the place to enter, further than by
saying that the median values will be found to conform very closely in-
deed with the arithmetical means, that the distribution of variations on
either side of the median value is so symmetrical that the difference be-
tween either quartile or decile and the median is almost exactly one-half
of the difference between the two quartiles or the two deciles, and, lastly,
that the range between the two deciles is very commonly a trifle short
of double the range between the two quartiles. According to the Ex-
ponential Law of Error, the results in every case would have been nearly
the same as these.

I would refer those who desire to pursue the subject on a theoretical
basis to a paper of my own on the ‘ Geometric Mean in Vital and Social
Statistics,’ in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, October, 1879, and
more especially to the subsequent one by Dr. Donald McAlister on the
‘ Law of the Geometric Mean,’ in which the equation is given to the cir-
cumscribing curve, both on the assumption of the arithmetical mean of
two fallible observations of the same fact being the most probable inference
from them, and on that of the Geometric Mean being accepted, as I have
argued that it ought to be, as the more probable inference in all physiolo-
gical phenomena.

On the Calculation of Deciles, Quartiles, and Medians.

The deciles, quartiles, and medians are ordinates to an ideal curve,
supposed to be constructed as follows :—An infinite number of measure-
ments, belonging to the same statistical group, are arranged in the order
of their magnitudes, and ordinates of lengths corresponding respectively
to each of them are erected side by side, at equal, but infinitesimally
small, distances apart, along a given line AB; then the curve passing
through their tops is the curve in question. The median is the ordinate
corresponding to the abscissa of AB; the lower and upper quartiles

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 247

correspond respectively to AB and to #-AB; the lower and upper
deciles correspond to ;'; AB and to ,9,AB. It may be remarked that
the general shape of the curve will always resemble that shown in the
diagram, owing to the recognised statistical fact that medium values are
much more frequent than extreme ones, deviations from the mean value
becoming increasingly rare in a rapidly increasing ratio.

In order to deduce approximately the above-mentioned curve from a
finite series of n observations, we divide AB into » equal spaces, and
erect an ordinate in the middle of each of a length proportionate to the
corresponding datum. The spaces will be defined by divisions that run
from 0° at A, to n° at B, and therefore there will be » +1 of them.
The first ordinate will stand at 0°°5 of the graduated scale, the second at
1°5, and so on, while the abscisse of the deciles, quartiles, and medians
will be at the following positions: 75,%, 3, 97,73. The data are grouped
and tabulated as in columns A and B of the following example, which,
for the sake of simplicity in illustration, consists of only twelve obser-
vations.

Abscisse.
Height in Number of | Total number of Haw of the =
inches observations | previous records a sises B Sums of the

columns C and D

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53 3 8 15 95
52 4 4 2:0 6-0
51 3 1 15 2°5
50 1 _ 05 05

248 REPORT—1881.

To work out this case, take a base line AB, divide it into twelve
equal parts, and erect an ordinate (see the dark lines in the diagram) in
the middle of each of them. The first ordinate will reach to 50 inches
(the lower part of the ordinate is suppressed to save space); the next
three will reach to 51 inches; the next four to 52 inches, and so on
according to the tabular data. Erect ordinates of suitable heights (see
the light lines in the diagram) at each of the graduations, and draw
horizontal lines through the top of each group of dark lines until it
meets the light lines on either side of them. A figure is thus produced
which consists of a series of rectangles rising in equal steps. A curved
line (see the dotted line) which smooths off the corners of the rectangles,
is the curve upon which the deciles, &c., are to be measured, and the
broken line formed by joining the central points of the upper boundary
of each rectangle may be adopted as an equivalent to the curve without
material error. The ordinates at these central points are those that cor-
respond to the successive integral heights of 50, 51, 52, &c. inches. The
value of their corresponding abscissw is equal to half the number of the
dark lines in the rectangle in question plus the number of dark lines in
all the previous rectangles. An inspection of the figure will show this
more readily than a verbal explanation.

The calculation is very easily made by appending to the tabular data
in A and B three other columns, C, D, and E. Column © contains in
each line the sum of all the heights inferior to the number of inches
found in A upon the same line. D contains the halves of the entries in
B, and E contains the sum of the entries in C and D, and consequently
gives the abscissze corresponding to the several integral inches.

Heample: to find the lower decile in the above instance. As we know
the abscissa of the decile, we proceed to find from column E the two entries
between which it lies, and we take the corresponding ordinates from A,
whence we find the decile itself by simple interpolation. As there are
twelve observations in the example, the abscissa of the decile is 1:2,
which lies between the tabular entries in E of 0°5 and 2°5, and these are
the abscissee of 50 and 51 inches respectively. Therefore the decile is
equal to 50 inches plus a certain fraction of an inch, 2, whose value may
be ascertained by a simple rule of three. Thus :—

difference between 2°5 and 0°5 : 1 inch:: difference between 1°2 and
0°5 : z inches

«=0°35, and the required decile=50°35 inches.

On a first glance at the tables, a very remarkable fact is manifest. It
is the uniformity of range at all the ages given init. Let us begin with
height, as shown in Table VIII.; the range between the upper and lower
fourths is as great at 11, or even at 8, years of age as it is at 22 or 40
years, and at the intermediate ages it is much the-same, viz., about 3:3
inches. It might have been expected that the range would vary with the
average height, so that the fact of boys of 11 years of age having a
median or average height of 53°5 inches, and an interquartile range of
3:2 inches, would imply that men of 22 years, having a median height of
67°6 inches, would have an interquartile range of 4°4 inches, because
53°0 : 3:°2::67°6 : 44, The interdecile range is equally constant. It seems
so difficult to conceive of variation otherwise than as a fraction of the

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 249

average height, that we are justified in expressing the steadiness of the
range at different ages by the phrase that the variation in height at
all ages between boyhood and manhood is inversely proportional to the
average height at those ages. The results of 100 measurements of newly-
born male infants at their full term, furnished to me by Mr. Roberts, show
a large range ; the median value is 19:2, the interquartile range is 1°8, and
the interdecile range is 3°5; but it must be recollected that it is difficult
to measure infants with accuracy.

Tt would be of much interest to examine this question further, and to
find out at what age the range begins to be steady, but my data are at
present insufficient to enable me to do this.

As regards weight, much the same holds good at and after the age of
14, but the range decreases steadily as we go further back. Among the
newly-born infants the median value is 7°6 lbs., the interquartile range
is 1-7 lbs., and the interdecile range is 3°5 Ibs.

As regards strength the range is small in early life, large in early
manhood, but in after-life other conditions appear which materially and
steadily reduce it. The upper quartile values begin to decrease and the
lower quartiles to increase ; in other words, the stronger quarter of Knglish-
men do not keep up their full vigour, and the weaker quarter become
steadily stronger. This latter event is certainly due in large part to the
previous removal of many of the weakest by early death. As regards the
deciles we see that the athletes preserve their vigour very fairly, while the
weakly tenth considerably improve, so that the interdecile range also
decreases in advancing life.

Another very curious fact is a marked increase of range of height
from about 14 to 16 years of age in Classes I. and IT., and in a less degree
in Class IV., which disappears afterwards. Probably the increase of
range takes place in different boys at slightly different ages, and therefore
becomes smoothed down in the mean result. If so, it would be still more
striking if the classes had been further subdivided. I gather from this
temporary increase of range that precocity is, on the whole, of no
advantage in later life, and that it may be a disadvantage. It is certain
that the precocious portion do not maintain their lead to the full extent ;
it is possible that they may actually fall back, and that many of those
who occupied a low place in the statistical series between the ages of
14 and 16 occupy a high place after those years. The full discussion
of this requires the collation of many individual histories ; it cannot be
effected through mean results. Perhaps the class of statistical researches
in anthropometry that most deserves encouragement at the present time
is the preservation of these records of the same individual throughout
life. He might with little trouble be measured and weighed annually or
more often, in the nursery, at school, at college, and in after-life, and
all the records might be kept sertatim in a book, with remarks at the
side accounting, as far as may be, for abnormalities of growth. A large
collection of well-kept records of this kind would be of the highest value,
not only from an anthropometric but from a sanitary point of view, using
that term in its widest sense.

ALO JOB} SBIL IT

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251

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE.

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1881.

REPORT

254

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Sey IT CPR ode, 2as) sossvyo

(SOSSVID [TB JO OSVIOAY , O1[} ULOAT SOTIQUO oso} OPNTOXe 09 AuvssadoM Mead o10Joryy
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0-29 829 | 8G¢ | GIL | —
0-09 | 699 | Lag | G19 | (FL)
6-29 S191 1:69) 16:09 hes
2G 0-6¢ | 919 | 02% | (4-69)
L&P GIy | GIP | $9r | —
9.09 9-07 | 99F | 269 | —
8-2F erp | 68F | 9-1F | (1-0)
6-IF gce | O87 | Gar | —
4g agp | ocr | 6g | —
1-07 Loy | LOP | @Ih | 6FE
8-0F Lpe | 8S | 6Ie | 8eP
F-0F eee | Lr | err | Gue
1.08 ZLe ah GUE FOG © | 14:96
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0-88 0-0F | 98e | GFE | T-8E
0-07 0-28 | 9-27 | 9-4e | 9.68
9.88 ce | 0-88 | &IP | $68
Z-0F ee | $66 | LIG | Ler
1-68 0:98 | O-FE | 6cr | 2-F
9-78 208 | — Gee | L-0F
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1-0 0-8 8-6. | LIZ | 6-8T
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9-16 GIG | PFS | 8:06 | 661
LLT GLE | 0-80 | 251 | #02
6-06 921 | 16 | 692 | 987
C61 @-1G | GSE | 9-81 | &6T
6-06 F6L | &FS | F6L | F-08
9-06 8-61 | 9-26 | 1-61 | 0-12
9:26 161 | G9T | 0-66 | €-92
ES 612 || Bee | Lee | ¢.4¢
T-06 ech: — LS | 8-02
P-L SrE | = GAL | 6-9T
0-8T a — GGL | 8-8T
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SPSL | F8eL | @19T | — 918
9-9FT | F2EL | @Set |(0-021)| 0F6
O-9FT | G2ST | eset | — $&Z
LOM | %PST | GIST | — 962
F-GPL | Sect | Goer \(6-eer)| e¢z
Sel | 41ST | oer | — 96
LIFT | ¥eS | 2:9 | — ose
G-ZPI- | SIL | 82h | 2-6FT €8F
L-OFL | 0-TEE | 0-C6L | 2-08T Te¢
SLE | L6PL | BZPL | ¢-84T GPG
S-PEL | GLPL | 9-0F1 | F-29T LEL
F-9ET | O-FPT | 8-IPL | 2-191 Tes
8-08 | 6-8ET | 68 | SLT SeFT
Z-6ZL | 88EL | 9-98— | 8-CFT 0ST
GIZE | &cet | O-8r | o-TFT 96%
S-ITI | 9-221 | 0-221 | 6-621 GEZZ
€00L | 466 | 1-26 | 8-eIT SI0e
106 — |4cg | 0-001 BPRS
1-88 — | 0.82 | 2-06 FIOT
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09-09
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REPORT— 1881.

G-FIT

OFI-SEL | 696-StG CFL G-1FL 0-916 GFF
g-TOL GGIT-OGT | ISG-LIG L-6¢ g-LFT 6-L06 0-68
g-16 SIT OLT | L16-€06 L-0F G-OFL §-081 6-6
G-€8 SIL-OIT | §06-681 OPE ¢-1&L F991 6-81
9-49 OGI-SIE | 68I-GLT 8-8P L861 G-6LT 8-06
g-8L OZI-SIT | €06-G68T GLE L-FE&1 9-TLT 61
2-66 OGI-SIT | LIé-€06 g.8¢ 0-SET G-TLI F-06
G-60T 96 —06 606-681 GLE L-PSt §-1LT 9-81
G-60T OIL-OL | 116-606 L-8& F-061 g-891 §-6L
g-LOT SOT-OOL | L16~606 9-66 F-961 0-991 F-06
g-S0OL 96 -06 606-681 6-66 F661 L191 0-16
¢-60L 08 -gZ 681-21 LSP 0-LOT L-OST 6-96
¢-60T GL —-OL 681-SL1 L-S¥ 9-16 E-LEL §-S6
0-001 SiS) A0N8) g9T-O9T L-OF 6-8 O-F6L 8-06
0-98 09 —Sg SPI-OFL 8-06 g-9L §-L0T 6-91
0-09 09 —S¢ O6I-SIL €-96 GGL 8-86 8-81
0-9F 09 —g¢ SOT-O0T 9:36 1-89 1-06 G-IT
0-96 (OLS ath [6 -06 9-66 6-69 6-68 LIL
“SQL Sq] Sq. S41 POT SQ “BQ
Lecauhergen aio! syque} sqjanoy
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Taaajeq | WNUTUITpY | wMWwixepy| uaeajeq m19a.M oq
goUd TOI] asuny asUvy

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= F971 8-SFT
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‘adY TOV 7" SIV JO LHDIGA\ Of} UI OSuVYy—'vY] ATAVY,

257

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEL.

9-16 €1T-O&T | I€Z-113 | 6-99 L-FFL 0-012 0-1F §-0ST €-16T
S-TOL S6I-OGI | TEG-LIG | GTL 8-EET §-906 0-0F 8-91 8-98T
£-66 S6I-OGI | GEZ-SFS | F-L19 S-OFL 0-806 8-6§ 9-641 F681
0-31 OSI-S6L | 696-SFS | 6-09 F-OFT &-106 LE 8-LFL $-08T
S-9ITL | OLI-SOL | 1€6-L16 | 0-LF g-9§T 6-81 0-96 &-EF1 §-69T
9-88 OLI-SOL | €0@-68I | €-9F S-6§1 8-8L1 L-16 6-871 0-99T
2-68 OSI-Sé6I | LIG-€0 LF. &-T&T 0-961 L-#6 L171 8-S9T
$-69 STT-OIT | G8I-GZT | 9-1F 6-661 8-OLT 1-96 F-9E1 9-091
$-TOLT | GGI-OGT | I€Z-L1G | &-GF 0-S€1 G-LLT 0-61 9-GFL g-T9T
g-49 OGI-STL | 68I-SLT &-6€ 9-661 6-891 &-86 G- LET 8-09T
£-69 STL-OIT | G8I-GL1 | &-IF G-L6T 8-891 L136 L-G&T 8-991
g-F9 OGI-SIt | G8I-GLT | 6-1 L-&é1 0-S9T €-9T 6-681 G-F9T
9-86 SOT-OOL | G0G-G68T | FF G-96L 8-OLT 8:06 G-FEL 0-991
2-86 OOT-S6 | G0Z-6ST | F-62 L-96T g-G9T L-FT g-6E1 G-LFT
2-48 STI-OLT | €06-681 L-8& 8-61 6-T9T 6-96 6-LEL 8-§9T
0.0L SOL-OOT | SZI-OLT O-FE 8-261 L-LST 9-81 6-661 8-LF1
0:09 SO[-OOLT | S9T-O9T | 9-9¢ 6-911 6-T9T ¥-61 8-961 G-SFL
0-99 OOT-S6 | S9T-O9T | &-1F ¢-801 0-01 L-61 6-611 §-8E1
0:06 GL -0L S9T-O9T | 1-19 8-S6 6-9F1 0-66 9-801 g-LET
008 OL -99 | OSI-StL | 6-3F G-8L F161 1-86 6-88 6 OTT
0-SL 09 ~“GG | S€I-OSI | g.EE 8-02 §-F0T 1-46 T-LL 6-101
0:99 09 -9G | SZI-OZT | F216 1-99 9-86 G-F1 GIL 1-98
0-97 0¢ -SF | 96 —-06 8-66 T-19 6-€8 6-61 L-99 6-LL
0-09 OS —GF | OOI-6 9-16 6-19 9-62 FIL 1-69 9-§L
0-06 gg’ —-08 {8 —08 6-06 6-99 9-9) g-I1 6:89 F-02
‘Sq “Sq “Sq “Sq “Sq “Sq “Sq ‘Sq “Sq
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eieiicn oe: Eee ‘ pur néddn Sead wna pue isddn pera lala
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soUdIOYIC ; osuey asuRy

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1881.

1881.

REPORT

—_—_—_—_-.ao——————————$——

G-SII SéL-OGL | SPS-L&G 6-96 G-GSL F666 6-06 9-691 F-§81 F-8— 6-0LT $691 FG jo = 8)
G-8h1 OGI-SIT | 616-692 F:69 F661 8-806 &-LE 0-TST 6-881 0-F- 6-0LT 6-99T 661 -09
G-68T SILOIL | 696-9hG | 8-99 6-SE1 0-161 6-16 G:9FT T-FLT rh Same 6-191 L691 TLE “SF
¢-891 OLT-S0L | 16-696 L-Gg T-LET 8-661 T-L16 GLPL | 9-FLT 6 — 8-691 F-09T Wes eek SOP
GS-91 CTI-OIL | 16-696 T-Sg 9-96T L161 FFG G9FL | 9-OLT L6—- g-09T F891 Té9 —98
g-ST CIL-OIL | €L6-696 9-19 6-9§T ¢-881 9-83 L:GhL | €-69T 8-1— 6-691 FLST | OOL -0E
¢-89 OSI-S6L | S0G-68T GIF 9-881 | 8-6LT 0-06 GLFL | G-L9T iS 0-891 6-291 T9L —66
¢-16 GIT-OLL | L1¢-€0Z | 9.9F 6-661 F-6L1 £86 9-GFL- | 6-99T ina T-SST F-FS1 16 86
9-66 OZI-SIL | LIG~80G 6-8F G-LET LI8t 1-06 9-FF1 §-99T 5) Goo L-99T €-9ST TAT “16
9-66 OGI-GIT | LIG—0G 0-8F L-GE1 L-O8T 0-96 ¢-OFL ¢-S9OT F-6— L-F91 LIST 661 —96
g-16 GIL-OIL | 416°€0¢ GSP 0-8§T GSLT £86 91FL | 6-P9T Ls L-F91 F-€S1 G6 96
G.8) OZI-GIL | €0G-68T T-0F 6-IEL §-TLT 8-61 FIFL | &-19T Miata 6-191 §-TST 096 46
¢-9TT OLT-SOT | 1&6-L1@ ¥-&¢ 0-T§T F-FS81 1-66 ¢-0FL 6-S9T Sid 8-691 OTST | 616 —&6
g-€8 SII-OIL | $06-68T LIF F-661 T-TLT FFG 9-861 0-691 6+ 9-09T L-GFL | LOT ~6G
g-88 OIT-SOL | £06-68T GLE 9-861 T-991 0-81 L861 L-99T ier 8-LFL 6-LFT F9L “IG
6.69 SIL-OIL | 68I-G2LT 9-LE 9-961 6-691 6-16 FSET L-F91 Bt = §-FF1 0-FF1 GLI —06
¢-86 OOI-96 606-681 8-86 $66 | §€-191 6-81 L-O€1 0-641 ro) Sie 6-OFL 6-861 OFT “61
¢-§1L ¢8 —-08 606-681 9.1F LPL | LI9T €-46 0-961 €-0ST eget L-8€1 8-8§T SET “$I
0-08 g8 —08 S9T-O9T 0-8§ LSI. | L-ISt 9-66 G-06L L-S#I 8. + g-T&T 6-GET 08 “LT
0-99 26 -06 O9T-SST 6-66 9-L01 6-961 6-91 6-S1T LO€T y+ 6-G6L 9-66L 69T -9L
0-08 99-09 SPIL-0FT 0-F§ 8-€8 8-LTL 8-66 0-68 8-111 6.3 9-001 1-66 919 -9I
“sq “qT *Sq] | Sq] ‘Sq “BqT “Sq “sq “SqI oBaL *6qT “Sq
tepierpacgauae syjuoy, syyamoy suoTy
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WdIMJOq | WNW PY | (NW Txe py maaAsqaq nessieq qaquun yy
auUdtayl( | ‘ aoUBy acuny

‘Oy “USUIOYSTYy ‘SLOTLVg ‘SIOUTTY ‘staueprey ‘slemMoqeyT [BANy[WOLLSsy— JIT SSVI
‘IOV OV 4 SoTVIY JO LHDIAAA OY} UL OSuLY— oY] ATAVY,

Yen)
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REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE.

G-60L | OLI-SOT
S-ILE | STI-OTE
9-€8 STI-OIL
¢-90L | O6I-STT
¢-16 SIT-OIL
G-€8 SIT-OIT
9-66 OGI-STT
G-9TT | OLL-SOT
0-69 STI-OIT
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$-69 STL-OTT
£-88 OTT-S0T
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G-0L | $6 —06
0-68 g8 —08
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TEG-LIG | 8-29 G-F6L 0-661
606-681 | 6-99 6-961 6-81
IgG-LIé | 8-19 0-661 8-§8T
SFG-1E6 | 0-69 g-66L g-I8T
60G-68T | 6-IF 0-961 6-991
LIG-606 | 9-0F | F-86T 0-691
TSG-L1G | &1F | &-E6T 8-F9T
GLI-891 9-9¢ 6-961 g-69T
GLT-89T 9-GF G-LIT 0-09T
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681-SLT L-8& §-LIT F991
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GgT-OST | 0:96 6-€8 6-611
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‘OS yowa ye sopepy JO WY JO HLONTULY oy} ul oSuvy— xX aTAVY,

REPORT OF THE-ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 261

Inspector-General Lawson, who has prepared the Tables XI. to XIV. on
Eyesicu’, has contributed the following remarks upon them.

The acuteness of vision has been tested by finding the distance at
which the individual under trial could distinguish the dots on the cards
issued by the Committee, so as to count them readily, These cards
contain eighteen square dots of one-fifth of an inch wide placed irregu-
larly in two groups, the distances from centre to centre of the contiguous
dots varying from 2 diameters to 3°16; their intervals may accordingly be
taken at one diameter less, or from 1 to 2:16. Of these intervals five are
of 1 diameter, six of 1°24, two of 1°83, and three of 2°16, and, if the
acuteness of vision were fairly tested, it must have been equal to sepa-
rating the dots with the intervals of one diameter sufficiently, at the
distance noted for each individual, to enable him to count them.

On approaching such a card, from a distance, the dots with the larger
interspaces become distinct, while those with the smaller still seem con-
tinuous; but after a few trials many of those under test will become
aware that the elongated-looking dots are made up of two, though they
be too far off for the eye to separate them.

The individuals examined have been distributed in five classes ac-
cording to the scheme detailed in Table III. of the Committee’s Report
for 1880; the details for each class are given in the Tables XI. to XIV.!
On looking over these the fluctuations in the distance for consecutive
years of age are far too great to admit of any satisfactory conclusions;
to obviate this the ages have been grouped in five-yearly periods up to
thirty, after which ten-yearly periods have been employed ; these reduce
the fluctuations materially and afford much more harmonious results, as
will be seen in the following abstract.

Distance at which the test-dots were distinguished at different ages
in each of the five classes, with a general mean for the IT. III. IV. and
V. Classes, and a separate one for the IV. and V. Classes.

Ms ’ repr Mean of
Class I. | Class II. | Class III. | Class IV. | *Class V. ies Classes
‘ Th ty. IV.and V.
oan = e z # is E E
ecclesia
A Anil ule = é
| 10-14 Femoral hee Gi ACG CLE Ae ED) ARMOIRE AT. CRES OCO EE SP Fs |) ESS ERY
15-19 63 |27°7| 14 |54:°3| 57 |54:6| 97 |51°5] 18 62:7 | 186 | 53-7 | 115 | 53-2
20-24 15 |26°8| 27 | 54:5 |145 |52°0| 97 |48-1]| 53 | 56-1] 322) 51-7 | 150 50°9
25-29 2 |47:5| 15 |48:5| 80 | 50-9} 48 |47:1| 39 | 52°8|182]50°1| 87 | 49-7
} 30-3 7 |42°5| 22 |52:3| 77 | 51:3} 41 |45°6| 25 | 50-°9|165]50:0| 66 | 47-6
| 40-49 21475) 8 |38-8] 33 |51:9| 24 |45-7| 13. | 48:3] 78)48°0| 37 | 46-6
50-59 | 1| 75| 4 |485| 13 151-6] 6 |40:0| 5 | 36-4] 28)46:0) 11) 40:2
60 and | 2 1550 1 ix | = € 6 5 | 35:5
upwds. f| ~ dD 27 5| 7 |43:9) — | — 5 |35'°5| 13|39°5 5 | 35°5
| Total . . lua} — | 91} — [412 | — [ais | — asa | — |ova| — [472| —

1 For the reasons stated below, it has not been considered necessary to give the
Tables for Class I, in a separate form,

262 REPORT—1881.

The details in this table show that the distance at which the dots
could be counted by those under 25 years of age in Class I. was about
half that found for each of the other four classes, while above 25 this
difference was greatly reduced. his discrepancy has arisen from the
persons in Class I. having been examined in a hall where the space was
limited and the light not very good; but it is so great as to prevent the
numbers for the first class being combined with those for the other four
in a general mean; consequently the latter only, which are sufficiently
regular among themselves to justify the proceeding, have been employed
for this purpose, and the results are given in the 6th column of the
table. From this it appears that, in a mixed town and country popula-
tion of 974, those from 15 to 19 could distinguish the test-dots at a mean
distance of 53:7 feet; this diminished through 51°7 feet between 20 and
24, to 50°0 feet from 30 to 39; a decrease of 2 feet in ten years went on
from 40 to 59; and after 60 this was nearly doubled. There is here
an approximate measure of the reduction of the range of vision with
advancing age, which, taking the distance the dots were visible from
15 to 19 as the unit, may be represented for the subsequent ages as
follow :—

Ages - é 15- 20- 25~ 30- 40- 50- 60-
Range of vision 1 96 93 93 89 86 74
The influence of town or country occupations and surroundings may
now be examined. Class III. may be taken to represent the latter, but
it is advisable to combine Classes IV. and V., to increase the number as
well as to embrace a greater variety of occupations, to illustrate the
former. The results are given in the last column in the above. table.
Class II. includes persons in a different sphere of life from III., IV.,
and V., and their numbers are too few at present to afford a sufficient
basis to work on; while Class I.,as has been already mentioned, is not,
available. Taking the mean distance at which the dots were distinguished
at 15 to 19 as the unit as above, the ranges at subsequent ages were as

follow :—

Ages : ‘ . e 15— 20- 25- 30- 40- 50- 60-
Class III., country . > 1 “95 ‘93 “94 "95 “95 “80
Class IV. and V., town . 1 “96 93 *89 88 ‘76 67

Though Class III. embraces 412 individuals, it is evident from the
course of the ratios from the ages of 30 to 59 that they are not suffi-
ciently numerous to neutralise irregular fluctuations; nevertheless, when
compared with those for Classes IV. and V. in the next line, there can
be no doubt that country life and occupations are far less injurious to
vision as age advances than residence in towns with its concomitant cir-
cumstances. As the smaller distance at which the dots were distinguished
by persons under 19 in the towns than in the country may be due in a
great measure to the difference in the brightness of illumination in these
positions, it is prudent to postpone the consideration of how far people at
that age have their vision affected by town life until sufficient material
be accumulated. These facts will be readily appreciated by examining the
diagram on Plate IV.

These remarks will afford a fair idea of the scope of the present
inquiry; but many more observations, especially at the higher ages, are
required to place the results on a firmer basis. With a sufficient number
of observations the influence of any single occupation, or of a series of

518 Report:Brit Assoc. 186). erena | Plate. lV.
Diagram showing the average distance at which dots
$ inch square were distinguished by different classes
al different ages.

Age uryears.

Fe
= ae

eee
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2

Bett
=
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rae. |
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Ss EusEsezeggUAEEE
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HW -Qass If, Mean — Classes TtoV. W&V— Classes IV&V.

Tustraung the Report of the Anthropometric Committee
Stottis swoode &C° Lith London.

ba ts

REPORT OF THE. ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE, 263

occupations, involving the employment of the sight in a similar manner
might be tested, and conld afford materials for very important con-
clusions.

Nore.—The conditions under which the acuteness of vision is tested
have a marked influence on the results. The most favourable circum-
stances for bringing out the acuteness of vision in persons whose eyes
are healthy, and their refracting power normal, are to view a dark body
against a well-illuminated bright-coloured background some way behind
it. For short distances the upright or wire of an iron fence; for greater
distances a pole or flagstaff projected against the clear sky beyond, are
suitable objects, from either of which the distance of the observer can
be measured. The writer, for instance, though his vision is no longer
so acute as formerly, can perceive distinctly at 200 yards’ distance, in
good daylight, the upright of an iron hurdle presenting a breadth of
0°36 inch from his point of observation, and projected against a newly
grayelled walk; and, some years ago, he had frequent opportunities of
observing a flagstaff, on a hill, the smallest part of which was not more
than six inches in diameter, yet in favourable weather that was distinctly
visible three miles off. The angle the object subtended at the eye in the
former instance is 10/3, and in the latter 6:7, and in each case it was
considerably within the extreme limit of vision. It will be observed,
however, that though these objects were narrow, they were of consider-
able length, and this extension in a direction perpendicular to their
smallest diameter enabled the eye to seize and retain the latter, while,
had its length not exceeded its breadth there would have been far more
difficulty in finding it in the first instance, and in keeping the eye fixed
steadily on it afterwards. In practice objects which appear square or
circular, as presented to the eye, cannot be distinguished under such
small angles, and only become distinctly visible at distances proportion-
ately much shorter. When they are dark, on a light ground in the same
plane, the range of vision is reduced still more.

In arranging his test-types Snellen proceeded on the assumption
that the normal eye could perceive an object subtending an angle of 1’,
and consequently he gave the lines forming his letters such a breadth
that they should reach the eye under an angle of 1’, when held at the
distance indicated in the accompanying instructions; but to admit of
the various parts of the letters being perceptible their height was fixed
at 5’, or five times the breadth of their limbs. These letters afford a very
convenient practical test of the various alterations the sight may have
undergone; but, as will appear immediately, owing to their forms and
the small distance between their different parts, they are not adapted
for determining quantitatively its greatest range under normal conditions.
The test-dots which were introduced originally to ascertain the fitness of
recruits for military service seem better suited for this purpose, though,
as they were employed to ensure the minimum range of vision required
for military service, which is far within that of the ordinary healthy eye,
their capabilities were never fully considered or developed.

A single test-dot, say a square of 1 of an inch of a side, will be
visible as far as any combination of them in which the single dots are
distinguishable; their arrangement in groups is merely to provide a
check on the person under trial, by varying the number exposed and
requiring him to count them; but when investigating the extreme limit
of vision a difficulty arises here, which did not present itself when

1881.

REPORT

264

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REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE.

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268 REPORT—1881.

recruits only were concerned, viz., the distance at which dots of the
same size appear separate to the eye, and can be counted, varies with the
space between them. Four rows of dots of }-inch square were placed
on a card; those of the first row were separated from each other by
spaces of the same size left blank; in the second row each dot was
separated from those in its vicinity by } of an inch; in the third row
the distance of each dot from any other was 2 of an inch, and in the
fourth row + of an inch; and a single dot was placed on one side 1°5
inch from the nearest one in the rows. These were exposed in the open
air, on a bright day, in a situation affording a clear range of about
90 feet ; at that distance from the card the single dot was quite percep-
tible, and those in the first, second, and third rows had the appearance of
continued lines. On approaching the card the dots in the fourth row
could be counted at 82 feet, those in the third at 74, in the second at
58, and in the first only at 36 feet.. The ordinary cards of dots, therefore,
on which these are separated by spaces varying from one to a little over
two diameters can only give a comparative test of the acuteness of vision
among those examined, and not an absolute one such as a card with
intervals of not less than five times the diameter of the dots between
every two of them would afford. Dots so arranged could not be grouped
readily, but they could be shown in varying numbers to the person under
trial, and his replies would indicate whether he were able to distinguish
them.

Mr. Rozerts’s Report on the Observations on Eyesight and Colowr-blindness
made at Marlborough College by the Rev. T. A. Preston.

The difficulty experienced by many observers of obtaining sufficient
space and light for testing the eyesight by the test-dots (which are
distinguishable to the normal eye in good daylight at a distance of 19
yards) has induced the Committee to use Snellen’s test-types, No. 1 and
No. 10, as more convenient and trustworthy. No. 1 is a small type
visible to the normal eye at the ordinary reading distance of from 12 to
20 inches, and No. 10 is a large thick type 4th of an inch square, dis-
tinguishable by the normal eye at a distance of 10 feet.

The Rey. T. A. Preston, one of the masters at Marlborough College,
has examined the eyesight and colour-sense of the whole of the boys and
some of the masters at present in the College, and the following is an
analysis of his returns. The observations include the age, the colour of
the iris, the eyesight as tested by No. 1 and No. 10, and the letters
composed of horizontal and vertical lines for astigmatism; and the
colour-sense as ‘tested by the methods of Dr. Daae and Professor Holm-
gren (and in a few instances by the solar spectrum), according to the
book of tests which I have prepared for the use of the Committee (‘ The
Detection of Colour-blindness and Imperfect Eyesight’: Bogue).

Acrt.—The ages of the boys range from 11 to 19 years, and those of
the masters from 20 to 50 years, five of the latter being over 40 years.

Cotovr or Eyrs.—The following Table shows the colour of the eyes

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 269

of the boys and masters under 40 years of age, divided into two groups—
those who are under and those who are above the age of 15 years.

| Colour of Eyes Under 15 | Over 15 Total

No. Percent. | No. Per cent. _ No. Per cent.
Dark blue. ; 2 “9 Names, 1:9 ery) me
Blue. : Ee Oe 28°71 a 98 279 a | 160 278 =

| Light blue . ‘ 32 145 (<s 51 144 [ | 83 14:4 ie
Grey . . .| 48 21:7 72 20°3 120 21:0
Browngrey(green) | 23 10°4} 6 36 Ose | 59 10:3) _.
Lightbrown(hazel)| 52 235 p= 83 2 | 12 135 23°5 > 15
Dark brown. .| 2 9 7 2-0 | 9 15 {*

From the similarity of the percentages of the two periods it would
appear that little change takes place in the colour of the iris after the age
of 15 years, as the dark eyes are barely one per cent. greater in the later
than the earlier period. The proportion of fair to dark eyes is 64-7 to
35°3, or about two fair to one of dark complexion.

CoLour-BLINDNESS.—Of the 600 boys and masters, 15, or 2°5 per cent.
were found to be colour-blind, a proportion which has been found to exist
elsewhere in the same class of boys, and about half that which exists in
the uneducated classes. The following table shows the nature of the
chromatic defect, and the condition of the eyesight and the colour of ‘the
hair and iris.

x , Colour- «| Teste) Test F :
No. | Age | Colour of Hair | Colour of Eyes hlaidnesd ae bo Astigmatism.
Golden (fair ae
ie 12-8 { xed) } Dark grey .| Red-blind .| 16! 11 | Horizontal
2 | 12-4) Dark brown . | Light blue .|} Red-blind . | 13 7 | Vertical
3 | 14-1| Dark brown. | Blue . . | Red-blind .{ 18 | 4
4| 15-4| Red. val Greys 2. . | Red-blind .| 18 | 8 | Horizontal
5 | 16 Black . . | Dark brown . | Red-blind .} 16 35| Horizontal
6| 17 oe | Dark blue .| Red-blind .| 17°| 10 | Horizontal
7 | 17-3| Dark brown .| Blue. . | Red-blind . | 21 | 13 | Vertical
8 | 14-2] Dark brown . | Light brown. | Green-blind |} 15 7 | Horizontal
9) 14-3} Red. ~ (Blue: . | Green-blind | 29 | 15
10 | 14-11) Red. | Grey 9). . | Green-blind | 20 9 | Vertical
11 | 16-2| Dark brown. | Light blue .| Green-blind | 19] 12
12 | 17-0} Black . . | Light brown. | Violet-blind | 22 | 12
13 | 13 Light brown. | Blue. . | Imperfect .| 16 6
14 | 17-4| Brown . .| Grey . . | Imperfect . | 18 i
15 | 28 Dark brown . | Light brown. | Imperfect . | 28 | 13 | Horizontal

Having observed in my private examinations that colour-blindness
was very frequent in persons with red hair, Mr. Preston has furnished me
with the colour of the hair in his cases. The Table of the relative pre-
valence of different coloured hair published in the Anthropometric
Committee’s Report for 1880 shows that red hair prevails in the professional
classes (in which are included the Marlborough boys) to the extent of
9°06 per cent., while in conjunction with complete colour-blindness in the
above Table it exists to the extent of 41:7 per cent. Light-coloured eyes
are slightly in excess, and imperfect eyesight is more prevalent among the

270 REPORT—1881.

colour-blind, but the number of observations are too few to form any safe
conclusion on these heads.

Eyesicut.—The following Tables show the quality of the eyesight as
tested by Snellen’s test-types.

Near Viston.—The Distance at which Test-type No. 1 can be read.!

Marlborough Boys Masters
Distance|- .
in Age last Birthday Age Total | Per cent.
inches ee
11 | 12 | 13 | 14) 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 |20-40)40-50
0 Sh SS a a Se oe 1 2
4 SNe a) ee alte | ae 2 3
6 ae Ne ee eee fp eae eal at | = ea 7 11 $9
8 —/—|/]—] 1] 1] 2] 2 —|—] — 6 1:0
10 Sera a PML ot eae thom eMC eee |) emer iT es 2:2
12 ALG Pa Le 3 AM ol Gennes Cea 1 25 4-1
14 DS] 6). Ht GeO | ei ee | end ee Se ee eee 57
16 So we ALS HLA alae || let 65) 2") seek —| 71 118 BLT
18 alee lee Ne TN) LZ eg ale |e eS —]| 84 | 140
20 25 SG ae WedOwl) 20 ata 2") al ee 1 Jal21—| 20:2
22 LO ese 22 PLU IS DN et ed ayy ae 82) |) ca ll 87 | 145,
24 eee teS ne healed beeebah SU tal cece iL —} 70 | 11-7
26 Shen N | RLNER, (Gi at melita Re SP coin) Re ote aN a —| 38 6:3
28 eS OP IONS T al Bisel belie Sf 3} —]| 24 | 40 \ 39-4
30 S| ay ora Mirela Beal WP pee || Alba te) ah —| 12 | 2:0
32 ee aU NI) eS |) i ee 3 5 )
34 —;/—);—] 1 — |, — | = dys) a2
36 — J — FP — fe — | H HY] oT Kt KY KH ] Lee es2
Total | 11 | 25 | 69 | 117/142|121| 64 | 23 | 5] 18] 5 | 600 10 0
Average] 18-4] 16-4] 18-3] 19-0] 19-1] 20-1] 20-0] 21-8] 19:0) — | —| — a
= en iS ee ee Za Gee eteae ohh Fe = > on) ae
17-7 19-4 20°2 22-1 )11-4}) — ==

? Specimen of Test-type No. 1.—(12 inches.)

437, 35, 66, 680, 956, 8634, 473, 533, 3535, 4303. During the minority of Queen Mary, the Palace of Hulyrood was burnt,
as well as the city, by the Euglish forces under the Earl of Hertford; soon after, it was repaired and enlarged beyond its
present size. At that time it is said to have consisted of no fewer than five courts, the most westerly of which was the
largest. Great part of the Palace of Holyrood Honse was burnt by the soldiers of Cromwell; but, at the Restoration, it was

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. OT

Distant VISION.

The Distance at which Test-type No. 10 can be read.!

/ Marlborough Boys | Masters
Distance
in Age last Birthday Age Total | Per cent.
feet
11 | 12] 13 | 14] 15] 16] 17) 18 | 19 |20-40/40-50
4 2\|— 1 1} — 5 8
1 — | — | — 4 6 6 5 | — | — 2 SAB: 3°8
2 a 2 3 5 8 1 2) — 1 — 22 ary
3 Sir ean 2 5 Ba es ol 1 1 13 2-0
4 Slee lees 1 3 4 1 3) 15 30:5
5 — | — 2 4 4 2 3 2);—)/—]— 17 3-0
6 1 1 3 4 3 2)—]—}]— 1 = 15 2°5
if 1 5 6 5 5 6 3} —]—] — 1 32 5:2
8 — 3 9 9} 10] 10 3 3) —}/—}] — 47 8:0 }
9 2 4 9} 15) 17 8 5} —|— 1 1 62 10°3
10 2 2]14]17 | 28] 16) 14 2);—| — | — }.95_]| 15°8 | 39-4
11 2 Coe) heAD To, | STi hey Li 9 4 2 se 80 13°3
12 3 3 6 | 15 | 16 | 13 3 1 3 + 1 68 11:3 }
13 —}|— 5 8 | 14 9 4 2 2 — 44 73 |
14 —}— 2) 10 4 8 4)/—;—] —] — 28 4‘T
16 }—}—| 1] 2) 4] 6} 4) 4)—) —}—} a | 35]
16 — | — 1 2) 2 1 1} — 1 — S) 15 307]
17 —}|—}]— 1} — i a 1 — 4 Or
18 — | — |] — | — 1 1 | — 1 | — 1 - 4 0.
20 Soap || ae ni — 1 2
22 Se) ES ee al — 1 2)
Total 11 | 25 | 69 |117/ 142/121] 64 | 23 SV 1s 5 | 600 100:
Average} 10:0} 9:4] 9:5|10:0} 9:6}, 9:1} 9-4] 10-2} 80} —| —} — —
9°6 9°6 9:2 10°5} 6:5 _- —

1 Specimen of Test-type No. 10.—(10 feet.)

VZBDFHK

Judging by the averages it would seem that the near sight (as tested
by No. 1) improves from year to year up to 40, but this apparent im.
provement is probably due to the greater ease with which the type is read
by the elder pupils and masters. From the great distances at which the
No. 1 type has been read, it is probable that considerable efforts have been
made to distinguish it at the greatest possible distance rather than at the
distance at which it could be read with ease and fluency. The curve
formed by the whole number of observations at all ages is remarkably
uniform, the ‘mean’ being at 20 inches, and the corresponding groups
above and below the mean being nearly identical in value. Normal near
vision exists in 51°7 per cent., while 39'4 are above, and 8:9 per cent.
below the average.

The averages do not show any change in the distant vision (as tested
by No. 10) up to the age of 40 years, a result which contrasts favourably
with similar observations made in German schools and universities, where
short-sight has been found to increase rapidly with the extended period
of education. The curve formed by the total number of observations is,
however, irregular, and consists of two curves haying a chief mean at

“

272 REPORT—1881.

10-11 feet, and a minor one at 2-3 feet. This latter curve is due to the
accession after the age of 13 years of an abnormal amount of imperfect
eyesight (short-sight and over-sight) which is too slight relatively to the
total number of observations to influence the averages. 39:4 per cent.
possess normal distant vision, while 30°1 per cent. are above, and 30°5
per cent. below the average.

Astigmatism.—Tested by means of the letters composed of horizontal
and vertical lines, 68°2 per cent. of the Marlborough boys and masters are
returned as more or less astigmatic, or in the proportion of nearly two to
one; the ratio of the horizontal to the vertical defect being 1 to 1:2.
Mr. Preston is not quite satisfied with the result of his observations on
this subject, as he had no means of checking the statements of the boys.

I@NoRANCE OF THE Names oF Coours.—In a recent report on the
examination of 27,927 school-children for colour-blindness by Dr. Joy
Jeffries, in America, the following remark on this subject occurs: ‘ Ex-
perience has abundantly shown me that but very few boys of the grammar or
higher schools are familiar with colour-names of even the primary colours,
and that still less can they correctly apply those names they do remember ~
when shown coloured objects. Although prepared for this ignorance on
the part of the boys to a certain extent, I confess I was astonished to find
it so frequent and great. It seems almost impossible that a bright boy of
fourteen, not colour-blind, should not know the word green or be able to
apply it. Yet this does not give an extreme idea of the truth in reference
to the ignorance of colour-names and their application among school-
boys.’ Being desirous to know if our English public school-boys are as
ignorant of colour-names and their application as the boys of the same class
in America, I submitted the above sentence to Mr. Preston, and the
following is his reply : ‘1 cannot agree with Dr. Jeffries as to ignorance
of colour-names. By this I mean reds, greens, &c. Of course mawve,
magenta, &c., and what are called drapers’ colours are not often known,
but I have certainly had no difficulty in getting the names of the common
colours. In fact it was quite the exception to meet with a boy who could
not tell the names fairly well. The whole of the boys who proved to be
colour-blind, except one, knew of their defect, and another boy was under
the impression that he was colour-blind, but turned out on examination
not to be so.’

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Leone Levi,
Mr. StepHEN BournE, Mr. Britrrarn, Dr. Hancock, Professor
Jevons, and Mr. F. P. FELLows, appointed for the purpose of
inquiring into and reporting on the present Appropriation of
Wages, and other sources of income, and considering how far it
is consonant with the economic progress of the people of the
United Kingdom. Drawn wp by Professor LEONE LEVI.

Ir it were possible to ascertain, with any approach to accuracy, the present
appropriation of wages and other sources of income of the people of the
United Kingdom, it would certainly be of the greatest utility, as it would
afford a valuable aid in the consideration of some of those great problems
which meet us on every side in our social economy. There are, in truth,

ON THE PRESENT APPROPRIATION OF WAGES, ETC. 273

no means for ascertaining either the absolute income or the true expen-
diture of the entire population, and any calculation of the same must,
more or less, partake of the nature of an estimate. But even an estimate
may be helpful, if founded on proper bases. Given certain data with re-
spect to a limited number of cases, it is quite possible, by legitimate induc-
tion, to arrive at great results as applied to the whole population. Only
let the data which form the bases of the calculation be certain and well
established, and the result must be a close approximate to the real truth.
What are all calculations regarding the expectation of life, but generalisa-
tions from certain given facts? .The Northampton Table, upon which so
many millions have been insured, was constructed by Dr. Price on the
account kept at Northampton during the years 1735-1780, of the ages at
death of only 4,689 persons who were buried in the parish of All Saints.
It is not only, however, in matters of life and death that we observe a
wonderful uniformity, certainty, and constancy. We find the Law of
Nature operating alike on all men, influencing their moral and intellec-
tual qualities, regulating their will, and controlling their habits and
manners. And it is the beauty and glory of the statistical method, that
it enables us to calculate the seemingly incalculable. With this instru-
ment at hand, and with a good grip of the teaching of common experience,
that which appears but a dream or a guess to the uninitiated, becomes to
the mathematician and statistician a simple, natural, and reliable result.

Apart, however, from the difficulties attending any general inquiry of
this nature, there are special obstacles to the ascertainment of the appro-
priation of wages and other income, in that there is a want of agreement
in the scientific meaning of the word income,—in that it is not easy
to distinguish the gross from the net income, and the income of the nation
collectively from the income of the individuals composing it. Many
attempts have been made to estimate the total income of the nation of late
years. Mr. Gladstone, in one of his addresses, estimated it at 1,000,000,0000.
The late Mr. Dudley Baxter, in his work on National Income, gave
it at 813,000,0007. The writer made an estimate of the wages and earnings
of the working classes in money or its equivalent, and found them to
amount to 418,000,000/., and Mr. Giffen,.in a, paper read before the Statis-
tical Society, estimated the recent accumulations of capital in the United
Kingdom at the rate of 240,000,0007. per annum. More might have been
expected from the labours of the International Statistical Congress in this
direction. That Congress, at its session at the Hague in 1869, expressed
a wish that the delegates of different countries, and especially the heads
of their statistical offices, should communicate to the future Congress the
elements which the statistics of their countries supply for arriving at a
statistical account, as complete as possible, of the income of the nation,
whether according to the individual method, which implies a valuation of
the individual income of the people, or according to the real method, that
is, by a valuation of the different branches of production. But this
desideratum has not yet been supplied.

Persona anD Narionan’ Income.

The ascertained or ascertainable income in the United Kingdom is
that assessed to income tax on the declaration of the tax-payers, or upon
other incontestable evidence. The unascertained and unascertainable
is the amount of income not charged with that tax, which includes

1881. T

274 REPORT—1881.

all incomes under 150. a year, and probably many incomes up to, and
exceeding that amount, though not sufficiently regular or certain, or
centred in the head of the family, so as to come within the range of the
income tax.

The annual values of property and profits assessed and charged to
income tax in the year ended April 5, 1880, were as follows :-—

Ae Charged
£
Schedule A. Lands, messuages, kc. . 185,377,770 . 170,187,081
35 B. Occupation of lands - . 69,383,066 ; 34,465,770
ne C, Funded debt, Foreign and
Colonial funds . : 39,860,483 = 39,860,483
» D. Trades and professions , 249,489,398! , 215,577,122
» .Publicoffices . . 32,786,184 , 25,986,622

576,896,901 . 486,077,028
Income of non-income-tax payers : lower,
middle, and working classes . - 500,000,000 - 500,000,000

1,076,896,901 . 986,077,028

But these different branches of income are not all derived from inde-
pendent sources of production, or from the production, in each case, of
new utilities. The income from interest in the British funds, represents a
simple transfer from the nation to the fundholder within the same. The
same remark applies to the income assessed for salaries for public officers
under Schedule E. And Schedule D likewise comprises a large portion
of professional incomes, which really constitute the expenditure of other
classes. The difference between the amount assessed and the amount
charged to income-tax arises mainly from the abatements made of 120].
on small incomes and allowances for life assurance. It is the amount
assessed, therefore, that represents this portion of the income of the
nation, which in the method suggested will stand as follows :—

Income
£
- 185,000,000
« 69,000,000
» 19,000,000
« 222,000,000

—

495,000,000

Schedule A

”
”

paw

”

in like manner, the income of non-income-tax payers is subject to the
same distinction. The wages of soldiers and seamen, and of labourers in
the Royal Dockyards, the wages of domestic servants and gardeners, the
salaries of a large proportion of teachers, and of clergymen, amounting
in all to upwards of 80,000,000/., cannot be considered as independent
incomes. Adding these sums, the results are as follows :—

.

Total Income
£
Income-tax paying . . . . + 495,000,000
Non-income-tax paying , - : 3 - 420,000,000
915,000,000

1 The remaining 27,000,000/. represents professional incomes,

bo
~J
On

ON THE PRESENT APPROPRIATION OF WAGES, ETC.

WHAT Is PRODUCTIVE AND WHAT UNpRODUCTIVE HXPENDITURE.

What is done with such annual income? How much of it is pro-
ductively and how much unproductively expended ? And what amount
is set aside as capital for reproduction? Is, in short, the method of its
appropriation consonant with the economic progress of the people of the
United Kingdom? Itis not an easy matter to say what amount of
national income is productively expended. Productive consumption, said
Mr. John Stuart Mill, is what is consumed by productive labourers, in-
cluding the labour of direction as well as of execution, in keeping up or
improving their health, strength, and capacity for work. Unproductive
consumption is what is expended on pleasure or luxuries, whether by the
idle or the industrious. That alone, according to Mr. Mill, is productive
consumption which goes to maintain and increase the productive power
of the community. But there is labour the end of which is not produc-
tion but enjoyment, and yet the expenditure for which, within certain
limits, may be perfectly consistent with the greatest efficiency of labour.
Not all luxuries, not all enjoyments, are waste in a true economic sense.
The human forces, unlike the physical, need rest and renovation, and
whatever is expended for the purpose of giving it a fresh impetus for
labour, may well be held to be productive expenditure. Any attempt,
moreover, to determine whether the expenditure is productive or unpro-
ductive, by the character of the article for which the expenditure is
incurred, as by its chemical composition, or nutritive value, would lead
us to problems which lie beyond the province of the economist or statis-
tician. The consumption of the people is greatly regulated by climate
and temperature, by the constitution and habits of the people, and by the
nature of their occupation. It is experience, not theory, that must guide
us in the determination of the possibilities or impossibilities of certain
economies.

DISTRIBUTION OF HXPENDITURE.

The principal items of expenditure of a personal character are food
and drink, house rent, furniture, fire and light, clothing, tobacco, educa-
tion, literature, science and art, church and charity, servants, horses and
carriages, and amusements. In calculating the expenditure for articles
of food and drink and for clothing, a distinction must be made between
the gross expenditure, which includes the expense of distribution and
taxation, and the net expenditure, which represents the simple cost of the
articles, whether imported or produced at home. Twenty per cent. has
been added for the cost of distribution to represent retail prices, that rate
not being too high remembering that between the importers and con-
sumers there are always two and often three profits. The Co-operative
Companies have in some cases led to the economy of one at least of
these profits, but their dealings are not of sufficient magnitude to affect
materially the calculation for the expenditure of the whole nation.

PoprvunaTioNn,

The population of the United Kingdom has been ascertained by the
census of 1881 -to be 35,246,562, of which we may estimate 17,000,000
males and 18,000,000 females, and as it affects some of our future calcula-

v2

276 rerortT—1881.

tions, it is well to remember that the urban population may be taken at
20,000,000 and the rural at 15,000,000. The details as to ages are not
yet known, but in a general manner 55 per cent. are adults and 45 per
cent. persons under age.

ARTICLES OF Foon.
Bread.

In the expenditure for food, bread holds the first place, on account of
its being shared in by the largest number of people, though in amount it
stands second to meat. Mr. Caird, in his valuable work on the landed
interest, calculated the quantity and value of wheat of home and foreign
growth consumed annually in the United Kingdom as follows :—

Quantity Value
Cwts. £
Home Growth . > 55,000,000 3 3 32,187,500
Foreign ,, , ; . 55,000,000 5 4 32,187,500
Cwts. 110,000,000 ; » £64,375,000

Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, in a paper read before the Statistical Society
on the 11th May, 1880, gave the consumption of wheat for the average of
three years, from 1876 to 1878, as follows :—

Quantities available

for consumption Value
Qrs. £
Home , : : . 10,198,253 ; 4 A 24,670,579
Foreign . - é - 13,700,386 ° 2 4 33,356,761
Total . ; , . 23,898,639 : ° . £58,027,340

Take 60,000,0007. as the average of the two authorities, and add 25 per
cent. for manufacture of bread and distribution, and the cost appears to
be about 75,000,000/. In another form, take 110,000,000 ewt. as the
consumption, or 12,320,000,000 lbs.; at 80 Ibs. flour per cwt. wheat,
they will give 9,856,000,000 lbs. flour. Assume that 280 lbs. flour will
give 316,610,000 quartern loaves, at 6d. the quartern loaf the gross
expenditure would be 77,500,000/., whilst the net expenditure would be
60,000,000/. ; the gross expenditure being at the rate of 1:41d., and the
net at the rate of 112d. per day for each individual in the kingdom.

Potatoes,

Next to bread, the potato is most largely used as farinaceous food,
especially in Ireland. The home growth of potatoes was estimated by Mr.
Caird at 111,000,000 ewts. According to the agricultural statistics for
1880, the number of acres under cultivation in the United Kingdom was
1,380,578 acres. Estimating the produce at 3 tons per acre, the total
produce would be 82,835,000 ewts., and, at 6s. per ewt., the cost would be ~
24,850,000/. Add 9,750,000 ewts. imported, at an average price of 584s.
per cwt., value 2,847,000/., we have a total of 27,697,000/., and, with
20 per cent. for distribution, 33,238,000/., or in the proportion of 0°64d.
as the gross, and 9:5ld. as the net expenditure per day for each in-
dividual. ;

Vegetables.

Of the quantity of vegetable and fruit home-produce consumed there

is no account, but the amount may be safely taken at half the value of

ON THE PRESENT APPROPRIATION OF WAGES, ETC. 277

potatoes, or 14,000,0007., and, with 20 per cent. for distribution,
17,000,0007., or in the proportion of 0:52d. as the gross, and 0°25d. as the
net expenditure per day per person.

Meat.

The amount expended in meat is very large. Mr. Caird calculated
the value of meat produced at home, in butcher’s meat, bacon, ham,
pork, d&ec., at 24,500,000 ewts., valued at 87,000,0007. And he added
6,300,000 ewts. of foreign growth, valued at 22,050,0001., making in all
109,050,0007. We may test the consumption of meat by another process.
Weare indebted to the kindness of Mr. N. Stephen, the Clerk and
Superintendent of the London Central Meat Market, for the quantity of
meat there sold, which, in 1880, was 221,448 tons.!_ Add for meat
slaughtered by butchers 20,200 tons, and we have a total of 241,674
tons, or 541,349,760 lbs., as representing approximately the quantity of
meat consumed in the Metropolis. Take the population of what is called
Greater London, which the Central Market supplies, at 4,760,000, and
the consumption per head is 0°31 Ibs. per day. The average wholesale
price may be taken at 6jd. per lb., and the average retail price at 74d.
per Ib. At the latter price, the amount spent in London alone, on meat,
is 16,900,0007. Extend the calculation to the whole country at 4-lb. per
head, and at the same prices of 64d. and 73d. per lb. respectively the re-
sult is a total consumption of 3, 193, 750,000 Ibs., at a cost of 83,000,0007.
wholesale price, and 99,800, 0001. retail, which give an average expendi-
ture of 1°87d. as a gross, and 1'55d. as a net expenditure per day for

each individual.
Fish.

The consumption of fish is considerable. Mr. Spencer Walpole, the
Inspector of Fisheries, in a report to the Secretary of State, stated that
in 1879, 135,000 tons of fish were brought, for consumption, into London ;
and that, upon a population of 3,500,000, it gave an average of 90 lbs.
per head, Fish is largely consumed by the labouring classes ; but London
is exceptionally well supplied with fish, and for the whole population it
is not safe to take more than 20 Ibs. per head per annum. The price of
fish varies considerably with the description and season of the year ;
salmon, soles, and turbot selling at considerably higher prices than
herrings, mackerel, cod, and other kinds. Taking the total quantity
consumed at 700, 000, 000. Ibs. > and the average “price at 4d. per Ib.

’ The proportions were as follows :—

Tons
Country killed . 3 j ; - 107,326
Town killed . ; - 80,905
General foreign (meat and produce) : 7,381
American killed (fresh meat) - - 25,836
221,248

* The quantity of fish conveyed by railway from each of the principal fishing
ports, in the year 1878, was as follows :—

Tons
England 5 7 ‘ . 176,652
Scotland ‘ - : ; < . 932,292
Treland é 7 Z ~ a 6,894
216,338

equal to 484,597,120 lbs. Allowing one-third more for fish consumed direct from the
boats, the consumption would be 646,000,000 Ibs.

278 REPORT—1881.

wholesale and 5d. per lb. retail, the total value would be 11,700,000/. whole-
sale and 14,500,000/. retail, or in the proportion of 0-26d. as a gross, and
0°23. as a net expenditure per day per person,

Butter and Cheese.

Butter and cheese are important articles of food. Mr. Caird estimated
the home produce of these at 3,000,000 ewts., valued at 13,500,000., and
at a similar quantity and amount the butter and cheese imported. In
1880, however, the imports were 2,326,000 ewts. butter, and 1,775,000
ewts. cheese, of the collective value of 17,232,0001., making, with the
home produce, a total of about 30,000,000/., and, with 20 per cent. for
distribution, a total of 36,000,000/., or in the proportion of 0°67d. as a
gross, and 0'56d. as a net expenditure per day per person.

Milk and Eggs.

The value of home-grown milk is estimated at 26,000,0001., and the
value of eggs imported in 1880 at 2,300,000/., representing, probably,
one-fourth of the total consumption, or 9,000,000/., giving an aggregate
in milk and eggs of 35,000,000/., which, with 20 per cent. for distribution,
amounts to 42,000,000/., or equal to 0°78d. as a gross, and 0°66d. as a net
expenditure per day per person.

Fruit and other Articles of Import.

To these we must add the following articles of import, at their
declared value, viz.: Fruit, raw and dry, 6,507,000/. ; rice, 1,697,0001. ;
spices, 506,000/.; and confectionery, 568,0001. Total, 9;278,0001.; and,
with 20 per cent. for distribution, 11,133,0001., equal to 0°19d. as a gross,
and 0:17d. as a net expenditure per day per person,

Sugar.

Sugar is partly used as food, and partly as drink. According to the
report of the Commissioners 6f Customs, the value of sugar retained for
consumption, in 1880, was 22,770,0001. Deducting the quantity used in
brewing, 1,136,000 cwts., value 1,200,000/., and adding the cost of refining
upon at Jeast the half of the raw sugar consumed, 9,000,000/., the
entire cost may be taken at 24,700,000/., and, with 10 per cent. for profit
and distribution, 27,000,000/., or 0°50d. as a gross, and 0°46d. as a net
expenditure per day per person.

Tea and Coffee.

The value of tea retained for consumption, in 1880, was 8,809,000I.
Add the duty, 3,964,0001., we have a total of 12,773,000/., and, with
20 per cent. for distribution, the total cost to consumers would be
15,327,0001., or 060d. as a gross, and 016d. as a net expenditure per day.

Of coffee and cocoa, the quantity retained for consumption was valued
at 2,196,0007. Add duty, 330,000/., and 20 per cent. for profit and dis-
tribution, and we have a total of about 3,000,000/., or in the proportion
of 0°05d. as a gross, and 0°04d. as a net expenditure per day per person.

' Beer.

Of alcoholic drinks, the consumption is large. In the year ended
30th September, 1880, the quantity of malt brewed in the United King-

ON THE PRESENT APPROPRIATION OF WAGES, ETC. 279

dom was 55,850,790 bushels, At 2 bushels to the barrel it would give
27,925,395 average barrels, or 1,005,314,220 average gallons of beer.
Deducting the. exports, 18,000,000 average gallons, the home con-
sumption would be. 987,000,000 gallons. One thousand million gallons
is a safe number to-take. The actual cost of beer .is probably 7d. per
gallon ; and at that rate the cost is 29,000,0001. ; but, at the selling price
of ls. 6d., which includes duty (6,732,0001.) and profits’of distribution,
the consumers pay 75,000,000/., or in the proportion of 1:40d., the net
cost being only 054d. per day per head.

Spirits.

The total consumption of British and foreign spirits in 1880 was
40,000,000 gallons. ‘Taking the cost at 4s. per gallon and the sale price
at 20s., the entire cost would be 8,000,000/., and the amount paid by
consumers, including duty, 10s. per gallon, and profit of distribution,
40,000,0001., or at the rate of 0°75d. as a gross, the net cost amounting
only to 0°14d. per head per day.

Wine.

Of wine the value of the quantity retained for consumption was valued
at 5,800,0007. Add duty 1,407,000/. and 25 per cent. for distribution, the
total amount is 9,000,000/., or in the proportion of 0:16d. as a gross
expenditure, the net being 0°10d. per day per head.

Total Food and Drink.

Collectively the amount expended in articles of food and drink is as
follows :—

Total Original cost of home
expenditure produce and imports
3 £
Bread : a F e 77,500,000 F ¢ 60,000,000
Potatoes . ‘ F > 33,200,000 A ‘ 27,700,000
Vegetables . : 4 Fe 17,000,000 F; 5 14,000,000
Meat . 5 A s i 99,800,000 fs » 83,000,000
Fish . : 5 é ‘ 14,500,000 : . 11,700,000
Butter and cheese - 4 36,000,000 F f 30,000,000
Milkandeggs . . ; 42,000,000 a 35,000,000
Fruit, kc. . 4 A 11,100,000 A . 9,300,000
Sugar . i é 27,000,000 7 : 24,700,000
Tea : ° ° ‘i 15,300,000 i J 8,800,600
Coffee, &c. . ; i P 3,000,000 4 é 2,200,000
Beer * A “ F 75,000,000 é 7 29,000,000
Spirits s . . A 40,000,000 ° ° 8,000,000
Wines a F = 3 9,000,000 ° . 5,800,000

£500,400,000 . « £349,200,000

Divided per head the different branches of expenditure for food and
drink were as follows :—

Gross, a day Net, a day
Bread . . ° ° ° ° ° 1:41 . . EID
Potatoes . R ‘ : a *64 2 tl
Vegeta Bleetcrmbey "nigh 3), 1a) Lie oe 132 bsiwa once "25
Meat na amet wy swihe #,% [ey oss Weare Ke ag bo
Fish ee it verdant 20 CAEP MUO. | nt 23
Butter and cheese 4 ; u “67 Fs ; 56
Milk and eggs . . . . . ‘78 e . "66
Bruit; &o,' PA ATH crisestt Lis “TO) titi! « 17

280 ; REPORT—1881.

Gross, per day Net, per day

: d. d.
Sugar , 4 : : : 4 A *50 - Fi “46
Tea : ‘ : ; : 60 S ; 16
Coffee and Cocoa . : F A fs 05 ° : 04
Beer : A A : A 5 ; 1:40 3 “BA
Spirits . A ; F : : { 75 : , 14
Wine . ‘ é 5 ; . : 16 4 J 10

9°60d. — 649d.

The consumption of imported articles of food and drink has largely
increased of late years, as will be seen from the following comparison of
the quantity retained for home consumption per head of the total popu-
lation of the United Kingdom in 1840, 1860, and 1880, as given in the
statistical abstract :—

1840 1860 1880

Corn P Ibs. > . 42°47 : 118°86 $ 210°42
Potatoes. a5 5 0:01 * 2:18 s 31°63
Bacon and Hams __,, F 0-01 ‘ 1:27 F 15°96
Butter ; i 3 1:05 : 3°26 ; 7-42
Cheese : ¥ : 0:92 A 2°24 A 5°56
Eges . ‘ No. Hi 3°63 ; 5°83 - 21°68
Sugar . ‘ Ips. “3. 15:20 ; Bp slik : 63°68
Tea , ‘ “ " 1:22 4 2°67 - 4°59
Wine ; gallons . 0:25 - 0:23 0°46
Malt . x British . 135(8) A 1:45 ; 1:60
Spirits * : 0°83 4 0:74 : 0:84
ms ‘ Foreign. 0714 0-19 0:25

A large consumption of articles of food in great part imported is
a sign of general prosperity, and is conducive to greater effectiveness
of labour. There is no reason to suppose that home production has
diminished of late years, except indeed as the consequence of deficient
harvests on special years. The increasing imports therefore denote so
much additional food consumed by the people: Mr. Stephen Bourne, in
his interesting paper’ ‘On our increasing dependence upon foreign sup-
plies of food,’ said, ‘To be thus dependent upon extranéous sources for so
large a portion of the national food may probably, to some minds, be the
occasion of much anxiety, as rendering our very existence precarious, and
as being derogatory to our national pride; -but-provided our circum-
stances be such as to preclude it resulting’in fmancial embarrassment we
shall find it to be in eyery respect advantageous, or at least to have so
many benefits connected with it as to far,outweigh any consideration of
an opposite character.’ - <..(° 1 Meet

‘ . Arrictes or Dress. 3
Let us now pass fo the amount expended in articles of dress.

Cotton.

According to Messrs. Ellison’s Cotton Circular the home consumption
of cotton was, in 1880, 184,373,000 lbs., which at the average price of
2°94d. per lb. would cost 2,250,000/. Taking 44 yards for every pound
of cotton, the number of yards produced would be 829,678,000. The
average price of piece goods, white, printed, &e. exported in 1880 was
316d. per yard. Assuming 5d: per’ yard for the- cotton goods consumed
at home, their cost would be 17,280,0007. To this there must be
added 1,500,000/. the value of. lace, and 4,000,0001. of hosiery, besides
3,100,0002., the value of cotton manufacture imported, making in all

ON THE PRESENT APPROPRIATION OF WAGES, ETC. 281

25,800,0007., and, with 20 per cent. for distribution, 31,000,0002., or in the
proportion of 0°58d. as a gross, and 0'48d. as a net expenditure per day
per head,

Wool.

The quantity of wool left for home consumption in 1880, according
to Messrs. Helmuth Schwartze & Co.’s circular, including domestic clip!
and total imports of wool, alpaca, and mohair, was 370,000,000 Ibs., besides
92,000,000 lbs. woollen rags, torn up or not, used as wool. Deducting
the exports of woollen manufacture, which represent 90,000,000 lbs., the
remainder, 280,000,000 lbs., may be taken as the quantity consumed at
home; and at two yards to the pound and 2s. per yard, the cost would
be 56,000,000/., besides 7,650,0001. of woollen goods imported, making in
all 63,650,000/.. But considerable quantities of wool are used in flannel,
blankets, rugs, carpet, and articles for the household, not articles of dress.
According to information kindly supplied by Messrs. John Scott & Co.
the approximate consumption of wool and woollen goods may be cal-
culated as follows:—For men’s cloth the consumption is about 50 per
cent. at 3s. per yard, 35 per cent. at 8s. 6d., and 15 per cent. at 11s. per
yard. For women’s dress 50 per cent. at 64d. per yard, 35 per cent. at
1ld., and 15 per cent. at 2s. 3d. per yard. And for women’s mantle,
jacket, and Ulster cloths 50 per cent. at 2s. 6d.,35 per cent. at 6s., and
15 per cent. at 10s. per yard. And at these calculations if only one dress
per annum were used the cost would be 35,000,000/. It is safe, however,
to assume a consumption of half as much for dress, making a total
of 52,600,000/., which, with 20 per cent. for distribution, amounts to
63,000,000/., or in the proportion of 1:18d. as a gross, and 0'98d, as a
net expenditure per head per day.

Innen.

There is a total want of detail regarding the consumption of linen, but
it may be estimated at one-fourth of the consumption of cotton goods, viz.,
6,400,000/., and with 20 per cent. for distribution, 7,700,000I., or in the
proportion of 0:14d. as a gross, and 0:11d. asa net expenditure per person
per day.

Silk.

In 1880 there were imported into the United Kingdom, of raw and
thrown silk, 3,877,000 lbs., of which, however, thére were exported
955,000 lbs., leaving for home consumption 2,922,000 lbs., say 3,000,000 Ibs.,
which, at 5 yards to the pound, would give 15,000,000 yards. Deduct
from this 6,200,000 yards exported, there remained for home consumption
8,800,000 yards. At 4s. per yard these would give a cost of about 1,700,0000.
Add the import of silk manufacture, valued at 13,000,000/., and we have
a total of 14,700,0007., and with 20 per cent. for distribution, 17,600,000/.,
or in the proportion of 0°32d. as a gross, and 027d. as a net expenditure
per head per day.

The production of wool in the United Kingdom has been estimated as follows :—

; : ‘< lbs.
Leicestershire sheep - 12,933,000 fleeces at 7lbs. each . 90,531,000
Downs Fees ).2 ) 6,180000. .,- - /41bs.- ,. 1) 724,520,000
Cheviots . Bae ie 4,368,000 4 3lbs. ,, . 13,104,000
Blackfaced .+ .-+ 5,100,000: ,, 23lbs. ,, . 14,027,750
Welsh and Irish: .- 6,000,000- ,, 2lbs. , . 12,000,000

154,182,750 lbs.

282 REPORT—1881,

Boots and Shoes, Hats, Sc.

Boots and shoes constitute an expensive and necessary article of
dress. Their cost at 8s. 6d. per pair would be 14,800,0007. Of gloves,
the home production is small. In 1880 there were imported 17,469,000
pairs, valued at 1,742,000]. There were also imported 463,000]. worth
of artificial flowers, and seal-skins to the value of 623,000/. Sealskin
jackets are a great luxury. The import price in 1880 averaged 19-08s.
per skin, and it is not uncommon for such jackets to be sold for 401. and 501.
On hats, the amount expended may be taken at 2,000,000/., making a total
for these articles of 19,600,000, and with 20 per cent. for distribution
23,500,000/., or in the proportion of 0°44d. as a gross, and 0°39d. as a net
expenditure per head per day.

Gold and Silver Plate.

There is further the expenditure on gold and silver. According to
Mr. Giffen’s evidence before the House of Commons’ Committee on hall-
marks, about four and a half million ounces of silver are annually used
in the United Kingdom for manufacture. At 4s. 6d. per oz. that would
represent little more than 1,000,000/., but in the manufacture of the
precious metals the cost of workmanship is greatly in excess of the value
of the raw material. Taking an average of 11. per oz., the total amount
expended would be 4,500,0001. The amount expended in gold plate
and jewellery must be considerable, but there is no means to estimate
the same. The expenditure of the precious metals differs considerably
in years of commercial prosperity and years of commercial depression.
Therefore it can scarcely be considered a constant in the expenditure of
the people; nevertheless it may be safely estimated that upwards of
5,000,0007. are yearly expended in gold and silver plate, to say nothing of
diamonds. Allowing 20 per cent. for distribution the expenditure would
be in the proportion of 0:09d. gross, and 0:07d. net per head per day.

Total Expenditure in Dress.

The amount spent in ordinary articles of dress is as follows :—

Gross Expenditure Net Expenditure
£ £
Cotton 5 : . 5 31,000,000 ’ - 25,800,000
Wool . ° 7 ~ : 63,000,000 4 ‘ 52,800,000
Linen . ‘ ; : : 7,700,000 : “ 6,400,000
Silkk . : u 3 ; 17,600,000 . 14,700,000
Leather, Felt, «ce. f i 23,500,000 a 3 19,600,000
Gold and Silver Plate. 5,000,000 F ° 4,000,000
£147,800,000 £123,300,000

Dividing the expenditure among the entire population, the proportion
is 2'75d. per day for the gross and 2°30d. per day for the net, as follows: —

Gross Net

d. d.
Cotton ‘ 4 f r 0°58 3 - 0:45
Wool ‘ : 5 ‘ 118 s 3 0-98
Linen - 5 é : O14 : t O11
Silk. ; 3 ‘ 3 0:32 4 : 0:27
Boots, Gloves, &e. . . O44 4 é 0:39

Gold hnd Silver Plate . 0:09 . . 0:07

275d. 2-30d.

ON THE PRESENT APPROPRIATION OF WAGES, ETC. 283

House EXpenbi1ure.
House-rent.

After food and clothing comes house-rent. The amount charged to
duty on dwelling-houses in 1878-9 was 36,609,0001., and the annual
value of dwelling-houses not liable to duty under 201. was 32,692,0001.,
making a total of 69,301,0007. Adding one-fifth to the amount charged
with inhabited house duty, 8,000,000/., in order to obtain the real amount
of rent, the total amount so expended is 77,000,0002., equal to 1-44d.
per head per day. Assuming house property to return 6 per cent., the
net cost would be about 72,500,0001., giving a proportion of 136d. per
day per head.

Furniture.

To house-rent we must add the expense for furniture. The number
of houses built yearly averages 60,000. At, 1001. furniture each the
expense of furnishing them would be 6,000,000/. But existing houses
require constant additions and renewal. The total number of houses is
now 6,500,000,! and the total rental may be estimated at 100,000,000.
Let only 5 per cent. on the amount of rental be taken for renewal of
furniture and the amount is 5,000,0007., making a total, with the furni-
ture of new houses, of 11,000,000/. Deduct from this 20 per cent. for
distribution, and the expenditure is 0°20d. gross, and 0'16d. net per head
per day. i

Coal.

The consumption of coal for household purposes was given by the
Royal Commissioners in 1869 at 18,000,000 tons. Assuming the present
consumption at 20,000,000 tons, its value at 12s. per ton wholesale, and
15s. retail, would be 12,000,0007. and 15,000,000I. respectively, or at the
rate of 0-29d. as the gross, and 0:22d. as the net cost per head per day.

Gas.

We have no account of the total expenditure on gas and other
descriptions of light, such as paraffin, tallow, stearine and wax candles,
&e., all over the kingdom. The total amount of gas-rate (private lights),
received by the Metropolitan Gas Companies is about 3,000,000/., repre-
senting an expenditure of 16s. per head. Taking 10s. a head for the
whole urban population and 5s. a head for the rural, the whole expendi-
ture would be 13,700,0007. Deducting 20 per cent. for distribution, and
the amount is 11,000,0007., or in the proportion of 0°25d. as the gross,
and 0:20d. as the net expenditure per day for every individual.

Water.

No data exist for estimating the expenditure for water. Here also
the expenditure in cities is greatly in excess of the expenditure in
rural districts, whilst considerable quantities of water are used for manu-

1 The Census Commissioners reported the number of houses inhabited in 1881 to
be as follows :— ;

Englandand Wales . .« . «+ 4,838,844
Scotland é 4 s a 5 729,010
Treland R s ‘ 4 ~ 912,261

6,475,115

284 REPORT—1881.

facturing purposes. The total amount received for water rate by the
Metropolitan Water Companies is about 1,400,0007. a year, which gives a
proportion of 7s. 3d. per head. Assuming only 5s. per head on 20,000,000
of urban population the expenditure would be 5,000,0001., or 4,000,0002.
net, or in the proportion of 0-09d. as the gross, and 0:07d. as the net ex-
penditure per day per head.

Total House Bxpenditure.

The total expenditure connected with the dwelling-houses of the
population would appear to be as follows :—

Gross Expenditure Net Expenditure
Eg ES
House-rent : ; = 77,000,000 : 4 72,500,000
Furniture , A ° 11,000,000 “ ;: 9,000,000
Coal . 4 : A ‘ 15,000,000 : 3 12,000,000
Gaseee ; A : 4 13,700,000 ; % 11,000,000
Water. H ci ; : 5,000,000 4 A 4,000,000
£121,700,000 £108,500,000

The proportion being 2:27d. per head per day among the whole popu-
lation as the gross expenditure, and 2°01d. as the net, viz.:—

Gross Net
d. d.
House-rent a ‘ 1°44 P - 1°36
Furniture . , A 0-20 ; . 0-16
Coal . . 3 - 0:29 : A 0:22
Gale ws : Fi ‘ 0°25 - 4 0:20
Water - z - 0-09 - é 0:07
2°27d. 2-0ld.
TOBACCO.

Another branch of expenditure is tobacco, extensively consumed and
highly taxed. In the year ended March 31, 1880, the quantity of tobacco
entered for home consumption was, unmanufactured, 48,191,000 Ibs. ;
manufactured cigars, 1,150,000 Ibs. ; other sorts, 153,000 Ibs.; valued at
2,877,0001.; and the amount of duty was 8,783,5541., making a total of
11,661,0002. Add 20 per cent. to the quantity of unmanufactured tobacco
for other ingredients used in the process of manufacture, and calculate
the whole at 4s. 6d. per lb. for tobacco and 12s. per lb, for foreign manu-
facture, and the amount paid will be 13,176,0001., the proportion being
0-24d. as the gross, and 0:05d. as the net expenditure per head per day
for each individual.

Epucation AND CHURCH.
Education.

The expenditure on education is partly of a public and partly of a
private character. The income for elementary education in the year
1879-80 was, in England and Wales, 5,078,0001.; Scotland, 848,0001. ;
and Ireland, 772,000/. Total, 6,698,0001. This amount, representing the
cost of 3,590,000 children in attendance in the three kingdoms, is in the
’ proportion of lJ. 17s. per child. Taking the Public Elementary Schools
to cover three-fourths of the’ children of school age, there are at least
900,000 children not included in‘the above, which, at 3J. per pupil, will
give 2,700,000/._ To these there must be added the income of the
Grammar and other Endowed Schools, given by the Commissioners at

ON THE PRESENT APPROPRIATION OF WAGES, ETC. 285

336,0001. ; of the Public Schools, 65,000/.; the income of the Universities,
estimated at 1,000,000/. ; and the public grants for Science Art Museums,
amounting to 580,000/., making a total expenditure on education of
upwards of 11,000,0001., only a fifth of which probably is on material, viz.,
2,200,0001., or 0°20d. gross and 0:04d. net per head per day.

Interature, Science, and Art.

The number of books published during the year, including new books
and new editions, as given in the ‘ Publishers’ Circular,’ in the five years
from 1875 to 1879, averaged 5,200. Taking only 500 copies per book
and 4s, per volume, the amount would be 7,200,0007. Probably 5,000,0007.
is a safe amount to take as the annual expenditure. The expenditure for
Science includes the subscriptions to scientific societies, the maintenance
of private observatories and museums, schools, &e. The Art Exhibitions,
and the high prices given for painting, sculpture, &c., show that a con-
siderable amount is expended in the same. The total thus expended
under this head may be calculated at 7,000,000/. gross, or 5,000,000/. net,
or in the proportion of 0:13d. gross and 0:09d. net per head per day.

Newspapers.

Another important branch of expenditure eminently educational is the
daily newspaper. In 1854 the number of stamps impressed on news-
papers in the United Kingdom was 122,178,000. Since then, however,
the stamp duty and the advertisement duty alike have been abolished, and
the penny paper has been started with marvellous success. Taking the
daily issue at 4,000,000, the cost to the public would be 5,000,0001. gross
and 3,500,000/. net, or in the proportion of 0-09d. gross and 0:06d. net
per head per day.

Church.

Of considerable importance asrespects the amount is the expenditure for
ecclesiastical purposes. In 1871 there were in the United Kingdom 62,950
clergymen and others connected with religious offices. Taking the number
now at 75,000 and their average income at 150]. per year, the total
would be 11,125,0001.,alarge portion—fully a half, however—derived from
tithes and other endowments, and only about five millions as expended
from annual income. In 1851 there were in England and Wales 31,000
places of worship of all denominations. At this moment in the United
Kingdom there must be at least 50,000. Assuming only 200/. for expense
of maintenance, caretaking, insurance, d&c., the amountis 10,000,000/. ; in
this case also about the half being provided by endowments. Besides this
there is the amount contributed for missionary purposes, given in 1880 at
1,700,0007. Altogether the amount expended for ecclesiastical purposes
out of the annual income may be taken at 12,000,000/., but only one-
fifth of the amount as expenditure apart from salaries, viz., 2,400,0001.,
or at the proportion of 0-23d. gross and 0:04d. net, per head per day.

AMUSEMENTS.
Theatres and Music Halls.

Lastly, there is the amount expended in amusements of all kinds.
First in importance is the theatre. In 1877 Mr. Hollingshead gave in
evidence that in London there were forty-five theatres licensed by the
Lord Chamberlain, and six licensed by the magistrates, with a nightly
holding capacity of 76,000, being on an average of twenty per 1,000

286 REPORT—1 881.

inhabitants. Assuming theatrical provision on the same proportion among
the 20,000,000 of urban population, there would be provision of. 400,000,
and at ls. 6d. each for 200 nights, the total sum would be 6,000,000I.
The ‘Era Almanac’ gives a list of about 276 theatres, and this, at an
average capacity of 1,400, would give an aggregate capacity of 386,000.
The London theatres are considerably larger. Of music-halls the number
given in the ‘Era’ is 216. Taking their average capacity at 400 and at
6d. per night, also for 250 nights, the sum so expended would be about
500,000/., making, with the theatrical, an expenditure of 6,500,0001.,
only one-fourth of which, viz., 1,600,000/., is spent in materials, or in the
proportion of 0-12d. gross and 0-03d. net per head per day.

Other Amusements.

The Crystal Palace is a type of another order of amusements. By
the courtesy of the manager, Major Page, we learn that the average
number of visitors who paid for admission in the three years, 1878 to
1880, was 988,760, of whom 833,728 were adults, and 155,032 children,
besides nearly as many of season-ticket holders, performers, and others.
The ordinary receipts of the Company from admissions in 1880 were
40,0001., and the amount received from reserved seats and programmes
20,6042., making a total of 60,600/., giving an average of about 1s. 3d. per
person. Add Is. 6d. for the railway and 6d. for refreshment in excess of
the cost at home, we may assume that every visitor pays at least 3s, 3d.
There are, however, special days—Boxing Day and Haster Monday, and
two other Bank holidays, or equivalent days in the manufacturing dis-
tricts, in all four days in the year—when a large portion of the population
is in quest of amusement. On one such day in London 120,000 find
their way to the Crystal and Alexandra Palaces, 72,000 to the different
Galleries, and 95,000 to the Zoological, and Horticultural, and Kew
Gardens. Assuming that on such days one. in ten of the urban popula-
tion, or about 2,000,000, is bent on amusement, and that on an average
3s. per head is the amount expended, the total for each day would be
300,000/., or for the four days 1,200,0007.!_ But there are amusements of
quite another order. How shall we estimate the expense incurred on the
Derby day or on racing all the year. There are about 2,560 race-horses,
the breeding and training of which cost 300/. each, or 750,000/. The
amount spent in a month’s grouse-shooting by a single party is put down
at least at 4477. Fox-hunting is another heavy source of expenditure.
There are 150 packs of fox-hounds kept in England and Wales, the
aggregate cost of which, including the cost of hunters, is put down at
700,0001. Then there is fishing, coursing, cricket, archery, bicycling,”

1 The weekly railway receipts indicate the effect of a holiday on the movements
of the people. Taking the entire passengers’ receipts of the Great Eastern, Great
Northern, Great Western, London and Brighton, London, Chatham, and Dover,
London and South-Western, Midland, and London and North-Western for the week
before, and the week after the Bank holidays in 1880, the excess of receipts
amounted to 260,000/., but as many take their holiday before the actual day, and
many return after the same, the account is not exact. The average receipts per
annum for the last three years for traffic to the Crystal Palace by the London,
Brighton, and South Coast Railway were 25,6557. On Haster Monday the receipts

were 1,0847.; on Whit Monday 1,0227.; on the August Bank Holiday 790/., and on
Boxing Day 4662.

2 The Secretary of the Bicycle Union informs us that 100,000 may be taken as
the number of machines in use, entailing an annual expense of about 500,000/., besides
the expense of subscription to clubs, uniforms, repairs, and many more items,

ON THE PRESENT APPROPRIATION OF WAGES, ETC. 287

md numerous other sports, all involving a large expenditure. <A total
of 6,000,0007. a year, of which about one-fourth, or 1,500,000/., is spent in
materials, or a proportion of O-1ld. gross, and 0:02d. net per head
per day, will probably cover all the other forms of amusements in the
United Kingdom.

TAXES.

To the personal expenditure thus traced we should add the amount paid
to the State and expended by the same, as well as the amount paid to the
local government. In the year ended March 31, 1880, the amount paid
in customs, excise stamps and duties, land tax, house duty and property and
income tax, amounted to 67,826,000/. Of this 44,626,000]. have already
appeared in the personal expenditure for food and drink, There remains,
therefore, to be added 23,200,000/. of public taxation, while for local
purposes the amount levied direct by rates in 1873-74, was 24,332,0007.,
making a total of 47,532,0001. Of the 92,158,0007., thus levied by taxes
(public and local), by far the largest portion is expended in salaries in
the United Kingdom, What may be considered as nationally expended
are votes for supply, manufacture, and repair of warlike and other stores,
1,200,0007. ; superintending establishment of, and expenditure for, works,
buildings, and repairs, at home and abroad, 850,000/.; dockyards and
nayal yards, at home and abroad, 1,300,000/.; naval stores, 1,000,0007. ;
new works building, 550,000. ; public works, 1,500,000/7.; Foreign and
Colonial Civil Services 567,000/. ; in all 6,967,000. The proportion being
0°89d. gross, and 0-13d. net per head per day,

Cost AnD Prorrts or Distripurtion.

In order to arrive at the real expenditure, we have deducted 20 per
cent. from retail prices for the cost and profits of distribution, as well as
all taxes imposed on articles of food and drink. The real cost and profits
of distribution should, however, be calculated as adding to the utilities
of the articles consumed. The amount deducted for distribution being
155,000,000/., the half representing the real cost is 77,500,000/., which
gives a proportion of 1*45d. per head per day.

Summing up the different items of expenditure, incomplete as I fear
they must be, they are as follows :—

Total Hxpenditure.
)
Gross Expenditure Net Expenditure
LE per cent. £ per cent.

Foodand Drink ., . » | 500,400,000 56-9 349,200,000 51:0
Dress: js . : = - | 147,800,000 16°8 123,300,000 18-0
House, Coal, Gas, Water . 5 121,700,000 13°9 108,500,000 too" ||
Tobacco , 5 - A 13,100,000 15 38,000,000 “4
Education F - z A 11,000,000 13 2,200,000 3
Literature, Science, and Art . 7,000,000. 8 5,000,000 “7
Newspapers , . A 4 5,000,000 6 3,500,000 5
Church , e : * 12,000,000 1-4 2,400,000 ae |
Theatres and Music Halls A 6,500,000 Wf; 1,600,000 "2
Other Amusements , ; r 6,000,000 7 1,500,000 2
Taxes : . ‘ “ 3 47,500,000 5-4 7,000,000 10
Cost of Distribution - é — — 77,500,000 11-4

Total . . . . - | 878,000,000 100-0 | 684,700,000 100°0

on

288 REPORT—1881.

These two sums give an average expenditure per day per head of
16°63d. as the personal, and 12°71d. as the real or national expenditure, or
25]. per annum in the one case, and 191. in the other.

Balance of Income and Expenditure.

Comparing now these amounts with the personal and national income
the results are as follows :—

&
Income . § H é i . 915,000,000
Expenditure . - A : . 685,000,000
Excess . ¢ $ . . 230,000,000

The excess of annual income appears very large, but the result
arrived at by a method altogether different approaches very nearly
that of Mr. Giffen by the capitalisation at different times of the different
sources of income.

The different items of expenditure above enumerated are far, indeed,
from exhaustive. The important items of domestic service, medical at-
tendance, carriage and horses, travelling by railway and steamboat, by
omnibus and tramway,! and charity, would each and all amount to large
sums. But the greater part of such expenditure remains in the country,
and consists of a simple transfer from hand to hand, having but little
influence on the main question of the national expenditure.

The expenditure of the people might be classified into expenditure
abroad and expenditure at home, expenditure in materials, expen-
diture in wages, and expenditure for the necessaries of life and for
luxuries. Without attempting any further analysis, and having regard
to the facts above stated, in connection especially with what has been
recently brought out by the Census, of a continuously increasing
population—the effect of an increasing birth-rate and a decreasing
death-rate—we may conclude that the present appropriation of wages
and other income cannot be said to be opposed to the economic progress
of the people of the United Kingdom. A minute examination of the
different items of expenditure is, indeed, calculated to remove the im-
pression of any great extravagance on the part of the people as a whole.
A large expenditure in bread, meat, woollen goods, and house-rent is a
most economical expenditure. An expenditure of 124,000,0007. on alco-
holic drinks is certainly very large, but reduced to the real expenditure
the sum total is 42,000,000/. There is one element, however, which does
not appear from this calculation, which might prove most unsatisfactory
if properly inquired into, and it is that the averages arrived at are, in
many cases, the mean of two extremes—the extreme of waste and the ex-
treme of penury ; for side by side with those living in luxury and having
no thought of waste, there are large numbers whose conditions of
nourishment, state of dwelling-houses and clothing, are of the lowest
character. Nothing is gained by exaggerated statements of the national
loss arising from the wasteful consumption of this or that article, or by
taking as a national loss that which is in efféct nothing more than the
transfer of money from one to another; but a proper regard to the right
expenditure of money is of the highest importance ta the individual and
to the nation, for waste and profligacy are the parent of pauperism, de-

1 Tn the year ended June 30, 1880, as many as 173,067,103 passengers were con-
veyed by tramways, and the amount received from passengers was 1,308,114.

ON THE PRESENT APPROPRIATION OF WAGES, ETC. 289
moralisation, and declension. And no greater service can be rendered
by the economist or philanthropist than by exhibiting the duty and im-
portance of husbanding aright our resources, and making them conducive
to the economic progress of the nation.

The Committee is fully aware that some of the deductions and
reasonings in this report are not founded upon well-ascertained facts,
nevertheless it deemed it useful to present them as materials for considera-
tion, and as helps to the elucidation of a subject of the highest social and
economic importance. The report points out many wants and desiderata,
and the Committee recommends the reappointment of the Committee,
with an increased number of members, for the purpose of suggesting
means for supplying the same on a uniform and scientific basis.

Total Hxpenditure.

| Per head} Per

Gross Per head) Per Net
Expenditure| per day |cent.| Expenditure} per day cent.
eee eee |
Articles of Food and Drink :— £ d, £ a.
Bread . ; : » | 77,500,000 L141 8°8| 60,000,000 1°12 8'8
Potatoes : 33,200,000 *64 | 3°7| 27,700,000 ‘51 | 4:0
Vegetables 17,000,000 | 32 | 1:9} 14,000,000 25 | 2-0
| Meat 99,800,005 1:87 |11:4] 83,000,000 155 121
Fish 4 : 14,500,000 *26 | 1:7) 11,700,000 23 Ly,
Butter and Cheese 36,000,000 “67 | 4:1| 30,000,000 | 56 | 4-4
Milk and Egg: 42,000,000 ‘78 | 4:8] 35,000,000 66 | 5:1)
Fruit . E 11,100,000 19 1:3} 9,300,000 oC pe
Sugar 27,000,000 50 «| 3:0] 24,700,000 | 46 | 36
Tea 15,300,000 “60 | 1:8} 8,800,000 ANGE |) ic)
Coffee 3,000,000 “05 *3| 2,200,000 704 | 0:3
Beer . 75,000,000 | 1:40 | 85} 29,000,000 BA | 4:2
Spirits . 40,000,000 ‘75 | 46] 8,000,000 14 | 1-2
Wine 9,000,000 ‘16 | 1:0} 5,800,000 10) )£0:9
| Articles of Dress :— ;
Cotton . 31,000,000 *B8 | 3°5| 25,800,000 “48 | 3:8
| Wool 63,000,000 118 7:2) 52,800,000 “98 U7
j Linen 7,700,000 “14 *9) 6,400,000 ‘ll “9}
Silk 17,600,000 *32 | 2:0) 14,700,000 2) eek
Leather dj é . | 23,500,000 “44 2°7| 19,600,000 “39 2:9}
Gold and Silver Plate . | 5,000,000 09 *5| 4,000,000 07 | -6
| House Expenditure :—
House-rent 77,000,000 | 1:44 8-8} 72,500,000 1:36 |10°6;
Furniture 11,000,000 20 | 1:2) 9,000,000 16 | 1:3]
Coal 15,000,000 29 1:7} 12,000,000 "22 | 1:8)
Gases: 13,700,000 *25 | 1:6} 11,000,000 20 | 1:6
Water . 5,000,000 09 6} 4,000,000 07 6
Tobacco 13,100,000 "24 1:9} 3,000,000 ‘05 | 4)
| Education : ; - | 11,000,000 20 1:3} 2,200,000 “O04 3)
| Literature, Science, and Art. | 7,000,000 13 ‘7| 5,000,000 ‘09 ai
| Newspapers . 5,000,000 ‘09 *5| 3,500,000 ‘06 D
| Church . » : é 12,000,000 23 | 1:3] 2,400,000 04 | 4!
_ Theatres and Music Halls 6,500,000} 12 | -7| 1,600,000} -03 | -3|
| Other Amusements 6,000,000 23 6} 1,500,000 02 | 2
| Taxes : , 47,500,000 89 5:4| 7,000,000 33) eas?
Cost of Distribution = — —}| 77,500,000 | 1:45 11-2
Totals . y : . | 878,000,000! 16°63 {100} 684,700,000, 12°71 100,
1881. U

290 - REPORT—1881.

Report of a Committee, consisting of JAMES GLAISHER, F.R.S.,
F.EA.S., E. J, LOWE, FBS.” Professor “RS? BALL; °F ALS,
Dr. WaLTER FLicut, F.G.S., and Professor A. 8. HERSCHEL, W.A.,
FRAS., on Observations of Lwminous Meteors during the
year 1880-81.

Or regular systematic observations of luminous meteors during the past
year, the Committee has very few particulars to report. The expected
passage of the earth, at the end of November last, through the cluster or
train of meteors circulating in the orbit of Biela’s comet, proved to be
only a source of disappointment, as no marked abundance of Andromedes
during the last week of November 1880 was anywhere noticed by observers.
But a somewhat unusual display of the Leonids on the morning of No-
vember 14 was recorded in America, and the descriptions of the shower
were corroborated by observations of numerous bright Leonids at Mon-
calieri, near Turin, on the same meteoric date. The existence of a sen-
sible cluster in the stream following the principal one, about thirteen
years later in its encounter with the earth, and of another preceding the
main group at about the same interval, is shown by Professor Kirkwood
from past appearances of the November meteors to be pretty satisfactorily
established.

A considerable display of the quadrantids of the 1st-3rd of January
was also noted by Mr. Denning at Bristol on the morning of January 2,
1880, showing that periods of especial brightness of this shower, like those
of the other annual displays, are features of its appearance which would
certainly reward observers’ close attention.

Of the Geminids and Lyrids no notable returns were recorded during
the past year, and the extreme brightness of full-moon light prevented
the August Perseids from exhibiting any unusual appearance. At the
few places where a sufficiently clear sky enabled observers to be on the
watch for them, the annual meteor shower on August 10, 1881, seemed
to be, in point of frequency and brightness, of an exceptionally meagre
and inconspicuous description.

Notices of occasional fire-balls and bright meteors haye been re-
corded and published from time to time during the past year. But
these announcements not having been immediately followed up by timely
inquiries for similar accounts from other quarters, have furnished little
of very weighty importance to describe. A few real paths have been
deduced; but of these and of the miscellaneous observations of shooting-
stars and fire-balls that have been collected during the past few years,
more leisure would be needed for reduction and description than passing
circumstances of the Committee’s labours have allowed it to bestow upon
them. A careful review and attentive comparison of the materials, how-
ever, will yet, it may be hoped, enable the Committee to offer at a future
time, by their arrangement and discussion, some astronomical deductions
and conclusions of more enduring interest and consequence than the
promiscuous chronicle of ephemeral phenomena which at present con-
stitutes the unassorted accumulation of the past few years meteor-
records.

In an appendix of much value subjoined to this Report (Appendix I.),
Dr. Walter Flight relates the recent occurrences of stone-falls and disco-

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 291

yeries of meteoric irons, and reviews the mineralogical examinations to
which they have been submitted. Besides the new mineral chromium-sul-
phide, or daubréelite, Dr. Laurence Smith has now observed the occurrence
of chromite in nodules—an entirely new character of metallic irons—in the
iron meteorites of Cohahuila. The structure of meteoric irons themselves
is undergoing microscopical examination, and evidence of the strongest
kind is furnished by the inspection that in many of them solidification
must have proceeded in the quietest conditions, with crystallisation of
perfect symmetry and regularity throughout their mass. Three recent
stone-falls are recorded—on November 4, 1879, early in May 1880, and
on March 14, 1881—in India, Persia, and in England.

Of the last aérolite, which weighed about three and a-half pounds,
the descent in our own country is one of special interest to the presenti
meeting of the British Association, which celebrates its fiftieth gathering
in the county and city of its birth, at York, from the meteorite having
quite recently fallen in that county. A fuller account of this stone-fall,
and of the aérolite itself, than that given by Dr. Flight is, from exami-
nations of the circumstances connected with it by Professor Herschel,
added in another appendix of this Report. Although no analysis of the
stone has yet been made, it appears, by comparison with other aérolites in
the collection of the British Museum, conducted witha specimen presented
by the North-Hastern Railway Company to the National Mineralogical
Collection, to be of the ordinary grey chondritic class, a class of the com-
monest type of aérolites, which comprises in itself at least four-fifths of
all the iron and stone masses which have actually been seen to fall. _ This
recent accession, therefore, to the globe’s geological constituents, furnishes
another instance of the prevailing uniformity of meteoritic substance,
and of its never-failing conformity, in the great majority of aérolites, to a
well-marked mineralogical description which distinguishes them very
strikingly from ordinary terrestrial rocks, The Middlesbrough aérolite is
also remarkable in its outward form by the unusual distinctness of the
deep grooves and furrows with which it is indented by heat and attrition
of the air, on that rounded side or low summit of the stone which must
evidently have been constantly presented foremost to the action of the
resisting fiery atmosphere which impeded the aérolite’s motion in its
suddenly arrested course.

Apprnpix I,
On Aérolites and Detonating Meteors. By Dr. Waurer FuicHt.
The (Butcher) Meteoric Irons of Cohahuila.'

A year or two ago attention was directed to the discovery by Dr. L.
Smith of daubréelite in one of these irons. He has since met with a
nodule of chromite in the interior of compact iron from one of these masses.
His attention was attracted to an enclosed nodule, the lustre of which
was less vitreous than that of the chromium sulphide: it was virtually a
black granular mass. When heated with strong nitric acid in the water.
bath, not the slightest impression was made upon it, thus showing that
it is not daubréelite, Heating it in fused sodium carbonate in no way

1 See Amer. Jowr. Se. ii. November 1871, and xvi. 1878, 270. Also these Reports,
vol. for 1879, p. 125. (Appendix of Report on Luminous Meteors, by Dr. Flight.)
U 2

292 _ REPORT—1881.

affected its non-solubility in acids. 150 milligrammes of the finely pul-
verised mineral was fused with ten times its weight of sodium bisulphate,
and was attacked but not dissolved. Subsequent treatment with sodium
carbonate and nitre broke it up, and the results of the analysis were :-—

Chromium oxide. : : ; Pye eE pal
Tron protoxide : ‘ ‘ , . 83°83
96°54

While chromite has been known to be associated with meteorites, this
is the first instance of its having been found embedded in this manner in
the interior of meteoric iron.

Some of the particles of chromite, when placed in a very intense
light, were found to be feebly translucent, and to have a dark reddish.
purple colour. This observation, it appears, had already been made by
M, Stanislaus Meunier, of Paris.

1840.—De Calb Co., Caryfort, Tennessee.'

Brezina points out that in Tschermak’s Catalogue? this iron is described
as compact, and in Rose’s ‘ Beschreibung und Hintheilung ’ it is shown to
resemble that from Babb’s Mill. A fine section, acquired from Professor
L. Smith, shows it to be rightly placed near the irons of Arva and Sarepta.
Almost every band of kamacite, 1°5 to 3 millimétres across, carries a bar
of porous schreibersite ; band-iron and interstitial iron are sparsely pre-
sent, and of a dull grey colour. Two enclosed pieces of troilite, from
3 to 4mm. diameter, are surrounded by schreibersite from 1°5 to 2 mm.
thick, and around this is an irregular shell of beam-iron.

1853.—Tazewell, Claiborne Co., Tennessee.*

Brezina points out that in the Catalogue prepared by Tschermak 4
this iron is indicated as Of, showing fine-ruled Widmanstittian figures.
It differs, however, very much from othez irons of this group, like that
from Lion River, Jewell Hill, Charlotte, &c., while it closely resembles
the Butler iron (see below). While, however, in the latter case the chief
walls of the skeleton enclose very large chambers, here they are very
small, so that the skeleton-character is far less marked. The charac-
teristic of the two irons of Butler and Tazewell rests mainly on the very
unusual smallness of the octahedral lamellae, whereby the beam-iron, or its
representative, almost vanishes, the irons consisting almost entirely of
interstitial and band-iron (and of troilite enclosed in both, and schreibersite
plates in Tazewell). Whether ‘the almost infinitely thin nucleus of the
Jamellz is identical with the ordinary beam-iron can only be decided by
further investigation. The appearance of traces of granular structure
renders it very probable.

1873.—Chulafinee, Cleberne Co., Alabama.®

The writer refers to a mass of iron which was found in 1873, and
supposed at the time to be a specimen of bog iron-ore. It was taken to a

1 A. Brezina, Sitzber. Ahad. Wiss. 1880, lxxxii. Oct.-Heft.
2 Mineralog. Mitth. for 1872, 165.

3 A. Brezina, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. 1880, Ixxxii. Oct.-Heft.
4 Mineralog. Mitth. for 1872, 165.

> W. EH. Hidden, Amer. Jour. Sc. 1880, xix. 370.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 293

blacksmith, who managed to remove a piece weighing 3}1bs., which was
wrought into horse-shoe nails and a point fora plough. It remained where
it was found till last year, when it was sent to Menlo Park. It weighs
321 Ibs., and its form, as well as the character of an etched surface, are
shown in woodcuts accompanying the paper. An analysis shows it to
contain iron and nickel, with a little copper, phosphorus, and carbon. It
is being made in duplicate, and will be published later on, The Wid-
manstiittian figures are well developed.

1875.—Butler, Bates Co., Missouri.}

This iron has already been described by Broadhead? and Smith,’ the
latter finding it remarkable for the very large and regular Widmanstattian
figures which it displays. A specimen, weighing 1 kilogramme, 334
grammes, acquired by the Vienna Collection from Dr. L. Smith, was found
to have three etched surfaces nearly perpendicular to each other. It was
noticed that the greater part of the iron had an even dull appearance, but
in this lustreless iron-grey part lay numerous—in part individual, in part
irregularly cohering lamellx, of which four differently directed systems
appear on the sections. The lamelle together form an octahedral skeleton,
just as in Tschermak’s schematic figure 54 the crystal-structure of iron
is shown to exhibit a hexahedral skeleton.

The ground-mass, though lustreless and structureless, shows a peculiar
play of light, to which later reference will be made; its hardness is
remarkably low—a little below 4——being distinctly scratched by fluorite.
The nuclei of the lamelle are purely granular, and in several respects show
the greatest resemblance to the ground-mass (in hardness, &c.) ; only a
few exhibit feebly in their broader parts a granular structure like what the
beam-iron of other irons presents. The lamellae are covered with band-
iron (ténite) which is recognised by its high lustre and pale isabel-yellow
colour ; they are very smal], the nucleus and its two covers being in few
cases more than 1-60th of a millimétre broad, and the length usually 15 to
20 mm. (some are 30 mm.) When lamelle differently directed come
together, one system is usually developed quite complete, as if produced
before the other; sometimes, though rarely, nucleus springs from nucleus
and cover from cover, in proof of the simultaneous origin of the two
systems.

From the main structure of the four systems, not only parallel, but
also, in sparing quantities, irregularly orientated small plates intersect
the ground-mass. To microscopically minute substructures of them is
due the peculiar play of light of that part of the iron. Troilite occurs in
rounded or lenticular masses, some 2 centimétres in diameter, but none
is found in the lamellated systems.

The largest of the sections does not vary very much (about 13°) from
the position of a leucitohedral face; three distinctly marked lamellar
systems cross it at angles of 70°, 61°, and 49°. For the face (533) the
corresponding values are

654°, 0°, 65°4°, 49°2° (0° + 65°4°) = 65°4°.
The drawings of these sections are to be published later on.

1 A. Brezina, Sitzber. Ahad. Wiss. 1880. Ixxxii. Oct.-Heft.
* Broadhead, Amer. Journ. Se. [3] x. 401.

$ Smith, Amer. Journ. Se. [3] xiii. 211.

4 Tschermak, Sitzber. Ahad. Wiss. 1xx. 1874, 443.

294 REPORT—1881.

1877.—Casey County, Georgia. !

A fragment of this iron in the Vienna Collection is stated by the writer
to exhibit broad and very regular Widmanstittian figures. The beam-iron
averages 2 mm. across; this iron is almost exclusively developed, with
unusually sharp lines of etching. Band and interstitial iron are only
present in traces, and schreibersite and troilite are not recognisable.

1878.—Whitfield County, Georgia.”

A fragment in the shape of a wedge was found to exhibit Widman-
stattian figures of average size, which in certain places by the massive
development of schreibersite were broken through: the band-iron is of
average breadth, the interstitial iron distinguished by its unusual dark
colour. In many places the magnetite fills partings which penetrate from
the natural surface to a depth of 2 to 3 centimétres into the iron.

1879, Noveinber 4th—Kalumbi, Wayee (Wai, Jaluca), Sattara,
Presidency of Bombay, India.

Brezina records the presentation to the Vienna Collection of a piece
of a meteorite weighing 165 grammes by Mr. M. Wood, of the Bombay
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. The fall occurred at the above
place and date, and the stone has the form of a four-sided wedge, with a
nearly square base. Its weight is 10} lbs. and 197 grains, and its density
is 3°45. According to an incomplete analysis 58°75 per cent. was in-
soluble in hydrogen-chloride (consisting of silicates, and the silicic acid
of the decomposed portion), and, in addition, there was iron oxide, or
rather iron protoxide with alumina 27°62, nickel 1°56, lime 0°83, and
magnesia 11°88 per cent. The meteorite resembles Forsyth, has a bright
yellowish ground-mass; the chondra are firmly enclosed in the ground-
mass, and for the most part white and felspathic. This stone is to be
classed with the white chondrites.

1880 (early in).—Colorado Basin, Ivanpah, Southern California.*

This block of iron was found in the Colorado Basin, within eight miles
of Ivanpah, which is about 200 miles north-east of San Bernardino in
Southern California, by a Mr. Goddard, who while crossing a wash had
his attention arrested by a singular-looking boulder. The block is oval
in shape, having a side somewhat flattened; its surface is covered with
depressions and dents, as if it had been pelted all over with pebbles while
soft or plastic. These concavities are from 1 to 4 inches across, and, in
addition, there are three round holes an inch deep, as if made by the little
finger. The mass is supposed to weigh 120 lbs., and it is 14 inches long,
9 inches broad, and 7 inches deep. The examination of a fragment shows
it to be highly crystalline, requiring no etching to reveal the Widman-
stittian figures ; the cleavage appears to be octahedral. The schreibersite
is very thin, and, according to Shepard, of two kinds: one in flat leaves,
the other in wavy semi-cylinders or irregular prisms; the Jatter, he says,

1 A. Brezina, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. 1880, Ixxxii. Oct.-Heft.
2 Thid. 3 Tbid.
4 C. U. Shepard, Amer. Jowr. Sc. 1880. xix. 381,

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 295

may bethe rhabdite of Reichenbach. The density of the iron is 7:65 and
its composition :

Tron F ° ‘ ° ‘ i . i . « 94:98
Nickel . é is ‘ e : ‘ . a +, 4:52
Phosphorus . . 4 F F ' * . ore O07,
Graphite ° ® 2 ° 2 ° » UPL

99°67

1880, May (first half of). —Karand, 12 miles east of Teheran, Persia.

‘The fall of a meteorite which was actually seen, and which is not an
event of every-day occurrence, deserves, on account. of its mineralogical
interest, some slight notice. It is not possible here to ascertain with cer-
tainty the constituent minerals ; it is therefore possible at present only to
give a short sketch of the stone; later on, when we have the material to
work with and the help of an authority in this branch, we may return to
the subject. In the first half of the month of May last year, 1880, we
were called before the Shah, who handed to us a metallic shining mineral,
weighing about 400 grammes, which, from the outer crust still adhering
to it, we at once recognised as a meteorite. We saw that the Shah took
the shining metal in it for silver, for he asked the value of it. But when
we spoke of the iron, and its probably containing nickel, and that the
mineral had more scientific than intrinsic worth, it was permitted to us to
take the stone away, and to break off a piece for closer examination.

‘The Shah made himself acquainted with the origin and cause of
meteorites, and informed us that the stone in question weighed 45 kilo-
grammes, and fell in the neighbourhood of the village of Karand, twelve
miles east of Teheran, with an explosive noise like thunder.

* Half of the stone was covered with a thin, blackish, fused crust, while
the fresh lustrous fractured surface showed it to have formed a portion of
a much larger stone. A fragment weighing 3:66 grammes was found to
possess a density of 4°36. The fractured surface showed a grey, passing
into green, ground-structure, with, in places, single pieces of an oil-green
mineral, with a lustre of glass, probably olivine. In the mass lay, closely
strewn together, small and large granules of white iron; also little plates
of this metal lay enclosed in it, and violet-blue tinted grains, similar in
their play of colour to copper pyrites.

‘The pulverised mineral is pretty light, and almost entirely soluble in
hydrochloric acid. The fractured surface was covered in a few days with
a thin oxidised crust, although some portions of it are as fresh after five
months as at first.’

1880. Found in May.—Lewington County, South Carolina?

A mass of iron, weighing 10} lbs., was found at this locality, in May,
and sent to the Shepards, father and son, for examination. It has the
form of a cylinder with two flattened edges; the surface is nearly free
from yellow hydrated peroxide of iron, bemg mostly enveloped with a
black and brittle coating, which, though containing some troilite, is yet
almost entirely formed of magnetite. Amygdaloidal masses of troilite, of

? Mining engineer Ferd. Dietzsch, in Teheran ; in a paper intituled ‘ Geologisches
Berg- und Hiittenmiinnisches aus Persien,’ in Berg- wnd Huettenménnische Zeitung,
March 18, 1881.

2 C, U, Shepard, Amer. Jowr, Sc. 1881, xxi. 117.

296 ‘ REPORT—1881.

the size of filberts, are met with. Magnetite and graphitoid are found
coating the troilite. The Lexington iron closely resembles the Bohumilits
iron, found in 1829, and preserved at Prague, especially in the two etched
surfaces: they, in fact, are the only two which strikingly show the moirée
métallique lustre; the crystalline bars in the Lexington iron are nearly twice
as large as those in the Bohemian specimen. The included spaces are filled
with extremely minute lines of tanite, crossing each other at all angles
from 90° to 150°. Its density is 7 ; that of homogeneous fragments being
7°405, and that of the troilite 4°77. Analysis showed it to consist of :

TROT . . : . 2 - Zi : - 92°416
Nickel . : ° . 2 ° ° 5 “ 3 SGLONE
Cobalt . 5 ° c : ° = . A ty 092K
Insoluble matters. . . . . : : »» »/0:264
Tin ys . . . A é : : : . a trace
Phosphorus , ° . . . . , > . a trace

99-684

1881, March 14, 3.35 p.m.—Pennyman’s Siding, Middlesbrough,
Yorkshire.)

My friend, the esteemed Secretary of our Committee, has drawn
attention to the fall of a meteoric stone, near Middlesbrough, during the
early months of this year. The day was bright, the air calm, and the sun
shining when it fell, about 19 yards from the signal-box and 48 from the
spot where two or three men were standing, and when picked ont of the
hole which it had made in the ground it was still warm. He writes: ‘It
is a beautifully perfect meteorite, of a low pyramidal or shell-like shape,
measuring about 5 inches by 6, and about 3 inches high, and it weighs
34 1bs. The grey tufaceous stone, of which it consists internally, is, as
usual, completely glazed over, or enveloped in a thin black molten crust,
which hides from the eye its true stony character, the latter being only
visible here and there at its grazed edges.’

A portion has been sent to the British Museum for analysis. With
the exception of this little piece removed, the almost undisfigured
meteorite was shown at York in the Museum of Scientific Objects at the
jubilee meeting of the British Association. It is now deposited in the
York Philosophical Society’s Geological Muserm.

Appenpix II,

On the Fall of an Aérolite near Middlesbrough, Yorkshire, on March 14,
1881. By A. S. Herscuzr, WA., F.B.A.S.

The meteoritic stone-fall recorded in this paper took place at 3.35
p-m., on a clear and bright, but rather cold and windy, afternoon in
March last, on a part of the North-Eastern Railway Company’s branch-
line from Middlesbrough to Guisbrough, at a point where a short siding
and signal-box upon the line, established in connection with some brick-
fields adjoining it, are known from them by the name of Pennyman’s
Siding. The place is about a mile and three quarters from Middles-
brough along the Guisbrough branch line, and a few miles on the

1 A. S. Herschel, Wewcastle Daily Chronicle, March 30, 1881, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Led

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS MBTEORS. 297

Middlesbrough side of the first station on the line at Ormsby. The fall
was witnessed by the permanent-way inspector, W. Hllmor, and three
platelayers engaged in repairing a switch-heel at the siding ; it was first,
announced to them by a whizzing or rushing noise in the air, followed
jn a second or two by a sudden blow of a body striking the ground not
far from them. A little search revealed the hole made by the stone at the
foot of the slight embankment of the south side of the line, about forty-
eight yards from the place where they had been working, and less than
twenty yards from the signal-box, in which the pointsman and one of the
platelayers were conversing, and the latter thought that a stone had
been thrown at the building by his companions outside, to attract his
attention.

The direction of the wind, which was only a light air, was from N.E.;
but it was fresh at Pinchingthorpe and neighbouring places in the district,
and it is, perhaps, on that account that no sound of a report in the air
accompanying the fall was heard either where the stone fell or at places
near it in the Guisbrough and Cleveland District, at Pinchingthorpe,
Hutton-Gate, Guisbrough, Maske, Saltburn, and Redcar, where informa-
tion on this point was requested from the station-masters of the railway
by one of the North-Eastern Railway Company’s engineers of the Dar-
lington District, Mr. W. Cudworth.

On the other hand, information sought and collected by Mr. W. R.
Smithson, of Northallerton, in the north-eastern part of Yorkshire, proved
that a considerable detonation was perceived, both at Northallerton and
four miles east of Northallerton (by himself; eighteen miles S.S.W. from
Middlesbrough), and also at Welbury, twelve miles from Middlesbrough
in the same direction, and at Chopgate in Bidsdale, among the Cleveland
Hills, about ten miles 8.S.E. from the place of fall. These scanty indi-
cations point apparently to a direction of the meteor’s flight, if it was not
quite vertical, from some quarter in the south. But the direction of the
wind may have led to the distant audibility of the sound in the south-
west, and not in other parts of Yorkshire near the place of fall.

At all these points the sound resembled the boom of a gun, or of a
gunpowder or boiler explosion in the distance, so loud as to be likened to
thunder at Northallerton, the furthest known point at which it was heard.
At Welbury, twelve miles from Middlesbrough, on the railway between
that town and Northallerton, some platelayers heard it, and described it
as sufficiently forcible to shake the earth and a rail upon which one of
them was seated. It was not asolitary bounce, but a concussion, followed
by a soughing sound, and then by a second crash, resembling the tipping
of stones, or like an echo from rocks or woods when a gun is fired. The
direction of the first boom was, like that recorded at the other places by
proper compass measurements, in the direction of Middlesbrough. But
the following crash is described as coming from a different quarter, from
the east, or south-east, at Welbury, and it may either have been an echo
of the original sound among the Cleveland hills, a few miles east of Wel-
bury, or perhaps an indication of an earlier part of the meteor’s course
over the region of those hills due south from Middlesbrough, before the
final stoppage of its flight.

Neither at the place of fall, nor at any other point of observation
where accounts were furnished, do any luminous or cloud-forming pheno-
mena of the fire-ball’s passage in the air seem to have been seen, notwith-
standing the clear brightness of the sky which was everywhere reported

298 REPORT—1881.

to have prevailed. Combining this negative evidence with the moderate
description of the atmospheric concussion which the accounts of the re-
port convey, it seems most probable that the direction of the fire-ball’s
descending course through the rarest strata of the atmosphere must have
been nearly vertical, so as to escape general observation in the beaming
sunshine by its great altitude overhead. The almost exactly vertical
direction of the hole pierced in the earth by the stone’s penetration
through the coke-ballast of the railway-slope affords evidence of the same
general directional character with what is indicated by the aérial pheno-
mena which have been described.

The stone was warm— new milk warm’—when felt with the hand at the
bottom of the hole by the platelayer who found it a few minutes after the
fall. It was extracted, without injury or disturbance of the hole, with the
hand ; and after the first surprise at the occurrence, it was left ona ballast
heap, and a communication of the circumstances, and consignment of the
stone, were made next day by Mr. Ellinor to the Railway Engineer, Mr.
W. Cndworth, who was passing on the line. Immediate care of the
meteorite was taken by Mr. Cudworth, who took those steps for its
preservation which have secured its present exhibition in the collection
of the York Museum, and who by his subsequent efforts collected most of
the local information on the stone-fall which it has been the unmediate
object of this paper to describe.

The weight of the meteorite as found was about 3lbs. 8jozs.; and
its entirely fused and crusted surface has scarcely suffered any visible
abrasions by the fall and extraction from the earth. It is a slightly
scolloped or conchoidal-looking, low pyramid, of between five and six
inches width in the two dimensions of its base, and about three inches
high. The rounded summit and sloping sides are scored and grooved,
with a polish like black-lead, in waving furrows running to the base,
showing that this side was foremost during the whole of the fusing action
of the atmosphere which the meteorite underwent in its flight. The
rear, or base, is equally fused and branded by heat, but rough, dull brown
in colour, and not scored or furrowed. From the size of the hole which
it pierced, it must have struck the earth front-foremost, and have turned
edgewise finally on nearing the bottom of the hole. It is somewhat
difficult from this circumstance to assign a real axis of the hole’s direction.
But the penetration-line sloped apparently about 10° from the vertical, from
the S.S.E. The hole was eleven inches deep, penetrating with knife-like
sharpness the surface herbage, and seven or eight inches of coke-ballast,
and thereafter brick-earth or coarse clay to the remaining depth. By the
courtesy of the North-Hastern Railway Company’s Directors and servants,
the hole has been preserved entire, enclosing it with some hundredweights
of the surrounding earth in sit in a strong box with a sheet iron floor,
which was slid under it through the yielding clay.!

An experiment was also made at the same time on the work of pene-
tration of a cast-iron model of the aérolite, driven in front of a short oak
pile to the same depth into the earth, at an immediately adjoining spot,
by repeated falls, through about four feet, of a heavy iron drop-weight
weighing 70lbs. The iron model was first driven front-foremost,

1 The earth-chest was placed in the Museum of the York Philosophical Society
during the meeting of the British Association in the city. Its unwieldy weight is
now replaced there by a light plaster model taken of the surface and of the burrow-
like bore-hole made by the meteorite in the earth which it contained.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 299

and then edgewise, to the prescribed depth into the ground, for which
fifty blows were found to be necessary in the first, and twenty blows in
the latter form of the experiment. A mean of these may fairly be
adopted as affording a pretty accurate determination of the aérolite’s real
energy of impact and of its work of penetration through the solid earth.
This measured quantity was 9,307 ft.-lbs., and taking the stone’s weight
as 3lbs. 80zs. when it fell, it is easy to infer from this that the actual
velocity of fall with which the stone struck the ground must: have been
412ft. per second. As it would acquire this velocity by falling freely
through 440 fathoms, or half-a-mile, while in falling freely forty miles
from the highest regions of the atmosphere to the earth, it would reach
the earth’s surface with a velocity nine times as great as that actually
observed, it is sufficiently clear how little of the original planetary speed
with which it entered the atmosphere can have remained over to affect in
any marked degree either the terminal velocity or the verticality of its fall.
The immense opposition and resistance which the air offers to the
intruder’s passage, even through its upper strata, is, in fact, evident from
the deep erosions, by heat and attrition together, which the aérolite’s front
surface has received.

A model, hand-moulded in clay, and then cast in plaster, of the
meteorite, easily coloured to imitate it, with brushed black-lead on the
furrowed face, and with dull brown paint upon the back, was made by Pro-
fessor Herschel on the arrival of the stone at Newcastle, where the aérolite
was publicly exhibited for a short time. A copy of the model was sent to
the British Museum, and was there shown in the newly opened galleries
of the Mineralogical Department of the Natural History Collection at
South Kensington. The stone itself was also beautifully photographed in
several positions by Mr. Gould, the artist-photographer of Sir William
Armstrong’s Ordnance Works in Newcastle-on-Tyne, and. copies of these
photographs and of the model were distributed to several quarters, one, at
Dr. Brezina’s request, being sent with a small specimen of the stone to the
Vienna Imperial Mineralogical Museum.

Calculated from the water-displacement of the model, the stone’s
specific gravity is 3°15. But this estimate may be a little underrated,
from a small exaggeration of the marginal outline, perhaps not entirely
counteracted by opposite errors of the thickness of the model imitation.
Approached to a silk-suspended magnetised needle the meteorite attracts
it in all positions slightly, showing a uniform distribution through it of a
sensible quantity of metallic iron,. which, however, usually imparts to
ordinary stony aérolites a rather higher average specific gravity than
that above concluded from the model’s water-displacement.

__ Having decided upon its appearance at York in the approaching exhi-
bition of objects of scientific interest, formed to assist the British Asso-
ciation in celebrating in that city its fiftieth annual meeting, the Board of
Directors of the North-Eastern Railway Company appointed a Committee
to arrange for the immediate section and analysis of the aérolite. An
angle was sawn off from the back by a skilled lapidary, weighing about
50 grammes, and large enough to afford a thin microscopic section, which
was produced ; and the resulting fragments of the operation were, after
some unavoidable delays, placed with the microscopic section in the hands
of the Keeper, Mr. Fletcher, and the mineralogists, Dr. Walter Flight
and Mr. T. Davies, of the Mineralogical Department of the British
Museum, as presents from its possessors of original fragments of the

300 REPORT—1881.

stone to the National Collection, and for ultimate examination and
analysis.

The interior of the Middlesbrough aérolite exhibits a perfectly uniform
structure and greyish-white appearance, spangled with frequent metallic
iron-grains and crystals of iron-sulphide. A few isolated spherules of
white homogeneous material, apparently identical with the cementing
substance of the mass, and as large as hemp-seeds, occur at intervals, but
these well-formed ‘chondra,’ as they are termed, appear in this aérolite
to be rather large than very plentiful.

Round some of the iron-grains oxidation has caused russet-brown
coloration of the neighbouring white mineral, in spots with which the
sawn face and broken surfaces are all pretty freely speckled over. The
ground-mass itself is a fine-grained assemblage of nearly colourless
crystals cohering together pretty firmly with little intervening paste.
Under the microscope a few of the larger crystals are clear and trans-
parent, while the general aggregation of the finer ones is confused and
turbid.' In some compacter areas, which may be paste or spherule-
sections, tangled dendritic markings (perhaps indicative of the presence of
manganese) spread from centres apparently of iron-grains, and by their
arborescence and coralline appearance recall the recently published an-
nouncements by Dr. Hahn, of his microscopical observations of fossil
forms and vestiges of organisations in the spherules of aérolites. The
analysis of the Middlesbrough aérolite, which has not yet been executed,
will be particularly interesting if it reveals in the metallic substance
traces of manganese, and also if it succeeds in identifying the kind of
silicate of which the stony substance of the meteorite seems to be almost
uniformly composed. The substance in powder, as was ascertained with
a very small trial of its dust, phosphoresces pretty brightly by heat when
thrown on a hot iron in the dark. As this property of phosphorescent
minerals, it is known, can only be restored to them after its loss by heat,
either by strong and long-continued insolation or by subjecting them to
strong electrical discharges, the question of the original habitat, and of
the original separation or ejection of meteorites from foreign planets, suns,
or comets will perhaps be narrowed in some measure by observations of
this property in other meteorites besides that of Middlesbrough, in some
of which the character of phosphorescence by heat may perhaps be shown
by trials to be equally distinct.

Among known stonefalls, of which specimens are preserved, the
nearest congeners in date with that of Middlesbrough, are Salés (France),
1798, March (8 ?) or 12, 6 p.m., 20 lbs., 3°45 sp. gr.; Alais (France),
1806 March 15, 5 p.m., 8 + 4 lbs., W. to E., 1-70 sp. gr. (carbonaceous) ;
Timoschin (Russia) 1807, March 13, aftn., 160 lbs., 3°64 sp. gr.; Kule-
schowka (Russia), 1811, March 12, night, 13 lbs. + 9 Ibs. (?), 3°49 sp. gr. ;

' Mr. T, Davies, of the British Museum, Mmeralogical Department, has quite
recently obliged the Committee, in anticipation of the meteorite’s chemical analysis
by Dr. Flight, with some observations of its visible characters and composition. The
substance of his remarks extracted from the timely communication in which he was
so good as to notify them to the Committee, is added as a postscript to this account.
While it renders unnecessary and superfluous some of the details which follow here
of the meteorite’s internal appearance, it will also be seen to correct and clear up
some of the surmises offered regarding the occurrence of microscopic simulations, or
‘dendrites’ in the Middlesbrough aérclite, and regarding the possible astronomical
connection of that aérolite with the Salés and Kuleschowka ones.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 50]

[Cutro (Calabria), 1813, March 14, stonefall and dust; ? if any specimen
has been preserved. |

Comparison with the Salés and Kuleschowka stones shows a fair
resemblance ii the mineral type and iron-dissemination with the present
meteorite, but yet sufficient diversity of character to distinguish them
from each other very clearly. The solid massive Timoschin aérolite con-
sists largely of metallic iron, and that of Alais contains it only in fine
powder mixed with a clayey carbonaceous earth. The description of
outward appearance is, on the contrary, exactly accordant in the Kule-
schowka and Middlesbrough aérolites, although they differ in weight and
size. The same low broad pyramid, or buckler-like figure, grotesquely
trenched and furrowed from the rounded summit outwards in front,
‘like the forehead of a bony skull’; with a black polished surface there,
and dull brown crust upon the hollowed back; these are features that tell
the meteorite’s tale of a darting, smelting journey through the air with a
clearness and distinctness which it is rare to find typified so perfectly
among the known hundreds of museum specimens, as we find them shown
and illustrated in the Kuleschowka stone’s description, and in the excel-
lent actual example of them which has now anew presented itself in the
Middlesbrough aérolite.! But it is unsafe to reason, even from identical
chemical composition, on possible physical connection between their
courses, since such chemical identity has been pointed out by Daubrée in
several instances of pairs of aérolites of such widely different dates of fall
that no assignable astronomical common origin can be traced or even
suspected to exist on that ground between them. The present aérolite
appears also to belong to the most usually occurring ordinary chondritic
class, although by simplicity of composition it will perhaps be found to
take rank among some of the more exceptional meteorites of that
description.

At the time of the stone’s fall the constellation Perseus was overhead,
and the small constellation Triangulum was a little south of the zenith at
Middlesbrough. Some cometary accordances with meteor-showers pro-
ceeding from that constellation in the first two weeks of March have been
noticed, to which in connection with this aérolitic date attention may be
directed on account of the very near appulse which one of the comets’
orbits makes to the orbit of the earth.

The comets are those of a.p. 1746, and aA.p. 1231; the former
approaching the earth’s orbit within about one-hundredth, and the latter
within about six-hundredths of the earth’s distance from the sun, on
March 8 and 10 respectively. The showers of shooting-stars agreeing
pretty nearly with them were deduced by Mr. Denning from catalogues
of meteor observations by Weiss and Schiaparelli, and are well-marked,

1 See A. Goebel’s descriptions of Russian aérolites, Mélanges Physiques et Chi-
miques de V Académie Impériale de, St. Pétersbowrg, vol. vii. pp. 286-288. Instances of
end-on erosion, denoting constant orientation of front- and rear-faces of aérolites in
their flight, occur also in some stones of Stannern, in one of L’Aigle, and in those of
Gross Divina and Goatpara, as first noticed by Von Haidinger (Vienna Academy Sitz-
ungsberichte, vol. xl. pp. 525-532, 1860, and xlv. p. 790, and lix.); in that of Durala
(india), depicted by Professor Maskelyne (Philosophical Magazine, vol. xxv. p. 440,
1863) ; and finally in that of Karakol (in the Kirgis Steppe, May 9, 1840) as figured
by A. Goebel (loco sup. cit., pp. 318-324). The last aérolite especially exhibits with
exceptional perfection, almost rivalling the anterior rotundity and grooving of the
Middlesbrough one, the blunt-pointed projectile configuration which denotes one- .
sided action of the heat-erosion.

302 REPORT—1881.

active showers. The meteorites of Segowlee, March 6, 1853, and Sagan
(Silesia), March 6, 1636, may perhaps belong,.with the Middlesbrough
and other meteorites named above, to the same aérolitic systems, and the
directions of the courses of fireballs and shooting stars of the week from
March 8 to 14, and of meteorites should they again happen in that week,
will accordingly furnish very interesting materials for observation.

Note on a Preliminary Examination of the Middlesbrough Aérolite. By Mr.
T. Daviss, F.G.S. Communicated to the Committee, Aug. 30, 1881.

‘I find that this aérolite bears a marked resemblance to the Kule-
schowka stone in the fine grained ash-grey base with a similar distribution
of the iron and the small rust-spots, which, however, are larger and more
frequent in the former. The spherules are also larger and more abundant.
Though belonging to the chondritic type of aérolites, I do not consider it
as markedly chondritic, many of the spherules not showing such a distinct
periphery in their section as woald allow of the stone being classed among
the more prominent instances of this group.

‘With regard to its resemblance to the Kuleschowka aérolite, I find
that it is equally similar (macroscopically) to other aérolites of the same
type which bear very different dates of their descent; notably those of
Milena, Croatia, April 26, 1842, Tourinnes la Grosse, Dec. 7, 1863, and
Girgenti, Sicily, Feb. 10, 1853; so that I fear that no theory founded on
coincidence of date would be of much value [either as safe guidance in
searches for the evidence of a mineralogical resemblance, or as satis-
factorily confirming any such a resemblance].

‘From microscopic examination I should regard the stone as consist-
ing very largely of enstatite, which exists not only in large isolated
crystals but also in groups of crystals, the olivine constituent (if any)
being represented by the finely crystalline ground-mass ; but this is not
sufficiently distinct in the section to be determined by microscopic ex-
amination only.

‘The ‘dendrites’ of the spherules and enstatite crystals, are a mere
structural simulation of organisms, and are not due to manganese oxides,
which, if present, would be in sufficient quantity to be easily identified
chemically. All workers with the microscope are familiar with these
simulations.’

ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 303

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Cavey, F.R.S.,
Professor G. G. Stokes, /’.R.S., Professor H. J. §. Smita, F.B.S.,
Professor Sir WiLL14AM Tuomson, F.RS., Mr. JAMES GLAISHER,
F.RS., and Mr. J. W. L. GuatsHer, F.RS. (Secretary), on
Mathematical Tables.

I. The Factor Table for the Sixth Million.

Iy last year’s report it was stated that the factor tables for the fourth
and fifth millions had been published by Mr. James Glaisher, and that
the factor table for the sixth million was in the press. The printing
and stereotyping of this million, the last of the three millions interven-
ing between the tables of Burckhardt and Dase, has been completed ;
and the volume will be published shortly.

Il. Results of the Enumeration of the Primes in the Sixth Million.

The following table contains the chief results of the enumeration of
the primes in the sixth million, arranged according to the numbers of
primes in the centuries.

5,000,000 to 6,000,000.

Number of centuries each of which contains x primes

s ols ele cleo slo colo slo slo ols elo ols 6 |
n Ss Sie sis sis SiS Sie SiISLSiS SiS isis sis si
Isesisesisesisesisesisesisessisesisesises| Sos |
STrSShixic sist ae Se oS ae se. sie sls sk
ID adhe whs wpa adhsS adhd whos ashs adhd ashs clas os |
0 0 if 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 4
1 3 3 3 1 6 3 3 3 4 2 31
2 14 bE 8 9 10 15 10 18 10 16 121 |
3 42 31 46 48 50 40 49 59 50 55 | 470
4 107 | 134 beta] ela iS) 88 | 108 99 99 94 | 107 1052
5 Teo) TOL ob 6, | L609) 166" | Esa | 1h AT el TaD 1597
6 208 | 194 | 218 | 175 | 212 | 198 | 218 | 189 | 191 | 197 2000 |
tl 165 | 158 | 183 | 191 | 194.).190 |} 184 | 216] 2007190 1871 |
8 136 | 158 | 136 | 1389 | 129°) 136 | 148 | 114] 193°) 194 1343 |
9 86 79 79 91 93 83 76 81 TAS) 81 | 828
10 38 49 47 44 41 35 41 47 52 47 44] )
tal 29 13 17 14 12 17 15 154 15 21 | 168 |
12 7 5 7 il ig aie 2 6 5 6 | 56)
13 0 3 3 1 2 | 1 0 2 2 1 Te
14 0 0 0 J 0 0 10) 0 1 il 3
6458 | 6436 | 6493 | 6462 | 6438 | 6402 | 6404 | 6387 | 6436 | 6420 | 64,336 |

This table. shows the number of centuries in each group of 100,000,
each of which contains no prime, each of which contains one prime, two
primes, &e. For example, between 5,000,000 and 5,100,000, there is no
century containing no prime (i.e. consisting wholly of composite num-
bers), there are three centuries which contain one prime, fourteen which
contain two primes, &c., and so on. The number at the foot of each
column is the total number of primes in the group of numbers to which
the column relates; thus, for example, there are 6,458 primes between
5,000,000 and 5,100,000.

The corresponding tables for the fourth and fifth millions were given
on pp. 47 and 32 of the Reports for 1879 and 1880 respectively.

304

REPORT—15881.

The next table shows the number of primes in each successive group
of 10,000 between 5,000,000 and 6,000,000. Thus, for example, between
5,000,000 and 5,010,000 there are 639 primes, between 5,010,000 and
5,020,000 there are also 639 primes, between 5,020,000 and 5,030,000

there are 658 primes, and so on.

5,000,000 to 6,000,000.

3) Seu Siew eS bss. = ie Stee temea =
Sesicesliossciossicoes |(ocfsSisoesc|sosec|sessl|oos

Soe i oe yy Sy SI ol1o ie) (eae | [Sa S/o" sS

SO Fs AA acl ISH 3S po OO RR wo tala So

i) uw | 1m wW |19 ww }2.0d ID | 10 we [19 1D | .9O awd jas ad | id 2D [9 So

ite 639 632 659 654 630 638 633 635 654 648

{ ny 63 641 649 637 640 623 638 667 632 667
LT lenge 655 650 643 657 633 638 632 627 649
IV. 638 660 647 649 650 667 645 632 641 646
Vv. 628 639 673 648 635 618 624 654 657 633
Vie 668 | 644 630 642 659 634 641 636 627 639
VIL. 639 645 649 €42 641 655 635 617 635 633
VIII. 648 631 653 653 623 636 638 637 641 636
IDS 655 641 629 654 ) 651 641 635 637 677 644
X. 646 648 654 640 652 657 679 640 645 625
6458 | 6436 | 6493 | 6462 | 6438 | 6402 | 6404 | 6387 | 6436 | 6420

The corresponding tables for the fourth and fifth millions were given
on pp. 48 and 33 of the Reports for 1879 and 1880 respectively.
The following is a list of successions of composite numbers of ninety-

nine and upwards occurring in the sixth million.

SEQUENCES OF 99 AND UPWARDS.

Lower Limit Upper Limit Sequence
5,137,547 5,137,651 103
5,178,193 5,178,301 107
5,209,177 5,209,279 | 101
5,211,109 5,211,209 99
5,323,949 5,324,051 101
5,398,597 5,398,697 99
5,516,281 5,516,393 111
5,518,687 5,518,817 129
5,528,287 5,528,387 99
5,577,851 5,577,959 107
5,589,019 5,589,127 107
5,673,449 5,673,557 | 107
5,723,899 5,723,999 99
5,826,001 5,826,127 125
5,831,401 5,831,509 107
5,837,399 5,837,501 101
5,845,193 5,845,309 115
5,888,741 5,888,873 131
5,976,079 5,976,181 101
5,982,413 5,982,523 109

This table shows that the 103 numbers between 5,137,547 and
5,137,651 are composite, and so on; the numbers in the first two columns
being the primes which bound the sequences of composite numbers.

ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 305

The corresponding lists of sequences for the fourth and fifth millions
were given on pp. 49 and 33 of the Reports for 1879 and 1880 respec-
tively.

III. Results of the Enumeration of the Primes in the First Nine Millions.

As the gap between Burckhardt’s and Dase’s tables is now completely
filled up, it is possible to give results derived from an enumeration of
primes extending without break over the first nine millions.

The following table (which is similar in arrangement to the first
table in Section II.), shows the number of centuries in each of the nine
millions which contain no. prime, one prime, &c. The number at the
foot of each column is the number of primes in the million.

0 to 9,000,000.

Number of centuries each of which contains » primes

ole elo sle sle ole slo elo clo oc So

m SiS S/S S/S SIS SIS SIS SIS SIS S Ss
eoss|isesiosesisoesesiscoociscescisceosisososiscocos|oss

€/6 °3)5°S|5°s E*E |S*e/8*/8 “SE "S|" 75

aya NIN Sos WIT dps SIS Wl wa a a
0 0 1 il 2 2 4 6 4 4 24
] 3 16 25 30 26 31 28 30 34 223
2 29 72 97 136 161 121 173 171 178) 1138
3 140 257 338 400 403 470 482 541 570) 3601
+ BY 6?) 667 775 862 943} 1052) 1049) 1066; 1078) 7864
5 801} 1253) 1408) 1480) 1488) 1597} 1603) 1691} 1742) 13063
6 1362} 1743; 1878) 1929) 1994] 2000} 1948) 1993} 1966} 16813
7 1765} 2032) 1997) 1849) 1929) 1871) 1916) 1754) 1788) 16901
8 1821} 1612} 1526) 1561) 1433) 1343) 1366) 1394) 1278} 13334
9 1554; 1182] 1036 950 922 828 840 787 778| 8877
10 1058 691 558 497 426 441 374 360 390} 4795
ui 592 elit 227 221 189 168 156 155 143) 2162
12 316} +113 98 60| = 63 56 46 40 38 830
13 122 39 28 ue 18 15 10 10 TY 272
14 32 7 6 4 3 3 3 2 2 62
15 20 3 1 0) 10) 0 0 2 0) 26
16 8 a 0) 0 0 0 0 0 0 9
Le 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 4
21 1 0 0 0) 0 0 0 0 0 1
26 i 0) 0 0 0) 0 0 0 0) 1
eo! 78,499| 70,433) 67,885) 66,329) 65,369) 64,336] 63,799] 63,158) 62,760/602,568

It appears from this table that the centuries with eight primes are
the most numerous in the first million, the centuries with seven primes

in the second and third millions, and the centuries with six primes in all
the other millions.

1881. x

306 REPORT—1881.

The next table shows the number of primes in each group of 100,000
from 0 to 9,000,000, with differences.

0 to 9,000,000.

NUMBER OF PRIMES IN EACH GROUP OF 100,900.

tea
Re jot, Difference ‘Prine Difference

0 — 100,000} 9,593 4,500,000 — 4,600,000 6,493 120
100,000 — 200,000} 8,392 1201 4,600,000 — 4,700,000 6,523 — 30
200,000 — 300,000] 8,013 379 4,700,000 — 4,800,000 6,475 48
300,000 — 400,000} 7,863 150 || 4,800,000 — 4,900,000 | 6,554 — 79
400,000 — 500,000} 7,678 185 || 4,900,000 — 5,000,000 | 6,522 32
500,000 — 600,000} 7,560 118 | 5,000,000 — 5,100,000 | 6,458 64
600,000 — 700,000| 7,445 115 | 5,100,000 — 5,200,000) 6,436 22
700,000 — 800,000} 7,408 37. || 5,200,000 — 5,300,000} 6,493, — 57
800,000 — 900,000} 7,323 85 |5,300,000 — 5,400,000 6,462 31
900,000 — 1,000,000 | 7,224 99 5,400,000 — 5,500,000 6,438 24
1,000,000 — 1,100,000} 7,216 8 | 5,500,000 — 5,600,000 | 6,402 36
1,100,000 — 1,200,000 | 7,225 — 9 | 5,600,000 — 5,700,000 | 6,404 —- 2
1,200,000 — 1,300,000} 7,081 144 || 5,700,000 — 5,800,000 | 6,387 A
1,300,000 — 1,400,000 | 7,103 — 22 | 5,800,000 — 5,900,000 | 6,436 — 49
1,400,000 — 1,500,000 | 7,028 75 / 5,900,000 — 6,000,000 | 6,420 16
1,500,000 — 1,600,000} 6,973 55 || 6,000,000 — 6,100,000 | 6,397 23
1,600,000 — 1,700,000} 7,015 — 42 | 6,100,000 — 6,200,000 | 6,402 — 5
1,700,000 — 1,800,000 | 6,932 83 || 6,200,000 — 6,300,000 | 6,425 — 23
1,800,000 — 1,900,000 | 6,957 — 25 | 6,300,000 — 6,400,000 | 6,337 88
1,900,000 — 2,000,000} 6,903 54 || 6,400,000 — 6,500,000 | 6,347 — 10
2,000,000 — 2,100,000 | 6,874 29 | 6,500,000 — 6,600,000 | 6,402 — 55
2,100,000 — 2,200,000 | 6,857 17. | 6,600,000 — 6,700,000 | 6,338 | 64
2,200,000 — 2,300,000 | 6,849 8 6,700,000 — 6,800,000 | 6,375 — 37
2,300,000 — 2,400,000 | 6,791 58 6,800,000 — 6,900,000 } 6,411 — 36
2,400,000 — 2,500,000 | 6,770 21 || 6,900,000 — 7,000,000 | 6,365 46
2,500,000 — 2,600,000 | 6,809 — 389 || 7,000,000 — 7,100,000 | 6,369 — 4
2,600,000 — 2,700,000 | 6,765 44 || 7,100,000 — 7,200,000 | 6,306 63
2,700,000 — 2,800,000 | 6,716 49 || 7,200,000 — 7,300,000 | 6,348 — 42
2,800,000 — 2,900,000 | 6,746 — 30 | 7,300,000 — 7,400,000 | 6,299 49
2,900,000 — 3,000,000 | 6,708 38 7,400,000 — 7,500,000 | 6,301 = SD
3,000,000 — 3,100,000 | 6,676 32 || 7,500,000 — 7,600,000 | 6,305 — 4
3,100,000 — 3,200,000 | 6,717 — 41 || 7,600,000 — 7,700,000 | 6,347 — 42
3,200,000 — 3,300,000 | 6,691 26 || 7,700,000 — 7,800,000 | 6,245 102
3,300,000 — 3,400,000 | 6,639 52 || 7,800,000 — 7,900,000 | 6,364 — 119
3,400,000 — 3,500,000] 6,611 28 7,900,000 — 8,000,000 | 6,274 90
3,500,000 — 3,600,000} 6,575 36 |} 8,000,000 — 8,100,000 | 6,250 24
3,600,000 — 3,700,000} 6,671 — 96 || 8,100,000 — 8,200,000} 6,301; — 51
3,700,000 — 3,800,000 | 6,590 81 8,200,000 — 8,300,000 | 6,283 18
3,800,000 — 3,900,000 | 6,624 — 34 | 8,300,000 — 8,400,000 | 6,285 —- 2
3,900,000 — 4,000,000 | 6,535 89 || 8,400,000 — 8,500,000 | 6,245 40
4,000,000 — 4,100,000 | 6,628 — 93 || 8,500,000 — 8,600,000) 6,326 — 81
4,100,000 — 4,200,000 | 6,540 88 | 8,600,000 — 8,700,000 6,281 45
4,200,000 — 4,300,000 | 6,510 30 | 8,700,000 — 8,800,000 | 6,299 — 18
4,300,000 — 4,400,000} 6,511 — 1 |/8,800,000 — 8,900,000 6,220 79
4,400,000 — 4,500,000 | 6,615 — 102 | 8,900,000 — 9,000,000 | 6,270 — 50

ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 307

The numbers of primes in each quarter-million in the first nine
millions, with differences, are :—

0 to 9,000,000,
NUMBER OF PRIMES IN EACH GROUP OF 250,000.

Number of Primes Difference
0 — 250,000 22,045

250,000 — 500,000 19,494 2,551

500,000 — 750,000 18,700 794

750,000 — 1,000,000 18,260 440
1,000,000 — 1,250,000 17,971 289
1,250,000 — 1,500,000 17,682 289
1,500,000 — 1,750,000 17,455 227
1,750,000 — 2,000,000, 17,325 130
2,000,000 — 2,250,000 17,150 175
2,250,000 — 2,500,000 16,991 159
2,500,000 — 2,750,000 16,922 69
2,750,000 — 3,000,000 16,822 100
3,000,000 — 3,250,000 16,761 61
3,250,000 — 3,500,000 16,573 188
3,500,000 — 3,750,000 16,566 U
3,750,000 — 4,000,000 16,429 137
4,000,000 — 4,250,000 16,437 —8
4,250,000 — 4,500,000 16,365 72
4,500,000 — 4,750,000 16,271 94
4,750,000 — 5,000,000 16,296 — 25
5,000,000 — 5,250,000 16,172 124
5,250,000 — 5,500,000 16,115 5T
5,500,000 — 5,750,000 16,026 89
5,750,000 — 6,000,000 16,023 : 3
6,000,000 — 6,250,000 15,967 56
6,250,000 — 6,500,000 15,941 26
6,500,000 — 6,750,000 15,950 —9
6,750,000 — 7,000,000 15,941 9
7,000,000 — 7,250,000 15,851 90
7,250,000 — 7,500,000 15,772 79
7,500,000 — 7,750,000 15,768 4
7,750,000 — 8,000,000 15,767 it
8,000,000 — 8,250,000 15,712 55
8,250,000 — 8,500,000 15,652 60
8,500,000 — 8,750,000 15,746 — 94
8,750,000 — 9,000,000 15,650 96

and the numbers for the complete millions are :—

Number of Primes Difference
First million > ‘ 4 78,499
Recon + ce ne 70,433 8,066
third “eee ss, 67,885 2,548
BCD: yy RRM ei co 66,329 1,556
Bei «6, ee 65,369 960
Ret gy A SE ae 64,336 1,033
Seventh ” - i < : 63,799 537
MeO ©, Sites 63,158 641
Minth 5, : ‘ 62,760 398

308 ‘ REPORT—1881.

The following list gives the two longest successions of composite
numbers met with in each of the nine millions :—

Lower Limit Upper Limit Sequence
ri mition {HOME RMR
oJ e e = . *
ge CAR) So
44 > ’ . . 004, . A
2,010,733 2,010,881 ot ies
Third: . %; SJ 2,010, y . Teale .
:2898,930. .° os QSORBeeh oon. ae
3,826,019. 3,826,157 vine?
Fourth ,, ae seat i
, $933,599. . |. BO888h .. «. o 18L
4ennsey.. (.) eomieogn '.— F2) Utes
Fifth 1652, r652, :
» A738651° . pees |... «WS
: (5B18,687 . . MeBiereterer <,-- Oy) ohana
Sixth Aiea tae Lg pst
» \5.888,741 . . 5888873 . |.) 482
ypeosiae 4 egadenee |. OO OMS
Seventh ‘5; Leprizor LE eames 7.22 age
[7,23083L, . . 7280479... 147
ee Py 17,681859. ape WOES | lee! 18D
fRAQL25L) CeO CRBIMMN bee. 6
re ae 18,917,683 ¢ 4. .t)) ROMREOND fe). con. (0199

The portions of the preceding tables which relate to the first five
millions were given also in last year’s Report (pp. 34-36).

It may be remarked that the first table in Section I. shows that there
are twenty-four centuries in the nine millions which contain no prime,
and that the distribution of these centuries among the millions is : —

First million . ‘ - None Sixth million . +
Second ,, = ‘ < i hall Seventh ,, 6
hind) ae ‘ ¢ ‘ aye Eighth ,, 4
Fourth ,, ‘ : 5 AN?) Ninth rai 4
Fifth 4, : F Dh at

The first number of each of these centuries, which consist therefore
wholly of composite numbers, is given in the following list :—

1,671,800 | 5,837,400 | 7,129,900
2,637,800 | 5,845,200 7,565,200
3,117,300 6,012,900 7,803,500
3,933,600 6,085,000 7,826,900
4,640,600 6,333,300 8,027,700
4,652,400 | 6,376,200 | 8,367,400
5,178,200 6,789,800 ) 8,421,300

5,518,700 6,958,700 8,905,200

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 309

Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor E. Huu,
the Rey. H. W. CrosskEy, Captain DoucLas Gatton, Mr. James
GLAISHER, Professor G. A. LEBsour, Mr. W. MoLyneux, Mr. G. H.
Morton, Mr. W. PENGELLY, Professor J. PREStWwicH, Mr. J. PLANT,
Mr. James Parker, Mr. I. Roperts, Mr. 8. Stooke, Mr. G. J.
Symons, Mr. W. Wuitaker, and Mr. C. E. De Rance ( Reporter),
appointed for the purpose of investigating the Circulation of the
Underground Waters in the Jurassic, New Red Sandstone, and
Permian Formations of England, and the Quality and Quan-
tity of the Water supplied to Towns and Districts from these
formations.

Tue Committee had hoped in this, the seventh year of its existence, to
have completed the inquiry with which it was entrusted; but, owing
partly to the considerable development of works to obtain water from
underground sources at the present time, and partly from the absence
from England of some of its members, it has been found necessary to
defer the final report on the water-bearing capabilities of the Triassic
and Jurassic formations of England and Wales until next year, when the
Committee also hope to present their first report on the nature of the
quantity and the quality of the other permeable formations of the country.

River Basins of the North-East of England.

No Permian, Triassic, or Jurassic rocks occur in the basins of the
Tweed, Alyn, Coquet, Wansbeck, Blyth, or Tyne.

These formations:occupy the following: areas, in the basins specified,
as defined on thé Ordnante Survey Catchment basin map.

Magnesian Triassic
‘ 3 Limestone . ‘ rocks Oolites
River Wear . : . 42 : é —- ; : —
Catchment Basin, X XI. Ff s 3 — —
River Tees. 3 . 130 ; : 130 5 —_
te Hinks é _ : f — ci ; 183
- 189. : 130 ; 183

From the investigations that have been made as to the capacity of
the Magnesian Limestone for. absorption, it appears that 10 inches of
rainfall is annually available in this formation, or 400,000 gallons daily
per square mile; giving a total of 73 million gallons, or a supply for a
population of 24 millions, at 30 gallons per head.

In the Oolitic area, probably not more than 5 inches annually can be
relied on, or 200,000 gallons per square mile, or a supply sufficient for
13 million people, the total underground being capable of supplying
3? millions of people.

The actual population in this group of river-basins is under 1,400,000,
so that the supply in the area from these formations alone is more than
double the demand.

The Triassic rocks in this area are not available for water-supply, on
a larger scale ; for though certain wells of no great depth, or importance,
obtain fresh water, the deep boririgs of Messrs. Bolckow and Vaughans, and
Messrs. Bell Brothers, prove the existence of rock-salt in this formation,
which renders it, valueless for water-supply purposes.

310 REPORT—1881.

Professor G. A. Lebour states, for water-supply purposes it does not
appear necessary to notice any of the subdivisions generally recognised in
the Magnesian Limestone above the mar] slate.

The following is the series, divided in such a way as appears useful for
the purposes of the Committee :—

1. Yellow Sands: Generally a loose, incoherent, coarse sand with
more or less calcareous cement, often concretionary, sometimes
solid. Very irregular in thickness, from 60 feet downwards, and
sometimes absent. Generally with a large amount of water.

2. Magnesian Limestone: Similar to No. 4, seldom more than a few
feet (6 to 10) in thickness. Not always present.

3. Marl Slate: Generally a compact, flaggy, dark grey, thinly-bedded
horizon, seldom more than a yard in thickness, generally imper-
vious calcareous and sandy shale, often forming a fish-bed.

4, Magnesian Limestone: Concretionary, brecciated, compact, and
cellular, fossiliferous and unfossiliferous, soft, and earthy in places,
eminently hard and crystalline in others.

Unconformity.

Red Sandstone (with coal-plants) : Of Upper Coal-measure age.

Professor Lebour has prepared a map of the Durham Coal-field on
which the out-crop of the Permian seriés is shown, as well as the position
of all sinkings and borings that have been put through the Permian to
the Coal-measures, giving the thickness of the Yellow Sand and (where
known) the yield of water of that division and of the overlying beds.

At Middlesbrough—Messrs. Bolckow and Vaughans’.

feet
DRIFT . . ° A ° ° . ° . 58
Sandstone and Marls A A . P . . « 1148
Rock Salt. 3 i A ’ 4 4 3 - 100
* Limestone . J ‘ ; 3 ‘i : , 5 1
Conglomerate 7 . 5 . ° . ° 5 7
1314

Messrs. Bell Brothers’, 1874.
feet
DRIFT . ‘ : ° a F Tet
Sandstone, Marls, erie Gypsum ‘ 5 s : - 1050
Rock Salt . : ‘ : i : +! 1102
Soft Rock . ‘ 5 $ i : F : ; 32
Grey Limestone . : 4 : 5 . P 67
Gypsum and Rock: Salt 5 é A ‘ ; ‘ 27
1355

The beds belong to the Keuper Marls, Waterstones, Lower Mottled
Sandstone, and Permian.
The Pebble Beds and Upper Mottled Sandstone are absent.

River Basins of the Humber Group.
Jorth-Eastern Group.

Magnesian Triassic

Limestone rocks Oolites
Catchment Basin, XXXVII. . — A ‘ — 5 57
Beer rat Mt Mie ood fo Cc ae prose
» Foulness. , ; ._ ci . 72 Fi . 8

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 41 Fo!

Information obtained by Mr. Whitaker through Mr. Fox Strangways :

1. Scarborough Waterworks well, near Osgodby, marked upon Geological Survey
Map, Yorkshire, Sheet 94. 2a. October 1870. Not deepened since. 2. About 160
feet. 3. Ninety-one feet deep, 10 feet diameter shaft measured from surface ; 136 feet
deep, 6 inches diameter bore-hole, measured from surface. 3a. Three driftings total
length 70 yards, &. Pumping always goes on ; level varies according to season and
speed of pumps. 4a. About 70 feet below top, but varied, and no full record kept.
5. From 600,000 to 800,000 gallons in twenty-four hours. 6. Water-level varies
according to season: high after wet weather, low after dry weather. 7. Heavy rain
in the district tends to raise the level, but time not noted. &. Analysis below. No
marked peculiarity. 9. Section of well showing all information obtained was sent to
Mr. Fox Strangways in March 1875. 10. Tosome slight extent. Yes. U1. Entirely,
by brick lining backed by puddle. 12. No, 23. No. 14. No. 15. No.

Scarborough Waterworks.

Analysis of Well at Osgodby.
Grains per gallon

Carbonate of Lime 3 i ? ‘ . P 4 O8L5O:

Carbonate of Magnesia : é : ; . . 3129
Sulphate of Lime - “ - - : « 3:038
Chloride of Sodium . 3 : ; : : a 1869
Chloride of Calcium . : . i d é 2 1-792
Silica»). 3 4 : F 2 ; F % 294
Alumina and Oxide of Iron ‘3 b q e +126
Organic matter . fs F . : : , - “280
Nitric Acid . 4 ‘i ; : : 4 : . a trace,

Grains of solid matter ina gallon . . - 20°678

Hardness on Clark’s Scale.
Before boiling. c A pei

After boiling half an ho e . pal aga
Humber Central Group.

River Derwent 3 f _ : é — F i 57
oy OUSE | re ; F x 50 F 3 500 5 3 42
Rivers Aire and Calder . . 44 F - 96 p ‘ —
River Don 4 A P woo : . 120 ° . —
149 788 164

Of these areas the Magnesian Limestone would afford water for a
population of nearly 2 millions.

The New Red area consists largely of Keuper Marls overlying Triassic
Sandstones, but the area of absorption is limited to the outcrop of the
Sandstone only, the water absorbed by which passes down the dip under
the Marls. The available area is about 200 square miles, absorbing daily
8 million gallons, or a supply for a population of 25 millions.

The Oolites, at 5 inches of annual percolation, could supply about
1 million gallons.

The population in this group of river-basins amounts to nearly
3 millions, requiring a supply of 90 millions of gallons of water daily.

Tt has been thought desirable to recapitulate the facts obtained re-
garding the conditions of underground water-supply in the district of York.
The basin of the Humber may be divided geologically into four divisions,
all,of which strike magnetic north and south, or a little west of north.
The western belt consists of the Yorkshire coal-field, dipping east towards
the German Ocean, and overlain unconformably by the second belt, con-
sisting of the Permian and Trias, in which are no less than two uncon-
a? the Bunter overlapping the Permians, and the Keuper the

unter.

312 REPORT—1881.

The Oolites constitute the third belt and the Cretaceous rocks the
fourth. The overlap at the base of the latter is so great that between
Market Weighton and the Derwent, south of Malton, the Cretaceous rests
directly on the Lias, and the Oolites form no part of the surface of the
ground between those points.

In the west, the Humber basin is bounded by the great Pennine
watershed, traversing England from north to south; to the south it is
limited by the remarkable watershed which, traversing Hngland diago-
nally, practically separates all the rocks below the Lias from those above
it. To the north, it is terminated by the east and west watershed,
crossing England from St. Bees’ Head to Robin Hood Bay, north of
Scarborough.

The Pebble Beds of the New Red Sandstone have been bored into at
various points, between Nottingham, Retford, and Selby, and are directly
overlain by the Keuper Waterstones, the Upper Mottled Sandstone and
Keuper conglomerate being alike absent.

North of Selby the Pebble Beds also have thinned out, and the Keuper
Waterstones and the Lower Mottled Sandstone are alone available for
underground water-supply in the plains of York.

The Selby waterworks yield a water of 8 deg. of hardness, 250,000
gallons per day rising from a 6-inch hole 330 feet deep, to a height of
4 feet from the surface, or 16 feet above mean-tide level. The upper
portion of the boring consists of Warp-clay and silt, the lower 262} feet
of Red Sandstone. ~~

Borings at York, 104 feet deep, and at Market Weighton, 300 feet,
did not penetrate the Keuper marls.

A well at Walmgate Bar, York, passed through

sistas
Clay and Stone . - - 2) AO =
Quicksand f : 460 or Drifts
Fine Sandstone : A . 204 O r
Parting with water’. ° . He AOR aoe oe
Fine Sandstone . : : 2279) 10 : .
567 2
Humber Southern Group.
Magnesian Permian Triassic Keuper
Limestone Sandstone Sandstone Marls Oolites
River Trent . 174 , PHOS? 5 ozo ap RO Meee aca le
River Ancholme — . — — — . A wuyél

In this group the Magnesian Limestone would probably yield a daily
average supply of 69 million gallons of water.

The population in the group is 2} millions, requiring 67 million
gallons of water per day.
Fen Streams.

Keuper Marls ae

River Witham . 6
Welland . 0 580 :
_ ant 0 997 Drift covered.
a Ouse 0 1316
6 3620

Population of this group in 1881 was about 11 millions.

Hast-Anglian streams do not drain any Triassic or Permian strata
on the surface.

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. sla

Thames Basin.
Contains 93] square miles of Oolitic strata.

Cirencester.—F rom Messrs. Bowly & Son, sunk and communicated by
Messrs. Legrand and Sutcliff to Mr. Whitaker,

ft.
Gravel . . : : 3 £ : : a
Sand c ete Z ‘ . : - rhe
Brown clay. 13
. Forest marble [must include aioe oglitic beds] , » iit
Ff ee Be ils . - 293
: * Hants Basin.’
River Avon. | . ree a gewet Je Ldal Square milesa,
» stour. 20) Geel20i, Tob Oolite.

Population of this group about 1 million.

West of England Streams.
‘ ‘Trias Renn Marls Oolites

River Basin CLV. 3 5) —— — 54
, Bridg . 5 ; A : — — 12
Pasta ie ole i ; 3 : — — 24
Ayo: ede : : ‘i . 24 — 6

Basin CL. . : A s : : 5 Pai) arch _—

River Otter Z E - ; f hoO! te oe 2nd —
Heya. ; é j ; . 252 —. _—

Basin CCI. . : 3 : 3 bars (oh —. _—

River Teign : - ; . . 31 —. =
» Dart 5 : - : er ee —. —_

The Severn Basin :—Bristol Channel Group.

Trias K. Marls Oolites
Basin OXLII. . E 4 : sight £Ozs oaks 5

Si Oe Ee 4 : ; Spel Dine ot , _
River Parret F 4 p : Aa mia SAE ats 62
355) \Caryi: : “ - t _—. Ot _—
ELI ; ‘1 p 3 _—. wuUeDe fe . 50
Seu LER 9 - ; ; 5 A A ie . 64 , Sih vce
cu EO)). : ; : ‘ ws eLOGrus _—
3. Avon A ri 7; ; phat « . 140 . . 560

Flowing underground into Hants Basin.

square miles
From.the River Parret . 3 :

” ” ” Exe sy . . ; . . 52
ears ©) 99) a Avon . ic a "e aie nid 220
Flowing underground into the Thames Basin.

: square miles
From the Severn. Ab ae 4 c é 94

Se ‘ » Bristol Avon . “ (8G Oe Tony Sapr nt sere AU

, 434
Clifton, + near ‘ Rugh y-—For Mr. Mantz. Sunk, and’ communicated by
Messrs. Legrand & eeeett : Mr. bisa ai

‘ : feet
Sand . ce : MCN eRn ten eead He . 3
Blue clay - re : | RT Re Awe oe UL OE
Clay and sand’ . ae Coe We eRe velit ne ore phgs «tse
Light blue aia. Piet Mes eh a's ; heed ith
Dark blue clay . pera aba Feba hint arte dale

Clay and sand | : - Bas (ss I Bahn ae pein

314 REPORT—1881.

feet
Light blue clay and sand . . . . . » 4
Light blue clay . : s . . . 27
Dark blue clay . . . A . . . 19
Clay andsand . ‘ . . . . . ees
Dark clay . . ‘ . . : . . ened.
132
The Severn Basin.
Permian Trias 8. T. Marls Oolites
Lower Severn . —— ° ° = e . 23 « . 90
Avon (Upper) . 34 . . 8 . « 320 . . 4
Central Severn . — ‘ P — . . — . . _
Upper Severn a — . . == ° ° = . . _
Wives goa - . _ ° . 6 . ‘ = Nes aedae _—
Ely . . . a . . 59 . . — . . =
South Wales Streams.
Trias
River Ogmore . . ° .

Fats (6 ems
» Afon ‘ 4 ; " i : 5 } square miles.

12

The South Wales streams draining into the Bristol Channel, are
inhabited by a population of about half a million, requiring 15 million
gallons of water daily.

The West Wales river basins, from St. David’s Head in Pembroke-
shire to Carmel’s Point, Anglesea, drain an area composed entirely of
impermeable rocks, and contain a population of about 180,000, distributed
in the coast counties from Pembroke to Anglesea.

The North Wales river basins from Carmel’s Point to the Point of
Air, are inhabited by about 175,000 people, requiring 5} millions of
gallons daily.

Following the river-basins from west to east, the Clwyd is the first
that contains any Triassic rocks, occupying about 71 square miles of this
area. From the thick covering of Boulder clay, probably not more than
30 is available, as an area of absorption ; the rainfall of the area is small,
and the quantity available not more than 5 inches per annum, or 200,000
gallons per square mile, or an average of 6,000,000 gallons per day over
the available area.

River Basins of the N.W. of England.
Permian Triassic Sandstone Marls
River Dee . ° . a ee 2

Rye ZB) .

West Cheshire streams . . _— . 1452 . 10
River Weaver . ‘ . ; : Diets cin Ua . 4854
3», Mersey . . . A fh Ske oe 220 et
39) aewell i. is > 5 ca LOG eae . 283 . ._ =
Liverpool streams . ° ‘ fb OOhrs" s =
River Alt a) WA . ‘ 2) ees aueOOl * ._ =
» Douglas a i . 1 af A bre ; 2
Basin XLV. ry . . . . = . —= . e fe
River Ribble . : . A A Die fa ee. Soda a —
» | Wyre". . 5 Hw CUED cathy -_ — . > STG
sy ELT eee 5 . ‘ 4 Be ._ — _ =
» Leven . 5 A é F hy 1. — . =
Basin XXXII. c C A : Bis eke ity _
9 BOXXET. : ° . : 3H as eg ._
River Esk ‘ : ; 6 spe cO vert oS ._ =
+ Ee Ys - D a : le arent _
pe OaLGer. 5 a) s A . eC eWigee te c : —_—
>» Hibhen . ; 4 A Riek ree v= aan —_

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 315

The population in this group of rivers amounts to nearly 45 millions,
requiring a daily supply of no less than 135 millions of gallons of water.

Boring for salt at Fleetwood, 1881. Collected by Mr. C. E. De
Rance from Mr. B. Sykes, C.H., Preston.

From surface Thickness.

ft. in. ft.» in.
2 0 Soil . ‘ . * ‘ . F ° . ‘oy oe
17 O Quicksand and mud 3 ‘ f : : : ars 0
29 6 Shingle or gravel . 5 3 . 3 J : oe Loa G
37 6 Blue clay é c é * ° - 3 r She eto, WO
50 0 Loamy clay with sandy partings . 3 ; 5 an La) G
54 4 Good yellow clay : é : 4 4
82 7 Quicksand . ‘ F i 7 28 3
98 1 Loamy clay with sandy partings Glacial drift, 15 6
107 5 Strong stony marl . 3 .{ 81 feet 6 inches 9 4
108 0 Boulder i é 3 : c (eae
131 6 Strong stony marl : : F 23 6
137 9 White earth with red layers . : ‘ A . OS
141 6 Red earth : ; c ‘ - 4 . * ak Sree)
143 0 White earth with grey spar . a - ; b tle Akal
177 8 Red earth with white spar . ‘ . . ‘ - 34 6
193 0 White earth with grey spar . : i ‘ ; Pg low6
344 9 Red earth with nodules and grey spar . é ‘ © Lolly 9

No water was met with in the Keuper marls in this boring, nor were
any brine or rock-salt beds reached. In a boring a few miles to the
east, at Preesal, on the east side of the River Wyre, a boring carried into
these marls had intercepted a bed of rock-salt more than 100 feet in
thickness, on the surface of which brine rested. The surface of the
ground is about 40 feet above the Ordnance datum-line.

In last year’s Report details of a boring at Mr. Hull’s brewery at
Preston were given, the depth being 246 feet; the rock, pebble-beds, of
the New Red Sandstone, the water rising to 65 feet above the Ordnance
datum.

Two miles to the north the following well and boring have since been
made by Mr. Vivian of the North of England Rock Boring Co., for Mr.
Sumner, near Fulwood Lodge, Watling Street Road. Collected by Mr.
C. E. De Rance from Messrs. Myers and Veevers, C.E., Preston. Surface
of bore-hole 160 feet above Ordnance datum.

Depth Depth
ft. in. ft. in.
3 0 Clay, 3 feet thickness. 145 6 Sand, with red sandstone frag-
7 O Marl,4 ,, op ments.
59 0 Sandstone (bottom of well). 146 4 Gravel.
72 0 Sand. 156 1 Red sandstone.
76 5 Gravel. 156 3. Red clay.
81 3 Sand and gravel. 170 0 Red sandstone.
84 9 Gravel. 174 0 Red shale.
88 6 Clay and sand. 177 1 Red and grey sandstone.
9110 Gravelly clay. 191 10 Red shale and beds of red sand-
97 O Clay and sand. stone.
108 9 Sandy clay. 199 1 Red shale, with a little lime.
110 3 Grey sandstone (? boulders), 214 9 Purple shale.
113 8 Stony clay. 215 4 Grey shaly limestone. CAR
114 5 Blue cobble stone (? boulder). 217 O Blue limestone. ae
115 7 Stony clay. 218 0 Light grey limy shale. = R0U
116 1 Grey sandstone (? boulder). 237 3 Blue shale. ea
120 9 Gravel and sandstone nodules.

316 REPORT—1881.

Kast of the last boring is that made for the Fulwood Local Board by
Messrs. Mather and Platt, Salford Iron Works; it was carried to 300 feet
without penetrating the Pebble Beds of the New Red Sandstone. The
normal height of the boring above Ordnance datum is 70 feet, or 90
feet from the surface, reduced, by pumping 40,000 gallons a day, to 20
feet above Ordnance datum.

Analysis of water from bore-hole, Fulwood, by Dr. Campbell Brown
(sent to him December 28, 1880).° '

[Analysis expressed in parts per 100,000.]

Mark and denomination of the sample ‘ P e . Deep bore.
Total solid matter in solution . : : n ‘ . 45:00
Organic carbon eee ee Mp fa
Oreos ha (By Dr. Frankland’s method.) . . traces only.
Ammonia . : 5 4 - 5 : : 5 : ‘009
Ammonia from organic matter by distillation with alkaline
permanganate . “ oe dis Apher Sat 006

Nitrogen as nitrates and nitrites . Py tik Ms : : ; 035
Combined chlorine . 4 7 : 2 é yr ard:
Hardness, temporary . ys a eee aaa 5 SP

Shoe PRELMANe tract coc, ih ae . : . 21°88

x total ». . ; . + : . 81-45

Dr. Brown states, ‘his water contains a large quantity of mineral
salts, especially of hardening salts, It will not be economical for washing
purposes ; but it is free from organic contamination, and is perfectly whole-
some for drinking purposes. Most deep well waters are hard, and at the
same time freer from organic matter than surface, or shallow well, water.’

Cumberland Streams, north of the Central Watershed.

Permian Permian Marls Trias Trias Marls
River Ellen . : cee bie _—. Sa es _—
» Waver : 4 iS 4. Abu i} tre _— . _—
» Warnpool . 5 se ter att ATP 7 ees _—
as Cle Tey. . ; 5, BIDE oe te the ES penal,
» Luneand Hsk ., ce wl ees « As set
Total . 5 oo. RF voow. kno: 6 ere)

The population of this area in 1881 is about a quarter of a million,
requiring a daily supply of 74 million gallons.

The available collecting-ground of Permian and Triassic Sandstone
amounts to about 100 square miles, which, at 10 inches’ percolation, would
give a daily average supply of 40 million gallons, a quantity five times in
excess of the requirement.

The sequence of these beds has been worked out lately by Mr. T. V.
Holmes (‘ Q. J. G. 8.’ 1881), and is as follows :—

J 1. Stanwix marls, 50 to 100 feet (unconformity).

2. Kirklinton sandstones, 400 to 500 feet.

(3. Gypsum marls, found in borings, 600 to 700 feet.

~ 4. St. Bees’ sandstone, about 1,500 feet thick under Carlisle.
Ls. Shaly beds.

The St. Bees’ Sandstone has been recently discovered, by Mr. Aveline,
of the Geological Survey, to be of the same age as the Penrith, and to
pass horizontally into it.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 317

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Dewar, Dr.
WituiaMson, Dr. MARSHALL Watts, Captain ABNEY, Mr. Stoney,
Professor W. N. Hartiey, Professor McLrop, Professor Carry
Foster, Professor A. K. Huntineton, Professor Emerson Rey-
NoLps, Professor REmoLp, Professor LivEinc, Lord RayLeicu,
Dr. ARTHUR SCHUSTER, and Mr. W. CHANDLER ROBERTS
(Secretary), appointed for the purpose of reporting wpon the
present state of our Knowledge of Spectrwm Analysis.

[PLATE V.]

GenERAL Mertuops or OxpseryinG AND Mappina Sprcrra.
By W. Marsuatt Warts, D.Sc.

Tue best method of measuring and mapping a spectrum must, of course,
depend on the object with which the spectrum is observed. If the
spectroscope is employed only as an auxiliary to the ordinary methods of
chemical analysis, and the object is simply to determine the presence or
absence of a metal of the alkalies or alkaline earths—say lithium or
calcium—very rough measurement only is needed ; indeed, in most cases,
the colour of the line or the general appearance of the spectrum is
sufficient. But if, on the other hand, the object is, for example, the
determination of the presence or absence of oxygen in the sun’s
atmosphere, or the description of some new spectrum observed for the
first time, the case is altogether different ; the greatest dispersive power
that the circumstances of the case will allow must be employed, and
the position of each line must be measured with the utmost accuracy
attainable by the best use of the best apparatus at command.

The spectrum may, of course, be produced either by diffraction from
a diffraction-grating or by refraction through a prism. The splendid
diffraction-gratings furnished by Rutherford give results unapproached
by any other means when the source of light is sufficiently powerful; but
the intensity of a diffraction spectrum is always so much less than that
of a dispersion spectrum that for most purposes of spectroscopy the
prism must be employed.

For the ordinary purposes of chemical analysis, nothing can be better
than a strongly-built spectroscope, provided with one prism of 60° of
dense glass, and a photograph-millimetre scale, seen by reflection at the
first surface of the prism.

It is not possible to construct instruments with exactly similar scales,
and each instrument should therefore have its readings reduced to wave-
lengths by the method of graphical interpolation, to be presently
described ; but it is convenient to have these reflected scales as nearly as
possible similar to the one given in Bunsen’s first paper.!. On this scale
the Fraunhofer lines have the following positions :—

A175 B289 C350 D50 E709 B75 F90
G 1273 H, 161-2 H, 165-7

and the Lithium, Strontium, and Thallium lines are as follows :—
Mi315 Srod1055 and 11 67°8.

' Phil. Mag. (Fourth Series) vol. xxvi. p, 247.

318 REPORT—1881.

The brass mounting in which the scale is placed is always so made as
to admit of movement horizontally, so that any division of the scale may
be adjusted to any given line. The adjustment for the Bunsen scale
is made by bringing the sodium line to 50 of the scale, the image of that
edge of the slit which does not move when the breadth of the slit is
altered being made to coincide exactly with the division 50, If this
be on the left hand of the observer, then always the position of the
left-hand edge of each line and band is to be observed, and in the case
of a faint line the slit may be opened to admit more light, and yet an
accurate reading may be obtained. This refers, of course, only to lines
which are sharply defined, and not to bands of considerable breadth.
The most convenient plan in making a map of an ordinary spectrum
is first to put down, as exactly as possible, the positions of the well-defined
lines on an ordinary lithographed millimetre scale, opening and closing
the slit as convenient, and then to go over the work again, keeping the
slit at one uniform width and noting the relative intensity of the lines
and the width and character of the bands, whether sharply defined at the
edges, or sharp at the one edge and fading away at the other, or bright
in the middle and fading away at each edge. There is no better plan
of noting the peculiarities of a spectrum than that employed by Bunsen,
in which each bright line is represented by a black mark on the paper,
whose height represents the intensity of the line.

A convenient modification of the scale used with the spectroscope for
ordinary purposes has been proposed by Professor Emerson Reynolds.!
The observing telescope carries cross wires, and as it moves from one line
to another it causes an index-finger to travel round over a divided are
on a plate of opal glass, which is feebly illuminated by a small flame.
The positions of the more important lines of the elements, whose spectra
are easily obtained with the Bunsen flame, are marked on the opal plate ;
the identification of any particular element is thus made without moving
the head away from the eyepiece of the instrument.

Very beautiful drawings of many of the ordinary spectra are given
in Lecoq de Boisbaudran’s ‘ Spectres Lumineux.’ The means of ignition
employea in producing these spectra were (1) the ordinary Bunsen flame,
(2) the spark from an induction coil (without a Leyden jar) striking on
the surface of the solution of the substance to be examined, (3) the spark
impinging on the surface of the fused salt, (4) the spark between metallic
wires. In some cases, the gas feeding the Bunsen burner was charged
with hydrochloric acid gas, by making the gas pass through a flask
containing a warm solution of hydrochloric acid. The spectra drawn
comprise the flame-spectra of cesium, rubidium, and potassium chlorides ;
barium chloride, bromide, and iodide: strontium, calcium, magnesium,
manganese, copper, and gold chlorides ; salts of sodium, hthium, thallium,
and boracic acid; and the spark-spectra of salts of potassium, sodium,
lithium, barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, chromium,
manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, zinc, cadmium, indium, tin, bismuth,
lead, antimony, copper, silver, mercury, gold, platinum, and pailadium,
besides absorption-spectra of chloride of didymium, chloride of erbium,
and potassium permanganate, Accurate drawings are given by Bunsen?
of the following spectra :—Flame-spectra of potassium, cesium, rubidium,

1 Phil, Mag. (Fifth Series) vol. v. p. 106.

2 Pogg. Ann. der Physik u. Chemie, cly. 366. Phil. Mag. (Fourth Series) vol. 1.
p. 527.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 319

thallium, sodium, lithium, calcium, strontium, and barium chlorides ;
spark-spectra of rubidium, cesium, thallium, sodium, lithium, calcium,
strontium, barium, magnesium, erbium, yttrium, cerium, lanthanum,
and didymium ; and absorption-spectra of erbium nitrate and didymium
sulphate.

It is necessary that the indications of each spectroscope should be
reduced to the common scale of wave-lengths, if the results obtained are
to be compared with those obtained with other spectroscopes: but for the
mere purpose of identifying an alkali or an alkaline earth it is not necessary
to go beyond the scale of the spectroscope itself. Photographed scales,
giving the positions of lines directly in wave-lengths, to be used instead
of the ordinary scale of equal parts, have been constructed,! but for
accurate work it is much the best to employ a scale of equal parts, and
to effect the reduction of wave-lengths separately.

It is not very often that any other means of ignition than the Bunsen
flame is employed when the spectroscope is simply used as an addition
to the ordinary means of chemical analysis. The employment of a higher
temperature, however, much extends its range even for such purposes,
and at the same time increases the difficulty of identification, and neces-
sitates more exact measurements.

A small induction coil, actuated most conveniently by some form of
battery, such as the Bichromate cell, which can be kept always ready,?
and a small Leyden jar—the inside coating connected by an insulated
wire with the one terminal of the coil, and the outside coating with the
other—furnish a spark of the necessary intensity, If platinum wires
are employed as poles, it is important that fresh wires should be taken
each time, since wires which have been used for any particular metal
often continue to give the lines of that metal with great persistency.

Bunsen? recommends as poles little cones of pure porous carbon,
impregnated with a solution of the substance under examination.
A further* difficulty in the employment of the spark with the spectroscope
for the ordinary purposes of chemical analysis arises from the constant
presence of the air-spectrum. It is necessary, therefore, to carefully map
the spectrum of air? as obtained with the coil and spectroscope, which
are to be employed, say, first with platinum wires and then with silver
wires as poles. In each case the brightest lines will be those due to air,
with the addition in the one case of the fine lines of platinum, and in the
other of those of silver. The fine lines given by the less volatile metals
are often easily distinguished from those of air by the fact that they often
extend only a short distance from each pole, and do not reach across the
whole breadth of the spectrum, while those of air are of equal width across
the whole breadth of the spectrum.

The air-lines are fainter when no jar is employed, so that with

the more volatile metals it is easier to work with the coil without a
Leyden jar.

' Roscoe and Schorlemmer’s Chemistry, vol. ii. pt. ii. p. 471. Salet, Paris Chem.
Soc., May 4, 1877.

* Bunsen, Phil. Mag. (Fourth Series), vol. 1. p. 527.

* Phil. Mag. (Fourth Series), vol. 1. p. 430.

* For other modes of procedure see Lockyer’s Studies in Spectrum Analysis,
pp. 60 and 63.
_ > Maps of the air-spectrum are given in Bunsen’s paper, Phil. Mag. (Fourth
Series), vol. ]., and in Thalén’s Determination des Longeurs @’ Onde.

320 REPORT—1881.

The best map of the bright lines of the metals is that of Thalén! (upon
the scale of wave-lengths), who, however, has employed poles of the metals
themselves and higher coil-power than is likely to be used in ordinary
laboratory work.

Otker modes of ignition, which, however, will be employed for the
most part only for special researches, are furnished by the oxy-hydrogen .
blowpipe and by the electric arc. The differences in the spectra obtained
by employing these different methods of ignition may be shortly accounted
for by the different temperature to which the substance is heated—at
low temperatures the spectra of compounds are obtained which at higher
temperatures are resolved into their elements. The Bunsen flame gives
the lowest temperature, the oxy-hydrogen flame next, then the spark from
a small coil without a Leyden jar; then comes the electric arc, the tem-
perature of which increases with the number of cells employed; then the
spark obtained with an induction coil and small jar, the temperature of
which is increased up to the highest point obtainable by increasing the
size of the coil and jar employed.

The following list of lines will be found useful in constructing the
curve of wave-lengths for a one-prism spectroscope. The wave-lengths
are given in tenth-metres? (or ten-millionths of a millimetre) ; there is
also given the approximate position of the line on Bunsen’s scale, and the
reciprocal of the wave-length, or ‘ oscillation-frequency ’—1.e. the number
of waves in one millimetre. There are many advantages in using these
‘frequencies’ instead of the wave-lengths themselves, as will be after-

wards explained.
(a) Flame Spectra.

Sealenumber. Wave-length. Oscillation-frequeney.
DAG a ying BIB. ys corn! Vi BROV Sy Feels ns So) | AASBOS
5 . 5.
Sodium . 50-0 een e Mean 5893-7 1697-58 Mean 1696:7
Thallium . 67°8 : 5351-1 : : * 18688
Magnesium* 74:5 ‘ 5184-2 F ; : 1928-94
Strontium 105°5 5 4609°0 ‘ : 3 2169°7
(b) Fraunhofer Lines.
A 17°5 : 760671 z - ° 1314-74
B 28°9 . 6869°1 : 4 ; 1455°82
C 35:0 : 6563°9 ; : ; 1523°48
5896°8 . 1695°84 i
D BOO} Ld Siege } Mean 5893-7 Heres Mean 1696:7
E 70:9 . 5270°6 - 0 189731
b, 74:5 : 5184:2 2 : : 1928°94
ppt rts cme 4:8 : 5173°6 . - : 1932°89
b,andb, . 75:0 : 5169'1 : : , 193456
ALS omy, 80 x 4862-1 ; : 5 2056'73
G 127°3 ‘ 4308°5 . - 2 2321-02
Lo et - 161:2 : 3969-2 é . : 2519°39
ES es PLGb 7 5 39341 5 2 ‘ 2541°88

1 Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Sc. Upsal., Third Series, vi. Upsala. W. Schultz, 1868.

2 A ‘tenth-metre ’ is (4) metre.

3 Least refrangible line of the (0) group, seen in the flame of burning magnesium.

4 The lines of which the oscillation-frequency is given to two decimal places are
found in Angstrém’s map, and in the B.A. catalogue of oscillation-frequencies ; those
which have only one decimal place are given on the authority of Thalén. His
numbers have been corrected for the small differences between his tables and the
table given in Angstrém’s work (‘ Recherches sur le spectre solaire,’) p. 31, and also
for the dispersion of air so as to give the wave-lengths in vacuo, All the numbers in
the above table refer therefore to the vacuum.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 321

(ce) Spark Spectra.

Scale-number Wave-length Oscillation-frequency
Cadmium. 36°79 . 6440°1 4 : : 1552°76
Lithium . 446 Ke 61039 oe : 1638°37
Copper . 53:2 : 5783-0 5 OR - 1729-21
Lead 7, Oboe ; 5608-7 Daath 4 1782:9
Cadmium. 665 ° . 5379°6 “wih ba : 18589

3 - 68:2 ; 5339'1 Ps ey : 1873°0
Copper’ . 69:9 . 5293°3 Lines ea ‘ 1889-18
x eM iah! 5218-7 See . 191617
3 75°6 - 5154-1 3 : . 1940°19
“4 ee Ce 5 5106°5 : : : 1958°29
Cadmium. 78:7 : 5086-6 4 z ‘ 1966°0
Anns - 824) . + 50066 é J - 1997-4
sl Beets) ee ae 5003-6 . . ; 1998-6
Barium . 86:2 ; 4934:9 : a ‘ 2026°37
Cadmium. 100°8 : 4678-3 : ; . 2137°56
Barium . 1088 : 4554°8 : ; ; 2195°49
a » 10:5 5 4525°7 5 : 2209-58
Calcium . 135°5 - 4227°5 : 5 - 2365°44
Barium . 147-1 c 4131-9 ¢ 3 : 2420:2
Calcium . 161-2 : 3969-2 A : : 2519°39
3 = LOD : 3934-1 ; ‘ : 2541°88

If the observer is not familiar with the Fraunhofer lines, or has diffi-
culty in recognising the particular bright lines of the metals given in the
preceding list, the following plan is recommended : First observe accurately
the positions of the lines of the ‘ flame spectra’ given, and from these
construct an interpolation-curve; then mark on the curve the wave-lengths
of the Fraunhofer lines, and so determine their positions approximately on
the scale of the spectroscope. On directing the instrument to the sun or
to a bright cloud, the Fraunhofer lines will certainly be found at or near
these positions. Now let these Fraunhofer lines be read off as exactly as
possible, and from their positions, and those of the lines of the flame-
spectra, let a more accurate interpolation-curve be drawn, and let this curve
be used to find the positions of the lines of the spark-spectra. The final
curve should be drawn when the positions of these spark-lines have been
carefully observed. If it is not convenient to make use of the spark-
spectra, a very fair curve may be constructed from the lines of the flame-
spectra and from the Fraunhofer lines, but a little trouble in obtaining as
accurate a curve as possible will be well repaid. As a sample of what
may be done with a one-prism spectroscope and reflected scale, the follow-
ing numbers, taken from Lecog de Boisbaudran, for the wave-lengths of
bismuth lines, are compared with Thalén’s numbers :—

Lecoq de Boisbaudran Thalén Lecoq de Boisbaudran Thalén
6130. ; - + 6129-0 5144. ; ‘ 5143°5
6048. . : 6050-0 5123. : , 5123°5
DFID. ®. 3 : 5716°5 4724. : : 4722-0
5552 : : 5553-0 4303. : : 4302-0
5268 = 2 : 52700 4259". : ; 4259°5
5209. : : 5208-0 ATT SOS: : ‘ 4119:0

The lines from which Lecog de Boisbaudran’s interpolation-curve was
drawn are the following :—

Scale-reading Wave-length Scale-reading Wave-length
Potassium . 65°55 4 7680 Hydrogen . 83°71 : 6562
Solar A | 72°50 : 7185 Cadmium . 86:25 : 6438
Solar B : 77°81 : 6867 Zinc : 88-00 : 6361
Lithium . 80:78 ‘ 6706 Lithium J 94:15 : 6102

1881. Y

322 REPORT—1881.

Scale-reading Wave-length Scale-reading Wave-length

Sodium - 100:00 F 5892 | Cadmium , 152°83 4677
Copper ep LOa:25 - 5781 | Strontium , 15760. 4607

» - 105-90 4 5700 | Iron , . 174:28 . 4383
Lead - 109-00 3 5607 99 ’ . 180:80 . 4307
Silver - 11400 ; 5464 | Calcium - 188:25 , 4226
Thallium . 118-40 5 5349 | Indium . . 20083, 4101
Silver - 124-40 . 5208 | Calcium 5 21633 —_w 3968
Cadmium . 130-03 ; 5085 a . ZaPA UGS pala 3933
Hydrogen . 141°75 ; 4861

The curves of the figure illustrating this report are drawn from the
same data.

The different methods of measuring the positions of the lines of a
spectrum may conveniently be put into two groups, which may be called
methods of consecutive coincidences, and methods of simultaneous coinci-
dences. The chief plans employed are the following :—

‘Consecutive Coincidences.’
(1) The graduated arc and vernier.
(2) The tangent-screw micrometer.
(3) The bright line micrometer.

‘ Simultaneous Coincidences.’
(4) The reflected scale.
(5) The double-wire micrometer eyepiece.
(6) The divided-lens micrometer.
(7) The photographic method.

It is not necessary to remark that some methods are more suitable for
a small spectroscope, and others for a large one, and again, that a par-
ticular method may be employed in one case and not in another; for
example, cross-wires can be employed with the solar spectrum or with any
spectrum of sufficient brightness, while they are useless with very faint
spectra.

A favourite plan with the opticians is that of the divided are and
vernier, in which the telescope carries cross-wires, the intersection of
which is brought to coincidence first with one line, then with a second,
and soon. This of course is a method of ‘consecutive coincidences,’ and
it is a necessary condition of obtaining correct results that the collimator
and shit shall remain rigidly in the same position and that the cross-wires
of the telescope and the vernier shall retain the same relative position
during the motion from one line to another. These conditions are attended
to in the massive construction adopted by Steinheil and some other con-
tinental makers, but are fatally disregarded -when the instrument is
constructed of slender metal, and when the collimator and observing
telescope, instead of being firmly grasped at the centre of gravity, are
merely screwed by one end into a slender upright of brass, further
weakened at the most important point by being attenuated into some
(so-called) ornamental shape. Certain precautions must be observed in
the use of a spectroscope with cross-wires to obtain good results. The
eyepiece should first be removed and so adjusted that on looking through
it at a sheet of white paper, the cross-wires are seen in sharp focus, then
replacing the eyepiece in the observing telescope removed from the
spectroscope, the telescope should be exactly focussed on a distant object.
Having replaced the telescope in the instrument, the collimator should

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 323

then be adjusted till some lines in the green—say b in the solar spectram—
are in accurate focus, The instrument is then in adjustment.! When
used on the red or blue portion of the spectrum, the focus may be adjusted
with the observing telescope, but the collimator should not be altered.

It is necessary that the ray to be measured should be in exact focus
together with the cross-wires. If this is not the case, the ray will alter
its position slightly with reference to the cross-wires, if the eye be
slightly moved. The adjustment may therefore be tested by moving the eye
slightly and observing whether the ray and the cross-wires move together.
There is also a slight movement of the rays consequent on lateral shifting
of the source of light; this is less the narrower the slit is, and the more
distant the source of light is.

Some instruments are provided with a tangent-screw micrometer,—
that is, a long screw, the head of which is divided into a hundred
equal parts, by means of which a slow motion can be given to the observ-
ing telescope, and the number of turns of the screws, and parts of a turn
necessary to carry the cross-wires from one line to another, is noted.

In the bright-line micrometer? the image of a fine slit in a brass
plate is seen by reflexion at the first surface of the prism, and so is super-
posed upon the spectrum ; the plate and slit have a slow motion given by
@ micrometer screw. This form of micrometer is specially useful with
very faint spectra, when cross-wires would be useless. In observing
with cross-wires a luminous spectrum the lines of which are faint, it is
necessary to admit a certain amount of light into the observing telescope,
sufficient to illuminate the wires (conveniently by raising an edge of the
cloth used to cover up the prisms). This general light renders very faint
lines invisible. In all these methods of consecutive coincidences it is neces-
sary that no shifting of the parts of the instrument by bending or shaking,
nor any disturbance of the position of the source of light, nor of the exact
position of the eye, should take place during the passage of the cross-
wires from one line to the next. In the methods of ‘simultaneous coin-
cidences ’ all these sources of error are avoided by observing at the same
instant two lines—one a known line, used as a referencé line, and the
other the line to be measured.

The method of the reflected photographed scale, already described at
some length, may be employed as a method of simultaneous coincidences,
and so made more exact if, when the reading of any line is noted, care
be taken to observe that the sodium-line is still exactly at 50; or if the
sodium-line is not in the field, then that some other line used as reference
line is exactly in its right position at the moment of observation.

The most. accurate measuring instrument for use with large spectro-
scopes is the bifilar micrometer eyepiece. This is an eyepiece similar
to those employed for astronomical purposes, provided with two crosses of
fine spider-lines in the focus of the eyepiece, which must therefore be of
the Ramsden construction. One of these cross-wires remains fixed; the
other is moved by means of a micrometer screw. The interval between
the line to be measured and a line of known wave-length can thus be
determined with great precision, In taking an observation, a slight
motion is given to the fixed cross-wires by means of the slow motion or
tangent screw of the observing telescope, the micrometer screw of the

* For a different method of adjusting the collimator of a spectroscope, see a paper
by Dr. Schuster, Phil. Mag. [5] vii. 95.

* Microscopical Jowrnal, January 1870.

y¥2

324 REPORT—1881.

eyepiece being at the same time adjusted by the other hand, till the
observer is satisfied that each line is truly coincident with the intersec-
tion of the corresponding spider-lines.

Another device for measuring the interval between two lines, quite
equal in accuracy to the bifilar micrometer, is that of the divided-lens
micrometer.! In this instrument the micrometer screw moves one-
half of alens placed just in front of the prisms, and divided along a
horizontal diameter. The effect is to cause one-half of the spectrum to
move along under the other half, and the sodium or any other conve-
nient line is used as a substitute for the cross-wires, and is brought into
coincidence with each of the lines to be measured. It will be seen that
the necessity of admitting extraneous light to illuminate cross-wires is
avoided, and this instrument can therefore be used in faint spectra with
precision.

The photographic method is, of course, a method of simultaneous
coincidences, inasmuch as the positions of the known lines which are
employed as reference lines are recorded at the same instant as those of
the unknown lines.

The bifilar or the divided-lens micrometer may have fitted to it a
device for mapping the spectrum at the same time that the positions of
the lines are measured. For this purpose the steel rod on which the
screw of the micrometer is cut is made about three times as long, and the
extra length has cut on it a much coarser thread. , On this there travels
a little brass piece carrying a steel point, with which a trace can be made
on a slip of blackened glass. We thus obtain a mark on the blackened
strip of glass corresponding to each line of the spectrum. The map so
made has the defect of representing all lines, whether intense or weak,
exactly alike; but it would be easy to alter it, so as to limit at pleasure
‘the length of stroke of the tracing point. <A bright line would then be
denoted by a long trace, and a weak line by a short one. The same
instrument might easily be made available for measuring the positions of
‘the lines in the photograph of a spectrum, since, of course, to take a
photograph of a mass of lines in a spectrum is not to have measured the
wave-length of these lines, or to have determined their chemical origin.

Another instrnment—very useful in measuring photographed spectra,
‘or in drawing maps of spectra from measurements—is Beckley’s spectro-
graph. This consists of a brass cylinder, on which the photograph is
stretched, and the edge of the cylinder is graduated and provided with a
vernier. There is also a straight edge, which can be brought down upon
the photograph parallel to the lines of the spectrum. Lach line in suc-
cession is brought up to the straight edge, and the position of the cylinder
is read off by means of the vernier. The instrument is generally gra-
duated into degrees and minutes, but it is desirable that it should carry
also (on the.other edge) a division into millimetres, the vernier reading
to the tenth of a millimetre. The accuracy of reading is increased by
substituting for the straight edge a small microscope with a 3-inch ob-
jective, and with cross-wires in the eyepiece.

We have already remarked the necessity of reducing the numbers—
by whatever instrument obtained—to a uniform scale.

The scale to be employed must be applicable to all spectroscopes
alike, and must be independent of the peculiar construction of the instru-

1 Phil. Mag. August 1875. Proc. Physical Society, vol. i. p. 160.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 325

ment—the number, position, and refracting angle of the prisms, the
dispersive power of the material of which they are made, of variations in
the temperature, and of all other disturbing causes. It is clear that in
such a method each line can be mapped only by means of its colour, that
is to say, by the length of the wave of light by which it is produced ;
and a spectrum so represented must be such a one as is produced by dif-
fraction, and not by dispersion. Dispersion-spectra obtained by the use
of prisms of different materials vary greatly in the relative breadth of
the colours, so that in mapping a spectrum it is by no means sufficient
to give the positions of only two or three lines as points of reference.
Many otherwise valuable observations of spectra are entirely useless from
the insufficient number of reference lines observed.

Three spectroscopes (each with a single prism and reflected scale),
constructed by Duboscq and intended to be exactly alike, differed as shown
in the following table. The numbers show the difficulty of constructing
two instruments with exactly similar scales :—

Lines observed Spectroscope !

, No. 1 No. 2 No. 3
Potassium . ; 65°6 A ; 64:0 4 : 68:0
Lithium f 4 80°8 7 i 80:0 3 4 81:5
Sodium : A 100°0 : : 100:0 : S 100°0
Thallium . A 118-4 : : 119-0 : 117°5
Strontium . : 157°6 : - 160-0 - ; 152°5
Rubidium . : 189-9 : : 195-0 A ; 183-0
Potassium . : 207°4 A 214:0 J 5 198-0

In a diffraction-spectrum the position of the lines is dependent solely
on their colour, and is precisely the same by whatever method the spec-
trum is obtained.

The following table shows the relative positions occupied by the
Fraunhofer lines B D E F G in dispersion-spectra, produced by prisms of
60° of crown glass, of flint glass, and of carbon disulphide, with which are
compared the positions of the same lines in a spectrum produced by
diffraction. The interval between B and G is in each case divided into
1,000 equal parts.

DIsPERSION Carbon DIFFRACTION
Crown Glass Flint Glass Disulphide
1B ‘ 0 : : 0 . c 0 ¢ * 0
D 236 A : 220 ; : 194 j 6 381
E 451 3 : 434 : q 400 és : 624
F 644 : : 626 : . 590 : é 784
Gi. 1000 ‘ . 1000 = . 1000 . . 1000

It will be noticed that the blue end of the spectrum is more compressed
in the diffraction-spectrum than in any of the dispersion-spectra, and the
red end is correspondingly lengthened out.

In order that the results obtained by different observers may be com-
parable, either the spectra must be obtained directly by the method of
sae Wee! or the results obtained with the prism must be reduced to wave-

engths.

The admirable determinations of the wave-lengths of the chief solar
lines which we owe to Angstrém, will of course form the basis of the
reduction to wave-lengths, or when more convenient the measurements
based upon them of the bright lines of metallic spectra made by Thalén.
In the choice of reference-lines regard will of course be had to the accuracy

1 Spectres Lumineux, p. 4.

326 REPORT—1881.

of the measurements, since the wave-lengths of all lines are not known
with equal accuracy.

If the wave-lengths are to be determined accurately to five figures,
it is desirable to use as reference lines those only which are found in
Angstroém’s map, or in the B. A. map of oscillation-frequencies.

The wave-length of the line to be measured may be calculated from
those of two known lines between which it falls by means of the formula :

Ne=S See oe

z Ne —.1y, Nz — Ng
Az” ie Ay?

where 3 and , are the readings on the scale of the spectroscope of
the two known lines, A, and A, their wave-lengths, 7. the reading of the
line to be measured, and \, its wave-length. It is desirable that the two
known lines should be as close to the one to be measured as possible ;
when sufficiently close the above formula gives the same result as a simple
proportion.

To give an idea of the accuracy of the results obtainable by use of the
above formula we may suppose the problem to be to determine the wave-
length of a certain strontium line from the wave-lengths of the following
three pairs of lines between which it lies. The actual wave-length of the
line in question, as given by Thalen (corrected), is 5533°64. The scale-
readings are Kirchhoff’s :—

Case 1. m, = 1274-2 A, = 5534:21 Here the formula and simple pro-
Me = 12747 portion both give A, = 5533°60.
1276-2

6 A, = 553177
Case 2. », = 1268:0 A, = 554210 The formula gives 5534:00, and a
M, = 1274°7 simple proportion gives 5534-01.
ng = 1281°3 A, = 5526-05
Case 3, m, = 1242°6 A, = 5571°82 Here the formula gives 5533°82,
Ny = 12747 and a_ simple proportion
M, = 1306-7 A; = 549674 5534-22.

But a far more convenient plan, and one quite equal to the above in
accuracy, is that of graphical interpolation, which has also the great
advantage of enabling us to detect at once any reading inconsistent with
the rest, so giving the best mean result of all the observations.

A scale of wave-lengths is marked off along one edge of a sheet of
paper ruled into squares (inches and tenths or millimetres), and the edge
at right angles to this has a scale marked on it corresponding to the scale
of the instrument. The positions of as many lines as can be ascertained
with precision are mapped on the paper, and a smooth curve is then
drawn through all these points, or through as many as possible, and
having the rest as near the curves as possible, and as many above as
below. In this way one observation is corrected by another, and the
curve is more likely to give correct results than an irregular line made up
of many straight portions which would pass through all of the points.
The position of a line to be measured being found on the curve, will have
opposite to it the wave-length sought. Various devices may be employed to
facilitate the drawing of the curve. A smooth thin steel rule, which can
he bent by the hands into the curve required, will be found useful. It
requires, however, the co-operation of two persons—one to hold the rule

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ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 327

down on the paper (stretched on a drawing-board), and the other to rule
the curve with a finely pointed hard pencil. The author of this report
employs a little drawing instrument consisting of a steel bar, mounted on
a brass base which rests on the paper. By means of clamping-screws the
steel bar can be held bent in the required curve, whether of equal curvature
throughout its length, or more curved in one part than another.

A somewhat different method of procedure is described in a paper by
Mr. Wm. Dodgson in the sixth volume of the third series of the ‘ Memoirs
of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester.’

The best paper for the purpose is a paper ruled into millimetres and
centimetres made in rolls 69 centimetres broad, which may be obtained
through Messrs. Williams and Norgate, 14, Henrietta Street, Covent
Garden, or a somewhat similar paper to be obtained from Messrs.
Lechertier, Barbe and Co., of 60, Regent Street. These papers are more
uniform and free from shrinkage than any others. Another paper also
ruled in millimetres, in sheets 1 metre by 7 decimetres, is to be obtained
from C. Dupressoir, Rue St. Honoré, 175, Paris. A paper, ruled in inches
and tenths, 24 inches by 15 inches, is to be obtained from Waterlow and
Sons, 60 and 61, London Wall, but it is hardly uniform enough for the
purpose. Some trouble expended in drawing a good curve will be very
well repaid. The line obtained in this way will generally be very much
curved, but the less curved it is the more easily is it drawn and the more
exactly can it be employed. A less curved line is obtained by using the
reciprocals of the wave-lengths instead of the wave-lengths themselves.!
The adoption of this scale of inverse wave-lengths or of oscillation-
frequencies is strongly recommended by a Committee of the British
Association, under whose superintendence a catalogue? of oscillation-
frequencies and a corresponding map of the Fraunhofer lines have been
prepared. It is hoped that this catalogue will be extended to the bright
lines of metals not present in the sun’s atmosphere.

The map of oscillation-frequencies is intermediate between a diffraction-
spectrum and a dispersion-spectrum, the red end being less extended when
compared with the blue end than in Angstrém’s map, and more extended
than in Kirchhoff’s. A map drawn to wave-lengths is too much dis-
torted to be advantageously employed with a dispersion-spectroscope, and,
on the other hand, a spectrum mapped with a dispersion-spectroscope
does not sufficiently resemble the same spectrum seen with a diffraction-
spectroscope; but a map of oscillation-frequencies, being intermediate
between the two, is not so different from either but that it is suitable for
use both with diffraction-spectroscopes and with dispersion-spectroscopes.
Further rays which are harmonically related are represented in the map
of oscillation-frequencies by equidistant lines and in the catalogue by an
arithmetic series whose common difference is equal to its first term. The
map accompanying this report shows the scale of a one-prism spectroscope
reduced both to wave-lengths and to oscillation-frequencies. It will be
seen that the second line is much less curved than the first.

1 If the squares of the reciprocals be employed the interpolation curve will be
very nearly (but only nearly) a straight line.
* British Association Report, 1878, Dublin Meeting.

328 REPORT—1 881.

PAPERS
SINCE 1870.

CONNECTED WITH SPECTRUM ANALYSIS PUBLISHED

List of Periodicals to which References are given.

‘ Philosophical Transactions of the Royal See of
London’

‘Proceedings of the Royal Society of London’

‘ Philosophical Magazine’

‘ Journal of the Chemical Society of London ’ ‘ .

‘ Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
of London’ .

‘ Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Cam-
bridge’

‘ Proceedings
Society’

«Journal of ‘the Iron and Steel Institute ’

‘Nature’

‘American Journal of Science and Art’ (Silliman’ 8)

‘ Proceedings of the American Academy’ .

‘ Journal of the Franklin Institute’

‘Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des ‘Sciences’

‘ Annales de Chimie et de Physique ’

‘Bulletin de la Société Chimique de Paris’

‘Journal de Physique’.

‘ Bulletins de l’Académie Royale de Belgique’ .

‘ Archives Néerlandaises’

‘Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles de
Genéve’.

* Annalen der Phy sik und Chemie

« Beibliitter zu der Annalen der Physik und Chemie ;

* Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie’

‘ Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft :

‘ Journal fiir praktische Chemie’

* Dingler’s polytechnischer Journal ’

‘Monatsberichte der Koniglich preussischen Aka-
demie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin’

* Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Wien’

‘Berichte tiber die Ve thandlungen der Kiniglich
sichsischen Gesellschaft der “Wissenschaften vAN
Leipzig’ .

‘ Sitzungsberichte der Kéniglich baierischen Akade-
mie zu Miinchen’

‘ Sitzungsberichte der phys. -medicinischen Societiit
zu Erlangen’ . ?

. Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforscher- Gesellschaft
in Ziirich’ . é < : : : ;

‘Wiener Anzeiger’ . 3 5 = : > .

‘ Zeitschrift fiir Chemie ’

‘ Zeitschrift fiir analytische Chemie ’ :

‘ Zeitschrift fiir Kr ystallographie und Miner alogi eS

of the Manchester Philosophical

‘Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie’. : ‘
‘ Pfltiger’s Archiv fiir Physiologie ’ 3 4 A ‘
‘ Zeitschrift fiir Biologie’ . 2 g

‘ Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie’

‘Chemisches Centralblatt ’ : ;

* Astronomische Nachrichten’ A
“ Memorie della Societa degli Spettroscopisti Italiani’
‘Gazzetta Chimica Italiana’ . . . : .

Abbreviations.

‘Phil. Trans.’
‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’
‘Phil. Mag.’

‘J. Chem. Soc.’

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
‘Proc. Phil. Soc. Camb.’

© Proc. Man. Phil. Soc.’
‘J. Iron and Steel Inst.’
‘Nature.’

SAMs. de?

‘Proc. Am. Acad.’

‘J. Franklin Inst.’

Cr Op it

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’
‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’

‘J. de Phys.’

‘Bull. de l’Acad. de Belgique.’
‘Archives Néerlandaises.’

* Arch. de Genéve.’
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

‘ Beiblitter.’

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
‘ Ber.’

‘J. pr. Chem.”

*Dinel. J.’

* Monatsb. Berl. Akad.’
‘Sitzungsb. Wien. Akad.’

‘ Ber. K. siichs. Ges. d. Wiss.’

‘ Sitzungsb. Akad. Miinchen.’
‘ Sitzungsb. phys.-med. Soc. Er-
langen.’
‘Vierteljahrsschr. Naturf. Ges.
Ziirich.’
‘Wien. Anz.’
‘ Zeitschr. f. Chem.'
‘ Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem.’
‘Zeitschr. f. Kryst. u. Min.’
‘ Jahrb. f. Mineral.’
‘ Pfliiger’s Archiv f. Physiol.’
‘ Zeitschr. f. Biol.’
‘ Zeitschr. f. physiol. Chem.”
‘Chem. Centr.’
‘ Astron. Nachr.’
‘Mem. Spettr. Ital.’
‘Gazz. Chim. Ital.’

ON

Cc. A. Young

S. Merz .
H. Grubb

R.A. Proctor .

W. Huggins

‘J. Miiller.

F. Kohlrausch .

A. Secchi.

»”» .
H. Fleck . g

”

J. Browning

R. A. Proctor .

A. Crova ; 4

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

INSTRUMENTAL, 1870, 1871.

INSTRUMENTAL.

1870.
Spectroscopic Notes. (Oct. 3, 1870.) ;

On a Small Universal Stellar Spec-
troscope. (Noy. 1870.)

Automatic Spectroscope for
Huggins’s Sun Observations.

Dr.

On a Contrivance for extending the
principle of Mr. Browning’s Auto-
matic Spectroscope to a second
battery of Prisms. (Read Dec. 9.)

1871.

On a_ Registering Spectroscope.
(Recd. Jan. 14, 1871. Read Feb. 16,
1871.)

Eine Interferenz-Scala fiir das Spec-
troskop.

Combination der Interferenzscala

"|. mit der photographischen Spectral-

scala.

Ueber ein einfaches Mittel, die
Ablenkung oder Zerstreuung eines
Lichtstrahles zu vergréssern. (April
1871.)

Hine neue Methode, die Sonne spec-
troskopisch zu beobachten.

New Spectroscopic Combination.

(April 19.)

Ueber die Anwendung eines Reflec-
tors bei Spectraluntersuchungen,

Note on the Use of Compound
Prisms. (Read May 12.)

A Contrivance for a Double Auto-

matic Spectroscope, with Com-
pound Prisms on Mr. Grubb’s
‘plan. (Read May 12.)

329

‘J. Franklin Inst.’ lx.
331-340; ‘Nature,’ iii.
110-113:

‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xli. 129-
132,

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxi. 36-38.

‘ Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxi. 47-48.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xix. 317—
318; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [4]
xli’ 544-546; ‘Ann.
Chim. et Phys.’ [4] xxvi.
275-276 ; ‘Chem. News,’
xxiii. 98.

‘Dingl. J.’ cxcix. 133-145.

‘Dingl. J. cxcix. 268-
271.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exliii. 147-149.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exliii. 154-155; ‘Ann.
Chim. et Phys.’ [4] xxvi.
276-277.(Abs.)

‘Am. J.’ [3] i. 463-464 ;
‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
Xxxi. 202-2038.

‘J. pr. Chem.’ [2] iii. 352—
355 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2]
ix. 857 (Abs.) _

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
Xxxi, 203-205.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxi. 205-208.

Sur les phénoménes d'interférence |‘ C. R.’ Lxxii. 855-858.

produits par les réseaux paralleéles.
(Read June 26.)

°

330

E. Lommel

Alvergniat

H. C, Sorby

A. Secchi .
L. Schoénn

C. A. Young

M. Th, Edelmann

J. Browning

”»

A. Crova .

Hon. J. W. Strutt

Timiraesef

H. R. Procter .

”»

F, Zollner

B, Stewart

REPORT—1881.

INSTRUMENTAL, 1871-1873.

Gefarbte Gelatinblittchen als Ob-
jecte fiir das Spectroskop. (July
26, 1871.)

Sur des tubes lumineux 4 électrodes
extérieures. (Read Aug. 28.)

On the best Form of Compound
Prism for the Spectrum Microscope.

Note sur un nouveau moyen d'ob-
server les éclipses et les passages
de Vénus. (Read Oct. 23.)

Ueber die Anwendung cylindrischer
Linsen bei Spectralbeobachtungen.
(Nov, 20.)

Spectroscopic Notes. ° . .

1872.

Ueber eine neue Methode der ob-
jectiven Darstellung von Metall-
spectren,

- | On an Universal Automatic Spectro-

scope. (Read March 8.)

'On a Tele-Spectroscope for Solar
Observations. (Read March 8.)

| Sur les phénoménes d’interférence
produits par les réseaux paralléles,
(Read April 1.)

Preliminary Note on the Reproduc-
tion of Diffraction-gratings by
means of Photography. (Recd.
May 23, Read June 20.)

Hine neue Methode fiir spectral-
analytische Untersuchungen. (S.
Petersburg, Mar. 27.)

Italian Spectroscopy . ° .

Ona Measuring Apparatus for Direct-
vision Spectroscopes.

Measurement of Faint Spectra. (Oct.
22.)

Ueber das spectroskopische Rever-
sionsfernrohr. (Read July 1.)

1873.

The Janssen-Lockyer Application of
the Spectroscope.

‘Sitzungsber. phys.-med.
Soc. zu Erlangen,’ 1871,
105-106 ; ‘ Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ exliii. 656-657 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] x.
118 (Abs.) ; ‘Ann. Chim.
et Phys.’ [4] xxvi. 279
(Abs.)

SCiR. sxe 66s) a.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] ix. 1141
(Abs.)

‘Nature, iv. 511-512.

°C. R.’ Ixxili. 984-985.

‘Ann, Phys. wu. Chem.'
exliv. 334-3365.

‘Nature,’ v. 85-88.

*Chem. Centr.’ 1872, 691;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.
461 (Abs.)

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxii. 213-214,

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxii. 214-215.

°C. R.’ Ixxiv. 932-936.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xx. 414—
417; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [4]
xliv. 392-394; ‘Am. J.’
[3] v. 216-217 (Abs.) ;
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
clii. 175-176 (Abs.).

‘Ber.’ v.328-329 (Abs.) ;
«J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] x.
1113 (Abs.) *

‘ Nature,’ vi. 465-466.

ys «Ss Yi. Ai
» ‘V1. 534.

‘Ber. d. K. siichs. Ges. d.
Wiss.’ xxiv. 129-134;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xliv.
417-421; ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ cxlvii. 617-623.

‘Nature,’ vii. 301-302.

W. Huggins °

B. Stewart
H. R. Procter

2
J. Browning

%»
F. P. le Roux

C, A, Young

M. Th. Edelmann

0. N. Rood

H. Emsmann

“H. Draper

C. V. Zenger

J. L. Soret

H. Vogel ©

Lord Rayleigh

A. Mousson

J. M. Blake

T. Grubb.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

' INSTRUMENTAL, 1873, 1874.

Professor Balfour Stewart on the
Spectroscope.

The Janssen-Lockyer Method . F

Glass Reading-Seales for Direct-
vision Spectroscopes.

Direct-Vision Micrometer Scale for
Pocket Spectroscopes.

On a large Automatic Spectroscope.
(Read April 9.)

On a Spectrometer. (Read April 9.)

Sur un illuminateur spectral. (Read

April 21.)

Note on the use of a diffraction
‘erating’ as a substitute for the
train of prisms in a Solar Spectro-
scope. (May 9.)

Apparat zur Objectivdarstellung der
Metallspectren. (May 1.)

On a Convenient Eye-piece Micro-
meter for the Spectroscope. (June
4.)

Hin Spectroskop & vision directe mit
nur einem Prisma,

On Diffraction Spectrum Photo-
graphy.

On a New Spectroscope. (Oct. 17.)
1

‘1874.
Spektroscop mit fluorescirendem

Ocular.

chemischen Wirkung des Sonnen-
spektrums und iiber einen Apparat
zur Messung derselben. (Jan. 5.
Read Jan. 12.)

On the Manufacture and Theory of
Diffraction-Gratings.

Bemerkungen iiber die Einrichtung
eines Dispersiometers. (July 1872.)

Notes on Diffraction Gratings. (Mar.
1874.)

On the Improvement of the Spectro-
scope. (Recd. April 30. Read April
30.)

Ueber die Schwankungen in der)

331

‘Nature,’ vil. 320-321.

» vil, 381-382.

«Chem. News,’ xxvii. 149
150.

rt) xxvii. 150.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxiii. 410-411.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxiii. 411.

‘OC, BR.’ Lxxvi. 998-1000.

«Am. J? [8] v. 472-473 ;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlvi.
87-88; ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ clii. 368 (Abs.)

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.’
cxlix. 119-122.

‘Am. J.’ [3] vi. 44-45;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlvi.
176.

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.’
cl. 636-640.

‘Am. J” vi. 401-409;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlvi.
417-425; ‘Nature,’ ix.
224-296; ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ cli. 337-350.

‘Phil. Mag, [4] xlvi. 439-
445.

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.’
Jubelband, 407-411.

‘Ber.’ vii. 88-92; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] xii. 424
(Abs.) ; ‘Am. J.’ [3] vii.
414-415.

‘Phil. Mag!’ [4] xlvii.
81-93, 193-205.

‘ Vierteljahrsschr. Naturf.
Ges. Ziirich,’ 1872, 213-
225; ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ cli. 137-147.

«Am. J. [3] viii. 33-39.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxii.
308-309; ‘Phil. Mag.’
[4] xlviii. 532-534;
©CGhem. News,’ xxix.
222-223.

aan

332

G. G. Stokes

F. Kessler |

W.H,M. Christie .

J. L, Soret

F, Zollner

_W. Simms "

Prazmowski

H. G. Madan ;

J. G. Hofmann

B. Delachanal and A.

Mermet.

‘B. Delachanal and A,

Mermet.

F. Kingdon

J. C. Draper

B. Delachanal and A.

Mermet.

H. W. Vogel

H. C. Sorby

REPORT—1881,

INSTRUMENTAL, 1874, 1875.
Note on the preceding Paper .

. | Ueber das einfache euthyoptrische

Spectroscop. (Mar. 3.)

Note on the Curvature of Lines in
the Dispersion Spectrum, and the
Method of correcting it. (March
10.)

Spectroscope a oculaire fluorescent.

Ueber ein einfaches Ocular-spectro-
skop fiir Sterne. (Read April 23.)

- |Note on a Paper by Mr. Christie,

‘On a Method of Correcting the
Curvature of the Lines of the Dis-
persion Spectrum.’ (May 4. Read
June 12.)

Sur l’'achromatisme chimique. (Read
July 13.)

On an Improvement in the Construc-
tion of the Spectroscope. (July 18.)

Sur un nouveau modéle de prisme
pour spectroscope a vision directe.
(Read Aug. 31.)

Tube spectro-électrique ou fulgurator,
destiné a l’observation des spectres
des solutions métalliques. (Read
Oct. 5.)

Tube spectro-électrique ou fulgurator,
appareil destiné 4 l’observation de
spectres des solutions métalliques.

. | On an Improvement of the Bunsen
Burner for Spectrum Analysis.

1875.

- | Projection of the Fraunhofer Lines
of Diffraction and Prismatic Spec-
tra on a Screen. (Noy. 25, 1874.)

Schwefelkohlenstoff - Stickoxydgas-
lampe und ihre Anwendung auf
Photographie.

Beschreibung eines héchst einfachen
Apparats um das Spectrum zu pho-
tographiren. (Jan. 1875.)

On a New and Improved Microscope
Spectrum Apparatus, and on its
Application to various branches of
Research. (Read April 7.)

. | § Proc.

Roy. Soc. xxii.
309-310; ‘Phil. Mag.’
[4] xlviii. 534,

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’ cli.
507-510,

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xXxxiv. 263-265...

‘Arch. de Genéve,’ [2] xlix.
338-343 ; ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ ‘clii. 167-171.
‘Am. J.’ [3] viii. 64-65.

‘Ber. d. K. siichs. Ges.
d. Wiss.’ xxvii. 24-25;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xviii.
156-157; ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ clii. 503-5905.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxiv. 363-364. .

oC) Rei, O70).
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xii.
1125 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlviii.
116.

GR.’ Ixxix. 681.

°C. R.’ Ixxix. 800-802.

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [5]
iii. 485-489 ; ‘Ann. Phys.
u. Chem.’ cly. 474-477.

‘Chem. News,’ xxx. 259.

‘Am. J.’ [3] ix. 22-24;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlix.
142-144,

‘Dingl. J.” cexiv. 483-485.

‘Ann. Phys. u, Chem.’ cliv.
306-207.

‘Monthly’ Mic. J.’ xiii.
198-208.

st

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

W.M.Watts .

B. Delachanal and A.
Mermet.

R. Bunsen

H. C. Sorby

T. H. Marvin .
J. N. Lockyer .

B.Delachanal and A.
Mermet.

G.W. Royston-Pigott

F. Kessler ‘

W. Baily. .

J. L. Soret
Stoney . .

Van Monckhoven

‘W. H. M. Christie

INSTRUMENTAL, 1875-1877.

On a New Form of Micrometer for
use in Spectroscopic Analysis.
(Read June 26.)

Nouveau tube spectro-électrique (ful-
gurator modifié.) (Read Oct. 26.)

Spectralanalytische Untersuchungen.

On a new Method of measuring the
Position of the Bands in Spectra.
(Read Nov. 3.)

1876.

On the Production of Spectra by the
Oxyhydrogen Flame. (Dec. 16,
1875.)

Some Recent Methods of Spectro-
scopy.
Nouveau tube spectro-électrique

On a new Refractometer for measur-
ing the Mean Refractive Index of
Plates of Glass and Lenses by the
employment of Newton’s Rings.
(Recd. Mar. 19. Read Mar. 23.)

Vorlesungsversuch: Objective Dar-
stellung des Sonnenspectrums.
(April 1876. Read April 10.)

A New Arrangement for the Micro-
meter of the Automatic Spectro-
scope.

Spectroscope 4 oculaire fluorescent.
Seconde note.

Nouveau Spectroscope

1877.

Sur les moyens propres a la re-

production photographique des
spectres ultra-violets du _ gaz.
(Read Feb. 3.)

On the Magnifying-power of the
Half-prism as a means of obtain-
ing great Dispersion, and on the
General Theory of the Half-prism
Spectroscope. (Recd. Jan.25. Read
Mar. 1.)

333

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ i. 160—
164; ‘Phil. Mag,’ [4] 1.
81-85; ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ clvi. 313-318.

‘C. R.’ Ixxxi. 726-728;
‘Nature,’ xiii. 74-75.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’ cly.
230-252, 366-384 ; «Phil.
Mag.’ [4] 1. 417-430,
527-539; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
1876, i. 665-667 (Abs.)

‘Monthly Mic. JY
269-273.

XIV.

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] i. 67-68 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ 1876, ii.
156,(Abs,)

‘Chem. News,’ xxxiii. 29,

. |‘ Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [2] xxv.

194-197; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
1876, ii, 35-36 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxiv.
393-399.

“Ber.” ix. 577-578; «J.
Chem. Sac.’ 1876, ii. 266
(Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5]i. 314-315.

‘Arch, de Genéve,’ [2] lvii.
319-333 ; ‘Ann. Chim.
et Phys.’ [5] xi. 72-86 c
‘Am. J.’ [3] xiv. 415_
416:(Abs.) ; ‘Beiblitter,’
i. 190-192 (Abs.)

‘Monit. Scient.’ [3] vi.
657.

‘Bull. de l’Acad. de Bel-
gique’ [2] xliii. 187-192 ;
‘ Béibliitter,’ i, 286-287
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxvi. 8—
40; ‘ Beibliitter,’ i. 556 -
561 (Abs.)

334

A. Hilger °

S. P. Langley .

” e .
PGlan”, ° .

A. Cazin . . 3

H.W. Vogel . .

W. Baily. ° :

Lavaut de Lestrade

C. Giinther . ;

G. Hiiffner = -

J. Luvini. ®

Moigno . ’ .

Lavaut de Lestrade
J. Luvini a °

Lavaut de Lestrade

y.Zahn ,. . °

J. E. Reynolds A

L. Thollon °

REPORT—1881.

INSTRUMENTAL, 1877, 1878.

Neues geradsichtiges Taschenspec-
troskop.

A proposed New Method in Solar
Spectrum Analysis. (April 14.)

Nouvelle méthode spectroscopique.
(Read May 21.)

Ueber ein neues Photometer, (May
10.)

Sur la photographie du spectre de
létincelle électrique.

Spectroskopische Notizen. I. Hin
Universalstativ fiir Benutzung des
Taschenspectroskops. II. Ueber
die Untersuchungen von Himbeer-
saft. (July 1877. Read July 23.)

A New Automatic Motion for the
Spectroscope.

Nouveau moyen de recomposer la
lumiére du spectre solaire.

Ueber ein einfaches Verfahren, die
Umkehrung der farbigen Linien
der Flammenspectra, insbesondere
der Natriumlinie, subjectiv darzu-
stellen, (July 7.)

Ueber quantitative Spectralanalyse
und ein neues Spectrophotometer,

Miroir tremblant pour la recomposi-
tion des couleurs du spectre.

Nouvelle méthode pour projeter les
spectres.

Recomposition de la lumiére spec-
trale.

Recomposition de la Iumiére spec-
trale,

Miroir tournant pour la recomposi-
tion de la lumiére spectrale.

1878.
Ueber ein Spectrophotometer. (Read
Jan. 8.)

On a New Form of Measuring Ap-
paratus for a Laboratory Spectro-
scope. (Read Feb. 19, 1877.)

Nouveau spectroscope 4 vision directe.
(Read Feb, 4.)

‘ Beiblatter,’ i, 124-125,

‘Am. J.” [3] xiv. 140=
146; ‘Beiblatter,’ i. 621
(Abs.)

°C. RY Ixxxiv. 1145-1147;
‘ Beibliitter,’ i, 471-472.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. i. 351-360,

‘Bull. Soc. Philom. de
Paris, 187%" [74] L1G—ae
‘ Beiblitter,’ i, 287-288
(Abs.)

‘Ber.’ x. 1428-1432; ¢J.
Chem. Soc.’ 1877, ii. 915
(Abs.); § Beibliitter,’ ii.
31-33 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] iv. 100-
104.

‘Les Mondes,’ xlii. 579—
580; ‘ Beiblitter,’ i, 290
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’N.F.
ii. 477-478,

‘J. pr. Chem,’ 1877, xvi.
290-313,

‘Les Mondes,’ xliii, 427—
429; ‘Beiblitter,’ i, 556
(Abs.)

‘Les Mondes,’ xliii. 554—
555; ‘ Beiblatter,’ i. 555—
556.

‘Les Mondes,’ xliii, 828—
830.

‘Les Mondes,’ xliv. 97—
$1)

‘Les Mondes,’ xliv. 416—
417, :

‘Ber. Naturf. Ges. Leip-
zig.’ v. 1-4,

‘Scientif. Proc. Roy. Dub.
Soc.’ New Series, i. 5-9;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] v. 106—
110; ‘Chem. News,’
xxxvil. 115-116.

©C, Ri Texxyin 329-33) *
‘Beiblatter,’ ii, 253-254
(Abs.)

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

J. N, Lockyer .

W. Erck . ’

H.W.Vogel .

J. N. Lockyer .
Thollon . ‘
A.S. Herschel .

V.y.Lang .

A. Thollon ‘

LL. Laurent ,. 5

G. Hiifner 5

F,v. Lepel .

Piazzi Smyth . .

iT] °
Tai och) at a
Thollon , . i

A. Schuster . “

A. Crova . Fy -

G. D. Liveing and J,
Dewar.

INSTRUMENTAL, 1878, 1879.

On the Use of the Reflecting Grating
in Eclipse Photography. (Recd.
Feb. 8. Read Feb. 14.)

Improvements in a Solar Spectro-
scope made by Mr. Grubb for Pro-
fessor Young. (Read March 8.)

Ueber einen Universalapparat zu
spektroskopischen Beobachtungen.
(May 22.)

An Eclipse Spectroscope . °
Nouveau spectroscope . .

Measuring Scales for Pocket Spectro-
scopes.

Verbindung des Spektralapparates
mit dem Axenwinkelapparate,

1879.

Nouveau prisme composé, pour spec-
troscope 4 vision directe, de trés
grand pouvoir dispersif. (Read
Jan. 13.)

Sur le spectroscope de M. Thollon,
(Read Jan. 13.)

Ueber eine niitzliche Vereinfachung
des Spectralapparates.

Ein neues Universalstativ fiir die
Benutzung des Taschenspectro-
skopes. (Recd. Feb. 13.)

Illumination in Spectroscopy. (Ab-
stract of paper upon ‘ End-on in
place of Transverse Illumination in
Private Spectroscopy.’)

End-on Gas Vacuum Tubes in Spec-
troscopy. (Feb. 28.)

Combinazioni
visione diretta,

spettroscopiche a
(March 1879.)

Spectroscopes 4 vision directe et 4
grande dispersion.

An Easy Method for Adjusting the
Collimator of a Spectroscope,

Note sur les spectrophotométres

Note on a Direct-vision Spectroscope
after Thollon’s Plan, adapted to
Laboratory Use and capable of
giving exact Measurements. (Recd.
April 3. Read April 3.)

335

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxvii.
107-108,

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
XXXViil. 331-332.

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1878, 335 ;
‘J.. Chem. Soc.’ xxxiv.
829 (Abs.)

.| ‘Nature,’ xviii. 224-225.
.| ‘J. de Phys.’ vii. 141-148.

‘Nature,’ xviii. 300-301 ;
‘ Beiblitter,’ ii, 560-561
(Abs.)

° Zeitschr. £. Kryst. u. Mi-
neral.’ ii. 492-494 ; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ ii. 657 (Abs.)

‘O, BR.’ Ixxxviii. 80-82;
‘ Beiblatter,’ iii. 355-356
(Abs.)

‘C. R.' Ixxxviii. 82-84;
‘ Beiblitter,’ iii, 355-356
(Abs.) ; ‘Les Mondes,’
xlvili. 199-200 (Abs.)

‘Carl. Repert’ xv. 116-
118,

‘Ber.’ xii. 263-266; ‘ Bei-
bliatter,’ iii, 501 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xix. 400,

‘Nature,’ xix. 458; ‘Bei-
blatter,’ iii. 604-605
(Abs.)
‘Mem. spettr. ital.’ viii.
21-34,

‘J. de Phys.’ viii. 73-77,

Proc; Phys. \Soc? 101
14-17; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5]
vii. 95-98 ; ‘ Beiblatter,”
iii. 354 (Abs.)

‘J. de Phys.’ viii. 85-92;

‘Beiblatter,’ iii. 356
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxviii.
482-483; ‘ Beibliitter,’

iii. 709 (Abs.)

336
Piazzi Smyth .

‘W. de W. Abney

J. W. Draper. .

‘A. Cornu . ‘

A. Riccd .
H. Draper
L. Thollon

J. N. Lockyer .

W.von Zahn .
S$. Lamansky .
. W. A. Rogers .

P.Glan . <

W. H. Stone

¥. Miller. :

P.G. Tait .

REPORT—1881.

INSTRUMENTAL, 1879, 1880.

End-on Tubes brought to Bear upon
the Carbon and Carbo-hydrogen
Question. (May 9.)

On the Photographic Method of
Registering Absorption-Spectra,
and its application to Solar Physics.

On a new form of Spectrometer, and
on the distribution of the intensity
of Light in the Spectrum. (May
a) ~ .

Spectroscope pour la partie ultra-
violette du spectre.

Spectroscope destiné a l’observation
des radiations ultra-violettes.

Arcobaleno in mare e modficazione
allo spettroscopio descritto nel vol.
V. (Sept. 1879.)

On Photographing the Spectra of
Stars and Planets.

Sur un nouveau spectroscope stel-
laire. (Read Nov. 3.)

On a New Method of Spectrum Ob-
servation. (Recd. Dec.10. Read
Dec. 18.)

Spectralréhren mit Jongitudinaler
Durchsicht.

Un spectroscope pour étudier les
phénoménes de fluorescence,

1880.

On the first Results from a new
Diffraction Ruling Engine. (Oct.
28, 1879.)

Ueber ein Spectroteleskop. (Jan. 4.)

On a Quartz and Iceland Spar Spec-
troscope corrected for chromatic
aberration.

Das Lang’sche Spectrometer .

A Rotatory Polarisation Spectroscope
of Great Dispersion. (Aug. 12.)

‘Nature,’ xx. 75-76. _

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ iii. 43—
46; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] vii.

313-316; ‘ Beibliitter,’
ili, 621.
‘Am. J.’ xviii. 30-34;

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] viii. 75—
80; ‘ Beiblitter,’ iii. 870-
871 (Abs.)

‘Les Mondes,’ xlix. 16-17 ;
‘Beiblitter, iii, 501
(Abs.)

‘J. de Phys.’ viii. 185—
193; ‘ Beiblitter,’ iv. 34
(Abs.)

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ viii.
87.

“Am. J.’ [3] xviii. 419-
425; ‘Nature,’ xxi. 83-
85.

*C. Ro’ lexxix. (749-752);
‘ Beiblitter,’ iv. 360-361
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxx. 22—
31; ‘Chem. News,’ xli.
84-87 ; ‘Am. J.’ [3] xix.
303-311; ‘ Beiblitter,’iv.
361-362 (Abs.); ‘ Ber.’
xiii. 938-939 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’ N.F,
viii. 675.

‘J. de Phys.’ viii. 411—
413; * Beibliatter,’ iv. 375
(Abs.)

‘Am. J.’ [3] xix. 54-59.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. ix. 492-502; * Astr.
Nachr.’ xcyil. 65-68 ;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] xi. 110-
113; ‘ Beiblatter,’ v.
43-44 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ xli. 91.

‘Carl. Repert.’ xvi. 250-
251,

‘Nature,’ xxli. 360-361;
‘ Beiblitter,’ iv. 725-726
(Abs.)

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

337

STRUMENTAL, 1880, 1881—EMISSION SPECTRA, 1870, 1871.

P. Glan

A. Crova .

H, C. Vogel

O. Lohse .

E. J. Stone

G. G. Stokes

Lord Rayleigh

W. N. Hartley.

C. V. Zenger

W. Dietrich

F, Zollner

W. M. Watts

1881.

. | On the Spectra of Carbon.

Ueber Apparate zur Untersuchung |‘ Pfliiger’s Archiv f. Phy-

der Farbenempfindungen. (Nov.

22.)

1881.

Etude sur les spectrophotométres,
(Read Jan. 3.)

Vermischte Mittheilungen, betref-
fend Spectral-apparate.

Ueber einen rotirenden Spectral-
apparat.

On a Method of Destroying the
Effects of slight Errors of Adjust-
ment in Experiments of Changes
of Refrangibility due to Relative
Motions in the Line of Sight.
(Recd. Jan. 17. Read Feb. 3.)

On a Simple Mode of Eliminating
Errors of Adjustment in Delicate
Observations of Compared Spectra.
(Recd. Feb. 12. Read Feb. 24.)

On Copying Diffraction-gratings,
and on some Phenomena connected
therewith. (Jan. 29.)

Description of the Instruments and
Processes employed in Photograph-
ing Ultra-violet Spectra. (Read
April 11.)

Sur l’emploi de prismes 4 liquide

dans le spectroscope 4 vision
directe.

(Read June 27.)

Die Anwendung des Vierordt’schen
Doppelspaltes in der Spectral-
Analyse.

EMISSION SPECTRA. |

1870.

Ueber den Einfluss der Dichtigkeit
und Temperatur auf die Spectra
gliihender Gase. (Read Oct. 31.)

1871.

siol,’ xxiv. 307-308;
‘Beiblitter, v. 445
| (Abs.)

“C. R.’ xcii. 36-37 ; ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [5] xi. 155-156.

‘ Zeitschr.f.Instrumenten-
kunde,’ i. 19-22, 47-
51; ‘ Beiblatter,’ v. 279-
280 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumenten-
kunde,’ i. 22-25; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ v. 278 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxxi. 381.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxxi.
470-478 ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ v.
360-361 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] xi. 196-
205; ‘ Beiblatter,' v.
594-596 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Dub. Soc.’ iii.

°C. RB.’ xcii. 1503-1504.

‘Beiblitter, v. 438-441
(Abs.)

‘Ber. K sachs. Ges. d.
Wiss.’ xxii. . 233-253 ;
‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.’
exlii. 88-111; ‘Phil.
Mag.’ [4] xli. 190-205.

.| ‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xli. 12—

15; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2]
ix. 97 (Abs.)

338 REPORT—-1881.
EMIssion SPEcTRA, 1871, 1872.
A, Willner. . | Des transformations que subissent

les spectres des gaz incandescents
avec la pression et la température.

Sur les spectres des gaz simples.

A. J. Angstrém
(Read Aug. 7.)

Sur les spectres du soufre. (Read
Aug. 28.)

G. Salet . °

H. Vogel . Ueber die Spectra der Blitze, (Sept.

11.)

L, Troost and P, | Sur les spectres ducarbone, du bore,
Hautefeuille. du silicium, du titane et du zir-
conium, (Read Sept. 4.)

A. Ditte . . . | Sur les spectres du soufre, du sélé-
nium et du tellure. (Read Sept.

4.)

Lecoq de Boisbaudran| Sur Ja constitution des spectres
lumineux.

A. Ditte , 5 Sur les spectres des corps apparte-
nant aux familles de l’azote et du

chlore. (Read Sept. 18.)

. | Sur les spectres du sélénium et du
tellure. (Read Sept. 18.)

G. Salet . 4

A. Wiillner , . | Ueber die Spectra einiger Gase in

Geissler’schen Rohren. (Noy. 15.)

G. M. Seabroke On the Spectrum of Hydrogen at

Low Pressure. (Dec. 8, 1871.)

1872.

Das Spectrum des Kohlenstoffs
(‘Chem. Soc. Paris,’ Mar. 1.)

Lecoq de Boisbaudran| Sur le spectre de la vapeur d’eau.
(Read April 15.)

Sur la lumiére émise par la vapeur
diode. (Read May 6.)

Salet A 5 3

G. Salet . 5 5

‘Arch. de Genéve,' [2] xl.
305-310.

‘C. BR.’ Ixxiil. 369-375;
«J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] ix.
991-992 (Abs.); § Phil.
Mag.’ [4] xli. 395-
399; ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ cxliv. 300-307 ;
‘Ann, Chim. et Phys.’
[4] xxvi. 255-258 (Abs.)

°C. RB.’ Ixxili, 559-561 ;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xli.
318-319; ‘J.Chem. Soc.’
[2]ix. 1145-1146 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exliii. 653-654; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] x. 118
(Abs.); ‘Ann, Chim. et
Phys.’ [4] xxvi. 274
(Abs.)

*C) R." Ixxiil. 620-622;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] ix.
1147 (Abs.)

‘OC. B.’ Ixxili, 622-624;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] ix.
1146-1147 (Abs.)

°C. BR.’ lxxiil. 658-660.

°C. BR." Ixxiil., 738-742 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] ix.
1144-1145 (Abs.)

“C, RB.’ lexili, 742-7465
«J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] ix.
1145-1146 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exliv. 481-525; ‘Ann.
Chim. et Phys.’ [4] xxvi.
258-263 (Abs.)

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxli. 63-64; ‘Phil.
Mag.’ [4] xliii. 155-157 ;
* Chem. News,’ xxv. 111;
‘Ann. Chim. et. Phys.’
[4] xxvi. 264-265 (Abs.)

‘ Ber.’ v. 222 (Abs.)
°C, R." Ixxiv. 1050.

‘C. BR? ixxiv, 1249; *J,
Chem. Soc.’ [2] x. 596
(Abs.); ‘Am. J.’ iv. 59;
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’
exlvii. 319-320.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1872, 1873.

De l’influence de Ja pression sur les
raies du spectre.

L. Cailletet . A

J. W. Draper . .

of Heat in the Spectrum,

A. Schuster
June 13. Read June 20.)

G. Salet . . .
(Read July 8.)

A. Willner. Ueber die Spectra der Gase in Geiss-

ler’schen Rohren. (July 14.)

1873.

G, Salet . . . | Sur les spectres des métalloides

On Spectral Lines of Low Tem-
perature.

Marquis of Salisbury

C.H. Stearn . ;

Lecoq de Boisbaudran} Sur le spectre d’émission de l’erbine.
(Read April 28.)

Spectrum of Nitrogen , 4

C. H. Stearn and G. | On the Effect of Pressure on the
H. Lee. Character of the Spectra of Gases.
(Recd. Mar. 19. Read May 11.)

W. Mattieu Williams | Coincidence of the Spectrum Lines
of Iron, Calcium, and Titanium.

A. Wiillnmer , . | Ueber die Spectra der Gase in Geiss-

ler’schen Rohren. (Jan. 12.)

Lecoqde Boisbaudran| Remarques sur quelques parti-
cularités observées dans des re-

cherches d’analyse spectrale.
(Read May 19.)
A. Schuster , . (Spectrum of Nitrogen. (May 30)

Z2

(Read May 13.) |
Researches in Actino- Chemistry. |

Memoir First. On the Distribution |

Onthe Spectrum of Nitrogen. (Recd. |

Sur le spectre primaire de I'iode. |

339

*O. R. Ixxiv, 1282-1286 ;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xliv.
76-77 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc."
[2] x. 664-665 (Abs.)
‘Ber.’ vy. 482 (Abs.)

“Am. J.’ iv. 161-175;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xliv.
104-117; ‘J. Chem. Soc."
[2] x. 968-970 (Abs.)

‘Proc, Roy. Soc.’ xx. 484—
487; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [4]
xliv. 637-541; ‘Ann.
Phys. u. Chem,’ cxlvii.
106-112; ‘Am, J.’ [3]
v. 131-132 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem, Soc.’ [2] xi. 340
(Abs.)

‘CO, RY xxv, 76-77; ‘J.
Chem, Soc.’ [2] x. 873
(Abs.); ‘ Phil. Mag.’ [4]
xliv. 166.

‘Ann. Phys, u. Chem.’
exlvii. 321-353.

‘Ann. Ohim. et Phys.’ [4]
xxviii. 5-71; ‘Chem.
News,’ xxvii. 178-179
(Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlv. 241—
245 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2]
xi. 711 (Abs.); ‘Am. J.’
[3] vi. 141-142 (Abs.)

.| ‘Nature,’ vii. 463.

°C. RY Ixxvi. 1080-1082 ;
‘ Ber.’ vi. 623 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc,’ [2] xi. 829-830.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxi,
282 283; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2] xi. 996 (Abs.);
‘Ber.’ vi. 973 (Abs.);
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlvi.
406-407.

‘Nature,’ viii. 46.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlix. 103-112; ‘J.Chem.
Soc,’ [2] xii. 113 (Abs.)

°C. RB.’ lxxvi. 1263-1265 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.
1257-1258 (Abs.)

.|‘ Nature,’ viii. 161.

340

L. Palmieri

A. Secchi

O. Lohse .

J. N. Lockyer .

O. Schenk

E. Goldstein

W. M. Watts .

J. Chautard

G. Salet .

Wiillner .

W. M. Watts

H. W. Vogel

W. Wiillner

Piazzi Smyth .

REPORT—1881.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1873-1875.

Recherches spectroscopiques sur les
fumerolles de l’éruption du Vésuve
en avril 1872, et état actuel de ce
volcan. (May 24. Read June 9.)

Sur les spectres du fer et de
quelques autres métaux, dans
larc voltaique. (July 16. Read
July 21.)

Ueber das Spectrum des Lichts
explodirender Schiessbaumwolle.
(Nov. 28.)

1874.
Sur les spectres des vapeurs aux

températures élevées. (Read June
29.)

Ueber Veriinderlichkeit der Spectra
gliihender Gase.

Ueber Beobachtungen am Gasspek-
tris. (Read Aug. 13.)

On the Spectrum of Carbon

Action exercée par un électro-aimant
sur les spectres des gaz rar¢fiés,
traversés par des décharges élec-
triques. (Nov. 15. Read Nov. 16.)

©C. BR.’ lxxvi, 1427-1428.
*C. Ry lexvii, 173-177.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’ cl.
641-642; ‘Phil. Mag.’
[4] xlvii. 319-320; «J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] xiii.
119-120.

©C.R.’ Ixxviii. 1790-1793 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xii.
1124 (Abs.) ,

‘ Zeitschr. f. Anal. Chem.’
1873, xii. 386-390; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] xii. 1122-
1123 (Abs.)

‘Monatsb. Berl. Akad.’
1874, 593-610; ‘Ann.
Phys. u. Chem.’ cliv.
128-149; ‘J.Chem. Soc.’
[2] xili. 527-528 (Abs.)
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlix.
333-345.

.|‘ Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlviii.

369-370; ‘J.Chem. Soc.’
[2] xiii. 327 (Abs.)

eC. Re imix, Mi23=1noge

Sur la distribution des bandes|‘C. R.’ ee 1229-1230 ;

dans les spectres primaires. (Read
Noy. 30.)

Hinige Bemerkungen zu Herrn
Goldsteins Beobachtungen an Gas-
spectris. (Read Dec. 3.)

Note on Carbon Spectra .

1875.

Ueber das Spectrum der Sell’schen
Schwefelkohlenstofflampe. (Read
Jan. 25.)

Ueber die Spectra der Gase. (‘ Ver-
handl. d. naturwiss. Ges. zu
Aachen,’ Dec. 1874.)

‘ Ber.’ vii. 1788 (Abs.)

‘Monatsb. Berl. Akad.’
1874, 755-761; ‘ Phil:
Mag.’ [4] xlix. 448-453.

.|* Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlviii.
456-457.

‘Ber’ ‘vill 6-98) Sok
Chem. Soe.’ [2] xiii. 603—
604 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
cliv. 149-156; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2] xili. 527-528
(Abs.)

Carbon and Hydrocarbon in the|‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlix.
24-33. -

Modern Spectroscope.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 341

J. Chautard

J. Chautard

W. M. Watts .

J. Attfield

R. Bunsen :

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1875, 1876.

Action des aimants sur les gaz raré-
fiés renfermés dans des _ tubes
capillaires et illuminés par un
courant induit. (Read May 3.)

Phénoménes magnéto-chimiques pro-
duits au sein des gaz raréfiés dans
les tubes de Geissler, illuminés 4
l’aide de courants induits. (Read
July 12.)

Carbon and Hydrocarbon in the
Modern Spectroscope.

Note on the Spectrum of Carbon
Spectralanalytische Untersuchun-

gen.

1876.

Lecoq de Boisbaudran! Sur le spectre du gallium. (Read

G.Salet . 5

J. Chautard

J.N. Lockyer .

©. Sainte - Claire
Deville.

J.N. Lockyer .

Czechowicz

Jan 10.)

Sur le spectre de l’azote et sur celui
des métaux alcalins dans les tubes
de Geissler. (Read Jan. 17 and
24.)

Actions magnétiques exercées sur les
gaz raréfiés des tubes de Geissler.
(Read Jan, 24.)

Sur de nouvelles raies du calcium.
(Read Mar. 20.)

Remarque & propos de la derniére
Communication de M. Lockyer
sur de nouvelles raies du calcium.
(Read Mar. 27.)

Preliminary Note on the Compound
Nature of the Line Spectra of
Elementary Bodies. (Recd. Jan.
20. Read Mar. 2.)

Der Einfluss welchen die Natur der
elektrischen Stromquelle auf das
Aussehen von Gasspectren ausiibt.
(‘Versamm. Russisch. Naturforsch.
und Aerzte in Warschau.’ Sept.
1876.)

‘C. R.’ lxxx. 1161-1164.

SOyR.. lxxxd. 75-77 + * J.
Chem. Soc.’ 1876, i. 29
(Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlix. 104—
106.

.| Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlix.

106-108.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’ clv.
230-252, 366-384; ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [4]1.417-430, 527—
539; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
1876, i. 665-667 (Abs.)

“C.yR. exis 168) 5.6 Phil.
Mag.’ [5]i.176 ; ‘Chem.
News,’ xxxili. 35; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ 1876, i. 882
(Abs.); ‘Ber.’ ix. 348
(Abs.)

°C. BR.’ Ixxxii. 223-226,
274-275; ‘Nature,’ xiii.
314; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] i.
331-333 ; ‘J.Chem. Soc.’
1876, i. 863-864 (Abs.) ;
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
elviii. 329-334.

“C. R.’ Ixxxii. 272-274.

°C. R.’ Ixxxii. 660-662;
‘Ann. Chim. .et Phys.’
[5] vii. 569-572 ; ‘Chem.
News,’ xxxiii. 166-167 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ 1876, ii.
35 (Abs.) ; ‘ Ber.’ ix. 505
(Abs.); ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ elviii. 327-329.

°C. R.’ lxxxii. 709-710.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxiv.
352-354; ‘Phil. Mag.’
[5] ii. 229-231.

‘ Ber.’ ix. 1598 (Abs.)

342 REPORT—1881.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1876, 1877.

A. W. Clayden and
C. T. Heycock.

The Spectra of Indium

1877.
Gouy 2 5 Recherches sur les spectres des
métaux A la base des flammes.
(Read Jan. 29.)
J. Moser . Die Spectren der chemischen Verbin-

dungen.

Van Monckhoven Sur les moyens propres 4 la reproduc-
tion photographique des spectres

ultra-violets des gaz. (Feb. 3.)

A. J. Angstrém and
T. R. Thalén.

Researches on the Spectra of the
Metalloids. (‘Acta Soc. Upsal.’ [3]
ix.)

A. Schuster. + |Spectraof Metalloids . 4.

A. Cazin . . Sur la photographie du spectre de

Vétincelle électrique.

Sur le spectre de l’étincelle électrique
dans un gaz comprimé. (Read May
21.)

Wiillner . . Sur le spectre de l’étincelle électrique
dans les gaz soumis 4 une pression

croissante. (Read July 30.)

Serge Kern . Sur le spectre du nouveau métal, le

davyum. (Read Oct. 8.)

Ueber die Spectren der chemischen
Elemente und ihrer Verbindungen.
(Read July 19.)

G. Ciamician

‘Phil. Mag,’ [5] ii. 387-
389; ‘Am J.’ [3] xiii.
57 (Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,’i.
90-92.

°C. BR. lexxiy. 231-234;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ 1877, ii.
105-106. (Abs.); ‘ Ber.’
x. 490. (Abs.); ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [5] iii, 238-240 ;
‘Chem. News,’ xxxy.
107-108 ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ i.
238-239 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys, u. Chem.’ clx.
177-199 ;‘ J. Chem. Soc.’
1877, ii. 688-690 (Abs.);
‘Nature,’ xvi, 193-194
(Abs.); ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5]
iv. 444-449 (Abs.)

‘Bull. de l’Acad. de Bel-
gique’ [2] xliii. 187-
192; ‘Beiblatter,’i. 286—
287 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xv. 401-402
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’ i.
35-47,

‘Nature,’ xv. 447-448;
‘ Beiblatter,’ i. 289-290
(Abs.)

‘Bull. Soc. Philom. de
Paris,’ 1877 [7] i. 6-7;
‘ Beiblatter,’ i. 287-288
(Abs.)

°C. R.’ Ixxxiv. 1151-1154;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] iv. 153—
156; ‘ Beibliitter,’ i. 620—
621 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ xxxiv. 357-358
(Abs.); ‘Am. J.’ [3] xv.
148-149 (Abs.)

°C. BR.’ Ixxxv.) 280-281 >
‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’
[5] xii. 143-144; ‘ Bei-
blatter, i. 620-621
(Abs.)

°C. R.’ Ixxxv. 667.

‘ Sitzungsb. Wien. Akad.’
Ixxvi. DD. 499%=1517 }
‘Wien. Anz.’ xiv. 181—
182 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ xxxvi. 685-686
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’ iii.
190-193 (Abs.)

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS,

F, Schottner

H. W. Vogel .

G. Ciamician

A. Schuster .

G. Ciamician .

E. Walker .

Sir W. R. Grove

G. Ciamician .

Paalzow -

G. L. Ciamician

Lecoq de Boisbau-
dran,

343

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1878, 1879.

1878.

Notiz tiber das Flammenspectrum
der Schiessbaumwolle.

Ueber das Spectrum des Lichtes
explodirender Schiessbaumwolle.
(Mar, 1878.)

Ueber den Einfluss des Druckes und
der Temperatur auf die Spectren
von Dimpfen und Gasen.

On the Spectra of Metalloids. Spec-
trum of Oxygen, (Recd. April 25.
Read May 16.)

Ueberden Hinfluss der Dichteund der
Temperatur auf die Spectren von
Diimpfen und Gasen. (Read July
18.)

Spectrum of the Electric (Jabloch-
koff) Light. (July 27.)

Note of an Experiment on the Spec-
trum of the Electric Discharge.
(Recd. Dec. 19. Read Dec. 19.)

Ueber den Einfluss der Dichte und
der Temperatur auf die Spectren
von Dampfen und Gasen.

Ueber das Sauerstoffspektrum und
tiber die electrischen Lichter-
scheinungen verdtinnter Gase in
Rohren mit Fliissigkeits-Electro-
den, (Read Oct. 31.)

1879,

‘Carl. Repert.’ xiv. 55—
56 ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ iii, 279
(Abs.)

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F, iii. 615-616,

‘Sitzungsb, Wien. Akad.’
Ixxvii. II, 839-841; «J.
Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi. 685-—
686 (Abs.); * Nature,’
xxiii. 160; ‘ Beiblatter,’
iii, 193-194 (Abs.)

*Phil. Trans.’ 1879, clxx.
37-54 ;‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’
XXVil. 383-388 (Abs.);
‘Beiblitter,’ ii. 492-493
(Abs.), iii, 749-750
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
XXXVili. 430 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Wien. Akad.’
Ixxviil. 867-890; ‘Chem.
Centr.’ 1879, 507-509,
537-542, 555-557 ; ‘ Na-
ture,’ xx. 90 (Abs.);
* Beiblatter,’ iii. 609~
611 (Abs.)

‘ Nature,’ xviii.
* Beibliatter,’ iii,
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxviii.
181-184; ‘* Beiblitter,’
iii, 360 (Abs.)

‘Wien. Anz.’ 1878, 158-
160; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1878, 689-690; ‘J.Chem.
Soc.’ xxxvi. 101 (Abs.)

‘Monatsb. Berl. Akad.’
1878, 705-709 ; ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [5] vii. 297-300 ;
‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. vii. 130-135; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi. 861.

384 ;
505

Spectroskopische Untersuchungen . ,‘ Sitzungsb. Wien. Akad.’

Nouvelles raies spectrales observées
dans les substances extraites de la
samarskite. (Read Feb. 17.)

Ixxix, 8-10; ‘J. Chem.
Soe.’ Xxxvili. 361
(Abs.); ‘Nature’ xxii.
575; ‘Chem. News,’ xl.
285 (Abs.)

/§0. RY Ixxxviii. 322-324.

344
H. W. Vogel .

Gouy

H. W. Vogel
J. N. Lockyer .
B. O. Peirce

J. N. Lockyer .

A. Abt

J. N. Lockyer

J. W. Draper .

Piazzi Smyth

A. Schuster

H. W. Vogel

A. Wiillner

G. D. Liveing and J.

Dewar.

REPORT—1881.
EMISSION SPECTRA, 1879.

Ueber die photographische Beobach-
tung des Sauerstoffspectrums. (Jan.
1879. Read Feb, 24.)

Du pouvoir émissif des flammes
colorées. (Read Mar. 3.)

Ueber die photographische Aufnah-
me von Spectren der in Geiss-
lerrdhren eingeschlossenen Gase.
(Read Feb. 3.)

Note on some Spectral Phenomena
observed in the Are produced by a
Siemens’ Machine. (Recd. Mar. 3.
Read Mar. 20.)

Ueber die Emissionsspectra der Ha-
loidverbindungen des Quecksilbers.
(Dec. 1878.)

Note on the Spectrum of Sodium.
(Recd. May 28. Read May 29.)

Sur les raies de la vapeur de Sodium.
(Read June 2.)

Continuirliches Spectrum des elec-
trischen Funkens (K. Ungar. Acad.
d. Wiss. in Buda-Pest. Dec. 16,
1878.)

On a New Method of Studying
Metallic Vapours. (Recd. June 19.
Read June 19.)

The Blowpipe Cone-spectrum, and the
Distribution of the Intensity of
Light in the Prismatic and Diffrac-
tion Spectra.

Carbon and Carbo-hydrogen, Spec-
troscoped and Spectrometed in
1879.

Ueber das Sauerstoffspectrum

Ber.’ xii. (S32-ap%5) SJ)
Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi. 497
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ iv.
125-130.

°C. RY Ixxxviii. 418-421;
‘Beiblatter,’ iii. 611-613
(Abs.)

‘Monatsb. Berl. Akad.’
1879, 115-119 ; ‘ Bei-
bliitter,’ iv. 125-130
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxviii.
425 428; ‘Beiblatter,’
ili. 606-608 (Abs.)

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. vi. 597-5993. ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xxxviii. 81
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxix.
140.

°C, R.’ Ixxxviii. 1124.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. vii. 159-160; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi. 765
(Abs.); ‘Am. J.’ [3]
xviii, 68-69.

“Proc. Roy. Soc! xxx,
266 —272; ‘Beiblatter,’
iv. 36-37 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xx. 301.

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] viii. 107-
119 ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ iv.
36 (Abs.) «

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’N.F.
vii. 670-673.

Ueber die Spectra des Wasserstoffs,|‘ Monatsb. Berl. Akad.’

Quecksilbers und Stickstoffs. (Read
July 10.)

Ueber das Spectrum des Sauerstoffs.
(July 22.)
Ueber allmihliche Ueberfiihrung des

Bandenspectrums des Stickstoffs in
ein Linienspectrum. (April 8.)

On the Spectra of Sodium and Po-
tassium. (Recd. Noy. 20. Read
Nov. 27.)

1879, 586-604 ; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ iv. 125-130;
‘Am. J.’ [3] xix. 406
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F- viii. 253-266.

‘ Sitzungsb. Akad. Min-
chen,’ 1879, 171-207 ;
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. viii. 590-623.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxix.
398 — 402; ‘ Beiblatter,’
iv. 368-369 (Abs.)

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

J. N. Lockyer

A. Schuster and H.
- E. Roscoe.

G. D. Liveing and J.
Dewar.

F. Lippich .

G. D. Liveing and J
Dewar.

H, W. Vogel

J.L.Schénn . :

C. Fiévez 4

J. R. Capron

J. N. Lockyer .

Emission SPECTRA, 1879, 1880

345

Note on the Spectrum of Hydrogen. | ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxx. 31_

(Recd. Dec. 17. Read Dee. 18.)

32; ‘Beiblitter,’ iv. 363
(Abs.)

Note on the Identity of the Spectra |‘Proc.. Manch. Phil. Soc.’

obtained from the different Allo-
tropic Forms of Carbon. (Read
Dec. 2.)

1880.

On the Spectra of Magnesium and
Lithium. (Recd. Jan. 8. Read
Jan. 15.)

Untersuchungen iiber die Spectra
gasformiger Korper.

On the Spectra of the Compounds of
Carbon with Hydrogen and Nitro-
gen. (Recd. Feb. 2. Read Feb. 5.)

Ueber die neue Wasserstofflinien und
die Dissociation des Calciums.
(Feb. 6.)

Ueber die neuen Wasserstofflinien,
die Spectra der weissen Fixsterne
und die Dissociation des Calciums.
(Read Feb. 12.)

The New Hydrogen Lines by Photo-
graphy, the Star Lines and the
Dissociation of Calcium, (‘Photo-
graphic News,’ Feb. 20.)

Ueber ultraviolette Strahlen

Recherches sur l’intensité relative
des raies spectrales de l’hydrogéne
et de l’azote, en rapport avec la
constitution des nébuleuses.

Relative Intensity of the Spectral
Lines of Gases. (April 2.)

Note on the Spectrum of Carbon.
(Recd. April 8. Read April 29.)

On Multiple Spectra : . .

Further Note on the Spectrum of
Carbon. (Recd. May 11. Read
May 27.)

xix. 46-49 ; ‘ Beiblitter,’
iv. 208-209 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxx. 93—
99; * Beiblatter,’ iv.
366 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Wien. Akad.’
Ixxxii. IT. 15-33.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxx. 152—
162 ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ iv.
459-460 (Abs.), v. 118-
122. (Abs:) ‘Am. J.’ [3]
xxi. 74-75 (Abs.)

‘ Ber.’ xiii. 274-276; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xxxviii. 597—
598 (Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’
iv. 274-275.

‘Monatsb. Berl. Akad.’
1880, 192-198; Bei-
blatter,’ iv. 786-787
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xxi. 410.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

N.Fvix. 483-492, x. 143-
148.

‘Bull de l’Acad. de Bel-
gique’ [2] -xlix. 107-113;
‘Phil, Mag.’ [5] ix. 309-
312; ‘ Beiblatter,’ iv.
461-462 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] ix. 329-
330; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
XXXViii. 685 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ iv. 613 — 614
(Abs.)

| § Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxx. 335—
343 ; ‘Beiblatter,’ v.
118-122 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xxii. 4-7, 309-
312,. 562,565; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ v. 118 - 122
(Abs.)

| ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxx. 461-

463; ‘Beibliatter,’ iv. 611

(Abs.) v. 118-122 (Abs.)

346 REPORT—1881.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1880, 1881.
G. D. Liveing and j Note on the History of the Carbon

J. Dewar. Spectrum. (Recd. May 26. Read
June 10.)
Pe é - |On the Spectra of the Compounds

of Carbon with Hydrogen and
Nitrogen. No. II. (Recd. May 27.
Read June 10.)

W. Huggins ,. - | On the Spectrum of the Flame of
Hydrogen. (Recd. June 16. Read
June 17.)

f F - | Sur le spectre lumineux de l'eau.
(Read June 21.)

G. D. Liveing and | On the Spectrum of Water. (Recd.
J. Dewar. June 17, Read June 17.)

Piazzi Smyth , « | Three Years’ Experimenting in Men-
surational Spectroscopy.

G. L. Ciamician _. | Spectroskopische Untersuchungen.
(Read July 1.)

R. Thalén ° . | Sur les raies brillantes spectrales du
métal scandium. (Read July 5.)

Piazzi Smyth , . | Gaseous Spectra in Vacuum Tubes.
(Read July 19.)

A. 8. Herschel. 4 Carbon and Carbon Compounds .

W.M. Watts . . | On the Spectrum of Carbon . .

1881.
G. D. Liveing , . | Onthe Spectrum of Carbon. (Jan. 4)

W. M. Watts ,. - | On the Spectrum of Carbon , .
lel 4 . - |On the Spectrum of Carbon , .
G. D. Liveing . - |On the Spectrum of Carbon. (Jan

22.)

W. M. Watts . =. | On the Spectrum of Carbon. (Feb.
11.)

C. Fiévez . - | Sur Vélargissement des raies de

Vhydrogéne. (Read Mar 7.)

A. Paalzow and | Ueber das Sauerstoffspectrum. (Mar.
H. W. Vogel. Pi 23.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc,’ xxx, 490-
494; ‘ Beiblatter,’ v. 118-
122 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxx. 494—
509; ‘ Nature,’ xxii. 620-
623; ‘ Beiblatter,’ v.
118-122 (Abs.); ‘Am. J.’
[3] xxi. 74-75 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxx. 576—
580; ‘Am. J.’ [3] xx.
121-123; * Beiblatter,’
iv. 658 (Abs.)

‘Cc. RB.’ xc. 1455-1456;
‘J. Chem. Soc:’ xl, 1
(Abs. )

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’xxx. 580-
582; ‘ Beiblitter,’ iv.
658-659 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xxii. 193-195,
222-225,

‘Sitzungsb. Wien. Akad.’
Ixxxii. II. 425-457 ;
‘Wien. Anz.’ xvii. 138-
141 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
v. 123 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
Centr.’ 1880, 578-580
(Abs.) ; ‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5]
x. 212-213 (Abs.)

“OC. BR.’ xci. 45-48; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ iv. 787-789
(Abs.)

‘Proc, Roy. Soc. Hdin.’ x.
711-712 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xxii. 320; ¢ Bei-
blitter,’ vy. 118—122
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xxiii. 197-198 ;
‘ Beiblitter,’ v. 118-122
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xxiii. 265-266;
‘ Beiblitter,’ v. 118-122.

‘Nature,’ xxiii. 266,
és xxiii. 313-314,

» —-Xxiii, 338,
» xxiii. 361,

°C. BR. xeii. 621622 >
‘ Beiblitter,’ v. 281
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soe.’
xl, 955 (Abs.)

‘ Ann. Phys.u. Chem.’ N.F.
xiii. 336-338.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

347

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1881—ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1870, 1871.

G. D, Liveing and | Investigations on the Spectrum of |‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxxii.

J. Dewar.

W. Crookes .

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar,

W. Crookes , F

E, Becquerel . F

L. Schénn 5 2

F, U. Daube , ‘

A, Weinhold ° ‘

J. L. Soret ® a

A. Kundt 3 .

J.J. Miiller . 5

A. Cornu §

T., Andrews .

Magnesium. (Recd. April 28. Read
May 12.)

On Discontinuous Phosphorescent
Spectra in High Vacua. (Recd.
March 31, Read May 19.)

On the Identity of the Spectral
Lines of Different Elements, (Recd.
May 12. Read May 19.)

Sur les spectres phosphorescents
discontinus observés dans le vide
presque parfait. (Read May 30.)

Observations relatives 4 la com-
munication précédente. (Read
May 30.)

ABSORPTION SPECTRA.

1870,

Ueber Blattgriin und Blumenblau.
(May 10.)

Ueber Curcumin, den Farbstoft der
Curcumawurzel, (‘N. Repert,
Pharm.’ xx. 36.)

1871,

Zur Umkehrung der Natriumlinie.
(Feb. 1871.)

Observation sur la note précédente .

Ueber das Absorptionsspectrum der
fltissigen Untersalpetersiure.

Das Griin der Blatter . ° °

Sur le renversement des raies
spectrales des vapeurs métalliques,
(Read July 31.)

The Dichroism of the Vapour of
Iodine.

| * Ann.

189-203.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc. xxxii.
206-213; ‘Chem. News,’
xlili, 237-239,

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxxii.
225-231; ‘* Beiblitter,’
y. 741-742 (Abs.)

°C. BR.’ xcii. 1281-1283 ;
‘ Beiblatter,’ v. 511-513
(Abs.)

°C. R.’ xcii. 1283; ‘ Bei-

blatter,’ v. 611-513
(Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. anal, Chem,’
ix. 327-328.

‘Ber.’ iii. 609-613; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] ix. 152-
154 (Abs.)

Phys. u. Chem.’
exlii. 321-323; ‘Ann.
Chim. et Phys.’ [4] xxvi.
281-282 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] ix. 185-
186 (Abs.); ‘ Phil. Mag.’
[4] xli. 404; ‘Arch. de
Genéve,’ [2] xli. 63-64.

‘Arch. de Genéve,’ [2] xli.
64-65.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’ cxli.
157 —159; ‘Zeitschr. f.
Chem.’ [2] vii. 64 (Abs.) ;
‘J. Chem. Soc,’ [2] ix.
185 (Abs.)

‘Ann, Phys. uw. Chem.’
exlii. 615-616; ‘J.Chem.
Soc.’ [2] ix. 654 (Abs.)

CORE Mary deol) USE PEsBy Ad
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlii.
237-240; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2] ix, 1142-1144
(Abs.); ‘Am. J.’ [8] iii.
465 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ xxiv. 75;

‘J. Chem. Soe.’ [2] ix.
993 (Abs.)

348

G. Campani

A. Heynsius and
' J. F. F. Campbell.

H. C. Sorby

”

J. Janssen

L. Schonn

D. Gernez 2

” °

B. J. Stokvis

G. Salet .

D. Gernez fe

Vogel

J. Chautard

G. Kraus .

REPORT—1881.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1871, 1872.

Carattere spettroscopico della solu-
zione ammoniacale di carminio, di
cocciniglia e di altre sostanze.

Die Oxydationsproducte der Gallen- |

farbstoffe und ihre Absorptions-
streifen.

Blood Spectrum
(Oct. 28)
Sur le spectre de la vapeur d’eau

Correction.

1872.

Ueber die Absorptionsstreifen des
Blattgriins, (Novy. 27, 1871.)

Sur les raies d’absorption produites
dans le spectre par les solutions
des acides hypoazotique, hypo-
chlorique et chloreux. (Read Feb.
12.)

Spectres d’absorption du chlore et
du chlorure d’iode, (Read Mar, 4.)

Sur les spectres d’absorption des
vapeurs de soufre, d’acide sélé-
nieux et d’acide hypochloreux.
(Read Mar. 18.)

A Reducible By-Product of the
Oxidation of Bile Pigment. (‘N.
Repert. Pharm.’ xxi, 123.)

Sur le spectre d’absorption de la
vapeur desoufre, (Read Mar. 25.)

Sur les spectres d’absorption des
vapeurs de sélénium, de proto-
chlorure et de bromure de sélé-
nium, de tellure, de protochlorure
et protobromure de tellure, de
protobromure diode et d’alizarine.
(Read April 29.) ‘

Ueber die Lichtwirkung verschieden
gefarbter Blatter. (May 4.)

Recherches sur les raies de la
chlorophylle. (Read Dec. 30.)

Zur Kenntniss der Chlorophyll-farb-
stoffe. (Stuttgart, 1872.)

‘Gazz. Chim. Ital.’ i. 471-.
472; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2]
ix. 1096 (Abs.)

‘Pfliiger’s. Archiv f.
Physiol.’ iv. 497-547;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] x.
307-308 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ iv. 505.
+ Velde

‘Ann’. Chim. et Phys.’ [4]
xxiv. 215-217; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2] x. 280 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlv, 166-167; ‘ Arch. de
Geneve’ [2] xliii. 282-
283.

‘Cc. BR.’ Ixxiv. 465-468;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2]
x. 280 (Abs.); ‘ Ber.’ v.
218 .(Abs,)

*C. BR.’ Ixxiv. 660-662;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] x.
462-463 (Abs.); ‘Phil.
Mag.’ [4] xliii. 318-320.

‘OC. RB.’ lxxiv. 803-805;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] x.
382 (Abs.); ‘Am. J.’ iv.
60 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] x.
308-309 (Abs.)

°C. R.’ Ixxiv. 865-866;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] x.
382 (Abs.); ‘ Ber.’ v. 323
(Abs.)

°C. R.’ lxxiv. 1190-1192 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] x.
665 (Abs.); ‘ Phil. Mag.’
[4] xlili. 473-476 ; ‘Am.
J.’ iv. 59-60.

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Miin-
chen,’ 1872, 133-187.

°C. R.’ Ixxv. 1836-1839 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.
341 (Abs.)

‘Arch. de Genéve,’ [2]
xlvi. 359-362 (Abs.)

W. Hz. Perkin .

J. Chautard

H. C, Sorby

H. Pocklington

J. Chautard

H. Emsmann .

W.N. Hartley.

K. Vierordt .

W.N. Hartley.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

H. E. Roscoe and A.

“Schuster.

W. Stein . x

J. N. Lockyer .

349

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1873, 1874.

1873.

Absorption Spectra of Anthrapur-
purin.

Classification des bandes d’absorp-
tion de la chlorophylle; raies
accidentelles. (Read May 19.)

On Comparative Vegetable Chroma-
tology. (Recd. June 9, Read June
19.)

M. Chautard’s Classification of the
Absorption-Bands of Chlorophyll.

Recherches sur le spectre de la
chlorophylle. (Read Sept. 8.)

Salpetersaure Nickellésung als Ab-
sorptionspraparat.

On the Optical Properties of a new
Chromic Oxalate. (Recd. June 19,
Read Nov. 27.)

1874,

Die graphische Darstellung der Ab-
sorptionsspectren. (Dec. 27, 1873.)

Preliminary Notice of Experiments
concerning the Chemical Constitu-
tion of Saline Solutions. (Recd.
Feb. 3. Read March 19.)

Note on the Absorption-Spectra of
Potassium and Sodium at Low
Temperatures. (Recd, April 30.
Read June 11.)

Zur Spectralanalyse gefirbter Fliis-
sigkeiten und Glaser.

Spectroscopic Notes. No. I. On the
Absorption of Great Thicknesses of
Metallic and Metalloidal Vapours.
(Recd. April 20. Read June 11.)

Spectroscopic Notes. No. II. On the
Evidence of Variation in Molecular
Structure. (Recd. May 26. Read
June 11.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.
433.

“C. R.’ Ixxvi. 1273-1275 :

‘J.*Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.

997-998 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxi. 442-
483; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
[2] xii. 279-285 (Abs.)

‘Pharm. Ji Trans,’ [3] iv.
61-63.

°C. R.’ Ixxvii. 596-597;
‘Ber.’ vi. 1265 (Abs.) ;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlvi.
335-336 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2] xi. 1258-1259
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
Erganzungsband,’ 1874,
Vi. 334-335 ; ‘Phil. Mag.’
[4] xlvi. 329-330; «J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] xii. 113.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxi. 499_
507; ‘Ber.’ vi. 1425
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’ cli.
119-124.*

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxii.
241-243; ‘Chem. News,’
xxix. 148.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxii.
362-364 ; ‘Chem. News,’
xxix. 268-269 ; ‘J. Chem.

Soc.’ [2] xii. 942
CAlbs))ish Ams, sic?) ixs
212-213.

‘J. pr: Chem.’ [2] ix. 383_
384; ‘J. Chem, Soc.’ [2]
xili, 412-414 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxii.
371-3727 ‘Phil. Mag.’
[4] xlix. 233-235,

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxii.
372-374; ‘Ann. Phys.
u. Chem.’ cly, 136-140;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlix.
235-237 ; «J. Chem. Soc.’
1876, ii, 34 (Abs.)

350

J. N. Lockyer. .

» ® n

H. Behrens r .

J. Chautard , .

Pringsheim , .

W. Stein. ° °

J. N. Lockyer and
W. C. Roberts.

W.N. Hartley. °

R. Bunsen .

G. Francis ° °
H.W. Vogel .

H.W. Vogel . °

9? °

H. Bihrig ° °

Pringsheim

| Bpectroscopic Notes. No. III.
the Molecular Structure of Vapours |

REPORT—1881.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1874, 1875.

in connection with their Densities.
(Recd. May 26. Read June 11.)

Spectroscopic Notes. No.IV.OnaNew
Class of Absorption Phenomena.
(Recd. May 26. Read June 11.)

Ueber das Spectrum des EHdelopals.

Recherches sur le spectre de la
chlorophylle.

Ueber die Absorptionsspectra der
Chlorophyll - farbstoffe. (Read
Oct. 22.)

Zur Spectralanalyse gefirbter Fliis-
sigkeiten, Glaser und Diimpfe.

1875,

On the Absorption Spectra of Metals
volatilised by the Oxyhydrogen
Flame. (Recd. Feb. 4. Read
Mar. 18.)

On the Action of Heat on the Ab-
sorption Spectra and Chemical
Constitution of Saline Solutions.
(Recd. March 10. Read April 22.)

Spectralanalytische Untersuchun-

gen.

Spectrum of Fish Pigment. (Oct. 9)

Ueber die Absorptionsspectra ver-
schiedener Farbstoffe, sowie iiber
die Anwendung derselben zur
Entdeckung von Verfilschungen.
(Sept. 1875. Read Oct. 11.)

Ueber die Absorptionsspectren eini-
ger Salze der Metalle der Hisen-
gruppe und ihre Anwendung in
der Analyse. (Read Nov. 22.)

Spectroskopische Untersuchung des
Lichts der blauen Grotte auf

Capri. (July 1875.)
Das Absorptionsspectrum des Di-
dyms. (May 1875.)

Ueber natiirliche Chlorophyllmodifi-
cationen und die Farbstoffe der
Florideen. (Read Dec. 2.)

On ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxii.

374-378 ; ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ clv. 140-146;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlix.
320-326 ; ‘ J. Chem. Soc.’
1876,i.181.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’
378-380.

Xxii.

‘Jahrb. £. Mineral.’ 1873,
920-931.

‘Ann. Chim, et Phys.’ [5]
iii, 5-56; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2] xiii. 171-172
(Abs.)

‘Monatsb. Berl. Akad.’
1874, 628-659.

‘J. pr. Chem.’ [2] x. 368—
384; ‘J.Chem. Soc.’ [2]
xiii, 412-414 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxiii.
344-349 ; ‘Phil. Mag.’
[5]i. 234-239; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ 1876, ii. 166-157
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxiii.
372-373 (Abs.); ‘Ber.’
viii. 765 (Abs.); ‘Phil.
Mag.’ [5] i, 244-245,

‘Ann. Phys.u. Chem.’ elv.
230-252, 366-384; ‘Phil.
Mag.’ [4] 1. 417-430,
527-539 ; ‘J.Chem. Soe.’
1876, i. 665-667 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xili. 167.

‘Ber.’ viii. 1246-1254;
‘Ding. J.’ cexix. 73-81.

‘Ber.’ viii. 1533-1540;
«J. Chem. Soc.’ 1876, i.
739-740 (Abs.); ‘Dingl.
J.’ ccxix. 532-538.

‘Ann. Phys.u. Chem.’ clvi.
325-326; ‘Am. J.’ [3]
xi, 56-57.

‘J. pr. Chem.’ [2] xii.
209-215; ‘Am. J.’ [3]
xi, 142 (Abs.)

‘Monatsb. Berl.
1875, 745-759.

Akad.’

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 351

J.Wunder e :

R. Hoffmann . .

W. Ackroyd . .

H. E. Roscoe and T.
KE. Thorpe,

Sir J. Conroy . .

W. Ackroyd . .

Jd. Moser , J .

rr) ° °

C.Giinther ,. d

W. Ackroyd . .

F.von Lepel ,

J.L.Soret , :

A, Rosenstiehl - | L’alizarine nitrée

l
|

/
|

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1876-1878,

1876.

Ueber die Absorptionsspectren ver-
schiedener Ultramarinsorten. (Feb.
1876. Read Feb. 28.)

Bemerkung zu J. Wunder’s Mit-
theilung tiber die Absorptions-
spectren verschiedener Ultrama-
rinsorten. (Mar. 22.)

Selective Absorption. (Read April
28.)

On the Absorption-Spectra of Bro-
mine and of Iodine Monochloride.
(Recd. Mar. 16. Read May 4.)

Absorption-Spectra of Iodine. (Recd.
April 12, Read May 18.)

Metachromism, or Colour-change .

1877,

Die Spectren der chemischen Ver-
bindungen,

Die Spectren der salpetrigen und
der Untersalpeter-Siure.

Ueber ein einfaches Verfahren, die
Umkehrung der farbigen Linien
der Flammenspectra, insbesondere
der Natriumlinie, subjectiv darzu-
stellen. (July 7.)

Transverse Absorption of Light

Reversal of the Sodium Lines, (Oct.
i)

Spectralanalytische Notizen. (Oct.
1877.)

1878,

Sur les spectres d’absorption ultra-
violets des différents liquices.

|

¢ Ber.’ 1x.- 295-299; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ 1876, i, 864~
865.

‘Ber.’ ix, 494-495,

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ ii, 110—
118; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5]
ii. 423-430; «J. Chem.
Soc.” 1877, i. 571-572
(Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,’ i.
350-352 (Abs.)

§ Phil. Trans.’ 1877, clxvii.
207-212; ‘Proc. Roy.
Soc.’ xxv. 4 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ ii. 256-258.

SRrOG: ROYs SOCs1 5 XK.
46-51; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5]
iii. 68-73.

‘Chem. News,’ xxxiy, 75—
TE

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
celx. 177-199 ; ‘J.Chem.
Soc.’ 1877, ii. 688-690
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ xvi,
193-194 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’
N.F, ii. 139-140,

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.’

N.F. ii. 477-478; ‘J.
Chem. Soc,’ xxxiv, 463
(Abs.)

. | Chem. News,’ xxxvi. 159_

161: ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxiv. 101 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ xxxvi. 164—
165.

GBer,” x. 1876-1877; 6 J.
Chem. Soc.’ xxxivy, 168
(Abs.)

‘Arch. de Genéve,’ [2] Ix.
298-300 ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
ii. 30-31 (Abs.)

‘Ann, Chim. et Phys.’ [5]
xii. 519-529; «J. Chem.
Soc.’ xxxiv. 231-232
(Abs.)

A. Jiderholm .

G. D. Liveing and J.

C. Liebermann,

G. D. Liveing and J.

G. D. Liveing and J.

REPORT—1881.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1878.

Untersuchungen tiber den Blutfarb-
stoff und seine Derivate.

Ueber das Absorptionsspektrum des
iibermangansauren Kalis und seine
Benutzung bei chemisch-analy-
tischen Arbeiten.

Ueber den Einfluss der Dichtigkeit
eines Ko6rpers auf die Menge des
von ihm absorbirten Lichtes.
(Oct. 28, 1877.)

On the Reversal of the Lines of
Metallic Vapours. No. I. (Read
Feb. 28.)

Ueber die Veriinderlichkeit der Lage

der Absorptionsstreifen. (Aug.
1877.)
Recherches sur Jabsorption des

rayons ultra-violets par diverses
substances.

Ueber die Farbungen der Vogeleier-
schalen. (Read Mar. 25.)

Ueber die Wandlung der Spectren
verschiedener Farbstoffe. (Mar.
1878. Read Mar. 25.)

Sur les spectres d’absorption ultra-
violets des terres de la gadolinite.
(Read April 29.)

On the Reversal of the Lines of
Metallic Vapours. No. II. (Recd.
Mar. 26. Read May 2.)

Untersuchungen tiber Absorptions-
spectra. (Read May 20.)

Ueber die Verschiedenheit der Ab-
sorptionsspektra eines und dessel-
ben Stoffs. (May 1 and June 25,)

Ueber die Aenderung der Absorp-
tionsspectra einiger Farbstoffe in
verschiedenen Lésungsmitteln.
(April 1878. Read May 27.)

On the Reversal of the Lines of
Metallic Vapours. No. III. (Recd.
June 19. Read’ June 20.)

Zur Kenntniss der Alizarin-Farb-
stoffe und: griinen Anilinfarben.
(June 25.)

Ueber den Emfluss des Losungs-
mittels auf die Absorptionsspectra
geloster absorbirender Medien,
(Read July 7.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Biol.’ xiii.
193-255 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Xxxiv. 236-237 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1877, viii.
139-143; ‘ J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxiv. 242-243 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’ N.F.
iii. 54-82.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxvii.
132-136; ‘ Beiblatter,’
ii. 261-263 (Abs.)

‘ Ann. Phys, u. Chem.’ N.F,
ili. 389-414.

‘Arch. de Genéve’ [2] 1xi.
322-359 ; ‘C. R.’ lxxxvi,
708-711; ‘J. Chem.
Soc,’ xxxiv. 629 (Abs,);
‘ Beiblatter,’ ii, 347—
350.(Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xi. 606-610; ‘Am.
J.’ [3] xvi. 66 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xi. 622-624; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xxxiv. 545
(Abs.)

°C. BR.’ lxxxvi. 1062-1064 ;
‘ Beiblitter,’ ii, 410-411
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxvii.
350-354; ‘ Beiblatter,’ ii.
490-492.

‘Monatsb. Berl.
1878, 409-431.

‘Ber.’ xi. 913-920, 1363-
1371; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxyl. 189- (Abs.));
‘ Beiblatter,’ ii. 699-702
(Abs. )

‘Ber.’ xi. 1146-1151; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xxxiv. 925-
926 (Abs,) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
iii. 360-361 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ xxvii.
494-496; ‘ Beiblatter,’
ii. 601 (Abs.)

‘ Ber.’ xi. 1871-1374; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi. 83-
85 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb, Akad. Miin-
chen,’ 1877, 234-262;
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. iv. 34-64.

Akad.’

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

J. Moser .

H. W. Vogel

J, Landauer

G. D. Liveing and J.
Dewar.

Sir J. Conroy .

J.L. Schénn . 4

J. L. Soret y

A. Riccd .

W. N. Hartley and
A. K. Huntington.

C. Liebermann

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

G. D. Liveing and

J. Dewar.

A. Meyer

1881.

. ,Bemerkung zur

353

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1878, 1879.

Abhandlung des
Hrn. Hermann W. Vogel: Ueber
die Verschiedenheit der Absorp-
tionsspectra eines und desselben
Stoffes. (July 8.)

. | Ueber die Verschiedenheit der Ab-

sorptionsspectra eines und des-
selben Stoffes. Antwort auf die
Bemerkungen des Hrn. J. Moser.
(July 29.)

Zur Kenntniss der Absorptions-
spectra. I. Das Safranin. (Oct.
8. Read Oct. 14.)

Studies in Spectrum Analysis. (Read
Nov. 4.)

On the Light Reflected by Potas-
sium Permanganate.

Ueber die Absorption des Lichts
durch Wasser, Steindl, Ammoniak,
Alcohol und Glycerin.

Recherches sur l’absorption des
rayons ultra-violets par diverses
substances. II. Sur les spectres
d’absorption des terres de la gado-
linite et du didyme.

1879.

Studi spettrali sul colore delle acque,
nota seconda,

Researches on the Action of Organic
Substances on the Ultra-violet
Rays of the Spectrum. (Recd.
Oct. 10, 1878. Read Jan. 9, 1879.)

Ueber die der Chrysazinreihe an-
gehorigen Anthracenverbindungen.
(Read Jan. 27.)

On the Reversal of the Lines of
Metallic Vapours. No. IV. (Recd.
Feb. 12. Read Feb. 20.)

On the Reversal of the Lines of
Metallic Vapours. No. V. (Recd.
Feb. 20. Read Feb. 27.)

Absorption Spectra of Brucine, Mor-
phine, Strychnine, Veratrine, and
Santonine in Concentrated Acids.
(‘ Arch, Pharm,’ [3] xiii. 413-416.)

AA

©Ber.’ xi. 1416-1417; «J.
Chem. Soc.’ xxxiv. 829
(Abs.)

‘ Ber.’ xi. 1562-1563.

Ber.) xi, 1772-1776 5. * Jt
Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi. 101
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ iii.
195-196 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Phil. Soc. Camb.’
iii. 208-209; ‘Nature,’
xix, 163-164.

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ ii. 340-
344; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5]
vi. 454-458; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ xxxvi. 425 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
Erganzungsb.’ 1878,
vill. 670-675 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ xxxiv. 693 (Abs.)

‘Arch. de Genéve,’ [2]

Txili, 89-112; 9C. Re
Ixxxvi. 1062-1064; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ iii, 196-197
(Abs.)

‘Mem. spettr. ital.’ viii.
1-10.

‘Phil. Trans.’ 1879, clxx.
257-274; ‘Proc. Roy.
Soc.’ xxviii. 233-236
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soe.’
xxxvili. 430 (Abs.) ;
‘ Beibliitter,’ ili. 357-358
(Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xii. 182-188: ‘J.

Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi. 537-
538 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy, Soc.’ xxviii.
352-358; ‘ Beiblitter,’
iii. 502-504 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ xxviii.
367-372; ‘ Beiblitter,’
lii. 502-504 (Abs.)

‘J.Chem., Soc.’ xxxvi. 269.

354

J. L. Soret 5

A. Hilger and H.
Bischoff.

J. L. Schénn .

J. N. Lockyer .

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

J. L. Smith and
Lecoq de Boisbau-
dran.

Lecog de Boisbau-
dran.

A. Cornu . = =

J. L. Soret and A. A.
Rilliet.

W. N. Hartley and
A. K, Huntington.

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

C. A. Young . .

Piazzi Smyth . .

Jaaesoret vl. | os

REPORT—1881.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1879, 1880.

Sur les spectres d’absorption du
didyme et de quelques autres
substances extraites de la samar-
skite. (Read Mar. 3.) -

Colouring Matter of the Caryo-
phyllacez.

Uber die Absorption des Lichtes
durch Fliissigkeiten.

Note on some Phenomena attending |

the Reversal of Lines.
Mar. 5. Read Mar. 20.)

On the Reversal of the Lines of
Metallic Vapours. No. VI.’ (Recd.
Mar. 27. Read April 3.)

Sur le spectre du nitrate de didyme.
(Read June 9.)

(Recd.

Sur le spectre du nitrate d’erbium.
(Read June 9.)

Sur labsorption par l’atmosphére des
radiations ultra-violettes. (Read
June 23.)

Sur les spectres d’absorption ultra-
violets des éthers azotiques et
azoteux. (Read Nov. 3.)

Researches on the Action of Organic
Substances on the Ultra-violet Rays
of the Spectrum. Part III. An
Examination of Essential Oils.
(Recd. July 22. Read Nov. 20.)

On the Reversal of the Lines of
Metallic Vapours. No. VII. (Recd.
Nov. 18. Read Novy. 27.)

1880.

Re-reversal of Sodium Lines.

(Jan. 5.)

Three Years’ Experimenting in Men-
surational Spectroscopy.

Sur les spectres d’absorption des
métaux faisant partie des groupes
de l’yttria et de la cérite.

°C. RJ’ Ixxxviii. 422-424.

‘Landw. Versuchs-Stat.’
xxiii.456-461; ‘J.Chem.
Soc” xxxvi. 730-731
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. vi. 267-270.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxviii.
428-432 ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
iii. 608-609 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ "xxviii.
471-475; ‘ Beiblitter,’
iii. 710 (Abs.)

FO. JR.” six yali aor
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi.
861-862 (Abs.); ‘Ber.’
xii. 2080 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ iii, 792 (Abs.)

‘C. RY Ixxxviii. 1167-
1168; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxvi. 862 (Abs.) ; ‘ Ber.’
xii. 2080 (Abs.) ; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ iii. 792 (Abs.)

SO. RZ xxvii 12862
1290; ‘ Beiblitter,’ iv.
40-41 (Abs.)

‘COC. BR. ioxemx 74 7-7149)5
‘J. Chem. Soe.’ xxxviii.
202 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’
iv. 278-280 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc, ss, 1—
26, xxix. 290-292 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. News,’ xl. 269-

270, ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxvili. 201 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblatter, iv. 370-

371 (Abs.), v. 47-48
(Abs.); ‘ Ber.’ xiv. 501-—
503 (Abs.)

“Proc. ‘Roy. Sacg.seacds
402-406; ¢ Beibliitter,’
iv. 364-366 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xxi. 274-275;

‘Beiblitter” iv. 370
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xxii. 193-195,
222-225.

°C: Re (cies /(8=38L.

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xl. 349
(Abs.); ‘Chem. Centr.’
1880, 662 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
bliitter,’ v. 124-125
(Abs.)

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

355

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1880, 1881—PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1871.

J. L, Soret 4 fi

W. J. Russell and
W. Lapraik.

W.J. Russell...

J.Chappuis . °

W. N. Hartley. 4

J. Landauer , =

W.N. Hartley. :

W. J. Russell and
W. Lapraik.

D. Gernez 5

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

A. Kundt 4

J. Stefan.

Recherches sur J’absorption des
rayons ultra-violets par diverses
substances. III. Nouvelle étude
des spectres d’absorption des
métaux terreux.

On the Absorption Bands in certain
Colourless Liquids.

On the Absorption Spectra of Cobalt
Salts. (Recd. Aug. 4. Read Nov.
18.)

Sur le spectre d’absorption de l’ozone.
(Read Dec. 13.)

1881.

On the Absorption Spectrum of

Ozone.

Zur Kenntniss der Absorptions-
spectra. (Feb. 18.)

On the Absorption of Solar Rays by
Atmospheric Ozone. Part I.

On Absorption Bands in the Visible
Spectrum produced by certain
Colourless Liquids.

Note sur le prétendu spectre d’ab-
sorption spécial de l’acide azoteux.

Note on the Reversal of the Spec-
trum of Cyanogen. (Read July 7.)

PHYSICAL RELATIONS.
ISAs

Ueber die anomale Dispersion der
Korper mit Oberflichenfarben.
(Jan. 6.)

Ueber den Hinfluss der Wiirme auf
die Brechung des Lichtes in festen
Korpern. (Read Feb. 3.)

AA2

‘Arch. de Genéve’ [3] iv.
261-292; ‘ Beibliitter,’ v.
124-125 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xxii. 368-370;
‘ Beiblitter, v. 44-45
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxii.
258-272 ; xxxi. 51-54
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’ v.
126 (Abs.); ‘Ber.’ xiv.
503 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News, xhii. 27-28
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xl. 486-487 (Abs.)

"C.) RY” xci. *98b—986;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xl. 213
(Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,’ v.
123 (Abs.); ‘Ber,’ xiv.
105 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxix. 57-
60; ‘Ber.’ xiv. 672
(Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,’ v.
505-506 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ Xiv.. 391-394; *J.
Chem. Soc.’ xl. 591
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblitter,’ v.
441 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxix.
111-128; ‘Ber.’ xiv.
1390(Abs.);‘ Beiblatter,’
v. 505 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’
168-173.

XXXix.

‘Bull. Soc. Philom.’ [7]
v. 42.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxxiii.
3-4.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlii. 163-171; ‘Ann.
Chim. et Phys.’ [4] xxv.
404-409 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Wien. Akad.’
Ixiii, II. 223-245.

356

A. Kundt

M. Croullebois.

C. Christiansen

C. Schultz-Sellack .

A. Kundt

V. von Lang

W. Sellmeier

A. Crova .

C. Schultz-Sellack .

J. L. Soret

E. Lommel

§. Lamansky .

P. Blaserna .

REPORT—1881.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1871.

Nachtrag zum Aufsatz: Ueber die;‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

anomale Dispersion der Kérper
mit Oberflichenfarben. (April 26.)

Nouvelle méthode de détermination
des indices de réfraction des
liquides.

Ueber die Brechungsyerhiltniss des
Fuchsins. (Read Feb. 17.)

Chemische und mechanische Veriin-
derung der Silber - Haloidsalze
durch Licht. (Recd. April 7.)

Ueber anomale Dispersion. (May
28.)
Ueber die anomale Dispersion

spitzer Prismen. (Read April 27.)

Zur Erklirung der abnormen
Farbenfolge im Spectrum einiger
Substanzen.

Sur les phénoménes d’interférence
produits par les réseaux paralléles.
(Read June 26.)

Ueber die chemische und mecha-
nische Verainderung der Silber-
haloidsalze durch das Licht.

Sur la dispersion anormale de
quelques substances.

Erythroskop und Melanoskop

Ueber die Griinzen der Empfind-
lichkeit des Auges fiir Spectral-
farben. (July 1870.)

Déplacement des raies du spectre
sous laction de la température du
prisme.

exliii. 149-152; ‘Ann.
Chim. et Phys.’ [4] xxv.
409-410 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Chim, et. Phys.’ [4]
xxii. 139-150.

‘Oversigt k, Danske Vi-
densk.’ Selskabs.’ 1871,
5=17 3 Amy eiyses rus
Chem.’ cxliii. 250-259 ;
‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’
[4] xxv. 400-403 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ iv. 343-345 ; § Phil.
Mag.’ [4] xli. 550-552.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
cxliii. 259-269; ‘Ann.
Chim. et Phys.’ [4] xxv.
413-418 (Abs.)

*Sitzungsber. d. Wien.
Akad.’ lxiii. IT. 658-660 ;
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlili. 269-272; ‘Ann.
Chim. et Phys.’ [4] xxv.
410-411 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exliii. 272-282; ‘Ann.
Chim. et Phys.’ [4] xxv.
421-492.

‘C, R. Ixxii. 855-858.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exliii, 439-449.

‘ Arch. de Genéve’ [2] xl.
280-283 ; ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ cxliii. 325-327 ;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xliy.
395-396; ‘Ann. Chim.
et Phys.’ [4] xxv. 412-
413 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’
exliil. 483-490.

‘Ann. Phys. u.
exlill. 633-643.

Chem.’

‘Arch. de Genéve’ [2] xli.
429-430; ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ cxliii. 655-656 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] x.
118 (Abs.) ; ‘ Phil. Mag.’
[4] xliii. 239-240.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

A. Kundt

Lecoq de Boisbau-
dran.

S$. Lamansky .

J. H. Gladstone

A, Kundt

”

A. Crova . :

G. Quincke

C. Christiansen

M.Sekulié .

S. Lamansky

E. Mach .

E. Wiedemann

J. Tyndall

Mousson .

A. Secchi

357

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1871-1873.

Ueber anomale Dispersion (III.
Mittheilung). (Aug. 29.)

Observations sur quelques points |
analyse spectrale, et sur la con-
stitution des étincelles électriques.
(Read Oct. 16.)

Ueber das Wirmespectrum des
Sonnen- und Kalklichtes. (Read
Dec. 7.)

1872.

On Essential Oils. Part II.

Ueber anomale Dispersion (IV. Mit-
theilung). (Nov. 1871.) |
|

Nachtrag zur vierten Mittheilung |
iiber anomale Dispersion.

Sur les phénoménes d’interférence
produits par les réseaux paralléles.
(Read April 1.)

Optische Experimentaluntersuch-
ungen. Ueber Beugungsgitter.
(Christmas, 1871.) .

Zur Farbenzerstreuung des Fuchsins.

Ultraviolette Strahlen sind unmittel-
bar sichtbar.

}

Untersuchungen tiber das Warme-
spectrum des Sonnen- und Kalk-
lichtes. (Feb. 1872.)

Spectrale Untersuchung eines longi-
tudinalt6nenden Glasstabes.

Ueber die Brechungsexponenten
der geschwefelten Substitutions-

| Monatsb. Berl.

. |*J. Chem. Soe.’

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.’

producte des Kohlensauresithers.

1873.

Effect of Resistance in modifying
Spectra.

Une méthode pour mesurer la dis-
persion dans les différentes parties
du spectre fourni par un prisme ou
un spectroscope quelconque.

Sur quelques observations spectro-
scopiques particuliéres. (Read
April 28.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exliv. 128-137; ‘Ann.
Chim, et Phys.’ [4] xxv.
418-419 (Abs.)

°C. RB. Ixxiil. 943-946 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] x.
117 (Abs.)

Akad.’
1871, 632-641; ‘Phil.
Mag.’ [4] xliii. 282-289.

PASS
12; ‘ Ber.’ v. 60 (Abs.)

exlv. 67-80; ‘Ann.
Chim. et Phys.’ [4] xxv.
419-421.

‘Ann. Phys. u.
exly. 164-166.

Chem.’

(© C. RY Ixxiv. 932-936.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlvi. 1-65.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlvi. 154-155; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi. 236.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlvi. 157-158; ‘J.

Chem. Soe.’ [2] xi. 125
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlvi. 200-232.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlvi. 316-317.

|‘J. pr. Chem.’ [2] vi.
453-455. |

‘Nature,’ vii. 384.

‘Arch. de Genéve’ [2]
xlv. 13; ‘ Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ cxlvili. 660.

°C. R.’ Ixxvi. 1052-1056.

358

G. Quincke , ‘4

EK. Mach , F ‘

G.W. Royston-Pigott

O.N. Rood , a

G. Quincke ,

E, Becquerel . :

J. Dewar 4
H. Behrens . 5

H. Vogel . .

E. Ketteler ,.

A. Kundt 5 2

P. Desains 0

H. Draper -
Mascart . .

REPORT—1881.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1873, 1874.

On Diffraction 5 ‘ c 5

Historische Bemerkung betreffend
das von Hrn. Mousson angegebene
Verfahren zur Untersuchung der
Dispersion,

Researches in Circular Solar Spectra
applied to test Residuary Aberra-
tion in Microscopes and Telescopes,
and the Construction of a Com-
pensating Eyepiece, being a sequel
to the paper on a Searcher for
Aplanatic Images. (Recd. April
24, Read June 19.)

On a Secondary Spectrum of very
large size, with a Construction for
Secondary Spectra. (July 11.)

Optische Experimental-Untersuch-
ungen. Ueber das Verhalten des
polarisirten Lichtes bei der
Beugung. (March 15.)

Sur la détermination des longueurs
donde des rayons de la partie
infra-rouge du spectre, au moyen
des effets de phosphorescence.
(Read Aug. 4.)

Measurement of High Temperatures

Ueber die Entstehung von farbigem
Licht durch elective Reflexion.

Ueber die fortsetzenden Strahlen
Becquerel’s. (Oct. 20.)

1874.

s -
. | Das specifische Gesetz der sogenann-

ten anomalen Dispersion.
1873.)

Ueber einige Beziehungen zwischen
der Dispersion und Absorption des
Lichtes.

Recherches expérimentales sur les
anneaux colorés de Newton. (Read
Jan, 26.)

Sur les longueurs d’onde et les ca-
ractéres des raies violettes et ultra-
violettes du Soleil, données par une
photographie faite au moyen d’un
réseau. (Read March 9.)

Sur la réfraction des gaz. (March 2.)

(Sept.

‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlv. 365-
371.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlix. 270.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xx
426-442,

«Am. J.’ [3] vi. 172-180.

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem,’

exlix. 273-324.

°C. R.’ lxxvii. 302-304.

‘Chem.
174.

‘Ann. Phys. u, Chem.’
el. 303-311.

‘ Ber.’ vi. 1498-1501; «J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] xii. 332
(Abs)5) SAme Je “iis
508-509 (Abs.)

News,’ xxviii.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’ Ju-
belband, 166-182.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’ Ju-
belband, 615-624.

°C. RB. Ixxviii. 219-221;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlvii.
236-237.

‘C. R.’ Ixxviii. 682-686.

°C. R.’ Lxxviii. 617-621 ; ,
‘Am. J.’ [3] vii. 591-
592(Abs.) ; ‘Ann. Phys.
u. Chem.’ cliii. 149-153,

a

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

Mascart . ‘

A. Crova A

W. Spottiswoode

L. Ranvier P

Terquemand Trannin

E. Wiedemann

Mew. Lange

G. Salet ° °
G. Pisati and
Paterno.

J. L. Hoorweg

M. Carey Lea ,

Wolcott Gibbs

J. Chatttard, .

359

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1874, 1875.

Sur.la dispersion des gaz.
March 9.)

(Read

Sur la réfraction de eau comprimée.
(March 23.)

Sur les phénoménes d’interférence
produits par les réseaux paralléles.

On Combinations of Colour by means
of Polarised Light. (Recd. April
8. Read May 21.)

Duspectre musculaire. (Read June 1.)

Méthode nouvelle pour déterminer
Vindice de réfraction des liquides.
(Read June 29.)

Ueber das von iibermangansaurem|

Kali reflectirte Licht.
26.) ;

(Read July

Ueber die Abhiingigkeit des Brech-
ungsquotienten der Luft von der
Temperatur.

Sur la distribution des bandes dans
les spectres primaires. (Read
Noy. 20.) .

1875.

Misura dell’ indice di rifrazione
del cimene, della benzina e di al-
cuni derivati del timol naturale
e del timol sintetico. (Oct. 1874.)

Ueber den Gang der Lichtstrahlen
durch ein Spectroskop. (Sept.
1874.)

On the Influence of Colour upon
Refraction of Light. (March 20.)

Optical Notices. 1. On a New
Optical Constant ; 2. Ona Method
of Measuring Refractive Indices
without the use of Divided Instru-
ments. (April 13.)

Action des aimants sur les gaz
raréfiés renfermés dans des tubes
capillaires et illuminés par un
courant induit. (Read May 3.)

Phénoménes magnéto - chimiques
produits au sein des gaz raréfiés
dans les tubes de Geissler, il-
luminés 4 V’aide de courants in-
duits. (Read July 12.)

°C. BR.” Ixxvili. 679-682 ;
‘Am. J.’ [3] vii. 591-
592 (Abs.)

‘C. R.’ lxxviii. 801-805;
SAm. J.; {j3i|) wil.) 593);
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
cliii. 154-158.

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [5]
1. 407-432.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxii.

354-358.

°C. R.’ lxxvili. 1572-1575.

©CuR,’ Ixxviii. 1843-1845 ;
‘Dingl. J.’ cexv. 552-
554,

‘Ber. d. K. Siichs. Ges.’
xxv. 367-370; ‘Ann.
Phys. u. Chem.’ cli.
625-628; ‘Phil. Mag.’
[4] xlviii. 231-233; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [ 2] xiii. 120
(Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. d, Wien. Akad.’
lxix, IT. 451-468 ; ‘ Ann.

Phys. u. Chem.’ cliii.
448-465,
‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [2]

Xxii. 543-545.

‘Gazz. Chim. Ital.’ iv. 557—
564; Ber.’ viii. 71 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’ cliv,
423-444,

‘Am. J.’ [3] ix. 355-357.

‘Proc. Am. Acad.’ x, 401-—
416; ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ clvi. 120-144.

°C. R.’ lxxx, 1161-1164.

“Cha Ix 75-775) Sd:
Chem. Soe.’ 1876, i. 29
(Abs.)

360

W. Wernicke

G. Lundquist .

P. Desains and Ay-
monet.

L. Sauer .

Croullebois

J. L, Soret

G. G. Stokes
J. Loudon

Terquem and Tran-
nin.
J. Chautard

J. L. Soret

Aymonnet

Gouy

E. Wiedemann

W. von Bezold

REPORT—1881.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1875, 1876.
Ueber die Absorption und Brech-|‘Monatsb. Berl. Akad.’

ung des Lichtes in metallisch
undurchsichtigen Kérpern. (Read
Noy. 19.)
Om Viirmefordelningen i Normal-
spektrum (Ueber die Warmever-
theilung im Normalspectrum),

Etude des bandes froides des spec-
tres obscurs. (Read Sept. 6.)

Experimente tiber die Sichtbarkeit
ultravioletter Strahlen.

Sur le pouvoir rotatoire du quartz
dans le spectre ultra-violet. (Read
Oct. 18.)

Sur les phénoménes de diffraction
produits par les réseaux circu-
laires.

1876.
D-line Spectra : : .

Recomposition of the Component)

Colours of White Light. (Jan. 13.)

Méthode nouvelle pour déterminer |

rapidement V’indice de réfraction
des liquides.

Actions magnétiques exercées sur
les gaz raréfiés des
Geissler. (Read Jan. 24.)

Sur les phénoménes de diffraction
produits par les réseaux circu-
laires.

Sur les spectres calorifiques. (Read

May 15.)

Recherches photométriques sur les
flammes colorées. (Read July 24.)

Methoden zur Bestimmung der
Brechungsexponenten von Fliis-
sigkeiten und Glasplatten.

76.)

Uecker die Vergleichung von Pig-
mentfarben mit Spectralfarben.
(Read Jan. 8.)

tubes de}

(Feb. |

1874, 728-737; * Ann.
Phys. u. Chem.’ clv. 87—
95.

‘Oefversigt af K. Vetensk.
Acad. Hand.’ 1874,
xxxi. X. 19-27; ‘Ann.
Phys. u. Chem.’ cly. 146-
155.

°C. BR. Ixxxi, 423-4965;
‘Am. J. [3] x. 474-475
(Abs.); ‘ Phil. Mag.’ [4]
1, 331-333; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ 1876, i. 27 (Abs.);
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
elvi. 174-176.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’ cly.
602-615.

°C. R.’ lxxxi. 666-667.

‘ Arch. de Genéve,’ [2] lii.
320-337 ; ‘Ann. Phys.
u. Chem.’ clvi, 99-113.

. | ‘Nature,’ xiii. 247.

‘Phil. Mag. [5] i. 170-
171.

‘J. de Phys.’ iv. 232-238 ;
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
elvii. 302-309.

‘C. RY Ixxxil. 272-274.

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’
[5] vii. 409-424.

© R? lxxxi. 1153-1156
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ 1876, ii.
374 (Abs.) ; ‘ Phil. Mag.’
[5] ii. 158-160.

“C. R. ixxxiil, 269-272):
‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] ii. 317-
319.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
clviii. 375-386.

|‘ Sitzungsb. Akad. Miin-

chen,’ vi. 30-34; ‘Ann.
Phys. u. Chem.’ clviii.
165-169.

W. von Bezold

E. Becquerel

H. Trannin

Aymonnet

EH. Becquerel

K. W. Zenger .

P. Desains

A. §. Herschel

J. Hopkinson .

Gouy

”

Lord Rayleigh

G. D. Liveing .

E, Sarasin

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 361

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1876, 1877.

Eine neue Methode der Farben- |‘ Sitzungsb. Akad. Miin-

mischung. (Read March 4.) chen,’ vi. 106-112 ;
‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.
clviii. 606-612.

.| Sur observation de la partie infra-|‘C. R.’ Ixxxiii. 249-255 ;

rouge du spectre solaire,au moyen| ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ 1876, li.
des effets de phosphorescence.| 587 (Abs.); ‘ Beiblat-

(Read July 24.) ter,’ i. 55-57 (Abs.)
Mesures photométriques dans les|‘J. de Phys.’ v. 297-304 ;
différentes régions du spectre. ‘Beiblitter,’ i. 106-108
(Abs.)

Nouvelle méthode pour étudier |‘ C. R.’ lxxxiii. 1102-1104 ;
les spectres calorifiques. (Read| ‘ Beiblitter,’ i. 112-113.
Dec. 4.)

1877.

Sur Vobservation de la partie|‘Ann. Chim. et. Phys.’
infra-rouge du spectre solaire, au] [5] x. 5-13.
moyen des effets de phosphores-
cence.

Ueber eine neue spectrometrische |‘ Sitzungst. Prag. Ges.’
Methode. (Read Jan. 12.) 1877, 20-40; ‘ Beiblat-
ter,’ iii. 187-188 (Abs.)

Recherches sur les spectres calori-|‘C. R.’ lxxxiv. 285-286 ;

fiques (suite). (Read Feb. 12.) ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] iii. 318—
819; ‘ Beiblitter,’ i. 238
(Abs.)

Visibility of the Ultra-violet Rays |‘ Nature,’ xvi. 22-23.
of the Spectrum. (April 26.)

Refractive Indices of Glass. (Recd.|‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxvi.
May 25. Read June 14.) 290-297 ;. ‘ Beibliitter,’
i. 680-681 (Abs.)

Recherches photométriques sur les|‘C. R.’ Ixxxv. 70-72; ‘J.
flammes colorées. (Read July 9.) | Chem. Soc.’ 1877, ii.
817 (Abs.); ‘ Phil. Mag.’
[5] iv. 156-158 ; ‘ Bei-
blitter,) i. 472-473

(Abs.)

Sur les caractéres des flammes|‘C. R.’ Ixxxv. 439-442;
chargées de poussiére saline.| ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ 1877, ii.
(Read Aug. 20.) 817 (Abs.)

On the Lower Limit of the Pris-|‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5] iv. 348-
matic Spectrum, with especial| 353; ‘ Beiblatter,’ i.
reference to some Observations of | 682-683 (Abs.)

Sir John Herschel.

Note on the Spectra of Calcium] ‘Proc. Phil. Soc. Camb.’
Fluoride. (Read Dec. 3.) | iii. 96-98 ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
iv. 611-612 (Abs.)

Indices de réfraction ordinaire et |‘ Arch. de Genéve,’ [2] 1xi.
extraordinaire du quartz, pour les} 109-119; ‘C. R.’ lxxxv.
rayons de différentes longueurs| 1230-1232 (Abs.); ‘Bei-
onde jusqu’A Vextréme ultra-| blitter,’ ii.77-78 (Abs.)
violet.

362

CO. 8. Hastings F

A Arzruni 3 .
Mascart . . .
A. Hurion .

B. Hasselberg

Gouy . .

H. Dufet .

Gouy 2

G. G. Stokes .

A. Crova . -

Aymonnet and Ma-
quenne,

A. Crova . °

C.S. Peirce .

Sur la réfraction des gaz et des
Recherches sur la dispersion ano-

Zur Reduction der Kirchhoff’schen

Sur la transparence des flammes

Sur la variation des indices de ré-
Sur Ja transparence des flammes

On an Kasy and at the same time

Etude spectrométrique de quelques

Des minima _ produits,

Sur la mesure spectrométrique des

- Note on the Progress of Experi-

REPORT—1881.
PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1878, 1879.

1878.

the Optical Constants of Glass.
(Jan. 1878.)

Ueber den Einfluss der Temperatur |‘ Zeitschr. f.

auf die Brechungsexponenten der
natiirlichen Sulfate des Baryum,
Strontium und Blei.

vapeurs. (Read Feb. 4.)

male.

Spectralbeobachtungen auf Wel-
lenlingen, (Read March 4.)

colorées. (Read April 8.)

fraction dans les mélanges des
sels isomorphes. (Read April 8.)

colorées pour leurs propres radia-
tions. (Read April 29.)

Accurate Method of Determining
the Ratio of the Dispersions of
Glasses intended for Objectives.
(Recd. June 18. Read June 20,)

sources lumineuses,
19.)

(Read Aug.

dans wun
spectre calorifique, par l'appareil
réfringent et la lampe qui servent
& la formation de ce spectre.
(Read Sept. 30.)

hautes températures,

1879.

ments for comparing a Wave-
length with a Metre.

“Bull. de

PCE Re

On the Influence of Temperature on | ‘ Am. J.’ [3] xv. 269-275 ;

‘Beiblatter, ii. 388-
339 (Abs.)

Kryst. u.
Mineral.’ i. 165-192;
‘Jahrb. f. Mineral.’

1877, 526-527 (Abs.);
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxiv.
189-190 (Abs.)

SOR deme theories: SERVE

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxiv.
359-360 (Abs.)

‘Ann. de l’Ecole Norm.’

[2] vi. 367-412; ‘ Bei-
bliitter,’ ii. 79-86 (Abs.)
l’Acad._ §.
Petersb.’ xxv. 131-146;
‘ Beibliitter,’ iii. 79-80
(Abs.)

°C. R.’ Ixxxvi. 878-880;

‘ Beiblitter, ii. 340-
342 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ xxxiv. 629-631
(Abs.)

°C, R.’ lxxxvi. 881-884.

Ixxxvi. 1078.-
1080; ‘ Beiblitter,’ ii.
411-412 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxvii.

485-494 ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
ili, 185-187 (Abs.)

°C. R.’ Ixxxvil. 322-325;

“Phil Mags = [5s] “was
314-316; ‘ Beiblatter,’
ji. 655-657 (Abs.)

«QO. RY lxxxvii. 494-497.

°C. RB.’ Ixxxvii. 979-981 ;

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi.

293 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ ili, 276-277
(Abs.)

‘Am. J.’ [3] xvii. 51;

‘Beiblitter,’ iii. 711

(Abs.)

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 363

W. Crookes .

G. W. A, Kahlbaum

E. Wiedemann

O.N. Rood .

J. L. Soret ‘

G. D, Liveing ,

Mouton . e

°C. 8. Peirce .

A, Crova. :

W. de W. Abney

A Cornu. .

A, Baudrimont

Thollon . 5

W. Jacques.

P. Desains c

Mouton . °

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1879.

De la lumiére verte et phosphores-
cente du choc moléculaire. (Read
Feb. 10.)

Ueber einige Methylester aus der
Propionsiiure- und Buttersiiure-
gruppe. (Recd. Feb. 27.)

Ueber das Leuchten der Gase durch
electrische Entladungen. Nach-
trag zu der Arbeit tiber die Natur
der Spectra. (Jan. 1879.)

Analyse quantitative de la lumiére
blanche.

Sur la transparence des milieux de
lceil pour les rayons ultra-violets.
(Read May 19.)

On the Dispersion of a Solution of
Mercuric Iodide. (Read May 19.)

Sur la détermination des longueurs
donde calorifique. (Read May 26.)

‘C. BR,’ Ixxxviii. 283-284.

‘Ber.’ xii. 343-344; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi. 521
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. vi. 298-302 ;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] vii.
248-251.

‘Les Mondes,’ xlviii. 610-
611.

CC.) RY “sexys, Ole:
1015; ‘ Beibliitter,’ iii.
620 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Phil. Soc. Camb.’
iii. 258-260; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ iv. 610-611
(Abs.)

°C. BR.’ kxxxviii. 1078—
1082; ‘ Beiblitter,’ iii.
616-618 (Abs.)

On the Ghosts in Rutherfurd’s Dif-|‘Am. J. Math.’ ii. 330-

raction-Spectra. Comparison of
Wave-lengths with the Metre.
(U.S. Acad.)

Mesure spectrométrique des hautes
températures.

On the Production of Coloured
Spectra by Light. (Recd. June 9.
Read June 19.)

Déterminations des longueurs d’onde
des radiations trés réfrangibles du
magnésium, du cadmium, du zinc
et de V’aluminium.

Evaporation de V’eau sous l’influence
de la radiation solaire ayant tra-
versé des verres colorés. (Read
July 7.)

Minimum de dispersion des prismes ;
achromatisme de deux lentilles de
mémes substances. (Read July 14.)

Vertheilung der Wirme in den
Spectren verschiedener Wiarme-
quellen (Inaug. Dissert. Johns
Hopkins Univ. 1879).

Recherches sur la réfraction de la
chaleur obscure. (Read July 28.)

Spectre calorifique normal du So-
leil et de la lampe a platine incan-
descent (Bourbouze). (Read Aug.4.)

347; ‘Nature,’ xx. 99
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’ v.
48-50 (Abs.)

‘J. de Phys.’ viii. 196-
198.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxix.
190; ‘Chem. News,’
xxxix, 282; ‘ Beiblat-
ter,’ iv. 285 (Abs.)

‘Arch. de Genéve’ [3]
ii. 119-126; ‘Bei-
blitter,’ iv. 34-35 (Abs.)

LG. R,, Lxxxixs41 243)

Gri,» Icxxdx.)) S206
‘Beiblatter,’ iv. 32-34
(Abs.)

‘Beibliitter,’ iii. 865-868
(Abs.)

SCR» lxxxax,) 189-190);
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi.
864 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ iii. 869-870
(Abs.)

*@. R. lexxix. 295-298 ;
‘ Beiblitter,’ iii, 868-
869 (Abs.)

364

Thenard , :

E. L. Nichols .

Gouy A .

Sir J. Conroy ,

Van Monckhoven

A. Schuster .

De Klercker .

H. W. Vogel .

Mouton

G. Sieben

L. Bleekrode .

Gouy ; 4

C.S. Pierce .

A. Crova .

W. H. Pickering

REPORT—1881.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1879, 1880.

-|©C. RU’ lxexix, 298-299;
‘Beiblitter, iv. 39
(Abs.)

On the Character and Intensity of |}‘Am. J.’ [3] xviii. 446-
the Rays emitted by Glowing} 468.
Platinum. (May 28.)

Upon an Optical Method for the}|‘ Am. J,’ [3] xix. 42-49.
Measurement of High Tempera-
tures. (July 1.)

Recherches photométriques sur les|*‘ Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [5]

Remarques. (Read Aug. 4)

flammes colorées, xviii. &I101; ‘Bei-
blitter,’ iv. 376-378
(Abs.)

The Distribution of Heat in the |‘ Proc, Phys. Soc.’ iii. 106-
Visible Spectrum. (Read June] 112; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5]
28.) viii. 203-209; ‘ Beibliit-

ter,’ iv. 44 (Abs.)

Ueber die Vertheilung der chemi- |‘ Beibliitter,’ iv. 49 (Abs.)
schen Lichtintensitiit im Sonnen-
spectrum. (‘Photog. Mittheilun-
gen,’ xvi. 145-146.)

On Harmonic Ratios in the Spectra | ‘Nature, xx. 533; ‘ Bei-
of Gases, blitter,’ iv. 37-38 (Abs.)

Sur le spectre anormal de la Ilu-|*C. RY Ixxxix. 734-736;

miére,° (Read Nov. 3.) ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] viii.
571-572; ‘ Beiblatter,’
iv. 273-274 (Abs.)

Chemische Intensitiit des Magne- | ‘Beiblitter,’ iv. 280 (Abs.)
sium- und electrischen Lichtes.
(*‘ Photog. Mittheilungen,’ xvi.
187-188.)

Sur les lois de la dispersion des |<‘ Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [5]
rayons calorifiques obscurs et la| xviii. 145-189.
mesure de leurs longueurs d’onde.

Untersuchungen iiber die anomale|‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.
Dispersion des Lichtes. (Jan.1879.)| N.F. viii. 187-157.

Experimentaluntersuchung zur Be-|‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
stimmung der Brechungsexpo-| N.F. viii. 400-407.
nenten verfitissigter Gase. (July

1879.)

Sur la mesure de l’intensité des|*‘C, R.’ lxxxix. 1033-1034;
raies d’absorption et des raies ob-| ‘Beiblitter,’ iv. 369-

scures du spectre solaire. (Read| 370 (Abs.)
Dec. 15.)
Mutual Attraction of Spectral| ‘Nature,’ xxi. 108; ‘Bei-

Lines. (Noy. 14.) bliitter,’ iv. 278 (Abs.)

1880.
Mesure spectrométrique des hautes|‘C. R.’ xe. 252-254;
températures. (Read Feb. 9.) ‘ Beiblitter,’ iv. 362—

363 (Abs.)

Photometric Researches. (Feb 11.) |‘ Proc. Am. Acad.’ xy. 236—
250; ‘ Beibliatter,’ iv.
728-729 (Abs.)

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

A, Kundt

A. Crova . - “

J. V. Janowsky

J. Macé and W.

Nicati.

J. G. Lohse

P. Desains and J.
Curie.

J. Janssen A C

H. Dufet A :

Damien . 5

Gouy ~ ° :

P. Thenard

C. Fiévez A

L. Lorenz ‘

”

K. Prytz . : .

J. H. Gladstone

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1880.

Ueber anomale Dispersion im glii-
henden Natriumdampf. (March
1880.)

Etude des radiations émises par les

corps incandescents. Mesure op-
tique des hautes températures.

Die Aenderung des Molecular-
gewichtes und das Molecular-
refractionsvermégen. (Read Mar.

18 and June 3.)

Etude de la distribution de la
lumiére dans le spectre. (Read
May 31.)

On the Refractive and Disper-
sive Powers of various Samples of
Glass. (Read June 11.)

Recherches sur la détermination des
longueurs d’onde des rayons calori-
fiques 4 basse température. (Read
June 28.)

Note sur les transformations succes-
sives de l'image photographique
par la prolongation de l’action
lumineuse. (Read July 26.)

Sur les propriétés optiques des mé-
langes de sels isomorphes. (Read
Aug. 2.)

Indices de réfraction des dissolu-
tions aqueuses d’acide acétique
et d’hyposulfite de soude. (Read
Aug. 9.)

Mesure de l’intensité de quelques
raies obscures du spectre solaire.
(Read Aug. 16.)

Notices spectroscopiques .

Recherches sur lintensité relative
des raies spectrales de l’hydrogéne
et de l’azote en rapport avec les
constitutions desnébuleuses, (Read
Feb. 7.)

Ueber die Refractionsconstante

Experimentelle | Untersuchungen
iiber die Refractionsconstante.

On the Refraction Equivalents of the
Diamond, and the Carbon Com-
pounds,

sites revue XCl.

.|¢Ann. Phys. u.

365

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
NE: x. 321-325; * Phil.
Mag.’ [5] x. 53-57.

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’
[5] xix. 472-550; ‘Bei-
blitter,’ v. 117-118
(Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Wien. Akad.’
lex) el ‘539=bbe =

lxxxii. IE. 147-158.

‘C. BR.’ xe. 1275-1277 ;
‘ Beiblitter,’ iv. 619
(Abs.)

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
x1. 563-564; ‘Beiblatter,’
iv. 891 (Abs.)

‘CO. RB’ xe. 1506-1509;
‘Beiblitter, iv. 892-
893 (Abs.)

°C. R.Y xei, 199.

“OC. RY xci. 286-289; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xl. 2 (Abs.)

MORE LSY ery BP BES PIs
‘ Beiblatter,’ v, 41-42
(Abs.)

Co Rete xCly vosoe) oll.
Chem. Soc.’ xl. 333

(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ v.
46 (Abs.)

387; ‘Bei-
blatter,’ v. 44 (Abs.)

‘ Bull. Soc. de l’Acad. Bel-
gique’ [2] xlix.107-113 ;
‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’
[5] xx. 179-185; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xl. 69-70
(Abs.)

Chem.’
N.F. xi. 70-103.

‘K. Dén Ges. d. Wiss.
1880, vi. 3-22; ‘Ann.
Phys. u., Chem.’ N.F.
xi. 104-120.

‘Chem. News,’ xlii. 175;
‘J. Chem. Soc,’ xl. 333
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’ v.
43 (Abs.)

366

O. Hesse .

J. Macé and W.
Nicati

H. €. Vogel. .

J.L. Soret . .
A. Rilliet ° .
J. V. Janowsky

J. Macé and

W.
Nicati.
L. Thollon -

A. Schuster . .

Hurion . e .

E. Ketteler .

T. C. Medenhall

Sel uone = ;
8. P. Langley . .

W. E. Ayrton and
J. Perry.

Vive Lame!) ¢ F

J. Violle . 5 3

REPORT—1881.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1880, 1881.

Untersuchungen tiber das Disper-
sionsgesetz. (Aug. 18890.)

Etude de la distribution de la lu-
miére dans le spectre solaire.
(Read Oct. 11.)

Resultate spectralphotometrischer
Untersuchungen. (Read Oct. 21.)

Absorption des rayons ultra-violets.
Remarques e . ° .

Ueber optische Constanten.
Dec. 6. Read Dec. 13.)

De la distribution de la lumiére
dans le spectre solaire (spectre
des daltoniens). (Read Dec. 27.)

(Reca.

1881.

Minimum du pouvoir de résolution
dun prisme. (Read Jan. 17.)

On Harmonic Ratios in the Spectra
of Gases. (Recd. Jan. 10. Read
Jan. 27.)

Application des franges de Talbot a
la détermination des indices de ré-
fraction des liquides. (Read Feb.
28.)

Experimentaluntersuchung itiber den
Zusammenhang zwischen Refrac-
tion und Absorption des Lichtes.
(Jan. 1881.)

On the Determination of the Co-
efficient of Expansion of a Diffrac-
tion Grating by means of the
Spectrum.

On the Indices of Refraction of cer-
tain Compound Ethers, (Feb.
1881.)

Sur la distribution de l’énergie dans
le spectre solaire normal. (Read
March 21.)

Measuring the Index of Refraction
of Ebonite.

Ueber die Dispersion des Aragonits
nach Arbitrirer Richtung. (Read
Mar. 31.)

Intensités lumineuses des radiations
émises par le platine incandescent.
(Read April 4.)

‘Ann. Phys. u.
N.F. xi. 871-908.

Ga R. XCl. | G20=62b"
‘ Beiblitter, v. 301-
302 (Abs.) ,

‘Monatsb. Berl. Akad.’
1880, 801-811; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ v.286-288(Abs. )

‘ Arch. de Genéve ’ [3] iv.
377-380.

Chem.’

.|‘ Arch. de Genéve’ [3] iv.

380-381.
‘Ber.’ xiii. 2272-2277,

‘C. R. xci. 1078-1080;
* Beibliitter,’ v. 301-302
(Abs.)

°C. R.’ xeii. 128-130,

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxxi.
337-347; ‘ Beiblitter,’
v. 435-438 (Abs.)

°C. RY xcii. 452-4538,

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.

N.F. xii. 481-519.

‘Am. J.’ [3] xxi, 230-232.

«Am. J. [3] xxi. 279-286.

‘CL OR? xc. FOl=7035
‘Beiblitter,’ v. 510
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xxiii. 519.

‘Sitzungsb. Wien. Akad.’
Ixxxiit, I 6676);
‘Wien. Anz.’ 1881, 84;
(Abs.)

°C. RR’ xcili. 866-868,
1204-1206 ; *‘ Beibliit-
ter,’ v. 503-504 (Abs.)

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

367

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1881—FLUORESCENCE, 1871, 1872.

A. Crova . <

J. W. Briihl .

W. Crookes .

W. de W. Abney and
R. Festing.

K. Vierordt .

F,Lippich . .

E. Lommel . -

H. Morton ; :

”

HE, Hagenbach .

E. Becquerel .

et de leur influence sur les observa-
tions spectroscopiques.

Die optischen Untersuchungen des
Herrn Janowsky. (April 1881.
Read June 13.)

On Discontinuous Phosphorescent
Spectra in High Vacua.

On the Transmission of Radiation
of Low Refragibility through
Ebonite. (Read April 9.)

Die Photometrie der Fraunhofer’-
schen Linien. (April 1881.)

Ueber die Lichtstiirke der Spectral-
apparate.

FLUORESCENCE.

1871.
Ueber Fluorescenz (Read Feb. 20.)

Observations on the Colour of Fluo-
rescent Solutions,

Observations on the Colour of Fluo-
rescent Solutions. (July 1871.)

1872.

Versuche iiber Fluorescenz.
1872.)

(Jan.

Analyse de la lumiére émise par
les composés d’uranium phospho-
rescents, (Read Aug. 5.)

, | Etude des aberrations des prismes ‘Ann, Chim. et Phys.’ [5]

xxii. 513-543.

‘Ber.’ xiv. 1306-1310.

OE TOCH MRO Vay OCs) SOc.
206-213; ‘ Nature,’ xxiv.
89-91; ‘Chem. News,’
xliii. 237-239; ‘Ber.’
xiv. 1696-1697(Abs.)

‘ Proc. Phys. Soe.’iv. 256—
259; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5]
xi. 466-469; ‘Chem.
News,’ xlili. 175-176
(Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,’ v.
506-507 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. xiii. 338-346.

‘Centr. Zeit. f. Opt. u.
Mech.’ ii. 49-50, 61-62 ;
‘ Beibliatter,’ v. 585-588
(Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. phys.-med.
Soc. Erlangen,’ 1871,
39-60; ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ cxliii. 26-51;
‘Ann, Chim. et Phys.’[4]
XXvi. 283-285 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ xxiv. 77;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] ix.
992-993 (Abs.)

‘Am. J.’ [8] ii. 198-199,
355-357 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
[2] ix. 992-993 (Abs.),
[2] x. 27-28 (Abs.)

© Ann.Phys.u.Chem.’ cxlvi.
65-89, 232-257, 375-405
508-538; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2] x. 1058-1061
(Abs.); ‘ Phil. Mag.’
[4] xlv. 57-64 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ xxvi.
173-174 (Abs.)

°C. R.’ lxxv. 296-308 ; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi. 25
(Abs.); ‘Am J.’ [3] iv.
486-487 (Abs.)

368 REPORT—1881.
FLUORESCENCE, 1872-1877.
H. Morton Fluorescent Relations of certain solid

Hydrocarbons found in Ooal-tar
and Petroleum Distillates.

Mémoire sur l’analyse de la lu-
miére émise par les composés
d’uranium phosphorescents,

BE. Becquerel

1873.

. | Fluorescent Relations of certain
solid Hydrocarbons found in Pe-
| troleum Distillates.

H. Morton

1874.

E. Hagenbach . Fernere Versuche tiber Fluorescenz.

H. Morton and H. C,| Investigation of the Fluorescent and

Bolton. Absorption Spectra of the Uranium
Salts.
H. Morton Fluorescent Relations of the Basic
Salts of Uranic Oxide.
C, Horner A Note on the Behaviour of certain

Fluorescent Bodies in Castor Oil.

O. Lubarsch Ueber Fluorescenz. (Sept. 1874)

1875.

Fluorescent Relations of Chrysene
and Pyrene.

. Morton

Fluorescenzverhiiltnisse gewisser
Kohlenwasserstoffiverbindungen in
den Steinkohlen- und Petroleum-
destillaten.

On the Connection between Fluores-

. C. Sorby é
cence and Absorption.

1876.

E. Lommel Ueber Fluorescenz. (July 1876)

1877.

Ueber die Intensitiit des Fluores-
cenzlichts. (Nov. 6, 1876.)

Versuche tiber Fluorescenz

E. Lommel

8B. Brauner

‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xliv. 345-
349; ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ exlviii. 292-297 ;
‘Chem. News,’ xxvi.
199-201, 272-274; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi. 235
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [4]
xxvii. 539-579,

‘Phil. Mag.’ xlvi. 89-102 ;
‘J. Chem. Soe.’ [2] xii.
14-15 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’ Ju-
belband, 303-313.

‘Chem. News,’ xxviii. 47-
50, 113-116, 164-167,
233-234, 244-246, 257-
259, 268-270; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’[2] xii. 12-13 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ xxix. 17-
18; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2]
xii. 642 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlviil.
165-166,

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
cliii. 420-440; ‘J. Chem,
Soc,’ [2] xiii. 528 (Abs.)

“Chem. News,’ xxxi. 35-
36, 45-47.

‘ Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’ cly.
651-579.

‘Monthly Mic. J.’ xiii.
161-164. :

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
clix. 514-536; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ 1877, i. 676; §Am.
J.’ [3] xiii. 380 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

clx. 75-96.

‘Wien. Anz.’ 1877, 178—
180; ‘Beiblatter,’ ii.
152-153 (Abs.)

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

E. Hagenbach °

E. Lommel .

M. von Bezold and
G. Engelhardt.

EK. Lommel . :

Favé A

A. Wiillner

E. Lommel . é

O. Lubarsch . 5

J. L. Soret

§. Lamansky .

E. Becquerel .

KE. Lommel

8. Lamansky . °

K. Hagenbach. .

§. Lamansky . ‘
1881.

FLUORESCENCE, 1877-1879.

Das Aufleuchten, die Phosphores-
cenz und Fluorescenz des Fluss-
spaths. (Naturforscherversamm-
lung in Miinchen, 1877.)

Fluorescenz. (Naturforscherver-

sammlung.)

Ueber die Fluorescenz der lebenden
Netzhaut. (Read July 7.)

Ueber Fluorescenz. (Read July 23,

1877.)

1878.

Les vibrations de la matiére et les
ondes de Véther dans la phos-
phorescence et la fluorescence.
(Read Feb. 4.)

Berichtigung zu einer Notiz des Hrn.
Lommel betreffend die Theorie der

Fluorescenz. (Mar. 8, 1877.)
Ueber zwei neue fluorescirende
Substanzen. (Read July 29.)

1879.
Ueber Fluorescenz. (Oct. 1878.) .

Sur la fluorescence des sels des
métaux terreux. (Read May 26.)

Sur la loi de Stokes.. (Read June 9)

Observations relatives 4 une note
de M. Lamansky ayant pour titre
‘Sur la loi de Stokes.’ (Read June
16.)

Ueber das Stokes’sche Gesetz . "1

Sur la loi de Stokes. Réponse 4 M.
H. Beequerel. (Read June 30.)

Das Stokes’sche Gesetz. (July 1879)

Ueber das
(Aug. 1879.)

Stokes’sche Gesetz.

BB

369

‘ Ber.’ x. 2232 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ x. 2232 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Miin-
chen, ’vii.226-233; ¢ Phil.
Mag.’ [5] iv. 397-400.

‘Sitzungsb. der physik.-
med. Soc. zu Erlangen,’
1877, 196-206; ‘Ann.
Phys. u. Chem.’ N.F. iii.
113-125 ;‘ J. Chem. Soe.’
xxxiv. 358-359 (Abs.)

°C. R.’ Ixxxvi. 289-294.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’ Er-
ganzungsb. 1878, viii.
474_478,

‘Sitzungsb. d. phys.-med.
Soc. zu Erlangen,’ 1878,
210-212; ‘ Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ N.F. vi. 115-118.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. vi. 248-267.

*C. RY Ilxxxviii. 1077-
1078; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Xxxvi. 862 (Abs.) ; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ iii. 620 (Abs.)

°C. RY Ixxxvili. 1192-
1194; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxvi. 862 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ iii. 619 (Abs.)

°C. RB. Ixxxviii. 1237-
1239; ‘ Beiblatter,’ iii.
619 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ xxxvi. 862 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u.Chem.’N.F.
vili. 244-253.

‘Cc. RY Ixxxviii. 1351-
1352; ‘ Beibliitter,’ iii.
619 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. viii. 369-400.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. viii. 624-628.

370

REPORT—1881.

FLUORESCENCE, 1880—ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1870, 1871.

O. Lubarsch

E. Lommel

C. Liebermann

O. Lubarsch

8. Lamansky

Cc. A. Young

8. J. Perry
C. A. Young

F. Zollner

L. Respighi

W. Zenker

J. N. Lockyer .

Lord Lindsay .

R. Abbay
8. J. Perry

Cc. A. Young

W. A. Norton .

1880.
Das Stokes’sche Gesetz. (Jan. 1880)

Ueber Fluorescenz .

Ueber die Fluorescenz in der An-
thracenreihe. (Read April 26.)

Neue Experimentaluntersuchungen
liber Fluorescenz. (May 1880.)

Ueber Fluorescenz. (July 1880)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. ix. 665-671.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. x. :449-472, 631-
654.

‘Ber.’ xiii. 913-916.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. xk 46-69; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xl. 70 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. xi. 908-912; ‘J.

Chem. Soe.’ xl. 214-215
(Abs.)

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS.

1870.
Spectroscopic Observations of the |
Sun (communicated by J. N. Lock-
yer).
The Chromosphere

Spectroscopic Notes. (Oct. 3.)

Ueber die Periodicitiit und helio- |
graphische Verbreitung der Son- |
nenflecken. (Read Dec. 12.)

Sulle protuberanze solari

1871.

Ueber die Beobachtung der Sonnen-
protuberanzen im monochro-
matischen Lichte.

The Mediterranean Eclipse, 1870 .

Report of Observations, &c. of the
Total Eclipse of the Sun taken at
‘Le Maria Luisa’ Vineyard, Cadiz,
Dec. 21-22, 1870. (Read Jan. 13.)

On the Solar Eclipse of Dec. 22,
1870, observed at Xeres in Spain.
(Read Jan. 13.)

Solar Eclipse, Dec. 22, 1870, ob-
served at San Antonio, near Puerto
de Sta. Maria. (Read Jan, 13.)

Note on Chromosphere Lines

On the Corona seen in Total Eclipses
of the Sun,

‘Nature,’ iii. 34.

Sy LEL TO ie

‘J. Franklin Inst.’ lx.
331-340; ‘Nature,’ iii.
TO=013.

‘Ber. d. K. Sachs. Ges. d.
Wiss.’ xxii. 338-350;
*Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlii. 524-539.

.| ‘Bull. Met. dell’ osserv.

del .Coll. Rom.’ ix. 89-
91; ‘Am. J.’ [3] i, 283-
287.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlii, 172-176.

‘Nature, iii. 221-294;
321-322; ¢Am, J.’ [3]
i, 224-230.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxi. 49-60.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxi. 60-62.

‘ Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxi, 62-63.

‘Nature,’ iii. 266-267.

‘Am. J. [3] i. 5-15 ; ¢ Phil.
Mag.’ [4] xli. 225-236.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 371

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1871.

S. J. Perry - . |The Solar Eclipse. (Dec. 22, 1870. |‘ Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
Read Mar. 10.) xxxi, 149-151.

A. Secchi. . . |Nouveaux résultats d’observations, |‘C. R.’ lxxii. 362-366.
concernant la constitution phy-
sique du Soleil. (Mar.20, Read

Mar. 27.)
C.A. Young . . |On the Solar Corona. (March 23.) |‘Am. J.’ [3] i. 311-373.
H. R. Procter . . | The Spectra of the Aurora and Co- |‘ Nature,’ jii. 468.
rona. (Mar. 28.)
B.E. Hammond _., | The Comparative Aggregate 9 11.487.

Strength of the Light from the
Red Hydrogen-Stratum, and of
that from the rest of the Chromo-
sphere. (April 11.)

C. Piazzi Smyth . |Spectra of Aurora, Corona, and cs iii. 509-510.
Zodiacal Light. (April 14.)
W. Huggins . . | Note on the Spectrum of Uranus and | ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xix. 488—

the Spectrum of Comet I. 1871.} 491; ‘ Phil. Mag.’[4]xlii.
(Recd. May 10. Read May 25.) 223-226; ‘Nature,’ iv.
88 ; ‘Chem. News,* xxiii.
265; ‘Am. J.’ [3] 11.2138

(Abs.)
C, A. Young . . | Note.on the Spectrum of the Corona. |‘Am. J.’ [3] ii. 53-55;
(May 10.) ‘Chem. News,’ xxiv.
198-199.
A. Secchi 5 . | Sur les relations qui existent, dans }‘C. R.’ lxxii. 829-832.

le Soleil, entre les facules, les pro-
tubérances et la couronne. (June
13. Read June 26.)

F. Zollner . . | Ueber die spectroskopische Beobach- | ‘ Ber. d. K. siichs. Ges. d.
tung der Rotation der Sonne und} Wiss.’ xxiii. 300-306;
ein neues Reversionsspectroskop.| ‘Ann. Phys. -u, Chem;
(Read July 1.) exliv. 449-456; ‘Phil.

Mag.’ [4] xliii. 47-52;
‘Ann.Chim. et Phys.’[4]
xxvi. 274-275 (Abs);
‘Am. J.’ [3] iii. 299
(Abs.)

A, Secchi . . | Sur les relations qui existent, dans|‘C. R.’ lxxiii. 242-246,
le Soleil, entre les facules, les

protubérances et la couronne.
(July 17, Read July 24).

W. A. Norton . . | On the Physical Constitution of the |‘Am. J.’ [3] i. 395-407;
Sun. (June 1871.) ‘Phil, Mag.’ [4] xlii. 55-
67.
J. Janssen. . | Etudes sur les raies telluriques du|‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’
spectre solaire. xxiii. 274-299.
% ° . | Sur la constitution du soleil. (Read |‘C. R.’ lxxiii, 432-436,
Aug 14.) .
A. Cornu é . | Réponse 4 une note de M. Janssen. » Ixxiii. 545.
(Read Aug. 28.)
A, Secchi F . |Sur les relations qui existent, dans 9 Lxxiil, 593-599.

le Soleil, entre les protubérances
et les autres parties remarquables.
(Aug, 26. Read Sept. 4.)

BB2

372

G. Rayet a

D. Kirkwood

C. A. Young

J. Janssen

A. Secchi

Faye

”

A. Secchi

W. Huggins .

C. Piazzi Smyth

J. Janssen

J. N. Lockyer .

REPORT—1881.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1871,

Mémoire sur les raies brillantes du
spectre de atmosphere solaire et
sur la constitution physique du
Soleil.

On the Testimony of the Spectro-
scope to the truth of the Nebular
Hypothesis.

Preliminary Catalogue of the bright
lines in the Spectrum of the Chro-
mosphere. (Sept. 13.)

An Explosion (?)on the Sun. (Sept.
13, 1871.) ‘Boston Journ, Chem.’

Remarques sur une derniére Note de
M. Cornu. (Read Sept. 25.)

Sur les divers aspects des protubé-
rances et des autres parties re-
marquables, a la surface du Soleil.
Classification des phénoménes.
(Sept. 21. Read Oct. 2.)

Ditto. (Oct. 10. Read Oct. 23) .

Sur la mesure spectroscopique de la
rotation du Soleil au moyen du
spectroscope 4 réversion du Dr.
Zollner. (Read Nov. 13.)

Sur la loi de rotation du Soleil;
réponse 4 une réclamation du P.
Secchi et 4 un mémoire du Dr.
Zolliner. (Read Nov. 13.)

Sur un nouveau moyen de mesurer
les hauteurs des protubérances
solaires. (Nov. 21. Read Dec. 4.)

1872.

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [4]
xxiv. 5-80.

‘Am. J. [3] ii. 155-156 ;
‘Phil. Mag,’ [4] xii.
399-400.

‘Am. J’ [3] ii. 332-335;

‘Phil. Mag.’ -[4] xii.
377-380; ‘Nature,’ v.
ai2—sl3.

‘Am. J. [3] ii. 468-470;
‘Nature, iv. 488-489;
‘Phil. Mag. [4] xliii.
76-79.

‘CO, RY Ixxili. 793-794.

» _ Ixxiii. 826-836.

» _ Ixxiii, 979-983.
» _ Ixxiii, 1122-1123.

» Ixxiii, 1123-1131.

» Ixsiii, 1297-1301.

. | Note on the Spectrum of Encke’s|‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xx, 45-

Comet. (Recd. Noy. 16, Read

Nov. 23.)

Note on a possible Ultra-Solar Spec-
troscopic Phenomenon.

1872.

Lettre de M. Janssen sur les consé-
quences principales qu'il peut, dés
aujourd’hui, tirer de ses observa-
tions sur léclipse de décembre
dernier. (Dec. 19, 1871. Read
Jan. 15, 1872.)

Eclipse of the Sun, Dec. 12, 1871 .

Note on the Eclipse of the Sun
(Dec. 1871) as observed at Sholoor.
(Reed. Jan. 15, Read Feb: 1.)

The Solar Eclipse. (Dec. 19, 1871)

47; ‘Phil. Mag.” [4]
xliii, 380-382.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xx. 136.

CC i. ixxiv, 7b see
Chem. Soc.’ [2] x. 690
(Abs.)

‘Am. J.’ [3] iii. 226.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xx, 138-
139,

‘Nature, v. 217-219;
‘Am, J.’ [8] iii. 226-
230.

C. Piazzi Smyth

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

373

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1872.

The Solar-Eclipse. (Jan. 6) .

The Total Solar Eclipse of 12 Dec.,

1871: (Dec. 19, 1871. Read
Jan. 12.)

The Total Solar Eclipse of 12 Dec.,
1871. (Dec. 12, 1871. Read
Jan. 12.)

Sur les protubérances solaires. (Read
Jan. 22.)

On the Results of the Eclipse Obser-
vations.

Sur Vanalyse spectrale de la lumiére
zodiacale, et sur la couronne des
éclipses. (Read Jan. 22.)

Sur les raies du spectre solaire. (Read
Jan. 29.)

Sur latmosphére solaire. (Read Feb.
Be)

Observations on the Corona seen
during the Eclipse of Dec. 11 and
12, 1871. (Jan. 27, 1872.)

The Solar Eclipse . . . °

Observations on the Total Eclipse of
the Sun of 1869. (Feb. 6, 1872.)

Sur l’analyse de la lumiére zodiacale,
(Read Feb. 19.)

Sur quelques particularités de la
constitution du Soleil. (Read April
22.)

Résumé des observations des pro-
tubérances solaires du 1* janvier
au 29 avril. (May 7. Read May 20.)

Réponse a une Note précédente du
P. Secchi sur quelques particu-
larités de la constitution du Soleil.
(Read May 27.)

On the Spectrum of the Great Nebula
in Orion, and on the Motions of
some Stars towards or from the
Earth. (Recd, May 2. Read June
13.)

Spectroscopic Observations of the
Zodiacal Light in April 1872, at
the Royal Observatory, Palermo.
(Read June 14.)

Réponse aux observations présentées
par M. Respighi sur quelques par-
ticularités de la constitution du
Soleil. (Read June 17.)

‘Nature,’ v. 219-221;
‘Am, J.’ [3] iii. 310-312,

‘ Monthly Not. Astr. Soc,’
Xxxli. 69-70.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxii. 70-72.

‘C. RY’ Ixxiv. 218-224;
‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soe.’
Xxxli. 226-230 (Abs.)

‘Am, J. [3] iii. 314-315

°C. R.’ Ixxiv. 262-264 ;
‘Am. J.’ [3] iii. 390-
391.

°C. BR, Ixxiv. 325-327.

» ~ lxxiv. 378, 379.

‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] sliii. 191-
194.

‘Nature,’ v. 237-238;
‘Am. J.’ [3] iii. 312-314,

‘Am. J.’ [3] iii. 264-267.
°C. BR.’ xxiv. 514-517.

» xxiv. 1087-1091,

» Ixxiv. 1315-1320;
‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxli. 318-320 (Abs.)

°C, R.’ lxxiv. 1387-1390.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xx. 379-
394; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [4]
xlv. 133-147; ‘Nature,’
Vip Zol-ZaoeecAm | di?
[3] v. 75-78; ‘ Monthly
Not. Astr. Soc.’ xxxil.
359-362.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
Xxxii. 277-288 ; ‘Am. J.’
[3] iv. 245-246 (Abs.)

*C. RY Ixxiv. 1501-1507.

374

J. H. Leach

Tacchini

H. C. Vogel

A. Schuster
L. Respighi

P. Tacchini
A. Secchi

J. Herschel
Tacchini .

E. Vicaire

A. Secchi

Cc. A. Young

A. Secchi

”

J. F. Tennant

REPORT—1881.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1872.

Spectroscopic Notes . =

Sur une apparition singuliére de
magnésium dans le chromosphére
du Soleil. (Read July 1.)

Ueber die Absorption der chemisch-
wirksamen Strahlen in der Atmo-
sphiire der Sonne. (Read July 1.)

Note on the above . : ‘

Réponse aux critiques présentées
par le P. Secchi, 4 propos des
observations faites sur quelques
particularités de la constitution
du Soleil. (Read July 15.)

Forms of Solar Protuberances

Sur l’éruption solaire observée le 7
juillet, et sur les phénoménes qui
Vont accompagnée. (July 24. Read
Aug. 5.)

The Solar Spectrum, (Aug. 25)

Suite des observations relatives 4 la
présence de magnésium dans la
chromosphére du Soleil. (July 30.
Read Aug. 12.)

Sur la constitution physique du
Soleil. (Read Aug. 26.)

Observations des variations des dia-
métres solaires; observations des
protubérances et de la chromo-
sphére; observation des étoiles
filantes; aurore boréale observée
ad Rome le 10 aofit, 4 10 heures du
matin. (Aug. 27. Read Sept. 9.)

Letter to the Superintendent of the
U.S. Coast Survey, containing a
Catalogue of Bright Lines in the
Spectrum of the Solar Atmosphere,
observed at Sherman, Wyoming
Territory, U.S.A., during July and
August 1872.

Sur les diverses circonstances de
l’apparition d’un bolide aux en-

virons de Rome et sur les spectres
stellaires. (Sept. 7. Read Sept. 16.)

Recherches spectroscopiques solaires,
communiquées par le P. Secchi.
(Read Sept. 30.)

Italian Spectroscopy : ‘

Solar Spectroscopic Observations.
(Oct. 4.)

‘Journ. Franklin Inst.’
lxiii. 418-419 ; ‘Nature,’
vi. 125-126.

“C. BR.’ Ixxv. 23-25 ; ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [4] xliv. 159-160.

‘Ber. d. K. Siichs. Ges. d.
Wiss.’ xxiv. 135-141;
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlviii. 4161-168; * Phil.
Mag.’ [4] xlv. 345-350 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.
712 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlv. 350.

‘C. RR? ixxy. [134-138
(Abs.)

.| ‘Nature,’ vi. 293-294.

°C. RY’ Ixxv. 314-322.

‘Nature,’ vi, 454-455.

‘C.R.’ Ixxv. 430-431 ;‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [4], xliv, 479-480.

°C. R? Ixxv. 527-531.

» Ixxv. 606-613.

‘Am. J.’ [3] iv. 356-362 ;
‘Nature,’ vii. 17-20.

°C. R.’ xxv. 655-659.

» xxv. 749=750:

.| ‘Nature,’ vi. 465-466.

Bs vi. 492.

J. R. Capron

J. P. Maclear .

c. A. Young

”

A. Secchi

J. N. Lockyer .

”

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

J. N. Lockyer and
G. M. Seabroke.

W. Huggins

J. R. Capron

E. W. Pringle .

Sporer
A. Secchi

Capt. Tupman

C. Braun

J. Janssen

Zollner

The Solar Spectrum. (Oct. 7.)

Solar Spectroscope Observations,

(Oct. 18.)

The Corona Line. (Oct. 10.).

The Sherman Astronomical Expedi-
tion. (Nov. 25.)

Sur les taches et le diamétre solaires.
(Nov. 22. Read Dec. 9.)

Researches in Spectrum-Analysis in
connection with the Spectrum of
the Sun. No.I. (Recd. Nov. 6.
Read Dec. 12.)

Recherches expérimentales sur le
spectre solaire. (Read Dec. 30.)

1873.

On a new Method of viewing the
Chromosphere. (Recd. Nov. 6,
1872. Read Jan. 9, 1873.)

Note on the Wide-slit Method of
Viewing the Solar Prominences
(correction of Note in ‘Proc. Roy.
Soc.’ xvii. 302). (Recd. Nov. 21,
1872. Read Jan. 23, 1873.)

The Spectrum of the Aurora and of
the Zodiacal Light (List of Authori-

ties on the Subject). (Nov. 9,
1872.)

Spectroscopic Observations. (Nov.
26, 1872.)

Notiz iiber eine ausgezeichnete Pro-
tuberanz. (Sept. 1872.)

Sur les protubérances et les taches
solaires. (Jan.24. Read Feb. 3.)

Observations of the Solar Promi-
nences.

Ueber directe Photographirnng der
Sonnen-Protuberanzen.

Rapport 4 l’Académie relatif 4 l’ob-
servation de l’éclipse du 12 décem-
bre 1871, observée a Shoolor
(indoustan).

Ueber die Temperatur und physische
Beschaffenheit der Sonne (Second
Memoir). (Read Feb. 21.)

375

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1872, 1873.
.|* Nature,’ vi. 492.

Rs vi. 514.

+ vii. 28.

i vii. 107-109.
°C, R.’ lxxv. 1581-1584.

*Pphil. Trans.’ 1873, clxiii.
253-275; ‘Proc. Roy.
Soc.’ xxi. 83-85 (Abs.) ;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xiv.
147-148 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soe.’ [2] xi. 994—
995 (Abs.) ; ‘Am. J.’ [3]
v. 236-237 (Abs.)

°C. R.’ Ixxy. 1816-1819 ;
‘ J.Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.
340 (Abs.)

© Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxi. 105-
107; ‘Am. J.’ [3] v. 319
(Abs.); ‘Phil. Mag.’ [4]
xlvy. 222-224; ‘C. R.’
lxxvi. 363-365.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxi. 127~
128.

‘Nature,’ vii. 182-186.

» Vii, 222.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’
exlviii. 171-172.

°C. R.’ Ixxvi. 250-257.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
Xxxili. 105-115; ‘Am.
J.’ v. 319 (Abs.)

‘ Astron. Nachr.’ xxx. 34—
42; ‘Ann. Phys. u
Chem.’ cxlviii. 475-488.

‘ Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [4]
xxviii. 474-499.

‘Ber. der K. Siichs. Ges.
der Wiss.’ xxv. 158-194 ;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlvi.
290-304, 343-356.

376

C. 8. Hastings Z

J.N. Lockyer .

A. Secchi e .

J. N. Lockyer . .

Janssen , ‘ ;

A. Secchi 3 H

Tacchini . :

A. Secchi - :
Wolf and Rayet .
G. Rayet. .

G. Rayet and André

H. Vogel -

J..N. Lockyer. 5

REPORT—1881.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1873.

Comparison of the Spectra of the
Limb and of the Centre of the
Sun, made at the Sheffield Scien-
tific School. (April 3.)

.| Researches in Spectrum-Analysis in

connection with the Spectrum of
the Sun. No. II. (Recd. Mar. 14.
Read May 8.)

Essai, pendant une éclipse solaire,
de la nouvelle méthode spectro-
scopique proposée pour le prochain
passage de Vénus. (May 27. Read
June 2.)

Recherches d’Analyse spectrale au
sujet du spectre solaire. (Read
June 9.)

The Coronal Atmosphere of the Sun

Nouvelle série dobservations sur
les protubérances solaires; nou-
velles remarques sur les relations
qui existent entre les protubérances
et les taches. (June 9, Read
June 23.)

Nouvelles observations constatant la
présence du magnésium sur le bord
entier du soleil. (June 23. Read
June 30.)

Nouvelles observations spectrales,
en désaccord avec quelques-unes
des théories émises sur les taches
solaires. (July 11. Read July 21.)

Nouvelles recherches sur le diamétre
solaire. (July 19. Read July 28.)

Sur le spectre de la cométe III de
1873. (Read Aug. 25.)

Sur le spectre de Vatmosphére
solaire. (Read Aug, 25.)

Sur les changements de forme et le
spectre de la cométe 1873 IV.
(Read Sept. 1.)

Ueber die Spectra der Cometen.
(Sept. 1872.)

Recherches sur l’analyse spectrale
dans ses rapports avec le spectre
solaire,

‘Nature,’ viii.

‘Am. J.’ [3] v. 369-371;

‘Nature,’ viii. 77.

‘Phil. Trans.’ 1873, clxiii.

639-658; ‘Proc. Roy.
Soc.’ xxi, 285-288
(Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
[2] xi, 994-995 (Abs.) ;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlvi.
407-410 (Abs.); ‘ Ber.’
vi. 973 (Abs.)

¢C. RB.’ Ixxvi. 1327-1331.

» Ixxvi. 1399-1403.

127-129,
149-150.

°C. RY Ixxvi. 1522-1526.

ap Ukkviloneolons.

9 ILxxvil. 195-198.

» xxvii. 253-260.
» Lxxvil. 529.

3 Ixxvil. 529-531.

», Ixxvil. 564-566.
‘Astron. Nachr.’? Ixxx,

183-188; ‘Ann. Phys.

u. Chem.’ exlix. 400-

408; ‘ Nature,’ ix. 193_
194 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [4]

xxix, 430-432.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 377

Tacchini . C i

L. Respighi . A

A. Secchi .

H. E. Roscoe . .

J.N. Lockyer .

» . .

H. Vogel. . :

J. M. Wilson and
G. M. Seabroke,

W. H. M. Christie .

C. Montigny . :

J. B. N. Hennessey .

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1873, 1874.

Nouvelles observations relatives 43 la); ‘C. R.’ Ixxvii. 606-609,

présence du magnésium sur le bord
du Soleil, et réponse 4 quelques
points de la théorie émise par M.
Faye. (Aug. 27. Read Sept. 8.)

Sur Ja grandeur des variations du
diamétre solaire. (Read Sept. 29.)

Sur la grandeur et les variations du
diamétre solaire. (Read Oct. 6.)

Réponse 4 une note de M. Respighi
sur la grandeur des variations du
diamétre solaire. (Oct. 8. Read
Oct. 27.)

Suites des Observations des protu-
bérances solaires, pendant les six
derniéres rotations de l’astre du
23 avril au 2 octobre 1873; con-
séquences concernant la théorie
des taches. (Oct.17. Read Nov. 3.)

Professor Young and the Presence of
Ruthenium in the Chromosphere.
(Nov. 4.)

(Bakerian Lecture.) Researches in
Spectrum-Analysis in connection
with the Spectrum of the Sun.
Part III. (Recd. Noy. 20. Read
Noy. 27.)

Note préliminaire sur les éléments
existant dans le Soleil. (Read
Dec. 8.)

Ueber das Spectrum des von Borelly
am 20 August entdeckten Cometen,
sowie tiber das des hellen von
Henry am 23 August aufgefun-
denen Cometen. (Sept. 8, 1873.)

Remarks on Spectroscopic Observa-
tions of the Sun, made at the
Temple Observatory, Rugby
School, in 1871-2-3. (Read Noy.
11.)

1874.

On the Colour and Brightness of
Stars as measured with a new
Photometer. (Jan. 8.)

La fréquence des variations de
couleurs des étoiles dans la scintil-
lation est généralement en rap-
port avec la constitution de leur
lumieére, d’aprés l’analyse spectrale.
(Read Feb. 7.)

Note on the Displacement of the
Solar Spectrum. (Recd. Dec. 15.
1873. Read Feb. 26, 1874.)

°C. R.’ Ixxvil. 715-720.

% bali w4 2778
(Abs. )
» Lxxvii. 904-907,

», Lxxvil.. 977-981.

‘Nature,’ ix. 5,

‘Phil. Trans.’ 1874, clxiv.
479494; ‘Proc. Roy.
Soc” xxi. 6508-514
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soe.’
(2] xii. 495 (Abs.);
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlvii.
384-390.

°C. RY Ixxvii. 1347-1352 ;
‘Ber. vi. 1554-1555
(Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
[2] xii. 424-426 (Abs.)

‘Astron. Nachr.’ lxxxii.
217-220; ‘Am. J.’ vi.
393-394 (Abs.)

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
XXxiv. 26-29.

‘ Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxiv. 111-120.

‘ Bull, de l’Acad. de Bel-
gique,’ [2] xxxviil. 165—
190; ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ cliii. 277-298.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxii.
219-220; ‘Phil. Mag,’
[4] xlviii. 303-304.

378

REPORT—1881.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1874.

J. B. N. Hennessey . | On White Lines in the Solar Spec-

A. Secchi °

E. H. Pringle .
J. N. Lockyer and G.

M. Seabroke.

W. Huggins .
A. Secchi 4
A. W. Wright .
G. Rayet . -

J. N. Lockyer . :

A. Secchi.

J. N. Lockyer .
C. Montigny

A. Secchi. 4

Wolf and Rayet

W. de Fonviel'e

trum. (Recd. Dec. 8, 1873. Read
Feb. 26, 1874.)

Observations des protubérances so-
laires pendant le dernier trimestre
de l'année 1873. Résultats fournis
par l’emploi des réseaux, au lieu
de prismes, dans les observations
spectrales des protubérances. (Feb.
24. Read Mar. 2.)

Note on some Spectroscopic Ob-
servations of Sirius, y Argtis, &c.
(Jan. 27. Read Mar. 13.)

Spectroscopic Observations of the
Sun. (Recd. Feb. 2. Read Mar. 19.)

On the Motions of some of the
Nebulz towards or from the Earth.
(Recd. Jan 26. Read Mar. 26.)

Observations sur le spectre des
cométes. (May 19. Read May 25.)

On the Spectrum of the Zodiacal
Light. (June 5.)

Note sur le spectre de la cométe de
Coggia (1874 III). (Read June 8.)

Researches in Spectrum-Analysis in
connection with the Spectrum of
the Sun. No. IV. (Reed. May 11.
Read June 18.)

Sur le spectre de la cométe Coggia.
(June 22. Read July 6.)

The Comet

Nouvelles recherches sur la fré-
quence de la scintillation des
étoiles dans ses rapports avec la
constitution de leur lumiére
d’aprés l’analyse spectrale. (Read
Aug. 1.)

Observations faites pendant les der-
niers jours de l’apparition de la
cométe Coggia. (July 26. Read
Aug. 3.)

Note sur la cométe de Coggia. (Read
Aug. 10.) :

Note sur des observations spectro-
scopiques faites dans l’ascension
du 24 sept. 1874, pour étudier les
variations d’étendue des couleurs
du spectre. (Read Oct. 5.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxii.
221-222; ‘Phil. Mag.’
[4] xviii. 305-306.

*C, RY lxxvill. 606-612.

‘ Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxiv. 267-268.

‘Phil. Trans.’ 1875, clxv.
577-586; ‘Proc. Roy.
Soc.’ xxii. 247 (Abs.) _

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxii.
251-254; ‘Am. J.’ [3]
viii. 75-77; ‘ Phil. Mag’
[4] xlviii. 471-474.

“OC. RB.’ Ixxviii. 1467-1469.

‘Am, J.’ [3] viii. 39-46;
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
cliv. 619-629.

°C. RY xxviii. 1650-1652;
‘Am. J.’ [3] viii. 156—
157 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Trans.’ 1874, clxiv.
805-813; ‘Proc. Roy.
Soc.’ xxii. 391 (Abs.);
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlix.
326 (Abs.)

“C. R. Lexx, 20.

‘Nature,’ x. 179-181.

‘Bull. de l’Acad. Roy. de
Belgique’ [2] xxxviii.
300-320; ‘Ann. Phys.
u. Chem.’ Erg.-B. vii.
605-624.

°C. KR.’ Ixxix. 284-286.

» - xxix. 369-371.

») . IXiEOLG=SL7.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

A. Secchi -

A. Cornu. ‘ :

J. N. Lockyer .

W. Huggins

J. Janssen :
J. B. N. Hennessey .

A. Secchi

S. P. Langley .

J. L. Soret

A. Secchi

G, Rayet
G. B. Airy
A. T, Arcimis .

A. Crova.

8. P. Langley .

Observation de Véclipse solaire du
10 octobre 1874, avec le spectro-
scope. Tableaux des observations
des protubérances solaires, du 26
décembre 1873 au 2 aout 1874.
(Oct. 11. Read Oct. 19.)

Sur le spectre normal du Soleil.

; 1875.

Remarks on a New Map of the Solar
Spectrum. (Recd. Nov. 18, 1874.
Read Jan. 7, 1875.)

On the Spectrum of Coggia’s Comet.
(Recd. Nov. 13, 1874. Read Jan.
7, 1875.)

Die Chemie des Himmels

Appendix to Note dated November
1873, on White Lines in the Solar
Spectrum. (Recd. Jan.11. Read
Feb 11.)

Etude des taches et des protu-
bérances solaires de 1871 4 1875.
(Read May 24.)

Etude des radiations superficielles
du Soleil. (Read Sept. 6.)

Sur la température du Soleil.
14, 1874.)

(Oct.

Résultats des observations de pro-
tubérances et des taches solaires
du 23 avril 1871 au 28 juin 1875
(55 rotations). (Read Oct. 4 and
11.)

Sur le spectre de l’atmosphére so-
laire. :

Spectroscopic Observations made at
the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.
(Read Noy. 12.)

Observations of the Zodiacal Light
at Cadiz. (Read Nov. 12.)

Sur l'intensité calorifique de la ra-
diation solaire et son absorption
par l’atmosphére terrestre. (Read
Dec. 13.) :

The Solar Atmosphere, an introduc-
tion to an account of researches
made at the Alleghany Observa-
tory.

379

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1874, 1875.

°C. RY Ixxix. 885-839.

‘Ann. de l’Ecole norm.’
[2] iii. 421-434 ; ‘Arch.
de Genéve,’ [2] lii. 62-
63 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxiii.
152-154; ‘Am. J.’ [3]
ix. 307 (Abs.); ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [4] 1. 144-146.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxiii.
154-159.

.|* Arch. Pharm.’ 1875, 51.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxiii.
259-260.

°C. R.’ Ixxx. 1273-1278.

» Ixxxi, 436-439.

‘ Arch. de Genéve,’ [2] lii.
89-95; ‘ Phil. Mag.’ [4]
1, 155-158.

©C. RB. Ixxxi. 563-566,
605-609.

‘J. Pharm. et Chim.’ xix.
31-33 ; ‘Archiv Pharm.’
iv. 325-327.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
XxXvi. 27-37.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’

xxxvi. 48-51.
°C. RY lxxxi. 1205-1207.

‘Am. J.’ [3] x. 489-497.

380

L. Trouvelot .

R. Amory

A. Crova ,

W. de W. Abney

A. Secchi

F, Tisserand .

C.A, Young .

W. H. M. Christie

G. B. Airy i

W. Huggins ,

Tacchini , :

A. Secchi i

E. Becquerel ,

REPORT—1881.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1876.

1876.

On the Veiled Solar Spots.
1875.)

(Oct 1,

On Photographs of the Solar Spec-
trum. (Read May 25, 1875.)

Sur la répartition de la radiation
solaire 4 Montpellier pendant
l'année 1875.

Preliminary Note on Photographing
the Least Refrangible Portion of
the Solar Spectrum. (Read
Mar. 10.)

Suite des observations des protubé-
rances solaires pendant le second
semestre de 1875. (March 22.
Read March 27.)

Sur le déplacement des raies dans
les spectres des étoiles, produit
par leur mouvement dans l’espace.
(Mar. 25. Read April 3 and 10.)

Observations des taches du Soleil,
faites & l’Observatoire de Tou-
louse en 1874 et 1875. (Read
April 3.)

Note on the Duplicity of the ‘1474’
line in the Solar Spectrum. (April
19.)

Note on the Displacement of Lines
in the Spectra of Stars. (Read
May 12.)

Spectroscopic Results for the Mo-
tions of Stars in the Line of Sight,
obtained at the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich. (Read May 12.)

Sur le déplacement des raies dans
les spectres des étoiles produit par
leur mouvement dans l’espace.
(Read June 5.)

Nouvelles observations relatives 4
la présence du magnésium sur le
bord du Soleil. (Read June 12.)

Nouvelle série d’observations sur les
protubérances et les taches solaires.
(June 28. Read July 3.)

Nouvelles remarques sur la question
du déplacement des raies spec-
trales dii au mouvement propre
des astres. (Read July 10.)

Sur Vobservation de la partie infra-
rouge du spectre solaire, au moyen
des effets de phosphorescence.
(Read July 24.)

‘Proc. Am. Acad,’ xi. 62-
GOs Arne). 2 00 [isl] sae
169-176.

‘Proc. Am. Acad.’ xi. 70.

°C. R.’ lxxxil. 375-377.

‘ Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
* xxxvi. 276-277; ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [5] i. 414-415.

°C, RY Ixxxii. 717-722.

°C, R. Ixxxii. 761-765,
812-814; ‘Phil. Mag.’
[5] i. 569-571.

‘C, R.’ Ixxxil. 765-767.

‘Am. J. [3] xi. 429-431.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xXxxvi. 313-317,

‘Monthly Not. Astr, Soc.’
xXxxvi. 318-326,

«CO, BR! Ixxxii. 1291-1293 ;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] ii. 72-
74.

°C. RY Ixxxii. 1385-1387 :
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ 1876, ii.
588 (Abs.)

°C. RB.’ Ixxxiii. 26-27.

» _ lxxxiif, 117-119.

°C. RY Ixxxili, 9249-255;
«J. Chem. Soc.’ 1876, ii.
587 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
i. 55-57,

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

381

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1876, 1877.

H. C. Vogel . | Untersuchungen tiber die Spectra|‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’
der Planeten. (May 1876.) elvili. 461-472.

C. A. Young . | Observations on the Displacement |‘ Am. J.’ [3] xii. 321-328 ;
of lines in the Solar Spectrum) ‘ Beiblitter,’ i. 53-54;
caused by the Sun’s Rotation.| (Abs.)

| (Sept. 12.)

G. B. Airy . | Spectroscopic Results for the Mo-! ‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
tion of Stars, and of Venus inthe} xxxvii. 22-36.

Line of Sight, and for the Rota-
tion of the Sun and of Jupiter,
made at the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich. (Read Nov. 10.)

A, Cornu . Sur le spectre de l’étoile nouvelle de | ‘ C. R.’ Ixxxiii. 1172-1174;
la constellation du Cygne. (Read| ‘Nature,’ xv. 158-159.
Dec. 11.)

W. Huggins Note on the Photographic Spectra of | ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxv. 445_—
Stars. (Recd. Dec. 6. Read Dec.| 446; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5]
14.) iii. 527-528; ‘Am. J’

[3] xili. 324-325.
5 |Note préliminaire sur les photo-|‘C. R.’ Ixxxiii. 1229-1230.
graphies des spectres stellaires.

E, Becquerel

(Read Dec. 18.)
1877.

Sur l’observation de la partie infra-
rouge du spectre solaire, au moyen
des effets de phosphorescence.

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [5]
x. 6-13.

A, Secchi Etude spectroscopique de la nou-|‘C. R.’ lxxxiv. 107-108.
velle étoile signalée par M. Schmidt.
(Read Jan. 15.) ;

H. Draper A Photographs of the Spectra of Venus | ‘Nature,’ xv. 218; ‘Am.

and a Lyre. (Dec. 1876.)

J? [3] xiii. 95; «Phil.
Mag.’ [5] iii. 238.

T, W. Backhouse ., ‘ Nature,’ xv. 295-296.

H. Vogel Three ‘ Astron. Nachr.’ Ixxxix.
R. Copland + letters 37-40; lxxxix. 63; xe,
A. Secchi by 351-352; ‘Nature,’ xv.

Spectrum of New Star. (Jan. 26)

The New Star in Cygnus -

J. W. Draper
A, Secchi

J. N. Lockyer

H. W. Vogel

E. Becquerel

On the Fixed Lines in the Ultra-
red Invisible Region of the Spec-
trum. (Dec. 13, 1876.)

Sur un nouveau catalogue d’étoiles
colorées et sur le spectre de l’étoile
de Schmidt. (Read Feb. 12.)

Researches in Spectrum-Analysis in
connection with the Spectrum of
the Sun. No. V. (Recd. Jan 10.
Read Feb. 15.)

Ueber die Photographie der weniger
brechbaren Theile des Sonnen-
spectrums. (Jan. 1877.)

Sur observation de la partie infra-
rouge du spectre solaire au moyen
des effets de phosphorescence,

315-316; ‘Am. J.’ [3]
xv. 76-77.

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] ili. 86-89 ;
‘Beiblitter,’ i. 239-240
(Abs. )

°C. R.” Ixxxiv. 290-291.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’
546 (Abs.)

XXV.

‘ Ann Phys, u. Chem.’ clx.
292-296.

‘ Arch. de Genéve,’ [2] lvii.
306-318; ‘Am. J.’ [3]
xiil, 379-380 (Abs.)

382 REPORT—1881.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1877.

E. Becquerel The New Star in Cygnus

A. Secchi Observations des protubérances so-
laires pendant le second semestre
de 1876. Rotations lxix 4 Ixxy.

(Read March 5.)

Observations du spectre de
cométe Borelly.

” la

H.C. Vogel . |Spectral-Photometrische Untersuch-
ungen insbesondere zur Bestim-
mung der Absorption der die Sonne
umgebenden Gashiille. (Read
Mar. 8.)

Effect of a Star’s Rotation on its
Spectrum. (Read Mar. 9.)

On Fixed Lines in the Ultra-red
Region of the Spectrum.

W.de W. Abney

” .

HE. J. Stone On a Cause for the Appearance of
Bright Lines in the Spectra of
Trresolvable Star-Clusters. (Reed.

March 20. Read April 19.)

On the Inferences to be drawn
from the Appearance of Bright
Lines in the Spectra of Irresolv-
able Nebulz. (Recd, April 26.
Read April 26.)

W. Huggins

Wolf Observations des cométes II (Win-
necke) et III (Swift-Borelly).
(Read April 30.)

Tacchini Sur les taches solaires. (Read
May 14.)

A. Secchi Sur le spectre de la cométe de

Winnecke. (May 23. Read June 4.)

On the Spectra of the Comets b. and
c. 1877. (May 8. Read June 8.)

Sur létat actuel de 1l'atmosphére
solaire. (June 10. Read June 18.)

Sur les éruptions métalliques so-
laires observées 4 Palerme depnis
1871 jusqu’en ayril 1877. (Read
June 18.)

Sur une tache solaire observée
pendant le mois de juin 1877.
(Read June 25.)

Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun by
Photography, and a new Theory
of the Solar Spectrum.

Lord Lindsay .
A. Secchi

Tacchini .

H. Draper

Optical Spectroscopy of the Red End

Piazzi Smyth .
of the Solar Spectrum.

.|* Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’

XXxvii. 200-202; ‘Am.
J.’ [3] xiii, 395-397.

‘C. R.’ Ixxxiv. 423-497,

» Lexxiv. 427.

‘Monatsb. Berl.
1877, 104-142.

Akad.’

‘Monthly Not, Astr. Soc.’
XXXVii. 278-279.

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] iii. 222;
‘Beiblitter,’ i. 239-240.

‘Proc. Rey. Soc.’ xxvi.
156-157.
‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxvi,
179-181.

°C. RY Ixxxiv. 929-931.

Ixxxiv. 1079-1081.

”
‘C. RY Ixxxiv. 1289-1292.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
XXxXvii. 430-432.

‘C, BR.” Ixxxiv. 1430-1434.

Ixxxiv. 1448-1450,

”

Ixxxiy. 1500-1501.

‘Am. J.’ [3] xiv. 89-96;
‘Nature,’ xvi. 364-367;
°C. R.’ Ixxxv. 613-614
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxiv. 101(Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ ii. 86-90 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ Xvi. 264.

ON

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

383

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1877, 1878.

On Some Points connected with the
Chemical Constituents of the Solar
System.

On the Spectrum of Comet b. 1877
(Winnecke’s) and of the Eclipsed
Moon, observed at the Royal Ob-
servatory, Greenwich. (Aug. 28.)

J. H. Gladstone

G. B. Airy

. | The Spectrum of Nova Cygni
J. B. N. Hennessey . | Optical Spectroscopy of the Red End
of the Solar Spectrum. (Oct. 3.)
G. B. Airy . |On the Spectrum of a Solar Spot
*% observed at the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich. (Read Nov. 9.)
W. Noble Note on the Spectrum of the Ec-
lipsed Moon. (Read Noy. 9.)
G. B, Airy Physical Observations of Mars, made
at the Royal Observatory, Green-
wich. (Read Nov. 9.)
A. Schuster On the Presence of Oxygen in the
Sun. (Nov. 30.)
R. Meldola Oxygen in the Sun. (Dec. 21)
E. J. Stone On a Cause for the Appearance of

Bright Lines in the Spectra of
Irresolvable Star-Clusters, (Recd.
Aug. 13. Read Dec. 13.)

Researches in Spectrum Analysis in
connection with the Spectrum of
the Sun. (Recd. Nov. 17, 1877.
Read Jan. 24, 1878.)

J. N. Lockyerand A. | Report on the Total Solar Eclipse of

J. N. Lockyer

Schuster. April 6,1875. (Recd. June 19.)
1878.

A. Secchi Observations des _ protubérances
solaires pendant le premier se-
mestre de l’année 1877. (Read
Jan. 14.)

A. Cornu Etude du spectre solaire ultra-violet.

(Read Jan. 14.)

J. N. Lockyer . Note on the Bright Lines in the
Spectra of Stars and Nebule.
(Recd, Dec. 31, 1877. Read Jan.

24, 1878.)

E. Trouvelot
Solar Protuberance. (Jan. 12, 1877.)

Sur les raies sombres du spectre
solaire et la constitution du Soleil.
(Read Feb. 4.)

A. Cornu

*Phif. Mag.’ [5] iv. 379-
385; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxiv. 189 (Abs.)

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxvii. 469-470.

‘Nature,’ xvi. 400-403.

5 Xvli. 28-29.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
XXXVlli. 32-33.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
XXXVili. 34.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
Xxxviil. 34-38.

‘Nature,’ xvii. 148-149;
‘ Beibliitter,’ ii. 90-91
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xvii. 161-162;
‘Beiblitter,’ ii. 91 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxvi,
517-519; * Monthly Not.

Astr. Soc.’ xxxviii. 106—
108.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxvii.
49-50.

‘Phil. Trans.’ 1878, clxix.
139-154.

“C, R.’ Ixxxvi. 98-100.

°C. B.’ Ixxxvi. 101-104;
‘ Beibliitter,’ ii. 339-340
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxvii.
50-51.

Sudden extinction of the light of a|‘ Am. J.’ [3] xv. 85-88.

°C. R.’ Ixkxvi. 315-3175
‘J. Chem. Soc,’ xxxiv.
357 (Abs.)

384

J. N. Lockyer . °

H. Draper
J.N. Lockyer .

A. Cornu A Fe

W. A. Norton . -

Piazzi Smyth .

Tacchini 5

J. N. Lockyer . .

W. de W. Abney

Tacchini ‘

J. N. Lockyer . .

R. Meldola . :

W. H. M, Christie .

G, B. Airy ° °

REPORT— 1881.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1878.

Les éléments présents dans la couche
du Soleil qui produit le renverse-

ment des raies spectrales. (Read
Feb. 4.)

D’Arrest’s Spectroscopical Re-
searches.

Oxygen in the Sun. (Jan. 28.)

Researches in Spectrum-Analysis in
connection with the Spectrum of
the Sun. (Recd. Nov. 17, 1877.
Read Jan. 24, 1878.)

Sur quelques conséquences de la con-
stitution du spectre solaire. (Read
Feb. 25.)

Coggia’s Comet—its Physical Con-
dition and Structure. Physical
Theory of Comets.

Colour in Practical Astronomy, Spec-
troscopically Examined. (May 24.)

Résultats des observations faites en
1877 au bord du Soleil sur les
raies b et 14742, (Read Mar. 25.)

Note on the Existence of Carbon in
the Coronal Atmosphere of the Sun.
(Recd. Mar. 20. Read April 11.)

Photography of the Least Refran-
gible End of the Solar Spectrum.
(Read April 12.)

Observations des taches et des pro-
tubérances solaires pendant le
premier trimestre de 1878. (Read
April 22.)

Recent Researches in Solar Chemis-
try. (Read May 11.)

Researches in Spectrum-Analysis
in connection with the Spectrum
of the Sun. No. V. (Recd. April
29. Read May 23.)

On a Cause for the Appearance of
Bright Lines in the Solar Spectrum.
(June 6.)

On the Existence of Bright Lines
in the Solar Spectrum. (June 13.
Read June 14.)

Spectroscopic Results for the Mo-
tions of Stars in the Line of Sight,
made at the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich. (June 14.)

“CR. lxxxvi aly301.
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxiy.
357 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xvii. 311-313.

FS Xvii. 339-340.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxvii.
279-284.

°C. Rh. lsexxyi. 53025358
‘ Beiblatter,’ ii. 231-232
(Abs.)

‘Am. J. [3] xv. 161-177.

’

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.

Xxvlli. 779-843; ‘ Bei-
blitter, iv, 548-549
(Abs.)

°C, RY lxxxvi. 756-758.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxvii.
308-309 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
XXxvili. 429 (Abs.)

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
XxXXVili. 348-351; ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [5] vi. 154-157.

°C. R.’ Ixxxvi. 1008-1009.

‘Proc. Phys. Soe.’ ii. 308-
325; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5]
vi. 161-176; ‘ Beiblat-
ter,’ ili. 353-354 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxvii.
409 (Abs.)

‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5] vi. 50-61 ;
‘Am, J.’ [3] xvi. 290-
300; ‘ Beiblitter,’ ii.
561-562 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi. 574—

75 (Abs.)

«Monthly Not. Astr. Soe.’

XXXVili. 473-474.

‘ Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
XXxvili. 493-508.

Tacchini .

J. N. Lockyer .

H. Draper

”

J. C. Draper

Cc. A. Young

H. F. Blanford

W. T. Sampson

8. P. Langley

J. W. Backhouse

Piazzi Smyth .

A. Schuster

J. N. Lockyer .

Ferrari

Tacchini .

Piazzi Smyth .

1881.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 385

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1878,

Résultats des observations solaires,
pendant le deuxiéme trimestre de
1878. (Read Aug. 5.)

The Eclipse. (Aug. 8) .
The Eclipse. : ; : f
The Solar Eclipse of July 29, 1878

On the presence of Dark Lines in
the Solar Spectrum which corre-
spond closely to the lines of the
Spectrum of Oxygen.

Observations upon the Solar Eclipse
of July 29, 1878, by the Princeton
Eclipse Expedition. (Sept. 6.)

Janssen’s New Method of Solar
Photography.

On the Spectrum of the Corona.
(Aug. 31, 1871.)

On Certain Remarkable Groups in
the Lower Spectrum.

On the Spectrum of the New Star
in Cygnus. (June 3. Read
Nov. 8.)

Measures of the great B Line in the
Spectrum of a High Sun. (Nov. 4
and 22.)

Some Remarks on the Total Solar
Kelipse of July 29,1878. (Read
Noy. 8.)

Researches in Spectrum Analysis in
connection with the Spectrum of
the Sun. No. VII. (Recd. Dec.
11. Read Dec. 12.)

Sur les taches et protubérances
solaires observées 4 ’équatorial du
Collége romain. (Read Dec. 16.)

Résultats des observations solaires
faites pendant le troisiéme tri-
mestre de 1878. (Read Dec. 23.)

The Solar Spectrum in 1877-1878
with some practical idea of its
probable temperature of origina-
tion.

cc

°C, RY Ixxxvii. 257-259.

‘Nature,’ xviii. 457-462.
- xviii. 462-464.

SAT Sage LO] exvian 20 —
230 ; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] vi.
318-320.

‘Am. J.’ [3] xvi. 256-265 ;
‘Nature,’ xvili. 654-657 ;
‘ Beiblitter,’ iii. 188-190
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxvi. 997.

Am. J. [3] xvi. 279-290.

‘Nature,’ xviii. 643-645.

‘Am. J.’ [3] xvi. 343-345 ;
‘Beiblitter,’ iii. 277
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Am. Acad.’ xiv. 92—
105; ‘Beibliitter,’iv. 208
(Abs.)

‘ Monthly Not. Astr. Soe.’
xxxix. 34-37. |

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
Xxxix. 38-43.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xXxxix. 44-47.

*Proc.- Roy. Soc.’ xxviii.
157-180; ‘Am. J.’ [3]
xvii. 93-116; ‘ Bei-
blatter, iii. 88-113;
‘Nature,’ xix. 197-201,
225-230; ‘Ann. Chim.
et Phys.’ [5] xvi. 107-
144; ‘Chem. News,’
xxxix. 1-5, 11-16.

1. Re ERexvil. OT Hone.

‘©. RR? Ixxxvi. 1031-—
1033.

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.’
xxix. 285-342; ‘Bei-
blatter,’ iv. 276-277
(Abs.)

386

P. Yacchini ;

J. N. Lockyer , .

G. F, Barker .

J. N. Lockyer .

L. Thollon 5 5

A. Cornu, ; C

C. W. Zenger . 3

J. N. Lockyer ,

Von Konkoly . “

Pi Tacchini 5 t

J. Macagno . .

P. Tacchini , a

G. D. Liveing and

J. Dewar.

T. Bredischin . 7

REPORT—1881.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1879.

1879.
Protuberanze solari osservate a Pa-

lermo nel quarto trimestre del 1878.

Riassunto delle protuberanze e delle
macchie solari osservate alla Spe-
cola del Collegio Romano nel
mese di Settembre, Ottobre, No-
vembre e Dicembre.

Preliminary Note on the Substances
which produce the Chromospheric
Lines. (Recd. Dec. 24, 1878. Read
Jan. 23, 1879.)

On the Results of the Spectroscopic
Observation of the Solar Eclipse
of July 29,1878. (Aug. 10.)

Recherches sur les rapports de
Vanalyse spectrale avec le spectre
du soleil. (Read Jan. 27.)

Déplacement de raies spectrales, di
au mouvement de rotation du
Soleil. (Read Jan. 27.)

Sur le spectre normal du Soleil ;
partie ultra-violette. Deuxiéme
partie,

Note on J. C. Draper’s paper ‘On
the presence of Dark Lines in the
Solar Spectrum which correspond
closely to the linesof the Spectrum
of Oxygen.’

Photographie directe des protubé-
rances solaires sans l’emploi du
spectroscope. (Read Feb. 24.)

Discussion of ‘Young’s List of
Chromospheric Lines.’ (Recd. Mar.
5. Read Mar. 20.)

Vorliiufige Anzeige tiber das Spec-
trum des Brorsen’schen Cometen.
(Mar. 20.)

Macchie solari e facole osservate a
Palermo nei mesi di gennaio, feb-
braio e marzo 1879.

Confronto fra la radiazione e V’in-
tensita chimica della luce del sole.
(March 31.)

Osservazioni solari dirette e spettro-
scopiche fatte a Palermo nel 1°
trimestre del 1879.

Note on the unknown Chromo-
spheric Substance of Young.
(Recd. Mar. 27. Read April 3.)

Spectrum des Brorsen’schen Cometen,
(April 4.)

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ viii.
10-11,

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ viii.
13-16,

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxviii,
283-284 ; ‘ Nature,’ xix,
292; ‘Am. J.’ [3] xvii.
250; ‘ Beiblatter,’ iii.
420-422 (Abs.)

‘Am xvii. 121-125.

°C. R.’ Ixxxviil. 148-154;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi,
575-576 (Abs.)

°C. R.’ lxxxvili. 169-171 ;
‘Beiblitter,’ iii, 355-
356 (Abs.): ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ xxxvi. 574 (Abs.)

‘Ann. de Vécole norm.’
[2] ix. 21-106; ‘Bei-
blatter,’ iv. 371-374
(Abs.)

«Am. J.’ [3] xvii. 162-166 ;
‘Nature,’ xix. 352-353 ;
‘Beiblitter,’ ii, 188-
190 (Abs.)

°C. RY lxxxviii. 374-375.

‘Proc. Roy, Soc.’ xxviii.
432-444 5 ‘ Beibliitter,’
iii. 420-422 (Abs.)

* Astron. Nachr.’ xciv. 335—
336.

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ viii.
35-36.

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ viii.
App. 13-18.

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ viii.
37-40.

‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ xxviii.
475-477; * Beiblatter,’
lil. 709 (Abs.)

‘ Astron. Nachr.’ xev. 15-
16.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM

W. H. Pulsifer

C. A. Young .

‘Houzeau and Mon-
tigny.

E.L.Trouvelot

W. Huggins
W. H. M. Christie

W. M. Watts . :
T. W. Backhouse
G. B. Airy A .

Lord Lindsay .
W. H. M. Christie .

J. N. Lockyer .

A. Cornu . 4 ‘

W. M. Watts . .

Tacchini "i Ms

J.C. Draper .

H, Draper ‘ é

G, M. Seabroke

ANALYSIS.

387

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1879.

On a Method of Estimating the
Thickness of Young’s Reversing
Layer.

Note on the Spectrum of Brorsen’s
Comet. (April 5.)

Sur un travail de M. l’abbé Spée
concernant le déplacement desraies
des spectres d’étoiles, (Read
April 5.)

Observations of Absorbing Vapours
upon the Sun, (Jan. 12. Read
April 9.)

On the Spectrum of Brorsen’s Comet

On the Spectrum of Brorsen’s Comet.
(April 21.)

Brorsen’s Comet. (May 5) .

(May 6)

On the Spectrum of Brorsen’s Comet,

observed at the Royal Observa-
tory, Greenwich. (Read May 9.)

Observations of Brorsen’s Comet.
(May 7. Read May 9.)

Spectrum of Brorsen’s Comet. (May
17.)

Note on a recent Communication of
Messrs. Liveing and Dewar. (Recd.
April 30. Read May 15.)

Sur la Limite Ultra-violette du
Spectre Solaire. (Recd. May 15.
Read May 15.) j

Brorsen’s Comet.

The Spectrum of Brorsen’s Comet.
(May 27.)

Observations solaires pendant le
premier trimestre de l’année 1879.
(Read June 2.)

On the Dark Lines of Oxygen in
the Solar Spectrum on the less
refrangible side of G.

On the Coincidence of the Bright
Lines of the Oxygen Spectrum
with Bright Lines in the Solar
Spectrum. (June 10. Read June
13.)

Spectroscopic Observations of the
Motion of Stars in the line of
Sight, made at the Temple Obser-
vatory, Rugby. (Read June 13.)

cc2

‘Am. J.’ [3] xvii. 303.

«Am. J.’ [3] xvii. 373-375 ;

Natures) xix, %bb9's
‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] viii.
178-179.

‘Bull. de l’Acad. de-Bel-
gique,’ xlvii, 318-324.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxix. 374-379,

‘Nature,’ xix. 579.

‘Nature,’ xx. 5; ‘Am. J.’
[3] xvii. 496-497,

‘ Nature,’ xx. 27-28.
Or xx. 28.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xXxxix, 428-430.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxix. 430.

‘Nature,’ xx. 75.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxix.
45_47 ; ‘ Beiblatter,’ ili.
710-711 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxix.
47-55; ‘°C. R.’ (June 2)
Ixxxvili. 1101-1108;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi.
861 (Abs.) ; ‘Beiblitter,”
iv. 39-40 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xx. 94.

°C. BR.’ Ixxxviii. 1131-

1132.

‘Am, J.’ [3] xvii. 448-452 ;
«J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxviii.
201 (Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’
ili, 872-873 (Abs.)

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxix. 440-447; ‘Am.
J.’ .[3] xviii, 262-276 ;
‘Beiblitter, iv. 275—-
276 (Abs.)

‘ Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxix. 450-453,

388

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

J. N. Lockyer . 5

Thollon

J. N. Lockyer .

Von Konkoly .

P. Tacchini

”

H. Draper -

Von Konkoly .
H. W. Vogel

J. C. Draper

Lord Lindsay .

A. Cormu.

L. Thollon 5 7

Lord Lindsay .

REPORT—186 1.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1879.

Note on
(Reed. May 29.

‘Spectroscopic - Papers.’
Read June 19.)

Report to the Committee on Solar
Physics on the Basic Lines common

to Spots and Prominences. (Recd.
June 19. Read June 19.)
Dessin du spectre solaire. (Read

June 23.)

Preliminary Note on the Substances
which produce the Chromospheric
Lines.

Spectroscopische Beobachtung des
Cometen Brorsen. (June 30.)

Macchie solari e facole osservate a
Palermo e Roma nel secondo tri-
mestre del 1879.

Osservazioni solari dirette e spettro-
scopiche fatte a Palermo e Roma
nel secondo trimestre del 1879.

Note sulle faccole e macchie

Sull’ andamento dell’ attivita solare
dal 1871 al 1878.

Observations du Soleil pendant le
deuxiéme trimestre de l'année
1879. (Sept. 5. Read Sept. 15.)

On Photographing the Spectra of
Stars and Planets.

Spectroscopische Beobachtung des
Cometen Palisa. (Oct. 12.)

Die Photographie des Wasserstoff-
spectrums und der Sternspectra.

On a Photograph of the Solar Spec-
trum, showing Dark Lines of Oxy-
gen.

Observations of the Spectrum of
Comet 1879 d (Palisa). (Nov. 11.
Read Noy. 14.)

Observation de la limite ultra-vio-
lette du spectre solaire 4 diverses
altitudes. (Read Nov. 17.)

Taches et protubérances solaires
observées avec un spectroscope 4
grande dispersion. (Read Noy. 17.)

Note on the Spectrum of the Red
Spot on Jupiter. (Sept. 26. Read
Dec. 12.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxix.
166-168; ‘ Beiblitter,’
iv. 38 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxix.
247-265; ‘* Beibliitter,’
iv. 45 (Abs.)

‘C. R.’lxxxvili. 1305-1307.

‘Am J.’ [3] xviii. 158-
159.
ms

‘ Astron. Nachr.’ xcv. 193-
196.

‘Mem. Spettr.
. 50-51.

ital.’ viii.

ital.’ viii.

.|*Mem. Spettr.

‘Mem. Spettr.
52-54.

ital.’ viii.
55-56.

‘Mem. Spettr.
65-72.

SC: aR.) exxax

ital.’ viii.

519-520.

‘Am. J.’ [3] xviii. 419-
425; ‘Nature,’ xxi. 83-
85; ‘ Beiblitter,’ iv. 374
(Abs.)

‘ Astron.
39-42.

‘Photog. Mittheilungen,’
xvi. 276-278.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xd le Ve: ally

Nachr.’ xcyvi.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xl. 23-25.

‘C. R. lxxxix. 808-814;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxviii.
201 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’
iv. 207 (Abs.); ‘Am.
J.’ [3] xrx. 406 (Abs.)

°C. RY Ixxxix. 855-858 ;
‘Beiblitter,’ iv. 277
(Abs.)

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xl. 87-88; ‘ Beibliitter,’
iv. 614 (Abs.)

dels ee

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

Lord Lindsay .

Winnecke

W. Huggins .

P. Tacchini and E.

Millosevich

E. Barbieri

J. Janssen

W. de W. Abney

P. Tacchini and E.

Millosevich
P. Tacchini

”

Ww. Huggins

L. Thollon °

389

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1879, 1880.

Note on the Rey. T. W. Webb’s New | ‘ Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’

Nebula. (Read Dec. 12.)

The Nebula in Cygnus.
Read Dee. 12.)

xl. 91; ‘ Beiblatter,’ iv.
614-615 (Abs.)

(Noy. 30. | ‘ Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’

xl. 92.

On the Photographic Spectra of| ‘Phil. Trans.’ 1880, clxxi.

Stars. (Recd. Dec. 11. Read Dec.
18.)

Macchie solari e facole osservate in
Roma all’ Equatoriale di Cauchoix
nel terzo trimestre del 1879.

Quadri statistici delle protuberanze
e macchie solari osservate all’ Col-
legio Romano nel 1° semestre,
1879.

Notice sur les progrés récents de la
physique solaire.

1880.

On the Photographic Method of
Mapping the Least Refrangible

End of the Solar Spectrum (with |
a Map of the Spectrum from |

7,600 to 10,750. Bakerian Lecture),
(Jan. 8.)

Macchie solarie facole osservate a|
Roma nell’ ultimo trimestre, 1879. |

Sulle macchie solari e facole osser-
vate all’ Equatoriale di Cauchoix
dell’ osservatorio del Collegio Ro-
mano in Roma durante il terzo e
quarto trimestre, 1879.

Note sulle facole e macchie regis-
trate nel 3° e 4° trimestre, 1879.

Osservazioni solari dirette e spettro-
scopiche fatte a Roma nel terzo e
quarto trimestre del 1879.

Le fotografie del sole fatte all’ osser- |

vatorio di Meudon dal Professor
Janssen.

Disegni delle protuberanze, delle
macchie, delle eruzioni e facole del
Sole fatti a Roma dal giugno a di-
cembre 1879.

Sur les spectres photographiques
des étoiles. (Read Jan. 12.)

Cyclone solaire. (Read Jan.12) .

669-690 ;> ‘Proc. Roy.
Soc.’ xxx. 20-22 (Abs.) ;
‘Nature,’ xxi. 269-270;
‘ Beiblatter,’ iv. 467-468
(Abs.); ‘ Am, J.’ [3] xix.
373-375 , (Abs.); ‘Jd.
Chem. Soc.’ xl. 485-486
(Abs.)

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ viii.
73-74.

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ viii.
75-80.

‘ Annuaire du Bureau des
Longitudes,’ 1879, 623—
685; ‘ Beiblitter,’ iv.
277 (Abs)

‘Phil: Trans.’ 1880, clxxi.
653-667 ; ‘Proc. Roy.
Soc.’ xxx. 67 (Abs.);
‘Beiblatter,’ iv. 375
(Abs.); , v. 507-509
(Abs. )

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ viii.
88-89.

“Mem. Spettr. ital.’ viii.
90-92.

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ viii.
97-101.

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ viii.
93-97, 102-104.

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ ix,
16;

‘Mem. Spettr.: ital.’ iv.
5-7.

‘C. RB! xe. 70-73; ‘Am.
J. [3] xix. 317-318.

°C. R.’ xc. 87-89,

390

W. de W. Abney

P. Tacchini and EH.
Millosevich

H.C. Vogel . .

Tacchini . .

H.C: Vogel . F

Lord Lindsay . ‘

E. Conche r

A. Riccd . e e

W. Huggins . .

PP, Tacchini. . F

W. Harkness . i

A. Cornu. . A

L. Trouvelot ,.

P. Tacchini . i

HE: Spee . . °

H. Draper . °

REPORT—1881.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1880.

Sur la photographie de la portion
infra-rouge du _ spectre solaire.
(Read Jan. 26.)

Macchie solari e facole osservate a
Roma nel mese di gennaio, 1880.

Ueber das Spectrum des von Webb
entdeckten Nebels im Schwan und
eines neuen von Baxendell aufge-
fundenen Sternes im kleinen Hund.
(Feb. 9.)

Observations des taches et protu-
bérances solaires pendant les
troisiéme et quatriéme trimestres
de 1879, (Read Feb. 23.)

Note on the Spectrum of Mr. Baxen-
dell’s New Star in Canis Minor.
(Feb. 10.)

Supplementary Note to the Paper of
Dr. Vogel.

Sur la photographie du _ spectre
solaire. (Read Mar. 22.)

Osservazioni solari dirette e spettro-
scopiche eseguite nel R. osserva-
torio di Palermo.

L’intensité relative des raies spec-
trales de Vhydrogéne et de l’azote
en rapport. avec la constitution des
nébuleuses. (Read April 3.)

Macchie solari e facole osservate a
Romano nei mesi di febbraio e
marzo, 1880.

On the Solar Corona.
10.)

(Read April

Sur la loi de répartition suivant
Yaltitude de la substance absor-
bant dans l’atmosphére les radia-
tions solaires _ultra-violettes.
(Read April 26.)

Spectres fugitifs observés prés du
limbe solaire.

Osservazioni solari spettroscopiche
e dirette fatte a Roma nel 1° tri-
mestre dal 1880.

Sur la raie dite de l’Hélium, (Read
May 11.)

On a Photograph of Jupiter's Spec-
trum, showing Evidence of In-
trinsic Light from that Planet.
(Read May 14.)

*C. BR.’ xc. 182-183; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xxxviil. 429
(Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,’ iv.
375 (Abs.)

‘Mem. Spettr. Ital.’ ix. 8.

‘Astron. Nachr.’? xcvi.
287-288; ‘ Beibliitter,’
iv. 468 (Abs.)

°C. R.’ xc. 358-360.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xl. 294.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xl, 294.

‘Cc. RB.’ xc. 689-690;
‘ Beiblitter,’ iv. 374-375
(Abs.)

‘Mem. Spettr. Ital.’ ix.
25-36.

‘Bull. de l’Acad. de Bel-
gique’ [2] xlix. 266-
267; ‘ Beiblitter,’ iv.
658 (Abs.)

‘Mem. Spettr. Ital.’ ix.
45-48.

‘Bull. Phil. Soc. Wash.’
iii. 116-119; ‘ Bei-
bliitter,’ v. 128 (Abs.)

‘Cc. RB’ xc. 940-946;
‘Beiblatter,’ iv. 727-
728 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [5]
xix. 433-449 ; ‘ Beibliit-
ter,’ iv. 727 (Abs.)

‘Mem. Spettr. Ital.’ ix.
49-58.

‘Bull. de l’Acad. de Bel-
gique’ [2] xlix. 379-396 ;
‘ Beiblitter,’ iv. 614
(Abs.)

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xl. 433-485; ‘Am. J.’
[3] xx. 118-120.

J. M. Lockyer.
Piazzi Smyth .

A. Riccd .« .

P. Tacchini .
J. Janssen °

8. P. Langley .

Tacchini .» “

©. Fiévez ‘

Tacchini , é

L, Thollon °

A Riccd e e

P. Tacchini .

E. Wiedemann

L, Thollon =

Tacchini . ¢

E. C. Pickering

L.Cruls .

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

391

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1880.

On a New Method of Spectrum Ob-
servation.

Three Years’ Experimenting in Men-
surational Spectroscopy.

Osservazioni solari dirette e spettro-
scopiche eseguite nel R. osserva-
torio di Palermo nel IT° trimestre,
1880.

Macchie solari e facole osservate a
Roma nei mesi di aprile e maggio.

Sur la photographie de la chromo-
sphére. (Read July 5.)

Observations on Mount Etna .

Sur la cause des spectres fugitifs
observés par M. Trouvelot sur la
limbe solaire. (Read July 19.)

Recherches sur le spectre du mag-
nésium en rapport avec la consti-
tution du Soleil. (Read Aug. 7.)

Résultats des observations de taches
et facules solaires pendant les
deux premiers trimestres de 1880.
(Read Aug. 9.)

Observation faite sur un groupe
de raies dans le spectre solaire.
(Read Aug. 16.)

Eruzione solare metallica del 31 lug-
lio, 1880, osservata a Palermo.

Osservazioni solari dirette e spettro-
scopiche fatte a Roma nel secondo
trimestre del 1880.

On a Means to Determine the Pres-
sure at the Surface of the Sun
and Stars, and some Spectroscopic
Remarks. (Read June 12.)

Observation d’une protubérance
solaire le 30 aout 1880. (Read
Aug. 30.)

Observations des protubérances, des
facules et des taches solaires
pendant le premier semestre de
Yannée 1880. (Read Sept. 6.)

New Planetary Nebule. (Sept. 7.)

Recherches _spectroscopiques sur
quelques étoiles non encore étu-
diées. (Read Sept. 13.)

‘Am. J.’ [3] xix. 303-311.
‘Nature,’ xxii. 193-195,
222-225.

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ ix.
61-90.

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ ix.
91-92.

“On Rt. xcis, (112%) 1° Bei-

blitter, iv. 615 (Abs.)

s|oAm. Ji [Si xx. 33-34;

‘Beiblatter,’ iv. 790
(Abs.)

‘C. BR’ xeci. 156-158;
‘ Beibliitter,’ iv. 727
(Abs.)

‘Bull. de 1l’Acad. de Bel-
gique’ [2] 1. 91-98;
‘ Beiblitter,’ iv. 789-790
(Abs.)

*C. BR.’ xci. 316-317.

°C. RB.’ xci. 368-370; J.
Chem. Soc.’ xl. 333
(Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,’ iv.
790-791 (Abs.); ‘Am.
J. [3] xx. 430.

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ ix.
96-100.

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ ix.
105-110.

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ iv. 31—
34; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] x.
123-125; ‘Beiblatter,’
iv. 613 (Abs.)

SCM) Rune) Cis
‘ Beiblatter,’
(Abs.)

“C. BR.’ xci. 466-467,

432-433 ;
iv. 727

‘Am. J,’ [3] xx. 303-305 ;

‘ Beibliitter,’ v, 130
(Abs.)
‘Cc. RB’ xci. 486-487;

‘ Beibliitter,’ v. 130-131
(Abs.)

392

L. Thollon

”

E. Wiedemann

Cc. A. Young

W. H. M. Christie

J. Macé and W. Ni-
cati.

L. Thollon

A. Serpieri

A. Riccd .

LP. Tacchini
W. H. M. Christie

G. B. Airy

J. N. Lockyer .

Tacchini . : ‘

Tacchini .

REPORT——1881.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1880,

Sur quelques phénomeénes solaires
observés & Nice. (Read Sept. 13.)

Etude sur les raies telluriques du
spectre solaire (Observatoire de
Nice.) (Read Sept. 20.)

On a Method of determining the
Pressure on the Solar Surface.

Spectroscopic Notes, 1879-1880.

(Oct. 8.)

The Spectrum of Hartwig’s Comet.
(Oct. 11.)

Etude de la distribution de la lu-
miére dans le spectre solaire.
(Read Oct. 11.)

Etudes spectroscopiques faites sur
le Soleil, 4 ’ Observatoire de Paris.
(Read Oct. 18.)

La Luce Zodiacale confronto tra le
osservazioni del P. Dechevrens e
quelle di G. Jones. (Oct. 1880.)

Osservazioni solari dirette e spettro-
scopiche eseguite nel R. Osser-
vatorio di Palermo nel III° tri-
mestre, 1880.

Macchie solari e facole osservate a
Roma nei mesi di luglio, agosto e
settembre.

On the Spectrum of Comet 1880 d
(Hartwig’s). (Nov. 10. tead
Noy. 12.)

On the Spectrum of a Sun-Spot ob-
served at the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich, 1880. Nov. 27 and 30.
(Dec. 7. Read Dec. 10.)

On a Sun-Spot observed Aug. 31,
1880. (Recd. Oct. 26. Read Nov.
25.)

Observations solaires faites 4 1’ob-
servatoire royal du Collége ro-
main pendant le troisiéme tri-
mestre 1880. (Read Dec. 27.)

Osservazioni solari_ spettroscopiche
e dirette fatte a Roma nel 3° tri-
mestre del 1880.

1881.

Roma nei mesi di ottobre, no-
vembre e dicembre del 1880.

1881.

‘Cc. RR. xei. 487-492;
‘ Beibliitter,’ v. 45 (Abs.)

'C., RY xct. S20=b22i06 3),
Chém. Séc.’ xl. 1 (Abs.) ;
‘ Beiblitter,’ iv. 891-
892,(Abs.)

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xl. 627-628.

‘Am. Js =x. 3ba—

358; ‘Beiblatter,’ v.
127 (Abs.); ‘Nature,’
xxiii. 281.
‘Nature,’

xxii. 557;

‘Beiblatter, v. 129
(Abs.) :
iG. RK.) xci.) 1625=625s
Beiblitter,’.v. 301-
302 (Abs.)

SC:nk. se xct. (656=660s
‘Beiblitter,’ v. 45
(Abs.)

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ ix.
133-142.

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ ix.
161-189.

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ ix.
190-192.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
Sis 62-fo:0n

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xli. 63-64.

‘Proc. Roy: Soc.” xexa2
72; ‘ Beibliitter,’ v. 129
(Abs.)

‘C. R.’ xcf. 1053-1054.

, .

Mem. Spettr. ital.’ ix.
194-203.

. | Macchie solari e facole osservate aj‘ Mem. Spettr’ ital” x.

1,4,

——— we

C. 8. Hastings .

Tacchini .

C. A. Young

G. B. Airy

J. N. Lockyer .

J.W. Draper .

Tacchini .

A. Riccd .

J.N. Lockyer .

W. de W. Abney

E. C. Pickering

J. N. Lockyer .

W. Huggins

G. M. Seabroke
L. Thollon ‘

J. N. Lockyer .

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

393

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1881.

. | A Theory of thé Constitution of the

Sun, founded upon Spectroscopic
Observations, original and other.
(Sept. 1880.)

Osservazioni solari dirette e spet-
troscopiche fatte a Roma nel 4°
trimestre, 1880.

Riassunto delle osservazioni 1880

Spectroscopic Notes, 1879-1880.

(Sept. 27, 1880.)

Spectroscopic Results for the Mo-
tions of Stars in the Line of
Sight, obtained at the Royal Ob-
servatory, Greenwich. IV. (Jan.
13. Read Jan. 14.)

On the Iron Lines widened in Solar
Spots. *(Recd. Jan. 13. Read
Jan. 27.)

On the Phosphorograph of a Solar
Spectrum, and on the Lines of its
Infra-red Region. (Dec. 1, 1880.)

Observations des taches, des facules
et des protubérances solaires,
faites 4 l’observatoire du Collége
romain, pendant le dernier tri-
mestre, 1880. (Read March 7.)

Osservazioni solari eseguite nel R.
Osservatorio di Palermo nel IV
trimestre, 1880.

Sur les raies du fer dans le Soleil.
(Read April 11.)

On Lines in the Infra-red Region
of the Solar Spectrum.

Spectrum of the Star Ll. 13412.
(April 14.)

Note on the Reduction of the Ob-
servations of the Spectra of 100
Sun-spots observed at Kensington.
(Recd. May 12. Read May 12.)

Photographic Spectrum of the
Comet. (June 27.)

The Spectrum pf the Comet.
28.)

Spectrum of the Comet .
Ditto : : : : -
The Comet

(June

Lectures on Solar Physics : The

Chemistry of the Sun.

.| ‘Mem,

‘Am. J.’ [8] xxi. 33-44;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] xi. 91-
103; ‘Beiblitter,’ v
588-592 (Abs.)

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ x.
5-11.

Spettr. ital.’ x.
12.

‘Nature,’ xxiii. 282.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xli, 109-121.

“PTOC i Ove) SOC. 5 Ske.
348-349; ‘ Beiblitter,’
v. 288-289 (Abs.)

‘Am. J.’ [3] 20. 171—
182; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5]
xi. 157-169 ; ‘ Beiblitter,’
v. 509-510 (Abs.)

°C. RB.’ xcii. 502-504.

a

‘Mem. Spettr. Ital.’ x.
41-60.

°C. R. xcii. 904-910; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xl, 669 (Abs)

‘Phik Mag.’ [5] xi. 300-
301; ‘Beiblatter,’ v. 509—
510 (Abs.)

‘ Nature,’ xxiii. 604; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ v. 511 (Abs.)
‘Proc, Roy. Soc.’ xxxii.

203-206.

‘Nature,’ xxiv. 200.

i xxiv. 201.

“a xxiv. 224

» XXiv. 224.

3 xxiv. 261-262,
285-286.

‘Nature,’ xxiv. 267-274,
296-301, 315-324, 365-
370, 391-399.

394 REPORT—1881.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1881—METEOROLOGICAL, 1870, 1871.

H. Draper ‘ -,;The Comet . 5 ° . . |‘Nature,’ xxiv. 308-309,
391-399.

W. Huggins , . | Preliminary Note onthe Photographic] ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxxiii.
Spectrum of Comet 0, 1881. (Recd.| 1-3.

June 27.)
METEOROLOGICAL.
1870.
TO ss ‘ Spectrum of Aurora. (Oct. 25). .| ‘Nature,’ iii. 6.
T.G.Elger . Ditto. (Oct. 29) . i 45 ili. 6.
H. R. Procter . i Ditto. (Oct. 27). 5 iii. 6-7.
J.R. Capron . 5 Ditto. (Nov. 5). < a5 iii. 28.
H. R. Procter . . | The Spectrum of the Aurora (Nov. a lil. 68.
12.)
i. C. Pickering ; Ditto i : 3s lil. 104-105.
J. Hyatt . d C Ditto : é s lil. 105.
D. Kirkwood . é Ditto. (Noy. 9). : ii, 126:
J. Browning . - | On the Spectrum of the Aurora |‘ Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
Borealis. xxxi. 17; ‘Phil. Mag.’
[4] xli. 79; < Am. J.’ [3]
2b eas
1871.
H. R. Procter . . | The Spectrum of the Aurora (Feb. |‘ Nature,’ iii. 346-347.
(0)
F, Zoliner . . | Ueber das Spectrum des Nordlichtes, |‘ Ber. d. K. siichs. Ges. d.
(Read Oct 31, 1870.) Wiss.’ xxii. 254-260 ;
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
oxi, 574-581 * Phal!
Mag.’ [4] xli. 122-127;
‘Am. J,’ [3] 1. 372-373
(Abs.)
H. R. Procter . . | The Spectrum of the Aurora . |‘ Nature,’ iii. 369.
9 . -|The Spectra of the Aurora and as iil. 468.
Corona. (March 28.)
A. 8. Herschel . | The Aurora Borealis. (April 10) . » wi. 486.
C, Piazzi Smyth .|Spectra of Aurora, Corona, and rif ili. 509-510.
Zodiacal Light. (April 14.)
T. W. Backhouse . | Spectrum of the Aurora (May 16) . 3 iv. 66.
R. J. Ellery Ditto (May 19) . > LV. 280%
H. Vogel . 5 etabas Spectrum des Nordlichts. (Aug.}‘ Astr. Nachr.’ Ixxviii.
1871. 247-248.
Lord Lindsay . «|The Aurora . - . . - |‘ Nature,’ iv. 347.
” ° - | Correction of Diagram . . vaca i
H. Vogel. e e | Ueber die Spectra der Blitze. (Sept.|‘ Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
11.) cxliii. 653-654.
J.Jamssen . | Etudes sur les raies telluriques du |‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’
spectre solaire. xxill. 274-299.

G. F, Barker . » | Note on the Spectrum of the Aurora |‘ Am. J.’ [3] ii. 465-468 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] x.
119 (Abs.)

A. Cornu.

Prazmowski

©. Piazzi Smyth

G. M. Seabroke

R. J. Friswell
J. P. Maclear
J. J. Murphy
J. R. Capron

°

H. Cooper Key

T. W. Webb
5. J. Perry

©. Piazzi Smyth

J. P. Maclear
L. Respighi
A. C. Twining
E. J. Stone
Tacchini

H. Tarry .

A. Secchi

.

C. Piazzi Smyth

Salet a

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

A. J. v, Oettingen .

J.P. Joule
H. R. Procter
”

G. H. Pringle
J. P, Maclear

395

METEOROLOGICAL, 1872.
1872.

Sur le spectre de l’aurore boréale du |‘C. R.’ Ixxiv. 390-391.
4 février. (Read Feb. 5.)

Etude spectrale de la Inumiére de
Vaurore boréale du 4 février.
(Read Feb. 5.)

Ixxiv. 391-392.

”

The Aurora Borealis of Feb. 4. |‘ Nature,’ v. 282-283
(Feb. 5.)

Ditto. (Heb.5) . 9 v. 283.

Ditto e - 33 vy. 283.

Ditto. (Feb. 5) BS v. 283.

Ditto. (Feb. 4) a v. 283.

Ditto. (Feb. 5) is v. 284-285.

Ditto. (Feb. 6) 3 v. 302.

Diet aay oe Wee ee 1 uty: S03:

Ditto 5 : : 3 v. 303.

Reference Spectrum for the Chief 35 v. 324,
Aurora Line. (Feb. 16.)

On the Spectrum of the Atmosphere. ss v. 341-342
(Feb. 5.)

Observations of the Aurora Borealis y. v. 511-512.

of Feb. 4 and 5,1872. (‘Gazz. Uffi-
ciale d. Regno d’Ital.’) (eb. 5.)

The Aurora of Feb. 4, 1872 .|°Am. J.’ [3] ili. 273-281.

Ditto. (Feb. 19) .|‘ Nature,’ v. 443; ‘Am.
J.’ [3] iii. 391-392

Sur l’aurore boréale du 4 février.|‘C. R.’ Ixxiv. 540-542.

(Read Feb. 19.)

Sur Yorigine des aurores polaires.
(Read Feb. 19.)

Sur l’aurore boréale du 4 février,
observée 4 Rome, et sur quelques
nouveaux résultats d’analyse spec-
trale. (Heb 9. Read Feb. 26.)

Sur la raie brillante de couleur
jaune citron, dans le spectre des
aurores boréales,

Spectrum des Nordlichts. (Chem. | ‘ Ber.’ v. 222 (Abs.)
Soc. Paris, March 1.)

Das Nordlicht-Spectrum. (Feb. 12))‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlvi. 284-287.

.|¢ Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [4]
xxvi. 269-273.

Ixxiv. 549-553.

»

Ixxiv. 583-588.

EE)

Ixxiv. 597.

Sur le spectre d’aurore boréale

Spectrum of Lightning. (June 19)| ‘Nature,’ vi. 161.
Ditto. (June 19) ” vi. 161.
Ditto. (July 12) + vi. 220.
Spectrum of Aurora. (June 23) os vi. 260.
Ditto. (Aug. 11) a vi. 329.

396

. Vogel

. Holden

G. F. Barker .

H. R. Procter .
H. A. Rowland
T. W. Backhouse
. von Konkoly

Z

”

A. S. Herschel .

A. J. Angstrém

oe

. Crocé-Spinelli and
Sivel.

J. Janssen

A. Secchi

T. Hoh

S. Lemstr6bm . ..

A, Wijkander . .

REPORT—1881.

METEOROLOGICAL, 1872-1874.

des Nordlichts. (Read July 1.)

Spectrum of the Aurora. (Oct. 14)

Spectrum of Lightning. (Oct. 9) .

1873.

The Spectrum of the Aurora and
of the Zodiacal Light (List of
Authorities on the Subject). (Nov.
9, 1872.)

Aurora Spectrum. (Jan 10)

On the Spectrum of the Aurora
of Oct. 14, 1872. (Dec. 30, 1872.)

Aurora Spectra. (Jan. 18)
On the Auroral Spectrum
Spectrum of Aurora

Spectroscopic Observations of Me-
teors at the O’Gyalla Observatory,
Hungary. (Aug. 12.)

On the Spectroscopic Observation of

a Meteor. (Oct. 17.)
Spectra of Shooting Stars
1874.

Ueber das Spektrum des Nordlichts

Ascension scientifique 4 grande
hauteur, exécutée le 22 mars 1874.
(Read April 6.)

Remarques sur le spectre de la va-
peur d’eau a l'occasion du voyage
aérostatique de MM. Crocé-Spi-
nelli et Sivel. (Read April 13.)

Observations relatives 4 une com-
munication de M. Crocé-Spinelli
sur les bandes de la vapeur d’eau

. | Untersuchungen iiber das Spectrum |‘ Ber. K. sichs. Ges. d.

Wiss.’ xxiii. 285-299
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlvi. 569-585; ‘J.

Chem. Soc.’ [2] x. 1061
(Abs.) ; “Am. J.’ [3] iv.
487-488 (Abs.)

‘Am. J.' [3] iv. 423-424 ;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xliv.
478-479.

‘Am. J.’ [3] iv. 474. 475.

‘Nature,’ vii. 182-183.

» vii, 201.

‘Am. J.' [3] v. 81-84.

. | ‘Nature,’ vii. 242.
.| ‘Am. J.’ v. 320.
. | ‘Nature,’ vii. 463.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
Xxxili, 575-576.

‘ Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
Xxxiv. 82-83.

. |‘ Nature,’ ix. 142-143.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
Jubelband, . 424-429;
‘Arch. de Genéve,’ [2] 1.
204-205 (Abs.)

*C. R.’ lxxviii. 946-950;
‘Am. J.’ viii. 136 (Abs.)

°C. B.’ lxxviil. 995-998.

» Ixxviii, 1080-1081.

dans le spectre solaire. (Read
April 20.) ‘
Blitz-Spectra. (April 24) .|fAnn, Phys. u. Chem.’

Sur la décharge électrique dans
laurore boréale et le spectre du
méme phénoméne.

Observations sur le spectre de l’au-
rore boréale.

clit. 173-175.

‘Arch. de, Genéve,’ [2] 1.
225-242, 355-386.

‘Arch. de Genéve,’ [2] li.
25~30. .

J. W. Clark

A.J. Angstrém

W. de Fonvielle

A. 8. Herschel

J.B. N. Hennessey .

J. R. Capron

W. M. Watts

Piazzi Smyth .

C. Michie Smith

J.W. Clark

J. R. Capron
A. Crova .

Piazzi Smyth .

J. W. Clark

J.P. Maclear .
H. C. Russell .

A. Schuster

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

METEOROLOGICAL, 1874-1879.

Observations on the Spectrum of
Lightning.

The Spectrum of the Aurora Borealis

Note sur des observations spectro-

scopiques, faites dans l’ascension |

du 24 sept. 1874, pour étudier les
variations des couleurs du spectre.
(Read Oct. 5.)

1875.
On the Spectrum of the Aurora

On the Atmospheric Lines of the
Solar Spectrum, illustrated by a
Map drawn on the same Scale as
that adopted by Kirchhoff. (Map
recd. June 9, 1874; text, Jan. 11,
1875. Read Jan. 28.)

On the Comparison of some Tube
and other Spectra with the Spec-
trum of the Aurora.

On the Spectrum of the Aurora.
(April 14.)

Spectroscopic Previsionof Rain with
a High Barometer. (July 19 and
26.)

The Spectroscope and the Weather.
(Aug. 13.) :

Some further Observations on the
Spectra of Lightning.

On the Spectrum of the Aurora
Sur lVintensité calorifique de la ra-
diation solaire et son absorption
par Vatmosphére terrestre. (Read
Dec. 13.)
1876.
: re Warm Rain Band in the Day-
light Spectrum. (April 24.)
1877.

- | On the Spectra of Lightning .

| Spectrum of Aurora Australis

On the Atmospheric Lines between
the two D Lines. (July 26. Read

Nov. 9.)
1879.
- |On Spectra of Lightning. (Read
Feb. 22.)

397

‘Chem. News,’ xxx. 28.

| ‘Nature,’ x. 210-211.
°C. R.’ Ixxxix. 816-817.

. |‘ Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlix. 65-
71.

‘Phik. Trans.’ 1875, clxv.
157-160; ‘Proc. Roy.
Soc,’ xxiii. 201-202;
(Abs.); fAm.) J-"* [3]
ix. 307 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlix. 249-
266.

‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlix. 410-
411.

‘Nature,’ xii. 231-232 and
252-253; ‘Ann. Phys.
u. Chem.’ clvii. 175-176
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xii. 366.

‘Chem. News,’ xxxii. 65.

-| ‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlix. 481.

©C. RY lxxxi. 1205-1207.

‘Nature,’ xiv. 9.

-|‘Chem. News,’ xxxv. 2;

‘ Beibliitter,’ i. 192.

.| ‘Nature,’ xvii. 11-12.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
XXXVili. 30-32.

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ iii. 46-
| 52; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] vii.
| 316-321; ‘ Beiblitter,’
| iii, 872 (Abs.)

398

REPORT—1881.

METEOROLOGICAL, 1879, 1880—-CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1870, 1871.

Piazzi Smyth .

Von Konkoly .

L. Thollon :

R. Copeland .

E. Lecher :

W. 4H. Perkin .

H.C. Sorby .

L. Schénn °

J. M. Silliman.

H.C. Sorby .

J. S. Parker

H. C. Sorby

F, Mohr . e

. | Ueber meteorologische Spectro-
skopie.

Spectroscopische Beobachtungen
der Meteorite. (Aug. 15.)

1880.

Etude sur les raies telluriques du;
spectre solaire. (Observatoire
de Nice.) (Read Sept. 20.)

. | Observations of Aurora on Aug.
12 and 13.

. | Ueber die Absorption der Sonnen-
strahlung durch die Kohlensiure
unserer Atmosphiire. (Read Noy.
4.)

CHEMICAL RELATIONS.

On Artificial Alizarin - .

On some Technical Applications of
the Spectrum Microscope.

On the Colouring Matters derived
from the Decomposition of some
Minute Organisms. (Read April
13.)

Ueber Blattgriin und Blumenblau.
(May 10.)

, | On the Examination of the Bessemer

Flame with Colored Glasses and

with the Spectroscope.

. |On some Compounds derived from
the Colouring Matter of Blood.

1871.

, On the Examination of the Bessemer
| Flame with Coloured Glasses and
| with the Spectroscope.
. | On some Improvements in the Spec-
trum Method of Detecting Blood.

. , Uber die Beziehung der chemischen
Beschaffenheit zu der lichtbrechen-
den Kraft der Gase.

* Zeitschr. d. Osterr. Ges.
fiir Meteorologie,’ xiv.
151-152.

‘ Astron. Nachr.’ xcy. 283-
286 ; ‘ Nature,’ xx. 521-
522 (Abs.)

°C. RB. xci. 520-522 ; ‘J.
Chem. Soe.’ xl. 1(Abs.) ;
‘ Beibliitter,’ iv.891-892
(Abs.)

‘ Nature,’ xxii. 510.

‘Sitzungsb. Wien. Akad.’
Ixxxii. II. 851-863;
‘Wien. Anz, xvii. 217—
218 (Abs.)

.|*Journ. Chem. Soc.’ [2]

Vili; 133—143; ‘Ann:
Chem. u. Pharm.’ clviii.
315-319 (Abs.); ‘Ann.
Chim. et Phys.’ [4] xxvi.
136-137 (Abs.)

‘Quart. J. Microsc. Sci.’
1869, ‘ix. 358-383;
*Dinel. J.’ excviii. 243-
254, 334-348.

‘Monthly Mic. J.’ iii. 229-
231;

‘Zeitschr. anal. Chem.
ix. 327-328.

‘Am. J.’ [2] 1. 297-307;
‘Phil. Mag.’ xli. 1-12;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] ix,
97-98 (Abs.)

“Quart. J.. MiemiSci?txs
400-402,

‘Chem. News,’ [2] xxiii.
25-26; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
[2] ix. 98 (Abs.)

‘Monthly Mic. J.’ vi.
2-175

‘Ber.’ iv. 149-155; ‘J.
Chem, Soe.’ [2] ix. 183
(Abs.)

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

©. Schultz-Sellack

K. Vierordt . 4

H.C.Sorby . .

W. Wernicke .

H.C.Sorby , :
W. Preyer “ .
H. E. Roscoe . .

K. Vierordt .

H. Schiff . - -
K. Vierordt .
H. C. Sorby

E. Gerland and N.
W. H. Rauwenhoff.

ie Er Sinks A. .

E. Lommel

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1871.

Ueber die Lichtempfindlichkeit der
Silberhaloidsalze und den Zusam-
menhang von optischer und che-
mischer Lichtabsorption.

Ueber die Anwendung des Spectral-
Apparates zur quantitativen Be-
stimmung von Farbstoffen. (Read
Mar. 27.)

On the Colour of Leaves at different
Seasons of the Year,

Ueber die Brechung und Dispersion
des Lichtes in Iod-, Brom- und
Chlorsilber, (Dec. 1870.)

On the various Tints of Autumnal
Foliage.

Quantitative Spectralanalyse. (May
2.)

Employment of Spectrum Analysis
in the Bessemer Process,

Zur quantitativen Spectralanalyse.
(May 11.)

Ueber die quantitative Bestimmung
von Farbstoffen mittelst des Spek-
troskops. (May 15.)

Zur quantitativen Spectralanalyse.
(May 25. Recd. June 1.)

On the Colouring Matter of some
Aphides,

Recherches sur la chlorophylle et
quelques-uns de ses dérivés. (Feb.
1871.)

Ueber die Refraction und Disper-
sion des Selens. (June 1871.)

Ueber das Verhalten des Chloro-
phylls zum Licht,

399

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exliii.. 161-171; ‘Ber.’
iv. 210-211 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] ix. 302—
303 (Abs.) ; ‘ Phil. Mag.’
[4] xli. 549-550 (Abs);
‘Ann, Chim. et Phys.’
[4] xxvi. 280 (Abs.)

‘Ber,’ iv.. 327-829: “J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] ix. 602
(Abs.) ; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [4]
xli, 482-484; ‘Am, J.’
li. 138-139 (Abs.)

‘Quart. J. Mic. Sci.’ xi.
215-234.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlii. 560-5738; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2] ix. 653-654
(Abs.); ‘Ann. Chim. et
Phys.’ [4] xxvi. 287-288
(Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ xxiii. 137—
139, 148-150 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2] ix. 184-185
(Abs.)

* Ber.’ iv. 404,

‘J. Iron and Steel Inst.’
1871, ii. 38-62; * Ber.’
iv. 419-421 (Abs.)

* Ber.’ iv. 457,

‘Ber.’ iv. 474-475; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] ix. 760
(Abs.)

‘Ber.’ iv. 519; *J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2] ix. 759-760
(Abs.)

‘Quart. J. Mic. Sci.’ xi.
352-361.

‘Arch. Néerlandaises,’ vi.
97-116; ‘Ann. Phys. u.
Chem.’ cxliii. 231-239;
‘J. Chem: Soo’. [2] ix.
1201-1202 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlili, 429-439; ‘Ann.
Chim. et Phys.’.[4] xxvi.
286-287 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exliii, 568-585; ‘J.
Chem. Soe.’ [2] x. 158-
160 (Abs.)

400 REPORT—1881.
CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1871, 1872.
E. Gerland Ueber die Hinwirkung des Lichtes

auf das Chlorophyll. (June 1871.)

Sur les rapports des propriétés spec-
trales des corps simples avec leurs
propriétés physiologiques. (Read
Sept. 25.)

.|On the

F. Papillon

H. C. Sorby Examination of Mixed

| Colouring Matters with the Spec- |

| trum Microscope.

|

G. Salet . : . | Sur les spectres de l’étain et de ses
| composés. (Read Oct. 2.)
|

|
R. Blochman . . | Ueber das Calciumspectrum

R. Boettger and T. “Notiz iiber kiinstliches Alizarin.
Petersen. (Oct. 6. Read Oct. 9.)

Die Oxydationsproducte der Gallen-

A. Heynsius and G. |
¥.F.Campbell. |

|

|

. Sur les spectres du phosphore et des

streifen.

G. Salet .
| composés du silicium. (Read Oct.
| 30.)

P. Bert . |Influence des diverses couleurs sur

la végétation. (Read Dec. 18.)

1872.
Zur quantitativen Spectralanalyse.
(Jan. 2. Read Jan. 22.)

Zur Frage iiber die Wirkung des
farbigen Lichtes auf die Assimila-
tionsthiitigkeit der Pflanzen. (Dec.
1871.)

Kiinstliche Umwandlung von Biliru-

K. Vierordt . :

E. Lommel .

R. Maly . :
bin in Harnfarbstoff.

C. Horner The Spectra of Manganese in Blow-
pipe Beads.

R. Maly . “ Untersuchungen iiber die Gallenfarb-

stoffe.

Umwandlung von Bilirubin in Harn-
farbstoff. (Feb. 1872.)

Misura dell’ indice di rifrazione dell’
alcool anisico e dell’ alcool metil-
salicilico.

Purpurophyll, ein neues (?) Derivat
des Chlorophylls.

P, Blaserna

T. A. Hartsen .

farbstoffe und ihre Absorptions- |

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlin, 585-6105) °*J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] x. 160-
164 (Abs.)

*‘¢. R Lea. 791-792;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] ix.
1078 (Abs.)

‘Monthly Mie. J.’ vi. 124—
134.

°C. RB. Ixxitl. 862-863;
‘J. Chem. Soc. [2] a-
1147-1149 (Abs.)

.| ‘J. pr. Chem.’ [2] iv. 282—

286; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2]
ix. 1149-1150 (Abs.)

/ ‘ Ber.’ iv. 778-779.

‘Pfltiger’s Archiv f.
Physiol.’ iv. 497-547; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] x. 307-
308 (Abs.)

°C. RY Ixxiii., 1056-1059;

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] x.
27 (Abs.)*

*C. BR.’ Ixxiii. 1444-1447.

‘ Ber.’ v. 34-38.

‘ Ann. Phys: u. Chem.’ exly.
442-455 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
[2] xi. 292-293 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
elxi. 368-370 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2] x. 514 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ xxv. 139;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] x.
524 (Abs.)

‘Wien. Anz.’ ix. 39-41;
‘Chem. Centr.’ [3] iii.
180-181 ;‘J. Chem. Soe.’
[2| x. 638 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
elxiii. 77-95 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2] x. 835 (Abs.)

*Gazz. Chim. Ital, ii. 69—
1.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlvi. 158-160.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 401

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1872, 1873.

B. J. Stokvis . . | Untersuchungen iiber die Gallen-;‘ Ber.’ v. "583-585; ‘J.
farbstoffe und ihre Erkennung mit-| Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi. 78
telst des Spectroskops. (Abs.)

R. Landolt . . | Refractions-Aequivalente der Ele-|‘ Ber.’ v. 808; ‘Chem.
mente C, Hund O (Versammlung| Centr.’ [3] iii. 705; ‘J.
Deutschen Naturf. u. Aerzte, Aug.| Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi. 460

2-18.) (Abs.)

W. Pfeffer : . | Die Wirkung der Spectralfarben auf |‘ Versuchs-Stationen-Or-
die Kohlensiiurezersetzung in| gan,’ xv. 356-367; ‘J.
Pflanzen. | Chem. Sdc.’ [2] x. 1107
(Abs.)

J. Dewar. . « | On the Chemical Efficiency of Sun-; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] xliv.
light. (¢ Roy. Soc. Edin.’ May 6.) 307-311.

Propriétés optiques de la chloro- |‘ Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [4]
phylle. xxvi. 277-279.

J. W. Draper . . | Researches in Actino-chemistry. |‘ Phil. Mag.’ [4] xliv. 422-
= Memoir Second. On the Distribu-| 443; ‘Am. J.’ v. 25-38,

tion of Chemical Force in’ the} 91-98; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’

Spectrum. [2] xi. 232-255 (Abs.)

K. B. Hofmann « | Ueber die Spectral-Erscheinungen|‘ Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
des Phosphorwasserstoffs und des} exlvii. 92-101; ‘J.

Ammoniaks, Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi. 340-

341 (Abs.)
P. T. Cléve and O.| Sur les combinaisons de l’yttrium et |‘ Bull. Soc. Chim. Paris,’
Heeglund. de V’erbium. Xviii. 193-201, 289-297 ;

‘J> Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.
136-139 (Abs.)

B. J. Stokvis . . | Oxidation Product of Bile Pigment | ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi. 288
(‘N. Repert. Pharm.’ xxi. 732-737.) | (Abs.)

E. Wiedemann . | Ueber die Brechungsexponenten der | oda pr. Chem. ” [2] vi. 453-

geschwefelten Substitutionspro-| 455.
ducte des Kohlensauresiithers.
1873.

J. Chautard . . |Examen _ spectroscopique de la,‘C. R.’ Ixxvi. 103-105;
chlorophylle dans les résidusdela| ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.
digestion. (Read Jan. 13.) | 52t (Abs.)

A. Millardet . . | Observations relatives A une commu-|‘C. R.’ Ixxvi. 105-107

nication récente de M. Chautard| (Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
sur les bandes d’absorption de la! [2] xi. 996 (Abs.)
chlorophylle. (Read Jan.13.) |

W. Pfeffer . . | Die Wirkung der Spectralfarben auf|‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
die Kohlensiiurezersetzung in) cxtviii. 86-99; ‘J.Chem.
Pflanzen (‘ Sitzungsb. d. Ges. z. Be-| Soc.’ [2] xi. 400-401
forderung d. Gesammt. Naturwiss.| (Abs.) ‘Chem. News,’

zu Marburg’). | xxvii. 133-134 (Abs.)
E.Gerland. . . |Ueber die Rolle des Chlorophylls|‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

bet der Assimilationsthitigkeit|! cxlvili, 99-115; ‘J.
der Pflanzen und das Spectrum); Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi. 401
der Blatter. (July 1872.) (Abs.)

H. Vogel - . | Ueber die Lichtempfindlichkeit der | ‘ Ber.’ vi. 88-92.
Silberhaloidsalze unter alkalischer |
Entwickelung, (Read Jan. 15.)

1881. DD

402

L.d’Henry .

C. A. Valson .

W. M. Watts . “

M. Th. Edelmann .

J. Chautard . 5

P. Champion, H. Pel-
let, and M. Grenier.

J. Janssen :

F. Grimm ° .

Lecog de Boisbau-
dran.

J. Chautard . »

Le Neve Foster FS
C. Horner , .
H.W.Vogel .

Pierre and
Puchot.

Is.

J. B. Hannay . A

R. Hennig .

rnEPoRT—1881.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1873.

Sur Pemploi de la lumiére mono-
chromatique, produite par les sels
de soude, pourapprécier les change-
ments de couleur de la teinture de
tournesol, dans les essais alkali-
métriques. (Read Jan. 27.)

Propriétés modulaires des pouvoirs
réfringents dans les solutions sa-
lines. (Read Jan. 27.)

On the Spectrum of the Bessemer
Flame.

Ueber eine neue Methodeder objec-
tiven Darstellung von Metallspec-
tren.

Modifications du spectre de la chlo-
rophylle sous l’influence des alca-
lis. (Read Mar. 3.)

De la Spectrométrie ; spectronatro-
métre. (Read Mar. 17.)

Note sur l’analyse spectrale quantita-
tive, 4 propos de la Communica-
tion précédente de MM. Champion,
Pellet et Grenier. (Read Mar. 17.)

Ueber das Phthalein des Hydrochi-
nons und Chinizarin. (Read Mar.
24.)

Sur le spectre de l’acide borique.
(Mar. 23. Read Mar. 31.)

Influence des rayons de diverses
couleurs sur le spectre de la chloro-
phylle. (Read April 21.)

Examen des différences présentées
par le spectre de la chlorophylle
selon la nature du dissolvant.
(Read April 28.)

Priifung des gelben Glases fiir Dun-
kelzimmer der Photographen.

On the Spectra of some Cobalt Com-
pounds in Blowpipe Chemistry.

Ueber die fortsetzenden Strahlen
Becquerel’s. (Read June 9.)

Comparaison des indices de réfrac-
tion dans quelques éthers com-
posés isoméres. (Read June 30.)

On Zirconia . : Z :

Ueber quantitative Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtung. (Mar. 20.)

‘C. RY’ lexvi. 222-224
(Abs.) ; § Ann. Chem. u
Pharm.’ clxix. 272;

‘Dingl. J.’ cevii. 405-

407.

‘CO. R. Lxxvi. 224-226;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.
460-461 (Abs.)

‘ Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlv. 81-
90; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2]
xi. 461 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1872, 691 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.
461 (Abs.)

“Cc. R. Ixxvi. 570-572 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.
582 (Abs.)

°C. RY Ixxvi. 707-711;
«J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] -xi.
934-935 (Abs.)

ZLOB Eat dal b-o-g yh maf (tll flsir
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.
1258 (Abs.)

‘ Ber.’ vi. 506-512.

°C. RB.’ Ixxvi. 833-835.

©. BR. Ixxvis-1031-1033;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.
713 (Abs.)

‘C. R.’ Ixxvi. 1066-1069 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.
996-997.

‘Dingl. J! cevii. 427;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.
948 (Abs.)

“Chem. News,’ xxvii. 241—
242 ; «J. Chem. Soc.’ [2]
xi. 1161-1162 (Abs.)

‘ Ber.’ vi. 1498-1501.

°C. RY Ixxvi. 1566-1568.

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xi.
703-710; ‘Ber.’ vi. 571
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exlix. 349-353; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] xii.
495 (Abs.)

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

H. Pocklington :

K. Timiraeseff »

R. Thalén A B

H. Vogel = .

Lecoqg de Boisbau-:

dran.

J. N. Lockyer and W.
C. Roberts.

J.N. Lockyer, A

Berthelot .

» .

H. Vogel, . .

C. Horner : z

W. Stein. - a

J. Chautard , "

403

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1873, 1874.

| M. Chautard’s Classification of the
| Absorption Bands of Chlorophyll.

| Die Zersetzung der CO, durch die
| Pflanzen im directen Sonnenspec-
| trum. (8. Petersburg, Sept.)

Om Spektra tillhdrande yttrium,
erbium, didym och lanthan.
(Sept. 9.)

Ueber die Lichtempfindlichkeit des
Bromsilbers fiir die sogenannten
chemisch unwirksamen Farben.
(Oct. 1873. Read Nov. 10.)

Sur quelques spectres métalliques
(plomb, chlorure d’or, thallium,
lithium.) (Read Noy. 17.)

On the Quantitative Analysis of cer-
tain Alloys by means of the Spec-
troscope. (Recd. Noy. 20, Read
Nov. 27.)

Note préliminaire sur les éléments
existant dans le Soleil. (Read
Dec. 8.)

Sur la nature des éléments chi-
miques. Observations 4 propos
de la communication de M. Lock-
yer. (Read Dec. 8.)

Nouvelles remarques sur la nature
des éléments chimiques. (Read
Dec. 15.)

1874.
Ueber die Schwankungen in der
chemischen Wirkung des Sonnen-
spektrums und tiber einen Apparat

zur Messung derselben. (Jan. 5.
Read Jan. 12.)

On the Spectra of Boric and Phos-

phoric Acid Blowpipe Beads.

Zur Spectralanalyse gefiirbter Fliis-
sigkeiten und Gliser.

Nouvelles bandes surnuméraires pro-
duites dans les solutions de chloro-

phylle, sous JVinfluence d’agents
sulfurés, (Read Feb. 9.)
DD2

‘Pharm. J. Trans.’ [3] iv.
61-63.

‘ Ber.’ vi. 1212 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] xii. 285
(Abs.)

‘K. Svensk. Vetenskaps
Akad. Forhandlingar.’
xii. No. 4, 24 pp.; ‘ Bull.
Soe. Chim.’ [2] xxii. 350
(Abs.)

‘Ber.’ vi. 1302-1306 ;
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
cl. 453-459 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2] xii. 217 (Abs.) ;
‘Am. J.’ [3] vil. 140-
141; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [4]
xlvii. 273-277.

*C. RY lxxvii. 1152-1154 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xii.
217 (Abs.); ‘Ber,’ vi.
1418 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Trans.’ 1874, clxiv.
495-499; ‘Proc. Roy.
Soe.’ xxi. 507—508(Abs.);
‘Ber. vi. 1426 (Abs.) ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xii.
495 (Abs.); ‘ Phil. Mag.’
[4] xlvii. 311-312 (Abs.)

°C. R.’ bxxvii. 1347-1352 ;
‘Ber.’ vi. 1554-1555
(Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
[2] xii. 424-426 (Abs.)

€C, RY lxxvii. 1352-1357 ;

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xii.
426-497 (Abs.)

°C, RY lxxvii. 1399-1403.

‘Ber. vii. 88-92; ‘J.
Chem. Soe.’ [2] xii. 424
(Abs.); ‘Am. J.’ [3]
vil. 414-415 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ xxix. 66—
68 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2]
xii. 642-643 (Abs.)

‘J. pr. Chem.’ ix. 383-
384; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2]
xiii. 412-414 (Abs.)

°C. RJ Ixxviii. 414-416 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xii.
643-644 (Abs.)

404

E. Becquerel .

W. N. Hartley

J. Wiesner

H. Vogel.

P. Truchot

M. Carey Lea .

H. Vogel.

E. Becquerel

J. W. Draper .

H. W. Vogel

#, Filhol.

Pringsheim

J. Wiesner

A. Adamkiewicz

rerort—1881.
CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1874.

Observations sur un mémoire de M.
E. Marchand relatif 4 la mesure
de la force chimique contenu dans
la lumiére du soleil.

Preliminary Notice of Experiments
concerning the Chemical Constitu-
tion of Saline Solutions. (Recd.
Feb. 3. Read March 19.)

Welche Strahlen des Lichtes zer-
legen bei Sauerstoffzutritt das
Chlorophyll? (March 1874.)

Ueber die chemische Wirkung des
Sonnenspectrums auf Silberhaloid-
salze. (Read April 13.)

De la présence de la lithine dans le
sol de la Limagne et dans les eaux
minérales d'Auvergne. Dosage de
cet alcali au moyen du spectro-
scope. (Read April 13.)

On the Influence of Color upon Re-
duction by Light.

Ueber die Beziehung zwischen
chemischer Wirkunge des Sonnen-
spektrums, der Absorption und
anomalen Dispersion. (Read
July 13.)

Action des rayons différemment
réfrangible sur Viodure et le
bromure d'argent; influence des
matiéres colorantes. (Read July
27.)

Early Contributions to Spectrum
Photography and Photo-Chemistry.
(July 8.)

Ueber die chemische Wirkung des
Sonnenspectrums auf Silberhaloid-
salze.' (Aug. 1874.)

Note sur la chlorophylle.
Sept. 7.)

(Read

Ueber die Absorptionsspectra der
Chlorophyllfarbstoffe. (Read
Oct. 22.)

Notiz iiber die Strahlen des Lichtes,
welche das Xantophyll der Pflanze
zerlegen. (Noy. 1874.)

Farbenreactionen des
(Mar. 1874.)

Albumin.

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [4]
xxx. 572-573 ;‘ J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2] xii. 942-943
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxii.
241-243; ‘Chem. News,’
xxix. 148.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
elii. 496-503; ‘Chem.
Centr.-Blatt.’[3]v. 353
354 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2] xii. 999 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ vii. 545-550; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] xii. 756
(Abs.)

Oe TR lexvit. 102223
1024; ‘ Ber.’ vii. 653
(Abs.)

‘Am. J.’ [3] vii. 200-207.

‘Ber.’ vil. 976-979; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] xii.
1121-1122.

°C. RB. Ixxix. 185-190;
‘ J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xiii.
30 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ x. 243-244,

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.’
cliii. 218-250; ‘ J.Chem.
Soc.’ [2] xiii. 326 (Abs.)

°C. R. Ixxix. 612-614;
‘J. Pharm, et Chim.’ [4]
xx, 345-347 = ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2]. sai. 371-372
(Abs.)

‘Monatsb. Berl.
1874, 628-659.

Akad.’

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
cliii. 622-623.

‘Pfliiger’s Archiv f. Phy-
siol.” ix. 156-162; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] xiii. 172
(Abs.)

ON

F, Baumstark .

W. Stein .

”

A. Riche and C.

Bardy.
H. C. Sorby

” . .

M. Carey Lea . 3
A.W. Wright .

J. L. W. Thudichum

K, Vierordt . 6
H. Ballmann

Sir J. G. N. Alleyne

A. W. Wright .

. Biihrig 3

H.W. Vogel . ts

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 405
CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1874, 1875.
Zwei pathologische Harnfarbstoffe . | ‘ Pfltiger’s Archiv f. Phy-

siol.’ ix. 568-584; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ [2] xiii. 480

(Abs.)
Zur Spectralanalyse gefiirbter Fliis- | ‘J. pr..Chem.’ x. 368-384 ;
sigkeiten, Gliiser und Daimpfe. ‘J. Chem. Soe.’ [2] xiii.

412-414 (Abs.)

1875.

Ueber die Beziehungen zwischen|‘Monatsb. Berl. Akad.’
Lichtabsorption und Chemismus.| 1875, 82-83.
(Read Jan. 21.)

Ueber abnorme Wirkung mancher |‘ Ber.’ viii. 95-96.
Farbstofte auf die Lichtempfind-
lichkeit photographischer Platten.
‘Read Jan. 25.)

Ueber das Spectrum -der Sell’schen 3 Vili. 96-98.
Schwefelkohlenstoflampe. (Read
Jan. 25.)

De la flamme du soufre et des/‘C. R.’ Ixxx, 238-241;

diverses lumiéres utilisables en| ‘Ber. viii. 182-183
photographie. (Read Jan. 25.) (Abs.)

On the Chromatological Relations |‘ Quart. J. Mic. Sci.’ xv.
of Spongilla fluviatilis. 47-52.

On the Colouring Matter of Bonellia |‘ Quart. J. Mic, Sci.’ xv,
viridis. 166-172,

On the Action of the Less Refran- |‘ Am. J.’ [3] ix. 269-278 ;
gible Rays of Light on Silver] ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ 1876, i.
Iodide and Bromide. (Mar. 6.) 28 (Abs.)

Spectroscopic Examination of Gases |‘ Am. J.’ [3] ix. 294-302 ;
from Meteoric Iron. (Mar. 18.) ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ 1876, i.

27-28 (Abs.)

Further Researches on Bilirubin and |‘J. Chem. Soc.’ [2] xiii.
its Compounds. 389-403.

Die Anwendung der quantitativen |‘ Ann. d. Chem.’ clxxvii.
Spectralanalyse bei den Titrir-| 31-45; ‘Am. J.’ [3] x.
methoden. (March 1875.) 216-217 (Abs.)

Ueber quantitative Bestimmung des |‘ Zeitschr. Anal. Chem.’
Lithiums mit dem Spectral-Ap-| xiv. 297-301 ; ‘J. Chem.
parat. (April 15.) Soc.’ 1876, ii. 550 (Abs.)

On the Estimation of Small Quanti-|‘J. Iron and Steel Inst.
ties of Phosphorus in Iron and} 1875, 62-72.

Steel by Spectrum Analysis. (Read
May 6.) ‘

Preliminary Note on an Examination | ‘Am. J.’ [3] ix. 459-460 ;

of Gases of the Meteorite of Feb.| ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ 1876, i.

12. (May 22.) 352 (Abs.)
Das Absorptionsspectrum des Di-|‘J. pr. Chem.’ [2] xii.
dyms. (May 1875.) 209-215; ‘Am. J.’ [3]

xi. 142 (Abs.)

Photographische Spectralbeobach-|‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,
tungen im Rothen und Indischen| clvi. 319-325.
Meere. (July 1875.)

406

R. Weber

L. Liebermann

A. Greiner

Lecoq de Boisbaudran

C. Graebe and H.
Caro.

H. W. Vogel «

A. and G. de Negri .

8. L. Schenk

.

T. L. Phipson .

L. Liebermann

H. W. Vogel

Pringsheim

Lecoq de Boisbaudran

H. W. Vogel

i
|

REPORT—1881.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1875.

Ueber den Einfluss farbigen Lichtes
auf die Assimilation und die damit
zasammenhiingende Vermehrung
der Aschenbestandtheile in Erbsen-
Keimlingen.

Ueber Choletelin und Hydrobilirubin

Ueber phosphorhaltigen Stahl

Caractéres chimiques et spectro-
scopiques d’un nouveau métal, le
gallium, découvert dans une blende
de la mine de Pierrefitte, vallée

@Argelés (Pyrénées). (Read Sept.
20.)
Ueber Rosolsiiure. (Sept. 28)

Ueber die Absorptionsspectra ver-
schiedener Farbstofte, sowie iiber
die Anwendung derselben zur
Entdeckung von Verfilschungen.
(Sept. 17. Read Oct. 11.)

Nuovo metodo spettroscopico per
discoprire. nei miscugli gassosi e
nelle acque le pit piccole quantita
@un idrocarburo gassoso od almeno
molto volatile. (Oct. 11.)

Der griine Farbstoff von Bonellia
viridis. (Read Oct. 28.)

On Noctilucine, the Phosphorescent
Principle of Luminous Animals,

Untersuchungen iiber das Chloro-
phyll, den Blumenfarbstoff und
deren Beziehungen zum Blutfarb-
stoffe. (Read Noy. 18.)

Ueber die Absorptionsspectren eini-
ger Salze der Metalle der Hisen-
gruppe und ihre Anwendung in
der Analyse. (Read Nov. 22.)

Ueber natiirliche Chlorophyllmodi-
ficationen und die Farbstoffe der
Florideen. (Read Dee. 2.)

Sur quelques propriétés du gallium.
(Read Dec. 6.)

Ueber die chemische Wirkung des
Lichts auf reines und gefiirbtes
Bromsilber. (Recd. Dec. 15.)

|

.|fAnn. d. Chem.’

‘Landw. Versuchs-Stat.’

xviii. 18-48; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ [2] xiii. 1211-1215
(Abs.)

‘Pfliiger’s Arch. f. Physiol.’
xi. 181-190; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ 1876, i. 407-408
(Abs.)

-|‘ Dingl. J” cexvii. 33-41 ;

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ 1876, i.
454-457 (Abs.)

°C. R Ixxxi. 493-495;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [4] 1. 414—
416; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
1876,1.190(Abs.) ; ‘Am.
J.’ [3] xi. 320 (Abs.)

clxxix.
184-203 ; ‘ J. Chem. Soc.’
1876, i. 588-591.

‘Ber’ viii. 1246-1254;
‘Dingl. J. cexix. 73-81.

° Gazz. Chim. Ital.’ v. 438;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ 1876, ii.
659 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Wien. Akad.’
Ixxii. IT. 581-585.

‘Chem. News,’ xxxii. 220;
“J. Chem. Soe.’ 1876, i.
720 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Wien. Akad.’
Ibexdinn a pdo OL at
‘Chem. Centr.’ [3] vii.
615-616; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ 1877, ii. 208 (Abs.)

‘ Ber.’ vill. 1533-1540,

*Monatsb. Berl.
1875, 745-749.

Akad.’

«C. RY Ixxxi. 1100-1105 ;
‘Am. J” [3] xi. 320
(Abs.); ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5]
i, 173-176. ;

‘ Ber.’ viii. 1635-1636 ; «J.
Chem. Soc.’ 1876, i. 510
(Abs.) ; ‘Am. J.’ [3] xi.
215-216 (Abs.)

, ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS,

R. Sachsse a <

J. Waterhouse. °

Lecoq de Boisbaudran

H. ©.:Sorby- .

A. Dupré. °

W.deW. Abney .

E. Vogel. .

M. Carey Lea . :

H. W. Vogel

H. Struve - F.

W.deW. Abney .
J. Waterhouse. .

H. W. Vogel . é

H. C. Vogel and O.
Lohse.

C. Giinge. -

407

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1875, 1876.

Ueber die Bedeutung des Chloro-
phylls. (Read Dee. 17.)

1876.

On Reversed Photographs of the Solar
Spectrum beyond the Red, ob-
tained onaCollodion Plate. (Recd.
Nov. 29, 1875. Read Jan. 20, 1876.)

Sur le spectre du gallium. (Read

Jan. 10.)

On the Evolution of Hemoglobin .

The Detection of the Colouring
Matters of Logwood, Brazil-wood,
and Cochineal in Wine. (Jan. 26.)

Preliminary Note on Photographing
the Least Refracted Portion of the
Solar Spectrum. (Read March 10.)

The Relation between Spectral
Linesand Atomic Weights. (‘Scien-
tific American.’)

Notes on the Sensitiveness of Silver
Bromide to the Green Rays as
modified by the Presence of other
Substances. (Mar. 13.)

Ueber die spectralanalytische Re-
action auf Blut. (Mar. 1876. Read
April 24.)

Ueber das Vorkommen eines neuen,
das Absorptionsspectrum des Blutes
zeigenden Kérpers im thierischen
Organismus. (April 13. Recd.
April 24.)

| Photography of the Red and Ultra-

Red end of the Spectrum.

Photographic Action of Hosin. (‘ Pho-
tog. J.’ xvi. 135-136.)

Neue Beobachtungen tiber die Licht-
empfindlichkeit des Bromsilbers.
(April 1876. Read May 8.)

| Ueber die Photographie der weniger

brechbaren Theile des Sonnen-
spectrums. (May 18.)

. Zur Spectroskopie der Blutfarbstoffe.

(May 1876. Recd. June 1.)

‘Sitzungsb. Naturf.-Ges.
zu Leipzig.’ ii. 155-120 ;
‘Chem. Centr.’ [3] vii.
550-552; ‘J. Chem.
Soc’ 1877, ii. 208-209
(Abs.)

‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxiv
186-189.

COB! box 168 3,“ Phil
Mag.’ [5] i. 176; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ 1876, 1.
882 (Abs.); ‘Ber.’ ix.
348 (Abs.) ; ‘Am. J.’ [3]
xi. 320 (Abs.)

‘Quart. J. Mic. Sci.’ xvi.
76-85.

§ Analyst,’ i. 26; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ 1877, i. 234 (Abs.}

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
xxxvi. 276-277; ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [5] i. 414-415.

‘Pharm. J. Trans.’ [3] vi.
464-465.°

‘Am. J. [3] xi. 459-464;
«J. Chem. Soe.’ 1877, i.
266 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ ix. 587-589.

‘Ber.’ ix. 623-627.

‘Nature,’ xiii. 432.

«J. Chem. Soc.’ 1876, il.
232 (Abs.)

‘Ber: ix: 667-670; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ 1876, ii.
265 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
clix. 297-301.

‘J.
ii.

ix. 833-835 ;
1876,

‘ Ber.’
Chem. Soc.’
646 (Abs.)

408

J. L. W. Thudichum
and C. T. Kingzett.

M. Carey Lea . .
W. Gilmour .

Hae Viorel, °

J. Waterhouse. .

H. W. Vogel . .

F. von Lepel

H. W. Vogel . .

F¥. von Lepel .

H. Senier 2

Lecoq de Boisbaudran
A. H. Church . 3

P. Cazeneuve .

G. Chancel =

H.W. Vogel . ‘

REPORT-—1881.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1876, 1877.

On Hemine, Hematine, and a Phos-
phorised Substance contained in
Blood Corpuscles.

Dr. Vogel’s Color Theory

The Spectroscope applied to the
Detection of Adulteration, &c., of
Fixed Oils.

Zur Spectroscopie der Blutfarbstoffe.
(Sept. 1876. Read Oct. 23.)

Ueber eine empfindliche spectral-
analytische Reaction auf Thonerde
und Magnesia. (Oct. 1876. Read
Noy. 13.)

Ueberden Hinfluss des Eosins auf die
photographische Wirkung des Son-
nenspectrums auf das Silberbro-
mid und Silberbromojodid. (‘ Proc.
Asiatic Soc. Bengal.’)

Untersuchungen tiber Weinfiilsch-
ungen. (Dec. 1876. Recd. Dec. 9. )

Beitrag zur Kenntniss der spectral-
analytischen Reaction auf Magnesia-
salze. (Dec. 1876. Read Dec. 11.)

1877.
Ueber die Purpurin - Thonerde -
Magnesiareaction. (Jan. 1877.

Read Jan. 15.)

Ueber den Nachweis der Magnesia
mit MHiilfe des Spectroskopes.
(Jan. 1877. Recd. Jan. 30,)

The Colouring Matter of the Petals
of Rosa Gallica. (Read Feb. 7.)

Sur un nouyeau métal, le gallium
Spectrum of Colein .

Action de Vhydrosulphite de soude
sur ’hématine du sang (hématine
réduite.) (Read Feb. 16.)

Recherche et détermination des
principales matiéres colorantes
employées pour falsifier les vins.
(Read Feb. 19.)

Spectralanalytische Notizen. Ab-
sorptionsspectrum des Granats
und des Rubins. Zur Purpurin-
magnesiareaction. Erkennung von
Thonerde neben Hisensalzen.
(Feb. 1877. Read Feb. 26.)

oe fe Chem.
255-264.

Soc.’ 1876, ii.

.|¢Am. J.’ [3] xii. 48-50.

‘Pharm. J. Trans,’ [3] vi.
981-982 ; vii. 22-23

‘ Ber.’ ix. 1472-1473.

‘Ber.’ ix. 1641-1646 ; ‘J.
Chem. Soe.’ 1877, i. 742
(Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,’ i.
240-242 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
clix. 616-622.

* Ber’ ix. 1906-1911.

‘Ber.’ ix. 1845-1849; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ 1877, i. 676
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ i.
240-242 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ x. 157-159; “Bei-
blitter,’i, 240-242 ( Abs.)

* Ber.’ x. 159-165; * Bei-
blitter,’i. 240-242 (Abs.)

‘Pharm. J. Trans.’ [3] vii.
650-652; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
1877, ii. 502 (Abs.)

.| ‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [5]

x. 100-141.

a/c Chem? Soc s 7m
260.
‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [2]
XXviil, 258-260; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ 1877, ii.
346 (Abs.)

°C. R.’ lxxxiv. 348-351 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ 1877, ii.
371-372 (Abs.)

“Ber: x!“ SiSaonpne de
Chem. Soc.’ 1877, ii. 269
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ i.
242 (Abs.)

M. Carey Lea .

H. W. Vogel

” ‘4

L. Liebermann

A. Jiiderholm .

C. Timiriazeff .

M. Wiskemann

M. C. Lea 3

P. Chastaing

8. Kern , .
pals :
a ;
G. Lemoine

J. H. Gladstone
H. W. Vogel .

L. Dieulafait .

C. Timiriazeff .

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1877.

On the Sensitiveness to Light of
various Salts of Silver. (Mar. 22.

Ueber die Lichtempfindlichkeit des
Purpurins. (April9. Read April 9.)

Ueber die Nachweisung von Kohlen-
oxydgas. (April 1877. Read April
23.)

Nachweis.von.Fuchsin im Weine.
(Reed. April 28.)

Untersuchungen tiber den Blutfarb-
stoff und seine Derivate.

Sur la décomposition de l’acide car-
bonique dans le spectre solaire
par les parties vertes des végétaux.
(Read May 28.)

Spectralanalytische Bestimmung des
Hiimoglobingehaltes des mensch-
lichen Blutes.

On the Theory of the Action of

certain Organic Substances in
increasihg the Sensitiveness of
Silver Haloids. (June 26.)

Etude sur la part de la lumiére dans
les actions chimiques et en parti-
culier dans les oxydations.

On some New Researches on the
Metal Davyum.

On the Spectrum of the Metal
Davyum.

Davyum .

Action de la lumiére sur l’acide
iodhydrique. (Read July 16.)

On some Points connected with the
Chemical Constituents of the Solar
System.

Chastaing’s neue Theorie der che-
mischen Wirkung des Lichts. (Oct.
1877. Read Oct. 15.)

L’acide borique

Recherches sur la décomposition de
Vacide carbonique dans le spectre
solaire par les parties vertes des
végétaux (extrait d’un ouvrage
‘Sur l’assimilation de la lumiére
par les végétaux.’ §. Pétersbourg,
1875.)

.|*Ann.

409

‘Am. J.’ [3] xiii. 369-371;
‘J. Chent. Soc.’ 1877, ii.
690 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitt er,’
i. 405 (Abs.)

Ber.” x." 692;
blitter,’i.2

‘Ber.’ x. 792-

it
bo
om
iis}
fe
aa
lon
77)
VY

“1
©.
or

‘Ber.’ x. 866; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ 1877, li. 939 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Biol. xiii.
193-255; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
XXxiv. 236-237 (Abs.)

°C. RY Ixxyiv. 1236-1239 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ 1877, ii.
635-636 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Biol.’ xii.
434-447 ;* J.Chem. Soc.’
1877, ii. SO8—809.

‘Am. J.’ [3] xiv. 96-99 ;
‘Beiblatter, i. 563
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [5]
xi. 145-223 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’. 1877, ii. 818 (Abs.)
‘ Beibliitter,’ i. 517-520
(Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ xxxvi. 114.
aa xvi. 155.

a Xxxvi. 164 ;
‘ Beibliitter,’ i. 619.
ei@, Re Jzxxy. 144-1473
‘Beibliitter,’i. 510 (Abs.)
‘Phil. Mag. [5] iv. 379-
385; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxiv. 189 (Abs.)

Ren exe 1638-1644 ;
‘ Beibliitter, i. 681-682
(Abs.)

Chim. et Phys.’
(5] xii. 318-354; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xxxiv. 11-
12 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [5]
xii. 355-396.

410

F. von Lepel

G. Govl .

A. Rosenstiehl

G. Hiifner

Sergius Kern

Mascart .

E. Briicke

K. Vierordt

R. Sachsse

C. Bardy

T. Bayley

Dufet .

W. de W. Abney

J. L. Soret

+|

REPORT—1881.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1877, 1878.

Notiz.
Reed. Oct. 29.)

Spectralanalytische

(Oct.
1877.

De la loi d’absorption des radia-
tions 4 travers les corps, et de son
emploi dans l’analyse spectrale

quantitative. (Read Dec. 3 and
Dec. 10.)
L’alizarine nitrée . . .

1878.

Ueber quantitative Spectralanalyse |
und ein neues Spectrophotometer.

Dayvyum. (‘La Nature’) .

Sur la réfraction des gaz et des
vapeurs. (Read Feb. 4.)

Sur la réfraction des gaz . .

Ueber das Absorptionsspektrum des
iibermangansauren Kalis und seine
Benutzung bei chemisch-analy-
tischen Arbeiten.

Zur quantitativen Spectralanalyse.
(Feb. 18.)

Ueber eine neue Reaction des Chlo-
rophylls.

| mnische Farbe.

On the Colour Relations of Copper
and its Salts.

Sur la variation des indices de ré-
fraction dans les mélanges de sels
isomorphes. (Read April 8.)

The Acceleration of Oxidation
caused by the Least Refrangible
End of the Spectrum (Preliminary
Note). (Recd. March 16. Read
April 11.)

Photography at the Least Refran-
gible End of the Solar Spectrum. |
(Read April 12.)

Sur les spectres ultra-violets des |
terres de la gadolinite. (Read
April 29.) |

© Ber, x, USTomisine ee
Chem. Soc.’ xxxiv. 168
(Abs.)

°C. R’ lxxxv. 1046-1049,
1100-1103 ; ‘ Phil. Mag.’
[5] v. 78-80; ‘J. Chem.
Soc. exxave, L90=19i1
(Abs.) ; * Beiblatter,’ ii.
342-343 (Abs.)

.|¢ Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [5]

xii. 519-529 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc” xxxiv, 231-232
(Abs.)

‘ J. pr. Chem.’ [2] xvi. 290-
313; ‘Zeitschr. Anal.
Chem. xviii. 451-457
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ ii.
151-152 (Abs.)

.|‘ Nature,’ xvil. 245-246.

°C. RY lxxxvi. 321-323.

.|*Ann. de Vécole norm.’

[2] vi. 9-78; ‘ Beiblit-
ter,’ 1. 257-270.
‘Chem. Centr.’ [3] viii.
139-143; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxiv. 242-243 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. iii. 357-376.

‘Chem. Centr.’ [3] ix.
121-125; ‘J. Chem. Soe.’
xxxiv. 516 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Centr.’ [3] ix.
109; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxiv. 613 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] v. 222—
224.

°C. R’” Ixxxvi. 881-884 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxiv.
631-632.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxvii.

291-292; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ xxxviii. 429-430
(Abs.)

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc.’
XXXVili. 348-3515; ‘Phil.
Mag.’ [5] vi. 164-157.

°C. BR.’ lxxxvi. 1062-1064 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxiv.
629 (Abs.); ‘Beiblitter,’
ii. 410-411 (Abs.)

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

Mascart . . .

W.deW.Abney .

T. Bayley

e .
J. Lawr. Smith F

F.v. Lepel . .
G. Francis Fy .

W.de W. Abney .

D. Tommasi .

C. Liebermann and
K. Boeck,

M. Delafontaine .

C. Marignac , .

M. Delafontaine

H. Burger ° .

C. Marignac . F

M. Delafontaine ,

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1878.

Sur la réfraction des corps orga-
niques considérés 4 Vétat gazeux.
(Read May 13.)

On the Acceleration of Oxidation |

by the Least Refrangible End
of the Spectrum. Note II. (Recd.
June 8. Read June 20.)

On the Analysis of Alloys contain-
ing Copper, Zinc, and Nickel.

Le Mosandrum ; un nouvel élément.
(Read July 22.)

Zur Weinverfiilschung. (July 21).

A Poisonous Australian Lake. (Feb.
ATS

Physics in Photography . .

Azione dei raggi solari sui composti
aloidi Wargento, (Read July 25.)

Ueber Anthracendisulfosiure und
deren Umwandlung in Anthrarufin.
(Recd. Aug. 17.)

Sur un nouveau métal, le philip-
pium. (Read Oct. 14.)

Sur l’ytterbine, nouvelle terre con-
tenue dans la gadolinite. (Read
Oct. 22.)

Sur le Mosandrum de M. Lawrence
Smith. (Read Oct. 22.)

Spectroskopische Untersuchungen
uber die Constitution von Lésun-
gen. (Oct. 21. Read Oct. 28.)

Sur les terres de la gadolinite

Sur le décipium, métal nouveau de
la samarskite. (Read Oct. 28.)

.| ‘Nature,’

411

°C. R. Ixxxvi. 1182-1185 ;

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxiv.
693 (Abs.)

‘Proc, Roy. Soc.’ xxvii.
451-452; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ xxxviii. 429-430
(Abs.)

‘Phil. »Mag.’ [5] vi. 14—
19

°C. R.’ Ixxxvii. 148-151.

‘ Ber.’ xi. 1552-1556.

‘Nature,’ ‘xviii. 11-12;
‘Pharm. J. Trans.’ [3]
vill. 1047-1048; ‘J.

Chem. Soc.’ xxxiv. 907
(Abs.)

xvili. 489-491,
528-531, 543-546.

‘Rend. del R. Ist. Lomb.’

<b) Oo2-658 so bele
bliatter,’ iii. 621-622
(Abs.)

‘Ber? xa ols 16s) sae
Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi. 257—
259 (Abs.)

°C. R.’ Ixxxvii. 559-561 ;
‘Am, J.’ [3] xvii. 61
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxvi. 116-117 (Abs.);
‘Beiblatter,’ iii. 197—
198 (Abs.)

°C. RY Ixxxvii. 578-581;
‘Am. J.’ [8] xvii. 62-
63 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.

Soc.) xxmyi 18-019
(Abs.)

°C. R.’ Ixxxvii. 600-602 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi.
117 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xi. 1876-1878; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi. 101
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [5]
xiv. 247-258; ‘J. Chem.
Soc. xxxvi. 113-114
(Abs.)

SC Rag ixxxvil. 632—
634; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Xxxvi. 117-118 (Abs.) ;
‘Am. J.’ [3] xvii. 61-62
(Abs.) ; § Beibliitter,’ ii.
197-198 (Abs.)

412

M. Delafontaine

J. N. Lockyer .
Rebert .
W.G. Brown .
Boones.)

A. Cossa .

¥. Hoppe-Seyler

Lecoq de Boisbau-
dran.

C,H Wolt .

J. Petri

G. Hiifner

CMCros -

K. Becquerel
J. L. Soret

A. P, Smith

REPORT—1881.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1878, 1879.

Le didyme de la cérite est probable-
ment un mélange de_ plusieurs
corps. (Read Oct. 28.)

Note préliminaire sur la nature com-
posée des éléments chimiques.
(Read Nov. 4.)

Sur la région du spectre solaire in-
dispensable & la vie végétaie.
(Read Nov. 4.)

Philippium. (Novy. 14)

Del influence de différentes couleurs
du spectre sur le développement
des animaux. (Read Dec. 16.)

Sulla diffusione del Cerio, del Lan-
tano e del Didimio.

1879.
Kinfacher Versuch zur Demonstra-
tion der Sauerstoffausscheidung
durch Pflanzen im Sonnenlichte.

Le didyme de la samarskite différe-
t-il de celui de la cérite? (Read
Feb. 17.)

Quantitative Spectralanalyse .

Ueber den Nachweis von Mutterkorn
im Mehle auf spectroskopischem
Wege. (Jan. 1879.)

Ueber die Bestimmung des Hiimo-
globin- und Sauerstoffgehaltes im
Blute. (Dec. 5, 1878.)

The Dissociation of the Elements.

De Vaction des différentes Iumiéres
colorées sur une couche de bromure
dargent imprégnée de diverses
matiéres colorantes organiques.
(Read Feb. 24.)

(Read Feb. 24) .

Sur les spectres d’absorption du
didyme et de quelques autres sub-
stances extraites de la samarskite.
(Read March 3.)

Blue Flame from Common Salt.
(March 15.)

Remarques.

°C. RY Ixxxvii. 634-635 ;
‘J.-Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi.
119 (Abs.) ;‘ Beiblitter,’
iii. 197-198 (Abs.)

°C. R.’ lxxxvii. 673.

°C. R.’ Ixxxvil. 695-697;
‘J.-Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi.
336 (Abs.)

.|*Chem. News,’ xxxviii.

267-268; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ xxxvi. 204 (Abs.)

le RY IXxxvil. 998-1000.

‘R. Acc. d, Lincei’ [3] iii.
17-34; ‘ Beiblitter,’ iv.
43-44 (Abs. )

‘Zeitschr. f. Physiol.
Chem.’ ii. 425-426;
© Bern) sae 701702

(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxvi. 819 (Abs.)

°C. Rl Iseexyall, 322
‘Beiblitter,’ ili, 358
(Abs.)

.|*Zeitschr. Anal. Chem.’
Xviii. 38-49.

‘ Zeitschr. f. Ann. Chem.’
xvii, 2INESIZ0s* seers
Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi. 977~
979 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Physiol.

Chem.’ iii, 1-18; ‘ Ber.’
sil. 702 (GAbs); <a
Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi. 835
(Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ xxxix. 65-
66.

°C. RY lxxxviil; 379-381 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi.
504-505 (Abs.)

.| °C. R.’ ixxxviii. 381-382.

», Ixxxvili, 422-424.

“Nature,” | *xaix 483 ;
‘Chem. News,’ xxxix.
141; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxvi. 497-498 (Abs.)

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

L. F. Nilson .

J. H. Gladstone

A.P. Smith .

A. Rosenstiehl :

Lecoq de Boisbau-
dran.

H. Settegast

G. Fraude

Lecoq de Boisbau-
dran,

P. T. Cléve

L. Smith

W. Thorner

J. N. Lockyer .

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1879.

Ueber die Ytterbinerde. (March 12.
Read March 24.)

Om Scandium, en ny jordmetall.
(Ueber Scandium, ein neues Erd-
metall). (March12. Read March
24.)

Sur l’ytterbine, terre nouvelle de M.
Marignac. (March 12. Read
March 24.)

Sur le scandium, élément nouveau.
(Read March 24.)

Blue Flame from Common
(April 10.)

Blue Flame from Common Salt.
(April 26.)

Sur les spectres de l’alizarine et de
quelques matiéres colorantes qui
en dérivent. (Read June 9.)

Salt.

Examen spectral de l’erbine. (Read
June 30.)

Beitraége zur quantitativen Spectral-
analyse.

Ueberchlorsiiure, ein neues Reagens
auf Alkaloide. (Recd. July 23.
Read July 28.)

Recherches sur le samarium, radical
@une terre nouvelle extraite de la
samarskite. (Read July 28.)

Sur deux nouveaux éléments dans
Yerbine. (Read Sept. 1.)

Remarques

Ueber den im Ag. atrotomentosus
vorkommenden chinonartigen Kér-
per. (Recd. Aug. 11.)

Expériences tendant 4 démontrer

la nature composée du phosphore.

(Read Sept. 15.)

413

“Ber.” xis b50=bb38; 65
Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi. 601
(Abs.)

‘ Oefversigt af k. Vetens-
kaps Acad. Férhandlin-
gar.’ xxxvi. III, 45-51;
‘Ber.’ xii. 554-557 ; ‘J.
Chem. Soc,’ xxxvi. 601
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblitter,’ iv.
42 (Abs.

°C. R.’ Ixxxviii. 642-645 ;
‘Am. J.’ [3] xvii, 478-
479 (Abs.)

°C. RY Ixxxviii. 645-648 ;
‘Beiblitter, iii. 359
(Abs.); ¢ Am. J.’ [3] xvii.
478-479 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xix. 582.
A ED;

CIGh eae iberorgiatiis Mili ke ile
1196; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxvl. 807 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblatter,’ iii. 792--
793 (Abs.); ‘Ber.’ xii.
2080-2081 (Abs.)

°C. RB. Ixxxviii. 1342-
1344; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxxvi. 861 (Abs.) ; ‘Am.
J. [3] xviii. 216-217;

‘Beibliatter, iii. 871
(Abs.)
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

N.F. vil. 242-271; *J.
Chem. Soc.’ xxxvi. 828-
829 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xii. 1558-1560.

‘Cc, R. Ixxxix., 212-214;
‘Ber, xii. 2160 (Abs.) ;
‘Beiblatter,’ iii. 872
(Abs.)

‘CO, RY Ixxxix. 478-480 ;
‘Am. J.’ [3] xviii. 400-
401; ‘ Beibliitter,’ iv. 43
(Abs.)

.|°C. RJ lxxxix. 480-481;

‘ Beibliitter,’ iv. 43 (Abs.)
‘Ber,’ xii. 1630-1635.

°C. RK. Ixxxix, 514—516 ;
‘Beiblitter, iv. 132
(Abs.)

414

Lecoq de Boisbau-
dran.

J. L. Soret - 7

P. T. Cléve 3 ,
JeaWiecbrubl. , =]

GC. von Noorden -

G. D. Liveing and

J. Dewar.

Ee WeMVOPelans .

B. Nickels r .

M. Delafontaine .

C. A. MacMunn r

J, L. W. Thudichum

REPORT—1881.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1879, 1880.

| Recherches sur J’erbine.

| (Read
Sept. 15.)

|Sur le spectre des terres faisant |
| partie du groupedelyttria. (Read
| Sept. 15.)

| Sur Verbine. (Read Oct. 27) . .

Die chemische Constitution orga-
nischer K6rper in Beziehung zu
deren Dichte und ihrem Vermégen
das Licht fortzupflanzen. Part I.
(Oct. 1879.)

Die Beziehungen zwischen den phy-
sikalischen Higenschaften or-
ganischer Korper und ihrer che-
mischen Constitution. (Nov. 1879.)

Beitrige zur quantitativen Spectral-
analyse, insbesondere zu derjeni-
gen des Blutes. (Noy. 1879.)

Quantitative Spectroscopic Experi- |
ments. (Recd. Nov. 27. Read
Dec. 11.)

Spectroskopische Notizen. Die
Wasserstoffamme in der Spec-
tralanalyse. Ueber die Erken-
nung des Kobalts neben Hisen und
Nickel. (Dec. 15.)

1880.

On the Use of the Spectroscope in
discriminating Anthracens.

Remarques sur les métaux nouveaux
de la gadolinite et dela samarskite.
(Read Feb. 2.)

Sur le décipium et ses principaux
composés. (Feb, 14.)

Researches into the Colouring Matters
of Human Urine, with an Account
of the Separation of Urobilin.
(Recd. Mar. 6. Read Mar. 18.)

On the Modifications of the Spec-
trum of Potassium which are
Effected by the Presence of Phos-
phoric Acid, and on the Inorganic
Bases and Salts which are found
in Combination with Educts of
the Brain. (Recd. Mar. 10. Read
Mar. 18.)

“C., R.”, xxx pl6=pil'ts
‘ Beibliitter,’ iv. 43
(Abs.)

AGH di dbeowe, SPIE YRIE
‘Ber.’ xii, 2267-2268;
‘J. Chem. Soe.’ xxxviii.
7 (Abs.); ‘ Beiblitter,’
iv. 43 (Abs.)

°C. RB.’ Ixxxix. 708-709.

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
cc. 139-231; «J. Chem.
Soc” xxxvili. 295-297
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ iv.
776-786 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xii. 2135-2148, xiii.
1119-1130, 1520-1535 ;
‘J. Chem Soc.’ xxxvili.
293-295 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-

blitter,’ iv. 776-786
(Abs.)
‘Zeitschr. f. Physiol.

Chem.’ iv. 9-35; ° Ber.’
xiii. 439 (Abs.)

*Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxix.
482-489; ‘ Beiblatter,’
iv. 367 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xii. 231/3-2316;
‘Beiblitter,’ iv. 278
(Abs.), v. 118 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ xli. 52, 95—
97; § Ber] Rea 829
(Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
XxXxvili. 757 (Abs.)

°C. R.’ xe. 221-223.

‘Arch. de Genéve’ [3]
iii. 250-260; ‘ Beiblit-
ter,’ iv. 549 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxxi.
26-36, xxx. 250-252
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ v.
47 (Abs.); ‘Ber.’ xiv.
1212-1214 (Abs.)

‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxx. 278—
286.

J. W. Brihl ,

F.y. Lepel .

J. W. Brihl .

C. Marignac .

B. Radziszewski

L. Calderon.

ev. brihl .

R. Thalén, ..

W. R. Dunstan

A. Fock . -

G. Hiifner a

W. Voigt

R. Thalén .

ON

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1880.

| Die chemische Constitution orga- |

nischer Kérper in Beziehung zu
deren Dichte und ihrem Vermédgen
das Licht fortzupflanzen. Part II.
(Mar. 1880.)

Der Alkannafarbstoff, ein neues
Reagens auf Magnesiumsalze. (Mar.
1880.)

| Pflanzenfarbstoffe als Reagentien
auf Magnesiumsalze. (Mar. 1880.)

Colouring Matter of Pentacrinus .

Die chemische Constitution orga-
nischer Ko6rper in Beziehung zu
deren Dichte und ihrem Vermégen
das Licht fortzupflanzen. Part
III. (April 1880.)

Sur les terres de la samarskite.
(Read April 19.)

Ueber die Phosphorescenz der orga-
nischen und organisirten Kdérper.
(April 1880.)

Ueber die optischen Higenschaften
der Zinkblende von Santander.

Die chemische Constitution orga-
nischer K6rper in Beziehung zu
deren Dichte und ihrem Vermégen
das Licht fortzupflanzen. Nachtrag.
(June 1880.)

Sur les raies brillantes spectrales
du métal scandium. (Read July 5.)

The Relation between the Chemical
Constitution of certain Organic
Compounds and their Action upon
the Ultra-violet Rays. (July 8.)

Ueber die Aenderung der Brechungs-
exponenten isomorpher Mischun-
gen, mit deren chemischer Zusam-
mensetzung.

Untersuchungen zur physikalischen
Chemie des Blutes. (July 1880.)

Ueber den Einfluss einer Kriimmung
der Prismenfliichen auf die Mes-
sungen von Brechungsindices und
liber die Beobachtungen des Herrn
Calderon an der Zinkblende. (July
1880.)

Sur les spectres de Vytterbium et de
Verbium. (Read Aug. 9.)

4]

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
cecil. 1-68; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ xxxviii.; 781-783
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ iv.
776-786 (Abs.)

‘ Ber.’ xiii. 763-766.

‘Ber.’ xiii. 766-768 ; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ xl. 63
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xxi. 593.

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’

ccili. 255-285; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ iv. . 776-786
(Abs.)

‘C. R.’ xc. 899-903.

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
ccili. 305-336; * Bei-
blatter,’ iv. 620 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Kryst. uw.
Mineral.’ iv. 504-517;
‘ Beiblitter,’ v. 361-362
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
ccili. 363-368 ; ‘ Beiblit-
ter,’ iv. 776-786 (Abs.)

SC, Reexer, 45-48)" <3,
Chem. Soe.’ xxxvili. 685
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ iv.
787-789 (Abs.)

‘Pharm. J. Trans.’ [3] xi,
54-56.

‘Zeitschr. f. Kryst. u.
Mineral.’ iv. 583-608 ;
‘ Beiblatter,’ iv. 662-664

‘ (Abs.)

‘J. pr. Chem.’ [2] xxii.
362-388 ; ‘J.Chem. Soe.’
xl. 111-113 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Kryst. u.
Mineral.’ v. 113-130;
‘ Beiblatter, v. 361-362
(Abs.)

Gen) REE. xci.
* Beiblatter,’
(Abs.)

326-328;
v. 122

416

R. Thalén

A. Dupré

E. Schunk

C. Wesendonck

H. Morton

W. de W. Abney

W. N. Hartley

J. H. Gladstone

REPORT—188]1.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1880, 1881.

Examen spectrale duthulium. (Read
Aug. 16.)

The Detection of Foreign Colouring
Matters in Wine.

Note on the Purple of the Ancients

Ueber Spectra der Kohlenstoffver-
bindungen. (Reed. Aug. 20. Read
Oct. 18.)

Displacement of the Absorption
Bands of Purpurin in Solutions of
Alum.

On the Reversal of the Developed
Photographic Image.

An Examination of Terpenes for
Cymene by means of the Ultra-
violet Spectrum.

Specific Refraction and Dispersion of
Isomeric Bodies. (Read Nov. 27.)

Lecoq de Boisbaudran| Réaction spectrale du chlore et du

C, A. MacMunn ‘

T. Bayley .

R. Meldola -
P. Hautefeuille and
J. Chappuis.

S. Wleiigel

J. H. Gladstone

brome. (Read Dec. 6.)

Further Researches into the Colour-
ing matters of Human Urine, with
an Account of their Artificial Pro-
duction from Bilirubin and from
Hematin. (Recd. Nov.10. Read
Dec. 16.)

On the Colour Properties and Rela-
tions of the Metals Copper, Nickel,
Cobalt, Iron, Manganese, and
Chromium,

1881.

| Ona New Class of Colouring Matters |
“from the Phenols.

De la recherche des composés gazeux
| et de l’étude de quelques-unes de
leurs propriétés 4 l'aide du spectro- |

scope. (Read Jan. 10.)

Zur spectralanalytischen Hrmitte-
lung des Indiums. (‘ Corr.-Bl. d.
Ver. analyt. Chemiker,’ iii. 39.)

. |The Refraction Equivalents of Car-

| bon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,and Nitro-
| gen in Organic Compounds. (Recd.
Jan. 4. Read Jan. 27.)

°C. Re melsase-s1enne dl
Chem. Soc.’ xl. 349-350
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblitter,’ iv.
789 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxvii.
big=biol; ° Bern, Sa,
2004-2005 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxvii.
613-617.
‘Monatsb. Berl. Akad,’

1880, 791-794.

‘Chem. News,’ xlii. 207
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xl. 488 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] x. 200-
208.

‘J. Chem. Soc.’
676-678.

XXXVil.

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ iv. 94—
100; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] xi.
54-60; ‘Ber.’ xiv. 835
(Abs.); * J. Chem. Soc.’
xl. 213-214 (Abs.);;
‘Beiblitter,’ v. 276-278
(Abs.)

SC. “R? ‘set 902-903
‘ Beiblatter, v. 118
(Abs.) ; ‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5]
le Me

‘Proc. Roy. Sees sxx
206-237; «J. Chem.
Soc. xl. 1056-1058

(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ v-
281 (Abs.); ‘ Ber.’ xiv.
1212-1214 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxvii.
828-836.

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxix. 37—
40.

©C: RB.’ <xeisi80=82)*\ sedi;
Chem. Soc.’ xl. 221-222
(Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,’ v.
317 (Abs.) :

‘Zeitsch. —. Anal. Chem.’
xx. 115 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ v. 281 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxxi.
827-3300 eaben: - xy.
1553-1554 (Abs.)

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS,

417

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1881—THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1871.

J.Macagno .

W. de W. Abney and
R. Festing.

W.N. Hartley .

W. J. Russell and W.
Lapraik.

H. W. Vogel

T. Bayley . .

J. Kannonikow

C. Wesendonck

G. J. Stoney . -

G. J. Stoney and
J. Emerson Rey-
nolds.

J. L. Soret F

1881.

Lo Spettroscopio applicato alla
ricerca dei colori di anilina intro-
dotti nei vini rossi per sofisticazione.
(Feb. 15.)

On the Influence of the Molecular
Grouping in Organic Bodies on
their Absorption in the Infra-Red
Region of the Spectrum. (Recd.
Feb. 5. Read Feb. 10.)

On the Absorption of Solar Rays by
Atmospheric Ozone. Part I.

Researches on the Relation between
the Molecular Structure of Carbon
Compounds and their Absorption
Spectra.

On Absorption-bands in the Visible
Spectrum produced by certain
_ Colourless Liquids.

Ueber die Empfindlichkeit trockner
Bromsilberplatten gegen das Son-
nenspecktrum. (Read April 25.)

On the Colour Properties and Colour
Relations of the Metals of the Iron-
Copper Group.

Zur Frage tiber den Hinfluss der
Struktur auf das Lichtbrechungs-
verm6gen organischer Verbindun-
gen. (‘ J. russ. physiol.-chem. Ges.’
1881, 268.)

Note on the Spectrum of Carbonic
Acid. (Recd. May 16. Read June
16.)

THEORETICAL PAPERS,

1871.

On the Cause of the Interrupted
Spectra of Gases. (Read Jan. 9.)

An Inquiry into the Cause of the
Interrupted Spectra of Gases.
Part Il. On the Absorption Spec-
trum of Chlorochromic Anhydride.

- | Observation sur la note précédente.

‘Mem. Spettr. ital.’ 1881,
35-40 ; ‘ Ber.’ xiv. 1584
(Abs.)

SProc: Roy. (Sac); xx,
416-417 (Abs.) ; Chem.
News,’ xliii. 75 (Abs.) ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xl. 487—
488 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’

v. 506 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc. xxxix.
TEAS sehen. ocive
1390 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxix,
153-168.

“J,, Chem. , Soc.’, xxxix.

168-173; ‘Am. J, [3]
xxi. 500-501 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xiv. 1024-1028;
‘Beiblitter, v. 521
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xl. 773 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxxix.
362-370.
‘Ber.’ xiv. 1697-1700
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxxii.
380-382 ; ‘Chem. News,’
xliv. 42-43; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ xl. 861-862 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Irish Acad.’
i. 107-112 (Abs.); ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [4] xli. 291-296;
‘ Ann.Chim. et Phys.’ [4]
XXvV1. 265-266 (Abs.)

‘Roy. Irish Acad.’ June
12; ‘ Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlii.
41-52; ‘Ann. Chim. et
Phys.’ [4] xxvi. 266-
268 (Abs.) ‘Arch. de
Genéve,’ xlii, 80-82
(Abs.)

‘Arch. de. Genéve,’ xlii.
82-84 ; ‘ Phil. Mag.’ xlii.
464-465 ; ‘Ann. Chim.
et Phys.’ [4] xxvi, 269.

418

Gimeliy. |.

W, Sellmeier .

J. Herschel .

C. A. Young .
Ditscheiner

J. Silbermann.

Faye - .

O. EH. Meyer .

Hon. J. W. Strutt

Tacchini .
Faye : ‘
J. Herschel .
Faye c .
45 . .
Faye - ‘

REPORT—1881.

THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1871-1873.
Corrections to the Computed Lengths , ‘ Phil. Trans.’ 1872, exlii.

of Waves of Light, published in
the ‘Philosophical Transactions’
of the year 1868. (Recd. Oct. 2.
Read Noy. 16.)

Ueber die durch die Aetherschwin-
gungen erregten Mitschwingungen
der K6rpertheilchen und deren
Riickwirkung auf die erstern,
besonders zur Erkliirung der Dis-
persion und ihrer Anomalien.

1872.
Spectroscopic Nomenclature.
19.)

Ditto.

(Mar.

(May 16) .

| On the Wave-lengths of Fraunhofer’s

Lines.

Mémoire sur des faits dont on peut
déduire: 1° une théorie des
aurores boréales et australes, fondée
sur l’existence de marées atmo-
sphériques ; 2° l’indication, a l'aide
des aurores, de l’existence d’essaims
détoiles filantes 4 proximité du
globe terrestre. (Read Feb. 19
and 26.)

Note sur l’association nouvellement
fondée en Italie sous le titre de
‘Societ’ dei Spettroscopisti Ita-
liani.’ (Read April 1.)

Versuch einer Erkliirung der anoma-
len Farbenzerstreuung. (Christ-
mas, 1871.)

On the Reflection and Refraction of |
Light by intensely Opaque Matter.
(April 5.)

Lettre 4 M. Faye a propos de sa
Note présentée a l’Académie le 1*
avril dernier, sur l’organisation de
la Société des Spectroscopistes
italiens. (Read May 6.)

Réponse a la lettre précédente de
M. Tacchini. (Read May 6.)

(July 29.)

Complément de la théorie physique
du Soleil; explication des taches.
(Read Dec. 16.)

Explication des
(Read Dec. 30.)

1873.
Explication des taches solaires. Ré-

ponse 4 une critique des ‘ Memorie
degli Spettroscopisti italiani.’

Spectral Nomenclature.

taches, (Suite.)

(Read Feb. 10.)

89=109;" 5° Proc.» Roy,
Soc.’ xx, 21-22 (Abs.)

* Ann. Phys. u.Chem.’ cxlv.
399-421,520-549 ; cxlvii.
386-403, 525-554,

‘ Nature,’ v. 499-500.

» viele
‘Am. J.’ [3] iii. 297-299.

©O, Ro Ixy. 563-057,
638-642.

°C. RB.’ Ixxiv. 913-918.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
exly. 80-86; ‘Ann,
Chim. et Phys.’ [4] xxv.
423 (Abs.)

‘ Phil. Mag.’ [4] xliii, 321-
338.

*C. RY Ixxiv, 1237-1240.

» lxxiv. 12401243.

‘Nature,’ vi. 433-434.
‘C. R. Ixxv. 1664-1672.

» _lxxv. 1793-1796.

OC. RO Ixzxyvi. S01=310,

Faye ~

A. Secchi
Faye .

Tacchini .

E. Vicaire

Faye .

Tacchini ,

A. Secchi.

Faye ‘

E. Vicaire

Faye .

E. Vicaire

”

H. Tarry .

Tacchini .

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1873.

Explication des taches solaires. Fin )‘C. R.’ lxxvi.

de la réponse aux critiques de MM.
Tacchini et Secchi. (Read Feb. 17.)

Sur la nature et l’origine des taches
solaires. (Feb. 21. Read Mar. 3.)

Sur la nouvelle hypothése du P.
Secchi. (Read Mar. 10.)

Sur la circulation de l’hydrogéne
solaire, avec une réponse 4 un
point de la note de M. Tacchini.
(Read Mar. 10.)

Sur la théorie des taches solaires.
Réponse 4 deux notes précédentes
de M. Faye. (Mar. 2. Read Mar.
10.)

Observations sur la théorie des cy-
clones solaires. (Read March 17.)

Note sur quelques points de la théorie
des cyclones solaires, en réponse
4 une critique de M. Vicaire.
(Read Mar. 24.)

Sur quelques points de la théorie
émise par M. Faye pour l’expli-
cation des taches solaires. (Mar.
22. Read Mar. 31.)

Sur la théorie des taches solaires.
Réponse & M. Faye. (Read April
14.)

Réponse au P. Secchi et A M. Vicaire.
(Read April 14.)

Nouvelles observations sur la théorie
des cyclones solaires. (Read April
14.)

Réponse finale au P. Secchi. (Head
April 21.) .

Note sur les cyclones solaires, avec
une réponse de M. Respighi a
MM. Vicaire et Secchi. (Read
May 19.)

Sur la théorie des taches et sur le
noyau obscur du Soleil. (Read
June 9.)

Sur la constitution du Soleil et la
théorie des taches. (Read June
23.)

Sur la constitution du Soleil et la
théorie des taches. (Read July 7.)

Les cyclones du Soleil comparés a
ceux de notre atmosphére. (Read
July 7.)

Nouvelles observations spectrales,
en désaccord avec quelques-unes
des théories émises sur les taches
sdlaires, (July 11. Read July 21.)

EE2

”

”

”

”

Ixxvi,

lxxvi.

lxxvi.

Ixxvl.

Ixxvi.

Ixxvi,

Ixxvi.

lxxvl.

Ixxvi.

lxxvi.

Ixxvi.

Ixxvi.

lxxvi.

lxxvi.,

419

889-397.

619-527.
693 -597.

697-601.

633-635.

703-706.

733-741.

826-830.

911-919.

919-923.

948-952.

977-982.

1229-1232.

1396-1399.

1540-1544,

Ixxvii. 40-44.

Ixxvii. 44-48.

Ixxvii. 195-198.

ory © e

Tacchini , -

Faye

H. Tarry

Faye P é
T. Reye . .

Marié-Davy .

H, de Parville .

E. Vicaire

Lord Rayleigh

iM Reye % °

F. Zollner

©. Niven

Faye . ©

REPORT—1[881.

THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1873, 1874.

Sur la théorie physique du Soleil
proposée par M. Vicaire. (Read
Aug. 4.)

Réponse a de nouvelles objections
de M. Tacchini. (Read Aug. 11.)

Theorie des scories solaires, selon
M. Zoliner. (Read Aug. 25.)

Nouvelles observations relatives 4 la
présence du magnésium sur le
bord du Soleil, et réponse a
quelques points de la théorie émise
par M. Faye. (Aug. 27. Read Sept.
8.)

Réponse 4 la derniére note de M.
Tacchini. (Read Sept. 15.)

Sur l’explication des taches solaires
proposée par M. le Dr. Reye.
(Read Oct. 20.)

Procédé pour déterminer la direc-
tion et la force du vent ; suppres-
sion des girouettes; application
aux cyclones. (Read Noy. 10.)

Réponse aux remarques de M. Tarry
sur la théorie des taches solaires.
(Read Nov. 17.)

Réponse 4 M. Faye concernant les
taches solaires. (Read Nov. 17.)

Observations, 4 propos d’une note
récente de M. Reye, sur les analo-
gies qui existent entre les taches
solaires et les tourbillons de notre
atmosphére, (Read Nov. 24.)

Note sur les cyclones terrestres et
les cyclones solaires. (Read Nov.
24.)

Sur la constitution physique du
Soleil. Réponse aux critiques de
M. Faye. (Read Dec. 22.)

1874,

‘Cc. R.’ Lxxvii.

”

i]

9

”

Ixxvii.

Ixxvii,

lxxvii.

Ixxvii.

Ixxyii.

Ixxvii.

lxxvii.

Ixxvii.

lxxvii,

Ixxvii.

Ixxvii.

293-301.

381-388.
501-509.

606-609.

621-627.

855-861.

1117-1120.

1122-1130.

1178-1181.

1227-1229,

1230-1233,

1491-1495.

On the Manufacture and Theory of; ‘ Phil. Mag.’ [4] xlvii. 81-

Diffraction Gratings.

Noch einmal meine Bedenken
gegen die Zéllner’sche Erklérung
der Sonnenflecke und Protube-
ranzen. (Feb. 18.)

!
Ueber den Aggregatzustand der
Sonnenfiecke,

On a Method of finding the Parallax
of Double Stars, and on the Dis-
placement of the Lines of the
Spectrum of a Planet. (April 11.
Read May 8.)

93,-193-205.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’ cli,
166-173,

‘Ann. Phys. u, Chem.’
clii, 291-310.

‘Monthly Not. Astr. Soc,’
xxxiv. 339-347,

Théories _ solaires. Réponse a] ‘C, R.’ Ixxviii. 1663-1670.

quelques critiques _—récentes.
(Read June 15.)

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

Tacchini , ° ;

Faye ° ’ :

23 . . .

H. Helmholtz . :

Faye 5 : ‘

E, Lommel . 5

EH. von Benkovich .

G. G. Stokes . 7

A.M. Mayer . :

Lecoq de Boisbau-

dran,

PW. Berg . :

E. Ketteler .

E. Lommel , ,

E. Ketteler .

Tacchini . ; :

J. Janssen 5 A

421

THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1874-1876.

Sur la formation des taches solaires.
(Read July 6.)

Observations au sujet de la der-
niére note de M. Tacchini, et du
récent mémoire de M, Langley.
(Read July 13.)

Double série de dessins représen-
tant les trombes terrestres et les
taches solaires, exécutés par M.
Faye. (Read Aug. 3.)

A la Société des Spectroscopistes
italiens. (Read Aug. 31.)

Zur Theorie der anomalen Disper-

sion. (Read Oct. 29.)
1875.
Sur le dernier numéro des ‘ Me-

morie dei Spettroscopisti itali-
ani.’ (Read April 12.)

Elementare Behandlung einiger op-
tischen Probleme,

Zur Theorie des Assimilationspro-
cesses in der Pflanzenwelt.

1876,

On the Early History of Spectrum
Analysis. (Letter to C, T. L,
Whitmell.)

The History of Young’s Discovery
of his Theory of Colour. (Dec.
13, 1875.)

Théorie des spectres: observations
sur la derniére communication de
M. Lockyer. (Read May 29.)

Ueber die kleinste Ablenkung im
Prisma. (May 1876.)

Attempt at a Theory of the (Ano-
malous) Dispersion of Light in
Singly and Doubly Refracting
Media. (‘ Verhandl. d. Naturhist.
Vereins d. Preuss. Rheinlande
und Westphalens,’ xxxiil.)

Ueber die kleinste Ablenkung im
Prisma.
Zum Zusammenhang zwischen

Absorption und Dispersion. (Sept.
1876.)

Sur les taches_ solaires.
May 14.)

Réponse 4 la note de M. Tacchini
insérée au dernier ‘Compte Ren-
du,’ séance du 14 mail877. (Read
May 28.)

(Read

SOF Bee: ESR, 39-41,

“A leach 7 SPF

3) LEK, ZObH2T on

» | xxix, 549-557,

‘Monatsb. Berl. Akad.’
1874, 667-680; ‘Ann,
Phys. uw. Chem.’ cliv,
582-596,

<C, R.’ lxxx, 935-936.

‘Ann. Phys. u, Chem.’
clvi. 578-590,
‘Ann. Phys. u, Chem.’

cliv. 468-473.
i Nature,’ ‘xiii 188-189,

‘Phil, Mag’ [5] i, M1
127,

‘0. RY lxxxii, 1264-1266 ;
«J. Chem. Soc,’ 1876, ii.
470 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
clviii. 651-653.

‘Phil. Mag’? [5] ii. 332-
345, 414-429, 508-522.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
clix. 329-330.

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.’
clx. 466-486.
©O. RY Ixxxiy. 1079-1081.

»__ Ixxxiv. 1182-1183.

422

HK. Ketteler .

E. Lommel

Phy 4

H. Hartshorne

Favé . .

Thollon . .

E. Wiedemann

G. F. Becker .

Mouton . .

E. Lommel ,

J. N. Lockyer .

Lord Rayleigh

O. N. Rood

B. C. Brodie

F. Lippich .

E. Lommel .

REPoRT—188].

THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1876-1881.

Notiz, betreffend die Dispersions-
curve der Mittel mit mehr als
Einem Absorptionsstreifen. (March
1877.)

1878.

Theorie der Absorption und Fluo-
rescenz. (Oct. 1877.)

Theorie der normalen und anoma-
len Dispersion. (Dec. 1877.)

Note on the Theoretical Explana-
tion of Fraunhofer’s Lines.

Les vibrations de la matiére et les
ondes de l’éther dans les com-
binaisons photochimiques. (Read
March 4.)

. | Théorie du nouveau spectroscope a
vision directe. (Read March 4.)

Untersuchungen iiber die Natur der
Spectra: 1, Theorie; 2, Spectra
gemischter Gase. (Aug. 1878.)

A Contribution to the History of
Spectrum Analysis.

1879.

. |Sur les Lois de la Dispersion.

(Read June 9.)

Ueber eine zweiconstantige Disper-
sionsformel.

| ture in Spectrum Analysis.

Investigations in Optics, with Spe-
cial Reference to the Spectro-
scope.

1880.

On Newton's use of the term In-
digo with reference to a Color of
the Spectrum.

. | Dissociation of the Metalloid Ele-
ments. (March 14.)

Untersuchungen iiber die Spectra
gasformiger Korper. (Read May
13.)

1881.

. | Ueber das Dispersionsgesetz. (April
1881.)

| On the Necessity for a New Depar-

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F. i. 840-351.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
N.F, iii. 251-283.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

_ N.F, iii. 339-356.

‘J. Franklin Inst.’ bxxy.
38-43; ‘Les Mondes,’
xlv. 517-522; ‘ Bei-
bliitter,’ ii. 561 (Abs.)

1° C. R.’ Ixxxvi. 560-565.

1©C. R.’ Ixxxvi. 595-598 ;

‘ Beibliitter,’ ii. 253-254

(Abs.)

. Physio
INGE. v. 500-524 ;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] vii. 77-
95; ‘Am. J.” xvil. 250-
251.

Am. J.’ [3] xvis 3924
393.

Chem.’

HC. BR? Isooxva 1189
| 1192; ‘ Beiblatter,’ iii.
| 616-618 (Abs.)
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’
| N.F, viii. 628-634.

‘Nature,’ xxi. 5-8; ‘ Bei-
| blitter, iv. 3863-364
| (Abs.)

|¢ Phil. Mag.’ [5] viii. 261-
| 274, 403-411, 477-486;
| ix. 40-55; ‘ Beibliitter,’
| iv. 360 (Abs.)

‘Am. J.) [3] ix A3b—
137; ‘Beibliitter, iv.
460-461 (Abs.)

‘ Nature,’ xxi. 491-492.
‘Sitzungsb. Wien. Akad.’
Ixxxii. IT. 15-33:

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.
N.F. xiii. 353-360.

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 423

In the foregoing list there are doubtless many inaccuracies and
omissions. Although some trouble has been taken to render the list
correct as far as it goes, yet it is certainly incomplete. It is requested
that anyone detecting errors will communicate with some member of the
Committee, forwarding the proper correction. The reliance that can be
placed on the list will best be indicated by a description of the method
employed in compiling it.

The following periodicals were looked through: ‘ Philosophical
Transactions,’ ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ ‘Philosophical Maga-
zine,’ ‘Journal of the Chemical Society,’ ‘Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society,’ ‘ Nature,’ ‘Comptes Rendus de l’ Académie
des Sciences,’ ‘Annales de Chimie et de Physique,’ ‘Berichte der
Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft,’ ‘ Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
‘Beiblitter zu den Annalen der Physik und Chemie,’ ‘ American
Journal of Science and Arts.’ In many of these periodicals, abstracts
from others, and also references, were found; the originals of
these were then sought and the titles entered in the list. Almost
all the references in the third column have been thus verified; those
in the second column (immediately following the titles) have not been
verified, but are entered as found in the abstracts.

Interim Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing
practical Standards for use in Electrical Measurements, the
Committee consisting of Professor G. CAREY Foster, Mr. C.
Hockin, Professor Sir Witiiam THomson, Professor AYRTON,
Mr. J. Perry, Professor W. G. ApAMs, Lord RAYLEIGH, Professor
F. Jenkin, Dr. O. J. Lopcr, Dr. Joun Hopkinson, Dr. MurrHEap,
Mr. W. H. PREEcE, and Mr. HERBERT TAYLOR.

[PLATE VI.]

It appeared to the Committee that in order to perform the task
entrusted to them, they had two principal questions to consider: First,
to select or prepare a well-defined standard of accurately known abso-
lute value for each kind of magnitude; and, secondly, to take measures
for making certified copies of each of the adopted standards accessible to
the public.

The standard magnitudes which the Committee have had under
consideration as yet are—

1. The Standard of Resistance.

2. The Standard of Capacity.

3. The Standard of Hlectromotive Force.

As to the first of these, the standard of Resistance, the Committee
were of opinion that, in view of the discrepant results obtained by
experimenters who have re-examined the absolute resistance of the B. A.
unit, it might be well to reconsider the question whether the ‘ohm’
should be defined by reference to a particular coil of wire preserved as a
concrete standard, or whether the term ‘ohm’ should be understood to
mean a resistance of 10° C. G. S. units. They were also of opinion that
it was desirable to continue the experimental investigation of the absolute
resistance of the existing standards.

424 REPORT—1881.

The repetition of the determination with the original apparatus, by
Lord Rayleigh and Professor Schuster in the Cavendish Laboratory, has
gone far to supply this requirement. Hxperiments by another method have
also been carried on by Professor G. C. Foster in the Physical Laboratory
of University College, London. Some account of these experiments is
given in Appendix I. to this report, but the results hitherto obtained
can only be regarded as preliminary. With regard to the issue of
authorised copies of the ohm for general use, the Committee did not see
their way to making arrangements for actual construction of standard
coils. They were of opinion that it would be best to limit their action to
drawing up a detailed specification for the construction of standard
resistance coils, and to arranging for the systematic testing of coils
which are certified to them as being made in accordance with this
specification, issuing certificates showing their actual resistance. Such a
system would be analogous to the system adopted by the Kew Committee
for the testing of meteorological instruments at the Kew Observatory.
It has not yet been settled by whom this duty should be undertaken.

An important point of detail connected with the practical construction
and use of standard coils has been investigated by Mr. Herbert Taylor.
The material adopted by the former Committee for the wire of the
standards issued by them, was an alloy of platinum and silver, containing
one part platinum to two of silver; and the same material is very often
used for the coils in the ‘ resistance-boxes’ issued by instrument-makers.
One special reason for the selection of this alloy for the purpose named is
its small temperature-rate of variation of resistance,—0°'031% per degree,
according to the late Dr, Matthiessen. Mr. Taylor has now found that
the rate of variation of resistance of wire made of this alloy depends upon
the diameter of the wire, the percentage amount for one degree varying
from 0-0299 for a wire nearly 7 millim. in diameter to 0:0231 for a
wire of diameter 0°168 millim. A detailed account of Mr. Taylor’s
experiments forms Appendix II. to this Report.

With regard to standards of Capacity, the Committee are able, thanks
to the zealous co-operation of one of their number, to report somewhat
more complete arrangements, Dr. Muirhead having undertaken for the
present to make and issue Standard Condensers adjusted in accordance
with one whose absolute capacity has been determined by himself and
Mr. Hockin. (‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.,’ 1879, pp. 283 and 285.)

With a view to testing the permanency of condensers made with
mica, paraffined paper, or other solid insulators, Dr. Muirhead is also
having constructed a large air-condenser.

In reference to the standard of Electromotive Force, the Committee
have had to consider whether this ought to be based upon a particular
combination of chemicals, forming a galvanic cell of definite electromotive
force, such, for instance, as a Daniell’s cell, constructed in a specified
manner from materials of guaranteed purity, or the cell introduced by
Mr. Latimer Clark (‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xx. 444), or whether they should
not rather aim at the construction of some convenient form of electro-
meter capable of indicating with sufficient accuracy an electromotive force
of about a volt. The first plan would be comparable with a supply of
ice and boiling water as affording a standard interval of temperature ; the
second would be comparable with a thermometer showing the two limits
of the standard interval.

The Committee are not yet prepared to make a final recommendation

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 425

as to either method of embodying the standard electromotive force,
though they are strongly inclined to believe that an electrometer or
gauge, capable of showing when a definite electromotive force has been
developed, by whatever means, will ultimately be found more satisfactory
than any system in which the constancy of an electromotive force is
inferred from the supposed constancy of the conditions under which it
has been developed.

Another question of a more general kind, which, though it may not
be of much immediate practical importance, will eventually have to be
earefully considered, has occupied the attention of the Committee to
some extent. It is the question as to what concrete standards should
finally be recognised as fundamental standards. Supposing that we
already had independent standards of Resistance, Capacity, Hlectromotive
Force, Quantity, and Current Strength, each of them defined with all the
accuracy that our present experimental methods admit of, they would
infallibly be found to exhibit small discrepancies when compared together.
For instance, the current of standard strength would not be exactly the
same as that produced by the standard electromotive force acting in the
circuit of the standard resistance, and we should then have to consider
which of the three standards was to be corrected so as to bring it into
harmony with the other two.

Similarly, in the case of the other electrical magnitudes. The known
relations between these are sufficient to enable us to define the unit of any
one of the five magnitudes just mentioned in terms of the units of any
two of the rest. Hence it appears that the electrical standards of
ultimate authority cannot be more than two in number, and it will have
to be decided which pair of concrete standards are to be recognised as
ultimate or fundamental, and what are to be left to be defined by
reference to them.

A further question arising out of the mutual relations of the funda-
mental units was that of the magnitude of the practical units to which
distinctive names should be attached. The present usage with respect to
this matter is that a resistance of 10° C.G.S units is called an Ohm; an
electromotive force of 10° C.G.S. units is called a Volé; and the current
produced by a Volt acting through an Ohm, that is to say, a current of
_ 10° = 10° or 01 C.G.S. unit is called a Weber. In the opinion of the
Committee it was considered highly desirable, from a scientific point of
view, that the relations among these standards should be simplified by
defining them as follows :—

Ohm = 10° C.G.S. units of resistance.
Volt = 109 C.G.S. units of electromotive force.
Weber = 1 C.G.S. unit of current.

It was felt, however, that any recommendation involving a change
in the value attached to terms which are rapidly coming into extensive
use among practical electricians, might give rise to serious inconvenience.
Therefore, although with regard to the scientific aspect of this proposal
the Committee were decidedly in favour of the change, they felt that a
public recommendation could not well be made until the practical incon-
veniences likely to follow had been very carefully investigated.

426 report—1881.

Apprenpix I.

Account of Preliminary Experiments on the Determination of Electrical
Resistances in Absolute Measure. By Professor G. Carry Foster, F’.R.S.

The experiments to be described in what follows were made in the
Physical Laboratory of University College, London. The principle of the
method employed is essentially the same as that of the method long ago
pointed out by Sir William Thomson, and adopted by the first Committee
of this Association upon Electrical Standards in their experiments of
1863 and 1864, as well as by Lord Rayleigh in the repetition of these ex-
periments recently carried out by him in conjunction with Professor
Schuster.

Every absolute measurement of resistance is, by the nature of the
case, fundamentally the determination of the ratio of an electromotive
force to the strength of the current which it produces in the conductor
whose resistance is to be measured. In Sir William Thomson’s method,
as is well known, the electromotive force is due to the action of the earth’s
magnetism upon a coil of wire spinning about a vertical diameter, and its
numerical value is known from the rate at which the coil spins, the total
area enclosed by its windings, and the intensity of the horizontal eom-
ponent of the earth’s magnetism. The electromotive force generates a
current in the coil, the strength of which is known from the deflection of
a small magnet, hung at the centre of the coil, and from the intensity of
the earth’s horizontal magnetic force. This last factor, entering similarly
into the expressions for the electromotive force and for the current,
disappears from their ratio, which gives in absolute measure the resistance
of the wire forming the revolving coil.

In the method now to be described there is again an electromotive
force generated in a revolving coil, just as in Sir William Thomson’s
method, but the current is measured by an independent galvanometer,
and the conductor, whose resistance
is given by the experiments, is en-
tirely distinct from the revolving coil.
So far as this method possesses any
particular advantages they arise froma
the circumstance last mentioned. The

Fig. 1.

measured being at rest, it may be a
coil of wire of any material, wound
in whatever way may be most con-
venient; and it may be immersed in
a bath of liquid so as to keep it at an
accurately known temperature. More-
over, several independent coils of
different resistances can be experi-
P mented upon one after another, and
the resistance of each determined.
ft The nature of the method and the
arrangement of the essential parts of
the apparatus may be explained by help of the adjoining figure. In
this, R stands for the wire, of which the resistance is to be measured ; and
P for a thermopile whereby a current is produced through r and through a
tangent-galvanometer G. The ends of the wire of the revolving coil ¢ are

conductor of which the resistance is

ene

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 427

connected, through a commutator K upon the axle, with the ends of the
wire R, a delicate reflecting galvanometer g, called in what follows the
zero-galvanometer, being interposed on one side of the commutator. When
the speed of the coil is so adjusted that the zero-galvanometer is not
deflected, the electromotive force developed in the coil by the magnetism
of the earth is equal to the electromotive force exerted by the thermopile
between the ends of the conductor Rr.’ Consequently, the resistance of this
conductor is obtained in absolute measure by dividing the electromotive
force of the coil by the strength of the current indicated by the tangent-
galvanometer.

This result may be expressed in terms of the experimental data, as
follows. Let A be the total area included by all the convolutions of the
revolying coil—that is, the sum of the areas included by all the turns
taken severally, H, the horizontal magnetic intensity at the place occu-
pied by the coil, w the angular velocity of the coil, and 2a the are of
contact made by the commutator, then H, the electromotive force of the
coil, is

te a sin a

a

Again, if I is the strength of the magnetic field produced at the centre of
the tangent-galvanometer, where the needle is hung, by a current of unit
strength flowing through the galvanometer, H, the horizontal intensity of
the earth’s magnetic field at the same point, and 6 the deflection of the
galyanometer, the strength C of the current in the galyanometer, and
therefore also in the wire R, is

gas

=

tan 6.

Hence, putting p for the resistance to be measured, that of the wire R,
we have

sin
wy nob lylee 1D am
leneiae’s ES Stans @
sin a
or H, 7A I re

ca i. * T tan @
if T is the period of one revolution of the coil.
If the experiment could be made in a region of uniform magnetic force,

we should have H,= H,, and therefore the ratio = =1, as m Sir

G
William Thomson’s method. Owing to the neighbourhood of rather large
masses of iron, this condition was not fulfilled in the actual experiments.
The ratio in question was accordingly determined by noting the time of
vibration of the same magnet when it was suspended alternately in the
position of the revolving coil and in that of the galvanometer respectively.

Tt was thus found at the beginning of the experiments that - was equal
G
to 09889. A repetition of the measurement that was afterwards
attempted was made useless by some large masses of iron being brought
just outside the Laboratory while it was going on.
The ring upon which the revolving coil was wound, as well as the

428 REPORT—1881.

frame in which it was mounted, were in the main copied from those used
in the experiments of the former Committee, but both ring and frame
were made considerably stouter in the metal, and the ring had only one
groove instead of two, The upper and lower halves were insulated from
each other, to prevent the formation of induced currents.

To determine the area A, we have A=nm?/47, where » is the
number of turns of wire on the coil and m the circumference of the mean
layer. The value of m was ascertained by measuring with a steel tape
the circumference of the groove in which the coil was wound, as well as
the circumference after each successive layer of wire had been put on.
The mean of all these measures, corrected for the thickness of the tape,
about 0:01 cm., was taken as the value of m. In order to guard against
accidental error, the separate measurements of the circumference were
combined in pairs, thus m, + m,,m, + m,-;,... the suffixes denoting
the numbers of layers of wire which had been wrapped on when the
several measurements were made; these sums, which ought to be con-
stant, varied between 193°25 cm. and 193°50 cm., the number of layers
being 32. In this way the circumference of the mean layer was found
to be 96:669 cm. which gives for the area enclosed by it 749°66 sq. cm.
Each layer of wire contained 30 turns, and therefore n = 30 x 32 = 960,
and the total effective area of the coil was A= 960 x 743°66 = 713914
sq. cm.

The tangent-galvanometer had two equal parallel coils, of approxi-
mately square section, placed at a distance apart nearly equal to their
mean radius, which was about 18°25 cm. Lach coil consisted of 22 layers
of 20 turns each; the galvanometer had thus altogether 880 turns of
wire. The needle consisted of three short bits of hardened and magnetised
watch-spring, fastened one above another at the back of a light plane-
glass mirror. The deflections were read upon a straight glass scale,
divided at the back into millimetres. The distance from mirror to scale
was 137:25 cm., of which about ‘45 cm. was occupied by glass; the
optical distance was therefore taken as 136°95 cm. The galvanometer-
constant I was calculated by the formula

Bn (4, tog, Sr Mi eg, © A

s+s! © Ay + V a? + by? da+ V ay? + bo?
where x is the number of turns of wire (880) in the two rings taken
together, s and s’ the areas of the cross-sections of the two coils, a, the
external radius of each coil, a, the internal radius, b, the half-distance
measured parallel to the axis between the outer surfaces of the coils, and
b, the half-distance between their inner surfaces. The numerical values
were a, = 18-945 for one coil, = 18°953 for the other; a, =17°518 and
17-524; b, = 9-851, and b, = 8429, all in centimetres. The values for
a, and also for a, being so nearly alike for the two coils, the means a, =
18949 and a. = 17:521 were used in the calculation of [. The numerical
value of was thus found to be 1/0:004618, so that the absolute
strength of a current measured upon this galvanometer is

0:004618 H tan @,

The commutator of the revolving coil consisted of a cylindrical piece of
ivory about 7°6 cm. in diameter, with two pieces of platinum let in upon
opposite sides. One end of the wire was fastened to one of these platinum
pieces and the other end to the other piece ; and contact with the external

1p! =

aed by log.

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 429

cireuit was made through two platinum-faced gun-metal wheels, each
about 15 cm. diameter, which revolved in contact with the ivory cylinder.
The wheels revolved in insulated bearings about vertical axes, nearly in
the same plane as the axis of rotation of the coil. The upper end of the
axle of each wheel carried a smaJl copper mercury-cup into which a well-
amalgamated copper wire dipped for connecting the coil with the end of
the wire R (see figure), of which the resistance was to be measured. This
arrangement was adopted in order to avoid the heating, and consequent
thermo-electric action, which would probably have resulted from the use
of rubbing contacts. It was found very efficient for this purpose.

In order to avoid as far as possible the effects of self-induction in
the revolving coil, the platinum contact-pieces had an angular breadth of
only about 20 degrees, so that the coil was in metallic connection with the
rest of the circuit during only about }th of each revolution. By adjusting
the contact-wheels so that the vertical plane containing their axes coincided
with the magnetic meridian, the middle of the period of contact was made
to coincide with the instant of maximum intensity and minimum rate of
variation of the electromotive force in the coil. The arc of contact
actually employed was 20° 3’, which gives for the ratio of the maximum
and minimum electromotive force due to the earth’s magnetism the value
1 : 0:9817, or an extreme variation of less than 2 per cent.

Putting together the values of the constant factors in the expression
for the resistance to be determined, we get

_ 95561 x 108
Pca ie Uae Alte!

leaving T, the period of rotation of the coil, and 0, the deflection of the
tangent-galvanometer, to be observed in each experiment.

To determine the speed of the coil, the following method was adopted.
Three glass pens, each controlled by a small electro-magnet, were caused
to mark side by side upon a strip of paper drawn forward by clockwork,
as in an ordinary Morse receiver. The pens, when left to themselves,
ruled parallel straight lines on the paper, but when any of the electro-
magnets was excited, the corresponding pen was pulled to one side and
a notch was made in the line the pen was drawing. By means of a
wheel of 100 teeth, carrying a pin which made contact with a light
Spring once in every revolution, and gearing into a screw cut upon
the upper part of the axle of the coil, the circuit of one of the
electro-magnets was completed for an instant at every hundredth
revolution of the coil, and an indentation was made in the corresponding
line. The circuit of the second electro-magnet was broken for an instant
by a clock at intervals of one second, thus making notches on the second
line. By afterwards measuring the distances between the notches on
the two lines, the speed with which the coil was spinning at any
instant could be ascertained. This measurement was made by laying
over the paper a strip of glass divided on its lower surface into centi-
metres and millimetres. The degree of accuracy attainable in this way,
independently of error of the clock, was about one part in one thousand.
The speeds used in the experiments varied from about nine to about
twelve revolutions per second. The electro-magnet acting on the third
pen was under the control of an observer who watched the zero-galva-
nometer (g in the figure,) and held down acontact-key, which completed
the corresponding circuit whenever and as long as this galvanometer

430 REPORT—1881.

showed no deflection. In this way the third line on the recording strip
was displaced to one side whenever the speed was such as to cause the
electromotive force of the coil and that due to the thermo-electric pile
accurately to balance each other, and thus the parts which were to be
measured of the other two lines were indicated. A second observer noted
the reading of the tangent-galvanometer when the zero galvanometer
was undeflected, and thus determined the angle 0.

It is evident, from the formula given above, that the product T tan 0
should be constant in all experiments in which the wire whose resistance
was to be determined was the same. The amount of agreement in the
value of this product in different experiments therefore affords a criterion
of the consistency of the results with each other. The results obtained
in two series of experiments were as follows :—

T tan 6 T tan @
(Series I.) (Series II.)
0°01291 + 0:01192

01296 01196

01309 01194

01312 01196

01309 *01189

01283 01192

01298 01193

01306 01194

01295 =

01306 —

01302 _

01294 —

‘01310 =

It will be seen that the second set of values agree better together than
the first set. This is probably chiefly due to greater practice in observing,
and to the adoption of an artifice whereby the speed of the gas engine
employed to drive the coil was kept more constant. In calculating the
final result from each set, weight was given to each separate observation
in proportion to the square of the number of revolutions of the coil over
which it extended; for it was assumed that the accuracy with which the
speed of the coil was determined was proportional to the number of
revolutions included in the record ; moreover, the number of galvanometer-
readings obtained in each experiment was proportional also to the number
of revolutions, and hence it was assumed that the accuracy with which
the product was determined was proportional to the square of the number
of revolutions. The weighted means thus calculated are, for the

First series ‘ 0°013017
Second series. *011932

Calling p, and p, the resistances measured in the two series of experi-
ments respectively, these results give

— 9561. 108 = 73-412 x 10°,

Pi = ~.013017
— 95561 _ seoe: 9
and p =~ Treas X 10° = 80-089 x 10°.

The wires measured belonged to a set of german-silver resistance-coils,
which were very carefully adjusted by my assistant, Mr. W. Grant, by
comparison with a ‘B. A.-unit’ coil issued by the former Committee.
The nominal values were 73 and 80 ohms in the two sets of experiments
respectively. Applying a not very certain correction for the difference

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 43}

between the temperature of the coils‘during these experiments and that
at which they were adjusted, we get for the nominal values

p; = 73:16 ohms and p, = 80°18 ohms.
Hence, according to the first series of experiments,

Lohm = (2°22 x 10° = 1-008 x 10°;

according to second series

__ 80-089 ere 9
lohm = 35.18 10% = '0°999 tx 107;

I do not attach any particular importance to these values, or to the
close agreement of their mean with the intended value of the ohm, as the
experiments, so far, have only been undertaken with the view of
ascertaining how far the method that has been described is capable,
when employed under favourable circumstances, of giving good results.
In this respect I think the experiments may be considered fairly satis-
factory, but the numbers obtained for the value of the ohm are subject
to several corrections, the most important of which are probably that for
errors of the clock, which I had no means of rating more accurately
than by comparison with a good watch; that due to slight uncertainty
as to the value in ohms:of the resistances measured ; that due to self-
induction in the revolving coil, which, however, I believe must be very
small ; and perhaps errors due to unobserved disturbances of the magnetic
field during the experiments.

I wish, in conclusion, to acknowledge with warm thanks the obliga-
tions I am under to Mr. Charles Hockin for most valuable aid of various
kinds,—important practical suggestions as to the construction of the
apparatus, information as to the conditions required in order to ensure
sensitiveness, and the loan, for a long time, of a very delicate zero-
galvanometer and a set of resistance coils. I am also greatly indebted
to Mr. Grant and Mr. G. W. von Tunzelmann, B.Sc., by whom conjointly
the actual observations were almost entirely made.

4 Appenpix II.

On the Causes of the Variation in the Temperature-Coefficient of the
Alloys of Platinum and Silver. By Hersert Taytor, Esq.

In his report to the Committee of the British Association in 1862
Dr. Matthiessen proposed for the construction of standard resistance
coils the now widely-used alloy of silver and platinum, consisting of
two parts of silver and one part of platinum by weight. In the same
paper he gave the specific conducting power of the material and also its
percentage-variation in resistance due to a change of temperature of 1°
centigrade.

The latter value, called the temperature-coeflficient in what follows,
he stated to be 0:031% per degree.

It was, however, found, after the alloy came into general use, that the
temperature-coefficient varied within moderately wide limits.

And it was noticed, by the writer amongst others, that having
determined by experiment the coefficient of a particular wire, it was
necessary to make a fresh determination for the same wire when drawn
down to a finer gauge.

432 REPORT—1881.

An investigation into the cauges of these variations was therefore
desirable; and at the request of your Committee it has been undertaken
by myself. As yet, no very definite result has been reached, but the
observations already made, involving much care and a very large ex-
penditure of time, and the method of experimenting employed, may
perhaps be worth recording.

I should here say that throughout the investigation I have had the
benefit of the co-operation of Mr. Charles Hockin, by whom many of the
observations were made.

To better observe the variation in the temperature-coefficient with
change of diameter, rods of considerable sectional area, to be afterwards
drawn into wire, were obtained from Messrs. Johnson & Matthey.

The first rod (called hereafter Bar A) was of the commercial alloy
manufactured specially for electrical purposes; the metals used are
commercially pure, and are melted together in large quantities. The
alloy is then cast as a flat ingot, not more than an inch or an inch and a
half in depth, and this ingot is next rolled into a large sheet about 0:3
inch thick, which is cut by shears into narrow strips.

These strips are finally passed between grooved rollers, to give them
an approximately circular section, and the rods thus formed are ready for
the draw plates to reduce them to wire of the required diameter.

The bar experimented on was, in the ‘rod’ stage, about 8 inches long,
and 0°27 inch in diameter.

The second rod (called hereafter Bar B) was specially made for these
experiments of pure materials, by Messrs. Johnson and Matthey.

It was cast in the form of a bar, about 8 inches long. On leaving
the mould it was about 0°3 inch square, slightly tapering, and more or
less irregular in section, but was reduced in the lathe and by filing to a
section almost absolutely square and uniform.

The third rod (called Bar C) was of an alloy made by the same firm
for the use of dentists—the method of casting and rolling being the
same as that described for the electrical alloy, but rather less attention is
paid to the purity of the components,

Tt was procured in the form of a narrow strip, ent a quarter of an
inch thick, and reduced to a uniform square section by the lathe and file.

As it was necessary to observe accurately the small percentage-
variation, due to change of temperature, in the resistance of these bars,
which was itself exceedingly minute, recourse was had to the method of
observation originally proposed by Mr. C. Hockin, and described and
figured in Clerk Maxwell’s ‘ Electricity and Magnetism,’ pp. 406 and
407, vol. 1, by means of which the unavoidable resistance of the con-
nections can be altogether eliminated.

Instead, however, of using, as shown in the figure referred to, a
comparativety short wire, with resistance-bobbins at its ends, a wire
AO feet in length, wound on a cylinder, was employed,so that the bobbins
could be dispensed with, without loss of accuracy, and with a great gain
in simplicity of calculation and in range.

To avoid the very great expense of a necessarily thick wire of iridio-
platinum, which was, however, recognised to be the best material, a
german-silyer wire was in the first instance fitted to the cylinder and
calibrated, but after a short time it was found to get loose in its groove,
so that the readings obtained on it could not be depended on.

A platinum-silver wire was next tried, and though most carefully

oN

Gale”

.

ar it
= P

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—
Z

[

CGndmsa}

drawn, the
doting peo
discarded.
Finally,
and Matth
being cons
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with very
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conducting:
bat was to
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To ayoit
the wire as
sccarate an
The wit
devised afte
and convent
It is fall
The wi
accarately fi
ends of the
of the drm
immersed in
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apparatns by
‘The cont
is monnted
trarersed by
end of the :
attached to |
and the ge
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with the axit
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mins, their 1
Hat of a 3

APPARATUS FOR DETERMINING TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF WIRES

{emperature,
Tho high
1831

Mlantrating the Report of te Committees tor constructing and tasuing pructical starutarde for uxe tn Electrical, Measurements.

Detliewreds

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, 433

drawn, the calibration showed such a want of uniformity in the con-
ducting power at different parts of its length that it was at once
discarded.

Finally, an iridio-platinum wire was obtained from Messrs. Johnson
and Matthey, fitted to the cylinder and calibrated, but the result not
being considered quite satisfactory, the wire was removed, carefully
annealed, drawn through one hole in a draw plate and remounted, but
with very little better results. This operation was repeated without
advantage, and it became evident that the want of uniformity in the
conducting power was not due to irregularities in the section of the wire,
but was to be attributed, in all probability, to want of uniformity in the
composition of the alloy.

To avoid further loss of time it was therefore decided to make use of
the wire as it then was, and to correct all readings by the result of an
accurate and close calibration.

The wire was therefore calibrated in 100 equal parts by a method
devised after trying one or two others, and found to be very accurate
and convenient.

It is fully described at the end of this paper.

The wire is wound in twenty convolutions in a spiral groove,
accurately formed in the cylindrical surface of an insulating drum. The
ends of the wire are soldered to massive bars, each brazed to one axle
of the drum, which terminates in an amalgamated copper disc, half
immersed in a cup of mercury. :

The mercury cups are themselves connected with the rest of the
apparatus by means of very stout copper rods.

The contact-piece, by means of which the galvanometer is put in circuit,
is mounted on a brass block, moving between two brass rods, and
traversed by a screw after the fashion of the slide rest of a lathe. One
end of the screw carries a toothed wheel, gearing with another wheel
attached to the drum and concentric with it. The pitch of the screw
and the gearing are so calculated that, when the drum is made to
revolve, the contact-piece, whilst moving in a horizontal line parallel
with the axis of the drum, is always in contact with some point of the
wire, upon which it presses lightly by means of a spring.

The brass toothed wheel has a slightly greater diameter than the
drum to which it is attached. On the flat exterior side near its circum-
ference, it is divided into 1,000 equal parts, and by means of a microscope
with cross-wire eyepiece, the divisions can be read by estimation to
tenths and easily to fifths.

As there are twenty turns, the whole wire can therefore be accurately
divided into 100,000 parts.

Whole turns of the wire are shown by the divisions of a horizontal
scale close to the contact-piece.

To maintain the wire throughout its length at a uniform temperature,
the drum is enclosed in a wooden case in which openings are left for the
contact-piece and microscope. A sketch of the apparatus is given in
Plate VI.

To determine the temperature-coefficients of the various bars and
Wires, their resistances at two different temperatures were compared with
that of a standard, maintained as nearly as possible at a constant
temperature.

on higher temperature of comparison was generally nearly that of
1881, ey

434 REPORT—1881.

boiling water, and was maintained by means of steam. The bars were
immersed in a bath of melted paraffin wax, the interior surface of the
bath being lined thronghout with convolutions of + inch ‘compo’ gas-
tubing through which steam was caused to flow.

The lower temperature was about that of the air, the bath just
described was again used; but paraffin oil was substituted for the wax,
and cold water from the main was made to circulate in the pipe instead
of steam. In both cases the paraffin oil or wax was kept continually
stirred. The standard was also immersed in paraffin oil, kept at a
uniform temperature by the circulation of water from the main, through
tubing in the containing vessel.

The paraffin oil used possesses remarkably high insulating qualities,
bobbins of silk-covered wire, even of many thousand ohms resistance,
could be immersed in it, without the least sensible leakage, from spire to
spire. It is sold under the name of ‘ Strange’s Crystal Oil.’

The apparatus for maintaining the desired temperature when the
alloy is in the form of wire is far more convenient than that described
above for the bars. It resembles the instrument used for testing the
boiling point of thermometers.

It is shown in section in the accompanying sketch, fig. 2.

Fie, 2 _ @ is an open tube about #-inch in

P diameter, surrounded by a second tube,

b, closed at the bottom and opening

at the top into the onter tube, c,

which is closed at both ends. The

supply pipe leads into the annular

space between a and J, near the bot-

tom, and the exhaust, or escape, pipe
from the space between 0 and c.

When steam is allowed to enter by
the supply pipe, it completely en-
velopes, in its passage, the inner tube
a, and external influences, such as sud-
den draughts of air, are effectually cut
off by the steam jacket between b and c.
For observations at ordinary tempera-
tures water is allowed to flow into the
supply pipe instead of steam, and a
convenient system of pipes and cocks
allows the change to be made from
steam to water, or vice versd, with
facility. When steam is used, a mer-
curial gauge is provided, to indicate
the difference of pressure between the
inside of the tube and the atmosphere.

The temperature calculated from
the reading of this gauge, and that of
the barometer, was found to agree
within +1; degree with the indication
of the thermometer inserted in the
inner tube a.

The bottom of the inner tube a is closed by an ebonite stopper,
through which pass two stout copper rods of semicircular section, so as

URE CANCE

CPRESS

Yr

CALVAWOMETER

WiRES—

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 435

to have the greatest available cross section; each is held rigidly in
position by a screw passing radially through the ebonite stopper, and
they are insulated one from the other by an air space, through which pass
the wires for the galvanometer connections, the interstices being after-
wards filled with shellac.

The ends of the wire to be tested are soldered to the upper extremities
of the copper rods. When the wire is short and thick, itis covered with
silk, bent double, and passed into the tube; when thin, it is wound ona
glass rod, and the whole coated with silk ribbon. The space between
the wire and tube is filled with lead shot of the smallest size, and a ther-
mometer is inserted in the top of the tube, which is then filled quite up
with shot.

It was found that the shot had an exellent effect in preventing minute
oscillations of temperature, due to draughts or similar causes.

The battery used was one large Grove cell; the galvanometer, a
‘dead beat’ by White, having a resistance of 1°4 ohms.

In most cases the absolute resistance of the specimens of alloy was
determined as well as the temperature-coefficient.

For the bars this was done by comparison with a rod of pure lead of
known dimensions.

The wires were compared directly with bobbins of known resistance.

The sectional area of the bars and wires was always calculated from
their weight, specific gravity, and length.

All bars and wires were annealed before making the electrical
observations.

The following table shows the resistance and temperature-coefficient
of the first sample of the alloy when in the original bar shape, aud when
drawn down to wire of various gauges.

Bar A.
Resistance of a Percentage-
: wire 1 metre : variation in
Length Diameter long and 1 milli- Spegce resistance Remarks
pple mu. metre diameter STANLY, ‘or
at 0° Cent. 1° Cent.
ohms.
17567 6°825 0°3658 12:740 0299 Rod
99640 1:578 0:3824 12°733 ‘0276
313270 07525 : — 12°613 0273
2655°25 0°525 03937 12°811 0263
— 0-203 —_— — 0232
= . 0168 Se) a ae "0231

A complete analysis of this alloy from the end of the rod was made

for me by Messrs, Johnson and Matthey. The composition was as
follows : :

Platinum - ‘< é 5 5 fe ‘ : - 32°95
Silver . ‘ - = : ; : é 3 - 66°65
Tridium 5 Fi ‘ 7 Z ° 2 : s 10:03
Rhodium ; 4 * : 3 { 3 z a) (0302
lnyohaley En é A 5 ‘ ‘ ‘ a f a pHop!
Lead, with minute trace of copper 2 5 : - ~ 0:01
Loss = F : 0 R 5 J 3 . O34

100:00

FF2

436. REPORT—1881.

The platinum and silver are thus very nearly in the prescribed pro-
portion, and the amount of impurity is inconsiderable. An assay of a
piece cut from one end of the wire 1578 m.m. in diameter, gave the pro-
portion of platinum as 31°34 %.

A calibration made from inch to inch in its length showed the
conducting power to be sensibly uniform.

Bar B.

The temperature-coefficient of this bar was 0:0308%. The specific
gravity and absolute resistance were abnormal, and a calibration showed
it was quite irregular in conducting power, the casting being porous and

_ full of holes.

Messrs. Johnson and Matthey failed in their attempt to roll or draw
it down into wire, but a small portion was remelted and drawn into wire
0°67 m.m. in diameter, of which the specific gravity was 13°354, the
temperature-coefficient *0282%, and the calculated resistance of 1 metre
of the wire, 1 millimetre in diameter, 0°238 ohms. It was obvious,
therefore, that even if the alloy was of the desired composition, on the
average, it had such a want of uniformity that an analysis was not worth
making.

Bar C (dental alloy).

The following Table gives the observations made with this sample
of alloy from the bar stage to that of very fine wire.

Resistance of a Percentage-
‘ wire 1 metre ¢ variation in
Length Diameter long and 1 m.m. Specific resistance Remarks
m.m. m.m. “a gravity for
| diameter 1° Cent.
ohms.
168-00 4314 0°3770 12°444 0269 Square bar
996°95 1625 03611 12°449 0261
2416°15 0°535 0°3690 12°630 ‘0266
— 0-203 — — 0248

Messrs. Johnson and Matthey’s analysis of this alloy was as
follows :—

Platinum . F , A . . 4 ‘ ’ » 28°95
Silver . - . . aie ‘ . . 70°50
Rhodium - ° 5 . . . . . . > , GOL
Tridium : 5 - . . ° . . : «, 0°02
Tron : : é . : , : . 5 . ~ 0:02
Lead, with minute traces of copper and loss : . - 0:50

100-00

An assay of one end of the wire of the diameter 1:625 m.m. gave
28:44 % as the proportion of platinum ; but it would appear, from the
third observation of specific gravity in the above table, that the com-
position could not be uniform—indeed the bar was calibrated im six
parts, both at the high and low temperature, and the temperature-

ee

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 437

coeflicients for the different parts were found to be as follows: °028, -032,
029, 036, 0°031, and 0-029 per cent. per degree.

To examine the effect on the temperature-coefficient of a variation in
the percentage of platinum and silver, the following alloys were cast by
Mr. Hockin and drawn to wire. They were made with pure platinum,
black and precipitated silver.

Percentage-
Diameter variation in
Composition of alloy approxi- resistance Remarks
mate for
1° Cent.
Pt % Ag % m.m.
40 60 0-234 “0259
sine 662 0:096 "0265 : :
331 6! 0-234 0301 } different castings
30 70 0:234 °0313
25 75 0:234 “0407
25 75 0063 ‘0377

From the foregoing tables it would appear that a moderate variation
in the percentage-composition on either side of the normal proportions of
two parts silver, by weight, to one part platinum, produces less effect on
the temperature-coefficient than does a change in the diameter of the
wire.

It also appears, from these and otherexperiments, that it is practically
impossible to ensure a uniform mixture of the metals, even when the
alloy is of the normal composition in the aggregate.

Thus the wire from an unit coil of the B.A. pattern, made by
Dr. Matthiessen, or under his superintendence, was drawn down to a
diameter of 0168 m.m.

The whole wire had a temperature-coefficient of ‘0250%, but on
examining the wire in two approximately equal portions, the temperature
coefficients of the two halves were found to be 0237 and -0266%.

It is therefore evident that when the highest attainable accuracy is
acquired, as in the construction of standard coils, it is not sufficient to
depend upon the general temperature-coefficient of the alloy, but that a
determination of the coefficient of the particular coil or instrument is
required.

For less accurate work it would seem that Dr. Matthiessen’s value for
the coefficient, viz., ‘031% per 1° C. should be reduced by from 5 to
10% for wires of large diameter, by about 15% for wires of 0°25 m.m.
diameter, such as, in general, resistance-coils of from 100 to 1,000 ohms
are made of, and by from 20 to 25% for wires of the smallest gauge
usually drawn.

Calibration of Wire.

The calibration of the wire was effected thus—Six coils of the B.A.
pattern, viz., la, 1b, 2, 3, 5, and 8 ohms, whose resistance amounted, in
the aggregate, to 20 ohms, were arranged in a continued series by means of
mercury cups, and the ends of this series were connected by copper bars

438 REPORT—1881.

with the two ends of the wire to be calibrated, properly mounted on its
drum. ‘To these copper bars the poles of the battery could be connected
by means of a contact-key.

The series of coils was arranged, in the order above enumerated, in a
trough of water, to maintain uniform temperature. One galvanometer
wire was permanently attached to the sliding contact of the drum, whilst
the loose end of the other galvanometer wire could be dipped in either
of the mercury cups joining the coils, the arrangement thus forming a
Wheatstone’s bridge.

The loose galvanometer wire, being first inserted in the mercury cup
joining the outer or left-hand terminal of the coil la with the connecting
bar, a balance was obtained, the reading 7) on the drum being of course
quite close to the 0 end of the wire.

The galvanometer wire was then shifted to the cup between la and
1b, and a balance and reading 7, obtained by moving the drum-contact.

The coils la and 1b were then transposed in position, and a new
balance and reading 7, very near to 7,, were obtained. The loose wire
was then moved to the cup between la and 2, and the balance and read-
ing 73 were observed.

This process of transposition and reading was repeated until the coil
la had been moved unit by unit from the left-hand to the right-hand
extremity of the series.

As it is evident that the resistance of the length of wire between pairs
of readings such as 79, 7;, and 79, 73, &c., bears the same ratio to that of
the whole wire to be calibrated as the resistance of the coil la does to
that of the series of which it forms part, and that the latter ratio is a
constant one, being independent of the position in the series which the
coil occupies, it follows that every such length has the same resistance ;
and the lengths being expressed in terms of divisions of the drum circle,
it is easy to make a table showing the proper corrections.

In practice, the coil la was further subdivided. Four intermediate
points having been determined on the wire of which it was composed,
dividing its resistance into five equal parts, wires were soldered to these
points and were connected with small mercury cups sunk in the ebonite
bridge-piece of the coil. The case was then filled in with paraffin wax as
usual. In calibrating the drum-wire, therefore, besides the 20 pairs of
readings corresponding with the 20 transpositions of the coil, there were
interpolated between each such pair four additional readings, thus cali-
brating the wire into 100 parts.

The following table gives the readings corresponding to the twenty
transpositions of the coil, their differences, which are proportional to the
conducting power of the wire between the points at which the readings
are taken, and the percentage-variation from mean conducting power.

In Col. IV. are given the total percentage-corrections for the readings
in Col. V. They are obtained by taking from Col. III. the algebraic
sum of the percentage-variations for all observations included in the
reading, and dividing by the number of terms summed ; thus the correc-
tion for drum-reading 3,000, and thereabouts is Dia Beet pale
= 0°788% of the readings. All these corrections happen to be
subtractive.

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 439

If. Ii. EV;
I Differences of ee elie bt Vv
7 ~./ readings propor-| variation from | corrections for “ee
Observed readings tional to re mean Conduc-| Readings in Col. Readings.
tivity tivity. Vis
33
1009°1 1005°8 + 1-015 1015 1000
1012°9
2016°9 1004-0 + 0°835 0°925 2000
2020°2
3021:0 1000'S + 0513 0-788 3000
3025°5
4024:9 9994 + 0373 0-684 4000
4028°6
5027°5 5 998:9 + 0°322 0:612 5000
5031°1
60304 999°3 + 0°363 0:570 6000
60342
7033'9 999°7 + 0°403 0°546 7000
7039°8
8034°9 995-1 — 0:059 0-471 8000 |
8038°7
9037°3 998°6 + 07292 0-451 9000
9041'S /
10037°1 995°3 — 0:039 0:402 10000
10040°7
11084°1 993-4 — 0°230 0344 11000
11038:0
12033°7 995°7 + 0-001 0°316 12000 }
12033:'6 .
13028'8 995-2 — 0:049 0:288 13000
13032 3
14026°6 9943 — 0140 0:257 14000
14030°4
15022°0 991-6 — 0-411 0:213 15000
15027°6
16017°9 990°3 — 0541 0:166 16000
16022°4
17011:0 988-6 — 0712 0-114 17000
17014:9
18006°4 991-5 — 0-421 0:084 18000
18010:0
19000-0 990-0 — 0571 0-049 19000
19003°7
19990:0 986°3 — 0°9438 0-000 20000
Mean 995-69 }

It is of course unnecessary that the subdivisions of the 1-ohm coil
should be exactly equal, provided their ratio is known, and this can easily
be found by the drum-wire itself. Thus the coil is substituted for the
series of 20 ohms, before referred to, and the readings observed on the
drum when galvanometer connection is made consecutively at the six
contact-points of the divided coil. These observations will coincide very
nearly with readings in the foregoing table which are independent of the
subdivisions of the coil. Therefore, by applying the proper tabular
corrections, the true ratio of these subdivisions is determined.

440 REPORT—1881.

On some New Theorems on Curves of double Curvature.
By Professor STURM.

[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso
among the Reports. ]

Tue following theorems on curves of double curvature are the result of
my study of the very interesting papers on twisted curves of the fifth
order, which Professor Cayley has published in the ‘Comptes Rendus,’
vol. liv. and lviii. (1862, 1864). Cayley there considers monoids of
the order m with a given vertex or summit, and passing through a
given curve of double curvature; that is to say, surfaces of the order
m, passing through the curve, and having, at a given point O, a multiple
point of the degree m —1of multiplicity. The cone of the order im — ie
generated by the right lines which have, in common with the surface at
this point, m coincident points, contains all lines passing through O,
and meeting the curve twice. With reference to these lines or chords,
and to their mutual dependence, the consideration of the above-men-
tioned cone has led me to some new results.

1. Consider a curve of the nth order, without singular points, to which
h chords proceed from a given point: let us term it a curve [n, kh]. The
maximum value of h is known to be } 5(1 — 1) (wn — 2). Halphen has given,?
without proof, the minimum value of /. Kohn, however, has published,
in the ‘ Sitzungsberichte der Wiener Akademie,’ 2 a demonstration of the
same result, and last winter I also found this minimum value, before
’ seeing the papers of Halphen and Kohn. This minimum yalue is

aie: 2
the greatest integer contained in (>), therefore ¢(¢—1), or 2,

according as 7 is equal to 2¢ orto 2¢+ 1. Curves with this minimum
always exist; they are each situated on a surface of the second degree, and
form, in the former case, its complete intersection with a surface of the
order ¢, and, in the latter, when completed by a right line, its complete
intersection with a surface of the order ¢ + 1.

2. Cayley has found that through every curve of the nth order a
monoid of the (7 — 1)th order, with a given vertex, can be passed. Hence
we infer that through the h chords which proceed from the given point,
a cone of the order »—2 always passes. And if f has its maximum
value, no cone of an inferior order can possibly contain all the chords ;
but if % diminishes, such cones become possible. There are certain
values of h to be distinguished. I shall denote them by h,, and define
this symbol by the equation :

h; = N(n—j) + 3G—2)G—3)3
wheret + 1>j> 3, and N(v) has the usual signification 4dv(y + 38).
The most important of these values seems to beh, = 43(n —2)(n—3),
a fact with which M. Halphen, I understand, is well acquainted. We
have, moreover, hz = $(n —1)(n—2) —1.

When k becomes < h,, cones of the order n —j through the h chords
are possible, and the « degree of their manifoldness is always h; —h; j
being > 3, the chords are so related to each other that every cone of the
order n —j, passing through any h—43(j— 2)(j—38) of them, contains
also the remaining ones. I was surprised when I first detected this
relation in a special case, viz. the known intersection of a surface of the

1 Comptes Rendus, vol. 1xx. (1870). 2 October, 1880.

ON SOME NEW HEOREMS ON CURVES OF DOUBLE CURVATURE. 44]

third with one of the second order, to which curve six chords proceed
from an arbitrary point, all being situated on a cone of the second degree.!

Hence it follows, that, if h < hy, a plane curve of the nth order with
i double points is not necessarily the perspective of a twisted curve of
this order with h apparent double points—a result with which M.
Halphen also appears to be acquainted.

3. If, further, two cones of the orders m, 1x’ be drawn through the
h chords their mm’ —h remaining edges of intersection will be always
situated on at least one cone of the order v=m+m'—(n—1). If
h>h,, this is self-evident and without interest; it is not so in other
cases, however, and I have found interesting theorems relating to the
mutual dependence of these remaining edges of intersection and to the
manifoldness of the cones of the order v which pass through them. I
must not, however, attempt to communicate these theorems on this
occasion.

4. We have seen that, if h > h4, the h chords are independent of one
another, so far as the conducting of cones through them is concerned.
They cannot all be given arbitrarily, however; no more than can, in
general, the double points of a plane curve when their number surpasses
a certain limit. But I must not enter into this matter.

I will give a construction when h < h,, of sucha system of hrays issu-
ing from a given point, as are formed by the h chords of a curve [n, h].
n and h being given, seek, first, that value of j which satisfies the condition

h,>h>hs413
then construct an arbitrary cone of the order n — 27 + 1, with its vertex
at the given point; take, next, any (n —j)? — h edges of this cone, and
pass through them two cones of the order n —j; their remaining h edges
of intersection will be rays of the required kind. The orders
n—2j) +1 and »—j and the number (n —j)” — h are so chosen, that, in
general, neither of the last two cones breaks up, and that these cones have
no further intersections on the first. I do not say that there always
exists a curve, for which the h rays thus constructed are chords, or a
cone, for which they are double edges; I say merely that the h rays
in question have the same properties, with respect to cones passing
through them, as have the h chords of a curve [n, h]. The degree of
manifoldness of such a system of h rays issuing from a given point is
3h — (hy +1); h being < hy.

5. But I was more interested in the degree of manifoldness of the
curve [n, h] itself in space, or—to use a phrase of Schubert’s—the
number of its constants, or, in other words, the number of simple con-
ditions to which it can be submitted. I have, however, not yet suc-
ceeded with the general problem. I have once more found the result,
for h > h,, which Halphen has communicated, without demonstration, in
the above-quoted paper in the ‘Comptes Rendus’; viz., that if h > hy,
the number of conditions to which a curve [n, h] can be subjected is
always 4n.? Brill and Noether have given? a lower limit for h. I have
not yet found a connection between their reasoning and mine.

1 Kohn seems to have given similar theorems; but an accurate comparison
will soon show that his theorems are not only different from those above com-
municated, but for the most part self-evident and therefore without interest.

* Cf. also my remark in a paper published in Credle’s Journal, vol. lxxxviii.

§ Math. Ann., vol. vii.

442 REPORT—1881.

The other case (k < hy) is much more difficult. It is only when h has
its minimum value that the problem can be easily solved, because the
curve lies then on a surface of the second degree, and the ) chords form
the complete intersection of two cones. The number of conditions is,
if m = 2t, 22+ 2¢ + 9, or ? + 2¢ + 8, according as tis > cr = 2; and if
n = 2¢ +1, it is + 3¢+4 10, or # + 3¢+4+ 8, according astis > or = 1.!

I repeat that I have not yet been able to find, for every such system
of i rays as that constructed in Art. 4,a cone which has them for double
edges.

6. By considering the monoids passing through a curve [n, h], I
have arrived at the following theorem :

The cone of lowest order passing through the h chords is of the
degree n —j, j being defined by: ; >h>h;,,. Hence it follows that
for a surface of the order m > x —j to contain the entire curve will be
a condition of the following degree of multiplicity :*

mn +1— {$m—1)(n— 2) —h} =mn+1—p.

Perhaps the inferior limit of m may be smaller, but certainly the
theorem does not subsist in all cases.

7. I have approached the theory of twisted curves in another manner,
by inquiring into the curves situated on a surface of the third order,—my
old field of research. Following the example of Pliicker, Cayley, and
Chasles, who have considered the curves on a surface of the second
degree,® I construct all curves on a given cubic surface by means of re-
lations between the pencils of planes whose axes are two right lines of the
surface, not situated in the same plane; in this manner I find 3, 6, 7,
11, 14 species of curves of the orders 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 respectively; on
these I will make but two observations.

First, it often happens that two species agree in their order n as well
as in the number h of their apparent double points, and hence also in
their rank v, and in the degree of their manifolduess on the surface (which
always is $r), but differ in the number of their intersections with the
right lies of the surface. For instance, there are two curves of the
sixth order with 10 apparent double points, and with the degree 5 of
manifoldness on the surface: one of them meets 6 right lines 4 times, 15
twice, 6 not at all; the other meets 1,-1, 10, 5, 5, 5 lines, respectively, in
0, 4, 3, 2, 1, O points.

The second, and, in my estimation, the more important observation is,
that most of these curves on a cubic surface are not general ones of
their kind, that is to say, if we construct, on a cubic surface, all possible
curves [n, h], and then construct all possible cubic surfaces, we shall
not reach the degree of manifoldness which is proper to a curve [n, h].
For instance, the curves [9, 28] must have the degree 36 of manifoldness ;
but those situated on cubic surfaces have only the degree 27.

1 Kohn also seeks these numbers, but makes an error in the first case.

? Ed. Weyr, in his papers on twisted curves of the sixth order (Comptes
Rendus, vol. 1xxvi.), appears to have overlooked the circumstance, that this con-
dition is not necessarily of the degree mm + 1, and hence to have arrived at
conclusions which are not all valid. So far as these curves are concerned, I might
refer him to my book on Surfaces of the Third Order, Art. 73.

% Pliicker, Crelle’s Jowrnal, vol. xxxiv.; Cayley, Phil. Mag. July 1861; Chasles,
Comptes Rendus, vol, xiii.

<‘%

"age Gen

n

Brit Asso 18d)
a Plate VII
Kew Electrograph Results for. 1880.
Diurnal, Range Wind Velocity Cloud
|, aN LONER LON TS DEC) peek CL 150 —_—_— ——-— | 160-7 —— >
| | | \
FS pS coset ‘ nal
I]t i \ |
\
5 | | | \ 1 A
4 | i AN
als lao] 70] \ = | | iW
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asi E v | S ‘Ln \
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a Le fy 22 i :
= i >| oy
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3 2 WI |
| : | ve]
" | Sky
Soe Miles| per.| day } Clear 4-6 Ornrcost
Fe iar ete A re aig ee # a 050 150 250 350 450 550 650 0 1 10
| | yearey | | | A,
1] 4 r | | Wind Direction Relative Humidity
| to | se 460.
i 100, | | |
1S) aa |
1 g | 20 3 af
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is HY = | |
8! === een | lie |
— i 1880 Observahenn i
= = Do Pasitive enly Hl
- 1863 (Everitt) %,
1845.47 Positive (Birt) Yearly Mean a ue se ete ead
-- De Do, Low Positive only (Birt) Summer do Se 0 55-59 LU TOT rah
Winler do

Mhuatrating M Whipp

Wind: Frequency

leis Paper on Observations of Atmospheric Electricity at the lew Observatery daring 1580

Observations ;
during 18)
Superinten

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Kew Observat
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Association for
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he first p
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tive tensions,
Fanttively few

OBSERVATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 443

Observations of Atmospheric Electricity at the Kew Observatory
during 1880. By G. M. WuirrLe, BSe, FRAS, PILS.,
Superintendent.

[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso
among the Reports. |

[PLATE VII.]

Tue results of the observations of Atmospheric Electricity made at the
Kew Observatory have been published at various times, but principally
in a long paper of eighty-seven pages in the Report of the British
Association for the year 1849, by Mr. W. R. Birt, F.R.A.S., and in a paper
by Professor Everett, F.R.S., in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for
1868.

The first paper treated of the eye-observations made by the aid of the
beautiful apparatus designed by the late Sir Francis Ronalds, whilst the
latter was based on the reduction of the photographic continuous records
derived from Sir William Thomson’s well-known divided ring Hlectro-
meter, in connection with a water-dropping collector.

Since the beginning of 1873 a quadrant Electrometer has been in
almost constant work. By the kindness of Mr. De La Rue, who allowed
the use of his large chloride of silver battery for the purpose, the value
in absolute measure of the deflections of this instrument has been deter-
mined, and therefore we are now able to give the potential of the Atmo-
spheric Electricity at Kew from time to time in volts instead of in arbitrary
values, as has been done in preceding discussions.

Owing to the incessant and frequent changes in the atmospheric
tension, the tabulation of the photographic traces with any degree of
certainty entails a considerable amount of labour, and although Professor
Everett devised a most ingenious method of obtaining the hourly mean
yalues from the curves, yet we found it impossible in the ordinary
work of the Observatory to devote the time to the instrument that it
necessitated, and hence our seven years’ indications have up till recently
remained unavailable for discussion.

Lately I succeeded in devising a modification of Professor Everett's
method, and constructed a glass scale, by means of which the tabulation
of the curves can be effected with the greatest facility and expedition.
Accordingly we have now commenced the tabulation and discussion of
the accumulated records, and, by the kind permission of the Meteorogical
Council, I am able to lay a few of the facts derived from the curves for
1880 before the members of the British Association.

Having determined the values of the atmospheric tension for every
hour during the year, when measurement of the trace was possible, the
diurnal, monthly, and annual variations were computed.

For brevity I only give here the values of the mean monthly, diurnal,
and annual ranges, which are as follows. See Tables I. and IL.

Having plotted these, the curves were contrasted with those given by
Mr. Birt and by Professor Everett, with the view of finding what, if any
difference, in the phenomena observed may be attributed to instrumental
causes.

As Mr. Birt in his discussion treats separately the positive and nega-
tive tensions, we have also omitted the negative readings, which are com-
paratively few in number, and compared the results with the similar values

1881.

REPORT

444

L838 |L8 |8-L [8-8 |F-8 |F8 9-2 [FL [P-L [9-2 [6-8 |8-8 |1-6 [6-6 |§-LL|§-11 3-11 |G-01 |o-6 |9-8 9-2 |F-2L 19-2 |-2 6-2 | * * suvoyl

OIL /&-EL|6-G1 /9-6T j$-01 |0-8 |F-¢ [2-9 )9-9 |E-L |2-8 [2-6 |8-6 [LLL |F-G19-FL\C-ST |L-F1 6-F1 \S-ST O-ST |8-SL |L-FI 9-S1) FE] ° requtooag

O-IT |F-6 {6-6 |2-01)9-8 |€6 |9-8 [0-8 |F-8 [6-8 [0:6 |T-OL/ 9-11 9-61 |9-FL|L-91 \9-SL [9-FL |L-ST j2-TL |€-T1 |L-TL 1-11 |0-11/ 9-01] * toqmeaon
ZL jO-L |€&8 |€-2L 0-2 9-2 (6-2 |€-8 (0-8 16-8 |[-6 |G-OL|6-O1|T-GT \§-I1 F-O1 9-8 0-8 |¢-2 |F-9 |F-9 19-9 | ° * 1940790

LF |99 |LG |L6 |L¢ [GF |0-F [6-8 19-6 |9-€ [LE [6-8 1¢-4 10-9 |9-¢ |L-9 13-9 |9-¢ |9.9 196 9-F Ivo IL-F IL-G |Zp | ° aequieydeg
Le |9%8 |¢-3 [0-8 |9-¢ |8-€ les 8-% lO-8 [-€ Ie-e Or lop [8-F Io-9 |9-9 [99 [9-9 Ie [9.0 9-6 lbs lee ioe lee 1° * qsnony

&
Fo (0:9 [86 [9-9 |¢-¢ IL-9 6F BF lor [0-7 I8F 19-9 |¢-9 10-2 19-2 ITZ 69 [3-9 |9-9 log ITF 6-6 |L-F 19-9 |8-F | ° , Ayne
6-F |L€ |e-6 [OF [LF |e [be |E-9 IL |e-¢ IL-9 [09 1T9 169 |-9 I¢-9 |9-> I¢F let 9-8 [et LF 8S |€E |8-E | * >» une

GG |GE |6E |9-F 19-9 |T-L 169 [69 0-9 |2-9 |L9 |LL 1-2 O-2 16-6 |9-L [9-9 [9-9 |¢-F |¢-€ |G |L-G |T-6 G6 | ° i sey

G6 |9-9 0:9 |L-8 |9-6 [4-6 j4-8 [6-8 [1-8 [6-6 |9-IT|8-T1) €-GT \S-ST |F-FT |E-SL|L-3T I$-6 (9-8 |¢-L 0-9 0-9 |f-g AEP NEN Ss 8 * [dy

9ST |2-OL |L-11|T-9T |9-9T |G-LT J6-ST \9-ST |0-91 |6-ST 6-1 |0-S1| 8-ET |L-FL 9-91 1§-91 0-ST \0-FT raat G-O1 6-OT 6-01 |G-TL |6-0T| 8-01 | * qore yl

GOL |O-SL|E-FL OFT 0-61 |F-OL ]9-6 2-6 |0-OT |0-01 |8-TT |8-S1) 2-31 3-6 6-EL |¢-FI |9-E1 |9-2L 0-1 3-FI leet 6-6 |8-OL |S-TT/-ET] °

Areniqe sy

SFT [GFT |8-ST 9-91 &-0 GGT |0-GTL-01 |9-O1 [0-11 €-T1 /9-TT GL 8-FI F-91|8-8T 2-06 LST 6-81 9-81 B-ZI LET 9-81 e-e1}0gT|* Arenuee

sae | |. Sea
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suvoTT : ! 2 YUOW

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‘OST avo X oy ut L10zpvadosq—, Moy 047 4B Aploraqoo[y olmoydsouyy Jo uorsuoT, Weo|Y—'] aTaVy,

a

445

CrRICITY.

’
v)

OBSERVATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC BL}

| 16 88 £8 a6 Le 18 08 4 OL bs (es 9.6 FOr 9411 L-21 on 0-1 6-6 16:8 3-8 St LS |9-8 28 suroqy ApmMoy
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a a hee ie Shee ec YN | oe eee ae |e see |< cats ae “40
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*S}OA OT sjenbo worstarq [ ‘epeog Jo suorstarqy ur passordxo UWOISuay,

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446 REPORT— 1881.

he obtained. The separation in our case does not produce any marked
influence on the final curves, the general features of diurnal and annual
changes being virtually identical in both.

The mean diurnal curve for 1880 closely follows Professor Everett’s,
indicating a minimum tension of about 74 volts at 3 p.M., and rising to a
maximum of 113 volts at 9 and 10 p.m., from which there is a steady fall
to a second minimum of 74 volts at 4 A.m., afterwards rising to the other
maximum of 88 volts at 9 a.m.

In both cases the very rapid fall of tension observed by Birt to take
place between 10 p.m. and midnight disappears in favour of a more gentle
descent. The difference between the diurnal and nocturnal minimum
tensions so conspicuous in the periodical eye-observations also disappears
in the continuous records.

Taste I1i.—Values of Electrical Tension distributed according to
Wind-direction.

1880 N. NE | Ee | S.E. | Ss.

S.w.| Ww. | N.W.

January . 14:7 uP 13:7 9- LO Sime al 15 a2), 29:
February 9: 1s | — |} I 115 | 13 — | it
March — | 128} 144] — — — 13: 10:
April TT |e FB T- | L2eo | 1808 Ae te 10:6: | 1
May 5°3 54°) 87) — — 5-2 4:3 4
June SH a] Ra eerste) | es 6° the 46 | —
July Su | 845 eB See 57 | 54 Om Los
August . 4:5 3D ie — — 5: 55 | 6
September . pull elo =a || Bs | 5: 3:5 DB: Somn|” piso
October . 5 : PH Ge rely ate Oil acs 0: -- 6:0} 40-sa) 108
November . . «| I63] 137) — | — | 10° 103) 88] 9:
December . ; - | 13:0] L0- SS 28° 6:2] Tl-" 9), 25:
Quarterly Means
Dec., Jan., Feb. . sell USS) | aLO Ow), LS:7, 6:3 | 13-4 | 10:9 | 12:1 | 19:6
March—May . nile =(6"3 83°] 12:9 | 12:6 | 13:3 7:2 88) 60
June—August : of ea 3-4 3:7 50 5S | 5:7 53 | 5:5
Sept., Oct., Nov. . a dds STi) A E26.) a Se TT aos O
Semi-annual Means
March—August . : 5-0 6:1 { 10:9 8°5 8:3 6:2 | 64 | 58
Sept.—Feb. . : ar isis: 8:9 9-2 4°8 | 11°9 9°2 99 | 12°8
Annual Means
[, 9:6 69 | 103, 64{ 103] 80| 82 {| 10:9

As regards the curve of annual variation of tension, we find that for
1880 the curve more closely resembled that of 1845-7 than it did that
of 1863. The months of maximum mean tension were January, when it
was 143 volts, and March 136; and of minimum, August 37 volts, and
September 47 volts. .

Mr. Birt also found the minimum took place in August, but the
maximum in January and February.

Professor Everett gave maxima in November and December, and
minima in May and July, with a second minimum in January.

The curves of diurnal range for each month have also been contrasted,

OBSERVATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 447
and itis found that, as a rule, the curves of the three series closely resemble
one another, indicating in all cases a much greater variation in tension
during the twenty-four hours in the winter months than in the summer,
the relative values of the diurnal range being for 1880, in volts—

January .101 April . 90 July 37 October 57
February . 52 May 73 August . 35 November . 75
March 70 June 36 September. 35 December . 100

the mean for the year being 66.

Taste IV.—Values of Electrical Tension corresponding to Wind-

Velocities.
Total horizontal movement of the air in 24 hours in Miles
lelslelalisislieleleielglgigis
1880. TENA erp cto Caer wa rc eine Tce | Sen
[en sce acta Sa cal cae Pca =
Monthly Means ;
January [RO b/ = 2" (3) 9) GS) os a> | Se
February Oe 22nd y eligi! Ore NeS" |G ile ety ea || tare 5:
March —— | SS to WLO Tbe Aas Ll Oh ass iaqiGe | ees —
April — | — |18- | 8 |10: |10- | — | 7-5) 6:5) -3- | 7 | =| —| —
May —|—/! 4] 5:5) 6 | 6G | 3] 5: 4) 9620 | 2S) ==) eee
June . igen) 67/5 eG Seal Ae ed (ac FI
July eee se hy Gof Sa fe ee
August 6 om sO ole aan staf eke: |e IEE tse ||| eee teen
September . Be) Baer Wy Beal ha Bl ast | eS See hel a ee
October T | Se 112: | By T4a | T | a Oe «O° | 45 —2° —
November . — | 12° |14°5) 17> | 11° | 12> | 10° | 10° | 8: | 18: |=] 7 | a. |—
December . Te —— pele | Ci sel See abet angel Me MTisty te er i Alay lee ea te Ss —
Quarterly Means .
Dec., Jan., Feb. . | 17-7] 17-2| 15°7| 126) 13-8) 11-7) 7:0) 7-7) 5-3] 7-0] 7-5) — 16-0; 5-0
March— May — |15+5| 9-4| 7-3) 9:0} 9:9] 7:7) 10-3) -8-1) 7-8] 7-0) — | —} —
June—August — | 61] 5-2] 5-0) 4:7| 4-0] 3-4] 5-0] — | — /—|—}—}—
Sept., Oct., Nov. 5:51 7-9112-4! 6-6] 10-3| 6-7/ 8-8] 5-0! 6:01 7-3! — 2°51 2:0) —
Semi-annual Means
March—August . | — | 7:7] 7:2| 8-1] 6:5) 6-4/ 5:9 9-1) $1 77 (a0) apes) ==
Sept.—Feb. . | 9:0] 10-0} 14:3}, 9°8) 11:7] 8-4] 7-8} 6:8] 5:5 7:2) 7-5| 2°5| 4:0] 5-0}
Annual Means
| 9:0|10-7| 11:1) 8:9] 8-7] 7:3) 6-7} 8-4 6°7| 7:5|7:3\ 2°5| 4-0] 5-0

The variation of Atmospheric Electricity at Kew with some of the
other meteorological elements has already been briefly investigated ;
Professor Everett having indicated the similarity between the curve of
diurnal variation of tension with that of the diurnal variation of the
barometer, whilst Mr. Birt directed his attention to the relation between
electricity and the quantity of aqueous vapour in the air.

The striking resemblance between the curves of diurnal variation of
electrical tension and of barometric pressure has also been found to run
all through 1880, and the same fact has been noticed at Greenwich by
Mr. Ellis, as well as the apparent lagging behind of the barometric curve
by from one to two hours.

448 REPORT—1881.

The fact of frequency of negative tension with rain has long been
observed ; but it is found that it is almost always accompanied with large
and rapid excursions on the side of positive tension, and therefore the
average hourly value of the tension during such periods is seldom low.

One year’s data can scarcely be considered to give perfectly decisive
results; but it is believed that the following conclusions may be drawn
from the observations now under discussion.

In the first case, itis found that generally the relations differ in summer
and in winter; their variations are therefore given as well as their means.

Taste V.—-Values of Electrical Tension corresponding to varying
amounts of Cloud.

Tenths of sky covered.

1880 be

0-2 3-4 | 5-6 | 7-8 9-10

Monthly Means
January : ‘ sil) oA22tS eats ei Ss era SH 68 | | Liz 115
February . i ; Wis 16° | 145 | By 9-8
March : - o | 14:7 13°5 14:6 12:3 8°5
April . : , ° = | a 10-4 10°3 8:
May “h. j . A 6° | 6:2 5° | 5:5 5°
June . . 5 ° —_ | 5: 6° | 5: 5
Sroliy, sis fs - ; _- o- 6° 5:5 4-7
August ° . - | 5 — Sin 4:7 oe
September . . : 27 33 aT | 5°6 4:3
October . . ol ie 8:2 13° 14:3 53
November . . «| 16 15°3 133 | 106 6:3
December . . “ 22° 10° 18° ili 8:

Quarterly Means
Dec., Jan., Feb. . 5 20°7 TSO —16°7 129 9:9
March, April, May = 13°8 9:01 65° 9:0 6°6
June, July, August. 5-0 5-0 | Bl |) OB 49
Sept., Oct. Nov... 117 8-8 B77, F| 9-2 53

Semi-annual Means

March—August : 12:3 | 79 | wll | 6-4 5:3
September—February . 15°6 10:3 12:7 10-9 Ter

Annual Means
14:2 9:3)n4| a7) | 84 | 6°6

1st. Wind—direction. It is found at Kew that for the year the maxi-
mum tension (109 volts) occurs with north-westerly winds, and the
minimum (64) with south-easterly winds ; but for the summer months the
tension is greatest (109 volts) with an east wind, and lowest (50) with a
north wind; whilst in winter the conditions are almost reversed, and
northerly and north-westerly winds have the strongest tensions—133
and 128 volts respectively, and south-easterly the weakest, with 48. See
Table III.

These results may be influenced by the intensity of the wind, as it is
found that, contrary to what one would imagine, light winds have a higher
potential than strong breezes, the average tension being in the latter case
but about one-third of that in the former.

OBSERVATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY, 449

This, however, is not very well-marked in summer, when there does
not seem to be a very defined relation between the two phenomena; it is
almost entirely due to the winter observations. See Table IV.

2nd. Cloud. Both summer and winter results agree in giving a direct
ratio between the electrical tension of the air and the cloudiness of the
sky; the average tension under an almost cloudless sky being more than
double what it is under a completely overcast one, the observed values
being for the former 142 volts, and for the latter 66. See Table V.

Taste VI.—Values of Mean Daily Tension corresponding to different
Values of the Mean Daily Relative Humidity of the Air.

Relative Humidity, complete saturation being 100.

1880 | 60-64 | 65-69 | 70-74 | 75-79 | 80-84 | 85-89 | 90-94 | 95-99
Monthly Means
January . 8 ee SF — 15 14 15 14 —
February . —- jf — fo = — 14 9 11 18
March - 16 15 16 12 10 — —
April 7 fi 6 9 11 vat 18 =
May 5 5 6 | 4 3 _ oe pa
June _— Bay! Boe 5 6 4 4 4
July ==: — | 6 5 5 6 — =
August — — 5 4 3 2 = oe
September — DUANE eA 4 6 5 4 —
October 22 Lalbvod 11 ll 6 4 3
November . |; — areal lily 10 13 10 7 =
December . Tae — | — 11 10 10 15 6
Quarterly Means
Dec., Jan., Feb. — — = 13 12 1 14 15
March—May . 5 7 8 10 11 10 20 2
June—August .| — 6 oF 1) ene 5 4 4 —_—
Sept., Oct., Nov. | — 3 re 9 8 4 3
Semi-annual Means

March—Aueust

6°8 118 20
Sept.—Feb. 6 1-4

65
30 | 103 98 | 10:2 98 | 110 | 11+

Annual Means
fies siiesG2be hil AiG Oe) euSile asa ye8'2 alee Gobo LOgil TOsg

2 | 73. | 64 | T1 |

Relative Humidity.—Table VI. The different degrees of tension cor-
responding to varying amounts of relative humidity cannot well be deter-
mined. On the whole, tension rises as the moisture of the air increases,
being about 50 volts when the air is but half-charged with moisture, and
over 100 volts when at the point of complete saturation; the variation,
however, is not regular, either in summer or winter, becoming much more
rapid as the point of saturation is approached; this is probably due
oy to the high tensions always observed during the prevalence
of fogs.

The Thomson electrometer at Kew, from which these results have
been deduced, having been subjected to necessary re-adjustment from
time to time since its scale-value was originally determined, the tensions

1881. (ene!

450 REPORT—-1881.

given above may possibly need correction at some future date, but as no
radical change affecting the accuracy of the instrument has been made, it
is assumed the values here given are not far from the truth.

Owing to the unsuitability of the instrument for the registration of
phenomena of very brief duration it is not possible to give any values
for the tensions observed during periods. of great electrical disturbance,
such as thunder or hail storms; it may, however, be remarked that on
such occasions the deflections of the needle far exceed the limits of regis-
tration of the electrograph, which are from about — 150 to + 600 volts.

Excursions of the dot of light through a considerably larger range
than the above may be watched taking place with every flash of lightning
during a storm, but the rate of movement across the paper is far too
rapid to permit of photographic registry.

Magnetic disturbances and aurore are not found to produce any
marked changes in the indications of the instrument.

On the Arrestation of Infusorial Life by Solar Light.
By Professor JoHn TyNDALL, FBS,

[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso
among the Reports. ]

THREE years ago I brought with me to the Alps a number of flasks
charged with animal and vegetable infusions. The flasks had been boiled
from three to five minutes in London, and hermetically sealed during
ebullition.

Two years ago I had sent to me to Switzerland a batch of similar
flasks containing other infusions. On my arrival here this year, one
hundred and twenty of these flasks lay upon shelves in my little library.
Though eminently putrescible, the animal and vegetable juices had re-
mained as sweet and clear as when they were prepared in London.

Still an expert, taking up one of the flasks containing an infusion of
beef or mutton, would infallibly pronounce it to be charged with organisms.
He would find it more or less turbid throughout, with massive flocculi
moving heavily in the liquid. Exposure of the flask for a minute or two
to lukewarm water would cause both turbidity and flocculi to disappear,
and render the infusion as clear as the purest distilled water. The
turbidity and flocculi are simply due to the coagulation of the liquid to a
jelly. This fact is some guarantee for the strength of the infusions.

I took advantage of the clear weather this year to investigate the
action of solar light on the development of life in these infusions, being
prempted thereto by the interesting observations brought before the
Royal Society by Dr. Downes and Mr. Blunt in 1877.! The sealed ends
of the flasks being broken off, they were infected, in part by the water of
an adjacent brook and in part by an infusion well charged with organisms.
Hung up in rows upon a board, half the flasks of each row were securely
shaded from the sun, the other half being exposed to the light. In some
cases, moreover, flasks were placed in a darkened room, within the house,
while their companions were exposed in the sunshine outside.

The clear result of these experiments, of which a considerable number
were made, is that by some constituent or constituents of the solar radia-

» Proc, Roy. Soc., December 6.

ON THE EFFECTS OF OCEANIC CURRENTS UPON CLIMATES. 451

tion, an influence is exercised inimical to the development of the lowest
infusoria. ‘Twenty-four hours usually sufficed to cause the shaded flasks
to pass from clearness to turbidity, while thrice this time left the exposed
ones without sensible damage to their transparency.

This result is not due to mere differences of temperature between the
infusions. On many occasions the temperature of the exposed flasks was
far more favourabie to the development of life than that of the shaded
ones. The energy which, in the cases here referred to, prevented putre-
faction was energy in the radiant form.

In no case have I found the flasks sterilized by insolation; for on
removing the exposed ones from the open air to a warm kitchen they
infalliby changed from clearness to turbidity. Four and twenty hours
were in most cases sufficient to produce this change.

Life is therefore prevented from developing itself in the infusions, as
long as they are exposed to the solar light; and the paralysis, thus
produced, enables them to pass through the night-time without alteration.
it is, however, a suspension, not a destruction of the germinal power,
for, as before stated, when placed in a warm room life was invariably
developed.

Had I had the requisite materials I should have determined, by means .
of coloured media, or otherwise, the particular constituents of the solar
radiation which are concerned in this result. The rays, moreover, which
thus interfere with life, must be absorbed by the liquid, or by its germinal
matter. It would, therefore, be interesting to ascertain whether, after
transmission through a layer of any infusion, the radiation still possessed
the power of arresting the development of life in the same infusion. It
would also be interesting to examine how far insolation may be employed
in the preservation of meat from putrefaction.

Nore.—I would not be understood to say that it is impossible to
sterilize an infusion by insolation, but merely to indicate that I have thus
far noticed no case of the kind.

On the Effects of Oceanic Currents wpon Climates.
By the Rev. SAMUEL HavucuTon, M.D., F.RS.

[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso
among the Reports. ]

Tuer Gulf Stream and its connter-current, the Labrador current, produce
important effects upon climate, which I propose to investigate in some
detail, as much misapprehension exists as to what they do and do not do;
and I propose further to consider what the effect of similar currents and
counter-currents would be, if admitted to the Arctic Ocean from the
Pacific through a widened and deepened Behring Strait, and if admitted
to the Arctic Ocean, from the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea (by lower-
ing Mesopotamia), through the Great Caspian depression in the west of
Asia.}

‘ Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace has ingeniously proposed these two additional Gulf
Streams as causes of climatal changes in recent Geological times in the Arctic Zone,
but he does not seem to be aware of the effects of the counter-currents they would
necessarily produce,

Ga?

452 rEPORT—1881.
Prop. l.—Ié is required to calculate the effects of the Gulf Stream upon
the climates of the North Atlantic and Arctic Regions.

The following table shows the mean annual temperature, for all longi-
tudes, of the several latitudes in the northern and southern hemispheres :

Lat. N. Annual Temperature Lat. 8S. Annual Temperature
0° . : 80°1 F. 0° : 3 80°1 F

10° . : 81°-0 10° é : 78°°7

20° 6 : 77°°6 20° 5 5 TAS 4

30° : : 67°°6 30° ; - 66°°7

40° : : 56°°5 40° : 3 bie’?

50° : : 43°°4 50° 2 : 47°°8

60° ; ; 29°°3 60° ‘ 35°°3

70° c : 14°°4 '

80° : F 4°°5

From this it appears that the northern hemisphere is warmer than
the southern from lat. 0° to lat. 30°, and that it is colder than the
southern from lat. 40° to lat. 60°.' The higher temperature of the
southern hemisphere in the temperate latitudes is explained by the
existence of three gulf-streams in that hemisphere, while there is only
one in the North Atlantic, and a partial one through Behring Strait, in
the northern hemisphere.

If we make use of Ferrel’s Tables ? of temperature for each parallel of
latitude affected by the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic, we find the
following results :—

Mean Annual Temperatures.
Mean temperature Mean temperature

Range of Longitude influenced of air above of all other

Lat. N. by Gulf Stream Gulf Stream Longitudes

40° 0° to 50° .W. 61°60 F, 55°°68 F,
50° TOS Wey OO. Ws 52°-00 42°01
60° DOME i) F20°°W. 44°-60 26°°83
70° POZE sy LOC W: 30°-00 11°07
80° G02 TH Wet LOPS. 11°22 2°26

The last column shows the temperature to which the climates affected
by the Gulf Stream would fall, if the Gulf Stream were to cease, and the
differences are shown in the following table :—

Local and General Fall of Temperature occasioned by the supposed
cessation of the Gulf Stream.

Mean Annual Temperatures.

Local fall at Gulf Stream General fall at all other
Lat. N. Longitudes Longitudes
40° s : , 5°92 FB. 4 ; A 0°82 F.
50° ; : : 99:99 J F : 1°39
60° ; : : Li aay. - é : 2°47
70° , $ , 18°93 ‘ F > atB8B}
80° ; 4 5 8°96 a ie Ae ‘ 2°24

1 In point of fact, the latitude at which the mean annual temperature, at all
longitudes, is the freezing-point of water is 58° 51’ in the northern hemisphere, and
62° 41’ in the southern hemisphere ; or, in other words, the latitude of mean tempera-
ture of 32° F. lies nearer the Pole in the southern hemisphere than in the northern,
by 3° 50’ or 230 geographical miles. This makes a very sensible difference between
the two hemispheres.

2 United States Coast Survey Meteorological Researches for the use of the Coast
Pilot. Part I. By William Ferrel, M.A., 1877.

ON THE EFFECTS OF OCEANIC CURRENTS UPON CLIMATES. 453

Tf, instead of tabulating the mean annual temperatures, we tabulate
the mean July and January temperatures, we obtain the following
results :—

Mean July Temperatures.

Temperature at Gulf Temperature at all

Lat. N. Stream Longitudes other Longitudes Diff.
40° - : 70°00 F. - : CB ED digs . — 3°40 F.
50° : : 63°80 : : 65°77 ; . a O59
60° : - 57°-40 . : 56°94 : : + 0°46
70° : : 44°°75 : é 44°°24 : - + 0°51
80° ; : 32°78 : 2 34°54 c : — 1°76

Sum 268°°73 . « 27489

From this table we see that the Gulf Stream adds nothing to the July
temperatures of the localities affected by it, but rather, on the whole, has
the effect of slightly diminishing the summer heat. This fact will be of
extreme importance when we come to discuss the question of the Tertiary
Climate of the Arctic Regions.

Mean January Temperatures.

Temperature at Gulf Temperature at all
Lat. N. Stream Longitudes other Longitudes Diff.
S05) : 63°43 F. : : 53°21 FP... - + 10°22 F,
40° : ; 52°00 é 5 37°93 : oo LES OF
50° : 5 40°-00 2 5 18°28 A . + 21°-72
60° : : 33°60 : — 3°44 2 » + 37°04
70° : c 20°75 3 - — 20°03 ? - » + 40°78
80° - — 10°44 : - — 29°85 c - + 19°41
Sum + 199°°34 5 » + 56°10

From this table it is evident that theaction of the Gulf Stream upon the
climates of high latitudes consists simply in raising the winter heat, while
the summer heat remains unaffected and the mean annual temperature is
raised by about half the amount of rise in the January temperature.

The general climatal effect of the Gulf Stream is therefore to make
the annual range of temperature less;? (the climate more insular), but
it has no effect whatever upon summer heat, or upon the fruiting. of
plants and trees, that require a given July temperature for reproduction.
é pete effects, as the table shows, reach a maximum somewhere about

oN. lat.

The two following tables show the effect that would be produced upon
the mean July and January temperatures, at all longitudes by a supposed
withdrawal of the Gulf Stream. =

Mean July Temperatures at all Longitudes.

Lat. N. With Gulf Stream Without Gulf Stream Diff.
40° F ; 73°-0 F. 5 ‘ ousAgts 5 - —0°4 F.
50° & 3 65°°5 c : 65°°8 - . — 0°°3
60° : 3 57°-0 7 Ci 56°°9 : F) + 0° 1
70° : , 44°°3 3 : 44°-2 : f + 0° 1
80° = : 34°] F i BA°-5 Ns : — 0°4

Mean — 0°18 F

--This table proves that the effect of the Gulf Stream upon temperature

? Longitudes (10° W. to 70° W.) are the Gulf Stream longitudes for 30° N. lat.
_ ® This effect also diminishes the range of secular variation of temperature, depend-
ing on the eccentricity and perihelion longitude of the earth’s orbit.

454 REPORT—1881.

in July at all latitudes is nil; and that the ripening of seeds and fruits
depends on sunheat and latitude only.

Mean January Temperatures at all Longitudes.

Lat. N. With Gulf Stream Without Gulf Stream Diff.
40° : : 400° F. 37°9° F. = eee te es oa
50° 5 H 21°3° 18°3° ; - | Bsrahoe
60° : : Were : . = 34° 5 a ELS
70° : Salar ; . — 20:0° + 4:5°
80° ‘ . — 25:0° — 29°8° + 4:8°

Prop. I1.—It is required to caleulate the effects of the Kuro-Siwo (Japan
current) wpon climates in the North Pacific, and its effect upon high latitudes,
if it were admitted to the Arctic Ocean through Behring Strait, widened
and deepened.

Following the same method that I have used for the Gulf Stream, I
find the effects of the Kuro-Siwo in the North Pacific to be as follow :—

North Pacific. Mean July Temperatures.

Mean
+ Longitudes influenced | Temperature of All other .
LatoN by Kuro-Siwo acs Sv Longitudes Diff.
Longitudes

40° 130° W. to 180° W. 63°33° F. 74:93° F, — 11:60° F.

50° 140° W. ,, 180° W. 58:00° 66°71° — 871°

60° 140° W. ., 170° E. 52°33° 57:98° — 5:60°

70° 120° W. ,, 150° W. 48°50° 43°84° + 4:66°

This table shows that the summer effect of the Kuro-Siwo upon the
North Pacific is even less than the summer effect of the Gulf Stream upon
the North Atlantic. The reason of this is, that although the Kuro-Siwo
is a much larger current than the Gulf Stream, it is required to heat a
much larger area, for the North Pacific is much larger than the North
Atlantic.
The effects produced in winter by the Kuro-Siwo are shown in the
following table :—

North Pacific. Mean January Temperatures.

Mean |
Longitudes influenced | Temperature of All other *
ra a by Kuro-Siwo re Siwo Longitudes ag
Longitudes

30° 120° W. to 160° E. 57°89° F, 54:30° F. + 3°59° F.
40° 110° W031 702 a: 48:00° 37°33° + 10°67°
50° 110° W. ,, 160° E. 34-80° 16°11° + 18°69°
60° 130° W. ,, 170° E. 10°43° —0°59° + 11:02°
70° Kuro-Siwo produces no effect.

1 This represents the effect of the portion of the Kuro-Siwo which enters
Behring Strait in summer, and extends eastward as far as Banks’ Land, but is
unable to enter in winter.

ON THE EFFECTS OF OCEANIC CURRENTS UPON CLIMATES. 455

If we bring together the January effects of the Gulf Stream in the
North Atlantic, and of the Kuro-Siwo in the North Pacific, we shall see
the difference between them most clearly.

Effects of Gulf Stream and Kuro-Sivo upon January Temperatures.

Lat. N. Gulf Stream Excess Kuro-Siwo Excess Diff.
30° 3 5 + 10°22° BF, : 6 + 359° I. ; : + 6°63° F,
40? a F + 14:07° ‘ - + 10°67° 3 : + 3°40°

- 50° 4 5 + 21729 - - + 18°69° : é boa
60° 4 3 + 37:04° 4 : + 11:02° “ : + 26:02°
70° ( 6 + 40:78° 3 nil. a 4 + 40:78°
80° - : + 19°41° : 5 nil. : - : + 19°41°

The following considerations help to explain the differences produced
in the North Atlantic and North Pacific by their respective systems of
ocean-circulation :—

1. The ocean-currents at the equator and within the tropics are caused
by the trade winds.

2. The trade winds are caused by the equatorial evaporation and sub-
sequent precipitation of vapour as rain, and the force of the trade winds
is proportional to the rate of evaporation.

Combining these propositions, we find that the volume of the equa-
torial current will be proportional to the equatorial breadth of the ocean
and to the rate of evaporation, jointly.

The following tables show the mean annual temperatures of the tropical
latitudes of the North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

North Atlantic Ocean.
Mean Annual

Latitude Longitudes Temperature
O° N. , 4 § JOP sEtor 50? Wis : : 79°86° F.
10° N. - 5 ‘ QOPT Wr. 955 60° We) aut. ‘ t 80-40°
20° N. A F ° ZOE Wr esp LOO Wie) 's R > 77°89°
Mean ; 5 19°535° Be

North Pacific Ocean.
Mean Annual

Latitude Longitudes ‘Temperature
O° N. - 4 : 80° W.to120° E. . js 7 79:08° F.

10° N. 3 . 5 GOS MW, LTO2 Bay y j . T817°
20° N. 3 ; ape OS Wie LOC SS. 1 : A 74:64°

Mean . é T748° BF,

The ratio of the mean breadths of the two oceans in the given lati-
tudes is—

Etaen) folnesa -avidagg pi sogqus 3

Atlantic iF 625 at bd

The ratio of the vapour-tensions of the mean annual temperatures of
the two oceans, in the given latitudes, is—

Pacific _ Vapour Tension of 77°48 F. _ > 0-947 in.
Atlantic Vapour Tension of 79°38 F. ~——-1-001 in.
Hence, the approximate ratio of the volumes of the Pacific and Atlantic
equatorial currents, which produce the Kuro-Siwo and Gulf Stream, is
1 UNAS Y
625 ~ 1001 — ie

56

456 REPORT—1881,

Or, in other words, the forces producing the Kuro-Siwo are nearly two
and a half times greater than the forces producing the Gulf Stream.

To find, from the foregoing ratio of the volumes of the two ocean-
streams, that of their heat-producing effect, we must multiply by the
excess of temperature above 32° F., or by

77°48 F. — 32°:0 F. me 45°48

79°38 FR, 22 32°0: Br a 47°38
from which we find the ratio of the effect (in melting ice) of the Kuro-
Siwo to the Gulf Stream.

Relative heating effect of
Kuro-Siwo 9-49 4548
Gulf Stream 4738

In order to find the actual relative effect of the Pacific and Atlantic
ocean-currents in affecting climate at any locality we must further take
account of the relative areas over which these effects are spread. In the
North Pacific, the January temperatures are raised from the 30th parallel
of latitude to the 65th parallel; and in the North Atlantic, from the
40th parallel to the 80th parallel. I have calculated the relative areas of
these surfaces, and find it to be as 44,014 to 24,511.

Hence the absolute heating effect of the Kuro-Siwo, as compared with
the Gulf Stream, will be

Pacific _ 9.39 24511 _ 4.9
Slentia "Ants okt. 4201 ee

From these calculations it follows that although the volume of the
Kuro-Siwo is 2°42 times greater than that of the Gulf Stream, its heating
effect is only 1°29 times greater.

We are now in a position to calculate numerically the effect upon
climate that would be produced by widening and deepening Behring
Strait. I shall suppose it widened and deepened from the Kamtschatka
mountain range on the west to the mouth of the Mackenzie river on the
ne by the submersion of the Tehukchi land, and of Aliaska and

laska.

= 2395

Parallel of 60° N. January Temperature.

In the North Atlantic, the effect of the Gulf Stream is shown by its
raising the temperature of January, from long. 30° W. to long. 10° E., to
a mean of + 32°°8 F., whereas the mean temperature of this parallel at
all longitudes is only + 1°°7. The July temperatures remain unaffected.

If we now suppose the Kuro-Siwo admitted through the widened
Behring Strait to produce a similar effect in the proportion of 129 to
100, we obtain the following results :—

The present mean January temperatures at Behring Strait are as
follows at 60° N. :—

Long. 170° E. . : 4 ‘ + 12°R,
np LSO° Be : 7 . é , s — 26°
yy LOS mys - : “ F : : -- 24°
off OOOS EWR é s — 22°
aie woOr, We — 23°
aye LOS Vi, — 24°
py aoUS! Wie — 26°

Mean * « — 19°00

~I

ON THE EFFECTS OF OCEANIC CURRENTS UPON CLIMATES. 45

As stated above, the effect of the Gulf Stream, in the North Atlantic,
is to raise the temperature of January from + 1°-7 F. to 32°°8 F. through
40° of longitude atfected by it. The effect of the Kuro-siwo admitted
through Behring Strait, may therefore be measured by a corresponding
rise of temperature, through

40 x 1:29 = 51°6 of longitude.

This would produce a mean January temperature, at all longitudes,
equal to
32:8 x 51°6 + 1:7 x 308-4
360

This raising of the January temperature, at Behring Strait, from
— 19°-0 F. to 32°°8 F. would, of course, produce in the longitudes affected
by it an important effect in saving from destruction plants and trees
which would perish at — 19°-0 F. in winter, but would give no benefit
whatever to plants requiring a given July temperature to ripen their
seeds.

Tis effect, at all longitudes, is to raise the January temperature through
4°46 F, and the mean annual temperature through 2°-23 F.

= /6>16° 7.

Parallel of 70° N. January Temperature.

The January temperatures, in the N. Atlantic at 70° lat., are raised
by the Gulf Stream, from long. 10° W. to long. 20° E., to a mean of
+ 20°75 F., instead of — 15°°5 F. at all longitudes, the July tempera-
tures remaining unaffected.

The corresponding effects at Behring Strait (widened and deepened)
would be thus found, assuming as before the proportion of 5 to 4 for
the relative thermal effects of the Kuro-Siwo and Gulf Stream:

Present mean January temperatures at Behring Strait longitude at

70° N. lat.

Long. 160° W. . b : ; : - — 22°°0 F.
a LbODEW - C : : ‘ — 23°:0
ayy LAOS Wes ; : : : : — 24°:0
gees (S10)! ae : : : : — 26°°0
ay L20BGW A ° : . — 28°-0
Mean F . — 24°6 F.

Caleulatiag, as before, the effect of the Kuro-Siwo (admitted through
Behring Strait) upon all longitudes, I find that it would raise the J anuary
temperature through

30 x 1:29 = 38°°7 of longitude,

from — 24°6 F., which is the present temperature of the longitudes
affected, to the temperature of + 20°75 F., and that the consequent
January temperature at all longitudes would be :—

20°75 x 38°7 — 15°5 x 3213
OO — °-53 F.
360 ie
The January rise of temperature at all longitudes is therefore 3°97 F.,
and the rise of mean annual temperature is 1°99 F.
aie alteration would confer little benefit upon plant-life at that high
ude.

458 REPORT—1881.

Parallel of 80° N. Lat. January Temperature.

The January temperatures, in the N. Atlantic at lat. 80°, are raised by
the Gulf Stream, from long. 0° to long. 60° E., from — 25°0 F. to
—10°4 F.; the July temperatures remaining unaffected. The corre-
sponding effects of the Kuro-Siwo at Behring Strait (widened and
-deepened), would be as follows, on the same supposition as before, as to
the relative thermal effects of the ocean-streams.

Present mean January temperatures at Behring Strait at 80° lat.

Long. 170° E. . ; : . . : — 33°:0 F.
$5 i) OOo CH ee : : : : ; — 33°-0
991, OSE alee 3 : : : 3 — 32°-0
33.) BHGOL Wie ; 3 : ; : — 32°°0
5), 9 LOS Wie 6 : - ; : : — 33°°0
sae Wnnaee - é : ; : — 34°-0
$5) LOD We a : ; H ; : — 35°0
oi LOSI oe - : 4 : : — 37°°0
35 LOZ AWeles , ‘ : : : — 39°-0
Mean . : — 349-22

Calculating, as before, the effect of the Kuro-Siwo (admitted through
Behring Strait), I find that it would raise the mean January temperature
from — 34°22 F. to — 10°44 F. through

60 x 1:29 = 77°-4 of longitude
affected by it.
This gives, for the consequent January temperature, at all longitudes :
a PA Ore 9.
10°44 x 00" ~ 25°0 x 282°6 =a ae 91°-87 F.
360

The January rise of temperature, at all longitudes, is therefore .
3°13 F., and the mean annual rise in temperature is 1°57 F.

Placing all these results together, we obtain the following effects upon

the January temperatures of the Arctic Regions produced by the admis-
sion of the Kuro-Siwo through Behring Strait.

Local Effect General Effect
|
Lat. = an
Temperature | Temperature | Dit. | Temperature | Temperature Diff
before after | eee |) before atter J

| 51°80 F.| + 1°7F. | + 6°16 F.| 4°-46 F.
45°-35 — 15°5 — 11°53 3°-97
23°-76 | — 95°0 — 21°-87 3°13

60° | —19°-0 F. | + 32°-80 F,
70° | — 24°6 + 20°75
80° | — 34°2 — 10°-44

As the July temperatures remain unaffected all through, zoologists and
botanists can readily estimate the trifling effects of this change of climate
upon animal and plant life.

We have hitherto considered the direct effects of tepid ocean-currents,
like the Gulf Stream and Kuro-Siwo, if admitted into the Arctic Ocean,
and have found that they produce no effect whatever upon the summer
temperature of the higher latitudes, although they unquestionably benefit
the winter temperatures of those latitudes.

We must now examine the indirect effects of the admission of these

tepid ocean-currents, which are perhaps of more serious importance to the
welfare of plants and animals.

ON THE EFFECTS OF OCEANIC CURRENTS UPON CLIMATES. 459

When an ocean-current moving from south to north obtains admis-
sion to the Arctic Ocean, it produces necessarily, on hydrodynamical
principles, an equal and opposite counter-current moving from north to
south. The tepid water-current-is forced by the rotation of the earth to
shift its direction continually to the right, and thus it happens that the
Gulf Stream is pressed upon the western shores of Hurope and Spitz-
bergen, and benefits those localities in winter. On the other hand the
cold counter-current returning through Baffin’s Bay and along the east
coast of Greenland, is also forced by the earth’s rotation to keep to its
right, and so is préssed upon the coast of Labrador and the east coast of
North America as far south as Cape Cod. This return or counter current,
known as the Labrador Current, and others, exercises an influence upon
climate the opposite of that of the Gulf Stream, and of such a kind as to
render it very doubtful whether the Gulf Stream is a real benefit to the
climate of the whole globe or not.

While the Gulf Stream raises the January temperature of all places
visited by it, the Labrador or counter-current lowers the July tempera-
ture of all places affected by it. This is readily shown by the following
figures :—

July Temperatures, North Atlantic.

. Longitudes affected by All other Lon- hf
Lat. N. tatiseder Current : gitudes Diff."
40° : : 70°-0 F. 3 : (eae A . 3°-0 F.
50° , é 60°-0 : : 65°°5 : 5 5°-5
60° : 47°-0 : : 57°°0 ; F 10°-0
70° z é 38°-0 ; : 44°-3 F 5 62°35

Similar, though lesser, effects are to be found on the east coast of
Asia, caused by the counter cold current issuing from Behring Strait, and
pressing to the right along that coast.

Remembering that the Gulf Stream is helpless to increase the July
temperatures, upon which the reproduction of plants is chiefly dependent,
we may confidently assert that the serious lowering of July temperature
caused indirectly, by means of its counter-current, through the agency of
the Gulf Stream, has a more important influence upon the geographical
distribution of plants than its direct influence in mitigating the severity
of the winter months.

If we imagine the Kuro-Siwo admitted into the Arctic Ocean, by a
broad deep channel to the east of Kamtschatka, we must bear in mind the
fact already proved, that although its thermal effect is only one and a
quarter times that of the Gulf Stream, its actual volume is two and a half
times as much; and by the laws of hydrodynamics, the counter cold
current moying south-west produced by it, will be two and a half times
greater than the Labrador current. Supposing it to be a little less cold,
and discounting the counter-current already issuing from Behring Strait,
we cannot estimate the damaging effect of the counter Kuro-Siwo current
at less than double that of the Atlantic Labrador current. What effect
will this produce upon the climate of eastern Asia ?

When we remember that the cold counter-currents of the Gulf Stream
are able to cover Greenland with perpetual ice, and bring the iceberg-
limit down to 60° N., it is not unreasonable to suppose that the North
Pacific counter-currents caused by the admission of the Kuro-Siwo through

1 These differences would be still greater if we were to leave out of account the
longitudes affected by the higher temperature of the Gulf Stream.

460 4 REPORT—1881.

Behring Strait, having at least double the volume of the Atlantic
counter-currents, would bring the iceberg-limit in eastern Asia as far
south as Pekin! (40° lat.), and cover the valley of the Amoor and the
northern Japanese islands with a coating of glacial ice.”

The destruction of vegetation caused by the Kuro-Siwo counter-
currents would be far more than equivalent to the small benefits obtained
in January temperatures from its admission to the Arctic regions.

Prop. III.—I¢ is required to calculate the effects wpon climate of an
ocean-current admitted to the Arctic Ocean from the Indian Ocean, across
the Caspian and Aral Sea depression, to the east of the Ural Mountain-chain
and Nova Zembla.

This ocean-current has been suggested by Mr. Alfred R. Wallace as a
probable cause of recent changes in climate, and is highly probable on
geological grounds.

The mean width of the Indian Ocean, in tropical latitudes, as com-
pared with that of the Atlantic Ocean, is as 520 to 625. The mean
annual temperatures of the air in the Indian Ocean are—

North Indian Ocean.
Mean Annual

Latitude Longitudes Temperature
CaN: 40° E. to 100° E. ‘ ¢ 80°°6 F.
10° N. ; ‘ 50° EH. ,, 100° EB. ; : 81°°5
20° N. é F 60° EK. ,, 90° E. : OAS
Mean - 80°53

The vapour-tension corresponding to this temperature is 1:035 in.
Hence, following the same method as before, we find the ratio of
volumes of
N. Indian Ocean current _ 520 a LOOT 0-808
N. Atlantic Ocean current 625 1035 :
The relative thermal (ice-melting) effects of the two currents will be
found by multiplying by the excess of temperatures above the freezing-
point, or

80°'53 F. — 32°°0 F. 48°53
79°38 F. — 32°:0 F. 47-38
This gives, finally, for the ratio of the thermal effects :—

N. Indian Ocean __ oo, 48°53
W Atiathe Ocal oO gree

Hence we may conclude that the supposed North Indian Ocean current,
both in volume and thermal effect, would amount to about four-fifths of
the present Gulf Stream, whereas the North Pacific Ocean current would
have five-fourths of the thermal effect of the Gulf Stream and two and a

= 0824,

‘If the Labrador counter-current were twice its present volume, it is highly
probable (if North America were at the same time depressed a few hundred feet)
that the limit of the edge of ice in spring would reach the latitude of New York, and
that all the glacial phenomena of that continent would be reproduced.

* The absence of all traces of glaciation or of ice-transport of boulders in the
Altai Mountain ranges, and indeed throughout Eastern Siberia, renders it highly
probable that Behring Strait was not widened and deepened in recent Geological
times, although it has often been dry land.

a

ON THE EFFECTS OF OCEANIC CURRENTS UPON CLIMATES. 461

half times its volume, which latter determines the amount and volume of
the counter-current of cold water.

If we calculate from Ferrel’s Tables, as before the effect of the new
North Indian Ocean current, reckoned as four-fifths of the Gulf Stream,
we find as follows :—

Latitude 60°.—It will raise the January temperature, from 70° K. long.
to 102° H. long., from — 10°-0 F. to + 32°°8 F.; which is equivalent to a
rise at all longitudes from + 6°16 F. to + 8°53 F,

Latitude 70°.—It will raise the January temperature, from 80° E. long.
to 104° K. long., from — 18°33 F. to + 20°°75 F.; which is equivalent to
a rise at all longitudes from — 11°53 F. to — 9°35 F.

Latitude 80°.—It will raise the January temperature, from 90° E. long.
to 130° E. lone., from — 27°°4 F. to — 10°44 F., which is equivalent to a
rise at all longitudes from — 21°-87 F. to — 20°°3 F.

If we bring together, into one point of view, all the preceding results,
we find the following changes of winter climate produced in the Arctic
regions by the successive introduction of the Gulf Stream, the Kuro-Siwo
(North Pacific Stream), and the North Indian Ocean Stream.

(A) ZLemperatures before Admission of the Gulf Strean.

Lat. July Mean January Range
60° - 57°-0 Fy 5 26°80 F. : —~ 3-4 BF, : 60°4 Fy
70° : 4493 6 12°15 3 — 20°°0 : 64°°3
80° j 34°] - 2°15 5 — 29°83 63°°9
(B) Present Temperatures.
Lat. July Mean January Range
60° F 57°°0 F. . 29°°3 EF, . — 1°7 F, B 58°°7 EF.
70° : 44°°3 ‘ 144 5 = LBD : 59°°8
80° 34°°1 : 4°°5 5 — 25°°0 “ 59ST
(C) Temperatures after opening Behring Strait.
Lat. July Mean January Range
60° F 57°°0 FE, eq oLs58 i, : — 6°16 F. F 50°84 F.
70° ° 44°83 . 16°:38 . — 11°53 ’ 55°83
80° 5 B4°1 ob Gost . — 21°87 . ais Sir

(D) Temperatures after admitting the North Indian Ocean Stream, to the cast of the
Ural Chain, through the Caspian Sea depression.

Lat. July Mean January Range
60° 5 57°:0 EF, - 32°76 8, . — 8 53F. . 48°47 F,
70° é 44°°3 od LT A 3 — 9°35 ° 53°°65
80° ‘ 34°] . 6°°9 . — 20°°3 i 54°4

After all the tepid ocean-streams are admitted, it is plain that the
Arctic regions would still remain very uncomfortable quarters for either
plants or animals, Further, if the admission of the North Indian Ocean
current through the Caspian were accompanied by a depression of
Northern Europe through some hundred feet, its counter-current would
act under most favourable circumstances for lowering the July tempera-
ture of Europe, and might even produce all the known glacial phenomena
of Scandinavia, the British Islands, Switzerland, and the Pyrenees.

_ Corollary.—The magnitude of a glacier, ceteris paribus, depends upon
that of the snow-field in which it takes its origin; and any depression of
the line of perpetual snow will increase the magnitude of the snow-field
and glaciers.

462 REPORT—1881.

The height of the line of perpetual snow depends upon two factors
only: (1) the temperature of the summer months (July) ; (2) the supply
of aqueous vapour to form the snow.

This fact is well illustrated by the following table, which is copied
from a paper by Mr. Joseph J. Murphy, read in 1875, before the Belfast
Natural History and Philosophical Society, and is constructed on the
principle (tolerably near the truth) that the temperature of the hottest
month in the year decreases in ascending at the rate of 1° F. for every

300 feet.

Tempera- Height of
ture of 32° F. in
hottest month hottest Height of
at sea-level month snow-line
Pyrenees . : : : : . TAS 12750 9300
Caucasus . - - : : - Gl 13500 10300
Mount Blane. : : : F 72:5 12150 9000
Bernese Alps. : : : : 72:5 12150 8800
Scandinavian Fjelde 61°43’ N, . r 59 8100 5500
Mageroe, Norway, extreme north : 455 4050 2160
Himalaya, about 31° N., north side . 83°75 15525 16620
Himalaya, about 31° N., south side . 83°75 15525 12980
Andes, near Quito. A ; ; 79°25 14175 15795
Dow 182 Ny ; : : : 815 14850 14772
Do. near Valparaiso. : : 68 10800 12780
Do. 37°40’ 8. x : . ‘ 63°5 9450 7960
Straits of Magellan . : : : 45°5 4050 3390

On this table, Mr. Murphy remarks, as is stated in the foot note.!

Professor Forbes? has expressed the opinion, founded on his study of
the Norway glaciers, that a diminution of 4° F. in the temperature of the
summer months would place one-fourth of the surface of Norway within
the snow-line and pour glaciers into the head of every fiord in Western
Norway. From a personal study of the Norwegian ice-fields, Iam inclined

to confirm this statement.
At the latitude of 60° N., the July temperatures of Greenland and

Norway, are—

Norway . : ‘ - 60° F. » weeaiaae
Greenland ic. niin cme eae” Diff. = 18° F.

1 Tt is evident by this table that the snow-line rises above the line of 32° for the
hottest month of the year where the snow-fall is small, and. sinks below it where the
snow-fall is great. In the Caucasus, the Alps, and the Pyrenees, the snow-line is
about three-fourths of the height of the line of 32° for the hottest month of the year ;
in the Fjelde of Norway, about two-thirds; in the Peruvian and Chilian Andes above,
but in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego below; above, on the north side of the
Himalaya, but below on the south side. These contrasts are all to be explained by
the difference in the amount of snowfall, which is greater on the south than on the
north side of the Himalaya, greater in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego than in Chilé
and Peru, and probably greater, at least in winter, in Norway than in Central,
Southern, or Eastern Europe.

The dependence of the height of the snow-line on summer temperature and on
amount of snowfall, to the exclusion of winter temperature, may be best shown,
perhaps, by two extreme cases. The mean temperature of the Altai mountains is
below freezing ; yet, in consequence of the comparatively warm summer, and the
small snowfall, the height of the snow-line is about 6,000 feet. In the Straits of
Magellan, on the contrary, though the mean temperature is several degrees above
freezing, the height of the snow-line (see table) is little more than half as much.

2 Norway and its Glaciers, p. 243.

ON MAGNETIC DISTURBANCES AND EARTH-CURRENTS. 463

This represents a fall of summer temperature mere than three times as
great as would be required to glaciate Norway.
At the latitude of Dublin we have

Dublin . : L : 68° F.
Nain (Labrador) . : 48°
This fall of temperature in July would probably be sufficient to
glaciate the whole of the British Islands down to the sea-level.

Diff. = 20° F:

On Magnetic Disturbances and Earth-cwrrents.
By Professor WILLIAM GRYLLS ApAms, F.R.S.

[PuatTEs VIII—XIHI.]

[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in ertenso
among the Reports. |

In considering the changes or disturbances produced in the three magnetic
elements, viz., the declination, the horizontal force, and the vertical force,
we must distinguish between the regular changes, which depend on the
apparent motionsof the sun or the moon, and those more sudden and some-
times violent changes which are especially termed magnetic disturbances.

Among the regular changes are daily and yearly changes, which de-
pend on the time of the day and the season of the year, showing that
the change of position and the apparent motion of the sun with respect
to the place of observation produce regular magnetic changes. These
regular daily changes are accompanied by and have very generally been
supposed to be due to electric currents or electric waves traversing the
earth’s crust; and a discussion by Dr. Lloyd of the observations made by
Mr. Barlow, in 1847, of currents on telegraph wires, showed a very close
relationship between the two-hourly changes of the declination needle
and the changes of intensity and direction of earth-currents on tele-
graph lines.

Both Dr. Lamont and Dr. Lloyd conclude, from their comparisons of
earth-currents and magnetic changes, that the changes of the declination
needles cannot be due to the direct action of the electric current travers-
ing the earth’s crust, but that these currents or waves, extending to a
considerable depth, alter by induction the magnetism of the earth itself,
and this change of magnetism causes the observed changes in the decli-
nation needle. Thus the magnetic changes are the indirect effects of
—not the earth-current in its immediate neighbourhood but of—a change
in the magnetism of the earth itself, which may be due to an electric
wave extending over a considerable area of the earth’s surface.

The point towards which the total earth-current is directed follows
the sun, and seems to lag two or three hours behind, but not the same
distance behind at different places.

These earth-currents have been ascribed to different causes ; thus
Dr. Lamont regards them as the results of electric force emanating from
the sun; De Saussure regards them as developed by evaporation, the
vapour being positively charged, and the water being negative; Dr. Lloyd
regards them as effects of solar heat ; whilst M. de la Rive ascribes them
to chemical action going on in the interior of the solid crust of the earth,
the electricity being transported into the atmosphere by evaporation.

464 REPORT—1881.

Mr. Ellis, of the Greenwich Observatory, has shown the intimate re-
lation between solar action and the regular diurnal magnetic changes
of declination and horizontal force at Greenwich Observatory during
thirty-five years, from 1841 to 1876, by a comparison of the observations
of those elements. The results of his observations are recorded in a
valuable paper published in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society’ (vol. 171, part ii. 1880), and they show what a close relation-
ship exists between solar activity and terrestrial magnetic changes.
There are not only daily and yearly periods of the variations of dif-
ferent magnetic elements, but there also seems to be in the horizontal
force a period of 25 or 26 days, which is the time of rotation of the
sun on his axis. Such a period would be a very strong argument in
favour of regarding the sun as a magnetic body, in which, as in the
earth, the axis of rotation does not coincide with the magnetic axis.

Other recent investigations have shown that these regular magnetic
changes depend not only on the sun, but that they are also in part due
to the action of the moon; and these portions depend upon the length of
the lunar day, and on the position of the moon with regard to the earth.
Just as there are regular earth-currents, whose direction depends upon the
sun, which we may call the solar earth-currents, so there are lunar earth-
currents which go through their changes under the action of the moon ; and
it has been shown that the effects are produced, not immediately under
the moon, but that there is a lagging behind in the case of the lunar earth-
currents, just as in the case of the solar earth-currents. In the case of
the lunar earth-currents we cannot attribute the production of the elec-
tricity either to heat or to thermo-electric currents from one part to
another of the earth’s crust, and we must therefore look for some other
source. May we not find it in the fact that the moon causes tides in the
solid crust of the earth, just as she causes tides in the oceans? The earth’s
erust is made up of elastic materials and materials capable of yielding and
altering their form to a considerable amount with the change in the direc-
tion of the pull of the moon upon them.

This crust also contains magnetic substances in abundance, which alter
their form under the moon’s attraction, and so, from the changes of rela-
tive position of masses of magnetic matter, changes are produced in the
magnetism of the earth, which must give rise to induced currents of
electricity or earth-currents. Let us imagine a conductor of electricity
outside the earth, stretching from the north pole to the equator, and
fixed in space, with the earth, a magnetic body, revolving beneath it from
W. to E., then it follows, from Faraday’s laws of induced currents, that
the revolution of the earth on its axis would cause a current in the fixed
conductor in a direction from the pole to the equator.

Tf the conductor moved over the surface of the earth from W. to E.,
and the earth did not revolve, or revolved at a slower rate, then the
current in the conductor would be from the equator to the pole. The
current depends upon the relative motion of the earth and the wire. If,
then, we have an insulated wire running north and south, the tides in
the earth’s crust, of which I have spoken, will be equivalent to a lagging
behind of magnetic matter, and so we may expect in that wire a current
of electricity whose general direction would be from the equator to the
pole. The position of the wire with reference to the magnetic pole of
the earth would modify the direction of these earth-currents, and it
is quite conceivable that the position of England with regard to the

Pint

ON MAGNETIC DISTURBANCES AND EARTH-CURRENTS. 465

magnetic pole might cause these regular earth-currents to be greatest in
the S.W. and N.E. direction. The lagging of the lunar earth-currents be-
hind the position of the moon would also be accounted for by the lagging
of the tides behind the moon.

If this is a true cause for some portion at least of the lunar earth-
currents, then the same reasoning, applied to the sun, may in a smaller
degree apply to the case of the regular solar diurnal earth-currents, and
may help to account for the lagging behind of the effects due to the sun,
so that the fact that the greatest solar effect happens about 2.30 p.m.
may not be entirely due to the fact that that is the hottest part of the
day, but may also in part depend upon the tides.

We have now to consider those more sudden changes of the sus-
pended magnets which are distinguished by the name magnetic dis-
turbances. In 1874, Dr. Lloyd said of them: ‘The duration and the
magnitude of these oscillations are as yet outside the domain of law,
and probably depend upon so many operating causes that, like the gusts
and lulls of the wind in an atmospheric storm, they will long baffle all
attempts to refer them to their actuating forces, or even to reduce them
to order.’

Certain facts relating to these disturbances were made out from the
series of observations started by Gauss in 1834, and made every five
minutes at the same time at a variety of places, at first in Hurope, and
afterwards in various parts of the world.

The disturbing power was found to increase in northern latitudes ;
also it was made out that the appearance of a disturbance in several
places occurred at the same time, but there were great differences in the
results at different places.

The force seemed to originate in a certain point in the interior of the
earth, and the direction of the disturbing force seemed to be constant,
yet sometimes there were great differences in the deviations at places
not far apart, and from the result of his observations Weber was led to
believe that there was a centre of disturbances, which was somewhere in
the neighbourhood of St. Petersburg.

However sudden and unconnected single disturbances may seem to
be, they still follow certain laws in their occurrence. Sabine found that
they had daily and yearly variations from their mean values, and that
they have an 11-year period, which agrees with the 1l-year period
of the appearance of spots upon the sun.

Disturbances are more frequent in summer than in winter, and this
applies to each hemisphere, and it has been confirmed by various
observers that they are also subject to the influence of the moon.

Lamont says of these disturbances, their cause is a force which is
subject to certain laws, but which does not act constantly ; the mean
direction and frequency have yet to be discovered. Observations have
shown that the magnetic disturbances and electric currents on the earth
are so nearly related to one another, that people naturally look upon the
electric currents, either in the crust of the earth or in the atmosphere
outside it, as the cause of the magnetic disturbances. These currents in
the earth have usually been attributed to changes of temperature, because
they also are found to be in some way governed by the sun.

The improved methods of recording observations by photography
give the opportunity of discovering the laws of the occurrence of

magnetic disturbances, and for some years past photographic records
1881. HH

466 REPORT—1881.

have been taken of the magnetic elements, but the curves have been laid
aside, and very little use has as yet been made of them.

At the meeting of the British Association last year at Swansea, I laid
before the Mathematical and Physical Section an account! of a com-
parison of the Declination Curves taken by precisely similar instruments
at six European magnetic observatories, viz., Kew, Stonyhurst, Coimbra,
Lisbon, Vienna, and St. Petersburg. Since that time I have had the
opportunity, through the kindness of the Kew Committee, of studying
the horizontal force curves from these stations, the vertical force
curves from some of them as well as the declination and horizontal
force curves from Melbourne, and from Zi-ka-Wei in China, for the same
period (March 1879). I have also compared the curves from these
stations, and from Toronto, for the violent magnetic storm which took
place in August, 1880. I have now to bring before you some further
points which come out of these comparisons.

It must be remembered that at stations near the poles the horizontal
force is smaller in proportion to the total force than it is at stations vear
to the equator, so that the same disturbance will produce less effect on
the horizontal force or on the declination needle, in latitudes near the
equator.

Also the needles at different stations are by no means in the same
state of sensibility, and even at the same station they change with time,
so that they are not always equally sensitive, and when they lose their
magnetism they have to be re-magnetised.

Let us take first the disturbances on March 15-16, 1879. (See
Plate VIII.) Wesee that soon after 10 a.m. G.M.T., on March 15, 1879,
there is a disturbance wave, showing first a diminution and then an
increase in the horizontal force at St. Petersburg, Vienna, Kew, and
Lisbon. At Melbourne, in Australia, there is a similar disturbance at
the same time, both in the declination and in the horizontal force.

Again, between 2 and 3 p.m., and between 4 and 5, there are very
small disturbances, showing themselves at the same absolute time in the
horizontal force and declination curves. About 5.20 p.m. there is a well-
marked increase in the horizontal force and eastward deflection of the
declination needles.

About 9.30 p.m. G.M.T., a storm begins, which lasts for about an hour.
It is felt in the northern and in the southern hemispheres, near to and
on both sides of the equator. At all European stations the horizontal
force is increased during the first part of the storm, and then diminished.

At Lisbon the vertical force is first increased and then diminished,
and at St. Petersburg and Stonyhurst there is a diminution in the ver-
tical force at the same time as at Lisbon. If we regard the declination
needles we find that at St. Petersburg, Zi-ka-Wei and Melbourne, and at
Bombay the declination westward is first increased and then diminished,
whereas at Kew and Lisbon the motions are in the opposite direction.

The declination at Vienna seems to be intermediate between Kew and
St. Petersburg, but the curve is incomplete. At Bombay and the
Mauritius, near to, but on opposite sides of, the equator, the declination
needles are deflected opposite ways. The deflections are small, because
the needles are not sufficiently sensitive. The local time at these places
was from 1 to 2 o’clock at night.

1 See British Association Report for 1880.

LEVEN TS.

4

5] St Report

Plate VII.

SERS SS) ESO

ise

te

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La
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Vienna: Deel”

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vy
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Melbourne Hor
Lisborv. Hor. F. |
St Potersburg

Li-ka Wev.Dec

Kew-Hor -F.

Hor F.

ay Se
Lisbor Ver m4

Plate VII.

1879.

uh

ys Adams's Paper on Magnetic Ihsturbances

e &
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COMPARISON OF MACNETIC ELEMENTS.
15

fiw Hor F.
Lisbon Hor. F.
Lisbon Vert. R,
StPtersbury
Vert B
Stonyhurrst
Vort.P

2. ae

eiaatnerieieieeteniniimtiae ner sn ee

BAIS oe es Toes eee BAe SRROBet.
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eevee mee Tree tet oe boTRRREE Aste aeee
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518t Report Brit Assoc 1881.

COMPARISON OF MACNETIC ELEMENTS.

dt btersburg Declination

Lisbor -Declination

Kew - Dectination

Vienna -Declin ation

Melbourne -Del”
Melbourne -How. F.

Kew -Hor. F.

Vienna Hor.F.
S¢ Petersburg -Hor.F.

Lisbon Hor. F.

Lisbon Vert. F.

Illustrating Frotessor W. Grylls Adams

Faper on Magnetic: Disturbances,

ON MAGNETIC DISTURBANCES AND EARTH-CURRENTS. 467

Now in what way can we account for such magnetic disturbances P
If we assume that by magnetic induction from some cause or other the
earth’s magnetism is altered, then the position of the magnet which
would produce the disturbance must be such that its pole, which
attracts the marked end of our needle, must lie at the beginning of the
disturbance to the E. of Kew and Lisbon, to the N. of Vienna, and to
the N.W. of St. Petersburg; the Lisbon vertical force curve also shows
it to be below the surface of the earth. Hence an inductive action
equivalent to a change of position of the north magnetic pole, towards
the geog. pole, would account for these changes. The strengthening
and weakening of a magnet, with its N. pole to the N., on the meridian
of Vienna, might possibly account for the magnetic changes observed
between 9.30 and 10.30 at night, Greenwich time, on March 15, 1879.

If we attempt to explain this disturbance by currents of electricity or
discharges of statical electricity in the air above the needles, then we
must imagine that at first there is a strong current from the S.W., over
St. Petersburg, from the W., over Vienna, and from the N.W., over
Kew and Lisbon; the vertical force needle at Lisbon showing that the
current from the N.W. lies somewhat to the east of Lisbon. That at
the Mauritius this current is from the north, and at Bombay from the
south.

Hence we must imagine that aj current of electricity passes down
from the N.W. to the S.E., going on towards the E. over Vienna, and
towards the N.E. over St. Petersburg. This must be kept up very much
along the same line throughout the first part of the disturbance, and then
the current or currents must be altered in strength in the same manner
at all stations. :

We will next consider what would hardly be called a magnetic
storm, but a few very small deviations of the magnetic needle lasting from
about 5.30 to 7.30 p.m. on March 26,1879. (See Plate IX.) Only the
comparison of the originals will give the closeness of the similarity’ of
the curves, and the declination curves of Vienna and Kew are absolutely
coincident.

When the declination needle is deflected to the west, the horizontal
force-needle is deflected with its marked end towards the south, so that
in this disturbance the two needles are drawn towards the S.W. at the
same time with greater or less power, and twelve similar curves are clearly
traced out in the Vienna and Kew curves during the two hours. These
disturbances are all so small that, but for the comparison of photographs,
they would probably be lost sight of, yet we see that the same deflections
occur at the same instant at Kew and at Vienna, at St. Petersburg and
at Melbourne. From the remarkable similarity in these disturbances, and
their occurrence at the same time, we should expect that the cause of dis-
turbance is so far removed from the places of observation, that the differ-
ence of their distances from it need not be considered. This might not
unreasonably be urged as an argument in support of a theory that such
disturbances are due directly to the action of the sun regarded as a mag-
netic body. The numerical comparisons of observations made every five
minutes on certain days previously fixed upon, would probably never have
shown the way in which these minute changes of the magnetic power of
the earth at widely distant places are related to one another.

In one or two cases Sefior Capello and Professor Balfour Stewart had
Compared the Lisbon and Kew curves for a particular disturbance, but

HH2

468 REPORT— 1881.

the photographic magnetic records have never before been collected from
other stations, and there has been no opportunity of comparing them.
From the precise similarity of the forms of the curves in many cases, we
may say that the rate of change of magnetic disturbances at widely distant
stations is the same. There is nothing fitful or flashing in such disturb-
ances as these of March 26. We might imagine a current in the crust of
the earth, or a current or transfer of electricity in the air near to, 7.e. within
twenty or thirty miles of, each of these observatories, but to imagine the
same current and the same variations of the current at so many different
stations all changing in the same way at the same instant is difficult,
unless it can be shown in what way all these changes are connected with
the cause of such a regular electric discharge. It seems easier to imagine
that such changes as these are due to a change produced by induction in
the magnetism of the earth itself by some distant body.

Sometimes disturbances occur where at the same instant there are
similar deflections of the declination needles at stations wide apart, and
suddenly at one of the stations the needle no longer continues to move
with the others, but begins to go, and continues for a considerable period
to go, in the opposite direction to the others, turning when they turn, and
tracing out a similar curve, but turned always in the opposite direction.
Such cases occurred frequently during March 1879, and especially on
March 23, about 1.30 and about 7 p.m. Kew time, and on March 29 about
9 p.m.

During the month of August 1880, a very good opportunity occurred
for studying a grand magnetic storm, which was accompanied by brilliant
displays of Aurora and by earth-currents. This storm began on August
11, and lasted until the 14th, and may be divided into three distinct storms
—one lasting from 10.20 a.m. (G.M.T.) on the 11th to 1 a.m. on the 12th;
a second from 11.30 a.m. on the 12th to 7.20 a.m. on the 13th; and the
third from 11.50 a.m. on the 13th to 7 a.m. on the 14th. Smaller disturb-
ances fill up the interval between the second and third storms.

Four plates have been prepared from very careful tracings from the
photographic records at the several observatories. In the cases of Toronto
and Zi-ka-Wei the time-scales are not the same as at Kew, and the curves
have been taken from carefully drawn curves which have been plotted on
the Kew scale. The plates show the principal portions of the three
storms. The beginning of the first storm (August 11) is marked at all
stations by a sudden considerable increase in the horizontal force.
(Plate X.) At Kew the beginning of the storm is not actually re-
corded, because a new sheet was being put on the cylinder at 10.20 a.m.,
when the storm was beginning. The Kew deflections are smaller than
the others, because the horizontal force needle at Kew was less sensitive
than the others, the scale-values being ‘00127 mm. mg. for 1 mm. at Kew,
as compared with ‘00029 mm. mg. for 1 mm. at St. Petersburg. The
storm begins at the same instant in Hurope, Asia, and America, in high
northern and southern latitudes, and also near the equator at Bombay,
and everywhere precisely in the same way. It may also be traced at
the Mauritius, and there are very distinct similarities of form between
the Mauritius and Lisbon curves. The practical value of the curves
at the Mauritius and at some other stations is greatly diminished, because
the needles do not appear to be sufficiently sensitive to show the character
of the magnetic changes,

During the early part of the storm, on August 11, after the first de-

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ON MAGNETIC DISTURBANCES AND EARTH-CURRENTS. 469

flection, the general direction of the Toronto deflections is opposed to those
at the other stations; but from 4 p.m. to 8 p.m. (G.M.T.), i.e. from about
10.40 a.m. to 2.40 p.m. Toronto time, the deflections are alike, and in the
same direction at Toronto and at Huropean stations. (See Plate XI.)
Again, about 11 p.m., there is a very violent phase of the storm, in which
the deflections are alike and in the same direction at Toronto, Zi-ka-Wei,
and at the European stations.

There is considerable similarity in the form of the Toronto horizontal
force curve and the Melbourne declination curve for the beginning of the
storm. There is also a remarkably close agreement between the horizontal
force curyes at Kew and at Vienna during the storm, the differences in
the amount of the deflections being due to the fact that the needles are
not equally sensitive. The horizontal force curves at Kew and Bombay
also agree very closely during the first four hours of the storm, after which
the Bombay needle shows very little action.

The second storm, beginning about 11.30 a.m. (G.M.T.) on the 12th,
and lasting until the next morning, was the most remarkable of the three.
Plate XII. gives the changes in the magnetic elements from 10 a.m. on the
12th to la.m.on the 18th. At about 11.40 a.m. the disturbances begin to
become violent, and from 12 to 1 they are so great that in some cases the
paper is not wide enough to receive the record, and in others the paper is
either not sensitive enough to record the impressions or is so blackened
that it is impossible to trace the form of the record upon it. The hori-
zontal force trace at Toronto and the declination trace at Kew go off
the paper. At Melbourne and at Vienna the trace fails. ;

At the time of greatest disturbance, 12.25 p.m., it is very remarkable
that at Lisbon and at Zi-ka-Wei near Shanghai, in China, two places
nearly in the same latitude but about nine hours apart in time, the
vertical force is increased in precisely the same way and to about the
Same amount at the same instant. There is also a striking similarity
between the Melbourne and the Zi-ka-Wei horizontal force curves and
between the Zi-ka-Wei and Kew declination curves.

At Zi-ka-Wei the sudden change in the horizontal force amounted to
about ‘033 m.m.-m.g. units, or ;1,th part of the total horizontal force. At
St. Petersburg the change in the horizontal force amounted to 04 m.m.
m.g. units, or 7th part of the whole horizontal force, and the total force
was changed by about ,1;th part of its full value. This second storm is
remarkable for the very great diminution in the vertical force at St.
Petersburg. From 5.30 p.m. to 12.30 (local time), the vertical force
diminishes by ‘06 (m.m. m.g.), the horizontal force in the same interval
diminishing by :04 (m.m. m.g.) :

There are also-remarkable points of agreement during the storm, as
may be seen by a careful comparison of the curves, but the agreement
between St. Petersburg horizontal and vertical force curves compared
with Kew and Lisbon declination curves is remarkable about 4.30 p.m.
and between 7 and 8 p.m., when the change in the horizontal force in
about ten minutes at St. Petersburg amounted to ‘027 m.m. m.g. units
or th of the horizontal force.

With the Lisbon declination curves there is some uncertainty, as the
times of the beginning and end are not marked upon the tracing, and the’
time-scale does not appear to be quite the same as for the horizontal or
vertical force curves.

Thus we see that the magnetic changes which take place at various

470 REPORT—1881.

points of the earth’s surface at the same instant are so large as to be quite
comparable with the earth’s total magnetic force; and in order that any
cause may be a true and sufficient one, it must be capable of producing
these changes rapidly. They are so large that any cause which is shown
to be incompetent to produce the earth’s magnetism can hardly be held to
account for such terrestrial magnetic changes. Since the large distur-
bances and the small disturbances do not follow totally different laws, but
agree equally well all over the earth, in so far as they agree we must
attribute them to the same cause.

In the third storm, on August 13th (see Plate XIII.), the general
character of the disturbances is the same at St. Petersburg, at Kew, at
Lisbon, and at Vienna, as shown by a comparison of the horizontal force
as well as of the declination curves, and the vertical force needles are
similarly affected at St. Petersburg and at Stonyhurst; but about 11.30
p-m., when the horizontal force at other European stations is considerably
increased, the horizontal force at St. Petersburg is very greatly diminished,
so that the record passes off the edge of the paper. The horizontal force
at Zi-ka-Wei is greatly diminished, and at Melbourne is also diminished
at the same time, the vertical force at St. Petersburg and at Stonyhurst
being at the same time diminished to its lowest value during the storm,
There are some very remarkable points of agreement between the St.
Petersburg horizontal force and the Zi-ka-Wei declination and horizontal
force curves, considering that the two places of observation differ nearly
30° in latitude, and are 6 hours apart in time. The Melbourne horizontal
force curve also bears a very striking resemblance to the Zi-ka-Wei hori-
zontal force curve, more especially from 11 p.m. until the end of the
storm. The Melbourne declination curve inverted and the Zi-ka-Wei
declination curve also have many characteristics in common. Taking the
Mauritius declination curve which is only slightly disturbed, probably
because the needle is not sufficiently sensitive, it is seen that the greatest
disturbances are similar to and coincident in time with disturbances in
the Zi-ka-Wei horizontal force curve. The similarity between the vertical
force curves at St. Petersburg and at Stonyhurst is very striking, espe-
cially when it is considered that at Lisbon and Stonyhurst, two places
nearer together, the vertical force curves have very few coincident and
similar disturbances.

The following table contains the Comparative Scale Values for the
curves drawn in the Plates.

| Horizontal Force Vertical Force
| AB iron | seria
mel 5H ~My av
| for 1 mm. os for 1 mm. ian
St. Petersburg . : -00018 “00029 ‘00014 | “00066
Zi-ka-Wei
August 11 and 13. ‘000078 “00025 oa =
: August 12 . : *000156 “00049 = ——
Vienna . 2 : “00025 00051 : aaa | =
Melbourne : ‘ ‘00028 “00066 ‘00012 } ‘00067
Toronto. : “00040 “00072 = aaa
Kew. (| f Q -00071 ‘00127 “00024 00106
Bombay . . . ‘00045 ‘00167 0024 “0030

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ON MAGNETIC DISTURBANCES AND EARTH-CURRENTS. 471

- 6H and oV are expressed in millimétre-milligrammes for 1 milli-
metre, or in centimétre-grammes for 1 centimétre, 7.e. they are the values
of a centimétre (a unit of length) of the ordinate, according to the C.G.S.
system of units.

From this table it appears that the same absolute disturbance will
produce changes in the ordinates of the St. Petersburg horizontal force
curve, which are more than four times the corresponding changes in the
ordinates in the Kew curve, and which are nearly six times the corre-
sponding changes in the ordinates in the Bombay curve.

The scale-values in this table are the same as in the originals, except
in the case of Zi-ka-Wei and Toronto. The values for 6H in the original
curves are ‘00062 millimétre-milligrammes for Zi-ka-Wei and ‘00058 for
Toronto.

A comparison of the curves with the scale-values shows that at the
beginning of the storm on August 11 the change in the horizontal force
at Vienna was very nearly equal to the change at St. Petersburg, and
about 14 times the change at Zi-ka-Wei; also the changes at Melbourne,
at Zi-ka-Wei, at Toronto, and at Bombay are very nearly equal to one
another, and amount to about ‘0047 millimetre-milligrammes.

Thus the amount of the disturbance does not seem to increase with
the latitude. Again, the changes occurring between 11.30 and 11.40 a.m.
amount to about— .

‘016 mm.-mgr. at St. Petersburg ;

013 HA at Vienna and at Zi-ka-Wei;

“010 5 at Kew and at Toronto, but in opposite
directions ;

0084. » at Bombay.

Thus the absolute value of the disturbance at Bombay is not much
less than in higher latitudes, the flatness of the curve being due to the
fact that the needle is not sufficiently sensitive. On comparing the curves
with the table of scale-values, it seems clear that for magnetic storms the
most satisfactory curves for comparison and for measurement are those
which do not differ much in size from the Vienna curves, 7.e. the most
satisfactory scale-value is about ‘0004 or ‘0005 millimétre-milligrammes
for 1 millimétre. When the scale-values are very much larger, as in the
Kew and Bombay instruments, the needles are not sensitive enough to give
the character of the disturbances, and when the scale-value is less than
about ‘0004 millimétre-milligrammes, the curves may have a very wide
range, and are very liable to go off the edge of the paper.

Great differences of practice exist at different observatories ; thus, at
St. Petersburg and at Toronto, a curve with ordinates increasing upwards
corresponds to decreasing horizontal force. This was also the case at
Vienna in 1879; but, from a comparison of the curves for August 1880,
it appears that a change has been made by which a curve with ordinates
increasing upwards corresponds to increasing horizontal force. At all the
other observatories a curve with ordinates increasing upwards corresponds
to increasing horizontal force, and it would facilitate comparison if this
rule were universally observed. In the Lisbon and Coimbra and in the
Melbourne curves only the times of the beginning and end and one or
two other points in the curve are determined; on this account some diffi-
culty has been found in comparing them with the others. At other obser-
vatories, at every hour or at every two hours, the time is marked by an

472 REPORT—1881.

eclipse of the light for either two minutes, as in the case of Vienna, or
four minutes, as at Kew, Stonyhurst, &c. The eclipse of the light at the
beginning of every hoar, or of every two hours, for two minutes, which is
quite long enough to mark the time, might conveniently be adopted, and
is better than an eclipse for a longer period, if it occurs in the middle of a
storm. Also at Vienna only one curve is photographed on each sheet, and
so the difficulty is avoided of having two or more time lines with the same
hours not coincident with one another, and there is no confusion arising
from curves crossing one another.

In the Plates the curves have been traced with great care, and set as
accurately as possible to Greenwich mean time. They have been grouped
so as to bring out prominently the common features running through
them, with the object of supplying facts on which a theory of terrestrial
magnetic disturbances may be firmly established.

During this August storm great difficulties were experienced in work-
ing the telegraph lines, in consequence of earth-currents, and from parti-
culars with which I have been supplied by Mr. Preece, and from the earth-
current photographic records taken at Greenwich Observatory on two
separate wires running in a S.W. anda N.W. direction, for copies of which
I am indebted to the Astronomer-Royal, it is possible to trace the connec-
tion between these magnetic storms and earth-currents.

The photographic records at Greenwich during this storm are bent
opposite ways at the same time, so that when an earth-current is running
on one line towards Greenwich, on the other the earth-current is away
from Greenwich; thus, when there is an earth-current on the line from
the S.W. towards Greenwich, there is found to be a current on the other
line from Greenwich towards the N.W. If the current on these lines
were absolutely equal it would indicate that the current in the crust of
the earth was in a direction from south to north. If the current from
the S.W. is greater than the current towards the N.W. it would indicate
an earth-current in a direction more nearly inclined from S8.W. to N.E.
On comparing these photographic records with the earth-current records
from Derby and Haverfordwest and other places, it appears that the
general direction of currents during this storm was from about 8.8.W.
to N.N.E., with varying intensity, the agreement between the distur-
bances of the declination needle and the Blackheath and Greenwich
photographic record (i.e. from 5.W. to Greenwich), being very close and
in the same direction at the same time. Harth-currents were very violent
from 10.30 a.m. on the 11th to about 2.30 p.m., and again from 9 p.m.
until midnight. They were violent on August 12, beginning at 11.30
a.m., the beginning of the second storm, and quieting down about 4.30
p-m., then beginning again at 7.30 p.m. and lasting until 9.30 p.m. Again
on the 13th they were recorded as strong for about one and a half
hours from 5 a.m., 7.e. just at the end of the second magnetic storm.

The general direction of earth-currents as observed on telegraph lines,
especially at Derby and Haverfordwest, as well as at the Greenwich Ob-
servatory, was from a 8.W. to a N.E. direction. During the most violent
phases of the magnetic storm, the earth-current photographic record at
Greenwich failed in consequence of the rapidity and the extent of the
swings of the galvanometer needle. Intimately connected with magnetic
disturbances and earth-currents is the phenomenon of the Aurora or Polar
Light, which is an electric discharge in the upper regions of the atmosphere.
During the August storm, and also during another violent magnetic

a

ON MAGNETIC DISTURBANCES AND EARTH-CURRENTS. 473

storm which took place on January 31 last, the aurora was well seen in
England ; it was also seen at St. Petersburg and as far east as Siberia.
Tt does not appear to have been seen, although it was looked for, at Zi-
ka-Wei in China by M. Dechevrens, the director of the Observatory,
although the magnetic storm was so violent there that the horizontal
force was suddenly changed by +3,th part of its total amount.

In his address before the British Association in 1863 Sir William
Armstrong speaks of the sympathy between forces operating in the sun
and magnetic forces on the earth, and notices a remarkable phenomenon
seen by independent observers on September 1, 1859. ‘A sudden out-
burst of light, far exceeding the brightness of the sun’s surface, was
seen to take place, and sweep like a drifting cloud over a portion of the
solar surface. This was attended with magnetic disturbances of unusual
intensity, and with exhibitions of aurora of extraordinary brilliancy. The
identical instant at which the effusion of light was observed was recorded
by an abrupt and strongly-marked deflection in the self-registering
instruments at Kew. The magnetic storm commenced before and con-
tinued after the event.’

The daily and yearly periods of the magnetic changes, the change
in the horizontal force depending on ‘the sun’s rotation on his axis, the
agreement of the eleven-year period of magnetic disturbances, sun-spots,
and auroras, show that the sun plays a very important part in causing or
regulating both the regular and irregular magnetic changes.

We know so little as yet of the causes of the changes of the sun, and
their connection with terrestrial phenomena, that we can hardly do more
than ask what possible causes there are which could account for the
effects which are observed. Can we suppose that the Sun is a very power-
ful magnet, and that a great alteration in his magnetism accompanies
the production of the bright facule and the spots in his atmosphere ?
Such a change of magnetism would affect the magnetism of the earth,
although the effect could not be very large, unless the sun is magnetized
to an intensity much greater, even compared to his mass, than the earth
is magnetized. Then, as there are tides in the seas around us, and pro-
bably in the earth’s crust, so there are certainly very large tides in the
ocean of air above us; and may not the sun and moon, by dragging this
air towards them as the earth revolves, cause that friction between air and
earth, and also that evaporation, which, together, may account for the
presence of, and keep up the supply of, positive electricity in the air and
negative electricity in the earth? Again, these tides in the atmosphere
will cause the mass of it to lag behind the revolving solid earth, and ata
height of thirty or forty miles we have a layer of air which, for air, is a
comparatively good conductor of electricity. Here, then, we have not a
lagging of the magnet behind the conductor, but a lagging of the con-
ductor behind the magnet, and hence we may expect a current or a gradual
heaping-up of electricity in the air in the opposite direction to the current
in the earth’s crust. Thus, whilst the tidal wave in the earth’s crust would
cause a current in a telegraph wire from the equator towards the poles,
the regular tidal waves in the atmosphere would cause the gradual
transfer of positive electricity in the atmosphere from the poles to-
wards the equator. This transfer may be of the nature of a current of
electricity or of a mass of air carrying a static charge of electricity with
it ; for, as Professor Rowland has shown that the motion of a static charge
will produce magnetism, so we may expect, from the principles of conser-

474 REPORT—1881.

vation of electricity, that a change in the position of a magnet will, under
such circumstances, produce motion of the static charge of electricity.

When the air becomes charged up to discharging point, then we may
get the sudden discharges, such as the aurora in the air and the earth-cur-
rents in the earth ; and since the conducting layer of air approaches nearer
to the earth in the colder polar regions—possibly within less than twenty
miles of the earth’s surface—it may be found that the discharge of the
aurora may even take place from earth to air by gradual slow discharge,
aided, as it may be, by the state of moisture, and by change of tempera-
ture, and other causes.

In addition to the European stations the principal Observatories for
photographic registration of the magnetic elements are at Toronto, Zi-
ka-Wei, Bombay, and Melbourne. The fact that there are so few such
Observatories will be sufficient to show how important it is that there
should be additional Magnetic Observatories—more especially in America,
in the eastern parts of Siberia, and in the southern hemisphere. Practi-
cally we have to rely on one excellent Observatory (Melbourne) for the
whole of the southern hemisphere. Seeing that the French Government
have decided to establish a Magnetic Observatory at Cape Horn next
year, where photographic records of the changes of the magnetic elements
are to be taken, surely it is time that a fully-equipped Magnetic Observatory
should be established at the Cape of Good Hope, where there is already an
excellent Astronomical Observatory and a staff of observers ready to
carry on the work.

On some applications of Electric Energy to Horticultural and
Agricultural purposes, by C. Wm. Stemens, D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.RS., Mem. Inst. C.F.

[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in eatenso
among the Reports. ]

On March 1, 1880, I communicated to the Royal Society a paper ‘On
the influence of electric light upon vegetation, &c.,’ in which I arrived at
the conclusion that electric light was capable of producing upon plants
effects comparable to those of solar radiation; that chlorophyl was pro-
duced by it, and that bloom and fruit rich in colour and aroma could be
developed by its aid. My experiments also went to prove that plants do
not as a rule require a period of rest during the twenty-four hours of the
day, but make increased and vigorous progress if subjected (in winter
time) to solar light during the day and to electric light during the
night.

During the whole of last winter I continued my experiments on an
enlarged scale, and it is my present purpose to give a short account of
these experiments, and of some further applications of electric energy to
farming operations (including the pumping of water, the sawing of
timber, and chaff- and root-cutting) at various distances not exceeding
half a mile from the source of power, giving useful employment during
day-time to the power-producing machinery, and thus reducing in-
directly the cost of the light during night-time.

ON SOME APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC ENERGY. 475

The arrangement consists of a high-pressure steam-engine of six
horse-power nominal, supplied by Messrs. Tangye Brothers, which gives
motion to two dynamo-machines (Siemens D), connected separately to
two electric lamps, each capable of emitting a light of about 4,000 candle-
power. One of these lamps was placed inside a glass house of 2,318
eubic feet capacity, and the other was suspended at a height of twelve to
fourteen feet, over some sunk greenhouses. The waste steam of the
engine was condensed in a heater, whence the greenhouses take their
circulating supply of hot water, thus saving the fuel that would other-
wise be required to heat the stoves.

The experiments were commenced on October 23, 1880, and were
continued till May 7, 1881. The general plan of operation consisted in
lighting the electric lights at first at six o’clock, and during the short
days at five o’clock every evening except Sunday, continuing their action
until dawn.

The outside light was protected by a clear glass lantern, whilst the
light inside the house was left naked in the earlier experiments, one of
my objects being to ascertain the relative effect of the light under these
two conditions. The inside light was placed at one side over the entrance
into the house, in front of a metallic reflector to save the rays that would
otherwise be lost to the plants within the house.

The house was planted in the first place with peas, French beans,
wheat, barley and oats, as well as with cauliflowers, strawberries, rasp-
berries, peaches, tomatoes, vines, and a variety of flowering plants
including roses, rhododendrons and azaleas, all these plants being of a
comparatively hardy character; the temperature in this house was main-
tained as nearly as possible at 60° Fahr.

The early effects observed were anything but satisfactory. While
under the influence of the light suspended in the open air, over the sunk
houses, the beneficial effects due to the electric light, observed during the
previous winter, repeated themselves, the plants in the house with the
naked electric light soon manifested a withered appearance. Was this
result the effect of the naked light, or was it the effect of the chemical
products—nitrogenous compounds and carbonic acid—which are produced
in the electric arc ?

Proceeding on the first-named assumption, and with a view of soften-
ing the ray of the electric arc, small jets of steam were introduced into
the house through tubes, drawing in atmospheric air with the steam,
and producing the effect of clouds interposing themselves in an irregular
fashion between the light and the plants. This treatment was decidedly
beneficial to the plants, although care had to be taken not to increase the
amount of moisture thus introduced beyond certain limits. As regards
the chemical products—carbonic acid and nitrogenous compounds—it
was thought that these would prove rather beneficial than otherwise
in furnishing the very ingredients upon which plant-life depends, and
further that the constant supply of pure carbonic acid resulting from the
gradual combustion of the carbon electrodes, might render a diminution
in the supply of fresh air possible, and thus lead to economy of fuel.
The plants did not, however, take kindly to these innovations in their
mode of life, and it was found necessary to put a lantern of clear glass
round the light, for the double purpose of discharging the chemical
products of the are, and of interposing an effectual screen between the
arc and the plants under its influence.

476 REPORT—1881.

The effect of interposing a mere thin sheet of clear glass between the
plants and the source of electric light was most striking. On placing
such a sheet of clear glass so as to intercept the rays of the electric light
from a portion only of a plant—for instance, a tomato plant—it was
observed that in the course of a single night the line of demarcation was
most distinctly shown upon the leaves. The portion of the plant under
the direct influence of the naked electric light, though at a distance from
it of nine to ten feet, was shrivelled, whereas that portion under cover of
the clear glass, continued to show a healthy appearance, and this line of
demarcation was distinctly visible on individual leaves—not only the
leaves but the young stems of the plants soon showed signs of destruction
when exposed to the naked electric light, and these destructive in-
fluences were perceptible, though in a less marked degree, at a distance
of twenty feet from the source of light.

A question here presents itself that can hardly fail to excite the
interest of the physiological botanist. The clear glass does not appar-
ently intercept any of the luminous rays, which cannot therefore be the
cause of the destructive action. Professor G. G. Stokes showed, how-
ever, in 1853, that the electric arc is particularly rich in highly refrangible
invisible rays, and that these are largely absorbed in their passage
through clear glass; it therefore appears reasonable to suppose that it is
those highly refrangible rays beyond the visible spectrum that work
destruction on vegetable cells ; thus contrasting with the luminous rays
of less refrangibility, which, on the contrary, stimulate their organic
action.

Being desirous to follow up this inquiry a little further, 1 sowed a
portion of the ground in the experimental conservatory with mustard
and other quick-growing seeds, and divided the field into equal radial
portions by means of a framework, excluding diffused light but admitting
light at equal distances from the electric arc. The first section was
under the action of the naked light, the second was covered with a pane
of clear glass, the third with yellow glass, the fourth with red, and the
fifth with blue glass. The relative progress of the plants was noted from
day to day, and the differences of effect upon the development of the

lants was sufficiently striking to justify the following conclusions: viz.,
under the clear glass the largest amount of and most vigorous growth
was induced; the yellow glass came next in order, but the plants, though
nearly equal in size, were greatly inferior in colour and thickness of stem
to those under the clear glass; the red glass gives rise to lanky growth
and yellowish leaf, while the blue glass produces still more lanky growth
and sickly leaf. The uncovered compartment showed a stunted growth,
with a very dark and partly shrivelled leaf in the case of mustard,
whereas tender-leaved plants, such as cress and salad, were completely
destroyed.

Tt should be observed that the electric light was kept on from 5 p.m.
till 6 a.m. every night except Sundays during the experiment, which took
place in January 1881, but that diffused daylight was not excluded during
the intervals, also that circulation of air through the dividing framework
was provided for.

These results are confirmatory of those obtained by Dr. J. W. Draper
in his valuable researches on plant-life in the solar spectrum in 1843,'
which led him to the conclusion, in opposition to the then prevailing

1 See Scientific Memoirs by J. W. Draper, M.D., LL.D.—Memoir X.

ON SOME APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC ENERGY. 477

opinion, that the yellow ray and not the violet ray was most efficacious in
promoting the decomposition of carbonic acid in the vegetable cell.

Having, in consequence of these preliminary inquiries, determined to
surround the electric arc with a clear glass lantern, more satisfactory
results were soon observable. Thus, peas which had been sown at the
end of October, produced a harvest of ripe fruit on February 16,
under the influence, with the exception of Sunday nights, of continuous
light. Raspberry stalks, put into the house on December 16th, pro-
duced ripe fruit on the lst of March, and strawberry plants, put in about
the same time, produced ripe fruit of excellent flavour and colour on Feb-
ruary 14. Vines which broke on December 26, produced ripe grapes of
stronger flavour than usual on March 10. Wheat, barley, and oats shot
up with extraordinary rapidity under the influence of continuous light,
but did not arrive at maturity; their growth having been too rapid for
their strength, caused them to fall to the ground, after having attained
the height of about twelve inches.

Seeds of wheat, barley, and oats planted in the open air, and grown
under the influence of the external electric light, produced, however, more
satisfactory results ; having been sown in rows on January 6, they ger-
minated with difficulty on account of frost and snow on the ground, but
developed rapidly when milder weather set in, and showed ripe grain by
the end of June, having been aided in their growth by the electric light
until the beginning of May.

Doubts have been expressed by some botanists whether plants grown
and brought to maturity under the influence of continuous light would
produce fruit capable of reproduction, and in order to test this question,
the peas gathered on February 16 from the plants which had been grown
under almost continuous light-action, were replanted on February 18.
They vegetated in a few days, showing every appearance of healthy
growth.

Further evidence on the same question will be obtained by Dr.
Gilbert, F.R.S., who has undertaken to experiment upon the wheat,
barley, and oats grown as above stated; but still more evidence will
probably be required before all doubt on the subject can be allayed.

Tam aware that the great weight of the opinion of Dr. Darwin goes
in favour of the view that many plants, if not all of them, require diurnal *
rest for their normal development. In his great work on ‘The Movements
of Plants’ he deals in reality with plant life as it exists under the
alternating influence of solar light and darkness; he investigates with
astonishing precision and minuteness their natural movements of circum-
nutation and nightly or nyctitropic action, but does not extend his
inquiries to the conditions resulting from continuous light. He clearly
proves that nyctitropic action is instituted to protect the delicate leaf-cells
of plants from refrigeration by radiation into space, but it does not follow,
I would submit, that this protecting power involves the necessity of the
hurtful influence. May it not rather be inferred from Dr. Darwin’s
investigations that the absence of light during night-time involved a
_ difficulty to plant life that had to be met by special motor organs, which
latter would perhaps be gradually dispensed with by plants if exposed to
continual light for some years or generations ?P

It is with great diffidence, and without wishing to generalise, that I
feel bound to state, as the result of all my experiments, extending now over
two winters, that although periodic darkness evidently favours growth in

478 REPORT—1881.

the sense of elongating the stalks of plants, the continuous stimulus of
light appears favourable for healthy development at a greatly accelerated
pace, through all the stages of the annual life of the plant, from the
early leaf to the ripened fruit. The latter is superior in size, in aroma,
and in colour to that produced by alternating light, and the resulting
seeds are not at any rate devoid of re-germinating power.

Further experiments are necessary, I am aware, before it would be safe
to generalize ; nor does this question of diurnal rest in any way bear upon
that of annual or winter rest, which probably most plants that are not so-
called annuals, do require.

The beneficial influence of the electric light has been very manifest
upon a banana palm, which at two periods of its existence, viz., during
its early growth, and at the time of the fruit-development, was placed (in
February and March of 1880 and 1881) under the night action of one of
the electric lights, set behind glass at a distance not exceeding two yards
from the plant; the result was a bunch of fruit weighing seventy-five
pounds, each banana being of unusual size, and pronounced by competent
judges unsurpassed in flavour. Melons, also remarkable for size and
aromatic flavour, have been produced under the influence of continuous
light in the early spring of 1880 and 1881, and I am confident that still
better results may be realised when the best conditions of temperature and
of proximity to the electric light have been thoroughly investigated.

My object hitherto has rather been to ascertain the general conditions
necessary to promote growth by the aid of the electric light, than the pro-
duction of quantitative results; but I am disposed to think that the time is
not far distant when the electric light will be found a valuable adjunct to
the means at the disposal of the horticulturist, in making him really in-
dependent of climate and season, and furnishing him with a power of
producing new varieties.

Before electro-horticulture can be entertained as a practical process it
would be necessary, however, to prove its cost, and my experiments of last
winter have been in part directed towards that object. Where water-
power is available, the electric light can be produced at an extremely
moderate cost, comprising: carbon electrodes, wear and tear of, and
interest upon apparatus and machinery employed, which experience else-
where has already shown to amount to 6d. per hour for a light of 5,000
candles. The personal attention requisite in that case consists simply in
replacing the carbon electrodes every six or eight hours, which can be
done without appreciable expense by the under-gardener in charge of the
fires of the green-houses.

In my case no natural source of power was available, and a steam-
engine had to be resorted to. The engine of six nominal horse-power
which I employ to work the two electric lights of 5,000 candle-power each,
consumes fifty-six pounds of coal per hour, the engine being of the ordinary
high-pressure type,—which, taken at 20s. a ton, would amount to 6d., or
to 3d. per light of 5,000 candles. But against this expenditure has to be
placed the saving of fuel effected in suppressing the stoves for heating the
greenhouses, the amount of which I have not been able to ascertain ac-
curately, but it may safely be taken at two-thirds of the cost of coal for the
engine, thus reducing the cost of the fuel per light to 1d. per hour; the
total cost per light of 5,000 candles willthus amount to 6d.+1d,.=7d. per
hour.

This calculation would hold good if the electric light and engine-

ON SOME APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC ENERGY. 479

power were required during, say, twelve hours per diem, but inasmuch as
the light is not required during the day-time, and the firing of the boiler
uas nevertheless to be kept up in order to supply heat to the greenhouses,
it appears that during the day-time an amount of motive power is lost
equal to that employed during the night.

In order to utilise this power I have devised means of working the
dynamo-machine also during the daytime, and of transmitting the electric
energy thus produced by means of wires to different points of the farm,
where such operations as chaff-cutting, swede-slicing, timber-sawing, and
water-pumping have to be performed.

These objects are accomplished by means of small dynamo-machines,
placed at the points where power is required for these varions purposes,
and which are in metallic connection with the current-generating dynamo-
machine near the engine. The connecting wires employed consist each
of a naked strand of copper wire, supported on wooden poles or on trees
without the use of insulators, whilst the return circuit is effected through
the park-railing or wire fencing of the place, which is connected with
both transmitting and working machines by means of short pieces of con-
necting wire. In order to insure the metallic continuity of the wire
fencing, care has to taken, wherever there are gates, to solder a piece of
wire, buried below the gates, to the wire fencing on either side.

As regards pumping the water, a 3 horse-power steam-engine was origi-
nally used, working two force pumps of 3} inches diameter, making thirty-
six double strokes per minute. The same pumpsare still employed, being
now worked by a dynamo-machine weighing 4cwt. When the cisterns
at the house, the gardens, and the farm require filling, the pumps are
started by simply turning the communicator at the engine station, and
in like manner the mechanical operations of the farm already referred to
are accomplished by one and the same prime mover.

There would be difficulty in this instance in stating accurately the
percentage of power actually received at the distant station, but in trying
the same machines under similar circumstances of resistance, with the aid
of dynamometers, as much as sixty per cent. has been realised.

In conclusion, I have pleasure in stating that the working of the elec-
tric light, and the transmission of power for the various operations just
named, are entirely under the charge of my head gardener, Mr. Buchanan,
assisted by the ordinary staff of under-gardeners and field-labourers, who
probably never before heard of the power of electricity.

Electric transmission of power may eventually be applied also to
thrashing, reaping, and ploughing. These objects are at the present
time accomplished to a large extent by means of portable steam-engines,
a class of engine which has attained a high degree of perfection; but the
electric motor presents the great advantage of lightness, its weight per
horse-power being only 2 cwt., whilst the weight of a portable engine
with its boiler filled with water may be taken at 15 cwt. per horse-power.
Moreover the portable steam-engine requires a continuous supply of

water and fuel, and involves skilled labour in the field, whilst the elec-
_ trical engine receives its food through the wire (or a light rail upon

which it may be made to move about), from the central station, where
power can be produced at a cheaper rate of expenditure, for fuel and
labour, than in the field. The use of secondary batteries may also be re-
aa with advantage to store electrical energy when it cannot be
utilised,

480 REPORT—1881.

In thus accomplishing the work of a farm from a central-power station,
considerable savings of plant and labour may be effected ; the engine-power
will be chiefly required for day work, and its night work, for the purposes
of electro-horticulture, will be a secondary utilisation of the establishment
involving little extra expense. At the same time the means are provided
of lighting the hall and shrubberies in the most perfect manner, and of
producing effects in landscape gardening that are strikingly beautiful.

Since writing the above my attention has been called to a very
interesting Report entitled ‘ Researches on the Influence of the Solar
Rays on the Growth of Plants’ communicated to the Oxford Meeting of
the British Association in 1847, by Mr. Robert Hunt, F.R.S., towards the
end of which he gives the following as the conclusions arrived at.

1. Light prevents the germination of seeds.

2. Actinism quickens germination.

3. Light acts to effect the decomposition of carbonic acid by the
growing plant.

4, Actinism and light are essential to the formation of the colouring
matter of leaves.

5. Light and actinism, independent of calorific rays, prevent the
development of the reproductive organs of plants.

6. The heat-radiations corresponding with the extreme red rays of
the spectrum facilitate the flowering of plants and the perfecting of their
reproductive principles.

On the Pressure of Wind upon a Fined Plane Surface.
By Tuomas Hawks .ey, O.L., F.R.S.
fA communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed im eatenso
among the Reports. ] .
Tnx recent failures of the Tay Bridge and other important structures
during heavy gales of wind, have attracted much attention to the subject
of this paper. The general solution of the problem may be thus briefly
stated :-—
Let v = the velocity of the current in feet per second.
h = the height through which a heavy body must fall to produce
the velocity v.
w =the weight in pounds of a cubic foot of the impinging fluid
[for atmospheric air on an average about 0°0765 lbs.
g = 82, the coefficient of gravity.
2
Then h = 93 and since p, the pressure of a fluid striking a plane
perpendicularly and then escaping at right angles to its original path, is
that due to twice the height h [Daubuisson’s ‘ Hydraulics’; Rouse’s
‘ Experiments ’] we have simply
we?

de

= (for atmospheric air) py bag

32

ae a aN ]
= cS) very nearly.

ON THE PRESSURE OF WIND UPON A FIXED PLANE SURFACE. 48]

- From this easily remembered formula the following table of pressures is
constructed :—

Velocities in Velocities in Pressures in Ibs,
feet per second miles per hour per square foot
10 . . - 6:8 . - 0:25
20 . : 3 EKG - . : ‘ 1:00
30 - 204 ; ee -ir13)
40 27-2 4:00
50 34:0 . 6°25
60 . . 40°8 9°00
70 47°6 12°25
80 54-4 16-00
90 ey Oe 20°25
100 68-0 25-00
110 74:8 30°25
120 816 36°00
130 88-4 42°25
140 95°2 49-00
150 102-0 56°25

In general only these, the maximum pressures, are required; but
sometimes, as in the case of the inclined sail of a windmill or ship, or
the roof of a building, the diminished pressure upon a surface placed
obliquely to the effective current is needed: we have then

pic: (Gra 2
P= \ 90

in which v = the absolute velocity with which the air strikes the receding
plane; and 6 = the internal angle made by the obliquely placed surface
and the direction of the impinging wind.

With regard to the phenomenon called ‘a gust of wind,’ nothing is
known either as to its cause, or as to its exceptional but almost momen-
tary velocity, or as to the extent of the area over which it temporarily
operates ; but it is, notwithstanding, certain that a wind-pressure of even
40 lbs. on the square foot is unknown in these islands, because, as may be
readily shown, this intensity of pressure would have sufficed to overthrow
most of the long-existing factory chimneys, to overset post windmills,
and to scatter the greater number of the slighter built domestic and other
structures which have nevertheless ‘weathered many a storm,’ and still
remain intact.

It remains to make a passing allusion to whirlwinds, tornadoes, and:
waterspouts, all the results of spiral motions apparently produced in
some obscure manner by electrical action. These phenomena are very
rarely observed to occur on an important scale in these kingdoms. The-
powerful forces concerned in or generated by these erratic movements.
have never been measured, and consequently cannot be formulated ; but
it may be observed that, were they known, they could not be introduced
with propriety into calculations of the strength of structures intended to
have a commercial value, because of the extreme improbability of any
particular structure falling within the range of their destructive effects.
They are, in fact, within the legal category of ‘ Acta Dei.’

The conclusion of the author of this paper, therefore, is that for
structural calculations a maximum wind-pressure of 40 lbs. per square
foot may be very safely adopted, notwithstanding some reported anemo-
metrical observations to tle contrary.

With regard to these observations the author remarks that the

1881. II

482 REPORT—1881.

instruments in use are little better than philosophical toys, and that, in
general, they afford no direct, comparable, or reliable indications of either
velocities or pressures ; and that they are often so injudiciously placed as
in some instances to record the effects of combined and, therefore, locally
accelerated currents; whilst in other instances, they record only the
effects of obstructed and, therefore, locally retarded currents.

As the acquisition of accurate data is of great and increasing
importance, the author suggests that the British Association, and other
learned societies interested in physical investigations, should unite in
providing the necessary funds and observers for the purpose.

On the Island of Socotra. By Baytey Batrovr, Sc.D., M.B., Regius
Professor of Botany, University of Glasgow.

[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso
among the reports. |

The island of Socotra lies off the N.E. corner of Africa in lat. 12°
19’ to 12° 42’, and long. 53° 20’ to 54° 30’. Its extreme length from
east to west is about 72 miles, and its breadth about 22 miles.

From Cape Guardafui 140 miles, it is a little more distant from the
Arabian Coast (about 500 miles from Aden), and still further away from
the Indian Peninsula.

It is the most easterly elevation of land on a coral bank lying to the
N.E. of Africa, upon which, between it and Cape Guardafui, other islands
(Abd-al-Kuri, Kal Farun, Samheh and Darzi—known commonly as The
Brothers, and Saboynea) of smaller size occur. On no part of this bank
is the depth of water over 200 fathoms, but between it and the African
coast is a channel reaching 500 fathoms. Around Socotra is a narrow
coral reef.

Perhaps no island of like extent, and lying, as one may say, on the
threshold of civilisation, has remained in later times so generally unknown
as Socotra. Situated on the highway of traffic to the Hast by way of
Suez and the Red Sea, it is almost invariably sighted by steamers making
for or from the Gulf of Aden, and thus to those who have passed along
this route, its locality, or at least its name, will be known. ‘To the scien-
tific world it has been familiar as the country of a kind of aloes, the
designation of which as Socotrine, has bysome been traced to the name of
the island. But to the majority of people its existence and its name are
alike unknown, or at most it is associated in a vague sort of way with the
East Indies.

The causes for this are not difficult to discover. The extreme outlying
land in this region of the Indian Ocean, the island is exposed to the full
blast of the monsoons, however they blow, and possessing no harbour in
which a ship can at all times ride safely at anchor, it offers no induce-
ments to ships seeking shelter. Then the currents which sweep past its
shores run with considerable force into the Gulf of Aden, and there have
been several shipwrecks on it, as well as on the African coast adjacent—
the high hills of the island being easily mistaken for the mainland, and vice
versi—and navigation in its vicinity is altogether somewhat hazardous.
It is not surprising, therefore, that passing vessels avoid the island as

ON THE ISLAND OF SOCOTRA. 483

much as possible. Moreover, too, the want of intercourse with the island,
and consequent ignorance regarding its inhabitants, have given currency
to various rumours not favourable to their character, which, though quite
unwarranted, yet have had their influence in preserving Socotra as a
virgin and unexplored island in the pathway of civilisation.

Its position on the direct route to India is one of far too much im-
portance to have allowed its remaining so neglected had any natural
advantages obtained, permitting of its being utilised, or had there been no
obstacles. Strategically valuable as is Aden, our station in this region,
its barren waterless soil would place it ata great disadvantage, com-
pared with an island possessing a rich soil and plentiful water-supply,
such as Socotra, did it possess the other elements necessary for becoming a
military station. But it has been tried and found wanting. Its history
shows how at various periods its importance has been recognised, and
certainly its present backward condition can hardly be ascribed to want
of attempts to settle or to colonise it.

Its history is one of considerable interest. I do not purpose here
to give in detail an account of the early history of the island. Suflice
it that I briefly notice some of its leading vicissitudes up to the time
when our expedition was first projected at this Association. The island
seems to have been known to Europeans at an early period under the
name of Dioscoris or Dioscorida,—a name traced by some to a Sanskrit
root signifying ‘abode of bliss’; by others to two Arabic words meaning
‘island of dragon’s-blood’ (kdtir being the Arabic name for this
gum). The author of the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea refers to it as a
desolate island inhabited by a mixed population of Arabs, Indians, and
Greeks, all speaking Greek, who had come thither in search of grain, and
carried on a trade with the West Coast of India and with Mokha. The
island is frequently mentioned by the early Arab geographers, who account
for the Greek population by the story, which Colonel Yule considers a
myth, that Alexander the Great, acting on the advice of Aristotle, settled
an Ionian colony there, in order to cultivate the aloe. They further state
that the Greeks and other inhabitants were converted to Christianity, and
that clergy from Persia regularly visited the island. The population at
this time, a few centuries after the Christian era, is put down by
some at as much as 10,000, the majority of whom are described as
Nestorian Christians and pirates.

In the time of Marco Polo, towards the end of the thirteenth century,
the island was a metropolitan see of the Nestorian Church. Many ships
visited the island, all vessels for Aden touching there, and the trade was
mainly in ambergris, cotton stuffs, and salt fish. The people had the
reputation of being enchanters, and of being able at will to raise the wind,
to bring back ships, and to produce storms and disasters.

Although so mixed a population lived on the island, yet from the
earliest times it appears to have been under the rule of the Mahra tribe,
dwelling on the opposite side of Arabia, whose sultan or sheikh lived at
Keshin.

In 1503 Fernandez Pereira discovered it for the Portuguese, at which
time an Arab sheikh lived in a fort at Zoko (modern Suk), the then
capital of the island; but it was not until 1507 that Tristan da Cunha
and Albuqerque captured the island for the Portuguese. After four years’
occupancy the Portuguese retired from the island, leaving abundant traces
of their presence. The remains of a fort on Hadibu plain, and at various

12

484 REPORT—1881.

places on the S. and S.W. sides of the island, are most substantial ruins.
Besides that their influence is possibly seen in such names of places as
Derafonta and Feraigey, the name of one of the ruined forts, which may
be Feringee. And indeed the dialect of Socotra may, it is thought by
some, owe part of its peculiarity to a Portuguese basis. Moreover, at
the present time, a large section of the inhabitants of the hill-region of
the island claim direct descent from the Portuguese. About this date the
character of the Christianity had somewhat changed, and they professed
the doctrines of the Jacobite sect.

The evacuation by the Portuguese allowed a return of the Sultan of
Keshin, and in his hands it has ever since remained, with the exception of
a short occupancy on three several occasions by a foreign race—in 1538
by the Turks, in 1800 by the Wahabbees, and by the British from 1834
to 1839.

Although the ships of the East Indian Company frequently called at
the island during the seventeenth century, some meeting with a friendly
reception, others finding the reverse, and carried on a small trade in aloes
and dragon’s-blood (the stormy weather seems always to have been a
source of dread), it was not until the year 1800 that affairs in the Hast
directed the attention of the British Government to Socotra as a desirable
possession, and the Commander of the nayal station in that region
was directed to seize it. This was not done, and it was not until 1834
that the necessity for a coaling station induced the Indian Government
to survey the island. This was accomplished by Captain Haines and
Lieutenant Wellsted, and the result of the survey being satisfactory, the
Government attempted to buy the island, but failing to do so it was
seized in 1835 by Indian troops. Aden having been taken in 1839, and
being more suitable as a coaling dépét, Socotra was abandoned.

The exploration of the island by Wellsted supplied us with the first,
and indeed until now only detailed account of the island, its people, and
productions.'! The cnly available chart at present is the one made during
this exploration, and it is most imperfect.

After the abandonment by the British in 1839, there is no record of
Europeans visiting regularly the island. An occasional shipwreck brought
it into notice, but it was not until 1876 that a prospect of theisland being
occupied by another power caused the British Government to turn atten-
tion to Socotra, with the result that in that year a treaty was concluded
with the Sultan, by which he binds himself, and his heirs and successors,
‘amongst other things, to protect any vessel, foreign or British, with the
crew, passengers, and cargo, that may be wrecked on the island of Socotra
or its dependencies, and he receives an annual stipend of 360 dollars for this.’
The other things, it is understood, include a promise never to cede Socotra
to a foreign power, or to allow a settlement on it without consent of the
British Government. Thus the Sultan becomes a feudatory of Britain.

The attention of naturalists had long been directed to Socotra as a
field for investigation whence rich results might be obtained, and Captain
Hunter, who had visited the island in connection with the concluding
of the treaty just mentioned, having brought back most encouraging
accounts, Dr. Sclater in 1878 brought the matter prominently before this
Association. A certain amount of money was obtained, mainly through
his exertions, and a committee appointed to take steps for the exploration

1 See Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc., vol. v.

ON THE ISLAND OF SOCOTRA. 485

of the natural history of the island. Various causes delayed the sending
out of the expedition, and it was not until January, 1879, that I left this
country, returning again in April, having spent, with two companions—
Lieutenant Cockburn, 6th Royals, whose regiment was at Aden, and
Alexander Scott, a gardener from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh,
who accompanied me from England—nearly seven weeks on the island.
At the meeting of this Association at Swansea last year, a report
of the proceedings of the expedition was read, and is printed in the
Association Reports. At that time the collections brought home were
,only in course of distribution for examination. Now a certain portion of
them has been worked out, although the whole is not completed, and I
purpose to-day to lay before the Association a brief account of the island
as we saw it, and the results of our investigations so far as they have been
carried out. Ere doing so I have one remark to make. Although so long
a period elapsed between the evacuation of the island by the British and
the date of our expedition last year, yet we have already been followed to
the island (though the fact of our visit was not known to them) by the
German traveller and botanist Dr. Schweinfurth, and some companions.
They went in early spring of this year, and returned in May, having had,
unfortunately, bad voyages both going and returning. Thus, after an
interval of forty years, Socotra has been visited in two successive years by
exploring parties. But what I desire to make public just now is this,
that Dr. Schweinfurth, on learning that I had been to Socotra, at once
offered to send to me his botanical collections, to be worked up along
with my own—an act of generosity which I think deserves the fullest
recognition, and which will enable me to bring outa much more complete
account of the botany of the island.

The surface features of Socotra at the present time are those of an
island mountainous in the extreme. The shore line on its southern aspect
is, as the map shows, a tolerably continuous one, unbroken by deep inlets
or bays. On the northern side occur a few shallow bays at the mouths
of the streams, which afford the only anchorage to be obtained around
the island, but no one of them is safe at all seasons of the year. On all
sides the hills rise with considerable abruptness, over a wide area
forming bold perpendicular cliffs of several hundred feet in height, whose
base is washed by the waters of the Indian Ocean; but at other places
leaving plains varying in breadth up to as much as five miles between
their base and the shore. On the south side of the island is the largest
of these shore plains—Nogad—which, extending nearly the whole length of
the island, is for miles covered with dunes of blown sand. On the north
these plains occur chiefly at the mouths of the streams, and are the sites
of the only places which may be called towns.

The internal hilly part of the island may be roughly and shortly
described as a wide undulating and intersected limestone plateau of an
altitude averaging 1,000 feet, which flanks on the west, south, and east
a nucleus of granitic peaks approaching 4,000 feet high. ‘The whole of
this hilly region is deeply cut into by ravines and valleys. These in the
rainy season are occupied by roaring torrents, but the majority of them
remain empty during the dry season. There are, however, many peren-
nial streams on the island; especially in the central granitic region,
where amongst the hills the most charming bubbling streams, dashing
over boulders in a series of cascades, or purling gently over a pebbly
shingle, make it hard to believe that one is in such proximity to the desert

486 REPORT—1881.

region of Arabia. Few of the perennial streams reach the shore in the
dry season—most of them are fiumaras.

The eastern end of the island is most destitute of water. Here in
the dry season are no rivers, and, springs being rare, it is the most arid
region.

s Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks compose the island.
The fundamental rock is granitic. ‘This crops out, as I have mentioned,
towards the middle of the island, forming a series of bare pinnacles and
crags, projecting, with singularly fantastic look, from the plateau below.
This rock also shows on the slopes of the valleys and ravines below the .
compact limestone which caps it and forms the surface rock of the hill
plateaux. This limestone attains in places, as seen on the cliff faces, a
thickness of two or three hundred feet. Superficially over wide areas it
is rotted and broken into a jagged surface, over which progression is by
no means easy, while at other spots it forms broad, smooth slabs. A shaley
rock and coarse-textured purple sandstone, in beds dipping at all angles,
crop out in the valleys and on the shore, whilst forming the shore-plains
and the bases of the valleys is a recent breccia and conglomerate. Cutting
through all these rocks and altering them to a considerable extent, occur
dykes and extensive masses of doleritic rocks and felstones, which vary
much in texture.

Professor Bonney, who is working out the rock specimens, tells me he
has nearly completed his report, and we may therefore soon hope for
more definite knowledge of the geology of the island.

The soil resulting from such petrological conditions is correspondingly
varied, correlated with which is a varying character in vegetation and
scenery.

In the valleys on the banks of the streams, especially in the granitic
region, a deep rich red soil is found, and where there is water perennially
it is covered by a luxuriant growth. As the limestone composes the
greater part of its superficies the plateau appears barren. Where,
however, the limestone has rotted, a series of nooks and crevices occur,
in which, where a soil has collected, an Aloe, Kalanchoe, or other
succulent finds a congenial habitat. But upon the limestone platean,
especially at the eastern and western ends of the island, occur depressions
varying in width from some hundred yards up to a mile or more, girt on
every side by the cavernous limestone cliff, with perhaps a narrow outlet
through it at one or more points. These, which have all the appearance
of lagoons, or at least of enclosed water-basins, are floored now by a rich
red soil on which a crop of coarse grass, small herbs, and low trees vege-
tates. On the shore-plains the soil is light and sandy.

In its climate Socotra contrasts favourably with the adjacent shores
of Arabia and Africa.

During the N.H. monsoon, from October to April, it is cool. January
and February are the most pleasant months. But during the rest of the
year it is exceedingly disagreeable. Tain falls twice in the year, at the
changes of the monsoons, at which times the stream-courses are filled
with mighty torrents. The temperature of course varies much with the
altitude, and one may pass in the course of a few hours from the tropical
heat of the shore plains to the cool temperate air of the mountain ranges.
The average temperature on the plains in January is said to be about 70°,
but in the hotter months it is as much as 86°. But on the plateau the
temperature at nights often goes down to 52°, The higher peaks are, at

ON THE ISLAND OF SOCOTRA. 487

least in the cool season, frequently enshrouded in mists, and at night
very heavy dews fall. The climate on the hills is very healthy; but on
the plains, especially at the changes of monsoon, fever is prevalent.

Of zoological features one of the most striking is the paucity of
indigenous mammals. The antelopes and rodents of the adjacent continents
are absent from Socotra, and there are but two mammals indigenous: a
bat—of which, unfortunately, we did not obtain a specimen—and a civet
cat. Rats and mice occur in the villages. Of the cassowary, mentioned
by Wellsted, we saw and heard nothing. Birds are plentiful, so are
lizards, and there are some snakes. The rivers are stocked with fish,
and in them crabs are also found in abundance. Land mollusca are, as
might be expected, frequent, and the whole island teems with insect
life.

Our collections have been pretty nearly fully worked out. Mr. Sclater
and Dr, Hartlaub have done the birds, Dr. Gunther has taken the snakes,
and Mr. Blanford the lizards. The shells have fallen to Colonel Godwin-
Austen, and Mr. Butler and Mr. Waterhouse have respectively worked
out the Lepidoptera and Coleoptera; all their results being published
in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ for 1881. Though the
collections are very fragmentary, yet they present features of interest,
and show that whilst the fauna of Socotra possesses a fair amount of
individuality, it is distinctly African in character. The specimens are
too few in number to allow an estimate of the extent of the endemic
fauna to be made, nor will that be practicable, as Mr. Sclater points
out, until we learn something more of the zoology of the African coast
around Cape Guardafui, which at present is almost unknown. The con-
clusions, however, that may be drawn from our present knowledge of the
fauna of Socotra may be best expressed in the words of Colonel Godwin-
Austen when speaking of the affinities of the land mollusca: ‘There
is strong evidence that the island was once directly connected with Mada-
gascar to the south. We know the great antiquity of that island, and it
is not unreasonable to suppose that in Socotra, the Seychelles, Mada-
gascar, and Rodriguez we have the remnants of a very ancient, more
advanced coast line on this western side of the Indian Ocean, which line
of elevation was probably continuous through Arabia towards the north.
With an equally advanced coast on the Indian side, the Arabian Sea would
under these conditions have formed either a great delta or a narrow arm
of the sea, into which the waters of the Indus and Euphrates drained.
Such conditions would have admitted the extension of species from one
side to the other, which the later and more extensive depression of the
area, as shown in Scinde, afterwards more completely shut off.’

Of domesticated animals there are on Socotra—cattle, sheep, goats,
camels, and asses. Old voyagers speak of horses being used, but there
are none now. The cattle are small and have no hump. Immense herds
are found at the east end of the island. The sheep are all fleeced, but
there are none of the Berbera kind. Of goats there are some in a wild
condition. The camels are much smaller than those at Aden and else-
where in Arabia, and are able to climb like goats; many are kept for
milking. Asses roam wild in herds all over the island.

The vegetation of the island varies in aspect with the character of the
rocks. Starting from the shore one finds no representative of a marine
phrenogamic vegetation, although in the stagnant brackish waters at
the mouths of the streams naiads occur. The coast is not favourable for

488 REPORT—1881.

seaweeds, being too shingly and sandy. On the dry sandy plains the
vegetation typical of the desert regions on the mainland reigns. Small-
leaved, stunted, and woody bushes and herbs, often so rigid as to become
spiny, or fleshy plants without foliage-leaves prevail. Leaving the plains,
and passing to the hill slopes and valleys, plant life is more vigorous,
but in no place sufficiently so to call for the designation of forest, nor
is there anything in the way of fine timber. But in the valleys, wherever
there is any degree of moisture, small trees of some 20 to 25 feet, with
smaller shrubs packed so densely as to exclude the light from above,
linked together by far-reaching lianes, and underlain by a thick under-
scrub of fern and herb, make an almost impenetrable thicket, and produce
a verdure quite tropical in its luxuriance. Once out of the valleys
upon the plateaux and the scene is essentially different. Wide barren
stretches of grey limestone extend on every side unrelieved, save by an
isolated Draccena, or tree Euphorbia of stiff erect habit, looking like
the remnant of the vegetation of some old geological epoch; or where
a lake-like depression, with its brown earth sparingly coated with
green herbage, intervenes. And again, reaching the higher altitudes
on the granitic range, the vegetation impresses one at once with its sub-
temperate character. The arborescent type has almost entirely dis-
appeared. T'wiggy, narrow-leaved herbs form a dense deep carpet on
the soil, interrupted here and there by a protruding lichen-covered
boulder, and for all the world like the covering of heather on a Scottish
moor; whilst within the shade of the boulders, or in the moisture of the
overhanging cliffs inthe ravines, bright green herbs nestle in beds of liver-
wort and moss, so that it would require no very great effort to believe one
was exploring an Alpine crag in a temperate region.

Aromatic odours are a marked feature of many plants, and also the
occurrence of gums and resins, which in some cases form natural exu-
dations in the form of tears. The common desert characteristics of a
glaucous grey colouration or a hairy pubescence mark also many of the
plants on the shore-plains and on the plateaux.

I shall not give any statistics regarding the flora, nor shall I attempt
any detailed account of its affinities at the present. Our collections,
amounting to about 700 species, of which 550 at least are Phenogams, are
only in course of being worked out, and IJ am daily expecting a con-
signment of this gathering from Schweinfurth, which he tells me includes
probably 200 species, that we did not obtain, and I consider it better
therefore to delay until the materials for the estimation of the whole flora,
as we are able to know it, are at hand.

The flora is, as you will readily believe, a pretty extensive one. There
is in it a goodly number of cosmopolitan and tropical weeds, but there
is a fair proportion of endemic genera and species. The orders most
abundantly represented appear to be Leguminose and Graminew, closely
followed by Composite, Acanthaces, Cyperaces, and Euphorbiaces.
There is a fair number of ferns, a few orchids or palms, whilst of cellular
Cryptogams lichens are exceedingly abundant.

Of individual plants interesting for various reasons, let me merely
mention a few,—and firstly, on morphological grounds, may be noticed
the ‘Camhane’ tree, a new genus of Cucurbitacew. This plant differs
from the ordinal characters in being a tree with a stem often four or
five feet in diameter at the base, rapidly tapering, and forming a very
soft juicy wood. Another plant of interest, on morphological grounds, is

-— v

ON THE ISLAND OF SOCOTRA. 489

a small tree bearing a fruit like a pomegranate, but instead of having the
double row of carpelscharacteristic of the true Punica granatum, there is but
asingle whorl. Can this then be the primitive type of the Pomegranate ?
Another morphologically interesting plant is a Menisperm, a Cocculus,
which differs from the ordinal type in being a hard erect undershrub, with
cladodes and short spiny branches.

Gum and resin-producing plants are numerous. The most interesting
of these is the dragon’s-blood tree, Dracena Cinnabarit. The dragon’s-
blood of commerce at the present time is, as is well known, the product
of Calamus Draco of Sumatra. Butthe Socotran gum is the old xuvvaPape
mentioned by Dioscorides. It is known on the island as ‘edah’; amongst
the Arabs it is ‘katir.’ The plant is endemic, nearly allied to the
D. Draco of Teneriffe. From the other gum-producing species, D. Ombet
of Abyssinia and D. schizantha of Somali-land, of which we have as yet
but imperfect knowledge, it isapparently quite distinct. The gum exudes
in tears from the stem of the tree, and is collected after the rains; the
gatherer chipping off the tears into goat-skins. There are three forms in
which the gum is exported. Of these ‘edah amsello,—the tears as they
exude from the tree—is the purest and most valuable form; 24 lbs. fetch
one dollar. The second-best kind is called ‘edah dukkah.’ It consists
of the small chips and fragments of the tears which have been broken
off in separating the gum-tears from the tree, or by attrition. It sells
at one dollar for 4 lbs. The cheapest is the ‘edah mukdehah,’ which
brings a dollar for 5 lbs., and is very impure. It is in the form of small
flat-sided masses, and consists of fragments of the gum and refuse of the
gatherings melted together into a flat cake, and then broken up into
smaller portions.

Another most important gum-producing plant on the island is Aloe
Perryi, which yields the ‘Socotrine Aloes’ of commerce. The gum is
known as ‘tayef’ by the natives; the Arabs call it ‘sobr.’ Although
this kind of aloes has been so long known, and has the reputation of being
finer than either Barbadoes or Cape aloes, it is only within the past few
years that the character of the plant has been made known. It grows
abundantly on the island, especially on the limestone plateaux. The
collection of the gum is a very simple process, and can be accomplished
at any season. The collector scrapes a slight hollow on the surface of
the ground in the vicinity of an aloe-plant, into which he depresses the
centre of a small portion of goat-skin spread over the ground. The
leaves of the aloe are then cut and laid in a circle on the skin, with the
cut ends projecting over the central hollow. Two or three layers are
arranged. The juice, which is of a pale amber colour with a sweet,
slightly mawkish odour and taste, flows from the leaves into the goat-
skin. After about three hours the leaves are exhausted; the skin
is removed from beneath them, and the contained juice transferred to
a mussock. Only the older leaves are used. The juice thus collected is
of a thin watery character, and is known as ‘ tdyef rhiho,’ or watery
aloes. In this condition it is exported to Muscat and Arabia, and sells for
three dollars the skin of 30 lbs. By keeping, however, the aloes changes
in character. After a month the juice gets, by loss of water, denser and
more viscid; it is then known as ‘tayef gesheeshah,’ and is more
valuable—a skin of 30 Ibs. fetching five dollars; whilst in about fifteen
days more—that is, about six weeks after collection—it gets into a
tolerably hard solid mass, and is then ‘ tayef kasahul,’ and is worth

490 REPORT—1881.

seven dollars a skin of 30 lbs. In this last condition it is commonly
exported. Although this production is so easily obtained, yet its
collection is most precarious, and, indeed, is only resorted to by the
inhabitants when, from want of rain, the pasturage is not sufficient
for the cattle and sheep, and thus milk is scarce. In good seasons,
when there is abundance of milk, and they are able to make chi sufficient
for their needs, very little aloes is obtained.

Of other gum-producing trees, a Boswellia yielding a kind of myrrh,
the ‘Ameero;’ some Balsamodendrons yielding a poor ‘ olibanum ;’ and
an Odina yielding a false myrrh, may be mentioned, as also an Acacia
affording a very good gum.

Of plants striking as having brilliant flowers may be noted the
Adenium, from which Aden derives its name; a tuberous Begonia, which
will shortly be introduced into horticulture; a fragant Crinwm, species
of Ruellia, Jasminum, &e.

There is, as I have said, no forest on the island, and yet there is one
small tree, or large shrub, which may be of some value commercially.
It is the ‘metayne,’ a kind of box-tree, Buwus Hildebrandti. It was first
found by Hildebrandt on the Somali-land hills. It forms a hard, compact
wood, and, I doubt not, might be used for many of the purposes for
which boxwood is so valuable at the present time. It is abundant on
the island, and Hildebrandt reported it very common in Somali-land.
I did not bring home sufficient specimens to allow of an experimental
trial of this as a material for wood-cuts or other purposes. I learn from
Dr. Schweinfurth, that he has sent some to Berlin to be tried in this way.
Should the wood prove serviceable, it requires no special mention to
indicate how valuable this product may become, in view of the exhaustion
of the boxwood forests (of which we hear so much) in the 8.E. of Europe.

Many plants are used on the island for the purposes of dyeing. But
of these the ouly one that need be here referred to is the orchella weed,
(Rochella tinctoria.) Occurring in abundance, it was formerly exported
in great quantity. It is known as ‘ shennah.’ :

Few wild plants yield edible fruits; the jujube is abundant, and there
is the tamarind and the bitter orange.

Briefly to summarise in general terms our knowledge of the Socotran
flora, we may say it is essentially that of a continental island, and presents
features indicating a considerable antiquity. The relative proportion of
families to genera and of genera to species, is large. Annuals are few
innumber. In its characteristics it combines those of a dry and arid region
with those of a moister and cooler region. Its individuality is great, and
its affinities are mainly African, the closeness of relationship amounting
to actual identity between many most peculiar and typical plants. And this
affinity extends not only into the flora of the adjacent coast-line of Guardafui
and Somali-land, of which, unfortunately, our knowledge is at present
small, but still farther west into Nubia and Abyssinia, and (increasing
teufold the interest of the flora) reaches also southwards through Mada-
gascar to the Cape, with the flora of which region there are some strong and
very marked connections. Arabian relationships are present in the flora,
nearly all the Aden plants being represented; but, unfortunately, beyond
the flora of Aden we know very little of the vegetation of the adjacent
Arabian region. Nor are more Eastern affinities wanting, for types of the
North Indian region have representatives in the flora.

Our president, Sir Joseph Hooker, in the able and interesting address

ON THE ISLAND OF SOCOTRA. 491

to which we listened on Thursday last, referred to the herbarium brought
from Central Africa by Mr. Joseph Thomson, and remarked that ‘ it
contained many of the endemic genera and even species of the Cape of
Good Hope ’—a fact most interesting as showing the prescience of a
suggestion made many years ago by Sir Joseph Hooker ‘that the South
African flora has once been continued along the highlands of Kast Africa
from Natal to Abyssinia.’ Mr. Baker, too, on Friday read a most valuable
paper on the flora of Madagascar, in which he pointed out the marked
African affinities of that island, and its connection with the Cape and
Central African forms.

And now from Socotra we learn the same story, and are therefore
forced to the conclusion that we have here a remnant of an old African
flora, of which, at the present day, the Cape is the southern, Abyssinia the
northern, and this, along with Madagascar, the eastern extension.

The botanical evidence, it will be seen, bears out in a most emphatic
manner the conclusions founded upon the fauna. From its geographical
position one would @ priori be led to regard Socotra as an outlier from
the African continent, separated in the progress of cosmical change.
The whole natural history of the island—geology, zoology, and botany
—bears out this view.

Of plants cultivated on the island the most important is the date-palm.
Every stream on the island is lined by groves of them, and the fruit is
used, both ripe and unripe. Melons are grown, as also small onions.
Little cereal culture is indulged in. Here and there, on the hills beside
a stream, a small enclosure of ‘bombé’ (jowari) may be seen, but the
inhabitants are too lazy to cultivate to any extent, the watering requiring
too much labour. Only in one spot was there observed an attempt at
irrigation.

Our expedition was essentially a botanical one, and the time at our
disposal being limited, many points of interest regarding the people and
their mode of life could not be investigated. But the island does possess
great ethnological interest, as its history will have shown you, besides the
somewhat melancholy interest which, as Colonel Yule remarks, attaches
to a people once Christian, and now lapsed into a semi-barbarous condition.
I may, however, shortly bring before you some facts regarding the inha-
bitants.

The extent of population it is impossible to estimate, as so many
people live in caves, and one only occasionally came across the wandering
inhabitants of the hill region.

In speaking of the people, the dwellers on the shore must be dis-
tinguished from those on the hills. The former, who are a mixed population
of Arabs, Indians, and Africans of various tribes, live in small towns. Of
these at present the chief is Tamarida, on the extensive Hadibu plain at
the base of the Haggier range of hills. It is the capital of the island, and
consists of a number of stone and lime houses, of the ordinary construction
seen in Arabia, all plastered outside of a dazzling white, and surrounding
a large one, which is the Sultan’s palace. Around the town is a dense date-
grove. There is a mosque and well-filled graveyard in the centre of the
town. The number of inhabitants is set down at about 400, Kadhab is
another village, lying on a sandy spit east from Tamarida. The houses
here are of the same character as at Tamarida, and there is a mosque.
Gollonsir, at the west end is the penal settlement, and has but few houses.
Formerly the capital of the island was Suk, at the east edge of the Hadibu

492 REPORT—1881.

plain, but it was destroyed. There are numerous small villages all along
the coast line, but the three mentioned are the chief towns.

The occupation of the residents in these villages is mainly fishing. They
cultivate small tracts of ground near their houses, but are, as a rule, idle.
The population too is somewhat changing, many going off in trading
buggalows to Zanzibar or the Arabian coast.

The inhabitants of the hills, ‘Bedouins,’ as they are called, are very
different people. They are regarded as the aborigines of the island, and
alone possess any great interest ethnologically. They are mostly
troglodytes, but here and there live in small huts, with stone and lime
walls and roofed with date-palm leaves. They are a most peaceable race
of people, and are divided into numerous families belonging to a few
principal tribes. A study of these tribes would well repay the time
and trouble spent upon it. Captain Hunter says: ‘The ‘“ Karshin,”
who inhabit the western end of the island, claim to be descendants from
the Portuguese. The ‘‘Momi,” who reside in the eastern end of the
island, are said to trace descent from the aborigines and the Abyssinians ;
whilst the ‘‘Camahane,’”’ who live in Haggier and the hills above the
Hadibu plain, claim to arise from the intermarriage of the aborigines
with the Mahri Arabs from the opposite coast. Whatever be their
origin, certain is it that the hill people have a very distinct appearance.
Many of them are tall and finely made, the men with broad shoulders,
lean flanks, and stout legs, reminding one very forcibly of the European
build. Thin-lipped and straight-featured, they have straight black hair.
The women are many of them very good-looking, somewhat resembling
gipsies, but they have rather large hands and feet.’

The men wear a loin-cloth, one end of which is commonly thrown
over the shoulder, usually with a knife stuck in the waist, and they
invariably carry a stick. The women have the ordinary Arab blue shirt,
in most cases kilted at the knees and continued round the waist by a
girdle. In some cases, however, they improvise a petticoat of the coarse
blankets they themselves weave, and wear on the upper part of the budy
a loose tunic with short sleeves. They go unveiled. The women wear
the hair done up in two plaits which hang down their back, but in front
the hair is cut to form a short fringe on the forehead. Their ornaments
are few. The men often wear an armlet of silver. The women have
necklets of amber, glass beads, dragon’s-blood tears, or in some cases
rupees, and have also the ordinary Arab silver armlet, and ear-rings.

The occupation of these people is chiefly pastoral. Their herds and
flocks are extensive. From the milk they make quantities of ghi by asimple
process of churning—merely continuous jerking of the skin mussocks—
and they sell it to the Arabs of the coast, or exchange it for rice, dates,
or other necessaries. They collect also dragon’s-blood and aloes, but the
latter only in great amount when pasturage fails them. The women spin
a coarse thread from the sheep’s wool, which they weave into blankets.

They live very miserably. Milk forms a large portion of their diet.
Bombé is used when grown. Rice is obtained from the coast Arabs.
Date is a staple of food. On great occasions a sheep or a kid is killed.

The furnishing of their dwellings is very meagre. Blankets are their
couches. Goat-skin mussocks are used for water and milk, They have
also earthenware pots, moulded by the hand out of the clays and silica of
adjacent rocks,

Their language is peculiar. Captain Hunter says of it: ‘I could trace

ON THE ISLAND OF SOCOTRA. 493

no affinity to any of the languages of the neighbouring coasts. It sounds a
little like Kis Swahili, but not so soft. It is not Mahri, for the Sultan said
it in no way resembled it. The sound is not so guttural as Arabic, and
seems to require less effort in enunciation.’ Somalis do not understand it.
Wellsted says the people of the opposite Arabian coast understand it, but
that is not the case. Perhaps Portuguese may have had something to do
with it. We made a vocabulary, which increases that of Wellsted, and
Captain Hunter, who has considerable knowledge of the tribes in that
region, is at present occupied with an investigation into its peculiarities.
But I have not heard as yet the result of his studies. °

The fact that the Wahabbees visited the island accounts probably for
the absence of the many churches, or traces of them, said to exist in
ancient times on theisland. Wellsted observed some ruins, believed to be of
achurch. There are, however, still evident the ruined forts of the Portu-
guese. The largest of these is at Feraigey. No written records have been
found ; possibly such would disappear along with the churches. Wellsted
speaks of inscriptions on the rocks being visible. None of these were
seen by us. But on the Kadhab plain there occurs a broad pavement of
limestone, 50 yards long by 25 to 30 yards broad, whereon numerous
hieroglyphics are cut. The figures are not in line, and do not give the
idea of any continuous sentence, and they lie at all angles to one another
and varying distances. Some resemble foot-imprints, others distinctly
represent a camel, others are like St. Andrew’s cross, others are of
most irregular form. Of their nature and date I am ignorant, and if any
member of the Section, learned in such matters, will aid in deciphering
the copies I brought of them I shall be indebted to him,

The government of the island is in the hands of the Sultan of
Keshin and Socotra. At present two brothers are joint Sultans, and one
lives at Keshin, the other resides in Socotra. They are nephews of the
one who, in 1834, refused to sell the island to the British. The Sultan
has complete sway in Socotra. He has a residence on Gharriah plain, at
the base of the Haggier hills, and has also a palace in Tamarida, where he
dispenses justice. Under him each of the large villages has its sheikh or
head, and the island is divided into four sections, each of which is in
charge of aranger. The Sultan alone has power to inflict punishment.
In each section the land is let out to the various tribes of Bedouins, both
for pasture and for the collection of gum, payment therefor being made
in ghi. The Sultan only reserves one portion of land for the collection of
dragon’s-blood for himself,

The trade of the island at present is small, ghi being the chief
export. Itis carried on by buggalows from the Arabian coast. ‘These
arrive in the first months of the year with coffee, rice, and other articles,
which they exchange for ghi, aloes, orchella weed, &e., which they
take to Zanzibar, and, on their return, they bring coco-nut, bombé, and
American piece-goods. They dispose of as many of these as possible,
and take outward ghi, aloes, dragon’s-blood, blankets, &c., and return to
Arabia. Pearl-fishers from the Persian Gulf at times visit the island
and dispose of their pearls. The Sultan takes tithe of all exports.
From ghi his revenue is about 5008, aloes bring him 2508, edah gives
80, and other sources bring it up to 1,0008 a year, which, with his
stipend of 360% from the British, makes him a comparatively rich man
in this region.’

Such, then, is a brief survey of Socotra as it is at the present day.

494 REPORT—1881.

Many details of interest cannot be included in such a réswmé as this, but
a full account will shortly appear.

It may now be asked, What are the prospects of the island? Is it
possible in the future to make anything of it ?

There is no doubt but that large tracts of country on the island might,
with little difficulty, be brought into a state of cultivation. The hills
might be terraced and, by irrigation, water could be taken to spots now
dry and parched. The soil is rich, and would support a large crop of
cereals, fruits, and vegetables, and with increased pasture the cattle and
sheep would multiply enormously. Socotra might thus become a source
of supply for the adjacent continents and for passing ships. In addition
the aloe-culture might easily be undertaken, and this, with dragon’s-
blood, boxwood, and orchella weed, would make important articles of
commerce. The want of a safe harbour must militate against the commerce
of the island, but itis pleasing to be able to say that Luke Thomas & Co.,
of London and Aden, have fitted out a small steamer, the Operculum,
which makes her first trip at the end of this month, with the special aim
of developing a trade between Socotra and the Arabian and African
coasts. One can but wish that it may be the pioneer of a regular trade
which will bring the island into contact with civilisation. If dreams of a
commercial future for Socotra be considered too sanguine for realisation,
it is possible to look to the natural history treasures of the island for
valuable contributions to the history of life. After all that has been
done we have only a slight knowledge of them. Moreover there is great
need for a proper map of the island. The map of Hainesand Wellsted (the
Admiralty chart) is the only available one, and that is so incomplete and
inaccurate regarding the interior, as to be practically useless. Other
work during our expedition allowed of no more than mere compass-
bearings being taken of the various hills and prominent points, but our
data are not sufficient to enable us to make any great change in the map,
so that a proper topographical survey is a first necessity.

It was at this Association that Dr. Sclater first brought forward his
proposal for an exploration of the island, and it was by funds supplied by
this Association that the expedition was at first organised. The results
achieved are in great part before the Association, for whom it is to
decide whether or no the end has justified the means. If this has been the
case, and the results are deemed satisfactory, I would only reiterate that
what has been done is but a fragment. Much remains to be done in this
region, not only in Socotra itself, but also on the adjacent coasts of
Arabia and Africa, Funds only are wanting for the prosecution of the
exploration. In conclusion, I will only express the hope that one
outcome of this most successful meeting will be the carrying out of the
further scientific exploration of these regions.

On some of the Developments of Mechanical Engineering during the
last half-century. By Sir FrepERIcCK BRAMWELL, V.P. Inst. C.E.,
F.RS.

[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso
among the Reports. |
I am quite sure the Section will agree with me in thinking—it was very
fortunate for us, and for science generally, that our President re-

ON THE DEVELOPMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, 495

frained from occupying the time of the Section by a retrospect, and
devoted himself, in that lucid and clear address with which he favoured
us, to the consideration of certain scientific matters connected with en-
gineering, and to the foreshadowing of the directions in which he believes
it possible that further improvements may be sought for. But I feel it is
desirable that some one should give to this Section a record, even although
it must be but a brief and an imperfect one, of certain of the improve-
ments that have been made, and of some of the progress that has taken
place, during the last fifty years, in the practical application of mechanical
science, with which science and its applications our Section is par-
ticularly connected. I regret to say that, in common with most of the
gentlemen who sat on this platform yesterday—who I think were,
without exception, past Presidents of the Section—I am old enough to
give this record from personal experience. Fifty years ago I had not
the honour of being a member, nor should I, it is true, have been eligible
for membership of the Association; for I was at that time vigorousl
making models of steam-engines, to the great annoyance of the house-
hold in which I lived, and was looking forward to the day when I should
be old enough to be apprenticed to an engineer.

Without further preface, I will briefly allude to some of the prin-
cipal developments of a few of the branches cf engineering. I am well
aware that many branches must necessarily be-left unnoticed; but I trust
that the omissions I may make will be remedied by those present who
may speak upon the subject after me.

I will begin by alluding to the Steam Engine employed for manufac-
turing purposes. In 1831 the steam-engine for these purposes was
commonly the condensing beam-engine, and was supplied with steam
from boilers known, from their shape, as waggon-boilers. This shape
appears to have been chosen rather for the convenience of the sweeps,
who periodically went through the flues to remove the soot consequent
on the imperfect combustion, than for the purpose of withstanding the
internal pressure of steam. The necessary consequence was, that the
manufacturing engines of those days were compelled to work with steam
of from only 34 lbs. to 5 lbs. per square inch of pressure above atmo-
sphere. The piston-speed rarely exceeded 250 feet per minute, and as
a result of the feeble pressure and of the low rate of speed, very large
cylinders indeed were needed relatively to the power obtained. The
consumption of fuel was heavy, being commonly from 7 Ibs to 10 lbs.
per gross indicated horse-power per hour. The governing of the
engine was done by pendulum-governors, revolving slowly, and not
calculated to exert any greater effort than that of raising the balls at
the end of the pendulum-arms, thus being, as will readily be seen,
very inefficient regulators. The connection of the parts of the engine
between themselves was derived from the foundation upon which the
engine was supported. Incident to the low piston-speed was slowness
of revolution, rendering necessary heavy fly-wheels to obtain even an
approach to practical uniformity of rotation, and frequently rendering
necessary also heayy trains of toothed gearing to bring up the speed
from that of the revolution of the engine to that of the machinery it
was intended to drive.

In1881 the boilers are almost invariably cylindrical, and are very com-
monly fired internally, either by one fine or by two; and we owe it to the
late Sir William Fairbairn, President of the British Association in 1861,

496 REPORT—1881.

that the danger which at one time existed of the collapse of these
fire-flues has been entirely removed, by his application of circum-
ferential bands. Now-a-days there are, as we know, modifications of Sir
William Fairbairn’s bands ; but by means of his bands, or by modifica-
tions thereof, all internally flued boilers are so strengthened that the
risk of a collapse of the flue is at an end. Boilers of this kind are well
calculated to furnish, and commonly do furnish, steam of from 40 lbs. to
80 Ibs. pressure above atmosphere ; the piston-speed is now very gene-
rally 400 feet or more, so that, notwithstanding that there is usually a
liberal expansion, the mean pressure upon the piston is greater, and
this, coupled with the increased piston-speed, enables much more power
to be obtained from a given size of cylinder than was formerly ob-
tainable. The revolutions of the engine now are as many as from 60 to
200 per minute, and thus, with far lighter fly-wheels, uniformity of rota-
tion is much more nearly attained. Moreover, engines are now self-con-
tained, and no longer depend upon the foundation for the connection of
their parts. In many cases the condensing is effected either by surface
condensers, or, where there is not an ample supply of water, the con-
densation is in a few instances effected by the evaporative condenser—
a condenser which, I am sorry to say, is not generally known, and is
therefore but seldom used, although between thirty and forty years
have elapsed since its first introduction. Notwithstanding the length
of time during which the evaporative condenser has been known to
some engineers, it is a common thing to hear persons say, when you ask
them if they are using a condensing engine, ‘I cannot use it, I have
not water enough’—a very sufficient answer, indeed, if an injection
condenser or an ordinary surface condenser constituted the sole means
by which a vacuous condition might be obtained, but a very insufficient
answer having regard to the existence of the evaporative condenser, as
by its means whenever there is water enough for the feed of a non-
condensing engine, there is enough to condense the exhaust steam,
and to produce a good vacuum. ‘The evaporative condenser simply
consists of a series of pipes, in which is the steam to be condensed,
and over which the water is allowed to fall in a continuous rain. By this
arrangement there is evaporated, from the outside of the condenser, a
weight of water, which goes away in a cloud of vapour and is nearly
equal to the weight of steam which is condensed, and is returned as feed
water into the boiler. The same water is pumped up and used outside the
condenser over and over again, needing no more to supply the waste than
would be needed as feed water, and as the condenser acts by evaporation
its effect is practically as good whether the external water be warm or cold.
Although this condenser has, as I have said, been in use for thirty or
forty years, there are still to be seen engines, working without condensa-
tion at all, or with waterworks water, purchased at a great cost, and to
the detriment of other consumers who want it for ordinary domestic
purposes; or large condensing ponds are used in which the injection
water is stored, to be worked over and over again, and frequently
(especially towards the end of the week) in so tepid a state as to be unfit
for its purpose. The governing is now done by means of quick-running
governors, which have power enough in them to raise, not merely the
pendulum-balls, which are small, but a very heavy weight, and in
this way the governor is extremely effective. I propose to say nomore
. —looking at the magnitude of the whole of my subject—upon the engine

~

ON THE DEVELOPMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 497

used for manufacturing purposes, but rather to turn at once to those
employed for other objects.

Steam Nawvigation.—In 1831 there were a considerable number of
paddle-steamers running on some of the rivers in England and across
the Channel to the Continent. But there were no ocean steamers, properly
so called, and there were no steamers used for warlike purposes. As in
the case of the waggon-boilers, the boilers of the paddle-steamers of 1831
were most unsuited for resisting pressure. They were mere tanks, and
as tanks the downward strain from the mere weight of water was as
great on the bottom plates, even in the absence of any steam-pressure
within the boiler at all, as, when the steam was up, was the upward
strain on the top plates. Under these circumstances, again, from 3} lbs,
to 5 Ibs. on the square inch was all the pressure the boilers were competent
to bear, and this feeble pressure, coupled with the slow speed at which
the engines ran, caused them to develop but a small amount of horse-power
in relation to their size. Moreover, as in the land engine, the connec-
tion between the parts of the marine engine was such as to be incompetent
to stand the strain that would come upon it if a higher pressure, with a
considerable expansion, were used, and thus the consumption of coal
was very heavy; and we know, that having regard to the then con-
sumption, it was said, on high authority, it would be impossible for
a steam-boat to cross the Atlantic, as it could not carry fuel enough to
last out the voyage; and it was not till 1838 that the Sirius and the
Great Western did make the passage. One boat, it is true, had crossed
before, but it was not till 1838 that passenger traffic was really com-
menced. In 1831, owing to the condensation being effected by injection,
the marine boiler was supplied with salt water, the hulls were invariably
of wood, and the speed was, probably, from eight to nine knots an hour.
In 1881 the vessels are as invariably either of iron or of steel, and I
believe it will not be very long before the iron disappears, giving place
entirely to the last-mentioned metal. With respect to the term ‘ steel’ lam
ready to agree that it is impossible to say where, chemically speaking, iron
ends and steel begins. But (leaving out malleable cast-iron) I apply this
term steel to any malleable ductile metal of which iron forms the principal
element, and which has been in fusion, and I do so in contradistinction to
the metal which may be similar chemically but which has been prepared
by the puddling process. Applying the term steel in that sense, I believe,
as I have said, it will not be very long before plate iron, produced by the
puddling process, will cease to be used for the purpose of building vessels.
With respect to marine engines these are now supplied with steam from
multiple-tubed boilers which are commonly cylindrical. They are of
enormous strength and made with every possible care, and carry from 80
to 100 lbs. pressure on the square inch. It has been found, on the
whole, more convenient to expand the steam in two or more cylinders
rather than in one. I quite agree that, as a mere matter of engineering
science, there is no reason why the expansion should not take place in a
single cylinder, unless it be that you cool down a single cylinder to an
extent which cannot be overcome by jacketing, and which, therefore,
destroys a portion of the steam on its entrance into the cylinder. As
regards the propeller, as we know, except in certain cases, the paddle-
wheel has practically disappeared, and we have the screw-propeller
employed, either singly, or in pairs. This substitution of the screw-
propeller for the paddle enables the engines to work at a much

1881. KK

498 REPORT --1881.

greater number of revolutions per minute, and thus a piston-speed
of some 600 to 800 feet per minute is attained; and this, coupled
with the fairly high mean pressure which prevails, enables a large
power to be got from a comparatively small-sized engine. Speeds of
15 knots an hour are now in many cases maintained by steam-vessels
throughout their voyages, and on trial trips are not uncommonly ex-
ceeded. The steam-vessel is now the accepted vessel of war. We
have them in an armoured state and in an unarmoured state, but when
unarmoured rendered so formidable by the power which their speed
gives them of choosing their distance, as to make them, when fur-
nished with powerful guns, dangerous opponents even to the best
armoured vessels. We have also now marine engines governed by
governors of such extreme sensitiveness as to give them the semblance
of being endowed with the spirit of prophecy, as they appear rather to be
regulating the engine for that which is about to take place than for that
which is taking place. This may sound a somewhat extravagant state-
ment, but it is so nearly the truth that I have hardly gone outside of it,
in using the words I have employed. For a marine governor to be of
any use it must not wait till the stern of the vessel is out of the water,
before it acts to check the engine and reduce the speed; nothing but the
most sensitive and indeed anticipatory action of the governor can effi-
ciently control marine propulsion. Instances are on record of vessels
having engines without marine governors, being detained by stress of
weather at the mouth of the Thames, while vessels having such
governors, of good design, have gone to Newcastle, have come back,
and have found the other vessels still waiting for more. favourable
weather. With respect to condensation in marine engines it is almost
invariably effected by surface-condensers, and thus it is that the boilers,
instead of being fed with salt water as they used to be, involving
continuous blowing-off and frequently the salting-up of the boiler,
are now fed with distilled water. It should be noticed, however,
that in some instances, owing to the absence of a thin protecting scale
upon the tubes and plates, very considerable corrosion has taken place,
especially where distilled water, derived from condensers having un-tinned
brass tubes, has been used for the feed, and where the water has carried
into the boiler fat-acids arising from the decomposition of the grease
used in the engine; means are now employed by which these effects are
counteracted.

I wish before quitting this section of my subject, to call your
attention to two very interesting but very differing kinds of marine
engines. One is the high-speed torpedo-vessel or steam launch of which
Messrs. Thornycroft have furnished so many examples. In these, owing
to the rate at which the piston runs, to the initial pressure (120 lbs.), and
to very great skill in the design, Messrs. Thornycroft have succeeded in
obtaining a gross indicated horse-power for as small a weight as half a
ewt., including the boiler, the water in the boiler, the engine, the pro-
peller shaft, and the propeller itself. To obtain the needed steam from
the small and light boiler, recourse has to be made to a fan-blast driving
air into aclosed stoke-hold. From the use of a blast in this way two
excellent things happen: one is, as already stated, that from a small
boiler a very large amount of steam is produced, and the other that the
artificial blast, when thus applied, is unaccompanied by the dangers which
arise when, under ordinary circumstances, the blast is applied only to

ON THE DEVELOPMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 499

the ash-pit itself. The other marine engine to which I wish to call
your attention, is one that has been made with a view to great economy.
The principles followed in its construction are among those suggested
by the President (Sir W. G. Armstrong) in his address. He—you
will remember—pointed out that the direction in which economy in the
_ steam-engine was to be looked for was in that of increasing the initial
pressure ; although, at the same time, he said, there were drawbacks, in the
shape of greater loss by radiation, and by the higher temperature at which
the products of combustion would escape. We must admit the fact of the
latter source of loss when using a very high pressure of steam, it being
inevitable that the temperature of the products of combustion escaping
from a boiler under these conditions must be higher than those which
need be allowed to escape when a lower pressure of steam is employed ;
although I regret to say that in practice in marine boilers, working at com-
paratively low pressures, the products are ordinarily suffered to pass into
the funnel, at above the temperature of melting lead.! But with respect
to the loss by radiation in the particular engine I am about to mention—
that of Perkins—there is not so much loss as that which prevails in the
ordinary marine boiler, because the Perkins boiler is completely enclosed,
with the result that while there is within the case a boiler containing
steam of 400 lbs. on the square inch, and the fire to generate that steam,
the hand may be applied to the casing itself, which contains the whole of
the boiler, without receiving any unpleasant sensation of warmth, By
Mr. Perkins’ arrangement, using steam of 400 lbs. in the boiler, it was
found, as the result of very severe trials conducted by Mr. Rich, of
“Messrs. Easton and Anderson’s firm, and myself—trials which lasted for
twelve hours—that the total consumption of fuel, including that for
‘getting up steam from cold water, was just under 1:8 (actually 1:79) ©
Tbs. per gross indicated horse-power per hour. That consumption was
ascertained in a manner which it is desirable should always be employed
in steam-boat trials. It was not arrived at by using as a divisor the
horse-power of the most favourable diagram obtained during the day,
but it was got from diagrams taken every half-hour during the regular
work; then, when the pressure began to die down, from coal being no
longer put upon the fire, diagrams taken every quarter of an hour; and
then, towards the last, every five minutes; and the total number of foot-
pounds were calculated from these diagrams, and were used to obtain the
gross indicated horse-power.
Further, so far as could be ascertained by the process of commencing
a trial with a known fire, and closing that trial, at the end of six hours,
with the fire as nearly as possible in the same condition, the consumption
was 1°66 lbs. of coal per gross indicated horse-power per hour, so that,
without taking into account the coal consumed in raising steam from
cold water, the engine worked for 12 Ibs. of coal per horse per hour. [I
hink it well to give these details because, undoubtedly, this is an ex-
tremely economical result.
Our President alluded to the employment of ether as a means of
utilising the heat which ordinarily escapes uselessly into the condenser,

__ + It should have been noticed, that although the products of combustion must
escape from the boiler at a greater temperature where a high pressure of steam is
employed than they need escape at where a lower pressure is used, it does not follow
shat loss should accrue on this account, as the excess can, by means of a heater, be
taken up by the feed water: a plan Mr, Perkins is employing in practice,

iy ‘KK 2

500 hREPORT—1881.

and he gave some account of that which was done by M. Du Tremblay
in this direction. It so happened I had occasion to investigate the
matter at the time of Du Tremblay’s experiments. Very little was
effected here in England, one difficulty being the excise interference
with the manufacture of ether. Chloroform was used here, and it was
also suggested to employ bi-sulphide of carbon. In France, however, a
great deal was done. Four large vessels were fitted with the ether-
engine, and I went over to Marseilles to see them at work. I took
diagrams from them, and found that by this system the exhaust steam
from the steam-cylinder, which was condensed by the application of
ether to the surface of the steam-condenser (producing a respectable
vacuum of 22 inches), gave an ether-pressnre of some 15lbs. on the
square inch above atmosphere, and that very economical results as
regards fuel were obtained. The system was, however, eventually aban-
doned, owing to practical difficulties. It need hardly be said that ether-
vapour is very difficult to deal with, and although ether is light the
vapour is extremely heavy, and if there is any leak in the apparatus the
vapour goes down into the bilges by gravitation, and being mixed with
air, unless due care is taken to prevent access to the fires, there would
be a constant risk of a violent explosion. In fact, it was necessary to
treat the engine-room in the way in which a fiery colliery would be
treated ; the light, for instance, was by lamps external to the engine-room,
and shining through thick plate glass, while the hand-lamps were
Davy’s. The Ether Engine was a bold experiment in applied science, and
one that entitles Du Tremblay’s name to be preserved and to be mentioned
as it was by our President. There was another kind of ‘marine engine
that I think should not be passed over without notice. I allude to
- Howard’s Quicksilver Engine. The experiments with this engine were
persevered in for some considerable time, and it was actually used for
practical purposes in propelling a passenger vessel called the Vesta,
ronning from London to Ramsgate. In that engine the boiler had
a double bottom containing an amalgam of quicksilver and lead. This
amalgam served as a reservoir of heat, which it took up from the fire
below the double bottom, and gave forth at intervals to the water
above it. There was no water in the boiler, in the ordinary sense of
the term, but when steam was wanted to start the engine, a small
quantity of water was injected by means of a hand pump, and after the
engine was started there was pumped by it into the boiler, at each half-
revolution, as much water as would produce the steam needed. This
water was dispersed on the top surface of the reservoir in which the
amalgam was confined, and was entirely flashed into steam, the object of
the engineer in charge being to send in only so much as would just
generate the steam, without leaving any water in the boiler. The
engines of the Vesta were made by Mr. Penn for Mr. Howard, of the
King and Queen Ironworks, Rotherhithe. Mr. Howard was, I fear, a
considerable loser by his meritorious efforts to improve the steam-engine.
The President : What sort of results did they get in point of economy ?
Sir Frederick Bramwell: I don’t know, but I believe they got
moderately good results. There was used with this engine an almost un-
known mode of obtaining fresh water for the boiler. Fresh water, it will
be seen, was a necessity in this mode of evaporation, as the presence of
salt or any other impurity when the whole of the water was flashed into
steam, must have caused a deposit at the top of the amalgam chamber

ON THE DEVELOPMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 501

at each operation. Fresh water, therefore, was needed, and the problem
then arose how to get it; and that problem was solved, not by the use of
surface-condensation, but by the employment of re-injection ; that is to say,
an ordinary injection-condenser being used, the water delivered from the
hot well was passed into pipes external to the vessel; after traversing
them it came back into the injection-tank sufficiently cooled to be used
again. The boilers were worked by coke fires urged by a fan-blast in
their ashpits, but I am not aware that this mode of firing was a needful
part of the system.

Engines used for Railways.—At the British Association Meeting of
1831 the Manchester and Liverpool Railway had been opened only
about a year. The Stockton and Darlington coal-line, it is true, had
carried passengers by steam-power as early as 1825; but I think we may
look upon the Manchester and Liverpool as being the beginning of the
passenger and mercantile railway system of the present day. In 1831
the locomotives weighed from eight to ten tons, and the speed was
about twenty miles per hour, with a pressure of steam in the boiler of
from 40 to 50 lbs. The rails were light, they were jointed in the chairs,
which were generally carried on stone blocks, thus affording most excel-
lent anvils for the battering to pieces of the ends of the rails, that is to
say, for the destruction of the very parts where they were most vulner-
able. The engines were not competent to draw heavy trains, and it was
a common practice to have at the foot of an incline a shed containing a
‘bank engine,’ which ran out after the trains as they passed, and pushed
them up to the top of the hill. Injectors were then unknown, and donkey-
pumps were unknown, and therefore, when it was necessary to fill up
the boiler, if it had not been properly pumped up before the locomotive
came to rest, then the locomotive had to run about the line in order to work
its feed-pumps. To get over this difficulty, it was occasionally the prac-
tice to insert into a line of rails, in a siding, a pair of wheels, with their
tops level with those of the rails, so that the engine wheels could run upon
their rims. Then, the locomotive being fixed, to prevent it from moving
off the pair of wheels endways, it was put into revolution, its driving wheels
bearing, as already stated, upon the rims of the pair of wheels in the rails,
and thus the engine worked its feed-pumps, without interfering (by its
needless running up and down the line) with the traffic. It should have
been stated that at this time there was no link motion, no practical
expansion of the steam, and that even the reversal of the engine had to
be effected by working the slides by hand gear, in the manner in use in
marine engines. When the British Association originated, although the
Manchester and Liverpool Railway had been opened for a year, there is
no doubt that the 300 members who then came to this city, found their
way here by the slow process of the stage coach, the loss of which we so
much deplore in the summer and in fine weather, but the obligatory use
of which we should so much regret in the miserable weather now pre-
vailing in these islands. In 1881 we know that railways are everywhere.
Steel rails, double the weight of the original iron ones, are used. Wooden
Sleepers have replaced the stone blocks, and they in their turn will pro-

bably give way to sleepers of steel. The joints are now made by means
of fishplates, and the most vulnerable part of the rail, the end, is no _
longer laid on an anvil for the purpose of being smashed to pieces, but
the ends of the rails are now almost always over a void, and thereby are
not more affected by wear than is any other part of the rail. The speed

502 REPORT—1881.

is now from 50 to 60 miles an hour for passenger trains, while slow-
speed geods engines, weighing 45 tons, draw behind them coal trains
of 800 tons. The injector is commonly employed, and by its aid a careful
driver of the engine of a stopping train can almost succeed in doing
the whole of the feeding at the time when his engine is at rest at the
stations, and when, therefore, no demand is being made on the boiler.
The lnk motion is in common use, to which, no doubt, is owing the very
considerable economy with which the locomotive engine now works. As
regards the question of safety, it is a fact, that, notwithstanding the
increased speed, railway accidents are fewer in proportion than they were
at the slow speed. Indeed, the number of deaths is so small that, if
the whole population of London were to take a railway journey, there
would be but one death arising out of it. Four millions of journeys for
one death of a passenger from causes beyond his own control, is, I
believe, a state of security which rarely prevails elsewhere than in a
railway train. As an instance, the street accidents in London alone
cause between 200 and 300 deaths per annum. This safety in railway-
travelling is, no doubt, largely due to the block system, rendered possible
by the electric telegraph; and also to the efficient interlocking of points
and signals, which makes it impossible now for a signalman to give an
unsafe signal, He may give an incorrect one, in the sense of inviting the
wrong train to come in, but although incorrect in this sense, it would still
be safe for that train to obey it. If he can give a signal that signal
never invites to danger. Before he can give it every one of the signals
which ought to be at danger must be at danger, and every point must have
been previously set so as to make the road right. Then again, we have the
facing-point-lock, which is a great source of safety. Further, we have
continuous brakes of various kinds, competent in practice to absorb three
miles of speed in every second of time—that is to say, if a train were
going 60 miles an hour it can be pulled up in 20 seconds, or if at the
rate of 30 miles in 10 seconds. With a train running at 50 miles an
hour it can be pulled up in from 15 to 20 seconds, and in a distance of
from 180 to 240 yards. Moreover, in the event of the train separating
into two or more sections, the brakes are automatically applied to all the
sections, thereby bringing them to rest in a short time. Another cause of
safety is undoubtedly the use of weldless tyres. I was fortunate enough
to attend the British Association Meeting many years ago at Birmingham,
and I then read a paper upon weldless tyres, in which I ventured to
prophesy that in ten years’ time there would not be a welded tyre made.
That is one of the few prophecies that, being made before the event,
have been fulfilled. I may perhaps be permitted to mention that at the
same time I laid before Section G plans and suggestions for the making
of the cylindrical parts of boilers also without seam or even welding.
This is rarely done at the present time, but I am sure that in twenty
years’ time such a thing as a longitudinal seam of rivets in a boiler will
be unknown. There is no reason why the successive rings of boiler-
shells should not be made weldless, as tyres are now made weldless.
The next subject I intend to deal with is that of Motors. In 1831 we had
the steam-engine, the water-wheel, the windmill, horse power, manual
power, and Stirling’s hot-air engines. Gas engines, indeed, were proposed in
1824, but were not brought to the really practical stage. We had then tide-
mills; indeed we have had them until quite lately, and it may be that
some still exist. They were sources of economy in our fuel, and their

ON THE DEVELOPMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 503

abandonment is to me a matter of regret. I remember tide-mills on
the coast between Brighton and Newhaven; another between Greenwich
and Woolwich, another at Northfleet, and others in various places.
Indeed such mills were used pretty extensively. They were generally
erected at the mouth of a stream, and in that way the river-bed made
the reservoir, and even when they were erected in other situations those
were of a kind suitable for the purpose—that is, low-lying lands were
selected and were embanked to form reservoirs. In 188] wind-mills and
water-wheels are much the same as they were in 1831; but turbines are
greatly improved, and by means of the turbine we are enabled to make
available the pressure derived from heads of water which formerly could
not be used at all, or if used they involved the erection of enormous
water-wheels, such as those at Glasgow and in the Isle of Man, wheels
of some 80 feet in diameter. But now by means of a small turbine an
excellent effect is produced from high heads of water. The same effect
is obtained from the water-engines which our President has employed
with such great success. In addition to these motors we have the gas-
engine, which within the last few years only has become a really useful
working and economical machine. With respect to horse-power motors
we have not only the old horse-machines, but we have a new application
(as it seems to me) of the work of the horse as a motor. I allude to
those cases where the horse, drawing a reaping or thrashing machine,
not only pulls it forward as he might pull a cart, but causes its machinery
to revolve so as to perform the desired kind of work. This species of
horse-engine, though known, was but little used in 1831. With respect
to hot-air engines there have been many attempts to improve them, and
some hot-air engines are working, and with considerable success; but
the amount of power they develop in relation to their size is small, and
Iam inclined to doubt whether it can be much increased.

T now come to the subject of the Transmission of Power. I do not
mean transmission in the ordinary sense by means of shafting, gearing, or
belting, but I mean transmission over long distances. In 1831 we had
for this purpose flat rods, as they were called—rods transmitting power
from pumping engines for a considerable distance to the pits where the
pumps were placed, and we had also the pneumatic, the exhaustion
system, the invention of John Hague, a Yorkshireman, my old master, to
whom I was apprenticed, which mode of transmission was then used to
a very considerable extent. The recollection of it, I find, however, has
nearly died ont, and I am glad to have this opportunity of reviving it.
But in 1881 we have for the transmission of power, first of all quick-
moving ropes, and let me refer you to an excellent instance of this system
at Schaffhausen. Anyone who has in recent years gone a mile or two above
the falls at Schiffhansen must have seen there, in a house on the bank of
the Rhine, opposite to that on which the town is situated, large turbines
driven by the river, which is slightly dammed for the purpose. These
work quick-going ropes carried on pulleys, erected at intervals along the’
river-bank for the whole length of the town, and power is delivered from
them to shafting below the streets, and from it into any house where
it is required for manufacturing purposes. Then we have the compressed-
air transmission of power, a mode which is very largely used for under-
ground engines, and for the working of rock-drills in mines and tunnels.
‘We have aiso compressed air in a portable form, and it is now employed
with great success in driving tramcars. I had occasion last January to

504 REPORT—1881.

visit Nantes, where for eighteen months tramcars had been driven by
compressed air, carried on the cars themselves, coupled with an extremely
ingenious arrangement for overcoming the difficulties commonly attendant
on the use of compressed-air engines. This consists in the provision of
a cylindrical vessel half filled with hot water and half with steam at a
pressure of 80 ]bs. on the square inch; the compressed air on its way
from the reservoir to the engine passes through the water and steam,
becoming thereby heated and moistened, and thus all the danger of
forming ice in the cylinders is prevented and the pistons and slides are
susceptible of good lubrication. These cars, which start every ten minutes
from each end, make a journey of 32 miles, and have proved to be a
commercial and an engineering success. I believe, moreover, that the
system is capable of very considerable improvement. Then there is,
although not much used, the transmitting of power by means of long
steam pipes. There is also the transmission hydraulically. This may be
carried out in an intermittent manner, so as to replace the reciprocating
flat rods of old days. That is to say, if two pipes containing water are
laid down, and if the pressure in those pipes at the one end be alternated,
there will be produced an alternating and a reciprocative effect at the
other end, which may be employed to give motion to pumps or other
machinery. There is also that thoroughly well-known mode of trans-
mission hydraulically for which the engineering world owes so much to
our President. We have, by Sir William Armstrong’s system, coupled
with his accumulator, the means of transmitting hydraulically the power
of a central motor to any place requiring it, and by means of the
principal accumulator, or if need be by that aided by local accumulators,
a comparatively small engine is enabled to meet very heavy demands
made upon it for a short time. I think I am right in saying that at
the ordinary pressure which Sir William Armstrong uses in practice,
viz., 700 lbs. to the square inch, one foot per second of motion along an
inch pipe would deliver at the rate to produce one horse-power. There-
fore a 10-inch pipe with the water travelling at no greater pace than 3
feet in a second would deliver 300 horse-power. This 300 horse-power
would, no doubt, be somewhat reduced by the loss in the hydraulic engine,
which would utilise the water, but the total energy received would be
equivalent to producing 300 horse-power. Such a transmission would
be effected with an exceedingly small loss in friction in transit; I believe I
am right in saying, that a 10-inch pipe a mile long would not involve
much more than about 141bs. or 15 lbs. differential pressure to propel the
water through it at a rate of 3 feet in a second. If that be so, then with
700 Ibs. to the inch, the loss under such circumstances would be only 2
per cent. in transmission. There is no doubt that this transmission of
power hydraulically has been of the greatest possible use. It has
enabled work to be done which could not be done before. Enormous
weights are raised with facility wherever required, as, by the aid of
power hydraulically transmitted, it is perfectly easy for one man to
manage the heaviest crane. Moreover, as I have said in other places,
this system, which we owe to Sir William Armstrong, has gone far to
elevate the human race, and it has done so in this manner. So long as
it is competent for a man to earn a living by a mere unintelligent exercise
of his muscles he is very likely so to do. You may see in the old London
Docks the crane-heads covered by structures that look like paddle-boxes ;
if you go up to them yon will find, I am glad to say, there is nothing now

ON THE DEVELOPMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 505

to oceupy them; but at the date when the British Association first met,
these paddle-boxes covered large tread-wheels, in which the men trod so
as to raise a weight. Now, although I know that, in fact, there is
nothing more objectionable in a man turning a wheel by treading inside
of it, than there is if he turn it round by a winch-handle, yet somehow it
strikes one more as being merely the work of an animal, a turnspit or a
squirrel, or indeed as being the task imposed on the criminal. Never-
theless, in, this way there were a large number of persons getting their
living by the mere exercise of their muscles, but, as might be expected,
a very poor living, derived as it was from unintelligent labour. That
work, since the introduction of Sir William’s hydraulic system, is no
longer possible, and is not so for the powerful reason that it’does not
pay. Those persons, therefore, who would formerly have been thus
occupied are compelled to elevate themselves, and to become competent
to earn their living ina manner which is more worthy of an intelligent
human being. It is on these grounds that I say we owe very much the
elevation of the working classes—especially of the class below the artizan
—to this excellent invention of our distinguished President.
In addition to the modes of transmission I have already mentioned, there
isthe Transmission of Power by means of Gas. I think that there is a very
large future indeed for gas-engines. I do not know whether this may
be the place wherein to state it, but I believe the way in which we shall
. utilise our fuel hereafter will, in all probability, not be by the way of
the steam-engine. Sir William Armstrong alluded to this probability in
his address, and I entirely agree—if he will allow me to say so—that such
a change in the production of power from fuel appears to be impending,
if not in the immediate future, at all events in a time not very far remote:

‘and however much the Mechanical Section of the British Association may
to-day contemplate with regret even the mere distant prospect of the
steam-engine becoming a thing of the past, I very much doubt whether
those who meet here fifty years hence will then speak of that motor
except in the character of a curiosity to be found in a museum.

With respect to the transmission of power electrically I won’t venture
to touch upon that; but will content myself by reminding you that,
while Sir William Armstrong did refer to the fact that there were com-
paratively small streams which could be utilised, he did not inform you of
what he himself had done in this direction. Let me now say that Sir
William Armstrong has thus utilised a fall of water situated about a
mile from his house, to work a turbine, which drives a dynamo-machine
generating electricity for the illumination of the house. When I was last
at Crag Side that illumination was being effected by the arc light, but
since then, he has replaced the are light by the incandescent lamp (a
form of electrical lighting far more applicable than the are light to
domestic purposes), and has done this with the greatest possible success.
Thus in Sir William Armstrong’s own case a small stream is made to
afford light in a dwelling a mile away. Certainly nothing could have
seemed more-improbable fifty years ago than that the light of a house
should be derived from a fall of water without the employment of any
kind or description of combustible matter.

The next subject upon which I propose to touch is that of the
Manufacture of Iron and Steel. In 1831, Neilson’s hot blast specification
had been published for 24 years only. The Butterley Company had tried
the hot blast for the first time in the November preceding the meeting .

506 REPORT—1881.

of the British Association; the heating of the blast was coming very
slowly into use, and the temperature attained when heating was
employed was only some 600 degrees. The ordinary blast furnace of
those days was 35 to 40 feet high, and about 12 feet diameter at the
boshes, and turned out about 60 tons a week. It used about 25 tons of
coal per ton of iron, and no attempt was made to utilise the waste gases,
whether escaping in the form of gas or in the form of flame, the country
being illuminated for miles around at night by these fires. The furnaces
were also open at the hearth, and continuous fire poured out along
with the slag. In 1881 blast furnaces are from 90 to 100 feet high and
25 feet in diameter at the boshes; and they turn out from 500 to 800
tons a week. The tops and also the hearths are closed, and the blast,
thanks to the use of Mr. E. A. Cowper’s stoves, is at 1,200 degrees. The
manufacture of iron has also now enlisted in its service the chemist as
well as the engineer, and amongst those who have done much for the
improvement of the blast furnace, to no one is greater praise due than
to Mr. Isaac Lowthian Bell, who has brought the manufacture of iron
to the position of a highly scientific operation. In the production
of wrought iron by the puddling process, and in the subsequent mill
operations, there is no very considerable change except in the magnitude
of the machines employed and in the greater rapidity with which they
now run. In saying this I am not forgetting the various mechanical
puddlers which have been put to work, nor the attempts which have
been made by the use of some of them to make wrought-iron direct
from the ore ; but neither the mechanical puddler nor the direct processes
have yet come into general use, and I desire to be taken as speaking of
that which is the ordinary method pursued at the present in puddled
iron manufacture. In 1831 a few hundredweights was the limit of
weight of a plate, while in 1881 there may readily be obtained for
boiler-making purposes plates of at least four times the weight of those
that were the limit of weight in 1831. I may, perhaps, be allowed to say
that there is an extremely interesting Blue Book of the year 1818, con-
taining the report of a Parliamentary Committee which was appointed to
investigate a boiler explosion, and I recommend any mechanical engineer
who is interested in the history of the subject to read that book. He will
find it there stated that in the North of England there was a species of
engines called locomotives, the boilers of which were made of wrought-
iron beaten, not rolled, because the rolled plate was not considered fit ;
it was added that if made of beaten iron the boiler would last at least
a year.

In 1831, thirteen years later, the dimensions of rolled plates were,
no doubt, raised; but few then would have supposed it possible there
should be rolled such plates as are now produced for boiler purposes,
and still fewer would have believed that in the year 1881 we should make
for warlike purposes rolled plates 22 inches in thickness and 30 tons in
weight. I have said there is very little alteration in the process of
making wrought iron by puddling, and I do not think there is likely
to be much further, if any, improvement in this process, because I
believe that, with certain exceptions, the manufacture of iron by puddling
is a doomed industry. I ventured to say, in a lecture I delivered at the
Royal Institution three years ago, on ‘The Future of Steel,’ that I
believed puddled iron, except for the mere hand-wrought forge purposes

. of the country blacksmith, and for such-like purposes, would soon

»»>

—s

ON THE DEVELOPMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 507

become a thing of the past. Mr. Harrison, the engineer of the North
Eastern Railway, told me that about eighteen months ago that railway
applied for tenders for rails in any quantities between 2,000 and 10,000
tons, and issued alternative specifications for iron and for steel. They
received about ten tenders; certain of those who sent them in did not
care to tender for iron at all, and in some cases where the alternative
price was quoted, that for the iron exceeded that for the steel. I have no
doubt whatever that in a short time it will be practically impossible to
procure iron, made by the puddling process, of dimensions fit for many
of the purposes for which a few years ago it alone was used. With
respect to steel, in 1831 the process in use was that of cementation,
producing blistered steel, which was either piled and welded to make
shear steel, or was broken into small pieces, and melted in pots, and run
into ingots weighing only some 50 lbs. or 60 lbs. each. At that time steel
was dealt in by the pound ; nobody thought of steel in tons. In 1881 we
are all aware that by Sir Henry Bessemer’s well-known discovery, carried
out by him with such persistent vigour, cast-iron is by the blowing
process converted into steel; and that by Dr. Siemens’ equally well-
known process, now that, owing to his invention of the regenerative
furnace, it is possible to obtain the necessary high temperature, steel is
made upon the open hearth; and we are moreover aware that by both of
these processes it is produced in quantities of many tons at a single
operation, with the result that, as instanced in the case of the North
Eastern rails, steel is a cheaper material than the wrought-iron made
by the puddling process. One cannot pass away from the steel manu-
facture without alluding to Sir Joseph Whitworth’s process of putting
a pressure on the steel while in a fluid state. By this means the cavities
which are frequently to be found in ingots of a large size, are, while the
material is still fluid, considerably diminished, and the steel is thereby
rendered much more sound. In conclusion of my observations on the
subject of iron and steel manufacture, I wish to call attention to the
invention of Messrs. Thomas & Gilchrist, by which ores of iron containing
impurities that unfitted them to be used in the manufacture of steel, are
now freed from these impurities, and are thus brought into use for steel-
making purposes.

With respect to Bridges: in the year 1831 bridges of cast-iron existed,
but no attempt had been made to employ wrought-iron in girder bridges,
although Telford and others had employed it in suspension bridges; -
but in 1881 the introduction of railways and the improvements in iron
manufacture have demanded and have rendered possible the execution
of such bridges as the tubular one stretching across the Menai Straits in
spans of 400 feet, and the Saltash over the Tamar, with spans of 435 feet ;
while the recent great improvements in the manufacture of steel have
rendered possible the construction of the contemplated Forth Bridge,
where there are to be spans of 1,700 feet, or one-third of a mile in
length. Mr. Barlow (one of the engineers of this bridge) has told me
that there wiil be used upwards of 2,000 more tons in the Forth Bridge
to resist the wind-pressure, than would have been needed if no wind
had had to be taken into account, and if the question of the simple
weight to be‘ carried had alone to be considered. With respect to the
foundation of bridges, that ingenious man, Lord Cochrane, patented a
mode of sinking foundations even before the first meeting of the British
Association—viz., as far back, I believe, as 1825 or 1826; and the

508 REPORT—1881.

improvements which he then invented are almost universally in use in
bridge-construction at the present day. Cylinders sunk by the aid of
compressed air, ‘air-locks’ to obtain access to the cylinders, and, in fact,
every means that I know as having been used in the modern sinking of
cylinder foundations, were described by Lord Cochrane (afterwards Harl
of Dundonald) in that specification.

The next subject I propose to touch upon is that of Machine Tools.
The mention of lathes, drilling machines, and screwing machines brings
me very nearly to the end of the list of the machine tools used by tur-
ners and fitters in 1831, and at that time many of the lathes were
without slide-rests. The boiler-maker had then his punching press
and shearing-machine; the smith, leaving on one side his forges and the
bellows, had nothing but hand tools, and the limit of these was a huge
hammer with two handles, requiring two men to work it. In anchor
manufacture, it is true, a mechanical drop-hammer, known as a Hercules,
was employed; while in ironworks the Helve and the Tilt hammer were
in use. For ordinary smith’s-work, however, there were, as has been said,
practically no machine tools at all.

This paucity, or indeed, absence in some trades, as we have seen, of
machine tools, involved the need of very considerable skill on the part of
the workman. It required the smith to be a man not only of great mus-
cular power, but to be possessed of an accurate eye and a correct judg-
ment, in order to produce the forgings which were demanded of him,
and to make the sound work that was needed, especially when that sound-
ness was required in shafts and in other pieces which in those days were
looked upon as of magnitude, as, indeed, they were relatively to the
tools which could be brought to operate upon them. The boiler-maker
in his work had to trust almost entirely to the eye for correctness of
form and for regularity of punching, while all parts of engines and
machines which could not be dealt with in the lathe, in the drilling, or
in the screwing machine, had to be prepared by the use of the chisel
and the file,

At the present day the turning and fitting shops are furnished
not only with the slide-lathe, self-acting in both directions, and screw-
cutting, the drilling machine, and the screwing machine, but with
planing machines competent to plane horizontally, vertically, or at an
angle; shaping machines, rapidly reciprocating and dealing with almost
any form of work; nut-shaping machines; slot-drilling machines, and
slotting machines ; while the drills have become multiple and radial, and
the accuracy of the work is ensured by testing on large surface-plates,
and by the employment of Whitworth internal and external standard
gauges.

The boiler-maker’s tools now comprise the steam, compressed air,
hydraulic, or other mechanical riveter; rolls for the bending of plates,
while cold, into the needed cylindrical or conical forms ; multiple drills
for the drilling of rivet-holes; planing machines to plane the edges of
the plates; ingenious apparatus for flanging them, thereby dispensing
with one row of rivets out of two; and roller-expanders for expanding
the tubes in locomotive and in marine boilers; while the punching press,
where still used, is improved so as to make the holes for seams of rivets
in a perfect line and with absolute accuracy of pitch.

With respect to the smith’s shop, all large pieces of work are now
manipulated under heavy Nasmyth or other steam-hammers; while

ON THE DEVELOPMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 509

smaller pieces of work are commonly prepared either in forging machines
or under rapidly-moving hammers, and when needed in sufficient num-
bers, are made in dies; and applicable to all the three industries of the
fitting shop, the boiler shop, and the smith’s shop, and also to that other
industry carried on in the foundry, are the travelling and swing cranes,
commonly worked by shafting or by quick-moying ropes for the travellers,
aud by hydraulic power or by steam-engines for the swing cranes, It
may safely be said that without the aid of these implements it would be
impossible to handle the weights that are met with in machinery of the
present day.

I now come to one class of machine which, humble and small as it is,
has probably had a greater effect upon industry and upon domestic life
than almost any other. I mean the Sewing Machine. In 1831 there
was no means of making a seam except by the laborious process of the
hand needle. In 1846 Eldred Walker patented a machine for passing
the basting thread through the gores of umbrellas—a machine which was
very ingenious and very simple, but utterly unlike the eye-pointed needle
sewing machine of the present day, using sometimes two threads—the
second being put in by a shuttle or by another needle—and making
stitches at twentyfold the rapidity with which the most expert needle-
woman could work. By means of the sewing-machine not only are all
textile fabrics operated upon, but even the thickest leather is dealt with,
and, as a towr de force, but as a matter of fact, sheet-iron plates them-
selves have been pierced and have been united by a seam no boiler-maker
ever contemplated, the piercing and the seam being produced by a Blake
sewing machine. I believe all in this Section will agree that the use
of the sewing machine has been unattended by loss to those who earn
their living by the needle—in fact, it would not be too much to say that
there has been a positive improvement in their wages.

The next matter I have to touch upon is that of Agricultural
Machinery. In 1831 we had threshing machines and double ploughs,
and even multiple ploughs had been proposed, tried, and abandoned.
Reaping machines had been experimented with and abandoned ; sowing
machines were in use, but not many of them; clod-crushers and horse-
rakes were also in use, but, as a fact, ploughing was done by horse-
power a single furrow at a time, mowing and reaping were done by
the scythe or the sickle, sheaves were bound by hand, hay was tedded
by hand-rakes, while all materials and produce were moved about in carts
and waggons drawn by horses. At the present time we have multiple
ploughs, making five or six furrows at a time; these, and cultivators also,
being driven by steam, commonly from two engines, one on each head-
land, the plough being in between, and being worked backward and
forward by a rope from each engine alternately; or, one engine only is
used, with a capstan on the other headland, by another mode known as
the roundabout system, where the engine is fixed, and the rope carried
round about the field. Or else ploughs and cultivators are worked by
ropes from two capstans placed on the two headlands, and driven by
means of a light quick-going rope, actuated by an engine the position
of which is not changed. And then we have reaping machines, worked
at present by horses, but how long it will be before the energy residing
in a battery or that in a reservoir of compressed air will supersede horse-
power, to drive the reaping-machine, J don’t know, but I don’t suppose
it will be very long. The mowing and reaping machines not only cut

610 REPORT—1881.

the crop and distribute it in swathes—in the case of the reaping machine
in bundles, but now, in the instance of these latter machines, are com-
petent to bind it into sheaves. In lieu of hand-tedding hay-making
machines are employed, tossing the grass into the air so as to thoroughly
aérate it, taking advantage of every brief interval of fine weather; and
seeds and manure are distributed by machine with unfailing accuracy.
The soil is drained by the aid of properly constructed ploughs for
preparing the trenches, roots are steamed and sliced as food for cattle,
and the threshing machine no longer merely beats out the grain, but
screens it, separates it, and elevates the straw so as to mechanically
build it up into a stack. I don’t know a better class of machine than
the agricultural portable engine. Every part of it is perfectly propcr-
tioned and made; it is usually of the locomotive type; and the economy
of fuel in its use is extremely great. I cannot help thinking that the
improvement in this respect which has taken place in these engines, and
the improvement of agricultural machinery generally, is very largely due
to the Royal Agricultural Society, one of the most enterprising bodies in
England.

I now come to the very last subject I propose to speak upon, and
that is Printing Machinery, and especially as applied to the printing of
newspapers. In ‘1831 we had the steam press, sending out a few
hundred copies in an hour, and doing that upon detached sheets; and
thus many hours were required for an edition of some thousands.
The only way in those days of expediting the matter would have been
to have recomposed the paper, involving, however, double labour to
the compositors, and a double chance of error. At the present day we
have by the Walter Press the paper printed on a continuous sheet, at a
rate per hour at least three times as great as that of the presses of 1831 ;
and, by the aid of papier-maché moulds, within five minutes from the
starting of the first press, a second press can be provided with its stereo-
type plates and got to work, and a third one in the next five minutes;
and thus the wisdom of our senators, which has been delivered as late
as three o’clock in the morning, is ready to be transmitted by the news-
paper train leaving Huston at 5.15 a.m.

This is the last subject with which I shall trouble the Section. I
have purposely omitted telegraphy ; I have purposely omitted artillery,
textile fabrics, and the milling and preparation of grain. These and
other matters I have omitted for several reasons. Some I have omitted
because I was incompetent to speak upon them, others because of the
want of time, and others because perhaps they more properly belong to
Section A.

I hope, Sir, although your address, dealing with the future, was un-
doubtedly the right address for a President to deliver, and although it is
equally right that we should not content ourselves with merely looking
back in a ‘rest and be thankful’ spirit at the various progress which this
paper records, it may, nevertheless, be thought well that there should
have been brought before the Section, in however cursory a manner,
some notice of Mechanical Development during the past fifty years.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—
Professor Sir WILLIAM THomSON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.L.and E.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.

The Present delivered the following Address :—

‘On the Sources of Buergy in Nature available to Man for the Production of
Mechanical Effect.

Durine the fifty years’ life of the British Association, the Advancement of Science
for which it has lived and worked so well has not been more marked in any
‘department than in one which belongs very decidedly to the Mathematical and
Physical Section—the science of Energy. The very name energy, though first
used in its present sense by Dr. Thomas Young about the beginning of this cen-
tury, has only come into use practically after the doctrine which defines it had,
during the first half of the British Association’s life, been raised from a mere
formula of mathematical dynamics to the position it now holds of a principle
‘pervading all nature and guiding the investigator in every field of science,

A little article communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh a short
time before the commencement of the epoch of energy under the title ‘On the
‘Sources Available to Man for the Production of Mechanical Effect’! contained the
-following :—

‘Men can obtain mechanical effect for their own purposes by working mechani-
cally themselves, and directing other animals to work for them, or by using natural
heat, the gravitation of descending solid masses, the natural motions of water and
air, and the heat, or galvanic currents, or other mechanical effects produced by
chemical combination, but in no other way at present Imown. Hence the stores
from which mechanical effect may be drawn by man belong to one or other of
the following classes :—

‘I. The food of animals.

‘II. Natural heat.

‘III. Solid matter found in elevated positions.

‘IV. The natural motions of water and air.

‘V. Natural combustibles (as wood, coal, coal-gas, oils, marsh-gas, diamond,
native sulphur, native metals, meteoric iron).

‘VI. Artificial combustibles (as smelted or electrically-deposited metals,
hydrogen, phosphorus).

‘In the present communication, known facts in natural history and physical
science, with reference to the sources from which these stores have derived their
mechanical energies, are adduced to establish the following general con-
clusions :—

‘1. Heat radiated from the sun (sunlight being included in this term) és the
principal source of mechanical effect available to man.* From it is derived the whole

1 Read at the Royal Society of Hdinburgh on February 2, 1852 (Proceedings of

that date).
* A general conclusion equivalent to this was published by Sir John Herschel in

1833. See his Astronomy, edit. 1849, § (399).
1881. i

514 REPORT—1881.

mechanical effect obtained by means of animals working, water-wheels worked by
rivers, steam-engines, galvanic engines, windmills, and the sails of ships.

‘2. The motions of the earth, moon, and sun, and their mutual attractions, con-
stitute an important source of available mechanical effect. From them all, but
chiefly no doubt from the earth’s motion of rotation, is derived the mechanical
effect of water-wheels driven by the tides.

‘3. The other known sources of mechanical effect available to man are either
terrestrial—that is, belonging to the earth, and available without the influence of
any external body—or meteoric—that is, belonging to bodies deposited on the
earth from external space. Terrestrial sources, including mountain quarries and
mines, the heat of hot springs, and the combustion of native sulphur, perhaps
also the combustion of inorganic native combustibles, are actually used ; but the
mechanical effect obtained from them is very inconsiderable, compared with that
which is obtained from sources belonging to the two classes mentioned above.
Meteoric sources, including only the heat of newly-fallen meteoric bodies, and the
combustion of meteoric iron, need not be reckoned among those available to man
for practical purposes.’

Thus we may summarise the natural sources of energy as Tides, Food, Fuel,
Wind, and Rain.

Among the practical sources of energy thus exhaustively enumerated, there is
only one not derived from sun-heat—that is the tides. Consider it first. I have called
it practical, because tide-milis exist. But the places where they can work usefully
are very rare, and the whole amount of work actually done by them is a drop to
the ocean of work done by other motors. A tide of two meters’ rise and fall, if we
imagine it utilised to the utmost by means of ideal water-wheels doing with per-
fect economy the whole work of filling and emptying a dock-basin in infinitely
short times at the moments of high and low water, would give just one metre-ton
per square metre of area. This work done four times in the twenty-four hours
amounts to 1-1620th of the work of a horse-power. Parenthetically, in explanation,
I may say that the French metrical equivalent (to which in all scientific and prac-
tical measurements we are irresistibly drawn, notwithstanding a dense barrier of in-
sular prejudice most detrimental to the islanders),—the French metrical equivalent
of James Watt’s ‘ horse-power’ of 550 foot-pounds per second, or 35,000 foot-pounds.
per minute, or nearly two million foot-pounds per hour, is 75 metre-kilogrammes
per second, or 44 metre-tons per minute, or 270 metre-tons per hour. The French
ton of 1,000 kilogrammes used in this reckoning is 0-984 of the British ton.

Returning to the question of utilising tidal energy, we find a dock area of
162,000 square metres (which is little more than 400 metres square) required for
100 horse-power. This, considering the vast costliness of dock construction, is
obviously prohibitory of every scheme for economising tidal energy by means of
artificial dock-basins, however near to the ideal perfection might be the realised
tide-mill, and however convenient and non-wasteful the accumulator—whether
Faure’s electric accumulator, or other accumulators of energy hitherto invented or
to be invented—which might be used to store up the energy yielded by the tide-
mill during its short harvests about the times of high and low water, and to give
it out when wanted at other times of six hours. There may, however, be a dozen
places possible in the world where it could be advantageous to build a sea-wall
across the mouth of a natural basin or estuary, and to utilise the tidal energy of
filling it and emptying it by means of sluices and water-wheels. But if so much
could be done, it would in many cases take only a little more to keep the water
out altogether, and make fertile land of the whole basin. Thus we are led up to
the interesting economical question, whether is furty acres (the British agricultural
measure for the area of 162,000 square metres) or 100 horse-power more valuable.
The annual cost of 100 horse-power night and day, for 365 days of the year, ob-
tained througk steam from coals, may be about ten times the rental of forty acres
at 2/. or 31. per acre.. But the value of land is essentially much more than its
rental, and the rental of land is apt to be much more than 2/. or 3/. per acre in
places where 100 horse-power could be taken with advantage from coal through
steam. Thus the question remains unsolyed, with the possibility that in one place

TRANSA€TIONS OF SECTION A. 515

the answer may be one hundred horse-power, and in another forty acres. But,
indeed, the question is hardly worth answering, considering the rarity of the cases,
if they exist at all, where embankments for the utilisation of tidal energy are
practicable. ;

Turning now to sources of energy derived from sun-heat, let us take the wind
first. When we look at the register of British shipping and see 40,000 vessels, of
which about 10,000 are steamers and 30,000 sailing ships, and when we think
how vast an absolute amount of horse-power is developed by the engines of those
steamers, and how considerable a proportion it forms of the whole horse-power
taken from coal annually in the whole world at the present time, and when we
consider the sailing ships of other nations, which must be reckoned in the account,
and throw in the little item of windmills, we find that, even in the present days
of steam ascendency, old-fashioned Wind still supplies a large part of all the
energy used by man. But however much we may regret the time when Hood’s
young lady, visiting the fens of Lincolnshire at Christmas, and writing to her
dearest friend in London (both sixty years old now if they are alive), describes the
delight of sitting in a bower and looking over the wintry plain, not desolate,
because ‘ windmills lend revolving animation to the scene,’ we cannot shut our
eyes to the fact of a lamentable decadence of wind-power. Is this decadence
permanent, or may we hope that it is only temporary? The subterranean coal-
stores of the world are becoming exhausted surely, and not slowly, and the price
of coal is upward bound—upward bound on the whole, though no doubt it will
have its ups and downs in the future as it has had in the past, and as must be the
case in respect to every marketable commodity, When the coal is all burned ; or,
long before it is all burned, when there is so little of it left and the coal-mines
from which that little is to be excavated are so distant and deep and hot that its
price to the consumer is greatly higher than at present, it is most probable that
windmills or wind-motors in some form will again be in the ascendant, and that
wind will do man’s mechanical work on land at least in proportion comparable to
its present doing of work at sea.

ven now it is not utterly chimerical to think of wind superseding coal in
some places fora very important part of its present duty—that of giving light.
Indeed, now that we have dynamos and Faure’s accumulator, the little want to let
the thing be done is cheap windmills. A Faure cell containing 20 kilogrammes
of lead and minium charged and employed to excite incandescent vacuum-lamps
has a light-giving capacity of 60-candle hours (I have found considerably more
in experiments made by myself; but I take 60 as a safe estimate). The charging
may be done uninjuriously, and with good dynamical economy, in any time from
six hours to twelve or more. The drawing-off of the charge for use may be done
safely, but somewhat wastefully, in two hours, and very economically in any time
of from five hours to a week or more. Calms do not last often longer than three
or four days at a time. Suppose, then, that a five days’ storage-capacity suffices
(there may be a little steam-engine ready to set to work at any time after a four-
days’ calm, or the user of the light may have a few candles or oil-lamps in reserve,
and be satisfied with them when the wind fails for more than five days). One of
the twenty kilogramme cells charged when the windmill works for five or six
hours at any time, and left with its 60-candle hours’ capacity to be used six hours
a day for five days, gives a 2-candle light. Thus thirty-two such accumulator cells
so used would give as much light as four burners of London 16-candle gas. The
probable cost of dynamo and accumulator does not seem fatal to the plan, if the
windmill could be had for something comparable with the prime cost of a steam-
engine capable of working at the same horse-power as the windmill when in good
action. But windmills as hitherto made are very costly machines; and it does not
seem probable that, without inventions not yet made, wind can be economically
used to give light in any considerable class of cases, or to put energy into store for
work of other kinds.

Consider, lastly, rain-power. When it is to be had in places where power is
wanted for mills and factories of any kind, water-power is thoroughly appreciated.
From time immemorial, water-motors have been made in large variety for utilis-

y LL2

516 REPORT—1881,

ing rain-power in the various conditions in which it is presented, whether in
rapidly-flowing rivers, in natural waterfalls, or stored at heights in natural lakes
or artificial reservoirs. Improvements and fresh inventions of machines of this class
still go on; and some of the finest principles of mathematical hydrodynamics have,
in the lifetime of the British Association, and, to a considerable degree, with its
assistance, been putin requisition for perfecting the theory of hydraulic mechanism
and extending its practical applications.

A first question occurs: Are we necessarily limited to such natural sources of
water-power as are supplied by rain falling on hill-country, or may we look to the
collection of rain-water in tanks placed artificially at sufficient heights over flat
country to supply motive power economically by driving water-wheels ? To answer
it ; Suppose a height of 100 metres, which is very large for any practicable build-
ing, or for columns erected to support tanks; and suppose the annual rainfall to be
three-quarters of a metre (30 inches). The annual yield of energy would be 75
metre-tons per square metre of the tank. Now one horse-power for 365 times 24
hours is 236,500 foot-tons ; and therefore (dividing this by 75) we find 5,153
square metres as the area of our supposed tank required for a continuous supply of
one horse-power. The prime cost of any such structure, not to speak of the value
of the land which it would cover, is utterly prohibitory of any such plan for utilis-
ing the motive power of rain. We may or may not look forward hopefully to the
time when windmills will again ‘lend revolving animation’ to a dull flat country ;
but we certainly need not be afraid that the scene will be marred by forests of iron
columns taking the place of natural trees, and gigantic tanks overshadowing the
fields and blackening the horizon.

To use rain-power economically on any considerable scale we must look to the
natural drainage of hill country, and take the water where we find it either actually
falling or stored up and ready to fall when a short artificial channel or pipe can be
provided for it at moderate cost, The expense of aqueducts, or of underground
water-pipes, to carry water to any great distance—any distance of more than a few
miles or a few hundred yards—is much too great for economy when the yield to be
provided for is power ; and such works can only be undertaken when the water itself
is what is wanted. Incidentally, in connection with the water-supply of towns,
some part of the energy due to the head at which it is supplied may be used for

ower. There are, however, but few cases (I know of none except Greenock) in
which the energy to spare over and above that devoted to bringing the water to
where it is wanted, and causing it to flow fast enough for convenience at every
opened tap in every house or factory, is enough to make it worth while to make
arrangements for letting the water-power be used without wasting the water-sub-
stance. The cases in which water-power is taken from a town supply are generally
very small, such as working the bellows of an organ, or ‘heis brnehing by ma-
chinery,’ and involve simply throwing away the used water. The cost of energy
thus obtained must be something enormous in proportion to the actual quantity of
the energy, and it is only the smallness of the quantity that allows the convenience
of having it when wanted at any moment, to be so dearly bought.

For anything of great work by rain-power, the water-wheels must be in the
place where the water-supply with natural fall is found. Such places are gener-
ally far from great towns, and the time is not yet come when great towns grow
by natural selection beside waterfalls, for power; as they grow beside navigable
rivers, for shipping. Thus hitherto the use of water-power has been confined
chiefly to isolated factories which can be conveniently placed and economically
worked in the neighbourhood of natural waterfalls. But the splendid suggestion
made about three years ago by Mr. Siemens in his presidential address to the In-
stitution of Mechanical Engineers, that the power of Niagara might be utilised, by
transmitting it electrically to great distances, has given quite a fresh departure for
design in respect to economy of rain-power. From the time of Joule’s experi-
mental electro-magnetic engines developing 90 per cent. of the energy of a Voltaic
battery in the form of weights raised, and the theory of the electro-magnetic trans-
mission of energy completed thirty years ago on the foundation afforded by the
train of experimental and theoretical investigations by which he established his

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 517

dynamical equivalent of heat in mechanical, electric, electro-chemical, chemical,
electro-magnetic, and thermoclastic phenomena, it had been known that potential
energy from any available source can be transmitted electro-magnetically by means
of an electric current through a wire, and directed to raise weights at a distance,
With unlimitedly perfect economy. The first large-scale practical application of
electro-magnetic machines was proposed by Holmes in 1854, to produce the elec-
tric light for lighthouses, and persevered in by him till he proved the availability
of his machine to the satisfaction of the Trinity House and the delight of Faraday
in trials at Blackwall in April, 1857, and it was applied to light the South Fore-
land lighthouse on December 8, 1858. This gave the impulse to invention ; by
which the electro-magnetic machine has been brought from the physical laboratory
into the province of engineering, and has sent back to the realm of pure science a
beautiful discovery—that of the fundamental principle of the dynamo, made triply
and independently, and as nearly as may be simultaneously, in 1867 by Dr. Werner
Siemens, Mr. 8. A. Varley, and Sir Charles Wheatstone ; a discovery which con-
stitutes an electro-magnetic analogue to the fundamental electrostatic principle of
Nicholson’s revolving doubler, resuscitated by Mr. C. F. Varley in his instrument
‘for generating electricity ;’ patented in 1860; and by Holtz im his celebrated
electric machine ; and by myself in my ‘replenisher’ for multiplying and main-
taining charges in Leyden jars for heterostatic electrometers, and in the electri-
fier for the siphon of my recorder for submarine cables.

The dynamos of Gramme and Siemens, invented and made in the course of
these fourteen years since the discovery of the fundamental principle, give now a
ready means of realising economically on a large scale, for many important practical
applications, the old thermo-dynamics of Joule in electro-magnetism ; and, what
particularly concerns us now in connection with my present subject, they make it
possible to transmit electro-magnetically the work of waterfalls through long in-
sulated conducting wires, and use it at distances of fifties or hundreds of miles
from the source, with excellent economy—better economy, indeed, in respect to
proportion of energy used to energy dissipated than almost anything known in
ordinary mechanics and hydraulics for distances of hundreds of yards instead of
hundreds of miles.

Tn answer to questions put to me in May, 1879,! by the Parliamentary Com-
mittee on Electric Lighting, I gave a formula for calculating the amount of energy
transmitted, and the amount dissipated by being converted into heat on the
way, through an insulated copper conductor of any length, with any given
electro-motive force applied to produce the current. Taking Niagara as ex-
ample, and with the idea of bringing its energy usefully to Montreal, Boston,
New York, and Philadelphia, I calculated the formula for a distance of 300
British statute miles (which is greater than the distance of any of those four
cities from Niagara, and is the radius of a circle covering a large and very
important part of the United States and British North America), and found almost
to my surprise that, even with so great a distance to be provided for, the con-
ditions are thoroughly practicable with good economy, all aspects of the case
carefully considered. ‘The formula itself will be the subject of a technical com-
munication to Section A in the course of the Meeting on which we are now enter-
ing. I therefore at present restrict myself to a slight statement of results.

1. Apply dynamos driven by Niagara to produce a difference of potential of
80,000 volts between a good earth-connection and the near end of a solid copper
wire of half an inch (1:27 centimetre) diameter, and 300 statute miles (483 knlo-
metres) length,

2. Let resistance by driven dynamos doing work, or by electric lights, or, as I
-can now say, by a Faure battery taking in a charge, be applied to keep the remote
-end at a potential differing by 64,000 volts from a good earth-plate there.

3. The result will be a current of 240 webers through the wire taking energy
-from the Niagara end at the rate of 26,250 horse-power, losing 5,250 (or 20 per

1 Printed in the Parliamentary Blue Book Report of the Committee on Electric
Lighting, 1879..

518 _. , -REPORT—1881.

cent.) of this-by the generation and dissipation of heat through the conductor
and ta horse-power (or 80 per cent. of the whole) on the recipients at the
far end.

4, The elevation of temperature above the surrounding atmosphere, to allow
the heat generated in it to escape by radiation and be carried away by convection
is only about 20° Centigrade ; the wire being hung freely exposed to air like an
ordinary telegraph wire supported on posts.

5. The striking distance between flat metallic surfaces with difference of
potentials of 80,000 volts (or 75,000 Daniell’s) is (Thomson’s ‘ Electrostatics and
Magnetism,’ § 340) only 18 millimetres, and therefore there is no difficulty about
the insulation.

6. The cost of the copper wire, reckoned at 8d. per lb., is 37,000/. ; the interest
on which at 5 per cent. is 1,900/. a year. If 5,250 horse-power at the Niagara end
costs more than 1,900/. a year, it would be better economy to put more copper
into the conductor ; if less, less. I say no more on this point at present, as the
economy of copper for electric conduction will be the subject of a special com-
munication to the Section.

I shall only say, in conclusion, that one great difficulty in the way of economis-
ing the electrical transmitting power to great distances (or even to moderate
distances of a few kilometres) is now overcome by Faure’s splendid invention.
High potential—as Siemens, I believe, first pointed out—is the essential for
good dynamical economy in the electric transmission of power. But what
are we to do with 80,000 volts when we have them at the civilised end of
the wire? Imagine a domestic servant going to dust an electric lamp with
80,000 volts on one of its metals! Nothing above 200 volts ought on any
account ever to be admitted into a house or ship or other place where safe-
guards against accident cannot be made absolutely and for ever trustworthy against
all possibility of accident. In an electric workshop 80,000 volts is no more
dangerous than a circular saw, Till I learned Faure’s invention I could but think
of step-down dynamos, at a main receiving station, to take energy direct from the
electric main with its 80,000 volts, and supply it by secondary 200-volt dynamos or
100-volt dynamos, through proper distributing wires, to the houses and factories
and shops where it is to be used for electric lighting, and sewing-machines, and
lathes, and lifts, or whatever other mechanism wants driving power. Now the
thing is to be done much more economically, I hope, and certainly with much
greater simplicity and regularity, by keeping a Faure battery of 40,000 cells always
being charged direct from the electric main, and applying a methodical system of
removing sets of 50, and placing them on the town-supply circuits, while other
sets of 50 are being regularly introduced into the great battery that is being
charged, sc as to keep its number always within 50 of the proper number, which

would be about 40,000 if the potential at the emitting end of the main is 80,000
volts.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Possibility of the Existence of Intra-Mercurial Planets.'
By Batrour Srewart, LL.D., F.R.S.

It is a somewhat frequent speculation amongst those engaged in sun-spot
research to regard the state of the solar surface as influenced in some way by the
positions of the planets.

In order to verify this hypothesis, observers have tried whether there appear
to be solar periods exactly coinciding with certain well-known planetary periods.

This method has been adopted by the Kew observers (Messrs. De La Rue,
Stewart, and Loewy), who had an unusually large mass of material at their dis-
posal, and they have obtained from it the following results :—

. 1. An apparent maximum and minimum of spotted area approximately corre-
sponding in time to the perihelion and aphelion of Mercury.

1 Published ix extenso in Nature September 15, 1881.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 519

2. An apparent maximum and minimum of spotted area approximately corre-
sponding in time to the conjunction and opposition of Mercury and Jupiter.

3. An apparent maximum and minimum of spotted area approximately corre-
sponding in time to the conjunction and opposition of Venus and Jupiter.

4, An apparent maximum and minimum of spotted area approximately corre=
sponding in time to the conjunction and opposition of Venus and Mercury.

Whatever truth there may be in these conclusions, it appears to be quite certain
that periodical relations between the various known planets will not account for all
the sun-spot inequalities with which we are acquainted. They may account for
some, but certainly not for all, For there are solar inequalities of short duration,
which, presuming them to be real, can only be accounted for on the planetary
hypothesis by supposing the existence of several unknown intra-mercurial planets.

Tn conjunction with Mr. William Dodgson I have devised a method for detecting
unknown inequalities, which, when applied to the sun, reveals a period in sun-spots
of 24-011 days. Is this the period of an intra-mercurial planet ?

It is quite easy to put this hypothesis to a test, taking for our guidance the
results obtained by the Kew observers, For what do these results exhibit ? In the
first place, they exhibit the probability of a sun-spot inequality corresponding to
the period of Mercury round the sun ; and in the next, they exhibit the probability
of similar inequalities corresponding to the synodie period of Mercury and Venus,
and to that of Mercury and Jupiter. Now, if there be an intramercurial planet of
period 24-011 days, it will have the following synodic periods :—

With Mercury. ; ‘ . 93°025 days.
With Venus : ; : . 26884 ,,
With Jupiter ; | : . 24145 ,,

In conjunction with Mr. Dodgson I have applied the above method of analysis
with the view of ascertaining whether there be well-marked sun-spot inequali-
ties wed corresponding to these periods, and we have obtained the following
results :—

A very prominent inequality of period 32°955 days.
A very prominent inequality of period 26:871 _,,
A less prominent inequality of period 24142 ,,

It will thus be noticed that there are prominent sun-spot inequalities, the
periods of which agree very well with the synodic periods of the supposed planet
with Mercury, Venus, and Jupiter, more especially if we bear in mind that this is
only a first approximation.

The test, however, is not yet complete. Referring once more to the results of
the Kew observers, it will be noticed that we have approximately maxima of sun-
spot areas when Mercury and Venus, or when Mercury and Jupiter are in conjunc-
tion. Now, if we assume that there is an intra-mercurial planet of period
24-011 days, we areas yet unable to assign its exact position in ecliptica] longitude
at any moment. We know its period, and we may presume that it has consider-
able excentricity, but we know nothing else. We may, however, assume as most
probable that the maximum point of the inequality of period 32°955 days
corresponds to the conjunction of the planet with Mercury, and so on for the other
inequalities. On this assumption, and knowing the average rate of motion of the
planet in its orbit, we may decide approximately its position at a given epoch in-
dependently from each of the three synodic periods, above mentioned, and these
positions ought to agree together, if our hypothesis be correct.

I have done this approximately, but am not able to bring exact figures be-
fore this meeting. The agreement is‘as great as can be expected, bearing'in mind that
we know only the average rate of motion of the planet, and not the variations
of its rate, inasmuch as we are ignorant of its excentricity. I think I may state
that three independent values of its position, corresponding to January 1, 1832, will
-be obtained, and that the mean difference of a single value from the mean of the
whole will probably not be more than twenty degrees. It would thus appear from this
investigation that the evidence is in favour of the sun-spot inequality of 24-011 days
being due to an intra-mercurial planet.

520 REPORT—1881.

2, On the Photographic Spectrum of Comet ‘b’ 1881. By Wiit1am
Houaes, D.C.L., OL.D., F.R.S.

[PLATE XIV.]

In the years 1866 and 1868 I applied the spectroscope to the light of comets,,
and in the latter year I showed that the three bright bands in the visible part of
the spectrum agree with the similar bright bands which are seen when an induction
spark is taken in olefiant gas.!_ The same bands are also seen in the flames of many
compounds of carbon, I was inclined at that time to consider that these bands:
were due to the vapour of carbon. Subsequent investigations which have been
made on the spectra of the compounds of carbon, appear to make it probable that
these bands are the spectrum of a compound of carbon with hydrogen. The obser—
vations (1868) showed the presence of carbon, probably in combination with
hydrogen, in the cometary matter.

Since that time until the present year, no comet has appeared sufficiently bright
to allow of the observations on its spectrum being extended to the ultra-violet
region, The apparatus with which I had successfully photographed the spectra of
stars was especially suited to this purpose.” It consists essentially of a spectroscope,.
furnished with a prism of Iceland spar and lenses of quartz, placed so that the slit
shall be in the principal focus of a mirror 18 inches in diameter, equatorially
mounted, and driven by an electrically controlled clock.

On the evening of June 24th (1881), I directed this instrument, armed with a
very sensitive gelatine plate, tothe head of Comet ‘b,’ so that the nucleus should be
upon one half of the shit. After an-exposure of one hour, the open half of the slit
was closed, the shutter withdrawn from the other half, and the instrument was then
directed to Arcturus for fifteen minutes.

After development the plate presented a very distinct spectrum of the comet,
together with that of the star, for comparison.

The spectrum of the comet consists of two spectra superposed upon each other :
a continuous spectrum, which extends from about F to a little distance beyond H.
Tn this continuous spectrum can be seen the Fraunhofer lines G,h, H, K, and many
others. This spectrum is therefore due to reflected solar light.

The second spectrum consists of two sets of bright lines, and a suspicion of the

resence of a third set. These lines are obviously to be referred to original light
from the comet,

The strongest set consists of two bright lines in the commencement of the
ultra-violet region. Measures, made by the aid of the comparison star-spectrum,
give for these bright lines the wave-lengths 3883 and 3870. The less refrangible
dine is much stronger, and a faint luminosity can be traced from it to a little
beyond the second line 3870. There can be, therefore, no doubt that these lines
represent the brightest end of the ultra-violet group, which appears under certain
circumstances in the spectra of the compounds of carbon. Professors Liveing and
Dewar have found for the strong line at the beginning of the group, the wave-
length 3882:7, and for the second line 3870°5.

Tam also able to see upon the continuous solar spectrum, a distinct, though
fainter, impression of a group of lines between G and h. There can be little doubt
that this group is the one for the least refrangible limit of which the wave-length
4220 is given by Professors Liveing and Dewar.

An increase of brightness in the continuous spectrum is also seen between h
and H, which may be due to other bright lines, but the photograph is not strong
enough to admit of any certain conclusion on this point.

On June 25, a second photograph was obtained with an exposure of an hour
anda half. This photograph, notwithstanding the longer exposure, is fainter, but
shows distinctly the bright lines in the ultra-violet, and the continuous spectrum.

These photographs confirm the results of my earlier observations on comets,—
that part of their light is reflected sunlight, and part is original light; and, further,
.that carbon is present in the cometary matter. The new bright groups in the

1 Phil. Trans. 1868, p. 556. 2 Phil. Trans. 1880, p. 669.

Brit Assoc Report. 1881

Plate: Zine

Spottiswoode &C°Lith London

Mlastrating D!W Huggins Paper orv Photographic Spectrum of Comet b 1887.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 52¥

comet’s spectrum which the photographs have revealed to us, are certainly chatac-
teristic of substances containing carbon.

In their paper ‘On the spectra of the compounds of carbon’ (‘ Proc. Roy. Soe.’
vol. xx. p. 494), Professors Liveing and Dewar bring forward evidence to show
that these two groups indicate the presence of cyanogen, and are not to be seen in
hydrocarbons unless nitrogen is also present. If this be the case the photograph
‘supplies us with strong evidence of the presence of nitrogen in the comet, in addi-.
tion to the carbon and hydrogen shown to be there by the bright groups in the
visible region of the spectrum. It is of great interest in connection with this re-
sult, now that Schiaparelli has shown us the close relationship of meteors and
comets, to mention the results of Professor Graham's experiments on the occluded
gases from the meteoric iron of Lenarto (‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xv. p. 502, 1867.)
This iron gave nearly three times its volume of gas, consisting chiefly of hydrogen,
with small quantities of carbonic oxide and nitrogen.

Professor Wright’s examination of the stony meteorites shows the oxides of
carbon, chiefly the di-oxide, to be present in largest quantity, but he obtained also
a small percentage of hydrogen’ and nitrogen (‘ Amer, Journ. Scien.’ vol. x., July,
1875). Other kinds of meteors are known which contain hydrocarbons, even in
considerable quantity. It is scarcely necessary to add that, under suitable condi-
tions, the spectra of the gases from some meteorites will be similar to that observed
from the light of comets,

Messrs. Liveing and Dewar’s experiments would seem to show that a high tem-
perature must be present in the comet, if the cyanogen is formed there, but if
cyanides should be found in meteorites this necessity would not exist.

Whatever the views that may be entertained as to the forms of combination in
which the carbon exists, there can be no doubt whatever of the presence of carbon
in comets. I should mention that Mr. Lockyer regards the two bright groups seen
in the photograph, and the three groups in the visible spectrum, to be due to the
vapour of carbon at different heat-levels (‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ vol. xxx. p. 461).

It is of importance to mention the strong intensity in the photograph of the
lines 3883 and 3870 as compared with the continuous spectrum, and the faint
bright group beginning at 4220. At this part of the spectrum, therefore, the light
emitted by the cometary matter exceeded by many times the reflected solar light.

On August 21, I attempted to obtain, with an exposure of one hour, a photo-
graph of the spectrum of a large comet which has appeared since Comet ‘c’ 1881.
The evening was not very favourable, and the comet was at a low altitude and not so
brilliant as Comet ‘b.’ I am not able to see on the plate more than a faint trace of
the brightest lines (W. L. 3883 and 3870) of the spectrum obtained from the
former comet.

3. On a Prismatic Optometer, By Tampust AnpmRSON, M.D., B.Sc.

It is well known that in the normal eye, with its accommodation relaxed, parallel
rays of light, that is, those from distant objects, are brought to a focus on the
retina. Rays from near objects are divergent, and if they enter such an eye they are
not brought to a focus on the retina, but would be at some point behind it. In
order that they may be so brought to a focus and form a distinct image on the
retina, an effort of accommodation is necessary. This is performed by a small
muscle called the ciliary muscle, inside the eyeball, the ultimate effect of whose
contraction is an alteration in the shape and perhaps the condition of the lens,
which causes the rays to be more strongly refracted, and brings them to a focus on
the retina. The effect is in fact the same as if a convex lens were added to the
optical system of the eye. As age advances, the muscle and lens become stiffer
and work with difficulty. They are relieved of part of their work by putting a
convex glass in front of the eye. Hypermetropia is a condition in which the axis
of the eyeball is too short, compared with the refracting power of thelens. In it
‘an effort of accommodation is necessary to see even distant objects clearly, and a
still stronger effort to see near objects. A person suffering from it requires convex
‘glasses. When both eyes are used together, the optic axes of both are directed to

522 REPORT—1881.

the object, so that in looking at a distant object they are directed parallel, and in
looking at a near one they converge. These movements are effected by the
external muscles of the eyeball, which are supplied by branches of the same nerve
as the ciliary muscle. As a fact these movements of the ciliary muscle and of the
external muscles of the eyeball are associated, or habitually performed in conjunc-
tion ; that is, the brain has become accustomed to send an impulse to the one set of
muscles proportionate to that sent to the other. Any disturbance of this associa~
tion can only be accomplished by a distinct effort which, if severe or long continued,
is apt to be painful.

Suppose a man has become presbyopic, z.e. his accommodation has gradually
become stiff, and its range reduced. In order to accommodate for rays from an
object at the ordinary reading distance of ten or twelve inches, he has now to
exert an effort equal perhaps to what he would have employed when young on
one four inches off, but the change has been gradual, and the convergence of
the eyes for twelve inches has become associated with this amount of effort. If
he now use convex glasses of suitable power, the want of refracting power is
supplied, the effort of accommodation is reduced to
its natural amount, but the amount of convergence
which has become associated with this small effort is
now insufficient, and the eyes, instead of converging
to twelve inches, converge on a point several feet dis-
tant, so that double vision would be produced, unless
by a distinct effort the eyes were converged more, and
this effort is often painful and is expressed by the
term that the spectacles ‘draw’ the eyes. After a
time new associations are formed and the spectacles
can be used comfortably, but this does not happen in
all cases, and for these it is necessary to grind the
lenses on glasses of prismatic section, The action of
the prism is so to fend the pencils of rays coming
to the eyes that they appear to diverge from a point
corresponding to the new focal distance of the eyes
provided with the spectacles.

Sometimes the amount of prismatic effect required
is calculated, but the calculation being based on gene-
ral considerations does not always suit individual
persons ; at other times prismatic glasses from a trial
case are combined with the calculated spherical, or
spherical and cylindrical glasses, until one is found
with which vision is comfortable.

In many cases it is not necessary to use glasses spe-
cially ground on prisms, but sufficient to move the Lax
centres of the glasses nearer together. The glass being
thicker in the centre, looking through the part near the edge produces an amount
of prismatic effect which is often sufficient. If concave glasses are used, as in
cases of short sight, then they must be further apart than the distance of the eyes
in order to produce this effect.

The object of the instrument exhibited is to find experimentally the amount of
prismatic power, and the distance of the centres of the lenses, which is required in
any individual case.

Two circular frames each 2} inches in diameter, and with teeth cut in their
edges, are mounted so that the teeth gear into each other, and they can rotate
freely, but in opposite directions. In the centre of each frame is mounted a prism
of 18°; one of the frames is graduated, and when the graduation is at 0° the axes of
the prisms are parallel, so that parallel pencils of rays falling on both are deviated
both in the same direction, and still parallel. Thus when the pair of prisms are
arranged horizontally in front of a pair of eyes, an object looked at appears dis-
placed up or down, but there is no lateral deviation on either. If the frames be
rotated 90° in one direction, the prisms both have their bases inwards, or, if in the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 523

other direction, both outwards, so that two pencils of rays are deviated to the
full power of the prisms. In the intermediate poe art of. the prismatic
effect is resolved in a direction at right angles to the line joining the
centres of the frames, and can be neglected as only producing parailel displace-
ment of the image, and part is resolved in the direction of this line so as to produce
apparent separation or approximation of the images. This amount is read off from
the graduation which is constructed on to the following principle.

Suppose a ray of light XAO perpendicular to the plane of the paper meets the
paper at O (see figure). Suppose a prism be introduced at A having an angle of
deflection 6, the ray of light now falls on the paper at B.

If the prism be rotated through angle 8, the ray now falls on the paper at C.

Join OB, OC, and resolve OC into vertical and horizontal co-ordinates CD, OD.

CD being neglected. as described, we wish to find OD the horizontal component

of the deflection.
Since OB = OC
- OD _ OD
ee OB 4 OG
OD
OA _ OD
OB OC
OA
ite Pen

Log cos 8 = Log tan a — log tan 6.

Two other frames are placed in front of the prisms. They contain grooves to
hold lenses or combinations of lenses, and are graduated so that cylindrical lenses
can be set at: any desired angle. The frames can be separated or brought nearer
with greater accuracy by a wedge, and the distance of the centres of the glasses is
marked on the bearing. The whole is carried at the end of a graduated bar which
carries a sliding support for an object. This bar is graduated in inches for use in
calculation and also in focal lengths of a set of dioptric lenses.

A third prism is attached so that it can be placed between one of the frames
and the object. When it is in position, the rays going through it to the eye
appear to come from an object higher than when it is absent. Double vision is
produced, and the eyes are left free to find their most comfortable position undis-
turbed by any effort to make the two images coalesce.

To use the instrument, the spherical and cylindrical elements of the spectacle
required are first found either by some of the ordinary methods or by the ophthalmo-
meter described in the Annual Volume for 1880, and the required lenses from the
trial case put in the appropriate frames. The third prism is interposed, and an
object, such as a vertical line, viewed at reading distance. If the images seen by
the two eyes are exactly one above the other, the prismatic adjustment is presum-
ably correct, the third prism is removed, and trial is made whether reading can be
carried on for some time without fatigue.

If the images are slightly displaced externally, trial is made whether shifting
the centres of the lenses nearer or further off, suffices to bring them into position.
If so, the distance is noted and sent as a direction to the optician. If the displace-
ment be more than can be corrected by this means, the prisms are rotated till the
desired effect is produced, and the amount of prismatic deviation to be given to the
—* spectacles read off. The third prism is removed and reading practised as
above.

4. On the Effects of the Lunar and Solar Tide in increasing the Length of
the Sidereal Day. By the Rev. Samurt Havcuton, M.D., F.R.S.

5. On the Effects of Oceanic Ourrents upon Climates. By the Rev. Samurt
Haveuton, M.D., F.R.S. See Reports, p. 451.

524 REPORT~1881.°

6. On some applications of Electric Energy to Horticultural and Agricultural
purposes. By Dr. C. Wm. Siemens, F'.R.S. See Reports, p. 474.

7. On Hydrocarbons in the Solar Atmosphere. By Captain Asnry, B.E.,
F.R.S.

The existence of hydrocarbons in the solar atmosphere depends upon the evi-
dence of the absorption-spectra in the infra-red region of certain hydrocarbons,.
which have been photographed lately by the author, in conjunction with Colonel
Festing, R.E. In these spectra certain lines were mapped, which, when a large
dispersive power was used, coincided with Fraunhofer’s lines in the solar spectrum,
agreeing with them, not only in position, but also in relative intensities. That the
hydrocarbons are not due to our own atmosphere was shown by the fact that the
relative intensities did not vary with a high as compared with a low sun. The ‘a’
group of lines in the solar spectrum was also pointed out as containing lines due to
the hydrocarbons; but that, as-they were faint lines, they would not materially
affect the validity of any argument which might be brought against the theory
should it be shown that this region altered in intensity with a high and low sun. At
the same time this group should be carefully examined to see if the lines varied in in--
tensity whilst others remained constant. The similarity of the fundamental band of
the benzene series to the A and B lines was also noticed. The A line was doubtless.
solar, whilst the B line was, according to observation by careful spectroscopists, of
telluric origin. Should it eventually prove that the A and B lines were due to
hydrocarbons, one would be present in the sun and the other in our own atmo-
sphere. To carbonic acid the latter could not be referred, since the absorption due
to that gas in a length equivalent to more than that found in the atmosphere had
been taken and gave absolutely no lines. If future observations showed the existence
of hydrocarbon vapour in the solar regions, a very interesting problem in solar
physics was opened out, to which attention would be given by the author and, he
hoped, other observers, in the immediate future.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
The Section subdivided and the following Papers and Report were read :-—

PHYSICAL DEPARTMENT.

1. On Surface-tension and Capillary Action. By Professor,OsBoRNE
Reynoups, F.R.S. - YesPaiy

In the first place it was pointed out that, although surface-tension has hitherto
-been considered as a statical or hydrostatical force only, such actions as the spread-
ing of oil upon water exhibit phenomena, and those of a very marked kind, which
depend, not on a statical force, but on the maintenance of this force while the sur-
face is contracting at a very high velocity. And, in the second place, it was pointed
out that the assumptions on which Laplace’s theory of surface-tension is founded.
~are insufficient to explain these phenomena, which suggest certain relations between
the range of the inter-molecular attractive forces and the dimensions of these:
molecules.

It was shown that if the surface of pure water be touched at some point with a.
slightly oiled needle, the oil spreads out quickly in a circular patch, which patch at
first extends with great rapidity. But it was not the rapidity of extension that was
so much the point of remark, as the motion of the surface of the pure water before
the advancing oil. In the usual way this motion is shown by a rib or slight eleva-
tion of the water immediately at the edge of the oil. When the initial surface is
very clean the rib is always formed, but it only becomes apparent under peculiar
circumstances. It is often apparent on the surface of a deep pool formed at a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 525

sharp bend of a stream, for instance, to anyone fishing. The more rapid flow into
the pool causes ascending currents, which, spreading out at the surface, give rise to
radial currents of pure water, which Sweep back and hold at bay the oil or transparent
scum on the surface of the rest of the pool, and which but for the outward motion
would rapidly extend over the pure surface. Under these circumstances the edge
of the scum is definitely marked by a fine rib, which shows itself in certain lights
as though a fine gut-line were floating on the water and were carried, first in one
direction and then in the other, according as the radial current or the spreading
force of the scum are in the ascendant. It is difficult to render this rib apparent
-on the surface of water contained in a vessel, although this may be one or two feet
in diameter. This may be done, but the motion which gives rise to the rib may be
rendered apparent by other means,—by dusting the surface of the pure water with
some insoluble powder, such as flowers of sulphur. The motion of the surface is
rendered apparent by the motion of the dust. It is then seen that the dust does not
fall back before the oil as though the surface of the pure water were in a general state
of contraction, for there is absolutely no motion in the dust except in the immediate
neighbourhood of the edge of the oil. It is as though the dust were swept back by
the advancing edge of the oil; the dust, already swept up into a compact mass,
coming up to each fresh particle, pushes it before it, until a bright yellow band is
formed marking the edge of the oil. The result is to give the impression that the
dust is being driven back by the oil—as if the oil were spreading from some
‘inherent expansive force ; but, as a matter of fact, the oil is being drawn forward by
the contraction of the dust-covered surface of the pure water, and the fact that the
dust does not move till the oil reaches it shows that the contraction takes place
entirely at the edge of the oil in an almost infinitely narrow band.

This phenomenon of surface-contraction is very remarkable, for it would be
inferred from other hydrodynamical phenomena that viscosity would to some
-extent resist the action of contraction, and thus tend to distribute: this action ever
a considerable area, and that the contraction is not so distributed shows that there
‘is virtually no resistance to contraction, or that the surface-tension at the points at
which the surface is contracting is at least equal to the tension at those points of the
-surface which are at-rest.

This conclusion implies much more than the tacit assumption, made by Laplace
and subsequent writers, that the forces of cohesion obey the law of statical fluid
pressure—equality in all directions. It is well known as regards other phenomena
that this law holds only when fluids are at rest or in uniform motion ; whereas here
wwe have a case in which the same law holds for a portion of fluid which is moving
with great rapidity relative to the fluid in its immediate neighbourhood.

Laplace’s theory is founded on an assumed attraction, between the molecules,
which attraction does not extend to sensible distances, and on the tacit assumption
already mentioned, that the pressure, whether impressed or molecular, is equal in
all directions. To explain the apparent absence of viscosity in the dynamical
phenomena some further assumptions are necessary. If the force of cohesion is due
to molecular attraction these dynamical phenomena require that the molecules
under their mutual attractions should not be in a state of equilibrium, except
in so far as they are held by the forces transmitted from one part of the fluid to
another,

Such a condition would exist if the range of attraction extended beyond the
distance of a single molecule, that is, if the molecules are spherical or in such a
state of motion that they cannot fit like bricks. But whatever might be the shape
of the molecules, if the forces of cohesion acted between adjacent molecules only,
then they would be in equilibrium in all positions ; there would be no instability
and no rapid contraction, although, according to Laplace’s theory, the force
would be sufficient to prevent extension of the surface, and hence to explain the
statical phenomena of capillary tension such as the suspension of drops. It is
therefore argued that these dynamical phenomena are important, as throwing a
certain amount of light on the character of the forces which cause cohesion
between molecules.

526 - © REPORT-——1881.

2. On some Colour Experiments... By Lorp Rar eicu, F’.R.S.

3. On a Question in the Theory of Inghting. By Lord Rayuricu, F.R.S.

It is known that a large part of the radiation from terrestrial sources is non-
luminous. Even in the case of the electric arc the obscure radiation amounts, ac-
cording to Tyndall, to eight-ninths of the whole, and of the remainder probably no
inconsiderable part is to be found in the extreme red rays of feeble luminosity.
For practical purposes this obscure radiation is useless; and the question forces
itself upon us, whether or no there is any necessity, absolutely inherent in the
case, for so large a proportion of waste. The following arrangement, not of course
proposed as practical, seems to prove that the question should be answered in the
negative.

Hon a small spherical body of infusible material, to which energy can be
communicated by electricity or otherwise, to be surrounded by a concentric re-
flecting spherical shell. Under these circumstances no energy can escape; but if a
small hole be pierced in the shell, radiation will pass through it. In virtue of the
suppositions which we have made, the emergent beam will be of small angle, and
may be completely dealt with at a moderate distance by a prism and lens. Let us.
suppose then that a spectrum of the hole is formed and received upon a reflecting
plate so held at the focus as to return the rays upon the lens and prism, These
rays will re-enter the hole, and impinge upon the radiating body, which is thus
again as completely isolated as if the shell were unperforated. We have now only
to suppose a portion of the focal plate to be cut away in order to have an apparatus
from which only one kind of radiation can escape. Whatever energy is communi-
cated to the internal body must ultimately undergo transformation into radiation of

the selected kind.

4, On some uses of Faure’s Accumulator in connection with Lighting by
Electricity. By Professor Sir Witi1Am THomson, M.A., F.R.S.

The largest use of Faure’s accumulator in electric lighting was to allow steam
or other motive power, driving dynamos, to work economically all day, or through-
out the twenty-four hours where the circumstances were such as to render this
economical, and storing up energy to be drawn upon when the light was required.
There was also a very valuable use of the accumulator in its application as an
adjunct to the dynamo, regulating the light-giving current and storing up an
irregular surplus in such a manner that stoppage of the engine would not stop.
thelight, but only reduce it slightly, and that there would always be a good
residue of two or three hours’ supply of full lighting power, or a supply for eight
or ten hours of light for a diminished number of lamps. He showed an automatic
instrument which he had designed and constructed to break and make the circuit
between the Faure battery and the dynamo, so as automatically to fulfil the con-.
ditions described in the paper. This instrument also guarded the coils of the
dynamo from damage, and the accumulator battery from loss, by the current
flowing back, if at any moment the electro-motive force of the dynamo flagged.

so much as to be overpowered by the battery.

5. On the Economy of Metal in Conductors of Electricity,
By Professor Sir Witiiam Tuomson, M.A., F.R.S.

The most economical size of the copper conductor for the electric transmission of
energy, whether for the electric light or for the performance of mechanical work,
would be found by comparing the annual interest of the money value of the copper
with the money value of the energy lost annually in the heat generated in it
by the electric current. The money value of a stated amount of energy had not.

1 Published in eatenso in Nature, Nov. 17, 1881.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 527

yet begun to appear in the City price-lists. If 107. were taken as the par value of
a horse-power night and day for a year, and allowing for the actual value being
greater or less (it might be very much greater or very much less) according to cir-
cumstances, it was easy to estimate the right quantity of metal to be put into the
conductor to convey # current of any stated strength, such as the ordinary strength
of current for the powerful arc light, or the tenfold strength current (of 240 webers)
which the author had referred to in his address as practically suitable for deliver-
ing 21,000 horse-power of Niagara at 300 miles from the fall.

He remarked that (contrary to a very prevalent impression and belief) the
gauge to be chosen for the conductor does not depend on the length of it through
which the energy is to be transmitted. It depends solely on the strength of the
current to be used, supposing the cost of the metal and of a unit of energy to be
determined.

Let A be the sectional area of the conductor ; s the specific resistance (accord-
ing to bulk) of the metal; and c the strength of the current to be used. The
energy converted into heat and so lost, per second per centimetre, is sc*/A ergs.

Let p be the proportion of the whole time during which, in the course of a
year, this current is kept flowing. There being 314 million seconds in a year, the
loss of energy per annum is

Sha AO pee? | Aerge: oy. yi) ou hae! 6d Give GA)

The cost of this, if E be the cost of an erg, is

; 315 «10% psc? EJA Phat ; ° - (2)

Let V be the money value of the metal per cubic centimetre, the cost of pos-

sessing it, per centimetre of length of the wire, at 5 per cent. per annum, is
-A/20 ; : - . - (3)
Hence the whole annual cost, by interest on the value of the metal, and by loss

of energy in it, is i a
1 31°5 x 108 psec
30 VA -F TT bagone Wn He . . ° . e e (4)

The amount of A to make this a minimum (which is also that which makes the
two constituents of the loss equal) is as follows :—
V
ts : Bnso2 Bl
A=/(31°5. 1080 EIS)
= e/ (63 . 10%psE| V) . . e ° ° (5)
Taking 70. per ton as the price of copper of high conductivity (known as
‘conductivity copper’ in the metal market), we have -00007/. as the price of a
gramme. Multiplying this by 8-9 (the specific gravity of copper), we find, as the
price of a cubic centimetre,
Fie POOLE saa iaienM! Ue huh ani toes: iC)

and the assumption of 10/. as the par value of one horse-power day and night for
565 days, gives, as the price of an erg,

10/,/(814 x 108 x 74 x 10°) =

1
Pate eh 8 ee)

Supposing the actual price to be at the rate of e x 102. per year, per horse-power
we have
e
E= 33x 104 of 11, ° . ° ° e (8)

Lastly, for the specific resistance of copper we have

‘s= 1640 . . . . e 3 (9)
Using (8) and (9) in (5) we find,
63 x 107 x 1640 x pe _ pe
A= en/~F3 x 10x 00062, “isa 42° #0)

Suppose, for example, p="5 (that is, electric work through the conductor
for twelve hours of every day of the year to be provided for), ande=1, These

528 REPORT—1881.

suppositions correspond fairly well to ordinary electric transmission of energy
in towns for light, according to present arrangements. We have—

= cd Dotnet sg rp
45% Mapemea arte

‘That is to say, the sectional area of the wire in centimetres ought to be about a fiftieth
of the strength of the current in webers. Thus, for a powerful arc-light current
of 21 webers, the sectional area of the leading wire should be ‘4 of a square centi-
metre, and therefore its diameter (if it is a solid round wire) should be °71 of a
centimetre.

If we take e=,1.z, which corresponds to 1,900/. a year as the cost of 5,250
horse-power (see Presidential Address, Section A, p.518), and if we take p = 1, thatis
reckon for continued night and day electric work through the conductor, we have—

ny ean Cdbiren f'G
/381 > 195°
and if c=24, A=1:24, which makes the diameter 1:26 centimetres, or half an
inch (as stated in the Presidential Address). But even at Niagara it is not pro-
bable that the cost of an erg can be as small as +, of what we have taken as the
par value for England ; and probably therefore a larger diameter for the wire than
4 inch will be better economy if:so large a current as 240 webers is to be con-
ducted by it.

6. On the proper Proportions of Resistance in the Working Coils, the Elec-
tro-Magnets, and the External Circuits of Dynamos. By Professor
Sir Witt THomson, M.A., F.R.S.

For the electro-magnet ;
Let Z be the length of the wire,
-B +, bulk of the whole space occupied by wire and insulation,
nm ,, ratio of this whole space to the bulk of the copper alone (that is,

let 2 B be the bulk of the copper),

A_,, the sectional area of wire and insulator,

R_,, the resistance of the wire.
For the.working coil, let the corresponding quantities be LZ’, B’, n’, R’. Lastly, let
s be the specific resistance of the copper. We have—

B=AL

R= ns = ns,
Hea A= va nae . : (1)
and similarly, os oe = mi ; : “a - (2)

where K and K’ denote constants.

Now, let c be the current through the magnet coil, and c’ that through the
working coil, and let v be the velocity of any chosen point of the working coil.
Denoting by p the average: electro-motive force between the two ends of the
working coil, we have—

p=l— = : : . “ : « (8)

where J is a quantity depending on the forms, magnitudes, and relative positions of
B and B’, and on the magnetic susceptibility of iron ; diminishing as the suscepti-
bility diminishes with increased strength of current, or with any change of R and
R’ which gives increase of magnetising force.

In the single-circuit dynamo (that is, the ordinary dynamo) ¢’ is equal to ¢,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 529

but not so in the shunt-dynamo. In each, the whole electric activity (that is, the
rate of doing work) is pe’; or, by (3)—

cc’
lia v . e . . . . (4)
or, by (1) and (2)—
IVJS(RR’)ec’v (5)
ce : - a -

Of this whole work, the proportions which go to waste m heating the coils and to
work in the external circuit are—

Re? +R’ ce” : - waste . c (6)

7 vA .
FUER eee —(Re +R’ ce) . useful work . . (7)
By making » sufficiently great, the ratio of (6) to (7) (waste to useful work) may
be made as small as we please. Our question is, how ought R and R’ to be pro-
portioned to make the ratio of waste to work a minimum, with any given speed ?
or, which comes to the same thing, to make the speed required for a given ratio of

work to waste a minimum? To answer it, let 7 be the ratio of the whole work to
the waste. We have, by (5) and (6)—

_IVN(R RP’) ce’ v
sp cee ere sper en oa bear I yo)
For the single-circuit dynamo we have c=c’, and (8) becomes—
DESC Rs
Poa gee ge yet aa EET ha) nay IAN)
. (10)

or pa tik (S—R)}iv
where S=R+R . : : py oe . eh)

SKK’

Suppose now S to be given, and suppose for a moment J to be constant. The
problem of making r a maximum with v given, or v a minimum with r given,
requires simply that R(S—R) be a maximum; which it is when R=} 5, that is,
when the resistances in the working coil and the electro-magnet are equal. But
in reality Z is not constant ; it diminishes with increase of the magnetising force.
As it generally depends chiefly on the soft iron of the electro- magnet, and com-
paratively but little on the soft iron of the moving armature, or on iron mag-
netised by the current through the moving coils, it will generally be the case
that I will, ceteris paribus, be diminished by increasing R and diminishing R’.
Hence the maximum of r/v is shown by (10) to require R’ to be somewhat greater
than }S: how much greater we cannot find from the formula, without knowing
the law of the variation of J.

Experience and natural selection seem to have led in most of the ordinary
dynamos, as now made, to the resistance in the electro-magnet being somewhat
less than the resistance in the working coil, which is in accordance with the pre-
ceding theory, #

Whether the useful work of the dynamo be light-giving, or power, or heating,
or electro-metallurgy, we may, for simplicity, reckon it in any possible case by
referring to the convenient standard case of a current through a conductor of given
resistance / connecting the working terminals of the dynamo. This conductor,
in accordance with general usage, I call the ‘ external circuit,’ which is an abbrevi-
ation for the part of the whole circuit which is external to the dynamo, In the
case of the single-circuit dynamo, the current in the external circle is equal to that
through the working coil and electro-magnet, or ¢ of our notation, Hence, by
Ohm’s law— ‘

> ee p D)
CHa ae : - A ° » (22)
1881. MM

530 REPORT—1881.

or, by (3), (1), and (2),

_. DA(RR)»
tno ae (ie Ra) ee
Hence either e=One Ce hos ee ae . (14)
_KK’(E+R+RP/)
or I= CR Bon . : . . (15)
The case of c= O is that in which f
pce E K(E+R+R) | «bev teeta

I,/(RR’)

where Z, denotes the value of I for c=@, To understand it, remember we are
supposing no residual magnetism. For any speed subject to (16), the dynamo
produces no current. When this limit is exceeded the electric equilibrium in
the circuit becomes unstable ; an infinitesimal current started in either direction
rises rapidly in strength, till it is limited by equation (15), through the diminu-
tion of I, which it produces, Thus, regarding J as a function of ce, we have
in (15) the equation mathematically expressing the strength of the current main-
tained by the dynamo when its regular action is reached, Using (15) in (10)
we find—
E+8
r ae é - : - 4 + =(7)

which we all knew forty years ago from Joule.

In the shunt-dynamo the whole current, c’, of the working coil branches into
two streams, c through the electro-magnet, and c’—c through the external circuit,
whose strengths are inversely as the resistances of their channels. Still calling
the resistance of the external circuit Z, we therefore haye—

E
e R=(c’—c) E, which gives c= py ce. . » (18)

Hence, by Joule’s original law, the expenditures of work per unit of time in the
three channels are respectively
OC : . working coil

R ( = a) . electro-magnet

4 - (19)
R \
E (a3) ce? . external circuit

Hence, denoting as above by 7 the ratio of the whole work to the work developed.
in the external circuit, we have—

; E \ R_\
ie +a a) +E(q-x)

7 2( 7 ) 2. pe (20)
R+£
whence Rr= RELY sR (R+£)
R R : . (21)
= +(R+ Pf’) £F+ RQ +R)

E

Suppose now FR and R’ given, and EF to be found; to make ry a minimum. The
solution is—

R’ R®

=.) ——— " F 5 . (22
Vv R+ RP (@2)
and this makes
R'(R+R’) 2R’'+R

rao EER) ee . (28)
Put now

/

—_=@ . (24)

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 531

(22) and (23) become
RE
E=/ ‘ : ° : . (25)
l+e
and r=1+2,/f{e(l+e)}+2e : - 9 me aa (20)
For good economy r must be but little greater than unity; hence e must be
very small, and therefore approaimately
E=,/(R RP’)
da ee et 7 Sank enna wi ep
For example, suppose the resistance of the electro-magnet to be 400 times the
resistance of the working coil—that is e=400—and we have, approximately,
E=20R’, and r=1+3.
That is to say, the resistance in the external circuit is 20 times the resistance of
the working coil, and the useful work in the external circuit is approximately 22
of that lost in heating the wire in the dynamo.

7. On the Application of Hlectricity to the Localisation of a Bullet in a
Wound. By W. H. Prescs, F.R.S.

The object of the paper was to show how an electric current can be made an
invisible and immaterial probe to determine the locality of a bullet in a wound
without touching the human body. It was an application of Hughes’ Induction
Balance, and it had been tentatively used by Professor Graham Bell upon the
President of the United States. One pair of coils was made movable, and was
used for exploring the body, so as to bring the bullet in the line of the axis of the
coils, the depth of the bullet being determined by a second similar bullet moved in
the axis of the fixed coils until equilibrium is obtained. It was sensitive to a
depth of five inches,

8. On some of Bell and Tainter’s recent Researches and their Consequences.
By W. Lant Carpenter, B.A., F.C.8.

9. On the Electric Conductivity and Dichroic Absorption of Tourmaline.
By Professor Sinyanus P. Tuompson, B.A., D.Sc.

Tourmaline possesses electric conductivity differing in different directions, and,
according to the author’s experiments, conducts better across the optic and crystallo-
graphic axis than along it. Tourmaline also possesses the optical property of
dichroism, being more opaque, in general, along the axis than across it, equal thick-
nesses of crystal being considered, and absorbing the ordinary ray more than the ex-
traordinary ; the different rays being unequally absorbed, giving therefore different
tints in the two directions.

In the August number of the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ the author has treated
the question of opacity of tourmaline by the aid of Maxwell’s electromagnetic
theory of light, and has re-written Maxwell's equations for the particular case of
crystalline media in which p, the magnetic inductive capacity, K the dielectric
capacity, C the volume coefficient of electric conductivity, and V the velocity of
propagation of a displacement differed in different directions. He deduces therefrom
that uniaxial crystals possessing maximum conductivity along the optic axis will
absorb the extraordinary ray more than the ordinary; while those possessing
maximum conductivity across the axis will absorb the ordinary ray more than the
extraordinary. The former is the case in positive crystals such as smoky quartz
and lommellite (magnesic platinocyanide): the latter is the case in tourmaline.
Maxwell’s equations lead to the following formula for the relative intensity of the
ordinary and extraordinary rays

1
Ty? ive — #20 _Vo
I, = —4,0,V,

MM 2

532 REPORT—1881.

where p,C, V, refer to displacements parallel to the axis; »,C,V, to displacements at
right angles to the axis.

In dispersive media the values of V are greater for red rays than for violet
waves. Hence in substances for which the axial conductivity of a medium is a
maximum, the ditference in the values of V for different rays will have less influence
on the value of the exponential which represents the intensity of transmission of
displacements parallel to that axis than on the value of the exponential which re-
presents the intensity of transmission of displacements perpendicular to that axis.
Hence in positive crystals (smoky quartz, lomellite, &c.) the dichroism takes the
form of greater opacity to red than to violet rays, in the ordinary ray relatively to
the extraordinary ray. In tourmaline and negative crystals, on the other hand,
the opacity is greater for red than for violet in the extraordinary ray, and less for
the ordinary ray. The author exhibited several specimens of coloured tourmaline
cut into cubes, all of which were more opaque along the axis than across it ; and in
all of which the tint, as viewed along the axis, was browner than across the axis,
showing in that direction an increased absorption of violet, and blue, and green rays.

The author also exhibited specimens of lomellite showing maximum opacity
and maximum absorption of blue rays in a direction perpendicular to the axis. A
further consequence of the theory is, that in substances in which the electric conduc-
tivity has different values along three axes there will be érichroism.

It also follows that dichroism is a general property of all coloured crystals in
which the electric conductivities are unequal in different directions.

In conclusion it was pointed out that a mechanico-optical illustration of the
behaviour of positive and negative crystals can be made as follows. A positive
crystal may be represented by placing metal wires vertically in a hollow cube of
glass filled with jelly or Canada balsam; while a negative crystal may be repre-
sented by horizontal layers of wire gauze fixed in a similar cube. The former
conducts electricity best along a vertical axis, and is more transparent along than
across that axis. The latter conducts electricity better across the axis than along
it, and is more opaque to light along the axis than across it, as tourmaline is.

10. On the arrangement of Cometic Perihelia with reference to the Sun’s
march in space. By Henry Murrueap, M.D.

The author exhibited and described a diagram on which the arrangement of
cometic perihelia had been laid down. This has been engraved, and the author’s
speculations on the mode of occurrence set forth in the ‘ Proceedings of the Philo-
sophical Society of Glasgow,’ vol. xiii. p. 43.

MATHEMATICAL DEPARTMENT.

1. Second Report of the Committee appointed for the calculation of Tables of
the Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms.—See Reports, p. 5.

2. Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables—See Reports p. 303.

3. Report on Recent Progress in Hydrodynamics.—Part 1.
By W. M. Hicks, M.A.—See Reports, p. 57.

4, Sur un critérium de Steiner relatif & la théorie des sections coniques.
Par M. Hatpnen.

On détermine une conique, dans un plan, par trois de ses points et par son
centre, et l’on demande de distinguer les cas ou cette conique est une ellipse de ceux
ou cette conique est une hyperbole.

Pour répondre 4 cette question élémentaire, Steiner a donné, sans démonstration,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 533

un trés-élégant critérium' que je vais rappeler ici. J’en indiquerai briévement
une démonstration. J’ajouterai, pour le cas ou la conique est une hyperbole, un
critérium permettant de distinguer le mode de répartition des trois points donnés
entre les deux branches de la courbe.

Le probléme, qui consiste 4 déterminer une section conique par trois de ses
points et par son centre, n’admet qu'une solution. Le changement du genre de la
courbe, quand les données restent réelles, ce qu’on suppose, ne peut done avoir lieu
au moyen d’un passage par l’imaginaire. Le centre étant donné, le changement ne
peut avoir lieu non plus au moyen du passage par le genre parabole, sans que la
courbe ne dégénére en deux droites paralléles. Imaginons donc les trois points
donnés comme fixes et le centre comme mobile ; envisageons le lieu que doit parcourir
ce centre pour que la conique dégénéve de la sorte: ce lieu séparera sur le plan les
régions des centres des ellipses et les régions des centres des hyperboles. Or ce lieu se
compose des trois droites menées par les milieux des cétés du triangle formé par les

oints donnés. II sutlit d'un instant d’attention pour conclure de la le critérium de
teiner, que voici:

Soient a, b,c les trois points donnés ; soient a’, b’, c’ les milieux des droites be, ca,
ab respectivement. Les drottes b’c’, c’a’, a’b’ partagent le plan en sept régions.
Trois de ces régions contiennent les points a,b,c. Ce sont les régions ot se trouvent

les centres des hyperboles passant par a,b,c. Dans les quatre autres se trouvent les
centres des ellipses.

Une demonstration analogue s‘applique au critérium que j’ajoute maintenant :

Pour que les trois points a, b,c soient sur une seule et méme branche dhyperbole,
al faut et uw suffit que le centre soit placé dans un des angles opposés par le sominet &
ceux du triangle a, b,c.

Si le centre est placé a Vintérieur du triangle ab’ c’, le point a est sur wne branche
hyperbole, les points b, c, sur Vautre. Si, de méme, le centre est placé a Vintérieur
@un des triangles ba’ ou ca’b’, le point b, dans le premier cas, le point c, dans le
second; sont sur une branche, les dewx autres sur l'autre branche.

Enfin, si le centre est placé entre un cété du triangle abc et la paralléle a ce cété,
extérievrement @ailleurs au triangle a b c, les deux points situés sur le cdté dont il s'agit
sont sur une méme branche, et le troisiéme point sur l'autre branche.

La figure suivante permet de résumer aisément ces divers résultats, Les
régions des centres des ellipses sont figurées par des hachures. Dans les régions
des centres des hyperboles, la répartition des points entre les branches est figurée
ainsi: le symbole a/be signifie que @ est sur une branche, b,¢ sur V’autre, et le
symbole abe signifie que les trois points sont sur une méme branche.

Le critérium de Steiner et celui que je viens d’y ajouter s’appliquent sans
modification au probléme de la détermination d’une conique par son centre et
trois de ses tangentes. Pour faire cette application, il suffira de remplacer, dans
ce qui précéde, les droites bc, ca, ab par les trois tangentesdonnées. La démonstra-
tion se fait aussi aisément et par des procédés analogues.

1 Démontré récemment par M. Hunyadi dans le Journal fiir die reine und
angewandte Mathematik, vol. xci. p. 248.

534 REPORT—1881.

5. Some new Theorems on Curves of double Curvature.
By Professor Sturm.—See Reports, p. 440.

6. On Congruencies of the Second Order and Second Class.
By Dr. T. Ancuer Hirst, F.R.S.

7. Sur les faisceaua de forme biquadratique binaire ayant une méme
Jacobienne. Par Cyparissos STEPHANOS,

8. On a Diagram connected with the Transformation of Elliptic Functions.
By Professor Cayiry, F.R.S.

The diagram relates to a known theorem, and is constructed as follows. Con-
sider the infinite half-plane y= + ; draw in it, centre the origin and radius unity,
a semicircle; and draw the infinite half-lines x= —}3, and +=}; then we havea
region included between the lines, but exterior to the semicircle. The region in
question may be regarded as a curvilinear triangle, with the angles 60°, 60°, and 0°.
The region may be moved parallel to itself in the direction of the axis of x, through
the distance 1; say this is a ‘displacement’; or we may take the ‘image’ of the
region in regard to the semicircle. Performing any number of times, and in any
order, these two operations of making the displacement and of taking the image,
we obtain a new region, which is alwaysa curvilinear triangle (bounded by circular
ares) and haying the angles 60°, 60°, 0°; and the theorem is that the whole series
of the new regions thus obtained completely covers, without interstices or over-
lapping, the infinite half-plane. The number of regions is infinite, and the size of
the successive regions diminishes very rapidly. The diagram was a coloured one,
exhibiting the regions obtained by a few of the successive operations.

The analytical theorem is that the whole series of transformations, a into
awa+B
yortd’

where a, 8, y, 8 are integers such that ad—By=1, can be obtained by

él ays : : : 1
combination of the transformations » into + 1 and @ into——,
@

9, A partial Differential Equation connected with the simplest ease of
Abel’s Theorem. By Professor Cay.ey, F.R.S.

Consider a given cubic curve cut by a line in the points (21, ¥,), (2, Yo)s
(#5) ys) ; taking the first and second points at pleasure, these determine uniquely
the third point. Analytically , the equation of the curve determines y,; as a
function of x,, and y, asa function'of 2,: writing in the equation 2, = Aa, + (1—-A)z,
Ys=AY, + (1—A) Yo, we have A by a simple equation, and thence #,; viz. 2, is
found as a function of 2, 2,, and of the nine constants of the equation. Hence
forming the derived equations (in regard to 2,, xv.) of the first, second, and third
orders, we have (1+2+8+4 =) 10 equations from which to eliminate the 9
constants; 2, considered as a function of «,, x, thus satisfies a partial differential
equation of the third order, independent of the particular cubic curve.

To obtain this equation it is only necessary to observe that we have, by Abel’s
theorem : age

diy, At, | d's _

ge a oe |
where X, is a given function of 2, and y,, that is of «,; and X,, X; are the like
functions of 2, and xr, respectively. Hence, considering x, as a function of 2, «,
we have

’

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 535

and consequently

dv, dx, _X,,

Ga dr, "| Xe
where «,, 2, are functions of 2,, 2, respectively: hence taking the logarithm and
differentiating successively with regard to «, and 2, we have

d a di, , dX,\ _
dx, dx, log (a. , z) %

which is the required partial differential equation of the third order.

This differential equation has a simple geometrical signification. Consider
three consecutive positions of the line meeting the cubic curve in the points 1, 2,3;
, 2’, 3’; 1”, 2”, 3” respectively: gua equation of the third order, the equation
should in effect determine 3’ by means of the other points, And, in fact, the three
positions of the line constitute a cubic curve; the nine points are thus the inter-
sections of two cubic curves, or, say, they are an ‘ennead’ of points; and any eight
of the points thus determine uniquely the ninth point.

10. On the Differential Equations satisfied by the Modular Equations,
By Professor H. J. S. Smrrx, M.A., F.R.S.

11. On the q-Series in Elliptic Functions.
By J. W. U. Guatsuer, M.A., F.RS.

12. On the Elucidation of a Question in Kinematics by the aid of Non-
Euclidian Space. By Rosurt 8. Batt, LL.D., F.R.S.
It is well known that the family of quadric surfaces denoted by the equation—
(a—k) x? + (b—k) y? + (e—k) 2 + (a—h) (b—k) (c-k) =0
denotes the screws about which a body with freedom of the third order can twist.
The parameter & is the pitch.

It is easily shown that this-family of surfaces is inscribed in a common tetra-

hedyon of which the faces are the imaginary planes denoted by—

Vb—6 2+ fe—ayt Ja—b 2+ V/b—c J/e—a./a—b=0
and the three other expressions which can be produced by the indeterminateness of
the signs of the radicals.

Each of these surfaces also passes through the four points in which the two
cones—

v+y?+2+0
ax? + by? + cz# =0
are cut by the plane at infinity. These points lie one by one on each of the four
faces of the tetrahedron.

It occurred to me that these properties of the system of surfaces were probably
only the ‘ survivals’ of a more interesting geometrical system in non-euclidian space.
These anticipations have been fulfilled, and the result is to give a complete geo-
metrical theory of the statics and kinematics of a rigid body with three degrees of
freedom in non-euclidian space.

The most general motion of a body is produced by rotations around a pair of
lines which are conjugate polars with regard to the absolute. For convenience I
denote these rotations by » cos a and sina. The total amplitude of the motion
is w, while its pitch is denoted by a. A pair of conjugate polars with their asso-
ciated a form in non-euclidian space the analogous conception to a screw in ordinary

ace.
The first fale in the theory is to find the condition that a twist about one screw
shall do no work against a wrench on another screw.

Let A and A’ be the conjugate polars forming the first screw whose pitch is a,

536 REPORT—1881.

and let B and B’ be the conjugate polars of the second with the pitch 8B. A pair
of common transyersals can be drawn across the four lines A A’ B B’; these are
the common perpendiculars to A and B; let their lengths be 2 and y.
Then the condition of which we are in search is,
cos x cos y sin (a+) —sin z sin y cos (a—f) =0.

If a system has freedom of the third order, there must be a doubly infinite
system of screws about which it can twist; among these let us take three of pitches
a, viz. A, A’ and B, B’, and C C’.. Draw a transversal X across A, B, C, then 2’
will intersect A’, B’, 0’. Attribute to x a pitch—a, then « will be neutral to
A,B,C. Similarly y and z may be drawn across A, B, C. It is obvious that any
screw neutral to 2, y, z, must belong to the required three-system. Hence it
follows that all the generators of the hyperboloid A BC, and of the same system
as A, B, C, must belong to the three-system, and thus we have the result that—

All the, screws of given pitch belonging to a three-system lie on two quadrics
which are reciprocal polars with regard to the absolute. Each screw is made up of a
generator on one quadric, and its conjugate polar on the other.

Draw a common tangent plane to the absolute, and the two reciprocal quadrics _
Sand S’. Let T be the point in which this plane meets the absolute. It is obvious.
T must lie on S and § , and that two rays through T in the tangent plane must be
a pair of conjugate polars forming a screw with the given pitch. Let T L and
T M be the two generators of the absolute through T, then any pair of lines through
T which formed an harmonic pencil with T L and T M would be a pair of conju-
gate polars. The pitch of the screw of the system whose conjugate polars pass
through T is therefore ambiguous, and consequently every different pair of
hyperboloids for each different pitch must touch this tangent plane and pass
through M, T.

As there can be eight tangent planes to the absolute and a pair of reciprocal

uadrics, so it follows that every pair of quadrics must touch these planes and pass
through the eight points of contact. We thus have the one degree of freedom left
to the quadrics corresponding to the different varieties of pitch. In ordinary space
these planes reduce to the four already mentioned.

18. On a Theorem relating to the Description of Areas. By Wittttam
Wootsry Jounson, Professor of Mathematics in the Naval Academy,
Annapolis, U.S.

Let a straight line AB move in any manner in a plane, and let p, and p,
represent the distances of the extremities A and B from the point about which the
line is for the instant rotating ; then, @ denoting the line’s inclination to any fixed
line, the area swept over by the line is denoted by

> | (p2° —p,’) dp = [es 5 zs (P2— Px) dp.

In this expression the direction AB is regarded as the positive direction, and
thus an area which passes from the left to the right side of AB is positively gene-
rated, while an area which passes from the right to the left side of AB is
negatively generated. It is easily seen that, with this interpretation, the expression
represents the area swept over by AB whatever be the signs of p, and p, ; and
consequently if 7 denotes the length of AB and p,, the distance of its middle point
from the centre of rotation at the instant, the expression for the area is

|. ag.

Now let A and B describe two closed curves (whose areas may be denoted by A
and B) returning simultaneously to their original position; and let the perimeters
of these curves be described in the positive direction. Then every point in the
area A, and not in the area B, will pass at least once from left to right under the
line AB, and in all cases once more in that direction than in the opposite direction.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 537

Hence the area included in A and not in B will be positively generated. In like
manner the area included in B and not in A will be negatively generated, while
the area common to A and B, or exterior to A and B, will disappear from the
integral. We therefore have

B-A=| ton dd,

in which the area B or A is to be regarded as negative if its perimeter is described
in the negative direction. .When BA is a line of fixed length, let /=20, then

B-A=2b | Pmap . : ; 2 (GE

2. This theorem may be employed in the explanation of Amsler’s Planimeter ;
for let OA =a be the bar which rotates about the fixed point O, and let AB= 2b
be the bar carrying the recording wheel, situated, say, at the distance c from its
middle point (see figure). Then, s denoting the distance recorded by the wheel when
B describes the perimeter of a closed curye,

8 -| (9 +e)dp -| Pmad + 2kre,

in which & denotes the number of revolutions made by the bar AB. Hence
from (1)
B—A = 26s —4krbe.

In the use of the instrument two cases arise. First, O
may be exterior to the area B; in this case k=0, and
since the point A reciprocates over an arc of a circle,
A=0, and we have

B=2bs.

Secondly, O may be within the area B, in which case
A =ra* and k=1, hence
B= 26s + (a? —4bc).

The constant which is added to 26s in this case is the area of the circle whose
radius is OB, when the instrument is in such a position that the line joining O
with the wheel is perpendicular to AB; for OB? =a?—(b+c)?+(b—c)?; and this
should be the case, for if B describe this circle s is evidently =0.

3. The theorem (1) may be employed also to express the area described by any
point of the line AB in terms of the areas of A and B. Thus, if s denotes the
distance recorded by a wheel situated at the middle point of AB,

B—A =2bs 2 whe. en

Let C be a point at a distance c from the middle point of AB. The length of
AC is 6+c, and the distance of its middle point from the middle point of AB
is—4 (b—c); therefore the distance recorded by a wheel situated at the former
point would be

8’ =8s—kr(b—-c),
(& denoting as before the number of revolutions of AB), and we have
C—A=(b+c)s’=(b+c) s—kn (0? —c’) . » (8).
Eliminating s by medns of (2),

_b-e b+e i 2 2
O=- At=, B ier (b? —c?) wi, CMe tees Cy

or, if 26=/ and pte m, we have for the area described by the point which cuts

AB in the ratio m:n CPR! z
204 +B» ,.kemn

m+n (m+n)?

538 REPORT—1881.

As a special case of (4), if C is the middle point of AB and describes a circle
whose radius is a, while AB revolves uniformly, the areas A and B will be equal
epitrochoids, and (4) becomes

C=nra* =A —krb’,
A=n (a +kb*),
in which a is the sum of the radii of the fixed and rolling circles, } is the distance

of the generating point from the centre of the rolling circle, and 4—1 is the
number of the branches of the epitrochoid.

whence

14. On the Equation of the Multiplier in the Theory of Elliptic Transforma-
tion. By Professor H. J. S. Surrn, M.A., F.R.S.

15. On a Linear relation between two Quadratic Surds. By Professor
H. J. 8. Surra, M.A., F.R.S.

16. On a Class of Binodal Quartics. By Professor R. W. Geness, M.A.

If A B be third diagonal of a quadrilateral Q, then any quartic with nodes at
A, B, and circumscribing Q, has the following properties :—

1°. If P be any point on the curve, and A P, B P meet the curve again at Q, R,
then B Q, A R intersect on the curve; or, we may state it thus, if A P Q be any

secant, and B P, B Q meet the curve again in R, 8, then RS passes through A,
2°, If A P Q turn round A, then B P, B Q belong to a fixed involution.
The equation to the curve in biangular co-ordinates is

(a,2° + bx + ¢,)y? + (a0? + bx + C2)y + (agr* + bgx +05) =O
With the condition
Belo G0)
Ay, On, Cy

Ag, bg, Cg

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On a Class of Differential Equations. By Professor HALPHEN.

2. On the Aspects of Points in a Plane. By Professor HaLPHEn.

3. On a Connection between Homographies in a Straight Line and Points
in @ Space. By Ovparissos SrepHanos.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 539

4. On Involutional (11) Correspondence. By Professor GENESE, M.A.

It is here proposed to say that there is an involutional (1, 1) correspondence be-
tween two points whose co-ordinates (say, areal) are xv: y:2,a: 8: y whenif

wryi2 iif, (8,7): (a,B8,y):f(8,y);
a:Biyifih(GyDiA@yD) i hoy:

Ty Fo fg Tenoting three distinct homogeneous functions.

‘The following method gives five solutions of the problem suggested. Consider
the equations

then

Bus) ae Fa at.) Gy
F, (a, B, Y) F, (a, 8, y)
Bienes Ea iy S) 5 (a)
F, (a, B, Y) 7 F, (a, B, )

It is clear that x: y:2z!:a:8:yisone solution. If then F,,F,, F,, F, be so
chosen that (1) and (2) admit of only one other common solution contamng a, B, y
that solution will by symmetry determine an involutional (1, 1) correspondence.

Let C™, C® denote the loci represented by

Ey, 2)=y Fa (a, y, 2)... (8)
Bs (t, y, 2) =p Fy (wy #) «2 ee (4)
of the mth and nth degrees respectively.
a) ‘Or y, » being chosen to make C™ C® intersect at a, 8, y, we have the curves
, (2).
Now C™, C* intersect in mn points; for the solution of our problem p=mn—2
of these must be fixed points. Also O™, CO" pass through m? and n? fixed points

respectively: C™ is determined by a 3) points, &e,
Five solutions are obtained:—

n=1, m=2, p=0) ... A,

n=1, m=3, pai ite, 7 nA

n=2, m=3, p=4J ... A,

n=2, m=2, p=2| ... B,

Nn=28, yaa pa Tad eee

Interpretations
A, F,=0, F,=0 any two conics F,=0, F,=0 any two straight lines (not
intersecting in a point common to F, =0, F, =0)
A,. F,=0,F,=0 any two straight lines F,=0, F,=0 two cubics passing
through the intersection of F, =0, F, =0
A ;. F,=0, F,=0 any two conics F, =0, F,=0, two cubics passing through
the points common to F, =0, F,=0.
B, F,=0, F,=0, F,=0, F,=0 represent conics ; but two of the points of in-
tersection of F, =0, F,=0 must coincide with two on F, =0, F,=0.
B,. F,=0,F,=0, F, =0, F, =0 represent cubics having seven points common.
Note 1.
If, having obtained a correspondence, we put therein #:y:2::a:8: y, we
obtain the locus of points at which the lines (1), (2) touch.

Note 2.
The analysis of A, suggested the following algebraical exercise:—

If x Yt a — fn+1 (a, B, y) + fn (a, B; Y)

a 8 Y Fn +2 (4,8, y) — n+1(4,B; y)

where fr, fn+3)fn+2 are any homogeneous functions of n, n+1, +2 dimensions
respectively ; then will
} a

tee Aol Pa a Sati (2, y, 2) +fn (x, Y; 2)
v y & Fate (2, Y,%) —fats yy, 2)

540 REPORT—1881.

5. On the Velocity Function of a Liquid due to the Motion of Cylinders and’
Surfaces of Revolution. By A. G. GREENHILL.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—

PHYSICAL DEPARTMENT.
1. Report of the Committee on Meteoric Dust.—See Reports, p. 88.

2. Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations in the English Channel
and the North Sea.—See Reports, p. 160.

3. Report of the Committee on Underground Temperature.
See Reports, p. 90.

4, Report of the Committee on the Calculation of Sun-heat Coefficients.
See Reports, p. 89.

5. Observations of Atmospheric Electricity at the Kew Observatory during
1880. By G. M. Wuirexe, B.Sc., F.R.A.S.—See Reports, p. 443.

6. On a Universal Sunshine Recorder Stand. By G. M. Wuuppte,
B.Sc., F.R.AS.

A description was given of a new form of card-supporter for the Campbell Sun-
shine Recorder, constructed by Mr. L. P. Casella at the suggestion of the author and
exhibited to the Section, It consists of a light frame capable of helding the slip of
cardboard to be burned by the sun in any desired position. It is arranged so
as to receive ordinary parallel strips of card at all times of the year, and to allow of
the instrument being employed on any part of the earth’s surface without detriment
to its efficiency.

The card-holders themselves are movable, so as to permit of the cards being
changed indoors or dried if wet, before removal, thereby avoiding tearing or mutila-
tion of the record in the operation. The instrument is also furnished with ap-
pliances for placing the card correctly in position to receive the sun’s image.

7. On the Calibration of Mercurial Thermometers by Bessel’s Method. By
Professors T. HE. Toorpn, Ph.D., F.R.S., and A. W. Riicxer, M.A.

The authors have recently had occasion to calibrate with great care a number
of mercurial thermometers.

The method adopted was Bessel’s, as modified by Arthur von Cittingen (‘ Ueber
die Correction der Thermometer, A. yon (ittingen. Dorpat, 1865.)

In this there appear to be two weak points, viz., (1) the concentration of the
observations on the central part of the scale, (2) the uncertainty as to the best
method of uniting the two curves obtained respectively from the ‘ Hauptpunkte,”
and the other points at which observations are made. These were in part
strengthened by introducing the additional measures (used by Arthur yon (Ettingen
in the second approximation only) in the first approximation and by giving to the
‘ Hauptpunkte’ a higher relative value than is assigned to them by von (Ettingen.
Under these conditions the method, though very laborious, is capable of giving
excellent results.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 541

Thus in the case of six thermometers, on three of which the measurements
necessary for the calibrations were made at Kew, and on three at the Owens College,
by Messrs. G. Baker and M. Hirakoa respectively, the difference between any one
measurement of the length of a mercurial thread expressed in'terms of the corrected
scale and the mean length of that thread equals or exceeds 0-01°C. (¢.e. about 0°] m.m.)
in eleven only out of a total of &80 measurements.

The Kew thermometers had been calibrated, as is usual at that observatory, by
Welsh’s method (‘ Rep. Brit. Ass.,’ 1853, p. 34). Mr. G. Baker afterwards made,
in accordance with the author’s instructions, the measurements necessary for the
application of Bessel’s method, the calculation being undertaken by the authors.

It was a matter of some interest to determine in this case the magnitude of the
errors of the original calibration.

Welsh’s method is undoubtedly open to the objection that the errors are addi-
‘tive and Von (Kttingen (doc. cit. p. 49) seems to consider that itmust always be
necessary, for accurate work, to correct further a thermometer calibrated by it.

The three thermometers were numbered 561-2-3, they read from 11:5° to 29°C.,
from 19°5° to 68°, and from 51° to 107° respectively. The average lengths of a
‘degree were 129 m.m., 11°2 m.m., and 9°5 m.m. respectively. The application of
Bessel’s method to the first was made by 110 measurements of the mercurial threads,
‘to the second by 163, and to the third by 185.

The original calibraticn was so accurate that the second approximation of
Bessel’s method was unnecessary in two cases, and was only partly carried out in
the third.

The maximum positive and negative corrections were in the case of

Th, 561 +0-004°C. and —0-004° 0,
» 562 +0°012° , —0-005°
» 563 +0008 4, —0-011°

As will be seen from the above description of the thermometers, the larger of
these quantities are about equal to the limit of certainty in reading.

In no case would the calibration error in the determination of a difference of
‘temperature have amounted to 002°C. It may therefore be concluded that Welsh’s
method, as applied at Kew to selected tubes, and with-a measuring instrument of
great accuracy, is capable of giving first-rate results. .The errors which remain
when it has been applied are so small that they may- be neglected in all cases
but those where the thermometers are to be used under the most favourable con-
‘ditions, ¢.e. with the stem at the same temperature as the bulb, &c.

This satisfactory conclusion is confirmed by the fact that Professor Rowland
has recently stated that the calibration of the Kew thermometer used by him in his
research on the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat was praetically perfect.

8. On the General Coincidence between Sun-spot Activity and Terrestrial
Magnetic Disturbance. By the Rev. F. Howtert, F.R.A.S.

The object of this paper was to inquire how far solar activity, more especially
as regards sun-spots, is wont to be accompanied by terrestrial magnetic disturbances,
as recorded by the automatic magnetic declination curves at Kew and Greenwich.

The data for such an investigation were furnished by comparisons instituted
between the more striking instances of sun-spots gathered out of a long series of
solar observations carried on by Mr. Howlett from 1859 to the present epoch, and
the synchronous conditions of the magnetic curves at the observatories above men-
tioned. The telescopic drawings of the spots were obtained with an achromatic of
three inches’ aperture, by Dollond, and of forty-eight ' _zhes’ focal distance, project-
ing the sun’s image on a large white screen in a darkened chamber.

; By employing a Huygenian eyepiece magnifying 120 linear, and placing the
screen at the distance of five feet, two inches from the eyepiece, a beautiful image
of the sun was obtained, five feet four inches in diameter, and of which every inch
corresponded to just 30” of the celestial arc.

Not only were the measurements of all the solar phenomena rendered thereby

542 REPORT—1881.

exceedingly easy, but the conditions of amplification, illumination, and definition
of details were combined in about the best possible manner for the observer's
urpose, which was to maintain an accurate record of the solar spots, and very
equently of the faculz also, on a large scale; these have been collected into five
volumes, and presented to the Royal Astronomical Society.

The comparisons commence with the very remarkable and cyclonic group of
August and September, 1859, which was uniquely distinguished (so far as observa-
tions have hitherto gone) by the remarkable outburst of intense white light, far
brighter than the photosphere itself, which fortunately was witnessed on the fore-
noon of September 1, by the late Messrs. Carrington and Hodgson, but which Mr.
Howlett missed seeing by only a few minutes, having completed his drawings, and
so left the telescope.

Other striking and, if they may be so termed, crucial groups, were compared
with the magnetic records—very notably the great spot of October, 1865, en-
gravings of which may be found in the volume of the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal
Astronomical Society’ for the year last mentioned ; as also the prodigious groups of
February, 1870, which were observed and drawn on the occasion of their reappear-
ance, by revolution, in the three consecutive months of February, March, and April
of that year; and on the last of which months the total displacement, at one and the
same time, of the solar photosphere—or, in other words, the total area occupied by
the sun-spots—was no less than 5,000,200,000,000 square miles, or about twenty-.
seven times that of the superficies of the earth !

So again, in August and September, 1870, immense groups, occupying from
4,000,000,000 to 5,000,000,000 square miles, were observed to make two consecutive
revolutions—[on the latter of which two occasions a beautifully enlarged photo-
graph of the sun, twenty-four inches in diameter, was made by Mr. Titterton, of Ely,
under the auspices of the late Canon Selwyn, and was exhibited to Section A.]
On all these occasions great magnetic disturbances, amounting often to absolute
magnetic storms, were unequivocally manifested ; and, in fact, out of twenty-four
comparisons instituted, the following is the summary of results; as showing the
coincidence of extensive solar activity and synchronous magnetic disturbance :—

Intensely : ; ; . F . 6
Very decidedly = ° : : ;
Decidedly c . : : 3
Moderately : : . : .
Negatively, no spots, no storms during
the year 1879
Questionable . ; c : 5

3
H 21 affirmative
1

sary

Contradictory . . - - : ree

3 negative

24

Thus, then, from the data collected, it would certainly appear that, not only on
the occasion of large groups of spots occurring at the periods of maximum, but also:
often on the occasion of any other marked outbursts of spots, there will generally
be found to be a corresponding amount of terrestrial magnetic disturbance. But
still, from an impartial and careful comparison of the data appealed to, it is clear that.
the magnetic disturbances were manifested in a variety of ways, not only as regards
the extent—for instance, of the excursions of the needle, the rapidity of the oscilla-
tions, or the persistency of the more moderate disturbances,—but also the varying
intervals of time at which the disturbances take place, after the commencement of
the observed solar outbursts.

With respect, lastly, to other reactionary influences, the Director of the Kew
Observatory states that, on the occasion of the perihelion passage of the Comet ,.
1881, on the 16th day of June last, the terrestrial magnetic curves were unusually’
quiescent.

9. On Magnetic Disturbances and Harth-currents. By Professor W.

Grytus Apams, F.R.S.—See Reports, p. 463.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 543

10, On the Arrestation of Infusorial Life by Solar Light. By Professor
Joun Tynpau, F.R.S.—See Reports, p. 450.

11. On a new Integrating Anemometer. By the Rev, J. M. Wisoy, M.A.,
and H. 8. Het Suaw.

The primary object of this instrument is to obtain a record of the total trans-
ference of air over any given spot, in order to be able to arrive ata determination of
the circulation of air on the globe, in a similar way to that in which the circulation
of the water is known to take place. Few results would be so interesting as
a map of the world showing the simultaneously existing air-currents, so as to enable
the average circulation of the whole to be seen ataglance. The existing anemome-
ters only give the resultant after considerable labour in calculation, by taking
the average direction and velocity for short "
periods, first by resolving the various com- aga
ponents, then summing and recombining 5—e—
them. The tedious and inaccurate nature
of this process is obvious. Mr. Wilson,
therefore, conceived the idea of having a
pencil moved over a board in the-direction
of, and with a velocity proportional to that
of, the wind, and submitted a sketch of a
plan based. upon this idea to Mr. Shaw,
who has undertaken the complete design
and superintended the construction of the
first instrument, which, however, must be
considered rather in the light of an experi-
mental one. The ordinary cup-anemometer
of Robinson is used to drive a trainof wheels
by means of a central spindle on which is
a worm—and thus ultimately to turn, at a
much reduced speed, a serrated roller, which
gives motion to a horizontal table, and on
this is laid the sheet of paper. The plane
of rotation of the roller is always kept co-
incident with the direction of the wind, by
haying its bearings in a hollow rod which
contains the central one, and which only
turns as the wind changes its direction ;
thus the curve is identical in direction with
the wind. The board and paper are pro-
tected by a sloping wooden roof, which
supports a pillar five feet high, carrying
the cups and direction-vanes. The original
plan was to have the board, which is two
feet square, moving on truly spherical steel
halls, upon a marble slab four feet square. INTEGRATING ANEMOMETER.
The much better Brrangement is now used of (N.B. D isfastened to and supported
a pair of light wrought-iron frames, moving by the frame, and not to the ver-
by means of flanged rollers in directions at ore spindle.)
right angles to each other, the upper on the
lower, and the lower on the marble, kept parallel by having rollers running in the
frame which supports the roof. By this means a movement can be obtained in any
direction whatever without any rotation being able to take place, and the results
obtained during the few days in which the instrument in its completed form has
been at work are very satisfactory. Fig. 2 shows the curves obtained from August
30 to September 3, combined so as to give at a glance the direction and volume of
wind passing over University College, Bristol, during that time. The trace of the

544 ; REPORT—1 881.

‘curve commenced at A and ended at B, and though the rough diagram cannot
pretend to great accuracy, it shows clearly how the wind veered from the N.E. to
the N.W., and the only alterations that are required are in matters of detail.

Mr. Shaw proposes to apply clockwork in a very inexpensive way, so as to cause
marks to be made along the curve at regular intervals of time, and by the intro-
duction of this element, it is evident that the ea
velocity will be given. The total length of wa
the curve is aconvenient measure of the wind-
power at the spot: the marks will show the
velocity at any time, and the resultant length
of the curve gives the direction and amount
of the transference of air at the spot. The
general view of the instrument as it will be N
applied to observatories is shown in Fig. 1.

Here it will be observed the train (A) for
reducing the velocity of the cup’s spindle is

SEPT? 32

SEPT® 2No

SEPT? (sr

placed at the top of the rod instead of the Ww E AUG? ZI8T
bottom, where it is now situated, and thus

the length becomes a matter of small im- s

portance, since the slow motion of the spindle AUG! 307TH

which conveys motion to the serrated roller at A
(B), will ensure the reduction of the friction to

a minimum ; similarly the adoption of the self-acting head at (C) (the velocity ratio
of whose train is 1000) will cause the vertical tube (E, E,) in which is contained
the cup’s spindle to turn with almost the lightest winds—finally the clockwork
for recording intervals of time is placed at (D).

12. On the Isothermals of the British Isles. By AuEx. Bucuay,
MA., F.RS.E.

13. On the Diurnal Period of Hailstorms. By Atnx. Bucuan,
MA, FES.

14. On the Sunspot Period, and Planetary Tides in the Solar Atmosphere.
By ¥. B. Epmonps.

The author directs attention to a development of the planetary hypothesis of
solar disturbance. The tidal disturbing effect of the planets on the sun, aeting at
their mean distances, will be in accordance with the following order: Jupiter
Venus, Mercury, Earth, Saturn, Mars, Uranus, Neptune. The first four of these
are the most influential, and offer six combinations in pairs. Any one of these pairs
may be taken with a third planet. Taking Jupiter as the third planet, the author
considered the combination involving Venus and the Earth, and gave some of the
results already obtained, but reserved the remaining combinations for notice on a
future occasion.

15. Some Laws which regulate the Succession of Mean Temperature and Rain-
fall in the Climate of London. By H. Courrmnay Fox, M.R.C.S.

16. On the Blowing Wells near Northallerton.
By Taomas Fatrtzy, F.R.S.2.

In 1878, Mr. Hutton of Solberge, near Northallerton (33 miles S.), informed
me of a remarkable outflow of gas from a well situated on his estate near his
residence. This current was observed while the barometer was falling. A
chemical analysis of this gas showed it to be common air containing 20-9 per cent.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 545

of oxygen. Conceiving that there must be a large underground cavity com-
municating with the shaft of the well, I thought the phenomena worthy of
investigation, and through Mr. Hutton’s kindness and assistance I was able to
make these experiments,

The out-currents were very powerful and attracted the attention of everyone in
the neighbourhood, and equally powerful in-currents were observed during the
periods of a rising barometer. On descending the shaft of the well 15 yards, the
fissures in the sandstone were observed where these currents passed. Analyses
were made of the sandstone and the water in the well. I then attempted, by
careful readings of the barometer at Solberge, and measurement of the currents, to
obtain, by the application of Boyle’s law, the approximate volume of the cavity.
The readings of the instruments were made by Mr. Hutton.

Experiments were made, first with a Biram’s vane anemometer; afterwards
with very large dry gas-meters. Only those observations could be used where the
barometric change continued so long that the current produced had time to
exhaust itself. The temperatures of the out-currents and of the air were also
noted. Incold weather the out-current was warmer than the outside air.

The anemometer observations were made in July and in December 1879. Of
these, two sets of observations made in July, and two made in December, give an
average result of 10°3 millions of cubic feet as the approximate volume of the
cavity.

The dry gas-meter observations were made in March and April 1880, with
two meters kindly lent by Messrs. Glover & Son, of London, capable of passing
about 3,000 cubic feet per hour.!' Even this capacity was insufficient, and
the experiments were stopped by the meters being thrown out of gear by the force
and rapidity of the current. One set of observations were, however, tolerably
perfect aad complete, and give a capacity of ten millions of cubic feet very nearly,
‘These volumes correspond to a cubic space of about 217 feet.

Caverns are generally found in limestone rocks. Geologists consider that the
magnesian limestone would be here about 400 feet below the surface. The
mearest exposed section is, however, at some distance.

Another blowing well is located at Langton Hall, 5 miles N.W. from Solberge,
both being located on the rising ground separating the valleys of the rivers Wiske
and Swale. In this case also the currents consist of air, and their direction and
volume depend on the changes of the barometer.

Of course the measurements mentioned above cannot give more than a minimum
‘volume for the cavity, if there are any other openings.

The third blowing well I have not yet visited. It is situated on the estate of
Mr. Paver Crow at Ornhams, 2 miles south from Boroughbridge. I have analysed
the water, which is somewhat similar to that of the water at Solberge. The
canes here are very powerful, causing a rushing noise in passing through the
ifissures.

Tn all these cases the currents are extremely sensitive to the changes of the
barometer. I have examined and inquired about other wells in the district, but
these are the only blowing wells I have found. Other wells near Solberge, within
a mile of the blowing well, gave no currents.

17. Some Remarks on Artificial Flight.
By Frup. W. Brearey, Hon. Secretary of the Aeronautical Society.

> The author examined the various fallacies which have been entertained in
ancient and modern times with respect to the flight of birds, and explained some
-of his own experiments during the last six years. With respect to the hollow
bones of birds, and the opinion of many that such an arrangement is intended as a
receptacle for a rarefied gas, he quoted a remark by the author of a paper read by
a member of the Aeronautical Society, that if the whole body of the bird were
filled with the lightest gas or even so much vacuous space, the supporting effect

1 They were coupled, so that one registered the ics, the other the out-current,

1881. NN

546 REPORT—1881.

would be of the slightest value; for supposing that a bird of 2 lbs. weight
displaces ,4 of a cubic foot of air, or about 46 grains in weight only, the buoyancy
imparted to it would really amount to but 4 of 1 per cent. of the weight of the
bird. Besides which the force imparted to the wing of the bird is due to its
weight only, and were it as light as an equal bulk of air it could not fly at all.
The author next alluded to the upward stroke of the wing, and the theory that
in it the feathers separate so as to allow of the air passing through. There is.
really no necessity for such action, because although the wing be rising in order
to repeat the downward stroke, it is all the time pressing against the air with the
whole weight of the bird’s body, and in that act of rising the wing has also a
propelling effect.

He then proceeds to argue that the weight of the bird plays an active part in
its flight. and that this result arises from the action of that portion of the pectoral’
muscle which depresses the wing. So great is the tension of this muscle that it
is highly probable that, in the case of those long-winged and heavy birds which are-
able to fly without apparently moving a feather, the wings are kept extended
against the resistance of the air underneath without any voluntary effort of the:
bird. Its weight pressing upon the air causes this muscle to expand in raising
the wing, and aids in the effect of the downward stroke by its contraction.
The author exhibited a model with wings 4 feet from tip to tip and 3 feet 2 inches
from head to tail. The wings are actuated by M. Renaud’s plan of strands of india-
rubber previously put into a state of tension, which in unwinding create a flap-
ping of the wings. By an india-rubber cord attached to the under part of the
wing and passing under the shaft to which the mechanism is attached, an equi--
librium between the two forces is attained ; that is to say, the india-rubber strands
are wound up to that extent that the wings in rising stretch the india-rubber:
cord—or, as the author calls it, the pectoral cord—until one force neutralises the
other; so that, held in the hand, there is no action. When liberated, and com--
mitted to the pressure of the air underneath the wings, the weight of the model
causes the wings to be elevated, and therefore stretches the pectoral cord, which
in its contraction assists the power derived from the twisted rubber in depressing
the wings against the weight of the model. During this action the flight is
deliberate and well-sustained for 40 feet or more.

As, over and above this condition of equilibrium, there is plenty of reserve:
power, the flight of the model is capable of great extension.

The author argues from this that the power required to produce flight has:
been much exaggerated, and that weight is an absolute necessity. He shows
various forms of flight, but he believes that there can be nothing superior to the
reciprocating wing-action which propels and supports at the same time. He re-
commends, however, trial of an apparatus which, from his experiments, promises
success. Is it possible, he asks, to control some arrangement in the nature of a
parachute by altering its form and making it longitudinal—eiving it, in fact, a
head and a tail. Such an apparatus, made by himself, was liberated from a balloon:
which rose from Woolwich Arsenal, and it travelled back, by the aid of gravity
alone, to the Arsenal—of course against the breeze which wafted away the balloon
-—a distance of half a mile.

He areues from this that if the fabric can be manipulated so that propulsion
also can be imparted to it, then some encouraging results would be likely to
follow. He showed a model of large size upon this principle, and how, by the-
action of the wing-arms, a wave is transmitted from head to tail along a loose:
surface in shape like a kite. This loose surface necessarily requires a fall before it
can be inflated by the air underneath. The wave-motion is then found adequate
to its propulsion. An estimate of the power required to propel and support
100 lbs. weight in the air has been made from the data given from this model,
which weighs with added lead 23 lbs., and it is believed that 4 h.p. will be required
for each 100 lbs.

Having arranged about 300 square feet of a suitable fabric, the author pro-
poses that, to effect a start, the apparatus, having a flat-bottomed carriage, shall be:
placed upon a wheeled platform or truck, the two front being higher than the

—————

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 547

hind wheels, so that upon running down the side of a hill upon a tramway the
qpperaius shall preserve a horizontal position. That, being weighted to ascertain
the balance, which can only be effected by repeated trial, the truck be liberated.
The effect will be to inflate the fabric into a parachute—to elevate the wing-arms
and stretch the pectoral cord, and if properly balanced the machine will descend
safely in the direction of its head.

If it be found that a weight equal to that of a man can be brought to the
ground safely, then might come the manual test, and his capacity to depress the
wing-arms so as to keep up an undulation.

18. On the desirability of observiny Occultation of Stars, of the first and other
bright magnitudes, from places where they are to be seen near th
horizon. By H.S. Wiuttams, M.A., F.R.A.S. ;

MATHEMATICAL DEPARTMENT.

1. Sur la représentation des rotations autour d’un point par des points de
espace. By Cyparissos STEPHANOS.

2. On the Polar Planes of a point with respect to four Quadric Surfaces.
By W. Srorriswoove, M.A., Pres. B.S.

3. On the Extension of the Theory of Screws to the Dynamics of any ma-
terial system. By Rosert 8S, Bau, LL.D., F.R.S., Royal Astronomer

of Ireland.

A mechanical system of any number of rigid pieces, anyhow connected, is dis-
placed to an indefinitely close position. This displacement could have been pro-
duced by giving to each piece a twist of definite amplitude about a given screw.
We thus have a series of primary screws equal in number to the pieces of the
system. If the twists on any two consecutive screws be compounded they will
form a twist on a third screw, which we may speak of as being intermediate. The
whole series of screws primary and intermediate is called a screw-chain and, com-
bined with a single amplitude or metric element, expresses a displacement of
the system.

If the system have but one degree of freedom, then the only possible movements
are those of twisting on one screw-chain. If the system be capable of displace-
ment about a second screw-chain it must necessarily be capable of displacement
about a singly infinite number of other chains, which can be simply constructed,
when a third chain has been found. The result of the first twist and the second
twist could have been directly obtained by a third twist. We thus have three
screws corresponding to each element. These sets of three are each co-cylindroidal.
We thus have a number of cylindroids equal to the number of elements of the
system. To find another screw-chain about which the system can twist, select any
screw on one of the cylindroids, and a homographic screw on each of the others ;
this will give the primary screws. ach set of three intermediate screws are also
co-cylindroidal, and the required intermediate screws are also a homographic
system.

; In the case of a system capable of twisting about three arbitrary screw-chains,
it can be shown that the determination of subsequent chains can be obtained by
the aid of point homographies in planes, With freedom of the fourth order the
point homographies of spaces may be used. For higher orders of freedom concep-
tions analogous to those of ‘ Parallel Projections’ in statics are available.

NY¥2

548 REPORT—1881.

The most general set of forces acting upon a system can also be represented by
a series of wrenches on the screws of a screw-chain. The screw-chain is thus
symmetrically related to the most general group of forces and to the most general
form of displacement.

The theory is extensive, but one illustration may be given. If the forces
act impulsively, the system commences to twist about an instantaneous screw-
chain. Generally the impulsive screw-chain and the instantaneous screw-chain are
different. It will, however, sometimes happen that the two coincide. The number
of cases where this occurs is equal to the number of degrees of freedom which the
system possesses.

4, Ona Property of a small Geodesic Triangle on any surface. By Professor
H. J. S. Suirn, M.A., F.R.S.

5. On the General Analogy between the formule of singly and doubly Periodic
Functions. By J. W. L. Guatsuer, M.A., F.R.S.

- The object of the paper is to consider the general groups of formule in Elliptic
Functions, the existence of which is indicated by formule involving trigonometrical
functions. As we should expect, the former are much more complete, and exhibit
greater regularity, than the latter.

Change of the argument.—In Trigonometry there are six primary functions,
sin 2, cos u, tan uw, cot wv, sec w, cosec u, of which two are even and four are uneven.
These six functions are divisible into three pairs, sin w and cos u, tan u and cos u,
sec u and cosec w, which are such that if we select from them any triad, one being
taken from each pair, the other three functions may be derived from them by a
change in the argument, that is by the substitution of Jr + wforu. The num-
ber of such triads is eight, the total number of triads that can be formed from the
six functions being twenty.

In Elliptic Taatiats there are twelve primary functions, snu, enu, dnu,

1 1 1 snw snw enw enu dnu dnu i ’
SADE ctl Analy eeMsehEaL, Vener BR Rene eR of which six are even
and six uneven. These twelve functions are divisible into three groups of four
each—viz.,

1 dnu cnw

Fp i meg eens
sn, sow enw dnw

dn wu dt sn u

cn4u, —— ——) 3—
’snw enw dnw’

cnu snwu 1
it, ==) =) ==
>snu enw dnw
which are such that if we select from them any triad, one being taken from each

group, then (omitting the constant multipliers 7, i’, &c.), the other nine functions

may be derived from this triad by changes in the argument, that is, by the substi-
tution of K+u,iK’+u and K+iK’+u for wu. The number of such triads is
sixty-four, the total number of triads that can be formed from the twelve functions
being 220. If we consider only the real substitution—viz., that of K + w for u—the

- Pie wigs tae cnu sn u
twelve functions are divisible into the six pairs sn u andy, cnwand q 7, dnw

w
] 1 dnu 1 dnw snu cn u
ae and a —— whi
and aaa and eae’ cal ae apt lena and a which are such that

if we select from them any six functions, one being taken from each pair, the
other six may be derived from them by this substitution.
Integration— We have

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

[sia u du=—cos u,

| tan udu = —log cos u,

[ seow du=log tan ($ u+in), [ cose du =log tan 4 wu.

four of the integrals being thus expressed as logarithmic functions.

Functions the complete system of integrals may be expressed in the logarithmic

form—viz., we ha

ve -—

— Joo Cad udn } %
onda

log

’

snZudniu
cndu ’

oz ucntu

[cos u dw=sin u,

| cot uv du =log sin u,

dniu ’
hog CM wae) eo By
sn($u+3K)
1 aipereK)dn(gu +3)
Kk’ log en($u+43K)

log 2G ee GAMO LEE 2:9)

1
du=—- —
sn udu = log

CP eed U
_— du = =3 k log

dn ($u+3K)

sn ($%+3 2K’)

cn ($u+37K’)

dn (}u+47¢K’)

en ($w+7K’) dn (gierk ee
t og Ue weg edn Che eK),
k

sn ($ 2 ne ING w+ gtk’)

en($u+3K+43iK’)dn(fut+iK+h a

The system of integrals may be written also as follows :—

| 1

log

sn($u+3K+i7iK’)

sn (}v+3K+30K’) dn GutthrgsK)s

en (4u+3K+3iK’)

| awed = log

reo

—du=

én u

oo St (GU+3K+3 1K’) cn($ut+h K+4iK).

dn ($u+4K+47K’)

— log

dnw+enu
sn wu

dnw+k’ sn wu
cn u

?

549

In Elliptic

550 REPORT—1881.

sou, 1 dn u—k’
[Beau k’ log enu ”
[oo du ; log (dn u— cn u),
[enw au= L log (dn u—% sn u),

mu, kon wu+th’

li u As kk’ ae dnu ”
1 Ae cn u—tk’ sn u
Fe ag B pe dnu ”

Only four cf these expressions are imaginary, and by reducing them to real
forms, we obtain the formule :

[es u du 22 arc tan — ’
{as udu= arctan 2",
cn u
sn u 1 k/
We t ae ay
& idea == Samay 11
il 1 k/ sn wu
lias du=— ra

Formule of Reduction for | sn” «du, &e. We have

cn u=n(n—1) sn"? u—n? (1+?) sn"u+n(n+1) hk? snr? uy... (1)
and by means of this formula the integral of sn” w may be reduced to depend upon

- 1 ; : ite :
the integrals of sn w, sn* w,——_, according as is positive and uneven, posi-

sn w sn? %

tive and even, negative and uneven, negative and even.
The integral of sn*w involves the Zeta function; and the integral of

sn? %
may be deduced from that of sn* « by means of the formula:
a log sn w= A? sn? u—

— i. ac Saamae

Corresponding to (1) and (2) there are eleven other pairs of formule which
involve the other eleven functions in place of sn uw, and differ from one another
only in the k-coefficients. It can thus be shown that the integrals of the nt
powers of the twelve functions are all finitely expressible in terms of elliptic func-
tions if x is uneven, and in terms of elliptic functions, and of the Zeta function, if x
is even; and that the twelve formule of reduction are similar in form and such
that from any one of them the other eleven may be deduced.?

sn? %

1 The paper will be printed in extenso in the Messenger of Mathematics. The first
portion appears in the number for October, 1881. 3

.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A 561

6. Sur les Séries Hypergéométriques. By Professor HaLpHen.

This paper was ordered by the General Committee to be printed im eatenso, but
is omitted by desire of the Author. ]

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards.—See Reports, p. 423,

2. Report of the Committee for the measurement of the Lunar Disturbance
of Gravity—See Reports, p. 93.

3. On the Rainfall Observations made upon York Minster by Prof.
John Phillips, F.R.S. By G. J. Symons, F.B.S.

The author commenced by noticing the experiments on rainfall made by Mr,
‘Townley and by Dr. Heberden at Westminster in 1766, and elsewhere. Those by
Prof. Phillips and Mr. Gray were made during the years 1832-5, when gauges were
set up at York, with the following results :—

Museum garden, 2 inches above ground. Total rain 2181 in, Ratio 100,
as roof, 44 feet FA rf Bote meee 17°39 ,, . :
Minster Tower, 213 feet 4 i z 3 12:99 ,, » 60.

Which totals agree very well with Dr. Heberden’s observations. Prof. Phillips’ ex-
planation of the above was that the drops of rain increased in volume on their
descent through the moist lower strata of the atmosphere. The author remarked
upon certain considerations which had been omitted by Prof. Phillips, such as the
velocity of the wind and the fact that seasons which are windy are also cold and
‘humid—and to Prof. Bache’s report, presented to the British Association in 1838,
in which he called attention to the important effect of eddy winds on the phe-
nomena. He found that, of gauges mounted upon a lofty tower, those to leeward
of the wind received the most water. A great alteration was made by elevating
the gauge ona pole; thus, when those at the N.E. and 8. W. angles received water in
the proportion of 1 to 1-68, those elevated 6 feet above the parapet received it in
the proportion of 1 to 1:08, and with a more moderate wind the quantities were yet
nearer equality. Sir John Herschel also has shown that any sensible addition to
the volume of a drop of rain in the way supposed would very materially raise its
temperature. The author then adverted to Mr. W. 8. Jevons’ paper, published in
the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for Dec. 1861, in which he shows that the phenomena
observed are all consistent with the theory that the fall of rain is practically identi-
al at all elevations, while the observed differences are due to imperfect collection
by the gauges, owing to deflection of the rain-bearing current by such obstacles as
houses, towers, and even the gauges themselves. Mr. Dines (without knowledge
of the last paper) came to a similar conclusion, as stated to the British Association
in 1877, and this had subsequently been confirmed by observations on large surfaces,
such as the roof of Messrs. Marshall’s factory at Leeds, and upon one 5,000 square
feet in area in survey. In the latter case (the height above the ground being 29
feet) the difference between the rainfall on the two localities was only 2 per cent. ;
instead of 20 per cent., as would be the case on the roof of a small building or near
the edge of a large one.

552 REPORT—1881.

4, On Volta-Electric Inversion. By Professor Strvanus P. THompson,
B.d., D.Se.

The author gives the name of volta-electric inversion to a phenomenon which is,.
for voltaic currents, the precise analogue of the thermo-electric inversion discovered.
by Cumming in the case of thermo-electric currents.

It is known that when voltaic cells are heated both their resistance and their

E.M.F. are affected. The latter sometimes increases, sometimes diminishes. The
latter phenomenon led the author to suspect the existence of a volta-electric inver-
sion. This he discovered as occurring in a cell containing sulphuric acid of density
1:758, into which dipped electrodes of iron and copper. At 25° C, this cell gave
a current which flowed through the liquid from iron to copper, the iron dissolving
in the acid, with evolution of hydrogen at the copper pole. On heating the cell the
current fell off, and became null between 140° and 150°, when it recommenced
powerfully in the inverse direction, bubbles believed to be SO, coming off from the-
iron pole, the copper pole dissolving im the acid. The currents in question were
true voltaic currents, being of much greater E.M.F. than the thermo-currents of an
iron-copper pair, and being moreover accompanied by strong chemical action in
the cell. The author cited as explanatory of this effect some experiments of War-
burg on the electrolysis of strong sulphuric acid, which when electrolysed below
80° C, yielded only O and H gases; between 80° and 90° gave O at anode and at
kathode H and S$; but above 90° gave O at anode, S only at kathode. It was
further pointed out that this discovery rendered possible a battery of two metals
and one liquid, from which a constant current could be obtained without contact
of dissimilar metals, alternate cells in the series being heated; and the copper of
one cell should be joined to the copper of the next, and the iron of this to the iron.
of the next.

5. On the Rotational Coefficient in Various Metals. By BE. H. Hatt.

This communication treated of the recently discovered fact that when a con-
ductor bearing an electric current is acted upon by a magnetic force at right angles

to the current, an electro-motive force is set up in the conductor, the direction of

a force being perpendicular to the plane of the electric current and the magnetic
orce.

Several articles upon the subject have already been published, but the present
communication made known a few new facts not yet in print which had been
ascertained quite recently during the author's short stay in the laboratory of Prof.
Helmholtz in Berlin.

The numerical values given in the table below are in any case only tentative,.
and those which are marked thus (?) are particularly uncertain, being liable to
errors of perhaps 100 per cent. or more. It is believed, however, that in every
case the sign fixed to any number is correct.

Arranging the metals thus far examined in the order of magnitude of the trans-
verse effect in them, we obtain the following table.

The numbers given are intended to be proportional only to the magnitude of the:
transverse effect, and not to have any absolute significance.

Tron . , ; 5 : c : + 78
Cobalt . : : , 2 ; ‘ + 25
Zine ’ : f : d 2 + 15 (?)
Lead : : i . : 4 ;
Tin : 5 : - é ; : — 2 (?)
Brass. ° : F : 5 0 — 13 (?)
Platinum ‘ A 4 4 2 ; — 2-4
Gold ; 5 . - y ; é — 68
Silver , 5 4 : 3 F ‘ — 86
Copper. e . : - : : — 10 (?)
Aluminium , A . A ; — 50 (?)
Magnesium , . : . . : — 50 (?)
Nickel ., 4 ‘ ; p ; —120

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 553-

More detailed information in regard to the behaviour of certain of the above
metals may be found in articles before published by the author, and in one which
probably appears in the current number of the ‘Philosophical Magazine.’

6. On a Dynamometer Coupling. By Professors W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S.,
and Joun Perry, B.E.

The instrument exhibited to the Section is one of a complete set of instruments
designed by the author for measuring purposes in electric lighting, and in the trans-
mission of power. The other instruments belonging to the set are—Ist. A dead-beat
Galvanometer or Am-meter, which measures accurately a strong electric current
in ampéres. It gives an immediate measurement of a rapid alteration in the
current ; when wound somewhat differently, this becomes the author’s Volt-meter,
which measures instantaneously an electromotive force in volts. 2nd. A Photometer,
which gives the strength of a light in standard candles, and which enables the
measuring operation to be performed in a yery small room. 3rd. An Ergo-
meter, which gives at one reading the horse-power which is being expended
on an electric arc or in an incandescent lamp, or in any other electric circuit. That
is, it gives in one reading the product of electro-motive force into current. The
authors have called the instrument a Power-meter, but Sir William Thomson has
given to it the name Ergometer. 4th. The present instrument; a Dynamo-
meter, which measures the horse-power transmitted from one length of shafting
to another in a factory, or the power given up to any machine.

Various dynamometers, as is well known, are in existence, but however suited
they may he to laboratory conditions, they cannot be regarded as suitable for
workshop use. In fact, they are to be called arrangements of scientific apparatus
rather than dynamometers. The dynamometer described by the authors in their
paper read before the Society of Telegraph Engineers last session may be seen in
use by the students of The City and Guilds of London Technical College at -
Finsbury. It is capable of more general application than this, because it is used
in the belting which drives a dynamo or any other machine. Although the
principle of construction of this instrument is the same, they think it worthy of
notice from its being capable of taking the place of an ordinary shaft coupling,
and from its not being much more expensive than an ordinary shaft coupling.
In fact, it consists of the two halves of an ordinary coupling, one keyed to each of
the shafts which are to be coupled. The shape is slightly different from what is
usual, and allows the connection of the two halves by means of the spiral springs.
Now it is evident that if one shaft turns the other, it can only do so by pulling
the springs, and the movement of the turning couple is proportional to the
lengthening of the springs, that is, to the angular advance of one half of the
coupling before the other half. Here are two light levers, by means of which this
relative motion of the two halves produces a radial motion of a silvered bead,
and the distance of this bead radially from the shaft can be read off on a scale.
The scale reading, multiplied into the number of revolutions per minute, gives at
once the horse-power transmitted through the coupling. The whole arrangement
would appear to be nearly as small and insignificant as an ordinary coupling were
it not for the dise of sheet iron, with its marginal flange, which is used to protect
the levers and the bead. Everything except the bead is painted dead-black. The
Instrument exhibited has been designed to couple a Brotherhood Engine and a
Brush Machine, and when the bead is close to the shaft and the speed. is 800
revolutions per minute, the coupling transmits 18 horse-power. In the present
position of the bead the springs are unstrained, and this is the case when no
- power is being transmitted. It is the authors’ intention to attempt to introduce these
couplings into every line of shafting in manufactories, so that the stream of power
along every shaft may be measured and visibly made known at any distance from
which the bead may be distinguished,

554 REPORT—1881.

7. On an Early Attempt at a Secondary Battery.
By Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S.

8. On an Electro-Ergometer.
By Professor Sir Wiut1am Txomson, W.A., F.R.S.

9. On a Problem in Stream Lines, By Professor A. W. Ricker, M.A.

If $ = const. and wy = const. be the equations to the curves of equal velocity-
potential and to the stream-lines in the case of a liquid possessed of irrotational
motion in two dimensions, let us, in accordance with a well-known property
of these functions, assume

2a?
beipa—Veerin |] =

Fr . ras \2
(a +1y) ee

Then, rationalising the denominator we get

: a z a
p= —-Vu - ; G\ce a\*
saya) at+(uss)
a

Now when wz and y are very great compared with a ~=—Vy, and y vanishes
when y=0, and also when

2 2
w+ (y-) =a? or 4a?+ (v+5) =a’,

Hence, at an infinite distance from the origin, all the stream-lines are parallel to the
axis of x, and that axis, together with the two circles whose equations are given
above, constitutes a stream-line.

The equations thus solve the problem of the flow of a liquid past a cylindrical
obstacle, the generating lines of which are perpendicular to the undisturbed direc-
tion of the flow of the liquid, and the boundary of which is such thata section at
right angles to the generating lines is made up of the external portions of the
circumferences of two equal circles which pass through each other’s centres, the
line of centres being perpendicular to the undisturbed lines of flow.

The expression for @ may conveniently be written in the form—

CRT
p= - Ver} 1+ on 2
where 7 and 7” are the distances from the centres of the two circles.

The above formule may also be arrived at from elementary considerations, and
they have been tested, as applied to the electric current, in the Physical Laboratory
of the Yorkshire College. The apparatus used was similar to that described by
Prof. G. C. Foster and Dr. Lodge in the ‘ Proc. Phys. Soc.,’ part iii., 1875, except in
so far as brass bars were used as linear electrodes.

‘When the apparatus was adjusted so that the equipotential lines were, as
nearly as possible, parallel to these bars, a portion of the tinfoil was removed,
and the form of the disturbed lines determined.

At first, to test the accuracy of the method, some experiments were made when
the part removed was circular. Afterwards the two equal circles were cut out.

Some specimen results are given below. As it was difficult to make the equi-
potential lines exactly parallel to the bars in the first instance, points on the same
disturbed equipotential line were measured at approximately equal distances from

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 555

the common chord of the two circles, and the constants given are, in each case, the
means of those determined from a pair of such points.

The unit used is the millimetre. The quantity « is the distance from the
diameter parallel to the bars, and is the case of the two circles at right angles to
their common chord. V = —1.

TABLE I.—CIRCLE. RADIUS = 8°43MM.

Curve I. Curve II. Curve III.
x o z ’ £ ’
4:92 19:73 10°43 16°25 16°04 20°22

7°66 19°36 15°59 15-80 19°37 20°17

TABLE II.—Two CIRCLES. RADIUS = 6°38MM.

Curve I. Curve II. Curve III.
x Q x p x p
4:08 - 5:41 4:48 6°89 13°96 18°85
5°37 5°42 6°94 7:00 18°52 18°61

In each case those points only are given which are nearest to and furthest from
the circle or circles.

10. On Potential due to Contact.1 By S. Lavineton Hart, B.A., D.Se.,
Scholar of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

The object:of the paper is to illustrate and extend the analogy that exists
between the action of an-electrolytic cell and the behaviour of two metals in a
gaseous medium, and to apply to both cases one simple law :—

The metal -which, by: reason of: superior chemical affinity, combines with the
electro-negative ion, receives thereby a negative charge, and acquires consequently
(relatively to the medium) a negative potential.

If we take, for instance, a zinc-copper couple in acid or in air, two principal
cases may present themselves :—

(i.) The metals are insulated ; in which case the zinc is negative to the medium,
and this negative to the copper.

(ii.) The metals touch; they are therefore at the same potential, but the
medium is necessarily at a higher potential than this near the zinc, and at a lower
in the neighbourhood of the copper. This difference of potential in the medium
around the two metals has been determined, and is generally regarded as the
difference of potential in the metals themselves.

In the experiments described, however, these two points are made clear, namely,
that in air and in dilute acid :—

(i.) Metals insulated from one another, but in close proximity, are at different
potentials, the more electro-negative being at a negative potential.

(ii.) Metals in contact are at the same potential.

The metals employed were iron and mercury, and the points referred to were
proved by using an electrometer, one of the electrodes of which was put in connec-
tion with an iron wire dipping in mercury held in a funnel, to the neck of which
was attached a fine glass jet, the drops from it forming within an iron cylinder put
to the other electrode.

I obtained a deflection of thirty divisions, equivalent to a difference of potential
of ‘15 D (D being the E.M.F. due to a Daniell cell) by bringing up iron close
to the falling drops.

In the verification of the second point a fresh question was raised, for it was
found that a difference in potential was set up by different degrees of oxidation at the
two surfaces of mercury (in the funnel, and at the end of the thread in the jet) due to

1 Published in the Philosophical Magazine, November 1881.

556 REPORT—1881.

difference in their capillary relations. In investigating this action I used a capillary
tube in which was a thread of mercury broken by an air-bubble, and by causing
this to run, I found that oxidation took place at the concave surface of the retreat-
ing column and rendered it negative to the advancing conyex surface. I thus.
obtained as much as ‘7 1) as the difference in potential (by increasing the number of
bubbles), while in the case of the falling drops a deflection indicating from ‘5 D to
‘6D existed. The connection between this and oxidation was rendered evident by
the possibility of increasing the deflection obtained by more rapid oxidation, and
of reversing it by substituting for air a reducing gas, while if both funnel and jet
were in an inert medium the absence of deflection would prove the second point:
metals, when touching, are at the same potential.

11. On the Electric Discharge through Colza Oil.!
By A. Macrartane, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.

The electrical properties of colza oil examined were its dielectric strength and
some phenomena accompanying the passage of the spark. By the dielectric
strength of a substance is meant the ratio of the difference of potential required,
to pass a spark through the substance to that required to pass a spark through
air under the same conditions. One set of observations gave 2°7 as the value for
colza oil; another gave 2°5, The values now obtained for liquids are exhibited in
the following table :—

Substance Dielectric strength
Paraffin oil , fs ; - : ‘ : q oy ea
Oil of turpentine . : ; : . . ’ . 40
Paraian (liquotied ate orp sun os at Mivstistoah te ae
Olive oil . . . . . . . ° . . 35
Colza oil . . . . . . . . ° ° 2'6

The passage of the spark was accompanied by the formation of gas-bubbles, but
there was no deposition of solid particles. The behaviour of these bubbles was
such as to indicate that they were formed at the positive electrode, and that they
were positively electrified.

The method of the investigation is that described in ‘Trans. R.S.E,,’ vol.
XXViii. p. 633,

12, Représentation graphique de la Formule des Piles.2 Discussion. Par
le Professeur C. M. Garten, Agrégé de Physique ala Faculté de Médecine
de Paris, Ingénieur des Ponts et Chaussées.

M. Gariel indique une représentation graphique de la formule bien connue qui
donne Vintensité d’un courant, connaissant le nombre des éléments, la force
électromotrice, la résistance de chacun d’eux et la résistance extérieure, et qui,
par une construction trés simple, permet de comparer cette intensité avec celle
que donnerait dans le méme circuit un seul élément. Cette construction qui ne
comporte que le tracé de lignes droites est susceptible d’étre donnée par un ap-
pareil mécanique fort simple qui fournit immédiatement le résultat par une seule
lecture.

Une discussion analogue permet d’étudier le cas ot les éléments sont réunis en
quantité et particuligrement conduit 4 la solution du probléme suivant: étant
donnés un circuit et m éléments égaux, comment faut-il les grouper en m groupes de
p éléments pour obtenir le courant maximum ?

La régle est la suivante :—

* See Wature, vol. xxiv., p. 465.
* Le travail in extenso a paru dans le journal francais 1’ Zlectricien, Nos. des
19 avril et 1° mai 1881.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. Dom

1 Lia

Pp SPP 2 ;

Sn er p' et p"!, étant successivement les

divers diviseurs de n rangés par ordre de grandeur, jusqu’A ce que deux de ces
r Ait Pot anil .

valeurs comprennent entre elles le rapport = de la résistance d’un élément a la

R

résistance du circuit extérieur: le nombre p! sera celui qu'il conyiendra de prendre.

On forme toutes les valeurs de

13. On an Easy Method of making Carbon Cells for Galvanic Batteries.
By W. Symons, F.0.8.

At the Belfast meeting of the Association the author described a method of
making carbon cells by repeatedly dipping paper moulds in a mixture of syrup and
fine carbon. This is a practicable but tedious process. A much easier and more
expeditious method is the following:—Mix together 15 parts of powdered gas
carbon, 3 parts of wood charcoal, and 10 parts of lump sugar. Well shake down |
this powder, dry into paper moulds of the size and shape required, cylindrical
being the most manageable. Bury the filled moulds in sand in a suitable iron or
copper vessel, and gradually expose to a red heat. When cold remove the burnt
paper from the now solid cells, and soak them in a syrup made of equal parts of
lump sugar and water. Well dry the cells, wrap them up in paper, again bury in
sand, and gradually expose them for some time to as strong a heat as practicable,
but not less than a bright red heat. For this purpose the author has used an
extempore furnace made of Fletcher’s solid-flame burner, surmounted with a com-
mon unglazed earthenware drain-pipe, partially closed with an irondome. This
. furnace is easily constructed, and is useful for a variety of purposes. The draught may
of course be increased by adding a pipe to the iron dome. In the author’s expe-
rience a carbon mixture of the above proportions is the best. Cells made with
other kinds of carbon crack more or less, but the above mixture, with due care, does
not crack.

14. On an Antimonized Cellular Carbon Galvanic Battery.
By W. Symons, F.C.8.

Faraday, in his ‘Experimental Researches,’ p. 2012, ‘On the Order of the Metallic
Elements of Voltaic Circles,’ places antimony highest of the metals tested by him
-with hydrochloric acid. This fact suggested to the author the construction of a bat-
‘tery made with carbon cells as described in the previous paper, with antimony
‘precipitated on the carbon, using zinc rods unamalgamated and a solution of
ammonium chloride, but, with very limited leisure, he has not been able to complete
an efficient battery in time for this meeting. He, however, ventures to suggest
such a battery as a useful one for general laboratory purposes, being somewhat
‘similar to Smee’s in action, but with much cheaper negative elements, and a more
economical utilization of the zinc. By boring holes also in the carbons, he believes
that polarisation will be diminished, by thus increasing the amount of efficient
carbon surface and promoting the circulation of the liquid, but at present he has
not had time to test this point. The carbon cells can be made small enough to be
nearly close to the zinc, while, by having the containing vessels of an ample size,
the constancy of the current will be enhanced. Another form of the battery
which he prcposes to make is with larger carbons and porous diaphragms, using
for the outer liquid a mixture of antimonious chloride and ammonium chloride.

Perhaps it may not be amiss to add that plaster of Paris diaphragms can also
be easily made with dry plaster. Provide an inner core or mould of turned wood,
a little taper and with a shoulder the required thickness of the diaphragm; round
this tie two thicknesses of stout blotting-paper, well shake down the dry plaster
‘-between the wooden core and the paper. Then immerse the whole in water. Ina
few minutes the diaphragm will be solid and can be removed from the mould,

558 REPORT—1881.
15. On the Absolute Sine Electrometer. By Professor G. M. Mincutn, M.A.

This is an electrometer in which use is made of the attracted disk and guard-
plate principle.

The continuous plate and the guard plate are two brass plates, each about a
foot square. hey are kept at a constant small distance apart (being parallel to
each other) by means of four ivory axes or pins driven through them near their
corners. The attracted disc is a square of aluminium, its side being 3 centimétres.
long ; it is suspended by means of two Wollaston platinum wires, each about
7 inches long, from a metallic piece at the top edge of the guard plate. The two
plates can move, as a rigid body, round a fixed horizontal axis attached to the
continuous plate. This system can be tilted out of the vertical position by means
of a micrometer screw whose axis works horizontally against the lower portion of
the continuous plate.

The disk (which is, of course, always in metallic contact with the guard plate)
is, in the vertical position of the plates, flush with the guard plate. * This fush-
ness is obtained by means of four small adjustable screws fixed to the guard plate
at the back of the disk; when the system of plates is tilted out of the vertical
the disk will remain in the flush position, unless it is attracted off the points oF
these four screws by some force.

Any motion of the disk is observed by means of a microscope rigidl
to the back of the guard plate; the Senne is +-inch. adhe caedtd “arias

If the continuous plate is connected by a wire with one electrified body, while
the disk and guard plate are connected with another, the disk will be drawn off
the abel i unless the system of plates is sufficiently tilted out of the
vertical.

If w=weight of disk, @=angle of deviation of plates from vertical, d=distance
between the plates, E=difference of potential of the sources in connection with
the two plates, S=area of disk, the equation of equilibrium of the disk when it is
just out of contact with the screws is

SE?
8rd?

The force measured is thus proportional to the sine of the angle of deflection
from the vertical—whence the name of the instrument. -

Usually the sine and the circular measure will be equal, since the deflections
will not amount to many degrees.

In the instrument (which has been constructed by Mr. Groves of Bolsover
Street) d='516 millimétres, w=*2568 grammes, the vertical distance between the
‘axis of suspension of the plates and the point of the tilting micrometer screw = 15
inches, the diameter of the head of this screw is 3 inches, its circumference is
divided into 1,000 equal parts, and the pitch is 44-inch. Hence the equation of
equilibrium (employing the absolute measures of weight and length) is

E=:0456,./m,
where m is the number of divisions turned through on the micrometer screw-head
from the vertical position of the plates.

Since it is difficult to know when the vertical position is attained exactly, a
differential method is resorted to. An observation is made with 7 cells and then
with n/ of the same cells, and if, when the disc is just attracted off the screws, the
readings of the micrometer screw-head are m and m’, we get ;

=w sin 6,

B=:0456 m—n’

ne— nV?

where, of course, m—m’ is known, although m and m’ are separately unknown

There are four adjustments which must be carefully attended to, the most
difficult being the determination of the distance d. This (on the suggestion of
Professor Carey Foster) was determined by taking three readings with a sphero-
meter at three points of the aperture of the guard plate, before and after the inser-
tion of mica washers on the four ivory axes which connect the plates.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 559

Very few experiments have yet been made; but the E.M.F of the cells in a
battery of Leclanché elements was determined by seven experiments, all of which
very closely agreed. The value obtained was—

00475
absolute electrostatic units.

The author is constructing a battery of 50 Grove cells, specially adapted to the
measurement of H.M.F.

A deflection cf the disk is easily observed with about 6 Leclanché cells, or less;
—and a second deflection is then taken with a large number—20, 30, 40, or 50.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee on a Standard of White Light.
See Reports, p. 126.

2. Report of the Committee on Luminous Meteors.—See Reports, p. 290.

3. Report of the Committee on the Thermal Conductivity of Rocks.
See Reports, p. 126.

4. A Contribution to the History of the Algebra of Logic.
By the Rey. R. Hartey, F.R.S.

The author pointed out that the earlier and limited conceptions of algebra, that
it is a universal arithmetic, or such a modification of arithmetic as is necessitated
by the use of a symbolical language, had prevented for long the connection between
the fundamental principles and processes of algebra and of logic from being dis-
covered. To perceive that algebra embraces not only arithmetic in its widest
sense, but the whole science of symbolical reasoning, formed a most important step
in logic as well as in mathematics. This was first apprehended to some extent by
certain of the more philosophical analysts of the earlier part of the present cen-
tury, and was more clearly enumerated by Dr. F. Gregory in 1838. Henceforward,
as arithmetic had proved the ‘science of suggestion ’ to algebra, so the latter, in the
hands of Boole, proved the science of suggestion to logic. In his works, ‘The
Mathematical Analysis of Logic,’ and, more fully and systematically, in his ‘ Laws
of Thought,’ he developed the science of logic in algebraical forms. This mode of
expression is justified on strictly logical grounds. It is founded, not upon any sup-
posed relationship or analogy between the conceptions or ideas with which logicians
and mathematicians are respectively conversant, but upon the fact, established by
actual examination, that the formal laws of thought in logic are identical with those
of analgebra, or science of number, in which the symbolsrepresent, not all numbers,
but only those which we designate by nought and unity. The author next pro-
ceeded to consider the symbolical methods in logic which owe their origin to the
‘Laws of Thought,’ by Boole. He noticed particularly the method of Professor
Jevons, as developed in ‘The Principles of Science’; of Mr. Hugh McColl in his
‘Calculus of Equivalent Statements,’ and of Dr. Macfarlane, in his ‘Algebra of
Logic.’ Reference was also made to the recently published work of Mr, Venn, on

‘Symbolic Logic,’ which the author characterised as a powerful defence of the
Booleian method.

5. On the Illuminating Powers of Incandescent Vacuum Lamps with measured
Potentials and measured Currents. By Professor Sir Witttam THomson,
M.A., F.R.S., and James T. Borromury, M.A.

The electromotive force used in these experiments was derived from Faure’s.

secondary batteries, kindly supplied for the purpose by the Société la Force et la
Lumiére in their London oftice.

560 REPORT—1881.

Two galvanometers were used simultaneously, one (called the potential galvano-
meter) for measuring the difference of potentials between the two terminals of the
lamp, the other (called the current galvanometer) for measuring the whole
streneth of the current through the lamp.

The potential galvanometer had for its coil several thousand metres of No. 50
4{B.W.G.) silk-covered wire (of which the copper wrighs about 3, gramme per
metre, and therefore has resistance of about 5 ohms per metre). Its electrodes
were applied direct on the platinum terminals of the lamp.

The current galvanometer had for its coil a single circle of about 10 centimetres
diameter, of thick wire placed in the direct circuit of the lamp, by means of elec-
trodes kept close together to a sufficient distance from the galvanometer to ensure
no sensible action on the needle except from the circle itself. The directive force
on the needle which was produced by a large semi-circular horse-shoe magnet of
small sectional area was about 24c.¢.s., or 15 times the earth’s horizontal magnetic
foree in London. This arrangement would have been better for the potential
galvanometer also than the plan actually used for it, which need not be described
here. The scale of each galvanometer was graduated according to the natural
tangent of the angle of deflection, so that the strength of the current was simply
proportional to the number read on the scale in each case.

Three lamps were used, Nos. il. and III. of a larger size than No. I. The ex-
periment was continued with higher and higher potentials on each lamp till its
carbon broke.

The illuminating power was measured in the simplest and easiest way (which
is also the most accurate and trustworthy), by letting the standard light and the
lamp to be measured shed their lights nearly in the same direction on a white
ground (a piece of white paper was used) ; and comparing the shadows of a suit-
able object (a pencil was used); and varying the distance of the standard light
from the white ground till the illuminations of the two shadows were judged
equal. The standard used was a regulation ‘ standard candle, burning 120 grains
of wax in the hour. The burning was not actually tested by weighing; but it was
no doubt very nearly right ; nearly enough for our purpose, which was an approxi-
mate determination of the illuminating powers of each lamp through a wide range
of electric power applied to it. The following results were obtained :—

LAMP No. I.
| Volts x :
nee Cells Volts Webers Pe: Horse-power | Candles yenanenes
| metres
1 26 569 1cPAL 6°88 093 116 — 125
2 30 65°5 1:46 9°56 129 25 194
3 32 70:2 1:64 11°51 "156 42 263
4 33 71:8 1:74 12°48 ‘170 38 224
5 34 T41 181 13-42 181 44 243
6 35 761 1:82 13°86 "187 55 294
7 36 78:0 1:99 15°52 210 63 300
8 37 80:3 2:06 16°54 "224 66 295
9 38 81:9 2-06 16°88 "228 76 333
10 39 84:6 2°06 17:43 "235 82 B49
11 40 87:0 2710 18-27 247 84 340
12 42 90°9 |. 2:17 19°72 ‘267 102 382
13 44 92-0 2:17 19:96 270 89 330
14 46 99-1 2°21 21:91 296 114 385

Carbon of lamp broke with same power, immediately after the
measurement of the light was completed.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 561

LAMP No. II.
| Volts x :
ean: Cells Volts Webers | aber ~ | Horse-power| Candles aNsanees
| metres
b
1 40 89:7 | 2207 | 19:8 27 49 181
2 42 93°3 2296 | 22:42 29 68 234
3 43 95-4 | 2°38 | 22°71 “31 76 245
4 44 98:8 | 2°49 | 24-60 BB) 101 306
5 46 1030 | 2°63 27:09 “37 117 316
6 50 106°9 | 2°74 | 29:29 40 147 367
fit 52 110°8 2°85 | 31:56 43 | 189 440
8 54 1170 | 2°95 34:53 47 196 417
9 56 119°8 2°95 35°34 “47 186 388
10 58 121°8 * 2:98 36°29 “49 177 361
11 40 87:0 214 | 18°62 "25 35 140
12 42 89°7 2:24 | 20:09 | 27 42 156
13 60 122°8 3-06 37:58 | 1 186 365
J 14 62 126°0 313 | 39-44 53 180 340
15 66 132-4 3°24 42°89 57 222 383
70 Carbon of lamp broke.
Lamp No. III.
: Volts x i
aes Cells Volts Webers ti eag Horse-power| Candles imtamecad
| metres
saad Clg) 82°3 2-85 | 23-45 ‘31 | 68 219
2 50 101°8 3°90 39°70 54 195 361
3 60 Carbon of lamp broke. i

Some of the irregularities of the results in the preceding tables are very inter-
esting and important, as showing the effect of the blackening of the glass by
volatilization of the carbon when too high electric power came to be applied.

The durability of the lamp at any particular power must be tested by months’
experience before the proper intensity for economy can be determined,

6. On Photometry, with Experiments. By Professor Sir WiLLiAM
Tomson, M.A., F.R.S.

7. On the Dynamical Theory of Radiution.! By Professor ARTHUR
Scuuster, Ph.D., F.R.S.

All theoretical investigations on radiation and absorption are confined to
the consideration of an enclosure of uniform temperature. As no observation can
be carried on in such an enclosure the theoretical results can only be adapted to
the actual phenomena by making an assumption contained in Prevost’s law that
the radiation of the body is a function of the temperature only. It is the object
_of this paper to give some considerations which tend to show that this assump-
tion is not justified. Imagine a Bunsen burner with a soda bead in it. The
spectroscope will show the well-known yellow sodium lines; but we know that
the sodium molecule is also capable of sending out certain rays in the green part of
‘the spectrum. These rays are so weak, in the case under consideration, that they
escape observation. We conclude from the appearances that the internal radiation

’ Printed in full, Pail. Mag., October 1881.
1881, 00

562 REPORT—1881.

in the sodium vapour placed in the Bunsen flame is strong for a certain set of
yellow vibrations, and weak for a certain set of green vibrations. If the Bunsen
flame is now removed into an enclosure the temperature of which is equal to its-
self, the internal radiation in the green will suddenly he raised, while that in the
yellow will not be (appreciably) affected. As there must be some relation between
the internal radiation and the energy of vibration of the molecules, the green
vibrations will be raised in intensity and he made more nearly equal to the yellow
vibrations.

The following may show a little more clearly that the relative intensities of
the vibrations need not be the same when the body is placed in an enclosure of
uniform temperature, as when it is allowed to radiate into space.

Imagine a set of molecules not losing any heat by radiation, and assume that
the molecules are, like the sodium molecules, capable of vibrating in two distinct
periods, one corresponding to the yellow, and one corresponding to the green rays.
There is a constant interchange between energy of translatory motion and energy
of vibratory motion, and we imagine that the energy of translation is more easily
transformed into yellow vibrations than into green vibrations. If the average
energy for each set remains constant, it is because the energy of vibration is at the
same time for other molecules transformed into energy of translation, and the
yellow vibrations more easily than the green vibrations. The mathematical cal-
culations of Maxwell and Boltzmann have shown that when the final equilibrium
is reached, the final energy of vibration for the two periods must be the same.
Imagine now the gas to be taken out of the enclosure and allowed to radiate into
_space. During the first instant, the yellow and the green vibrations will be of the
same intensity, but very soon the molecular encounters will show their influence.
We have assumed that yellow vibrations are more easily produced than green vi-
brations. While, therefore, the green vibrations are allowed to decrease in inten-
sity, that of the yellow rays is constantly renewed by the encounters. . It follows
that the yellow rays will now appear the brighter, though in the enclosure of uni-
form temperature the energy of radiation for the green light was as large. The
mere fact therefore that we observe lines of different intensities in the spectra of
bodies is not in itself sufficient to invalidate Boltzmann’s theoretical conclusion.
But other considerations show that these conclusions are not supported by experi-—
ment, Thus, from the ratio of the two specific heats of mercury vapour, Boltzmann
concludes that the molecule of mercury is a rigid particle, incapable of rotating or
vibrating. It is suggested that forces due to the vibrations themselves, which have
been neglected by Boltzmann, may be the cause of the discrepancy between theory
and experiment.

8. On a New Electrometer and some preliminary Experiments on Voltaic
Action. By J. Brown.

The author exhibited and described an instrument for measuring the difference
of potential of two substances in contact while immersed in any desired gas. The
metals to be examined are formed into a pair of quadrants fixed on an ebonite sup-
port in the apparatus, and their potential-difference is examined by means of a
needle similar to half that in Sir William Thomson’s electrometer, swinging over
the slit between them, and suspended by a platinum wire, ‘001-inch diameter from
a torsion head at the top of an ebonite tube rising from the cover of the airtight
metal case enclosing the quadrants, and into which any required gas can be intro-
duced. The needle is electrified by connecting its suspension wire to either pole of
a 100-cell Daniell battery, and its deflections are observed by mirror and scale.
One quadrant is kept permanently connected with the earth, while a wire, joined to
the other and passing airtight through the case, provides means for connecting the
two together metallically, or one to each pole of any cell with the H.M.F. of which
it is desired to compare their potential-difference either by Kohlrausche’s method or
that of Sir William Thomson (‘ B.A. Report,’ 1880).

As the observed potential-difference of copper and zine continually decreases
with the oxidation of their surfaces in the air, a series of observations was made to

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 563

ascertain the time-rate of this decrease, in order if possible to find what the true
potential-difference was when the surfaces were perfectly clean, as compared with
a Daniell cell. A represents one series obtained from commercial sheet zinc and
copper by Thomson’s method, and B another from redistilled zinc and commercial
copper by Kohlrausche’s method :—
A. Minutes after cleaning 9 51 74 108
Potential-difference 80D ‘71D ‘67D ‘66D

B. Minutes after cleaning 15 21 74 115 185 3,700
Potential-difference 82D -81D ‘77D ‘75D ‘74D ‘64D

From these it is evident the potential-difference would not be far under ‘9D at
the time of cleaning, and considering that, even when just cleaned, the plates cannot
be considered quite clean, this value corresponds very well to the ratio of the differ-
ence of the heats of combination of copper and zinc with oxygen to the heat-equi-
valent of a Daniell cell—according to Thomsen ‘9D.

When the quadrants were wet with distilled water, the potential-difference was
*82D to ‘88D. When the copper was wet with copper sulphate solution, and the
zinc with zinc sulphate, thus constituting the analogue of a Daniell cell, the differ-
ence of potential was ‘98 Daniell.

The experiments seem to support the view, that the potential-difference of sub-
stances in contact is dependent on the chemical action going on at their exposed
surfaces.

9. On a Wave Apparatus for Lecture purposes, to illustrate Fresnel’s
conception of Polarised Light. By C. J. Woopwarp, B.Sc.

10. Ona Microscope with arrangements for illuminating the sub-stage.!
By Evwarp Crosstzy, F.R.A.S.

The light from the lamp is thrown into the hollow horizontal axis of the
microscope with the aid of the bull’s-eye condenser, and by a prism placed in the
centre of this axis, is reflected forwards in the direction of the axis on which the
swinging sub-stage turns.

The arm of the swinging sub-stage is made in the form of a box, and carries a
second prism in the axis on which it moves, so as to intercept the rays of light
coming from the first prism, and reflect them in the direction of the arm or box.

At the end of the box is a third prism, which throws the rays of light forward
on to the mirror by means of which they are finally directed to the object on
the stage.

No change in position of the microscope on its horizontal axis affects the
direction of the light from the lamp; and whatever the position of the swinging
sub-stage, whether above or below the stage, the illumination remains constant
upon the object. Thus the greatest facility is given for illuminating the object at
any angle, and seeing which is most suitable.

The prisms are 1-inch, and give sufficient light for a 3-in. object-glass with a
Ross B eyepiece, using, of course, a suitable condenser beneath the stage. The
field of a 4-inch object-glass is also fully covered.

11. On a New Polarising Prism.?
By Professor Sirvanus P. THompson, B.A., D.Sc.

The author described and exhibited a new polarising prism of Iceland spar so
cut that the axis of the prism is exactly at right angles to the optical axis of the
erystal, and that the film of Canada balsam, by which the ordinary ray is totally
reflected, is in a principal plane of section.

1 Published tm extenso in the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society for 1881,
p. 653.
2 Printed in exatenso, Phil. Mag., Nov. 1881.
002

564 REPORT—1881.

The Nicol prism has several defects. Its field is narrow, being limited on one
side by the ordinary ray, which ceases at a certain angle to be totally reflected ; and
at the other by vanishing of the extraordinary ray by total reflexion; the limit of
the field in this direction being further reduced by the occurrence of a blue iris,
within which faint interference-fringes may be discerned. The limitation of the
extraordinary ray arises from the arrangement of the prism, in which the
inclination of the incident rays to the optic axis differs widely, producing the
effective result that at a certain angle the extraordinary index is at a value not
only greater than its minimum, but greater than that of the balsam.

The author’s new prism obviates this, by employing spar so cut that the optic
axis is exactly at right angles to the axis of the prism, and that the balsam film
is parallel to the optic axis. The extraordinary rays, which lie in a plane containing
the axis of the prism and at right angles to the optic axis, are all therefore
transmitted, and the limitation on this side of the field is therefore removed. Of
other rays it will be noted that, as the angle at which they cut the optic axis
diminishes, their angle of incidence on the balsam film increases, instead of
diminishing. This is, however, of no moment, as the aperture of the field in a
principal plane of section containing the optic axis of the crystal is still over 90°.
The available aperture of the new prism is about 10° greater than that of the Nicol
Prism, and its ‘lateral’ aperture is as great as that of the Nicol.

The end faces are also more nearly normal to the axis of the prism, thereby
reducing loss of light by reflexion.

12. On an Overlapping Spectroscope. By James Love, F.R.A.S., F.G.S.

In the instrument described by the author, one spectroscope was fixed, another
being capable of rotation about its own axis, and of a small angular movement in
their common plane, about a line passing through the point of intersection of their
axes. The light which had passed through the movable spectroscope was reflected
at the surface of the dispersion prism of the fixed spectroscope, and entered the eye
looking along its axis. The results obtained by the author, in working with
this instrument, differ in some respects from those already described by previous
observers.

13. On Change of Density at the Melting Point.
By Jamus Love, F.B.A.S., F.G.S.

It is commonly supposed that bodies, as a general rule, contract their
dimensions, and rapidly become more dense, as they pass from the liquid to the
solid condition; and that those bodies which expand and become less dense on
solidifying, such as water and cast iron, are exceptions to the general rule.

For the purpose of testing this so-called rule I have experimented on a few
bodies at their melting points, and find that, as far as the experiments go, the
‘exceptions’ are sufficiently numerous to form a class by themselves. The method
used was to heat the body to its melting temperature and observe whether the
solid would float or sink in its own liquid. The bodies experimented on may be
arranged into two classes, namely: Class A. Bodies whose solids sik in their
own liquid, and Class B. Bodies whose solids float in their own liquid; or, for
shortness, sinking solids and floating solids. They are as follows :—

Crass A.—Sinking Solids,
Lead; tin; solder=1 sn.+1 pb.;
Resin; tallow; butter; lard; beef fat; mutton fat.
Crass B.—Floating Solids.
Antimony ; copper; zinc ; cast iron ;
Wrought iron upon cast; phosphor bronze ;
Gunmetal = 16 cu. + 2 sn.+1 zn.;
Brass = 16 cu. + 8 zn. +1 pb. ;
White metal =1 cu.+6 sn.+12 zn. ;
Another white metal =2 cu. +3 sb. + 24 sn.;

With most of these bodies the observations were easily made, as the sinking

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 565

or floating was very decided; but in a few cases the observations needed a
considerable amount of care. For instance, solid lead would readily sink when
the temperature of the liquid was much above its melting point; but just at its
melting point the sinkage was so very slight that there was some difficulty
in determining whether the solid really did sink or not, a thin film of dirt being
quite sufficient to keep it from sinking. With phosphor bronze, brass, and the
second white metal, the flotation of the solid was very slight ; but with the other
bodies of Class B the floating was very decided, Copper, a body usually given as
a sinking solid, floats with considerable buoyancy.

14. On Drops and Capillarity. By Dr. T. Woops.

The intention of this paper is to show that every liquid has a specific volume of
drop, a definite number of drops of each liquid always occupying the same bulk
under similar circumstances; and that, however varied circumstances may be,
provided they change equally with all, the relation of volume of drop is maintained
between the several liquids examined.

In it is also shown that this specific volume is proportional to the capillarity of
the liquids—the greater the capillarity the larger the drop.

It is suggested that this property may be useful in analysis—a ready method,
for instance, of detecting the amount of dilution of a fluid.

15. On Binaural Audition.—Part III.!
By Professor Sitvanus P. Tompson, B.d., D.Sc.

The beats of mistuned consonances of the form : 1 have lately claimed some
attention on account of the revival of the dispute between Dr. Kénig and the
mathematical accusticians concerning the origin of the difference-tones or grave
harmonics, Konig holding to Smith’s theory that the beats, when sufficiently
rapid, pass into beat-tones, which all mathematical physicists agree is physically
impossible if the tones are simple, and if so small an amplitude that the squares
and higher powers of the displacements may be neglected. A very important paper
on this matter, by Mr. Bosanquet of Oxford, has lately appeared (‘ Phil. Mag.’
June 1881), in which he states: (i.) that these tones are subjective; (ii.) that they
consist of variations in intensity of the lower tone; (iii.) that if the squares and
higher powers of the displacements be not neglected in the equations, a term appears
having a period whose frequency is the difference of the frequencies of the
generating tones, as required by Helmholtz’s theory of the difference-tones.

This question was alluded to in the author's previous papers on Phenomena of
Binaural Audition (‘ Brit. Ass. Rep.’ 1877, 1878). He found beats to be heard, but
not differential tones, from two tones led separately to the two ears.

The author has lately examined with care the beats of the mistuned unison,
octave, twelfth, and double-octave, bringing the sounds separately to the two ears
by tubes. He has heard beats in all these cases, and in every case found them to
consist of variations in intensity of the lower tone. The use of resonators
intensified the phenomena.

The author also recounted experiments in which partial interference was
fered between an objective tone, and a subjective tone imposed upon the ear by

atigue.

He also announced a new illusion of binaural hearing due to fatigue, the
apparent direction of a source of sound being altered by the previous fatigue of
one ear,

16. On Differential Resolvents. By the Rev. Ropert Haxtey, F.R.S.

1 Printed in full, Phil. Mag., Nov. 1881.

566 REPORT—1881.

17. An Analysis of Relationships.
By A. Macrarzane, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.

The paper contained a summary of the notation and elementary laws of an
analytical method of dealing with such questions as, in the simplest cases, may be
dealt with graphically by means of the genealogical tree. The subject is a special
branch of the algebra of logic, and its development appears to the author to throw
much light upon the fundamental principles of that science. The method has been
applied to test the Systems of Affinity and Consanguinity of Dr. Morgan of
Rochester, New York.

TRANSACTIONS. OF SECTiON B. 567

Srctrion B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S.

[For Professor Williamson’s Address see next page].

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee on the Method of Determining the Specific
Refraction of Solids from their Solutions—See Reports, p. 155.

2. On a Process for Utilising Waste-products and. Economising Fuel in the
Hatraction of Copper. By J. Dixon.

3. On Metallic Compounds containing Bivalent Hydrocarbon Radicals,
Part II. By J. Saxurat.

In a former communication (‘ Brit. Ass. Report,’ 1880) a new organo-mercury
compound was described, of which the interesting feature was the bivalent
character of the hydrocarbon radical contained in it, viz. methylene; this being,
so far as I can ascertain, the first body ever obtained of its class.

The bivalent function of the organic radical, as well as of the metal, naturally
suggests the existence of another compound, similar to the first, but containing an
additional atom of mercury, thus :—

1° I CH,Hel.
2° I HeCH, Hel.

This second compound, which is related to methylene iodide in the same way
as mercuric iodomethide (CH,HgI) is to methyl] iodide, can be easily obtained by
exposing a mixture of methylene iodide, with an excess of mercury, to the action
of light. It is desirable to add a little mercuric iodide, so as to form mercurous
iodide, whose action has been fully-explained in the paper already referred to. It
is also necessary to add a sufficient quantity of ether, so as to keep the mixture in
the fluid condition, even towards the end of the reaction. The reaction takes from
one to several days, according to the state of weather and frequency of shaking.

In order to get the compound in a state of purity the following plan was
adopted :—Ether is distilled off, and the residue is digested with a strong aqueous
solution of potassic iodide. It is washed, first with water containing potassic
iodide, and afterwards with pure water, till the washing is free from iodide, and
then dried. It is now heated with methylene iodide, whereby any excess of mercury
collects at the bottom of the beaker into a globule, leaving above it a clear yellow
solution. The latter is decanted, and, on cooling, crystals are rapidly deposited ;
the first crops consist of pure di-mercury compound, whilst later portions and the
mother liquor contain the mono-mercury compound. The first portions are drained,
washed with methylene iodide, and then thoroughly with ether till a drop of the
washings rapidly evaporates without leaving any oily residue.

Di-mercury methylene iodide thus obtained is a yellowish crystalline powder

568 REPORT—1881.

insoluble in all the ordinary solvents, hot methylene iodide being the only liquid
capable of dissolving it.

It melts somewhere about 230°C., with partial decomposition. By acting upon
it with iodine, we get, as the only products, mercuric iodide and methylene iodide :

I HgCH,Hel + 21, =2H¢1, + CHL.
Analytical results are shown below :—

Is Il.
Substance taken 3 ‘: : “ 4 0°580 0:423
Pure iodine taken . ; a S * 2 0656 04731
is » left ‘ F A s : F 0:11592 01513
Ps » usedup. a : ; “| : 0°44008 0°3218
Also,
Mercuric sulphide . _. c 3 : 2 0°406 0:2939
These data give the following numbers per cent.:—
I. as Cale. for CH,Hgely.
Iodine needed “ 4 A. 75°87 76:08 76:05

Mercury : - 5 : : 60°34 59°91 59°88

The same compound can with equal ease be obtained from mono-mercury
compound (CH,HeglI,), by simply mixing it with some mercury, mercuric iodide,
and ether, and exposing the mixture to the action of light, with frequent shaking,
as before.

By heating di-mercury methylene iodide with a dilute solution of hydric chloride
we get mercuric iodomethide :—

I HgOH,Hgl + HOl=1 HeCH, + Hea

The insoluble compound, which was in the previous paper supposed to be
CH,Hg,I,, has been re-examined with care, and is found to yield iodoform by the
action of iodine, and not methylene iodide. The numerical result of analysis
remains, however, almost the same. It is, therefore, in all probability, a compound
of iodoform with mercury, having the formula CH Hg,I,, and containing a trivalent
radical. This compound is related to iodoform, in the same way as mercuric iodo-
methide is to methyl-iodide, or dimercury-methylene-iodide to methylene-iodide.
We may, therefore, be now supposed to possess the following series of organo-
mercury compounds :—

CH,(Hgl),

CH,(Hegl),, and CH,HeI,,
CH(Hgl),.
In conclusion, I wish to record my best thanks to Professor Williamson for his

able counsel and kind assistance, and to Mr. E. E. Berry for some of the prepara-
tions and analyses.

The PresipEnt delivered the following Address ;—

The Growth of the Atomic Theory.

Ir has been thought desirable that, on the occasion of this half-centenary celebration
of the foundation of our great Association, some notice should be presented to.
the members of what has been doing in the respective branches of science during
the period of our activity; and I have, accordingly, traced out for your considera-
tion a very imperfect sketch of the theories which guided chemical inquiry at the
beginning of that period, and of the leading changes which have been wrought in
them by fifty years’ work.

There is, perhaps, hardly any branch of science which during the last fitty
years has made such great and steady progress as Chemistry. Let anyone com-
pare recent dictionaries of the science (including the bulky supplements, which con-
tain a record of the chief discoveries made while the body of the work was being

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 569

compiled) with a treatise of chemistry fifty years old. Let him compare a pub-
lished record of one year’s progress of the science fifty years ago with one of
modern date. Let him compare, as far as may be possible, the number of men
who formerly devoted their whole time and energy to the advancement of
chemistry, or who were engaged in industrial pursuits involving a knowledge of
the science, with the corresponding number now-a-days. Let him count up the
services which chemistry had rendered to common life at the commencement of
the epoch with those which it has now to show.

Everywhere he will see marvellous evidences of increasing growth. But if he
be a reflecting man, he will not be satistied with wondering at results: he will
endeavour to trace them to their causes, and to discover the guiding principles.
which have brought them about: he will try to derive, from a knowledge of
those guiding principles, a perception of the means by which such progress can
best be continued and extended—how it can be most effectively directed to the:
benefit of his fellow-men.

It is on this aspect of the question that I propose to address you to-day.

The process of scientific investigation includes a great variety of operations,
which may be considered under three headings, mental, sensual, and physical. We
think, we observe, and we work with our hands. In planning a new experiment
we call to mind what is known of the phenomena in question, and form an opinion
as to what is likely to happen under conditions somewhat different from those
which existed in previous experiments. We regulate by careful observations the
necessary manual operations, so as to obtain with accuracy the desired conditions
for the new experiment, and we observe attentively the changes which take place
in the course of that experiment. The result of such observations is sometimes
in accordance with our anticipation, but very frequently at variance with it. If
it accords with our anticipation, we put on record the extension which it has given
to the application of the general theory on which that anticipation was founded.
But if the result is not what we expected, we carefully and critically revise the.
reasoning which had led us to expect a particular result, and often repeat the same
experiment with greater care, or some modification of it.

Materials for a new theory are gained when logicully faultless reasoning,
checked by accurate observations, have led to results which could not have been
foreseen by the aid of any previous theory. When a theory has thus gained a
footing in science, it serves as a guide in further work. It guides us in arranging
known facts. It guides us to the discovery of new facts. Sometimes it does
these things for a short time only, and is then superseded by some more general
theory derived from a wider and more comprehensive view of the facts.

There is, perhaps, nowhere so severe and rigorous a test of the truth of an
idea as that which is afforded by its use in any accurate department of experi-
mental science ; and it is worth while, on philosophical grounds, to consider briefly
the conditions of growth of the chief chemical theories which have withstood this
ordeal and proved themselves to be trustworthy guides in experimental science.

Now as far as I know them, the general theories which have played the chief
part in the development of chemistry are mere condensed statements of fact.

Every thoughtful man of science has doubtless indulged in speculations to find
the cause of facts which are as yet unexplained; has imagined some fundamental
condition or property of matter which might cause it to produce effects such as
are witnessed. Itis to be hoped that the time may be far distant when men of:
science will confine their thoughts within the range of ideas which are proved to
be true. But it is most important that they should not confuse such hypothetical
speculations with theories which have received experimental verification, and that
while employing any theory, they should not lose sight of the limits within which.
it has been proved to be correct, beyond which it can only be used as an hypothesis.

The foundation of the science of chemistry was laid by the discovery of chemical
elements; those distinct varieties of matter which we can neither produce nor
destroy. Chemical science treats of those changes of property in matter which can
be represented as due to changes of combination of elementary atoms. It knows
nothing of the production or destruction of those elementary atoms. Speculations.

570 REPORT—1881.

respecting their ultimate form or structure will have found a place in the science
as soon as such speculations have helped to arrange the facts which are known, and
to discover new chemical facts.

At the commencement of our epoch chemists had classified elements according
to their electro-chemical properties. Chemical analysis had established the fact
that a good many compounds could be represented as consisting of elementary
atoms of two kinds combined in small number. Thus carbonic oxide and carbonic
acid had been found to possess respectively a composition which could be repre-
sented (adopting our present atomic symbols) by the formule CO and CO,, water
by the formula H, O, marsh gas CH,, olefiant gas CH,. The oxides and acids of
nitrogen were represented by formulz corresponding empirically to those which
we now adopt. So also ammonia and hydric chloride had their present formule.
Sulphurous and sulphuric acid had the respective formule SO, and SO,. Phos-
phorous and phosphoric acid had the formule, P,O, and P,O,. Baryta and the
oxides of iron had the formule BaO, FeO, Fe,Ox.

Such primary compounds were classified upon the same principle which served
for the classification of the elements themselves, into electro-positive or basylous
and electro-negative or chlorous compounds, and the smallest quantity of each of
them, which consistently with an atomic representation of the results of analysis,
was deemed capable of existing, was called an atom of that compound.

Very simple compounds possessed of prominent characteristics and distinct re-
actions had first been isolated and identified. They were found to contain their
constituent elements in proportions easily recognisable as multiples of atomic
weights. But such simple compounds are rare exceptions among mineral and
organic materials, and if the atomic theory could have gone no further than to
guide us to an understanding of these few simple compounds, it must soon have
given place to some more fundamental conception. It is moreover worthy of notice
that in this its most elementary form the atomic theory was not the only con-
ceivable interpretation of the proportions of combination between elements. Those
proportions could be as consistently represented by fractions as by integral mul-
tiples. Thus, instead of representing carbonic acid as containing twice as much
oxygen as is contained in carbonic oxide, we might have represented it as containing
the same quantity of oxygen combined with half as much carbon, and using for the
moment atomic symbols for a non-atomic theory, we might have written carbonic

2
acid thus 5 O. Or we might represent them both by percentage numbers.

It was so simple and natural to adopt the atomic hypothesis, and to represent
compounds as built up of atoms, that chemists seem to have paid little attention to
any other mode of representing the proportions of combination. They assumed
that the variable proportions of elements, which were observed in compounds, were
due to the various numbers of elementary atoms respectively aggregated together
in each compound. They perceived that the existence of elementary atoms
involved the existence of compound atoms, or molecules, as we now call them,
and accordingly they represented each known compound of two elements by a
molecular formula as simple as possible, consistently with the view of its atomic
constitution. Many of these molecules, such as those of the acids, were found to
be capable of combining with others of the other class, forming salts, and those
combinations were found to take place in proportions corresponding to the weights
of the respective molecules, or to very simple multiples of those weights, and the
secondary compounds or salts thus formed combined (if at all) in proportions
corresponding to simple multiples of their molecular weights. The dualistic
representation of the constitution of salts served to represent the results of their
analysis, consistently with the atomic theory, and a vast number of fundamental
facts were collected and arranged by the aid of the dualistic theory of combination.

The actual numbers obtained by analysis of any particular compound exhibited
sometimes a very near approximation to those required by an atomic formula of its
‘composition. Sometimes they differed considerably from those required by theory ;
but it was always found that the more pure the substance and the more accurate
the analytical operations, the more nearly did the result agree with some atomic
formula of the substance.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 571

The compound atoms were units which had grown out of the atomic theory.
Each of them was the smallest quantity of a compound, which (consistently with
the results of analysis) could be represented as built dualistically of its constituent
atoms.

Chemical combination was viewed as a process of juxtaposition of simple or
compound atoms, little account being taken of the disturbance of the previous
arrangement of those compound atoms. It was when a constitution, similar to
that attributed to salts, was imagined for other compounds not saline in their
character, that the dualistic theory broke down. Thus chlorocarbonic acid was
represented as a compound of carbonic acid with carbonic chloride, and was
accordingly designated as carbonate of carbonic chloride, while the formula was
made to contain the formule of those bodies. Chlorosulphuric acid and chloro-
chromic acid were in like manner represented as compounds of sulphuric and
chromic acid respectively with imaginary hexachlorides.

Careful investigations of the reactions in which chlorocarboniec acid takes part
showed, however, that in each of them it behaves as a compound containing only
two atoms of chlorine. It was found that the commonest and. best-known car-
bonates and sulphates have a fundamentally similar constitution. Thus potassic
carbonate may be represented as a compound in which the two atoms of chlorine
in phosgene are replaced by two atoms of the radical O K; and oil of vitriol, as a
compound of two atoms of hydroxyl with the same group, S O,, which in chloro-
sulphuric acid is combined with two atoms of chlorine. Chlorochromic acid has
not been examined to as great an extent as the above compounds, but all we know
of it points clearly to its having a molecular constitution similar to that of chloro-
sulphuric acid, viz. Cl, Cr O,, for not only do their vapour-densities agree, but the
chromates in their constitution and crystalline forms exhibit a clear analogy to the
sulphates.

— the simpler molecular formule, which a fuller knowledge of their
chemical behaviour suggested for these bodies, were found in all cases to agree with
the volume belonging to the molecule of every pure substance known in the state
of vapour.

A difficulty of another kind had been foreseen by the great founder of the
dualistic system, and it was by the investigations in organic chemistry that it
assumed serious proportions.

Carbon compounds were discovered possessing definite and specific properties,
and presenting the characteristics of pure substances, but of which the results of
analysis did not agree with any simple proportion between the numbers of their
constituent atoms. Their empyrical composition could not be decided by the aid
of the so-called law of multiple proportions, for two or more atomic formule
required percentages of the constituents differing so little from one another that
analysis could not decide which was the true one.

In order to select the true molecular formule of such complex substances from
among those which approached most nearly to the results of ultimate analysis, and
to determine with certainty their empirical composition, it was necessary to find
other methods for the determination of molecular weights. It was necessary to
study the various properties of compounds of known composition, and of others
which could be prepared in a state of purity; to determine the vapour densities
and rates of diffusion of those which could be obtained in the gaseous state with-
out decomposition; to determine boiling points and melting points; to examine
crystalline forms of pure compounds and of mixtures; to determine solubilities
and densities of solids and of liquids; but above all it was necessary to collect
fuller and more accurate knowledge of the chemical changes which take place in
the mutual reaction of molecules.

A vast amount of accurate and careful work of these kinds has been done, and
has been subjected to rigid and often hostile scrutiny during the various stages of
its progress. We now know that compound atoms, or molecules as we call them,
which can be identified by their geometrical, mechanical, and other properties, are
the same as the compound atoms indicated by the most comprehensive chemical
evidences of composition and reactions, The molecular constitution of matter was

572 REPORT—1881.

predicted implicitly by the atomic theory of the constitution of the elements; and,
wherever the physical properties of the molecules are such as afford any basis for
the determination of their relative weights, such results agree with those derived.
from purely chemical considerations guided by the atomic theory.

Our kuowledge of molecules is as yet in its infancy. Even among the com-
monest elements and compounds we know the molecular weights of very few, but
what we do know of them proves that the idea of compound atoms invented by
chemists to explain the elementary facts of chemical action is, as far as it goes, a.
true representation of what exists in nature.

Many of the molecules thus proved to exist were the same as those suggested
under the dualistic system; but many were proved, by the more accurate and
extensive knowledge of their reactions and properties, to have different weights.
from those which had been at first attributed to them, yet always consistent with
the fundamental requirements of the atomic theory. Thus H,O, CO, CO,, CH,,
SO,, SO,, CaO, FeO, Fe,O, are the formule still used to denote the molecules of
the respective compounds, though the last three ought probably to be represented
by some multiple. On the other hand, the molecule of olefiant gas is now repre-
sented by the formula C,H, instead of CH,. The chloracetate is C,C],HO,, instead
of C,Cl,, C,0,, H,O. The molecule of benzoil chloride is C,H,OCI, instead of one
ae pore to (C,H,).0,, C;,H,Cl,, and chlorosulphuric acid is Cl,SO,, instead
of 2S0,, SC].

In proportion as chemists came to know more of the constitution of molecules,
and to study chemical reactions from the point of view of the changes which they
bring about in the constitution of molecules, did the idea of substitution come to
be more and more used in the place of that of mere additive combination. A vast
number of processes of chemica] combination, which had been considered as con-
sisting of direct combination, were found to be processes of double decomposition.

One of the most important facts which was brought to light by the careful
examination of the composition of salts and organic bodies, aided by the molecular
method of representing their constitution, was that hydrogen is chemically one of
the metals, and that the compounds formed by the combination of water with
acids are analogous to other salts of those acids; while compounds of hydrogen
with elements or radicals like chlorine are salts, analogous in their constitution to.
otber chlorides, &c.

The molecular or unitary mode of viewing the constitution of each substance
affords more true as well as more simple records of the facts observed in chemical
reactions than could be obtained in the dualistic systems. A salt such as hydric
sulphate used to be considered as containing sulphuric acid and water, and repre-
sented by a formula such as SO,, H,O, implying the presence in it of both the
substances from which it was known to be formed.

When two elements combined, their product was considered and described as.
containing the elementary atoms which had served to form it, and it was consistent
with this habit to represent a product which had been formed by the combination
of two compound molecules as containing those molecules.

But the main business of chemical investigation is to observe accurately the
changes of composition which take place in the reactions of known substances,
with a view of discovering the atomic interchanges to which they are due,

The compound formed by the combination of sulphuric acid and water differs
in many physical and chemical properties from both of those bodies. Its name and
its atomic formula serve to denote the aggregate of properties which are known
to belong to it, whereas the dualistic formula, SO,, H,O, served to recall the pro-
perties of the acid and base from which it was formed, rather than those of the
compound itself.

Elementary chemical reactions which according to the binary mode of viewing
compounds were supposed to consist of dualistic processes involving sometimes
the assumption of forces (Jike predisposing affinity) of a purely metaphysical
character, were now explained as consisting of atomic displacements, or inter-
changes of a kind well known to be of common occurrence. Thus the evolution
of hydrogen by the action of zinc on aqueous hydric sulphate was supposed to be

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 573

the result of a decomposition of water by the metal, such decomposition being
induced by the presence of the acid (SO,), which exerted a predisposing affinity
for the zinc oxide. Our present explanation is a simple statement of the fact, that
under the conditions described, zine displaces hydrogen from its sulphate.

The recognition and study of the metallic functions of hydrogen enabled
chemists to obtain far clearer and simpler views of the constitution of salts, and
to observe the differences of property which are produced in them by the replace-
ment of one element by another. It enabled us to see more and more clearly the
characteristic functions of each element, by comparing the constitution and pro-
perties of the salts containing it with those of the corresponding salts containing
other elements.

Thus in the dualistic system we had for the three common phosphates,
PO,Na,, PO,Na,H, PO,NaH,, molecular formule in which sodium was represented
with twice as great an atomic weight as that. which we attribute to it, and which
‘in our atomic weights may be thus represented, viz. P,O,, 3Na,0; P,O,, 2Na, O;
P,O,, Na,O. In like manner we had such a formula as P,O,, 2Na,O (for the phos-
phite PO,Na,H), and for the hypophosphite PO,NaH, we had a formula cor-
responding to P,O, Na,O.

Deterininations of water of crystallisation and of chemically combined water
proved that many of the compounds assumed on the dualistic system to exist
are either not obtainable or have different properties and a different constitution
from those which have been described. Thus we now know that the salts
PO,Na,H, PO,NaH,, PO,Na,H, and PO,NaH, cannot be deprived of the ele-
ments of water without undergoing a fundamental change of composition and of
properties.

The atomic weights of the alkali metals and of silver were found to be half of
those of the dualistic system, and an atom of one of these metals, in common
double decompositions between their salts and hydrogen-salts, changes place with
one atom of hydrogen.

Many products of the combination of known molecules were found to be
formed by processes of double decomposition, so that each molecule of such
products is built up partly of atoms derived from one of the materials, partly of
atoms from the other. Thus potassic hydrate is formed by the combination of a
molecule of potash with one of wacer. Yet each molecule of the hydrate is built
up of half a molecule of potash and half a molecule of water.

The study of organic compounds played an important part in the improvement
of our processes of reasoning. Many of their molecules having a very complex
‘structure were found to undergo in most of their reactions very simple changes, of
the same kind as those which mineral compounds undergo. Most of the elements
of each organic molecule remained combined together with functions analogous to
those of hydrogen or chlorine.

The theory of radicals which had been suggested by the reactions of ammonia-
salts and of cyanides was largely extended in organic chemistry.

Many families of organic compounds were discovered in each of which the
members are connected by close analogy of constitution and of properties. Each
of these families forms what is called a homologous series, each term of the series
‘being a compound of which the molecule contains one atom of carbon and two
atoms of hydrogen more than the previous term.

Thus a series of compounds was proved to have reactions similar to those of
‘common alcohol, and molecular weights ranging from 32 to 488. The lower terms
of the series are distinguished from one another by differences of boiling points
approximately proportional to the number of atoms of carbon and hydrogen by
which they differ from one another; whilst the higher terms undergo decompo-
sition at the high temperatures required for their evaporation, and are distinguished
from one another by differences of melting points, that of the alcohol C,,H,,O
being about 85°C, In their constitution these alcohols were found to be analogous
to the alkaline hydrates.

In like manner various other series of alcohols were discovered corresponding
respectively in their constitutions to other classes of metallic hydrates. Series

574 REPORT—1881.

were also found of which the members present analogies of reaction with mono-
basic, bibasic, and tribasic hydrogen salts respectively.

These and many other such discoveries were made under the guidance of the
atomic theory, developed to the point of systematically recognising and studying
the mutual reactions of molecules.

One of the most remarkable and important extensions which our knowledge of
molecules has undergone consisted in the discovery that various elements in what
we are accustomed to consider the free state, really consist of molecules containing
like atoms combined with one another.

Thus chemists adopt the formule O,, H,, Cl,, P,, J,, As,, to denote molecules
of the respective elements, and we have for these molecular formulz evidences of
the same kinds as those which serve to establish the molecular formule C1H, H,O,
NH,, &c. In all the best-known reactions in which chlorine or hydrogen are
either taken up or evolved we find that those elements behave as chemical com-
pounds of two like atoms; and, moreover, their molecules, as determined from a
study of their reactions, have the same volume as that of every compound molecule
proved to evaporate without decomposition.

With this knowledge of the molecular constitution of hydrogen and of chlorine
gases, we come to regard the direct formation of hydric chloride as due to a process
of double decomposition between two molecules, like the reaction of chlorine on
an equal volume of marsh gas.

Many other reactions, such as the evolution of hydrogen by the action of zine
on a hydrogen salt, the liberation of chlorine and nitrogen on the explosive decom-
position of their compound, the direct combination of oxygen and hydrogen, we
may expect to be able to resolve into mere processes of double decomposition.

The earliest determinations of combining proportions were made with salts
(hydrogen salts and others) which undergo double decomposition by mutual contact,
and the term equivalent was subsequently introduced to indicate the proportional
weights of analogous substances found to be of equal value in their chemical effects.
Tables of equivalent weights of acids consisted of numbers standing to one another
in the same proportions as the weights of the respective substances found to be of
equal value in neutralising a fixed quantity of a particular base; and in like
manner tables of the equivalent weights of bases recorded the proportions by
weight in which certain bases might replace one another in the neutralisation of
a particular quantity of a given acid. Similar determinations have been tabulated
of the so-called equivalent weights of elements. Under the dualistic system
chemists paid little attention to the essential difference between atomic weights
and equivalent weights; and some were of opinion that the facts of chemistry
might be represented as consistently from the point of view of equivalence as from
that of atoms, and that the idea of atoms (which they considered to be hypothetical).
might be dispensed with.

In the system of atomic weights employed under that system, two atoms of
hydrogen were generally represented as reacting together, and the symbol of the
double atom was marked thus, H. The alkali metals and silver were represented
as having atomic weights twice as great as those which we now adopt, and
equivalent to those of the magnesian metals and of oxygen. In a great number
of the common reactions of these élements the atomic symbols were consistently
used as equivalent symbols, But those who professed to dispense with the atomic
theory used atomic symbols, even in cases where they did not represent equivalent
weights. Thus nitrogen was always represented by its atomic symbol, and the
composition and reactions of nitrogen compounds were always studied and repre-
sented in accordance with the atomic theory, using various multiple proportions
of what they were still pleased to call equivalent weights, using molecular weights,
and various other ideas which formed part of the atomic theory, and which had
no known connection with the notion cf fixed equivalence. It, however, it be
true that all chemical compounds consist of elementary atoms, and that the
explanation of chemical reactions consists in stating more and more precisely the
changes of combination between the constituent atoms of the reacting molecules ;
equivalence could only be said to exist between a like number of atoms when they

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 575

were known to have similar functions. It became necessary to study the relation.
of equivalence between elementary atoms, instead of studying them from the point
of view of elements divisible in any proportion,

It is worth while noticing the general process by which this intellectual change
was brought about; for there is a good deal yet to be done in the matter, and our
future progress may be guided by experience gained in the past.

It was essentially one-sided. One consideration was brought into very
prominent relie', and it threw a marvellous light on the matter. It gave us a
clear view of the natural order among elements; but, like every other strong light,
it fell on one side only.

The equality of vapour-volumes had been used with great advantage in con-
junction with chemical reactions and other evidence as a characteristic of
molecules, and the attention of chemists was greatly arrested by the consideration
of four typical compounds, which upon the concurrent evidence of very extensive
chemical examination and equality of vapour-volumes were known to have
respectively a composition corresponding to the formule ClH, OH,, NH,, CH,.

It was known that the atom of oxygen in water can be replaced by chlorine,
but that two atoms of chlorine are needed for the purpose. The atom of nitrogen
in ammonia requires three atoms of chlorine to replace it, whilst in marsh gas the
atom of carbon is replaceable by four atoms of chlorine. Other elements were
studied from the point of view of their respective resemblance to these, and arranged
in classes, each of which consisted of atoms equivalent to one another. Thus.
chlorine, bromine, iodine, fluorine, hydrogen, potassium, sodium, lithium, silver,
&c., constituted a class of atoms of equal value, and were called monads. Oxygen,
sulphur, selenium, tellurium, calcium, strontium, barium, magnesium, zinc,
cadmium, mercury, lead, copper, &c., were classed together as dyads, having equal
value amongst themselves, but double the atomic value of the members of the
first class. So nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, with boron, and
some other elements, were considered as forming a class of atoms each of which
has three times the value of the monads. The class of tetrads contained carbon,
silicon, tin, platinum, &c.

Many apparent exceptions to these atomic values were satisfactorily explained
as due to the partial combination of like atoms with one another. Thus in the
vast majority of hydrocarbons, such as C,H,, C,H,, C,H,, &c., the atoms of
carbon do not appear to be tetravalent, inasmuch as each of the molecules contains.
less than four atoms of hydrogen to every one atom of carbon. It was well known,
however, that polyvalent atoms can combine partly with one element, partly with
another, and also that like atoms can combine with one another. Why then should
not two tetravalent atoms like carbon combine respectively with three atoms of a
monad, and also combine with one another? The compound must be a single
molecule with the properties known to belong to methyle C, H,. Again, if this
molecule were deprived of two of its atoms of hydrogen, each of the atoms of
carbon must combine further with the other atom of carbon forming H, C C H,;
and a further step in this same direction would give us acetylene H C C H, in which
each atom of carbon is combined with the other to the extent of three quarters of
its value, and with one atom of hydrogen. An extension of this reasoning led to
the discovery of long chains of atoms of carbon, each atom forming a link, and each
of them (short of the ends) being combined with two other atoms of carbon, while
its saturation is completed by hydrogen.

Similar partial combinations of like atoms with one another were recognised in
many other classes of compounds, and there is strong reason to expect that the
application of the principle will be far more widely extended in proportion as our
knowledge of the silicates and other complex classes of compounds becomes some-
what definite.

This incorporation of the doctrine of equivalence into the atomic theory by the
division of the elements into classes consisting respectively of equivalent atoms, was.
probably one of the most important general steps as yet made in the development
of the atomic theory. It was seen to correspond in so clear and striking a manner
with a vast number of well-known properties and reactions of compounds as to

576 REPORT—1881.

‘deserve and acquire the confident trust of chemists. But, as often happens in such
cases, this confidence in the result carried many of them too far. It led them to
assume that atomic values in all other chemical compounds must be always the
‘same as in the compounds under consideration. They saw that they had got hold
of the truth, and they thought it was the whole truth. For instance, one most
distinguished chemist assumed that each elementary atom has only one value in its
compounds; that the atom of nitrogen has always the value three, as in ammonia
and its products of substitution, and that in sal ammoniac the atom of nitrogen is
chemically combined only with three atoms of hydrogen, whilst the molecule of
ammonia is in a state of molecular combination with hydric chloride. Another
most distinguished chemist admitted that nitrogen and phosphorus have two atomic
values, but not more than two. He held that the respective combining powers are
always satisfied by the same number of atoms, no matter what the character of the
uniting atoms may be.

With respect to these views it may be noticed that the assumption of combina-
tion between molecules as due to some other force than that which binds together
the constituents of each molecule—in fact the assumption of molecular combination
as an unknown something different from chemical combination, is open to even
more grave objections than those which led us to abandon the dualistic system.

To represent a molecule of sal ammoniac as a compound containing two mole-
cules, each one built up by the chemical combination of the constituent atoms, and
the two united together by some other force called molecular, was hardly a step in
advance of the view which represented it as containing two molecules united
together by the same kind of force as that which holds together the atoms in each
of the constituent molecules.

The other form of the theory of atomicity as an inherent property of each atom
enabling it to combine with an equal number of other atoms, whatever the cha-
racter of those other atoms may be, seems difficult to reconcile with such facts as
the following: An atom of nitrogen is not known to combine with more than
three atoms of hydrogen alone, or of substances like hydrogen, but it forms
stable compounds with five atoms (as in the ammonia salts), when four of them
are basylous and one of them is chlorous. An atom of sulphur is not known to
combine with more than two atoms of hydrogen alone, but it forms stable com-
pounds with four atoms, if three of them are like hydrogen, while the fourth is
chlorous. Instances like these are plentiful, and they lead us to look to the
chemical characters of the atoms bound together in one molecule as a fundamental
condition of the atomic value of the element which binds them together.

Theoretical limitations of natural forces are very difficult of proof, and it is
well to be slow and cautious in adopting any such limitation.

A careful consideration of the facts of the case has led me not only to doubt the
validity of the stpposed limits of atomic value, but to doubt whether we have
grounds for assigning any limits whatever to such values.

Atomic values appear to me to be in their very nature variable quantities, and
I venture to think that chemistry will be greatly advanced by a full and careful
study of the conditions of variation of atomic values.

Two conditions of change of atomic value are particularly worthy of notice :—

I. Temperature.

II. The chemical character of the uniting atoms.

Atomic values increase with fall of temperature, and diminish with rise of
temperature. An atom which is combined with as many basylous monads as it can
take up by themselves will take up chlorous monads, or both chlorous and basylous,
and reciprocally,

In illustration of the diminution of atomic values with rise of temperature,
I may adduce the following well-known reactions: Sal ammoniac containing
nitrogen combined with five monads breaks up at a high temperature into am-
monia and hydric chloride ; and in like manner other ammonia salts decompose by
heat, forming ammonia or an amide, with trivalent nitrogen. The highest chlorides
of phosphorus and of antimony are decomposed by heat into free chlorine and the
lower chloride. Potassic fluosilicate is decomposed by heat into silicic and potassic

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 577

fluorides ; and carbonic acid breaks up at high temperatures into a mixture of
carbonic oxide and oxygen.

Amongst illustrations of the greater atomic values which elements assume by
combining with both chlorous and basylous atoms than with atoms of the one
kind only we may take the following cases: Platinum is a metal of which the
atom has been supposed to be always tetravalent, because it has not been found
capable of combining with more than four atoms of chlorine. The common solution
formed by aqua regia contains the compound H, PtC),, a perfectly definite and
erystallisable hydrogen salt. Chemists are constantly making and using the potas-
sium and ammonium salts, &c., corresponding to it, yet they conceal from them-
selves the fact that the atom of platinum is directly combined with eight monads
‘by calling the compounds double salts. The atom of silicon in the silico-fluorides
such as H, SiF, or K,SiF, is combined with twice as many monads as it can
take up of one kind; so boron in the crystalline salt Na B F, has a higher atomic
value than in its fluoride, owing to the presence of the atom of sodium.

In like manner the atom of gold in the well-known salt NaAuCl, has a
higher value than it can assume with chlorine alone.

Sulphur of which the atom does not combine with more than 2 atoms of
hydrogen, forms with 3 atoms of methyle, or ethyle, and one atom of iodine, or
chlorine, &c., the well-known compounds like ISMe,; and iodine, which is con-
sidered a monad, forms the crystalline and stable periodate OI1(OH), and the various
metallic derivatives, such as

OI ONa OI (ONa), OI (OAg),
(OH), (OH);

The crystalline compound of the perchlorate with water (HC10,2H,O) has
probably a similar constitution. Chemical journals abound with descriptions of
definite and well-characterised compounds, which have, like the above, been put
aside by the atomicity theory, as mere molecular compounds. The following
formule are taken almost at random, in illustration of the generality of atomic
values far beyond those acknowledged by the theory of atomicity.

IPCI, K,FeF K,SnCl,

KAsF, 2(K,FeCl,) KHgl,

K, Ash, 2(K,FeF,) K,Hgl,4H,0.

KSbF, K,CuCl, KHeCi,

K,SbCl, K,CuF, K,HeCi,
(SbF, KMgCl

K,BiCl, K,MgBs,

K,Agl,

I have for convenience written in the middle of each of these formule the
symbol of the atom which I assume to act asconnecting element. If we consider
the atomic values usually found in these elements together with those represented
by the above list, we see that their atomic values vary according to the numbers
given in a line with them respectively in the following table. It has yet to be
proved that the atom of platinum is tetravalent in any known compound, for there
is no sufficient evidence to show that platinic chloride has a molecular weight corre-
sponding to the formula PtCl,, instead of one corresponding to Pt,Cl,, each atom
of platinum being partly combined with the other, partly with chlorine.

ee Atomic Values
wi, 3 . : Dyas
S 24
Pt 4(?),8
Si 4,8
Sn 4,8
Cu 2,6
He 2,4, 6
Me 2, 4,6
g 1,5

A - : : ; 5
1881. PP

578 REPORT—1881.

Atomic Symbols Atomic Values
B Baeble Thy
I apt. AR. cl es tenet oad sonar a al
N be NANG Seti bis Sig ta Se Bo te
P etic sh B peril pea ee ella So 63) 3)
As PRET nee. Bt en ear
Sb Se at ee ko a
Bi Pe ee, So ee
te bah Va MRE Mik ES IIE

Not only are there elements of which an atom is found in combination with a
greater number of basylous and chlorous monads together than of either kind
alone, but there are also.elements which are not known to form chemical compounds
with hydrogen or potassium alone, and yet which combine with either of them
when also combined with chlorine, fluorine, &c. This is illustrated by the fol-
lowing compounds, viz. HAuCl,, H,PtCl,, NaBF,, K,SiF,, K,FeF,, K,CuCl,.
It is also well known that there are many cases of elements of which an atom
cannot combine with as many monads of one kind as of another. For instance an
atom of nitrogen or of antimony is only known to be trivalent in combination with
hydrogen ; but each of them occurs in the form of a pentavalent compound with
chlorine. Antimony forms either no compound with five atoms of bromine, or a
compound more unstable than the higher chloride.

Many more such instances might easily now be given, and a vast number will
doubtless be found when the investigations of chemists are directed to the search for
them. I have only given these few by way of illustration of the leading conditions
of change of atomic values.

In the course of their investigations of the precise interchanges of atoms which
take place between molecules, chemists were frequently led to observe evidences.
of the order in which the constituent elements are combined ; and with the more
wide and accurate knowledge of reactions which is now in their possession, they
have been enabled to follow up so far the study of the respective state of combina-
tion of each atom in a molecule as to arrive at simple and consistent explanations.
of facts which had previously eluded the grasp of science.

Our knowledge of the order of combination of atoms in a molecule and of the
differences between direct and indirect combinations of particular atoms may be
said to have originated chiefly in the study of the compounds of nitrogen. Thus
it was found that the hydrogen in ammonia differs in many of its chemical
functions from hydrogen in hydrocarbons. A base (called methylia) was dis-
covered having a molecular composition corresponding to the empirical formula
(CNH,), and this base was found to contain two atoms of hydrogen like those of
ammonia and three atoms like thbsein hydrocarbons. Its constitution was accord--
ingly represented by a formula describing it as an ammonia, in which one atom
of hydrogen is replaced by the monad methyle, or, to be more explicit, as
containing two atoms of hydrogen directly combined with nitrogen, and three
atoms of hydrogen indirectly combined with that same atom of nitrogen through
the intervening atom of carbon. Writing in juxtaposition to one another the
symbols of those atoms which are directly combined, we can express the facts
by the following formula, viz. H,NCH,.

Those marvellous varieties of matter called isomeric compounds found their
natural explanation in differences of the respective arrangements of like atoms.
Thus two bases were discovered having the same empirical molecular formula,
C,NH,. One of them is made by different reactions from the other, and in its
decompositions differs from the other. All these chemical differences between them
are found to be due to the fact that one of them (called ethylia) contains two
atoms of hydrogen directly combined with the nitrogen, and the monovalent
hydro-carbon ethyle in place of the third atom of hydrogen; whilst the other (called
dimethylia) contains only one atom of hydrogen combined directly with nitrogen,
the carbon of the two atoms of methyle completing the saturation of the trivalent
nitrogen, as expressed by the formula H N (C H,)..

It was subsequently proved that an atom of oxygen may combine with two like

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 579

or unlike monads, such monads being indirectly combined with one another through
the intervening atom of oxygen. Thus five of the atoms of hydrogen in common
alcohol were proved to be in direct combination with the carbon, whilst the other
one is indirectly combined with it through the oxygen, as expressed by the formula
HO (C,H,).
pea compound (called methyl-oxide) was proved to have the same em-
yrical composition, but very different properties and reactions, its constitution
ine explained by the formula H,COCH,.

Again, two compounds of distinct reactions and properties were found to have
the same empirical molecular composition, C,NH,, and it was clearly proved that
in one of them the two atoms of carbon are directly combined thus, NOC H,, whilst
in the other they are indirectly combined through the atom of nitrogen CN GH,.

An immense amount of admirable work has been done of late years (especially
in Germany) in working out the evidences of the atomic order of complex organic
bodies, and in thereby obtaining a command of their reactions,

Evidences of the same kind have been obtained of the atomic arrangement of
some few of the simplest inorganic bodies, and it is to be hoped that ere long
chemists will recognise the importance of examining the constitution of salts with
the aid of the principles established in organic chemistry.

The foundation is already laid by our knowledge of the constitution of such

compounds as
HOH, HOK, HONH,, HONO,
HOPbOH, HOPbONO,, HOCOK, HOSOH
O

O,
and there is a strong probability regarding the atomic constitution of many other
water compounds, e.g. SO,H, + HO =OS(OH),, SO,H, + H,O = S(OH),.

Amongst the extensions of our means of examining the physical properties of
matter, and thereby discovering new varieties of matter for chemical investigation,
spectrum analysis has played an important part, and is no doubt destined to do far
more. It has already led chemists to the discovery of several previously unknown
elements, and has led to the detection of various known elements in distant masses
of which we had previously no chemical knowledge.

Up to this point the growth of the atomic theory will be seen, from the general
outline which I have endeavoured to trace, to have consisted mainly in the more
and more full and exact identification of each elementary atom, and in the accu-
mulation of more and more varied and accurate evidences of its functions in
relation to other atoms, A step was made towards a knowledge of the general
relations of atoms to one another by their preliminary classification according to
their best-known values.

But a far greater step has been more recently made, one which is evidently
destined to lead to most important results.

It was discovered that if we arrange the elements in the empirical order of their
respective atomic weights, beginning with hydrogen and proceeding thence step by
step to the heaviest atom, we have before us a natural series with periodically
recurrent changes in the chemical and physical functions of its members,

Of course the series is imperfect, and exhibits gaps and irregularities ; but what
view of natural order has been complete in its infancy ?

Some of the gaps have already been filled up by the discovery of elements
possessing the anticipated properties. The generalisation affords a brilliant addition
to the previous corroborations of the reality of the units of matter which chemists
have discovered.

Chemists have as yet taken but little account of atomic motion; although
the most perfect explanation of a chemical reaction consists of a statement of the
atomic interchange which takes place between two molecules ; or the change of
mutual combination between the atoms in one molecule.

It has, however, been proved that the heat of combination affords a measure
of its force; and we know that in giving off heat particles of matter undergo a
diminution of velocity of motion. We see, accordingly, that substances capable of

PP2

580 REPORT—-1881.

exerting great force by their combination are those which can undergo a great
diminution of the velocity of their internal motions, and reciprocally.

The force of chemical combination is evidently a function of atomic motion.

It has been shown that the relative velocities of certain atomic interchanges
afford a measure of the amount of chemical action between two substances: but a
vast amount of work will doubtless be required to develop the atomic theory to
the point of explaining the force of chemical action in precise terms of atomic
motion.

The general terms of chemistry are mere symbols. Each of them serves to
recall a group (usually a very large group) of facts established by observation.
The explanation of each term is afforded by a careful study of the facts which it
is used to denote; and, accordingly, a chain of evidence involving the use of
chemical terms can be fully understood only by chemists accustomed to the con-
sideration of such evidence. The general outline of it may perhaps be to some
general thinkers of sufficient interest to attract them to further study of our science.

A. On the Chemical Action between Solids.
By Professor T. E. Tuorre, Ph.D., F.R.S.

The author drew attention to the extremely rare instances of such action
hitherto observed, showing how many of these might be explained on the sup-
position that combination actually occurred between the bodies, either in solution
or in a state of gas. He illustrated his subject by experiments on the formation
of several compounds by bringing together the components in their solid form,
choosing as examples such as would manifest the change by characteristic colours,
After a short reference to a memoir of Professor Spring, he said one of the most
remarkable results obtained by the Belgian professor was the formation of coal
from peat by subjecting the latter to high pressure. Peat from Holland and
Belgium, when exposed to the pressure of six thousand atmospheres, was, according
to Spring, changed into a mass which in all physical characteristics resembled
ordinary coal. Experiments of the same kind were made by the author, but with
a negative result.

5. On the First Two Lines of Mendelejef’’s Table of Atomic Weights.
By W. We.oon, F.R.S.L.

The object of this communication was to point out certain relations between
the atomic weights of the fourteen elements occupying the first two lines of
Mendelejeff’s Table, The author showed that there is not one of these atomic
weights some power of which is not a simple multiple of the corresponding power
of the atomic weight of lithium.

6. On the Occlusion of Gaseous Matter by Fused Silicates at High Tem-
peratures, and its possible connection with Volcanic Agencies. By
I. Lowrnran Bett, F.R.S.

7. On the Siliceous and other Hot Springs in the Volcanic District of the
North Island of New Zealand. By Wm. Lant Carrenter, B.A., B.Sc.,
F.C.S.

The writer had visited New Zealand in December 1880, and through the kindness
of Dr. Hector, F.R.S., head of the Colonial Museum, had been put in possession of
much information with regard to this remarkable district. From the active
voleano Tongariro, in the centre of the North Island, three ‘lines of fire’ could be
traced in a N.E. direction, ending at White Island, in the Bay of Plenty. Super-
ficially the district consisted chiefly of post-tertiary sedimentary deposits and acid
volcanic rocks. Lake Taupo, 248 miles’ area, 1,250 feet above sea-level, but whose
bottom was below sea-level, was the chief source of water in the whole region,
and it had probably subterranean outlets.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. ; 581

Three classes of springs were considered :—

1, Near Lake Taupo. apne

2. In the famous ‘ Hot Lake District’ of Rotorua and Rotomakana, where are
unique siliceous terraces.

3. On White Island, in the Bay of Plenty.

I. The springs near Lake Taupo are all more or less siliceous, and remarkable
for the presence of free iodine. They are medicinally useful. Particulars of ten
springs were given, in five of which the silica was one-half of the total solid con-
stituents; and in two more, one-third. The maximum here was 28°51 grains
silica per gallon ; total solids, 56:47 grains. Two contained respectively 40°5 and
56:1 grains chlorine (chiefly as sodium chloride), and 0-714 and 1-012 grains per
gallon of free iodine. Another was so strongly charged with sulphates of iron and
alumina as to taint a river therewith for seventy miles, its whole course.

II. Hot Lake District :—

On the shores of Lake Rotomahana were two wonderful siliceous terraces,
formed by the deposition of silica from two intermittent boiling springs, of the
following composition, according to the Colonial Laboratory reports :—

White terrace Pink terrace

Monosilicate of soda : ‘ ; ‘ 5 68°48 —
ss lime 5 : ‘ : ‘ 1:62 Ion
rs magnesia ; ‘ “ - 0°53 1:16

. iron 5 : : . - 0-51 —
Silica, free ‘ : j . ; F , —~ 43°95
Chloride of potassium . : : : : 2°87 1:05
5 sodium. : ‘ \ 3 : 62°61 93°55
Sulphate of lime : : ; : : — 10°96
a soda . ‘ . . : ‘ 7:84 1-01
Alumina (as phosphate) . : : asover, traces 0°54
Tron oxides. . ‘ ; : ? — traces
Grains per gallon . ‘ . 14446 154:13

The writer had brought home a specimen of the siliceous sinter, and carefully
analysed it, with the annexed result :—
Water expelled by red heat i é : , A . 9°67 per cent.
Salts soluble in water, almost entirely sodium silicate . 0°59 ¥
Anhydrous silica . Z . 4 ‘ i. 3 » 87°35 rf
Lime, soda, and alumina, by difference, but all detected . 2°39 3

100-00 9

No chlorine could be discovered in it, though there was so much in the water
whence it was derived. It was also quite free from iron.

Of fifteen springs in this district, five contained silicate of soda, and twelve free
silica. Chloride of sodium was present in eight. Lime-salts only amounted
usually to two or three grains per gallon. Free hydrochloric acid was found in
eight, always with free silica, and six of these eight contained free sulphuric acid
(one as much as 77 grains per gallon).

UI. White Island springs.

This island is the summit of an extinct yoleano, whose crater is occupied by a
lake of strong mineral water, fed by intermittent geysers and boiling springs, and
containing more than 10,000 grains per gallon of free hydrochloric acid, All the
springs deposited sulphur and sulphate of lime. Annexed are the analyses :—

Lake Hope Fumarole
Sulphate of iron . . ‘ ‘ ‘ 1163-980 23°573
Ye soda... : : : ‘ 680°325 9:240
39 potash . P : é : 297°124 a trace
3 lets renee. 251-689 115933
_ magnesia. : : ; 66°312 29120
ss alumina : : : : 87-668 a trace
cf ammonia . i : : — a trace

Carried forward . . . 2647-091 177-866

582 REPORT—1881.

Lake Hope Fumarole
Brought forward . c 2547-091 177-866
Sesquichloride aluminium ; : : 1870-085 —
Silica, uncombined . : ; ; 23°628 9-013
Sulphurous acid X - - ; s _ a trace
Phosphoric acid ; ; : é 4 _ a trace
Sulphuric acid, free . - . : _ 11:933
Hydrochloric acid, free . : : 10409°589 9-706
Grains per gallon : - 14850°393 208°518

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2,
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Second Report of the Committee upon the present state of our Knowledge
of Spectrum Analysis.—See Reports, p. 317.

2. On the Fluid Density of certain Metals.
By Professor W. CuanpLeR Roserts, F.R.S., and T. WRIGHTSON.

3. On the Oxides of Manganese. By V. H. Vetey, B.A.

The author at the outset gave an historical account of researches on the oxides
of manganese, in order to show how far it has been satisfactorily proved by them,
firstly, that manganese forms with oxygen a series of definite oxides (apart from
those present in manganic and permanganic acids), and secondly, that manganese
dioxide forms a series of hydrates. The researches of Dittmar, Wright, and others,
on the conditions of formation of these oxides, and their behaviour when heated to
various temperatures in certain gases, is also noticed.

The author had studied the action of air, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen at
temperatures ranging from 60° to 200° C, on an oxide of formula Mn,0,,, and has
prepared and analysed the following higher oxides and hydrates.

Mn,,0,,8H,0 | Mn,,0,,8H,0(?)

Mn,,0,,6H,0
Mn,,0,,4H,0 Mn,,0,,3H,0
Mn,,0,.3H,0 | Mn,,0,,2H,0 Mn,,0,,2H,0 | Mn,,0,,2H,O

When the oxides are heated in air or oxygen at low temperatures two changes
are observed: Ist, a loss of water of hydration ; 2nd, an absorption of oxygen. When
heated in nitrogen they are dehydrated ; but do not, as at higher temperatures, lose
so-called available oxygen. When heated in hydrogen they are simultaneously de-
hydrated and reduced. The author inclined to the view that these oxides are dis-
tinct chemical entities, and are not mere combinations of molecules (molecular
compounds). The author is carrying on further researches on the oxides of manga-
nese in order to study more completely the conditions of formation, of temperature,
tension of oxygen and other gases of each separate oxide and hydrate; and hopes
thereby to arrive at a more intimate knowledge of the constitution of the metallic
oxides.

4. On the Inferences deducible from high Molecular Weights, as exhibited by
the Oxides of Manganese. By Professor W. Opuine, F.B.S.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 583

5. On Manganese Nodules, and their Occurrence on the Sea-bottom.
By J. Y. Bucwanan,

The specimens exhibited consist of two nodules from the South Pacific and of
several from Loch Fyne in Scotland, a number of manganiferous worm-tubes and
two samples of the mud in which these tubes and nodules are found in Loch Fyne.
I have besides some very curious specimens of cobalt nodules from New Caledonia,
which I owe to the kindness of my friend Professor Liversidge, of the University of
Sydney. These have come into my hands only within the last few days and I
exhibit them as curiosities which may haye an interest for some of the members

resent,

; My method of dredging for mud consists in anchoring the vessel by a dredge in
the form of a Trotman’s anchor, which carries a frame instead of a bar connecting
the flukes. To this frame is lashed a bag which receives the mud which might
otherwise drop off the anchor on heaving up. This method has proved successful
in two ways: first, by keeping the vessel stationary while the anchor is down, and
so admitting of temperature-observations being made and water samples being
collected without having to resort to troublesome manceuvres; and, secondly, by
bringing up a large specimen of the mud taken, not from the soft surface layer, as
is the case with the flat dredge, but from the underlying and stiffer material.

My first and best haul of manganese nodules, however, was brought up on an
ordinary kedge anchor and adhering to its flukes. A portion of this mud is exhi-
ited. It is from the deepest part of Loch Fyne, between Tarbert and Skate
Island. It was described in ‘ Nature’ of October 10,1878. I have never succeeded
in getting mud so rich in nodules again. Part of it when sifted was found to
consist of 80 per cent. manganese nodules, 7°5 per cent. shells, and 62°5 per cent. of
sandy clay. I doubt very much if even the richest bottom in the Pacific contains
a like proportion. The other two samples of nodule-bearing mud are, as nearly
as possible, from the same locality ; but though they contain plenty of nodules,
these nodules are of a smaller average size, and are present in much smaller propor-
tion to the rest of the mud. Of the nodules collected on the first occasion, in 1878,
the average weight was 1:7 grammes; of those collected last July the average
weight, after eliminating all that passed through a sieve of four meshes to the
inch, was only 0:42 grammes, and the proportion of nodules to mud would cer-
tainly not be more than 5 per cent. The whole of the mud which came up on
this occasion was sifted, with the exception of a small sample dried as it was;
the nodules were then sorted by sieves of different degrees of fineness. The bulk
of them were retained by a }-inch mesh. The nodules so retained weighed 307
grammes, and numbered 726, and it is remarkable that besides these nodules there
was nothing on the sieve but a few fragments of shell and ¢wo pebbles. This affords
very strong evidence that the nodules are formed zn situ, and cannot have been
washed into their present position, as in that case they would certainly have been
accompanied by pebbles.

Hitherto the deep portion of Loch Fyne above alluded to is the only
locality in Scottish waters where I have found the oxide of manganese occur-
ring as nodules. It is, however, widely distributed, encrusting shells and as worm-
tubes, notably in the channel between Garvelloch Islands and the Island of Scarba
and in Loch Sunart, Similarly during the cruise of the Challenger, besides the
many localities where the nodules abounded, it was constantly found encrusting
shells in calcareous bottoms which were devoid of nodules.

The Loch Fyne nodules resemble the oceanic ones in nearly every particular.
They are comparatively soft when first brought up, and become harder when
exposed to the air. Heated in the closed tube they give off water charged with
ammonia and empyreumatic products. When treated with hydrochloric acid the
soluble constituents are removed, and what remains behind includes the insoluble
constituents of the surrounding mud. Many of the Loch Fyne nodules have soft
kernels, which are richer in oxide of manganese than the rinds.

A considerable number of determinations have been made, both of the available
oxygen and of the manganese; and if the manganese found be united to the whole

584 : REPORT—1881.

of the available oxygen, the resulting formula varies between MnO,., and Mn0O.....
Taking the soft kernel alone, separated from the more sandy rind, the formula is.
MnO,.,;. The rind alone had the formula MnO,.,. In some oceanic nodules
which were examined, the formula varied from MnO,.,, to Mn0,,.,..

Some of the mud which contained the Loch Fyne nodules was examined. It
contained 0:71 per cent. of MnO, and a hardly distinguishable trace of extra oxygen.

If we express the available oxygen in terms of its equivalent MnO, we have in
oceanic nodules from 22 to 32 per cent., in Loch Fyne ones from 13 to 22, and in
the kernel treated separately 33 per cent. of MnO,.

The insoluble residue varies in oceanic nodules from 16 to 30 per cent., and in
the Loch Fyne ones from 28 to 33 per cent., both containing from 83 to 88 per
cent. of silica.

Oceanic nodules appear to contain more nickel and cobalt than the Loch Fyne
ones, while the latter contain distinct traces of copper, which does not appear to be
so common in the oceanic ones.

With regard to the method of formation of these nodules, and the deposition of
higher oxides, not only of manganese but of iron, on the sea-bottom, it is perhaps
unwise at the present moment to speak positively; but I think there is enough
known to enable us to indicate a probable process of production.

All the nodules without exception contain residues of organic matter; where
the oxide of manganese is not aggregated into nodules, it is found encrusting
animal remains, as shells, worm-tubes, &c. Whether in the form of nodules or
incrustations, the black matter contains all the recognisable sand and other matter:
of the surrounding mud; moreover, they are certainly formed in situ, and not
brought from a distance. The mud in Loch Fyne, at any rate, contains manga-
nese in the form of protoxide, and no doubt as silicates; it also contains oxides of
iron, which are present in all manganese nodules and incrustations ; indeed in the
same dredgeful we can pick out all gradations of nodules, from those which con-
tain almost exclusively MnO,, with only traces of Fe,O,, to those which contain
Fe,0,, without any Mn0O,.

The formation of the sesquioxide of iron nodules has gone on under my own
eyes. In July 1879 I dredged from the bottom of the Sound of Jura, in 70 to 80
fathoms, a large mass of very stiff blue clay, as stiff as the best brick-making clay.
Throughout the mass there were disseminated patches and pockets of blackish blue
matter which proved to be sulphide of iron; hydrochloric acid liberating sul-
phuretted hydrogen in abundance. This was dried in the usual way, in plates on
the cylinder covers of the engine, and when dry not a trace of sulphide was to be
found, every black patch being now represented by a reddish-brown one, even in
the centre of large and compact masses. Now, what has here taken place in a very
short time, under the combined action of air, moisture, and heat, takes place as
surely, but more slowly, in the surface layer of the mud at the bottom; and, in
point of fact, not only in our shallow seas, but even in the deepest water of the
ocean, we find the surface layer of the mud almost invariably of a different colour
from the underlying mass, the top being red while below the mud is grey. I believe,
then, that for the formation of the nodules we have to look to the organic world as
a necessary though indirect assistant: The decomposition of animal matter in
presence of the sulphates of the sea-water, reduces these to sulphides, which in their
turn react on the iron and manganese minerals (principally silicates) in the mud,
forming sulphides of these metals. As the organic matter gets exhausted, these
sulphides are oxidised to oxides by the oxygen of the water, forming concretions or
incrustations of the ochreous oxides, which naturally also enclose the other and
unaltered constituents of the mud.

In conclusion, I cannot help thinking that the shell-producing animals of the
sea obtain the lime from the sea-water in this way, the lime being assimilated,
from the ‘dissolved sulphate, in the form of sulphide in the interior of the animal,
and transformed into carbonate on the outside.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 585

6. On Brewing in Japan.
By Professor R. W. Arxinson, B.Sc. (Lond.).

The Japanese brewing process is divided into two parts, comparable with the
malting and brewing processes of beer-making. The preparation and properties
of the diastatic material are, however, different, for whilst malt-extract hydrates
cane-sugar, dextrin, and starch, the Japanese Aji hydrates maltose in addition, so
that the ultimate products of its action upon starch-paste are dextrose and dextrin,
or eyen the former alone. It further differs from malt in the fact that its solution
is rendered inactive by heat at a lower temperature, about 70° C., and also by the
manner of its formation. Unlike malt, the active properties of 407? are not due to
the growth of the embryo, because the embryos are broken away by rough treat-
ment, but by the growth over the steamed and cooled grains of rice of the mycelium
of a fungus, the result of which is to burn away a good deal of the carbon and
hydrogen of the rice, much heat being liberated, and to render soluble the pre-
viously insoluble albuminoid matter.

The brewing process proper is divided into two stages, the first stage being
intended to prepare an actively growing yeast, the germs of which are. sown
spontaneously in the mash. A mixture of steamed-rice, 4dj2, and water is allowed
to remain in shallow tubs at a low temperature (0°-5° C.) until quite liquid, after
which it is heated, fermentation setting in immediately and continuing until
nearly all the dextrose first formed is exhausted. This product is now used like
yeast, and is added to fresh quantities of steamed-rice, 10/2, and water, fermenta-
tion proceeding actively until the percentage of alcohol amounts to about 13 or
14 per cent. by weight. The conversion of starch into sugar and of the latter into
alcohol go on concurrently, the diastase of the Adjz transforming the starch
throughout the whole process. After the greater part of the rice added has been
used up the mash is filtered, clarified by standing, and when summer approaches,
and signs of putrefactive fermentation appear, the saké is heated in iron vessels,
an operation which preserves it for a time. No precautions being taken against
the reintroduction of disease-germs, the heating process must be repeated about
once a month throughout the summer. :

Analyses of various specimens, fresh and diseased, are given in the paper.

7. On Peppermint-camphor (Menthol) and some of its Derivatives.
By Professor R. W. Arxinson, B.Sc. (Lond.), and H. Yosutpa.

Determinations of some of the physical constants of menthol, menthone, men=
thene, and a hydrocarbon obtained by the action of hydric iodide upon menthol,
with subsequent decomposition by caustic soda and metallic sodium, have been
nade.

Menthol—CH,,0. Melting point, 42°2°C. Solidifying point, 40°3°C. Boiling

oint, 212°C. (corr.). Optical activity, determined from solutions in alcohol
(969%), chloroform, benzene, and carbon disulphide, was found to be —59:92° + 0:2,
The number obtained for its optical activity in glacial acetic acid was much lower
te. —54:28°, All the above values express the specific rotatory power of menthol,
independent of solvents. Menthol regenerated from its ketone has a specific
rotatory power in alcohol solution —39-66°,

Menthone.—CH,,0. This body stands to menthol in the same relation that
camphor stands to borneol. It is a clear, colourless liquid, boiling at 206-3°C (corr.)
Its specific rotatory power is +21'16°. Its specific gravity at 0°O. is 0-9126,
and the specific gravities and volumes at higher temperatures are given in the
paper. The molecular refraction was found to be 75°3, that calculated from
Brihl’s numbers (carbon singly united) being 75:11.

Menthene.—CH,,. This boils at 167-4° (corr.). Its specific gravity at
0°,D? = 0°82266, and the specific gravities at temperatures up to 60°C. are given
in the paper. The specific rotatory power is [a], = 13:25°, The molecular refraction
was found to be 74°045, which indicates that two carbon atoms are doubly com--

586 REPORT—1881.

bined, the calculated number in that case being 73°82, Menthene combines with
fuming hydric chloride, furming a slightly yellow oil, C!°H,,C1.

Hydrocarbon.—CH,,. This is the principal product found by cohobating
menthol with a strong solution of hydric iodide, boiling with caustic soda, and
finally digesting with sodium, It boils at 168:6° (corr,), but analysis showed
that it still retained traces of menthene, which appears to be found in the same
reaction. The specific gravities and volumes at different temperatures are given
in the original paper, the specific gravity at 0° being 0°8263, The specific rotatory
power was 5:2° for the transition tint. The molecular refractién was 73:28, the
calculated value for four atoms of carbon doubly combined, being 73°24.

Remarks are made upon the difficulties met with in determining the specific
volumes of the above compounds, and the paper concludes with a discussion of the
robable constitution of menthol and its derivatives, in which the resemblance
| eae camphor and menthone is pointed out.

8. On the Sodiwm-alum of Japan. By Professor Epwarp Divers, M.D.

The mineral sodium alum, since called Mendozite, was described by Thomson
in 1828, as occurring in South America (St. Juan, near Mendoza). Its occurrence
has not been noticed elsewhere.

Rammelsberg (‘ Mineral. Chemie’) gives a series of percentages as obtained by
Thomson, and refers them to an alum with twenty molecules of water. Dana
(‘System of Mineralogy’) gives a different series as obtained by Thomson, and
refers them to an alum with twenty-two molecules of water.

My late assistant, Mr. J. Mori, once a pupil of the Royal College of Chemistry,
South Kensington, analysed the specimen I have now to describe, and obtained the
following results :—

Calculated for

Found ' Al,05, Na,O, 480;, 24H,0
Alumina ; - ; 11:27 f ( B 11:23
Soda . : ; 5 7°26 ; : - 6°76
Sulphuric Oxide . : 34:73 ; : ; 34:90
Water . : . : 46°74 (by diff.) : 47°11

100-00 100:00

The soda is too high, else the results are most satisfactory, but error in excess
here is probable from imperfect ignition to expel ammonium sulphate. Thomson
found 7:96 soda, whereas for 22 Aq. alum only 7°] are required. Potash is absent
and only traces of iron, calcium, and insoluble matter are present.

Sodium-alum, therefore, occurs in nature of the normal type, with twenty-
four molecules of water.

It occurs as an efflorescence on decomposing sodium (albite) felsite, with pyrites
scattered through it. It is found in the province of Idzumo, in the prefecture of
Shimané, Japan, not far from the coast. Like that examined by Thomson, it is
not produced by a solfatara, though Shimané, like many parts of Japan, includes
such. The alum is said to be obtainable in considerable quantity ; but as a second
parcel forwarded to me was damaged in transit by the leakage of bottles of natural
alum-water I have only been able to examine very small specimens as yet.

It occurs in two forms—one massive, finely fibrous, greyish white, translucent ;
and also in friable opaque tears, slightly coloured by iron hydrate or oxide.

9. On the Ocewrrence of Seleniwm and Tellurium in Japan.
By Professor Epwarp Divers, M.D.

At the sulphuric acid works of the Imperial Japanese Mint, and at a private
establishment, both in Osaka, the sulphur now employed comes from different parts
of Japan—Kagoshima, Oita, Hokkaido, &c. In some of the sulphuric acid made
there, I have found not inconsiderable quantities of selenium, and Mr. M. Shimosé,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 587

one of my pupils, has also found more than traces of tellurium. Arsenic is also
present in quantity. { :

A former pupil of mine, Mr. Nakagawa, now a chemical engineer in the
Imperial Mint, states that the flue-deposits of the sulphur burners are rich in
selenium.

I had hoped to have obtained by this time fuller particulars, but have been
disappointed by not receiving in time supplies of acid and flue-dust. I must, there-
fore, limit my communication to the announcement of the presence of these two
elements in Japanese sulphuric acid, and of the probable occurrence of material
quantities of selenium in Japan. A further communication will be published when
particulars have been ascertained.

10. On the Chrome Iron Ore of Japan. By Professor Epwarp Divers, M.D.

The serpentine rocks of Japan, like those found elsewhere, contain small quan-
tities of chrome iron oxide; but a few years ago masses of this mineral were sent
from Oita prefecture (Bungo) to the Tokiyé Industrial Exhibition, and its nature
then recognised. It has lately been analysed in the laboratory of the Imperial
College of Engineering, Tékiy6, by my former pupil, Mr. T, Haga, now one of the
instructors in chemistry in the College.

It is massive, has a specific gravity 4°50, and a hardness 5°5, and is of a grey-
black colour without any shade of brown, except where weathered. Its fracture is
partly slaty, partly crystalline, showing numerous large faces inclined at all angles.
Tts lustre is resinous to sub-metallic, so that in appearance it is much like coal. Its
powder is brown. Besides brown and green coatings on the faces of natural fractures
in the mass, there are many small deposits of a greyish pink, but nearly white, soft
and unctuous mineral. The behaviour of this chrome iron oxide to heat, presents
nothing needing to be recorded, beyond that it slowly gains in weight. It contains
only traces of magnetic matter.

Reduced to very fine powder and heated for three hours with hydrochloric
acid, 2°58-2°87 per cent. dissolve, which together with some of the silica in the
ore, make perhaps 4 per cent. decomposed. The soluble part has been separately
analysed. An analysis of the soft white matter has also been made, but the portion
of this which could be got was very small, and largely mixed with the chrome iron
oxide. The following are the results of analyses :—

1. The whole ore, air-dried.

I. II. Mean
Chromic oxide , . ACR Atl, H 59°39 59-20 59°30
Ferrous oxide . C eon 1, tes « (2832 . 28i22 28°27
Chrome iron oxide . 5 F ; ‘ c . 87:30
Magnetite . c . : : : 3 - 0:29
Magnesia . - : : . . 5 F » 917 (9:10-9:24)
Silica 4 : : . b q . 1:58
Alumina . A : . é : : - 0:80 (0°82-0°78)
99°14

This leaves 0°88 for water (undetermined because of the difficulty arising from
the already noted absorption of oxygen), additional oxygen if present, and other
substances which may have escaped detection.

2. The part decomposed by hydrochloric acid.
; I

5 II. Mean
Chromic oxide . ; F ; . ; . 0:32 0:38 0:35
Iron oxide (if ferric) . . : 4 : . 0°53 0°55 0°54
Magnesia . ; . : 5 4 : een nica Er / 1:44 1:30
Alumina. : : : ; : . O51 0°50 0°51
Silica (assumed as) . : = 4 é eh = — 1°30

Part at least of the iron dissolved in the ferrous state. The residual ore still
yielded traces of soluble matter to fresh acid.

588 o> REPORT—I881..% 20°

3. The pinkish white mineral.
After allowing for 36°5 per cent. of admixed chrome iron oxide.

Silica ° < 5 ’ ; : . ; 5 : - 32°6
Magnesia . : ‘ : 3 : 5 5 5 , weer telal
Alumina with a little ferric oxide : : 2 : 4 . 274
Water (loss on ignition) . : : : 2 4 5 Pie tae)

100-0

This analysis was made by Mr. Kawakita, another of the instructors, in the
unavoidable absence of Mr, Haga.

The tabular statement of the composition of the ore shows that it is in almost
exact agreement with that of pure ferrous chromite, as regards the ratio of iron
oxide to chromium oxide. No such pure ore has hitherto been recorded as occur-
ring, I believe, unless possibly in the papers of Christomanos, which I have only
seen in abstracts. The insolubility of the iron in acids, and its non-magnetic
character, prove that it is really combined as chromite. There remains the mag-
nesia to account for. This cannot be in the free state, for not only is the occurrence
of free magnesia in nature unknown and improbable, but in this mineral the mag-
nesia, like the iron oxide, is for the most part insoluble in acid. From the abstracts
(‘ Journ. Chem. Soc.,’ xxxii.) of his papers, I learn that Christomanos in one paper
asserts that pure chromite is always FeCr,O,, and all other constituents of the ore
part of the matrix, and in another paper admits the existence of compounds of
ferrous oxide with chromic oxide in three proportions, other than that of the ordi~
nary spinel type. I see nothing for the case of the Oita ore but to accept the view
that the magnesia is a chemical part of it, the proportion of which, after deducting
soluble magnesia, is almost exactly that required by the formula, MgO, 2FeO, 2Cr,0,,.
corresponding to the 3FeO, 2Cr,0, of Christomanos.

Calculated for
Found yg0, 2FeO, 2Cr,05
Almost insoluble—

Chromic oxide . : ; : 7 59:30 59°30
Ferrous oxide 3 i . ‘ 5 27:90 28:00
Magnesia . Z ‘ ‘ : ’ 7:93 7:78
95°13 95:08
Soluble and silica—
[Above magnes. ferr. chromite (about) 0:57]
Hydrous magnes. alum. silicate . : 3°62
Magnetite . . ‘ ° . . 0:29
99-04

The visible presence of the white mineral, and the magnetic character of a very
minute part of the powdered mineral, serve to confirm the propriety of the above
arrangement.

The estimation of chromium and iron was made by the usual volumetric methods.
To bring the ore into a soluble condition, Dittmar’s method was employed, this
method being very satisfactory, and, in Mr. Haga’s hands, much easier than
described in Dingl.

Fused borax, 2 parts, and dry potassium sodium carbonate, 3 parts, were fused
together in a platinum crucible till effervescence ceased, and the whole cooled.
About 1 part of very finely-powdered, ore was then placed on the top, and the
crucible covered and slowly heated to fusion. When the powder had become
moistened with the melted flux, the lid was removed and the crucible kept at a red
heat by a Bunsen flame. The liquid mass was occasionally stirred with a small
platinum spatula. When particles of ore were no longer visible in the mass adhering
to the spatula, the heat was maintained for only a few minutes longer, and the
crucible then quickly cooled, to favour the detachment of the mass. One hour was
sufficient for one gram of ore, and half-an-hour for half a gram. In this time,
indeed, all the chromium may not haye become chromate, but it will be all soluble

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 589

in acid, Should the time have been too short, particles of ore will be visible in the
bottom of the fused mass after removal from the crucible, and the mass must then
be replaced and again heated. Unless the time of heating has been prolonged, it is
safer to dissolve all up in sulphuric acid, oxidise with a few drops of permanganate
solution any unoxidised chromium salt, and remove excess of permanganate by
sodium carbonate and alcohol. A temperature for fusion so high that the crucible
becomes attacked by the fluxes is quite unnecessary.

SATURDAY, “SEPTEMBER 3.
The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5,
The following Papers were read :—

1. On certain Points in Modern Progress in Chemical Knowledge.
By Professor H. HK. Armstrone, Ph.D., F.R.S.

2. On the alleged Decomposition of the Elements,
By Professor Duwar, M.A., F.R.S.

3. On the Production of Crystals by the Action of Metals in Carbon
Disulphide in Sealed Tubes. By Putte Brauam, F.C.8.

The mode in which the experiments were conducted was by sealing up fifteen
different metals in carbon disulphide, and carefully examining them with the
microscope. The tubes exhibited were put up on June 20, 1879, examined on
June 20, 1880, and in May, 1881, transparent crystals were found in those which
contained gold, antimony, and bismuth.

4. On the Separation of Hydrocarbon Oils from Fat Oils.)
By Aurrep H. Auten, F.C.S.

The extensive production of various hydrocarbon oils suitable for lubricating
purposes, together with their low price, has resulted in their being largely employed
for the adulteration of animal and vegetable oils. The hydrocarbons most com-
monly employed for such purposes are—

1, Oils produced by the distillation of petrolewm and bituminous shale, having
a density usually ranging between ‘870 and ‘915.

2. Oils produced by the distillation of common rosin, having a density of -965
cand upwards.

3. Neutral coal-oil; being the portion of the products of the distillation of
coal-tar boiling at about 200°C., and freed from phenols by treatment with soda.

4, Solid parafin; used for the adulteration of bees’ wax and spermaceti, and
employed in admixture with stearic acid for making candles,

The methods for the detection of hydrocarbon oils in fat oils are based on
the density of the sample ; the lowered flashing and boiling points; the fluorescent
character of the oils of the first two classes; and the incomplete saponification of

} Published in full in the Chemical News, vol. xliv. p. 161.

590 REPORT—1881.

the oil by alkalies. The taste of the oil and its odour on heating are also useful
indications.

If undoubtedly fluorescent, an oil certainly contains a mixture of some hydro-
carbon ; but the converse is not strictly true, as the fluorescence of some varieties
of mineral oil can be destroyed by chemical treatment, and in other cases
fluorescence is wholly wanting. Still by far the greater number of hydrocarbon
oils employed for lubricating purposes are strongly fluorescent, and the remainder
usually become so on treatment with an equal measure of strong sulphuric acid.

_ The best and most accurate method of detecting hydrocarbon oils in, and quan-
titatively separating them from, fat oils, is to saponify the sample and then agitate
the aqueous solution of the soap with ether. On separating the ethereal layer, and
evaporating it at or below a steam heat, the hydrocarbon oil is obtained in a state
of purity. The agitation with ether must be repeated several times to effect a
complete extraction of the hydrocarbon oil from the soap solution.

_ The author has proved the accuracy of this process when applied to various
mixtures of fat oils with hydrocarbon oils. The results obtained are correct to
within about 1 per cent. in all ordinary cases. In cases where extreme accuracy
is desired it is necessary to remember that most, if not all, animal and vegetable
oils contain traces of matter wholly unacted on by alkalies. In certain cases, as
butter and cod-liver oil, this matter consists largely of cholesterin. The proportion
of unsaponifiable matter soluble in ether, which is naturally present in fixed oils
and fats, rarely exceeds 13 per cent., and is usually much less. Sperm oil, however,
constitutes an exception, yielding by the process about 40 per cent. of matter
soluble in ether, the nature of which is undergoing further examination.

The following table indicates the general behaviour of the constituents of
complex fats, oils, and waxes, when the aqueous solution of the saponified sub-
stance is shaken with ether :—

DIssOLVED BY THE ETHER. REMAINING IN THE
Hydrocarbon oils, including Fatty acids i oe <a
Shale and Petroleum oils Resin acids In combination
Rosin oil Gachalieland with the alkalies
Coal-tar oil Cresylic aaah used.
Paraffin wax and ozokerite Glycerol (glycerine)
Vaseline

Neutral resins
Unsaponified fat or oil
Unsaponifiable matter, as cholesterin
Spermy! alcohol, from sperm oil
Cetyl alcohol, from spermaceti
Myricyl alcohol, from bees’ wax
The hydrocarbon oil, having been duly isolated by saponifying the sample and
agitating the solution of the resultant soap with ether, may be further examined
by observing its density, taste, and smell, behaviour with acids, &e.

5. On some Phenomena which appear to be of the Nature of Chemico-
Magnetic Action. By Wiut1am THomsoy, F.R.S.L.

Some time ago I observed that the colour of a piece of prussian-blue cloth had
been discharged in the vicinity of a piece of iron which was lying in contact with
it, and thinking this action to be of the nature of magnetic, I made some experi-
_ ments to learn something respecting it. I laid a piece of glass on a piece of wet
prussian-blue cloth, and left it there for many weeks; the effect was that the cloth
under the glass had apparently become rather darker in colour than the original
cloth, but of this I was not quite certain, whilst the uncovered cloth was slightly
bleached. The same effect was produced by laying a sheet of platinum on the wet
blue cloth, and no blue colour was communicated to the wet blotting-paper on
which they lay. These experiments proved that the colour of the cloth was not

influenced by capillary action. _
Small pieces of iron were laid on pieces of the prussian-blue cloth, with the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 591

result that the colour of the cloth on each side of the pieces of iron was completely
discharged, and the colour so abstracted was arranged in deeply coloured lines, run-
ning in a semicircle from each end of the iron, and surrounding the semicircles
of bleached cloth on each side of the bar. When the blue cloth with the piece of
iron on it rested on several folds of wet blotting-paper, the insoluble blue colouring
matter was distributed on and through the blotting paper in lines which were
more distinct and delicate than those on the cloth itself. ‘These lines of colour were
evidently formed under the influence of some force of the nature of magnetism,

Small horse-shoe magnets were laid on the wet blue cloth, resting on wet
blotting-paper, and well-curved lines of colour, usually more or less circular, were
developed from the poles and from other parts of the magnets; some parts of the
cloth, usually in the vicinity of the poles, being bleached, and the colour so removed
deposited in lines around the bleached portion.

This action, I found, was not a purely magnetic one, because on placing a piece
of gutta-percha tissue over the wet blue cloth, and a magnet on the top of the
gutta-percha, so as to prevent it from coming in actual contact with the wet cloth,
no effect of any kind was produced after many weeks.

I next tried the effect of laying a horse-shoe magnet on a piece of wet cotton
cloth dyed with aniline, and found that most of the colour was swept away ina
semicircle in front of the poles, and it appeared as if the colour had been swept
away from the south pole and deposited around the are of the circle running from
the north pole. Thus it is clear that a force of the nature of magnetism is capable
of acting on aniline colour under certain conditions.

To find the action of a current of electricity on the prussian-blue colour, I placed
some of the wet cloth on wet blotting-paper, and laid upon the cloth two platinum
electrodes connected with a Leclanché battery; the current was allowed to pass
during several days, and the result was that the colour under both electrodes was
slightly bleached, but more so under the one than the other ; whilst one, and only
one, line of colour along the outside of one of the electrodes, was transferred to
' and penetrated six sheets of blotting-paper underneath.

Lastly, a strip of copper was laid on the prussian-blue cloth, and a weak current
of electricity passed through it, to find what action the forces akin to magnetic,
which surround the current, would have on the colour. The copper seemed to
decompose the prussian-blue underneath it, producing prussiate of copper, which
was transferred to the blotting-paper; but the most remarkable result was that
some of the undecomposed blue colour was transferred to the blotting-paper in a
broad, faint band (along one side only), about half-an-inch from the copper band.

6. On the Specific Refraction and Dispersion of Light by Liquids.
By J. H. Guapsvonz, Ph.D., F.R.S.

The general conclusions arrived at from observations made on a large number of”
liquids were as follows :—

1, The original statement of the Rey. T. P. Dale and the author, that the length
of the spectrum (the difference between the refraction of the lines A and H)
decreases with elevation of temperature, is fully confirmed.

2. The original statement that this length of spectrum divided by the density

fee Hs) is nearly, but not exactly, a constant at different temperatures, seems

to be confirmed by more careful experiments.

3, It seems to be the general rule that this specific dispersion slightly diminishes
with increase of temperature.

4, This specific dispersion is very notably affected by the constitution of the
compound body, Thus among hydrocarbons, the change of the refraction-equivalent
of the carbon from 5:0 to 6:1 or 8:8, reveals itself by a change in the specific disper--
sion far greater proportionally than that in the specific refraction,

5. While the specific refraction of a compound is the mean of the specific
refractions of its constituents, no such simple law holds good with respect to specific:
dispersion.

592 REPORT—1881.

7. On Molecuiar Attraction.’ By F. D. Brown, B.Sc.

It is generally asserted by chemists that, when two or more elements combine
together to form a compound body, the forces of chemical affinity brought into play
are entirely neutralised by the act of combination. In this important respect, there-
fore, affinity is assumed to differ from gravitation where no neutralisation or
diminution of the attractive force results from the contiguity of two masses of
matter. The mere fact that chemical reactions take place, involving as they do the
interaction of atoms forming part of dissimilar molecules, shows that this assump-
tion of complete neutralisation is inconsistent with fact.

If we go to the other extreme, and say that the act of combination produces no
change whatever in the chemical forces, but that the same attraction is excited
between any given pair of atoms, without regard to the state of combination of one
or both of the atoms, we are not only able to give a reasonable account of the
occurrence of chemical reactions, and to assert that there is nothing very remarkable
in the existence of molecular combinations, but we are also provided with a more or
less effective explanation of the relative volatility of substances.

Let (7s) equal the attraction at unit distance exerted between any two atoms
Rand §; it is clear that the attraction between two contiguous molecules, each
containing carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, will be expressed as follows:—

A(co) + B(ch) + C(ec) + D(oh) + E(hh) +- F(00),

whence A, B, ©, &c. are functions of the number and position of the corresponding
atoms. Applying this general equation, as best we can, to actual cases, and espe-
cially to those cases which admit of a tolerably general statement, we find that the
inter-molecular attraction should be greater in an acid than in the corresponding
alcohol, greater in an alcohol of high molecular weight than in a homologous one of
which the molecule is less complex, greater in a primary alcohol than in its secondary
or tertiary isomer, generally greater in a chlorinated compound than in the corre-
sponding substance containing hydrogen, and so on. If we allow that the volatility
of a substance isin some sense a measure of the forces of attraction between the
molecules, we must admit that the boiling points of the compounds of organic
chemistry would lead us to infer with much reason that the above expression rightly
represents the value of the inter-molecular attraction. The study of the latent heat
of vaporisation of many of the carbon compounds would seem, from this point of
view, to offer considerable chances of advancing the solution of the problem of
chemical affinity.

8, Note on a new method of Measuring certain Chemical Affinities.
By Aurrep TriseE, F.C.S.

When a metal is immersed in an electrolytic field—z.e. in an electrolyte in the
act of electrolysis—and the electromotive force set up on any part of its surface
suffices to overcome the affinities of the radicals of the medium, the positive ion
separates on that part of the surface which may be supposed to have received
— electrification, and the negative ion on that part which receives + electrification,

When the metal is in the form of a rectangular plate, and placed so that the
lines of force are perpendicular to its surface, the maximum electro-motive force
set up is on the central parts of such a plate, becoming less towards the edges,
where, and for some little distance from which, it is insufficient to initiate electro-
chemical action.

When the plate is placed in the electrolytic field so that the lines of force are
parallel with one of its edges, the maximum electro-motive force is on the end of
the plate, becoming less and less towards the central parts until it no longer suffices
to bring about electro-chemical action. This is denoted by the boundaries of the
deposits, which in many cases are very sharply defined. A plate, in fact, in the
position just named, may be regarded, in so far as electrical power is concerned, as
a series of pairs of electrodes, the limits of the electro-deposits representing a pair,

1 Phil. Mag. (5th series), 1881, vol. xii. p. 253.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 593

the electro-motive force of which is just incapable of resolving the electrolyte into
its constituent ions.

The very intimate relation between E.M.F. and Chemical Affinity was a long
time ago pointed out by Sir W. Thomson, and recently in an elaborate research by
Dr. Wright, and it therefore was anticipated that if, in a series of trials, the
chemical affinities were altered, while other circumstances remained the same, the
magnitude of the intermedial space between the boundaries of the electro-deposits
would increase along with the force required to overcome the affinities of the ions
of the electrolyte.

A series of experiments with molecular solutions of the chloride, bromide, and
iodide of zinc, with rectangular plates or analysers of silver, copper, iron, and zinc,
showed that this is the case—i.e. the intermedial space with the chloride was
greatest, the bromide less, and the iodide least. Another series, with silver analysers,
but with molecular solutions of the sulphates of zinc and copper, showed that the
intermedial space in the case of the zinc sulphate was much the greater. Again,
another series with zinc sulphate, showed that a zinc analyser gave the least inter-
medial space, iron greater, copper greater still, and silver most of all.

This method affords a simple means of demonstrating differences of chemical
affinity, but whether it is capable of giving more than approximative measurements
will require further investigation to determine. In some cases secondary actions
are of course set up, so that the intermedial space would represent the initial
electro-motive force + or — any interfering E.M. forces, Could, however, the
difference of potential be determined between the boundaries of the electro-deposits,
data would be furnished for calculating the chemical attractions overcome, or at
least the work-equivalent of the net chemical actions involved.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the present state of Chemical Nomenclature,
By Professor A. W. WituiaMson, Ph.D., F.R.S.

The object of this communication was to draw the attention of chemists to some
of the discrepancies which have of late years sprung up in the principles upon
which the names of chemical compounds are framed; to consider in what respects
one of the principles adopted excels the other; and the importance of doing any-
thing which may be possible to remedy the confusion which is being introduced
into the science by the manufacture of heterogeneous terms,

2. On Alterations in the Properties of the Nitric Ferment by Cultivation,
By R. Warineton, F.0.8,

The earlier researches on nitrification conducted in the Rothamsted Laboratory
have been already communicated to the Chemical Society. In the second commu-
nication (‘ Trans. Chem. Soc.,’ 1879) some experiments were described (6th series,

. 451) in which a solution of chloride of ammonium, containing the usual nutritive
ingredients, was seeded from an old solution which had some months before under-
gone a nitric fermentation ; the result of this seeding was a purely nitrous fer-
mentation, no nitric acid apparently being produced. Experiments have since
been made on the conditions which respectively determine the formation of nitric
and nitrous acid; a preliminary notice of the results is now communicated.

‘When a small quantity of fresh soil is employed to seed solutions of chloride of
ammonium supplied with nutritive ingredients, a pure, or nearly pure, nitric fermen-
tation is obtained if the solution is sufficiently shallow and dilute, and the tempe-

1881, QQ

594 rEPOoRT—1881.

rature low ; this is the case, for instance, when 80 milligrams of chloride of ammo-
nium are present in one litre, the column of the liquid four or five inches in depth,
and the temperature about 15° C. Under such circumstances only a trace of
nitrous acid is formed, and this changes into nitric acid before the conclusion of the
action. Ifthe solutions employed are much more concentrated, or the temperature
is considerably raised, large quantities of nitrous acid are produced ; this formation
of nitrous acid may be avoided to a great extent by diminishing the depth of the
solution, but at the temperature of 30° it is very difficult to avoid the formation of
considerable quantities of nitrous acid, even with small depths of solution. In all
cases in which soil has been used as seed, the nitrous acid formed exists only
temporarily in the solution, the final product of the fermentation being always.
nitric acid.

Soil added to a solution of nitrite of potassium, supplied with nutritive ingre-
dients, readily converts the nitrite into nitrate.

When solutions, which have been seeded with soil and undergone the nitric
fermentation, are themselves employed as seed for new solutions of ammonia, the
final result as before is nitric acid; but this is apparently true only when the solu-
tion used as seed is not at most more than a few months old; beyond this age the
result of the fermentation is apparently only nitrous acid, and this nitrous acid does
not further change into nitric, even in several years, unless a certain visible change
occurs in the solution to be presently mentioned. When a solution which has
undergone this nitrous fermentation is used as seed, it again produces a purely
nitrous fermentation, the nitrous acid being constant as before. The nitrous ferment
just described is without effect on nitrite of potassium.

The results just mentioned are perfectly in accordance with the facts recently
published by Pasteur, who finds that by allowing the cultivation of an organism
(as that producing chicken cholera) to become old, an organism is obtained of
diminished energy, which when cultivated continues to produce organisms of the
same diminished energy.

If solutions which have nitrified are kept for a considerable time, a white
organism not unfrequently appears in spots on the surface of the liquid, and under
favourable conditions spreads over the whole surface. Viewed by a lens it appears
as a mass of interlaced fibres. This organism has been examined microscopically
by Dr. M. Masters, F.R.S., and more fully by Professor E. Ray Lankester; both
pronounce it to be a bacterium. Wherever this surface organism appears, any
nitrites that may be present are speedily converted into nitrates; a solution of
nitrite of potassium is also speedily converted into nitrate. The experiments as yet
made with this organism leave it doubtful whether it has any power of oxidising
ammonia; this part of the subject requires, however, further investigation. There
can be little doubt that this surface organism is a stage in the development of the
nitrifying ferment.

The nitrifying ferment appears capable of existing in two, or perhaps three, con-
ditions, producing definite chemical effects :—

1. The nitric ferment of soil, which converts both ammonium salts and nitrites
into nitrates.

2. The altered ferment, which converts ammonium salts into nitrites, but fails
to change nitrites into nitrates.

3. The surface organism, which changes nitrites into nitrates.

3. On the Effect of the Spectrum of Silver Chloride.
By Captain Asyey, R.L., F.R.S.

In all works with which the author is acquainted, the maximum intensity of the
spectrum impressed on silver chloride is shown as situated in the indigo portion of
the spectrum. Owing to a recent investigation by Dr. Eder, of Vienna, the possi-
bility of developing an image on silver chloride by the alkaline developer, and by a
ferrous citrate developer, has become practicable. The old method of developing
by means of acid solutions was unsatisfactory and tended to give false impressions.
The author experimented with chloride of silver prepared as an emulsion in gelatine.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 595

Plates were prepared with this emulsion: in one case the silver chloride was modi-
fied in molecular structure by boiling the gelatinous solution, and in the other it
was prepared by the cold method, Such plates were exposed to the spectrum and
developed with a solution of hydrochloric and ammonium carbonate, and in other
cases the development was with ferrous citrate.

The unmodified silver chloride, when examined by transmitted light, had a
very faint canary colour; the absorption-spectrum of this was photographed, and
showed that all the ultra-violet rays as far as H were not off, and that there was a
slight weakening of the violet and indigo rays. On the principle of work going hand
in hand with absorption, it was surmised that the rays most entirely absorbed
should give the maximum effect when silver chloride was used as a receiving medium
for the spectrum. This was proved to be the case, the limit of maximum effect
being about H, the sensitiveness rapidly falling to ‘h,’ and being still less at G.
Dr. Eder had examined the spectrum also, and found the maximum intensity in the *
violet. This discrepancy may be accounted for by the fact that the author's experi-
ments were carried out in July, when the solar spectrum is very rich in ultra-violet
rays; whilst Dr. Eder’s were carried out with sunlight in the winter, when those
rays were almost absent, or the spectroscope itself may be in fault.

Experiments with the electric light gave the same results with the author as
those obtained with sunlight.

There is a practical bearing of these experiments in photographic printing on
albumenised paper. In the process both albuminate and chloride of silver are the
media acted upon by light; the spectrum on albuminate of silver has its maximum
in the blue near G. If, then, we have light which possesses strongly the ultra-violet
rays as well as the blue rays, we arrive at the fact that both the chloride and the
albuminate will be strongly acted upon. If, on the other hand, we have a winter
light, which is deficient in ultra-violet rays, we shall have the albuminate of silver
much more acted upon than the chloride. Any practical worker in photography
will have noticed that the appearance of silver prints of equal depth at the two
seasons have very different qualities in toning, and this no doubt arises from the
fact that the proportions of darkened chloride to albuminate vary very considerably
in the two cases; the print resulting from light possessing much of the ultra-violet,
being more vigorous than that produced, say, in winter. The author has in other
papers shown that in slow printing a certain amount of oxidation of the altered
chloride of silver is an accompaniment, and that this produces flatness of image
when it is toned with gold; a still further cause for the same defect, the author
believes, may be found in what he has already stated.

The author has ‘ printed out’ the spectrum on chloride of silver, and finds that
the same position of maximum as that it possesses when the image is developed
holds good.

The author then proceeds to point out that, in actenometers based on the use of
silver chloride, the rays measured chiefly lie in the ultra-violet region ; and he pro-
poses to try the substitution of bromized paper for the same purpose, and to com-
pare them with the results obtained by the chloride paper.

4. Some Remarks on Orystallogeny. By Professor J. P. Coors.

5. On the Action of Zine and Magnesium on Acidified Solutions of Ferrie
Sulphate. By Professor T. E. Toorrr, Ph.D., FR.N.

The extent of reduction of the ferric salt may vary with the strength of the
solution, with its temperature, with the amount of free acid present, and lastly
with the specific nature of the metal employed. The author has studied the condi-
tions under which the hydrogen does work as a reducing agent. Experiments
were made on dilute solutions of ferric sulphate, containing known quantities of
free acid. The author finds: (1) that the amount of reduction produced by a given
weight of zinc in dissolving increases with the temperature; (2) that it is also
affected, although to a less degree, by the initial surface of metal exposed. Whilst
the extent of reduction, as also the rapidity of solution, increase with the tempera-

aQ2

596 REPORT—1881.

ture, at a given temperature the extent of reduction increases, although at a
gradually diminishing rate, with the time of solution. The rapidity of solution
and extent of reduction, produced by a given quantity of zinc of a given area and
in a solution of a given temperature and containing a definite weight of free acid,
increases with the amount of reducible iron present. Experiments made by plac-
ing zine in contact with platinum showed that, although the time of solution of
zinc in contact with platinum, is considerably diminished, as compared with that of
zine alone, little difference in the reducing effect is observed.

Similar results were obtained with magnesium, although the amount of reduc-
tion is from one-fourth to one-third of that produced by zinc, under similar condi-
tions. The diminution of the rate of solution with decrease in the amount of free
acid present, is far greater in the case of magnesium than in that of zine.

’ The author concludes that his experiments strongly support the view that the

reducing power of nascent hydrogen is connected with the existence of this body
in the atomic condition, since all conditions tending to prolong the duration of this
atomic condition augment the reducing power.

6. On the Reducing Action of Zine and Magnesium on Vanadium Solutions,
By Professor H. E. Roscon, DD.D., F.R.S.

The object of this communication is to examine the reducing action of the
above metals upon acid Vanadic Solutions, comparing the relative amount of reduc-
tion effected by metals generally, together with the time occupied by that reduction,
other conditions remaining as nearly constant as possible. From his original
experiments on this subject the author concluded that, whilst the reduction in the
case of zinc and sodium took place from V,O, to V,O,, that in the case of magnesium
only proceeded to V,0,. This he now finds is so far not the case that the same
point is in reality reached by all three above-named metals, but that the reduction
from V,O, to V,O, takes place with magnesium with extreme slowness. Curves
of the reduction in terms of the time are given.

7. On the Determination of the Relative Atomic Weights of Manganese,
Oxygen, and Silver. By Professor Dnwar, M.A., F.R.S., and
A. Scort, B.A., B.Sc.

Considerable doubt seems to exist as to whether the atomic weight of manganese
should be taken as 54 or 55. It seemed to the authors that by the use of perman-
ganate of silver this could be determined with great accuracy, as it is only needful
to assume the atomic weights of oxygen and silver, which are the two elements, the
atomic weights of which have been most accurately determined by Stas. It is an
exceedingly good substance for this purpose, as it can readily be obtained in a state
of high purity. and can be readily weighed, as it is an anhydrous salt and is not hygro-
scopic in the slightest degree. It contains likewise manganese free from any allied
metals, and may be decomposed without the intervention of any solution. By
heating it to a temperature of about 100° to 105° it decomposes thus :—

4A¢Mn0, = 2(Ag,0.2Mn0,) +30,

Tf this residue, which seems to be a comparatively stable and definite compound,
be heated in hydrogen we have this decomposition :—

Ag,O2Mn0, + 3H, = Ag, + 2MnO + 3H,0.

From these decompositions they expect very accurate results. As a further
check they dissolve the oxide of manganese out of this residue by means of dilute
sulphuric acid containing a little sulphurous acid, wash thoroughly and thus leave
the silver behind. The decompositions are done in a bulb of hard glass. Three
experiments, made on different samples of the salt, give the following values for
manganese, silver being taken as 108 and oxygen as 16. ;

55°51
54:04
54:45

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 597

The two latter samples were the finest. It is evident that there is some
impurity contained in these samples, which were quite free ‘rom potash when a
quantity of 6 grams was reduced, extracted with water, and tested spectroscopically.

To check these results two samples of black oxide of manganese, obtained by
heating the nitrate, were reduced in hydrogen to manganous oxide, and the water
collected. These gave for manganese the atomic weights of 53:6 and 53°83 respec-
tively. ‘These are the results of preliminary experiments; others are being carried
out with purer samples and greater accuracy.

WEDNESDAY, SEPT. EMBER 7.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On Some Vapour Density Determinations. By Professor Dwar, M.A.,
F.RS., and A. Scort, B.A., B.Sc.

It seemed to the authors that the behaviour of various haloid salts at high tem-
peratures would prove of great interest on account of its relation to the experiments
of Meyer and Crafts on the vapour density of chlorine at high temperatures. The
method they employed was to measure the volume of gas given off from a weighed
amount of substance which was introduced in the ordinary way into an iron
apparatus in every respect the same as they used in determining the vapour-
densities of potassium and sodium, which is described in the ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’
The results of the experiments are calculated so as to give the amount of substance
required to expel 22°4 C. of gas at 0°+ 760 mm. pressure. Commencing with iodine
they found that in an apparatus filled with hydrogen the mean result was 260, I,
being equal to 254; when nitrogen was used, 241 was the number found,

Platinous chloride gave in the same way the number 251, 268 corresponding to
Cl,. No free chlorine could be detected; ferrous chloride was apparently formed
alone. Ferrous chloride was next tried and gave as a mean 116 :—

: FeCl, = 127,

No absorption-spectrum could be seen, but a small quantity of free chlorine
seemed to exist in the vapour, the rest being FeCl,. Manganous chloride gave 135
while MnCl,=126. Argentic chloride when introduced seemed to volatilise at
once, and on calculating gave 262 as a mean instead of 287. It, however, was
almost entirely decomposed into ferrous chloride and silver, as on blowing out the
vapour only a minute trace of silver could be found.

With argentic iodide they got the number 428 if the iodide was first fused in
the small capsule before being introduced into the apparatus; otherwise they got
the number 574, Ag.I, corresponding to 470. In the vapour there were silver and
ferrous iodides along with free iodine ; lead chloride gave 239, whereas PbCl, corre-
sponds to 278. On looking down the tube with the spectroscope a beautiful chan-
nelled spectrum was observed. Potassium chloride was tried, but they were never
able to raise the temperature sufficiently to volatilise this salt rapidly enough to
get good results. Potassic iodide gave as a mean 183 instead of 166. ‘The vapours
blown out seemed to contain neither iodine nor iron, but yielded a fine white powder
of potassic iodide which had a slight acid reaction. Rubidium chloride similarly
gave 155 instead of 121,

2. On Vapour Density Determinations. By Professor Tuorpr, Ph.D., F.R.S.

3. Note on the Phosphates of Lime and Ammonia. By J. ALFRED WANKLYN.

When ammonia is added to a solution of the soluble phosphate of lime, a
precipitate of tribasic phosphate of lime is thrown down, and phosphate of ammonia
passes into solution.

598 REPORT—1881.

The author has observed that 7e-solution of the phosphate of lime occurs when
the ammoniacal solution is heated with it in the water-bath, and that a clear viscid
solution is formed which, on cooling, solidifies and yields a solid, admitting of
being reduced to a fine powder. This double salt (which he believes is new) appears
to have the following formula :—

P,0,CaO(NH,),0,H,O + aq.

Excess of water breaks it up. Morfit has made the interesting observation
that when tribasic phosphate of lime (bone-earth) is dissolved in acid and then
reprecipitated with an alkali, it is reprecipitated in the form of hydrated tribasic
phosphate of lime. He has recently had an opportunity of confirming this observa-
tion on a very large scale, and the resulting hydrated tribasic phosphate is likely to
become of great importance in agriculture.

4. On a New System of Blowpipe Analysis. By Lieut.-Colonel Ross.

Among others, the following are points of novelty :—

1. The use of aluminium plate for volatilising substances.

2. A new air-reservoir mouth blowpipe.

3. A blowpipe or pyrological candle.

4, Candle-scissors; also used for general purposes.

_ 5. The use of watchmakers’ pliers for holding, cleaning, and ringing platinum

wires.

6. Agate slabs instead of the ordinary mortar for grinding powders,

Reagents.
7. Boric acid (instead of borax).
_8. Phosphoric acid instead of microcosmic salt.

Miscellaneous Novelties.
9. An alloy button of gold and silver, in which these metals have been separated
by the blowpipe alone.
10. A spectrum lorgnette, or spectracles, for observing blowpipe spectra while
you are producing them.
11. A compass, in which the needle points E. and W., for obviating the ‘ dip’
in Arctic voyages.

5. On Colliery Explosions. By Wriuiam GaLLoway.

The author first described the general arrangement of the airways and workings
in a large modern colliery, worked according to the long-wall method, and passed
on to notice some hypotheses which had been entertained by himself and others on
the causes of firedamp explosions. As regards that attributing an influence to
atmospheric pressure, it had been found by Mr. R. H. Scott and himself, that
while shallow mines are affected by changes of weather, large and deep mines, in
which great explosions nearly always occur, are not perceptibly affected by them.

It had occurred to him that possibly a mixture of firedamp and air, which
contains too small a proportion of firedamp to render it explosive at ordinary
pressure and temperature, might become so when traversed by a wave of compres-
sion originated by a local firedamp explosion or by a blown-out shot.

About the same time it occurred to him also, that the sound-wave originated
by a blown-out shot might carry the flame through the meshes of a safety-lamp
burning in an explosive mixture. Experiments had justified this hypothesis (see
‘ Proc. Royal Soce.,’ 1874).

None of the foregoing hypotheses could account for all the phenomena observ-
able after a great explosion; and, in pursuing the subject still further, he began,
towards the end of the year 1874, to speculate as to the probable influence of the
coal-dust which is to be found nearly everywhere on the floor of dry and dusty
mines. Further investigations led him to the conclusion that if a mixture of coal-

1 Detailed Paper published in the Znglish Mechanic and World of Science, of
September 30, 1881.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 599

dust and pure air were not inflammable at ordinary pressure and temperature, it
would become so when a small proportion of firedamp was added; and that the
coal-dust might thus become the vehicle for conveying flame from one district of a
mine to another, after it had been raised from the floor and mixed with the air of
the mine by some disturbing cause, such as a local explosion of firedamp or a
heavily charged blown-out shot. This view, that coal-dust and not firedamp plays
by far the most prominent part in great explosions, has been confirmed by all his
subsequent observations, of which the following is a sketch :—

1. In July 1875 he found that an air-current made black with fine coal-dust
was not ignited by the flame of a lamp, but that when the air contained a small
proportion of firedamp (insufficient to render it inflammable alone) it became
inflammable when the same proportion of coal-dust was added to it and burned
with a red smoky flame that filled the apparatus.

2. In December 1875 he made a quantitative experiment with the view of
ascertaining the proportion of firedamp required to produce the foregoing results,
and he found that one per cent., or rather less, was suflicient to doso. He attributes
the satisfactory character of this result, and of all the results of his later experi-
ments with coal-dust, to the fact that he has employed only wind-carried dust in
making them, and this dust has not parted with its finest particles like that which
is to be found under screens and in other exposed situations.

3. In June, 1876, Messrs. Hall and Clark read a paper before the North of
England Institute of Mining Engineers, describing experiments which showed that
the flame of a blown-out shot was prolonged to a distance of fifty yards, when it
was directed in such a manner as to lick up coal-dust strewed on the floor of a
sloping gallery. During the same year the author had practical proof of the same
thing in a Welsh mine, in which two explosions of coal-dust, by which men were
burnt and injured, were originated in this way, but the explosions died out again
when they reached damp portions of the roadways.

4, Professor Freire-Marecco, of the College of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-
Tyne, commenced a series of experiments in 1876, and has continued them on a
larger scale since then, and he has obtained results similar to the foregoing by means
of a special apparatus.

5. In 1878 he made three sets of experiments with different kinds of
apparatus :—

a: In the first set, in which lighting gas was used instead of firedamp, and the
gas and air were carefully measured and the coal-dust weighed, it was shown that
24 per cent. of gas mixed with air was rendered inflammable when coal-dust was
added; 3 per cent. of gas made the mixture slightly explosive; 4 per cent. made
it still more explosive ; and 5 per cent. produced a violent explosion. The total
quantity of gas and air mixture was little more than a cubic foot.

b. In the second set it was shown that the return air of a mine containing 2 per
cent. of firedamp became inflammable when coal-dust was added to it.

c. In the third set the explosion of a mixture of air and firedamp was made to
raise and ignite coal-dust scattered along the floor of an artificial gallery, 70 or 80
feet long, and 14 inches square inside. The flame of the firedamp explosion alone
was found to be 7 or 8 feet long; the flame of coal-dust in pure air was 35 or 40
feet long ; and the flame of coal-dust in the return air employed in experiment a
was 80 or 90 feet long. The two sets of experiments 6 and c were described in the
‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ March 1879, and the set a bas been described
in a general way more recently.

6, The great explosions of Risca,Seaham, and Penygraig Collieries took place
in the year 1880, and all of them appeared to be wrapped in the usual mystery
when viewed only from the firedamp standpoint. It was under these circum-
stances that the Home Secretary requested Professor Abel to inquire into the
causes of the Seaham explosion, and to ascertain if possible what influence, if any,
the coal-dust was likely to have had in promoting the explosion. Professor Abel
made experiments near Wigan, with an apparatus similar to the one the author had
employed in July 1875, and obtained results similar in kind, but different in some
respects. He found that 2} to 3} per cent. of firedamp was required to render a

600 REPORT—1881.

mixture of air and coal-dust inflammable; and that dust containing no combustible:
matter produced flashes of flame in the apparatus when the air contained 5 to 3}
per cent. of firedamp. The author attributes the high percentage of firedamp
required in the first case to the coarseness of the dust employed, since he obtained
similar results on using coarse dust instead of very fine. The second result appears
to be a curious one, but some light will doubtless be thrown upon it by future:
experiments,

7. In July of the present summer the author made experiments, during the six
days of very warm dry weather ending on the 21st of that month, with an apparatus
of the following description. A sheet-iron cylinder, 6 feet long by 2 feet in diameter,
closed at one end and open at the other, has its open end bolted to a wooden
gallery, 126 feet long by 2 feet square inside. One end of the wooden gallery is
thus closed by the sheet-iron cylinder or explosion-chamber, and the other end is
open. Six sheets of newspaper are placed beiahen the open end of the explosion
chamber and the gallery, and a tight joint isinsured by means of the screws. Rather
less than two cubic feet of firedamp is carefully measured by means of water dis-
placement, and introduced into the explosion-chamber. The wooden gallery con-
tains only pure air. The firedamp contained in the explosion-chamber could not
find its way into the gallery except by passing through the six sheets of news
paper, and if any part of it did so, it would be immediately carried away by a
strong current of pure air, amounting to 1,000 or 1,200 cubic feet per minute,
which enters the gallery just behind the paper, and traverses its whole length
towards the open end. It 1s thus doubly certain that the gallery contains nothing
but pure air. The air and firedamp contained in the explosion-chamber are
thoroughly mixed by means of an appropriate mechanical arrangement, and the
mixture is exploded. The explosion bursts the sheets of paper, and the resulting
flame travels about 12 or 14 feet along the gallery, and as suddenly disappears.
The gallery is then strewed with a layer of fine coal-dust, from 4 inch to } inch
thick, along its floor, and some is placed on shelves which stand in sets of three,
one above the other, at distances of 10 feet from each other, along the gallery.
The same arrangement as before is then made in regard to preparing for a fire--
damp explosion, exactly the same quality of firedamp being measured, mixed, and
exploded,

Py the explosion of the firedamp mixture the coal-dust is raised in a cloud
throughout the whole length of the gallery, part of it is projected out into the
air to a distance of 20 or 30 feet beyond the end, and, after the lapse of an appre-
ciable interval of time, the flame finds its way to the end of the gallery, and flashes
out through the cloud of dust to a greater or less distance, according to cir-
cumstances. The greatest lengths of flame thus obtained with coal-dust and pure
air was 147 feet on one occasion, and from 100 to 140 feet very often.

The author considers that these results prove in the most convincing manner
that coal-dnst forms an inflammable mixture with pure air, and they settle once:
for all the question as to how an explosion, begun in one district of a dry and dusty
mine, can penetrate to the most distant parts of every other district of workings
in the same mine,

If, then, water were sprinkled on the floor of all dry mines from time to time,
and always before firing blasting shots, we should, in the author’s opinion, have:
no more disastrous colliery explosions, such as those with which we have become:
but too familiar during the last ten or fifteen years,

6. On the Double Iodide of Mercury and Copper.
By Professor Sinvanus P. Tuompson, B.A., D.Sc.

Cuprous mercuric iodide, Cu,Hgl,, is prepared by the following process. Mercuric:
biniodide is dissolved in iodide of potassium ; the liquid is then raised to 100°, and
aqueous solution of cupric’sulphate is added in excess, when the cuprous mercuric
iodide precipitates. When cold, it is of a fine scarlet colour; but possesses the
property of becoming a deep dull black tint, between 80° and 90°, without suffering
decomposition, and of returning on cooling to its former hue, This remarkable

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 601

phenomenon, possessed by many bodies in less degree, led the author to select it
from amongst bodies whose colour changes with heat, to verify one point of the
electro-magnetic theory of light. According to that theory, all good conductors of
electricity should be opaque to light; and therefore, if this theory holds good, the
increase of opacity and of light-absorbing power by a body should indicate that its
electrical conductivity was increasing. To put this to the test the author has
measured the conducting power of the iodide at various temperatures. This was
done by placing a film of the iodide about 1 millimetre thick between two plates of

latinived lead, each 10 centimétres square, and determining its resistance in a
Wheatstone’s bridge at different temperatures. A decrease was observed from
40°C. up to about 110°C., at which the resistance began again to increase. The
author believes this increase to be due to dissociation setting in, as at about 150°C.
it is decomposed, mercuric iodide subliming away and leaving pale brown cuprous
iodide behind. The greatest change of resistance was between 65°C. and 90°C,
with rising temperatures, and between 95°C. and 75°C, with falling temperatures.
In both cases the maximum rate of increase of conductivity was between 87°5° and
88'5°C., precisely the temperature at which the rate of change of tint is also a
maximum. The specific electric conductivity doubles between 82° and 92°, The
following values of x, the specific electric conductivity, were obtained :—

At 50°C. x = 2°396 x 10-8
82° = '9'86b"x 10-8
92° = 1864 10-5
109° = 23°95 x 10-8

The maximum value of % was 0-221 x 10-7
a

These results were therefore held to support the theory, though experiments on
other bodies exhibiting similar phenomena were to be desired in confirmation, before
any sweeping generalisation would be admissible.

The author pointed out, in conclusion, that the remarkable change of colour
exhibited by this body rendered it a valuable thermoscope for lecture purposes. He
had employed it for demonstrating to an audience the heating effects of absorption
of radiation, the conductivity of heat in crystals, and the heat produced by
magnetic and mechanical friction.

7. Analyses of the Water and Gas from Blowing Wells near Northallerton,
By T. Farrury, F.R.S.H.

The wells are three in number :—Well at Solberge, 3} miles 8. from Northal-
lerton ; well at Langton, about 4 miles W.N.W. from Northallerton; and well at
Ornhams, 2 miles 8. from Boroughbridge. In each of these currents of air flow
from the shafts of the wells during a falling period of the barometer, and inward
currents flow into the shafts while the barometer is rising. When the rise or fall
is considerable the currents are very powerful, causing a strong draught or wind
in the openings leading to the shaft.

The well at Solberge is situated on Mr. Hutton’s estate near his residence.
Through this gentleman’s kindness and assistance the author was able to make a
number of experiments. A number of analyses of the gas from the out-current
showed it to be common air containing 20°9 per cent. of oxygen. Analyses of the
water gave the results (grains per gallon) :—

Chloride of sodium . f Breer)

a dae } ; ; doe Hardness before boiling, 32-6°
Magnesium carbonate. 3 - 11:36

Scuia aac aa of iron. : he i after boiling, 8-4°
Organic matter, loss . - . O34

Total solids by evaporation . 38°64

602 REPORT—1881.

As the author conceived, there must be a large cavity communicating with the
shaft of the well, at his request Mr. Hutton had the well opened, and on descending
with a candle he easily found the fissures in the sandstone, through which the
air was passing at a depth of about 15 yards from the surface.

A piece of this sandstone, broken off at the side of the fissure, contained the
following :—

Moisture A ‘ A C b Gragg ba G2
Silica . f ; : 4 ST 72
Ferric oxide, with traces of alumina . 3°96
Meares : i y F se Carbonates of calcium
Carbonic acid. : : : ; 315 and magnesium, 7-0b
Sulphuric acid : r “ ; . atrace
Loss : 3 ‘ s 5 5 - 260302
100-00

To obtain the approximate volume of the cavity by the application of Boyle’s
law, careful readings were taken of the barometer at Solberge, and the current was
measured, first by means of an anemometer, afterwards by means of very large dry
gas-meters. The results of numerous observations made by Mr. Hutton, select-
ing those where the current due to the change of pressure had had sufficient time
to expend itself, give an approximate volume of about ten million cubic feet,
corresponding to a cubic space measuring 217 feet each way.

The currents at the other wells also consist of air, and vary with the barometric
pressure.

8. On Experiments with Manures on the Barley Crop of 1881.
By W. Ivison Macapam.

The author said that he was engaged in a large series of experiments with the
various crops, to determine the best seasons for the application of different manures
and the results of the various treatments. A large number of results had been
obtained, but the present Paper was restricted to the consideration of two lots of
barley, the first of which was grown on land from which a previous turnip crop had
been eaten by sheep, and in the case of the second the turnips had been carted off
the land. The results showed that the water, which was most large during the
earliest stages of growth, gradually decreased with an increasing amount of organic
vegetable matter during the ripening process, The results also showed that the
effect of eating the turnips on the land was best seen on the commencement of wet
weather, when the barley on the land so treated rushed forward and became much
more healthy in appearance and heavier in weight than the second sample, and
that it also yielded a heavier crop on ripening.

9. On the Hydration of Salts and Oxides. By C. F. Cross, B.Sc.

The author bases his method of observation of the rate of hydration of salts
and oxides, viz., confinement over water of the substances in bell-jars of 2,000 ee.
capacity, and in quantities of 1:25 grms, or less, and distributed in the finest state
of division over a circular area of 60 mm. diameter, upon a critical experimental
investigation. As a typical instance of the results obtained, details are given
of the observations of the hydration of Copper Sulphate (CuSO,.H,O). Com-
bination with water proceeds with diminishing velocity up to the point cor-
responding to the pentahydrate, at which it remains constant for some hours,
after which deliguescence sets in, and the combination with water continues
until a liquid mass is obtained. Potasstwm Dichromate represents another class of
salts which appear to condense water into their substance, rather than combine
with it (although the quantity taken up is observed to be in simple molecular ratio),
since they are again rendered anhydrous by pressure between blotting paper, or
short exposure to ordinary air. Potassitwm Sodium and Magnesium Sulphates pass
continuously through hydration to deliquescence.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 603

Ferric Oxide (ppt. dry at 100°) rapidly combines with 1 mol. H,0, after which
it slowly takes up a further 3 mols. ; on exposure to the air it loses 2 mols., and in
the form of the trihydrate appears to be stable. The hydration of the oxides and
of all bodies is greatly influenced by methods of preparation.

10. On Cellulose and Coal. By C. F. Cross, B.Sc., and EH. J. Bevan.

The authors have obtained, by the action of sulphuric acid upon cellulose, black
substances, resembling coal in appearance and percentage-composition (CO and H),
which are convertible, by the action of chlorine, into derivatives, resembling those
obtained by the direct chlorination of lignefied fibres. The yield of the black
substance is about 35 per cent. of the original substance (dextrin), 7.e. in view of
its higher carbon percentage (60° to 70°) about 50 per cent. of the carbon of the
carbohydrate takes this aromatic form, the remainder being liberated as carbonic
and acetic acids, &e. The passage of cellulose into these compounds suggests the
probability of its conversion into lignin as a result of plant-life. In support of
this view the authors cite their experiments on the probable existence of plant-
constituents intermediate between the two groups (jute) ;.Meisseur’s experiments
on the origin of the hippuric acid of the urine of herbivora, which he refers to a
constituent of hay contaming a benzoic residue, and which appears to be a form
of cellulose: the formation of astringent bodies at the expense of plant-structures,
as in the ‘ pathological’ tannins and the decay of the jute-fibre ; the occurrence of
tannin and carbohydrates in intimate association throughout the plant world;
and, lastly, the chemistry of coal. They regard cellulose, lignin, peat, lignite, and
anthracite as, probably, terms of a vast series of compounds differentiated under
conditions which we can only very approximately imitate or even conceive.

11. On the New Element, Actinium. By Dr. T. L. Putrson, F.C.8.

The author has at last succeeded in isolating the new metallic element which he
has found in white zinc pigment, to which it gives the peculiar property of darkening
in about twenty minutes when exposed to the direct rays of the sun, but not so
when protected by a sheet of glass, and becoming again white in the course of a
few hours when placed in the dark.

The new metal has been obtained in the form of oxide and in the form of
sulphide. Its isolation is based principally upon the facts, that its oxide is only
slightly soluble in caustic soda, and not precipitated by ammonia from solutions
containing salts of ammonia ; that its sulphide is scarcely soluble in acetic acid, but
readily soluble in mineral acids, even when they are slightly diluted. He has
proved that it differs essentially from zinc, cadmium, manganese, and lanthanum,
with which alone it is possible, for a moment, to confuse it. He has obtained no
less than about four per cent. from some white zinc pigment as found in commerce.
This yield is enormous. The presence of this new metal in commercial zine will
fully explain discrepancies as to the equivalent of that metal.

After a great number of experiments he has adhered to the following simple
process for the extraction of actinium :—

1. The pigment (about 12 grammes) is digested for twenty-four hours in dilute
acetic acid, washed and digested for another twenty-four hours in dilute hydro-
chloric acid (8 per cent.), and the residue washed.

2. The residue is dissolved in strong hydrochloric acid, with occasional additions
of nitric acid; the chlorides are treated with excess of caustic soda, which leaves
oxide of actinium and dissolves the oxide of zinc. The oxide of actinium is dis-
solved in hydrochloric acid, and again treated with excess of caustic soda (the
operation is repeated two or three times) ; finally, to separate a little oxide of iron,
the oxide of actinium is dissolved in excess of HCl, and the solution treated with
excess of ammonia, which only precipitates the iron. The oxide of actinium re-
maining in solution is precipitated by sulphide of ammonium.

Oxrde of Actinium.—The hydrate forms a bulky white precipitate, more gelatinous
than oxide of zine. Unlike the latter, it is only slightly soluble in caustic soda. It is

604 REPORT—1881.

not precipitated by ammonia in presence of ammoniacal salts. It is a permanent
white, with a slight salmon-colour tinge; calcined, the tint is similar. It does not
change colour by exposure to the air, neither does it appear to be affected by sun-
light. It is readily soluble in acids.

Sulphide of Actinium.—The hydrate, as precipitated from its neutral or alkaline
solutions by sulphide of ammonium, is a bulky, pale, canary-yellow precipitate ;
insoluble in excess of sulphide of ammonium, very slightly soluble in acetic -acid,
readily soluble in mineral acids, even when rather dilute. Exposed to the direct
rays of the sun it darkens in about twenty minutes, except where protected by a
piece of glass.

12. On Bowkett’s Thermograph.
By Wm. Lant Carpenter, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S8.

The construction of this instrument is based on an application of the principle of
Bourdon’s steam-gauge, the changing pressure of a confined fluid under varying
temperatures being used to obtain a motion for registering those temperatures.
Upon a flat, circular, metallic vessel, 8 inches in diameter and 3-inch thick, is a
hollow metallic spring or sealed tube communicating with it, filled with fluid,
circular in shape, and fixed at one end. The other end is free to move, and very
minute changes in temperature cause it to do so, the amount of movement being
proportionate to the pressure, and this again proportional to the increase of tempe-
rature producing the expansion. The movements are magnified by a lever system,
and recorded by a pen upon a cardboard disc, rotating once in twenty-four hours,
divided by concentric circles into degrees, and into hours by radial lines. The
instrument had been extensively used, clinically and otherwise, and would be
useful in the laboratory for recording purposes, where a prolonged constant tempe-
rature was necessary.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 605

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—ANDREW CROMBIE RAMSAY, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1,

The PrestpENT delivered the following Address :—

On the Origin and Progress of the present state of British Geology, especially
since the first meeting of the British Association at York in 1831.

In the year 1788, Hutton published his first sketch of his ‘Theory of the Earth,
afterwards extended and explained by Playfair in a manner more popular and per-
spicuous than is done in Hutton’s own writings. In this grand work, Hutton
clearly explains that the oldest known strata, like their successors, are derivative,
and that as far as observation can discover, in all geological time, ‘we find no
vestige of a beginning, and no sign of an end.” The complement to this far-seeing
observation was at length brought about by William Smith, in his original ‘ Geo-
logical Map of the Strata of England and Wales’ in 1815, followed, in 1816, by
his ‘ Strata Identified by Organised Fossils.’ This great discovery, for such it was,
threw a new light on the history of the earth, proving what had before been un-
known, that all the ‘secondary’ formations at least from the lias to the chalk
inclusive, contained each a set of distinctive fossils by which it could be recognised,
A law was thus provided for the identification of formations which geographically
are often widely separated from each other, not only in England in the case of
minor outliers, but also easily applicable to great areas on the neighbouring con-
tinent of Europe.

Tn 1811, the first volume of the ‘ Transactions’ of the Geological Society was
published, and in 1826-27, there appeared the first volume of the ‘ Proceedings,’
the object being to communicate to the fellows as promptly as possible the pro-
ceedings of the Society ‘during the intervals between the appearance of the
several parts of the Transactions.’ The last volume of the ‘Transactions’ contains
memoirs read between the years 1845-1856, and only four volumes of the ‘ Pro-
ceedings’ appeared between the years 1826 and 1845 inclusive, after which the
title of the annual volume was changed to that of the ‘Quarterly Journal of the
Geological Society.’ The Geological Society, to which the science owes so much,
was therefore in full action when the British Association was founded in 1831,
and the memoirs read before the society from 1831 to this date, may be said to
show generally the state of British geology during the last fifty years. To this
must be added the powerfui influence of the first (1830) and later editions of Lyell’s
‘Principles of Geology,’ a work which helped to lay the foundations of those re-
searches in Physical Geology which in both earlier and later years have attracted
so much attention.

Fifty years ago in this city, Viscount Milton was president of the first meeting
of ‘The British Association for the advancement of Science,’ which he explained
had for its chief object ‘to give a stronger impulse and more systematic direction
to scientific inquiry.’ In his address, he pointed out the numbers of Philosophical
Societies which had by degrees sprung up in all parts of the kingdom; and the
practicability, through the means of the Association, ‘ including all the scientific
strength of Great Britain,’ ‘to point out the lines in which the direction of
science should move,’

In that year, 1831, Professor Sedgwick was president of the Geological Society,
and the Geological and Geographical Committee of the British Association re-

606 REPORT—1881.

commended that geologists should examine the truth of that part of the theory
of Elie de Beaumont, in its application to England, Scotland, and Ireland, which
asserts that the lines of disturbance of the strata assignable to the same age are
parallel ; that Professor Phillips be requested to draw up a@ systematic catalogue of
all the organised fossils of Great Britain and Ireland; and that Mr. Robert Steven-
son, civil engineer, be requested to prepare a report upon the waste and extension
of the land on the east coast of Britain, and the question of the permanence of the
relative level of the sea and land.

In 1881 it seems strange to us that, in 1831, with William Smith’s map of
‘The Strata of England and Wales, with part Scotland’ before them, it should
have been considered necessary to institute an inquiry as to the truth of the
general parallelism of disturbed strata, which, in a limited area like England, had
suffered upheaval at different successive epochs ; and we may fancy the internal
smile with which Phillips, the nephew of Smith, regarded the needless proposal.
The masterpiece of the old land surveyor and civil engineer remains to this day
the foundation of all subsequent geological maps of England and Wales; and as
an unaided effort of practical genius—for such it was—it seems impossible that it
should be surpassed, in spite of all the accuracy and detail which happily modern
science has introduced into modern geological maps.

The first paper read at York, in the year 1831, was by Professor Sedgwick,
‘On the general structure of the Lake Mountains of the North of England.’ This
was followed by ‘Supplementary Observations on the Structure of the Austrian
and Bavarian Alps,’ by the Secretary of the Society, Mr. Murchison, a memoir
at that time of the highest value, and still valuable, both in a stratigraphical point
of view, and also for the light which it threw on the nature of the disturbances
that originated the Alpine mountains, and their relations in point of date to the
far more ancient mountains of Bohemia. In his elaborate address in the same
year, on his retiring from the president's chair, he largely expatiates on the paral-
lelism of many of the great lines of disturbance of what were then distinguished
as the more ancient schistose and greywacké mountains, and quotes the authority
of Elie de Beaumont for the statement, ‘that mountain chains elevated at the
same period of time, have a general parallelism in the bearing of their component
strata.’ On a great scale this undoubtedly holds true, as, for example, in the case
of the Scandinavian chain, and the more ancient palzeozoic rocks north of Scot-
land, Cumberland, and even of great part of Wales. The same holds good with
regard to the parallelism of the much more recent mountain ranges of the Apen-
nines, the Alps, the Caucasus, the Atlas, and the Himalayas, all of which strike
more or less east and west, and are to a great extent of post-Eocene, and even partly
of post-Miocene age. The same, however, is not precisely the case with the
Apalachian chain and the Rocky Mountains of North America, the first of which
trends N.N.W., and the latter N.N.E. The remarkable chain of the Ural Moun-
tains trends nearly true north and south, and is parallel to no other chain that
I know of, unless it be the Andes and the mountains of Japan. It is worthy of
notice that the chain of the Ural is of pre-Permian age according to Murchison,
while Darwin has shown that the chief upheaval of the Andes took place in post-
Cretaceous times.

The Apalachian chain is chiefly of post-Carboniferous date, and the Rocky
Mountains have been re-disturbed and re-elevated as late as post-Miocene times.

In the same address Professor Sedgwick entered an eloquent protest against the
broad uniformitarian views so powerfully advocated in the first edition of Lyell’s
‘ Principles of Geology’ in 1850, in which, throwing aside all discussion concern-
ing cosmogony, he took the world as he found it, and agreeing with Hutton that
geology is in no ways concerned with, and not sufficiently advanced to deal ‘with
questions as to the origin of things,’ he saw that a great body of new data were
required such as engaged the attention of the Geological Society (founded in 1807),
which along with other foreign societies and private work has at length brought
geological science to its present high position.

And what is that position? With great and consentient labour many men
gifted with a knowledge of stratigraphical and paleontological geology, have, so

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 607

to speak, more or less dissected all the regions of Europe and great part of North
America, India, and of our colonies, and in vast areas, sometimes nearly adjoining,
and sometimes far distant from each other, the various formations, by help of the
fossils they contain, have been correlated in time, often in spite of great differences
in their lithological characters. It is easy, for example, to correlate the various
formations in countries so near as Great Britain and Ireland, or of the Secondary
and Lower Tertiary formations of England and France; and what is more re-
markable, it is easy to correlate the paleozoic formations of Britain and the
eastern half of the United States and Canada, even in many of the comparatively
minute stratigraphical and lithological subdivisions of the Silurian, Devonian, and
Carboniferous formations. The same may be said with regard to some of the
palzozoic formations of India, China, Africa, and Australia, and many of the
secondary and tertiary deposits have in like manner been identified as having their
equivalents in Europe. It is not to be inferred from these coincidences that such
deposits were all formed precisely at the same time, but taken in connection with
their palzeontological contents, viewed in the light which Darwin has shown with
regard to the life of the globe when considered in its relation to masses of
stratified formations, no modern geologist who gives his mind to such subjects
would be likely to state, for example, that in any part of the globe Silurian rocks
may be equivalents in time to any of our Upper Paleozoic, Mesozoic, or Tertiary
formations.

For all the latest details of genera and species found in the British Paleozoic
rocks, from those of St. David’s, so well worked out by Dr. Hicks, to the Carbon-
iferous series inclusive, I must refer to the elaborate address of Mr. Etheridge,
President of the Geological Society, which he delivered at the last anniversary
meeting of that Society. It is a work of enormous labour and skill, which could
not have been produced by anyone who had not a thorough personal knowledge
of all the formations of Britain and of their fossil contents.!

In connection with such subjects I will not in any way deal with the tempting
and important subject of cosmological geology, which in my opinion must go back
to times far anterior to the date of the deposition, as common sediments, of the
very oldest known metamorphic strata. Cosmological speculations perhaps may
be sound enough with regard to the refrigeration, and the first consolidation of the
crust of the earth, but all the known tangible rocky formations in the world have
no immediate relation to them, and in my opinion the oldest Laurentian rocks
were deposited long after the beginning and end of lost and unknown epochs,
during which stratified rocks were formed by watery agents in the same way that
the Laurentian rocks were deposited, and in which modern formations are being
deposited now, and the gneissose structure of the most ancient formations was the
result of an action which has at intervals characterised all geological time as late
as the Eocene formations in the Alps and elsewhere.

The same kind of chronological reasoning is often applicable to igneous rocks,
Tt was generally the custom, many years ago, to recognise two kinds of igneous
rocks, viz., Volcanic and Plutonic, and this classification somewhat modified in
details is still applicable, the Plutonic consisting chiefly of granitic rocks and
their allies, which, though they have often altered and thrust veins into the ad-
joining strata, have never, as far as I know, overflowed in the manner of the lavas
of modern and ancient volcanoes. Indeed, as far as I recollect, the first quoted
examples of ancient volcanoes are those of Miocene age in the districts of Auvergne,
the Velay, and the Eifel, and the fact that signs of ordinary volcanic phenomena
are found in almost all the larger groups of strata was scarcely suspected. Now,
however, we know them to be associated with strata of all or almost all geological
ages, from Lower Silurian times down to the present day, if we take the whole
world into account. Amongst them, those of Miocene date hold a very prominent
place, greatly owing, doubtless, to the comparative perfection of their forms, as, for
example, those of the South of France and of the Eifel. Their conical shapes,

1 I must also, with much pleasure, advert to Professor Prestwich’s inaugural
lecture when installed in the Chair of Geology at Oxford in 1875, the subject of
which is ‘ The Past and Future of Geology.’

608 REPORT—1881.

and numerous extinct craters, afford testimony so plain, that he who runs may
read their history. The time when they became extinct would doubtless amaze
us by its magnitude, if it could be stated in years, but yet it is comparatively so
recent that not all the undying forces cf atmospheric degradation have been able
to obliterate their individual origin.

It is, however, generally very different with respect to voleanoes of Mesozoic
age, for though Lyell stated with doubt, that volcanic products of Jurassic date
are found in the Morea, and in the Apennines; and Medlicott and Blanford con-
sider that probably the igneous rocks of Rajmahal may be of that age, we must, per-
haps, wait for further information before the question may be considered as finally
settled. Of Jurassic age no actual craters remain. Darwin also has stated, on
good grounds, that in the Andes a line of volcanic eruptions has been at work from
before the deposition of the Cretaceo-oolitic formation down to the present day.

In the British Islands we have a remarkable series of true volcanic rocks, the
chronology of which has been definitely determined. The oldest of these belong
to the Lower Silurian epoch, as shown, for example, on a large scale in Pembroke-
shire, at Builth in Radnorshire, in the Longmynd country west of the Stiper
stones in Shropshire, and on a far greater scale in North Wales and Cumbria. Of
later date we find volcanic lavas and ashes in the Devonian rocks of Devon, and
in the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. The third series is plentiful among the
Carboniferous rocks of Scotland, and in a smaller way associated with the
Coal-measures of South Staffordshire, Warwickshire and the Clee Hills. The
fourth series chronologically is associated with the Permian strata in Scotland, and
the fifth and last consists of the Miocene basaltic rocks of the Inner Hebrides and
the mainland of the West of Scotland.

In the British Islands the art of geological surveying has, I believe, been
earried out in a more detailed manner than in any other country in Europe, a
matter which has been rendered comparatively easy by the excellence of the
Ordnance Survey maps both on the 1-inch and the 6-inch scales. When the
whole country has been mapped geologically little will remain to be done in geo-
logical surveying, excepting corrections here and there, especially in the earliest
pubtished maps of the South-west of England. Paleontological detail may, how-
ever, be carried on to any extent, and much remains to be done in microscopic
petrology which now deservedly occupies the attention of many skilled observers.

Time will not permit me to do more than advert to the excellent and well-
known geological surveys now in action in India, Canada, the United States, Aus-
tralia, New Zealand, and South Africa.

On the Continent of Europe there are National Geological Surveys of great
and well-deserved repute conducted by men of the highest eminence in geological
science, and it is to be hoped the day may come when a more detailed survey will
follow the admirable map executed by Sir Roderick Murchison, De Verneuil, and
Count Keyserling, and published in their joint work, ‘The Geology of Russia in
Europe and the Ural Mountains,’

It is difficult to deal with the Future of Geology. Probably in many of the
European formations, more may be done in tracing the details of subformations.
The same may be said of much of North America, and for a long series of years
a great deal must remain almost untouched in Asia, Africa, South America, and
in the islands of the Pacific Ocean. If,in the far future, the day should come
when such work shall be undertaken, the process of doing so must necessarily be
slow, partly for want of proper maps, and possibly in some regions partly for the
want of trained geologists. Palzeontologists must always have ample work in the
discovery and description of new fossils, marine, freshwater, and truly terrestrial ;
and besides common stratigraphical geology, geologists have still an ample
field before them in working out many of those physical problems which form
the true basis of Physical Geography in every region of the earth. Of the
history of the earth there is a long past, the early chapters of which seem to be
lost for ever, and we know little of the future except that it appears that ‘the
stir of this dim spot which men call earth,’ as far as Geology is concerned, shows
‘no sign of an end,’

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 609

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Laurentian Beds of Donegal and of other parts of Ireland. By
Professor Epwarp Hut, LL.D., F.R.S., Director of the Geological
Survey of Ireland.

After a perusal of the writings of previous authors, and a personal examination
made in the spring of 1881, in company with two of his colleagues of the Geo-
logical Survey, Mr. R. G. Symes, F.G.S., and Mr. 8. B. Wilkinson, the author had
arrived at the following conclusions.

Ist. That the Gueissose series of Donegal, sometimes called ‘ Donegal Granite,’
is unconformably overlain by the metamorphosed quartzites, schists, and limestones
which Professor Harkness had shown to be the representatives of the Lower
Silurian beds of Scotland (‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. xvii., p. 256). This
unconformity is especially noticeable in the district of Lough Salt near Glen,

2nd. That the Gneissose series is similar in character and identical in position
and age with the ‘Fundamental Gneiss’ (Murchison) of parts of Sutherlandshire
and Rossshire, and is, therefore, like the latter, presumably of Laurentian age.
That the formation is a metamorphosed series of sedimentary beds, has been
shown by Dr. Haughton and Mr, R. H. Scott.

3rd. That the north-western beundary of the Donegal Gneiss is a large fault
between the Laurentian Gneiss and the metamorphosed Lower Silurian beds,
owing to which the older rocks have been elevated, and by denudation have been
exposed at the surface.

4th. That the Cambrian formation of Scotland is not represented in Donegal,
‘and that the unconformity above referred to represents a double hiatus, and is of
the same character as that which occurs in Sutherlandshire, in the district of
Foinaven and Ben Arkle, where the Lower Silurian beds rest directly on the
Laurentian Gneiss.

5th. That Laurentian rocks may be recognised in other parts of Ireland, as in
the Slieve Gamph and Ox Mountains of Mayo and Sligo, at Belmullet, and in
West Galway north of Galway Bay, where the rocks consist of red gneiss. horn-
blende rock, and schist, &c., similar to those in Donegal ; also possibly in Co. Tyrone,
as suggested by Mr. Kinahan.

2. On the Laurentian Rocks in Ireland.’ By G. H. Ktnanan, M.B.LA., Sc.

The writer first mentioned that Cainozoic and Mesozoic rocks only occurred in
the province of Ulster, while in the rest of the island there was a nearly continuous
sequence of Paleozoic rocks, from the Coal-Measures down to the Cambrian,
proved by the work of Griffith, Jukes, and their subordinates. He then pointed
out that a recent attempt had been made to try and disturb their natural order,
but that the new theory was founded solely on assertions that would not bear
‘investigation.

He proceeded to observe that the geologists of the Pre-Cambrian school ap-
peared to lay more weizht on lithological evidence than that to which it was
entitled, and in continuation he gave the localities for the oldest rocks in Ireland,
with the reasons for and against the rocks being Laurentian. The localities are
Carnsore or S.E. Wexford, where it was shown that although the rotks were
lithologically similar to the Laurentians, yet they contained Cambrian fossils—al-
way, S.E. Mayo, Sligo, and Leitrim —rocks that, from their lithological characters,
were said to be Laurentian by Murchison, who recanted his statement when
Harkness showed that stratigraphically this was an impossibility. These rocks
occur on two zones, those on the highest being now said to be Laurentian—Zrris,
N.W. Mayo—very old rocks, about which nothing can be positively said, except
that they are older than the associated metamorphic rocks, which are also of mncer-
tain age. Donegal, Londonderry, and Tyrone—the Laurentian age of some of these,

1 A paper on the subject of this abstract appeared in the Geol. Mag., for Sept. 1881,
p. 427.
1881. RR

610 REPORT—1881.

years ago, was suggested by Jukes, while now it is positively asserted, but solely
on lithological characters. The author pointed out that, although these rocks.
lithologically were very like Laurentians, they were more like Huronians, Logan’s
description of the latter being very suitable for those of Donegal. He also
pointed out that it was unnecessary to make vague assertions, as the stratigraphical
position of the rocks ought to be easily worked out, either by starting from the
Pomeroy fossiliferous rocks, or from the fossiliferous rocks found in Donegal by
Dr. King; but that, at the same time, the work must be much better and more:
correctly done than that in the neighbourhood of Pomeroy, where the unaltered
fossiliferous beds are classed with those they lie on, although the latter were
extensively metamorphosed, contorted, upturned, and denuded, prior to the fos-
siliferous rocks being deposited on them. N.Z. Antrim—rocks supposed to be of
the same age as the older rocks near Pomeroy (Upper Cambrians).

3. Life in Irish and other Lawrentian Rocks. By C. Moors, F.G.S.

The author drew attention to certain forms found by a microscopic examination
of specimens of certain Laurentian and other Paleozoic limestone prepared by tri-
turation, solution in acid, and washing. These forms were clearly those of organic
structures, some apparently hairs and others feather-barbs. The author considered
that he had taken precautions to eliminate sources of error, through admixture
of foreign materials; and he was led to think that the organisms belonged to the:
rocks,

4, On the occurrence of Granite in siti, about 20 miles S.W. of the Eddy-
stone.| By A. R. Hunt, M.A., F.G.S.

The author stated that during the past year he had received four specimens of
rocks from the English Channel, trawled by Mr. W. M. Bayne’s fishing vessel, the
Pelican, Of these, three were trawled as detached blocks, and were respec-:
tively a gabbro, an actinolite rock, and a diabase: the fourth was a fragment of
granite brought up in October 1880, about 20 miles S. W. of the Eddystone, after the
vessel had been about three hours fast in what the crew first supposed to be
a wreck. This fragment, which is about two inches in thickness, shows a clean
fracture, has marine organisms on both sides, and has undoubtedly been detached
from a submarine rock, There is no absolute proof forthcoming that this rock is
am sitit, but from the fact that the fishermen knew of no rocks in the neighbour-
hood, it can scarcely be a large erratic lying uncovered at the bottom of the
English Channel, as such an obstruction would soon be found out and avoided.
If an erratic, and too large to be moved by the hauling gear of a 60-ton vessel, it
must be buried in the sand, and in this respect differ from the detached blocks
described last year, which lie strewn on the surface of the Channel bed to the:
southward of the Bolt and Start. In mineral composition this granite agrees with
the gneiss of the Eddystone and the gneiss of the Shovel Reef in Plymouth Sound,
all these rocks being composed of orthoclase and plagioclase, the two micas and
quartz, without either hornblende or schorl. The fact that the Shovel gneiss does
not alter the Devonian rocks of Plymouth, the author considered an indication that
these typical Channel gneisses are of pre-Devonian age.

5. Some Observations on the Causes of Volcanic Action. By J. Prustwicn,
M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Geology in the University of Ouford.

Considerable difference of opinion still exists as to the cause of volcanic action.

The hypothesis, however, generally accepted in this country is that of the late

1 See ‘Notes on the Submarine Geology of the English Channel,’ Trans. Den.
Assoc., 1881.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 611

Mr. Poulett Scrope,' who considered that ‘the rise of lava in a volcanic vent is
occasioned by the expansion of volumes of high-pressure steam, generated in a
mass of liquefied and heated matter within or beneath the eruptive orifice.’ Ac-
cording to his view, the expulsion of the lava is effected solely by high-pressure
steam generated in the volcanic foci, but no explanation is given how the water is
introduced.

The objections to this hypothesis are—lst. That during the most powerful
explosions, ¢.e. when the discharge of steam is at its maximum, the escape of lava
is frequently at its minimum, and vice versd.

2ndly. That streams of lava often flow with little disengagement of steam, and
are generally greatest after the force of the first violent explosions is expended.

Srdly. That it is not a mere boiling over, in which case, after the escape of the
active agent—the water—and the expulsion of such portion of the obstructing
medium, the lava, as became entangled with it, the remaining lava would subside
in the vent to a depth corresponding to the quantity of lava ejected ; but the level
of the lava, ceteris paribus, remains the same during successive eruptions. Of the
important part played by water in volcanic eruptions there can be no doubt, but
instead of considering it as the primary, the author views it as a secondary cause
in volcanic eruptions.

All observers agree in describing ordinary volcanic eruptions as generally ac-
companied or preceded by shocks or earthquakes of a minor or local character, to
which succeed paroxysmal explosions, during which vast quantities of stones,
scoriz, and ashes, together with yolumes of steam, are projected from the crater,
The violence of the explosions gradually decreases-and they then cease altogether.
The flow of lava, on the other hand, which commences sooner or later after the
first explosions, is continued and prolonged independently. Ultimately the vol-
cano returns to a state of repose, which may last a few months or many years.

Adopting the theory of an original igneous (but now in greater part solid) nucleus
and of a thin crust, the author considers a certain fluidity of the former, or of a
portion thereof, and mobility of the latter, to be proved by the facts of the case.
The one and the other feebly represent conditions of which the phenomena of the
rocks afford clearer and stronger evidence as we go back in geological time. It is
estimated that a small quantity of central heat still reaches the surface and is
lost by radiation into space. It is evident also that even the escape of liquid
lava and steam from volcanoes, and of hot springs from these and other sources,
must bring, in however small a quantity, a certain increment of heat from the in-
terior to the surface, where it is lost. This must lead to some very slight con-
traction of the nucleus, and of re-adjustment of the external crust, in consequence
of which the fused matter of the interior from time to time tends to be forced
outwards. So far the author agrees with many other geologists. The additional
hypothesis which he now suggests, he has, however, been mainly led to form by
his researches on underground waters, and may be stated generally as follows :—

A portion of the rain falling on the surface not only of permeable and fissured
sedimentary strata, but also of fissured and creviced crystalline and other rocks,
passes below ground, and is there transmitted as far down as the permeable rocks
range, or as the fissures in the rocks extend, unless some counteracting causes
intervene. Those causes are the occurrence of impermeable strata, faults, and
heat. The former two are irregular, the latter one is constant. The increase of
temperature with depth being 1° Fahr, for every 50 to 60 ft., the boiling-point of
water would be reached at a depth of about 10,000 ft., but, owing to the pressure
of the superincumbent rocks, it has been estimated that water will retain its
liquidity and continue to circulate freely to far greater depths, but a point will
be reached where the tension of the heated water will equilibrate the pressure.

Very little is known of the substrata of volcanoes. Etna and Hecla apparently
stand on permeable Tertiary strata, Vesuvius on Tertiary and Cretaceous strata,
while in South America some of the volcanoes are seemingly situated amongst

1 For reasons that will be apparent, the author does not discuss the chemical
theory of Davy or the ingenious thermodynamical theory of Mallet.
RR2Z

612 REPORT—1881.

paleozoic and crystalline rocks. Under ordinary circumstances, all the permeable
strata and all fissured rocks become charged with water up to the level of the
lowest point of escape on the surface, or if there should be an escape in the sea-
bed, then to the sea-level, plus a difference caused by friction.

The extreme porosity of lavas is well known. All the water falling on the
surface of Etna and Vesuvius (except where the rocks are decomposed and a
surface soil formed), disappears at once, passing into the fissures and cavities formed
by the contraction of the lava in cooling, Not only are these fissures filled, but the
water lodges in the main duct itself, and occasionally rises to a height to fill the
crater. Beneath the mass of fragmentary and cavernous volcanic materials form-
ing the volcano, lies the original compact mass of sedimentary strata, &e. Owing
to the fortunate circumstance of an Artesian well having been sunk at Naples,
we know that under 735 feet of volcanic beds there are 787 feet of sedimentary
strata consisting of alternating strata of marl, sands, and sandstones, some water-
bearing, others impermeable. This boring passed through three water-bearing
beds—one in the volcanic ashes, the second in the Sub-Apennine beds, and the
third in the Cretaceous strata at the bottom. The water from the lowest spring
rose 8 feet above the surface, or 81 feet above the sea-level.

It is well known that where the strata crop out in the sea-bed, the pres-
sure of the column of inland water forces the fresh water outwards, so as
to form freshwater springs in the sea, as at Spezzia and elsewhere on the
Mediterranean coast. It is this fundamental hydrostatic principle which keeps
wells in islands,.and in shores adjacent to the sea, free from salt water, as in the
Isle of Thanet. But though the head of inland water is sufficient to force back
the sea-water under ordinary conditions, if the normal conditions are disturbed by
pumping to an extent that lowers the line of water-level to below that of the sea-
level, then the sea-water will flow inwards until an equilibrium is established.

When undisturbed, the underground fissures and cavities of the volcanic
materials forming a volcano soon become filled by the infiltration of rain-
water from the surface, while the strata on which they rest are charged, or not,
with water, according as they are permeable or impermeable—following the usual
laws affecting underground waters. No eruption of lava can then take place
without coming in contact with these underground waters. The first to be
affected will be the water in the cavities of the mountain and the crater. As
the pressure of the ascending column of lava splits the crust formed in the vent
subsequently to the preceding eruption, the water finds its way to the heated
rock, and leads to explosions more or less violent. Further, as the fluid lava breaks
more completely through the crust, and the mountain becomes fissured by the force
and pressure of the ascending column, all the water stored in the mountain suc-
cessively flows in upon the hot lava, and flashes off into steam. Thence those
more violent detonations and explosions—those deluges of rain arising from the
condensed steam—with which the great eruptions usually commence, As the
more superficial waters lodged in the superincumbent lavas and ashes are ex-
hausted, the springs in the deeper underlying sedimentary strata, cut into by the
fissures through which the main ducts pass, come into play, and discharge their
contents more or less rapidly into those ducts, where, when the water reaches the
point, where the pressure permits, it flashes into steam and rises in vast bubbles of
vapour to the surface of the lava. Of the quantity of this underground water
some notion may be formed by the fact that the deepest of the three springs under
Naples discharged, when first tapped, two cubic métres (440 gallons) per minute.
The water may pass in bodily in consequence of the powerful shocks and vibrations
shattering the strata, and so causing masses of rock to fall in from the sides of
the main duct, together with the water lodged in the beds; or it may pass in by
capillarity, for it is well known that this state exercises a remarkable influence
on the conditions of equilibrium on the two sides of a porous body, and M. Daubrée
has shown that water will pass through sandstone against a pressure of steam
greater than that of the column of water. The experiments were only carried to
the extent of a steam-pressure of two atmospheres, but it was evident that the
limits of the power were not reached. They further also showed that heat mate-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 613

rially increased the transmitting power. There is reason therefore to suppose that
water, under the considerable hydrostatic pressures that exist beneath volcanic
mountains, and assisted by capillarity, may flow into the volcanic ducts with
facility, especially when aided by the intermittent relief of pressure afforded by
the rise and fall, or pulsations, of the column of lava.

As the underground springs also are exhausted by the expulsion of the large
volumes of water (as aqueous vapour), another agent comes into operation. When,
by the continuance of this action, the level of the underground waters in the
sedimentary strata under the volcano is lowered to below that of the sea-level, so
that their hydrostatic pressure is no longer equal to that exercised by the sea- water,
the current becomes reversed, and instead of an outflow from the land, an inflow
of salt water from the sea necessarily takes place through the same exeurrent
channels, and thus, taking the place of the displaced fresh water, finds its way to
the volcanic ducts. Then, from the exhaustion of the fresh-water supplies and
an impeded access of sea-water, the lava flows quietly and unaccompanied by the
violent explosions which mark the commencement of an eruption. If, on the other
hand, the sea-water gains access more freely through the more porous volcanic
materials, it may help to maintain, as in Stromboli and Kilanea, a constant volcanic
activity. In ordinary cases, however, when the inland waters, after the force of
the eruption is expended, regain the ascendant, they again exclude the sea-
water, and return to a state of equilibrium, which lasts until the strata are again
disturbed and fractured by a renewed eruption of lava.

In conclusion, the author conceives that the first cause of volcanic action is the
welling up of the lava, in consequence of pressure due to slight contraction of
the earth’s crust. Secondly, the fluid lava coming into contact with water stored
in the crevices of the masses of lava and ashes forming the volcano, the water is
at once flashed into steam, giving rise to powerful detonations and explosions.
Thirdly, follows an influx of water from the underlying sedimentary strata into
the ducts of the volcano, and, lastly, as these subterranean bodies of water are thus
converted into steam and expelled, the exhausted strata then serve as a channel to
an influx of sea-water into the volcano. A pcint is finally reached when, owing
to the cessation of the powerful shocks and vibrations, and the excessive drainage
of the strata, the flow of the lava is effected quietly, and so continues until the
lava ceases to rise.

6. The Connection between the Intrusion of Volcanic Rock and Volcanic
Eruptions. By Professor Souttas, M.A., F.R.S.E.

In a yoleanic eruption there are concerned, first, the elevation of the lava column
in the axial pipe of the volcano, and next the explosion by which the lava is
ejected into the air, The author attempts to find a vera causa for the latter.
Sorby’s researches on included cavities prove that steam at a high tension must
have been everywhere present throughout plutonic rocks when these were in a
state of fusion, and the presence of steam in ejected lava is well known. Judd’s
researches show that plutonic rocks are in many cases the solidified remains of
deep-seated lava from which volcanoes were supplied. It may therefore be shown
that the axial pipe of a volcano is occupied by fused rocks permeated by steam,
which is probably in a liquid state, and the tension of which at any point in the
tube will depend on the hydrostatic pressure due to the lava column above it.
Any sudden diminution of this pressure will lead toa sudden expansion of the steam,
and so tend to produce a volcanic explosion.

The mere elevation of the lava in the volcanic pipe cannot directly produce a
diminution of pressure, though an overflow at the surface of the ground would;
but this infers that the overflow of lava should precede an eruption, which is not
the case ; hence the author concludes that an overflow of lava from the sides of
the pipe takes place underground, and the pressure on the lava column being re-
duced beneath the point of outflow, an eruption follows. The abundant presence
of intruded sheets and dykes of igneous rock, known to occur beneath volcanic
cones, thus stands in close connection with the production of volcanic explosions.

614 REPORT—188].

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Influence of Barometric Pressure on the Discharge of Water from
Springs. By Batpwin Latuam, M.Inst.C.B., F.G. S., FM.S.

The author of this paper mentioned that it was alleged, by some of the long-
established millers on the chalk streams, that they were able to foretell the ap-
pearance of rainfall from a sensible increase in the volume of water flowing down
the stream before the period of rainfall. He had, therefore, undertaken a series
of observations to investigate the phenomena, and he found, in setting up gauges
on the Bourne flow in the Caterham Valley, near Croydon, in the spring of this
year (1881), and selecting periods when there was no rain to vitiate the results,
that whenever there was a rapid fall in the barometer, there was a correspond-
ing increase in the volume of water flowing, and with a rise of the barometer,
there was a diminution in the flow. The fluctuations in the flow of the Croy-
don Bourne, due to barometric pressure, had at one period exceeded half a
million gallons per day. The gaugings of deep wells also confirmed these
observations; for where there was a large amount of water held by capillarity in
the strata above the water-line, at that period of the year when the wells became
sensitive and the flow from the strata was sluggish, a fall in the barometer co-
incided with a rise in the water-line, and under conditions of high barometric
pressure the water-line was lowered. Percolating gauges also gave similar evi-
dence, for after percolation had ceased and the filter was apparently dry, a rapid
fall of the barometer occurring, a small quantity of water passed from the perco-
Jating gauges. The conclusion arrived at was, that atmospheric pressure exercises
a marked influence upon the escape of water from springs. The increase in the
flow of the water was attributed to the expansion and escape of the gases held by
the water under low barometric pressure, which caused the water to escape more
freely, while with high barometric pressure there was a condensation and inward
flow of the gases which led to a retardation in the flow of the water.

2. Glacial Sections at York, and their relation to the later deposits. By
J. Epmunp Crarx, B.A., B.Sc., F.G.S.

General Relation —The York area chiefly consists of Glacial beds, which form
the high ground and cover the various extensive low tracts more or less remote
from the Ouse. Glacial depressions have been filled up with brick-earths, and,
in exceptional cases, peat-beds. Where the river channel is narrowed below the
city, the crests of the banks are capped with gravels reaching on the left bank
below the river-level.

Peat-beds.—Campleshon Pond and part of St. Paul’s Square are peat-beds
where depressions were elevated above the levels covered with brick-earth. The
same explanation may apply to the peat at Messrs. Backhouse’s nurseries. But
Askham Bog, 1} miles long by } a mile broad, at the far end of the Hob Moor
deposits, seems to be over a depression so deep and remote that the clay deposits
only partly filled it. Near Ouse Bridge a peat-bed 50 feet down, at Brett's
Brewery, has been called Interglacial; but the beds above it cannot positively
be asserted to be Glacial; for at the waterworks similar beds appear, in which
plant-roots were detected 20 feet down. The beds are warpy brick earths, with
some sand in the latter case.

Brick-earths.—At the Harrogate Signals, 1 mile further north, the junction of
the upper beds with Glacial (or probably Glacial) beds is seen; but the change is
almost insensible, although very soon true boulder clays are exposed, The junction
was seen better during the construction of the Foss Islands railway, the brick-
clays at the edge of the marsh resting against an uneven surface of boulder clay,
whilst for some distance an average of 5 feet of brick-earth covers a surface con-
sisting of uneven boulder clay, half planed down and the hollows filled with sand.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 615

At a few points bosses of boulder clay protrude even here through the upper bed,
whilst elsewhere depressions are filled with brick-clays, now extensively worked.

Gravels.—The gravel beds at Fulford and on the opposite side of the Ouse are
much alike. The latter, however, are placed higher. The beds are irregular, often
roughly stratified, often with sand-beds and stones, from grit to boulders of a
quarter-ton weight. The stones are precisely the same as those in the boulder
clay ; some limestone boulders are still striated. On both sides of the river, 25
feet down at one point in Fulford, a black band of manganese has been found
yielding on analysis 60 per cent. of manganese dioxide. This looks like soot,
encrusting usually the upper half of a layer of dry stones, one foot thick. The
rest and adjacent beds are brown with the sesquioxide, whilst ferrous oxide comes
just below.

At the gravel pits now being worked on the Bishopthorpe Road a metatarsal
of Ursus speleus (or of the grizzly) was found this spring. There seems to be no
previous record of any carnivorous remains from this neighbourhood.

Glacial Sections—The deepest glacial sections were made in drainage-work
at the Friends’ Retreat, in 1876, a drift, 650 feet long, cutting through the hill
from N.W. by W. to S.E. by E. At the highest point this was 47 feet below
the surface. Shafts were sunk every 50 feet. Nothing but glacial beds were met,
tough boulder clays, gravelly beds, and sand-beds. The latter were variously
inclined and much cut up, rarely continuing any great distance. Indeed every-
thing pointed to the whole mass being made up of independent parts, heaped and
piled against each other. The third sand-bed was struck at the fifth shaft, the
tough clay having been remarkably dry and crumbly for a yard above it, although
the shaft was flooded with water higher up. At the first tap into the sand there
was a great escape of gas, scaring the workmen away altogether for the four or five
days it lasted. The probable explanation is that the sand-bed was close sealed by
the clay, with orifices only near the base by which water could enter or leave.
In dry seasons the line of saturation falling below these, the sand was left dry,
with air only between the grains. The previous season was very wet; the line of
saturation was at least 15 feet above the top of the sand. The contained air,
unable to escape, was compressed into the upper part and slowly forced upwards
into the boulder clay above until released by the workman’s pick, At least 7,000
feet of air must have come off, but probably much more.

Between Shafts VIII. and IX. boulders were encountered by the men too big
to remove ; they thought some must have been of a ton weight. The largest
brought up weighed about 600 pounds, which is as much as any I have found
am sitt near York, except, possibly, one still to be seen on the Mount. Some of
those in the Museum grounds must weigh more. Among other stones two lumps
of coal were brought up.

The most extensive series of sections are those on the site of the New Goods
Station. For this a level was obtained 4 acres or so in extent, and 3 to 12 feet
below the old surface. Unfortunately there are no records of the sections made
in this part. Starting from the lower level, a series of sections covering 2} acres
was obtained about the building, reaching in one or two points 14 feet lower.
These were chiefly exposed in the cellarage at the east end; but drainage and
foundation trenches gave sections of varying depth in all parts. From these it has
been possible to draw up a pretty complete plan of the beds. In the 8.W. part
these prove to be alluvial sands and laminated clays, forming a thin coat over the
glacial deposits. Only about 3 feet of soil were removed from the 8. W. corner, the
depth increasing from this point. Looking at the ground-plan we are immediately
struck by the regular strike of all the beds from §.E. to N.W. Examining the
more complete sections at the E. end, they are found to consist of series of folds of
clays, sands, and pebbles, resting against one central fold. The black and red
boulder clays share.this peculiarity with the sands. In these last it is more evident
in two of the beds, from the pure black clay coming in bands and masses, The
whole appearance suggests the work of an iceberg, ploughing up from the S.W.
and Pash these beds before it. Diagrams and photographs were exhibited, to
illustrate the characteristic points here indicated. :

616 REPORT—1881.

On the N. boundary of the area, 25 feet from the east end of these sections,
200 from the west, the beds are again much contorted. One section showed
a mass of boulders and pebbles near the centre, looking as if tilted off an iceberg.
Another, about 10 yards to the west, showed a sand mass, steep and angular,
as if it had been deposited in one frozen lump. At another section, 200 yards.
east, behind the passenger station, contorted beds were again well shown, with
layers of boulders, gravels, &c. Sands among them were very false-bedded.

The stones found, though including many from the Lake District, chiefly come
from the Carboniferous beds of the West Riding. Limestones are usually
scratched and often beautifully polished. At all the places mentioned occasional
specimens occur from Lias and Oolite beds, so that an easterly drift must have
sometimes counteracted the prevailing set from the west.

The main glacial beds approach nearest to the Purple Boulder Clay of
Messrs. Searles v. Wood and Harmer. Floating ice, however, rather than the
moraine profonde of an ice-sheet, seems best to account for the mixture of tough
boulder-clays with beds of boulders, gravels, and current-bedded sands. At most
sections there are indications that the upper glacial beds belong to a second glacia-
tion, less severe than the principal cold period.

The post-glacial deposits are worked to depths of 30 feet and more; in the
river-bed they may exceed 50 feet. The river is now 60 or 70 feet above its pre-
glacial bed, and probably 40 or 50 above the level to which it first cut down in
the opening of the post-glacial epoch.

3. On the Bridlington and Dimlington Glacial Shell-beds.
By G. W. Lamprues.

In a section recently exposed in the cliff north of Bridlington, the ‘basement ”
boulder clay was seen to enclose masses of smooth tough clay, light blue or dark
bluish-black in colour, mixed in places with a coarse yellowish-green sand. None
of these masses were large, and most were squeezed out so as to form streaks or
lenticular patches. Nearly all contained shells, some of which were unbroken,
but more were crushed, and the fragments dragged apart as if by shearing. Fora-
minifera were also present. The well-known bed, a few hundred yardsto the south,
from which the Arctic shells were obtained, seems, from the description given, to
have been a similar, though larger, mass. Of the twenty-eight species of mollusca
collected from these patches, four are not included in the published lists of the
Bridlington shells; viz. Rissoa Wyville-Thomsoni, Menestho albula, Leda tenuis,
and Leda lenticula.

The surrounding boulder clay also contains many shells, chiefly fragmentary,
derived apparently from the same source, as under many of the unbroken valves
there still remains a little coarse sand, and of the twenty-five species identified,
only one species and one variety are not included in the published list, viz:
Pecten opercularts and Mya truncata, var. Uddevallensis.

At Dimlington, near Spurn, the same shelly boulder clay is again seen, and
contains similar patches of mingled sand and clay, with broken and unbroken
shells, Of the twenty-six species obtained from this locality, all except two are
included in the Bridlington list. The exceptions are Thracia pubescens and
Cardium Grenlandicum.

In Filey Bay, on the beach opposite the village of Keighton, another of the
same shelly blue boulder clay was seen, containing similar clay streaks with
crushed shells.

This bed forms part only of the ‘basement clay’ of Messrs. Wood and Rome,
as those gentlemen have included in their division a massive grey chalky boulder
clay, with very few shell-fragments, which irregularly overlies the shelly clay at
Dimlington, but is not seen at Bridlington.

As the shelly clay extends to low water both at Bridlington and Dimlington,
its thickness and the character of the underlying beds are unknown.

It appears to be the remains of an arctic sea-bottom, which was first covered.
with fine glacial mud and then ploughed up and destroyed by ice.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 617

4. On Sections of the Drift obtained from the new Drainage Works of
Drifield.! By J. R. Morrimer.

The plan and sections of the Driffield drains cover an area of forty acres, show-
ing a length of six miles. The noticeable feature is the complicated interbedding
of sand and gravel with boulder clay.

The gravels consist almost entirely of waterworn pieces of chalk of small size,
though foreign boulders are occasionally present ; and the fact that both chalk and
boulders are frequently found standing on end shows that they must have been
dropped into their position by ice.

he dovetailing of the chalk gravels with the boulder clay is confined to a
narrow zone, bounded by the chalk hills on the one side, and on the other by a
series of mounds and ridges, distant from the chalk one mile at Bridlington, and
five at Hull. The mounds are not moraines, but due, the author thinks, to the
melting of stranded ice-rafts bearing sand and gravel. They exhibit every variety
of false bedding, due to rearrangement by tides, and are capped by an unstratified
boulder clay. The remarkable features shown in the sections are due to ice action
—the land ice bringing down fresh supplies of chalk—the sea-borne ice ploughing
up the clays and preventing the escape of the gravels. Many instances can be given
of chalk crushed and removed by ice.

The author considers that an ice-cap covered the chalk hills, filling up the
valleys, and preventing subaérial denudation, and that the drift which fills up old
preglacial valleys in the neighbourhood of the present coast never extended far
inland, as no trace of it is to be found in any of the dales.

In tracing the position of the chalk gravel, the author calls attention to the
striking fact that chalk boulders south of Hornsea contain d/ack flints, which are
never found in the Yorkshire chalk, and which must have come from Norway.
The flints north of Hornsea are more of the Yorkshire type, and were probably
derived from Flambro’ Head.

5. On the Subsidences above the Permian Limestone between Hartlepool
and Ripon. By A. G. Cameron, Geological Survey of England and
Wales.

In this paper attention is drawn to the numerous forms of shrinkages of the.
land-surface, often extending to considerable depths into the rocks beneath,
observable over the top of the Permian rocks betwixt Hartlepool and Ripon.

As a general explanation of their origin, it is suggested that where the under-
ground water, flowing over the limestone surface, reaches the margin of the sand-
stone, it receives a check, whereby it accumulates, forming a chain of dams or
pools along the line of junction of these rocks,

As denudation proceeds, hollows form above and below, until ultimately the
phenomenon of the pits appears.

This being so, ‘the water bubbling and frothing all over’ is explained with-
out calling in the aid of river-action.

Allusion is made to the Home Farm Colliery accident at Hamilton, N.B., in
February 1877, through a subsidence in the gravelly alluvium of the Clyde; also
to the recent subsidences at Blackheath, near London ; and to the extensive caverns
in the hematite districts of Furness.

6. The Glacial Deposits of West Cumberland. By J. D. Kenpatt, C.£.,
F.G.S.
The extent, form, and inner nature of these deposits were first described, a
number of new and important facts being brought forward on the distribution of
boulders both in the boulder clays-and in other glacial deposits.

1 This paper will be printed i ewtenso in the Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geologi-_
cal and Polytechnic Society.

618 REPORT—1881.

The conclusions arrived at from the facts are— :

1st. That the boulder clays were formed in the sea, partly by glacial action and
partly by icebergs. The occurrence of boulders from distant localities—often in
very different directions—in a matrix partaking of the character of the underlying
rocks, is explained in an entirely new way.

2nd. That the middle sands and gravels are the result of marine and river
action combined,

3rd, That the mounds of sand and gravel occurring in the mouths of valleys
were accumulated by floating ice, from pre-existing deposits.

A new explanation was given of the occurrence of boulders at higher levels than
the rocks from which they were derived.

7. On Simosaurus pusillus (Fraas), a step in the Evolution of the Plesio-
sauria. By Professor H. G. Srnxey, F.R.S., F.L.S.

The author gave a detailed description of the skeleton of Simosaurus, recently
discovered in the Trias near Stuttgard, and briefly noticed and figured by Dr.
Oscar Fraas. He then drew special attention to the differences from plesiosaurus,
especially in the form of the pectoral arch, and in the characters of the fore and
hind limbs.

Hence we see in Simosaurus a land animal in process of adaptation to natatory
conditions. The width of the humerus appears to have relation to a lateral flexure
of the fore limb, by which the bone became the chief agent in movement on land;
and as the land-progression was not entirely lost, the fore arm had not become
reduced in length to the plesiosaurian form. ‘The small number of phalanges was
similarly explained. The hind limb was discussed to show how it might assume
like characters with the fore limb. The author concludes that the plesiosauri
were originally land animals, and that their ancestors and affinities must be sought
in Simosaurus, Nothosaurus, and allied types of amphibious Triassic reptiles.

8. On a restoration of the skeleton of Archceopteryx, with some remarks on
the differences between the Berlin and London specimens. By Professor
H. G. Surtzy, F.R.S., F.L.S.

The author, by tracing the forms of the bones from a photograph, arranged the
skeleton so as to represent a bird which stood about ten inches high. The head
has a post-occipital process similar to that which occurs at a separate bone in the
cormorant; the neck is curved forward; the tail reached almost to the ground,
and the limbs were carried exactly as in birds.

The Berlin fossil certainly belongs to a distinct species; almost as certainly to
a distinct genus, and is probably the type of a distinct family of saururous birds.
The author did not name the fossil, believing that duty to devolve upon the writer
who may hereafter figure and describe this fossil. *

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On Asterosmilia Reedi, a new species of coral from the Oligocene of
Brockenhurst, Hants. By Professor P. Marry Duncan, F.R.S.

The museum of the Philosophical Society of York contains, thanks tothe industry
and generosity of Mr. Reed, a very interesting series of corals from Brockenhurst

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 619

in the New Forest. Nearly all the species of the Oligocene coral fauna of that
part of England, which were described in the publications of the Paleeontographi-
cal Society, are present in Mr. Reed’s collection, and there is one form in addition
which is very remarkable.

Description of the corallum.

The corallum is simple, cup-shaped, narrow, and rounded at the base, which
was free, and it is wide and open, and rather triangular at the calice, whose margins
are slightly inverted, except at the angles.

An epitheca exists. The costee, where visible, are alternately large and small,
but always slender. There is much exotheca between the coste.

The calice is rather deep, and, judging from the structure of the base of the
corallum, the columella is small and tubercular. The septa are numerous, not
exsert, slender, unequal, granular at the sides, and there are four cycles and part
of a fifth.

The pali are distinct, bilobar, rounded or arched above, and as broad as the septal
ends, and granular. There are three crowns or circles of pali: one before the
primary, and others before the secondary and tertiary septa, and the septa of higher
orders have none; the largest are in one circle and the smallest in another,
which is placed remote from the columellary space. The circle of pali before the
tertiary septa is intermediate in position between the others, The height of the
specimen is two centimétres, and the extreme breadth of the calice is 25 centi-
métres.

Remarks.—This is an aporose coral with the very rare combination of exotheca,
endotheca, and pali—a combination not hitherto observed in any British Island
coral, which only occurs in the coral fauna of the miocene of the Antilles, and
in the fauna of the deep sea of the Caribbean region.

In investigating the corals from the miocene reefs of the West Indies, I de-
scribed a form which had the exothecal and endothecal structures and pali, and
placed it in a new genus, Asterosmilia (‘ Phil. Trans.’ 1867). A year or two since
the late Count de Pourtalés proved that the genus is extant, for he dredged up a
species and described it.

But the species of the genus Asterosmilia had only pali before two orders of
septa. The presence of a third crown of pali is not, according to the analogy
of other genera, sufficient to remove the coral form, obtained at Brockenhurst, now
under consideration, from the genus Asterosmilia (mhz), and I therefore name the
species after the geologist to whom the museum at York is so greatly indebted—
Asterosmilia Reedi.

The other species of coral which were associated with Asterosmilia Reedi in the
deposit at Brockenhurst belong to such very tropical genera as Madrepora and
Solenastraea, and the members of the family Eupsammine, whose modern represen
tatives are both deep and shallow water forms.

I would especially draw attention to the dimensions of aspecimen of Madrepora
Anglica, nob., from Brockenhurst, for it is a large piece of a vigorously-grown per-
forate coral whose modern representatives only flourish in less than twenty
fathoms, and in a temperature of the sea higher than the mean of 72°F. Such a
Madrepora would now grow on a shallow bank or on the flank of a reef of coral.
The Brockenhurst specimens of Madrepora have been rolled and worn since death,
but not for any great distance, for the tissue of the coral was fragile in the extreme.
But the Asterosmilia and one specimen of an Eupsammine especially, do not in-
dicate, from their state of preservation, that they have been rolled. They lived and
died not far from where they were found, and they may have lived at any depth
within or beyond twenty fathoms. Probably not far below the lowest spring-
tide level was their habitat, but it is possible that they may have had a deeper
one.

In conclusion, it is necessary to remind those geologists who take an interest
in the physical geography of the period when nummulites were dying out, that
vast structures of Oligocene coral limestone were then forming in Northern Italy,
and the Austrian Alps, and that a great coral fauna prevailed west of the Indus.

.

620 REPORT—1881.

2. On the Strata between the Chillesford Beds and the Lower Boulder Clay,
‘The Mundesley and Westleton Beds. By Professor J. Prestwicu,
M.A., F.R.S.,

Where a particular series of strata presents, in adjacent and conterminous areas,
markedly different paleontological and lithological characters, it may be sometimes:
convenient, as in the case of the ‘ Reading and Woolwich Series,’ to give them a
double geographical term, indicative of the localities where each type is well-
developed, and its relation to the overlying and underlying strata well shown.

The beds between the Chillesford Clay and the Lower Boulder Clay present
such a series. Its exhibition on the coast of Norfolk, although very limited, is.
accompanied by special palzeontological features, that have caused it to be divided
into the number of local beds which have been described by Trimmer, Green,
Gunn, Wood, and Harmer, the author, Reid, Blake, and others. It includes the
‘ Laminated Clays, the ‘Klephant’ and ‘ Forest beds’ of Gunn, the ‘ Bure Valley
Crag’ of S. Wood, the ‘ Westleton Shingle’ of the author, and the ‘ Rootlet-bed ”
of Blake. Without reverting at present to the exact correlation of the several
beds in the Norfolk area, respecting which there is still some difference of opinion,
the author suggests that they should all be included under a general term founded
on the localities where, on the one hand, their varied paleontological characters are
exhibited, and on the other, where their peculiar lithological characters are well-
marked—characters which the author proposes to show, in another paper, have a
very wide range, and serve to mark an important geological horizon affecting some
interesting questions of local physical geology.

The Mundesley beds were described by the author in 1860, and consist of
alternating beds of clay, sands, and shingle, some containing freshwater and others.
marine mollusca, with a forest-growth and mammalian remains at their base ;
and again in 1871, when he included them in his Westleton group (No. 5 of his
sections), which he showed at that place to consist entirely of great masses of
well-rounded shingle, with intercalated seams containing traces only of marine
shells. Seeing the inconvenience of attaching the same term to the two very
distinct series of beds, and that it may conflict with other local terms, the author
now proposes to group this series under the term of ‘The Mundesley and Westle-
ton Beds,’ indicative of their stratigraphical position in Norfolk, and of characters
in Suffolk which serve to identify them in their range westward and inland to
considerable distances beyond the Crag area. At the same time, it may be conve-
nient, for brevity, to use one term only in speaking of typical cases.

3. On the Extension into Essex, Middlesex, and other Inland Counties, of the
Mundesley and Westleton Beds, in relation to the age of certain Iull-
gravels and of some of the valleys of the South of England. By
Professor J. Prestwich, M.A., F.R.S.

The author gives in this paper the result of observations commenced more than
30 years since, but delayed publication partly in consequence of the complexity
of some of the phenomena. As mentioned in the preceding paper, a peculiar
eroup of land, freshwater, and marine beds occupy, on the Norfolk coast, a zone
between the Chillesford Clay and the Lower Boulder Clay. As we proceed south-
ward, the land and freshwater conditions are gradually eliminated, and marine
conditions there alone prevail. Poorly marked as the marine evidence is in Suffolk,
this evidence is entirely wanting further inland, and we have only levels, super-
position, and structure to rely on in correlating the fragmentary outliers into which
these beds finally resolve themselves. Again on the coast of the Eastern counties,
this group forms a nearly level plane but little above the sea-level, resting every-
where on an undisturbed or very slightly eroded bed of Chillesford Clay, and
being succeeded, with but slight evidence of denudation, by the Lower Boulder
Clay, or by the Glacial sands and gravel; whereas, as it trends inland, it attains a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 621

considerable elevation above the sea-level, passes unconformably over the older Ter-
tiary strata, and was, with them, subjected to a great amount of denudation before
the deposition of the succeeding Glacial series, On the other hand, the old land,
which seems to have extended westward from the Norfolk coast, is now in great
part below the level of the German Ocean. Further, whereas the succeeding
‘Glacial beds all show a drift from northward to southward, this is the only case
that has come under the author’s notice of a marine drift from southward to the
worthward.

The Westleton Beds, in their more typical aspect, consist of quartzose sands
full of flint-pebbles, almost as much worn and as numerous as in the Lower
Tertiary sands of Blackheath. With these are mixed—(1) A good many small
white and rose-coloured quartz-pebbles ; (2) Pebbles of Lydian stone; (3) Large
flattened pebbles of a light-coloured quartzite ; and (4) Rolled and worn fragments
of Lower Greensand chert. It is the presence of these, and especially of the last,
that constitutes so marked a feature of these beds, and together with the absence of
pebbles and rock-fragments of northern origin, serves to separate them from the
Inter-glacial sands and shingle with which in places they come into juxtaposition.

The author then proceeds to trace the beds through Essex, and gives a series of
railway sections showing these beds, exhibiting usually the appearance of a white
gravel, with intercalated ochreous beds, and reposing on a very eroded surface of
ithe London Clay. Near Clare there is a pit in which they exhibit oblique lamina-
tion, and might, apart from the want of fossils, be mistaken for a Crag section.
Near Braintree, a remarkable section was exposed in the branch railway to that
town. It showed these beds much faulted, overlain irregularly by a darker bed
full of the New Red Sandstone quartzite pebbles, and the whole covered by
indenting Boulder Clay.

In following the beds further westward they undergo further modification.
Certain characters remain, however, persistent, and on these we have to rely.
Ist, the shingle is composed essentially of chalk-flint pebbles, becoming less worn
as we approach the southern limits of the deposit ; 2ndly, it often becomes much
mixed with flint-pebbles and subangular fragments of compact sandstone derived
from the underlying Tertiary strata; 83rdly, the Greensand chert and ragstone
fragments often so increase in numbers as to constitute a large portion of the
gravel. They are worn and subangular, and the chert is identical with the chert
of the Lower Greensand of Kent and Surrey; 4thly, the pebbles of white and
rose-coloured quartz, of Lydian stone, and of whitish quartzite become rarer, and
in places are wanting. The Lydian stone and some of the small quartz pebbles
may be derived, with the chert, from the Lower Greensand, but this will not
account for the great number of quartz pebbles found in the Eastern counties,
The quartzite pebbles are as large but lighter-coloured and more ovoid than
those of the New Red. They probably have drifted from a continental area
‘on the east, the author having found similar beds in parts ‘of Belgium, Sthly,
the absence of northern drift.

It is to this age that the author would refer the drift gravel capping some
of the higher ground in Epping Forest, and also the Middlesex hills around
Barnet and Southgate, and extending thence in outliers to the range of hills
between Hertford and Hatfield, South Mimms and St. Albans, and possibly as
far north as Tyler's Hill, near Chesham. Ranging further westward, it forms
‘a small capping on Horsington Hill, near Harrow, which serves to connect it with
its high level on Bowsey Hill, near Henley-on-Thames. Southward, it caps
St. George’s Hill, near Weybridge. Approaching its southern boundary, this
drift becomes less worn and passes into a subangular flint-gravel, capping several
of the hills south of the Thames. At Cherry Down, near Windsor, it consists in
large part of subangular fragments of chert and ragstone. It caps Hungary Hill,
near I'arnham , another hill west of Czsar’s Camp, near Bagshot; Meadow Down,
near Guildford; and Pobly Hill, near Dorking, and some others. To this period
may possibly be also assigned the gravel on the top of Well Hill (if not older),
near Chelstield, Kent; and some sand and gravel on the top of the cliffs near
Minster, in the Isle of Sheppey.

622 REPORT—1881.

The author reserves for another occasion the description of the beds next in
order; but he would mention here, that the Boulder Clay and some Glacial gravels.
occupy in Herts and Berks a lower horizon than the Westleton Beds. It would
therefore appear that, while the eastern area was submerged, and the strata
followed in regular succession upon a surface which did not undergo denudation,
the southern and western area was slowly elevated, and underwent partial denuda-
tion before the Upper Boulder Clay was deposited. Previous to the period of the
Westleton and Mundesley beds, it is probable that the deeper denudation of the
Weald had hardly commenced. The northern part of this area was under the
sea at the beginning of the Crag period (the Lenham Beds), and judging from
the character of the beds at Well Hill, Cherry Down, &c., the author concludes
that there was land south of this fringing shingle, whence the great mass of Chalk
flints and of Lower Greensand chert and ragstone must have been derived. The
quantity of this débris serves to attest to the great mass of these strata that was
subsequently removed from the Wealden area. After the rise of the more
central and northern parts of the area over which the Westleton Beds extended,
that area also underwent extensive denudation, and it was at this period that the
great plain of the Thames Valley received its first outlines, although it was not
until much later that the river valley received its last impress.

4, A preliminary account of the working of Dowkerbottom Cave, in Craven,
during August, 1881.! By E. B. Pounron, M.A., F.G.S.

Dowkerbottom Cave is 1,250 feet above the sea, between Arncliffe and Kilnsey.
Its mouth is merely a fallin the roof of the cave, which stretches from either end
of the fissure thus formed. The original mouth is not now visible, but is probably
to be found at the foot of a slope to the south. During most of its course the
chambers and passages of the cave are not separated by any great thickness of rock
from the ground above, and thus other falls must be expected to occur. The
eastern division of the cave is about 450 feet long and has three fine chambers.
separated by two passages—the first very short and the second very long. This
division ends under high ground to the north-west, and the true mouth must be
in the other or western division. The last chamber on the eastern side is charac-
terised by mechanical deposits—blocks of limestone fallen from the roof, and a
stiff brown clay beneath. In the other chambers and passages of koth sides are
chemical deposits—hard and soft stalagmite. The western division is smaller, but
also contains three chambers and two passages. It must be about 250 feet long
and contains various heaps of limestone blocks fallen from the roof, but no clay on
the surface. In former workings by Mr. Farrer, Mr. Denny, and Mr. Jackson, the
first chambers were explored, in their surface layers at least, and here were found
the numerous metal and bone ornaments and implements, tozether with the bones
of animals usually found (in the historic layers of Romano-British age) in caves.
The second passages have also been worked, and part of the second chamber on
the eastern side. Other parts of the cave appear to be quite untouched. The
great difficulty in working the cave is the removal of the débris to prevent inter-
fering with further work. We therefore put up a windlass over the eastern
entrance, and cleared a way for barrows through the talus below. Beneath the
talus, the black earth, in which remains had been previously found, was seen, and
many articles of Roman age were taken from it. Chamber III. was marked into-
parallels and these into squares, In the centre we sunk a shaft and passed through
the following layers :— ,

(1) Romano-British layer, a black earth with pottery, ornaments,! &c., and
numerous bones, from one to nine inches thick. (2) Hardish stalagmite, about
six inches thick: in one place containing the bones of a dog or small wolf. (3)
Soft stalugmite, four inches thick. (4) Hardish stalagmite, six inches thick.
(5) Soft stalagmite, two feet six inches thick. (6) Stiff brown clay with large

1 A paper on the whole work at the Cave has been read (Oct. 12), before the
Geological and Polytechnic Society of Yorkshire, by Mr. Poulton, and will be found
in the Proceedings of that Society.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 623

angular blocks of limestone fallen from the roof firmly imbedded init, This layer
was eight feet deep, as far as we saw it. The last two feet are laminated and
contain smaller blocks. At the depth of about twelve feet from the surface we
came to part of the solid limestone floor or side of the cave, sloping steeply down-
wards, There were no indications of a change in the nature of the deposit at the
junction with the limestone, and the clay appears to extend much deeper than the
level at present reached. Thus below the stalagmite purely mechanical deposits
succeed, and no limestone blocks are found above this horizon, although the stalag-
mite has been removed over a large part of the floor of the chamber. No traces of
a fauna have been as yet found below the first hardish stalagmite ; indeed all the
deposits passed through below the stalagmite indicate the former presence of a
still lake in which the great thickness of clay slowly accumulated. Further work
was stopped by the heavy rain which flooded the shaft dug in the clay. It is in-
teresting to note that the former condition of Chamber II. is identical with the
present state of the third chamber in the preponderance of mechanical over
chemical deposits. The change from mechanical to chemical deposits was pro-
bably produced by a change from accumulation in still water to accumulation
in running water. Possibly also the absence of blocks fallen from the roof in the
stalagmite may be due to the bicarbonate of lime contained in the water, which
percolated through the roof, cementing together the limestone blocks. The absence
of this cement when the clay was deposited may be due to the absence of solvent
power in the water which then percolated through the roof. For no carbon
dioxide would be evolved from a soil deficient in organic matter—as the soil cover-
ing the Yorkshire hills for a period long after the Glacial period must have been.
Iwish to express my best thanks to J. R. Tennant, Esq., of Kildwick Hall, Leeds,
and to J. R. Eddy, Esq., of Carleton, Skipton, on behalf of the Duke of Devonshire,
for their kind permission to work the cave, and especially for the kind help and
advice that Mr. Eddy has given all through the work. I also wish to heartily
thank those gentlemen who have helped me in the work itself.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Seventh Report on the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the
Jurassic, New Red Sandstone, and Permian Formations of England, and
the Quality and Quantity of the Water supplied to towns and districts
from these formations.—See Reports, p. 309.

2. Third Report on the Tertiary Flora of the North of Ireland.—See
Reports, p. 152..

3. On the Formation of Coal. By Epwarp WetHered, F.G.S., I.0.8.

The author first reviewed the researches of Hutten, Gieppert, MacCulloch,
Sir James Hall, Sir W. Logan, and Dr. Dawson, and then summed up the con-
clusions now entertained as to the formation of coal, as follows :—

First, That the beds of fireclay which underlie all seams of coal, represent the
original land-surfaces upon which the coal-forming vegetation grew. 2nd. That
the Stigmaria found in the underclays were the roots of that vegetation, which
implies that the plants were of the Lepidodendroid order. 3rd. That the vegeta-
tion grew near the mouths of great rivers, in swampy ground, and there under-
went submergence ; changes then took place which converted the vegetable matter

‘624 REPORT—1881.

into coal. 4th. That the change of coal from one variety to another, even in the
same seam, is the result of metamorphism, and is indirectly caused by the contortion
of the surrounding strata, whereby facilities for the escape of gases evolved by
the vegetable decomposition have been produced.

The author's exceptions to the above were—Ist. That coal was not formed from
vegetation of the Lepidodendroid type, and that therefore the stigmaria found in
the underclays are not the roots of the vegetation which gave rise to the coal,
‘unless it was from the spores of these plants, which the author considered by no
means proved, though coal undoubtedly did contain spores. 2nd. That the varieties
of coal, and the change which sometimes takes place in one and the same seam, are
not due to metamorphism, nor are they dependent upon the contorted state of the
surrounding strata, but arise from the greater or less chemical decomposition of the
vegetable mass, influenced by the circumstances under which it was submerged.

The reasons which had led up to these conclusions were :—lst. That we
‘have proof of other vegetation during the coal-period besides the Lepidodendroids,
‘but their roots have not been preserved, owing to their being of a more perishable
mature than the Stigmaria. 2nd. Beds of underclay are frequently met with, full
of Stigmaria, but are not followed by seams of coal. Srd. Coal must have been
‘formed from a compact mass of vegetation, such as could not have been produced
‘by large trees (as the Lepidodendroids were) growing zm situ. The uniform thickness
and comparative freedom from inorganic contamination, would demand a mass of
-vegetation into which only a limited amount of sediment could penetrate, 4th. The
finding of a fossil tree standing zm situ, upon which so much stress had been laid
‘by some authors, is a rarity. Though the author had spent much time under-
-ground in collieries, and seen hundreds of fossil trees drifted into the position in
which they have been found, he had only twice seen instances of them standing
where they have grown. 5th. If seams of coal were formed from Lepidodendroid trees
the tough bast layer would be easily detected, which has never been the case in
any true bed of coal. 6th. If the Stigmaria found in the underclays represent the
roots of the coal-forming vegetation, we should expect to find the fructifications
immediately over the coal, which is not the case; with the exception of Cordaites
(which in the author’s opinion was a Reed), remains of the fossil flora are not found
for the first two feet or so over the coal.

After a careful investigation underground of the conditions under which coal
was formed the author. has arrived at the following conclusions :—On the land
erew the vegetation of the period, represented by the Lepidodendrons, Sigillaria,
Calamites, &c. As the land sank and the waters encroached, the land vegetation
gradually disappeared, but the roots remained in many cases, and those which
offered the greatest resistance to decay are the ones preserved in a fossil state—
hence the occurrence of Stigmaria. As the waters advanced, the ground would
become swampy, and then we might expect to see spring up reeds, mosses, and
other vegetation suitable to the changed condition ; it is to vegetation of this
kind that the author ascribes the formation of coal.

Reference was then made to the Presidential address of Professor Ramsay to
the British Association in 1880, in which the recurrence of the same kind of
incident through geological time was advocated. The author then asked, why the
coal-formations of the Carboniferous period should be an exception, seeing that the
modern lignites and deposits of peat were instances of coal in the process of for-
mation. It was then pointed out that these deposits were not composed of large
trees, but of a lower order of plants.

Coming to the varieties of coal and the change which sometimes takes place in
this respect in one and the same seam, it was shown that the difference between
bituminous and anthracite coal was, that the latter contained a greater proportion
of carbon and a less amount of volatile matter than the former. It was then con-
tended that if the decomposition of the coal-forming vegetation took place without
being affected, to any extent, by minerals capable of oxidising the carbon, that a
coal would be formed having a large proportion of carbon with a less proportioa of
volatile matter than is found in bituminous coals. The author explained this by
briefly reviewing the process by which vegetable matter has been converted into

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 625

coal. It chiefly depended upon the amount of oxygen which could unite with the
carbon, forming carbonic acid, and the amount of hydrogen which could unite with
the carbon to form marsh gas. By this process oxygen and, hydrogen would pass
off in greater proportion than the carbon, thus increasing the proportion of the
latter to the whole. If, however, the submerging waters placed in contact with
the vegetable mass substances capable of supplying oxygen to the carbon, then
there would be a decrease in the proportion of the latter, and what the author
termed the ‘fixed oxygen and hydrogen’ would increase in proportion to the
whole and give rise to a coal of a bituminous nature.

With a view of ascertaining whether the chemical composition of the beds
overlying a seam of coal which has changed from bituminous to anthracite
also changed, the Welsh ‘nine feet’ seam was selected, which near Cardiff is
semi-bituminous and at Aberdare becomes anthracitic. Specimens of the overlying
strata were selected from the two districts at each foot above the coal for five feet ;
these were analysed, and it was found that the beds from near Cardiff were con-
siderably more argillaceous and, as a whole, less ferruginous than those at Aber-
dare. It would be rash to attempt to determine the exact chemical nature of the
sediment deposited over the coal-forming vegetation in the two localities, as, with
the exception of silicate of alumina, the silicates and other minerals would have
undergone decomposition at the expense of the carbonic acid given off from the
coal-forming vegetation. There was, however, a decided change in the beds of the
two sections presented, which could not be ascribed to metamorphism, It rather
appeared to point to the sediment containing different constituents, which must
have had a very considerable effect on the vegetable mass. It was to this that the
author was inclined to assign the change in the character of the coal.

4, Preliminary Remarks on the Microscopic Structure of Coal.
By Professor W. C. Wiiuiamson, F.R.S.

At the two first meetings of the British Association at York and Oxford in
1831 and 1832, two papers were read on coal and coal-plants, by the late Henry
Witham. Since that time comparatively little progress has been made in our
knowledge of the structure and physical composition of coal. Many local and limited
observations have been made by Dawson, Huxley, and others, but the results have
been indefinite if not contradictory. The author aims at bringing our knowledge
of coal to a more advanced state by commencing a systematic series of microscopic
observations of the coals of the entire world so far as he can obtain possession of
them. Many months of such observations have been devoted to the coals of
Eastern Scotland and to those of South Wales. These inquiries, though so
limited, have suggested the possibility of certain conclusions being ultimately
arrived at; but at present they are only advanced as hypothetical ones—though
they appear to be supported by the investigations already completed. A large
proportion of the coals examined contains mineral charcoal or mother coal in
various conditions; sometimes the fragments are gathered together in thick layers
of considerable extent, at others they are thin and limited in theirarea, Frequently
separate fragments are isolated in the bituminous mass which encloses them. In a
large number of instances, portions of each fragment can readily be detached for
microscopic examination, but in many cases the fragments have become so con-
solidated and blended with the mass of the coal as to be incapable of such
separation. All these fragments exhibit a fibrous aspect when seen under low
powers, as opaque objects, but under lenses of bigher power and with transmitted
light, they resolve themselves into two groups: one of these consists of fragments
of what are more or less _bast-like, prosenchymatous tissues, and bear the aspect
of cortical structures. The others, on the other hand, belong to the fibro-
vascular group of tissues, exhibiting in the same minute portion of a fragment
various modifications of such tissues from those that are scalariform to fibres
with bordered discs. ‘The most numerous are such as approach the latter more
nearly than the former type. These fibro-vascwar structures bear no resemblance

1881. Ss

626 REPORT—1881.

whatever to those of either Lepidodendroid and Sigillarian plants, or to those of
ferns; they approach much more closely to the mixed forms seen in the Cycadee,
to which group of plants they most probably belong.

Intervening between these layers of charcoal are layers of a wholly different
character. These consist of the more bituminous portions of the coal which are
separable into two elements—z.e. one or more forms of spores in varying, but
most frequently vast, numbers, embedded in a matrix, usually of a dark brown
colour when ground sufficiently thin to admit of light being transmitted through
it. In most of the coals examined the spores are of two kinds, as shown by
Huxley, Dawson, and others, the larger ones, which are macrospores, having
even been figured by Witham in his work on the structure of fossil plants.
The smaller ones are doubtless true microspores, and, as might be expected, are
much more numerous than the macrospores.

A second and far less numerous group of beds occurs amongst the coals of
Eastern Scotland. These are, the ‘Paratfin,’ ‘ Parrot,’ or ‘Gas’ coals. So far as
observations have proceeded, these coals display no signs of the presence of mineral
charcoals, and they are entirely devoid of macrospores. On the other hand they
are densely crowded with small spores undistinguishable from the microspores of
the ordinary coals, Such examples also are much less laminated than are the
heterosporous coals.

That the combined macrospores and microspores of these latter coals are
Lycopodiaceous, there appears little reason to doubt. The nature of the spores in
the Parrot or isosporous coals is much less obvious.

The nature of the brown plasma in which these spores are embedded is open to
question. The author is inclined to think that it is the resultant of the vegeta-
tive tissues of the various Lepidodendroid and other cryptogamic plants which
constituted the great Carboniferous forest, but which were much more liable to
decay than were either their own spores or than the supposed Cycadean tissues
which constituted the mineral charcoal. The author, however, only advances
these views as working hypotheses, which may either be confirmed or modified
as he advances with his investigations.

5. On the Halifae Hard Seam. By W. Casu, F.G.S.

The Coal-measures in the district around Halifax belong to the lower portion
of the Ganister Beds, and, lying conformably upon the Rough Rock, which is the
uppermost bed of the Millstone-grit series, attain, to the east of the town, a thick-
ness of about 500 feet.

The measures are capped by the Elland flagstone, and the following is the

order of superposition :—
feet inches

Elland Flagstone, Shales, & . wl Vel lireeotige 120. .-
80 yards band (coal) - : : c 3 F c — 6
Shales, &. . 5 : ‘ : : : : . - 110 -
48 yards band (coal) 2 : - . = . : 1 -
Shales, &e. . b : Soda i : i : 2 4 36 -
56 yards band (coal) .. cheesy "haben ier : — 7
Fire-clay : : epee 4 : : : : : 3 °-
Shales, &e. . : ; : : : 3 2 : f 90 -
Shale with nodules containing fossil shells, fish-remains, | 10
and fossil wood (Dadoxylon) + eBusiness 4
Halifax Hard Bed (coal) with nodules containing fossil | 2 3
plant-remains with minute structure preserved . abate § t
Ganister and Stigmarian roots. = wend Serie Bibi
Shales, &e. . : : : i _ i ; A . 25 -
Middle band (coal) is : i : : é ! id — 6
Shales, &c. (including beds containing Anthracosie and 35
Spins tic) ap URE MERES 1 mE ah any

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 627

Halifax Soft Bed (coal). TS 2 eens 1 6

Shales, &e. . 3 A : ; ; . i : ; 30 -
Bottom coal . : : : : ; ; ; : ; — 6
Rough rock . - : ! : : : : : : Base.

The two thickest beds, and indeed, the only workable beds of this series, are
those known as the Halifax Soft Bed, which is about 18 inches thick, and the
Halifax Hard Seam, which averages about 2 feet 3 inches. The latter bed is
covered by some 10 feet of shales containing nodules, locally known as ‘baum
pots,’ which are composed chiefly of carbonate of lime with a smaller amount of
carbonate of magnesia, oxide and sulphide of iron, sulphates of soda and potash,
and silica; the nodular concretions are very hard, and often coated with iron
pyrites. When they are broken up they are usually found to contain fossil shells, |
(Nautilus, Orthoceras, Goniatites, Aviculopecten, &c.), Sometimes also fish-scales,
and fossil-wood (Dadoxylon). The bed underlying these shales is the Halifax
Hard Seam, and consists of an impure coal containing numerous nodules of similar
composition to those which are found in the overlying shales, but containing in
the place of fossil-shells the remains of plants only. These remains consist of
stems, roots, rootlets, branchlets, sporangia, spores, &c., mixed together confusedly ;
but so exquisitely is the minute structure preserved, that on preparing thin sections
of portions of the ‘ coal balls’ for microscopic examination the most delicate organs
are exhibited as clearly as in the section of a recent plant; the cell-walls of the
tissues having been carbonised, and their cells themselves filled with carbonate of
lime.

The great number of new forms, described from this bed by Professor W. C.
Williamson, have thrown no small light on some of the difficult problems of
Carboniferous Paleeo-botany,

Among the most important organisms found in this bed the following may be
cited :— 4

Astromyelon, Asterophyllites, Calamostachys Binneyana, Calamites, Lepido-
dendron Harcourtii, Lepidodendron selaginoides, Favularia, Sigillaria, Stigmariz,
Lyginodendron, Dadoxylon, Diplyoxylon, Kaloxylon Hookeri, Rachiopteris duplex,
R. Oldhamia, R. cylindrica, R. aspera, R. Lacattii, R. tridentata, Cardio-carpon,
Lagenostoma ovoides, Oidospora anomala, Sporocarpon tubulatum, Traquaria,
Peronosporites antiquarius, Stomata (possibly of Cordaites?) &c. &e.

Perhaps the last addition of interest to this important local fossil florais a frag-
ment of a fossilised stem or branchlet which differs in some important particulars
from anything previously met with. It consists of a central pith surrounded by a
narrow zone of vascular or fibro-vascular tissue, outside which is a cambium rine’,
followed by a comparatively thick cortex. ‘This cortex has a very peculiar organi-
zation, which, among living plants, is only met with in such aquatic forms as.
Myriophyllum, Utricularia, and a few others. The cortical structures of the fossil
specimen agree most with those of Myriophyllum; and though in the present state of
fossil botany we dare not suggest an affinity between them, it is at least deserving
of record, that the organization of this stem bears a very close resemblance to the
stem of a plant which ranks so high in the vegetable kingdom. In honour of
Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., who has done so much to elucidate the
organization of Carboniferous plants, Mr. Hick and I propose to designate our
specimen Myriophylloides Williamsont.

6. Researches in Fossil Botany. By Jamus Spencer.
During last winter I discovered two new spore-bearing capsules in the coal-ball
material of the Halifax coal strata. ; :
1, One of these contained some of the spores described by Professor W. C.
Williamson, under the name of Zygosporites brevipes.
This sporangium forms another link in the history of these remarkable spores,

and indicates that they are of lycopodaceous origin, and that they probably belong
to some unknown form of Lepidodendroid plant.

ss2

628 REPORT— 1881.

It is of an oblong oval form, and about >. of an inch in breadth, by <4 of an inch
in length. The contained spores are of the usual kind.

2. Newsporangium, containing minute fringed macrospores,

The other sporangium contains an undescribed species of tetraspores. It is of
the same form as the one containing Z. brevipes, but very much smaller, being only
;}, of an inch in breadth, by 4, of an inch in length. The contained spores are
very minute and covered with hair-like appendages. They resemble the large
fringed macrospores, so common in the same material, but they are more of a
triangular, cockle-shell form. Minute as they are, several hundreds being pro-
bably contained in each sporangium, they are as perfect in form and as beautifully
preserved as it is possible for them to be. What are these spores? Judging from
their peculiar form and fringe-like appendages, I think it much more probable that
they are macrospores than microspores, and that they belong to some unknown
form of Lepidodendron.

3, A new fossil fungus.

The fact of the existence of fungi among the plants of the coal-measures is now
well established. I have upwards of fifty microscopical preparations containing
these fossil parasites. Peronosporites antiquarius is one of the most common
forms, and is chiefly found in the fossil ferns and in the lepidodendra. Its
mycelia may be often seen crowding the large vessels in the centre of the fern-stems
and sending off branches among the surrounding parenchyma, where its spores
sometimes occur in abundance. Its resting and other spores, along with those of
cystopus and other forms, occur plentifully in many sections of the coal-ball mate-
rial, Some of my sections of Lyginodendron contain numbers of spore-like bodies,
which greatly resemble starch-grains, but the fact, that many of them have short
thread-like tails, proves that they are not starch-grains, In the longitudinal sec-
tion of a calamite I have found them associated with true mycelia. In one case
there are two branching mycelia, each occupying the centre of one of the long
tube-like vessels, with only a single vessel betwixt them, and surrounded by
the spore-like bodies (haustoria). In its appearance and habits this fossil fungus
is almost exactly like that of the recent species, Cystopus candidus. I have no
doubt that it isa cystopus, and if not the identical species C. candidus, it is at
least a near relation. I propose to give the fossil fungus the provisional name of

Cystopus carbonarius.

7. Notes on Astromyelon and its root. By James SPENCER,

This fossil plant is one of the new genera which have been described by Professor
W. C. Williamson, F.R.S. It was so named from the star-like form of its pith;
but since the name was given, many specimens have been found, especially in our
Halifax beds, differing widely from the typical form, so that the name has now to
be applied to specimens which have no pith, and to others in which the starlike
aspect is by no means apparent. A transverse section of the stem bears a striking
resemblance to that of the calamite, but there are several important differences
between the two, which need not now be entered into. ‘The transverse section of
a typical specimen is composed of a woody zone formed of a number of wedge-
shaped bundles, the spaces between these bundles and the centre being occupied by
the pith. There are two principal forms of variation from the normal type. One
of these has a structure not unlike that of the pine, and the pith is reduced to a
very small speck, containing only a few small cells. The other variety has a large
central cavity, which assumes various forms, and which are evidently due to the
original structure and not to irregularities in fossilization. In many of these no
pith is present ; in others only a small portion remains. It is very probable that the
absence of the pith in many cases is due to its destruction before or during fossili-
zation. In many of these specimens the wedge-shaped bundles are absent, and
the ligneous zone assumes a homogeneous structure. There is also a very great
variety in the vessels forming the bundles, often even in the same plant, which

ives to transverse sections a beautiful appearance.

A complete stem is seld {n met with, the bark being generally absent, but in

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 629

several of my sections this peculiar structure is well shown. It consiste of a large-
celled parenchyma of very loose texture, and may be divided into an inner and
outer bark. The inner portion is formed of three or more rows of brick-like cells
surrounding the woody zone, while the outer epiderm is formed of one or two rows
of very large cells having a thick outer wall, the whole structure being little
better than an epidermal layer, and of a very perishable nature. The roots of these
beautiful plants have not yet been described, but I have good reasons for believing
that the specimens I am now about to describe belong to them.

Professor Williamson has described two very singular plants from the Lancs-
shire coal-field, under the generic name of Amyelon. One of these he has shown
to be the root of Asterophyllites. This root appears to be rare in our Yorkshire
coal-strata, but the other, A. radzcans, is not unfrequently met with, I have lately
found one or two new forms of these pithless roots, which appear to be closely
allied to the latter species. One of these has a solid vascular cylinder consisting
of radiating laminw, the outer vessels of which are the largest, the vessels
gradually becoming smaller as they approach the centre. Laminze of small vessels
and medullary rays intermingle at the circumference with laminz of large ones;
but as they converge towards the centre many of them coalesce with one another,
so that even there the vessels do not become so small as they otherwise would do,
and thus preserve an open network arrangement which gives the plant a very
striking appearance. The bark, of which only a small portion is preserved, is
almost identical in structure with that of Astromyelon.

The other root has a much smaller central axis, but it presents a striking
difference, in the fact that its large-celled thick bark is nearly always present.
Ihave many specimens of this root, and the majority have the bark fairly pre-
served. The structure of its vascular cylinder more nearly resembles that of
Amyelon radicans than that of the other does; but the vessels are, as a rule,
much smaller, and they are barred in the radial sections, while those of
A, radicans are reticulated, While writing, both these plants are before me, and
the difference in their vascular cylinders is most striking, especially in respect to
the markings on the vessels, and also in respect to the beautiful state of preserva-
tion of the bark in my plant and its absence in the other. The bark is about as
thick as half the diameter of the woody cylinder, and is composed of an inner layer
of delicate mural parenchyma, and an outer epiderm of large cells, but of very
irregular size, the middle portion being a combination of the two forms. Some-
times the structure is composed of large cells of more uniform size.

The next problem to solve is, to what plants do these roots belong? As the
result of a very careful examination of a large series of specimens, I have come to
the conclusion that they are the roots of Astromyelon. It would extend this
abstract too far to go into the subject fully, but I may mention two or three
of my reasons for coming to this conclusion. In the first place, the large open cells
and vessels of these plants are exactly what one would expect to find in the root
of Astromyelon, just as we find the vessels of the vascular cylinder of Stigmaria
agreeing with those of the ligneous zone, in the Lepidodendra. The very young
forms of Astromyelon largely partake of the character of these roots. In longi-
tudinal sections the vessels in both plants are identical. In the radial sections of
both, the vessels are seen to be barred. The structure of the bark is also identical
in both stem und root, and lastly I have invariably found the two associated in the
same material. Being uncertain whether these two roots are merely different
forms of one species, I propose to unite them provisionally under the name of
Amyelon radiatus,

8. On the Paleozoic Rocks of North Devon and West Somerset. By
W. A. E. Ussuer, F.G.S., Geological Survey of England and Wales.

The author gave a brief introductory outline of the different opinions which
had formerly been entertained respecting the structure of North Devon and West

630, ° REPORT—1881.

Somerset. The subject-matter of the paper isa very concise description of the
areas and extension of the divisions into which the Devonian rocks are separable
upon stratigraphical grounds. The area treated of is embraced in sheets 20, 21,
26 and 27 of the Ordnance Maps. Of these, the Devonian rocks in sheets 20 and 21
had been mapped in detail by the author, whilst in the other sheets their relations
had been carefully ascertained. The paper is little more than an index to the
notes made by the author in prosecuting his researches in the stratigraphy of the
Devonian area.!
The classification adopted is as follows :—

ForELAND Red and purplish grits, fine-grained, and in
LOWER Grits places siliceous. son ,
DEVONIAN 1 Lynton Grey, even-bedded and jointed grits, grey
| Baas schists, and schistose grits with films of
; calcareous matter.

HANGMAN
GRITS

Coarse white quartzose, red-speckled grit, in
| and upon red and grey rather fine-grained
MIDDLE grits associated with shaly and slaty beds.

DEVONIAN / ILFRACOMBE | Grey and silvery slates and shales with

| SLATES PASS- arenaceous films, and impersistent bands
of limestone passing upward into pale
greenish unfossiliferous quartzose slates.

Indian-red slates upon red, green, and grey
grits, with local purple slate basement-beds
passing into the Morte Slates.

Green slates with Zingula; brown micaceous
grits with Cucullea; the positions of these
horizons are apparently reversed near Wi-
veliscombe.

Bluish and greenish grey argillaceous slates,

ING INTO
Morte SLATES

f PICKWELL

Down Brps

UPPER
DEVONIAN | Baaey Brps

| Pizton Brps with occasional thin films of limestone
L and masses of grit (as at Braunton, &c.)

The Foreland Grits occupy an area (superficial) of 30 sq. miles, extending
from Countesbury to Dunster. They are faulted against the Lynton Beds, by a
great fault, which can be distinctly traced; but where the latter are entirely cut
out by it near Luccott Hill, the faulted junction between the Foreland and
Hangman Grits is very vague, owing to the imperfect nature of tbe surface
avidence. At Oare, the Foreland Grits are overlain by Lynton Beds on the north
side of the fault.

The Lynton Beds occupy an area of about 14 sq. miles; they do not appear to
the east of Luccott Hill; their junction with the Hangman grits is perfectly con-
formable, and near Trentishoe there is a very gradual passage.

The Hangman Grits form the range which includes Dunkery Beacon, also the
whole northern part of the Quantocks. Their relations to the Ilfracombe Slates
are much complicated by faults around Croydon Hill and on the Quantocks ; and
the prevalence of grits in the Ilfracombe series, whilst indicative of lithological
assimilation, makes the boundary rather indefinite.

The Ilfracombe and Morte slates occupy a larger part of the Devonian area
than any other division. Their lithological characters vary when traced into the
Brendon and Quantock districts. Their junction with the Pickwell Down Beds is
seldom affected by faults, and in West Somerset usually presents a perfect litho-
logical passage through green and purple slates.

The Pickwell Down Beds in North Devon form a perfectly defined conformable
junction with the Baggy Beds, Indian-red being contrasted with green slates.
From North Molton to Wiveliscombe, the relations of the Upper Devonian beds
are much complicated by faults.

The Baggy Beds are well-marked between Baggy Point and Stoke Rivers, but
further east they are only locally distinguishable, owing to disturbances and the

1 Geol. Mag., for Oct. 1881, No. 208, p. 441.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 631

resence of grits in the Pilton Beds. Near Dulverton (Witherwind) both the

ucullea and Lingula Beds are distinguishable, but near Wiveliscombe the fossils
have been found in reverse positions, the Cuculleea zone being under the Lingula
slates.

The Pilton Beds are the most fossiliferous beds in the Devonian Series; their junc-
tion with the Culm-Measures appears to be a palzeontological one near Dulverton,
but the nature of the evidence along the junction is, as a rule, very unsatisfactory.
Faults prevail near Morebath, but from Clayhanger eastward’ the junction appears
to be perfectly conformable, following a feature line.

9. The Devono-Silurian Formation. By Professor E. Hur, DL.D., F.R.S.

The beds which the author proposed to group under the above designation are
found at various parts of the British Isles, and to a slight extent on the Continent.
The formation is, however, eminently British, and occurs under various local
names, of which the following are the principal :—

ENGLAND AND WALES.

Devonshire —‘ The Foreland Grits and Slates, lying below the Lower Devonian
beds (‘Lynton Beds’).

Welsh Borders.—‘ The passage beds’ of Murchison, above the Upper Ludlow
Bone bed, and including the Downton Sandstone, and rocks of the Ridge of the
Trichrag. These beds form the connecting link between the Estuarine Devonian
beds of Hereford (generally, but erroneously, called the ‘Old Red Sandstone,’
and the Upper Silurian Series).

South-east of England (Sub-Cretaceous district)—The author assumed, from
the borings at Ware, Turnford, and Tottenham Court Road, described by
Mr. Etheridge, that the Devono-Silurian beds lie concealed between Turnford and
Tottenham Court Road on the south, and Hertford on the north,

IRELAND,

South.—‘The Dingle Beds, or ‘Glengariff Grits and Slates,’ with plants and
fucoids, lying conformably on the Upper Silurian Beds, as seen in the coast of the
Dingle promontory, and overlain unconformably by either Old Red Sandstone, or
Lower Carboniferous Beds. They are from 10,000 to 12,000 feet in thickness.

North.— The Fintona Beds,’ occupying large tracts of Londonderry, Monaghan,
and Tyrone, resting unconformably on the Lower Silurian beds of Pomeroy, and
overlain unconformably by the Old Red Sandstone, or Lower Carboniferous Beds ;
from 5,000 to 6,000 feet in thickness.

ScoTLaND.

South—Beds of the so-called ‘Lower Old Red Sandstone’ with fish and
crustaceans, included in Professor Geikie’s ‘Lake Orcadie, Lake Caledonia, and
Lake Cheviot, underlying unconformably the Old Red Sandstone, and Lower
Oalciferous Sandstone, and resting unconformabiy on Older Crystalline rocks.
Thickness in Caithness about 16,200 feet.

The author considered that all these beds were representative of one another
in time; deposited under lacustrine or estuarine conditions; and, as their name
indicated, forming a great group intermediate between the Silurian, on the one
hand, and the Devonian, on the other. He also submitted that their importance, as
indicated by their great development in Ireland and Scotland, entitled them to a
distinctive name, such as that proposed.

10. On Evaporation and Eecentricity as Co-factors in Glacial Periods.
By the Rev. E. Hrx1, M.A.
As the temperature rises, the evaporation from water grows ; grows rapidly, and
with continually increasing rapidity. If at a steady temperature there be a steady
amount of evaporation, then the result of fiuctuations im temperature will be to

632 REPORT—1881.

augment the amount of evaporation. Hence, if with a steady heat-supply there
be a given amount of evaporation, fluctuations in that supply will in like manner ayg-
ment that amount. Orif fluctuations already exist, an increase in their extent will
still further augment the amount. But increased eccentricity can increase the differ-
ences in the rates of heat-supply; also evaporation is equal to precipitation. There-
fore under increased eccentricity the annual snowfall may be augmented without any
accompanying increase of annual melting. Thus an uncompensated annual surplus
of snow may be produced which will accumulate. The possible increase for fluc-
tuations of a probable amount is calculated, and found to be appreciable and con-
siderable.

11. On the Discovery of Coal-Measures under New Red Sandstone, and on the
so-called Permian Rocks of St. Helen’s, Lancashire.’ By A. STRAHAN,
M.A., F.G.S., Geological Survey of England and Wales.

The Trias has been penetrated, during the last few years, by three colliery
shafts and three boreholes in the district bordering the St. Helen’s and Wigan coal-
fields on the south. It was thinner than might have been expected, while the
Permian formation was altogether absent. ‘This latter formation was believed to
underlie the Trias, but to be overlapped, so as not to appear at the surface, except-
ing at St. Helen’s Junction, where a marl-bed, and a soft sandstone beneath it, 30
and 90 feet thick respectively, and supposed by Messrs. Binney and Hull to be
Permian Marl and Lower Permian Sandstone, were found in a quarry and a well.

The Bold Hall Colliery shaft, at about 1 mile from the outcrop of supposed
Permian rocks, proved the shale to maintain its thickness, but the sandstone to
be 57 feet 9 inches only, The Coal-Measures were entered at 186 feet, and pene-
trated to a depth of 1,800 feet from the surface, when the Florida Mine was met
with, ‘The red staining, due to the Trias, extended to a depth of 565 feet in the
Coal-Measures.

The Collins Green Colliery shafts, at the same distance from the boundary of
the Trias, but three-quarters of a mile north-east of Bold Hall Colliery, proved
the shale to be 22 feet, and the sandstone 44 feet in thickness. ‘The latter con-
tained spherical concretions of iron pyrites, binding the grains of sand in their
original position in the planes of bedding. The Coal-Measures were entered at
310 feet 10 inches, and penetrated to the Florida Mine, at 1,667 feet 7 inches
from surface. They were red for 152 feet. The dip of the so-called Permian was
to the south-east at 6°, that of the Coal-Measures at 10°.

The Haydock Colliery shafts (Lyme Pits), at the same distance from the
boundary of the Trias, are 1 mile north-east of Collins Green. The shale and
sandstone had diminished here to 9 feet and 73 feet respectively. The Coal-
Measures were penetrated to a depth of 97 feet 2 inches, or 413 feet 3 inches from
surface. In the shafts of this and the Collins Green Colliery, the unconformity
of the red sandstone and the Coal-Measures was clearly visible.

The above sections show that the so-called Permian Marl and Sandstone thin
out gradually from west to east, the lower thinning out first, and not the upper,
as would have been the case if they had been unconformably overlapped by the
overlying beds, They thin out to the south also, as proved by a borehole near
Farnworth, 3 miles south of St. Helen’s Junction, which, after penetrating 124 feet
of yellow and white sandstone, passed through 3 feet of red and white clay, 3 feet
of red sandstone, and entered purple marls with bands of limestone, belonging to
the Coal-Measures.

The so-called Permian Beds, though unconformable to the Coal-Measures, are
quite conformable to the Trias, and are overlapped in consequence of an attenua-
tion in themselves, and not through having suffered denudation before the Trias
was deposited upon them. Considering also their lithological similarity to the
Trias, it seems that they should be classed with this formation, rather than with
the Permian.

1 Published in extenso in the Geological Magazine for October 1881.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 633

The Permian Rocks are probably absent west of Warrington, for two boreholes
at Parkside and Winwick, commencing in the Pebble Beds, entered the Coal-
Measures at 291 and 341 feet respectively, without encountering them. The Trias
contained a bed of shale about 30 feet thick, and was based by soft sandstone with
twig-shaped concretions of iron pyrites. Like the spherical nodules of Collins Green,
these probably owed their origin to the action of Coal-Measure water, with sul-
phides in solution, acting on the colouring matter (peroxide of iron) of the Trias.
The Coal-Measures consisted of purple and green marls, and at Winwick were
associated with limestone. They, and the same beds found in the Famworth
boring, are precisely similar to the well-known Whiston Limestone, and like it
contain the Microconchus carbonarius. These limestones are probably the equiva-
lents of the Ardwick Limestone series in the Upper Coal-Measures of Manchester,
and may be found to be underlain by representatives of the coal-seams which are
found in connection with it. Without doubt, they must be everywhere underlain
by the whole of the productive Middle Coal-Measures, but at a great and unknown
depth, though there is reason to believe that the thickness of barren measures
would be less in West Lancashire than near Manchester.

12. On the Upper Bagshot Sands of Hordwell Clif, Hampshire.
By E. B. Tawney, M.A., F.G.S.

The descriptions of former writers having been cited, it was found that there
were two main views regarding the affinities of these sands, which occur in the
cliff between Long Mead End and Beacon Bunny. The view formulated by the
distinguished foreign geologists, D’Archiac, Dumont, Professor Hebert, and Pro-
fessor C. Mayer, is that they are parallel to the upper sands of the Beauchamp
(= Barton) period, and allied, therefore, to the marine Barton beds. This view is
much the same as that of E. Forbes, and the Geological Survey, who called them
the Upper Bagshot Sands.

Latterly Professor Judd has sought to revive the term Headon-Hill-Sands for
them, presuming them to be most nearly connected with the Headon series, and
extending the bounds of that series to receive them.

The author now gives a list of twenty-eight species obtained from the bed at
Long Mead End; of these 35 per cent. are common to the sand and the Barton
beds, but do not occur in the Headon series; while only 21-4 per cent. are common
to the sand and Headon series, but do not occur in Barton beds. It is shown that
this sand belongs to the zone of Cerithiwm pleurotomoides, Lam., and is exactly
parallel to the sands of Mortefontaine, which belong to the same horizon, consti-
tuting the upper portion of the Beauchamp deposits. This is altogether below
the C. concavum zone.

From these sands being intimately connected with the Barton beds in both
areas, it is held that the term Upper Bagshot is the most fitting designation that
has been proposed for them.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Ninth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland.
See Reports, p. 204.

2. Report on Fossil Polyzoa.—See Reports, p.161.

634 REPORT-—1881.

3. On ‘Flots? By J. R. Daxyns, M.A., Geological Survey of England
and Wales.

The word ‘ flot’ is a miner’s term for ore lying between the beds, or at certain
definite horizons in the strata. In textbooks flots are generally called ‘flats’
or ‘ flattings.’ They are of two kinds: (1) those connected with ‘ cross-veins’;
(2) those connected with courses of dun limestone. Firstly, cross-veins are
veins (generally mere spar veins on Greenhow Hill) which cross and intersect
or shift the metal veins, but which often bear ore at their intersection with
the metal veins. Where these cross-veins cut the flot-planes, ore is found.
Secondly, similarly with courses of dun limestone. Dun limestone, so-called from
its colour, is a dolomitized form of ordinary limestone. The dun lime occurs in
beds or irregular masses, or more frequently in dyke-like courses, running N.N.W.
and §.S.E. These courses are often several yards or even fathoms wide, and
where the dun course crosses the flot-plane ore is developed along the joints
between the dun and the white limestones. ‘ ;

Ore is not found along the flot-plane except at its intersection with the cross-
veins or with the courses of dun limestone.

4, Remarks wpon the Structure and Classification of the Blastoidea.
By P. Herserr Carpenter, M.A.

The author and Mr. R. Etheridge, jun., who are preparing a joint Memoir

upon the Blastoidea, have arrived at the following conclusions respecting the
roup.

. It is very doubtful whether the genus Pentremites occurs at all in Britain.

Some badly preserved fragments from the Devonian and the Scotch Carboniferous

are possibly referable to it; but most of the Blastoids (besides Codaster) which

occur in the Carboniferous Limestone belong to the genus Granatocrinus, Troost.,

which is represented by some seven or eight species,

Cumberland’s Mitra elliptica is the representative of a new genus, distin-
guished by the eccentric position of the spiracles. Codaster is a true Blastoid, and
not a Cystid, as supposed by Billings. The slit-like openings of its hydrospires are
nearly on the same level as the ambulacra, which do not conceal them at all. In
the ordinary Blastoids, however, they are below and concealed by the ambulacra,
opening externally by pores at the sides of the latter. There are various interme-
diate forms between these two extremes, in which the hydrospiral slits are more
or less concealed by the ambulacra, but are partially visible at their sides. It is
proposed to group the species thus distinguished into a genus Pentremitidea, which
is represented in Britain by the little Pentremites acutus, Sowerby, in Belgium by
P. caryophyllatus, and in Spain by P. Pailleti, De Verneuil, for which last the
name Pentrenutidea had been already proposed by D’Orbigny. An arrangement
of this kind has been already suggested by Billings.

The discoveries of Rofe, Wachsmuth, and Hambach, respecting the perforation
of the lancet-piece by a longitudinal canal, are confirmed. This canal probably
lodged the water-vessel, which must have been devoid of any tentacular extensions,
as in some Holothurians, and in the arms of certain Comatule. Respiration was
effected, however, by means of the hydrospires. The pores usually found at the
sides of the ambulacra were not the sockets for the attachment of the appendages,
but led downwards into the hydrospires, serving to introduce water, which made
its way out through the spiracles. The genital ducts probably opened into some
portion of the hydrospires, as they do into the closely similar structures of the
Ophiuroidea, and the ova were discharged through the spiracles. Billings’
statements are confirmed respecting the existence in many species of a single or
possibly double row of jointed appendages along each side of the ambulacra; but
these appendages are not homologous with the pinnules of the Crinoidea.

In perfect specimens the peristome is covered in by a vault of small polygonal
plates, any definite arrangement of which is rarely traceable. Extensions of this

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 635

vault were continued down the sides of the ambulacral grooves, which could thus
be closed in completely and converted into tunnels, as in recent Crinoids.

The classification of the Blastoidea must depend entirely upon morphological
principles. Mere differences in the relative sizes of the calyx plates are of very
little systematic value; and differences in the numbers of side plates on given
lengths of the ambulacra are absolutely worthless. On the other hand, the
structure and relative positions of the hydrospires and spiracles are morphological
characters of much systematic value.

5. On the Characters of the‘ Lansdown Hnerinite’ (Millericrinus Prattii,
Gray, sp.) By P. Herperr Carpenter, M.A.

The ‘ Lansdown Encrinite ’ is a.species of Millericrinus (M. Prattii, Gray, sp. =
Apiocrinus obconicus, Goldfuss) from the Great Oolite on the top of Lansdown, near
Bath. It is remarkable for the very great variation in the characters of its stem
and calyx. The former may reach 50 mm. in length, and consist of 70 discoidal
joints ; or there may be less than 10 joints, the lowest of which is rounded off

elow, and its central canal closed up. Various intermediate conditions may occur
between these two extremes, while in some specimens there may be only 2 to 4
stem-joints ; and in one case the whole stem is represented by a slightly convex
imperforate plate on which the basals rest. This specimen, taken by itself, would
be naturally regarded as a Comatula of advanced age, in which the cirrhus-sockets
had disappeared from the centro-dorsal just as they do in the recent Actinometra
Jukesit. The general appearance of the calyx is very similar to that of Pentacrinus
Wyville-Thomsoni from the North Atlantic. But it is remarkable for the number
of small intercalated pieces which it may contain. The basals are frequently
separated from one another, or from the radials, by minute plates which, while
regularly developed all round the calyx in some specimens, are entirely absent in
others.

The nearest allies of I. Prattit seem to be M. Mamsterianus, var. Buchianus,
and M. Nodotianus. It stands on the extreme limit of the genus, connecting it
with Pentacrinus on the one hand, and with the free Comatulide on the other.
It is thus a synthetic type, as would naturally be expected from its geological
position; for it is probably the earliest known species of the genus, except
perhaps for two doubtful Liassic forms, which are known only by isolated plates
and stem-joints.

6. On the Lower Keuper Sandstone of Cheshire. By A. Srrauan, IA.,
F.G.S., Geological Survey of England and Wales.

This paper deals with some of the résults of the re-survey of parts of Cheshire,
which have been already described in detail in the Geological Survey Memoirs
“On the Neighbourhood of Prescot’ (3rd edition), and ‘On the Neighbourhood
of Chester.’ Several sections, of which the best are at Runcorn and Frodsham,
show that there is a strong and constant division between the Waterstones and
the Keuper Basement Beds. These were formerly classed together under the
name of Lower Keuper Sandstone, but, so far as the re-survey has been carried,
are now distinguished on the maps. The old and new classifications may be
compared as follows :—

Old Classification New Classification
Keuper Marl. . . : » Keuper Marl
: . Waterstones

Lower Keuper Sandstone} . . . Lower Keuper Sandstone or
( Basement Beds

The Basement Beds, which form bold escarpments, consist of courses of. hard
building-stone with partings of soft sand, and a considerable thickness of soft
current-bedded sand at top, distinguished by the name of the Frodsham Beds,

636 REPORT—1881.

The courses of building stone are conglomeratic, and rest on eroded surfaces. The
Frodsham Beds are precisely similar to the soft upper and lower subdivisions of
the Bunter.

The Waterstones, on the other hand, are allied to the Marls in every respect,
even the sandstone-beds being easily distinguishable from those of the Basement
Beds. The striking contrast between the Waterstones and the Basement Beds is
well shown at Runcorn and Frodsham, where deep-red shales rest direct upon the
current-bedded sands of the Frodsham Beds. Upwards the Waterstones pass
quite insensibly into the Red Marls, and like them, contain ripple-marks, sun-
cracks, so called rain-pittings, and the casts of rock-salt crystals. The last-named
appear first in the Waterstones.

The Waterstones, like the other subdivisions of the Trias, vary rapidly in
colour. They are generally red, but near Kelsall are white, with green shales.
The Basement Beds at Helsby are brown, but at Manley are white; at Delamere
brown again, but once more white in the Peckforton Hills. The Frodsham Beds
change from red to white in a few yards in the railway cutting at Runcom, and
again near Frodsham and Overton. The Upper Mottled Sandstone goes through
every possible variation between red, white. and yellow, at Beeston Castle. These
changes show that no dependence can be placed on colour as a means of
identification.

In Lancashire, previously surveyed by Mr. De Rance, the base of the Maris
had been drawn at this line below the Waterstones, no subdivision of the Water-
stones from the Marls being possible, owing to Drift. The section in the Orrell
railway is similar to that at Runcorn, and the Basement Beds here and at Ormskirk
are of the same character as in Cheshire. In Liverpool the same sequence has
been made out by Messrs. De Rance and Morton.

Near Nottingham the same line has been observed by Mr. Aveline (‘ Geol.
Survey Memoir, 2nd edition). Though the Basement Beds are thin, and in places
absent, the Waterstones are well-developed. Mr. Shipman (‘ Nottingham Nat. Soc.
Ann. Rep.’ 1880) remarks on this overlap, and states that there is an appearance of
erosion between the Waterstones and the Basement Beds. The same observer
mentions the marked contrast presented by the Waterstones to the Basement Beds
at Alton in Staffordshire.

The line therefore is persistent over a large area. The notion that there was
a perfect passage from the Basement Beds into the Marls arose from incorrect
mapping, by which the Waterstones were placed sometimes in the one, sometimes
in the other subdivision. At this horizon also the principal overlap in the Trias
takes place, for the Basement Beds thin out with the Bunter, but the Waterstones
and marls run on beyond so as to rest on Paleozoic Rocks. ‘The change in the
character of the sediment, and the appearance of salt-crystals, show that at this
period a change in the physical geography of the region took place, which led
He tranquil deposition of sediment and the concentration of brine in land-locked

asins.

This line at the base of the Waterstones was taken by Ormerod and others as
the base of the Keuper, but in 1852 Prof. Hull drew the base below what then
came to be called the Keuper Basement Beds, because, firstly, there was no sign of a
break from this rock upwards; secondly, there was an apparent unconformity below
it. It has been shown that the first of these reasons will probably not hold good.
The second reason depends on evidence of unconformity which is not trustworthy.
The apparent unconformity visible at Ormskirk (‘Triassic Memoir, p. 87) is an
effect of current-bedding, and the evidence of denudation of the Bunter in South
Lancashire and Cheshire rests on the identification of horizons in the Upper
Mottled Sandstone by colour, which is now known to be untrustworthy. The
appearances of erosion below the Basement Beds are equally strong at other
horizons, for instance below the Pebble Beds in the middle of the Bunter.

Considering the strong lithological resemblance of the Basement Beds with the
Bunter, and the similarity of its distribution, it must be reconsidered whether the
importance of the line between them has not been over-estimated, and whether
the line at the base of the Waterstones does not constitute a more important

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 637

stratigraphical horizon in the Trias. It is proposed to distinguish in future the
Waterstones from the Lower Keuper Sandstone, reserving the latter name for the
sandstones and conglomerates, as typically developed in Cheshire.

7. On a Discovery of Fossil Fishes in the New Red Sandstone of Nottingham.
By HE, Winson, F.G.S.

The author called the attention of the Section to a recent discovery of fossil
fishes in the Lower Keuper Sandstone of England—a circumstance of sufficient
rarity in itself, apart from any paleontological results, to deserve at least a
passing notice.

During the construction of the Leen Valley Outfall Sewer in 1878, a remark-
ably interesting section was given by the tunnelling driven through Rough Hill,
or Colwick Wood, near Nottingham, showing the lower beds of the Waterstones
resting on a denuded surface of the ‘ Basement Beds’ of the Keuper.

The lowest stratum of the Waterstones was a sandstone about a foot thick,
with streaks of red and green marl, and a seam of pebbles at the base. The fishes
occurred in this bed, and chiefly in a thin seam of red marl, overlying the pebbly
seam at the very bottom of the Waterstones; they were present in large numbers,
as if in ashoal, for a distance, in the line of section, of about 33 feet.

The specimens he obtained have been examined by several competent authorities,
but unfortunately their state of preservation is so bad that nothing certain can be
made out as to their precise zoological affinities, Dr. Traquair, however, believes
that they probably belong to some species, new or old, of the genus Semionotus.

The occurrence of these fossils at the junction of two distinct sets of beds—
the Basement Beds and the Waterstones—is probably not a mere chance coincidence.
The characters of the preceding Keuper Basement Beds—false-bedded, coarse, grey
sandstones and conglomerates with large fractured quartzite pebbles, and lenticular
beds of red marl—prove them to, have been formed during a period of great
violence ; while those of the Waterstones—regularly-bedded fine-grained yellowish
sandstones and red marls covered with ripple-marks, sun-cracks, and pseudomorphs
of common salt—show that they were formed in quiet and shallow waters. It
appears pretty certain, then, that these fishes did not live in this area during the
turbulent times of the Basement Beds, but came in when subsidence let in the
quieter waters of the Waterstone epoch.!

8. On the Rhetics of Nottinghamshire. By E. Witson, F.G.S.

The author gave a summarised account of the Rheetic series in Nottingham-
shire. The Rheetic sections of this district already known to geologists comprise
those at Gainsboro’, Newark, and Elton. The author described several additional
new sections in the Rheetics of the county—viz., at Cotham and Kilvington
between Newark and Bottesford; at Barnstone, between Bingham and Stathern;
the boring for coal at Owthorpe, near Colston Bassett; and the section at Stanton-
on-the-Wolds, between Nottingham and Melton Mowbray. A list of the Rhetic
fossils of Notts was given, and the presence of bone-beds noticed. The author
could not agree with certain geologists that the green marls which are found
beneath the Paper Shales in Notts (nor probably also the ‘ Tea-green Marls’ of the
West of England) belong to the Rheetic series, but took them to be Upper Keuper
Marls, once red in colour, which had become discoloured by the downward infil-
tration of some deoxidising agents evolved during the decomposition of the organic
matters of the fossils of the Paper Shales. For, in lithological character the

1 It should be mentioned that the specimens were obtained under somewhat un-
favourable circumstances, namely in the roof of a tunnel, several hundred feet from
daylight, and after the rock had been defaced by smoke and dirt. The fossiliferous
bed lies only a few feet below the surface of the ground, and if carefully opened
from aboye better and perhaps identifiable specimens might very possibly be obtained,

638 REPORT—1881.

green marls agreed with underlying beds in the Keuper, but differed markedly
from the overlying Rheetics; then there was every appearance of a passage be-
tween the green marls and the underlying red and green marls of the Keuper; and,
lastly, the green marls, like the rest of the Keuper marls, were practically unfos-
siliferous, while with the commencement of the Paper Shales we get the remains
of an abundant, and distinctly marine fauna, in part Liassic.

9. The Great Plain of Northern India not an old Sea-basin.
By W. T. Buanrorp, F.B.S., 2.GLS., &e.

The author called attention to the distribution of land in the Indian peninsula,
and to the intervention of a vast plain, traversed by the Indus, Ganges, and
Brahmaputra, between the Himalayas and other hill ranges to the east, west,
and north, and the more or less hilly tracts forming the peninsula itself. The
plain varies in breadth from rather less than 100 to nearly 300 miles.

This plain has constantly been considered, both by geological and biological
writers, as the basin of a great sea, that, in Tertiary times, and probably earlier,
separated the Himalayan area from the land of the peninsula. Even in some
geological descriptions by an officer of the Geological Survey of India (‘ Ree,
G.S.I.’ iii. p. 17) the older alluvial deposits of Bengal are classed as marine or
estuarine.

On examining the evidence, however, there does not appear to be a single fact
in favour of the sea having at any geological period occupied the Gangetic or
eastern portion of the plain. On the eastern coast of India, near the shores of the
Bay of Bengal, marine Jurassic strata are intercalated with certain beds containing
land plants (Upper Gondwana) in several localities, and the same marine and
similar plant-bearing beds are associated in Kattiawar to the westward. But in
the only place on the edge of the Ganges plain where the plant-bearing beds are
found, no marine fossils are met with. Some older beds of very low mesozoic or
very high palozoic age (Damuda) are found both north and south of the plain,
and as they are river deposits, they may perhaps indicate that the intervening
country was land when they were formed. At any rate no marine strata
accompany them. A great thickness of nearly horizontal basaltic traps in the
Khasi hills, east of the Gangetic plain, appears to be a continuation of the well-
known Rajmahal traps, believed to be of Jurassic age, and if so, these volcanic
rocks, which are undoubtedly of subaérial origin, must have extended across the
plain north of Calcutta.

Again, marine cretaceous beds are found on the shores of the Bay of Bengal in
two localities at least, and again in the Khasi hills to the eastward, showing that
in all probability the coast line extended from one to the other, but no trace of
such beds is known to occur on the edges of the Ganges plain.

Eocene (nummulitic) rocks of marine origin occur throughout the western
margin of the Indus basin in Sind and the Punjab, and extend across the north of
the latter to-the spot where the Jumna leaves the Himalayas; east of this they are
only found in one locality in Kumaon. Thence for 13 degrees of longitude not a
trace has been discovered, nor do they recur until the Guro hills are reached. To
the east of the Indus plain also nummulitic limestone occurs, but none is found
along the southern side of the Ganges plain, Marine, oligocene, and miocene beds
are met with as far north as the frontier between Sind and the Punjab, but have
not yet been traced further north with certainty. Marine pliocene beds are only
met with near the coast.

The distribution of marine Tertiary rocks therefore indicates that in Eocene
times the sea occupied the whole Indus valley as far as the Himalayas, and an
arm must have extended to the region now drained by the Upper Indus in Tibet,
as nummulites have been found there; but there is no evidence of any sea having
occupied the Gangetic or eastern portion of the plain. It is scarcely probable, if a
nummulitic sea occurred throughout the whole Indo-Gangetic plain, that a fringe of
nummulitic deposits, continuous over many hundreds of miles, should surround

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ©. 639

the western half, whilst not a trace has been found around the eastern half, except
far to the eastward. In later Tertiary times the sea that octupied the Indus
Nalley appears to have greatly decreased, and still further diminution of the
marine area took place during the Pliocene epoch. As several species of land
mammalia in the Pliocene Siwaliks are also found in’ Guzerat, it is manifest that
land communication must have existed between the two areas,

All that is known of the Post-pliocene and recent deposits in the Indo-Gangetic
plain leads to the same conclusion; no marine bed has yet been detected in them.
Only a few borings have been made: but in one to a depth of 701 feet, at Um-
bala; in another 451 feet deep, at Bhiwani in Hissar (Punjab), and in a third 574
feet deep, at Sabzallsot in the Derajat, west of the Indus, no marine remains were
discovered, and the beds traversed appeared to be all river-deposits. Still more ex-
traordinary is the circumstance that the boring made at Fort William in Calcutta,
to a depth of 481 feet below the surface, or 460 below the sea-level, passed through
not a single undoubted marine deposit, whilst peat, freshwater shells, and mamma-
lian bones were found, some of them at almost the greatest depths reached.

The whole of the negative evidence, and some direct evidence, is, therefore,
opposed to the idea of the Gangetic plain having ever been occupied by the sea.
the tract is evidently an area of depression filled up to above the sea-level, in all
probability, throughout a long geological range of time, by the detritus from the
surrounding mountains, and to a smaller extent from the hill tracts to the south
ward,

10. The Gold Fields, and the Quartz-outcrops of Southern India. By

Wim Kine, Deputy Superintendent (for Madras), Geological Survey
of India.

This paper was a résumé of the knowledge ascertained through the author’s
original survey of the Wainad gold field in 1874, and by the later surveys and
examinations of others: also in his examination of the Travancore and other areas
in the beginning of this year.

The geographical distribution of the gold areas is briefly treated of as being
at Mangapet, on the Godavari river, near Dumbal, in the South Mahratta country,
near Kolar, in Mysore, at Salem, in part of the Travancore State, and in the Nil-
giri and Malabar country; and these are then reduced to the more important
fields of Malabar (including Wainad and the Nilgiris) and Mysore.

Next follows a description of the rocks (Gneissic Series) of these two areas;
and the extent, mode of occurrence, and constitution of the quartz-reefs traversing
them. These gneisses are striking, in Mysore, northwards and southwards, and in
Malabar north-east and south-west; while the reefs in both cases are running
north-north-west to south-south-east, or thereabout, and are considered by the
author to occupy the widened-out fissures of meridional jointing.

The reefs of Wainad are developed to a remarkable extent over a very large
area of country; but their auriferousness is only displayed over a portion of this
(mainly in south-east Wainad and in the adjacent low-country of Malabar), in a
generally east-and-west belt, the reefs outside of this being fewer and only very
locally auriferous. The leaders or offshoots of the reefs in this belt are strongly
and numerously developed ; and they and the ‘casing’ are rich in gold. It is
these adjuncts of the reefs, and not the reefs themselves, which have been so ex-
tensively worked by the ancient miners. On the other hand, the reefs, as far as is
known, do not as yet show any continued steadiness in their auriferousness, but
may be said to be capriciously permeated with the precious metal. The gold of
the reefs is pale-coloured and of about the ‘touch’ of standard gold; that of the
‘leaders’ and ‘casing’ is yellow gold and of superior quality.

The apparent distribution of the gold in a generally east-and-west belt over a
country whose rocks are striking north-east and south-west, and the quartz-reefs of
which are running north-north-west to south-south-east, and far beyond the limits

of this belt, leads the author to speculate on a possible deposition of the gold
subsequent to the formation of the reefs,

640 REPORT—1881.

The peculiar quartz-outcrops of Travancore, supposed by many to be auriferous
reefs, are next described, the author having, in his late examination of them for
the Government of that State, been obliged to look on these as really beds of
quartz-rock, or felspathic quartz-rock, associated and contemporaneous with the
gneisses. A mere trace of gold has been found in a small sample of this rock ; but
none was found by ordinary hand-crushing and working, Neither are there any
traces of old gold-workings in the area marked by these outcrops.

Lastly, the economic aspect of the Wainad field is considered. Mr. King does
not see any good reason, on the total results obtained, to think that the average
out-turn of gold will ever be appreciably more than that argued for from his original
assays, namely, seven pennyweights to the ton. He also does not think that a
paying return can be obtained on less than three pennyweights to the ton. Though
very hopeful of the moderate and paying quality of the reefs, he is decidedly of
opinion that the results obtained so far do not warrant the wild expectations
which have been prevalent in England and India during the last twelve months ;
nor do they justify the enormous prices which have been paid for lands and con-
cessions, Beyond the ultimate profitable working looked for by the author, there
must be considerable delay (even for nine months more at least) before retarding
conditions—such as the settlement of land tenure and mining rights, the obtaining
of labour, and the getting of the machinery on the ground—can he overcome.

11. On the Geology of the Island of Cyprus. By R. Russrtx, C.L.

The physical features of the Island of Cyprus are two great mountain-chains,
the axes of which are mainly parallel to each other. These two ranges are as
distinct from each other in physical appearance as in geological structure. The
southern or Troédos mountains are rounded in outline, and culminate in Mount
Troddos, 6,340 feet above the sea-level. The northern, or Kerynia, mountain-chain
rises up from the hummocky ground on both sides, as it were, in one great conti-
nuous wall-like cliff, its vertical crags and turret-like peaks projecting upwards to
heights of more than 3,000 feet. The hummocky ground at the base of the pre-
cipitous cliffs has a most peculiar aspect. When looked at from above it resembles
a bird’s-eye view of Alpine scenery; when seen from the central valley it appears
as if the whole area was covered with an immense number of small volcanic
cones.

The central valley is flat when compared with the mountainous regions, but it
is exceedingly irregular and broken. Filat-topped ridges and hills, and conical
mounds, form a distinctive feature of this part of the island. The flat-topped hills
rise quite abruptly from the low ground, and therefore show more prominently
than they would otherwise do.

The rocks which occur in Cyprus may be classified as follows :—

Blown Sand
Alluvium (recent)
Kavara (solidified surface)
POST-TERTIARY + Raised Beach
Sand and Gravel (Old River Deposits)

| Calcareous Tufa and
Traventine
i Kerynia Rock
IPGIOUENE. (-/ 42) | Nicosia Beds
Miocenr .. . . Idalian Beds
(Upper Cretacnous. Konnos

TERTIARY oo:

{Mount Hilarion
* ( Limestone

SECONDARY . -|yupassic . . .

Icneovs Rocks

The oldest stratified rock is doubtless the Mount Hilarion Limestone. This is
a very hard, compact, crystalline limestone, generally of a dark blue colour. It is
very difficult to distinguish between the bedding and jointing in this rock, and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 641

therefore equally difficult to determine the direction of the dip. Certainly the
limestone is inclined at a high angle, and the general direciion of the dip appears
to be towards the north.

Above the compact limestone is a band of white schistoze limestone. This
rock is fissile and jointy, splitting up into small fragments. It lies between the
base of the Konnos, and the Mount Hilarion limestone.

‘Konnos’ is the term applied by the Cypriots to the rocks which occupy the
country flanking the limestone crags. It is pronounced Kornos, The local name
is adopted, as it means chalky-like, and therefore conveys some idea of the calca-
reous nature of the beds to which the term is applied.

The base of the ‘ Konnos’ is a breccia composed of large angular fragments of
limestone, this passes up into a conglomerate, and this again into beds of cal-
careous grey shales, with calcareous sandy bands, or beds of calcareous sandstone.
The sandy bands are generally from a few inches up to two feet thick, but
are very regular and continuous. ‘he soft character of these rocks renders the
work of subaérial denudation easy. The water, from the springs, and from the
periodical rains, has cut deep and narrow gorges through the konnos, leaving
sharp ridges between the ravines, It is the intersection of these ridges with each
other which give to the districts which they occupy the appearance of a ereat
series of small conical mounds.

On the north side of the range the dip is generally to the north. On the south
side the inclination is also northwards for some distance, southwards from the
central ridge, but afterwards the beds lie in a series of rolls, the axes of which are
more or less parallel to the central axis of the mountain-chain. There are another
set of undulations at right angles to the strike cf the strata. Here then we have
evidence that ‘lonnos’ has been subjected to pressure, acting at right angles, and
to pressure acting parallel, to the axis of greatest upheaval.

At the base of the Idalian beds on the flanks of the Troédos, there occasionally
occurs a thin band of brown shale, in which are large concretionary lumps of dark-
coloured chert.

This is followed by the white chalky rocks of the hills of Idalia, hence the
name Idalian Beds. In general the Idalian Beds consist of thin-bedded white
chalky-like flags much jointed. The layers are from one inch to one foot thick,
but occasionally some of the bands are three or four feet in thickness.

Amongst these rocks are found irregular deposits of gypsum, The gypsum
oceurs as selenite in a matrix of gypsum, and as gypseous flags. The flags split up
into thin layers and yield excellent pavement.

Near the base, the Idalian Beds contain bands of grey chert, and, in proximity
to the volcanic rock, the white rocks assume a pinkish colour.

Any fossils which have been obtained from this series of rocks are of Miocene
age, but still are scarcely sufficient to determine satisfactorily the exact age of the
strata in which they are contained.

In the valleys of the rivers Morphu and Pidias, the Idalian Beds pass up into
the shales and sands which I have named the Nicosia Beds.

The Nicosia Beds are well-developed in the central valley, and consist of blue cal-
careous clays, brown sandy shales, bands of calcareous sandstone, and conglome-
rates. The fossils are very abundant and mostly belonging to the Pliocene period.

Some of the calcareous sandstone hands very closely resemble the Kerynia
Rock ; but the real equivalent of this rock is the yellow calcareous sandstone cap-
ping the hills in the neighbourhood of Nicosia and Athienu. At Kerynia, the
lower beds do not exist, and the Kerynia Rock rests unconformably on the ‘IKon-
nos.’ This rock is a yellow calcareous sandstone, or shelly limestone. It is here
generally termed a sandstone, because in general appearance and formation it
more resembles sandstone than limestone, It is from the Kerynia Rock that the
building stone used in the island is chiefly obtained.

Deposits of calcareous tuff and traventine occur on the flanks of the mountains.
In most cases the character of these beds is easily recognisable, but in some in-
stances they scarcely differ from compact limestone.

Old river-gravels cover a considerable area on the south side of the central valley.

1881, isthe

642 REPORT —1881.

When cemented by the infiltration of CaO, they are scarcely distinguishable from
some of the older conglomerates.

Raised beaches exist, between La Scala and Vorolilini, between Famagousta and
Varoschia, and on the northern coast near the mouth of the river Panagra, The
shells found are, for the most part, species now living in the Mediterranean.

Parts of the surface of the island are covered witha hard encrustation, known
by the name of ‘kavara.’ The formation of this surface rock is caused by the
re-deposition of calcareous matter amongst the gravels, loams, decomposed shales,
and other rocks forming the surface soils.

Blown sands occur on the raised beaches near Famagousta, on the northern
coast, and in the valley of the river Angelos, between Myrtu and Morphu,

The alluvial deposits consist of sand, gravel, and sandy loams and clays, form-
ing rich and fertile land.

From the character of the rocks now described there is no difficulty in as-
signing the formation of the Nicosia Beds to Pliocene times, The Miocene age
of the Idalian Beds is somewhat more doubtful. Below this all is uncertainty.
Hitherto neither the ‘ Konnos,’ nor the Mount Hilarion Limestone, has yielded
any fossils. What length of time elapsed between the formation of the compact
limestone and the ‘ Konnos,’ or between the ‘ Konnos’ and the Kerynia Rock, it is
impossible to estimate. Failing paleontological evidence it is impossible to say
what formations may be wanting. Lithological characteristics are not implicitly
to be depended on, but it is better to give them due consideration than to assume
a regular succession of formations, as Gaudry has done. Starting from the well-
defined horizon of the Nicosia Beds, he classifies the Idalian Beds as Miocene,
the ‘Konnos’ as Eocene, and the Mount Hilarion Limestone as Cretaceous, thus
establishing a regular succession in the series. The ‘MKonnos’ has much litho-
logical resemblance to the Vienna Sandstone, and the compact limestone to many
of the Jurassic limestones. This classification has been adopted by Unger and
Kotschy, and has at least some evidence in its favour.

The trachyte on which the Idalian Beds rest, on the flanks of the Troddos,
appears to be the same rock as occurs at Mavro Vouni, and as appears at different
places in the Kerynia range. It isa red, grey, and greenish vesicular and amyg-
daloidal trap, traversed by an immense number of joints, filled with calcareous
matter, so that the surface of the rock has the appearance of the irregular pave-
ment seen in the streets of ancient Roman towns. The lower portion of this
trachyte contains beds, veins, or dykes of traps, which stand up above the weathered
surface like walls. Below this are found regularly bedded lavas, which surround
the serpentines constituting the centre of the Troddos mountain-chain.

These volcanic rocks, for the most part, have been formed prior to the for-
mation of any of the stratified rocks. The invariable occurrence of the amorphous
trachyte at so many places on both sides of the central valley, seems to point to
its extension under the Tertiary rocks occupying the central portion of the island,
There is some metamorphism observable among the stratified rocks near their
junction with the trap. This is due to some later action than the formation of the
trachyte, as the Idalian Beds rest on its denuded surface, and outliers of these
beds exist at many different places on the flanks of the southern range. The
metamorphism is seen in the brown laminated shales with dark chert, in the pink-
tinted beds, and in the schistose limestone, and probably dates from the great
elevation of the land which took place at the end of Tertiary times. At this
period the land was raised, at least, from 1,800 to 2,000 feet.

Since then an elevation of less extent has occurred. This last upheaval is of
comparatively recent date, and not more than 15 or 20 feet in vertical height.

12. Observations on the two types of Cambrian beds of the British Isles (the
Caledonian and Hiberno-Cambrian), and the conditions under which they
were respectively deposited. By Professor Epwarp Hut, LL.D., F.R.S.

In this paper the author pointed out the distinctions in mineral character
between the Cambrian beds of the North-West Highlands of Scotland, and their

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 643

assumed representatives in the East of Ireland, Wales, and Shropshire. In the
former case, which included the beds belonging to the ‘Caledonian type,’ the for-
mation consists of red or purple sandstones and conglomerates; in the latter, which
included the beds belonging to the ‘Hiberno-Cambrian type,’ the formation con-
sists of hard green and purple grits and slates, contrasting strongly with the
former in structure and appearance.

These differences, the author considered, were due to deposition in distinct
basins, lying on either side of an archzean ridge of crystalline rocks, which ranged
probably from Scandinavia through the central Highlands of Scotland, and in-
cluded the North and West of Ireland, with the counties of Donegal, Derry,
Mayo, Sligo, and Galway, in all of which the Cambrian beds were absent, so that
the Lower Silurian repose directly and unconformably on the crystalline rocks of
Laurentian age, as shown in a previous paper.

As additional evidence of the existence of this old ridge, the author showed
that when the Lower Silurian beds were in course of formation, the archzan floor
along the West of Scotland must have sloped upwards towards the east, but he
agreed with Professor Ramsay, that the crystalline rocks of the Outer Hebrides
formed the western limit of the Cambrian area of deposition, and that the basin
was in the form of an inland lake.

On the other hand, looking at the fossil evidence both of the Irish and Welsh
Cambrian beds, he was of opinion that the beds of this basin were in the main, if
not altogether, of marine origin, and that the basin itself had a greatly wider
range eastward and southward, the old archwan ridge of the British Isles forming
but a small portion of the original margin.

The Cambrian beds above referred to consist of the Llanberis, Harlech, and
Longmynd series, with their representatives at St. David’s, in which Dr. Hicks
has discovered a primeval marine fauna,

15. On the Lower Cambrian of Anglesea.
By Professor T. McK. Huguss, W.A., F.G.S.

In this paper the author gives the results of further examination of the base-
ment beds of the Cambrian, which he has now traced all along the N.W. flank of
the Archzean axis of Llanfaelog.

He found it resting in some places on gneissic rocks, varying from massive
granitoid to fine foliated schistose gneiss, and in other places the Cambrian was
seen lying on greenish or blue schist, probably, he thought, the equivalent of part
of the Bangor beds.

But whatever it had below it there was such a similarity in the character of
the basement-beds that he had no difficulty in following it and mapping it, The
sequence which he found almost invariable was in ascending order.

(A) Quartz conglomerate passing up into

(B) Grit, which in turn became finer and passed into

(C) Sandstones, weathering brown, which got split up in their upper part
by thin slabby shales (C2). These were succeeded by

(D) Black shales with subordinate beds of black breccia (D2), and occasion-
ally sandstones in the lower part.

The conglomerate at the base was sometimes very thin, being only a foot or so
in one section mentioned. In this case the base of the Cambrian was a kind of
gneiss-arkose, which was seen resting on true gneiss, and in the grit and conglome-
rate, within twenty feet of the base, he had found abundant specimens of Orthis
Carausii. In another section, a few miles off, in the grits within about fifty feet of
the base, he had found annelids and fucoids—while in a third case, close by, the
basement conglomerate was split into two parts by a bed of black shale some
twenty feet thick.

The brown sandstones and the black breccias had also yielded O. Carausii and
a few other fossils.

_ The petrological characters of the basement-beds were generally very constant,
though small variations accompanied the differences in the underlying rocks, For
rT2

644 revort—1881.

instance, where they rested on the chloritic schists, which were seen under the
microscope to consist of a fine felspathic mud, not only did fragments of this rock
occur in the conglomerate, but much of its material was found finely comminuted
in the matrix of the overlying series. Occasionally some way up in the basement-
beds, bands of large felsite pebbles were found, showing the drifting of the shingle
now and then from the more distant rocks of the felsitic series or Dinorwig Beds.
On the whole he considered that it was quite clear that the quartz-jasper con-
glomerates and the felsite conglomerates belonged to the same series, and formed
part of the basement-beds of the Cambrian.

14. On the Gnarled Series of Amlwch and Holyhead in Anglesea.
By Professor T. McK. Hucues, M.4., PGS.

The author offers the results of his inquiries into the age of certain schists
which form the main mass of the rocks of Northern and Western Anglesea,
leaving for the present the consideration of two masses of somewhat similar rock
which occur 8. of the Llanfaelog gneissic axisin the central and south-eastern part
of the island.

The two views hitherto current as to their position were:

1. The metamorphic theory of Professor Ramsay, who referred them to
altered Cambrian and Silurian.

2. The view of Dr. Hicks and others, who considered them to be the upper
part of the Archean rocks.

The author offers a third explanation, which he calls at present only a good
working hypothesis, but for which he thinks that the evidence he has already col-
lected makes out a strong probability.

He uses the term metamorphic for those rocks only in which there has been
a complete re-arrangement of the constituent minerals, and excludes therefore all
merely consolidated matter, though crystallised as limestones, compacted as quartzite
or veined, or filled with replacing minerals, as chert, or crumpled, which he con-
siders merely an accident which may happen to an ordinary sedimentary or to a
metamorphic rock, and the cause and mode of occurrence of which he explains.

The difficulty with regard to the Amlwch and Holyhead beds arose from
considering them metamorphic, an impression derived from their gnarled and con-
torted appearance. He describes the sequence commonly found among the lower
beds of the series, from the constancy of which he infers that no large mass of
them is faulted out of sight in the Amlwch district. He points out the agreement
of these sections with some of those in the Holyhead area. He gives a number of
sections along the border country between them and the black slates, which seem
to indicate a passage up from the slates into satiny beds, which when consisting
of rapid alternations of soft material, and hard unyielding bands, become contorted
and gnarled.

If these sections cannot be explained away, the felspathic gnarled rocks must
be either the marine equivalents of the Bala volcanic series, or the result of a later
(probably Silurian) denudation of those beds. As Lower May Hill (= Birkhill)
fossils only occur in the slates immediately south of the area in question, the latter
supposition is the only one tenable in the present state of the evidence.

15. The Subject-matter of Geology, and its Classification.
By Professor W. J. Soutas, IA., FG.

The object of this paper is to remove certain prevailing misconceptions on the
aim and scope of Geology. The accepted definition of Geology as ‘the history of
the earth’s crust and the fossils it contains’ is shown to be both too wide and too
narrow ; too wide since it includes Paleontology, which so far as it is a study of
forms o f life belongs to Biology, and too narrow since the science of the whole
earth necessarily embraces much more than a study of its crust. Geology is one
of a group of three concrete sciences, which are Astronomy, Geology, and Biology.
The scope of Geology, as the science of the earth, is so wide that a fresh classifica-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 645

tion of its subject-matter is required. In Morphological Geology, Geography,
Petrology, Lithology, Mineralogy, correspond to Anatomy and Histology in
Biology, minerals, rocks, and rock masses constituting the earth’s crust as cells,
tissues, organs constitute living organisms; while Paleogeography is a study of
successive morphological states corresponding to Embryology or Development.

Physiological Geology considers the movements of the earth as a whole, and of
all activities produced upon it by extrinsic and intrinsic forces, acting singly or
in combination; it rightly includes Meteorology and Hydrology, as well as the
physiology of the earth’s crust. Distributional Geology seeks to determine the
distribution of the earth in time and space, and Adtiological Geology includes the
study of what is known as Cosmogony.

16. On the Exploration of a Fissure in the Mountain Limestone at Raygill.
By James W. Davis, I’.G.S., F.L.S.

About eight years ago attention was called, by R. H. Tiddeman, M.A.,, of
H.M. Geol. Survey, to a fissure in the limestone quarry at NRaygill, in Lothers-
dale, about five miles from Skipton. It originally opened to the surface, and
during repeated operations in quarrying was found to extend almost vertically into
the rock, trending slightly in a southerly direction. The mouth of the fissure was
closed up by a thickness of blue clay with limestone boulders several yards in
depth, which appears to have been similar to other masses of blue clay in the
immediate neighbourhood—the result of glacial action. Underlying this there
were successive deposits of yellow clay; a considerable thickness of finely laminated
clay, of a bluish colour, fine and unctuous to the touch ; and alternating layers of
sand and sandy clay, with numerous angular and subangular masses of limestone
and grit-rock.

Neither of the beds enumerated contained fossils, but still lower a brown sandy
clay was found, with numerous well-rounded, water-worn pebbles of limestone
and sandstone, apparently all derived from the rocks in the neighbourhood. Inter-
mixed with the clays and stones of this bed were numerous bones and teeth. The
sand and clays surrounding the bones were cemented firmly together, forming a
hard enveloping matrix, and as the bones when found are soft and friable, it is
with difficulty that they can be extracted except in fragments. In 1879, the
quarrying operations had exposed the latter stratum, and the presence of numerous
bones led the Council of the Yorkshire Geological Society to decide that a scientific
investigation of the fissure should be attempted, with the result that a special
fund was obtained, and with the ready permission and co-operation of Mr. Spencer,
the proprietor of the quarry, operations were carried on during the summer of
1880. ‘The course of the fissure was exposed to a further depth of nearly 50 feet,
in that distance extending 19 feet into the rock from the face of the quarry.
It was then found that the fissure extends nearly horizontally, in an easterly
direction, which can be followed for about 40 feet, whilst a second branch
extends in a southerly direction and appears to fall rapidly. The whole surface
of the fissure is abraded and smoothened as by running water, and the limestone
in its vicinity is extensively honeycombed. The excavation has resulted in the
discovery of numerous bones of Llephas, including fragments of a tusk 7 inches in
diameter, and many molar teeth. Teeth and tusks of Mippopotamus; teeth of
Rhinoceros leptorhinus, and two imperfect examples of the horn of a roebuck,
C. Capreolus. The teeth of hyena are numerous, and one or two examples of those
of the Lion have been found. A single molar toota of the bear has also been
found, and there are some smaller bones which have not. been identified.

The mouth of the fissure is near the summit of an anticlinal which brings the
limestone to the surface at Raygill. On either side are hills, composed principally
of shale, surmounted by gritstone, dipping ncrth and south ; towards the west also
the ground rises, and a fault brings down the gritstone into juxtaposition with the
limestone, so that on three sides the mouth of the fissure is surrounded by moor-
lands of gritstone. It appears probable that a stream ran from this surface of

646 REPORT—1881.

gritstone and emptied itself into the fissure, from which were deposited the sandy
and clayey matters which gradually filled it. The animals whose bones are found
in the fissure no doubt frequented the district through which the stream ran, and
their skeleton remains were washed into the fissure along with the rounded stones
and boulders found associated with them. It may perhaps be inferred, from the
fact that the fine blue clay is superimposed on all the other beds, that the organic
remains found in the fissure are preglacial or interglacial in age, because the dis-
trict drained by the stream is entirely composed of grit-rocks; and it is only by the
agency of glaciers that the limestone forming the blue clays could be conveyed to
so high elevations, prior to its re-deposition in the fissure.

17. On the Zoological position of the genus Petalorhynchus, Ag.,a Fossil
Fish from the Mountain Limestone. By James W. Davis, F.G.S.,
F.L.S.

The two species of Petalodus, viz. psitiacinus, Ag.,and sagittatus, Ag., are included.
in the new genus Petalorhynchus, as well as that of Chomatodus truncatus, Ag. The
characters and arrangement of the teeth, discovered since Professor Agassiz insti-
tuted these genera, show that they extended in circular rows of probably seven
teeth in each upper and lower jaw. In front of these are four or five vertical rows
of disused teeth, which appear to serve the purpose of strengthening and support-
ing the row in use. In many respects they are similar to the genus Janassa,
Munster, and with it appear to occupy an intermediate position between the
genus Myliobates and Cestraciontes, approaching nearer to the characters possessed
by the rays than the sharks,

18. On Diodontopsodus, Davis, a new genus of Vossil Fishes from the
Mountain Limestone, at Richmond, in Yorkshire. By James W. Davis,
F.G.S., F.L.S.

A number of teeth have been found in the Yorkshire Limestone, which were
ascribed by Professor Agassiz to the genus Petalorhynchus, They differ most
materially from that genus. In Diodontopsodus the teeth are extremely like the
single teeth of the existing fish, Diodon, in which the two rami of each jaw have
coalesced to form a single, bony, enamel-tipped inciso-palatal tooth, whilst in
Petalorhynchus the teeth are strong, with a long and thick base, the crown being
thin, sharp, and spatulate; the teeth of Diodontopsodus have no basal prolonga-
tion, are hollow, and appear to have been attached to a cartilaginous jaw.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report on the Harthquake Phenomena of Japan.—See Reports, p. 200.

2. A Contribution to Seismology.! By Joun Mitye, F.G.S., and Tuomas
Gray, B.Sc., F.B.S.L. ;

This paper is divided into twe parts. The first part treats for the most part of
mechanical contrivances designed by the authors for the purpose of earthquake
investigation. It was pointed out that many of the instruments formerly in use
for such purposes gave yery indefinite results, and hence were at the most only
entitled to the name seismoscopes.

1 The substance of this paper has been published under the title ‘ Earthquake
Observations and Experiments in Japan,’ in the Philosophical Magazine for Novem-
ber, 1881.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 647

Several very sensitive forms of seismoscopes were described, such as the
‘tremor indicator’ and ‘ circuit-closer seismoscope,’ full descriptions of which will
shortly appearin the ‘Transactions’ of the Seismological Society of Japan for 1881.

A large number of different contrivances for the purpose of measuring accurately
the amplitude, period, and direction of motion at any instant during an earthquake-
shock is referred to. For descriptions of such contrivances reference may be
made to the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for September 1881, and to the ‘ Transac-
tions’ of the Asiatic Society of Japan for 1880-81, in one or other of which
accounts of most of them will be found.

The second part of the paper treats of earthquake motion generally; the
different modes of determining theoretically and practically the rates of propaga-
tion of an earthquake wave; the effect of continued action on'the area affected ; the
different modes of determining the origin ; the effects of earthquakes on buildings
of different form and in different situations; the proper mode of determining
the intensity of an earthquake-shock ; the explanation of the rotation of bodies by
earthquakes, &c.

It is pointed out that earthquake-motion is generally of a very irregular
character, that it usually begins gradually, reaches a maximum somewhat suddenly,
and afterwards passes through several minima and maxima. The period of vibra-
tion of a great number of earthquakes observed by the authors, varied between
one-half and one-fifth of a second, while the total time of disturbance varied
from one-half to three minutes. Reasons are given for believing that earth-
quakes which last for a long time are propagated farther than those which last for
a short time, even when the intensity of the latter is the greater.

With regard to the determination of the origin of shock, the great value of
accurate time-observations is pointed out, and a sketch of several different modes
of making such observations is given.

The effect of an earthquake on a building appears to depend mostly on the
nature of its foundation (tne best probably being a somewhat broad concrete foun-
dation resting on a soft bottom) ; the agreement or non-agreement of the vibrational
ate of the different parts; and the situation of the building, it being unsafe to

uild near the edge of a plateau, or near the junction of a plain with a steep hill
or cliff.

It is pointed out that in estimating the intensity of an earthquake-shock the
maximum velocity of a particle on the earth’s surface during the shock should be
taken, and that the intensity is best measured in terms of the square of this
velocity. In other words the intensity is proportional to amplitude of movement,
and inversely proportional to square of period.. The usual explanation of the
rotation of bodies during a shock, namely, that of vortex movement, is referred
to, and it is pointed out that this is not likely to produce the rotation in question ;
but, on the other hand, that if a direct backward and forward movement be given in
proper direction a rotation will take place. For simplicity, the body may be
supposed to have a rectangular base. If the direction of the shock is at right
angles to one of the sides or along one of the diagonals, no rotation will take place;
but if it be inclined to either of these directions, it may be resolved into two com-
ponents, one of which tilts the body up in one corner while the other rotates it
round that corner asa pivot. The application of this to the determination of
direction is referred to.

3. Final Report on the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks, showing
especially the Geological Aspects of the Investigation—See Reports,
p. 126.

4, On an International Scale of Colours for Geological Maps. By
W. Torrey, Geological Survey of England and Wales.

The author described the objects of the International Geological Congress,
appointed to meet at Bologna in September 1$81. ‘Three main subjects to be dis-

618 RE-orT—1881.

cussed were :—a. Colours and signs for Geological Maps; 6. Nomenclature of rocks
and formations; c. Nomenclature of species. This paper was concerned only with
the first of these questions, and especially with the resolutions passed by the
English Map-Committee, of which Prof. Ramsay is President, and the author
Secretary.

At present, all countries, and many map-makers in each country, have different
systems of colouring maps, and it is necessary carefully to study the Index, or scale
of colours used, before the maps can be at all understood. The Congress proposes
to frame a scheme of colouring which can be used, and readily understood, by all
nations. It may not be possible, at least for some time to come, to apply this
scheme to national surveys in progress; but it is to be hoped that the scheme
to be adopted will be used in new maps. One important point which the Congress
proposes is the preparation and publication of a general map or atlas of Europe,
compiled (under the authority of the Congress) from various national surveys, and
the work of independent observers.

The scheme of colouring proposed by the English Committee is one based on
the order of colours in the solar spectrum, violet denoting the o'der recks.
Bright reds are reserved for igneous rocks, Metamorphic rocks will be shown by
dark bands of colour over the colour denoting the age; to these will be added
bands of colour showing the period at which metamorphism has taken place,
when such fact is clearly established ; thus, Silurian rocks metamorphosed in
Cretaceous times would be shown by violet, striped with alternate lines of dark
violet and green. The sub-divisions of a formation will be shown by shades
of the body colour, the darkest shade denoting the oldest sub-division. The
letter denoting the formation will be the capital initial letter of the name of the
- formation. With very small accommodations one system of lettering can be made
to apply to all countries,

It has been found impossible to adhere strictly to the order of colours of the
spectrum, and an interpolation has been made of browns and greys for the series
of beds between the Silurian and the Lias.

Examples of maps and tables of strata were exhibited, coloured according to
the plan adopted. Also a series of indexes of colours issued at various dates by
the Geological Survey, commencing with one, in MS., by Sir H. De la Beche,
the founder and first Director-General of the Survey; this was made in 1832. The
author also drew attention to a proposal, made by Mr. J. W. Salter, before this
Association in 1847,' and again in a map exhibited at the International Exhibition
in London, in 1862, to colour Geological maps in the order of colours of the solar
spectrum. The plan recommended by the English committee differs considerably
in detail from that of Mr. Salter.

5. On the Glacial Geology of Central Wales. By Watter Kuepina, I.A.,
F.G.S., Keeper of the York Museum.

Cardiganshire and the neighbouring counties of Central Wales form a moun-
tainous tract of country, consisting of rounded, grass-covered hills, often with
flattened peaty summits. Geologically, the district consists of monotonous repe-
titions of grit, and greywacke, shales and slates.

The most important physical features are the two great planes of marine
denudation which limit the tops of the hills at heights of 500 ft. sloping up to
700 ft., and 1,100 to 1,500 ft. respectively. The drift-deposits range over both these
hill-groups, stretching up to within 100 ft. of the highest points.

All the drifts in the central part of the district are of local origin, the materials
being derived from within the limits of the present drainage-areas. Glaciated
rock-surfaces are left in perfect preservation, excellent examples being seen in the
roches moutonnées of the Llyfnant valley, and many other places. The stony clay
or Till consists generally of a matrix of amorphous, stiff blue clay, crowded with
small angular grains and shaly fragments, This paste is thickly studded with

1 Report of the British Association for 1847. Sections, 69.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 649

rocks of all sizes, from mere fragments to large masses several tons in weight.
Most of these stones are subangular, and well striated; a few are rounded, and
others are unworn and angular. In the cliffs four miles south of Aberystwith, this
formation occupies an old river-bed in a former valley, whose western hill-boun-
dary has been destroyed by marine denudation ; also the rock here has been eaten
away by streamlet and pluvial denudation into fantastic gorges and columns, some
of the latter being true earth-pillars, like those of Botzen in the Tyrol. Moraines
are of common occurrence, but they consist of more clayey material than usual,
which results from the argillacecus character of the surrounding rocks. In some
cases they occur at the foot of lakes.

Erratic blocks are abundant, occurring at heights above 1,000 ft. They are
often found along the sides of valleys, where they appear to have been stranded
after being launched off from the sides of the subsiding glaciers. All are
local rocks, and it is only in the extreme north and south that boulders from
beyond the present drainage-areas occur. In the Llyfnant valley, S.W. of Ma-
chynlleth, huge boulders of felsite from the Cader Idris and Aran range of moun-
tains are found, they haying been carried over the pass by the North Wales ice,
which overflowed beyond the Dyfi valley. In the south the Teifi valley at Cardigan
was invaded by a large glacier, whose birthplace was in the mountains of Caer-
marthenshire. Lakes and lakelets are abundant, especially on the higher plateaux.
They are all rock-basins, mostly shallow, and of irregular outline. One of them
(Llyn Llygad Rheidol) was apparently ice-formed ; the rest cannot be. These evi-
dences show that Central Wales was covered with snow and ice during the Glacial
period; but all the glaciers of which we have any traces were of strictly local
character, each confined to its own drainage-area in the present valley system.
There is no evidence of any great mer de glace, or of any marine submergence in

recent geological times.

6. On some points in the Morphology of the Rhabdophora.
By Joun Hopkinson, #.L.8., #.G.S.

Professor McCoy (‘ Brit. Pal. Foss.’ 1854) speaks of transverse diaphragms at
the base of the calycles (hydrothece) of certain graptolites, dividing the calycles
from the common canal or perisare. No further allusion appears to have been
made to the presence of any diaphragms or septa until, in 1868, the author
mentioned (‘ Journ. Quek. Micr. Club,’ vol. i.) having observed ‘an impressed line
between the hydrothecz and the periderm’ (perisarc), which was compared with
that ‘at the base of the hydrothece in the Sertulariade.’

More recently Professor Allman (‘Mon. Tubularian Hydroids, 1872), not
admitting the presence of any septum or constriction, has compared the calycles of
the Rhabdophora to the nematophores of the Plumularide.

A few days ago the author examined an extensive collection of graptolites made
by Mr. W. Kinsey Dover, of Keswick, from the Skiddaw Slates, amongst which
are a few specimens showing internal structure, most clearly defined in Dedymo-
graptus nitidus and patulus, and Tetragraptus serra. In several specimens of these
species (exhibited) the thecz are seen to be separated from the perisarc by a dis-

~ _tinctly-marked septum which seems usually to form a right angle with the thece.

he perisarc is, moreover, in specimens of all the three species, seen to be
jointed, or crossed by transverse septa, there being one septum to each theca.
The appearance is therefore that of a common perisare divided into chambers, from
each ot which a single isolated hydrotheca is produced.

These appearances are not confined to the graptolites of the Skiddaw Slates,
having been noticed by the author in well-preserved specimens from the Ludlow
rocks, and it is believed to be owing to the imperfect state of preservation in which
graptolites usually occur that they are not more frequently seen. ‘The true inter-
pretation of the appearances presented is believed to be that the septa which seem
to completely cut off the thecze from the perisarc, and the sections of the perisare
from each other, only partially do so, as in the recent Thecaphora; and the author
concluded that these specimens show that the calycles of the graptolites are true

650 REPORT—1881.

hydrothecz, and do not in any way invalidate the conclusion arrived at from pre-=
vious investigations into the morphology of the Rhabdophora, that they are the
Palzeozoic representatives of the recent Hydroida.

7. On some Ores and Minerals from Laurium, Greece.
By H. Stoves, £.G.8.

The metals of Greece are numerous and pay to work, The quantity of gold is
small, but at Doliana a bed of pyrites yields from 14 to 18 dwts. per ton. Most
abundant metals are lead and zinc, with a large quantity of silver mixed, and some
copper. Several mining companies now working successfully ; at present chiefly
washing and re-smelting the scoris left by ancient miners. Formerly mining in
Attica was very largely carried on over 50,000 acres of ground worked, and upwards
of 2,000 galleries and shafts still remain, scme as perfect as if left but yesterday.
The shafts vary from 20 to 140 yards deep. Excavations commence from narrow
galleries to wide chambers, 30 feet high and of great length. Vast numbers must
have been worked, as of the scoriz left over 2,000,000 tons are officially reported
to exist, and many vast heaps were not measured. Taking the quantity stated, and
allowing nothing for other loss, upwards of 2,000,000 tons of lead, and 8,250 tons
of silver, are thus known to have been extracted, chiefly by Athenians. Existing
ores contain 659% of lead. The scorie still retain 109% and pay to work. Silver
is invariably mixed. The argentiferous lead occurs in veins and pockets in granite,
mica-schists, trachyte, limestones, &c. (sometimes in great masses). Zinc occurs
chiefly in veins in limestone rocks, close-grained marble, sometimes in pockets,
frequently mixed with other metals. Although copper and nickel are present in
paying quantities, at present they are not worked. Attica is a great field for
mining industry, and Greece will in a few years add largely to her wealth from
her minerals. In addition to those mentioned, coal (lignite), marble, sulphur,
emery, arsenic, manganese, iron, barytes, and many other minerals of excellent
quality and in great abundance, are already being worked.

8. Notes on the Cheshire Salt-field. By C. HE. Dr Rancr, F.G.S.,
Assoc. Inst. C.H.

Theauthor regards the brine of this area as underground water, travelling through
porous rock, which, coming in contact with rock-salt, becomes brine, which yises at
pressure in natural springs, occurring along joints and other lines of weakness, and
at the points where the ‘inverted syphon’ has been reached by shafts, in which
the brine rises in the manner that water rises in artesian wells. The total
quantity of brine produced, whether wholly issuing as springs or partially inter-
cepted by artificial works, is limited by the area of percolation, alone occurring
along the line of the original outcrop of the rock-salt. The effect of rainfall,
though not immediately raising the level to which the brine will rise, is in-
variably felt.

9. Onsome sections in the Lower Paleozoic Rocks of the Craven District.
By J. EH. Marr, B.A., F.G.S.

The sections are described by Professor Hughes (‘G. M.’ vol. iv.), but the age
of the beds is not definitely determined. The beds are as follows :—

Austwick Beck, conglomerate resting unconformably on Bala beds, interstratified
with black shale, passing up into deposit of similar shales. These black shales,
surmounted by flagzy bed three to four inches thick, with Phacops elegans, Boeck
& Sars. Above this are pale green shales, and then, flags with Monograptus
priodon and M. vomerinus. Similar section at Crumwark Beck Head.

In Lake district, bed, with Phacops elegans, lies between graptolitic mudstones
and pale shales, and lithological characters of beds precisely similar to those of beds
near Austwick. Phacops elegans, hitherto unrecorded in England, is characteristic
of May Hill species, and thus forms useful fossil for determining horizon.

PRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BoTaNy. 651

Secrron D.—BIOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—RICHARD OWEN, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.8. \

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER l.

The PrustpEnt delivered the following Address :—

Tue recent construction of the edifice of the ‘ British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell Road,’ 1 and the transference thereto of three of the Departments, the
systematic arrangement of which in their respective galleries approaches closely to
completion, have ieft me little leisure in the present year for other scientific work.
The expression, moreover, in divers forms and degrees, of the satisfaction and
instruction such partial exhibition of the national treasures of natural history has
afforded to ell classes of visitors since the galleries were open to the public, in
April last, encourages me to believe that a few words on this great additional
instrument in advancing Biological Science may not be unacceptable to the Section
of the British Association which I have now the honour to address.

It is true that when we last met at Swansea, my accomplished colleague, Dr.
Albert Giinther, F.R.S., selected a general description of the building as the
subject of his address to Section D.

I was unwilling then, in consideration of the time of the Section already given
to the matter, to respond to appeals of some of our fellow-members for information
as to how, and through whom, the new Museum came to be, and to be where it is;
but now, honoured by my present position, I venture to hope that a brief outline
of its genetic history, which I have been preparing for publication in a fuller form,
may be condoned.

In the actual phase of Biology, its cultivators, especially the younger genera-
tion, do not rest upon the determination and description, however minute and’
exhaustive, of the acquisitions so rapidly accumulating of objects or species ‘new
to science,’ but devote themselves also, and more especially, to the investigation of
their developmental phenomena.

It has therefore seemed to me that it would not be inappropriate, as being
germane to the present phase of research, to submit to the Section a few words on
the genesis of this new national edifice, generously provided by the State for the
promotion of our sciences of natural history.

On the demise, in 1856, of Sir Henry Ellis, K.T., then Principal Librarian of
the British Museum, the Government, made aware of the growth of the depart-
ments of natural history, more especially of geology and paleontology, since the
foundation of the Museum in 1753, when the collections of printed books and
manuscripts predominated, determined that, together with a principal librarian,
there should be associated a new official having special charge of the collections of
natural history, but under similar subordinate relations to the Trustees. To this
official was assigned the title of ‘Superintendent of the Departments of Natural
History,’ and I had the honour to be selected for this office.*

1 The official designation assigned by the Trustees to the building andits contents,
2 The date of my appointment is May 26, 1856,

652 rnerornt—1881.

Almost my first work was to ascertain the extent of my charges, and I confess
that I was uuprepared to find that the galleries assigned for the. arrangement and
public exhibition of the several natural history series in the British Museum were
so inadequate to these ends as to necessitate the storage of many unexhibited, and
in great proportion rare and valuable specimens. This condition affected principally
the collection of fossil remains, but in not much less degree that of the recent
natural history.

One of my colleagues, Mr. Charles Konig, then Keeper of the Department of
Mineralogy, and most eminent in that science, applied the gallery assigned thereto
principally to the rare and beautiful specimens of his favourite subject. When the
newer science of paleontology entered upon its rapid growth, and, on the demise
of Mr. Konig, led to the formation of a distinct Department of Geology, the pro-
portion of the British Museum set apart for natural history would not afford for the
exhibition of the fossils and rock specimens more or other space than might be
gained from or intercalated among the mineral cabinets in one and the same gallery,
viz. that which had been originally assigned to Mr. Kénig.

The store-vaults in the basement of the Museum became accordingly invaded
by the rapidly-accumulating unexhibited geological specimens, as those receptacles
had been, and continued to be, needed for the storage of such specimens, and
especially the osteological ones, of the Department of Zoology.

In 1854, Dr. John Ed. Gray, Keeper of the Zoology, reported on the unfitness of
the locality of his stored specimens, and prayed for additional accommodation for
them. But, on the report of the architect, to whom such appeal was referred, the
Trustees ‘declined to adopt Dr. Gray’s suggestion,’ and recommended ‘that steps
should be taken to obviate the deterioration of the s specimens complained of by Dr.
Gray in consequence of the damp condition of the vaults in which they are con-
tained.’? ‘l’o renewed appeals by the experienced Keeper, and agreeably with his
ideas on the nature and see of the required additional space for the Zoology, the
Trustees recommended :—‘ An additional gallery to the Eastern Zoological Gallery,
and the substitution of skylights for the side Ww indows,’ with a view to an additional
gallery at an elevation above the floor of the one in use ; they also resolved :—
‘That accommodation be provided for the officers of the Natural History Depart-
ments on the roof of the Print-room,’ ®

But the inadequacy for exhibition-purposes of additional space which might be
gained by the new gallery, or by the accessory wall-gallery attainable by stairs in
the one in use,* was so impressed on my convictions, that T determined, in 1857, to
submit to the Trustees a statement embodying estimates of space required ‘for
exhibition of all and several the Departments of natural history, with the grounds
of such estimates, including considerations based upon the ratio of increase during
the ten years preceding my appointment, and the conditions likely to affect the
proportions of future annual additions.

This purpose, which I deemed a duty, I endeavoured to effect in a ‘ Report,
with a Plan,’ submitted on February 10, 1859, which Report, being forwarded by
the Trustees to the ety) and being deemed worthy of consideration by Par-
liament, was ‘ Ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, March 11, 1859,’
and can still be obtained at the Office of Parliamentary Papers.®

The Report included, as I have stated, estimates of space for the then acquired
specimens of the several departments of natural history, together with space for
the reception of the additional specimens which might accrue in the course of a

1 See Parliamentary Paper or Blue Book, folio 1858, entitled :—‘ Copies of all
Communications made by the Officers and Architect of the British Museum to the
Trustees, respecting the want of space for exhibiting the Collections in that Insti-
tution,’ p. 4.

* Thid. p. 5. 8 Ibid. pp. 25, 28.

4 In his report of December 29, 1856, Dr. Gray states:—‘Scarcely half of the
zoological collections is exhibited to the public, and their due display would require
more than twice the space devoted to thera.’—Ibid. p. 21. To any removal of the
natural history to another site Dr. Gray was strongly opposed.

5 Parliamentary Papers, ‘ Report with Plan,’ &c. (126, i.), fol. 1859.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 653

generation, or thirty years. It further recommended that such museum-building,
besides giving the requisite accommodation to the several classes of natural history
objects, as they had been by authority exhibited and arranged for public instruction
and gratification, should also include a hall, or exhibition-space for a distinct
department, adapted to convey an elementary knowledge of the subjects of all the
divisions of natural history to the large proportion of public visitors not specially
conversant with any of those subjects.

I may crave permission to quote from that part of my Report which has
received the sanction of the ‘Commission on the Advancement of Science’ of 1874:
‘One of the most popular and instructive features in a public collection of natural
history would be an apartment devoted to the specimens selected to show type-
characters of the principal groups of organised and crystallised forms. This would
constitute an epitome of natural history, and should convey to the eye in the easiest
way, an elementary knowledge of the sciences.’ !

An estimate of the space required for such apartment is given, and it has been
obtained in the new Museum of Natural History.

I ventured also on another topic in connection with the more immediate object
of my Report. Previous experience at the museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons had impressed me with the influence on improved applications of col-
lections and on the ratio of their growth, through Lectures expository of their
nature. I felt confident that, with concurrence of authorities, both relations would
be exemplified under the actual superintendence at the British Museum. More-
over, such museum of natural history has wider influences over possessors and
collectors of rarities and of desiderated specimens than one of restricted kind, as
in Lincoln’s Inn Fields. I concludec_my Report, therefore, by referring to the
lecture theatre shown in my plan, and expressed my belief that ‘ Administrators
will consider it due to the public that the gentlemen in charge of the several
departments of the National Collection of Natural History should have assigned to
them the duty of explaining the principles and economical relations of such depart-
ments, in elementary and free lectures, as, eg. on Ethnology, Mammalogy, Orni-
thology, Herpetology and Ichthyology, Malacology and Conchology, Entomology,
Zoophytology, Botany, Geology, Paleontology, Mineralogy.’

After the lapse of twenty years I have lived to see the fulfilment of all the recom-
mendations, save the final one, of my Report of 1859. The lecture-theatre was
erased from my plan, and the elementary courses of lectures remain for future fulfil-
ment.

Considering that, in the probable communication of this Report to Parliament,
I was addressing the representatives of the greatest commercial and colonising
nation in the globe, representatives of an empire exercising the widest range of
navigation and supreme in naval power, such nation and empire might well be ex-
pected by the rest of the civilised world to offer to students and lovers of natural
history the best and noblest museum of the illustrations of that great division of
general science.

But for such a museum, a site or superficial space of not less than eight acres
was asked for, the proportion of such space to be occupied by the proposed build-
ing to be limited and dependent upon architectural arrangement in one, two, or
more storeys. But the effect of restricting the site or available superficial space to
that, eg. on which the Museum at Bloomsbury now stands, was significantly
demonstrative of difficulties to come, and concomitantly indicative of the adminis-
trative wisdom which would be manifested by securing, in a rapidly growing
metropolis, adequate space for future additions to the building which might be in
the first place erected thereupon.

Nevertheless one or two of my intimate and confidential friends dissuaded me
from sending in a Report which might be construed or misinterpreted as exemplify-
ing a character prone to inconsiderate and extravagant views, and such as might
even lead to disagreeable personal consequences. Moreover the extent of space
reported for seemed inevitably to involve change of locality. ‘Two of my colleagues
occupied the elegant and commodious residences attached to the British Museum ;

» Report, wt supra, p. 22. ;

654 REPORT—1881.

and it was possible that provision for such residences marked in the plan which
accompanied my report might not be adopted. Moreover no statement of grounds
for adequate space-requirements for the whole of the National Natural History had

reviously been submitted to authority. The legislative mind had not been pre-
pared for calm and due consideration of the subject. Still I flattered myself that,
by whomsoever the details and aims and grounds of my report were known and
comprehended, any strong opposition on the part of Parliament could hardly be
expected. Nevertheless, an Irish member, seeing a way to a position in ‘ The House,’
which is gained by the grant of a Committee of Inquiry, of which the mover be-
comes chairman, made my Report and Plan the ground of a motion to that effect,
which was carried. The Select Committee, after taking the evidence published in
the Blue Book (ordered to be printed August 10, 1860, quarto, pp. 258, with ten
plans), reported against the removal of the Natural History Collections from the
British Museum. As to the chief reasons alleged for such removal the Report
states that with one ‘eminent exception the whole of the scientific naturalists
examined before your Committee, including the Keepers of all the Departments of
Natural History in the British Museum, are of opinion that an exhibition on so
large a scale tends alike to the needless bewilderment and fatigue of the public,
and the impediment of the studies of the scientific visitor . . . . Your Committee,
therefore, recommend the adoption of the more limited kind of exhibition advocated
by the other witnesses, in preference to the more extended method recommended
by Professor Owen.’

Lest, however, the House might attach undue weight to the exceptional testi-
mony, the chairman of the Committee deemed it his duty, in bringing up the
Report, to warn the House of the character of such testimony, and his speech
left, as I was told, a very unfavourable impression as regards myself. I was chiefly
concerned to know what might be put upon record in ‘ Hansard.’ In that valuable
work Hon. Members revise their reported utterances before the sheets go to press.
I was somewhat relieved to find Mr. Gregory regretting that ‘a man whose name
stood so high should connect himself with so foolish, crazy, and extravagant a
scheme, and should persevere in it after the folly had been pointed out by most
unexceptionable witnesses.

‘They had on one side, and standing alone, Professor Owen and his ten-acre
scheme, and on the other side all the other scientific gentlemen, who were per-
fectly unanimous in condemning the plan of Professor Owen as being utterly useless
and bewildering.

‘Among these gentlemen were Professor Huxley, Professor Maskelyne, Mr.
Waterhouse, Dr. Gray, Sir Roderick Murchison, Mr. Thomas Bell, P.G.S., Dr.
Sclater, Sec. Z.S., Mr. Gould, and Sir Benjamin Brodie. ‘To give the House some
idea of that gigantic plan, he might mention that a part of it consisted of galleries
850 feet in leneth for the exhibition of whales. The scientific men examined on
the subject, one and all, disapproved of that plan zm toto; and they advocated
what was technically called a ‘“‘ typical mode of exhibition.”’!

In point of fact that Supplementary Pxhibition Room which was planned and
recommended for the purpose I have already cited, was urged as the sole reasonably
required National Museum of Natural History, for which the nation ought to be
ealled upon to provide space and funds, a conclusion subsequently adopted and
unanimously recommended by the Royal Commission on Science.”

Although grief was natural and considerable at this result, not without mor-
tification at the reception by Parliament of the Report and Plan submitted thereto,
I now feel grateful that the sole responsibility of their author is attested in the
pages of a Work °® which will last as long as, and may possibly outlast, the great
legislative organisation whose debates and determinations are therein authorita-
tively recorded.

I was not, however, cast down, nor did I lose either heart or hope; I was
confident in the validity of the grounds of my appeal, and foresaw in the inevitable

' Hansard. ‘Debate of July 22, 1861,’ pp. 1861, 1918.
2 Fourth Report, p. 4. 3 Hansard, ut supra.

\

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 655

accumulations year by year, the evidence which would attest its soundness and
make plain the emergency of the proposed remedy.

Moreover, there was one who, though not a naturalist, had devoted more time,
pains, and thought to the subject than had been bestowed by any of those—
whether naturalist or administrator—who testified adversely thereon. The Right
Hon. William Ewart Gladstone, an elected trustee of the British Museum, took
nothing on trust; he explored with me, in 1861, every vault and dark recess in
the Museum which had been, or could be, allotted to the non-exhibited specimens
of the natural history, those, viz., which it was my aim to utilize and bring to light.
He gave the same attention to the series selected for exhibition in the public
galleries, and appreciated the inadequacy of the arrangements to that end. He
listened to my statements of facts, to the grounds of provision of annual ratios of
increase, to the reasons for providing space therefor, to my views of the aims of
such exhibitions, and to the proposed extended applications and elucidations of
the collections, Mr. Gladstone tested every averment, and elicited the grounds
of every suggestion, with a tact and insight that contrasted strongly with the
questionings in Mr. Gregory’s committee-room, where too often vague interroga-
tions met with answers to match.

Conformably with Mr. Gladstone’s convictions, he as Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer moved, May 12, 1862, for ‘Leave to bring in a Bill for removal of por-
tions of the Trustees’ Collections in the British Museum.’

On May 19, when the bill was to be read a second time, a new, unexpected, and
formidable antagonist arose. Mr. Disraeli early got the attention of the House to
a speech, warning hon. members of the ‘progressive increase of expenditure on
civil estimates,’ and laying stress on the fact that the ‘estimates of the actual year
showed no surplus.’ The influence of this advocacy of economy is exemplified in
the debate which ensued.” or repetitions of the nature and terms of objections
to the Report and Plan, as already denounced by Mr. Gregory, Mr. Bernal Osborne,
and others, reference may be made to the volume of ‘Hansard’ cited below. An
estimable hon. member, whose words had always and deservedly carried weight
with the country party, lent his influence to the same result. Mr. Henley, repre-
sentative of Oxfordshire, said :—‘ All the House knew was that a building was to
be put up somewhere. He considered this a bad way of doing business, particularly
at a time when nobody could be sanguine that the finances of the country were in
a flourishing state. Let the stone once be set rolling, and then all gentlemen of
science and taste would have a kick at it, and it would be knocked from one
to the other, and none of them probably would ever live to see an end of the
expense.’ §

Permit me to give one more example of the baneful influence of the opening
speech on our great instrument of scientific progress. Mr. Henry Seymour,
Member for Poole, said:—‘If a foreigner had been listening to the debates of
that evening it must have struck him that it was, to say the least, a rather curious
coincidence that a proposal to vote 600,000/. for a new collection of birds, beasts,
and fishes at South Kensington should have been brought forward on the very
evening when the Leader of the Opposition had made a speech denouncing that
exorbitant expenditure—a speech, he might add, which was re-echoed by many
Liberal members of the House.’ *

It was however not a ‘curious,’ but a ‘designed coincidence.’ Mr. Disraeli,
knowing the temper of the House on the subject, and that the estimates for the
required Museum of Natural History were to be submitted by Mr. Gladstone, chose
the opportunity to initiate the business by an advocacy of economy which left its
intended effect upon the House. In vain Lord Palmerston, in reply to the. Irish
denunciators, proposed as a compromise to ‘exclude whales altogether from
‘disporting themselves in Kensington Gardens,’* The Government was defeated
‘vy a majority of ninety-two, and the erection of a National or British Museum of

atural History was postponed, to all appearance indefinitely, and in reality for
a years,

) | 1 Hansard, 1862, p. 1927. ? Ibid, 3 Ibid. p. 1982.

4 Ibid. p. 1918, * Tid. p. 1931.

656 report——1881.

Nevertheless, neither averments nor arguments in the House on May 19, 1862,
nor testimonies in the hostile Committee of 1860, 1861, had shaken my faith in
the grounds on which my Report and Plan of 1859 had been based. The facts
bearing thereupon, which it was my duty to submit in my ‘ Annual Reports on the
Natural History Departments of the British Museum,’ would, I still hoped, have
some influence with hon. members of the legislature to whom those Reports are
transmitted.

The annual additions of specimens continued to increase in number and in
value year by year. I embraced every opportunity to excite the interest of lovers
of natural history travelling abroad, and of intelligent settlers in our several
colonies, to this end, among the results of which I may cite the reception of the
Aye-Aye, the Gorilla, the Dodo, the Notornis, the maximised and elephant-footed
species of Dinornis, the representatives of the various orders and genera of extinct
Reptilia from the Cape of Good Hope, and the equally rich and numerous evidences
of the extinct Marsupialia from Australia, besides such smaller rarities as the
animals of the Nautilus and Spirula.

Wherever room could be found in the exhibition galleries at Bloomsbury for
these specimens, stuffed or as articulated skeletons, or as detached fossils, they
were squeezed in, so to speak, to mutely manifest to all visitors, more especially
administrative ones, the state of cram to which we were driven at Bloomsbury.

Another element of my ‘Annual Reports’ was the deteriorating influence on
valuable specimens of the storage vaults, and the danger of such accumulations to
the entire Museum and its priceless contents. And here perhaps you may deem
some explanation needful of the grounds of the latter consideration addressed to
economical granters of the National funds,

The number of specimens preserved in spirits of wine amounted to thousands ;
any accidental breakage, with conflagration, in the subterraneous localities con-
ticuous with the heating-apparatus of the eutire British Museum, would have
heen as destructive to the building as the gunpowder was meant to be when stored
in the vaults beneath King James’s Houses of Parliament.

At this crisis the ‘ Leading Journal, after the stormy debate of May 19, 1862,
made the following appeal to me:—‘ Let Mr. Owen describe exactly the kind of
building that will answer his purpose, that will give space for his whales and light
for his humming-birds and butterflies. The House of Commons will hardly, for
very shame, give a well-digested scheme so rude a reception as it did on Monday
night.’ +

r My answer to this appeal was little more than some amplification, with
additional examples, of the several topics embodied in the original Report. The
pamphlet ‘On the Extent and Aims of a National Museum of Natural History,’
with reduced copies of the plans, went through two editions, and no doubt had
the effect anticipated by the able Editor.

Another element of reviving hope was the acceptance by Mr. Gregory of the
government of a tropical island.

The sagacious Prime Minister accurately gauged the modified feeling—the
subsiding animosity—of Parliament on the subject, and submitted (June 15, 1863)
a motion ‘for leave to purchase five acres for the required Natural History
building” The choice of locality he left to honourable members. Lord Palmerston
pointed out that the requisite extent of site could be obtained at Bloomsbury for
50,0002. per acre, and that it could be got at South Kensington for 10,000/. per
acre; and his lordship distinctly stated that the space, in either locality, would be
bought for the purpose of a Museum of Natural History. The purchase of the
land at South Kensington was accordingly voted by 267 against 155, and thus the
Government proposition was carried by a majority of 132. By this vote the
decision of Mr. Gregory’s Committee was virtually annulled.

In a conversation with which I was favoured by Lord Palmerston, I interpose’
a warning against restriction of space, and eventually eight acres of ground we
obtained, including the site of the Exhibition Building of 1862, opposite Cromw

1 The Times, May 21, in a leader on the Museum Debate.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 657

Gardens, and that extent of space is now secured for actual and prospective re-
quirements of our National Museum of Natural History.

I am loth to trespass further on the time of the Section, but a few words may
be expected from me of the leading steps to the acquisition of the present edifice,
occupying a portion—about one-third—of that extent of ground.

Mr, Gladstone, adhering to the convictions which led him to submit his
financial proposition of May, 1862, honoured me, at the close of that session of
Parliament, with an invitation to Hawarden to discuss my plans for the Museum
Building; and, after consideration of every detail, he requested that they might
be left with him. He placed them, with my written expositions of details, in the
hands of Sir Henry A. Hunt, C.B., responsible adviser on buildings, &c., at the
Office of Works, with instructions that they should be put into working form, so
as to support reliable estimates of cost. I was favoured with interviews with Sir
Henry, resulting in the completion of such working plans of a museum, including
~ a central hall, an architectural front of two storeys, and the series of single-
storeyed galleries extending at right angles to the front, as shown in my original
Plan. I was assured that such plan of building, affording the space I had reported
on, would be the basis to be submitted to the professional architect whenever the
time might arrive for Parliamentary sanction to the cost of such building.

Here I may remark that experiments which preceded the substitution, in
1835, of the actual Museum of the Hunterian Physiology at the Royal College of
Surgeons, for the costly, cumbrous, and ill-lit building, with its three-domed sky-
lights, which preceded it, had led to the conclusion that the light best fitted for a
museum was that in which most wouid be reflected from the objects and least
directly strike upon the eye; and this was found to be effected by admittance of
the light at the angle between the wall and roof. But this plan of illumination
is possible only in galleries of one storey, or the topmost in a many-storeyed
edifice. Such system of illumination may be seen in every gallery of the museum
described to you last year at Swansea, save those of the storeys of the main body
below the skylit one, which necessitate side windows,

I subjoin a copy of the letter from Sir Henry A. Hunt, conveying his con-
clusions respecting the plan of building discussed with him :—

‘4 Parliament Street: September 25, 1862.

‘My dear Sir,—I return you the drawings of the proposed Museum of Natural
History at South Kensington. In May last I told Mr. Gladstone that the probable
cost of covering five acres with suitable buildings would be about 500,000/. or
100,000/. per acre.

‘The plan proposed by you will occupy about four acres, and will cost about
350,000/., or nearly 90,0007. per acre.

‘Having prepared sketches showing the scheme suggested by you, I have been
able to arrive more nearly at the probable cost than I had the means of doing in
May last. But, after all, the difference is not great; although the present estimate
is a more reliable one than the other. It is right, however, to state that the
disposition of the building as proposed by you will give a greater amount of
accommodation, and admit of a cheaper mode of construction, than I had calculated
upon in May (relatively with the space intended to be covered), and therefore I
think your plan far better adapted for the Museum than the plan I took the
liberty to suggest to Mr. Gladstone.

‘Believe me, &c.,
(Signed) ‘Henry A. Hon.’

Sir H. A. Hunt had previously formed an estimate of cost for the Chancellor of
the Exchequer on inspection of the Report and Plan in the Parliamentary paper of
March 1859. The letter to which I reter I regard as an antidote to some previous
quotations from adverse members of Parliament.

The working plans of Sir Henry A. Hunt were subsequently submitted for com-
petition, and the designs of the accomplished and lamented Capt. Fowke, R.E.,
obtained the award in 1864, His untimely death arrested further progresz or
practical application of the prize designs.

1881. UU

658 REPORT—1881.

In 1867, Lord Elcho pressed upon the House of Commons, through the Hunger-
ford Bridge Committee, the Thames Embankment as a site for the New Museum
of Natural History, but unsuccessfully. The debates thereon, nevertheless, caused
some further delay.

In 1871, a vote of 40,0002. for beginning the Museum Buildings at South
Kensington was carried without discussion. In 1872, a vote of 29,000/ for the
same building was opposed by Lord Elcho, but was carried by a majority of 40 (85
against 45).

P On Bi ibekle of Capt. Fowke, Mr. Alfred Waterhouse was selected as archi-
tect. He accepted the general plans which had been sanctioned and approved by
Sir H. A. Hunt and by Capt. Fowke, and I took the liberty to suggest, as I had
previously done to Capt. Fowke, that many objects of natural history might afford
subjects for architectural ornament ; and at Mr. Waterhouse’s request I transmitted
numerous figures of such as seemed suitable for that purpose. I shall presently
refer to the beautiful and appropriate style of architecture which Mr. Waterhouse
selected for this building, but am tempted to premise a brief sketch of what I
may call the ‘Genealogy of the British Museum,’ or what some of my fellow-
labourers, agreeably with the actual phase of our science, may prefer to call
‘ Phylogeny.’

Sir Hans Sloane, M.D., after a lucrative practice of his profession in the then
flourishing colony of Jamaica, finally settled at Chelsea, and there accumulated a
notable museum of natural history, antiquities, medals, cameos, &c., besides a
library of 50,000 volumes, including about 350 portfolios of drawings, 3,500 manu-
scripts, and a multitude of prints. These specimens were specified in a MS.
catalogue of thirty-eight volumes in folio, and eight volumes in quarto. Sir Hans
valued this collection at the sum of 80,000/., but at his death, in 1753, it was
found that he had directed in his ‘will’ that the whole should be offered to
Parliament for the use of the public on payment of a minor sum, in compensation
to his heirs. This offer being submitted to the House of Commons, it was agreed
to pay 20,0007. for the whole. At the same time the purchase of the Cottonian
Library and of the Harleian MSS. was included in the Bill: :

The following are the terms of the enactment :—

Act 26 George II., Cap. 22 (1753).—Sections IX. and X,

«“<(IX.) And be it enacted by the authority aforesaid, that within the cities of
London or Westminster or the suburbs thereof, one general repository shall be
erected or provided in such convenient place and in such manner as the trustees
hereby appointed, or the major part of them, at a general meeting assembled, shall
direct for the reception not only of the said museum or collection of Sir Hans
Sloane, but also of the Cottonian Library and of the additions which have been or
shall be made thereunto by virtue of the last will and testament of the said Arthur
Edwards, and likewise of the said Harleian collection of manuscripts and of such
other additions to the Cottonian Library as, with the approbation of the trustees
by this Act appointed, or the major part of them, at a general meeting assembled,
shall be made thereunto in manner hereinafter mentioned, and of such other collec-
tions and libraries as, with the like approbation, shali be admitted into the said
general repository, which several collections, additions, and library so received into
the said general repository shall remain and be preserved therein for public use to
all posterity. ;

“ (X.) Provided always that the said museum or collection of Sir Hans Sloane,

1 In his letter of February 14, 1753, to his friend Mann, Horace Walpole, then
Member for Lynn, writes :—‘ You will scarce guess how I employ my time, chiefly at
present in the guardianship of embryos and cockle-shells. Sir Hans Sloane is dead,
and has made me one of the trustees of his museum, which is to be offered for twenty
thousand pounds to the King and Parliament, and (in default of acceptance) to the
Royal Academies of Petersburg, Berlin, Paris,and Madrid. He valued it at four-score
thousand, and so would any one who loves hippopotamuses, sharks with one ear, and
spiders as big as geese. The King has excused himself, saying he did not think that
there were twenty thousand pounds in the Treasury.’—Letter's to Horace Mann, 8yo,
vol. iv, p. 32,

te)

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 659

in all its branches, shall be kept and preserved together in the said general reposi-
tory whole and entire, and with proper marks of distinction.”

The trustees appointed under the Act are of four classes: Royal, Official,
Family, and Elected. The first class includes one trustee appointed by the
Sovereign; the second class includes the Lord Archbishop of Canterbury, the Lord
High Chancellor, the Speaker of the House of Commons, and twenty-two others
high officials and presidents of societies. The three first in this class are designated
‘ Principal Trustees,’ and in them is vested the patronage or appointment to every
salaried office save one in the British Museum ; the exception being the Principal
Librarian, who is appointed by the Sovereign. Of the Family Trustees, the Sloane
collections are now represented by the Earl of Derby and the Earl of Cadogan, the
Cottonian Library by the Rev. Francis Annesley and the Rey. Francis Hanbury
Annesley, the Harleian manuscripts by Lord Henry C. G. Gordon-Lennox, M.P.,
and by the Right Hon. George A. I". Cavendish Bentinck, M.P. Among the
Elected Trustees the honoured name of Walpole, associated with the origin of the
British Museum, is continued by the Right Hon. Spencer Horatio Walpole, M.P.,
to whom the requisite Parliamentary business of the Museum is usually confided.

I may call attention to the ‘suburbs of London or Westminster’ as one of the
localities specified in the original Act of Parliament, and such situation was
selected for the locality of the Library and the Museum, The Government issued
lottery tickets to the amount of 300,000/., out of the profits of which the 20,0007.
for the Sloanian Museum was paid, and purchase made of a suitable building,
with contiguous grounds for its reception and the lodgment of keepers.

To the north of the metropolis, about midway between the two cities of
London and Westminster, there stood, in 1753, an ancient family mansion called
Montague House. This is defined by Smollett in his ‘History of England’ as
‘one of the most magnificent edifices in England.’! Its style of architecture was
that of the Tuileries in Paris. From London it was shut off by a lofty brick
wall, in the middle of which was a large ornamental gateway and lodge, through
which, in my earlier years as a student of natural history, I have often passed to.
inspect, through the kindness of the then keepers of mineralogy and zoology, and
make notes on, the Sloanian and subsequently-added rarities,

To the north of Montague House were the extensive gardens, beyond which
stretched away a sylvan scene to the slopes of Highgate and Hampstead Hills.

The original location of the British Museum was more apart and remote from
the actual metropolis and less easy of access than is the present Museum of
Natural History at the West End.

The additions to the natural history series, which accrued from 1753 to 1833,
together with the growth of other departments, necessitated provision of corre-
sponding conservative and exhibition spaces. These were acquired by the erection,
on the site of Montague House, of the present British Museum, the architect, Sir
Sidney Smirke, adopting the Ionic Greek style.

The extent of space afforded by this edifice, in comparison with that of its
predecessor, was such as to engender a conviction that it would suffice for all
subsequent additions. The difficulty in our finite nature and limited capacity of
looking forward is exemplified in such names as New College at Oxford, Newcastle,
New Street, New Bridge, &c., as if nothing was ever to grow old; and the same
restricted power of outlook affects our prevision of requirements of space for
ever-growing collections.

The Printed Book Department, which took the lion’s share of the then new
British Museum, found itself compelled, in the course of one generation, to:
appropriate the quadrangle left by Smirke in order to admit light to the windows
of the galleries looking that way or inwards.

From analogy I foresee that some successor of mine may exemplify human
short-sightedness in my limit of demand to eight acres for the growth of the present
Museum.

These acres, however, after conflicts stretching over a score or more of years

1 Edition 1825, p. 332.
UU

660. REPORT—1881.

have at last been acquired for due display and facilities of study of the subjects of
our ‘Sections C and D,’

Amongst the works of architectural art which adorn the metropolis, West-
minster Abbey and St. Paul’s Cathedral stand supreme. Of later additions may
with them be named the noble example of the Perpendicular Gothic selected by
: Barry for the Houses of Parliament, and I may be permitted to add, the new Law

Courts, which exemplify the more severe style of the Thirteenth-century Gothic.

Mr. Alfred Waterhouse, R.A., for the realisation of the plans and requirements
of our Museum of Natural History, has chosen an adaptation of the Round-arched
Gothic, Romanesque, or Romaic of the twelfth century. No style could better
lend itself to the introduction, for legitimate ornamentation, of the endless beautiful
varieties of form and surface-sculpture exemplified in the animal and vegetable
kingdoms. But the skill in which these varieties have been selected and combined
to produce unity of rich effects will ever proclaim Mr, Waterhouse’s supreme
mastery of his art.

I need only ask the visitor to pause at the grand entrance, before he passes into
the impressive and rather gloomy vestibule which leads to the great hall, and
prepares him for the flood of light displaying the richly-ornamented columns,
arcades, and galleries of the Index Museum.

In the construction of a building for the reception and preservation of natural
history objects, the material should be of a nature that will least lend itself to
the absorption and retention of moisture. This material is that artificial stone
called terra-cotta. The compactness of texture which fulfils the purpose in rela-
tion to dryness is also especially favourable for a public edifice in a metropolitan
locality. ‘The microscopic receptacles of soot-particles on the polished surface of
the terra-cotta slabs are reduced to a minimum; the influence of every shower in
displacing those particles is maximised. I am sanguine in the expectation that the
test of exposure to the London atmosphere during a period equal to that which
has elapsed since the completion of Barry’s richly ornamented palace at West-
ininster, now so sadly blackened by soot, will speak loudly in favour of Mr.
Waterhouse’s adoption of the material for the construction of the National
Museum of Natural History. A collateral advantage is the facility to which the
moulded blocks of terra-cotta lend themselves to the kind of ornamentation to
which I have already referred.

In concluding the above sketch of the development of our actual Museum of
Natural History, I may finally refer, in the terms of our modern phylogenists, to
the traceable evidences of ‘ancestral structures.’ In the architectural details of
the new Natural History Museum you will find but one character of the primitive
and now extinct museum retained, viz. the Central Hall. In Montague House
there were no galleries, but side-lit saloons or rooms of varying dimensions and on

different storeys.

Tn its successor, the Museum developed on its site at a later period, we find
galleries added: that, for example, which was appropriated to the birds and shells
“being 300 feet in length. This architectural organisation still exists at Bloomsbury.

The Museum, which may be said to have budded off, has risen to a still higher
evade of structure after settling down at South Kensington. In its anatomy we
tind, it is true, the central hall and long side-lit galleries; but in addition to these
inherited structures we discern a series of one-storeyed galleries, manifesting a
developmental advance in the better admission of light and a consequent adapta-
‘tion of the walls as well as the floor to the needs of exhibition."

1In the notable reply (Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 1829) to an illustration
of the unity of composition or of plan in Cephalopods and Vertebrates, by bending
one of the latter so as to bring the pelvis in contact with the nape, advocated by
Geoffroy St. Hilaire, Cuvier did not deem it too trivial to call in architecture to
elucidate his objections. ‘ Za composition d’une maison, c'est le nombre d’appartemens
ou de chambres qui s’y trouve ; et son plan, c'est la disposition réciproque de ces ap-
partemens et de ces chambres. Si deux maisons contenaient chacune un vestibule,
une anti-chambre, une chambre 4 coucher, un salon et une salle 4 manger, on dirait
que leur composition est la méme: et si-cette chambre, ce salon, «c., étaient au méme

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 661

Should the Section, as did the Académie des Sciences in relation to the passage
cited, kindly condone such application to human contrivances of the current
genealogical or phylogenetic language applied to vital structures, your President
need hardly own his appreciation of the vast superiority of every step in advance
which is manifested in existing as compared with extinct organisms. And thus,
sensible, as far as the human faculty may ae Barr them, that organic adapta-
tions transcend the best of those conceived by the ingenuity of man to fulfil his
special needs, he would ask whether analogy does not legitimately lead to the
inference, for organic phenomena, of an Adapting Cause operating in a correspond-
ing transcendent degree ? ae

In conclusion, I am moved to remark that a Museum giving space and light for
adequate display of the national treasures of Natural History may be expected to
exert such influence on the progress of Biology as to condone, if not call for,
a narrative of the circumstances attending its formation in the Records of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science.

The following Reports were read :—

1. Report of the Committee for the Investigation of the Natural History of
Socotra.—See Reports, p. 194.

2. Report of the Committee for the Investigation of the Natural History of
Timor-laut.—See Reports, p. 197.

3. Report on the Record of Zoological Interature.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2,

The following Papers were read :—
1. Jurassic Birds and their Allies. By Professor O. C. Marsu.

The author having been engaged for several years in investigating American
Mesozoic Birds, found it important to study the European forms. He had therefore
examined with some care the three known specimens of Archeopteryx, as well as
some allied extinct Reptiles, which promised to throw light upon Birds. During
this investigation he had observed several important characters in Archeopterya’
not previously determined, and he thought it appropriate to make them known here.
Among the more important of these characters were the following :—

1, The presence of true teeth in position in the skull. These teeth appear to be
in the premaxillary, and in form closely resemble the teeth of Hesperornis. No
teeth are known from the lower jaw, but they were probably present.

2. The vertebra are biconcave. The presacral vertebre are all, or nearly all,
biconcave, resembling in form those of Ichthyornis. ‘There are about twenty-one
presacral vertebrae, and the number of caudals is nearly or quite the same, The
sacral vertebree are not more than five, and probably less.

3. There is a broad, well-ossified sternum. The scapular arch, as a whole,

étage arrangés dans le méme maniére, on dirait aussi que leur plan est la méme.
Mais si leur ordre était différent, si, de plain-pied dans une des maisons, ces piéces
étaient placées dans l’autre aux étages successifs, on dirait qu’avec une composition
semblable ces maisons sont construites sur des plans différens,’ p. 245.

662 REPORT—1881,

strongly resembles that in modern birds. All of the usual elements are present,
and most of them are distinctly avian, the furculum especially so.

4, There are three digits only in the manus, all provided with claws. The
three free metacarpals have the form and position of those in some young modern
birds, and although corresponding to the same bones in reptiles, have the avian
stamp already upon them.

5, The pelvic bones are separate. In this respect Archeopteryx differs from all
adult birds recent and extinct, and agrees with Dinosaurian reptiles, a point of
much importance. Diagrams illustrating this were shown.

6. The distal end of the fibula is placed in front of the tibia. This is not known’
in any other birds, but is a characteristic of Dinosaurs,

7. The metatarsal bones are separate, or imperfectly united. This character
also has not before been observed in any adult birds, modern or ancient, but is seen
in all known Dinosaurs.

The author also stated that the brain-cast of Archeopteryx resembled that of
Laopteryx, an American Jurassic bird, which he had recently described. The
brains of both appear to have been comparatively larger than in Hesperornis,
which may be due to the fact that they were land birds, while all known cre-
taceous birds were aquatic.

The author considered the nearest allies to birds to be the Dinosaurian reptiles,
which really constitute a sub-class rather than an order, Among these reptiles,
Comptognathus is especially bird-like in the extremities, but the vertebrae and
pelvis show important differences from all known birds. In examining the
original specimen of Comptognathus in Munich, the author detected in the
abdominal cavity the skeleton of a young reptile, apparently a foetus, but possibly
one that had been swallowed. Nothing of the kind had before been noticed in
Dinosaurs. The presence of a clavicle in this group of reptiles had not hitherto
been determined, but two specimens of Igwanodon in the British Museum show
that this genus possessed these bones, and drawings of one were shown. The
relations of Dinosaurs to early forms of birds the author had discussed in detail in
his memoir on the Odontornithes, published during the previous year.

2. On the use of the Chitinous Elements or Appendages of the Cheilostoma-
tous Polyzoa in the Diagnosis of Species.1 By Guorce Busk, F.R.S.

Having for some time been engaged in the description of the Polyzoa collected
on the Challenger Expedition, the author—in common, he believes, with all who
have made that class the subject of study—has been greatly perplexed to find satis-
factory distinctive characters in several of the natural groups composing it. Amongst
the most difficult and puzzling may be more especially mentioned the generic groups
comprised under the names of Cellepora, Retepora, and Cellaria or Salicornaria.

As it is but quite recently that his attention has been directed to the use that
might be made of the chitinous appendages, in addition to those usually employed,
derived from the calcareous skeleton, he has not been able at present to extend
his observations beyond the three genera above mentioned, but he has little doubt
it will be found extremely useful in many others, more especially among the
Escharide.

His attention was first drawn to the use that might be made of the chitinous
organs by the perusal of a short paper by Mr. A. W. Waters, in the Transactions
of the Manchester Philosophical Society, on the use of the operculum as affording
differential characters. ‘

Led by this valuable suggestion to see how far the character of the operculum
might assist him in the diagnosis of the species of Cellepora on which he was at the
time engaged, he was at once struck with the great facility that attention to this

character afforded in the distinction of otherwise obscure forms of this most
difficult group.

1 Published in extenso in Linn, Soc. Journal, vol. xv.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 663

At the same time it appeared to him that it would be additionally advantageous,
besides the characters aflorded by the operculum, to regard those of the other
chitinous organs, and notably those of the avicularia. In some few cases other
chitinous appendages occur, but to these he need not here refer.

Not to enter into particulars, he would merely remark that, from his examination
of the characters afforded by the chitinous appendages in numerous species of
Cellepora, Salicornaria, and Retepora, he has come to the conclusion that, com-
bining the opercular with the avicularian characters, these characters alone will,
in nearly all cases in the genera mentioned, suffice to determine the species, and that
with the greatest facility and certainty. He may also add, as regards the family
Salicornariide, or Cellariida as some prefer to term it, this method of examination
has disclosed the existence in that family of special chitinous supports, as they
may be termed, on the sides or around the orifice, apparently for the articulation
of the operculum, which, so far as he is at present aware, have not been noticed,
and are peculiar to it.

As this brief notice is merely intended to draw attention to an element in the
anatomy of the Cheilostomatous Polyzoa, not hitherto employed as a means of
diagnosis except by Mr. Waters, he does not on the present occasion enter into
details, but simply hands round specimens prepared for this method of investiga-
tion, and will conclude by a few words as to the mode in which he has found it may
conveniently be carried out.

This consists, in fact, simply in the removal of the calcareous matter by means
of dilute nitric or other acid, from a small fragment or portion of a zoarium,
which after decalcification should be torn up or ‘teased’ out into minute pieces, and
examined, covered with glycerine, or glycerine and gum. It is as well also, before
the decalcified specimen is broken up, to stain it with some colouring matter, of
which he has found picrocarmine perhaps the best.

In preparations thus made, all the chitinous elements will be found clearly dis-
played, and—what is of particular interest—nearly all the soft parts as well, and
especially the muscular tissue ; and in many cases the general conformation of the
polypide may be made out almost as well, if not in some instances better, than in
the recent condition.

The length of time a specimen may have been kept in the dry state, if it were
in good condition to begin with, appears to make no difference in the ease with
which the soft tissues may be thus, as it were, resuscitated.

We have thus in our power, from a minute fragment of a zoarium little bigger
than a pin’s head, to determine its specific and many other characters, in a few
minutes; and, in the case of the genera above cited, with much greater facility and
exactitude than by the most laborious examination of the calcareous skeleton alone.

It is much to be regretted that the method is of course only applicable to
recent forms procured originally in the live state, and can afford no assistance in
the case of dead or fossil forms, for the distinction of which we are so lamentably
in want of sufficient means of diagnosis.

3. On the Botany of Madagascar.' By J. G. Baxen, F.R.S., F.L.S.

The fauna of Madagascar exhibits remarkable individuality of character. The
island produces many striking: types that are peculiar to it, and on the other
hand, many widely-spread and copiously represented genera which inhabit the
neighbouring continents are absent. The leading facts in connection with the sub-
ject have been fully summarised and illustrated recently by Mr. Wallace in his
‘Island Life,’ and the whole evidence of the fauna points in the direction of long
isolation.

But when we turn to the botany, the general tendency of the facts is in a different
direction, and no attempt has yet been made to summarise them. No special flora
of Madagascar has yet been published, but, taking the species that have been de-

1 Printed in extenso in Journal of Botany, beginning Nov. 1, 1881.

664

REPORT—1881.

TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF THE GENERA AND SPECIES OF EACH NATURAL
ORDER OF THALAMIFLOR@, KNOWN IN: MAURITIUS, MADAGASCAR, CONTINEN-
TAL TROPICAL AFRICA, AND INDIA APART FROM THE HIMALAYAS,

1,

CoA oe bo

Ranunculaceze

. Dilleniaceze
. Magnoliacee ,

Anonacez

. Menispermaceze
. Berberidez

. Nymphzeaceze

. Cruciferze

. Capparidaceze

. Resedaceze 5
. Violacez .

. Bixinee . “
. Pittosporee .
. Polygaleze cs
. Frankeniacee .
. Caryophyllaceze
. Portulaceze

. Tamariscine .
. Elatinee . :
. Hypericineze

. Guttifers

. Ternstromiacez
. Dipterocarpeze

Chlenacez .

. Malvaceze
. Sterculiacee .
. Tiliacese

Linacez .

. Humiriaceze
. Malpighiacez .

Zygophyllez

. Geraniacez

. Rutacee .

. Simarubeze

. Ochnaceze

. Burseraceze

. Meliaceze
. Chailletiaceze .
. Olacineze

. Ilicinee . :
. Celastrineze

. Rhamnexs

. Ampelideer .
. Sapindaceze

. Sabiaceze Fs
. Anacardiacez .
. Moringez

a, fe

Mauritius Madagascar | Trop. Africa India

Genera |Species|Genera | Species|Genera |Species|Genera | Specie

1 1 2 15 4 18 5 17
1 1 1 3 1 3 6 34
== =, aa ed = = 5 7
2 4 5 10 12 59 25 190
1 4 7 10 11 22 19 34
—_— —_ aa — 1 1 1 3
1 LEG Wie tad 5 2 3 5 8
3 3 3 6 21 45 2 6
2 2 7 20 11 61 8 49
—_— — — — 4 5 1 1
= == 4 20 4 16 3 16
3 3 5 8 6 27 9 26
1 1 1 8 1 2 1 5
— — 1 5 3 24 5 30
— —_— os _— 1 2 1 1
2 2 2 2 12 25 7 11
—_ —_ 1 1 2 8 2 6
-— — — _— 1 2 i 3
— -- _— _— 1 5 2 6
1 1 3 11 5 18 2 12
1 2 5 19 6 12 6 61
1 1 _ — 3 3 11 37
1 1 —~ — 3 3 9 92
— _— 5 9 2 2 —- —
ff is 10 28 17 88 20 85
6 13 6 22 14 51 16 79
2 3 4 15 10 70 13 109
2 4 2 6 6 14 6 18
= — — — 1 1 od >
Les — 2 4 5 14 3 10
1 1 1 1 5 14 4 8
2 3 4 15 6 39 7 101
3 7 2 2 4 12 19 70
2 2 1 1 9 11 9 16
1 1 2 9 2 19 4 11
2 2 1 1 4 9 10 39
2 4 1 5 5 15 19 83
— — il 8 1 15 1 6
3 3 3 3 15 26 23 65
po = 1 2 1 1 1 14
3 3 7 22 6 44 18 85
4 5 6 15 8 12 11 40
2 3 2 12 2 73 3 75
8 11 9 al 13 37 20 55
a —_ = —_ _— —_ 2 9
3 5 7 14 11 31 18 93
— — 1 1 1 1 2 i

|
|
a
to
a
wo
ot
i=)
|
|
|
!

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 665

scribed in general monographs and scattered papers, and adding to them those that
we possess in the London herbaria alone, we have now definite Inowledge from
Madagascar of not less than 2,000 species, which the author estimates represent
700 genera and 125 natural orders. ‘The flora, as a whole, follows closely the same
general lines as that of the other tropical countries of the old world. This may be
illustrated in various ways. The annexed table gives the number of genera and
species of each order in Madagascar as compared with Mauritius, continental
tropical Africa, and India, apart from the Himalayas, and it will be seen that the
general parallelism is very close.

Out of 55 known orders of Thalamiflorg only eight are not here represented ; but
of these 47, 37 are already known in Madagascar. Of the ten orders not yet known
in Madagascar, none are known in Mauritius, but two are represented by single
species in the Seychelles. Two of them are confined to Tropical Asia and one to
Tropical Africa, but the other seven are common to both continents.

One of the most striking and suggestive characters of the flora of the intertropical
zone of the world, taken as a whole, is the large extent to which it is everywhere
made up of species representing large genera which are spread through it pretty
evenly. ‘There are many genera containing 300, 400, or 500 species, that are largely
represented in Africa, Asia, and America. Some of these are herbaceous glumi-
ferous monocotyledons, as, for instance, Cyperus with 400 species, and Panicum
with 500. The large genera of ferns, such as Polypodium, Acrostichum, Asplenium,
and Pteris, all fall into this category. Some of them are dicotyledons with sepa-
rated sexes and small inconspicuous flower-wrappers, such as Ficus with 400 species,
Piper with 600, Phyllanthus with 400-500, Croton with 450. But many of these
large cosmopolitan genera are dicotyledons of shrubby or arborescent habit, with
insect-fertilised hermaphrodite flowers, a distinct calyx and corolla, and showy,
scented petals. Loranthus with 300 species, although exclusively parasitical, falls
into this category. So do Psychotria with 500 species, Indigofera with 300-400,
Vernonia with 400, Solanum with 500, and Eugenia with 500. And a point which
must be prominently taken into account in estimating the general relations of the
flora of Madagascar, is that nearly all these large cosmopolitan genera are now
ascertained to be represented in the island, although often by endemic species.

The marked tendency to uniformity in character which is shown by the flora of
the whole tropical zone is further illustrated by the fact that a considerable number
of species are spread universally through the old world, and that a considerable
number extend their range to Tropical America. Of the plants of our own colonies
in that part of the world, out of 1,058 flowering plants and vascular Cryptogamia,
370, or about one-third, occur both in Tropical Asia and Continental Africa, and
225 species, or about one in five of the total flora, extend their range to Tropical
America. In Madagascar the absolute number of these widely-spread species is as
great, but of course the proportion which they bear to the total flora is smaller.
The orders most largely represented here are Cyperacee, Graminew, Composite,
Leguminose, and Malvacez.

Tn the island flora there are altogether about 80 endemic genera, according to
our present knowledge. The order Chlzenaces has been supposed to be peculiar to
Madagascar, but two of the genera have been found in Mozambique. The other
genera are many of them monotypic, and very few contain more than three or four
species, They are not concentrated in any part of the systematic series, and most
of them belong to the large natural orders, Composite with nine genera, and Rubia-
ce with eight, taking the lead.

With Mauritius, Bourbon, and the Seychelles the affinity of the Madagascar
flora is close. There are several genera and species which occur both in the large
and small islands which are restricted to the group.

There is a close affinity between the flora of Madagascar and that of Tropical
Africa. In Rubiacez, for instance, there are nine genera otherwise confined to
Tropical Africa which reach Madagascar, and in other orders a smaller number.
We have instances of such genera in Brexia, Dombeya, Acridocarpus, Psorosper-
mum, Myrothamnus, Psiadia, Landolphia, and Mimulopsis. Instances of striking

“Species common to both areas are furnished by Haronga madagascarensis, Trachy-

666 REPORT—1881.

lobium Hornemannianum (the Copal tree), Albizzia fastigiata, and Eriosema
cajanoides.

There are a few cases of curious affinities between Madagascar and Tropical
Asia. Of the pitcher-plants, which occur in India and are concentrated in the
Malay Archipelago, one species occurs in the Seychelles, and another in Madagascar,
but they fail to reach Continental Africa, Of the curious genus Tambourissa there
are about a dozen species in the Mascaren Isles, and one in Java, but none else-
where. But when we remember what has been already pointed out, as to the
uniformity of the flora of the whole tropical zone, it would seem to be unsafe to infer
from these cases that there has been any comparatively recent land-connection be-
tween the Mascaren Islands and Tropical Asia.

A very curious peculiarity of the flora of the hill country of Central Madagascar
is the affinity which we may trace with that of the Cape. For instance, the heaths,
of which there are some 500 at the Cape, are represented in Madagascar by about
a dozen species, all endemic. Instances of characteristic Cape genera which reach
Madagascar are found in Selago, Aristea, Geissorhiza, Chironia, Pachypodium,
Harveya, Dais, Lasiosiphon, Disa, Satyrium, and Mohria, There are also a few
curious cases, as instanced in Viola abyssinica, Geranium simense, Agauria salici-
folia, Caucalis melanantha, and Antherotoma Naudini, where species are found
nowhere else except in Central Madagascar and the high mountain regions of Central
Africa, such as the Camaroons and Abyssinian Hichlands.

4, On the Colours of Spring Flowers. By Aurrep W. Benyet?,
MA., B.Sc., F.L.S.

The variation in the predominant colour of our native flora as the spring advances
to summer and autumn is a familiar fact, though the author is not aware that any
attempt has been made to tabulate the phenomena, or to reduce them to a general law.

The list from which the following statistics are obtained is based (with a very
few corrections) on the time of flowering given in Sir J. D. Hooker’s ‘ Student’s
Flora,’ the same work being also followed in the limitation of species. Those are
regarded as early spring flowers which begin to blossom not later than April. In
order to prevent the element of error in the average of colour which would result
from the inclusion of all wild plants, whether common or rare, all are excluded
from the list which do not bear at least as high a number as 50 in the ‘London
Catalogue of British Plants,’ For the classification of the colours, the flowers are
arranged under five heads, viz., 1. white; 2. green; 3. yellow; 4. red and pink;
5. blue and violet; very slight shades of colour being neglected. Several large
orders in which the flowers are very inconspicuous are entirely passed over, viz.,
the Amentiferze, Juncaceze, Graminez, Cyperacee, and Conifere.

The analytical table thus prepared shows that out of 64 species of common
early spring flowers, 26, or 40°5 per cent., are white; 9, or 14:1 per cent.
green; 13, or 203 per cent., yellow; 5, or 7°8 per cent., red or pink; and
11, or 17:4 per cent., blue or violet. As compared with summer or autumn flowers,
this list shows a remarkable preponderance of white flowers ; yellow is also greatly
in excess, as compared with other periods of the year, while the number of red and
pink flowers is extremely small.

In order to compare the colour of early spring flowers in England with those of
Switzerland, the author has taken the two volumes already published, including 200
species, of Seboth’s ‘ Alpine Plants,’ May, instead of April, being regarded as the
latest early spring month. The following are the results. Out of 51 species, 18, or
35'3 per cent., are white; 1, or 2:0 per cent., green; 10, or 196 per cent., yellow ;
14, or 27-4 per cent., red or pink; and 8, or 15:7 per cent., blue or violet.

Several points of contrast between these lists will at once suggest themselves,
especially the smaller proportion of white, and the very much larger proportion—
amounting to nearly fourfold—of red and pink flowers, in the second as compared
with the first. .

In attempting to reduce these facts to a general law, it must first be borne in

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 667
mind that the two colours white and green stand on a different footing from the
rest, and indicate more correctly an absence of colour. The colour of green petals
is not due to a mixture of blue and yellow pigments, but to the presence of chloro-
phyll; and white flowers do not owe their colour to a milk-white fluid, but to the
presence of air in the cells of the petals. Seeing that the bright-coloured fluid
pigments are formed only under the influence of a sufficient supply of light and heat,
the large proportion of green and white early spring flowers is easily accounted for.
With regard to yellow, M. Flahaut states that ‘a solid insoluble pigment, the
avanthine of Frémy and Cloéz, is, in the first place, to be distinguished from all the
soluble colouring matters, blue, yellow, red, and their mixtures, all of which are
acted on very readily by reagents, and which are usually found only in the
epidermal cells.’ This xanthine Frémy states to occur always in ‘the form of
clearly defined grains, occasionally in the epidermal, much more often in the deeper-
lying cells, slowly soluble in alcohol and potassa. It is, in all probability, a
modification of chlorophyll.” A list of plants, in the petals of which he has
detected this substance, are without exception early-flowering. The colours,
therefore, which pre-eminently distinguish our summer and autumn flora—the reds,
puke blues, and some yellows—are due to coloured soluble pigments which require

oth a strong light and a high temperature for their production, and Batalin has
shown this to be especially the case with the red colouring-substance. That the
same species of flower frequently assumes a more intense colour with increasing
altitude in the Alps has been shown by the observations of M. Bonnier, who states
that this change is due to an actual increase in the amount of colouring matter in
the cells, The difference between the prevailing colours of the ordinary spring flora
in England and in Switzerland is probably due to the same cause. Owing partly
to the spring being a month later, partly to the more southern latitude and con~
sequent greater elevation of the sun, partly to the clearer air of a high altitude, the
light which opens the earliest spring flowers is much stronger in Switzerland than
in England, causing the appearance of those brilliant roses and pinks of the Silenes,
Ericas, and Primulas, and blues of the Gentianas and Soldanellas, with which we
have scarcely anything to compare in our spring flora. The most striking feature
of the early sprmg Swiss flora, in the figures already given, is the very large
ingredient of red and pink. The author believes a more extensive analysis would
show an almost equal preponderance of blue.

5. On the Constancy of Insects in their Visits to Flowers.
By AurreD W. Bennett, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S.

This paper contains a record of observations made with the view of serving as
a contribution towards the determination of the question whether insects are alto-
gether indiscriminating in their visits to flowers, or whether on the same journey
they confine themselves exclusively or chiefly to one species. For this purpose
points of observation were chosen where a considerable number of different flowers
grew in profusion and intermixed, so that the insect would have abundant oppor-
tunity of changing its diet if so disposed. The insects observed were Lepidoptera,
Apide, and Syrphide. Their flight was watched, and the flowers recorded on
which they successively settled ; the pollen attached to the body and legs of the
Apidz, and that contained in the abdomen of the Syrphide, being also examined.

As far as this series of observations goes, no general statement can be made as
to the constancy of insects in visiting the same species of flower during the same
flight. A decided preference for successive visits to the same flower was unques-
tionably shown in many instances, and this is not dependent on the colour of the
flower only. The hive-bee appears to be far the most constant in this respect—
often absolutely so—other Apide approaching, but not usually equalling it.
From their strong and rapid flight, and the extremely hairy covering of their ab-
domen and legs, this class of insects is probably the most efficient agent in the
dissemination of pollen. The Syrphids, which also visit flowers in great abun-
dance, are much less constant; but their object is not so much honey as the pollen

668 , REPORT—1881, Lue

itself, which forms the principal article of their food; and their body and legs
being not nearly so densely clothed with hairs, their share in the carriage of pollen
must be much smaller. The Lepidoptera appear to vary greatly in their habits.
As far as can be gathered from the few observations made, the ‘ painted lady’
(Cynthia cardut) and the small tortoise-shell (Vanessa urtice) are very constant;
while the whites, the blues, and the browns are far more catholic or less discrimi-
native in their tastes. It is open to question, however, whether more than a very
few flowers are dependent on butterflies for their fertilisation. At all events, their
visits to flowers are often only interludes in their settlement on grass, leaves, the
stems of trees, or the bare ground.

6. On the Mode in which the Seed of Stipa buries itself in the ground.
By Sir Joun Lussocr, Bart., ILP., FBS.

The author commenced by pointing out how the structure of seeds served for
purposes of dispersion, accounting thus for the winged seeds of many trees, the
fleshy pulp of fruits, the hooks on many seeds, the sticky surfaces of some, and
the delicate feathery parachutes of others; and then, after referring in a few words
to the cases in which plants throw their own seeds—as for instance, the Violet,
Oxalis, Geranium, Broom, and others—sometimes as far as twenty feet, he passed
on to the cases in which seeds sow themselves in the ground.

After mentioning the subterranean clover, the ground-nut, cranesbill, &c., he
exhibited the very curious seed of Stipa pennata, a kind of grass, which was’ also
illustrated by a diagram. The whole seed is more than a foot long, and consists of
four parts—tirstly, the actual seed, which is about half an inch in length, narrow,
pointed, and provided with short, stiff, recurved hairs, The upper end is prolonged
into a stiff, twisted, corkscrew-like rod, about two inches in length; then, at an
angle, is a straight piece about #-inch long; and then a beautiful tapering feathered
awn, nearly an inch in length. Mr. Francis Darwin had suggested that this beau-
tiful seed buries itself by hygroscopic action, as Roux has shown to be the case
with the cranesbills, the ‘corkscrew’ twisting and untwisting under the influence
of different degrees of moisture. The author, however, gave reasons for thinking
that the true, or at any rate, more usual motive power, was the wind, which acting
on the feathery awn, twists the corkscrew round and round, and drives it into the
ground. At any rate, in some cases this is the mode of action, and by means of a
small bottle filled with moss, and a fan, he exhibited the movement to the Section
experimentally.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Insect House in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London.
By P. L. Scvarer, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Secretary to the Zoological
Society of London.

The author called the attention of the meeting to the important addition that
had been made during the present year to the Collection of living animals in the
Gardens of the Zoological Society of London, in the shape of an Insectarium or
house for the exhibition of living insects in all stages of their development.

He stated that, although of late years many entomologists had been in the
habit of rearing insects in captivity for the purpose of watching their transforma-
tions and obtaining good specimens in each stage of’ existence, nothing like a

" systematic attempt, so far as he knew, had been made to form a general collection
of living insects for exhibition, As in former days, as regards reptiles and the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—-DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 669

lower marine animals, so in the present instance as regards its Insectarium, -the
Zoological Society of London seemed to be first in the field, and—so far as
could be judged from the progress already made—to be likely, if not altogether
successful, to attain many interesting and instructive results.

The building used as an Insectarium was constructed of iron and glass on three
sides, with a brick back to it. The cases containing the insects were arranged on
stands all round the building, and also occupied two tables in the centre. The
cases used for the principal specimens were formed of zine plates and glass. The
upper part of them was glazed on all four sides, the top being formed of perforated
zinc, so as to admit the air. The food-plant, or the object required for the
suspension of the chrysalis, when that stage of the insect is exhibited, was inserted
into the case through a circular hole in the bottom; but the glass front also
opened, so that ready access was obtainable to the interior. The larger cases in
the front row measured about 24 inches in breadth by 18 in depth, and were
32 inches in height. The cases in the opposite row were of similar construction,
but rather smaller in dimensions.

The following was a list of the insects that had been bred in the Insect-house
durirg the present season, and of which specimens were exhibited to the meeting.

List of Lendoptera reared tn the Insect House at the Zoological Society's Gardens.

Papitlionide.
Papilio machaon,
Pieridide.
Pieris cratzgi.
Anthocharis cardamines,
Vanesside,
Argynnis paphia,
” ”
= aglaia,
Melitz#a maturna,
ae WClNxXta,
Vanessa urtice.
» atalanta,
» antiopa.

var, valezina,

DIURNI.

Nymphalide.
Limenitis sibylla,
Apatura iris,

ay ilia.

Satyride.

Arge galathea,

Hrebia medea.
Lycenide.

Thecla quercis,

Polyommatus phleas.

Lyczna corydon.
Erycinide,

Nemeobius lucina.

NOCTURNI.

SPHINGES AND BOMBYCEs,

Sphingide.
Deilephila euphorbiz,
Tithostide.
Lithosia quadra,
ELucheliide.
Callimorpha dominula.
Cheloniide.
Chelonia caja.
5 villica.
Liparide.
Liparis monacha.
Bombycide,

Odonestis potatoria.

Uropterygide.
Uropteryx sambucata.
Ennomide.
Iillopia fasciaria.

Lasiocampa quercifolia.

Saturniide.
Saturnia carpini,
Attacus atlas.

a mylitta.
As cynthia.
tf pernyi.

” cecropia.

Samia gloveri.
‘Telea promethea,
Actias selene.

“syed Elin sty
Antherwa yama-mai.
GEOMETRINA. ¢
Boarmide.

Tephrosia biundularia.
Cleora glabraria.

NOCTUZ.
Catocalide.
Catocala sponsa,

670 REPORT—1881.,

2. On the Birds which have bred in the Barnsley and South Yorkshire
District. By THomas Lister.

The district of the author’s observations is that part of the county of York called
the South Yorkshire coal-formation, chiefly between the Calder on the north, and
the Don, west and south, with the Dearne, its tributary, flowing through the
middle region by Barnsley, the central point of observation. The country extends,
in a series of well-wooded undulations, from the magnesian limestone on the east
at about 300 feet elevation, to the millstone grit, from 1,000 to 1,700 feet, which
it attains at Black Tor, north-west of Shetlield. The birds may be said to be
characteristic of the varied districts, from the sub-alpine regions west (the Pennine
range, or great backbone of England, where the moorland birds predominate), the
woodland and cultivated grounds in the centre, frequented by our resident song-
birds and migratory warblers, to the lower tracts beyond the magnesian limestone
in the south-east of the Riding, where birds of the marsh and tidal rivers mingle
with the inland birds. In this paper there is not space to give dates, places, and
authorities, except in some remarkable or recent instances. He believes additions
could be made to the list of birds breeding in the district, by observation or
enquiries respecting the moorland and marsh regions. One main object the author
has always kept in view is, to show what birds have been known in past times,
what have been lost to modern observers, and what we might still possess, to gratify
the field-naturalist, if means were taken by public Acts, by protection societies—
which have done good as far as they have gone—and by proprietors like the late
Charles Waterton and the owner of Wentworth Castle, F. ¥. T. Wentworth, Esq.,
and other landowners, to encourage the preservation of our lessening rare birds.

In the list appended to the longer article it will be seen that there are a few
birds extinct, or nearly so, in South Yorkshire. The only one which is quite lost
to us—the kite—he is justified in introducing here. Its nest and young were taken
by his elder brother in his school-days; itis also recorded by the late Dr. Farrar in
the same woods, two miles from Barnsley. The author quoted from his list,
written in 1844, in his paper on the birds of the West Riding, delivered at the
British Association meeting at Bradford, inserted in its ‘Transactions’ for 1873,
Dr. Farrar records also the peregrine falcon in the same woods and at Walton.
The veteran Waterton complained to him then, and since to the author, of the
gradual disappearance of these and other members of the falcon family from the
grand lake and woods of Walton.

The list of birds breeding in this part of Yorkshire is of course much fewer
than that of birds which have occurred, To give a brief séswmé we may divide
them, as is sometimes done, into land and water birds. Of the former there
are 92: 11 raptorial or birds of prey; 738 insessorial or perching and climbing
birds; 8 rasores or scratchers. Of water-birds there are 21, of which 13 are
waders and 8 swimmers, making 92 in all. The most rare of these are the green-
shank, of which only a few instances of nesting are recorded ; the red-backed
shrike, of which the old and young were snared by Dr. Farrar in Cliffwood, one
mile from Barnsley, in 1829; the reed-warbler at Walton Hall, Hemsworth Dam,
Thorne Moor, &c., the stone-chat on Brierley Common, and towards the moors
westward; the woodlark, a few surviving in the south of the county; the mealy
redpoll, the dunlin, the marsh, and Montague’s harrier (occasionally occurring
about Thorne, Doncaster, Sheffield) ; the green woodpecker, wryneck, lesser spotted
woodpecker, turtle-dove. The pied flycatcher occurs locally at Wentworth (Gnsties
Cannon Hall, and Wharncliffe woods. These are sufficient to indicate that some
rare birds may yet be found,

3. On the Foot of Birds, and on the Use of the Serrated Olaw.' By Putte
M. C. Kermope.

As regards the serration, the following characters appear to be constant. It is

on the middle toe of each foot, which is longer than the other toes; the serration is

1 The original paper was published in the Zsle of Man Times of Saturday, Sept. 17,
1881,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 671

that of an edge on the inner margin of the claw, being in the horny sheath, but not
appearing in the bone; it is on a plane with the upper or concave surface of, and

rojecting at right angles to the inner side of the claw, the teeth being directed
forwards and slightly curved towards their points; it is not found on the claw of
young birds, but grows with the growth of the bird.

Possessed of this peculiarity we find representatives of the following families :—
1. Strigide (Swainson mentions Strz2 flammea, but the author has not detected it) ;
2. Caprimulgide ; 3. Charadride ; 4. Ardeide; 5. Pelecanide.

That it is not caused by ‘ wear and tear’ is evidenced by the constancy of its
position, and the regularity, size, and shape of the teeth.

It cannot serve the bird in seizing or retaining its prey, nor yet in retaining its
perch (unless, possibly, with the Caprimulgide, which perch along a branch, having
one foot placed before the other).

Possibly the birds possessed of this form may, from food or habit, be more
subject to parasites, or these be of a peculiar nature. Whether this be so or not, the
proper function of this peculiar form of claw is evidently to cleanse and preen the
plumage, and, with the Caprimulgide, to keep clean the vibriss,

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. On the Anatomy and Classification of the Petrels, based upon those col-
lected by H.M.S. ‘ Challenger. By W. A. Forszs, B.A., F.L.S8., F.Z.S.

After stating the reasons why hitherto the anatomy of this group of birds
had been hardly at all studied, the author, who has been enabled, thanks mainly to
the specimens collected by the Challenger, and entrusted to him for anatomical
examination by Sir Wyville Thomson, to dissect nearly all the chief genera of this
group, proceeded to give an account of the results as yet arrived at.

After describing briefly some of the more remarkable peculiarities of structure
of the group of Petrels or Tubinares, of which about 150 species are now known,
the author proceeded to consider the questions of their classification and affinities.
The Tubinares form a very well-defined group, separated off from all other birds by
a combination of characters external and internal, not found elsewhere, as well as
by some peculiar to the group itself. Two well-marked families now exist: one, the
Oceanic Petrels (Oceanitide) represented by four genera, and about eight species;
the other (Procellariide) contaming all the remainder of the group, and being
divisible again into three sub-families, the Albatrosses (Diomedeine), the Diving
Petrels (Pelecanoidine), and the true Petrels (Procellariine), this last division con-
taining by far the greater number of the genera and species,

As regards the affinities of the group, the author was of the opinion that the
Petrels are probably much modified descendants of some ancient form, which was
related to the Ciconiiform birds of Garrod, ¢.e. the storks, American vultures,
Acetpitres, Steganopodes, and their allies. Any relationship to the gulls (Laride)
was not borne out by the anatomy of the two groups in question,

2. On some Permanent Larval Forms among the Crinoidea.
_ By P. Herserr Carpenter, M.A.

Since the diseovery of the pentacrinoid stage in the development of the feather-
star, the stalked Crinoids have been universally regarded as occupying the position
of permanent larval forms with respect to the Comatule; and the discovery of types
like Rhizocrinus and Hyocrinus, in which the oral plates are more or less com-

672 ruPORT—1881.

pletely retained through life, has confirmed and extended this view. In these recent
forms the oral plates separate from one another, as they do in the later stages of
the pentacrinoid larva of the feather-star, and the peristome is laid open to the
exterior. But in many Paleocrinoids the peristome was covered in throughout
life, either by a pyramid of oral plates, or by a ‘ vault’ of greater or less com-

lexity.

‘ De Loriol has recently described a small Jurassic Crinoid— Thiolliericrinus—in
which the top stem joint enlarges and bears cirrhi, just as in Comctula; but it
retains its connection with the stem below it, instead of becoming free, and the
basals do not entirely disappear from the exterior of the calyx. Thiolliericrinus,
therefore, is permanently in the condition of a tolerably advanced pentacrinoid
larva of the feather-star.

Among the Comatule dredged by the Challenger and by the United States
Coast Survey are three species of a new genus which the author proposes to call
Atelecrinus. Two species were obtained in the Caribbean Sea, and the third in
the South Pacific. The distinctive characters of the genus are (1) the persistence
of the embryonic basals, which do not undergo metamorphosis into a rosette, but
remain as a closed circlet, entirely separating the radials from the centro-dorsal ;
(2) the absence of pinnules from about the first eleven arm-joints. With the
exception of the doubtful genus Comaster, no recent Comatula yet known retains
its embryonic basals on the exterior of the calyx, after the latter part of its exist-
ence, as a ‘Pentacrinoid ;’ while there is no Comatula hitherto known, either
recent or fossil, in which the basal circlet is complete, as it is in some Pentacrinus
species, and in the earlier stages of the Pentacrinoid. As regards the characters
of its calyx, therefore, Atelecrinus may be considered as a permanent larval form.
The absence of pinnules from the basal portions of the arms points to the same
conclusion. The author has met with five Comatula-species which agree with
Ant. rosacea in not developing pinnules upon the lower arm-joints until after the
appearance of cirrhi upon the centro-dorsal and its liberation from the rest of ihe
larval stem; but Adelecrinus appears to be permanently in this condition. It ex-
hibits no traces, however, of persistent oral plates,

3. Note on the British Comatule. By P. Hersert Carpenter, M.A.

Some years ago Barrett dredged a Comatula on the coast of Skye, to which he
gave the specific name celtica. His specimens were lost for a time, and though
others were obtained from the same locality by-H.M.S. Porcupme, there has been
a little uncertainty, especially among Continental zoologists, as to the true cha-
racters of the species. . Recently, however, one of Barrett’s criginal specimens has
heen discovered at the British Museum, and it turns out to be identical, as do the
Porcupine specimens, with the rare Antedon phalangium of the Mediterranean.
This species, however, is not known to occur at any intermediate localities between
Skye and the Mediterranean. Neither has it been obtained further north than
the Faroe Channel. The Antedon celtica, described by Von Marenzeller and
Sladen from the Arctic Ocean, is an entirely different species, and is the one to
which this name will have to be applied in future; Miiller’s name, phalangiwm,
having a priority of several years over celica, Barrett. Besides Ant. phalangium
and Ant. Sarsiit, which has been obtained in the Shetlands, there are, perhaps,
two other Comatule which are known:on our coasts. One is the common Ant.
rosacet, which is universally distributed, andthe other is Ant. Miillert, which is
distinguished from Ant. rosacea, according to Sir Wyvill> Thomson, by the greater
length of the ovaries, and a difference in the relative proportions of the lower
pinnules. This type has been obtained at Arran, Oban, Belfast, and elsewhere,
and it is the one which seems to be the most common in the Mediterranean.
Whether, however, it is really distinct from Ant. rosacea is a point for further
investigation.

-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 673

4, On the Affinities of Proneomenia.! By Dr. A. A. W. Husrecur.

One of the forms of animal life which have been looked upon as aberrant by
successive investigators of mollusks and collectors of shells is the genus Chiton,
with its allies, Chitonellus, Cryptochiton, &c. Instead of a regular bivalve or
univalye shell these animals carried along the median line of their backs a series
of calcareous plates, forming, on closer inspection, so many separate shells, the one
behind the other.

By the possession of a radula, they appeared closely allied to the other Odon-
tophora; by a certain amount of bilateral symmetry they seemed to resemble the
lamellibranchiates.

Very recently certain points in their internal organisation, more especially con-
cerning the nervous system, gave rise to their being entirely removed (wrongly I
think) by a German morphologist from the Mollusks and placed in the sub-division
of Worms,

Of late years other, yet more perplexing, forms have come to light. One of
them, discovered by Professor Lovén, of Stockholm, appeared to be a very small-
sized worm, and was, up to the last two or three years, arranged with the Gephy-
reans, and called Chetoderma. Its anatomy was first investigated by Professor
yon Graff, and more completely in 1877 by Dr. Hansen.

The second genus to which I allude was first described by Tullberg, in 1875,
found off the Swedish and Norwegian coast, and lately proved, by the Rev. A. M.
Norman, also to inhabit the British coasts. To it the name of Neomenia was
assigned.

Opinions differed as to its nearest allies. Some placed it with the worms,
others with the mollusks. Von Graff pointed out its close relationship to Cheetoderma,
whereas the distinguished British morphologist, Professor Ray Lankester, created
a separate phylum for it, which he placed in the immediate vicinity of the Chitons.

Von Thering was the first to propose that the Chitons, Chetoderma, and
Neomenia should all be united in a separate class, which he called the class of the
Amphineura.

The year before last the Dutch expedition which, in the vessel Wellem Barents,
yearly sets out for explorations of the Arctic seas, brought.with it two specimens
of an animal, which not only proved this arrangement to be a very natural one,
but also by its minute anatomy actually furnishes several links by which the
disconnected genera above mentioned are held together.

The specimens were placed in my hands, and, in working them out, I was
more fortunate than several of my fellow-workers in this one respect, that my
results were not forestalled by the publication of an English report on the same
subject which appeared last year, and in which some of the most eminent of
your specialists described the different marine animals brought home by the Dutch
exploring vessel from a collection of specimens which had found their way to the
Exeter Museum !

The comparative study was unexpectedly facilitated by the kind generosity with
which Professor Ray Lankester, who had made an excellent series of sections
through the specimens of Neomenia collected by Mr. Norman, put these sections
at my disposal, although his intention in preparing them had been to work up
the subject himself.

I may now call your attention to those facts by which either the affinity of
the different genera of the Amphineura is demonstrated, or even in some cases
light appears to be thrown on the phylogeny of the Mollusca in general.

The external shape is very simple, in which respect it corresponds with Neo-
menia and Cheetoderma; in size, however, it considerably surpasses them, measur-
ing about 15 centim.; the body is rounded, shows no external appendages whatever,
whereas ventrally a very fine groove is perceptible, in front and behind of which
the anterior and posterior openings leading into the animal’s intestines are situated.

1 Published in the Supplement Band zum Wiederliindischen Archiv. fiir Zoologie.
Leyden. 1881.
1881. xs

674 REPORT—1881.

Inside the fine groove, which in life can, no doubt, be opened and expanded, a
longitudinal ridge is situated, which is coated with cilia, protrusible in its turn,
and most probably the homologue of the foot in other Mollusca.

On touching the exterior surface of the animal it feels rough and stiff; this is
caused by innumerable small spicule in its integument, which are intermixed, in
a more or less regular arrangement, and several layers of which are superposed one
upon the other. ‘They are calcareous, supported by and formed in a sort of cellular
cup surrounding the base, which remains in communication with the deeper cellular
layers of the integument. Between them a homogeneous chitin-like substance is
present, holding them in their places.

Similar structures may be noticed in the, integument of Chiton on the sloping
sides of the mantle laterally with the dorsal plates, and these structures are, perhaps,
more marked in young than they are in older stages.

In Chitonellus, where the dorsal plates are considerably reduced, they were
found in a much greater number by a German searcher, several years ago. Similar
calcareous spicules, differently arranged and shaped, however, are present in Cheto-
derma and Neomenia.

With reference to the digestive canal, which is wholly symmetrical, [ have little to
remark, It is internally provided with deep folds, and part of it is strongly ciliated,
in both respects closely resembling Neomenia. Neither could a separate liver be
detected, special secreting cells in the walls of the intestine apparently supplementing
the functions of this organ. Internally the mouth is surrounded by circular or semi-
circular folds of the pharyngeal epithelium ; one of these is provided with numerous
nerve-branches running towards it, and must be looked upon as a sort of circular
lip. Over the muscular buccal mass a curious blind prolongation of the posterior
thin-walled portion of the intestine takes its course; this terminates anteriorly
in.the head. Posteriorly on the floor of the buccal mass a small slit-like opening
is found, leading into a median cavity containing the radula and into two lateral
tubes, the salivary glands, As Neomenia is entirely deprived of a radula, and was
for this reason removed from the Mollusks, it is important to notice that its close
ally, Proneomenia, is possessed of one. It is also a very suggestive fact that the radula
of this latter form, thongh perfect and complicated in shape, is so extremely
diminished in size that_it may be said to be degenerate and on its way to be lost,
a stage which has been reached in Neomenia. For this reason the apparently less
differentiated Neomenia may not be looked upon as the more primitive ; the im-
portant ancestral character which it has lost is, however, retained in its ally, and
this induced me to choose the name of Proneomenia for the latter.

In passing on to the nervous system, always so important in classification,
a general remark may be made respecting a more primitive characteristic of the
nerve-tissue of this animal. Although both ganglia and nerve-stems are present,
still the latter are everywhere accompanied by nerve-cells, which in the ganglia
are more numerous.

The brain is situated close to the front termination of the body, and three
principal pairs of nerves originate from it, one pair forming the sublingual ring, the
others being continued in the longitudinal pedal and longitudinal lateral stems. The
two pedal nerves are united by transverse commissures, such as were noted for
Chiton and Neomenia. In Chiton this was inadequately interpreted as an approach
to what is called in German the Strickleiternerven-system of segmented invertebrates.
Traces of it were found in such lower Mollusks as Haliotis and Fissurella; its
increased complication in the Amphineura nevertheless shows it to be of importance
in determining the phylogenetic affinities of these animals. Moreover Proneomenia
in another important character shows a greater complication, viz. in the presence
of a system of transverse commissures between the lateral and the pedal stems, As
numerous finer branches spring from these transverse commissures, as well as from the
longitudinal stems, a gradual approach is here noticeable towards that form of nervous
system which has been described by Lang for marine flatworms, in which a dendritic
and general anastomose of commissures in the most different directions is present,
and further on to a still more primitive stage, in which even the meshes between
this network of nervous tissue are filled up, and in which a continuous plexus of

ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 675

nervous tissue pervades throughout the body, as some time ago it was found to
exist in Actiniz and in certain Nemerteans.

Lastly, another not unimportant fact may be noticed: viz. that here the three
principal pairs of nerves separately originate from the brain, which is not the case
in the other Amphineura.

The organs of reproduction and of excretion of Proneomenia are in many respects
highly suggestive.

The hermaphrodite gland is situated all dlong the back of the animal; it is very
symmetrical and intrinsically double, The generative products are carried by two
ciliated canals, which are the direct continuation of the double gland, into a cavity,
the pericardium. This pericardium in Mollusks is the representative of the body-
cavity: in Cheetoderma and Neomenia it equally serves as a receptacle for the eggs.
Inside this cavity in all the three genera the heart is situated, and caused the ill-
chosen name of pericardium to be given to this reduced portion of the body-cavity.

Another set of ciliated ducts leads the genital products out of the pericardium
towards the exterior. They are of different diameter and make a double bend.
A paired additional gland which is ramified opens out into them. The terminal
thicker portion of the ducts leading outwards has a high epithelium in which
spherical secretions take their origin, It is marked off by a muscular constriction
from the parts preceding it, and must, as it appears to me, be looked upon as the
renal organ, the kidney, of the animal. Both halves of it coalesce and then open to
the exterior.

In this direct and serial continuity between the three cavities (a) of the genital
gland, () of the pericardium, and (c) of the kidney or nephridium, I believe we have
an important fact before us for the comparative morphology of the Mollusks. Now
we must bear in mind (1) that in the greater number of Mollusks a communication
between the renal organ and the pericardium (?.e. between the nephridium and the
body-cavity) persists. Secondly, that the genital products, which are generally
carried outwards independently, are, on the contrary, evacuated into the cavity of
the kidney in such more primitive Mollusks as Dentaliwm, Fissurella, Patella, and
Spondylus. To me it appears that even this is only a secondary stage, and that the
primitive one was that in which the genital products, being discharged into the body-
cavity, were from thence conyeyed outwards by the ciliated nephridium.

This is, in fact, the arrangement as it still obtains in Proneomenia, and which is
most likely to be found in Cheetoderma and Neomenia as well.

I will only add that the anatomical details, which we have just passed under
review, were none of them studied by direct macroscopic preparation. With
specimens of this rarity it seemed preferable to cut them up into series of sections
which could all of them be preserved, afterwards reconstructing the original shape
by mental combination of the sections. This permits of all the anatomical statements
being submitted to revision or criticism at any time, by the aid of the original
preparations.

5. Report on the Migration of Birds.—See Reports, p. 189.

6. On some Points in the Development of Osmunda regalis (Linn.).
By Cuas. P. Hopxirx, F.L.S.

The object of this paper was to draw attention to the fact that Osmunda re-
gals requires six years to attain its normal development into the perfect spore-
bearing plant. The author showed dried specimens of the various stages of this
development, describing their details, and showing how each year produced a plant
gradually approaching towards the perfect form, and also exhibited a six-year-old
growing plant, producing spores for the first time. He also exhibited a portion of
a barren frond, in which some of the terminal pinne were much constricted in
their development, and bearing spore-cases or thecee on, their margins,

mae oe

676 rEvoRT—1881.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. On the Sense of Colour amony some of the Lower Animals.
By Sir Joun Lusgock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

The author began by recording some elaborate experiments made on a species of
Daphnia, a small freshwater crustacean, with the spectrum. The general result
was that, in opposition to the opinion of M. Paul Bert, while their limits of vision at
the red end are approximately the same as ours, at the violet end they perceive
light which produces no impression on our eyes.

He then proceeded to explain some experiments he had made with hees, in order
to determine whether, and if so how, they are affected by different colours.

The consideration of the causes which have led to the structure and colouring
of flowers is, he said, one of the most fascinating parts of natural history. Most
botanists are now-agreed that insects, especially bees, have played a very important
part in the development of flowers.

While in many plants, almost invariably with inconspicuous blossoms, the pollen
is carried from flower to flower by the wind, in the case of almost all large and
brightly coloured flowers this is effected by the agency of insects. In such flowers
the colours, scent, and honey serve to attract insects, while the size and form are
arranged in such a manner that the insects fertilise them with pollen brought from
another plant.

Nevertheless these views have not escaped criticism. M. Bonnier, for instance,
has attempted to show that they are in many respects untenable.

The author does not propose on the present occasion to follow his general argu-
ment, but merely that portion of it relating to colour.

In order to test whether and how bees are affected by different colours, he tried
the following experiment. He took slips of glass of the size generally used for slides
for the microscope, viz. 3 inches by 1, and pasted on them slips of paper coloured
respectively blue, green, orange, red, white, and yellow. He then put them on a
lawn in a row about a foot apart, and on each put a second slip of glass with a
drop of honey. He also put with them a slip of plain glass with a similar drop of
honey. He had previously trained a bee to come to the spot for honey. His plan
then was, when the bee returned and had sipped about a quarter of a minute, to
remove the honey, when she flew to another slip. This then he took away, when
she went to a third, and so on. In this way he induced her to visit all the drops of
honey successively. When she had returned to the nest, he transposed all the upper
glasses with the honey, and also moved the coloured glasses. Thus, as the drop of
honey was changed each time and also the position of the glasses, neither of these
could influence the selection by the bee.

In recording the results he marked down successively the order in which the bee
went to the different coloured glasses. or instance, in the first journey from the
nest, the bee lit first on the blue, which accordingly he marked 1; when disturbed
from the blue, she flew about a little and then lit on the white; when the white
was removed, she settled on the green; and so successively on the orange, yellow,
plain, and red. He repeated the experiment 100 times; using two different hives,
and spreading the observations over some time, so as to experiment with different
bees, and under varied circumstances.

The precautions taken seem to him to have placed the different colours on an
equal footing ; while the number of experiments appears sufficient to give a fair
average.

He may observe also that the different series agree well among themselves.
The difference between the numbers is certainly striking. Adding together 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, and 7 we get 28 as the total number given by each journey: 100 journeys,
therefore, give, as the tablp shows, a total of 2,800, which divided by 7, would of
course, if no preference were shown, give 400 for each colour, The numbers, how-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 677

ever, are, for the blue, only 275; for the white, 349; yellow, 405; red, 413; green,
427; orange, 440; and plain glass as many as 491.

A second mode of testing the result is to take the percentage in which the bees
went respectively to each colour, first, second, third,and soon ‘The result is shown
in another table. The result was that out of a hundred rounds the bees took blue
as one of the first three in 74 cases, and one of the last four only in 26 cases;
while, on the contrary, they selected the plain as one of the first three only in 25
cases, and one of the last four in 75 cases.

On the whole, then, it seems clear that bees are affected by colour, and that
their favourite colour is blue.

The author ended by some remarks on the comparative paucity of blue flowers,
and expressed the opinion that almost all, if not all, blue flowers had once been
yellow or white.

2. Report of the Committee on the Zoological Station at Naples.—See
Reports, p. 178.

3. Report of the Committee on the Scottish Zoological Station.—See
Reports, p. 177.

4. On our present Knowledge of the Fauna inhabiting British India and its
Dependencies. By W. T. Buanrorp, F.L.S.

The author called attention to the need for works on the geology, botany, and
zoology of British India and its dependencies, especially as regards the second and
third. These are needed, not only for students at home, but for purposes of instruc-
tion in the Indian Colleges ; for if the fauna of India is ever to be thoroughly known,
this result can only be obtained by enlisting the services of a large body of
observers ; and it is in every way desirable that many of these observers should be
natives of the country. But at present the difficulties in the way of natives becom-
ing acquainted with the animals of India are almost insuperable, and the ignorance
that prevails is what might be expected.

Judging from past experience, we may wait an indefinite period before the
necessary series of hand-books will be brought out by private enterprise unassisted
by Government support.

Up to the present time, éxcluding books relating only to Ceylon or to isolated
parts of the British possessions in India, only six works have been published that
can be considered useful text-books for the determination of the Indian fauna.
These books, with their size and date of publication, are the following :—

Giinther’s ‘ Reptiles of British India,’ 1 vol. large 4to, 1864.

Jerdon’s ‘ Birds of India,’ 3 vols. large 8vo, 1862-64,

Jerdon’s ‘Mammals of India,’ 1 vol. large 8vo. 1867.

Hanley and Theobald’s ‘Conchologia Indica’ (plates of land and freshwater
shells only), 1 vol. 4to, 1870-76.

Theobald’s ‘Reptiles of British India,’ 1 vol. large 8vo, 1876.

Day’s ‘ Fishes of India,’ 1 vol. text, 1 vol. plates, 4to, 1875-78.

With the exception of the last-named, all of these works are now inadequate,
either on account of the large additions that have been made to the subjects since
they were published, or from original want of completeness.

The most successful and, in many respects, the best of the text-books named is
Jerdon’s ‘ Birds of India;’ and it is not too much to say that since the appearance
of that work, and, to a very great extent, in consequence of its publication, the
knowledge of the subject has been quadrupled, and the number of observers and
students has increased in even a larger proportion.

From experience it appears that the books most required are works very similar

678 REPORT—1881,

to those of Jerdon already quoted. There is no occasion for very detailed disserta-
tions on habits, distribution, &c., although a condensed account is necessary,
together with sufficient references to enable a student to consult other works on
the subject. Of each species a brief synonymy with the more important references,
a concise description, and a sufficient account of variation, habits, and distribution
should be given, enough to enable a fairly intelligent observer to identify each
species and to learn the principal facts in its history, and to assist those who wish
for further information in consulting the literature of the subject. Synopses or
keys for the determination of families, genera, and species are desirable, and illus-
trations of structure and occasionally of whole animals would be very important
additions. The best illustrations would perhaps be furnished by woodcuts in the
text. The best size for volumes is from 400 to 600 pages. Books are far better
printed in England, and quite as cheaply as in India, whilst all illustrations are
much better and more cheaply executed in the former country.

It is very difficult to ascertain what is the number of Invertebrata known to
occur in India. The vertebrate species can be enumerated with a nearer approach
to accuracy. No attempt has been made to determine the marine Invertebrata.
Taking the ‘red line’ as a limit, and including protected and tributary States such
as Baluchistan, Cashmere and its dependencies, and Nepaul, and adding Ceylon,
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the following is an approximation to the
number of species hitherto described in the various classes and orders named, only
terrestrial and fluviatile Invertebrata being included. A considerable amount of
time has been devoted to these lists, but it is to be feared that, in the case of the
Invertebrata, they are very imperfect. Those marked with a note of interrogation
are, indeed, little more than guesses.

VERTEBRATA.

Number

of species
Mammals ° . . ° . e e 390
Birds . ry ° . e ° ° . : if 650
Reptiles . ° . . . ° . ° 500
Amph ibia . . e e ° . e 100
Fish . e e e : e. e a 1850
3990

Motzvsca (Land and Freshwater only).

Gasteropoda . “ . ° ° ‘ > 900
Lamellibranchiata . ° e ‘ . ° 100

1000
ARTHROPODA.

Insecta.
Coleoptera . ; j 4 A . A780
Hymenoptera. 4 2 - : . 850

Lepidoptera . : : : : . 4620
Diptera. . : ; - c . 500 P
Rhyuchota . . ° . : : 650
Neuroptera . - “ : 5 . : 350
Orthoptera . : : ; : . A 350?
—— 12,100
Myriopoda 5 : c f : A 50?
Avachnida =. ; . : . ; s 120
Crustacea : ; . 5 : : 3 100?
— 270

12,370

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 679

VERMES.

Only about 14 species appear to be recorded; these are Planarians, earthworms,
and leeches.

A list like the above scarcely needs comment. To suppose that in a country
from which between 4,000 and 5,000 species of Lepidoptera have been described
there are not 1,000 Hymenoptera, less than 5,000 Coleoptera, and, above all, scarcely
more than 100 spiders, is absurd. It is evident that our knowledge of the Inverte-
brates of India is of the most rudimentary and imperfect description.

5. On a Fossil Stem from the Halifax Coal-measures. By Tuomas Hick,
B.A., B.Se., and Witt1am Casu, F.G.S.

The stem described is one that has been obtained by Mr. James Binns from
the Lower Coal-measures of Halifax, Yorkshire. Though somewhat flattened on
one side and imperfect on the other, it is sufficiently well-preserved to indicate
that it was originally cylindrical in its general form. It consists of a central pith,
surrounded by a number of slightly wedge-shaped masses of vascular or fibro-
vascular tissue. Outside these masses of tissue, or bundles as they may be called,
is a cambium zone, followed by a comparatively thick cortex. Its whole diameter
is 147 of an inch.

The pith has a parenchymatous structure quite similar to that met with in
recent herbaceous stems and in the youngest shoots of woody perennials.

The vascular tissue surrounds the pith in a narrow zone, and in the transverse
section bears a remarkable resemblance to the Xylem portions of the fibro-vascular
bundles of dicotyledons during the first season of growth. It is composed chietly
of vessels of the barred and dotted types.

The pith and vascular tissue combmed form a central cylindrical axis to the
stem, which has a diameter of ‘056 of an inch.

The cambium layer lies outside the vascular zone, and consists of delicate thin-
walled cells, which again remind us of young dicotyledonous stems and branchlets.
It is not, however, separated from the cortex by the interposition of any ele-
ments having the appearance of phloém.

The cortex is the most characteristic portion of the stem, and differs from any-
thing previously met with in the stems of fossil plants. It is of considerable
thickness compared with the diameter of the central axis, and is, apparently,
entirely cellular. In the middle portion there is a series of large air-spaces, which
run through the stem in a longitudinal direction, and which are destitute of tissue
of any kind. These are separated from one another by thin plates of tissue, one
cell thick, which run in a radial direction from the central axis to the periphery.
In the possession of these air-spaces, and the histological structure of the paren-
chyma that separates them, the fossil agrees very closely with such well-known
aquatic genera as Myriophyllum, Hippuris, Hottonia, Potamogeton. With the
stem of Myriophyllum, indeed, it is almost identical, the radiating plates of paren-
chyma met with in the cortex, exhibiting the same arrangement in both cases, and
being destitute of the numerous anastomoses which are met with in the other
genera. The chief difference between them is in the vascular axis. In the fossil,
this shows the distinction of pith and vascular bundles above-mentioned, but
exhibits no trace of a fibro-vascular bundle-sheath. In Myriophyllum the axis is
composed of a thin-walled cambiform tissue, intermixed with which, in a more or
less irregular manner, are a few spiral vessels, and the whole is enclosed in a well-
defined fibro-vascular bundle-sheath. Though attaching great weight to these
differences, the authors do not regard them as absolutely decisive against the
affinity of the fossil plant with Myriophyllum. They consider it probable that
Myriophyllum and the other. genera referred to are the existing representatives of
plants that were formerly more abundant, and whose tissues were moxe highly

680 REPORT—1881.

differentiated, and which therefore might have had a vascular axis of the character
seen in the fossil under description.

They propose to designate their specimen Myriophylloides Williamsont, in
honour of Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.

6. Notes on Chlamydomyxa. By P. A. GuppEs.

7. On a New Sub-Class of Infusorians. By P. A. GuppEs.

8. On the Improvement of Freshwater Fisheries.
By Lieut.-General Sir James E, Avexanper, Knt., C.B., F.R.S.L.

Endeavours have been made for several years to induce attention to be directed
to the pollution of rivers in Scotland, and the loss of valuble breeding-grounds for
salmon. The Duke of Buccleugh, the Marquis of Lothian, Sir Robert Christison,
Mr. Milne Home, and others co-operated, and the Scotch Fisheries Improvement
Association was instituted. Owing to the extensive manufactures it is difficult to
prevent the pollution of streams. Settling and filtering ponds should be estab-
lished, such as there are at Blanefield Works, at Hawick, &c. Bad state of the
Devon from impurities. Mr. Young, Commissioner of Scotch Salmon Fisheries, re-
commended a close time, the removal of obstructions in rivers, fixed engines in river-
mouths and estuaries, reformation of district boards, and the prevention of poaching.
Mr. Frank Buckland alluded to the confusing salmon legislation, and recom-
mended a single Act. Stake nets should be abolished near the mouths of rivers.
The author describes how the salmon are intercepted on the caulds or weirs of the
Tweed. He approves of the mode of keeping the Teith clear at the Deanstone
works, no sewage being allowed to enter the river. Old fishers state that salmon
live on their own substance in fresh water; this is disputed. The paper notices
Sir James Maitland, a great hatcher, and the fungoid disease in the Tweed.

9. On some Vestiges of the Ancient Forest of part of the Pennine Chain.'
By Josern Lucas.

Nidderdale and its moors have formerly been covered by an extensive forest.
Many trees lie buried in the peat upon the moors, but the birch appears almost
everywhere predominant. Iazel, sealh (willow), thorn, oaks, &c., also occur, but at
a certain elevation above 1,000 feet the birch must have formed an almost universal
cies by itself, such as may be seen on the west coast of Norway at the present

ay.

The upper parts of the Moorland Gills, and much of what is now the moors,
must formerly bave made a beautiful appearance, with its light gauze-like forest of
birch and mountain-ash. The last surviving example on any considerable scale is
preserved in Birk Gill, a tributary of the river Burn. There is no cultivation in
the gill, the bottom of which is 600 feet above sea at its mouth, the gill being 400
feet deep and half a mile wide from ridge to ridge. The belt of wood clothes the
sides for 200 feet, or up to 800 feet at its mouth, and ends where the bed of the
stream reaches 900 feet, in a distance of rather over a mile. The wood consists of
mountain-ash, ash, alder, oak, birch, holly, and thorn, and above 900 feet, the
following stragglers were noted :—Highest living.—M.-ash, 900; alder, 950; salix,
970; birch, 975; holly, highest living tree, 1,000. In Scale Gull, thorn, 1,100;
M.-ash, 1,175. In Barnley Beck, salix, 1,050; thorn, 1,080: birch, 1,125; holly,
1,150; M.-ash 1,150. In Colsterdale, House Gill, M.-ash, 1,150. New House Gill,

1 The subject of the above abstract will be found treated at length in the author’s
Studies in Nidderdale, xiii, and xiv. pp. 107-120. (Thorpe, Pateley Bridge.)

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 681

M.-ash, 1,175. Main Valley of River Burn, thorn 1,175, In Long Gill, birch,
1,175; M.-ash, 1,250. Bakstone Gill, M.-ash, 1,275. Steel House Gill, M.-ash and
bullace, 1,375. River Burn, M.-ash, 1,225. Thorny Grane, M.-ash, 1,200. Deep
Gill, M.-ash, 1,255. The above indicate the highest living tree of any kind in each
case.
Woo Gill, hazel, 1,350; birch, 1,275; salix, 1,875; M.-ash, 1,550.

Now let us compare the above heights with the elevations at which their remains
are found buried in the peat.

Thus the highest living Birches are in Long Gill, 1,175, Barnley Beck, 1,125, and
High Scar Backstone Gill, Nidderdale, 1,100. But birch-stems are found in the peat
up to 1,725 feet, and doubtless higher. The highest living Hazel is in Woo Gill,
1,350 feet, but there was a time when the hazel not only grew but ripened its nuts
at 1,650 feet, on the moor east of Henstone Band at the head of Gate-up Gill.
Here I found buried in the peat hazel-nuts, many of which were bored by a maggot,
proving that the nut came to maturity, and the kernel was eaten out by the worm.

The highest living oaks are two in High Scar, Bakstone Gill, 1,100, and Fox
Crag ditto, one oak, 950. Birk Gill, 900. ‘These are solitary instances, and are all
very small; but there are many oaks in the peat between Blagshaw Gill and
Brown Rigg, 1,000 to 1,250 feet in Nidderdale.

From the remains of the lost forest we can distinguish two zones: that of oaks
up to about 1,200 feet, and that of birches above that level.

Of the valley proper, the birch and thorn covered the upper part of the sides of
the dale, or the ‘edge, while in the bottom there flourished sycamore, ash, holly,
hazel, alder, wych elm, and near the dale-head the heckberry (bird cherry), as
proved by their remains found on the scars, &c.

The peat, which overwhelmed the ancient forests, is not now forming, but on
the whole is now undergoing a process of destruction. Except in the ‘whams’
(swamps), the conditions for its formation do not exist. In summer, on the higher
ranges, the peat becomes very dry and dust-like, when it is swept away by the
strong winds. Near Great Whernside acres together of bare rock have been thus
denuded.

The peat on these moors does not run to a great thickness—about 6 to 8 feet is
the general observation—a fact which reduces our conception of the length of time
required for its formation, and gives some colour to my interpretation of the words
‘shaw’ and ‘ with,’ occurring on these moors.

With (0.-Norsk. Vidr, a wood) does not occur in Nidderdale above Hartwith,
but in Washburndale ‘Blaywith Wham’ (O.-N. Hvammz,a swamp), is over 1,000 feet
on the open moors. Slay means bleak, so the Blaywith Wham would thus mean
‘ Bleak Wood Swamp. There are no trees there now, and there are none at
Grimwith. This raises the curious question, Were there trees there since the Danes
settled in this part? Some light may be thrown upon the answer by the parallel
case of ‘Shaw,’ a wood (0.-N. Shdgr), a word apparently exclusively Danish in this
sense as it is common in Jutish Kent. (O.-N. Skdg7. Swed. Skog, Dan. Skov, a wood.)
The analogous words A.-S. Scua O.-N. Skuggi Dut. Schawe mean shade, shelter.

Shaw, meaning wood, is common in the ballads and Chaucer, as in the beautiful
lines in ‘ Robin Hood ’—

‘Tn somer when the shawes be sheen,
And leves be large and lang.’

It is therefore interesting to note that ‘shaw’ occurs many times on the open
moors, far above the present limits of tree-vegetation. In such positions ‘shaw’
is now generally a boggy or rocky place associated with wet ground.

There are no trees or bushes in Shaw Gill, 1,200 to 1,580 feet, or Shaw Gill Sike
1,150 to 1,400 on Feather Shaw, 1,250, West Shaw, 1,200, Foulshaw Crags, 1,000, or
on Shawsridge near Greenhow Hill. I cannot doubt that trees of some kind gaye
the name to all these places when the Danes took possession of them 1,000 years
ago.

10. Report on the Marine Fauna of the Southern Coast of Devon and
Cornwall.—See Reports, p. 198.

682 REPORT—1881.

DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY.

CHAIRMAN OF THE DEPARTMENT—Professor W. H. FuLoweEr, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.C.S., F.LS., F.G.8., Pres. Z.S. (Vice-President of the Section),

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.

The CHAIRMAN delivered the following Address :—

Ir is. impossible for us to commence the work of this Section of the Association
without haying vividly brought to our minds the loss which has befallen us since
our last meeting—the loss of one who was our most characteristic representative
of the complex science of Anthropology—one who had for many years conducted
with extraordinary energy, amidst multifarious other avocations, a series of re-
searches into the history, customs, and physical characters of the early inhabitants
of our island, for which he was so especially fitted by his archzological, historical,
and literary as well as his anatomical knowledge, and who was also the most
popular and brilliant expositor, to assemblies such as meet together on these occa-
sions, of the results of those researches. I need scarcely say that I refer to
Professor Rolleston.

Within the last few months the study of our subject in this country has
received an impulse from the publication of a book—small in size, it is true, but
full of materials for thought and instruction—the ‘ Anthropology’ of Mr. E. B.
Tylor, the first work published in English with that title, and one very different
in its scope and method from the older ethnological treatises.

The immense array of facts brought together in a small compass, the terseness
and elegance of the style, the good taste and feeling with which difficult and often
burning questions are treated, should give this book a wide circulation among all
classes, and thoroughly familiarise both the word and the subject to English
readers,

The origin and early history of man’s civilisation, his language, his arts of life,
his religion, science, and social customs in the primitive conditions of society, are
subjects in which, in consequence of their direct continuity with the arts and
sciences, religious, political, and social customs among which we all live, by which
weare all influenced, and about which we all have opinions, every person of ordinary
education can and should take an interest. In fact, really to understand all these
problems in the complex condition in which they are presented to us now, we
ought to study them in their more simple forms, and trace them as far as may be
to their origins.

But, as the author remarks, this book is only an introduction to anthropology,
rather than a summary of all that it teaches ; and some, even those that many con-
sider the most important, branches of the subject are but lightly touched upon, or
wholly passed over.

In one of the estimates of the character and opinions of the very remarkable
man and eminent statesman, whose death the country was mourning last spring, it
was stated: ‘ Lord Beaconsfield had a deep-rooted conviction of the vast importance
of race, as determining the relative dominance both of societies and of indivi-
duals ;’1 and with regard to the question of what he meant by ‘race,’ we have a
key in the last published work of the same acute observer of mankind : ‘ Language
and religion do not make a race—there is only one thing which makes a race, and
that is blood.’? Now ‘blood’ used in this sense is defined as ‘kindred; relation by
natural descent from a common ancestor ; consanguinity.’? The study of the true

1 Spectator, April 23, 1881. 2 Endymion, vol. ii. p. 205.
® Webster's Dictionary.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 683

relationship of the different races of men is then not only interesting from a
scientific point of view, but of great importance to statesmanship in such a country
as this, embracing subjects representing almost every known modification of the
human species whose varied and often conflicting interests have to be regulated and
provided for. It is to want of appreciation of its importance that many of the incon-
sistencies and shortcomings of the government of our dependencies and colonies are
due, especially the great inconsistency between a favourite English theory and a too
common English practice—the former being that all men are morally and in-
tellectually alike, the latter being that all are equally inferior to himself in alk
respects: both propositions egregiously fallacious, The study of race is at a low
ebb indeed when we hear the same contemptuous epithet of ‘nigger’ applied
indiscriminately by the Englishman abroad to the blacks of the West Coast of
Africa, the Kaffirs of Natal, the Lascars of Bombay, the Hindoos of Calcutta, the
aborigines of Australia, and even the Maoris of New Zealand !

But how is he to know better? Where in this country is any instruction to be
had? Where are the books to which he may turn for trustworthy information ?
The subject, as I have said, is but slightly touched upon in the last published
treatise on anthropology in our language. The great work of Pritchard, a com-
pendium of all that was known at the time it was written, is now almost entirely .
out of date. In nota single university or public institution throughout the three
kingdoms is there any kind of systematic teaching, either of physical or of any
other branch of anthropology, except so far as comparative philology may be con-
sidered as bearing upon the subject. The one society of which it is the special
business to promote the study of these questions, the Anthropological Institute
of Great Britain and Ireland, is, I regret to say, far from flourishing. An anthropo-
logical museum, in the proper sense of the word, either public or private, does not
exist in this country.

What a contrast is this to what we see in almost every other nation in Europe
At Paris there is, first, the Museum d’ Histoire Naturelle, where man, as a zoological
subject—almost entirely neglected in our British Museum—hasa magnificent gallery
allotted to him, abounding not only in illustrations of osteology, but also in models,
casts, drawings, and anatomical preparations showing various points in his physical
or natural history, which is expounded to the public in the free lectures of the
venerable Professor Quatrefages and his able coadjutor, Dr. Hamy; there is also
the vigorous’Society of Anthropology, which is stated in the last annual report to
number 720 members, showing an increase of 44 during the year 1880, and which
is forming a museum on a most extensive scale; and, finally, the School of Anthropo-
logy, founded by the illustrious Broca, whose untimely death last year, instead of
paralysing, seems to have stimulated the energies of colleagues and pupils into in-
creased activity. In this school, supported partly by private subscriptions, partly
by the public liberality of the Municipality of Paris, and of the Department of the
Seine, are laboratories in which all the processes of anthropological manipulation
are practised by students and taught to travellers. Here all the bodies of persons
of outlandish nationalities dying in any of the hospitals of Paris are dissected by
competent and zealous observers, who carefully record every peculiarity of structure
discovered, and are thus laying the foundation for an exhaustive and trustworthy
collection of materials for the comparative anatomy of the races of man. Here,
furthermore, are lectureships on all the different branches. Biological and ana-
tomical anthropology, ethnology, pre-historic, linguistic, social, and medical an-
thropology are all treated of separately by eminent professors who have made
these departments their special study, The influence of so much activity is spread-
ing beyond the capital. The foundation of an Anthropological Society at Lyons
has been announced within the present year.

In Germany, although there is not at present any institution organised like the
school at Paris, the flourishing state of the Berlin Ethnological Society, which
also reports a large increase in the number of its members, the various other
societies and journals, and the important contributions which are continually being
made from the numerous intellectual centres of that land of learning, all attest the
interest which the study of man excites there. In Italy, in the Scandinavian

684 REPORT—1881.

kingdoms, in Russia, and even in Spain, there are signs of similar activity. A
glance at the recent periodical literature of America, especially the publications of
the Smithsonian Institution, will show how strongly the scientific work of that
country is setting in the same direction.

It is true that a very great proportion of the energies of the societies, institu-
tions, and individuals who cultivate this vast subject are, in all these lands, as it is
indeed to so great an extent in our own, devoted to that branch which borders
upon the old and favourite studies of archeology and geology. The fascinating
power of the pursuit of the earliest traces of man’s existence upon the earth, with
the possibilities of obtaining some glimpses of his mode of origin, is attested in the
devotion seen everywhere in museums, in separate publications, and in journals, to
pre-historic anthropology.

But, though the study of man’s origin and earliest appearances upon the earth, and
that of the structural modifications to which in course of time he has arrived, or
the study of races, are intimately related, and will ultimately throw light upon
one another, I venture to think that the latter is the more pressing of the two, as
it is certainly the more practically important; and hence the necessity for greater
attention to physical anthropology. Inseeking for a criterion upon which to base
our study of races, in looking for essential proofs of consanguinity of descent from
common ancestors in different groups of men, I have no hesitation in saying that
we must first look to their physical or anatomical characters, next to their moral
and intellectual characters—for our purpose more difficult of apprehension and
comparison—and, lastly, us affording hints, often valuable in aid of our researches,
but rarely to be depended upon, unless corroborated from other sources, to lan-
guage, religion, and social customs.

The study of the physical or anatomical character of the races of man is un-
fortunately a subject beset with innumerable difticulties. 1t can only be ap-
proached with full advantage by one already acquainted with the ordinary facts
of human anatomy, and with a certain amount of zoological training. The
methods used by the zoologist in discriminating species and varieties of animals,
and the practice acquired in detecting minute resemblances and differences that
an ordinary observer might overlook, are just what are required in the physical
anthropologist.

As the great problem which is at the root of all zoology is to discover a natural
classification of animals, so the aim of zoological anthropology is to discover a natural
classification of man. A natural classification is an expression of our knowledge of
real relationship, of consanguinity—of ‘blood,’ as the author of ‘ Mndymion’ ex-
presses it. When we can satisfactorily prove that any two of the known groups
of mankind are descended from the same common stock, a pointis gained. The
more such points we have acquired, the more nearly shall we be able to picture to
ourselves, not only the present, but the past distribution of the races of man upon
the earth, and the mode and order in which they have been derived from one
another.

The difficulties in the way of applying zoological principles to the classification
of man are vastly greater than in the case of most animals; the problem being, as
we shall see, one of much greater complexity. When groups of animals become
so far differentiated from each other as to represent separate species, they remain
isolated ; they may break up into further subdivisions—in fact, it is only by further
subdivision that new species can be formed; but it is of the very essence of species,
as now universally understood by naturalists, that they cannot recombine, and so
give rise to new forms. With the varieties of man it is otherwise. They have
never so far separated as to answer to the physiological definition of species. All
races are fertile one with another, though perhaps in different degrees. Hence new
varieties have constantly been formed, not only by the segmentation, as it were, of
a portion of one of the old stocks, but also by various combinations of those already
established.

Neither of the old conceptions of the history of man, which pervaded the
thought, and form the foundation of the works of all ethnological writers up to the

»

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.— DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 685

last few years, rest on any solid basis, or account for the phenomena of the present
condition and distribution of the species.

The one view—that of the monogenist—was that all races, as wesee them now, are
the descendants of a single pair, who, in a comparatively short period of time, spread
over the world from one common centre of origin, and became modified by degrees
in consequence of changes of climate and other external conditions. The other—
that of the polygenist—is that a certain number of varieties or species (no agree-
ment has been arrived at as to the number, which is estimated by different authorities
at from three to twenty or more) have been independently created in different
parts of the world, and have perpetuated the distinctive characters as well as the
geographical position with which they were originally endowed.

The view which appears best to accord with what is now known of the
characters and distribution of the races of man, and with the general phenomena of
nature, may be described as a modification of the former of these hypotheses.

Without entering into the difficult question of the method of man’s first
appearance upon the world, we must assume for it a vast antiquity—at all events
as measured by any historical standard. Of this there is now ample proof. During
the long time he existed in the savage state—a time compared to which the
dawn of our historical period was as yesterday—he was influenced by the operation
of those natural laws which have produced the variations seen in other regions of
organic nature. The first men may very probably have been all alike ; but, when
spread over the face of the earth, and become subject to all kinds of diverse
external conditions—climate, food, competition with members of his own species
or with wild animals—racial differences began slowly to be developed through the
potency of various kinds of selection acting upon the slight variations which
appeared in individuals in obedience to the tendency implanted in all living
things.

Geographical position must have been one of the main elements in determining
the formation and the permanence of races. Groups of men isolated from their
fellows for long periods, such as those living on small islands, to which their
ancestors may have been accidentally drifted, would naturally, in course of time,
develop a new type of features, of skull, of complexion or hair. A slight set in
one direction, in any of these characters, would constantly tend to intensify itself,
and so new races would be formed. In the same way different intellectual or
moral qualities would be gradually developed and transmitted in different groups
of men. The longer a race thus formed remained isolated, the more strongly im-
pressed and the more permanent would its characteristics become, and less liable
to be changed or lost, when the surrounding circumstances were altered, or under
a moderate amount of intermixture from other races—the more ‘true,’ in fact,
would it be, On the other hand, on large continental tracts, where no ‘moun-
tains interposed make enemies of nations,’ or other natural barriers form obstacles
to free intercourse between tribe and tribe, there would always be a tendency
towards uniformity, from the amalgamation of races brought into close relation by
war or by commerce. Smaller or feebler races have been destroyed or absorbed by
others impelled by superabundant population or other causes to spread beyond
their original limits; or sometimes the conquering race has itself disappeared by
absorption into the conquered.

Thus, for untold ages, the history of man has presented a shifting kaleidoscopic
scene ; new races gradually becoming differentiated out of the old elements, and,
after dwelling awhile upon the earth, either becoming suddenly annihilated or
gradually merged into new combinations; a constant destruction and reconstruc-
tion ; a constant tendency to separation and differentiation, and a tendency to com-
bine again into a common uniformity—the two tendencies acting against and modi-
fying each other. The history of these processes in former times, except in so far as
they may be inferred from the present state of things, is a diflicult study, owing
to the scarcity of evidence. If we had any approach to a complete paleonto-
logical record, the history of man could be reconstructed; but nothing of the kind
is forthcoming. Evidences of the anatomical characters of man, as he lived on
the earth during the time when the great racial characteristics were being deyve-

686 REPORT—1881,.

loped, during the long ante-historic period in which the negro, the Mongolian, and
the Caucasian were being gradually fashioned into their respective types, is entirely
wanting, or, if any exists, it is at present safely buried in the earth, perhaps to
be revealed at some unexpected time, and in some unforeseen manner.

It will be observed, and perhaps observed with perplexity by some, that no
definition has as yet been given of the oft-recurring word ‘race.’ The sketch just
drawn of the past history of man must be sufficient to show that any theory imply-
ing that the different individuals composing the human species can be parcelled out
into certain definite groups, each with its well-marked and permanent limits
separating it from all others, has no scientific foundation ; but that, in reality, these
individuals are aggregated into a number of groups of very different value in a
zoological sense, with characters more or less strongly marked and permanent, and
often passing insensibly into one another. The great groupsare split up into minor
subdivisions, and filling up the gaps between them all are intermediate or inter-
calary forms, derived either from the survival of individuals retaining the general-
ised or ancestral characters of a race from which two branches have separated and
taken opposite lines of modification, or from the reunion of members of such
branches in recent times. If we could follow those authors who can classify man-
kind into such divisions as trunks, branches, races and sub-races, each having its
definite and equivalent meaning, our work would appear to be greatly simplified,
although perhaps we should not be so near the truth we are seeking. But being
not yet in a position to define what amount of modification is necessary to consti-
tute distinction of race, I am compelled to use the word vaguely for any consider-
able group of men who resemble each other in certain common characters trans-
mitted from generation to generation.

In approaching the question of the classification of the races of man from a
physical point of view, we must bestow great care upon the characters upon which
we rely in distinguishing one group from another. It is well known in zoology
that the modifications of a single organ or system may be of great value, or may be
quite useless according as such modifications are correlated with others in different
organs or systems, or are mere isolated examples of variation in the economy
of the animal without structural changes elsewhere. The older ornithologists
associated in one order all the birds with webbed feet, and the order thus constituted,
Natatores or Palmipedes, which received the great sanction of Cuvier, still stands
in many zoological compilations. Recent investigations into the anatomy of birds
have shown that the species thus associated together show no other sign of natural
affinity, and no evidence of being derived from the same stock. In fact, there is
tolerably good proof that the webbing of the feet is a merely adaptive character,
developed or lost, present or absent, irrespective of other structural modifications.
In the same way, when anthropology was less advanced than it is now, it was
thought that the distinction between long and short-headed, dolichocephalic and
brachycephalic people, pointed out by Retzius, indicated a primary division of the
human species; but it was afterwards discovered that, although the character
was useful otherwise, it was one of only secondary importance, as the long-headed
as well as the short-headed group both included races otherwise of the strongest
dissimilarity.

In all classifications, the point to be first ascertained is the fundamental plan of
construction ; but in cases where the fundamental plan has undergone but little
modification, we are obliged to make use of what appear trivial characters, and
compensate for their triviality by their number. The more numerous the combi-
nations of specialised characters, by which any species or race differs from its con-
geners, the more confidence we have in theirimportance. The separation of what
is essential from what is incidental or merely superficial in such characters lies at
the root of all the problems of this nature that zoologists are called upon to solve;
and in proportion as the difficulties involved in this delicate and often perplexing
discrimination are successfully met and overcome will the value of the conclusions
be increased. These difficulties, so familiar in zoology, are still greater in the
ease of anthropology. ‘The differences we have to deal with are often very slight;
their significance is at present very little understood. We go on expending time

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 687

and trouble in heaping up elaborate tables of measurements, and minutely
recording every point that is capable of description, with little regard to any con-
clusions that may be drawn from them. It is certainly time now to endeavour, if
possible, to discriminate characters which indicate deep-lying affinity from those
that are more transient, variable or adaptive, and to adjust, as far as may be, the
proper importance to be attached to each.

It is, however, quite to be expected that, in the infancy of all sciences, a vast
amount of labour must be expended in learning the methods of investigation. In
none has this been more conspicuous than in the subject under consideration.
Many have come to despair, for instance, of any good, commensurate with the time
it occupies, coming of the minute and laborious work involved in craniometry.
This is because nearly all our present methods are tentative. We have not yet
learnt, or are only beginning to learn, what lines of investigation are profitable
and what are barren. The results, even as far as we have gone, are, however,
quite sufficient, in my opinion, to justify perseverance. I am, however, not so sure
whether it be yet time to answer the demand, so eager and so natural, which is
being made in many quarters for the formulation of a definite plan of examination,
measurement, and description to which all future investigation should rigidly
adhere. All steps to promote agreement upon fundamental points are to be cor-
dially welcomed, and meetings or congresses convened for such a purpose will be
of use by giving prpcrnalaes for the impartial discussion of the relative value of
different methods ; but the agreement will finally be brought about by the general
adoption of those measurements and methods which experience proves to be the
most useful, while others will gradually fall into disuse by a kind of process of
natural selection.

The changes and improvements which are being made yearly, almost monthly,
in instruments and in methods, show what we should lose if we were to stop at any
given period, and decree in solemn conclave that this shall be our final system,
this instrument and this method shall be the only one used throughout the world,
that no one shall depart from it. We scarcely need to ask how long such an
agreement would be binding. The subject is not sufficiently advanced to be
reduced to a state of stagnation such as this would bring it to,

To take an example from what is perhaps the most importantof the anatomical
characters by which man is distinguished from the lower animals, the superior from
the inferior races of man: the smaller or greater projection forwards of the lower
pe of the face in relation to the skull proper, or that which contains the brain.

rom the time when Camper drew his facial angle, to the present day, the readiest
and truest method of estimating this projection has occupied the attention of ana-
tomists and anthropologists, and we are still far from any general agreement.
Every country, every school, has its own system, so different that comparison with
one another is well-nigh impossible. Thisis undoubtedly an evil; but the question
is whether we should all agree to adopt one of the confessedly defective systems now
in vogue, or whether we should not rather continue to hope for, and endeavour to
find, one which may not be subject to the well-known objections urged against all.

We want, especially in this country, more workers, trained and experienced men
who will take up the subject seriously, and devote themselves to it continuously.
Of such we may say, without offence to those few who have done occasional excel-
lent work in physical anthropology, but whose chief scientific activity lies in other
fields, we have not one. In the last number of the French Revue @ Anthropologie,
a reference caught my eye to a craniometrical method in use by the ‘ English school’
of anthropologists. It was a reference only to a method which I had ventured to
suggest, but which, as far as I know, has not been adopted by anyone else. A
school is just what we have not, and what we want—a body of men, not only
willing to learn, but able to discuss, to criticise, to give their approval to, or reduce
to its proper level, the results put forth by our few original investigators and
writers. The rapidity with which anyone of the most slender pretensions who
ventures into the field (I speak from painful experience) is raised ‘to he an oracle

foes fellows is one of the most alarming proofs of the present barrenness of
the land. :

688 REPORT—1881.

Another most urgent need is the collection and preservation of the evidences
of the physical structure of the various modifications of man upon the earth.
Especially urgent is this now, as we live in an age in which, in a far greater degree
than any previous one, the destruction of races, both by annihilation and absorption,
isgoing on. The world has never witnessed such changes in its ethnology as those
now taking place, owing to the rapid extension of maritime discovery and mari-
time commerce, which is especially affecting the island population among which,
more than elsewhere, the solution of the most important anthropological problems
may be looked for. If we have at present neither the knowledge nor the leisure to
examine and describe, we can at least preserve from destruction the materials for
our successors to work upon. Photographs, models, anatomical specimens, skele-
tons or parts of skeletons, with their histories carefully registered, of any of the
so-called aboriginal races, now rapidly undergoing extermination or degeneration,
will be hereafter of inestimable value. Drawings, descriptions, and measurements
are also useful, though in a far less degree, as allowance must always be made for
imperfections in the methods as well as the capacity of the artist or observer. Such
collections must be made upon a far larger scale than has hitherto been attempted,
as, owing to the difficulties already pointed out in the classification of man, it is
only by large numbers that the errors arising from individual peculiarities or
accidental admixture can be obviated, and the prevailing characteristics of a race
or group truly ascertained. It is only in an institution commanding the resources
of the nation that such a collection can be formed, and it may therefore be confi-
dently hoped that the trustees of the British Museum will appropriate some por-
tion of the magnificent new building, which has been provided for the accommoda-
tion of their natural history collections, to this hitherto neglected branch of the
subject.

IT have mentioned two of the needs of anthropology in this country—more
workers and better collections: there is still a third—that of a society or institution
in which anthropologists can meet and discuss their respective views, with a journal
in which the results of their investigations can be laid before the public, and a
library in which they can find the books and periodicals necessary for their study.
All this ought to be provided by the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain
and Ireland, which originated in the amalgamation of the old Ethnological and
Anthropological Societies. But, as I intimated some time ago, the Institute does
not at the present time flourish as it should; its meetings are not so well attended
as they might be; the journal is restricted in its powers of illustration and print-
ing by want of funds; the library is quite insufficient for the needs of the student.

This certainly does not arise from any want of good management in the Society
itself. Its affairs have been presided over and administered by some of the most
eminent and able men the country has produced. Huxley, Lubbock, Busk, Evans,
Tylor, and Pitt-Rivers have in succession given their energies to its service, and
yet the number of its members is falling away, its usefulness is crippled, and its
very existence seems precarious. Some decline to join the Institute, others leave
it, upon the plea that, being unable from distance or other causes to attend the
meetings, they cannot obtain the full return for their subscriptions ; others on the
ground that the Journal does not contain the exact information which they re-

uire.

3 There surely is to be found a sufficient number of persons, influenced by
different considerations, who feel that anthropological science is worth cultivating,
and that those who are laboriously and patiently tracing out the complex problems
of man’s diversity and man’s early history are doing a good work, and ought to be
encouraged by having the means afforded them of carrying on their investigations
and of placing the results of their researches before the world—who feel, more-
over, that there ought to be some central body, representing the subject, which
may, on occasion, influence opinion or speak authoritatively on matters often of great
practical importance to the nation.

There must be many in this great and wealthy country who feel that they
are helping a good cause in joining such a society, even if they are not individu-
ally receiving what they consider a full equivalent for their small subscription—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 689

many who feel satisfaction in helping the cause of knowledge, in helping to remove
the opprobrium that the British Anthropological Society alone of those of the
world is lacking in vitality, and in helping to prevent this country from falling
behind all the nations in the cultivation of a science in which for the strongest
reasons it might be expected to hold the foremost place. It is a far more grateful
task to maintain, extend, and if need he improve, an existing organisation, than to
construct a new one. I feel, therefore, no hesitation in urging upon all who take
interest in the promotion of the study of Anthropology to rally round the Institute,
and to support the endeavours of the present excellent President to increase its
usefulness,

The following Report and Paper were read :—

1. Report on the Exploration of the Caves of the South of Ireland.
See Reports, p. 218.

2. On the Stature of the Inhabitants of Hungary,
By Dr. Brpvos, F.R.S,

The paper was based mainly on the facts gotten by Kbrési and by Scheiber, of
Bucharest, from the national recruiting statistics. The writer, from Kérdsi’s
data, estimated the average stature of the fully grown Hungarian soldier at about
1,668 millimétres, or 5 feet 52 inches English. There is a good deal of difference
between the several races included in the returns, the Germans and Croats, for
‘example, being taller than the Magyars and Roumanians. The citizens of Budae
pesth, Stuhlweissemburg, and Raab are taller than the neighbouring country-folks,
at least Scheiber found it so at the age of twenty. Similarly Quetelet found the
townsmen taller in Belgium, but in England the reverse is the case. In five
western counties (including Pesth), where the population is mainly Magyar, the
mean stature at 25 years may be estimated at 5 feet 5:2 inches,

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Viking’ s Ship, discovered at Sandefjord in Norway, 1880.!
By J. Harris Stove, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.8.

The writer paid several visits to the ship and carefully examined her. -He
also took four photographs of portions of the vessel. These, with diagrams made
from them, were exhibited to the Section.

The paper professes to be nothing more than an account of the vessel, prepared
after the writer's visits.

After alluding to the good state of preservation in which the vessel was found,
and fixing—as near as possible—the probable date, by referring briefly to the Viking
period, the writer shortly alludes to the Frithiof Saga, giving a few extracts
which bear upon ships for the purpose of showing (1) the feeling of the period
towards these vessels, and (2) also as explaining the careful and thorough work-
manship so clearly evinced in this Sandefjord vessel.

The writer states the reason why the vessel was found in a mound, namely
that a Viking was buried in her, and describes the sepulchral chamber.

The galleys depicted in the Bayeux tapestry were alluded to, and their shape
compared with that of this vessel.

1 A full account of the vessel, by the same writer, appeared in the November
number of Good Words for 1881.

1881. YY

690 REPORT—1881.

The remaining portion of the paper is occupied by a descriptive account of the
vessel generally, each part separately, the loose articles which were found in the
sepulchral chamber, and those which were found in the mound around the vessel.

2. On Excavations in the Earthwork called Danes’ Dyke at Flamborough,
and on the Earthworks of the Yorkshire Wolds. By Major-General
Pirt-Rivers, F.R.S. (formerly Colonel Lane-Fox).

General Pitt-Rivers showed, by means of a large map, that many of the en-
trenchments on the Wolds and north of the Derwent Valley appeared to have
formed part of a connected system for the defence of the ground from the west-
ward. Ist. The entrenchment known as the Danes’ Dyke, which cuts off Flam-
borough Head, was obviously an entrenchment intended to secure the promontory
from an attack from the west. Next the Argam Dyke was a work parallel to the
last, and probably formed the next position which the invaders took up as they
advanced inland. The North Wolds are fortified by an entrenchment which runs
along the top of the chalk escarpment overlooking the Derwent Valley, and several
entrenchments on the North and South Wolds run along the hills in a position to
command the valleys to the westward. On the oolite hills to the north of the
Derwent Valley there are numerous ravines which run southward into the valley,
and some of them are fortified by entrenchments on their eastern brow, which
proved that the defenders of the district anticipated an attack from the west.
General Pitt-Rivers made a cutting through the Danes’ Dyke, to ascertain if possible
the date of its construction, and in so doing found evidence of the manufacture of
flint implements, both before and after the construction of the entrenchment.
Close beneath the top of the rampart he found a large number of flint flakes, lying
in a horizontal position just beneath the surface soil, in a position to prove that
the defenders must have worked flints on the bank after it had been made. As many
as 827 flakes and artificially formed chips of flint were found in this position,
This result shows that the dyke was not later than the Bronze Period, that is to
say, the period of the tumuli on the Wolds, which Canon Greenwell has shown to
have belonged to the Early Bronze Age—an age in which flint continued to be used
for many ordinary purposes. The question as to where the invaders came from, if in-
yaders they were, was influenced by the consideration that the Karly Bronze Age does
not appear to have existed in Denmark, and if the invaders came from there, some
isolated specimens of bronze implements analogous to those found in Denmark
would certainly have been found in the Wolds, instead of the simple triangular dagger
and axe-head, which is rarely found in Denmark. The idea that the dykes were:
made by Anglian invaders, however natural it at first sight appeared, must
therefore, as the result of these diggings, be given up. The paper was illustrated
by a section of the Danes’ Dyke to scale, showing the positions of the objects found
in it.

3. On the Application of Composite Portraiture to Anthropological purposes.
By Francis Gauron, F’.R.S.

The author exhibited a composite picture of eight skulls of male Andaman
Islanders. They had been successively mounted under the instruction of Mr.
Flower, upon a rod passing through the occipital foramen, with the base of the
skull at right angles to the rod. Each portrait represented one of the skulls in
exact profile, with the light falling upon it from the same side. The separate
portraits were combined into a single composite by the author's new instrument,
described in the ‘Photographic Journal’ of last June, and exhibited in the Loan
Museum during the meeting. The portraits were successively adjusted by the
images of three fiducial lines. Thus the front edge of the image of the rod in each
portrait was adjusted to a vertical line, and the base of the condyle to a horizontal
one, in order to regulate the position of the skull, and the point of intersection of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 691

the roof of the skull with the vertical line was made to accord with a second hori-
zontal line, in order to get uniformity of scale. The author referred to numerous
composites illustrating the physiognomy of disease, made by himself and Dr.
Mahomed, which were exhibited in the Loan Collection, as testifying to the applic-
ability of the process to various anthropological purposes, including the pictorial
definition of races. With the aid of the new instrument composites could be made
by him much more exactly and easily than had been possible before. The process
produces true anthropological averages, It gives an average face by a single set
of operations, between the features of which any number of cross measurements
can be made. It deals with averages of shading that can hardly otherwise be
dealt with, and it gives a picture at once, instead of data whence a picture may be
plotted. Lastly, it affords an excellent test whether any given series is generic or
not ; for when the portraits in the series make a good and clear composite it shows
that medium values are much more frequent than extreme values, and therefore
that the series may be considered a generic one; otherwise it is certainly not
generic.

4, Account of the Discovery of Sia Ancient Dwellings, found wnder and near
to British Barrows on the Yorkshire Wolds. By J. R. Mortimer.

Dwelling No. 1 is in connection with barrow No. 100, group 5, in the author's
openings, and is situated at the eastern end of the barrow, which is of the long type.
Its depth from the base of the mound was 64 feet, with a floor surface of 94 feet
by 7} feet, and it was entered by two inclining passages, 24 feet in length; the
northern one being cut by the side trench of the barrow, showing in this case that
the construction of the dwelling had preceded the excavation of the trench, and
was therefore older than the barrow. In the material filling the dwelling and its
passages were many streaks of burnt wood, a human femur, portions of an urn,
and many animal. bones, all probably the residue of feasting. A little distance
from the dwelling were portions of three more dish-shaped urns, and traces of
interments.

Dwelling No. 2 was situated within 30 ft. of an oval barrow, in which were
cremated interments. It resembled the previous one in having two entrance-
passages, and much burnt wood, indicating likewise its destruction by fire.

Nos. 5 and 4 are of a somewhat simpler kind than the preceding ones, having
no entrance-passages. They consist of nearly circular excavations in the rock,
from 33 to 43 feet in depth, and from 7 feet to 84 feet in diameter, in which were
found bones of the red deer and the urus.

No. 5 is of an entirely different type from those previously named: it bad
consisted of an inner and an outer circle of upright posts, measuring in diameter
21} and 28 feet respectively, the impressions of which were well-preserved, and
show that some had heen pointed and driven into the ground, whilst others had been
placed in holes dug into the ground with their thick ends downwards, and in some
cases extending 2 feet to 5 feet upwards into the body of the mound. In the
centre of the two circles was an oyal grave, cut 4 feet into the rock, and containing
the flexed human remains of a large male. In front of his face lay a crushed food-
vase, and close to his left shoulder was a perforated axe-hammer. Clayey matter
covered the grave, and extended to the outer circle of post-holes. “This was
believed to be the residue of the sides of the dwelling, in the centre of which its
owner was interred, and afterwards the walls were pushed down over the grave
and covered with a mound, The author suggests that the space between the two
circles of uprights might have been used for storing heads of grain, and other pro-
visions for winter use, at a time when, probably, man’s dwelling was the only
building he possessed for all purposes.

No. 6 resembles the last, and was found under barrow No. 41. Here also was
a circular bed of a clayey nature, 15 feet in diameter, and with stake-holes nearly
all round its margin. These stake-holes reached from 12 to 18 inches into the
ground under the barrow, and in three cases 5 feet upwards into the body of the
mound, Small branches of oak, ash, maple, and other trees, thought to be the

Y_Y2

692 REPORT—1881.

remains of the wattled sides of the hut, had left their impressions in the circular
bed of clayey matter, some of which showed cuts made with the axe and the
saw, seemingly of metal. The dropping from the eaves of this hut had stained the
ground all round with colouring from the thatch of the roof, which probably was
the straw of wheat, as the author possesses carbonised grains of this cereal from
the primary interment of an undoubted British barrow near. Unlike the previous
dwelling, the occupier had not been interred within the walls of this circle, but
just a few feet outside, towards the rising sun. The bones were accompanied by a
delicately formed flint knife lying close to the right arm, and a finely ornamented
food vase near the head. As in the previous case the dwelling had been crushed
down at the time of interment, and carefully covered with the barrow, showing
but a step between the habitation of the living and the house of the dead.

5. On the Origin and Use of Oval Tool-stones. By W. J. KNow.us.

The author stated that the use of oval tool-stones was not clearly understood,
Sir William Wilde, in the Catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy, defines them as
oval or egg-shaped stones, more or less indented on one or both surfaces. He states
that their use is problematical, and that they were ‘denominated Tihuggersteens
by the Northern antiquaries, who consider them chippers of flint or stone, and
believe that in working they held them between the finger and thumb applied to
these side cavities.’ Sir John Lubbock, in ‘ Prehistoric Times,’ gives a somewhat
similar account of them, and states that it is very doubtful whether they really
belong to the Stone Age. Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., states in his Presidential
Address to the Anthropological Institute on January 29, 1878, when referring to
a case where one was found with flint scrapers and other objects, that ‘if it could
be proved that they were contemporaneous he would more readily accept the scrapers
as being of the Age of Iron, than the tool-stones as belonging to that of Stone.’
The author has found a few of these tool-stones with flint objects in the sandhills
of Portstewart and Ballintoy, in the North of Ireland, and on one occasion he dug
up half of a tool-stone closely associated with flint scrapers, flakes, hammer-stones,
and cores at Ballintoy. He had frequently found stones with roughened and indented
spots, which appeared to be oval tool-stones in an early stage of formation. In the
sandhills of Dundrum, county Down, he obtained several of these among the flint
objects; but during the summer of 1880, when excavating a spot which must have
been the site of an ancient dwelling-place, he dug up a very perfect stone hatchet
seven inches long, two flint knives, several scrapers, hammer-stones, and cores, and
among these a stone of the tool-stone class having one central pitted spot. The
finding of this pitted stone in such close proximity to cores, hammer-stones, and
flakes, caused the author to believe that the flint implement-makers must have
supported their cores or blocks of flint on a stone anvil, when about to dislodge flakes,
by striking with the hammer-stone, and that such an operation constantly repeated
would produce the pits on the anvil. This idea was confirmed by a similar anvil-
stone of larger size, with hammer-stones, flakes, and cores, being turned out during
excavations which the Marchioness of Downshire afterwards had made in Dundrum
Sandhills, and he believed that the anvil-stone was just as necessary a part of the
stock-in-trade of the flint implement-maker as the hammer-stones and cores. At
Ballintoy, on a subsequent occasion, he obtained another of these anvil-stones, which
had been split, and both in this one and several other broken specimens in the author's
collection the split ran through the centre of the depression. In making an experi-
ment to see the effect of repeatedly hammering at a core resting on a stone anvil,
the author produced a pit in the anvil-stone identical in appearance with that on
the tool-stones, but on continuing the operation the stone split exactly through the
centre of the pit. He therefore believed that it was owing to repeated blows on
the same spot that the stones had split through the centre.

In the author's collection of tool-stones the pits vary from mere roughening of
the surface to deep cup-shaped hollows nearly meeting in the centre. In one speci-
men, which had been excavated and found to be in connection with flint flakes and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 693

cores, scratches are visible, showing how the core had jerked from the pitted part
in the centre towards the circumference. He believed that the forming of pits by
the operation of striking off flakes had given the idea of boring, and that many of
the stone hammers had been bored in this way.

The author was of opinion that, if we conceive the idea that the tool-stones are
anyils, there is no necessity for confining their use to any age. If they were of the
Stone Age it was possible, and even likely, their use would descend to the age of
Iron. He referred to a stone which he had seen in the Christy Collection in Lon-
don some time ago, sticking in a mass of breccia, composed chiefly of flint flakes and
fragments of broken bones, which had been brought from one of the rock shelters
in France. This stone had a cup-shaped depression like the tool-stones. At the
time he did not understand its use, but he had now no hesitation in saying that he
believed it to be an anvil-stone, and that we must, therefore, carry back the use of
the tool-stone, not only to the Stone Age, but to a very early Stone Age.

6. On the Discovery of Flint Implements in stratified gravel in the Nile
Valley, near Thebes. By Major-General Pirr-Rivers, F.R.S. (for-
merly Colonel Lane-Fox).

General Pitt-Rivers visited Thebes in March 1881, and examined the gravel in
the Nile Valley, to ascertain if the remains of flint implement manufacture could be
found in it. He found flint flakes in the banks of the wady which runs down
from the Tombs of the Kings. The section here shows 3 feet 9 inches of gravel on
the top, composed of sub-angular and rounded stones of chert and limestone, then
a seam of hard mud, and below that gravel again. The flakes were chiefly found
beneath the seam of mud. This gravel had become so hard in Egyptian times that
they were able to cut flat-topped tombs in it, supported by square pillars dried hard,
which had retained the sharpness of the edges to the present day. Skulls and the
remains of mummies and pottery were found in them, and some of the flint flakes
were chiselled out of the sides of these tombs. The tombs, judged by the pottery found
in them, have been pronounced by competent Egyptologists to be not later than
the XVIII. dynasty and perhaps earlier, proving very great age for the formation
of the gravel in which the tombs were cut. So long as the finds of flint implements
were confined to the surface, doubts as to their contemporaneity with Egyptian
Civilisation might be fairly mooted, but the results of this discovery place beyond
doubt the fact of their being of much earlier date. The paper was illustrated by
plans and sections drawn to scale and showing the position of the flints.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Anthropometric Committee.—See Reports, p. 225.
2. On a Collection of Racial Photographs. By J. Park Harrison, M.A.

3. On Scandinavian and Pictish Customs on the Anglo-Scottish Border.
By Dr. Punné, F.S.A., F.R.G.S.
After adverting to the persistent retention of curious customs, and the handing

down from generation to generation the traditionary lore of ages long past, the
author referred to some of those which were corroborated by ancient monuments of

694 REPORT—1881.

an unusual kind still famous on the Scottish border. These consisted of sculptured
stones, earthworks, and actual ceremonies.

Quoting from former writers, from family pedigrees, and other documents, it was
shown that the estates to which pertained such strange matters as follow, had been
held alternately by those claiming under the respective nationalities, or more local
ina and these, from their natural defensive features, must have been places of

order importance earlier than history records.

The district is occupied by the descendants—often still traceable—of Danes,
Jutes, Frisians, Picts, Scots, Angles, and Normans; and by a comparison of several
of the languages of these people, as well ancient as now existing, and also of the
Gothic, it was shown in relation to a particular class of the most curious monu-
ments, that the Norse ‘ormr,’ Anglo-Saxon ‘vyrm,’ old German ‘ wurm,’ Gothic
‘vatirms,’ pronounced like our word worm; and the word ‘lint’ or ‘lind,’ also
German, and the Norse ‘linni,’ are all equivalent, and mean serpent; and in some
cases the two words are united as in the modern German ‘ lindwurm,’ and the Danish
and Swedish ‘lindorm.’ On this apparently rested the names of some of the places
having these strange traditions, as Linton or serpent-town, Wormiston or worm’s
(ormr’s) town, Lindisfarne, the Farne-serpent island, now Holy Island, &c., and
also the various worm-hills, or serpent-mounds, of those localities.

It was curious that the contest (like that of St. George) was sometimes with
two dragons, as shown on a sculptured stone in Linton Church, Roxburghshire, and
on a similar stone at Lyngby in Denmark, in the churchyard, where there was a
tradition that two dragons had their haunt near the church.

From these and other facts, the author concluded that the contests were inter-
national, and in the case of two dragons, an allied foe, either national, religious,
or both, was overcome. He showed from the Scottish seals that Scotland used
the dragon as an emblem, apparently deriving it from the Picts. That the Scandi-
navians also used it, and that these nationalities were antagonistic to the Saxon.

In the time of David the First of Scotland, the first great centralisation of
Saxon power took place, and the powerful family of the Cumyns obtained, apparently
by conquest, at least two of the localities having these strange traditions. Further,
as the political object was to suppress the Celtic and Scandinavian, or other local
national feeling, there could be little doubt that, however they obtained them, the per-
sons dispossessed were of one or other of the Northern tribes. Hence, probably the
middle-age tradition of the slaying of the serpent or dragon, or the serpent or dragon
bearer, on the Anglo-Scottish border. But he considered such traditions would
hardly have originated through such conquests, had not previous marvellous stories
existed of the prowess and conquest by the dragon (bearers) of the lands they in-
vaded, all the wonders of which would be transferred to the conqueror’s conqueror.
Hence these stories were not to be set aside with a sneer, as in them was a germ of
history, giving us, perhaps, the only insight we could obtain of the prehistoric
customs and mythology of some of the ancient tribes of Britain. Earthen mounds,
tumuli, standing stones, &c., still existed in some of these localities, with all of
which the dragon, serpent, or worm was associated in the legends.

The author then described his personal experiences in the still existing dragon
ceremonies in the south of France and Spain, which were always either on the
present national or former less important provincial frqntiers, and which still formed
the subjects of great ecclesiastical ceremonies.

One of the high ecclesiastical dignitaries of the North of England—the Bishop of
Durham—is in the position of having to take part in such aceremony. Whenever a
bishop of that diocese enters the manor of Sockburn for the first time, the Lord of
the Manor, who holds under the see of Durham, subject to the following tenure, has
to present the bishop, ‘in the middle of the river Tees, if the river is fordable, with the
falchion wherewith the champion Conyers destroyed the worm, dragon, or fiery flying
serpent, which destroyed man, woman, and child’ in that district, and an ancient
altar, called ‘ Greystone,’ still marks where the dragon was buried.

The subject was illustrated with views of all the places referred to, on the
Anglo-Scottish, French, and Spanish border countries, as well as drawings of the
sculptures, funereal urns, and other antiquities belonging to each locality.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 695

4, On some Objects recently exhumed in Britain, of apparently Phenician
origin. By Dr. Puent, F.S.A., FR.GLS.

The places at or near which the objects were discovered were described as
having in one case natural, in the other artificial, hillocks or tumuli of earth or
stone simulating rude animal outlines. One of the localities was the vicinity of
Dartmoor, the other that of the great serpentine mound, containing a chamber in
the head, found by the author some years since not far from Loch Etive. In the
first—Newton Abbot in Devonshire—had been found, some years since, at a depth
of 25 feet below the surface, leaning against a prostrate oak tree, equally deeply
buried, a rudely carved black oak figure, under two feet in height; at the last—
North Ballachulish—a similar figure, nearly five feet high, including an attached
pedestal. As to the simulation of animal forms, natural and artificial, both were
referred to in America and in France, and in or near them in each such case had
also been found figures somewhat similarly designed, but not in wood. But there
were still existing figures in wood and stone of almost identical sizes and outlines
in places long held by the Phoenicians, as Minorca, &c. A remarkable ‘piece of
evidently Assyrian sculpture, found in Lord Mount-Edgecumbe’s estate in Devon-
shire, lent further probability, from its locality being known as that of once
Pheenician occupation, and necessarily of importation in exchange for export tin, that
the object at Newton Abbot was made or imported by those people; and the bronze
head of a cow found ina bog in Ireland, having the Phenician emblems upon it,
seemed a further example of importation by them. The figure at North Ballachulish
had a clearly Oriental feature. The eyes were formed of white stone inserted in the
‘dark oak or ebony, and a recess at the base of the firure seemed evidently formed for
a reliquary, and, with the sign of a crescent on the head, was pointed out by the
author as a proof of its being an object for worship. This figure was also found
at a depth from the surface, indicating a date as far back as the Phcenician traffic.
The thickness of peat under which it lay has been estimated at 12 feet. It was
shown that North Ballachulish and Newton Abbot were both secure and therefore
valuable harbours, and the gold of Sutherland and tin of Devon were a sufficient
inducement to attract Phoenician traders. Drawings of all the objects were
exhibited,

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 4,

The following Papers were read :—

1. Notes on the Geographical Distribution of Mankind.
By Miss A. W. Bucxuanp.

Commenting upon the fact that the Geographical Distribution of Man has not
occupied the attention of naturalists so much as that of plants and animals, Miss
Buckland quoted the ‘ Encyclopedia of Geography, published in 1834, to show that,
although great advances have been made in Anthropological research since the
formation of the British Association, the problems of fifty years ago remain ua-
solyed. Ethnologists are still divided into monogenists and polygenists, and
although at present the monogenist theory is in the ascendant, little has yet been
done towards the discovery of the original birthplace of the human species, or of
that semi-human progenitor depicted by Darwin.

The origin of the black, the white, and the yellow races, distinctly depicted
on Egyptian monuments five thousand years ago, remains undiscovered ; whilst in
almost every island of the Pacific may be found traces of one or more vanished
races, differing from the two distinct peoples at present inhabiting them. The
Australians form another separate race, which has been connected by Professor
Huxley with the hill tribes of India, and also with the ancient Egyptians; but

696 REPORT—1881.

how and at what period they reached their present isolated position remains a.
geographical and ethnological puzzle. The Australians seem also to bear a re-
semblance to the earliest known men of Europe, in the form of the skull and the
great prominence of the brow-ridges ; but here also two races present themselves
almost contemporaneously. These are known, from the form of the skull, as the
dolicocephalic or long-headed, and the brachycephalic or round-headed races ; and
the researches of the late Dr. Broca seem to prove the former to have been un--
doubtedly the most ancient. The Paleolithic Age is divided into two periods—
that of the Mammoth and that of the Reindeer. It is the men of the first period
who resemble the Australians, whilst those of the reindeer period are identified by
many anthropologists with the Esquimaux, and these are supposed to have been
driven out by a brachycephalic race, bringing with them Neolithic weapons, a
knowledge of agriculture, &c. The Paleolithic men are supposed to have come
from Africa, whilst the Neolithic are traced by M. de Mortillet to Asia; but how
and where the two types originated we cannot say. Madame Royer believes that
brachycephaly arises from an increase of brain-development; but the Anda-
manese,.a very low race, are brachycephalic. M. Hovelacque points out that the
anthropoid apes of Africa are dolicocephalic, whilst those of Asia aré round-
headed, thus suggesting a local origin for the two forms of skull. The dispersion
of these yarious races over the world was formerly accounted for by supposed ex--
tensions of existing land masses, and the existence of a submerged continent in
the Pacific ; but the researches of the Challenger have led Mr. Wallace and others
to the conclusion that this continent never existed, and although certain extensions.
of existing lands are allowed, these alterations are supposed to have taken place
long before the advent of man upon the earth. Thus the peopling of oceanic
islands is left to chance, which, in the case of Australia, is rendered more difficult
from the slight acquaintance of the natives with navigation, and from the fact of
their differing in race from the Papuans and Tasmanians. Miss Buckland there-
fore believes that either some comparatively recent land connection with Africa or
Asia must have existed, at present undiscovered, or that the antiquity of man must
be extended to Miocene times, at which period Australia received its present fauna
and flora by direct land connection with Asia.

In conclusion Miss Buckland looks upon the problems propounded by Latham
in the 8th edition of the ‘Encyclopedia Britannica,’ as to the unity, the geo-

graphical origin, the antiquity, and the futurity of mankind, as still awaiting
solution.

2. On the Papuans and the Polynesians. By C. StantbanD WAKE.

The author, after referring to the classification of the Oceanic Races made by
Mr. Keane, proceeded to show the diversity of type presented by the Papuans,
and also the great difficulty there is in fixing the race-character of the Polynesians.
It was pointed out that the Polynesians and Papuans have various features in
common, such as the beard, the full and expressive eye, and often a long and aquiline
nose, and that the latter exhibit certain Caucasian features more strongly than the
former. These are the prominent eyebrows, and great development of the general
pilous system, which Dr. Topinard refers to as special characteristics of the Austra~
lian race, and which are not uncommon in individuals among the peoples of Western
Europe. From this we must assume that, if the Polynesians belong to the so-
called Caucasian stock, the Papuans must also be Caucasians ; the latter, however,
approaching more nearly the Semitic branch and the former the Aryan branch.
The causes of the differences between the Polynesians and the Papuans were then
considered. The primitive stock from which both have sprung is probably now
represented by the Australian race, which had formerly a much wider extension
than at present, as its special characteristics before mentioned are possessed by the
Melanesian and Papuan races, and also by the Ainos and Todas. The presence
of two types among the Australians shows that they are not a pure race, and
probably they exhibit the influence of a Negrito element, which exists also
among the Papuans and the Melanesians, and perhaps even among the Malays.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 697

The existence in the Malay Archipelago and in New Guinea of peoples interme-
diate between the Papuans and Polynesians was then mentioned, the frizzly hair
which those peoples and the Papuans possess being explained as due to the pre-
sence of a Negrito element. The Jewish features of some of the Papuans, which
are often met with also among the Polynesians, is the result of Semitic influence.
The fundamental type of both Polynesians and Papuans was straight-haired and
long-headed, and might be called Austral-Caucasian. Reference was made to
various arts, habits, and customs, and also to language, as confirming the conclu-
sion thet the Polynesians and Papuans are sprung from a common stock, although
the latter have been largely affected by crossing with the Negrito race, and by
the influence of an early Asiatic migration; and the former have been as largely
affected by contact with a more modern Asiatic people, now represented by the
Malays, both races having been further influenced by the intermixture of Arab and
Indian blood, but the Papuans more especially,

3. On Excavations in a camp called Ambresbury Banks in Epping Forest.
By General Pirr-Rivers, F'.R.S. (formerly Colonel Lane-Fox).

This investigation has been conducted under the auspices of the Epping Forest
Naturalists’ field club. General Pitt-Rivers first drew attention, by means of an
imaginary section, to the evidence to be derived from cuttings through the ramparts
of camps, which he said was of a very definite and reliable character; all objects
found on the old surface line beneath the ramparts being of the age of the earthwork.
The result proved, by means of fragments of pottery and other small objects, that
this camp is British or Romano-British, that is, British before or after the Roman
conquest. The paper was illustrated by a plan and section of the camp.

4.-On the Relation of Stone Circles to Outlying Stones or Tumuli or
Neighbouring Hills, with some inferences therefrom. By A. L. Lewis.

The author, from an examination of eighteen stone circles in Southern Britain,
showed that their builders had in various ways made special references to different
points of the compass, but most particularly to the N.H. He then showed, from a
number of independent sources, ranging from the Prophet Ezekiel down to a foreign
correspondent of the ‘ Daily News,’ that other ancient structures had similar references,
kmown to have arisen in connection with times and seasons, and various forms of
nature-worship ; that practices connected with such worship, and especially with
sun and fire worship, have come down, even in this country, to the present time ;
and that circular buildings and open circles have been and are used for worship of
this kind, and inferred from these facts that the British stone circles were used for
sun-worship probably in the Druidic period. He then dwelt on the references to
the N. and E. in the orientation of English churches, which he thought to be
derived from the references to those quarters in the circles, as the Roman Catholic
churches, whether in Rome or London, are not so placed, and he gave some curious
details on this point. He concluded by drawing attention to the firm root taken by
Christianity in the Druidie countries of Gaul and Britain, and the great influence
exercised by those countries in the later Roman Empire, and especially in the
establishment of Christianity as the State religion.

5. Notes on some specimens of Saw-cuts and Drill-holes in hard Stones of
Primeval Egyptian period. By W. Furnvers Perrin.

While examining the constructions of the earliest Egyptian period, many proofs
appeared of the methods of cutting hard stones, such as granite, diorite, basalt, &c.
The tools appear to have been of bronze, with jewelled cutting edges, probably

698 REPORT—1881.

of beryl or crystallised corundum (coarse ruby), as quartz is incapable of doing the
work. The forms were straight saws and probably circular saws, and certainly
tube-drills, like the modern diamond crown-drill. All these were about 15 hun-
dredths of an inch thick, and the drills from ;4ths to 5 inches diameter. The
cutting was rapid, advancing 1 inch in diorite with 27 feet of motion. The
pressure and tractive force was very great (certainly many ewts.), the cutting
edges having in a single motion scored out grooves ;4; inch deep in the sides of a
cut in diorite. Thus altogether the method was more like that of a modern
planing tool than like the grinding cut of a lapidary’s wheel. The sarcophagi
were usually sawn outside, and hollowed by rows of drill-holes.

The examples exhibited comprised casts of saw-cuts and drill-holes made by erro-
neous work on granite sarcophagi, saw-cuts and drill-holes in diorite and basalt,
drill-holes in limestone, and a cast of a fine case of a tube drill-hole in granite,
with part of the core still remaining, conclusively proving the form of the drill.

6. On the Numeral and Philological Relations of the Hebrew, Phoenician, or
Canaanitic Alphabet and the Language of the Khita Inscriptions. By
Hype CLarkE.

Aleph (Alpha) being used for 1, Beth (Beta) for 2, &c., their employment was
regarded as casual. Mr. Clarke had nevertheless instituted an investigation into
these numeral values to ascertain whether it is a law of language that One and
Elephant or Ox, Two and House or Town, exist as the same root or word. This
he found to be the case in many of what may be called the prehistoric or
‘Turanian’ languages. The result was to show that the affinities and origin of
the alphabet are not Semitic, but Turanian. He then proceeded to consider what
Turanian family furnished the prototype, and on examination with Canaanitic, he
found it there. Some years ago he had discovered the Canaanite 3, in Sama-
khonitis, and this enabled him to test the series and to restore the Canaanitic
numerals, and ascertain their place in language and their comparative philology.
These observations conformed with those he had before made for Khita, and
showed that the Canaanitic was a language adopted in these inscriptions and would
furnish materials for their transcription. In reference to the position of the
Khita itself in the history of the ancient world, Mr. Clarke pointed to the
similarity of the Naga, a remarkable group of languages in India.

7. The Early Colonisation of Cyprus and Attica, and its relation to
Babylonia. ‘By Hype Cuarxke.

Mr. Clarke reported the results of recent investigations of autonymous coins of
Cyprus and Attica, of inscribed gems, and of the Cypriote syllabary. These had
atforded conformable linguistic materials. Thus the Cypriote character like Aleph
answers to Ne, but Ne signifies an Elephant. The character like Beth is Mo, and
this signifies Town, a variant of House. Such relations are supported by the coins.
The emblems on those of Salamis in Cyprus and the island of Salamis and on the
coins of Attica read with the equivalent meanings in the corresponding illustrative
languages. A gem in the collection of Major di Cesnola bears the inscription
Ya-phou in Cypriote and Khita, and the objects include a spear, gazelle, and dog,
which read Ya-phou. On a gem from the excavations at Menidi in Attica is the
Cypriote character Ti, with a lion and stag, the word for both of which is Ti.
Thus the whole of the evidence is conformable, and it points to this result, that the
ancient Cypriote and Attic was related to the Akkad of Babylonia and constituted
a West Babylonian occupation. This accounts, more efficiently than any other
suggestion, for the accordance of the historic facts and archzeological evidence.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 699

8. On the Animism of the Indians of British Guiana.
By Everarp F. 1 THURM.

9. Origin and Primitive Home of the Semites. By G,. Bertin.

10. On the Utilisation of the Memory. By Guorce Harris, LL.D., F.S.A.

The writer commenced by observing that, important as the memory is, not only
in the pursuit of science but in the general conduct of life, proportionably important
also must be its due and proper cultivation.

To artificial aids to memory he did not, however, attach much value ; most of
them indeed consisting in attempts to dispense with, rather than to aid, the
memory.

Nevertheless, the power of the memory, by direct and proper cultivation, might
be prodigiously extended.

The peculiar circumstances which most conduce to fix ideas in the memory
were next discussed.

Different persons, he stated, differ more in respect to memory than with regard
to any other power; and the memory, he considered, reflected the peculiar mental
character and constitution of the individual.

The extent to which persons are able to voluntarily discharge from the memory
the recollection of matters which are no longer serviceable to them was discussed.
There can be no doubt, he said, that, everyone possesses to a large extent the
power of determining what matters he will recollect, and that this is a power
which is greatly improvable by exercise. He concluded that we have no
direct power of the former kind, but that we are able to a great extent to
cause ideas to fade from the memory.

In the case of animals, he believed that they have great power of retention, but
no active voluntary power of recollection. In their case events are mainly, if
not entirely, recalled by association.

11. On the Cultivation of the Senses. By Guorce Harris, LL.D., F.S.A.

The writer, after pointing out the use and describing the operations of the
different senses, in the case both of man and animals, proceeded to observe that,
while in the contrivance and arrangement of the various systems of education, due
provision has been made for the study of those different branches which are
considered most useful in life, none of these systems are planned in accordance
with the faculties of the mind; in consequence of which, while some of these
faculties engross a very large share, others are quite neglected; and the discipline
and cultivation of the senses in general are very little attended to, and in case of
certain of the senses are entirely neglected. The writer demonstrated that each
sense is of great practical value in its way, and each is also capable of being
extensively improved by cultivation.

The co-operation and co-aid of the different senses, and also of the senses and
the reason, he described, together with the manner in which, both in animal con-
stitution and in the case of man, the deficiency or failure of one sense may be more
or less compensated by the cultivation and increased activity of the others, The
paper concluded with a concise inquiry as to whether, and to what extent, plants,
In common with the lower animals, are endowed with sensation, or with any
_ property analogous to it.

700 REPORT—1881.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

The following Papers were read and Exhibitions made :—
1.. Traces of Man in the Crag. By H. Storzs, F.G.S.

The probability of man haying lived during the Crag has been suggested by
several (Charlesworth, &c.)
’ Many deny it, nearly all doubt it. Their evidence is chiefly negative. This.
shell, from the Crag at Walton-on-the-Naze, now gives a positive to the negative
evidence; and although it need not necessarily at once create belief in man’s
remote being, it ought not to be lightly cast on one side. It was found in the
Crag, properly stratified (and not in the talus), by a gentleman haying good know--
ledge of geology, who would not be unable to judge, or know the value, of markin
well all the surroundings and exact position of the shell. Owing to a dislike of
the effects of the discovery, he did not publish it at the time, and a little while ago
gave the shell to me. The human face roughly cut upon it is of the rudest de-
scription, and is very crude, thereby the more consistent. The shell is very abundant
at Walton. According to 8S. V. Wood, jun., the Walton Crag was deposited
under some depth of water; not a beach as so much of the rest of the Red Crag.
Hence the possibility of the deposition of the shell without injury. It is bored
naturally (by a mollusc) ; the colour of the boring and of the markings agree. Any
shell now cut shows white, and does not readily take the same colour. Without
attaching undue importance to this solitary specimen of early art, the author’s
object in giving it prominence is that, should any other evidence occur to substan—
tiate the belief in Crag Man’s existence, the find may be known and tend to confirm
the struggling belief in man’s extreme antiquity.

2. The Results of recent further Excavations in the Caves of Cefn, near St.
Asaph, North Wales. By Professor T. McK. Hucuss, M.A., and Mrs.
Wituiams Wyny.

The authors pointed out the evidence of the direction of the ice movement from
the higher mountains of North Wales during the period of extreme glaciation, and
referred to this period the transport, over the western watersheds into the Vale of
Clwyd, of the felsites and other associated rocks which were made use of in the
manufacture of the implements found in the caves, which, therefore, must all be
post-glacial.

They next draw attention to the later or marine drifts of the Clwyd Valley,
which are composed chiefly of the débris of the older drift, generally with all the
clay washed out; but contain also granites from the north, flints which cannot
have been derived from any part of Wales, and marine shells, of which only a few
are arctic forms. These deposits, they pointed out, were obviously later than the
true glacial drift. They then described the mode of occurrence in the caves of
marine shells, in drift somewhat similar in appearance to the marine drift of the
Vale of Clwyd; but showed that, from its manner of accumulation and associated
angular débris, it was obviously washed in from above along fissures, and was not
carried in during the period of submergence. As this drift was in and over the
main mass of fossiliferous cave-earth, they inferred that all the yet known remains.
in the Cefn caves must be not only later than the period of extension of Snow-
donian ice into that area, but must be subsequent to the submergence that marked
the close of the period of great glaciation, and were even proved to be later than
the emergence that brought the marine drifts up within reach of subaérial denuda-
tion. Specimens from the collection of Mrs, Williams Wynn were exhibited in
illustration.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 701

3. Exhibition of a Roman bronze galeated Bust.
By Professor T. McK. Hucuss, M.A.

This bronze, from the collection of the late Rey. S. Banks, was found near
Cottenham, north of Cambridge.

The head was of the Marcus Aurelius type; but the particular interest of the
object was in the helmet, which represented a human face, the character of which
-exactly resembled that of the Dying Gaul.

A, Exhibition of Four Bronze Socketed Spears, probably ancient, from
China. By Professor T.McK. Huguss, M.A.

These spears, brought by the Rev. S. Banks from China, were chiefly marked
by the deep rectangular, or angular, or rounded notch running up from the edge of
the socket to the position in which a rivet would be usually placed in such an
‘implement. The edge of the blade-portion was waved in some of the specimens.

5. On a supposed Inscribed Stone, near Llanerchymedd, in Anglesea.}
By Professor T. McK. Hucuss, M.A.

The author described a boulder standing in a field on the east of the Railway
‘between Plascoedana and Mynyddmawr, about a mile south of Llanerchymedd,
Anglesea. It is a portion of a mass of rock, in which two varieties of rock alternate.
There are also variations in structure in the rock, coinciding in direction, but not
exactly in extent, with the varieties in texture.

On the north side, as the stone lies, of the principal joints, the rock is cut
across by small joints at right angles to the principal joints and ending abruptly at
them. These are crossed obliquely by a less frequent and more irregular set. As
the weather has opened out these divisional planes to a small depth, the effect
produced is that of a series of parallel lines, of uniform length, cut into the stone
along the edges, with here and there an oblique stroke, altogether bearing a strong
‘superficial resemblance to the characters known as Oghams. As it is known that
Runic characters are obscure—in fact, quite unreadable except by experts—local
talk has naturally placed the Mynyddmawr boulder among the inscribed stones of
Wales. The joints to which the characters are due can, however, be traced into
the portions of the boulder where a different texture and structure have caused a
different weathering ; and a close examination shows that the supposed characters
must be referred entirely to natural causes.

6. On some late Celtic Engravings on a Slate Tablet, found at Towyn.
By J. Park Harrison, M.A.

This tablet was found, buried under drift sand, at Towyn, in Merionethshire, in
1879. It is covered with incised figures representing, in outline, arms and objects
of domestic use. Several other relics were discovered at the same time, some of
‘them associated with it, but not assisting materially in deciding the date of this
interesting tablet. Some of the hatchet-head forms, however, resemble so closely
iron axe-heads in the museum of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin, that if
we Imew the date of the latter, it would go far to decide the question. But they
were found in cranoges of uncertain age. The ornamentation of the figures
on the tablet is clearly Celtic, and resembles, except in the rudeness of the execu-

1 The Rev. W. Wynn Williams has already called attention to this boulder in the
Archeologia Cambrensis, and refers the supposed characters to natural causes, which
he challenges geologists to explain.

702 REPORT—188].

tion (due partly, perhaps, to the roughness of the slate), the work called ‘ Opus.
Hibernicum.’ As human bones were found on the site, the tablet may be a
funeral offering, representing objects which in earlier times it was the practice to
bury with deceased chiefs.'

7. On the Physical Characters and Proportions of the Zulus. By C. Roserrs,
F.R.0.8., and Georce W. Broxam, M.A., F.L.S., Assistant Secretary of
the Anthropological Institute.

A Committee, consisting of certain members of the Anthropological Institute
and of the Anthropometric Committee of the British Association, among whom
were Professor Flower, General Pitt-Rivers, Mr. F. Galton, and the authors,.
made a careful and exhaustive examination of the physical characters and
proportions of the Zulus exhibited at the Westminster Aquarium and in several
parts of this country during the last two years.

Sixteen males and three females were examined, and from an hour to an hour
and a half was devoted to each individual.

The measurements were made by the authors with the greatest care and precision,
and comprise 38 different dimensions of the body. The heights from the ground
were those of the vertex, the ear, the chin, the top of the sternum, the umbilicus,
the trochanters, the fork, the knee, and the largest part of the calf of the leg.
The breadths and circumferences of the trunk, the lengths and girths of the arms
and legs, and all the important dimensions of the head, face, and neck were also
recorded. In addition to these measurements, other points were noted, such as
the projection of the heel backwards, the relative length of the great and second
toe; the colour of the skin, hair, and eyes; the condition of the teeth, the
character of the features, the weight of the body, and the drawing strength of
the arm. Outlines of the feet were also taken.

The various observations have been carefully tabulated, and the relative
proportions of the body have been calculated taking the stature as unity, and
represented, as is usual in tables of this kind, by 1,000. The Zulus examined were
from the border-land between Natal and Zululand, and, although they had been
in contact with Europeans, were of pure Zulu race. Of this fact we were assured
by persons who were well acquainted with the Zulus in their own country. As
they were brought to this country for the purpose of public exhibition, it is
probable they were selected, to a.certain extent, as good specimens of their race ;
‘but as they were far from uniform in stature and physique, they may be accepted
as average representatives of the Zulu tribes. Of the 16 males examined, one was
a boy of about 14 years of age, the remaining 15 being adults whose average age
was about 224 years. Three women only having been examined, the measurements.
made were not sufficient to furnish trustworthy average results.

The average stature of the 15 male edults was 170°7 centimétres, or 67'3
inches; one-third of an inch Jess than the average Englishman of the same age. -
The average chest-girth was 929 c.m., or 365 inches; one inch and a quarter
greater than the average Englishman of the same age. The average weight
(without clothes, for which 7 lbs. must be allowed) was 68:1 kilogrammes, or
151 Ibs.; about 10 Ibs. greater than the average Englishman of the same age..
The average strength, as tested by the drawing power of the arm (as in drawing
a bow), was 387 kilos, or 85°6 lbs,; about 8 lbs. greater than that of the
ayerage Englishman of the same age.

Thus we see that while the stature of the Zulus was slightly below that of
Englishmen of the same age, the weight of the body was 10 lbs., the strength
8 Ibs., and the chest-girth 14 inches, greater. It must be borne in mind, however,
that the Zulus were kept in a condition of high physical training by their dancing
and spear-throwing exhibitions, while the Englishmen were those of the general

1 A full description of the figures has since been published with plates by Bernard
Quaritch, 15, Piccadilly, London.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT., ANTHROPOLOGY. 703

population of this country, following ordinary occupations. It must also be
remembered that the chest-girth and strength are, in a great measure, dependent
on and related to the weight, and the greater weight of the Zulus accounts for
their greater chest-girth and strength.

With regard to the other physical characters noted, the heel was found to be
similar to that of Europeans in nine cases ; in six cases there was slight projection
backwards, and in four cases this peculiarity was well-marked.

Tn only one case was the great toe found to be of the same length as the
second toe: in all the other cases the great toe was the longest.

The colour of the skin varied between a light chocolate and a dark bronze, ranging
through the shades of Broca’s tests from No. 21 to No. 43.

In all the cases the eyes were very dark: 17 cases corresponding to Broca’s
test No. 1, and 2 to No. 2, and there was more or less pigmentation of the
conjunctiva in all, although in the case of the women this was very slight.
There was also pigmentation of the mucous membrane of the mouth in all the men
except two, who were quite free from it, as were also the three women.

The hair was black, curly, and thick, and in three cases there was a slight
beard, and a little hair on the limbs, but in all the other cases the skin was smooth
soft, and free from hair.

The teeth were remarkably sound, regular, and well-shaped in all the cases
but of one, who showed some signs of caries. The lips were of varying thickness,
and resembling the negroid type in all cases except one, which approached the
European type. In seven cases the chin was small, and in only one case did the
prominent negroid chin appear. The noses were flat-and broad, but less so than
those of the negroes of the West Coast of Africa.

The ears were remarkably small and well-shaped, resembling the small ears
of the dark types of southern Europeans.

Under examination the men were amiable and good-tempered, and displayed
a mild, sheepish disposition, strangely at variance with the fierceness of manner
assumed by them when performing before the public.

?

8. Exhibition of Stone Implements from Asia Minor. By Hypn Crarxr.

9. On certain Discoveries of Bronze Implements in and about Leeds.
By Joun Hotmes.

10. On the Profile of the Danes and Germans. By J. Park Harrison, M.A.

Before anything can be done in the way of defining the racial peculiarities of
the people of the United Kingdom, we must ascertain, as far as possible, what
were the characteristics of the races, now forming our population, at the time
they landed on our coasts. This can, however, only be done approximately ; first,
by comparison of cranial remains from early tumuli and graves; and, second,
by selecting types from districts in which there is reason to believe the inhabi—
tants have for centuries remained with least intermixture. It is believed that
much may, by such means, be learnt on the subject.

Confining the inquiry to Germany and Denmark in the first instance, we learn
from Schadow, who wrote on the subject about fifty years ago, that the pure
German type showed, as a principal feature, a depressed nasal bone, and, con-
sequently, a concave or incurved line from the root to near the nasal point,
where there was more or less of a bulb. In addition to this the face is described
as wide, and the forehead smooth ; the lower part of the facelong. The ear appears
to have been fine, with a well-formed but not heavy lobe; the hair fair, and the
eyes blue. The skulls from early graves are brachycephalic.

The above description applies equally well to the rural population of West.

704 REPORT—1881.

‘Sussex, as seen in the ranks of the militia. It is also found in the remoter parts
of Surrey, and in other so-called Saxon counties. The same type prevails in the
country districts in Sweden, and is not uncommon in some parts of France.

Now, the Danish profile (pure) presents a striking contrast to the above
type; though the skull is of the same, or nearly the same, width, and the
hair and eyes equally light. The forehead exhibits an apparent depression,
due to the prominence of the brow-ridges, which are more or less continuous.
The eye consequently has the appearance of being sunk, The nasal bone
rises well above an imaginary line drawn from the root to the tip of the
nose, and is often high. These features are found in a great majority of
the skulls preserved in the Nordisch Museum, and also in the fine collection of
the Royal College of Surgeons at Copenhagen, both obtained from early Danish
tumuli. Many persons in the streets of Copenhagen present these cranial cha-
racteristics; and they are found still more frequently in country places. In
addition to this, there appears to be an equally well-marked contrast in the ear of
those Danes whose profiles approach most nearly to the early type. It consists,
amongst other points, in a continuation of the channel or fossa (which exists in
all ears, between the helix and the antihelix) quite up to the cheek. There is
consequently no proper lobe, though many Danes, through mixture with Swedes
and Germans, haye, like the majority of English, a composite or uncertain kind
of lobe. The lips are thin.

The same characteristics are recognisable in the inhabitants of Schleswig and
Holstein, where one frequently meets with the Danish termination sen. They
are met with also, though not so strongly marked (except in a few cases), in
Belgium, where the patronymic is abbreviated, as in Wales and many parts of
England.

“The type is found in various districts in the United Kingdom. Indeed, it is
spread over so large an area that, for this and other reasons, the opinion that is
now received by the most eminent anthropologists in Paris and in this country
—that the Belge and the Cymri were Celtic tribes,—requires the supplement
(which M. Hovelacque considers perfectly scientific)—that the Danes were a
tribe of the Cymri. Certainly it is time to put aside the view that the Celtic
race is dark, Itis not so in Ireland, Scotland, or France, except where there is
a strong infusion of Iberian blood, which would not have altered the profile.
In the Principality the Cymric type still exists in comparative purity, and is fair.

Danish skulls in the possession of Dr. Fraser at Dublin, obtained by himself
from a battle-field in the neighbourhood of that city, exhibit precisely the same
peculiarities as the crania in the museums at Copenhagen. Two skulls, presented
by Professor B. Dawkins to the Welshpool Museum, and labelled ‘ Danish,’ are in
every respect similar. Also several dredged up from the bed of the Ouse, in the
museum at York, exhibit the same characteristics. Others, found in the hollowed
trunks of trees, and supposed to be Anglian, present the same cranial features,
though in a modified degree. In the Scarborough Museum there is a skeleton
from a neighbouring barrow that might be considered Danish were it not that the
objects associated with it point to a British interment.

Now, the majority of skulls collected by Canon Greenwell from the round
barrows of Yorkshire, so closely resemble early Danish crania that he has arrived,
quite independently, at the conclusion that the fair-haired Briton and the early
Dane were allied in blood. In other words, that the Danes proper were in race a
Celtic, and not a Teutonic people.

11. On a remarkable Human Skull found near York.
By Evwarp AuueN, F.G.S.

This skull, which was exhibited, was found some years ago in the neighbour-
hood of York. It is very much elongated, and compressed at the sides. The
sagittal suture is entirely obliterated, and its place supplied by an elevated ridge
ofdense bone. The bones of the skull are very thick and heavy. The author thinks it

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 705

probable that the sagittal suture was anchylosed very early in the development
of the skull, and this circumstance would cause the skull to lengthen, to allow the
growth of the brain to take place. The coronal and lambdoidal sutures are well-
developed. The skull will come under the class of Scaphocephalic Crania. The
tubercles of the teeth are worn smooth, as is the case with the teeth in many of the
Roman skulls found near York. From the peculiarity of the teeth, and the skull
having been found along with Roman remains, it is probably a Roman skull.

DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

CHAIRMAN OF THE DEPARTMENT—Professor J. S. BURDON SANDERSON,
M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Vice-President of the Section).

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.

The Department did not meet.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.

The Cuarrman delivered the following Address :—
The Discoveries of the past Half-Century relating to Animal Motion.

‘THE two great branches of Biology with which we concern ourselves in this Section,
Animal Morphology and Physiology, are most intimately related to each other.
This arises from their having one subject of study—the living animal organism.
‘The difference between them lies in this, that whereas the studies of the anatomist
lead him to fix his attention on the organism itself, to us physiologists it, and the
-organs of which it is made up, serve only as vestigia, by means of which we inyesti-
gate the vital processes of which they are alike the causes and consequences.

To illustrate this I will first ask you to imagine for a moment that you have
before you one of those melancholy remainders of what was once an animal—to wit, a
rabbit—which one sees exposed in the shops of poulterers. We have no hesitation
in recognising that remainder as being in a certain sense a rabbit; butit is a very
miserable vestige of what was a few days ago enjoying life in some wood or warren,
or more likely on the sand-hills near Ostend. We may call it a rabbit if we like,
‘but it is only a remainder—not the thing itself. ©

The anatomical preparation which I have in imagination placed before you,
although it has lost its inside and its outside, its integument and its viscera, still
retains the parts for which the rest existed. The final cause of an animal,
whether human or other, is muscular action, because it is by means of its muscles
that it maintains its external relations. It is by our muscles exclusively that we
act on each other. The articulate sounds by which I am addressing you are but
the results of complicated combinations of muscular contractions—and so are the
scarcely appreciable changes in your countenances by which I am able to judge
how much, or how little, what I am saying interests you.

Consequently the main problems of physiology relate to muscular action, or, as
T have called it, animal motion. They may be divided into two—namely (1) in

1881. ZZ

706 REPORT—1881.

what does muscular action consist—that is, what is the process of which it is the
effect or outcome? and (2) how are the motions of our bodies co-ordinated or
regulated ? It is unnecessary to occupy time in showing that, excluding those
higher intellectual processes which, as they leave no traceable marks behind them,
are beyond the reach of our methods of investigation, these two questions comprise
all others concerning animal motion. I will therefore proceed at once to the tirst
of them—that of the process of muscular contraction.

The years which immediately followed the origin of the British Association
exceeded any earlier period of equal length in the number and importance of the
new facts in morphology and in physiology which were brought to light ; for it
was during that period that Johannes Miiller, Schwann, Henle, and, in this country,
Sharpey, Bowman, and Marshall Hall, accomplished their productive labours. But
it was introductory to a much greater epoch—the greatest, I venture to say,
beyond comparison, which has occurred in the history of Biology since that of the
discovery of the circulation of the blood. It would give you a true idea of the nature
of the great advance which took place about the middle of this century if I were to
define it as the epoch of the death of ‘ vitalism.’ Before that time, even the greatest
biologists—e.g. J. Miiller—recognised that the knowledge biologists possessed
both of vital and physical phenomena was insufficient to refer both to a common
measure. The method, therefore, was to study the processes of life in relation to each
other only. Since that time it has become fundamental in our science not to regard
any vital process as understood at all, unless it can be brought into relation with
physical standards, and the methods of physiology have been based exclusively on this
principle. Let us inquire for amoment what causes have conduced to the change.

The most efficient cause was the progress which had been made in physics and
chemistry, and particularly those investigations which led to the establishment of
the doctrine of the Conservation of Energy. In the application of this great
principle to physiology the men to whom we are indebted are, first and fore-
most, J. R. Mayer, of whom I shall say more immediately ; and secondly, the
great physiologists still living and working among us, who were the pupils of
J. Miiller—viz., Helmholtz, Ludwig, du Bois-Reymond, and Briicke.

As regards the subject which is first to occupy our attention, that of the
process of muscular contraction, J. R. Mayer occupies so leading a position that
a large proportion of the researches which have been done since the new era,
which he had so important a share in establishing, may be rightly considered as
the working out of principles enunciated in his treatise ' on the relation between
organic motion and exchange of material. The most important of these were
as expressed in his own words, (1) ‘That the chemical force contained in the
ingested food and in the inhaled oxygen is the source of the motion and heat
which are the two products of animal life; and (2) that these products vary in
amount with the chemical process which produces them.’ Whatever may be the
claims of Mayer to be regarded as a great discoverer in physics, there can be no-
doubt that as a physiologist he deserves the highest place that we can give him,
for at a time when the notion of the correlation of different modes of motion was.
as yet very unfamiliar to the physicist, he boldly applied it to the phenomena of
animal life, and thus re-united physiology with natural philosophy, from which it
had been rightly, because unavoidably, severed by the ‘vitalists of an earlier

eriod.

i Let me first endeavour shortly to explain how Mayer himself applied the
principle just enunciated, and then how it has been developed experimentally
since his time.

The fundamental notion is this: the animal body resembles, as regards the
work it does and the heat it produces, a steam engine, in which fuel is continually
being used on the one hand, and work is being done and heat produced on the
other. The using of fuel is the chemical process, which in the animal body, as in
the steam-engine, is a process of oxidation. Heat and work are the useful products,

1 J. R. Mayer, Die organische Bewegung in ihrem Zusammenhange mit dem
Stoffrwechsel: Ein Beitrag zur Naturkunde, Heilbronn, 1845.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 70U7

for as, in the higher animals, the body can only work at a constant temperature of
about 100° Fahr., heat may be so regarded.

Having previously determined the heat and work severally producible by the
combustion of a given weight of carbon, from his own experiments and from those of
earlier physicists, Mayer calculated that if the oxidation of carbon is assumed to
represent approximately the oxidation-process of the body, the quantity of carbon
actually burnt in a day is far more than sufficient to account for the day’s work,
and that of the material expended in the body not more than one-fifth was used
in the doing of work, the remaining four-fifths being partly used, partly wasted, in
heat-production.

Having thus shown that the principles of the correlation of process and product
hold good, so far as its truth could then be tested, as regards the whole organism,
Mayer proceeded to inquire into its applicability to the particular organ
whose function it is ‘to transform chemical difference into mechanical effect ’—
namely, muscle. Although, he said, a muscle acts under the direction of the will,
it does not derive its power of acting from the will any more than a steamboat
ederives its power of motion from the helmsman. Again (and this was of more im-
portance, as being more directly opposed to the prevalent vitalism), a muscle, like
the steamboat, uses, in the doing of work, not the material of its own structure or
mechanism, but the fuel—i.e., the nutriment—which it derives directly from the
blood which flows through its capillaries. ‘The muscle is the instrument by
which the transformation of force is accomplished, not the material which is itself
transformed.’ This principle he exemplified in several ways, showing that if the
muscles of our bodies worked, as was formerly supposed, at the expense of their
own substance, their whole material would be used up in a few weeks, and that in
the case of the heart, a muscle which works at a much greater rate than any other,
it would be expended in as many days—a result which necessarily involyed the
absurd hypothesis that the muscular fibres of our hearts are so frequently disin-
tegrated and reintegrated that we get new hearts once a week.

On such considerations Mayer founded the prevision, that, as soon as experi-
mental methods should become sufficiently perfect to render it possible to deter-
mine with precision the limits of the chemical process either in the whole animal
body or in a single muscle during a given period, and to measure the production
of heat and the work done during the same period, the result would show a quanti-
tative correlation between them.

If the time at our disposal permitted, I should like to give a short account of
the succession of laborious investigations by which these previsions have been veri-
fied. Begun by Bidder and Schmidt in 1851,1 continued by Pettenkofer and Voit,?
and by the agricultural physiologists* with reference to herbivora, they are not
yet by any means completed. I must content myself with saying that by
these experiments the first and second parts of this great subject—namely, the
limits of the chemical process of animal life and its relation to animal motion
under different conditions—have been satisfactorily worked out, but that the quan-
titative relations of heat-production are as yet only insufficiently determined.

Let me sum up in as few words as possible how far what we have now learnt
by experiment, justifies Mayer’s anticipations, and how far it falls short of or ex-
ceeds them. First of all, we are as certain as of any physical fact that the animal
body in doing work does not use its own material—that, as Mayer says, the oil to
his lamp of life is food; but in addition to this we know, what he was unaware
of, that what is used is not only not the living protoplasm itself, but is a kind of
material which widely differs from it in chemical properties. In what may be
called commercial physiology—i.e. in the literature of trade puffs—one still meets
with the assumption that the material basis of muscular motion is nitrogenous;
but by many methods of proof ithas been shown that the true ‘ Oe in der Flamme
des Lebens’ is not proteid substance, but sugar, or sugar-producing material. The

' Bidder and Schmidt, Die Verdawungssaefte wnd der Stoffwechsel, Leipzig, 1852.

* Pettenkofer and Voit, Zitschr. f. Biologic, passim 1866-1880.

* Henneberg and Stohmann, Beitrage zur Begrundung einer rationellen Futterung
der Wiederkauer, Brunswick and Gottingen, 1860-1870.

222

708 . REPORT—1881.

discovery of this fundamental truth we owe first to Bernard (1850-56), who brought
to light the fact that such material plays an important part in the nutrition of
every living tissue; secondly, to Voit (1866), who in elaborate experiments on
carnivorous animals, during periods of rest and exertion, showed that, in com-
paring those conditions, no relation whatever shows itself between the quantity
of proteid material (flesh) consumed, and the amount of work done; and finally
to Frankland, Fick and his associate Wislicenus, as to the work-yielding value
of different constituents of food, and as to the actual expenditure of material in
man during severe exertion. The subjects of experiment used by the two last-
mentioned physiologists were themselves; the work done was the mountain
ascent from Interlaken to the summit of the Faulhorn; the result was to prove
that the quantity of material used was proportional to the work done, and that
chat material was such as to yield water and carbonic acid exclusively.

The investigators to whom I have just referred aimed at proving the correla-
tion of process and product for the whole animal organism. The other mode of
inquiry proposed by Mayer, the verificatiou of his principle in respect of the work-
doing mechanism—that is to say, in respect of muscle taken separately—has been
pursued with equal perseverance during the last twenty years, and with greater
success; for in experimenting on a separate organ, which has no other functions
excepting those which are in question, it is possible to eliminate uncertainties
which are unavoidable when the conditions of the problem are more complicated.
Before I attempt to sketch the results of these experiments, I must ask your atten-
tion for a moment to the discoveries made since Mayer's epoch, concerning a closely
related subject, that of the Process of Respiration.

I wish that I had time to go back to the great discovery of Priestley (1776), that
the essential facts in the process of respiration are the giving off of fixed air, as he
called it, and the taking in of dephlogisticated air, and to relate to you the beautiful
experiments by which he proved it; and then to pass on to Lavoisier (1777), who,
on the other side of the Channel, made independently what was substantially the
same discovery a little after Priestley, and added others of even greater moment. Ac-
cording to Lavoisier, the chemical process of respiration is a slow combustion which
has its seat in the lungs. At the time that Mayer wrote, this doctrine still main-
tained its ascendancy, although the investigations of Magnus (1838) had already
proved its fallacy. Mayer himself knew that the blood possessed the property of con-
veying oxygen from the lungs to the capillaries, and of conveying carbonic acid gas
from the capillaries to the lungs, which was sufficient to exclude the doctrine of
Lavoisier. Our present knowledge of the subject was attained by two methods—
viz., first, the investigation of the properties of the colouring matter of the blood,
since called ‘ hemoglobin,’ the initial step in which was made by Professor Stokes
in 1862; and secondly, the application of the mercurial air-pump as a means of
determining the relations of oxygen and carbonic acid gas to the living blood and
tissues. The last is a matter of such importance in relation to our subject that I
shall ask your special attention to it. Suppose that I have a barometer, of which
the tube, instead of being of the ordinary form, is expanded at the top into a large
bulb of one or two litres capacity, and that, by means of some suitable contrivance,
I am able to introduce, in such a way as to lose no time and to preclude the possi-
bility of contact with air, a fluid ounce of blood from the artery of a living animal
into the vacuous space—what would happen? Instantly the quantity of blood
would be converted into froth, which would occupy the whole of the large bulb.
The colour of the froth would at first be scarlet, but would speedily change to
crimson. It would soon subside, and we should then have the cavity which was
before vacuous occupied by the blood and its gases—namely, the oxygen, carbonic
acid gas, and nitrogen previously contained in it. And if we had the means (which
actually exist in the gas-pump) of separating the gaseous mixture from the liquid,
and of renewing the vacuum, we should be able to determine (1) the total quantity
of gases which the blood yields, and (2), by analysis, the proportion of each gas,

Now, with reference to the blood, by the application of the ‘blood-pump,’ as it
is called, we have learnt a great many facts relating to the nature of respira-
tion, particularly that the difference of venous from arterial blood depends not on

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D,—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 709

the presence of ‘effete matter,’ as used to be thought, but on the less amount of
oxygen held by its colouring matter, and that the blood which flows back to the
heart from different organs, and at different times, differs in the amount of oxygen
and of carbonic acid gas it yields, according to the activity of the chemical pro-
cesses which have their seat in the living tissues from which it flows.!. But this
is not all that the blood-pump has done for us. By applying it not merely to the
blood, but to the tissues, we have learnt that the doctrine of Lavoisier was wrong,
not merely as regards the place, but as regards the nature of the essential process
in respiration. The fundamental fact which is thus brought to light is this, that
although living tissues are constantly and freely supplied with oxygen, and are
in fact constantly tearing it from the hemoglobin which holds it, yet they them-
selves yield no oxygen to the vacuum. In other words, the oxygen which living
protoplasm seizes upon with such energy that the blood which flows by it is
compelled to yield it up, becomes so entirely part of the living material itself that
it cannot be separated even by the vacuum. It is in this way only that we can
understand the seeming paradox that the oxygen, which is conveyed in abundance
to every recess of our bodies by the blood-stream, is nowhere to be found. WNot-
withstanding that no oxidation-product is formed, it becomes latent in every bit of
living protoplasm ; stored up in quantity proportional to its potential activity—c.e.
to the work, internal or external, it has to do.

Thus you see that the process of tissue-respiration—in other words, the relation
of living protoplasm to oxygen—is very different from what Mayer, who localised
oxidation in the capillaries, believed it to be. And this difference has a good deal to
do with the relation of Process to Product in muscle. Let us now revert to the
experiments on this subject which we are to take as exemplification of the truth
of Mayer's forecasts.

The living muscle of a frog is placed in a closed chamber, which is vacuous—
ae, contains only aqueous vapour. The chamber is so arranged that the muscle
can be made to contract as often as necessary. At the end of a certain period it
is found that the chamber now contains carbonic acid gas in quantity correspond-
ing to the number of contractions the muscle has performed. The water which
it has also given off cannot of course be estimated. Where do these two products
come from? The answer is plain. The muscle has been living all the time, for
it has been doing work, and (as we shall see immediately) producing heat. What
has it been living on? Evidently on stored material. If so, of what nature ?
If we look for the answer to the muscle, we shall find that it contains both proteid
and sugar-producing material, but which is expended in contraction we are not
informed. There is, however, a way out* of the difficulty. We have seen that
the only chemical products which are given off during contraction -are carbonic
acid gas and water. It is clear, therefore, that the material on which it feeds
must be something which yields, when oxidised, these products, and these only.
The materials which are stored in muscle are oxygen and sugar, or something
resembling it in chemical composition.

And now we come to the last point I have to bring before you in connection
with this part of my subject. I have assumed up to this moment that heat is
always produced when a muscle does work. Most people will be ready to admit
as evidence of this, the familiar fact that we warm ourselves by exertion. This is
in reality no proof at all.

The proof is obtained when, a muscle being set to contract, it is observed that at
each contraction it becomes warmer. In such an experiment, if the heat-capacity of
muscle is known, the weight of the particular muscle, and the increase of tempera-
ture, we have the quantity of heat produced.

If you determine these data in respect of a series of contractions, arranging
the experiments so that the work done in each contraction is measured, and
immediately thereupon reconverted into heat, the result gives you the total pro-
duct of the oxidation-process in heat.

If you repeat the same experiment in such a way that the work done in
each contraction is not so reconverted, the result is /ess by the quantity of heat

* Ludwig’s first important research on this subject was published in 1862.

710 REPORT—1881.

corresponding to the work done. The results of these two experiments have been
found by Professor Fick to cover each other very exactly. I have stated them ina
table,’ in which we have the realisation as regards a single muscle of the following
forecast of Mayer's as regards the whole animal organism. ‘ Convert into heat,’
he said, ‘ by friction or otherwise, the mechanical product yielded by an animal in a
given time, add thereto the heat produced in the body directly during the same
period, and you will have the total quantity of heat which corresponds to the
chemical processes.’ We have seen that this is realisable as regards muscle, but it is
not even yet within reach of experimental verification as regards the whole animal.

I now proceed abruptly (for the time at our disposal does not admit of our
spending it on transitions) to the consideration of the other great question con-
cerning vital motion, namely the question how the actions of the muscles of an
animal are so regulated and co-ordinated as to determine the combined movements,
whether rhythmical or voluntary, of the whole body.

As everyone knows who has read the ‘ Lay Sermons,’ the nature and meaning
of these often unintentional but always adapted motions, which constitute so large
a part of our bodily activity, was understood by Descartes early in the seventeenth
century. Without saying anything as to his direct influence on his contemporaries
and successors, there can be no doubt that the appearance of Descartes was co-
incident with a great epoch—an epoch of great men and great achievements in
the acquirement of man’s intellectual mastery over nature. When he interpreted
the unconscious closing of the eyelids on the approach of external objects, the
acts of coughing, sneezing, and the like, as mechanical and reflected processes, he
neither knew in what part of the nervous system the mechanisms concerned were
situated, nor how they acted.? It was not until a hundred years after, that Whytt
and Hales made the fundamental experiments on beheaded frogs, by which they

1 RELATION OF PRODUCT AND PROCESS IN MUSCLE.
(Founded on the results of one of Fick’s experiments.)

Process.
Sugar used c - ; é : . 0:014 milligrammes.
Oxygen used . , : : . : .. 0015 ny
Carbonic acid gas formed F = » 0021 a

Product.

Mechanical product. : : : 6670 grammemillimeters.
Its heat-value . 15°6 milligrammeunits
Heat produced s a : 2 é SEH) es
Total product reckoned as heat c : . 564°6

”

2 Descartes’ scheme of the central nervous mechanism, comprised all the parts
which we now regard as essential to ‘ reflex action.’ Sensory nerves were represented
by threads (filets) which connected all parts of the body to the brain (@uvres, par
V. Cousin, vol. iv. p. 359); motor nerves by tubes which extended from the brain to
the muscles; ‘motor centres’ by ‘pores’ which were arranged on the internal surface
of the ventricular cavity of the brain and guarded the entrances to the motor tubes.
This cavity was supposed to be kept constantly charged with ‘animal spirits,’ fur-
nished to it from the heart by arteries specially destined for the purpose. Any
‘incitation’ of the surface of the body by an external object which affects the organs
of sense does so, according to Descartes, by producing a motion at the incited part.
This is communicated to the pore by the thread and causes it to open, the conse-
quence of which is that the ‘animal spirits’ contained in the ventricular cavity
enter the tube and are conveyed by it to the various muscles with which it is con-
nected, so as to produce the appropriate motions. The whole system, although it
was placed under the supervision of the ‘ dme raisonnable’ which had its office in the
pineal gland, was capable of working independently. As instances of this mechanism
Descartes gives the withdrawal of the foot on the approach of hot objects, the
actions of swallowing, yawning, coughing, &c. As it is necessary that in the per-
formance of these complicated motions, the muscles concerned should contract in
succession, provision is made for this in the construction of the systems of tubes
which represent the motor nerves. The weakness of the scheme lies in the absence
of fact basis. Neither threads nor pores nor tubes have any existence.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANAFOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 711

showed that the involuntary motion which such preparations execute ceases when
the whole of the spinal chord is destroyed—that if the back part of the chord is
destroyed, the motions of the hind limbs, if the fore part, those of the fore limbs
cease. It was in 1751 that Dr. Whytt published in Edinburgh his work on the in-
voluntary motions of animals. After this the next great step was made within
the recollection of living physiologists; a period to which, as it coincided with
the event which we are now commemorating—the origin of the British Association
—I will now ask your special attention.

Exactly forty-nine years ago Dr. Marshall Hall communicated to the Zoological
Society of London the first account of his experiments on the reflex function of
the spinal chord. The facts which he had observed, and the conclusions he drew
from them, were entirely new to him, and entirely new to the-physiologists to whom
his communication was addressed. Nor can there be any reason why the anticipa-
tion of his fundamental discovery by Dr. Whytt should be held to diminish his
merit as an original investigator. In the face of historical fact, it is impos-
sible to regard him as the discoverer of the ‘reflex function of the spinal chord,’
but we do not the less owe him gratitude for the application he made of the
knowledge he had gained by experiments on animals to the study of disease. For
no one who is acquainted with the development of the branch of practical medicine
which relates to the diseases of the central nervous system, will hesitate in
attributing the rapid progress which has been made in the diagnosis and treatment
of these diseases, to the impulse given by Dr. Marshall Hail to the study of nervous
pathology.

In the mind of Dr. Marshall Hall the word reflex had a very restricted
meaning. The term ‘excito-motory function,’ which he also used, stood in his
mind for a group of phenomena of which it was the sole characteristic that a
sensory impression produced a motor response. During the thirty years which
have elapsed since his death the development of meaning of the word reflex has
been comparable to that of a plant from a seed. The original conception of
reflex action has undergone, not only expansion, but also modification, so that in its
wider sense it may be regarded as the empirical development of the philosophical
views of the animal mechanism promulgated by Descartes. Not that the work of
the past thirty years by which the physiology of the nervous system has been con-
stituted, can be attributed for a moment to the direct influence of Descartes. The
real epochmaker here was Johannes Miiller. There can be no doubt that Descartes’
physiological speculations were well known to him, and that his large acquaintance
with the thought and work of his predecessors conduced, with his own powers of
observation, to make him the great man that he was; but to imagine that his
ideas of the mechanism of the nervous system were inspired, or the investiga-
tions, by which, contemporaneously with Dr. Marshall Hall, he demonstrated the
fundamental facts of reflex action, were suggested by the animal automatism
of Descartes, seem to me wholly improbable.

I propose, by way of conclusion, to attempt to illustrate the nature of reflex
action in the larger sense, or, asI should prefer to call it, the Automatic Action
of Centres, by a single example—that of the nervous mechanism by which the cir-
culation is regulated.

The same year that J. R. Mayer published his memorable essay, it was dis-
covered by E. H. Weber that, in the vagus nerve, which springs from the medulla
oblongata and proceeds therefrom to the heart, there exist channels of influence by
which the medulla acts on that wonderful muscular mechanism. Almost at the
same time with this, a series of discoveries! were made relating to the circulation,

1 The dates of the discoveries relating to this subject here referred to are as
follows :—Muscular Structure of Arteries, Henle, 1841; Function of Cardiac Vagus,
E. H. Weber, 1845; Constricting Nerves of Arteries, B. Séquard, 1852, Aug. Waller,
1853; Cardiac Centre, Bernard, 1858; Vascular Centre, Schiff, 1858; Dilating
Nerves, Schiff, 1854 ; Eckhard, 1864; Lovén, 1866. Of the more recent researches
‘by which the further elucidation of the mechanism by which the distribution of
blood is adapted to the requirements of each organ, the most important are those of
Ludwig and his pupils and of Heidenhain.

712 REPURT—1881.

which, taken together, must be regarded as of equal importance with the original
discovery of Harvey. First, it was found by Henle that the arterial blood-vessels.
by which blood is distributed to brain, nerve, muscle, gland, and other organs, are
provided with muscular walls like those of the heart itself, by the contraction or
dilatation of which the supply is increased or diminished according to the require-
ments of the particular organ. Secondly, it was discovered simultaneously, but
independently, by Brown-Séquard and Augustus Waller, that these arteries are
connected by nervous channels of influence with the brain and spinal cord, just as:
the heart is. Thirdly, it was demonstrated by Bernard, that what may be called
the heart-managing channels spring from a small spot of grey substance in the
medulla oblongata, which we now call the ‘heart-centre’; and a litile later by
Schiff, that the artery-regulating channels spring from a similar head-central office,
also situated in the medulla oblongata, but higher up, and from subordinate cen-
tres in the spinal cord.

If I had the whole day at my, disposal and your patience were inexhaustible,
I might attempt to give an outline of the issues to which these five discoveries
have led. As itis, I must limit myself to a brief discussion of their relations to
each other, in order that we may learn something from them as to the nature of
automatic action.

Sir Isaac Newton, who although he knew nothing about the structure of nerves,
made some shrewd forecasts about their action, attributed to those which are con--
nected with muscles an alternative function. He thought that by means of motor
nerves the brain could determine either relaxation or contraction of muscles. Now
as regards ordinary muscles we know that this is not the case. We can will only
the shortening of a muscle, not its lengthening. _ When Brown-Séquard dis-
covered the function of the motor nerves of the blood-vessels, he assumed that the
same limitation was applicable to it as to that of muscular nerves in general. It
was soon found, however, that this assumption was not true in all cases—that there
were certain instances in which, when the vascular nerves were interfered with,
dilatation of the blood-vessels, consequent on relaxation of their muscles, took place ;
and that, in fact, the nervous mechanism by which the circulation is regulated is a
highly-complicated one, of which the best that we can say is that it is perfectly
adapted toits purpose. For while every organ is supplied with muscular arteries,
and every artery with vascular nerves, the influence which these transmit is here
relaxing, there constricting, according (1) to the function which the organ is called
upon to discharge ; and (2) the degree of its activity at the time. At the same time
the whole mechanism is controlled by one and the same central office, the locality
of which we can determine with exactitude by experiment on the living animal,
notwithstanding that its structure affords no indication whatever of its fitness for
the function it is destined to fulfil. To judge of the complicated nature of this
function we need only consider that in no single organ of the body is the supply of
blood required always the same. The brain is during one hour hard at work,
during the next hour asleep ; the muscles are at one moment in severe exercise, the
next in complete repose; the liver, which before a meal is inactive, during the
process of digestion is turgid with blood, and busily engaged in the chemical work
which belongs toit. For all these vicissitudes the tract of grey substance which
we call the vascular centre has to provide. Like a skilful steward of the animal
household, it has, so to speak, to exercise perfect and unfailing foresight, in order
that the nutritive material which serves as the oil of life, for the maintenance of
each vital process, may not be wanting. The fact that this wonderful function is
localised in a particular bit of grey substance is what is meant by the expression
‘automatic action of a centre.’

But up to this point we have looked at the subject from one side only.

No state ever existed of which the administration was exclusively executive—
no government which was, if I may be excused the expression, absolutely absolute.
If in the animal organism we impose on a centre the responsibility of govern-
ing a particular mechanism or process, independently of direction from above, we
must give that centre the means of being itself influenced by what is going on in
all parts of its area of government. In other words, it is as essential that there

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 713:

should be channels of information passing inwards, as that there should be channels
of influence passing outwards. Now what is the nature of these channels of infor-
mation? Experiment has taught us not merely with reference to the regulation
of the circulation, but with reference to all other automatic mechanisms, that they
are as various in their adaptation as the outgoing channels of influence. Thus the
vascular centre in the medulla oblongata is so cognisant of the chemical condition
of the blood which flows through it, that if too much carbonic acid gas is contained
in it, the centre acts on information of the fact, so as to increase the velocity of the
blood-stream, and so promote the arterialisation of the blood. Still more strikingly
is this adaptation seen in the arrangement by which the balance of pressure and
resistance in the blood-vessels is regulated. The heart, that wonderful muscular
machine by which the circulation is maintained, is connected with the centre, as
if by two telegraph wires—one of which is a channel of influence, the other of
information. By the latter, the engineer who has charge of that machine sends
information to headquarters whenever the strain on his machine is excessive,
the certain response to which is relaxation of the arteries and diminution of
angen By the former, he is enabled to adapt its rate of working to the work it
as to do.

If Dr. Whytt, instead of cutting off the head of his frog, had removed only
its brain—ze. the organ of thought and consciousness—he would have been more
astonished than he actually was at the result ; for a frog so conditioned exhibits as
regards its bodily movements as perfect adaptedness as a normal frog. But very
little careful observation is*sufficient to show the difference. Being incapable of
the simplest mental acts, this true animal automaton has no notion of requiring
food or of seeking it, has no motive for moving from the place it happens to
Occupy, emits no utterance of pleasure or distress. Its life-processes continue so-
long as material remains, and are regulated mechanically. ; :

To understand this all that is necessary is to extend the considerations which
have been suggested to us in our very cursory study of the nervous mechanism
by which the working of the heart and of arteries is governed, to those of loco-
motion and voice. Both of these we know, on experimental evidence similar to
that which enables us to localise the vascular centre, to be regulated by a centre
‘of the same kind. If the behaviour of the brainless frog is so natural that even
the careful and intelligent observer finds it difficult to attribute it to anything less
than intelligence, let us ask ourselves whether the chief reason of the difficulty
does not lie in this, that the motions in question are habitually performed intelli-
gently and consciously. Regarded as mere mechanisms, those of locomotion are no

oubt more complicated than those of respiration or circulation, but the difference is
one of degree, not of kind. And if the respiratory movements are so controlled and
regulated by the automatic centre which governs them, that they adapt themselves
perfectly to the varying requirements of the organism, there is no reason why we
should hesitate in attributing to the centres which preside over locomotion powers
which are somewhat more extended.

But perhaps the question has already presented itself to your minds, What does
all this come to? Admitting that we are able to prove (1) that in the animal
body, Product is always proportional to Process, and (2), as I have endeavoured
to show you in the second part of my discourse, that Descartes’ dream of animal
automatism has been realised, what have we learnt thereby P Is it true that the
work of the last generation is worth more than that of preceding ones ?

If I only desired to convince you that during the last half-century there has
been a greater accession of knowledge about the function of the living organism
than during the previous one, I might arrange here in a small heap at one end
of the table the physiological works of the Hunters, Spallanzani, Fontana,
Thomas Young, Benjamin Brodie, Charles Bell, and others, and then proceeding to
cover the rest of it with the records of original research on physiological subjects.
since 1831, I should find that, even if I included only genuine work, I should
have to heap my table up to the ceiling. But I apprehend this would not give usa
true answer to our question. Although etymologically, Science and Knowledge
mean the same thing, their real meaning is different. By science we mean, first

714 REPORT—1881.

of all, that knowledge which enables us to sort the things known according to their
true relations. On this ground we call Haller the father of physiology, because,
regardless of existing theories, he brought together into a system, all that
was then known by observation or experiment as to the processes of the
living body. But in the ‘Elementa Physiologie’ we have rather that out of
which science springs than science itself. Science can hardly be said to begin
until we have by experiment acquired such a knowledge of the relation between
events and their antecedents, between processes and their products, that, in our
own sphere, we are able to forecast the operations of nature, even when they lie
beyond the reach of direct observation. 1 would accordingly claim for physiology
a place in the sisterhood of the sciences, not because so large a number of new
facts have been brought to light, but because she has in her measure acquired
that gift of prevision which has been long enjoyed by the higher branches of
natural philosophy. In illustration of this, I have endeavoured to show you that
every step of the laborious investigations undertaken during the last thirty
years as to the process of nutrition, has been inspired by the previsions of J. R.
Mayer, and that what we have learnt with so much labour by experiments on
animals is but the realisation of conceptions which existed 200 years ago in the
mind of Descartes as to the mechanism of the nervous system. If I wanted
another example I might find it in the previsions of Dr. Thomas Young as to the
mechanism of the circulation, which for thirty years were utterly disregarded,
until at the epoch to which I have so often adverted, they received their full
justification from the experimental investigations of Ludwig.

But perhaps it will occur to some one that if physiology founds her claim to be
regarded as a science on her power of anticipating the results of her own experi-
ments, it is unnecessary to make experiments at all. Although this objection has
been frequently heard lately from certain persons who call themselves philosophers,
it is not very likely to be made seriously here. The answer is, that it is contrary
toexperience. Although we work in the certainty that every experimental result
will come out in accordance with great principles (such as the principle that every
plant or animal is, both as regards form and function, the outcome of its past and
present conditions, and that in every vital process the same relations obtain be-
tween expenditure and product as hold outside of the organism), these principles
do little more for us than indicate the direction in which we are to proceed. ‘The
history of science teaches us that a general principle is like a ripe seed, which may
remain useless and inactive for an indefinite period, until the conditions favourable
to its germination come into existence. Thus the conditions for which the theory
of animal automatism of Descartes had to wait two centuries, were (1) the acquire-
ment of an adequate knowledge of the structure of the animal organism, and (2)
the development of the sciences of physics and chemistry ; for at no earlier moment
were these sciences competent to furnish either the knowledge or the methods
necessary for its experimental realisation ; and for a reason precisely similar Young’s
theory of the circulation was disregarded for thirty years.

I trust that the examples I have placed before you to-day may have been
sufficient to show that the investigators who are now working with such earnest-
ness in all parts of the world for the advance of physiology, have before them a
definite and well-understood purpose, that purpose being to acquire an exact know-
ledge of the chemical and physical processes of animal life, and of the self-acting
machinery by which they are regulated for the general good of the organism.
The more singly and straightforwardly we direct our efforts to these ends, the
sooner we shall attain to the still higher purpose—the effectual application of our
knowledge for the increase of human happiness.

The Science of Physiology has already afforded her aid to the Art of Medicine
in furnishing her with a vast store of knowledge obtained by the experimental
investigation of the action of remedies and of the causes of disease. These
investigations are now being carried on in all parts of the world with great
diligence, so that we may confidently anticipate that during the next generation
the progress of pathology will be as rapid as that of physiology has been in the
past, and that as time goes on the practice of medicine will gradually come more

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 715

and more under the influence of scientific knowledge. That this change is already
in progress we have abundant evidence. We need make no effort to hasten the
process, for we may be quite sure that, as soon as science is competent to dictate,
art will be ready to obey.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Development of the Colowr-sense.
By Dr. Montacu Lussock.

The author remarked that this was a subject which had only been discussed
within the last five and twenty years. Mr. Gladstone was the first to open this
question, his studies of the Homeric poems leading him to remark how few colours
were mentioned by that poet, and how inexactly the colour-terms were used.
This Mr. Gladstone accounted for, in his ‘Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age,’
published’ in 1858, by supposing that Homer’s perceptions of colour were vague
and indeterminate, owing to the organ of colour and its impressions being
but partially developed among the Greeks of his age.

The author then stated that the object of the paper was to discuss the question
whether there was evidence to show that the power of perceiving colour had been
gradually acquired, not only by. man in historic or prehistoric times, but by the
animal kingdom at large.

The first explained briefly the meaning of the term ‘Colour Sense,’ or
‘ Perception of Colour,’ observing that Newton first showed the white light of the
sun to be formed of seven colours; that these seven colours could be observed
separately, and in a certain definite order, if the white light of the sun was
decomposed by means of a prism, and that mankind had been supposed to acquire
perception of the different colours in the order of the colours of the solar spectrum.

The author observed that colour-blindness had been supposed to be a return
to the primitive condition of vision in mankind, but that since red-colour-blindness
was the usual form of that complaint, whereas red was supposed to be the first
colour seen by man, there were no grounds for this supposition.

The author then recalled what had been already written on this subject.
Mr. Gladstone had first opened the subject, as already stated, Lazarus Geiger
having been the next to take up the question, in a paper read at Frankfort-on-the-
Maine in 1867. Geiger believed the power of perceiving colour to have been
gradually acquired, and ¢hat even within historic times. Neither in the Vedas of
the Hindus, nor in the Zendavesta of the Parsees, had he found indications of
developed colour-perception, any mention of blue colour being entirely absent
from both, though the sky, on the one hand, and light on the other, were specially
considered. Similarly no mention was made of green colour either in the Rigveda
hymns or in the Zendavesta, though both often speak of the earth and its vegeta-
tion. In 1867 Hugo Magnus wrote a work upon this subject, entitled ‘Die
Entwickelung des Farbensinnes.’ Believing in the same progressive appreciation
of colours as Geiger, he supposed that at first mankind merely perceived white
and black, the presence or absence of light; that red was the first colour to be
recognised, the power of perceiving the other colours being gradually acquired in
the order of the colours in the solar spectrum, from the red to the violet end,
Maguus believed that it was whilst red and black were alone distinguished that
the hymns of the Vedas were written, that yellow was also recognised in the time
of Homer, and that it was only at a later date that the perception of green
followed, the recognition of blue and violet coming last, that the evolution of
the colour-sense was still incomplete, and that the time would come when the
ultra-violet rays would be appreciated by the human eye.

The subject of the colour-sense was more thoroughly investigated by Grant
Allen, in a work published in 1879. He pointed out that three periods of geo-
logical vegetation may be supposed to have existed, termed respectively the age of
flowerless, the age of anemophilous, and the age of entomophilous plants. That in
the Carboniferous period there exist traces of insects, which insects must have
sought their food in the flowerless plants of that age. That plants would thus be

716 REPORT—1881.

fertilised by means of insects, the plants most attractive to insects gaining ground
not only from thus having a more sure method of impregnation than the wind, but
also because the seedlings due to such cross fertilisation are the most vigorous.
Again, the colour-sense would become more and more perfect in insects, owing to
the adyantage which improved colour-sense would give them in their search for
food, and these insects would have handed down this power to their insect descend-
ants now living. Similarly Grant-Allen believed colour-perception to have been
first aroused in simple marine animals by the animal organisms around them, and
to have been from them handed down to the fishes and reptiles, and more remotely
to the birds and ‘mammals.’ Man (the supposed descendant of fruit-eating quad—
rumana, who possessed colour-sense in a high degree) would thus have very perfect
colour-perception. This has been shown to be equally pronounced in all varieties
of the species, not only by the works of travellers and others respecting modern
savages, but by information received from missionaries, Government officials, and
others living among uncivilised races. That the colour-sense existed in an equally
developed condition in ancient times is probable, owing to the character of the
ancient monuments in Egypt, Assyria, and other parts, and to the traces of colour~
perception which exist in the Old Testament. Similarly there are indications that
perception of colour existed in the Bronze,and evenin the Stone Age. Thus while
coloured ornaments and beads have been found in the Swiss lake-dwellings, which
are supposed to have belonged to the Bronze Age, stones remarkable for their
colour seem to have been chosen in the Stone age, not only for use but also for
ornament. Again observations made at the request of Holmgren upon various
savage tribes point to similar conclusions, and Hugo Magnus has therefore acknow--
ledged his previous conclusions not to be borne out by actual observation, admitting
that it is not safe to conclude from a deficiency of language that there exists a.
corresponding deficiency of perception.

The author then considered the value of the arguments brought forward,
showing that the arguments in favour of the gradual development of the colour-
sense in man within historic times were merely philological, and that obser-
vations among the uncivilised races now living had shown that the extent of the
colour-perception is not indicated by the variety of terms used to express it. The
fact that the most uncivilised savages had good colour-perception, and the character
of the monuments in Mycene, Assyria, and Egypt, which show how developed the
perception of colour was when they were built, point to the same conclusion, that
the colour-sense cannot have been gradually developed within the last few thousand
years. The same was shown by the Old Testament scriptures, while coloured
articles belonging to the Bronze or Stone Age indicated the existence of a good
colour-sense in those times. Whatever therefore man had left behind tended to
show that he had always possessed good colour-perception. As to its gradual
development in the animal kingdom, though colour-perception probably did become
more perfect in those insects which lived upon coloured food and in marine animals
on account of the advantage, whether protective, attractive, or other which the
colour-sense would give them, there was no proof that this power was from the
latter ‘ handed down to the fishes and reptiles, and more remotely to the birds and
mammals.’ The following conclusions were therefore arrived at—firstly, that in
man no such gradual development of the colour-sense could have taken place ;.
secondly, that in animals, though it was not impossible that such might have
occurred, and that colour-perception might have reached its present condition by
the process of evolution, this statement had not been verified by actual observation.

2. On the Function of the Two Ears in the Perception of Space.
By Professor Strvanus P. Tuompson, B.A., D.Sc.

The author remarked that the conceptions formed in our minds of the extension
of space might be resolved into two parts—first, the conception of distance

independent of direction ; and, secondly, the conception of direction independent of

distance. These conceptions were based upon the perceptions of three separate

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.— DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 717

senses—muscular, optical, and auditory. Those of the first two classes were fairly
well known, the problems of the optical perceptién of space having been worked
‘out by Wheatstone, Helmholtz, and others. The perceptions of space dependent
on the ear had been but imperfectly investigated. ‘Theories had been put forward
and observations made by Anton, Steinhauser, Graham Bell, E. Mach, Lord
Rayleigh, Luca, Kupper, A. M. Mayer, and by himself. The author reviewed
various theories and observations which had been made. Steinhauser and Graham
Bell assumed the perception of direction to depend upon the relative intensity with
which a sound reached the two ears. Mach and Lord Rayleigh regarded the
perception as depending rather upon the relative differences of quality in the two
ears, these differences being due to the partial resolution of compound tones,
according to Mach, by reason of the ear-cavities acting as resonators, but according
to Lord Rayleigh by reason of diffraction of the sound-wayes around the head.
The author, in a paper on ‘ Binaural Audition,’ read to this Section in 1878, had
shown that differences of phase were also of influence in the acoustic perception
of direction. The author also referred to a paper read by him before the Associa-
tion in 1879 on the Pseudophone, an instrument for investigating the laws of
binaural audition by the illusions it produces in the acoustic perception of space.
After discussing the merits of the various theories to account for the facts of
observation upon tones of different degrees of intensity, pitch, phase, and quality,
the author propounded the following theory :—‘ Judgments as to the direction of
sounds are based in general upon the sensations of different intensity in the two
ears, but the perceived difference of intensity upon which a judgment is based is
not usually the difference in intensity of the lowest or fundamental tone of the
compound sound (or “ clang”), but upon the difference in intensity of the individual
tone or tones of the clang for which the intensity-difference has the greatest
effective result on the quality of the sound.’ The author concluded with some
remarks and suggestions as to the influence on the perception of sounds of the
form of the convolutions of the pinne of the ears, and with the suggestion that
now that the physical bases of the problem had been laid down, the problems of
the acoustic perception of space would be greatly elucidated. by experiments upon
persons possessed of abnormal hearing, and upon the blind, in whom this perception
is abnormally developed.

3. A Contribution to the Question on the Influence of Bacilli in the Pro-
duction of Disease. By Professor J. Cossan Ewart, M.D.

About the end of March a new form of fever made its appearance in- A ber-
deen. The fever began with the usual symptoms—there was a well-marked rigor,
then a sensation of coldness for some hours, accompanied with great depression,
the pulse was rapid, and the temperature steadily increased to 103, in some cases
to 105 deg. Fahrenheit. In the worst cases there was delirium. One of the most
characteristic symptoms was an affection of the deep cervical glands and lym-
phatics near the angle of the jaw; the glands enlarged, and there was a feeling of
fulness about the throat, congestion of the tonsils, and pain along the course of the
lymphatics of the affected side of the neck. In from twenty-four to forty-eight hours
the fever subsided, leaving the patient in a very exhausted state. In most cases
there was a relapse which corresponded exactly with the first attack, with this
difference, that a different set of glands and lymphatics were affected. After this
relapse there was again apparent recovery and then asecond relapse. In some cases
there were as many as six relapses, the relapses occurring regularly every second
day. In nearly all the cases recovery was slow, and in some abscesses formed near
the angle of the jaw. In three cases the disease proved fatal. When an inquiry was
instituted it was found that over 300 individuals had suffered from this disease, and
that all the sufferers had been using milk from the same dairy. A sample of milk
secured for examination, when the epidemic was at its height, was found to contain
numerous micrococci, fungi spores, and spores which resembled those of Bacillus
anthracis—the organism which is associated with splenic fever. When cultivated

718 REPORT—1881.

the spores germinated into exceedingly delicate bacilli, which on further cultivation
lengthened into spore-bearing filaments. On inoculating rats with the milk con-
taining the spores death followed in from eighteen to twenty-four hours. The tissues
of these rats, especially in the region of the neck, were infiltrated with bacilli, which
on cultivation developed into spore-bearing filaments. Inoculation proved both bacilli
and spores to be as virulent as the original spores found in the milk. Confirmatory
evidence of the relation of the bacillus to the disease, and of the disease to the —
bacillus, was obtained by the examination of pus from an abscess situated near
the angle of the jaw of one of the sufferers. This pus contained spores and
bacilli similar to those found in, or developed from, the milk. When a rat was
inoculated with a minimal quantity of this pus, it suffered and died in the same
way as the rats which were infected with the milk. Further investigations proved
that the organisms had been added to the milk along with water. The water used
at the dairy previous to the epidemic passed through a large concrete cistern (provided
with a rough loose wooden cover) placed in a corner of the byre immediately over
the heads of severalcows. The spores reached the byre along with the steamed hay
used as food. Once in the byre, the spores could have had little difficulty in enter-
ing the water cistern, which was practically a part of the byre. How they reached
the tank in which the hay was steamed has not yet been discovered.

Experiments, after the methods employed by Burdon Sanderson, Pasteur,
Greenfield, and Biichner showed—(1) that this bacillus could not be converted
into the hay bacillus (B. subtzs) ; (2) that the cultivations diminished in virulence
until they became quite innocuous; (3) that when the filaments were kept for a
time at a temperature which prevented the appearance of spores, the virulence
became attenuated and ultimately disappeared. Further experiments may show
that the attenuated forms are capable of affording protection from the active bacilli.

In conclusion it was mentioned that the bacillus could be cultivated on the
fresh-cut surfaces of potatoes and in gelatine—the recent methods described by

Koch.

A. On a little-known Oranial Difference between the Catarrhine and Platyr-
rhine Monkeys. By W. A. Forses, B.A.

Besides the well-known difference in. the dentition, and in the form of the
external auditory meatus, in the monkeys of the old and new worlds, there is a
difference in the formation of the bony walls of the temporal fossa which in
nearly every case suffices to distinguish at once the skull of a member of one of
these groups from that of one of the other. As independently discovered by the
author (‘P.Z.S.’ 1880, p. 639), and Dr.Gustav Joseph (‘ Morphologisches Jahrbuch,’
i, pp. 453-465), in the Platyrrhine monkeys the parietal bone is prolonged
forwards to meet the malar, there being a well-marked suture usually between the
two, the frontal being in consequence altogether excluded, superficially at least,
from articulating with the squamosal and alisphenoid. In the Catarrhine monkeys,
on the other hand, as also in man, the parietal does not reach the malar, there
being an isthmus between the two bones formed by the articulation of the frontal

with the alisphenoid.

SATURDAY, SHPTEMBER 3.

The Department did not meet.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 719

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.

1. On the Homology of the Conario-hypophysial Tract, or of the so-called
‘Pineal’ and ‘ Pitwitary Glands.’ By Professor R. Owen, J/D., C.B.,
E.R.S.

The author, referring to the latest contributions to the subjects of his paper,
remarked that they bore upon the functions of the so-termed glands. Professor
Sapolini, in his work ‘ L’aire de la Selle Turcique ’ (8vo., 1880), concludes that the
‘pituitary gland secretes the fluid of the ventricles of the brain;’ Professor Ed.
Vom Beneden, in reference to the supposed pituitary gland in Ascidians, regards it
as their renal excretory organ (‘ Archives de Biologie,’ 8vo., 1881).

In pursuance of his aim, which was homological, Professor Owen traced the
modifications of the pineal and pituitary bodies and connecting parts from man
down to the lowest fishes possessiag a brain; and noted the progressive increased
relative size and retention of tubular structure of the tract including the so-called
‘pituitary gland,’ ‘infundibulum,’ ‘ third ventricle,’ and ‘ pineal gland,’ as the series
descended ; and he noted the further extension of the pineal part of the tract, beyond
the brain, to its perforation of the cranium, leaving the so-called ‘foramen parietale’
or cranial ‘navel,’ in some existing and in many extinct Reptilia. These phe-
nomena were then tested and compared with concomitant phases in the develop-
ment of the Vertebrate, especially the Mammalian, embryo. It was shown, as
had been noted by previous embryologists, that, prior to the permanent anterior
outlet of the digestive sac, a production from such sac extended to the large
cerebral vesicle subsequently reduced to a ‘third ventricle,’ whence the hollow tract
was continued onward to the epithelial covering of the brain, by which it was.
closed. The lower, pharyngeal, beginning of this tract also became closed and
modified, as the ‘ pituitary body’: the upper continuation became modified, and in
higher Vertebrates closed, as the ‘pineal body’; but the intermediate portion of the-
tract retained its primitive hollow condition as the ‘third ventricle’ and ‘infun-
dibulum.’ The ‘sella turcica’ in Mammals, like the ‘foramen parietale’ in cold-
blooded Vertebrates, were modifications in the skeleton of parts of the primitive
‘conario-hypophysial tract.’ This tract, under all its modifications, divided, or-
marked vertically, the division between the ‘cerebrum’ and the ‘optic lobes,’ or
divided the ‘ fore-brain’ from the ‘ hind-brain.’

The author next proceeded to point out the homologies of the parts of the-
‘neural axis’ in Invertebrates with those in Vertebrates.

The so-called ‘ supra-cesophageal ganglion or ganglions’ in the former were
homologous with the ‘cerebrum or cerebral hemispheres’ in ‘the latter. The so-
called ‘ subcesophageal masses’ in Invertebrates answered to the mes- and ep- en-
cephalic masses in Vertebrates. The neural chords and ganglions continued therefrom
in Invertebrates answered to or were homologous with the myelon or spinal chord
of Vertebrates, in which the ganglionic structure was more or less concealed, saye in
some fishes, by superadded neural substances.

Now, the ‘supra-cesophageal mass,’ or ‘fore-brain,’ in Invertebrates was divided
from the ‘ sub-cesophageal masses,’ or ‘ hind-brain,’ by the production of a tubular
portion of the fore part of the primarily closed alimentary cavity; which, extend-
ing between those parts of the neural axis, opened upon the surface of the head so
attained, and there established the permanent ‘mouth’; the tubular extension similarly
retaining its functional or cesophageal relations with the alimentary cavity. The
neural chords connecting the so separated fore-brain from the hind-brain, traversed
the sides of this gullet ; as the chords, or crura, proceeding to expand into the fore-
brain of Vertebrates, traverse the sides or walls of that persistent part of the conario-
hypophysial tract, Imown, in Anthropotomy, as the ‘third ventricle.’ The large
relative size of the embryonal brain-vesicle, in this relation, is significative of the
homology of the parts extending therefrom.

Passing, next, to the consideration of the characters which had been held to
determine the ‘ back’ and ‘ belly’ of an animal, the author cited ‘colour,’ the rela-

720 REPORT— 1881.

tive position of the body of air-breathers to the ground they stood or moved upon,’
and the criterion which Cuvier adopted to determine these aspects in the notable
controversy with Geoffroy St. Hilaire, in 1830. That criterion was the ‘cerebrum’
in Vertebrates, and its homologue, the ‘supra-cesophageal ganglion,’ in Invertebrates.
Cuvier exclusively applied the term ‘brain’ (cerveaw) to this part of the cerebral
centres; moreover, he expressly rejects the homology of the spinal chord of Verte-
brates with the ganglionic chords of the body in Invertebrates.

In an enlarged copy of the diagram by which Cuvier illustrated his position, the
author pointed out the grounds on which the great Comparative Anatomist con-
cluded that, however his opponent might turn about his articulate or molluscous
subject, the so-called ‘ brain’ would be on opposite sides of the alimentary canal.

ow, to reconcile this difference it only needs to add to Cuvier’s diagram of the
brain of the mammal the conario-hypophysial tract; and, if the facts and deductions
in the present paper were allowed to be valid, the actual difference would lie in the
atrophy of the embryonal homologue of the Invertebrate gullet and mouth in the
- Vertebrates, and the establishment in them of a new entry to the alimentary cavity.
In the Vertebrate embryo this anterior entry makes its first appearance as a capa-
cious branchial or water-breathing organ, and traces of this destination are deter-
minable in the higher Vertebrates, in which the respiratory function is, ultimately,
otherwise located and is performed in relation to an aérial medium.

Returning to the criterions of the dorsal and ventral aspects of the animal body,
the author, with, he believed, all fellow-labourers in Homological Anatomy, main-
tained that the ganglionic body-chord in Invertebrates did answer to the myelon of
Vertebrates, and that, with the totality of the brain, the so-called ‘neural axis’
was determined. So determined, he held that its position was the true criterion of
the dorsal or ‘neural aspect’ of the body, whether the animal moved with it next
to or farthest from the ground, or neither the one nor the other, as in the human

edestrian. The part or aspect of the body opposite the neural one was characterised

the location of the centre, or chief centres, of the vascular system, and this had

led Professor Owen, at the commencement of his anatomical teaching, to term it
the ‘ hemal aspect.’

Referring, finally, to the diagram of the Invertebrate and Vertebrate animals in
corresponding positions, agreeably with the above criterion, the author showed that
the so-called ‘ brain’ (Cuvier), or the supra-cesophageal brain-mass, of Comparative
Anatomy, was not above, but beneath, the mouth and gullet in Invertebrates, and
that the ‘sub-cesophageal mass’ was above the mouth and gullet; also that the
reverse relative positions were due to the atrophy of the primitive homologues of
-guch entry in Vertebrates, and the substitution of another opening and conduit to
the stomach ; whereby these anterior openings and conduits are on the lower or
“heemal’ side of the cerebrum in Vertebrates, but on the upper or neural side of the
‘cerebrum’ or fore-brain in Invertebrates. Hence, the one division may be said to
be ‘ hamastomous,’ the other division to be ‘neurostomous.’ But their common
lan, or ‘ unity of composition,’ was vindicated by the embryonal phenomena.

The paper was illustrated by drawings of the principal structures described, of
which drawings enlarged diagrams were exhibited to the Section.

2. On the Acetabulum of Animals in which the Ligamentum Teres is de-
scribed as wanting. By Professor Strutuers, M.D.

In man, the four-cornered bony recess, occupied by fat, in the floor of the aceta-
bulum is exactly adapted to receive and cushion the ligamentum teres in the various
movements of the hip-joint. In birds, the equivalent of the recess is a well-defined
thin portion of the membrane which occupies the deficiency in the floor of the bony
acetabulum. The modifications presented by the cotyloid notch, passage, and recess
in mammals possessing the ligament, are, as in man, adaptations to the position,
direction, and size of the ligament. In the hippopotamus the bony acetabulum
-seems incompatible with the existence of a ligamentum teres.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 72]

Among the few mammals in which the ligamentum teres is described as wanting,
“the author remarks on the parts in the ornithorhynchus, sloth, elephant, seal, and
orang. The narrow Y-shaped recess in the ornithorhynchus suggests a relation to
the triple line of meeting of the three primary bones in development. The condition
in the ox, in which the ligament is present, suggests a similar relation. In the
young human subject the triple line intersects the recess, but the pubes and ilium
each bear only a small part of the recess.

In the three-toed sloth a recess of good length and breadth is seen in the bone.
In the elephant the recess is present, but small in proportion to the size of the
acetabulum. In the orang a good-sized and deep recess is present, running beyond
the middle of the acetabulum, and as broad as the pubic or ischiatic parts of the
cartilaginous crescent; the constricted part, leading from the notch, about half as
broad. In the duckbill, sloth, elephant, and orang there is no mark on the femur
to indicate the insertion of a ligamentum teres.

The author finds the ligamentum teres to be present in the Greenland seal, not
free but projecting into the joint from the capsule. A dissection showing this was
submitted to the Section. The ligament has the usual origin and is inserted into
a well-marked notch in the margin of the head of the femur. A notch, not an
-enclosed pit, on the femur, for the insertion of the ligamentum teres, is seen in various
mammals. In the seal, the acetabular recess is occupied by a fatty and synovial
body, which also projects beyond the recess, and the projecting ligamentum teres
_lies against it.

3. On the Correspondence between the Articulations of the Metacarpal and
Metatarsal Bones in Man. By Professor StrurHers, M.D.

On comparing the articulations of the bases of the metacarpal bones with those
-of the metatarsal bones, it will be found that, numerically and homologically, the
‘correspondence is exact, bone for bone. Besides the great terminal facets for their
-carpal and tarsal supporting bases, and the lateral facets on both sides of the third
and fourth, and on one side of the second and fifth, the second bas two corner
facets by which it articulates,—in the hand with the trapezium and os magnum,
in the foot with the internal cuneiform and the external cuneiform; and the
fourth has a corner facet by which it articulates,—in the hand with the os magnum,
‘in the foot with the external cuneiform. Thus, including the phalanx, the numbers
of the articulations of the five metacarpal and five metatarsal bones, from within
outwards, are 2, 5, 4, 5, 3. Considering the very different functional adaptation
of these homologous bones, this precise correspondence in their articulations is
remarkable. Although the details of the articulations of each bone are fully given
in the books on anatomy, the above correspondence has been overlooked, an illustra-
tion of how little human anatomy is usually, as yet, taught homologically, although
thereby the study may be made both more interesting and more simple.

It is uncertain whether the variety occasionally seen of an articular facet
between the first and second metatarsal bones is not a result of civilisation. The
absence of such an articulation in the plantigrade human foot seems explicabletby the
original freedom of the great toe.

4. On the Pronephros of Teleosteans and Ganoids.
By ¥. M. Batrovr, W.A., F.R.S.

The author stated that the enlarged anterior part of the so-called kidney of
“Teleosteans and Ganoids, which is usually held to be the persistent pronephros or
head-kidney, was in reality not part of the true kidney, but merely a great mass
of lymphatic tissue. From this it follows that the very remarkable part of the
larval kidney, known as the pronephros, does not persist in Ganoids and Teleosteans
in the adult state ; and since these two groups are the only ones in which this part
-of the larval kidney has been supposed to persist in the adult, it must now he held
“that there is no group known in which the pronephyos lasts beyond larval life.

1881. 3A

G22, REPORT—1881.

5. On the Digastric Muscle, its Modifications and Functions.
By G. H. Dosson.

6. On the Causes and Results of assumed Oycloidal Rotation in Arterial
Red Discs. By R. W. Wooutcomse.

The author, having made some experiments with iron discs, given cycloidal
rotation as projectiles (vide ‘Proc. Royal Society,’ March, 1862, and ‘Journal of
the Society of Arts,’ Oct. 24, 1862, the latter being a paper read by author in
Section G of the British Association, at Cambridge, in the same year), in pursuance
of the subject of rotation in oblate bodies, has been struck by the oblate form of
the red blood-dise, and advances the view that not only may the peculiar oblate
form be given it by such rotation, during its development from (as already supposed)
_the amorphous white corpuscular matter, but that the red corpuscle is, until
checked in the capillaries, impressed also with rotation imparted by two principal
causes ¢ one, momentary translatory hindrance from the concave side of a curve
in an artery in passing it—such as the aortic, or the angles at the giving off of the
intercostals; the other also given by the curves in the arteries, necessitating
a velocity higher towards the distal than the proximal end of the radius of the
curvature of the artery. These two causes tending to impart rotation to different
discs in opposite directions, he conceives the direction of rotation to be of no
importance to the disc, so that it does rotate. He relies on the natural law
that ‘rotation always tends to settle about the shortest diameter,’ for the change
to such diameter in the disc of any other rotation that might be set up, as, for
instance, initially about a long diameter, especially in a body so oblate and
symmetrical as the red disc. This natural law he illustrates by examples of
every-day experience, as the rolling on their edges of irregularly-shaped leaves,
or of scraps of paper on the ground before the wind, or the rolling about its
shortest diameter of even an unsymmetrically-shaped stone when impelled or
kicked on the ground ; it being on the remarkable facility and permanence of such
rotation, evidenced as well in the smallest as on the greatest scale in nature, that
the author relies for the foundation of his hypothesis.

While the foregoing familiar instances exemplify the first of the two suggested
ways in which rotation may be imparted, so the other way may be illustrated in
the well-known experiment of Dr. Plateau with a rotating globule of oil. It
yemains to mention how, in the author’s view, the rotation of the discs is left
undisturbed until the capillaries are reached, and, lastly, of what use he assumes
the alleged rotation to be.

He assumes that the contents of an artery are permeated by a similar electric
state, and that from the known mutual repulsion amongst small bodies when in
a similar electric condition, the corpuscles are thus virtually isolated, mechanically,
from each other, also from the liquor sanguinis, and ordinarily (when not at the:
curves overcome by centrifugal force) isolated also from the serous coat of the
artery ; thus that the dises both translate and rotate presumably em vacuo. As to
the uses of rotation, the author refers to the already recognised augmentation
of one of the mechanical sources of heat from the temporary check to the translative
movement of the discs in the capillaries, and points out that such heat would be
supplemented by the necessary total arrest there of rotation in a disc, and that
it would be but consistent with the recognised economy of forces in nature that
where such supplementing can be done (as he argues it may be) without additional
expenditure for either the initial force or for its conservation, and for an end so
vital as that of heat, it is @ prior? more probable than less so that the movement of
translation of the red arterial discs would be accompanied by the movement of
rotation.

But the author also conceives this supplementing of heat to be not the only
use of such rotation. The red dise carries the iron, and if there be magnetism in
the system, as we know there is, then polarity in each disc is more conceivable in
the view of rotation of the disc than of its not rotating.

ma

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 723

It would be hard to conceive, for instance, of definite magnetic poles in the
earth, were that much less oblate body than the disc without rotation. It is true
the magnetic poles of the earth do not coincide with the axis of rotation; but it
may be assumed that it is by the fixing effect of the rotation that the axis of the
earth, omitting the nutation, is maintained at its given angle to the plane of the
ecliptic, and that thus, though the magnetic poles are, of course, in oscillation,
yet their direction as regards the fixed stars is a more determinate one than it
would be if there was translation only of the earth without the fixing effect of
rotation on one axis. Now, the gyroscope demonstrates that a plane of rotation
cannot be interfered with without the result of determinate precessional movement—
movements that, if there be rotation, are as likely and as certain to have an object
in the microcosm of animal life as they could have in the economy of the celestial
bodies, and, it may be added, as they must. in any case have when they are but
links in a chain of evolution.

The author remarks that while the general course of the arteries is direct and
but little curved, the parts where we do find curves are mostly in proximity to
special organs and in localities where it may be assumed that that high function
of the arterial disc—the due stimulation of nerve-tissue—would be in stronger
request than in parts such as the ordinary muscular tissue, where there was to be
fulfilled a function less vital.

This sudden curve or angle of an artery or its spirality would, judging from
what is seen in the gyroscope, cause, in the case of the simple curve or anele,
a renewed, though it might be a reversed, rotation ; and, in the case of the spiral
artery, a precessional movement in the rotating disc, to which, the author repeats,
he attaches especial consequence—a view that is unavoidable to him when he sees
in the gyroscope, as one of its phenomena, the partial support against gravitation
of the rotating dise and enclosing ring.

To sum up the conclusions of the author: 1st, rotation imparted by at least
two different methods; 2ndly, rotation preserved from hindrance by repulsion due
to a similar electric condition; 3rdly, rotation utilised in capillaries by its arrest
there supplementing the heat due to checked translative motion of discs; 4thly,
magnetic polarity of iron in discs more defined in direction by plane of rotation
of disc being by the rotation more or less fixed; 5thly, special organs having
notably curved or helicine arteries, the former adding to the velocity of rotation,
and the helicine inducing precessional movement.

7. Observations on the Incubation of the Indian Python (Python molurus).
By W. A. Forzss, B.A.

The only two previously recorded instances of the incubation of their eggs by
female Pythons in captivity are those recorded by Valenciennes (‘Comptes Rendus,’
1841, xiii. pp. 126-133), and Sclater (‘ P.Z.S.’ 1862, pp. 365-368), for P. bivittatus
and P. sebe respectively. During the summer of 1881 a female of Python
molurus, about 12 feet long, which was kept in the same cage in the reptile-house
in the Zoological Society’s Gardens as two other Pythons of the opposite sex, one
being of the same species, the other P. bivttatus, laid about fifteen eggs, on which
she sat steadily for about six weeks, in exactly the same manner as in the two
instances mentioned above. At the termination of that period, as the eges were
decomposing and obviously bad, they were removed ; some, at least, were fertilised,
an embryo about 114 inches long having been extracted from one.

With the kind aid of Mr. Zambra, of the well-known firm of Negretti &
Zambra, who not only had special thermometers of the most approved kind con-
structed for this occasion, but also regularly attended himself to help in the obser-
vations, a series of observations, about two hundred in number, were taken at
regular intervals of 48 or 72 hours, to ascertain the temperature of the sitting’
female, as compared with that of the non-incubating male, kept next door under
nearly identica] conditions of temperature and moisture. The result of these shows
that, whereas the temperature of the male, whether taken on the surface or between

3A 2

724 . REPORT— 1881.

the folds of the coiled-up body, varied very much as the temperature of the air in
the cage, the curves falling or rising with it; that of the female, taken in the
same way, was much more constant, particularly of the body between the folds.
Not only so, but the average temperature of the female was much higher, the
temperatures for the two sexes being respectively 86:7° F. and 89-75° F. between
the folds, and on the surface 82°5° F. and 84-4° F., giving differences of 3°05° and 1-9°
in favour of the female. In no case did the temperature of the male, taken be-
tween the folds, exceed that of the female; and in most cases there was a marked
excess in that of the female, the average in one set of observations being as much
as 7°6°. In no case was any such difference as 20:0°, like that recorded by Sclater,
found. The highest temperature observed in the female was 92°8°; the highest
observed by Valenciennes was 106:7°, or 14:0° higher. The greatest difference be-
tween the surface of the snake and that of the air in the cage observed was 9°6° F.
No such dezline in temperature from the commencement to the end of incuba-
tion as was observed by Valenciennes could be made out in the present case. The
maxima were attained when the temperature of the surrounding air was also at its
highest, the range of the between-folds temperature being 6° (85°5° to 91°5°).

8. On the Effect of the Voltaic Current on the Elimination of Sugar.
By W. H. Stone, M.B., F.R.O.P.

The suggestion of employing electricity in the form of a constant current in
cases of glycosuria appears to date from the year 1861, on September 2 of which
year M. Mariano Semmola read a paper before the French Académie des Sciences,
recorded in the ‘Comptes Rendus’ of that date. He states his views as to the causa-
tion of the disease at considerable length in twenty-one propositions, referring to a
previous paper brought before the same society six years earlier. Generally he
attributes its occurrence either to exaggerated glycogenic action of the liver, or to

default of respiratory oxidation. The distinction between these two forms, he
thinks, can be made out by the permanence or the transient nature of the phenome-
non and by the large or small quantity of sugar excreted. Where glycosuria accom-
anies disease of the nervous system, the series of symptoms is of a double nature.
he first follows convulsive affections, such as epilepsy and hysteria; it is usually
of short duration and evanescent; the second, which accompanies organic cerebral
disease, must be looked on as a glycogenic stimulation of the fourth ventricle, and
persists as long as the brain-disease itself, developing in direct ratio to the proxi-
mity of the brain-lesion to the roots of the pneumogastric nerve. A more or less
definite congestion of the floor of the fourth ventricle he considers to be the patho-
logical condition constantly observed in diabetic patients. The action of electricity
seems to point to the disease having begun in an essential neurosis, which would
offer a reasonable chance of cure. This view is strengthened by the fact that when
diabetic patients are not carried off by tuberculosis, the cause of death is usually
some nervous crisis, such as epilepsy or dyspnoea, due to apoplexy of the pons
varolii. In his fifteenth and following propositions M. Semmola states that stimu-
lation of the pneumogastric nerve by a direct current of sufficient force constantly
produces a diminution in the quantity of sugar eliminated, and sometimes in the
ulk of the secretion itself. These effects are passing, and only last from five to
ten hours. Occasionally, however, they are more durable, and may amount to
organic cure. He gives a case of a girl, aged 17, who became diabetic and amau-
rotic at the same time from a fright, and who recovered under galvanism. Llec-
tricity he considers not only a valuable therapeutical agent in such cases, but also
useful in diagnosis, as a means of distinguishing between an idiopathic neurosis and
one symptomatic of cerebral lesion.

The merit of this somewhat forgotten memoir consists not only in the clearness
of the issues it raises, but also in the important distinction between neurotic and
organic glycosuria, which must have struck every independent observer. The clear
establishment of such a difference also goes far to explain the very variable results
of treatment in this most intractable disease, and the want of success which has

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 725

attended the labours of conscientious observers, It may be worth while to put on
record a case which, although it terminated fatally, presents many points of physio-
logical interest.

A. B. stated that for the last ten or twelve years he had suffered from bron-
chitis in the winter, but had never had hemoptysis. The present illness, dated
from two years ago, when he noticed frequent micturition, with increased quantity,
and very ravenous appetite. These symptoms were accompanied by much loss of
flesh, thirst, and coldness of the extremities. He stated that the urinary secretion
averaged five or six pints daily, but had risen to nine pints. It tasted sweet at
times, and at others bitter; in the latter case being very dark in colour. He
Imew of no cause for the illness, and entirely denied any fright, mental shock, or
anxiety.

— an intelligent man, by trade a surgical instrument maker, a fact which
was of service in the use of galvanism. The skin was dry and rough; the eye-
sight dim, with occasional double vision. The pulse 68, rather weak. The
heart-sounds were normal. The chest showed the usual signs of emphysema, with
effacement of the cardiac dulness. The liver was, for the same reason, somewhat
pushed downwards, but not enlarged, tender, or altered in resistance. The toneue
was clean. The urine amounted to 73 oz., with a sp. gr. of 1040. The tempera-
ture was throughout slightly subnormal, 97°-98°.

He was in the habit of taking crude opium in 2-gr. doses, twice or thrice
daily, and at first expressed a strong craving for the drug. He was ordered codeia
gr. ij, ter die, which gave him considerable relief and enabled him, of his own
accord, to discontinue the opium, His chief complaint at this time was of failing
eyesight.

; The ophthalmoscope gave negative results, and there was no sign of cataract.
There was well-marked central scotoma to colours, and the case resembled tobacco
amblyopia, possibly accelerated by ill-health. During the first week the urine
averaged 84 oz. daily, and contained, on quantitative examination, about 5 oz. of
sugar. The treatment consisted solely of the codeia named above, which was
afterwards replaced by a lemonade made with acid phosph. dil. sweetened with
glycerine, and flavoured with lemons.

The improvement noted at first was not maintained, and the codeia was
resumed, but the quantity of urine rose to 102 oz., to 139 oz., and ultimately to
150 oz. with a specific gravity of 1:040. The falling off in condition was so ob-
vious that the lungs were again carefully examined, with a view to detect signs of
latent phthisis, which were not, however, found.

He remained very ill during the month, and his weight sank to 8 st. 23 Ib.
The urine was 160 oz., and shortly after it rose to the highest quantity recorded,
viz. 170 oz., with an occasional sp. gr. of 1-045.

Seeing the threatening nature of the symptoms and the total ineffectuality of
treatment, the use of the continued current to the head was suggested. It was
decided to employ an ascending current from the nape of the neck to the forehead ;
the negative pole being placed in the former region, the positive in the latter.
The current was of 1,500 micro-vebers in strength, and was at first continued for
seven minutes. It gave him no uneasiness, and he thought himself temporarily
better after it. It was from the first obvious that the action of electricity in a
case of depraved nutrition, probably due to disorder of the organic nervous centre,
should not be merely stimulant and occasional, but catalytic and constant. The
patient himself was therefore entrusted with a powerful bichromate battery of thirty
cells, and directed to use the strongest current he could bear with comfort, as
above described, twice or thrice a day. All kinds of mechanical contact-makers
and commutators were discarded, and the battery, instead of being screwed up in
a French-polished box, was ranged in three sets of ten cells on the ward table..
A simple binding-screw was attached to the required cell. It was thus easy to
see what was being done, and impossible to err as to the real direction of the
current. On electrical measurement, the strongest current he could bear, from
nape to forehead, was found to be one of 10,000 micro-vebers. But a more
moderate current of 1,800 micro-vebers was begun with and increased to 2,000

726 _ REPORT—1881.

micro-vebers ; it seemed to answer all purposes. The patient himself entered
‘heartily into the treatment, and from the first declared himself better. The
earliest symptom to amend was the eyesight, and the pinched expression of the
face, which soon disappeared, with rapid recovery of flesh, amounting to 4 lbs.
within a few weeks.

On December 6 the urine measured 80 0z., of sp. gr. 1040, The thirst was less.
He did not require opium, though he still took the codeia thrice daily in 2-gr.
doses. The note taken on that day says: ‘ Patient uses 14 cells of the bichromate
battery ; is very much better. The improvement was maintained until December
23, when some digestive disturbance occurred. On that day the quantity of water
was 74 oz.

On the 27th the sp. gr. was found to be. 1:038, the quantity 68 oz. On fermen-
tation the sp. gr. only sank to 1*026, indicating a reduction of sugar excreted from
5 to about 2 oz. daily.

On January 7 the urine was quantitatively tested, in consequence of a severe
relapse accompanied by febrile symptoms, which had necessitated the omission of
the electricity. It was of sp. gr. 1°042, containing sugar 8-00 and urea 0:97 per
cent., with a trace of albumen. It had sunk in quantity to under 50 oz. daily.
The febrile access proved to be due to abscess.

On the 13th the quantity of urine rose again to 100 oz. Directly he could
leave his bed he recommenced the use of the battery with the greatest ardour,
from a conviction that it was of service to him. He was now able to bear a
eurrent of 10,000 micro-vebers from thirty-two of the bichromate cells above-
mentioned,

On the 22nd the quantity of urine was 58 oz. It continued at a comparatively
reduced standard until February 9, on which day a large carbuncular boil began
to form at the back of the neck, where the negative pole of the battery had been
applied. The use of galvanism was then finally discontinued. The patient
became much worse, restless, semi-comatose, with raw excoriated tongue, unable
to take food or stimulants. The quantity of urine rose to 110 and 120 0z. The
temperature remained at 98°6° Fahr. In this condition he remained until February
21, when it sank to 96:2°. On the following day he died. The pons varolii and
medulla oblongata, on examination by Dr. Dickinson, showed enlargement, by
erosion, of the peri-vascular canals in the lower part of the medulla near its
centre, in the olivary body, in the upper part of the medulla, close to the floor of
the fourth ventricle, and in the anterior part of the pons between the roots of the
erura cerebri. In the two latter positions, both of which were in or close to the
median plane, minute collections of brown matter were to be seen, external to the
vessels, which consisted of blood-corpuscles apparently extruded during life.

The above brief notes are not intended to represent the whole hearings of a subject
which cannot but be considered of importance. All details of a medical character
have been excluded; but it has occurred to the author that sufficient facts of a
ects physiological bearing remain, which may deserve the attention of the

tion.

After the recent valuable researches of Mr. Gore in electrical osmose and
diffusion, the statement of M. Semmola made twenty years ago, confirmed as it is
by the above case, deserves careful reconsideration. The chemical effects of the
galvanic current employed in its continuous form, undoubtedly require develop-
ment, in opposition to the purely stimulant action on nerve and muscle of the
induced current. The fact of a definite polarisation of the tissues included in a
galvanic circuit, leading to a reverse current of a secondary character, has been
shown both by Cyon of St. Petersburg, and by Onimus of Paris. It would
almost seem, in this instance, as if an inhibitory alteration of osmose could be
transmitted downwards from the governing centre, under the catalytic influence of
the voltaic current, to the secreting organ at its peripheral extremity.

9. On the Structure and Homologies of the Suspensory Ligament of the
Fetlock in the Horse, Ass, Ox, Sheep, and Camel. By D. J.
CunnincHamM, M.D., F.R.S.E.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 427

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.1, C.B., M.D., D.C.L,,
LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.

The PrestpEnt delivered the following Address:—
On Geographical Distribution,

Ir has been suggested that a leading feature of the sectional addresses to be
delivered on the occasion of this, the fiftieth anniversary of the meetings of the
British Association, should be a review of the progress made during the last half-
‘century in the branches of knowledge which the Sections respectively represent.

It has further been arranged that, at so auspicious an epoch, the Sections should,
when possible, be presided over by past Presidents of the Association, This has
resulted in almost every sectional chair being occupied by a President eminent as a
cultivator of the science with which his Section will be engaged, though not the
one I have the honour of filling, which, from the fact of there being no professed
geographer amongst the surviving past Presidents, has been confided to an amateur,

Under these circumstances I should be untrue to myself and to you, if I pre-
sumed to address you as one conversant with geography in any extended significa-
tion of the word, or if I attempted to deal with that important and attractive
branch of it, topographical discovery, which claims more or less exclusively the
time and attention of the geographers of this country. It is more fitting for me,
and more in keeping with the objects of this Association, that I be allowed to
discourse before you on one of the many branches of science the pursuit of which
is involved in the higher aims of geographers, and which, as we are informed by
an accomplished cultivator of the science, are integral portions of scientific geo-
graphy.’ Of these none is more important than that of the distribution of animals
and plants, which further recommends itself to you on this occasion from being a
subject that owes its great progress during the last half-century as much to the
theories advanced by celebrated voyagers and travellers as to their observations
and collections.

Before, however, I proceed to offer you a sketch of the progress made during
the lifetime of the Association in this one branch, I must digress to remind you,
however briefly, of the even greater advances made in others, in many cases
through the direct or indirect instrumentality of the Association itself, acting in
concert with the Royal and with the Royal Geographical Societies.

In topography the knowledge obtained during this half-century has been unpre-
cedentedly great. The veil has been withdrawn from the sources of the Nile, and the
lake systems of Central Africa have been approximately localised and outlined. Aus-
tralia, never previously traversed, has been crossed and recrossed in various direc-
tions. New Guinea has had its coasts surveyed, and its previously utterly unknown
interior has been here and there visited. The topography of Western China and

1 Major-General Strachey, in a lecture delivered before the Royal Geographical
Society (Proceedings, vol. xxxi. p. 179, 1877) discusses with just appreciation and
admirable clearness, the interdependence of the sciences which enter into the study
and aims of scientific geography, and which he enumerates under fourteen heads,
This lecture contains the ablest review of the subject known to me. It might very
well be entitled ‘ The whole duty of the Geographer.’ Every traveller’s outfit should
include a copy of it, and one should accompany every prize given by the Geogra-
phical Society to students for proficiency in geographical knowledge.

728 REPORT— 1881,

Central Asia, which had been sealed books since the days of Marco Polo, has been:
explored in many quarters. The elevations of the highest mountains of both hemi--
spheres have been accurately determined, and themselves ascended to heights never
before attained; and the upper regions of the air have been ballooned to the extreme
limit beyond which the life-sustaining organs of the human frame can no longer
perform their functions. In hydrography the depths of the great oceans have-
been sounded, their shores mapped, and their physical and natural history explored
from the Equator to beyond both polar circles. In the Arctic regions the highest
hitherto attained latitudes have been reached; Greenland has been proved to be an
island; and an archipelago has been discovered nearer to the Pole than any other
land. In the Antarctic regions a new continent has been added to our maps, crowned
with one of the loftiest known active volcanoes, and the Antarctic ocean has been
twice traversed to the 79th parallel. Nor have some of the negative results of
modern exploration been less important, for the Mountains of the Moon and many
lesser chains have been expunged from our maps, and there are no longer believers
in the inland sea of Australia or in the open ocean of the Arctic pole. Of these and
many others of the geographical discoveries of the last half-century full accounts
will be laid before you, prepared for this Section by able geographers; of whom Mr.
Markham will contribute Arctic discovery; Sir Richard Temple, Asiatic; Lieut.-Col.,
Sir James Grant and Mr. H. Waller, African; Mr. Moseley, Australian; Mr.
Trelawny Saunders, Syrian (including the Holy Land); the Hydrographer of
the Admiralty will undertake the great oceans, and Mr, F. Galton will discuss the
improvements effected in the instruments, appliances, and methods of investigation
employed in geographical researches.

Of other branches of science which are auxiliary to scientific geography, the
majority will be treated of in the Sections of the Association to which they
belong ; but there are a few which I must not, in justice to the geographers who
have so largely contributed to their advance, leave unnoticed.

Such is terrestrial magnetism! which had as its first investigators two of our
earliest voyagers, the ill-fated Hudson and Halley, who determined the magnetic
dip in the North polar and tropical regions respectively. Theirs were the precur-
sors of a long series of scientific expeditions, during which the dipping needle was
carried almost from Pole to Pole, and which culminated in the establishment,
mainly under the auspices of this Association, of the magnetic survey of Great
Britain, of fixed magnetic observatories in all quarters of the globe, and of the An-
tarctic expedition of Sir James Ross, who, since the foundation of the Association,
planted the dipping needle over the northern Magnetic Pole, and carried it within
200 miles of the southern one.

Nor is the geography of this half-century less indebted to physicists, geolo--
gists, and naturalists. It is to a most learned traveller and naturalist, Von Baer,
that the conception is due that the westward deflection of all the South Russian
rivers is caused by the revolution of the globe on its axis.” It was a geologist,
Ramsay, who explained the formation of so many lake-beds in mountain regions.
by the gouging action of glaciers. It was a physicist and mountaineer, Tyndall,
who discovered those properties of ice upon which the formation and movement of
glaciers depend. The greatest of naturalist-voyagers, Darwin, within the same
half-century has produced the true theory of coral reefs and atolls, showed the:
relations between volcanic islands and the rising and sinking of the bottom of the
ocean, and proved that along a coast-line of 2,480 miles the southern part of the
continent of South America has been gradually elevated from the sea-level to 600
feet above it. Within almost the same period Poulett Scrope and Lyell have
revolutionised the theory of the formation of volcanic mountains, showing that these
are not the long-taught upheavals of the crust of the earth, but are heaped up
deposits from volcanic vents, and they have largely contributed to the abandon-.

1 The subject of an able lecture ‘On the Magnetism of the Earth,’ delivered’
before the Royal Geographical Society by the Hydrographer of the Admiralty
(Proceedings, vol. xxi. p. 20, 1876).

* Von Baer, ‘ Ueber ein allgemeines Gesetz in der Gestaltung der Flussbetten,
St, Petersb. Bull. Se. ii. (1860),

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 729

ment of the venerable theory that mountain chains are sudden up-thrusts. With--
in the same period, the theory of the great oceans having occupied their present
ositions on the globe from very early geological times was first propounded by
ana,' the companion of Wilkes in his expedition round the world, and is supported
by Darwin and by Wallace.

In Meteorology the advance is no less attributable to the labours of voyagers
and travellers. The establishment of the Meteorological office is due to the
energy and perseverance of a great navigator, the late Admiral Fitzroy.

Another domain of knowledge that claims the strongest sympathies of the:
geographer is Anthropology. It is only within the last quarter of a century that
the study of man under his physical aspect has been recognised as a distinct branch
of science, and represented by a flourishing society, and by annual international
congresses.

I must not conclude this notice without a passing tribute to a department of
Geography that has occupied the attention of too few of its cultivators. I mean
that of literary research. Nevertheless, in this too the progress has been great ;:
and I need only mention the publications of the Hakluyt Society, and two works.
of prodigious learning and the greatest value, ‘The Book of Marco Polo, the-
Venetian,’* and ‘A History of Ancient Geography,’* to prove to you that one
need not to travel to new lands to be a profound and sagacious geographer.

I have asked you to accept the geographical distribution of organic beings as.
the subject which I have chosen for this address. It is the branch with which
I am most familiar; it illustrates extremely well the interdependence of those
sciences which the geographer should study, and as I have before observed, its-
progress has been in the main due to the labours of voyagers and travellers.

In the science of distribution, Botany took the lead. Humboldt, in one of his
essays,* says that the germ of it is to be found in an idea of Tournefort, developed
by Linnzeus. Tournefort was a Frenchman of great learning, and, moreover, a
great traveller. He was sent by the King of France in 1700 to explore the islands
of Greece and mountains of Armenia, in the interests of the Jardin des Plantes,
and his published narrative is full of valuable matter on the people, antiquities,
and natural productions of the countries he visited. The idea attributed to him
by Humboldt ® is, that in ascending mountains we meet successively with vegeta-
tions that represent those of successively higher latitudes ; upon which Humboldt
observes : ‘Tl ne fallut pas une grande sagacité pour observer que sur les pentes des
hautes montagnes de l’Arménie, des végétaux des différentes latitudes se suivent
comme les climats superposés l’un sur les autres;’ but he goes on to remark,
‘cette idée de Tournefort developpée par Linné dans deux dissertations intéressantes
(Stationes et Colonix Plantarum), renferment cependant le germe de la Géographie
Botanique.’ Tournefort’s idea was, however, an advanced one for the age he
lived in, and should not be judged by the light of the knowledge of a succeeding
century. He had no experience of other latitudes than the few intervening
between Paris and the Levant. Humboldt himself did not suspect the whole
bearing of the idea on the principles of geographical distribution, and that the
parallelism between the floras of mountains and of latitudes was the result of
community of descent of the plants composing the floras, nor that it was brought
about by physical causes. The idea of the early part of the eighteenth century is,
when rightly understood, found to be the forerunner of the matured knowledge of
the middle of the nineteenth.

The labours of Linnzus, himself a traveller, whose narratives give him

_ | Dana in American Journal of Science, Ser. 2, Vol. iii. p. 352 (1847), and various.
later publications.

* By Colonel Henry Yule, C.B. (ed. 1, 1871; ed. 2, 1875).

8 By 8. H. Bunbury (1879).

* «Sur les lois que l’on observe dans le distribution des formes végétales ’ (Mémoire:
lu a U Institut de France, January 29, 1816).

° I have been unable to find any such idea expressed in Tournefort’s works..
Edward Forbes, however, also attributes the idea to Tournefort (Memoirs of the
Geological Survey, vol. i. p. 351),

730 REPORT—1 881.

high rank as such, paved the way to a correct study of botanical geography.
Before his time little or no attention was paid to the topography of plants, and he
was the first to distinguish, to lay down rules, and to supply models for these two
important elements in their life-history—namely, their habitats or topographical
localisation, and their stations, or the physical nature of their habitats. In his
‘Stationes Plantarum,’ Linnzus defines with precision twenty-four stations
characterised by soil, moisture, exposure, climate, &c., which, with comparatively
slight modifications and improvements, have been adopted by all subsequent
authorities. Nor, indeed, was any marked advance in this subject made, till
eat observation and chemical analysis supplemented its shortcomings. In

is essay ‘ De coloniis plantarum,’ published fourteen years after the ‘ Stationes,’”
he says, ‘Qui veram cunque et solidam plantarum scientiam aucupatur, patriam
ipsarum ac sedem cujusque propriam haud sane ignorabit,’ and he proceeds to
give an outline of the distribution of certain plants on the globe, according to
climate, latitude, &c., and to indicate their means of transport by winds, birds,
and other agencies, India (meaning the tropics of both worlds) he charac-
terises as the region of palms; the temperate latitudes, of herbaceous plants; the
northern, of mosses, algee, and coniferee; and America, of ferns ;—thus preparing
the way for the next great generaliser in the field.’

This was the most accomplished and prolific of modern travellers, Humboldt,
who made Botany a chief pursuit during all his journeys, and who seems, indeed,
to have been devoted to it from a very early age. His first work was a botanical
one, the ‘Flora Friburgensis,’ and we have it on his own authority that three
years before its publication, when he was only just of age (in 1790) he communi-
cated to his friend, G, Forster, -the companion of Cook in his second voyage, a
sketch of a geography of plants. It was not, however, till his return from America
that his first essay on Botanical Geography + appeared, which at once gave him
a very high position as a philosophical naturalist. Up to the period of its appear-
ance there had been nothing of the kind to compare with it for the wealth of
facts, botanical, meteorological, and hypsometrical, derived from his own observa-
tions, from the works of travellers and naturalists, and from personal communica-
tion with his contemporaries, all correlated with consummate skill and discussed
with that lucidity of exposition of which he was a master. The great feature of
this essay is the exactness of the methods employed for estimating the conditions
under which species, genera, and families are grouped geographically, and the pre-
cision with which they are expressed.

This was succeeded in 1815, and subsequently, by four other essays on the
same subject. Of these the most valuable is the ‘ Prolegomena,’* in which he

1 Amenitates Academice, vol. iv. p. 64, 1754.

? Ibid. vol. viii. p. 1, 1768.

3 Between the dates of the writings of Linnzeus and Humboldt, two noteable
works on geographical distribution appeared. One by Frid. Stromeyer ( Commentatio
inauguralis sistens Historie Vegetabilium Geographice specimen, Gottingen, 1800),
is an excellent syllabus of the points to be attended to in the study of distribution,
but without examples; the other is a too general work by Zimmermann, entitled,
Specimen Zoologie Geographice, Quadrupedum Domicilia et Migrationes sistens,
Lugd. Bat. 1777, which he followed by Geographische Geschichte des Menschen und
der allgemein verbreiteten vierfiissigen Thiere, nebst einer hieher gehérigen Zoologi-
schen Weltcharte, Leipsic, 1778-1783.

4 «Hssai sur la Géographie des Plantes,’ par A. de Humboldt et Aimé Bonpland ;
rédigee, par A. de Humboldt, Zw a la Classe des Sc. Phys. et Math. de UInstitut
Nationale, 17 Nivose de 1’An 13, 1805.

5 «De Distributione Geographica plantarum secundum cceli temperiem et alti-
tudinem Montium, Prolezomena.’ This appeared in quarto in the first volume of
the Nova Genera et Species Plantarum, in 1815, and separately in an octavo form
in 1817. Humboldt’s other works on geographical distribution are Notationes ad
Geographiam Plantarum spectantes, 1815; Ansichten der Natur, 1808, and Ed. 2,
1827; Nouvelles Recherches sur les lois que Von observe dans la Distribution des
Sormes végétales (1816); and an article with a similar title in the Dictionaire des
Sciences Naturelles, vol. xviii. p. 422, 1820.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 731

dwells at length on the value of numerical data, and explains his ‘ Arithmetice
botanices ’ which consists in determining the proportion which the species of certain
large families or groups of families bear to the whole number of species composing the
floras in advancing from the Equator to the Poles, and in ascending mountains. Some
kinds of plants, he says, increase in numbers relatively to others in proceeding
from the Equator to the Poles, as ferns, grasses, amentiferous trees, &c.; others
decrease, as Rubiacese, Malvaceze, Composit, &c. ; whilst others still, as Labiate,
Cruciferz, &c., find their maximum in temperate regions, and decrease in both
directions. He adds that it is only by accurately measuring this decrease or
increase that laws can be established, when it is found that these present constant
relations to parallels of temperature.!_ Furthermore, he says that in many cases
the whole number of plants contained in any given region of the globe may be
approximately determined by ascertaining the number of species of such families.

The importance of this method of analysing the vegetation of a country in
researches in geographical botany is obvious, for it affords the most instructive
method of setting forth the relations that exist between a flora and its geographical
position and climatal conditions.

Humboldt’s labours on the laws of distribution were not limited to floras, they
included man and the lower animals, cultivated and domesticated, as well as
native; they may not be works of the greatest originality, but they show remark-
able powers of observation and reflection, astonishing industry, conscientious
exactitude in the collection of data, and sagacity in the use of them: he is indis-
putably the founder of this department of geographical science.

No material advance was made towards improving the laws of geographical
distribution ? so long as it was believed that the continents and oceans had ex-
perienced no great changes of surface or of climate since the introduction of the
existing assemblages of animals and plants. This belief in the comparative sta-
bility of the surface was first dispersed by Lyell, who showed that a fauna may be
older than the land it inhabits. To this conclusion he was led by the study of

_the recent and later tertiary molluscs of Sicily, which he found had migrated into
that land before its separation from the continent of Italy ; just, he adds, as the
plants and animals of the Phlegrean fields had colonised Monte Nuovo since that
mountain was thrown up in the sixteenth century ; whence, he goes on to say, we
are brought to admit the curious result, that the fauna and flora of Val de Noto,
and of some other mountain regions of Italy, are of higher antiquity than the
country itself, having not only flourished before the lands were raised from the
deep, but even before they were deposited beneath the waters.* The same idea
occurred to Darwin who, alluding to the very few species of living quadrupeds
which are altogether terrestrial in habit, that are common to Asia and America,
and to these few being confined to the extreme frozen regions of the North, adds,
‘We may safely look at this quarter (Behring’s Straits), as the line of communica
tion (now interrupted by the steady progress of geological change), by which the
elephant, the ox, and the horse entered America, and peopled its wide extent.’ * —

_The belief in the stability of climatal conditions during the lifetime of the
existing assemblages of animals and plants was also dispelled by the discovery,
throughout the northern temperate regions of the old and new worlds, of Arctic

? Humboldt’s Isothermal lines and Laws ef geographical distribution are obviously
the twin results of the same researches, one physical the other biological.

* I do not hereby imply that no progress was made in the knowledge of the
facts of distribution, for over and above many treatises on the distribution of
the plants of local floras, there appeared, in 1816, Schouw’s Dissertatio de sedibus
plantarum originariis ; which was followed in 1822 by his excellent Grwndtrack til
el almendelig Plante-Geographie, of which the German edition is entitled, Grundzuge
einer aligemeiner Pflanzengeographie.

8 Principles of Geology, ed. 3, vol. iii. p. 376, 1834.

* Journal of Researches in Geology and Natural History, §c., p. 151, 1839.

732 REPORT—1881.

and boreal plants on all their mountains, and of these fossilised on their low lands ;.
discoveries which led to the recognition of the glacial period and glacial ocean.

The first and boldest attempt to press the results of geological and climatal
changes into the service of botanical and zoological geography, was that of the
late Edward Forbes, a naturalist of genius, who, like Tournefort, chose the Levant
as the field for his early labours. In the year 1845, Forbes communicated a paper
to the Natural History section of this Association, on the distribution of endemic
plants, especially those of the British Islands, considered with regard to geological
changes.!' In this paper the British flora is considered to consist of assemblages.
of plants from five distinct sources, which, with the exception of one, immigrated
during periods when the British Isles were united to the continent of Europe,
and have remained more or less localised in England, in Scotland, or in
Ireland. Of these he considered the Pyrenean assemblage, which is confined to
the west of Ireland, to be the oldest, and to have immigrated after the eocene
period, along a chain of now submerged mountains, that extended across the-
Atlantic from Spain to Ireland, and indeed formed the eastern boundary of an
imaginary continent of pliocene age, which extended to the Azores Islands, and
beyond them. This, the ‘ Atlantis’ of speculative geologists, has long since heen
abandoned. The second assemblage is of plants characteristic of the South-West
of France, which now prevail in Devon, Cornwall, and the Channel Islands ;
their immigration he assigns to a pliocene date, probably corresponding to the
red crag. The third assemblage is of plants of the North-East of France, which
abound in the chalk districts of the South-Eastern counties of England; their
immigration is referred to the era of the mammaliferous crag. The fourth is of
Alpine plants now found on the mountains of Scotland, Wales, and England ;
these were introduced mainly by floating ice from Scandinavia during the glacial
period, when the greater part of the British Isles were submerged, its mountain
tops forming part of a chain of islands in the glacial sea that extended to the coast
of Norway ; this was during the newer pliocene period. Lastly, the Germanic plants
were introduced during the upheaval of the British Islands from the glacial ocean,
and as the temperature was gradually increasing; these are spread over the whole
islands, though more abundant on the eastern side. At the commencement of this
immigration England was supposed to be continuous with the Germanic plains, from
which it was subsequently severed by the formation of the English Channel. Also,
at the commencement of this immigration Ireland was assumed to be con-
tinuous with England, to be early severed by the formation of the Irish Sea;
which severance, by interrupting the migration of Germanic types, accounts for the
absence of so many British animals in the sister island.

I have thus briefly related Forbes’ views, to show how profoundly he was im-
pressed with the belief that geographical and climatal conditions were the all-
powerful controllers of the migrations of animals and plants, Forbes was the re-
former of the science of geographical distribution.”

1 British Association Reports, 1845, pt. ii. p. 67, and Annals and Magazine of
Natural History, vol. xvi. p. 126. This the author followed by a much fuller expo-
sition of the subject, which appeared in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of the
Onited Kingdom, vol. i. p. 336 (1846), entitled ‘On the Connection between the dis-
tribution of the existing flora and fauna of the British Isles, and the geological
changes which have affected their area, especially during the epoch of the northern
drift.’ After many years’ interval I have re-read this Memoir with increased pleasure
and profit. The stores of exact information which he collected concerning the
plants, the animals, and the geology of Europe and North America, appear to me to
be no less remarkable than the skill with which he correlated them and educed from
the whole so many very original and in great part incontrovertible conclusions.

? I cannot dismiss the subject of the geography of the British flora without an
allusion to the labours of Hewett Cottrell Watson, who, after a life devoted to the
topography of British plants, was laid in the grave only a month ago. Watson was
the first botanist who measured the altitudinal range of each species, and, by
a rigidly statistical method, traced their distribution in every county, and grouped
them according to their continental affinities, as well as by the physical conditions
of their habitats.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 733

Before the publication of the doctrine of the origin of species by variation
-and natural selection, all reasoning on their distribution was in subordination to
the idea that these were permanent and special creations ; just as, before it was
shown that species were often older than the islands and mountains they inhabited,
naturalists had to make their theories accord with the idea that all migration took
place under existing conditions of land and sea. Hitherto the modes of dispersion
-of species, genera, and families, had been traced ; but the origin of representative
species, genera, and families, remained an enigma ;1 these could be explained only
by the supposition that the localities where they occurred presented conditions so
similar that they favoured the creation of similar organisms, which failed to ac-
-count for representation occurring in the far more numerous cases where there is
no discoverable similarity of physical conditions, and of their not occurring in places
where the conditions are similar. Now under the theory of modification of species
after migration and isolation, their representation in distant localities is only a ques-
‘tion of time and changed physical conditions. In fact, as Darwin well sums up,
all? the leading facts of distribution are clearly explicable under this theory ; such
as the multiplication of new forms; the importance of barriers in forming and
‘separating zoological and botanical provinces; the concentration of related species
in the same area; the linking together under different latitudes of the inhabi-
tants of the plains and mountains, of the forests, marshes, and deserts, and the
linking of these with the extinct beings which formerly inhabited the same areas ;
and the fact of different forms of life occurring in areas having nearly the same
‘physical conditions.

With the establishment of the doctrine of the orderly evolution of species
under known laws, I close this list of those recognised principles of the science of
geographical distribution, which must guide all who enter upon its pursuit. As
Humboldt was its founder, and Forbes its reformer, so we must regard Darwin as
its latest and greatest lawgiver. With their example, and their conclusions to
guide, advance becomes possible whenever discovery opens new paths, or study
cand reflection retraverse the old ones.

And it was not long before paleontology brought to the surface new data for
the study of the present and past physical geography of the globe,

This was the discovery in Arctic latitudes of fossil plants whose existing
representatives are to be found only in warm temperate ones. To Arctic travel-
lers and voyagers this discovery is wholly due. Of these, I believe I am cor-
‘rect in saying that Sir John Richardson was the earliest, for he, in the year
1848, when descending the McKenzie river to the Polar Sea in search of the
Franklin Expedition, found in lat. 65° N. beds of coal, besides shales, full of leaves
of forest-trees belonging to such genera as the maple, poplar, taxodium, oak, &c.
In the narrative of his journey,’ Richardson mentions these fossils and figures some
-of them ; and in a subsequent work + he speaks of them as ‘leaves of deciduous trees
belonging to genera which do not in the present day come so far north on the
American continent by ten or twelve degrees of latitude.’ This discovery was
followed, in 1853, by the still more remarkable one, by Captain M‘Clure and
‘Sir Alexander Armstrong (during another search for Sir John Franklin), of pine-
-cones and acorns imbedded in the soil of Banksland, in lat. 75° N., at an elevation

1 The representation of species Forbes alludes to as ‘an accident .... which
has hitherto not been accounted for.’—Mem. Geol. Survey, vol. i. p. 351.

? Of the many pre-Darwinian writers on distribution who advocated the Lamar-
kian doctrine of evolution, I am not aware of any who suggested that it would
‘explain the existence of representative species, or indeed any other of the pheno-
mena of distribution. Von Baer, however, in the very year of the publication
of the first edition of the Origin of Species, expressed his conviction, chiefly grounded
on the laws of geographical distribution, that forms now specifically distinct have
-descended from a single parent form. See Origin of Species, ed. 5, Historical
‘Sketch, p. 23.

* Boat Voyage through Rupert’s Land and in the Arctic Sea, vol. i. p. 186.

4 Polar Regions, p. 289.

734 REPORT—1881.

of 300 feet above the sea-level. And again in 1854, Dr. Lyall found exten-.
sive accumulations of similar fossils near Discoe in Greenland (lat. 70° N.), during
the return of Sir Edward Belcher’s searching expedition. Nor are these fossils
confined to America : they have been found in Spitzbergen, in Siberia, and in many
other localities within the Polar area as well as south of it, proving that forests of
deciduous trees, in all respects like those of the existing forests of the warm
temperate regions, approached to within ten degrees of the Pole. The first of these
collections critically examined was Dr. Lyall’s; it was communicated to Professor
Heer of Zurich, the highest authority on the flora of the tertiary period, and described
by him,’ as were also subsequently all the other collections brought from the Arctic
regions,

The examination of these fossil leaves revealed the wonderful fact that, not
only did they belong to genera of trees common to the forests of all the three
northern continents, such as planes, beeches, ashes, maples, &c., but that they also
included what are now extremely rare and even local genera, as sequoia, liqni-
damber, magnolia, tulip-trees, gingkos, &c., proving that the forests were of a
more mixed character than any now existing. These results opened up anew
channel for investigating the problem of distribution, and the first naturalist to
enter it was a botanist, Dr. Asa Gray, who pursued it with brilliart results, em-
bodied in a series of memoirs on the vegetation of the United States of America,
of which my notice must be most brief.

When studying the collections of Japanese plants brought by the officers of
Wilkes’ expedition, Dr. Gray found cumulative evidence of the strong affinity
between the flora of Eastern Asia and Eastern North America, to the exclusion of
the western half of that continent; and also that Hurope and Western Asia did not
share in this affinity. But what especially attracted his attention was, that
this affinity did not depend only on a few identical or representative genera but
upon many endemic genera of exceptional character, and often consisting of only
two almost identical species. This led to a rigorous comparison of those plants
with the fossils from the Arctic regions whose affinities had been determined by
Heer, and with others which had been meanwhile accumulating in the United
States, and had been described by Lesquereux ; and the result was what I may call
an abridged outline history of the flora of North America in its relations to the

hysical geography of that country, from the cretaceous to the present time.

The latest researches which have materially advanced our knowledge of the
laws of distribution are those of Prof. Blytt, of Christiania. His essay on ‘the
immigration of the Norwegian flora during alternately rainy and dry periods, has
fur its object to define and localise the various assemblages of plants of which that
flora is composed, and to ascertain their mother-country and the sequence of their in-
troduction. The problem is that of Prof. Forbes, which I have already described
to you, only substituting Norway for the British Isles. Both these authors invoke
the glacial period to account for the dispersion of Arctic plants, both deal with a
rising land, both assume that immigration took place over land; but Prof. Blytt
finds another and most powerful controlling agent, in alternating periods of greater
moisture and comparative drought, of which the Norwegian peat-bogs afford ample
proof. These bogs were formed during the rise of the land, as the cold of the
glacial period declined. They are found at various heights above the sea in Nor-
way; the most elevated of them are of course the oldest, and contain remains of
the earliest immigrants, The lowest are the newest and contain remains of the
latest introduced plants only. The proofs of the alternating wet and dry seasons
rest on the fact, that the different layers of peat in each bog present widely different
characters, contain the remains of different assemblages of plants, and these
characters recur in the same order in all the bogs. First there is a layer of
wet spongy peat, with the remains of bog-mosses and aquatic plants; this eradually
passes upwards into a layer of dry soil containing the remains of many land plants,

1 «Ueber die von Dr. Lyall in Grénland entdeckten fossilen Pflanzen,’ Ziirich
Vierteljahrsschr. vol. vii. p. 176 (1862).
2 Flora fossilis Arctica.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 735

and prostrate trunks of trees, showing that the country was forested. To this
succeeds wet spongy peat as before, to be again covered with dry peaty soil and
tree trunks, &c., and so on. From an examination of the plant-remains in these
formations, Prof. Blytt draws the following conclusions :—

The Norwegian flora began with an immigration of Arctic plants during a dry
period, evidence of which he finds in the presence of the remains of these beneath
the lowest layer of peat. As the climate became warmer and the land rose, a
rainy period set in, accompanied by an immigration of sub-arctic plants (juniper,
mountain ash, aconites, &c.), which to a great extent replaced the Arctic
flora, which is impatient of great wet. This was the period of the first peat-bog
formation. It was followed by a dry period, during which the bogs gradually dried
up; while, with the increasing warmth, deciduous trees and their accompanying
herbaceous vegetation were introduced. The succeeding rainy season produced
a second peat-formation, killing and burying the deciduous trees, the increasing

warmth at the same time bringing in the Atlantic flora, characterised by the holly,

foxglove, and other plants now confined in Norway to the rainy Atlantic coast.
To this succeeded a third period of drought, when the bogs dried up and pine
forests with their accompanying plants immigrated into Norway, to be in like
manner destroyed and buried by bog earth during the next following rainy period ;
and it was during these last alternations that the subboreal plants now affecting
the lowest south-eastern districts of Norway were introduced ; and the sub-atlantic
plants, the most southern of all the types, which are confined to the extreme south
of the country.

It would be premature to regard all Prof. Blytt’s recurrent periods as irrefrag-
ably established, or his correlations of these with the several floras as fully proved ;
but there is no doubt, I think, that he has brought forward a vera causa to account
for the alternation of dry country with wet country plants in Norway, and one that
must have both actively promoted the first introduction of these into that country
and also influenced their subsequent localisation. It would strengthen Prof. Blytt’s
conclusions very much, if his alternating periods of rain and drought should be found
to harmonise with Mr. Croll’s recurrent astronomical periods, and with Mr. Geikie’s
fluctuations of temperature during the decline of the glacial epoch : so would also:
the finding in the bogs of Scotland a repetition of the conditions which obtain in
those of Norway; and there are so very many points of resemblance in the physical
geography and vegetation of these two countries, that I do not doubt a comparison
of their peat-formations would yield most instructive results.

Thus far all the knowledge we have obtained of the agents controlling geo-
graphical distribution have been derived from observations and researches on
northern animals and plants, recent and tertiary. Turning now to the southern
hemisphere, the phenomena of distribution are much more difficult of explanation.
Geographically speaking there is no Antarctic flora except a few lichens and sea-
weeds. The plants called Antarctic,’ from their analogy with the Arctic, are very
few in number, and nowhere cross 62° of south latitude. They are, in so far as
they are endemic, confined to the southern islands of the great southern ocean, and
the mountains of South Chili, Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand; whilst the
few non-endemic are species of the nearest continents, or are identical with tempe-
rate northern or with sub-arctic or even Arctic species. Like the Arctic flora, the
Antarctic is a very uniform one round the globe, the same species, in many cases,
especially the non-endemic, occurring on every island, though there are sometimes
thousands of miles of ocean between the nearest of these. And, as many of the
isiand plants reappear on the mountains above mentioned, far to the north of their
island homes, it is inferred on these grounds, as well as on astronomical and geo-
logical, that there was a glacial period in the southern temperate zone as well as
in the northern.

The south temperate flora is a fourfold one. South America, South Africa,

' For accounts of the Antarctic flora see the Botany of the Antarctic Expedition

of Sir James Ross, where the relations of the floras of the southern hemisphere with.
the Antarctic are discussed in introductory chapters.

736 REPORT—1881.

Australia, and New Zealand contain each an assemblage of plants differing more
by far amongst themselves than do the floras of Europe, North Asia, and North
America; they contain, in fact, few species in common, except the Antarctic ones
that inhabit their mountains. These south temperate plants have their represen-
tative species and genera on the mountains of the tropics, ench in their own
meridian only, and there they meet immigrants from all latitudes of the northern
hemisphere. Thus the plants of Fuegia extend northward along the Andes,
ascending as they advance. Australian genera reappear on the lofty mountain of
Kini-balu in Borneo; New Zealand ones on the mountains of New Caledonia ; and
the most interesting herbarium ever brought from Central Africa, that of Mr. Joseph
Thomson, from the highlands of the lake districts, contains many of the endemic
genera, and even species of the Cape of Good Hope. Nor does the northern re-
presentation of the south temperate flora cease within the tropics; it extends to
the middle north temperate zone; Chilian genera reappearing in Mexico and
California; South African in North Africa, in the Canary Islands, and even in
Asia Minor!; and Australian in the Khasia Mountains of East Bengal, in East
China and Japan.

So too there is a representation of genera in the southern temperate continents,
feeble numerically, compared to what the north presents, but strong in other
respects. This is shown by the families of Proteacesw, Cycadee, and Restiacez,
abounding in South Africa and Australia alone, though not a single species or
even genus of these families is common to the two countries; by New Zealand,
with a flora differing in almost every element from the Chilian, yet having a few
species of both calceolaria and fuchsia, genera otherwise purely American ; whilst
as regards Australia and New Zealand, it is difficult to say which are the most
puzzling—the contrasts, or the similarities, which their animal and vegetable pro-
ductions present.

These features of the vegetation of the south temperate and Antarctic regions,
though they simulate those of the north temperate and Arctic, may not originate
from precisely similar causes. In the absence of such evidence as the fossil
animals and plants of the North affords,” there is no proof that the Antarctic plants
found on the south temperate alps, or the south temperate plants found in the
mountains of the tropics, originated in the south; though this appears probable
from the absence in the south of so many of the leading families of plants and
animals of the north, no less than from the number of endemic forms the south
contains. These considerations have favoured the speculation of the former exist-
ence, during a warmer period than the present, of a centre of creation in the
Southern Ocean, in the form of either a continent or of an archipelago, from which
both the Antarctic and Southern endemic forms radiated. Ihave myself suggested
continental or insular extension® as a means of aiding that wide dispersion of
species over the Southern Ocean, which it is difficult to explain without such
intervention; and the discovery of beds of fossil trunks of trees in Kerguelen’s
Island, testifies to that place having enjoyed a warmer climate than its present
one.
The rarity in the existing Archipelago (Kerguelen’s Island, the Crozets, and
Prince Edward’s Island) of any of the endemic genera of the south temperate
flora, or of representatives of them, is, however, an argument against such land, if

1 Pelargonium Endlicherianum in the Taurus is a remarkable instance.

2 The only fossil leaves hitherto found in higher southern latitudes are those of
beeches, closely allied to existing southern species, brought by Darwin from Fuegia.
In one locality alone beyond the forest region of the south have fossil plants been
found ; there were silicified trunks of trees in lava beds of Kerguelen’s Island (dis-
covered by myself forty years ago). It is deeply to be regretted that searches for
shales containing fossils were not made either by the ‘ Challenger ’ expedition or by
the various ‘transit of Venus ’ expeditions that bave recently visited this interesting
island.

3 Flora Antarctica, pp. 230, 240. See also Moseley in Journ. Linn. Soc. Botany
vol. xv. p. 485, and Observations on the Botany of Kerguelen’s Island, by myself, in
the Philosophical Transactions, v. 168, p. 15.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 737

it ever existed, having been the birthplace of that flora; and there are two
reasons for adopting the opposite theory, that the southern flora came from the
north temperate zone. Of these, one is the number of northern genera and species
(which, from their all inhabiting north-east Europe, I have denominated Scandi-
navian),! that are found in all Antarctic and south temperate regions, the majority
of them in Fuegia, the flora of which country is, by means of the Andes, in the
most direct communication with the northern one. The other is the fact I have
stated above, that the several south temperate floras are more intimately related to
those of the countries north of them than they are to one another.

And this brings me to the latest propounded theoretical application of the laws
of geographical distribution. It is that recently advanced by Mr. Thiselton Dyer,
in a lecture ‘On Plant distribution as a field of Geographical Research’; ? wherein
he argues that the floras of all the countries of the globe may be traced back at
some time of their history to the northern hemisphere, and that they may be
regarded in point of affinity and specialisation as the natural results of the con-
ditions to which they must have been subjected during recent geological times, on
continents and islands with the configuration of those of our globe. This hypothesis
derives its principal support from the fact that many of the most peculiar endemic
plants of the south have representatives in the north, some of them living and all
of them in a fossil state, whilst the northern endemic forms have not hitherto been
found fossil in the southern regions. So that, given time, evolution, continental
continuity, changes of climate and elevations of the land, and all the southern types
may be traced back to one region of the globe, and that one paleontology teaches
us is the northern.

A very similar view has been held and published at the same time by
Count Saporta,? a most eminent palontologist, in a suggestive essay entitled
‘L’Ancienne Végétation Polaire.’ Starting from Buffon’s thesis, that the cooling of
the globe having been a gradual process, and the Polar regions having cooled first,
these must have first become fit for organic life, Count Saporta proceeds to assume
that the termination of the azoic period coincided with a cooling of the waters to
the point at which coagulation of albumen does not take place, when organic life
appeared in the water itself. I have discussed Count Saporta’s speculations else-
where ;* it is sufficient here to indicate the more important ones as bearing upon
distribution. These are that the Polar area was the centre of origination of all
the successive phases of vegetation that. have appeared on the globe, all being
developed in the north; and that the development of flowering plants was
enormously augmented by the introduction during the latter part of the secondary
period of flower-feeding insects, which brought about cross-fertilisation.

It remains to allude briefly to the most important general works on distribu-
tion that have appeared since the foundation of this Association. Of these, the
two which take the first rank are Professor Alphonse de Candolle’s ‘ Géographie
Botanique,’ and Mr. Wallace’s ‘ Geographical Distribution of Animals.’ Professor:
de Candolle’s work® appeared at a critical period, when the doctrine of evolution
with natural selection had only just been announced, and before the great in-
fluence of geological and climatal changes on the dispersion of living species had’
been fully appreciated ; nevertheless it is a great and truly philosophical work,
replete with important facts, discussed with full knowledge, judgment, and scrupu-.

1 See Outlines of the Distribution of Arctic Plants, Transactions of the Linnean:
Society, xxiii. p. 257. Read June, 1860.

* Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Sosiety, xxii. p. 415 (1878).

* Comptes vendus of the International Congress of Geographical Science, which.
met in Paris in 1875, but apparently not published till 1877.

‘ Address of the President delivered at the anniversary meeting of the Royal
Society of London, November 30, 1878.

5 Professor Alph. De Candolle divides his subject into botanical geography and
geographical botany; the distinction is obvious and sound, but the two expressions
have been so long used and regarded as synonymous, and as embracing both branches,
that they cannot now be limited each to one. Perhaps the terms topographical
botany and geographical botany would prove more acceptable designations,

1881. 3B

738 REPORT—1881.

lous caution. Of its numerous valuable and novel features, two claim particular
notice, namely, the chapters on the history of cultivated and introduced plants;
and the further development of Humboldt’s ‘Arithmeticee Botanices,’ by taking
into account the sums of temperatures as well as the maxima, minima, and means,
in determining the amount of heat required to satisfy all the conditions of a plant’s
life, at the various periods of its existence, and especially the maturation of its
seeds.

Of Mr. Wallace’s great work ‘The Geographical Distribution of Animals,’ I
cannot speak with sufficient knowledge of the subject, and can only appreciate and
echo the high praises accorded to it by zoologists, for its scientific treatment of a
vast subject.

The ‘Géographie Botanique’ was followed by the late Dr. Grisebach’s ‘Die
Vegetation der Erde,’* which contains an admirable summary of the vegetation of
the different regions of the globe as limited by their physical features, divested of
all theoretical considerations.

For the largest treatment in outline of the whole subject of distribution, I must
refer to the chapters of Darwin's ‘ Origin of Species,’ which are devoted to it,

In reference to these and other works, very able and instructive discussions of
the principles of geographical distribution are to be found in the presidential
addresses delivered before the Linnean Society, in 1869, 1870, and 1872, by the
veteran botanist, G. Bentham.

With Mr. Wallace’s ‘Island Life’ I must conclude this notice, and very
fittingly, for besides presenting an admirable account of the origin and migrations
of animals and vegetables in oceanic and continental islands, it contains a complete
and comprehensive analysis of those past and present conditions of the globe,
astronomical, geological, geographical, and biological, which have been the earlier
and later directors and controllers of the ever-warring forces of organic nature. In
this work Mr. Wallace independently advocates the view of the northern origin of
both the faunas and floras of the world.

I conclude with the hope that I have made the subject of the distribution of
organic life on the globe interesting to you as geographers, by showing on the one
hand how much it owes its advance to the observations made and materials
collected by geographical explorers, and on the other how greatly the student of
distribution has, by the use he has made of these observations and materials, ad-
vanced the science of physical geography.

_ ‘The following Papers were read :—

1. The Equipment of Exploring Expeditions Now and Fifty Years Ago.
By Francis Garton, F.R.S.

The equipment of a modern exploring expedition differs in many respects now
from what it was in or about the year 1830, with the general result of increased
efficiency and rapidity of execution. The standard instruments—namely, the theo-
dolite, the sextant, the chronometer, and the azimuth compass—have not received
any great improvements in the interval, and the best of those made in 1830 would
be valued now. But they are made more handy and portable than they were,
and at much lower cost for equal degrees of excellence. The modern water-tight
cover, with the keyless winding arrangement of travellers’ watches, is a great

‘boon to them. The mercurial horizon, without which the sextant on land is
almost useless for astronomical purposes, has been transformed from a lumbering
-trough shielded from the wind by a heavy glazed screen, which was difficult to
fill and did not admit of the observation of low angles, into a very compact con-
itriyance by Captain George, which is filled by tilting, and is sheltered from the

1 Published in 1872. Translated into French under the title of Za Végétation du
Globe, by P. de Tchihachef, Paris, 1875.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 739

wind by a piece of glass floating on the mercury. The liability to errors introduced
by this arrangement is much smaller than might have been expected, and
travellers speak highly of its merits. The appliances for measuring elevation
above the sea-level have been greatly improved. The old method was to carry a
mountain barometer, which, from the weight of the mercury and the fragility of
the glass that contained it, was rarely carried far without breakage. Since then
the aneroid has been invented, and the appliances connected with the boiling-point
thermometer have been greatly improved. A traveller provided with these very
portable instruments can use the aneroid for everyday purposes, checking its
change of index error from time to time by boiling-point observations, Even the
mercurial barometer has been rendered a comparatively portable instrument. The
tubes are packed empty, and they are filled when required by Captain George’s
method, which in moderately careful hands is found to give good results, The
enclosed thermometer for deep-sea observations is a recently invented instrument
absolutely essential to accuracy.

The art of exploring ocean-depths and performing what has been called
Thallassography, has been immensely improved, owing to the requirements of sub+
marine telegraphy and of such scientific expeditions as that of the Challenger.
Sir W. Thomson’s method of sounding at the depth of many fathoms without
checking the ship’s course is in full use, but Dr. Siemens’ bathometer has not ‘yet
been made practically serviceable.

The accuracy of thermometric graduation has been greatly increased by the
verifications afforded by the Kew Observatory, which is the child of the British
Association, established, and for a long time maintained, by a yearly grant from
its funds, but now supported by the endowment of Mr. Gassiot. The errors in
thermometers occasionally furnished even by the best makers in 1830, were such as
would not be tolerated now. The verifications of Kew are extended to other
instruments, and the influence of the Observatory for good is firmly established and
appears to be yearly increasing. Of the other appliances for geographical travellers
—such as scales for plotting, metal pens which were invented since 1830, and that
admirable recent contrivance the stylographic pen—it is unnecessary to speak in
detail. The binocular opera-glass is, practically speaking, a new instrument, and its
merits as a night-glass were first found out long after 1830, The lunar tables of
the ‘ Nautical Almanack’ have been greatly improved of late years, for in 1830
their predictions of the place of the moon could not have been trusted as they now
are for delicate determinations of longitude. Lastly, the means of instruction in the
use of geographical instruments is at length afforded by the Geographical Society,
who have erected a small observatory on the roof of their premises, where
instruction is given on moderate terms to intending travellers.

The modern equipment of travellers as regards dress has been greatly improved
by the general use of flannel, which is a most important preservative of health,
but was neglected half a century ago. Thus, at much more recent times than
1830, the hardy Swiss guides had a horror of what they called a coup-d'air, or @
chill on the mountain-top, when they were hot and perspiring ; and no wonder, as
they then all wore linen shirts next the skin. The modern loose form of dress,
the shooting boots and easy overcoat, are a vast improvement on the pinched
costumes of 1830, The derivation of the word paletét conveys a history. The
first warm and convenient coats used in England were reproductions long subse=
quent to 1830 of those used by sailors in rough weather under the name of ‘ pilot
coats’ (and were sometimes, for the sake of shortness, called ‘p. coats’ or ‘ peas
coats’). They quickly became the fashion, were copied and made more elegantly
by the French, who adapted our name of ‘ pilot coat’ to their own pronunciation
of palett, and so we received it back from them. India-rubber and gutta-percha
adaptations to articles of dress and manufactures generally date from a little
subsequent to 1830; they are invaluable for many purposes to exploring expe-
ditions. The form of tent has been greatly improved. Portable mackintosh and

other boats are comparatively recent contrivances, and have done good service,
Lucifer-matches had been invented, but only very recently, in 1830,

The equipment of a travelling party as regards packsaddles has been improved,

3B2

740 REPORT—1881.

chiefly through Australian experiences, where, moreover, the camel has been
introduced as a beast of burden, with more success than the tamed elephant in
Africa. The art of sledge-travelling has been vastly improved by the skilful cut-
ting down of all superfluous weight, enabling travellers to drag more food, and
so to be absent from their depdots for a larger number of days.

As regards food, the tinned meats, compressed vegetables, and condensed milk,
which are invaluable during the first days of travel before the expedition has
settled into regular ways, are all late inventions, and the merits of lime-juice are
now far better understood than they were fifty years ago.

The personnel of a travelling party is decidedly improved. Whatever may be the

state of the physique of the lower orders of the population, there can be no doubt
that the upper orders are physically better developed than they were. They are,
as I have good reason to believe, in the absence of direct measurements, taller ;
they achieve greater feats in running, leaping, walking, and other athletic perform-
ances than their grandfathers did, ‘They lead healthier lives from the discontinu~
ance of the heavy eating and hard drinking of old days, from the better aired
sleeping rooms, the existence of proper means of washing, and the seaside or Con-
tinental summer vacation.
: The greatest benefit of all to travellers is the modern rapidity and ease with
which distant parts of the world are now reached. In 18380 it required 70 days
sailing from England to reach the Cape of Good Hope, 120 days (in the S.W.
monsoon) to reach Bombay, and 130 days to Sydney. It was 40 days’ sail to
New York, 42 to Jamaica, 56 to Rio, and 110 to Valparaiso, The length of
time that the post now takes from London to these places is as follows: Cape
Town 21 days, Bombay 18 days, Sydney 43 days, New York 10 days, Jamaica 18
days, Rio 21 days, Valparaiso 39 days; the average increase of speed being more
than threefold. There is scarcely any important part of the world that cannot
now be reached in two months from London; even the Antipodes are only six
weeks’ journey. This facility of communication is accompanied by a corresponding
spread of commerce, and travellers can now easily refit themselves at distant
points. It has recently occurred to the Geographical Society to have had to meet
bills drawn upon her Majesty’s consul at Zanzibar by a traveller in their employ,
for which he had been furnished with goods by Arab traders at Nyangwé on the
Upper Congo, as well as at places in Central Africa which had never before been
visited by a white man.

2. Isochronic Postal Charts. By Francis Garon, F.R.S.

By ‘isochronic’ postal charts I mean charts that show the distances attained
in all directions from the same starting point, by the post, ‘in equal times.’ Let
us view in imagination the stream of travellers who leave London simultaneously
and go as quickly as they can to their destinations, starting by the postal routes.
Some of the travellers will be seen to leave the main lines at each successive
halting-place, and to branch to the right and to the left, perhaps repeatedly
and by various conveyances, before their journey is over. They may reach the
same goal by different routes, though not at the same moment. In the meantime the
travellers on the main tracks are swiftly moving ahead. At length every part of
the world is reached. The course of the stream of travellers may be likened to
the spreading of the tide as it advances over broad sands. The rising waters run
quickly along certain channels. These diverge, subdivide, interlace, and join.
After a little more time only a few isolated patches of dry shore can be seen, at last
the whole surface is overspread by the water. In the maps I exhibit, I have en-
deavoured to represent this appearance upon all the postal routes from London.
In accordance with the definition of ‘isochronic’ given above, I am obliged to
suppose that the mails have been despatched simultaneously to all parts, and I
show by bands of different colours where the travellers would be at different
periods. All places within ten days’ journey of London are coloured green, those
between ten and twenty are orange, between twenty and thirty they are red,
hetween thirty and forty they are blue, and those beyond forty. are brown.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 741

Isochronic maps would probably be of much convenience to tourists, They could
be constructed for the Continent or for home excursions.

3. On the Geographical Work of the Palestine Exploration Fund.
By TRELAWNEY SAuNDERs.

The author gave an account of the survey of Western Palestine, to which the
Association had contributed, conducted by Lieutenant Conder and Lieutenant
Kitchener, and now completed. It embraced nearly the extent attributed to the
Land of Canaan, in the earliest specification of a geographical boundary to be found
in Biblical history, viz., in the 10th chapter of Genesis. After an elaborate sketch
of the work of earlier explorers, he proceeded to describe the survey of Lieutenants
Conder and Kitchener. ‘This had occupied from 1872 to 1877, and was executed on
the scale of one inch to a mile, and he believed that when the great difficulties
which the task had involved were considered—ditticulties of climate, race, and
fanaticism—the map would be found to possess a fulness and accuracy far beyond
that of any other previously executed. It was now possible to undertake a syste-
matic analysis of the natural features of the ground, its watercourses and drainage-
basins, its plains and highlands, with a degree of precision and detail that was pre-
viously unattainable for lack of knowledge.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Progress of Geography in Asia during the last fifty years.
By Sir Ricwarp Tempte, Bart., G.O.S.L, F.R.G.N.

The author described the physical geography of Asia, and pointed out the portions
which, during the last half-century, had been surveyed, partially surveyed, or only
explored. As regards India and Ceylon great progress had been made, From the
base of the Himalayan range to the southernmost cape nearest Ceylon, the British
territories have been mapped, for the most part, with as much minuteness as the
best managed estates in Europe. The great rivers are well known; the altitude of
many of the highest mountain-peaks has been determined, The country has been
covered with a network of triangles, a large arc of the meridian determined, the
geodesic contour of the land ascertained. In two provinces only, Bengal and
Behar, is the field-survey wanting. The geography of Afghanistan and Beluchis-
tan is, however, utterly incomplete. The territory here is not only difficult from
its mountainous character, cold climate in many quarters, and desert character in
others, but also rendered inaccessible to surveying parties by the fierce character of
its inhabitants. During the recent war, however, a surveying staff was attached to
the military establishment, by whom the route was surveyed and valuable results
obtained, Still the work in Afghanistan is very incompléte. The geography of
Beluchistan is even less advanced. Of the north-eastern portion considerable know-
ledge has been gained of late years. The Chinese have bestowed much labour on
topography, but their surveys have not been scientific, their maps not precise, and
the general geography is not exactly determined. The grave changes which have
been brought about in Japan have led to a greatly increased knowledge of those
islands. The Russian Government has done much in the northern parts of Asia.
The physical geography of Persia is, as yet, very imperfectly known. The author
passed on to notice the nautical and geological surveys, concluding by pointing
out the principal problems that yet await solution,

742 REPORT—1881.

2. On the Hot-lake District and the Glacier Scenery and Fjords of New
Zealand. By Wm. Lant Carpenter, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.8.

The author had visited New Zealand in December 1880, and through the kindness
of prominent men there had been able to see and learn a great deal, and had brought
home’a series of excellent photographs of places but rarely visited. ‘These were
exhibited. The lines of volcanic action in the North Island were first explained,
and the general characteristics of the centre of the island were pointed out. The
surface was composed either of acid volcanic or post-tertiary sedimentary rocks.
The water-supply of the Hot-lake District was Lake Taupo, with an area of 248
square miles, 1,250 feet above the sea, with a depth considerably greater than that,
through which ran the river Waikato, and from which subterranean channels led.
Around its shores were many hot springs—geysers 100 feet high—mud volcanoes,
fumaroles, &c, In the river valley'76 hot springs were visible from one station.
The Hot-lake District proper was 40 miles N.N.E. of Taupo, about 240 square
miles in extent, containing 16 lakes. Two were described—Rotorua, the largest,
and Rotomahana, celebrated for its marvellous and unique terraces of nearly pure
silica, deposited from intermittent hot springs that burst out about 100 feet above
the lake, the basin of one of which was larger than that of the Great Geyser in
Iceland. These were described in some detail, and the composition of the springs,
as well as of the deposit (analysed by the writer), was remarked upon. A
yemarkable ravine, whose bottom was hot mud, with blocks of siliceous sinter
floating therein, was noticed, and also the ‘steaming ranges,—and this part con-
cluded with a short description of White Island, where was a lake whose water
contained more than 10,000 grains of hydrochloric acid in a gallon (!) with large
deposits of sulphur and sulphate of lime in the neighbourhood.

The Southern Alps were then generally described, running the whole length of
the South Island, the highest peaks of which ranged from 10,000 to nearly 14,000
feet, with a snow line at about 8,000 feet. The enormous snow-fields and huge
glaciers lying between 48° and 44°, and 170° and 171° E. were noticed, as well
asthe evidences of past glacial action on a much grander scale, given by the
glacier-formed lakes and fjords on the SW. coast, as well as by the huge moraines.
The backbone of the whole was granitic, but on the side-slopes lay the older
palzozoic rocks. Some of the existing glaciers were upwards of 18 miles long.
In lat. 43° 85’ S., corresponding to that of Marseilles or Leghorn, a glacier de-
scended to within 705 feet of the sea. The characteristics of the river-system that
flowed from these were described, and instances given of their liability to sudden
flood, and to rapid and great changes of bed, rendering it impossible to bridge them.
The paper concluded with a notice of the rarely visited ‘Sound’ scenery of the
S.W. coast, which in general appearance resembled that of Norse fjords, but the
Sounds were not so long, although the cliff and mountain scenery was in many in-
stances finer, sheer precipices of 2,000 to 8,000 feet, or upwards, rising from the
sea, with mountains of 8,000 to 9,000 feet. The whole of this district was granitic,
and the water at the head of the Sounds was deeper than at their entrances, indi-
cating glacial excavation,

3. On Oceanic or Maritime Discovery, Exploration, and Research.
By Captain Sir F. J. Evans, B.N., K.C.B., FBS.

4, On the River Gambia, By R. E, Corz,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 743

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3,
The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.

The following Papers were read :—

1, On the Progress of Arctic Research since the Foundation of the British
Association. By Crements R. Marxuan, C.B., F.R.S.

The author, having pointed out that Martin Frobisher, Marmaduke, James Cook,
Scoresby, and other noted Arctic explorers were Yorkshiremen, passed on to say
that in 1831 the Asiatic coasts within the frigid zone had already been delineated
by the Russians. But on the American side only portions had been traced by
Franklin, Back, Richardson, and Beechey. Much difficult work had to be done
before the complete outline of Arctic America could be laid down. The western
and northern shores of Spitzbergen had long been known, Ross had rediscovered
Baflin’s Bay and so vindicated the fame of that gallant old navigator, and Parry
had pressed westward for 300 miles to Melville Island, on a meridian far to the
north of the American continent. Lastly, the Rosses were engaged in the dis-
coyery of Boothia and King William Island. Not only was the whole vast region
to the north of 82° entirely unknown, but also extensive tracts to the southward
of that parallel, especially between Parry’s westward track and the American
coast. The period covered by the labours of the British Association, and of its
contemporary the Royal Geographical Society, has been a period of great though
fitful activity in the work of filling up these blanks and of increasing our Arctic
knowledge. In the present century, the north-west and north-east passages have
been sought in order that scientific knowledge might be extended, that the rela-
tions between land and sea over a vast area might be understood, together with the
numerous other interesting facts connected with a previously unknown region.
Increase of knowledge is the great object of Arctic discovery; an object than which
none can be more useful, none more praiseworthy ; and when once the attempt to
secure it has been commenced, our efforts ought never to be relaxed until the great
end in view is fully attained. After tracing Arctic discovery from 1830 to 1854
and dwelling particularly on the Franklin search expeditions, Mr. Markham said
the latter performed an enormous amount of yaluable scientific work, adding
materially to the sum of human knowledge, in addition to the performance of
the humane mission on which they were primarily employed. The ample
experience which was then acquired established the true methods for future
polar search, which are now formulated into three Arctic Canons. The first is
that, for satisfactory and complete results, an expedition must pass at least one
winter in the ice in order to obtain a complete series of observations. The second is
that full results as regards geology, zoology, botany, and geography can only be
secured by the despatch of extended sledge-travelling parties. The third is that
to reach an advanced position within the unknown area, it is necessary to follow a
coast-line, trending northwards, with a westerly aspect. These three canons are
equally important, but the last rule is that which has the most interest to the
geographical inquirer. The experience of three centuries has taught us that inevit-
able failure and probable disaster are the consequences of pushing into the ice-floes
away from land, while a successful adyance is secured by keeping to a coast-line.
Further, it is held that the best prospect of success is afforded by advancing along
a coast trending northwards, with a westerly aspect. Such coast-lines usually
have channels of open water along them, during some part of the navigable season.
This fact in physical geography is ably discussed by Sir Edwary Parry in his re-

744 REPORT—1881.

marks at the conclusion of the narrative of his third voyage. He had observed
that the eastern coast of any land trending north and south was more encumbered
with ice than shores having an opposite aspect. The east coasts of Greenland,
Spitzbergen, and Novaya Zemlya are more or less blocked with ice throughout the
summer, while navigation along the western coasts may annually be performed
without difficulty. The west side of Fox’s Channel, along Melville Peninsula, is
loaded with ice, but there is little or no ice on the east side. In Prince Regent’s
Inlet ice always clings to the western shore of the channel, while the opposite
shore is comparatively free from it. In Behring Strait the same fact has been
observed, On the American side the water is comparatively warmer, and is navig-
able every summer to Point Barrow, while the Asiatic side is usually blocked with
ice. A general motion of the sea towards the west causes the ice to set in that direc-
tion, when not impelled by contrary winds or local currents; and Sir Edward
Parry suggested that this constant westerly motion was connected with the motion
of the earth on its axis. Mr. Markham went on to review the expeditions made,
and the work achieved between 1858 and 1876, and proceeded: We find that in
every particular the results of the Arctic Expedition of 1875-76 justified the antici-
pations based upon former knowledge and experience. The examination of that por-
tion of the previously unknown area which could be reached by the Smith Sound
route was satisfactory, and completed the work in that direction. Consequently
those reasons for continuing polar discovery which led to the despatch of the last ex-

edition are now as strong as they ever were. Since the return of Sir George Nares
in 1876, the greatest northern achievement has been the voyage of Professor Nor-
denskjéld along the north-east passage. The great Swedish explorer had prepared
for this enterprise by the most exhaustive study of the subject in all its bearings,
and by two voyages of reconnaissance, so that he may almost be said to have
commanded success. The results of the voyage of the Vega are most valuable, as
confirming and piecing together all previous work, and establishing the broad facts
bearing on the hydrography of the Siberian Arctic Sea. Passing all this briefly
in review, we have before us the results of Arctic enterprise during the period
which embraces the labours of the British Association. In 1831 there were only
unconnected and isolated discoveries in various directions. Now there is some
approach to generalisation, to a comprehension of the geography of the Arctic
regions, so far as discovery has extended, as a whole. This is the great result.
We must study the means of reaching another coast-line trending northwards into
the unknown region, with a western aspect. Looking round the circle which
divides the unknown from the known, we find another such land in the Franz-Josef
Land discovered by Payer and Weyprecht. There was an apparent difficulty in
reaching this land because its most southern shore is in 80° N., almost as far north
as the most northern part of Spitzbergen, and an ice-laden sea intervenes between
the open water and the first base of operations. But this ice-laden sea is known
to be navigable in August and September. This was proved by Payer in 1871, by
the Dutch Expedition in 1878, by Captain Markham in 1879, and by Mr. Leigh
Smith im 1880, when he reached Franz-Josef Land in a steamer, made important
discoveries along it in August, and ascertained that the furthest western land he
saw trended north and west. Mr. Leigh Smith has again sailed this year in the
same steamer, still further to demonstrate that a base of operations on Franz-Josef
Land may generally be reached, in an ordinary season. From this base a steamer
may advance northwards along the west coast, and all experience leads to the
belief that so long as that coast trends in a northerly direction, a steamer may, in
most seasons, succeed in making her way along it. A vast field of discovery will
thus be opened, promising all the valuable results that have ever been anticipated
from polar research. By this route we have the prospect of the attainment of a
very high northern latitude for winter quarters, the exploration of an unknown
and peculiarly interesting region by means of sledges, and security for a safe
retreat,

bos

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 745

_2. On the Commercial Importance of Hudson’s Bay, with Remarks on
recent Surveys and Investigations. By Rovert Bext, M.D.

Few people have any adequate conception of the extent of this great American
sea. Including its southern prolongation, James’ Bay, it measures about 1,000
miles in length, and is more than 600 miles in width at its northern part. Its
total area is about 500,000 square miles, or upwards of half that of the Mediterra-
nean Sea in the ‘old world’ hemisphere. It is enclosed by the land on all sides
except the north-east, where it communicates by several channels with the outer
ocean. The principal or best known of these is Hudson’s Strait, which is about
500 miles in length, and has an average width of about 100 miles. The resources
of Hudson’s Bay and the country immediately around it are varied and numerous,
although as yet few of them are at all developed. The fur trade is the principal
and best known business which has hitherto been carried on in these regions; buta
large amount of oil, derived from the larger whales, the porpoises, walruses, white
bears, and the various species of seals which frequent the northern parts of the
bay, has been carried to New England, and small quantities, principally of porpoise
and seal oil, have from time to time been brought to London by the Hudson’s Bay
Company. The other exports from the bay have been as yet but trifling. The
fisheries, properly speaking, of Hudson’s Bay have not yet been investigated. Both
the Indians and Eskimos find a variety of tish for their own use, and fine salmon
abound in the rivers of Hudson’s Strait. Water-fowl are very numerous on both
sides of the bay, and larger game on the ‘barren grounds’ in the northern parts,
so that the natives, with prudence, may always have a plentiful supply of food.
But perhaps the most important of the undeveloped resources of the country
around the bay are its soil, timber, and minerals, To the south and west of James’
Bay, in the latitude of Devonshire and Cornwall, there is a large tract, in which
much of the land is good, and the climate sufficiently favourable for the successful
prosecution of stock and dairy farming. A strip of country along the east side of
James’ Bay may also prove available for these purposes. To the south-west of the
wide part of the bay the country is well-wooded, and although little or no rock
comes to the surface over an immense area, still neither the soil nor the climate are
suitable for carrying on agriculture as a principal occupation until we have passed
over more than half the distance to Lake Winnipeg. This region, however, offers
“no engineering difficulties to the construction of a railway from the sea-coast to the
better country beyond, and this, at present, is the most important point in reference
to it. Some of the timber found in the country which sends its waters into James’
Bay, may prove to be of value for export. Among the kinds which it produces
may be mentioned white, red, and pitch pine, black and white spruce, balsam, larch,
white cedar, and white birch. The-numerous rivers converging towards the head
of James’ Bay offer facilities for ‘driving’ timber to points at which it may be
shipped by sea-going vessels. Minerals may, however, become in the future the
greatest of the resources of Hudson’s Bay. Little direct search has as yet been
made for the valuable minerals of these regions. I have, however, found a large
deposit of rich ironstone on the Mattigami River, inexhaustible supplies of good man-
ganiferous iron ore on the islands near the east main coast, and promising quantities
of galena around Richmond Gulf and also near Little Whale River, where a small
amount had previously been known to exist. I have likewise noted traces of gold,
silver, molybdenum, and copper. Lignite is met with on the Missinaibi, gypsum on
the Moose, and petroleum-bearing limestone on the Abittibi River. Small quan-
tities of anthracite, and various ornamental stones and rare minerals, have been
met with in the course of my explorations, Soapstone is abundant not far from
Mosquito Bay, on the east side, and iron pyrites between Churchill and Marble
Island, on the west. Good building stones, clays, and limestones exist on both
sides of the bay. A cargo of mica is said to have been taken from Chesterfield
Inlet to New York, and valuable deposits of plumbago are reported to occur on
the north side of Hudson’s Strait.

The author concluded by discussing the facilities of access to this district, point-
ing out that the formation of ice in the harbours during the winter was the main
obstacle to continuous commerce by sea.

746 REPORT—1881.

3. On the Island of Socotra. By Professor Baytey Batrour, M.D.
See Reports, p. 482.

4, A Journey to the Imperial Mausolea east of Peking.
By F. 8. A. Bourne.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Comparative sketch of what was known in Africa in 1830 with what is
known in 1881. By Lieut.-Colonel J. A. Grant, C.B., F.R.S.

The author said that in fifty years a great deal had been done towards opening out
the centre of Africa as well as its surroundings. There were no lights or lighthouses
around Africa prior to 1855, whereas now there were 129 harbour lights, all of
which were maintained. The first light was erected at Cape Coast Castle. The
sources of the Nile, the Niger, the Congo, the Zambesi, and the Limpopo had been
discovered. A dozen lakes of great magnitude, and the whole physical aspect and
resources of the continent, were now tolerably well known. The cutting of the
Suez Canal, which was opened in 1869, had had a most beneficial effect upon the
continent. The discovery of Lake Victoria Nyanza in 1868 was an event of great
magnitude, and Captain Speke and the reader of the paper were enabled to put at
rest the theories as to the source of the Nile, as they found that the parent of the
Nile took its rise in the newly-discovered lakes. Speaking of the labours of Sir
Samuel Baker and Mr. H. M. Stanley, Colonel-Grant said that the benefits of those
labours would be reaped in after years. The almost insurmountable labour they
went through in putting steamers upon the Victoria Nyanza would be of un-
told advantage hereafter. Speaking of Cape Colony, the author said that the
slave trade had been abolished in 1808, but slaves were sold until December, 1834,
when all slaves were emancipated in British dominions, The colony since those
days has made immense progress. The additions to knowledge of successive dis-
coyerers were described in detail.

2. Some Results of Fifty Years’ Exploration in Africa.
By the Rev. Horace WALLER.

Geographical interest fifty years since chiefly centred upon the countries lying
between the western fringe of the Sahara Desert and the Atlantic; indeed the
Nigey river absorbed most of the enthusiasm which had been aroused by Denham and
Clapperton. It was in the year 1830, the year of the Society’s birth, that Lander
traced the Niger to the sea. The countries bordering upon the western coast of
the Sahara Desert, which are watered by the Niger and its tributaries, have an
interest peculiarly their own. The travels of Captain Vincent, of Barth, Overwig,
Richardson, and others between 1849 and 1857, show that the comparatively
advanced state of civilisation which prevails in these densely populated districts
may be due to the very great difficulty of communicating with the French settle-
ments on the west and the British possessions to the south-west. For ages the
strict Moslems of these lands have preferred to draw those supplies which are
needed amongst the Berber tribes in Timbuctoo, in Barin, Kuka, and other cities,
from the marts of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. There, at all events, Arab met
Arab. The additions to our previous knowledge of the Fari country and the
Gaboon river were mainly secured to us by the adventurous exploits of M. Paul de
Chaillu in the years 1857, 1865, and 1867. From 1866 to the present date the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 747

French have been busy on the Ogorvi. The Marquis de Compeigne in the year
1874 saw enough to make it probable that the great body of water which it
carried to the sea was drained from no very distant area. They must, however,
continue to look for the reports of the intelligent French officers under Count de
Brazza before they could trace the course of the river for any great distance in-
land. Some particulars of the so-called Congo country had been acquired by Mr.
Grandy, who traversed part of it when under the auspices of the Royal Geographi-
cal Society; but, at the sole cost of Dr. Young, he went in 1874 to seek for Dr.
Livingstone, who it was imagined would probably come out that way. The news
of Livingstone’s death rendered further progress unnecessary. Painstaking work
characterised the endeayours of Mr. Walker to explore the Okanda in 1866, and
the same must be said of Lieutenant Serval previously, in 1862. Both France and
Germany had vied with each other in projecting scientific discoveries in these
regions under Compeigne, March, and Gussteldt, but that success had not attended
them which they could have desired. The great discovery of the diamond fields, in
1869, had a tendency to eclipse the work done by such travellers as Elton, Vincent,
Erskine, Mohr, Moffatt, and Mackenzie, but nobody who had watched the question
could fail to see what March had done, for instance in his searching for gold, or
what the influence of John Mackenzie had been for good amongst the Bamangwato
people. The results of Livingstone’s travels were summarized. The discoveries of
Speke, Sir Samuel Baker, Grant, Stanley, Cameron, and others, were also noticed.
The work of Stanley, he said, was to clear up several gaps in the explorations of
Burton, Speke, and Grant, and thenceforward to turn his attention to the waters of
the Lualaba. He visited the Victoria Nyanza, and examined its western boundary,
and spent some time at the capital of Uganda. Shortly after he discovered Lake
Alexandra, and then fell back on Lake Tanganyka. Passing to the spot described
by Cameron as the Lukuga, he proceeded in a north-westerly direction until he
finally found himself embarked upon the greater venture—his descent of the
Lualaba. He overcame obstacles of every kind, and made that remarkable voyage
to the sea which they would always think on with amazement. Later work of
great value has been done upon the lakes Nyanza and Tanganyka, and our last
intelligence is extremely valuable and interesting.

3. On a recent Visit to the Gold Mines of the West Coast of Africa.
By Commander Cameron, t.N.

4, An Account of a recent Visit to Dahomey. By the Rev. J. Mitum.

748 REPORT—1881.

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—The Right Hon. M. E. GRANT Durr, M.A., F.B.S.,
F.L.S., F.R.G.S., Governor of Madras.

[For Mr, Grant Duff's Address, see page 752.]

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. On Societies of Commercial Geography.
By Evwarp J. WATHERSTON.

The author traced the progress of the German societies of ‘Commercial Geo-
graphy’ (Vereine fiir Handelsgeocraphie), established in Berlin towards the end of
1878, by Dr. Jaunasch, a well-known political economist and statistician. These
societies already have agents in all parts of the world, a ‘ centralyerein’ in Berlin,
and several periodicals supported by their members; one, ‘The Export,’ abounding
in information to merchants and manufacturers; another, called ‘ Geographische
Nachrichten fiir welthandel und Volkswirthschaft,’ and a third, ‘ Handelsgeogra-
phisches Museum,’ lately published. The objects of the societies are twofold—tirst,
to give their members, nearly all merchants and manufacturers, the latest reliable
information relating to the channels into which the export trade of the country
should be directed ; secondly, to establish agencies in all the principal commercial
towns in the world.

This is done after the model of our famous Lloyd's, In like manner as Lloyd’s
agents report concerning ships, shipwrecks, and all matters relating to navigation,
to the headquarters in London, so the German agents send in reports upon all mat-
ters relating to the commercial requirements of their districts to the ‘ Centralyerein
fiir Handelsgeographie’ in Berlin, which reports are published in full in the ‘Geo-
graphische Nachrichten,’ sold to non-members for the sum of two marks, or Qs.
The list of agents includes some of the most eminent Germans settled abroad, men
of scientific renown, anxious for their country’s welfare. Last year the societies held
a ‘Congress’ at Berlin, and the speeches, reported at full length in a ‘ Bericht iiber
die Verhandlungen des Ersten Congresses fiir Handelsgeographie,’ show the progress
which has been made in an attempt to secure for Germany commercial relations
with the entire world.

Our own and other Governments, doubtless, are doing much to supply an ad-
mitted want—viz., a knowledge of foreign manufacturing and commercial capacities
and requirements. The British Government, for example, publish every year a host _
of Blue-books, under various titles, giving a mass of most valuable information con-
cerning our export and import markets, the demands of trade, and similar matters.
There are among them the ‘ Reports of H.M. Secretaries of Embassy and Legation on
the Manufactures, Commerce, &e., of the countries in which they reside ;’ somewhat
similar are the ‘ Reports from H.M. Consuls on the Manufactures, Commerce, &c.,
of their Consular Districts,’ more numerous even, and in some respects more valuable,
as entering more into details, Then there are monthly and annual ‘ Accounts relat-
ing to the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom,’ summed up and enlarged
in a huge ‘quarto,’ known as the ‘ Annual Statement,’ issued by the Board of Trade,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 749

and half a score of other Blue-books, described variously as ‘Statistical Abstracts,’
‘ Agricultural Returns,’ ‘Special Reports,’ and under other names,

But vast as is the information afforded, their very vastness makes them all but
useless to the classes whom they are intended to serve, Time is wanted to digest
the details, and, moreover, the Blue-books are made the more unavailing to practical
men of business, in that not one of them has so much as an index to guide the reader
through its mazes. Similar publications of foreign Governments are better edited,
notably those of the United States, of Germany, and of Italy. The author strongly
advocated the early establishment of similar institutions in tha United Kingdom—
trade, as he believed, not requiring protection, but development.

_ To begin with, our own Blue-books—together with those of Germany, Italy,
and France—should be made useful, by concentration and extracts, to our mercantile
community, who at present scarcely know of their existence.

2. Corn or Cattle: a Comparison of the Economic Results of Agriculture and
Catile-raising in relation to National Food-supply.! By Wiut1am E. A.
Axon, M.B.S.L., FSS.

The people of Great Britain are largely dependent for daily bread upon supplies
from foreign sources, and the proportion of imported over home-grown foods is
steadily increasing. So marked, indeed, has this tendency become in late years, that
an American publicist has roundly asserted that ‘if every acre of land in the British
Isles were cultivated to its utmost capacity, the inhabitants could not raise food
sufficient to supply the common necessaries of life.’

The amount of land in the United Kingdom devoted to permanent pasture is
24,717,092 acres, calculated to produce, at the rate of 501b. of flesh-meat per acre,
1,235,854,600 Ib., which, at Mr. Greg’s estimate of consumption of 3 Ib. per day,
shows a sustaining power for 1,128,634 persons per annum. The corn crops cover
10,672,086 acres, and the average yield of grain would be 17 929,190,480 Ib., which
at 2Ib. per head per day would feed 24,560,417 persons. Hence, without reckoning
at all on the green crops, we have a sustaining power for 252 millions of persons.

There have been various estimates as to the extent of English food-production.
Mr. Caird supplied figures from which, in 1877, Mr. Stephen Bourne calculated the
average corn-growth at 54,000,000 ewts. ; but it is a gradually decreasing quantity.
Mr. Bourne further reckons the growth of English flesh-meat at 254 million ewts., a
much higher estimate than would follow’ from the basis adopted by Mr. Greg.

But let us suppose the present process by which corn-growing districts have
gradually been converted into grazing lands to continue until the entire available
surface is devoted to cattle-raising. The total of arable and pasture acreage of the
United Kingdom, in 1880, was 47,586,700, which, at a production of 50 lb. weight
of butchers’ meat per annum, would give a net result of 2,379,335,000 lb., or an
amount sufficient, at 31b. per day, to feed 2,172,908 persons. If mankind were ex-
elusively carnivorous, a much larger quantity would be required. The Canadian
boatmen and the Esquimaux, when deprived of other food, consume from six to
eight pounds daily. If, however, instead of being devoted to cattle-raising, we
suppose the same acreage to be under corn crops, and to produce on an average
1,420 1b. to the acre, we have an annual return of 67,673,114,000 Ib., or an amount
sufficient, at two pounds per day, to feed 92,702,896 persons. After leaving an
ample margin for any diversity of opinion as to the. bases of such calculations, it is
clear that there is sufficient material in our own land for the food of its people.
The real remedy for over-population is food reform. Thus Dr. C. D. Hunter argues
that 42 men could be supported on 100 acres deyoted to sheep-raising, 58 on a
dairy farm, 250 on wheat, and 683 on potatoes.

The British farmer, in face of ‘the competition of cheap foreion-grown corn, has
turned his attention more and more to cattle-raising, but there are not wanting

1 Published in full as a pamphlet by John Heywood, Deansgate, Manchester,
and 11, Paternoster Row, London. ;

750 REPORT—1881.

signs that in the future he will encounter an equally keen rivalry in the production
of flesh-meat. We have seen that, even with the present averages, the real food-value
of cereals is enormously greater than that of the produce of the stock farm. It must
farther be remembered that whilst the productiveness of stock is strictly limited,
that of the land devoted to corn and vegetables can be greatly increased by scientific
farming. The late Mr. J. J. Mechi stated that from his farm (naturally much
below the average quality of soil) he obtained a return of 187. an acre, whilst the
general one is but from 4J. to Sl.

In the matter of food, the poor and dear has been selected, to the neglect of the
cheaper and better. The ignorant have taken cost as a measure of value, and, aping
the Inxurious habits of their wealthier neighbours, the poor are spending upon beef
and bacon the money which would be much better employed in the purchase of
the fruits of the earth. The diffusion of knowledge on the relative values of
various kinds of food may be expected to correct some of the evils arising from the
present popular errors as to the necessity of a flesh diet, or its superiority over
one derived from fruits or cereals. The productiveness of the land might be im-
proved by the removal of legislative hindrances to its free culture, and by returning
to it the excreta of our teeming populations. The encouragement of fruit-growing
is as legitimate an object of national concern as the development of fisheries,

3. Report of the Committee on the manner in which Rudimentary Science
should be taught, and how Examinations should be held therein, in Hle-
mentary Schools.—See Reports, p. 148.

A,, Agricitural Statistics and Prospects. By Wm. Borty, M.R.A.S.

The paper gave in a tabular form the acreage of the various crops in 1880;
the number of cattle, sheep, pigs, and agricultural horses in the United Kingdom,
with the increase or decrease under each head thereof, from which it appears that
in the year 1880 there is a decrease in the

. Acres

Acreage of cornof . . She A . - 105,573
Green crops . ; f ; : . decrease 125,263
Flax c 7 4 : . . increase 36,461
ops ° : : : : F decrease 966
Bare, fallow, and uncropped arable. . increase 90,514

Clover, andartificial grasses, under rotation . decrease 61,680
Permanent pasture, exclusive of heath and |;

Hf ddntatii land ciacneae 321,187
Orchards and gardens in two vears . - A 18,000
Woods and plantations since 1872 have increased 222,000

Live Stock in 1880

Cattle . e . . decrease 90,3835

Pigs e . ° . ° e . . ” 314,618

Sheep. 3 ae - . . ° 1998335

Horses used in agriculture - e : 25,714
Imports in 1880,

Cattle, sheep, and swine, an increase of 136,942

Wool Z Fs rs . increase 49,230,785 lbs.

Cheese . «© « «© decrease 15,665 ewts,

Butter ~~ eee sncrease 274,196 5,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 751

Eges . ‘ ’ + decrease 160,401 great hundreds.

Meat ‘ } 5 - Increase 287,752 cwts,

Wheat, beans, barley, maize,
oats, peas, and flour of decrease 2,203,870 ewts.
all kinds . ’

Independently of eggs, poultry, game, live stock, &c., &c.. we imported in
1880, meat, wheat and other cereals, butter and cheese, 139,166,859 ewts., ¢e., in
weight, 15,586,688,208 lbs. avoirdupois.

The author does not despair for the future of agriculture, observing that we
must attract more capital, skill, and enterprise to it, without regard to the politics
of the tenant; he must have long or equitable leases, #.e., security of tenure, with
compensation for all unexhausted improvements, and full control over the game,
Also there must be a sufficient number of decent cottages for the labourers on the
farm, with so many rods of garden ground to each to grow vegetables for himself
and family, thus training them to dig, weed, and hoe, keeping the man at home,
and fitting his family for after-life, either at home or in emigration,

5. A General Banking Law for the United Kingdom. By Wm. WeEstGartH,

The condition of banking law in this country is most unsatisfactory, owing to
the complete want of uniformity in banking constitution. It is not necessary by
law for any of our very many banks to be constituted alike, and thus every bank is
of necessity a separate and not seldom a rather intricate study for anyone haying
dealings with it. Again, the banking law is different respectively for England
Scotland, and Ireland.

Considering how general banking now is, and that the public may be regarded
as composed mainly of bankers and their customers, simplicity and uniformity of -
banking constitution have become a necessity, At present, for example, the pro-
fessed capital and share of a bank may give us the following almost interminable
variety. The capital may be paid-up capital, or it may be partly of that kind and
partly of what is called Liability Capital; and this latter kind of so-called capital
may be of two sorts, namely, a capital that may be called up by the bank, and a
‘ Reserve’ capital that may not he called except in insolyency or liquidation; and
these three different kinds of capital may be in any proportion one to another.
Then again, the bank share, besides. being constituted variously like the capital, of
which it is a small section, may be further in endless variety of amount, no one
bank in this respect, any more than in others, being bound to resemble another,

But banking is substantially one kind of business throughout the country, and
therefore may admit of the great convenience of a more simple and uniform consti-
tution. Towards this attainment, the term capital should have but one meaning,
namely that of paid-up capital, which, if we except the ever-clashing theories of
professed economists, and the confusing license of present banking law, is the
meaning generally given to the word. Then as to the bank share, it might be
uniformly of one and the same amount, and that some considerable amount, say 1002,
The tendency of large shares is to give a responsible proprietary, and_ such is only
due to the public from a bank. Lastly, as to liability, there ought to be something
beyond paid-up capital, while on the other hand, public opinion has decided against
unlimited liability, Above all, there ought to be uniformity of liability, both in
kind and amount, so as to be easily intelligible to all.

Upon these lines, the proposed General Banking Law for the United Kingdom
was to consist mainly of three clauses; first, the banking term Capital to mean,
always and only, Paid-up Capital; second, the Bank Share to be uniformly of 1002. ;
third, Liability to be of the ‘ Reserve’ kind only, and equal to amount of Capital.

All the banks of the United Kingdom might at once adjust themselves to such
a law by mere nominal changes in capital and share. This would not, however,
in the compulsory sense, be either fair or reasonable in many existing cases of bank-

752 REPORT—1881.

ing diversities, and the law would therefore chiefly concern new banks. But there
would probably soon be a disposition in the pre-existing -banks to place themselves
in conformity with a law so universal and intelligible.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.

The PresiDENT delivered the following Address :—

Tue nature of the address with which it is my duty to commence the proceedings
to-day, is commanded by circumstances. It must necessarily be historical, and
take the shape of a rapid review of the fortunes of Section F since its came into
existence.

This is, as we all know, the fiftieth anniversary of the British Association, but
it is not the fiftieth anniversary of the Section to which we more especially belong.
That Section was called into life at the Cambridge meeting in 1833, a year which
will be long famous in English history in connection with a movement of a very
different kind, a movement which was, indeed the expression of the distrust
excited in many minds by our parents, Science and Liberalism.

We were at first entirely devoted to statistics, to the ‘investigation,’ to use the
words of the official recommendation cf the Section, ‘of facts relating to com-
munities of men which are capable of being expressed by numbers, and which
promise, when sufficiently multiplied, to indicate general laws, and Professor
Sedgwick, the President of the Association for 1853, in the address with which he
closed tke proceedings, carefully limited the functions of the Section to the
inquiries which furnish ‘the raw material of political economy and political

hilosophy.’
2 ue first President was Mr. Babbage, who lived on into our own times, and
whom some who are here present must have known well, whilst among the names
of those who gathered round him as a committee were those of Empson, Hallam,
Jones, Malthus, and Lubbock.

Hardly had our Section itself been created than it produced the Statistical
Society, which, in the words of a speaker at the Edinburgh meeting in 1834,
‘acknowledged itself the offspring of this institution, and was indeed one of its
first definite results.

At the Dublin meeting in 1836, our Section was again presided over by Mr.
Babbage, who read a paper upon a subject which was destined to become, some-
what later, of great importance, on an experiment, namely, in the creation of
co-operative shops for the supplying workmen with the necessaries of life, which,
begun as far back as 1812, had come to an end in 1882.

On this occasion, too, appears, for the first time in our records, the honoured
name of Mr. William Rathbone Greg, then a very young man, who became, in
after years, so well known as a writer upon some of the questions with which
we are occupied, and who contributed a paper on the ‘Social Statistics of the
Netherlands.’

We are reminded of the vast changes which have taken place in our times
when we observe, that at the Bristol meeting in 1837, Dr. Lardner pointed out as
if it was a great matter, that the introduction of railways between various points
had actually increased the number of travellers between those points in the
proportion of four to one.

At Liverpool in 1837, a committee was appointed for the advancement of
Statistical Science, and the British Association volume for that year contains a
report on the statistics of the Deccan by Colonel Sykes, which was creditable for
its day ; but the proceedings of our Section at Newcastle in 1838 were of little
interest. i

In 1839, when we met at Birmingham, we had the honour to have Mr. Hallam
for our chairman; but no record of anything which that great historian said or

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. toa

read on the occasion seems to have been preserved, nor are the minutes of the
Glasgow meeting in 1840 at all more interesting.

The meeting of our Section at Plymouth, in 1841, produced nothing that
invites remark, but in the volume for 1842 there is a Report on the Vital Statistics
of the large towns of Scotland, drawn up under the authority of some of the
members of Section F, which had a certain importance.

Our Section was not very active at the Cork meeting in 1843, nor again when
we met in this city in 1844.

The proceedings in 1845, 1846 and 1847 were somewhat more notable, but are
very briefly reported, and the same may be said of all the years up to and inclusive
of 1855. Observe that I am far from admitting that they were not useful in their
day, as stimulating discussion and leading to valuable legislation. They have had
the fate of the heroes who lived before Agamemnon. The persons who made the
brief resumés of the papers read in those years, which are to be found in our
annual volumes, but ill-supplied the place of the ‘ vates sacer.’

The last meeting at which our Section assembled under its old title and in its old
conditions was that held at Glasgow in 1855, and our last president was Lord
Houghton, then Mr. Monckton Milnes. :

In 1856 at Cheltenham, a resolution was passed, I believe, on the initiative

of that highly gifted, all-accomplished and ever-helpful man, which changed the
name of Section F, and made it, what it has remained ever since, the Section of
Economic Science and Statistics.
-_ On that occasion too, our proceedings were for the first time opened by an
address, though that address, having been prepared before the resolution just
alluded to was passed, dealt exclusively with the subject of statistics. That it was
ably dealt with,. you will conclude, when I say that the author of the address was
Lord Stanley, now Lord Derby, for even then, a quarter of a century ago, he had
begun to display on all public occasions that wide knowledge and painstaking
mastery of his subject, which have given him so great an influence amongst
educated men of all parties in England, and which it is safe to prophesy will,
when a sufficiently large selection of his addresses is rescued from the newspapers
and published, give him in some respects a greater name with posterity than almost
any statesman of our times. The main object of his address on this occasion was
to urge the advantage of establishing a Statistical Department of Government,
charged with the annual publication of such facts, relative to the management of
internal reform, as are reducible to numerical expression.

In 1857 Archbishop Whately, who was by that time far advanced in years,
and no longer the Whately of the Oriel Common-room, did not follow the example
which Lord Stanley had set him, but opened our Section with a few remarks of a
rather obvious kind.

Our venerable friend Sir Edward Baines, in 1858, was perhaps also too brief,
but he took skilful advantage of the revelations of Mr. Sidney Herbert’s commission
on the health of our troops, then fresh in the memory of men, to enforce the utility
of statistics and to show that arithmetic ‘which some thought so heartless, was
rising up as the most powerful advocate of the value of human life and health and
of all that can purify and elevate society.’ He followed up his address, too, by an
important paper on the woollen manufactures of England in general and of Leeds,
where the meeting took place that year, in particular.

1858 was, I may observe, rather exceptionally rich in good papers, which was
hardly the case with 1859, when we were gathered together at Aberdeen under
Colonel Sykes, then Member for that city.

The address of Mr. Senior at Oxford, in 1860, was a protest against the
unscientific character of some of the papers read in our Section during the years
that had elapsed since 1856. He explained that he used the word unscientific not
dyslogistically but only distinctively, the tendency he blamed being that to stray
across the bounds of science into the realmof art. ‘A science,’ he said, ‘ aims
only at supplying materials for the memory and judgment. It does not pre-suppose
any purpose beyond the acquisition of knowledge. An art isintended to influence
the will: it pre-supposes some object to be attained, and it points out the easiest,

1881. 3¢

754 REPORT—1881.

the safest, or the most effectual conduct for that purpose.’ He concluded by
advising that we should keep as much as possible within the strict limits of sta-
tistics and of economic science as understood by the School to which he belonged.

In 1861 we met at Manchester, under the superintendence of Mr. Newmarch,
who premising that there was some danger of undue importance being attached to
what had been achieved in an age of physical discovery, vindicated the right of
economic science and statistical mquiry to a high place amongst the agencies
which have most contributed to the great advance which has lately been made by
civilized mankind.

It was a year of important papers; one on the Progress of Manchester from
1840 to 1860, by Mr. David Chadwick ; another by Mr. Molesworth on the Pro-
gress of Co-operation in Rochdale ; and a third by Mr., now Sir Edward, Reed, on
the Statistics of the Iron-cased Ships of the British Navy, being amongst the most
interesting.

The address of Mr. Edwin Chadwick to this Section in 1862 is not, I think,
printed in the annual volume, and Mr. Tite, who presided in 1863, made only a
very few observations ; but in both years some good papers were read, one by Mr.
Herman Merivale upon Colonization and another by Mr. Dunning Macleod upon
Political Economy, in 1862; and by Mr. Purdy, on the Decrease of the Agri-
cultural Population of England, in 1863.

The address delivered. at Bath by Dr. Farr, in 1864, was one of the best to
which our Section has listened, and well worth recurring to. His object was to,
give a brief outline of the condition of statistical science at the time, and he suc-
ceeded admirably. It is indeed surprising how much matter of incontestable and
permanent value he contrived to pack into twelve pages, and this although he
sometimes diverged, perhaps, just a little into politics.

In 1865 the present Lord Derby again presided over us, treating inter alia the
question how far our subjects ought to form part of the business of a strictly
scientific Association, and coming to the conclusion that our functions are rather
to suggest and stimulate than to originate thought. He further spoke at some
length and with many illustrations, of the use of the statistical method.

In 1866 we met at Nottingham, under the guidance of Professor Thorold
Rogers, who discussed several of the questions that were prominent at the time,
such as the statistics of the live stock in England, a subject brought into promi-
nence by the cattle plague; the state of the money market in that year of panic,
and the fears that were expressed as to to the exhaustion of our coal-supply, I
notice too, in his address, a phrase marked by his usual epigrammatic felicity and
which should be remembered. ‘The economist,’ he said, ‘is constantly labouring
to refute men’s hasty sympathies by an appeal to their deliberate reason.’

In 1867, at Dundee, I had myself the great honour of presiding over your
deliberations, and we had a good many interesting papers relating to the statistics
of the locality.

In 1868 our Section was presided over by Mr. Samuel Brown, of the Society
of Actuaries, who devoted his address to a rapid survey of the various questions
most likely to interest students of our science which had come before the public
since the Dundee meeting, viz., to Technical Education, to the relations between
Labour and Capital, to the purchase of the Electric Telegraphs by the State, to
Weights and Measures, to Monetary Conferences, and to Insurance. Speaking
of the latter subject, with which he was exceptionally qualified to deal, he
observed: ‘ Vital statistics aye now assuming a form which enables the most com-
plicated problems of human life to be dealt with as if they were certain and
simple events, yet little more than a century has elapsed since the Attorney- and
Solicitor-General of that day, when reporting on the application for a Royal
Charter to the first Society formed on scientific principles for the assurance of life,
objected to it on the ground that its success must depend on calculations taken on
tables of life and death, whereby the chance of mortality is attempted to be
reduced to a certain standard. ‘This is a mere speculation,’ they observe, “never
yet tried in practice, and consequently subject, like all other experiments, to
various chances in the execution.”’’

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 756

agi : i formed, and

he petition was dismissed, but the Society (the Equitable) was ,
in Mar ve ie Gloomy propor lgsttons at ibe ixeb ae, isewarle, at one time,
rly 20,000. . of assurances on lives g , ‘ ‘ ff
The proceedings at Exeter, in 1869, were opened by a aioe ea
Stafford Northcote, in which, in addition to making some very ape ~ La id
between the statistics of Devonshire and Lancashire, he illustrate e 8
jati L f Stability, pointed out the use of

of the Law of Variation and the Law of ity, p i
imagination in giving life to the details which statisticians accumulate, c ae
terised the present as pre-eminently a statistical age, and spoke some words 0.
warning, not unneeded, against an indulgence in our national weakness for waste.

At Liverpool in 1870, we were presided over by Mr. Jevons, who amongst many
important observations made the following, which should be had in remembrance-
if ever the relations of our Section to the other parts of the British Association.

re again brought under review :— 5 ets <a
ne LT has airy felt great gratification that the founders of this Association a
not in any narrow spirit restrict its inquiries and discussions to the lone ~
physical science. The existence of this section is a standing recognition of the
truth that the condition of the people is governed by definite laws, however coms
plicated and difficult of discovery they may be. It is no valid reproach against us
that we cannot measure and explain, and predict with the accuracy of a chemist
oranastronomer. Difficult as may be the problems presented to the experimental-
ist in his investigation of material nature, they are easy compared with the
problems of human nature, of which we must attempt the solution. ‘I allow that
our knowledge of the causes in action is seldom sure and accurate, so as to present:
the appearance of true science. : na offe

‘There is no one who occupies a less enviable position than the political
economist. Cultivating the frontier regions between certain knowledge and con-
jecture, his efforts and advice are scorned and rejected on all hands. If he arrives:
at a sure law of human nature, and points out the evils which arise from its
neglect, he is fallen upon by the large classes of people who think their own
common sense sufficient ; he is charged with being too abstract in his speculations,
with overlooking the windings of the human heart, and with undervaluing’ the
affections.

‘However humane his motives, he is lucky if he escape being set down on
all sides asa heartless misanthrope. Such was actually the fate of one of the
most humane and excellent of men, the late Mr. Malthus. On the other hand, it
is only the enlightened and wide-minded scientific men who treat the political
economist with any cordiality. I much fear that, as physical philosophers become
more and more successful, they tend to become, like other conquerors, arrogant
and selfish ; they forget the absurd theories, the incredible errors, the long endur-
ing debates, out of which their own knowledge has emerged, and look with scorn
upon our economic science, because we are still struggling to overcome difficulties
far greater than ever they encountered. But again, I regard the existence of this
Section as a satisfactory recognition of the absolute necessity of doing our best to.
cultivate economic subjects in a scientific spirit.’

This address may be said to mark an epoch, because in the course of it the.
Chairman was able, for the first time in English History, to use words which
many active members of our Section who did not live to hear them would have
rejoiced to hear :—‘T am glad to say that in spite of all opponents we have an
Education Act ;’ and he went on to advocate a great and unaccomplished reform,
the applying to useful objects of the funds of our innumerable and most pernicious
dole charities.

In 1871, at Edinburgh, we met under the genial rule of Lord Neaves, and it is
curious to observe how the uncontrollable mirthfulness of that eminent judge kept
breaking through the gravity of his address, and illustrating the old words;

‘All things are big with jest, there’s nought so plain
But may be witty if thou hast the vein.’

It is likewise noticeable that although, as we have seen, we were statisticians
302

756 REPORT—-1881.

first and economists only twenty-three years afterwards, Lord Neaves treats our
Section as mainly economic, and considers statistics as a mere accessary. This view,
however, was not taken by the members of the Section, who contributed that year
some very important statistical papers, amongst them one of peculiar interest in the
locality where it was read, on the scheme of the Merchant Company with reference
to the great Educational Hospitals of Edinburgh.

At Bradford, in 1878, Mr. Forster did not deliver an address, but made a speech
characterised by his usual vigour, hopefulness, and knowledge of affairs.

At Belfast, in 1874, the members of this Section had the good fortune to do
incidentally a great practical and immediate service, by bringing to an end a strike
which had caused great inconvenience, and they received the thanks of the local

-authorities. The address to the Section was delivered by Lord O’Hagan, and an
interesting paper, read by Sir George Campbell, bore the (at first sight) rather
startling title ‘On the Privileges over Land wrongly called Property.’

Our Belfast volume, that of 1874, contains the report of a Committee presided
over by Lord Houghton, which was appointed to inquire into the economic effects
of combinations of labourers and capitalists. That Committee called a conference,
which assembled at 22, Albemarle Street, where a deputation from the National
Federation of Associated Employers of Labour met a number of persons represent-
ing labour, and discussed a variety of questions of common interest.

‘The discussion at the conference,’ says the report, ‘ was carried on in the most
friendly spirit, and, in the opinion of your Committee, with manifest utility towards
the elucidation of the questions at issue. From the employers your Committee
have, moreover, received valuable written answers to their inquiries; whilst the
“ Beehive,” the principal organ of the employed, said of the conference, “‘The case
was stated with great frankness, and the attack and defence was carried on in
perfect good humour for three hours; and whether any conviction on either side
was altered or not, it was proved very distinctly that such meetings, if held more
frequently, could not fail to beget a clearer view of the questions in dispute on
both sides, and a stronger disposition than now exists to arrange differences in a
friendly and peaceable spirit.”’

The address at Bristol in 1875, was delivered by Mr. Heywood, and contained
much information as well about the trade as the educational facilities of the neigh-
bourhood, while various papers of merit were read, including one upon national
-education by Mrs. Grey ; one on the coal question by Mr. Jevons, and one on the
value of European life in India by Dr, Mouatt.

At Glasgow, in 1876, Sir George Campbell presided, and brought his great
knowledge of India to bear upon various important problems.

Amongst other things he made the following observations upon the use of
narcotics and stimulants :—

‘I have been led into the suggestion that these things are very much a matter
of race by observation of the very singular way in which in Asia the population are
divided into those who use opium and those who use alcohol, according to race
lines, even in countries where the facilities of obtaining the one or the other are
precisely similar. In the east of India I found that the consumption of opium in
the various districts was just in proportion as a Turanian or Chinese element
prevailed in the population, The Aryan races of India never take to opium in a
very great degree, except in the case of the Sikhs, whose religion prohibits the use
.of tobacco. Even in the districts where the poppy is almost universally cultivated
by the ryots (and they supply the opium which the Chinese consume), it is a
happy fact that the native population does not take to the common use of opium ;
and there are no greater symptoms of the ill effects of the drug than in districts
where it is very rare and dear—far less so than in districts where the cultivation
is not permitted, but where there is an Indo-Chinese population. I cannot but
think that such race proclivities open up an important field of inquiry.’

Amongst papers that were read at Glasgow, a high place must be given to
a most careful one by Professor Jack, ‘On the Results of Five Years of Compulsory
Education.’

Lord Fortescue, in his address at Plymouth, in 1877, dwelt much on the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 757

Papen question, avowing himself an opponent of the views of Malthus and
ill, and claiming for his leaders Mr. Chadwick and Dr. Farr. He also spoke at
some length upon the imposition of what he considered needlessly high fares and
rates upon goods and passengers by railway, and recalled his own opposition
to the policy of Sir Robert Peel in not treating railways as monopolies, whose
powers should, for the sake of the public, be carefully restricted, and he further
advocated making the union, instead of the parish, the unit of English
administration under a County Representative Board.

It is difficult in conducting the proceedings of this Section to hit the golden
mean between being too abstract and too popular. In the year 1875 the pendulum
swung perhaps a little too much to the popular direction, and subjects were
discussed which were thought by some hardly compatible with the scientific
character of the British Association. This led to a great deal of criticism, and
in the year 1876 the question was raised—and raised by a very eminent person—
whether we of Section F should continue to hold our place. The attack was
able; the defence was not particularly brilliant, but the goodness of our cause
or the leniency of our judges carried us through, and we were adjudged to have
successfully restated the reasons for our existence. It was well, perhaps, that the
question was raised, for out of this discussion came the elaborate and brilliant
address—the most elaborate and brilliant to which this Section has ever listened—
which was delivered at Dublin by Professor Ingram, in 1878, on the position and
prospects of political economy.

Professor Ingram recapitulated the philosophical conclusions he had endeavoured
to enforce, as follows :—

(1) That the study of the economic phenomena of society ought to be
systematically combined with that of the other aspects of social existence.
(2) That the excessive tendency to abstraction and to unreal simplifications
should be checked. (3) That the @ priord deductive method should be changed
for the historical. (4) That economic laws, and the practical prescriptions
founded on those laws, should be conceived and expressed in a less absolute
form. ‘These are, in my opinion,’ he says, ‘the great reforms which are required
both in the conduct of economic research and in the exposition of its conclusions.’
He then proceeded to say that ‘If the proper study of mankind is man, the work
of the Association, after the extrusion of our Section, would be like the play with
the part of the protagonist left out. What appears to be the reasonable suggestion
is, that the field of the Section should be enlarged, so as to comprehend the whole
of sociology. The economic facts of society, as I have endeavoured to show,
cannot be scientifically considered apart, and there is no reason why the researches.
of Sir Henry Maine, or those of Mr. Spencer, should not be as much at home here
as those of Mr. Fawcett or Professor Price. Many of the subjects, too, at present
included in the artificial assemblage of heterogeneous inquiries known by the name:
of Anthropology, really connect themselves with the laws of social development ;
and if our Section bore the title of the Sociological, the studies of Mr. Tylor and
Sir John Lubbock, concerning the early history of civilization, would find in it
their most appropriate place. I prefer the name Sociology to that of Social
Science, which has been rendered indefinite in common use, and has come to be
regarded as denoting a congeries of incoherent details respecting every practical
matter bearing directly or remotely on public interests which happen for the
moment to engage attention. There are other societies in which an opportunity
is afforded for discussing such current questions in a comparatively popular arena.
But if we are to be associated here with the students of the other sciences, it is
our duty, as well as our interest, to aim at a genuinely scientific character in our
work, Our main object should be to assist in fixing theoretic ideas on the struc-
ture, functions, and development of society. Some may regard this view of the
subject with impatience, as proposing to us investigations not bearing on the
great and real needs of contemporary social life. But that would be a very
mistaken notion. Luciferous research, in the words of Bacon, must come before
fructiferous. ‘Effectual practice,’ says Mr. Spencer, ‘depends on superiority of
ideas ; methods that answer are preceded by thoughts that are true,’

758 REPORT—1881.

In 1879 the address was delivered by Mr. Lefevre, and a most timely and use-
ful address it was, dwelling upon the relations between our agriculturists and those
of the United States with that clearness of thought, and, to use the famous Thucy-
didean phrase, painfulness in the search after truth, which one always expects in
the writings and speeches of that very distinguished man. The address of 1880,
by Mr. Hastings, has by some unfortunate accident not been printed in our annual
volume.

With a view to giving you this brief sketch of the proceedings of our Section,
it has been necessary for me, of course, to look through those proceedings since
its foundation ; and I have been led to one or two conclusions which I should like
to lay before you.

In the first place, I greatly doubt whether our system of publishing epitomes
of papers is a good one. These abstracts of abstracts are indeed most ghastly
reading. I think it would be worth while for those who organise the business of
the Section to consider next year whether it might not be better to print good
papers upon local statistics in full; such will hardly in many cases have any other
means of being introduced to a wider public, whereas statistical papers of more
as interest may be safely left to the care of our first-born, the Statistical

ociety. It would be enough to mention in our annual volume that they had been
read before us, without attempting an analysis which can hardly be satisfactory to
the author and must be dismal to the reader.

In the second place I am inclined to think that we must adopt the policy
recommended by Professor Ingram, and widen our basis, taking care at the same
time to treat things scientifically, that is to say, as they are or were, and to avoid,
as much as possible, dealing with them as they ought to be. The Social Science
Association is better, I think, fitted than the British Association for many even
good papers that have been read in this Section.

Still more imperatively necessary is it absolutely to refuse a hearing to all who
wish to discuss burning questions of English politics, even although they have a
scientific side. However disagreeable it may be to individuals to have to take
elsewhere papers on which they may have bestowed much trouble, our first duty
as a Section is to continue to exist, and we shall assuredly not continue to exist if
we do not steel our hearts against their complaints.

Another great reform would, I conceive, be accomplished if the authorities of the
Association were to encourage persons to read in this Section accounts of valuable
works on economical and statistical subjects appearing in foreign countries.

It only remains for me to thank you for the patience with which you have
listened to an address which, although I think under the circumstances necessary,
has contained little or nothing that is new. I must add that I accepted the
honour of presiding over this Section some months ago, and before a very consider-
able change had come over my life. It has beena great pleasure to me to be able
to fulfil my engagement, but as I leave England next month and am necessarily
very much occupied, I am sure you will forgive me if I resign the presidency of
the Section into other and abler hands this afternoon.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Notes on the Village System, and the Tenure: of Land in the Dravidian
Villages of the Dekhan. By Sir Waurer Etxior, K.C.8.1., F.R.S.

The increasing interest taken in Indian subjects is evidenced by the popularity
of recent publications relating to them, One of the latest of these is Sir John
Phear’s volume on the Aryan Village. It deals with those in the north and the
extreme south of Hindostan. Between these lie the Dravidian people, among whom
the village system has been preserved in a still more perfect condition.

A short sketch of the Dravidian municipality is then given, and the classes of
which it is composed, viz. :—

a. The village council, embracing the principal cultivating ryots.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 759

b. The village officers.

c. The serfs or agrestial slaves.

d. The local militia.

e. The outside or foreign cultivators, who reside on sufferance.

The division of the village lands into shares is then noticed.

The incidence of the land-tax is described, as it has fluctuated under the oppressive
rule of native governments; and a glance is then taken at the light thrown on the
general question of normal property in the soil, which has been so well treated by
Sir Henry Maine, Sir John Phear, and others.

2. Report of the Anthropometric Committee.—See Reports, p. 225.

3. On the Relation of the Gold Standard in England to the International
Money Market. By Hypr Crarxn, V.P.S.S.

Referring to his paper before the Association in 1877 on Foreign Loans, Mr.
Clarke more particularly dealt with the operations of the London Money Market in
connection with foreign loans and coupons. For what are called international
securities, current in all the money markets of Europe, the participation of the
London market is an essential feature. This becomes supreme in periods of
political disquietude on the Continent, but it is partly dependent on the acceptance
-of the English gold standard as a fixed and unalterable standard. Whatever may
be the theoretical toleration shown to bimetallism, the financial world has given in
its adhesion to the gold standard. | Any tampering with this is calculated to
endanger our position as the central money market of the world, and to enable our
rivals at Paris and elsewhere to outstrip us. He pointed out some recent incidents
which were calculated to affect us. The employment of coupons as an inter-
national currency was also considered, and the connection of this market with the
growing American money market. ;

4, The Silver Question, and the Double versus the Single Standard.
By Wu. WESTGARTH.

This country is monometallic with the gold standard, which means that in our
money engagements we are subject to all the incidents that may affect the value of
gold. Ifgold happens at some time to be found very abundantly, as when Cali-
fornia and Australia poured forth their treasures thirty years ago, the value must
fall. On the other hand, if this great supply falls off, and if concurrently there is
a disposition in some leading States to take preferably to a gold coimage—hoth of
these incidents haying actually happened of late—the value of gold must advance.
To earn, say a thousand pounds, under the first set of circumstances may be a very
different thing from earning that quantity of gold under the second set. The latter
would be likely to entail a much greater labour or cost.

But yet the terms of our money engagement are clear and fair. We engage to
pay or to be paid in gold, and we pay or receive accordingly, taking our chance
respectively of the appreciation or depreciation for the time of that metal. With
the double standard, on the other hand, there are two metals to deal with—gold
and silver; and if their value, the one to the other, is exposed to fluctuation, they
cannot both be fairly used as legal money, seeing that the paying party would
assuredly elect to pay his creditor in that metal which for the time was relatively
cheaper. ’

he assertion of bimetallists is that the two metals can be maintained substan-
tially at one fixed ratio of value, if there be a sufficiently extensive bimetallic
agreement for that purpose. The mints of the agreeing states have but to be kept
open to unlimited coinage at the fixed ratio, and that ratio must of necessity remain
substantially unchanged, In this way, the ratio of silyer to gold remained

760 REPORT—1881.

substantially the same for many years, until the late large German currency opera-
tion caused the bimetallic mints to suspend their procedure, as the effect was to
deplete their currencies of gold, and substitute silver to an undesirable extent. But
the Paris Monetary Conference was called together by the leading bimetallic States,
France and the United States, in the hope that by widening the bimetallic basis,
especially by the accession of England and Germany, the new union might be
strong enough to ‘rehabilitate’ the silver, and maintain the ratio for the future
against all probable or possible incidents. The Conference has not succeeded in
this object, but as it has not dissolved, but only adjourned till April next year,
there seems still a prospect of at any rate the rehabilitation of the silver. The
question has proved of great importance to this country from the remarkable
fact that, while this country and her colonies generally have a gold standard, India,
which in some sense may claim to be viewed as one half of our empire, has a
silver standard.

The bimetallic view that the two metals can be kept to the one fixed ratio of
value depends on the free interaction of the two currencies. If both metals are full
legal money, any excess supply of the one metal will be absorbed as money of its
own kind, and room made for it by extrusion of so much of the other, out of coinage
into merchandise, until the said disturbing excess is balanced. In this way we
perceive that the ratio of value is kept steady at the expense of the ratio of
quantity. That is to say, if there should happen an unusual supply of gold, the
effect would be to increase the quantity of gold coinage in the world and to
diminish that of silver, and vice versd with excess silver supply, while the relative
value stood unchanged. But this would require that the two coinages should be in
a condition of free interaction; and if they were so only to a very limited extent,
the changes in relative quantity might be inconveniently extreme, as indeed the
present limited bimetallic union has just of late practically experienced.

The advantage of bimetallism is that the ratio of value can be kept steady by
an adequate breadth of union, and that with the larger basis of the two metals,
the incidents affecting the value of either metal separately are diminished in their
effect by being spread over the larger amount of the two metals.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Results to be attained by applying to the Transfer of Land in this Country
the methods employed in the British Colonies. By Sir Ropert Torrens,
K.0.M.G.

2. The Economic Influence of the Drinking Customs upon the Nation’s Well-
being. By Wiu.1am Hoyte.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Protection in Young Communities; Recorded Results in Victoria and
New South Wales. By Grorce Bapen-PowE.t, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.S.S.

(a) Introductory.—I wish to put on record, in detail, a unique case—a test
ease—the first that history has given us, of the actual recorded results of high
and low tariffs in two similarly circumstanced communities, specially interesting

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 761

because they are young communities, where, if anywhere, Protection is allowed
theoretically.

Victoria and New South Wales are two of our colonies, starting ten years ago
with practically similar economic environments and opportunities. Victoria has
during that decade pursued a policy of Protection, and New South Wales one of
Free Trade. The results are now matter of record.

(6) The Details—These I shall briefly sum up under three heads :—

1, The development of manufactures, as opposed to the production of ‘ Colonial
produce’ (of food and raw material), has been, on the whole, about equal, if we look
to employment of population and capital. If Protection has introduced some
manufactures, Free Trade has introduced others.

2. In regard to the provision of revenue (the main argument), New South
Wales provides a far larger general revenue per head of population. And the
special revenue from customs duties has increased with the low tariff, but has barely
maintained its level under the high tariff. The low tariff provides an equal amount
of reyenue to the high tariff, though the population is smaller.

8. In regard to general prosperity (industrial prosperity, social prosperity, the
growth of trade, of the carrying trade, of the general wealth, and, above all, of
population), New South Wales has advanced with far greater rapidity than
Victoria.

(c) General Results.—1. In Victoria itself this record of what has actually
taken place will greatly increase the reactionary movement in favour of a lower
tariff. Signs of this are already apparent.

2. In the British Empire generally these recorded results may stimulate local
Parliaments to maintain low tariffs, to the undoubted material benefit of every
industrial worker throughout the Empire.

(d) A Recommendation.—I would supplement my remarks with a statement of
the difficulties I encountered in my researches from the different methods some-
times adopted in the otherwise most excellent statistical records of these two Colonies.
Uniformity in the method of registering statisticai facts is of the utmost import-
ance to comparative investigations. It would be of the highest advantage to secure
- the future such uniformity, at all events, within the limits of the British

mpire.

2. Report of the Committee for inquiring into the present appropriation of
Wages and Sources of Income, and considering how far it is consonant
with the Economic Progress of the People of the United Kingdom.—See
Reports, p. 272.

3. On the Remedies proposed for Disputes about Wages.
By the Rev. W. H. Jemison, LL.B.

The paper reviewed various remedies for wages disputes, including arbitration,
boards of conciliation, co-operation, and industrial partnership, the last-named of
which the writer described as the most hopeful, being very favourable to pro-
duction, and calculated to exercise a good influence on the workpeople, though
there might be difficulty in ascertaining the fixed wage and in the working of an
efficient check for measuring the claim of each workman to additional pay. The
plan might be helped by the adoption of a sliding scale, and, when need arises, by
reference to arbitration.

4, The Depression in Agriculture ; its Effects and its Lessons.
By Henry F. Moore.

762 REPORT—188].

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Free Public Libraries of Manchester and Notting Hill, London.
By James Huywoop, F.R.S.

According to the Report of 1879-80, presented to the City Council, there are
64,079 volumes in the Reference Library situated in the Old Town Hall, Man-
chester, as well as a large number of newspapers, serials, periodicals, and trans-
actions in progress.

The Reference Library is open from 10 a.m. to 9 p.m.; and on Sunday from
2 p.m, to 9 p.m.

During the year 1879-80 the number of readers were

On week-days . . . . ’ » 126,581
On Sundays ° A : . ° ‘ 8,039

134,420

oY on an average,
406 readers on a week-day.
152 readers on a Sunday.

During the same year the number of books issued was
175,504 on week-days.
11,144 on Sundays.

186,448

or on an ayerage,
560 books issued on each week-day, and
210 on each Sunday.

Books may be perused in the Reference Library, but are not permitted to be
taken away from that collection.

There are five Lending Libraries in different parts of Manchester, to each of
which a news-room is attached, and books may be perused on the premises.

Borrowers may obtain books, after signing a written agreement according to
the Library regulations, in the Lending Libraries.

The books are classified under different heads: thus in the Hulme Lending
Library there are 15,281 volumes, of which :

754 relate to Theology and Philosophy.
4555 History, Biography.
399 Politics and Commerce.
2184 Science and Art.
4030 Literature and Polygraphy.
21 Embossed Books for the Blind.
3398. Works of Fiction.

15,341 pal

During the year th were 153, 250 volumes lent out, and 42,256 volumes
perused in the reading-room.

On Sundays there were 6,868 volumes perused, and 6,836 readers c came to the
Library.

During two weeks, in September 1880, there were 8, Mes persons who came to
the Hulme News-room, of whom there came on

Monday ., : ; : .
Tuesday . : : : °
Wednesday - : Z .
Thursday . : : 5 .

- 1,266 persons

.
° ’ ”
.
°

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 763

Friday : : «20 atidG f . 1,277 persons

Saturday . ‘ ; - ‘ op l4bnn ny
Sunday , , ; ‘ , st o:f608%,/ 55
8,030 _,,

or a daily average of 1,147 persons,

Reading-rooms for boys have been established at the Chorlton and Ancoats
branches. In Hulme the cellar has been converted into a reading-room for boys,
in which upwards of 250 boys can be accommodated at one time. The room is
light, pleasant, and comfortable, and has been attended by as many juvenile readers
as can be conveniently admitted.

In the Lending Libraries there were, in September 1880, 31,138 borrowers’
cards in force, being an increase of 321 over the previous year.

Parcels of periodicals and papers, which have been out on the news-room tables,
are made up weekly, as well as volumes not wanted, and are sent to various chari-
table institutions, such as the Infirmary and the Hospital for Incurables, and are also
sent to the guardians of the Manchester and.Chorlton Unions, for the use of the
inmates of the Workhouse Hospitals, and are thankfully accepted,

Out of more than half a million of books, which have been lent out for reading,
only 74 have been lost. Of these, 44 were replaced or paid for by the borrowers
themselves, and 10 by guarantors.

There have been in the year, 1,991,000 visits to the Reading-rooms for the
perusal of newspapers, magazines, and periodicals. There have been 966,468 hooks
read in the year, or an average of 2,777 on each day. .

The ratepayers in Manchester are contented that the money for their Free
Libraries is wisely laid out.

In Notting Hill, London, a Free Library, belonging to Mr. J, Heywood, F.R.S.,
has been established for seven years, and contains 5,000 yolumes. Of this number,
in the year 1881, between January and July, there were 6,482 yolumes lent out to
read. During the same half-year there were in the Library

10,404 readers on week-days, and
834 readers on Sunday afterrioons.
March had
. 2,119 readers on week-days, and.
155 readers on Sunday afternoons ;

and during the month of March there were
1,178 volumes lent out to read.

A borrower of books pays one penny to this Library, and either deposits half-
a-crown, or gives a certificate, signed by two ratepayers, guaranteeing the safety
of the volume,

2. On the Progress of British Oonimerce in a Generation.
By HE. J. Watuerston. |

The author maintained that a great mistake was commonly made by writers on
‘commercial depression’ by examining years when they should look to decades,
and decades when they should take generations into account. Taking thirty-two
years, being about a ‘ generation,’ the total value of our exports of home produce,
in 1848, was 52,849,445/., being in the proportion of 1/, 18s. per head of popula-
tion, In 1880 the figures were 223,060,446/., or Gl, 9s. 5d. per head. This shows
that the expansion of our foreign trade in the course of thirty-two years has been
enormous. Except, perhaps, the commerce of the United States, it stands unparal-
leled in the history of any nation, Taking the amounts, the colonial exports aug-
mented by about 614 millions, while the foreign exports increased by) more than
108} millions, The total value of imports into the United Kingdom in 1854 was
162,389,053/., or in proportion of 5%, 10s, 2d, per head of population, In 1880

764 REPORT—1881.

the value had increased to 411,229,565/., or 117. 18s. 7d. per head. It is unde-
niable that our imports have increased at a far greater ratio than our exports of
home produce. While the increase of our imports was 110 per cent., or at the
rate of 54 per cent. per annum, that of our exports was only 66 per cent., or little
more than 33 per cent. per annum. The fact of this large increase of imports, and
the great preponderance of the latter over exports, appears to be the chief ground
of alarm of those who lament the ‘decline’ of our commerce. In 1854 the imports
of meat and provisions were 5,782,164/., and of corn and flour 21,760,283/.; total,
27,542,4477. In 1880 the imports of meat and provisions were 32,175,326/., of
corn and flour 62,857,2691. ; total, 95,032,595/. There could be no question what-
ever that the vast increase within the last twenty years in our imports has been
entirely for the benefit of ‘ the consumer’—that is, the nation at large. We bought
increasing quantities of food from foreign countries solely because the articles we
wanted could be created, or manufactured, cheaper there than at home. We re-
ceived over five times more meat and provisions, and over three times more corn
and flour, from foreign countries in the year 1880 than in 1854. Expressed per
head of population, our total food-imports averaged 18s, 9d. per head in 1854,
while in 1880 the average per head was 3/. 17s. 3d. In other words, food has
come from abroad to an increased amount represented by. 2/. 18s. 6d. for every
man, woman, and child.

The aggregate value of exports and imports (exhibiting the real progress of the
nation) in 1854 was 268,210,145/., or 97. 14s. per head of population ; and in 1880
697,644,0311., or 207. 4s. 10d. per head. In its gross amount the increase was
152 per cent., showing that there is no ground for speaking of a ‘decline’ in our
commerce. The total commerce of this country is with over 100 foreign States
and colonial possessions, more than one-half of which is carried on with six coun-
tries: first, the United States; secondly, France ; thirdly, British India; fourthly,
Germany ; fifthly, Australasia; and sixthly, Russia. Virtually, we have but two
great articles of export—namely, textile fabrics and iron, which comprise over
three-fifths of our total home exports, the rest being composed of many small
items. In 1868 the exports of cotton fabrics were 67 ,686,772/., woollen 25,784,562/.,
linen 9,548,412/7., and iron and steel 17,634,3985/., or 120,654,1417. out of a total of
179,677,8127. In 1880 the exports of cotton, woollen, and linen fabrics and iron
and steel were 131,611,850/., out of a total of 223,060,4467. The question that
suggests itself in regard to this overwhelming preponderance of certain classes of
our exports is, whether the causes of it be natural or artificial. It is true, our .
abundance of coal and of iron ore, and the perfection to which we have brought
machinery, justify to some extent our profiting by these advantages. But have we
not gone too far in this direction? Being the first to invent the wonderful steam
machinery for working cotton fibre, flax, and wool into woven fabrics, and possess-
ing an abundance of motive-power, we used these advantages for a considerable
period with great success, But the time came when other nations competed with
us in the same field, and we must not wonder if this industrial rivalry be getting
more and more severe. The one remedy, and perhaps the one only, clearly offering
itself, is to enlarge the field of our industrial activity. The thirteen millions’ worth
of silk goods we imported in 1880 came chiefly from France, which has no advan-
tages whatever over us for manufacturing them, but the one of higher technical
education of its workers, productive of greater taste. This is a matter which it is
entirely in our own hands to remedy. Perhaps there are a few other things besides
silk manufactures which we might with advantage produce ourselves, instead
of importing them. For example, we purchase annually, chiefly from France,
about 194 million pounds’ worth of butter, cheese, and eggs. At least the twelve
millions’ worth of butter and the five millions’ worth of cheese we buy abroad we
might produce ourselves, seeing how many tens of thousands of acres of land in
this country are lying waste, though admirably adapted for pastures. That our
farmers should allow us to import 623 millions of eggs annually is quite unex-
plained. We must, in order to continue progressing, do two things—namely,
extend the great markets of our international trade into new regions; and extend
the narrow limits of our leading manufacturing industries into wider fields. With

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 765

these aims steadfastly kept in view, there is no reason why, in less than another
twenty years, the sum-total of our commerce should not reach the figure of a round
thousand millions.

3. Some Results of the Removal of the Malt Tax.! By H. Sropss.

The author commenced by a sketch of the history of the Malt Tax, pointing out
its origin and recounting the arguments for its repeal urged by deputations in the
Central Chamber of Commerce upon the Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1870 and
1874. He pointed out, in opposition to these, that farmers will find the repeal of
the Malt Tax act more and more against their interest, because barley is no longer
subject toa monopoly. The former mode of collecting the tax practically shut out
the foreign barleys from the mash-tuns of the vast majority of brewers. Few but
the largest brewers cared for the expensive best barleys of Germany and France.
All were compelled by law to use malt or sugar, as the natural laws of fermenta-
tion made it impossible to most brewers to use only a certain percentage of sugar,
usually a small one, and the rest malt. Now, all this is changed. A brewer can
brew in a better way in every sense by using a proportion of other grain than malted
barley. Now, too, it is very probable that large quantities of malt made abroad will
be imported into this country. The result of allthese causes combined must effect a
heavy loss to British landownersand farmers. Maltsters as a body will in some ways
lose as much as farmers. Formerly a maltster derived a good portion of his profits
from skilful manipulation of the duty. This is now entirely lostto him. The com-
petition of raw grain may prove more fatal to his interests than to the classes already
mentioned, The author pointed out that the loss would only fall on those maltsters
who worked unscientifically, for the others would gain by the freedom to apply the
best processes in the operation. Malt will, and must, be vastly improved in manu-
facture and value. The malting process will get to be recognised as the most impor-
tant of the first steps in the production of sound, pure beer. To brewers the change
is of less importance than it would appear at first sight. The actual charge upon
each quarter of malt now used by the very great majority of brewers exceeds the
former charge. Then a quarter paid 22s. 8d., inclusive of brewers’ licence. Now
each quarter is assumed to yield 82lbs. gravity, and has to pay 25s., less 6 per
cent.; but as in most breweries, and all good ones, the yield of the malt is more
than 6 per cent. greater than 82]hbs., it is fairly within bounds to assume that
each quarter of malt now yields to the revenue 25s., an increased charge of 2s. 4d.
This money is, of course, paid by the general public. The increase does not add
the large amount to the national revenue that it should do, as every quarter used
by private brewers paying the 6s. licence only, in excess of the first quarter used,
pays noduty. A large amount of beer now brewed entirely escapes duty. The
power to use other materials than malt is a boon to brewers, and a national gain,
notwithstanding that farmers and maltsters lose. The public get better beer,
brewers make larger profits, rice merchants and maize millers are having a good
time ; but farmers, in obtaining what they so long desired, find that they now
come into direct competition with the foreign producer in a field which the old
law helped to hedge round for their especial benefit. Past experience of similar
contests leaves very little room for speculation as to the result.

4, Bankruptcy in its Economic Bearings. By J. Macponetu.

5. On Economics and Statistics, viewed from the standpoint of the
Preliminary Sciences. By Patrick Geppgs, F.R.S.E.

In this paper, after pointing out the importance of uniformity in the arrange-
ment of statistics, the schemes for that purpose proposed to the International

1 Published in extenso in the Brener’s Gazette for September 1881,

766 REPORT—1881.

Statistical Congress of 1878 are criticised, and a new system of classification is
established in harmony with the preliminary sciences, The system is developed to a
considerable extent in a series of tables, which are shown to include the facts of
Political Geography, of Economic Physics, Economic Geology, Economic Botany
and Zoology, of Anthropology and Demography, of Industry, Commerce, and
Political Economy generally.1_ Various systems of economics are then criticised,
and the paper terminates with a classification of the other papers read in the
Sections of Economics and Anthropology, and a claim to have adopted the reforms
of Mr, Ingram and Mr. Grant Duff.

1 «Qn the Classification of Statistics,’ Proceedings Roy. Soc. Edin. 1881.
2 See Nature, September 29, 1881.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 767

Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Sir W. Armstrong, C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.

The Presment delivered the following Address :—

THE astonishing progress which has been made in the construction and applica-
tion of machinery during the half-century which has elapsed since the nativity of
the British Association for the Advancement of Science, is a theme which I might
with much complacency adopt in this address; but instead of reviewing the past
and exulting in our successes, it will be more profitable to look to the future, and
to dwell on our failures. It is but justice to say that by growing experience, by
increased facilities of manufacture, and by the exercise of much skill and ingenuity,
we have succeeded in multiplying and expanding the applications of our chief
motor, the Steam Engine, to an extent that would have appeared incredible fifty
years ago, but the gratulation inspired by this success is clouded by the reflection
that the steam engine even in its best form remains to this day a most wasteful
apparatus for converting the energy of heat into motive power. Our predecessors
of that period had not the advantage of the knowledge which we possess of the
true nature of heat, and the conditions and limits affecting its utilization. In their
time heat was almost universally regarded as a fluid which, under the name of
caloric, was supposed to lie dormant in the interstices of matter until forced out
by chemical or mechanical means. Although Bacon, Newton, Cavendish, and
Boyle all maintained that heat was only internal motion, and although Davy and
Rumford not only held that view but proved its accuracy by experiment, yet the
old notion of caloric continued to hold its ground, until in more recent times,
Joule, Meyer, Codling, and others put an end to all doubt on the subject, and
established the all-important fact that heat isa mode of motion having, like any
other kind of motion, its exact equivalent in terms of work. By their reasonings
and experiments it has been definitely proved that the quantity of heat which
raises the temperature of a pound of water 1° Fahrenheit, has a mechanical value
equal to lifting 772 Ibs. one foot high, and that conyersely the descent of that
weight from that height is capable of exactly reproducing the heat expended.

The mechanical theory of heat issnow universally accepted, although a remnant
of the old doctrine is displayed in the continued use of the misleading term ‘latent
heat.” According to the new theory, heat is an internal motion of molecules
capable of being communicated from the molecules of one body to those of another,
the result of the imparted motion being either an increase of temperature, or the
performance of work. The work may be either external, as where heat, in expand-
ing a gas, pushes away a resisting body, or it may be internal, as where heat pulls
asunder the cohering particles of ice in the process of liquefaction, or it may be
partly internal and partly external, as it is in the steam engine, where the first
effect of the heat is to separate the particles of water into vapour, and the second
to give motion to the piston. Internal as well as external work may be reconverted
into heat, but until the reconversion takes place the heat which did the work does
not exist as heat, and it is delusive'to call it ‘latent heat.’ All heat problems are

768 REPORT—1881.

comprised under the three leading ideas of internal work, external work, and tem-
perature, and no phraseology should he used that conflicts with those ideas.

The modern theory of heat has thrown new light upon the theory of the steam
engine. We now kmow what is the mechanical value in foot-pounds of the heat
evolved in the combustion of 1b. of coal. In practice we can determine how
much of that heat is transmitted to the water in the boiler, and we are taught how
to calculate the quantity which in the process of vaporization takes the form of
internal work. We can determine how much disappears in the engine in the shape
of external work, including friction, and the remainder, with the exception of the
trifling quantity saved in the feed water, we know to be lost. Taking a good con-
densing engine as an example, we may roughly say that, dividing the whole heat
energy into ten equal parts, two escape by the chimney, one is lost by radiation
and friction, six remain unused when the steam is discharged, and one only is
realised in useful work. It may be fully admitted that the greater part of the
ageregate loss is inevitable, but are we to suppose that the resources of science,
ingenuity, and skill have been exhausted in the attainment of.so miserable a result ?
Nothing but radical changes can be expected to produce any great mitigation of
the present monstrous waste, and without presuming to say what measures are
practicable and what are not, I will briefly point out the directions in which
amelioration is theoretically possible, and shall afterwards advert to the question
whether we may hope to evade the difficulties of the steam engine by resorting
to electrical methods of obtaining power.

To begin with the loss which takes place in the application of heat to the
boiler, why is it that we have to throw away, at the very outset of our operations,
twice as much heat as we succeed in utilising in the engine? The answer is that
in order to force a transmission of heat from the fire to the water in the boiler, a
certain excess of temperature over that of the water must exist in the furnace and
flues, and the whole of the heat below the required excess must pass away unused,
except the trifling portion of it which disappears in the production of draught.
Further, that since we cannot avoid admitting the nitrogen of the air along with
the oxygen, we have to heat a large volume of neutral gas which has no other
effect than to rob the fire. Considering what efforts have bgen made to facilitate
the transmission of the heat by augmenting the evaporative surface, and using thin
tubes as flues, it is vain to expect any great result from further perseverance in that
direction, and unless a method can be devised of burning the fuel inside instead of
outside the apparatus, so as to use the heated gases conjointly with the steam as a
working medium in the engine, a remedy appears to be hopeless. We already
practise internal combustion in the gas engine, and it is clear that with gaseous
fuel at all events, we could associate such a mode of combustion with the vaporisa-
tion of water. We may even regard a gun as an engine with internally burnt
fuel, and here I may remark that the action of heat in a gun is strictly analogous
to that of heat in a steam engine. In both cases the heat is evolved from chemical
combination, and the resulting pressures differ only in degree. The gun is the
equivalent of the cylinder, and the shot of the piston, and the diagrams represent-
ing the pressure exerted in the two cases bear a close resemblance to each other.
While the powder is burning in the gun we havea nearly uniform pressure, just
as we have in the cylinder while the steam is entering, and in both cases the
uniform pressure is followed by a diminishing pressure, represented by the usual
curve of expansion. If in the steam engine we allowed the piston to be blown
out, it would act as a projectile, and if in the gun we opposed mechanical resist-
ance to the shot, we might utilize the effect in a quieter form of motive power.
But it is a remarkable fact that such is the richness of coal as a store of mechanical
energy, that a pound of coal, even as used in the steam engine, produces a dynamic
effect about five times greater than a pound of gunpowder burnt inagun. I can-
not, however, on this account encourage the idea that steam may be advantageously
substituted for gunpowder in the practice of gunnery.

‘And now to turn from the fire which is the birth-place of the motive energy,
let us follow it in the steam, to the condenser, where most of it finds a premature
tomb, From the point at which expansion commences in the cylinder the tempera-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G, 769

ture and pressure of the steam begin to run down, and if we could continue to
expand indefinitely, the entire heat would be exhausted, and the energy previously
expended in separating the water into steam would be wholly given up in external
effect ; but this exhaustion would not be complete until the absolute zero of tem-
perature was reached (viz., 461° below the zero of Fahrenheit). Ido not mean
to say that an ideally perfect engine necessarily involves unlimited expansion,
seeing that if instead of discharging the steam at the end of a given expansion, we
made the engine itself do work in compressing it, we might under the conditions
of Carnot’s reversible cycle, so justly celebrated as the foundation of the theory
of the steam engine, recommence the action with all the unutilised heat in an
available form. But an engine upon this principle could only give an amount of
useful effect corresponding to the difference between the whole work done by the
engine, and that very large portion of it expended in the operation of compres-
sion, and this difference viewed in relation to the necessary size of the engine,
would be quite insignificant, and would in fact be wholly swallowed up in friction,
Carnot did not intend to suggest a real engine, and his hypothesis therefore takes
no cognizance of losses incident to the application of an actual fire to an actual
boiler, His ideal engine is also supposed to be frictionless, and impervious to heat
except at the point where heat has to be transmitted to the water, and there the
condition of perfect conduction is assumed. In short an engine which would even
approximately conform to the conditions of Carnot’s cycle is an impossibility, and
a perfect steam engine is alike phantom whether it be sought for in the cyclical
process of Carnot, or under the condition of indefinite expansion. Practically we
have to deal with a machine which, like all other machines, is subject to friction,
and in expanding the steam we quickly arrive at a point at which the reduced
pressure on the piston is so little in excess of the friction of the machine, as to
render the steam not worth retaining, and at this point we reject it. In figurative
language we take the cream off the bowl and throw away the milk. We do save
a little by heating the feed water, but this gain is very small in comparison with
the whole loss. What happens in the condenser is that all the remaining energy
which has taken the form of internal work is reconyerted into heat, but it is heat
of so low a grade that we cannot apply it to the waporization of water. But
although the heat is too low to vaporize water it is not too low to vaporize ether,
If instead of condensing by the external application of water, we did so by the
similar application of ether, as proposed and practised by M. du Trembley twenty-five
years ago, the ether would be vaporized, and we should be able to start afresh with
high tension vapour, which in its turn would be expanded until the frictional limit
Was again reached. At that point the ether would haye to be condensed by the
outward application of cold water and pumped back, in the liquid state, to act over
again in a similar manner. This method of working was extensively tried in
France when introduced by M. du Trembley and the results were sufficiently en-
couraging to justify a resumption of the trials at the present time, when they could
be made under much more favourable conditions, There was no question as to the
economy effected, but in the discussions which took place on the subject, it was
contended that equally good results might be attained by improved applications of
the steam, without resorting to an additional medium. The compound engine of
the present day does in fact equal the efficiency of Du Trembley’s combined steam
and ether engine, but there is no reason why the ether apparatus should not confer
the same advantage on the modern engine that attended its application to the older
form. The objections to its use are purely of a practical nature and might very
possibly yield to persevering efforts at removal.
I need scarcely notice the advantage to be derived from increasing the initial
peare of the steam so as to widen the range of expansion by raising the upper
imit of temperature instead of reducing the lower one. It must be remembered,
however, that an increase of temperature is attended with the serious drawback of
increasing the quantity of heat carried off by the gases from the fire, and also the
loss by radiation, so that we have not so much to gain by increase of pressure as ia
commonly imagined, }
Bat, even supposing the steam engine to be improved to the utmost extent that
881. 3D

770 Ts REPORT—1881.

practical considerations give us reason to hope for, we should still have to adjudge
it a wasteful though a valuable servant. Nor does there appear to be any prospect
of substituting with advantage any other form of thermo-dynamic engine, and
thus we are led to enquire whether any other kind of energy is likely to serve us
better than heat, for motive power.

Most people, especially those who are least competent to judge, look to elec-
tricity as the coming panacea for all mechanical deficiency, and certainly the
astonishing progress of electricity as applied to telegraphy, and to those marvellous
instruments of recent invention which the British Post Office claims to include in
its monopoly of the electric telegraph, as well as the wonderful advance which
electricity has made as an illuminating agent, does tend to impress us with faith in
its future greatness in the realm of motive power as well.

The difference between heat and electricity in their modes of mechanical action
is very wide. Heat acts by expansion of volume which we know to be a neces-
sarily wasteful principle, while electricity operates by attraction and repulsion,
and thus produces motion in a manner which is subject to no greater loss of effect
than attends the motive action of gravity as exemplified in the ponderable applica-
tion of falling water in hydraulic machines. If then we could produce electricity
with the same facility and economy as heat, the gain would be enormous, but this,
as yet at least, we cannot do. At present by far the cheapest method of generating
electricity is by the dynamic process. Instead of beginning with electricity to
produce power, we begin with power to produce electricity. As a secondary motor,
an electric engine may, and assuredly will, play an important part in future appli-
cations of power, but our present enquiry relates to a primary, and not a secondary,
employment of electricity. Thus we are brought to the question, from what
source, other than mechanical action, can we hope to obtain a supply of electricity
sufficiently cheap and abundant to enable it to take the place of heat as a motive
energy. It is commonly said that we know so little of the nature of electricity
that it is impossible to set bounds to the means of obtaining it, but ignorance is at
least as liable to mislead in the direction of exaggerated expectation as in that of
incredulity. It may be freely admitted that the nature of electricity is much less
understood than that of heat, but we know that the two are very nearly allied.

‘The doctrine that heat consists of internal motion of molecules may he accepted

with almost absolute certainty of its truth. The old idea’of heat being a separate
entity is no longer held except by those who prefer the fallacious evidence of their
senses to the demonstrations of science. So also the idea of electricity having a
separate existence from tangible matter must be discarded, and we are justified in
concluding that it is merely a strained or tensional condition of the molecules of
matter. Although electricity is more prone to pass into heat, than heat into
electricity, yet we know that they are mutually convertible. In short I need
scarcely remind you that according to that magnificent generalisation of modern
times, so pregnant with great consequences, and for which we are indebted to
many illustrious investigators, we now know that heat, electricity, and mechanical
action are all equivalent and transposable forms of energy, of which motion is
the essence.

To take a cursory view of our available sources of energy, we have, firstly, the
direct heating power of the sun’s rays, which as yet we have not succeeded in
applying to motive purposes. Secondly we have water power, wind power, and
tidal power, all depending upon influences lying outside of our planet. And thirdly
we have chemical attraction or affinity. Beyond these there is nothing worth naming.
Of the radiant heat of the sun I shall have to speak hereafter, and bearing in
mind that we are in search of electricity as a cause, and not an effect, of motive
power, we may pass over the dynamical agencies comprised under the second head,
and direct our attention to chemical affinity as the sole remaining source of energy
available for our purpose. At present we derive motive power from chemical
attraction through the medium of heat only, and the question is, can we with
advantage draw upon the same source through the medium of electricity. The
process by which we obtain our supply of heat from the exercise of affinity is that
of combustion, in which the substances used consist, on the one hand, of those we

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 771

all fuel, of which coal is the most important, and, on the other, of oxygen, which
we derive from the atmosphere. The oxygen has an immense advantage over every
other available substance in being omnipresent and costless. The only money yalue
inyolved is that of the fuel, and in using coal we employ the cheapest oxidizable
substance to be found in nature. Moreover the weight of coal used in the
combination is only about one-third of the weight of oxygen, so that we only
pay upon one-fourth of the whole material consumed. Thus we have conditions
of the most favourable description for the production of energy, in the form of
heat, and if we could only use the affinities of the same substances with equal
facility to evolve electric energy instead of heat energy, there would be nothing
more to desire; but as yet there is no appearance of our being able to do this,
According to our present practice we consume zinc, instead of coal, in the voltaic
production of electricity, and not only is zinc 30 or 40 times dearer than coal but
it requires to be used in about sixfeld larger quantity in order to develop an
equal amount of energy. Some people are bold enough to say that with our
present imperfect knowledge of electricity we have no right to condemn all
plentiful substances, other than coal, as impractical substitutes for metallic
zine, but it is manifest that we cannot get energy from affinity, where affinity
has already been satisfied. The numerous bodies which constitute the mass of
our globe, and which we call earths, are bodies in this inert condition, They
have already, by the union of the two elements composing them, evolved the
energy due to combination, and that energy has ages ago been dissipated in space
in the form of heat, never again to be available to us. As well might we try to
make fire with ashes as to use such bodies over again as sources of either heat or
electricity. To make them fit for our purpose we should first have to annul their
state of combination, and this would require the expenditure of more energy upon
them than we could derive from their recombination. Water, being oxidized
hydrogen, must be placed in the same category as the earths. In short, the only
abundant substances in nature possessing strong unsatisfied affinities are those of
organic origin, and in the absence of coal, which is the accumulated product of a
past vegetation, our supply of such substances would be insignificant. This being
the case, until a means be found of making the combination of coal with oxygen
directly available for the development of electric energy, as it now is of heat
energy, there seems to be no probability of our obtaining electricity from chemical
action at such a cost as to supplant heat as a motive agent.

But while still looking to heat as the fountain-head of our power, we may very
possibly learn to transmute it, economically, into the more available form of
electricity. One method of transformation we already possess, and we have every
reason to believe there are others yet to be discovered. We know that when
dissimilar metals are joined at opposite ends, and heated at one set of junctions
while they are cooled at the other, part of the heat applied disappears in the
process, and assumes the form of an electric current. Each couple of metals may
be treated as the cell of a voltaic battery, and we may multiply them to any
extent, and group them in series or in parallels, with the same results as are
obtained by similar combinations of yoltaic cells. The electricity so produced we
term Thermo-electricity, and the apparatus by which the current is evolved is the
thermo-electric battery. At present this apparatus is even more wasteful of heat
than the steam engine, but considering the very recent origin of this branch of
electrical science, and our extremely imperfect knowledge of the actions involved,
we may reasonably regard the present thermo-electric battery -as the infant
condition of a discovery, which, if it follow the rule of all previous discoveries
in electricity, only requires time to develop into great practical importance. Now
if we possessed an efficient apparatus of this description we could at once apply
it to the steam engine for the purpose of converting into electric energy the heat
which now escapes with the rejected steam, and the gases from the fire. The vice
‘of the steam engine lies in its inability to utilize heat of comparatively low grade,
but if we could use up the leavings of the steam engine by a supplemental machine
acting on thermo-electrie principles, the present excessive waste would be avoided.
‘We may even anticipate that in the distant future a thermo-electric engine may

3D2

772 REPORT—1881.

not only be used as an auxiliary, but in complete substitution of the steam engine.
Such an expectation certainly seems to be countenanced by what we may observe
in animated nature. An animal is a living machine dependent upon food both for
its formation and its action, That portion of the food which is not used for
growth or structural repair, acts strictly as fuel in the production of heat. Part
of that heat goes to the maintenance of the animal temperature, and the remainder
gives rise to mechanical action, The only analogy between the steam engine and
this living engine is that both are dependent upon the combustion of fuel, the
combustion in the one case being extremely slow, and in the other very rapid.
In the steam engine the motion is produced by pressure, but in the animal machine
it is effected by muscular contraction. The energy which causes that contraction,
if not purely electrical, is so much of that nature that we can produce the same
effect by electricity. The conductive system of the nerves is also in harmony with
our conception of an electrical arrangement. In fact, a description of the animal
machine so closely coincides with that of an electro-dynamic machine actuated by
thermo-electricity, that we may conceive them to be substantially the same thing.
At all events, the animal process begins with combustion and ends with electrical
action, or something so nearly allied to it as to differ only in kind. And now
observe how superior the result is in nature’s engine to what it is in ours, Nature
only uses heat of low grade, such as we find wholly unayailable. We reject our
steam, as useless, at a temperature that would cook the animal substance, while
nature works with a heat so mild as not to hurt the most delicate tissue. And
yet, notwithstanding the greater availability of high grade temperature, the
quantity of work performed by the living engine, relatively to the fuel consumed,
puts the steam engine to shame. How all this is done in the animal organization
we do not yet understand, but the result points to the attainability of an efficient
means of conyerting low grade heat into electricity, and in striving after a method
of accomplishing that object we shall do well to study nature, and profit by the
excellence which is there displayed.

But it is not alone in connection with a better utilization of the heat of
combustion that thermo-electricity bears so important an aspect, for it is only
the want of an efficient apparatus for converting heat into electricity that prevents.
our using the direct heating action of the sun’s rays for motive power. In our
climate, it is true, we shall never be able to depend upon sunshine for power,
nor need we repine on that account so long as we have the preserved sunbeams
which we possess in the condensed and portable form of coal, but in regions more
favoured with sun and less provided with coal the case would be different. The
actual power of the sun’s rays is enormous, being computed to be equal to melting
a crust of ice 103 feet thick over the whole earth in a year, Within the tropics
it would be a great deal more, but a large deduction would everywhere have to be-
made for absorption of heat by the atmosphere. Taking all things into account,
however, we shall not be far from the truth in assuming the solar heat, in that
part of the world, to be capable of melting annually, at the surface of the ground,
a layer of ice 85 feet thick. Now let us see what this means in mechanical effect.
To melt 1 Ib. of ice requires 142°4 English units of heat, which, multiplied by 772,
gives us 109,932 foot-pounds as the mechanical equivalent of the heat consumed
in melting a pound of ice. Hence we find that the solar heat operating upon an
area of one acre, in the tropics, and competent to melt a layer of ice 85 feet thick
in a year, would, if fully utilized, exert the amazing power of 4,000 horses acting:
for nearly 9 hours every day. In dealing with the sun’s energy we could afford to
be wasteful. Waste of coal means waste of money, and premature exhaustion
of coal-beds. But the sun’s heat is poured upon the earth in endless profusion—
endless at all events in a practical sense, for whatever anxiety we may feel as to
the duration of coal, we need have none as to the duration of the sun. We have
therefore only to consider whether we can divert to our use so much of the sun’s
motive energy as will repay the cost of the necessary apparatus, and whenever
such an apparatus is forthcoming, we may expect to bring into subjection a very
considerable proportion of the 4,000 invisible horses which Science tells us are to
be found within every acre of tropical ground.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 773

But whatever may be the future of electricity as a prime mover, either in a
dominant or subordinate relation to heat, it is certain to be largely used for
mechanical purposes in a secondary capacity, that is to say, as the offspring instead
of the parent of motive power. The most distinctive characteristic of electricity
is that which we express by the word ‘current,’ and this gives it great value in
‘cases where power is required in a transmissible form. The term may be objected
to as implying a motion of translation analogous to the flow of a liquid through
a pipe, whereas the passage of electricity through a conductor must be regarded
as a wave-like action communicated from particle to particle. In the case of a
fluid current through a pipe, the resistance to the flow increases as the square of
the velocity, while in the case of an electric current the resistance through a given
conductor is a constant proportion of the energy transmitted. So far, therefore,
as resistance is concerned, electricity has a great advantage over water for the
transmission of power. The cost of the conductor will, however, be a grave
consideration where the length is great, because its section must be increased in
proportion to the length to keep the resistance the same. It must also be large
enough in section to prevent heating, which not only represents loss, but impairs
conductivity. To work advantageously on this system, a high electro-motive force
must be used, and this will involve loss by imperfect insulation, increasing in
amount with the length of the line. For these reasons there will be a limit to
the distance to which electricity may be profitably conveyed, but within that limit
there will be wide scope for its employment transmissively. Whenever the time
arrives for utilizing the power of great waterfalls the transmission of power by
electricity will become a system of vast importance. Even now small streams of
water inconveniently situated for direct application may, by the adoption of this
principle, be brought into useful operation.

For locomotive purposes also we find the dynamo-electric principle to be
available, as instanced in the very interesting example presented in Siemens’ electric
railway, which has already attained that degree of success which generally
foreshadows an important future. It forms a combined fixed engine and
locomotive system of traction, the fixed engine being the generator of the power
and the electric engine representing the locomotive.

_ Steam power may both be transmitted and distributed, by the intervention of
electricity, but it will labour under great disadvantage when thus applied, until
a thoroughly effective electric accumulator be provided, capable of giving out
electric energy with almost unlimited rapidity. How far the secondary battery
of M. Faure will fulfil the necessary conditions remains to be seen, and it is to be
hoped that the discussions which may be expected to take place at this meeting
of the British Association will enable a just estimate of its capabilities to be
formed. The introduction of the Faure battery is at any rate a very important
step in electrical progress. It will enable motors of small power, whatever their
nature may be, to accomplish, by uninterrupted ‘action, the effect of much larger
machines acting for short periods, and by this means the value of very small
streams of water will be greatly enhanced. This will be especially the case where
the power of the stream is required for electric lighting, which, in summer, when
the springs are low, will only be required during the brief hours of darkness,
while in winter the long nights will be met by a more abundant supply of water.
Even the fitful power of wind, now so little used, will probably acquire new life
when aided by a system which will not only collect, but equalize, the variable and
uncertain power exerted by the air.

It would greatly add to the utility of the Faure battery if its weight and size
could be considerably reduced, for in that case it might if applicable to many
purposes of locomotion. We may easily conceive its becoming available in a
lighter form for all sorts of carriages on common roads, thereby saving to a vast
extent the labour of horses, Even the nobler animal that strides a bicycle, or the
one of fainter courage that prefers the safer seat of a tricycle, may ere long be
spared the labour of propulsion, and the time may not be distant when an electric
horse, far more amenable to discipline than the living one, may be added to the
‘bounteous gifts which science has bestowed on civilized man.

774 REPORT—1881.

In conclusion I may observe that we can scarcely sufficiently admire the
profound investigations which have revealed to us the strict dynamical relation
of heat and electricity to outward mechanical motion. It would be a delicate task
to apportion praise amongst those whose labours have contributed, in various
degrees, to our present knowledge, but I shall do no injustice in saying that of
those who have expounded the modern doctrine of energy, in special relation to
mechanical practice, the names of Joule, Clausius, Rankine, and William Thompson
will always be conspicuous. But up to this time our knowledge of energy is almost
confined to its inorganic aspect. Of its physiological action we remain in deep igno-
rance, and as we may expect to derive much valuable guidance from a knowledge
of Nature’s methods of dealing with energy in her wondrous mechanisms, it is to be
hoped that future research will be directed to the elucidation of that branch of
science which as yet has not even a name, but which I may provisionally term
‘ Animal Energetics,’

The following Paper was read :—

Observations on the Improvements of the Mississippi River, and on the pro-
posed Ship Railway across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mezico. By
Captain J. B. Hans, C.H.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Some of the Developments of Mechanical Engineering during the last half-
century. By Sir F. J. Bramwett, M.LC.L., F.R.S.—See Reports,
p. 494.

2. On the Automatic Sounder. By James Ditton, M.1.0.£.

In this paper the author pointed out the difficulties and delays that have now to
be encountered when endeavouring accurately to prepare soundings and sections of
the beds of rivers, lakes, harbours, and sea-shores, or when determining the levels
or depths of existing or proposed excavations under water, and excavations and
dredging operations when in progress, and lastly the difficulty in accurately ascer-
taining the character of the ground under water, before designing large hydraulic
works, &e.

The author pointed out how he successfully overcame these various difficulties
by inventing the ‘ Automatic Sounder.’ Its construction is simple, and with it can
be successfully performed the different operations referred to, with greater accuracy
and at a much less expenditure of time and money, the author having tested and
proved its value on very extensive hydraulic and river conservancy works.

The following is the author's description of this machine :—

There is placed across a boat, barge, or other floating substance, near stern or
elsewhere, a metal or other axle-bar, called the ‘central axle,’ with its ends pro-
jecting a few inches over sides of boat, working freely in axle-boxes attached to
sides of the boat.

Twelve or more feet (according to maximum soundings required) of a metal or
other bar called the ‘sounding bar,’ is attached to the ‘central axle,’ the former
hanging vertically in the water. The end of the central axle is passed through a
senucircular dial resting on or near the side of the boat, the sounding bar swing-
ing in a plane parallel to the dial and keel of the boat.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 775

Method of Working.—When required to prepare soundings or sections for any
hydraulic work—say tifty or one hundred miles of proposed river conservancy works
—to a depth varying from eight to fifteen feet below the surface of the water, it is
merely necessary to attach fifteen feet of a rough metal or other sounding bar
to the central axle, by a thumbscrew, leaving about two feet of the sounding bar
above the central axle, working in front of. and pointing to the dial, placed at the
side of the observer, when sitting in the stern of the boat, to note the dial-readings,
when necessary, in his notebook.

On the boat being set in motion, the sounding bar (contrary to expectation) will
remain hanging in the vertical position, until it meets with some obstruction or rise
in the ground, when the sounding bar, working round the central axle, will be
pushed from a vertical into a slanting position, and according asits end under water,
resting on the ground, is raised from fifteen to less depths below the surface of the
water, say to ten, five, and two feet, the other shorter end of the sounding bar
will point to ten, five, and two feet on the dial. If any greater obstruction raises
the lower end of the sounding bar to the surface of the water, then its upper end
will point to zero on the dial.

A horizontal roll of ‘section paper’ is placed at back of the dial or elsewhere,
kept in motion at a given rate by a simple arrangement of clockwork, or by float-
boards or a screw worked by the resistance of the water when the boat is rowed or
otherwise set in motion.

On the section paper is marked to scale a perfect contour line, representing the
surface of the ground below water, by a pencil pointer or pen attached to the
central axle, which latter is kept in motion by the rise and fall of the sounding bar
firmly screwed to it.

The author, however, states that the section paper may be frequently dispensed
with, and the character of the surface of the ground accurately defined by the
action of the instrument under water, as more fully described in his paper. The
instrument is designed to enable the observer to enter all necessary information in
his notebook, three or more scales being marked on the semicircular dial, to suit
sounding bars ten, twenty, or more feet in length.

3. On the Economical Effect of using Cheap Gas for Gas-motors, with a descrip-
tion of Apparatus for producing such Gas. By J. Emerson Dowson, C.E.

After describing what had been done by other inventors, the author
gave the following particulars of his apparatus:—The retort or generator
consists of a vertical cylindrical iron casing which encloses a thick lining
of ganister, as in a foundry cupola, to prevent loss of heat and oxidation of
the metal, and at the bottom of this cylinder isa grate on which a fire is built
up. Under the grate is a closed chamber, and a jet of superheated steam
plays into this and carries with it by induction a continuous current of air. The

ressure of the steam forces the mixture of steam and air upwards through the
fire, so that the combustion of the fuel is maintained while a continuous current of
steam is decomposed, and in this way the working of the generator is constant, and
the gas is produced without fluctuations in quality. The steam is produced and
superheated in a zigzag coil heated by gas. The nature of the fuel required
depends on the purpose for which the gas is used. If for heating boilers, furnaces,
&e., coke or any kind of coal may be used ; but for gas-engines, or any application
of the gas requiring great cleanliness and freedom from sulphur and ammonia, it is
best to use anthracite, as this does not yield condensable vapours and is very free
from impurities. To produce 1,000 c. ft. only 12 tb. of anthracite are required (allow-
ing 8 to 109% for impurities and waste) and about 7 pints of water. The cost of
making the gas depends to a certain extent on the size of the generator. Experience
with 16 generators has shown that the three sizes in use, producing respectively
1,000, 1,500, and 2,500 c. ft. per hour, make gas at a cost of 4}d., 34d., and 23d. per
1,000 c. ft. (including repairs, depreciation, and interest on capital outlay). Ap-
proximately the composition of the gas thus made is: Hydrogen 209%, carbon

776 REPORT—1881.

monoxide 30%, carbon dioxide 39, and nitrogen, &c., 479% by volume. This
gives about 50% by volume of combustible gases, and the calorific power of 100
litres is 155,836 gramme-units of heat. Its calorific intensity is 2,268°C. Ordinary
London coal-gas of average composition has a calorific power of 559,038 gramme-
units for 100 litres, so that its calorific power is about 3°5 times greater than that
of the Dowson gas. Its calorific intensity is 2,554° C. The comparative explosive
force of the two gases is as 3°4: 1, ze. coal-gas has 3:4 times more energy than
the writer's gas; but because the combustion of the carbon monoxide proceeds at a
comparatively slow rate, and because of the diluents present in the cylinder, which
affect the weaker gas more than coal-gas, experience has shown that with an Otto
engine it is best to allow five volumes of the Dowson gas for one volume of coal-gas.
The economical result is that there is a saving of about 50% in the total working
cost; and another practical consideration is that coal-gas requires 220 to 250 tb of
coal per 1,000 c. ft. of gas, but the author’s requires only 12 tb. per 1,000 c. ft., and
multiplying this by 5 to give the equivalent power of 1,000 c. ft. of coal-gas, for
engine work, there is only 24 to 27% of the weight of coal required for coal-gas, and
in many outlying districts this will effect an appreciable saving in the cost of transport.
The results obtained by trials of this gas with a 3} h, p. Otto engine have proved
that one h. p. (indicated) per hour is obtained with a consumption of gas derived from
1:46 tb. coal, after allowing 109% for impurities and waste of the latter. With
engines of larger power the loss due to friction is proportionally less, and the con-
sumption of gas per ind. h.p. is less: thus with a 16 h.p. (nominal) engine, which
can indicate up to about 40 h.p., the consumption of coal would be only 1:2 tb. per
ind. hp. per hour. <A practical illustration of the relative working cost of an
ordinary steam-engine of the portable type, a gas-engine driven with coal gas,
and a gas-engine driven with Dowson gas (in each case indicating 30 h.p.) was
given, and this showed that the gas-engine driven with Dowson gas would cost
about 4539 less than with coal-gas at 3s. per 1,000 c. ft., and about 473% less
than the steam-engine, consuming 6 ib. of coal per ind. h.p. per hour. The most
striking feature, however, was that with the steam-engine 217 tons of coal would
be required to give the same power as 39 tons of coal converted into gas by the
author's process and afterwards used in a gas-engine, This represents a saving in
weight of fuel of 88%. For the special reasons given it is best to allow 5 volumes
of the author's gas for 1 vol. of ordinary coal-gas when worked with an Otto engine,
but in all applications of the gas to heating purposes experience has shown that
about 3:5 vols. of this are equal to 1 vol. of coal-gas. If, therefore, the cost of
production above stated, for gas made on a small scale, be multiplied by 3:5 there
will be a mean of 1s. as the total cost of the proved equivalent of 1,000 c. ft. of
coal gas for heating purposes.

4. On Continuous Door-locks and Footboards for Railway Carriages.
By R. Pickwe t.

5. On a new Integrating Anemometer. By the Rev. J. M. Wison, M.A.,
and H. 8, Here Susaw.—See Section A, p. 543.

6. The Advantages of Ex-focal Light in first-order Dioptric Lighthouses.
By J. R. Wienam.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
The Section did not meet.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 777

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.

The following Papers were read :—
1. On Telegraphic Photography. By Sautrorp Browett, M.A., LL.B.

The apparatus now explained is a development of that described in ‘ Nature,’
February 10, 1881, and exhibited at a meeting of the Physical Society on
February 26. Its purpose is to illustrate a method of transmitting pictures of
natural objects by telegraph. ‘ '

The receiving instrument contains a platinum-covered brass cylinder, 2 inches
long and 2 inch in diameter, mounted horizontally upon a spindle 7 inches long.
One of the projecting ends of the spindle has a screw cut upon it of 64 threads to
the inch; the other end is left plain. The spindle revolves in two bearings, the
distance between which is equal to twice the length of the cylinder; and one of
the bearings has an inside screw corresponding to that upon the spindle. A
‘platinum point, attached to an elastic brass arm, which is fixed midway between
the two bearings, presses normally upon the surface of the cylinder. The positive
pole of a local battery is connected through a set of resistance coils with the
platinum point, and the negative pole with the metal cylinder. If now a piece of
paper which has been soaked in a solution of iodide of potassium be wrapped
round the cylinder, and the cylinder be caused to rotate, the platinum point will, so
long as the current passes, trace a very close spiral brown line upon the paper,
When the strength of the current is diminished, the intensity of the line is
enfeebled ; when the current is interrupted the line is broken off, and the paper
retains its original whiteness. It is evident that by regulating the intensity of the
line thus traced, and introducing gaps in the proper places, any design or picture
might be represented upon the paper. This is the system adopted in Bakewell’s
well-known copying telegraph. The author’s instrument, however, differs from
his in that the current is varied simply by the action of light.

At the transmitting station is a second battery, which is connected by two
line wires (one of which would, in practice, be replaced by the earth) with the
receiving instrument, so that the current passes through the prepared paper in the
opposite direction to that of the current from the local battery. If the two
currents through the paper are of equal strength they will neutralise each other,
and the platinum point will make no mark when the cylinder rotates: if the
current from the local battery is stronger than that from the other, the usual
brown mark will appear, its intensity depending upon the difference between the
strength of the two currents.

In the circuit of the second battery is introduced the transmitting instrument,
the purpose of which is to regulate the current in such a manner as to produce
the desired effects. The action of the transmitter depends upon the curious
property of crystalline selenium, that its electrical resistance is greater in the
dark than in the light. The current is caused to pass through a selenium cell,
enclosed in a small rectangular box, from which all light is excluded, except such
as can pass through a pinhole, drilled in the side of the box opposite to the cell,
By means of a mechanical arrangement, which, though very simple, cannot easily
be described without a drawing, the box is connected with a horizontal spindle in
such a manner that each revolution of the spindle causes the box to move
perpendicularly up and down, through a distance of 2 inches, and at the same
time laterally through 3 inch. If now a picture, not more than 2 inches square,
is projected by a photographic lens upon that side of the box which contains the
pinhole, it is clear that by turning the spindle the pinhole may be caused to pass
successively over every point of the focussed image. The box, while moving in the
upward direction, travels through space at precisely the same rate as a point on the
surface of the receiving cylinder, when the spindles of the two instruments are
revolving synchronously: the downward movement is rapid and is not concerned in
the transmission of the picture.

778 REPORT—1881.

To prepare the instruments for work, a piece of sensitised paper is wrapped.
round the cylinder of the receiver, and the platinum point pressed gently upon it=
the pinhole in the transmitter is brought to the brightest part of the focussed
picture, and the variable resistance in the circuit of the local battery is so adjusted
that the two currents, passing through the paper in opposite directions, exactly
balance each other. The cylinder and the box are then moved to their extreme
positions, and all is ready to commence operations.

The two spindles are caused to revolve uniformly and synchronously. The pin--
hole, in the course of its up-and-down path, will cover successively every point of
the projected picture, and the amount of light falling at any moment upon the
selenium cell will be proportional to the illumination of that particular spot of the
picture which, for the time being, is occupied by the pinhole. When the pinhole
is in the dark, the resistance of the selenium cell is increased, the current from the:
local battery predominates, and the platinum point traces a dark brown line upon.
the paper; but when the pinhole happens to be passing over a bright part of the
picture, the resistance of the selenium is diminished ; a stronger current is then
opposed to that from the local battery, and the line traced by the point is enfeebled
or altogether broken. The close spiral line thus described, with the breaks in its.
uniformity, constitutes a picture which, if the instrument were perfect, would be a
monochromatic counterpart of that projected upon the transmitter.

The pictures hitherto actually transmitted te this experimental apparatus are
simple designs in black and white, painted upon glass, and projected by a magic
lantern. The image of a butterfly with well-defined marks upon its wings, and a
rude drawing, in broad lines, of a human face, are among the objects which have
been most successfully reproduced. But with a more delicate selenium cell and
more sensitive paper, there is little doubt that the efficiency of the instrument
might be almost indefinitely increased.

2. On the Swan Incandescent Lamp. By J. W. Swan.

3. On Electric Lighting as applied to Coal Mines. By ANDREW JAMIESON.

In the discussion which followed the exhibition of Swan’s lamp at the Society
of Telegraph Engineers in October last, Professor Tyndall remarked that probably
this form of incandescent lamp could be adapted for use in coal mines as a safety
lamp. Since then, two practical trials have been made with that object in view,
the one at Pleasely Colliery, near Nottingham, the other at Earnock Colliery,
near Glasgow. The circumstances under which the lighting has to be produced
and maintained are new and ditferent in many respects from that now being carried
out ubove ground in our halls, houses, and open spaces. Dangers and difticulties.
peculiar to the situation have to be guarded against or overcome, such as explosive
gases, subsiding walls or seam-roofs, continuous darkness, &c. Long lengths of
leading wire have to be dealt with, involving many branches or offshoots,
requiring considerable mechanical skill and still more electrical knowledge, before
a suitable distribution of the eleetric current is effected, and the desired uniformity
and intensity of light obtained. Particular interest is at present being manifested
by mine owners, managers, and engineers to know the commercial value of the
light, or, in other words, whether the possible increased light and safety of Swan’s
lamps over the methods hitherto adopted will result in an economy and in an
increased output of coal for the same expense of labour. The author described
the apparatus used at Pleasely and Earnock collieries, with models of strong miners’
lanterns encasing Swan’s lamps, and of airtight contact-makers of various
designs and patterns, for preventing the inevitable spark (which always takes place
upon disconnecting leading wires or lamps) from causing danger in a fiery mine.
He pointed out that the plan of joining up a number of Swan’s lamps in single
parallel, with a self-exciting Gramme, Siemens, or other form of dynamo-machine,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. TT

was neither the most economical nor handy for management, from the fact that the
lamps required to be specially ordered and made of a slightly decreasing resistance
in proportion to their distance along the main leads from the generator, and that
without a costly and delicate current regulator there was considerable risk in spoiling
the remaining lamps upon turning out a number of them. He said the plan of ©
introducing an equivalent resistance to that of the lamps turned out was equiva-
lent to throwing away so much energy, or coal, because the resistance so introduced
absorbed power equal in fact to that of the lamp or lamps which it replaced.
Finally, he gave several plans for joining up the lamps which, in his opinion, were
more economical and better, and he stated that by using Siemens’ dynamo-exciters
with their alternate current machines, the danger accruing from suddenly turning
out a number of lamps was avoided, as the electro-motive force remained prac-
tically constant (with low resistance leads and generator coil), and therefore the
current passing the remaining lamp or lamps was always the same. For example,
if 49 lamps out of 50 were suddenly switched out of circuit, the remaining lamp
would not be endangered, and would have the same current passing through it and
give the same light as before. He reviewed in detail the most approved mechanical
and electrical apparatus for installing electric lighting in coal mines, and
mentioned that he had found by experiment that good Swan lamps will give forth
light at the rate of 220 candle-power per horse-power absorbed by them.

4. On a Screw Gauge for Electrical Apparatus.
By W.H. Presce, F.B.S.

5. On the Value of Quadriform Gaslights for Lighthouses iv comparison
with the Electric Light. By J. R. WicHam.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Commitiee on Patent Legislation—See Reports, p. 222.

2. Report of the Committee on the Steering of Screw Steamers.

3. Report of the Committee on Wind Pressure.

4, Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations in the English Channel
and the North Sea.—See Reports, p. 160.

5. On some applications of Electric Energy to Horticultural and Agricul-
tural purposes. By Dr. C. Wu. Stamens, F'.R.S.—See Reports, p. 474.

6. On the Transmission of Power by Electricity.
By J. N. Sxootsren, (.H., £.G.8.

780 REPORT—1881.

7. On the Relative Value of Incandescent Electric Lights.
By J. N. SHoousrep, C.H., F.G.S8.

8. On the Society of Arts Patent Bill.
By Sir F. J. Bramwewt, M.LC.L., FBS.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 7%.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On Coal and the Abatement of Smoke in Large Towns.
By W. RB. E. Coues.

2. On British Shipping and the Tonnage Laws.
By Captain Beprorp Pim, R.N.

3. On the Pressure of Wind upon a Fixed Plane Surface.
By Tuomas Hawestey, 0.77., F.R.S.—See Reports, p. 480.

4. Ona New Form of Lightning Conductor, which can be easily tested.
By SaMvuet VYLE.

Last year a paper was read before this Section of the British Association, draw-
ing special attention to the great damage done to life and property by lightning,
and pointing out the need that existed of periodically testing and inspecting
lightning conductors, with a view to their being always kept in an efficient condi-
tion. There is, however, very great difficulty in the present method of testing
conductors, it being a necessary preliminary to such test that some one be found
with nerve and skill enough to carry a testing wire from the ground and connect it
metallically with the top of the conductor. The electrician, having the other end of
the wire below, is then in a position to commence his test. Where conductors are
attached to lofty spires or high chimneys, there is both cost and danger, which
is probably the reason why so few conductors are ever tested. This neglect to
ascertain their condition leads to deterioration and ultimate danger, and it is more
Le probable fosters a widely extended belief that conductors are comparatively
useless. :

Recognising this difficulty in the method of testing, and noticing the emphatic
utterances of scientific men as to the absolute necessity of testing lightning con-
ductors, the author was led last year to devise a new form, which is now exhibited.

It consists of a copper cable carrying an insulated wire as its core, which wire
being metallically connected with the outer cable at the top, offers a ready means of
testing its condition at any time without any of the difficulty hitherto experienced
in testing conductors.

Having then a wire always connected to the top of the conductor, a test can be
taken when desired. This can be accomplished either on the tangent, balance, or
differential principles, either of which will enable the resistance of the conductor to
be ascertained. The author had adopted the latter method, the galvanometer being
fitted with three keys—A, B, and C. By depressing key A on the left hand a
deflection of the galvanometer needle takes place by reason Of the passage of a
current from the battery through one coil of the galvanometer to the insulated wire

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 781

within the cable to the top, whence it descends by the latter to the earth. Unless
the continuity of the testing wire and cable be good no current will pass, and the
needle remains still. On depressing B a current is sent in the opposite direction
through a resistance-coil to the earth. If the needle be deflected, the apparatus is
proved to be ready for the resistance test, which is made by the depression of keys
A and B both at the same time. The current then divides itself equally between
the circuit formed by the insulated wire and conductor, and a resistance which
should be made exactly equal to the other circuit; this being so, any defect in the
lightning conductor would manifest itself by the needle not balancing, but showing
a deflection. In such a case key C is brought into use, and its depression at the
same time as B shows whether the earth of the conductor is good, or if the fault is
to be looked for above ground, as the current is then divided between B and C,
whose resistances are equal.

A very sensitive galyanometer needle is required, as a good conductor of average
length would only be about 535th of an ohm. One having the needle suspended by
a silk fibre above, and kept in position by another such fibre below, will respond.
not only to ;4;th of an ohm, but even to ;4;th thereof.

5. On an Organisation for the Systematic Gauging of the Wells, Springs,
and Rivers of Great Britain. By JosrrH Lucas, F.G.S.

It has long been felt by engineers and others that there should be a survey of
the sources of water-supply in this country. In the last few years several isolated
observers, anticipating any general organisation on this behalf, have been registering
various items of account, such as the variation in the level of water in wells, but
they have never been collected and brought side by side with others, such as the
rainfall, percolation, barometric pressure, and temperature, all of which influence
the supply, or collated and reduced to perspective on maps, except over a very
limited area in the South of England.

This very isolation, however, greatly impedes the usefulness of the work, and
it is very desirable that an influential committee should be appointed to direct and
systematise these separate efforts, and to take charge of the work till it is finally
committed to responsible hands.

There is a committee of this Association, founded in 1874, and there is another-
of the Meteorological Society, at work upon underground water. Mr. Baldwin
Latham has a large series of wells, springs, and rivers under observation, and there
are several other observers at work in various parts of the country.

This, however, is a task too large for individuals or even societies, and should,
the author thinks, be executed at the public cost. Since April last, he has been
receiving returns of gaugings and other observations on surface and subterranean
water-economy from observers in various parts of England, and these returns, two
of which are now ready, will be published monthly till some better arrangement
can bemade. Until this time arrives the author will gladly receive observations.
from any observers of the variations in the wells, springs, and rivers of these islands,
and supply proper forms, and the returns as they are published, to anyone who may
take an interest in any of the various aspects of the water question.

6. On a Dynamometer Coupling. By Professors W. E. Ayrron, F.R.S.,.
and JouN Perry, B.H.—See Section A, p. 553.

7. On the Lawyer's Marine Pocket Case. By Capt. Beprorp Pim, R.N.

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INDEX.

[An asterish (*) signifies that no abstract of the communication is given.]

BJECTS and rules of the Association,
XXV.

Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers from commencement, xxxii.

List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of the Sections, xxxix.

List of evening lectures, lii.

Lectures to the Operative Classes, liv.

Officers of Sectional Committees present
at York, lv.

‘Treasurer’s account, lvii.

‘Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, lviii.

Officers and Council for 1881-82, lx.

Report of the Council to the General
Committee at York, lxi.

Recommendations adopted by the General
Committee at York :—Involving grants
of money, lxiii; not involving grants
of money, lxvi; communications or-
dered to be printed in extenso, lxviii;
resolutions referred to the Council for
consideration, lxix.

‘Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes, lxx.

Places of meeting for 1882 and 1883, lxxi.

‘General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, lxxii.

‘General meetings, 1xxxii.

Address by the President, Sir John
Lubbock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., D.C.L.,
LL.D., Pres. L.S., 1.

Abel (Mr.) on patent legislation, 222.

Abney (Capt.) on an investigation for
the purpose of fixing a standard of
white light, 126 ; on the present state
of our knowledge of spectrum analy-
sis, 317 ; on hydrocarbons in the solar
atmosphere, 524; on the effect of the
spectrum of silver chloride, 594.

-Acetabulum of animals in which the |

ligamentum teres is described as
wanting, Prof. Struthers on the, 720.

-Actinium, the new element, Dr. T. L.
Phipson on, 603.

Adams (Prof. A. Leith) on the explora-
tion of the caves of the South of Ire-
land, 218. q

Adams (Prof. W. G.) on an investigation
for the purpose of fixing a standard of
white light, 126; on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 423; on
magnetic disturbances and earth-
currents, 463.

Africa, comparative sketch of what was
known in, in 1830 with what is known
in 1881, by Lieut.-Col. J. A. Grant, 746.

——, some results of fifty years’ ex-
ploration in, by Rev. H. Waller, 746.

* , the gold mines of the West Coast
of, a recent visit to, Commander
Cameron on, 747.

Agricultural statistics and prospects, by
W. Botly, 750.

*Agriculture, the depression in; its effects
and its lessons, by H. F. Moore, 761.
Alexander (Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. E.) on the
improvement of freshwater fisheries,

680.

Algebra of logic, a contribution to the
history of, by Rev. R. Harley, 559.

Allen (A. H.) on the separation of hydro-
carbon oils from fat oils, 589.

Allen (Edward) on a remarkable human
skull found near York, 704.

Allman (Prof.) on the Scottish zoological
station, 177; on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 178.

Ambresbury Banks, on excavations in
a camp called, in Epping Forest, by
Major-Gen. Pitt-Rivers, 697.

Anatomy and Physiology, Address by
Prof. J. §. Burdon Sanderson to the
Department of, 705.

Ancient dwellings, account of the dis-
covery of six, found under and near
to British barrows on the Yorkshire
wolds, by J. R. Mortimer, 691.

Anderson (Dr. T.) on a prismatic opto-
meter, 521.

Anemometer, a new integrating, Rev. °
J. M. Wilson and H. 8. H. Shaw on, 543.

784

*Animism of the Indians of British
Guinea, E. F. im Thurm on the, 699.
Anthropology, Address by Prof. W. H.
Flower to the Department of, 682.
Anthropometric Committee, report of

the, 225.

Antimonized cellular carbon galvanic
battery, W. Symons on an, 557.

Archzopteryx, on a restoration of the
skeleton of, with some remarks on the
differences between the Berlin and
London specimens, by Prof, H. G.
Seeley, 618.

Arctic research, the progress of, since the
foundation of the British Association,
C. R. Markham on, 743.

Areas, the description of, a theorem
relating to, Prof. W. W. Johnson on,
536.

*Armstrong (Prof. H, H.)on certain points
in modern progress in chemical know-
ledge, 589.

Armstrong (Sir W.), Address by, to the
Mechanical Section, 767.

Articulations of the metacarpal and
metatarsal bones in man, the corre-
spondence between the, Prof. Struthers
on, 721.

Artificial flight, F. W. Brearey on, 545.

Asterosmilia Reedi, a new species of
coral from the oligocene of Brocken-
hurst, Hants, Prof. P. M. Duncan on,
618.

Astromyelon and its root, notes on, by J.
Spencer, 628.

Atchison (A. T.) on patent legislation,
222.

Atkinson (Prof. R. W.) on brewing in
Japan, 585. :

—— and H. Yoshida on peppermint-
camphor (menthol) and some of its
derivatives, 585.

Atmospheric electricity, observations of,
at the Kew Observatory during 1880,
G. M. Whipple on, 443.

Automatic sounder, J. Dillon on the,774.

Axon (W. E. A.), corn or cattle: a com-
parison of the economic results of
agriculture and cattle-raising in re-
lation to national food-supply, 749.

Ayrton (Prof. W. H.) on experiments to
determine the thermal conductivities
of certain rocks, 126; on standards for
use in electrical measurements, 423.

and Prof. J. Perry ona dynamometer

coupling, 553.

Bacilli, the influence of, in the production
of disease, a contribution to the ques-
tion on, by Prof. J. C. Ewart, 717.

Baden-Powell (G.), protection in young
communities: recorded results in Vic-
toria and New South Wales, 760.

INDEX.

Baily (W. H.) on the tertiary flora of the
North of Ireland, 152.

Baker (J. G.) on the botany of Mada--
gascar, 663.

Balfour (Prof. B.) on the island of
Socotra, 482.

Balfour (F'. M.) on the Scottish zoological
station, 177; on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 178; on the pronephros of
teleosteans and ganoids, 721.

Ball (Prof. R. 8.) on observations of
luminous meteors during the year
1880-81, 290; on the elucidation of a
question in kinematics by the aid of
non-Kuclidian space, 535; on the ex-
tension of the theory of screws to the:
dynamics of any material system, 547.

Banking law, a general, for the United
Kingdom, by W. Westgarth, 751.

*Bankruptcy in its economic bearings, by
J. Macdonell, 765.

Barlow (W. H.) on patent legislation,
222.

Barometric pressure, the influence of, on
the discharge of water from springs,
B. Latham on, 614.

Bate (C. Spence) on the marine fauna of
the southern coast of Devon and Corn-
wall, 198.

Becker (Miss L. E.) on the manner in
which rudimentary science should be:
taught, and how examinations should
be held therein, in elementary schools,
148.

Beddoe (Dr.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 225; on the
stature of the inhabitants of Hungary,.
689.

Bedson (Dr. P. P.) on the method of
determining the specific refraction of
solids from their solutions, 155.

*Bell (1. Lowthian) on the occlusion of
gaseous matter by fused silicates at
high temperatures, and its possible
connection with volcanic agencies, 580..

Bell (Dr. R.) on the commercial impor-
tance of Hudson’s Bay, with remarks.
on recent surveys and investigations,
745,

*Bell and Tainter’s recent researches,
some of, and their consequences, W..
Lant Carpenter on, 531.

Bennett (A. W.) on the colours of spring
flowers, 666; on the constancy of in-
sects in their visits to flowers, 667.

*Bertin (G.) on the origin and primitive
home of the Semites, 699. r

Bevan (E. J.) and C. F. Cross on cellulose
and coal, 603.

Bidwell (S.) on telegraphic photography,
777.

Binaural audition, Prof. 8. P. Thompson.

on: Part IIT, 565.

INDEX.

Binodal quartics, a class of, Prof. R. W.
Genese on, 538.

Biological Section, Address by Dr. Owen
to the, 651.

Birds, the foot of, P. M, C. Kermode on,
and on the use of the serrated claw,
670.

——, the migration of, report on, 189.

—— which have bred in the Barnsley
and South Yorkshire district, T. Lister
on the, 670.

Blanford (W. T.), the Great Plain of
Northern India not an old sea-basin,
638 ; on our present knowledge of the
fauna inhabiting British India and its
dependencies, 677.

Blastoidea, the structureand classification
of the, P. H. Carpenter on, 634.

Blowing wells near Northallerton, the, T.
Fairley on, 544; analyses of the water
and gas therefrom, by T. Fairley, 601.

Blowpipe analysis, Lieut.-Col. Ross on a
new system of, 598.

Bloxam (G. W.) and C. Roberts on the
physical characters and proportions of
the Zulus, 702.

Bonney (Prof. T. G.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 204.
Botany of Madagascar, J. G. Baker on

the, 663.

Botly (W), agricultural statistics and
prospects, 750.

Bottomley (J. T.) and Prof. Sir Wm.
Thomson on the illuminating powers
of incandescent vacuum lamps with
measured potentials and measured cur-
rents, 559.

*Bourne (F. §. A.), a journey to the Im-
perial mausolea east of Peking, 746.
Eourne (S.) on the manner in which
rudimentary science should be taught,
and how examinations should be held

. therein, in elementary schools, 148; on
the present appropriation of wages and
other sources of income, 272.

Bowkett’s thermograph, W. Lant Car-
penter on, 604.

Brabrook (Mr.) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 225.

Braham (P.) on the production of crystals
by the action of metals in carbon
disulphide in sealed tubes, 589.

Bramwell (Sir F. J.) on patent legisla-
tion, 222 ; on some of the developments
of mechanical engineering during the
last half-century, 494; *on the Society
of Arts Patent Bill, 780.

Brearey (F'. W.) on artificial flight, 545

Brewing in Japan, Prof. R. W. Atkinson
on, 585.

Bridlington and Dimlington glacial shell-
beds, G. W. Lamplugh on the, 616.

British commerce, the progress of, in a
generation, E. J. Watherston on, 763.

1881.

785

*British shipping and the tonnage laws,
Capt. B. Pim on, 780.

Brittain (Mr.) on the present appropria-
tion of wages and other sources of
income, 272.

*Bronze implements, certain discoveries
of, in and about Leeds, J. Holmes on,
703.

Bronze socketed spears, exhibition of
four, probably ancient, from China, by
Prof. T. McK. Hughes, 701.

Brown (F. D.) on molecular attraction,
592.

Brown (J.) on a new electrometer, and
some preliminary experiments on vol-
taic action, 562.

Brown (J. A. H.) on the migration of
birds, 189.

Buchan (A.) *on the isothermals of the
British Isles, 544; *on the diurnal
period of hailstorms, id.

Buchanan (J. Y.) on manganese nodules,
and their occurrence on the sea-bottom,
583.

Buckland (Miss A. W.), notes on the
geographical distribution of mankind,
695.

Busk (G.) on the use of the chitinous
elements or appendages of the cheilo-
stomatous polyzoa in the diagnosis of
species, 662.

Calibration of mercurial thermometers
by Bessel’s method, Profs. T. E. Thorpe
and A. W. Riicker on the, 540.

Cambrian beds of the British Isles, ob-
servations on the two types of (the
Caledonian and Hiberno-Cambrian),
and the conditions under which they
were respectively deposited, by Prof.
E. Hull, 642.

Cameron (A. G.) on the subsidences above
the Permian limestone between Hartle-
pool and Ripon, 617.

*Cameron (Commander) on a recent
visit to the gold mines of the West
Coast of Africa, 747.

Campbell (Sir G.) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 225.

Capillary action, surface-tension and,
Prof. O. Reynolds on, 524.

Carbon cells for galvanic batteries, an
easy method of making, W. Symons
on, 557.

Carbutt (E. H.) on patent legislation, 222.

Carpenter (Dr.) on the Scottish zoological
station, 177; on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 178.

Carpenter (P. H.) on the structure and
classification of the Blastoidea, 634;
on the characters of the ‘ Lansdown
encrinite’ (Millericrinus Prattii, Gray
sp.), 635; on some permanent larval

3k

786

forms among the Crinoidea, 671; note
on the British Comatule, 672.

Carpenter (W. Lant) *on some of Bell
and Tainter’s recent researches and
their consequences, 531;.0n the sili-
ceous and other hot springs in the
volcanic district of the North Island
of New Zealand, 580; on Bowkett’s
thermograph, 604; on the hot-lake
district and the glacier scenery and
fjords of New Zealand, 742.

Cash (W.) on the Halifax hard seam, 626.

—— and 7. Hick on a fossil stem from
the Halifax coal-measures, 679.

Caves of the South of Ireland, second
report on the exploration of the, 218.
Cayley (Prof.) on the calculation of tables
of the fundamental invariants of alge-
braic forms, 55; on mathematical
tables, 303; on a diagram connected
with the transformation of elliptic
functions, 534; a partial differential
equation connected with the simplest

case of Abel’s theorem, 7d.

Cefn, the caves of, near St. Asaph, North
Wales, the results of recent further
excavations in, by Prof. T. McK.
Hughes and Mrs. Williams Wynn, 700.

Cellulose and coal, C. F. Crossand E. J.
Bevan on, 603.

Celtic engravings, some late, on a slate
tablet, found at Towyn, J. Park Harri-
son on, 701.

Change of density at the melting point,
J. Love on, 564.

Cheilostomatous polyzoa, the use of the
chitinous elements or appendages of
the, in the diagnosis of species, G.
Busk on, 662.

Chemical action between solids, Prof. T.
E. Thorpe on the, 580.

Chemical affinities, note on a new method
of measuring certain, by A. Tribe, 592.

*Chemical knowledge, modern progress
in, Prof. H. E. Armstrong on certain
points in, 589.

Chemical nomenclature, the present state
of, Prof. A. W. Williamson on, 593.
Chemical Section, Prof. A. W. William-

son’s Address to the, 568.

Chemico-magnetic action, some pheno-
mena which appear to be of the nature
of, W. Thomson on, 509.

Cheshire salt-field, notes on the, by C. E.
De Rance, 650.

Chitinous elements or appendages of the
cheilostomatous polyzoa, the use of
the, in the diagnosis of species, G.
Busk on, 662.

*Chlamydomyxa, notes on, by P. A.
Geddes, 680.

Chrome iron ore of Japan, Prof. E. Divers
on the, 587.

Clark (J. E.), glacial sections at York,

INDEX.

and their relation to the later deposits,
614,

Clarke (Hyde) on the numerical and philo-
logical relations of the Hebrew, Phoe-
nician, or Canaanitic alphabet and the
language of the Khita inscriptions, 698 ;
the early colonisation of Cyprus and
Attica, and its relation to Babylonia,
ib.; *exhibition of stone implements
from Asia Minor, 703; on the relation
of the gold standard in England to the
international money market, 759.

Claw, the serrated, P. M. C. Kermode on
the use of, 670.

*Climate of London, some laws which
regulate the succession of mean tem-
perature and rainfall in the, H. C.
Courtney on, 544.

Climates, the effects of oceanic currents
upon, Rev. Dr. Haughton on, 451.

*Coal and the abatement of smoke in
large towns, W. R. E. Coles on, 780.

——, cellulose and, C. F'. Cross and E. J.
Bevan on, 603.

——, preliminary remarks on the micro-
scopic structure of, by Prof. W. C.
Williamson, 625.

, the formation of, E. Wethered on,
623.

Coal-measures, the discovery of, under
New Red Sandstone, and on the so-
called Permian rocks of St. Helen’s,
Lancashire, A. Strahan on, 632.

*Cole (R. E.) on the River Gambia, 742.

*Coles (W. R. E.) on coal and the abate-
ment of smoke in large towns, 780.

Colliery explosions, W. Galloway on, 598.

*Colour experiments, Lord Rayleigh on
some, 526.

Colour-sense, the development of the, Dr.
M. Lubbock on, 715.

Colza oil, the electric discharge through,
A. Macfarlane on, 556.

Comatula, the British, note on, by P. H.
Carpenter, 672.

Comet ‘b’ 1881, the photographic spec-
trum of, W. Huggins on, 520.

Cometic perihelia, the arrangement of,
with reference to the sun’s march in
space, Dr. H. Muirhead on, 532.

Commercial geography, societies of, E.
J. Watherston on, 748.

Composite portraiture, the application of,
to anthropological purposes, F, Galton
on, 690.

Conario-hypophysial tract, the homology
of the, or of the so-called ‘pineal’ and
‘pituitary’ glands, Prof. R. Owen on,
719.

*Congruencies of the second order and
second class, Dr. Hirst on, 534.

*Continuous door-locks and footboards
for railway carriages, R. Pickwell on,
776.

INDEX.

*Cooke (Prof. J. P.), some remarks on
crystallogeny, 595.

*Copper, the extraction of, J. Dixon on a
process for utilising waste-products
and economising fuel in, 567.

Cordeaux (J.) on the migration of birds,
189.

Corn or cattle: a comparison of the
economic results of agriculture and
cattle-raising in relation to national
food-supply, by W. E. A. Axon, 749.

Crag, traces of man in the, by H. Stopes,
700.

Crinoidea, the permanent larval forms
among the, P. H. Carpenter on, 671.
Cross (C. F.) on the hydration of salts

and oxides, 602.

and E. J. Bevan on cellulose and
coal, 603.

Crosskey (Rev. H. W.) on the erratic
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
204; on the circulation of underground
waters, 309.

Crossley (E.) on a microscope with
arrangements for illuminating the sub-
stage, 563.

*Crystallogeny, some remarks on, by
Prof. J. P. Cooke, 595.

Crystals, the production of, by the action
of metals in carbon disulphide in
sealed tubes, P. Braham on, 589.

*Cunningham (Dr. D. J.) on the structure
and homologies of the suspensory liga-
ment of the fetlock in the horse, ass,
ox, sheep, and camel, 726.

Curves of double curvature, Prof. Sturm
on some new theorems on, 440,

Cycloidal rotation, assumed, in arterial
red discs, the causes and results of,
R. W. Woollcombe on, 722.

Cyprus, the geology of the island of,
R. Russell on, 640.

—— and Attica, the early colonisation
of, and its relation to Babylonia, by
Hyde Clarke, 698.

*Dahomey, an account of a recent visit
to, by Rev. J. Milum, 747.

Dakyns (J. R.) on ‘flots,’ 634.

Danes and Germans, the profile of the,
J. Park Harrison on, 703.

Danes’ Dyke, on excavations in the
earthwork called, at Flamborough, and
on the earthworks of the Yorkshire
wolds, by Maj.-Gen. Pitt-Rivers, 690.

Darwin (G. H.) on the measurement of
the lunar disturbance of gravity, 93.

Darwin (Horace) on the measurement
of the lunar disturbance of gravity, 93.

Davis (J. W.) on the exploration of a
fissure in the mountain limestone at
Raygill, 645 ; onthe zoological position
of the genus Petalorhynchus, Ag.,
fossil fish from the mountain lime-

787

stone, 646; on Diodontopsodus, Davis,
a new genus of fossil fishes from the
mountain limestone at Richmond, in
Yorkshire, id.

Dawkins (Prof. W. Boyd) on the erratic
blocks of England, Wales, and Treland,
204; on the exploration of the caves
of the South of Ireland, 218.

Day (St. J. V.) on patent legislation,
222.

Deacon (G. F.) on underground tem-
perature, 90.

Deacon (J. F.) on the phenomena of the
stationary tides in the English Chan-
nel and the North Sea, and the value
of tidal observations in the North
Atlantic Ocean, 160,

Deane (Dr.) on the erratic blocks of Eng-
land, Wales, and Ireland, 204.

*Decomposition of the elements, the
alleged, Prof. Dewar on, 589.

Delany (Rev. W.) on the manner in which
rudimentary science should be taught,
and how examinations should be held
therein, in elementary schools, 148.

De Rance (C. E.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 204 3 on
the circulation of underground waters,
309 ; notes on the Cheshire salt-field,
650.

Devono-Silurian formation, Prof, BE. Hull
on the, 631.

Dewar (Prof.) on the present state of our
knowledge of spectrum analysis, 317 ;
*on the alleged decomposition of the
elements, 589.

and A. Scott on the determination
of the relative atomic weights of
Manganese, oxygen, and silver, 596;
on some vapour density determina-
tions, 597.

Dickinson (J.) on underground tempera-
ture, 90.

Differential equation, a partial, con-
nected with the simplest case of Abel’s
theorem, by Prof. Cayley, 534.

*Differential equations, a class of, Prof.
Halphen on, 538.

* satisfied by the modular equations,
Prof. H. J. S. Smith on the, 535.

*Differential resolvents, Rev. R. Harley
on, 565.

*Digastric muscle, the, its modifications
and its functions, G. HE. Dobson on,
722.

Dillon (J.) on the automatic sounder,
TTA.

Dimlington glacial shell-beds, G. W.
Lamplugh on the, 616.

Diodontopsodus, Davis, a new genus of
fossil fishes from the mountain Jime-
stone at Richmond, in Yorkshire,
J. W. Davis on, 646.

Disputes about wages, the remedies pro-

3E2

788

posed for, Rev. W. H. Jemison on,
761.

Divers (Prof. E.) on the sodium-alum of
Japan, 586; on the occurrence of
selenium and tellurium in Japan, 7d. ;
on the chrome iron ore of Japan, 587.

*Dixon (J.) on a process for utilising
waste-products and economising fuel
in the extraction of copper, 567.

*Dobson (G. E.) on the digastric muscle,
its modifications and its functions 722.

Double iodide of mercury and copper,
Prof. S. P. Thompson on the, 600.

Dowkerbottom Cave, in Craven, a pre-
liminary account of the working of,
during August, 1881, by E. B, Poulton,
622.

Dowson (J. EH.) on the economical effect
of using cheap gas for gas-motors,
with a description of apparatus for
producing such gas, 775.

Dravidian villages of the Dekhan, notes
on the village system, and the tenure
of land in the, by Sir W. Elliot, 758.

Drift obtained from the new drainage
works of Driffield, sections of the, J. R.
Mortimer on, 617.

*Drinking customs, the economic in-
fluence of the, upon the nation’s well-
being, by W. Hoyle, 760.

Drops and capillarity, Dr. T. Woods on,
565.

Duff (Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant), Address by,
to the Section of Economic Science and
Statistics, 752.

Duncan (Prof. P. M.) on experiments to
determine the thermal conductivities
of certain rocks, 126 ; on fossil polyzoa,
161; on Asterosmilia Reedi, a new
species of coral from the oligocene of
Brockenhurst, Hants, 618.

Dunn (J. T.) on experiments to determine
the thermal conductivities of certain
rocks, 126.

Dynamical theory of radiation, Prof. A.
Schuster on the, 561.

Dynamometer coupling, Profs. W. EH.
Ayrton and J. Perry on a, 553.

Dynamos, the proper proportions of re-
sistance in the working coils, the
electro-magnets, and the external cir-
cuits of, Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson on,
528.

*Eads (Capt. J. B.), observations on the
improvements of the Mississippi River,
and on the proposed ship railway across
the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico,
774.

Ears, the function of the two, in the per-
ception of space, Prof. 8. P. Thompson
on, 716.

Earth-currents, magnetic disturbances
and, Prof, W. G. Adams on, 463.

INDEX.

Earthquake phenomena of Japan, report
on the, 200.

Economic Science and Statistics, Address
by the Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant Duff to
the Section of, 752.

Economics and statistics viewed from
the standpoint of the preliminary
sciences, P. Geddes on, 765.

Economy of metal in conductors of elec-
tricity, Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson on the,
526.

Edmonds (F. B.) on the sunspot period,
and planetary tides in the solar atmo-
sphere, 544.

Electric discharge through colza oil,
A. Macfarlane on the, 556.

Electric energy, some applications of, to
horticultural and agricultural purposes,
Dr. C. W. Siemens on, 474.

*Electric light, the value of quadriform
gaslights for lighthouses in comparison
with the, J. R. Wigham on, 779.

Electric lighting as applied to coal mines,
A. Jamieson on, 778.

*Electric lights, incandescent, the rela-
tive value of, J. N. Shoolbred on, 780.

*Electrical apparatus, a screw gauge for,
W. H. Preece on, 779.

Electrical measurements, interim report
of the Committee for constructing and
issuing practical standards for use in,
423.

Electrical resistancesin absolute measure,
account of preliminary experiments on
the determination of, by Prof. G. C.
Foster, 426.

Electricity, the application of, to the
localisation of a bullet in a wound,
W. H. Preece on, 531.

* , the transmission of power by,
J. N. Shoolbred on, 779.

*Electro-ergometer, Prof. Sir Wm. Thom-
son on an, 554.

Electrometer, a new, J. Brown on, and
some preliminary experiments on vol-
taic action, 562.

, the absolute sine, Prof. G@. M.
Minchin on, 558.

Elimination of sugar, the effect of the
voltaic current on, W. H. Stone on,
724.

Elliot (Sir W.), notes on the village
system, and the tenure of land in the
Dravidian villages of the Dekhan,
758.

Elliptic functions, a diagram connected
with the transformation of, Prof. Cay-
ley on, 534.

*____, the q-series in, J. W. L. Glaisher
on, 535.

*Elliptic transformation, the equation of
the multiplier in the theory of, Prof.
H. J. 8. Smith on, 538.

Equipment, the, of exploring expeditions

INDEX.

now and fifty years ago, by F. Galton,
738.

Erratic blocks of England, Wales, and
Treland, ninth report on the, 204.

*Evans (Capt. Sir F. J.) on oceanic or
maritime discovery, exploration, and
research, 742.

Evans (Dr. John) on the exploration of
the caves of the South of Ireland,
218.

Evaporation and eccentricity as co-
factors in glacial periods, Rev. E. Hill
on, 631.

Everett (Prof.) on underground tempera-
ture, 90.

Ewart (Prof. J. C.), a contribution to the
question on the influence of bacilli in
the production of disease, 717.

*Hx-focal light, the advantages of, in
first order dioptric lighthouses, by
J. R. Wigham, 776.

Fairley (T.) on the blowing wells near
Northallerton, 544; analyses of the
water and gas therefrom, 601.

Farr (Dr.) on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 225.

Fauna, the, inhabiting British India and
its dependencies, our present know-
ledge of, W. T. Blanford on, 677.

Faure’s accumulator, some uses of, in con-
nection with lighting by electricity,
Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson on, 526.

Fellows (F. P.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 225; on the
present appropriation of wages and
other sources of income, 272,

Ferric sulphate, the action of zinc and
magnesium on acidified solutions of,
Prof. T. E. Thorpe on, 595.

Field (R.) on the phenomena of the
stationary tides in the English Channel
and the North Sea, and the value of
tidal observations in the North Atlantic
Ocean, 160.

Flight (Dr. W.) on observations of
luminous meteors during the year
1880-81, 290.

Flint implements, the discovery of, in |

stratified gravel in the Nile Valley,near
Thebes, Major-Gen. Pitt-Rivers on, 693.

‘ Flots,’ J. R. Dakyns on, 634.

Flower (Prof. W. H.), Address by, to the
Department of Anthropology, 682.

*Fluid density of certain metals, Prof.
W. C. Roberts and T. Wrightson on
the, 582.

Foot of birds, P. M. C, Kermode on the,
670.

Forbes (Prof. G.) on the measurement of
the lunar disturbance of gravity, 93.
Forbes (W. A.) on the anatomy and
classification of the petrels, based
upon those collected by H.M.S, ‘Chal-

789

lenger,’ 671; on a little-known cranial
difference between the catarrhine and
platyrrhine monkeys,718; observations
on the incubation of the Indian python
(Python molurus), 723.

Fordham (H. G.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 204.

*Forme biquadratique binaire ayant une
méme Jacobienne, les faisceaux de,
C. Stephanos sur, 534.

Formule des piles, représentation gra-
phique de la, par le Prof, C. M. Gariel,
556.

Fossil botany, researches in,
Spencer, 627.

Fossil fishes, a discovery of, in the
New Red Sandstone of Nottingham, E.
Wilson on, 637.

Fossil polyzoa, second report on, 161.

Fossil stem from the Halifax coal-
measures, T. Hick and W. Cash on a,
679.

Foster (Dr. C. Le Neve) on underground
temperature, 90.

Foster (Prof. G. C.) on an investigation
for fixing a standard of white light,
126; on the present state of our
knowledge of spectrum analysis, 317;
on standards for use in electrical
measurements, 423; account of pre-
liminary experiments on the deter-
mination of electrical resistances in
absolute measure, 426,

Foster (Dr. M.) on the Scottish zoological
station, 177; on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 178.

*Fox (H.C.), some laws which regulate
the succession of mean temperature
and rainfall in the climate of London,
544,

Free public libraries of Manchester and
Notting Hill, London, J. Heywood on
the, 762.

Freshwater fisheries, the improvement
of, Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. E. Alexander
on, 680,

Fundamental invariants of algebraic
forms, the calculation of tables of
the, report on, 55.

by J.

Galloway (W.) on underground tempera-
ture, 90; on colliery explosions, 598.
Galton (Capt. D.) on the phenomena of
the stationary tides in the English
Channel and the North Sea, and the
value of tidal observations in the
North Atlantic Ocean, 160; on patent
legislation, 222; on the circulation of

underground waters, 309.

Galton (F.) on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 225; on the
application of composite portraiture
to anthropological purposes, 690 the

790

equipment of exploring expeditions
now and fifty years ago, 738; isochronic
postal charts, 740,

*Gambia, the river, R. E. Cole on, 742.

Gariel (Prof. C. M.), représentation
graphique de la formule des piles, 556.

Gas, cheap, the economical effect of using,
for gas-motors, with a description of
apparatus for producing such gas, J. E.
Dowson on, 775.

*Gaslights, quadriform, the value of, for
lighthouses in comparison with the
electric light, J. R. Wigham on, 779.

Gauging, the systematic, of the wells,
springs, and rivers of Great Britain,
J. Lucas on an organisation for, 781.

Geddes (P. A.), *notes on Chlamydomyxa,
680; *on anew sub-class of infusorians,
680; on economicsand statistics viewed
from the standpoint of the preliminary
sciences, 765.

Geikie (Prof.) on underground tempera-
ture, 90.

Genese (Prof. R. W.) on a class of binodal
quartics, 538; on involutional (11) cor-
Tespondence, 539.

*Geodesic triangle on any surface, a
property of a small, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith on, 548,

Geographical distribution of mankind,
notes on, by Miss A. W. Buckland, 695.

Geographical Section, Address by Sir
J. D. Hooker to the, 727.

Geographical work of the Palestine Ex-
ploration Fund, Trelawney Saunders
on the, 741.

Geography in Asia, the progress of, during
the last fifty years, Sir R. Temple on,
741.

Geological maps, an international scale
of colours for, W. Topley on, 647.

Geological Section, A. GC. Ramsay’s
Address to the, 605.

Geology of the island of Cyprus, R.
Russell on the, 640.

——, the glacial, of Central Wales,
W. Keeping on, 648.

, the subject matter of, and its

classification, by Prof. W. J. Sollas, 644.

Germans, the profile of the Danes and,
J. Park Harrison on, 703.

Glacial deposits of West Cumberland,
J. D. Kendall on the, 617.

Glacial periods, evaporation and eccen-
tricity as co-factors in, Rev. E. Hill
on, 631.

Glacial sections at York, and their re-
lation to the later deposits, by J. E.
Clark, 614.

Gladstone (Dr. J. H.) on meteoric dust,
88; on the manner in which rudi-
mentary science should be taught,
and how examinations should be held
therein, in elementary schools, 148 ; on

INDEX.

the method of determining the specific
refraction of solids from their solutions,
155 ; on the specific refraction and dis-
persion of light by liquids, 591.

Glaisher (J.) on underground tempera-
ture, 90; on observations of luminous
meteors during the year 1880-81, 290;
on mathematical tables, 303; on the
circulation of underground waters, 309.

Glaisher (J. W. L.) on mathematical
tables, 303 ; *on the q-series in elliptic
functions, 535; on the general analogy
between the formule of singly and
doubly periodic functions, 548.

Gnarled series of Amlwch and Holyhead,
in Anglesea, Prof. T. McK. Hughes on
the, 644.

Godwin-Austen (Lieut.-Col.) on the steps
taken for investigating the natural his-
tory of Socotra, 194; on the Socotran
land and freshwater shells, 196.

Gold fields, the, and the quartz outcrops
of Southern India, by W. King, 639.
Gold standard in England, the relation
of the, to the international money

market, Hyde Clarke on, 759.

Granite im sité, the occurrence of, about
twenty miles 8.W of the Eddystone,
A. R. Hunt on, 610.

Grant (Lieut.-Col. J. A.), comparative
sketch of what was known in Africa
in 1830 with what is known in 1881,
746.

Grant (Prof.) on the measurement of
the lunar disturbance of gravity, 93.
Gray (T.) and J. Milne, a contribution

to seismology, 646.

Great Plain of Northern India, the, not
an old sea-basin, by W. T. Blanford,
638.

*Greenhill (A. G.) on the velocity func-
tion of a liquid due to the motion of
cylinders and surfaces of revolution,
540,

Giinther (Dr.) on the steps taken for
investigating the natural history of
Socotra, 194.

*Hailstorms, the diurnal period of, A.
Buchan on, 544.

Halifax hard seam, W. Cash on the, 626.

Hall (EH. H.) on the rotational coefficient
in various metals, 552.

Hallett (P.) on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 225.

Halphen (Prof.) sur un critérium de
Steiner relatif Ala théorie des sections
coniques, 532; *on a classof differential
equations, 538; on the aspects of points
in a plane, ib.; *sur les séries hyper-
géométriques, 551.

Hancock (Dr. N.) on patent legislation,
222; on the present appropriation ‘of
wages and other sources of income, 272.

INDEX.

Harker (Allen), report on the occupation
of the table at the zoological station
at Naples, 182.

Harley (Rey. R.) a contribution to the
history of the algebra of logic, 559;
*on differential resolvents, 565.

Harris (G.) on the utilisation of the
memory, 699; on the cultivation of
the senses, ib.

Harrison (J. Park) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 225; *on a
collection of racial photographs, 693 ;
on some late Celtic engravings on a
slate tablet found at Towyn, 701; on
the profile of the Danes and Germans,
703.

Hart (S. L.) on potential due to con-
tact, 555.

Hartlaub (Dr. G.) on the steps taken for
investigating the natural history of
Socotra, 194.

Hartley (Prof. W. N.) on the present
state of our knowledge of spectrum
analysis, 317.

Haughton (Rey. Dr.) on the calculation
of sun-heat coefficients, 89; on the
exploration of the caves of the South
of Ireland, 218; on the effects of
oceanic currents upon climates, 451;
*on the effects of the lunar and solar
tide in increasing the length of the
sidereal day, 523.

Hawksley (T.) on the pressure of wind
upon a fixed plane surface, 480.

Herschel (Prof. A. S.) on underground
temperature, 90; on experiments to
determine the thermal conductivities
of certain rocks, 126; on observations
of luminous meteors during the year
1880-81, 290.

Heywood (J.) on the manner in which
rudimentary science should be taught,
and how examinations should be held
therein, in elementary schools, 148;
on the work of the Anthropometric
Committee, 225; on the free public
libraries of Manchester and Notting
Hill, London, 769.

Hick (T.) and W. Cash on a fossil-stem
from the Halifax coal-measures, 679.
Hicks (W. M.) on recent progress in

hydrodynamics: Part I., 57.

*High molecular weights, the inferences
deducible from, as exhibited by the
oxides of manganese, Prof. W. Od
ling on, 582. !

Hill (Rev. E.) on evaporation and eccen-
tricity as co-factors in glacial periods,
631.

*Hirst (Dr.) on congruencies of the
second order and second class, 534.

Hobkirk (C. P.) on some points in the
development of Osmunda regalis(Linn.),
675.

791

Hockin (C.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 423.

Hodgkinson (Dr. W. R. HE.) on the
method of determining the specific re-
fraction of solids from their solutions,
155,

*Holmes (J.) on certain discoveries of
bronze implements in and about
Leeds, 703.

*Homographies in a straight line and
points in a space, a connection be-
tween, C. Stephanos on, 538.

Hooker (Sir J. D.) on the steps taken
for investigating the natural history of
Socotra, 194; Address by, to the Geo-
graphical Section, 727.

Hopkinson (Dr. J.) on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 423.

Hopkinson (J.) on some points in the
morphology of the rhabdophora, 649.

Hot-lake district, the, and the glacier
scenery and fjords of New Zealand,
W. Lant Carpenter on, 742.

Howlett (Rev. F.) on the general coinci-
dence between sun-spot activity and
terrestrial magnetic disturbance, 541.

*Hoyle (W.) the economic influence of
the drinking customs upon the nation’s
well-being, 760.

Hubrecht (Dr. A. A. W.) on the affini-
ties of proneomenia, 673.

Hudson’s Bay, the commercial import-
ance of, Dr. R. Bell on, with remarks on
recent surveys and investigations, 745.

Huggins (W.) on the photographic spec-
trum of comet ‘b,’ 1881, 520.

Hughes (Prof. T. McK.) on the erratic
blocks of England, Wales, and Ire-
land, 204; on the Lower Cambrian of
Anglesea, 643; on the gnarled series
of Amlwch and Holyhead in Anglesea,
644; exhibition of a Roman bronze
galeated bust, 701; exhibition of four
bronze socketed spears, probably an-
cient, from China, 7b.; on a supposed
inscribed stone, near Llanerchymedd,
in Anglesea, ib.

—— and Mrs. Williams Wynn, the re-
sults of recent further excavations in
the caves of Cefn, near St. Asaph,
North Wales, 700.

Hull (Prof. E.) on underground tempera-
ture, 90; on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 309; on the Laurentian
beds of Donegal and of other parts of
Treland, 609; on the Devono-Silurian
formation, 631; observations on the
two types of Cambrian beds of the
British Isles (the Caledonian and Hi-
berno-Cambrian), and the conditions
under which they were respectively
deposited, 642.

Hungary, the stature of the inhabitants
of, Dr. Beddoe on, 689.

792

Hunt (A. R.) on the occurrence of granite
in sitt, about twenty miles S8.W. of
the Eddystone, 610.

Huntington (Prof. A. K.) on the present
state of our knowledge of spectrum
analysis, 317.

Huxiey (Prof.) on the Scottish zoological
station, 177; on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 178.

Hydration of salts and oxides, C. F.
Cross on the, 602.

Hydrocarbon oils, the separation of, from
fat oils, A. H. Allen on, 589.

Hydrocarbons in the solar atmosphere,
Capt. Abney on, 524.

Hydrodynamics, report on recent pro-
gress in: Part L., 57.

Illuminating powers of incandescent
vacuum lamps with measured poten-
tials and measured currents, Prof. Sir
W. Thomson and J. T. Bottomley on
the, 559.

*Imperial mausolea east of Peking, a
journey to the, by F. 8. A. Bourne,
746.

*Im Thurm (EH. F.) on the animism of
the Indians of British Guiana, 699.

Indian python (Python molurus), obser-
vations on the incubation of the, by
W. A. Forbes, 723.

Infusorial life, the arrestation of, by
solar light, Prof. J. Tyndall on, 450,
*Infusorians, a new sub-class of, P. A.

Geddes on, 680.

Inscribed stone, a supposed, near Llaner-
chymedd, in Anglesea, Prof. T. McK.
Hughes on, 701.

Insect house in the gardens of the Zoo-
logical Society of London, P. L.
Sclater on the, 668.

Insects, the constancy of, in their visits
to flowers, A. W. Bennett on, 667.

Intra-mercurial planets, the possibility
of the existence of, Balfour Stewart
on, 518.

Involufional (1 1) correspondence, Prof.
Genese on, 539.

Isochronic postal charts, by F. Galton,
740.

*Isothermals of the British Isles, A.
Buchan on the, 544.

Jamieson (A.) on electric lighting as ap-
plied to coal mines, 778.

Japan, brewing in, Prof. R. W. Atkinson
on, 585.

——., the chrome iron ore of, Prof. E.
Divers on, 587.

——, the earthquake phenomena of, re-
port on, 200.

——, the occurrence of selenium and
tellurium in, Prof. E, Divers on, 586,

INDEX.

Japan, the sodium-alum of, Prof. E.
Divers on, 586.

Jeffreys (Dr. Gwyn) on the Scottish zoo-
logical station, 177 ; on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 178.

Jemison (Rev. W. H.) on the remedies
proposed for disputes about wages, 761.

Jenkin (Prof. F.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 423.

Jevons (Prof.) on the present appropria-
tion of wages and other sources of in-
come, 272.

Johnson (Prof. W. W.) on a theorem re-
lating to the description of areas, 536.

Jurassic birds and their allies, by Prof.
O. C. Marsh, 661.

Keeping (W.) on the glacial geology of
Central Wales, 648.

Kendall (J. D.) on the glacial deposits
of West Cumberland, 617.

Kermode (P. M. C.) on the foot of birds,
and on the use of the serrated claw,
670.

Kinahan (G. H.) on the Laurentian
rocks in Ireland, 609.

Kinematics, the elucidation of a ques-
tion in, by the aid of non-Euclidian
space, R. 8S. Ball on, 535.

King (W.) the gold fields, and the quartz
outcrops of Southern India, 639.

Knowles (W. J.) on the origin and use
of oval tool-stones, 692.

Lamplugh (G. W.) on the Bridlington
and Dimlington glacial shell-beds, 616.

Lankester (Prof. Ray) on the Scottish
zoological station, 177 ; on the occupa-
tion of a table at the zoological station
at Naples, 178.

‘Lansdown encrinite’ (Millericrinus
Prattii, Gray, sp.), the characters of
the, P. H. Carpenter on, 635,

Latham (B.) on the influence of baro-
metric pressure on the discharge of
water from springs, 614.

Laurentian beds of Donegal and of other
parts of Ireland, Prof. E. Hull on the,
609.

Laurentian rocks in Ireland, G. H. Kina-
han on the, 609.

, Irish and other, life in, C. Moore
on, 610).

Laurium, Greece, some ores and minerals
from, H. Stopes on, 650.

*Lawyer’s marine pocket case, Captain
B. Pim on the, 781.

Lebour (Prof. G. A.) on underground
temperature, 90; on experiments to
determine the thermal conductivities
of certain rocks, 126; on the cireula-
tion of underground waters, 309.

INDEX.

Lee (J.'E.) on the erratic blocks of Eng-
land, Wales, and Ireland, 204.

Levi (Prof. L.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 225; on the
present appropriation of wages and
other sources of income, 272.

Lewis (A. L.) on the relation of stone
circles to outlying stones or tumuli
or neighbouring hills, with some in-
ferences therefrom, 697.

Light, the specific refraction and disper-
sion of, by liquids, Dr. J. H. Gladstone
on, 591.

Lighting, a question in the theory of,
Lord Rayleigh on, 526.

Lightning conductor, a new form of,
which can be easily tested, 8. Vyle on,
780.

Lister (T.) on the birds which have bred
in the Barnsley and South Yorkshire
district, 670.

Liveing (Prof.) on the present state of our
knowledge of spectrum analysis, 317.
Lodge (Dr. O. J.) on standards for use

in electrical measurements, 423.

Love (J.) on an overlapping spectroscope,
564; on change of density at the
melting point, ib.

Lowe (E. J.) on observations of luminous
meteors during the year 1880-81, 290.

Lower Cambrian of Anglesea, Prof. T.
McK. Hughes on the, 643.

Lower Keuper Sandstone of Cheshire,
A. Strahan on the, 635.

Lower Paleozoic rocks of the Craven
district, J. E. Marr on some sections
in the, 650.

Lubbock (Sir J.) on the manner in which
rudimentary science should be taught,
and how examinations should be held
therein, in elementary schools, 148;
on the mode in which the seed of
Stipa buries itself in the ground, 668;
on the sense of colour among some of
the lower animals, 676.

Lubbock (Dr. M.) on the development of
the colour-sense, 715.

Lucas (J.) on some vestiges of the
ancient forest of part of the Pennine
chain, 680; on an organisation for the
systematic gauging of the wells,
springs, and rivers of Great Britain,
781.

Luminous meteors, report on observa-
tions of, during the year 1880-81, 290.

*Lunar and solar tide, the effect of the,
in increasing the length of the sidereal
day, Rev. Dr. Haughton on, 523.

Lunar disturbance of gravity, the mea-
surement of the, report on, 93.

Macadam (W. I.) on experiments with
manures on the barley crop of 1881,
602.

793

*Macdonell (J.), bankruptcy in its eco-
nomic bearings, 765.

Macfarlane (A.) on the electric discharge
through colza oil, 556; an analysis of
relationships, 566.

Mackintosh (D.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 204.

McLeod (Prof.) on the present state of
our knowledge of spectrum analysis,
317.

Macrory (Mr.) on patent legislation, 222.

Madagascar, the botany of, J. G. Baker
on, 663.

Magnetic disturbances and earth-cur-
rents, Prof. W. G. Adams on, 463.

Mahomed (Dr. F. A.) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 225.

Malt tax, some results of the removal of
the, by H. Stopes, 765.

Man, traces of, in the Crag, by H. Stopes,
700.

Manganese, oxygen, and silver, the de-
termination of the relative atomic
weights of, Prof. Dewar and A. Scott
on, 596.

——, the oxides of, V. H. Veley on, 582.

nodules, and their occurrence on
the sea-bottom, J. Y. Buchanan on,
583.

Mankind, notes on the geographical dis-
tribution of, by Miss A. W. Buckland,
695.

Manures, experiments with, on the barley
crop of 1881, W. I. Macadam on, 602.
Marine fauna of the southern coast of
Devon and Cornwall, report on the,

198.

Markham (C. R.) on the progress of
Arctic research since the foundation of
the British Association, 743.

Marr (J. E.) on some sections in the
Lower Paleozoic rocks of the Craven
district, 650.

Marsh (Prof. O. C.), Jurassic birds and
their allies, 661.

Maskelyne (Prof. N. 8.) on the manner
in which rudimentary science should
be taught, and how examinations
should be held therein, in elementary
schools, 148.

Mathematical and Physical Section,
Address by Prof, Sir Wm. Thomson to
the, 513.

Mathematical tables, report on, 303.

Mechanical engineering, some of the de-
velopments of, during the last half
century, Sir F. Bramwell on, 494.

Mechanical Section, Address by Sir W.
Armstrong to the, 767.

Memory, the utilisation of the, G. Har-
ris on, 699.

Mendelejefi’s table of atomic weights,
W. Weldon on the first two lines of,
580.

794

Merrifield (C. W.) on patent legislation, |

222.

Merrifield (Dr. J.) on the phenomena of
the stationary tides in the English
Channel and the North Sea, and the
value of tidal observations in the North
Atlantic Ocean, 160.

Metallic compounds containing bivalent |
hydrocarbon radicals, J. Sakurai on: |

Part II., 567.

Meteoric dust, report of the Committee |

appointed to collect information re-
garding, and to consider the question
of undertaking regular observations in
various localities, 88.

Microscope, a, with arrangements for
illuminating the sub-stage, E. Crossley
on, 563.

Migration of birds, report on the, 189.

Milne (Prof. J.) on the earthquake phe-
nomena of Japan, 200.

— and T. Gray, a contribution to
seismology, 646.

*Milum (Rev. J.), an account of a recent
visit to Dahomey, 747.

Minchin (Prof. G. M.) on the absolute
sine electrometer, 558.

*Mississippi river, the improvements of
the, Capt. J. B. Eads on, 774.

Molecular attraction, F. D. Brown on,
592.

Molyneux (W.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 204; on
the circulation of underground waters,
309.

Monkeys, the catarrhine and platyrrhine,
a little-known cranial difference be-
tween, W. A. Forbes on, 718.

Moore (C.) on life in Irish and other
Laurentian rocks, 610.

*Moore (H. F.) the depression in agricul-
ture: its effects and its lessons, 761.
Morphology of the rhabdophora, J. Hop-

kinson on some points in the, 649.

Mortimer (J. R.) on sections of the drift
obtained from the new drainage works
of Driffield, 617; account of the dis-
covery of six ancient dwellings, found
under and near to British barrows
on the Yorkshire wolds, 691.

Morton (G. H.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 309.

Mountain limestone at Raygill, the ex-
ploration of a fissure in the, J. W.
Davis on, 645.

Muirhead (Dr.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 423.

Muirhead (Dr. H.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 225; on the
arrangement of cometic perihelia with
reference to the sun’s march in space,
532.

Mundesley and Westleton beds, the, the
strata between the Chillesford beds

INDEX.

and the lower boulder clay, Prof. J,
Prestwich on, 620.

Mundesley and Westleton beds, the, the
extension of, into Essex, Middlesex, and
other inland counties, in relation to
the age of certain hill-gravels and of
some of the valleys of the South of
England, Prof. J. Prestwich on, 620.

New Red Sandstone of Nottingham, a
discovery of fossil fishes in the,
HE. Wilson on, 637.

Newton (Prof.) on the migration of birds,
189.

New Zealand, the siliceous and other hot
springs in the volcanic district of the
North Isiand of, W. Lant Carpenter on,
580.

——, the hot-lake district and the
glacier scenery and fjords of, W. Lant
Carpenter on, 742.

Nitric ferment, alterations in the pro-
perties of the, by cultivation, R.
Warington on, 593.

| Numeral and philological relations of

the Hebrew, Phoenician, or Canaanitic
alphabet and the language of the
Khita inscriptions, Hyde Clarke on
the, 698.

*Occlusion of gaseous matter by fused
silicates at high temperatures, and its
possible connection with volcanic
agencies, I. Lowthian Bell on the, 580.

*Occultation of stars, of the first and
other bright magnitudes, the desira-
bility of observing, from places where
they are to be seen near the horizon,
H. 8. Williams on, 547.

Oceanic currents, the effects of, upon
climates, Rev. Dr. Haughton on, 451.
*Oceanic or maritime discovery, explora-
tion, and research, Capt. Sir F. J.

Evans on, 742.

*Odling (Prof. W.) on the inferences
deducible from high molecular weights,
as exhibited by the oxides of man-
ganese, 582.

Osmunda regalis (Linn.), some points in
the development of, C. P. Hobkirk on,
675.

Oval tool-stones, the origin and use of,
W. J. Knowles on, 692.

Owen (Dr. R.), Address by, to the Bio-
logical Section, 651; on the homology
of the conario-hypophysial tract, or of
the so-called ‘ pineal’ and ‘ pituitary’
glands, 719.

Oxides of manganese, V. H. Veley on the,
582.

Palxozoic rocks of North Devon and
West Somerset, W. A. E. Usher on the,
629,

INDEX.

Palestine Exploration Fund, the geo-
graphical work of the, Trelawney
Saunders on, 741.

Papuans and the Polynesians, C. S. Wake
on the, 696.

Parker (J.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 309.

*Patent Bill, the Society of Arts, Sir F, J.
Bramwell on, 780.

Patent legislation, report on, 222.

Pengelly (W.) on underground tempera-
ture, 90; on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 204; on
the circulation of underground waters,
309.

Pennine chain, some vestiges of the
ancient forest of part of the, J. Lucas
on, 680.

Penrose (F'. G.), report on the occupation
of the table at’ the zoological station at
Naples, 183.

Peppermint-camphor (menthol) and some
of its derivatives, Prof. R. W. Atkin-
son and H. Yoshida on, 585.

Periodic functions, singly and doubly,
the general analogy between the for-
mulz of, J. W. L. Glaisher on, 548.

Perry (Prof. J.) on experiments to deter-
mine the thermal conductivities of
certain rocks, 126; on standards for
use in electrical measurements, 423.

—— and Prof. W. E. Ayrton on a dyna-
mometer coupling, 553.

Petalorhynchus, Ag., the zoological posi-
tion of the genus, a fossil fish from the
mountain limestone, J. W. Davis on,
646,

Petrels, the anatomy and classification
of the, based upon those collected by
H.M.S. ‘Challenger,’ W. A. Forbes on,
671.

Petrie (W. F.), notes on some specimens
of saw-cuts and drill-holes in hard
stones of primeval Egyptian period,
697.

Phené (Dr.) on Scandinavian and Pictish
customs on the Anglo-Scottish border,
693; on some objects recently ex-
humed in Britain, of apparently Phe-
nician origin, 695.

Phipson (Dr. T. L.) on the new element,
actinium, 603.

Phoenician origin, some objects of
apparently, recently exhumed in
Britain, Dr. Phené on, 695.

Phosphates of lime and ammonia, note
on the, by J. A. Wanklyn, 597.

Photographic spectrum of comet ‘b’
1881, W. Huggins on the, 520.

*Photometry, Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson
on, with experiments, 561.

Physical Section, Address by Prof, Sir

-Wm. Thomson to the Mathematical
and, 513.

795 |

Physiology, Anatomy and, Address by
Prof. J, 8. Burdon Sanderson to the
Department of, 705.

*Pickwell (R.) on continuous door-locks
and footboards for railway carriages,
776.

Pictish and Scandinavian customs on the
Anglo-Scottish border, Dr. Phené on,
693.

Pim (Capt. B.) *on British shipping and
the tonnage laws, 780 ; *on the lawyer’s
marine pocket case, 781.

Pitt-Rivers (Maj.-Gen.) on the work of
the Anthropometric Committee, 225;
on excavations in the earthwork called
Danes’ Dyke at Flamborough, and on
the earthworks of the Yorkshire wolds,
690; on the discovery of flint imple-
ments in stratified gravel in the Nile
Valley, near Thebes, 693; on excava-
tions in a camp called Ambresbury
Banks in Epping Forest, 697.

Plant (J.) on the erratic blocks of Eng-
land, Wales, and Ireland, 204; on the
circulation of underground waters, 309.

Plesiosauria, Simosaurus pusillus (Fraas),
a step in the evolution of the, Prof. H.
G. Seeley on, 618.

*Points in a plane, the aspects of Prof.
Halphen on, 538.

*Points in a space, a connection between
homographies in a straight line and, C.
Stephanos on, 538.

“Polar planes of a point with respect to
four quadric surfaces, W. Spottiswoode
on the, 547.

Polarising prism, a new, Prof. S. P.
Thompson on, 563.

Polynesians and the Papuans, C. 8. Wake
on the, 696.

Potential due to contact, S. L. Hart on,
555.

Poulton (E. B.), a preliminary account of
the working of Dowkerbottom Cave,
in Craven, during August, 1881, 622.

Preece (W. H.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 423; on the
application of electricity to the locali-
sation of a bullet in a wound, 531;
*on a screw-gauge for electrical ap-
paratus, 779.

Pressure of wind upon a fixed plane sur-
face, T. Hawkley on the, 480.

Prestwich (Prof. J.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 204 ;
on the circulation of underground
waters, 309 ; some observations on the
causes of volcanic action, 610; on
the strata between the Chillesford
beds and the lower boulder clay, ‘The
Mundesley and the Westleton beds,’
620; on the extension into Essex,
Middlesex, and other inland counties,
of the Mundesley and Westleton beds,

796

in relation to the age of certain hill-
gravels and of some of the valleys of
the South of England, 7d.

Prismatic optometer, Dr. T. Anderson on
a, 521.

Proneomenia, the affinities of, Dr. A. A.
W. Hubrecht on, 673.

Pronephros of teleosteans and ganoids,
F. M. Balfour on the, 721.

Proportions of resistance, the proper, in
the working coils, the electro-magnets,
and the external circuits of dynamos,
Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson on, 528.

Protection in young communities: re-
corded results in Victoria and New
South Wales, by G. Baden-Powell, 760.

Purser (Prof.) on the measurement of
the lunar disturbance of gravity, 93.

Pye-Smith (Mr.) on the Scottish zoo-
logical station, 177.

*Quadratic surds, a linear relation be-
tween two, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith on, 538.

*Racial photographs, a collection of,
J. Park Harrison on, 693.

Radiation, the dynamical theory of, Prof.
A. Schuster on, 561.

Rainfall observations made upon York
Minster by Prof. John Phillips, F.R.5.,
G. J. Symons on the, 551.

Ramsay (Prof, A. C.) on underground
temperature, 90; on the earthquake
phenomena of Japan, 200; Address by,
to the Geological Section, 605.

Rawson (Sir R.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 225.

Rayleigh (Lord) on the present state of
our knowledge of spectrum analysis,
317; on standards for use in electrical
measurements, 423; *some colour ex-
periments, 526; on a question in the
theory of lighting, 7b.

Reinold (Prof.) on the present state of
our knowledge of spectrum analysis,
317.

Relationships, an analysis of, by A. Mac-
farlane, 566.

*Représentation des rotations autour
d’un point par des points de l’espace,
C. Stephanos sur la, 547.

Reynolds (Prof. E.) on the present state
of our knowledge of spectrum analysis,
317.

Reynolds (Prof, 0.) on the phenomena of
the stationary tides in the English
Channel and the North Sea, and the
value of tidal observations in the North
Atlantic Ocean, 160; on surface-ten-
sion and capillary action, 524.

Rhabdophora, some points in the mor-
phology of the, J. Hopkinson on, 649.

Rhetics of Nottinghamshire, E. Wilson
on the, 637.

INDEX.

Roberts (C.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 225.

—— and G, W. Bloxam on the physical
characters and proportions of the
Zulus, 702.

Roberts (I.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 309.

Roberts (Prof. W. C.) on the present
state of our knowledge of spectrum
analysis, 317.

and T. Wrightson on the fluid
density of certain metals, 582.

Rolleston (Prof.) on the Scottish zoolo-
gical station, 177; on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 178 ; on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 225.

Roman bronze galeated bust, exhibition
of a, by Prof. T. McK. Hughes, 701.
Roscoe (Prof.) on meteoric dust, 88; on
the reducing action of zinc and mag-

nesium on vanadium solutions, 596,

Ross (Lieut.-Col.) on a new system of
blowpipe analysis, 598.

Rotational coefficient in various metals,
E. H. Hall on the, 552.

Rowe (J. B.) on the marine fauna of the
southern coast of Devon and Cornwall,
198.

Riicker (Prof. A. W.) on a problem in
stream lines, 554.

and Prof. T. E. Thorpe on the cali-
bration of mercurial thermometers by
Bessel’s method, 540, ;

Rudimentary science, report on the
manner in which it should be taught
in elementary schools, and how exami-
nations should be held therein, 148.

Russell (R.) on the geology of the island
of Cyprus, 640.

¥.

Sakurai (J.) on metallic compounds con-
taining bivalent hydrocarbon radicals :
Part II., 567.

Salmon (Prof.) on the calculation of
tables of the fundamental imvariants
of algebraic forms, 55.

Sanderson (Prof. J. §. Burdon), Address
by, to the Department of Anatomy
and Physiology, 705.

Saunders (H.) on the natural history of
Timor-laut, 197.

Saunders (Trelawney) on the geographi-
cal work of the Palestine Exploration
Fund, 741.

Saw-cuts and drill-holes in hard stones
of primeval Egyptian period, notes on
some specimens of, by W. F. Petrie,
697.

Scandinavian and Pictish customs on the
Anglo-Scottish border, Dr. Phené on,
693.

Schuster (Prof. A.) on meteoric dust, 88 ;
on the present state of our knowledge

INDEX.

of spectrum analysis, 317; on the dy-
namical theory of radiation, 561.

Sclater (P. L.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 178; on the steps taken for
investigating the natural history of
Socotra, 194; on the natural history
of Timor-laut, 197; on the insect-
house in the gardens of the Zoological
Society of London, 668.

Scott (A.) and Prof. Dewar on the deter-
mination of the relative atomic weights
of manganese, oxygen, and silver, 596 ;
on some vapour density determina-
tions, 597.

Scottish zoological station, report of the
Committee appointed to aid in the
maintenance of the, 177.

*Screw-gauge for electrical apparatus,
W. H. Preece on a, 779.

*Secondary battery, an early attempt at
a, Dr. C. W. Siemens on, 554.

Sections coniques, un critérium de Stei-
ner relatif 4 la théorie des, M. Halphen
sur, 532.

Seebohm (Mr.) on the steps taken for
investigating the natural history of
Socotra, 194.

Seeley (Prof. H.G.) on Simosaurus pusil-
lus (Fraas), a step in the evolution of
the plesiosauria, 618; on a restoration
of the skeleton of Archzopteryx, with
some remarks on the differences be-
tween the Berlin and London speci-
mens, 7b.

Seismology, a contribution to, by J. Milne
and T. Gray, 646.

Selenium and tellurium, the occurrence
of, in Japan, Prof. EH. Divers on, 586.
*Semites, the origin and primitive home

of the, by G. Bertin, 699.

Sense of colour among some of the lower
animals, Sir J. Lubbock on the, 676
Senses, the cultivation of the, G. Harri-

son, 699.

*Séries hypergéométriques, Prof. Halphen
sur les, 551.

Serrated claw, the use of the, P. M. C.
Kermode on, 670.

Shaen (W.), on the manner in which
rudimentary science should be taught,
and how examinations should be held
therein, in elementary schools, 148.

Shaw (H. 8. H.) and Rev. J. M. Wilson,
on a new integrating anemometer,
543.

*Ship railway across the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec, Mexico, Capt. J. B. Hads
on the, 774.

Shoolbred (J. N.) on the phenomena of
the stationary tides in the English
Channel and the North Sea, and the
value of tidal observations in the
North Atlantic Ocean, 160; *on the

797

transmission of power by electricity,
779; *on the relative value of incan-
descent electric lights, 780.

*Sidereal day, the effects of the lunar
and solar tide in increasing the length
of the, Rev. Dr. Haughton on, 523.

Siemens (Dr. C. W.) on the measure-
ment of the lunar disturbance of
gravity, 93; on patent legislation,
222; on some applications of electric
energy to horticultural and agricul-
tural purposes, 474; *on an early
attempt at a secondary battery, 554.

Siliceous and other hot springs in the
volcanic district of the North Island
of New Zealand, W. Lant Carpenter
on the, 580.

Silver chloride, the effect of the spectrum
of, Capt. Abney on, 594.

Silver question, the, and the double
versus the single standard, by W.
Westgarth, 759.

Simosaurus pusillus (Fraas), a step in
the evolution of the plesiosauria, Prof.
H. G. Seeley on, 618.

Skull, a remarkable human, found near
York, E. Allen on, 704.

Sladen (P.) on the Scottish zoological
station, 177; on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 178.

Smith (Mr. Dew) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 178.

Smith (Prof. H. J. 8.) on mathematical
tables, 303; *on the differential equa-
tions satisfied by the modular equa-
tions, 535; *on the equation of the
multiplier in the theory of elliptic
transformation, 538; *on a linear re-
lation between two quadratic surds,
2b.; *on a property of asmall geodesic
triangle on any surface, 548.

*Society of Arts Patent Bill, Sir F. J.
Bramwell on the, 780.

Socotra, the island of, Prof. B. Balfour
on, 482.

—, the natural history of, report on
the steps taken for investigating, 194.

Socotran land and freshwater shells, re-
port on, by Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-
Austen, 196.

Sodium-alum of Japan, Prof. E. Divers
on the, 586.

Solar atmosphere, hydrocarbons in the,
Capt. Abney on, 524.

Sollas (Prof. W. J.) on the connection
between the intrusion of volcanic rock
and volcanic eruptions, 613; the sub-
ject-matter of geology, and its classi-
fication, 644.

Specific refraction of solids, report on
the method of determining the, from
their solutions, 155.

798

Spectroscope, an overlapping, J. Love
on, 564.

Spectrum analysis, report on the present
state of our knowledge of, 317.

Spectrum of silver chloride, the effect of,
Capt. Abney on, 594.

Spencer (J.), researches in fossil botany,
627; notes on astromyelon and its
root, 628.

*Spottiswoode (W.) on the polar planes
of a point with respect to four quadric
surfaces, 547.

Spring flowers, the colours of, A. W.
Bennett on, 666.

Statistics and economics viewed from
the standpoint of the preliminary
sciences, P. Geddes on, 765.

Statistics, Economic Science and, Ad-
dress by the Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant
Duff to the Section of, 752.

Steiner, un critérium de, relatif a la
théorie des sections coniques, M.
Halphen sur, 532.

Stephanos (C.) *sur les faisceaux de
forme biquadratique binaire ayant
une méme Jacobienne, 534; *on a
connection between homographies in a
straight line and points in a space,
538; *sur la représentation des rota-
tions autour d’un point par des points
de l’espace, 547.

Stewart (Balfour) on the possibility of
the existence of intra-mercurial
planets, 518.

Stipa, the mode in which the seed of,
buries itself in the ground, Sir J.
Lubbock on, 668.

Stokes (Prof. G. G.) on mathematical
coal tables, 303.

Stone (J. Harris), the viking’s ship, dis-
covered at Sandefjord in Norway,
1880, 689.

Stone (W. H.) on the effect of the voltaic
current on the elimination of sugar,
724.

Stone circles, the relation of, to outlying
stones or tumuli or neighbouring hills,
with some inferences therefrom, A. L.
Lewis on, 697.

*Stone implements from Asia Minor,
exhibition of, by Hyde Clarke, 703.

Stoney (Mr.) on the present state of our
knowledge of spectrum analysis, 317.

Stooke (S.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 309.

Stopes (H.) on some ores and minerals
from Laurium, Greece, 650; traces of
man in the Crag, 700; some results of
the removal of the malt tax, 765.

Strahan (A.) on underground tempera-
ture, 90; on the discovery of coal-
measures under New Red Sandstone,
and on the so-called Permian rocks of
St. Helen’s, Lancashire, 632; on the

INDEX,

Lower Keuper Sandstone of Cheshire,
635.

Stream lines, a problem in, Prof. A. W.
Riicker on, 554.

Struthers (Prof.) on the acetabulum of
animals in which the ligamentum teres
is described as wanting, 720; on the
correspondence between the articula-
tions of the metacarpal and metatarsal
bones in man, 721.

Sturm (Prof.) on some new theorems on
curves of double curvature, 440.

Subsidences above the Permian lime-
stone between Hartlepool and Ripon,
A. G. Cameron on the, 617.

Sun-heat coefficients, second report on
the calculation of, 89.

Sunshine recorder stand, a universal, G.
M. Whipple on, 540.

Sunspot activity and terrestrial mag-
netic disturbance, the general coinci-
dence between, Rev. F. Howlett. on,
541.

Sunspot period, the, and planetary tides
in the solar atmosphere, F. B. Ed-
monds on, 544.

Surface-tension and capillary action,
Prof. O. Reynolds on, 524.

*Suspensory ligament of the fetlock of
the horse, ass, ox, sheep, and camel,
the structure’and homologies of the,
Dr. D. J. Cunningham on, 726.

*Swan (J. W.) on the Swan incandescent
lamp, 778.

Sylvester (Prof.) on the calculation of
tables of the fundamental invariants
of algebraic forms, 55.

Symons (G. J.) on underground tempera-
ture, 90; on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 309; on the rainfall
observations made upon York Minster
by Prof. John Phillips, F.R.S., 551.

Symons (W.) on an easy method of
making carbon cells for galvanic bat-
teries, 557 ; on an antimonized cellular
carbon galvanic battery, ib.

Tait (Prof.) on the measurement of the
lunar disturbance of gravity, 93.

Tawney (E. B.) on the Upper Bagshot
Sands of Hordwell Cliff, Hampshire,
633.

Taylor (H.) on standards for use in elec-
trical measurements, 423; on the
causes of the variation in the tempera-
ture-coefficient of the alloys of plati-
num and silver, 431.

Telegraphic photography, 8. Bidwell on,
777.

Tellurium and selenium, the occurrence
of, in Japan, Prof. E. Divers on, 586.
Temperature-coefficient of the alloys of
platinum and silver; H. Taylor on the

causes of the variation of the, 431.

INDEX.

Temple (Sir R.) on the progress of geo-
graphy in Asia during the last fifty
years, 741.

Terrestrial magnetic disturbance, the
general coincidence between sunspot
activity and, Rev. F. Howlett on, 541.

Terrill (W.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 204

Tertiary flora of the North of Ireland,
third report on the, 152.

Theory of screws, the extension of the,
to the dynamics of any material
system, R. 8. Ball on, 547.

Thermal conductivities of certain rocks,
final report on experiments to deter-
mine the, showing especially the geo-
logical aspects of the investigation,
126.

Thermograph, Bowkett’s, W. Lant Car-
penter on, 604.

Thiselton-Dyer (Mr.) on the natural
history of Timor-laut, 197.

Thompson (Prof. 8. P.) on the manner in
which rudimentary science should be
taught, and how examinations should
be held therein, in elementary schools,
148 ; on the electric conductivity and
dichroic absorption of tourmaline, 531 ;
on volta-electric inversion, 552; on a
new polarising prism, 563; on binaural
audition : Part JII., 565; on the double
iodide of mercury and copper, 600; on
the function of the two ears in the
perception of space, 716.

Thomson (Sir C. Wyville) on the Scottish
zoological station, 177; on the occu-

pation of a table at the zoological ,

station at Naples, 178.

Thomson (Prof. Sir Wm.) on meteoric
dust, 88 ; on underground temperature,
90; on the measurement of the lunar
disturbance of gravity, 93; on the phe-
nomena of the stationary tides in the
English Channel and the North Sea,
and the value of tidal observations in
the North Atlantic Ocean, 160; on
patent legislation, 222; on mathe-
matical tables, 303; on standards for
use in electrical measurements, 423;
Address by, to the Mathematical and
Physical Section, 513 ; on some uses
of Faure’s accumulator in connection
with lighting by electricity, 526; on
the economy of metal in conductors of
electricity,ib.; on the proper proportions
of resistance in the working coils, the
electro-magnets, and the external cir-
cuits of dynamos, 528; *on an electro-
ergometer, 554; *on photometry, with
experiments, 561.

—— and J. T. Bottomley on the illumi-
nating powers of incandescent vacuum
lamps with measured potentials and
measured currents, 559.

799

Thomson (W.) on some phenomena
which appear to be of the nature of
chemico-magnetic action, 590.

Thorpe (Prof. T. E.) on the chemical
action between solids, 580; on the
action of zing and magnesium on acidi-
fied solutions of ferric sulphate, 595 ;
*on vapour density determinations,
597.

—— and Prof. A. W. Riicker on the
calibration of mercurial thermometers
by Bessel’s method, 540.

Tidal observations at Madeira or other
islands in the North Atlantic Ocean,
the value of, 160.

Tiddeman (R. H.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 204.
Tides, the stationary, in the English
Channel and the North Sea, the phe-

nomena of, fourth report on, 160.

Timor-laut, report on the natural history
of, 197.

Topley (W.) on an international scale of
colours for geological maps, 647.

*Torrens (Sir R.), results to be attained
by applying to the transfer of land in
this country the methods employed in
the British Colonies, 760.

Tourmaline, the electric conductivity and.
dichroic absorption of, Prof. §. P.
Thompson on, 531.

*Transfer of land, the results to be
attained by applying to the, in this
country the methods employed in the
British Colonies, by Sir R. Torrens, 760.

*Transmission of power by electricity,
J. N. Shoolbred on the, 779.

Tribe (A.), note on a new method of
measuring certain chemical affinities,
592.

Tyndall (Prof. J.) on the arrestation of
infusorial life by solar light, 450.

Underground temperature, fourteenth
report on the rate of increase of,
downwards in various localities of
dry land and under water, 90.

Underground waters in the Jurassic, New
Red Sandstone, and Permian formations
of England, the circulation of the, and
the quality and quantity of the water
supplied to towns and districts from
these formations, seventh report on,
309.

Upper Bagshot Sands of Hordwell Cliff,
Hampshire, E. B. Tawney on the, 633.

Ussher (R. J.), report to the Committee
for exploring the caves of the South of
Treland, 218.

Ussher (W. A. E.) on the Paleozoic rocks
of North Devon and West Somerset,
629.

Vanadium solutions, the reducing action

800

of zinc and magnesium on, Prof. H. HE.
Roscoe on, 596. '

Vapour density determinations, Prof.
Dewar and A. Scott on some, 597.

2g , Prof. T. E. Thorpe on, 597.

Veley (V.H.) on the oxides of manganese,
582.

*Velocity function of a liquid due to the
motion of cylinders and surfaces of
revolution, A. G. Greenhill on the, 540.

Viking’s ship, discovered at Sandefjord
in Norway, 1880, by J. H. Stone, 689.

Village system and the tenure of land in
the Dravidian villages of the Dekhan,
notes on, by Sir W. Elliot, 758.

Vine (G. R.) on fossil polyzoa, 161.
Volcanic action, some observations on the
causes of, by Prof. J. Prestwich, 610.
Volcanic rock, the intrusion of, and
voleanic eruptions, Prof. Sollas on the
connection between, 613.

Volta-electric inversion,
Thompson on, 552. :

Voltaic action, some preliminary experi-
ments on, by J. Brown, 562.

Voltaic current, the effect of, on the
elimination of sugar, W. H. Stone on,
724.

Vyle (S.) on a new form of lightning
conductor, which can be easily tested,
780.

Prot.) Si0k;

Wages and other sources of income,
report on the present appropriation
of, and how far it is consonant with
the economic progress of the people of
the United Kingdom, 272.

Wake (C. S.) on the Papuans and the
Polynesians, 696.

Wales, Central, the glacial geology of,
W. Keeping on, 648.

Waller (Rev. H.), some results of fifty
years’ exploration in Africa, 746.

Wanklyn (J. A.), note on the phosphates
of lime and ammonia, 597.

Warington (R.) on alterations in the
properties of the nitric ferment by
cultivation, 593.

Watherston (E. J.) on societies of com-
mercial geography, 748; on the progress
of British commerce in a generation,
763.

Watts (Dr. M.) on the present state of
our knowledge of spectrum analysis,
317.

*Wave apparatus for lecture purposes,
to illustrate Fresnel’s conception of
polarised light, C. J. Woodward on a,
563.

Webster (Mrs. A.) on the manner in
which rudimentary science should be
taught, and how examinations should
be held therein, in elementary schools,
148.

INDEX.

Weldon (W.) on the first two lines of
Mendelejeff’s table of atomic weights
580.

Westgarth (W.), a general banking law
for the United Kingdom, 751; the
silver question, and the double versus
the single standard, 759.

Wethered (E.) on underground tempera-
ture, 90; on the formation of coal, 623.

Whipple (G. M.) on observations of atmo-
spheric electricity at the Kew Observa-
tory during 1880, 443; on a universal
sunshine recorder stand, 540.

Whitaker (W.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 309.

White light, a standard of, second report
on an investigation for the purpose of
fixing, 126.

Wigham (J. R.), *the advantages of ex-
focal light in first-order dioptric light-
houses, 776; *on the value of quadri-
form gaslights for lighthouses in com-
parison with the electric light, 779.

Wilkinson (R.) on the manner in which
rudimentary science should be taught,
and how examinations should be held
therein, in elementary schools, 148.

*Williams (H. 8.) on the desirability of
observing occultation of stars, of the
first and other bright magnitudes, from
places where they are to be seen near
the horizon, 547.

Williams (W. C.) on the method of de-
termining the specific refraction of
solids from their solutions, 155.

Williamson (Prof. A. W.) on the manner
in which rudimentary science should
be taught, and how examinations should
be held therein, in elementary schools,
148 ; on patent legislation, 222; on the
present state of our knowledge of spec-
trum analysis, 317; Address by, to the
Chemical Section, 568; on the present
state of chemical nomenclature, 593.

Williamson (B.) on the calculation of sun-
heat coefficients, 89.

Williamson (Prof. W. C.) on the tertiary
flora of the North of Ireland, 152; pre-
liminary remarks on the microscopic
structure of coal, 625,

Wilson (E.) on a discovery of fossil fishes
in the New Red Sandstone of Notting-
ham, 637; on the Rheetics of Notting-
hamshire, 637.

Wilson (Rev. J. M.) and H. 8S. H. Shaw on
a new integrating anemometer, 543.
Wind, the pressure of, upon a fixed plane

surface, T. Hawksley on, 480.

Wood (H. T.) on patent legislation, 222.

Woods (Dr. T.) on drops and capillarity,
565.

*Woodward (C. J.) on a wave apparatus
for lecture purposes, to illustrate Fres-
nel’s conception of polarised light, 563.

INDEX.

Woolcombe (R. W.) on the causes and
results of assumed cycloidal rotation
in arterial red discs, 722.

*Wrightson (T.) and Prof. W. C. Roberts
on the fluid density of certain metals,
582.

Wynn (Mrs. Williams) and Prof. T. McK.
Hughes, the results of recent further
excavations in the caves of Cefn, near
St. Asaph, North Wales, 700.

Wynne (A. B.) on underground tempera-
ture, 90.

Yoshida (H.) and Prof. R. W. Atkinson

on peppermint-camphor (menthol) and
some of its derivatives, 585.

1881.

801

Zinc and magnesium, the action of, on
acidified solutions of ferric sulphate,
Prof. T. E. Thorpe on, 595.

the reducing action of, on vanadium
solutions, Prof. H. E. Roscoe on, 596.

Zoological station at Naples, report of
the Committee appointed to arrange
for the occupation of a table at the,
178; reports to the Committee—by Allen
Harker, 182; by F. G. Penrose, 183.

Zoological station, the Scottish, report of
the Committee appointed to aid in the
maintenance of, 177

Zulus, the physical characters and pro-
portions of the, C. Roberts and G. W.
Bloxam on, 702.

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1) Pawo Tye merece “ee

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805

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806

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807

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808

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Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on
the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for 1829 ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress,
present Amount, and probable future Condition of the Iron Manufacture in Great
Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—Prof. Owen, Report on
the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton;—J. Phillips, on
Anemometry ;—Dr. J. Percy, Report on the Crystalline Flags ;—Addenda to Mr.
Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tans SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford,
1847, Published at 18s,

CONTENTS :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at
different degrees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Develop-
ment of Heat and the coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when
mixed with Water ;—R. Hunt, Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the
Growth of Plants;—R. Mallet, on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof.
Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia;—W. Hopkins, Report on the
Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes ;—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report
on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev. W. Whewell and Sir James C. Ross,
Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of completing
our Knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Report
of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—-Dr. R. G. Latham; on the present state and

809

recent progress of Ethnographical Philology;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various
methods of Research which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the
relations of that Science to other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on
the results of the recent Egyptian researches in reference to Asiatic and African
Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ;—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of
the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the Modern Celtic Dialects stiil
extant ;—Dr. Max Miiller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the Aryan and Aboriginal
Languages of India ;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—Prof. W.
H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col. E. Sabine ;
—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con-
stants for 1829.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tuts EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea,
1848, Published at 9s.

CoNTENTS :—Rey. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous
Meteors ;—J. Glynn, on Water-pressure Engines;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and
Water of Towns ;—Eight Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring
Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use made of the gaseous escape from the
Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works ;—R. Hunt, Report of progress in the
investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Plants allied to those
of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Temperature Tables
printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof. Dove on
his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them;
with an introductory Notice by Lieut.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress
of the investigation on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J.
Phillips, Notice of further progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s
Letter to the Assistant-General Secretary ;—A. Erman, Second Report on the
Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee relative to the expediency of recom-
mending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory
until December 1850.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tus NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham,
1849, Published at 10s.

CONTENTS :—Rey. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous
Meteors ;—Earl of Rosse, Notice of Nebul lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;
—Prof. Daubeny, on the Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants,
especially of those allied to the Fossil Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr.
Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ;—Report of the Committee on the
Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and Animals ;—Ninth Report of
Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;—F. Ronalds,
Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from Aug. 9,
1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway
ee Corrosion ;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations
at Kew.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or razr TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh,
1850, Published at 15s. (Out of Print.)

ConTENTS:—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—
Rev. Prof, Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. T. Williams, on the
Structure and History of the British Annelida ;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteoro-

810

logical Observations taken at St. Michael’s from the 1st of January, 1840, to the 31st
of December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on the present State of our Knowledge of the
Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth Report of Committee on Experi-
ments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen. Briggs, Report on the
Aboriginal Tribes of India ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the
British Association at Kew;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution
and Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts
of Spain, Portugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on
the Present State of our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of
the Periodical Phenomena of Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for
the Observation of the Total Eclipse of the Sun on July 28, 1851.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tur TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich,
1851, Published at 16s. 6d.

CONTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;-—
Eleventh Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of
Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on. the
Air and Water of Towns: Action of Porous Strata, Water, and Organic Matter ;—
Report of the Committee appointed to consider the probable Effects in an Econo-
mical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tropical Forests ;—A.
Henfrey, on the Reproduct’on and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs in the
Higher Cryptogamous Plants ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com-
pounds ;—Rey. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;
—Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida ;—R. Mallet, Second Report on
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col, Sabine, on
the System of Meteorological Observations proposed to be established in the United
States ;—Col. Sabine, Report on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the
Performance of his three Magnetographs during the Experimental Trial at the
Kew Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British
Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850, to Fuly 31, 1851 ;—Ordnance Survey
of Scotland.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tae TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast,
1852, Published at 15s.

CONTENTS :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—
Twelfth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;
—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr.
Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants ;
—A Manual of Ethnological Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day,
and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Stations under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J.
D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the Conduction of Heat ;—R. Hunt, on
the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges, on the Composition and
Economy of the Flax Plant ;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater Fishes of Ulster ;—
W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland ;—W. Wills, on the
Meteorology of Birmingham ;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water-Wheel;—J. B.
Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and
the Feeding of Animals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

811

PROCEEDINGS or tur TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull,
1853, Published at 10s. 6d.

CONTENTS :—Rey. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1852-53 ;—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Old-
ham, on the Rise, Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull ;—
William Fairbairn, Experimental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomo-
tive Boilers, and the causes which lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional
Report on the Theory of Determinants ;—Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the
Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition and Economy of the Flax
Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;
—Dr. John P. Bell, Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degrada-
tion of the Yorkshire Coast ;—First Report of Committee on the Physical Character
of the Moon’s Surface, as compared with that of the Earth ;—R. Mallet, Provisional
Report on Earthquake Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;---
William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical Properties of Metals as derived from repeated
Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of strength and the causes of deterioration ;
-——Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued).

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tars TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver-
pool, 1854, Published at 18s.

CONTENTS :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena
(continued) ;—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of
Efficient Life-Boats ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our
Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel Sabine, on some of the results obtained at
the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;—Colonel Portlock, Report of the
Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting Seismometers ;—Dr,
Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants,
Part 2 ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54 ;
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;
—W. G. Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes
and Dr. Gilbert, on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald
Smith, on the Deviations of the Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships ;—Fourteenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tar TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
1855, Published at 15s.

CONTENTS :—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-
Mines and Revolving Storms ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radia-
tions on the Vital Powers of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions,
Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the British Edriophthalma;—J. F. Bateman, on the
present state of our knowledge on the Supply of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev.
Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854—55;—Report of
Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those properties
of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance
to the durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rey. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical
Objects in Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-registering
Anemometer and Rain-Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

812

PROCEEDINGS cr tos TWENTY-SIXTH MERTING, at Chel-
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s.

CoNnTENTS :—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report
upon the effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which
within the last fifty years have been made in its Banks;—J. Thomson, Interim
Report on progress in Researches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—
Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde, 1856;—Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of
Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;-—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical
Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, on the Trigonometry of the Parabola, and the
Geometrical Origin of Logarithms;—R. MacAndrew, Report on the Marine
Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and neighbouring Seas, and the
physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the
present state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of
North America ;—T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and
Oysters of the British Shores ;—Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage, and Foliation in
Rocks, and on the Theoretical Explanations of these Phenomena, Part 1 ;—Dr. T.
Wright, on the Stratigraphical Distribution of the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W.
Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various Temperatures ; —C.
Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—J. 8S. Bowerbank, on the Vital
Powers of the Spongiadz ;—Report of a Committee upon the Experiments con-
ducted at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Pro-
visional Report on the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of
Minerals, Plants and Animals for Museums ;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Pro-
gress in Researches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—R. Mallet, on
Observations with the Seismometer;—A. Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical
Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to consider the formation of a

‘Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and

Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tus TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dublin, 1857, Published at 15s.

CONTENTS :—A. Cayley, Report on the recent progress of Theoretical Dynamics;
—Sixteenth and Final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation
at Hull ;—Report of a Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measur-
ing and Registering the Tonnage of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and
to frame more perfect rules, in order that a correct and uniform principle may be
adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities and Working-power of Steam
Ships ;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of some Deep Mimes in Corn-

—a gt| + 1Bt) 415441

Ltt Myt plety}
a étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme est exprimable
par une combinaison de factorielles, la notation a|+!désignant le produit des
facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &c....(a+¢-1);—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine
Zoology of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish
‘Channel ;—Charles Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the Extent to
which Mercantile Steam Transport Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of
Shipping, as respects the Proportions of Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. S. Bower-
bank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spongiade ;—Dr. John P. Hodges, on
Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of
‘Great Britain ;—Reyv. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sustain the
passage of Railway Trains;—Prof. W. A. Miller, on Electro-Chemistry ;—John
Simpson, Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the Plover’s Wintering-
place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852-54 ;—Charles
James Hargreave, on the Algebraic Couple ; and on the Equivalents of Indetermi-
nate Expressions ;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and
Equatorial Mountings ;—Prof. James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots

wall ;—Dr. G. Plarr, de quelques Transformations de la Somme =

813

in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;—William
Fairbairn, on the Resistance of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of
the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the
Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspension Chains, and a Comparison
of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders, to produce equal de-
flections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, Evidences of Lunar Influence on
Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into Liver-
pool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta-
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. H. Lloyd’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tax TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds,
September 1858, Published at 20s.

ConTENTS :—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake
Phenomena ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857,
1858 ;—R. H. Meade, on some Points inthe Anatomy of the Araneidea or true Spiders,
especially on the internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report
of the Committee on the Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the Lead Mining Districts of
Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E.
Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene, Report on the Marine Fauna of the South
and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on Experiments on the Measurement
of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of
the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Michael Connel and
William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock,
and Port Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857;—Report of the
Committee on Shipping Statistics ;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments
employed in the Magnetic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results ;—Prof. J. R. ©
Kinahan, Report of Dublin Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R.
Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dublin District ;—Andrew Henderson, on River
Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings, with reference to the necessity for
improving the present means of Shallow- Water Navigation on the Rivers of British
India ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee ;—Appendix
to Mr. Vignoles’ Paper ‘On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sustain the
passage of Railway Trains;’—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society
and the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and
Meteorological Observatories ;—R. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Ane-
mometer.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tun TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen,
September 1859, Published at 15s.

CONTENTS :—George C. Foster, Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and
Present State of Organic Chemistry ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Growth of
Plants in the Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Dr. A. Voelcker,
Report on Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of
Manures essential to Cultivated Crops;—A. Thomson, of Banchory, Report on
the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools ;—On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahagow,
Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on the Results obtained by the Mechanico-
Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to
determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Breaks for Railway Trains ;—
Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for 1858-59 ;—
Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors for 1858-59 ;—
Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esq.,
late Resident in Nepal, &c., &c. ;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn,
Report on the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographie Image ;—

814

G. C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 ;—James
Oldham, Continuation of Report of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull ;—
Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Transport Economy as affected by the Con-
sumption of Coals;—Warren De La Rue, Report on the present state of Celestial
Photography in England ;—Professor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil and Recent
Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the
Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request
of the British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.;—W. Fairbairn, The
Patent Laws: Report of Committee on the Patent Laws ;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar
Influence on the Temperature of the Air :—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Con-
struction of the Self-recording Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew
Observatory of the British Association ;—Professor H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on
the Theory of Numbers, Part I.;—Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance;
—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee of the British Association
appointed at the Meeting at Leeds ;—Prof. William K. Sullivan, Preliminary
Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the
Mutual Action of Salts in Solution.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

. PROCEEDINGS or tae THIRTIETH MEETING, at Oxford, June
and July 1860, Published at 15s.

ConTENTS:—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1859-60 ;—J. R. Kinahan, Report. of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee ;—Rev. J.
Anderson, Report on the Excavations in Dura Den;—Prof. Buckman, Report on
the Experimental Plots in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College,
Cirencester ;—Rey. R. Walker, Report of the Committee on Balloon Ascents ;—Prof.
W. Thomson, Report of Committee appointed to prepare a Self-recording Atmo-
spheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for observing Atmospheric
Electricity ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Effect of Vibratory
Action and long-continued ‘Changes of Load npon Wrought-iron Girders ;—R. P.
Greg, Catalogue of Meteorites and Fireballs, from A.D. 2 to A.D. 1860;—Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part II.;—Vice-Admiral Moorsom, on the
Performance of Steam-vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its
Diameter and Pitch to the Form of the Vessel ;—Rey. W. V. Harcourt, Report on the
Effects of long-continued Heat, illustrative of Geological Phenomena ;—Second
Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—Interim Report on the Gauging
of Water by Triangular Notches ;—List of the British Marine Invertebrate Fauna.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Wrottesley’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or tut THIRTY-FIRST MEETING, at Manches-
ter, September 1861, Published at £1.

ConTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
Dr. E. Smith, Report on the Action of Prison Diet and Discipline on the Bodily
Functions of Prisoners, Part I. ;—Charles Atherton, on Freight as affected by Differ-
ences in the Dynamic Properties of Steamships;—Warren De La Rue, Report on the
Progress of Celestial Photography since the Aberdeen Meeting ;—B. Stewart, on the
Theory of Exchanges, and its recent extension ;—Drs. E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith,
and H. EB. Roscoe, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition of Manufacturing
Chemistry in the South Lancashire District ;—Dr. J. Hunt, on Ethno-Climatology ;
or, the Acclimatization of Man ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on Experiments on the Gauging
of Water by Triangular Notches;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on Field Experiments
and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated
Crops ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, Provisional Report on the Present State of our Knowledge
respecting the Transmission of Sound-signals during Fogs at Sea ;—Dr. P. L. Sclater
and F. von Hochstetter, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds
of the Genus Apterya living in New Zealand ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Results
of Deep-sea Dredging in Zetland, with a Notice of several Species of Mollusca new
to Science or to the British Isles ;—Prof. J. Phillips, Contributions to a Report on

815

the Physical Aspect of the Moon ;—W. R. Birt, Contribution to a Report on the Phy-
sical Aspect of the Moon;—Dr. Collingwood and Mr. Byerley, Preliminary Report
of the Dredging Committee of the Mersey and Dee ;—Third Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of
preventing the Ravages of Zeredo and other Animals in our Ships and Harbours ;—
R. Mallet, Report on the Experiments made at Holyhead to ascertain the Transit-
Velocity of Waves, analogous to Earthquake Waves, through the local Rock Formations ;
—T. Dobson, on the Explosions in British Coal-Mines during the year 1859 ;—J. Old-
ham, Continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull ;—Prof. G. Dickie, Brief
Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, on the
Psychical and Physical Characters of the Mincopies, or Natives of the Andaman
Islands, and on the Relations thereby indicated to other Races of Mankind ;—Colonel
Sykes, Report of the Balloon Committee ;—Major-General Sabine, Report on the Re-
petition of the Magnetic Survey of England ;—Interim Report of the Committee for
Dredging on the North and Hast Coasts of Scotland ;—-W. Fairbairn, on the Resist-
ance of Iron Plates to Statical Pressure and the Force of Impact by Projectiles at
High Velocities ;—W. Fairbairn, Continuation of Report to determine the effect of
Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-Iron Girders ;
—Report of the Committee on the Law of Patents;—Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, Report on
the Theory of Numbers, Part III.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Fairbairn’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or rar THIRTY-SECOND MEETING at Cam-
bridge, October 1862, Published at £1.

CONTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1861-—
62 ;—G. B. Airy, on the Strains in the Interior of Beams ;—Archibald Smith and F,
J. Evans, Report on the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee ;—Report
on Tidal Observations on the Humber ;—T. Aston, on Rifled Guns and Projectiles
adapted for Attacking Armour-plate Defences ;—Extracts, relating to the Observa-
tory at Kew, from a Report presented to the Portuguese Government, by Dr. J. A.
de Souza ;—H. T. Mennell, Report on the Dredging of the Northumberland Coast
and Dogger Bank ;—Dr. Cuthbert Collingwood, Report upon the best means of ad-
vancing Science through the agency of the Mercantile Marine ;—Messrs. Williamson,
Wheatstone, Thomson, Miller, Matthiessen, and Jenkin, Provisional Report on Stan-
dards of Electrical Resistance ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee for investiga-
ting the Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Granites of Donegal ;—Prof.
H. Hennessy, on the Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere considered in connec-
tion with Storms and Changes of Weather ;—Report of Committee on the application
of Gauss’s General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Magnetic Variations ;—
Fleeming Jenkin, on Thermo-electric Currents in Circuits of one Metal ;—W. Fair-
bairn, on the Mechanical Properties of Iron Projectiles at High Velocities ;—A. Cay-
ley, Report on the Progress of the Solution of certain Special Problems of Dynamics;
—Prof. G. G. Stokes, Report on Double Refraction ;—Fourth Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance ;—G. J. Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles
in 1860 and 1861 ;—J. Ball, on Thermometric Observations in the Alps;—J. G.
Jeffreys, Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East Coasts of
Scotland ;—Report of the Committee on Technical and Scientific Evidence in Courts
of Law ;—James Glaisher, Account of Eight Balloon Ascents in 1862 ;—Prof, H. J. 8.
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part IV.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. Prof. R. Willis’s Address
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tuz THIRTY-THIRD MEETING, at New-
castle-upon-Tyne, August and September 1863, Published at £1 5s.

ConTENTS :—Report of the Committee on the Application of Gun-cotton to War-
like Purposes ;—A. Matthiessen, Report on the Chemical Nature of Alloys ;—Report
of the Committee on the Chemical and Mineralogical Constitution of the Granites of
Donegal, and on the Rocks associated withthem ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Com-
mittee appointed for exploring the Coasts of Shetland by means of the Dredge ;—

816

G. D. Gibb, Report on the Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammonium ;—C. K.
Aken, on the Transmutation of Spectral Rays, Part I. ;—Dr. Robinson, Report of the
Committee on Fog Signals ;—Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical
Resistance ;—E. Smith, Abstract of Report by the Indian Government on the Foods
used by the Free and Jail Populations in India ;—A. Gages, Synthetical Researches
on the Formation of Minerals, &c.;—R. Mallet, Preliminary Report on the Experi-
mental Determination of the Temperatures of Volcanic Foci, and of the Temperature,
State of Saturation, and Velocity of the issuing Gases and Vapours;—Report of the
Committee on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fifth Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance ;—G. J. Allman, Report on the Present State of our Know-
ledge of the Reproductive System in the Hydroida ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Five Bal-
loon Ascents made in 1863 ;—P. P. Carpenter, Supplementary Report on the Present
State of our Knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North
America ;—Prof. Airy, Report on Steam Boiler Explosions ;—C. W. Siemens, Obser-
vations on the Electrical Resistance and Electrification of some Insulating Materials
under Pressures up to 300 Atmospheres ;—C. M. Palmer, on the Construction of Iron
Ships and the Progress of Iron Shipbuilding on the Tyne, Wear, and Tees ;—Messrs.
Richardson, Stevenson, and Clapham, on the Chemical Manufactures of the Northern
Districts ;—Messrs. Sopwith and Richardson, on the Local Manufacture of Lead,
Copper, Zine, Antimony, &c. ;—Messrs. Daglish and Forster, on the Magnesian Lime-
stone of Durham ;—I. L. Bell, on the Manufacture of Iron in connexion with the
Northumberland and Durham Coal-field ;—T. Spencer, on the Manufacture of Steel
in the Northern District ;—Prof. H. J.S. Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers,
Part V.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Armstrong’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or roe THIRTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Bath,
September 1864, Published at 18s.

CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee for Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
Report of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights
and Measures ;—T. 8. Cobbold, Report of Experiments respecting the Development
and Migration of the Entozoa;—B. W. Richardson, Report on the Physiological
Action of Nitrite of Amyl;—J. Oldham, Report of the Committee on Tidal Observa-
tions ;—G. §. Brady, Report on Deep-sea Dredging on the Coasts of Northumberland
and Durham in 1864 ;—-J. Glaisher, Account of Nine Balloon Ascents made in 1863
and 1864 ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Further Report on Shetland Dredgings ;—Report of the
Committee on the Distribution of the Organic Remains of the North Staffordshire
Coal-field ;—Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—G. J.
Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1862 and 1863;—W. Fairbairn,
Preliminary Investigation of the Mechanical Properties of the proposed Atlantic
Cable.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Charles Lyell’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or toe THIRTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Birming-
ham, September 1865, Published at £1 5s.

CONTENTS :—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Channel Isles ;—F,
Buckland, Report on the Cultivation of Oysters by Natural and Artificial Methods ;—
Report of the Committee for exploring Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of the Committee
on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report on the Distribution of the Organic Remains
of the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of
the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall ;—Interim Report on the Resistance of
Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Report on Observations of Luminous
Meteors ;—Report on Dredging on the Coast of Aberdeenshire ;—J. Glaisher, Account
of Three Balloon Ascents;—Interim Report on the Transmission of Sound under
Water ;—G. J. Symons, on the Rainfall of the British Isles;—W. Fairbairn, on the
Strength of Materials considered in relation to the Construction of Iron Ships ;—
Report of the Gun-Cotton Committee ;—A. F. Osler, on the Horary and Diurnal
Variations in the Direction and Motion of the Air at Wrottesley, Liverpool, and

817

Birmingham ;—B. W. Richardson, Second Report on the Physiological Action of
certain of the Amyl Compounds ;—Report on further Researches in the Lingula-
flags of South Wales ;—Report of the Lunar Committee for Mapping the Surface of
the Moon ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Report of the Com-
mittee appointed to communicate with the Russian Government respecting Mag-
netical Observations at Tiflis ;—Appendix to Reporton the Distribution of the Verte-
brate Remains from the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—H. Woodward, First Report
on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part VI.;—Report on the best means of providing
for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the interests of Science ;
—A.G. Findlay, on the Bed of the Ocean ;—Prof. A. W. Williamson, on the Com-
position of Gases evolved by the Bath Spring called King’s Bath.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Phillips’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or tut THIRTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Notting-
ham, August 1866, Published at £1 4s.

CONTENTS :—Second Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—A. Matthiessen,
Preliminary Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on Observations
of Luminous Meteors;—W. S. Mitchell, Report on the Alum Bay Leaf-bed ;—
Report on the Resistance of Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Dr. Norris,
Report on Muscular Irritability;—Dr. Richardson, Report ‘on the Physiological
Action of certain compounds of Amyl and Ethyl ;—H. Woodward, Second Report on
the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Second Report on
the ‘Menevian Group,’ and the other Formations at St. David’s, Pembrokeshire ;
—4J.G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Hebrides;—Rev. A. M. Norman,
Report on the Coasts of the Hebrides, Part II. ;—J. Alder, Notices of some Inverte-
brata, in connexion with Mr. Jeffreys’s Report;—G. S. Brady, Report on the
Ostracoda dredged amongst the Hebrides ;—Report on Dredging in the Moray Firth ;
—Report on the Transmission of Sound-Signals under Water ;—Report of the Lunar
Committee ;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the best means of
providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the Interests
of Science ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Balloon Ascents ;—Report on the Extinct
Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;—Report on the Penetration of Iron-clad Ships by
Steel Shot ;—J. A. Wanklyn, Report on Isomerism among the Alcohols ;—Report on
Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law ;—A. L. Adams, Second Report on Maltese
Fossiliferous Caves, &c.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Grove’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or trae THIRTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dundee, September 1867, Published at £1 6s.

CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;—
Third Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—On the present State of the Manu-
facture of Iron in Great Britain;—Third Report on the Structure and Classification
of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl Com-
pounds ;—Preliminary Report on the Exploration of the Plant-Beds of North Green-
land ;—Report of the Steamship Performance Committee ;—On the Meteorology of
Port Louis, in the Island of Mauritius;—On the Construction and Works of the
Highland Railway ;—Experimental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of
Steel ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and
Cornwall ;—Supplement to a Report on the Extinct Didine Birds of the Mascarene
Islands ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fourth Report on Dredging
among the Shetland Isles;—Preliminary Report on the Crustacea, &c., procured by
the Shetland Dredging Committee in 1867 ;—Report on the Foraminifera obtained
in the Shetland Seas ;—Second Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the
best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference
to the interests of Science ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the
Association and its Committees.

1881. 3G

818

PROCEEDINGS or tar THIRTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Nor-
wich, August 1868, Published at £1 5s.

ConTENTS:—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Fourth Report on Kent’s
Cavern, Devonshire ;—On Puddling Iron ;—Fourth Report on the Structure and
Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on British Fossil Corals ;—Report on
Spectroscopic Investigations of Animal Substances ;—Report of Steamship Perform-
ance Committee ;—Spectrum Analysis of the Heavenly Bodies ;—On Stellar Spectro-
metry ;—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl and allied Compounds ;—
Report on the Action of Mercury on the Biliary Secretion ;—Last Report on Dredg-
ing among the Shetland Isles ;—Reports on the Crustacea, &c., and on the Annelida
and Foraminifera from the Shetland Dredgings ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of
Cast Iron, Part I.;—Interim Report on the Safety of Merchant Ships and their
Passengers ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Preliminary Report
on Mineral Veins containing Organic Remains;—Report on the Desirability of
Explorations between India and China;—Report of Rainfall Committee ;—Re-
port on Synthetical Researches on Organic Acids ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights
and Measures ;—Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations ;—Report of the
Committee on Underground Temperature ;—Changes of the Moon’s Surface ;—Re-
port on Polyatomic Cyanides.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Hooker’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tae THIRTY-NINTH MEETING, at Exeter,
August 1869, Published at £1 2s.

CoNTENTS :—Report on the Plant-beds of North Greenland ;—Report on the
existing knowledge on the Stability, Propulsion, and Sea-going qualities of Ships ;
—Report on Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Preliminary Report on the Determination
of the Gases existing in Solution in Well-waters;—The Pressure of Taxation on
Real Property ;—On the Chemical Reactions of Light discovered by Prof. Tyndall ;—
On Fossils obtained at Kiltorkan Quarry, co. Kilkenny ;—Report of the Lunar Com-
mittee ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on the Marine Fauna
and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall ;—Report on the Practicability
of establishing a ‘Close Time ’ for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Experi-
mental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of Steel;—Second Report on
British Fossil Corals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared
Sections of Mountain-Limestone Corals for Photographing ;—Report on the Rate of
Increase of Underground Temperature ;—Fifth Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devon-
shire ;—Report on the Connexion between Chemical Constitution and Physiological
Action ;—On Emission, Absorption, and Reflection of Obscure Heat ;—Report on
Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;
—Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Supplement to Second
Report of the Steamship-Performance Committee ;—Report on Recent Progress in
Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on Mineral Veins in Carboniferous
Limestone and their Organic Contents ;—Notes on the Foraminifera of Mineral
Veins and the Adjacent Strata ;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Interim Re-
port on the Laws of the Flow and Action of Water containing Solid Matter in
Suspension ;—Interim Report on Agricultural Machinery ;—Report on the Physio-
logical Action of Methyl and Allied Series ;—On the Influence of Form considered
in Relation to the Strength of Railway-axles and other portions of Machinery sub-
jected to Rapid Alterations of Strain ;—On the Penetration of Armour-plates with
Long Shells of Large Capacity fired obliquely ;—Report on Standards of Electrical
Resistance.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Stokes’s Address, and Re-
commendation of th Association and its Committees,

819

- PROCEEDINGS or rus FORTIETH MEETING, at Liverpool, Sep-
tember 1870, Published at 18s.

ConTENTS :—Report on Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Report of the Committee on
the Hematite Iron-ores of Great Britain and Ireland ;—Report on the Sedimentary
Deposits of the River Onny ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Re-
port on the practicability of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the protection of
Indigenous Animals ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Sixth Report
on Kent’s Cavern ;—Third Report on Underground Temperature ;—Second Report of
the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of Mountain-Limestone
Corals ;—Second Report on the Stability, Propulsion, and Sea-going Qualities of
Ships ;—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;— Report on the Treatment and Utili-
zation of Sewage ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1869-70 ;—Report
on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions;—Report on Tidal Ob-
servations ;—On a new Steam-power Meter ;—Report on the Action of the Methyl
and Allied Series;—Report of the Rainfall Committee;—Report on the Heat
generated in the Blood in the Process of Arterialization ;—Report on the best
means of providing for Uniformity of Weights and Measures.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Huxley’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tae FORTY-FIRST MEETING, at Edinburgh,
August 1871, Published at 16s.

CONTENTS :—Seventh Report on Kent’s Cavern;—Fourth Report on Under-
ground Temperature ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1870-71 ;—
Fifth Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report
of the Committee appointed for the purpose of urging on Her Majesty’s Government
the expediency of arranging and tabulating the results of the approaching Census
in the three several parts of the United Kingdom in such a manner as to admit of
teady and effective comparison ;—Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose
of Superintending the Publication of Abstracts of Chemical Papers ;—Report of the
Committee for discussing Observations of Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—
Second Provisional Report on the Thermal Conductivity of Metals ;—Report on
the Rainfall of the British Isles;—Third Report on the British Fossil Corals ;—
Report on the Heat generated in the Blood during the Process of Arterialization ;
—Report of the Committee appointed to consider the subject of Physiological
Experimentation ;—Report on the Physiological Action of Organic Chemical Com-
pounds ;—Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of
Mountain-Limestone Corals ;—Second Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—Re-
port on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on promoting the Foun-
dation of Zoological Stations in different:parts of the World ;—Preliminary Report
on the Thermal Equivalents of the Oxides of Chlorine ;- Report on the practi-
cability of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the protection of Indigenous
Animals ;—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report on the best means of pro-
viding for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report on Tidal Observations.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Thomson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or tas FORTY-SECOND MEETING, at Brighton,
August 1872, Published at £1 4s.

__ CONTENTS :—Report on the Gaussian Constants for the Year 1829 ;—Second Sup-
plementary Report on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;—Report of the
Committee for Superintending the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—
Report of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of
Weights and Measures ;—Highth Report on Kent's Cavern ;—Report on promoting the
Foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World ;—Fourth Report
on the Fauna of South Devon ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee appointed to
Construct.and Print Catalogues of Spectral Rays arranged upon a Scale of Wave-
numbers ;—Third Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—Report on Observations of

820

Luminous Meteors, 1871-72 ;—Experiments on the Surface-friction experienced by
a Plane moving through Water ;—Report of the Committee on the Antagonism be-
tween the Action of Active Substances ;—Fifth Report on Underground Tempera-
ture ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee on Siemens’s Electrical-Resistance
Pyrometer :—Fourth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Interim
Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships and
Currents ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Report of the Committee
on a Geographical Exploration of the Country of Moab;—Sur Vélimination des
Fonctions Arbitraires ;—Report on the Discovery of Fossils in certain remote parts
of the North-western Highlands ;—Report of the Committee on Earthquakes in
Scotland ;—Fourth Report on Carboniferous- Limestone Corals ;—Report of the Com-
mittee to consider the mode in which new Inventions and Claims for Reward in
respect of adopted Inventions are examined and dealt with by the different Depart-
ments of Government ;—Report of the Committee for discussing Observations of
Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—Report on the Mollusca of Europe ;—Report of
the Committee for investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties
of Essential Oils ; Report on the practicability of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for
the preservation of Indigenous Animals ;—Sixth Report on the Structure and Classi-
fication of Fossil Crustacea ;— Report of the Committee appointed to organize an Ex-
pedition for observing the Solar Eclipse of Dec. 12, 1871 ;—Preliminary Report of
a Committee on Terato-embryological Inquiries ;—Report on Recent Progress in
Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on Tidal Observations ;—On the
Brighton Waterworks ;—On Amsler’s Planimeter.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Carpenter’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or raz FORTY-THIRD MEETING, at Bradford,
September 1873, Published at £1 5s.

CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables ;—Observations
on the Application of Machinery to the Cutting of Coal in Mines ;—Concluding Re-
port on the Maltese Fossil Elephants ;—Report of the Committee for ascertaining
the Existence in different parts of the United Kingdom of any Erratic Blocks or
Boulders ;—Fourth Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Ninth Report on Kent’s
Cavern ;—On the Flint and Chert Implements found in Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of
the Committee for Investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties
of Essential Oils ;—Report of Inquiry into the Method of making Gold-assays ;
—Fifth Report on the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical
Units ;—Report of the Committee on the Labyrinthodonts of the Coal-measures ;—
Report of the Committee appointed to construct and print Catalogues of Spectral
Rays ;—Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Settle Caves;—Sixth Report
on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Seventh
Report on Researches in Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic
and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on the desirability of establishing a ‘ Close
Time’ for the preservation of Indigenous Animals ;— Report on Luminous Meteors ;
- -On the Visibility of the Dark Side of Venus ;—Report of the Committee for the
Foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World ;—Second Report of
the Committee for collecting Fossils from North-western Scotland ;—Fifth Report
on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report of the Committee on Monthly
Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—On the Bradford Waterworks ;—Report on
the possibility of Improving the Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry ;
—Interim Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of
Ships, &c.;—Report of the Committee for Determinating High Temperatures by
means of the Refrangibility of Light evolved by Fluid or Solid Substances ;—On a
periodicity of Cyclones and Rainfall in connexion with Sun-spot Periodicity ;—Fifth
Report on the Structure of Carboniferous-Limestone Corals ;—Report of the Com-
mittee on preparing and publishing brief forms of Instructions for Travellers,
Ethnologists, &c. ;—Preliminary Note from the Committee on the Influence of Forests
on the Rainfall ;—Report of the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee ;—Report of
the Committee on Machinery for obtaining a Record of the Roughness of the Sea
and Measurement of Waves near shore ;—Report on Science Lectures and Organi-
zation ;—Second Report on Science Lectures and Organization.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. A. W. Williamson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,

821

PROCEEDINGS or toe FORTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Belfast,
August 1874, Published at £1 5s.

CONTENTS :—Tenth Report on Kent’s Cavern;—Report for investigating the
Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of Essential Oils ;—Second Report of
the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee ;—On the Recent Progress and Present
State of Systematic Botany ;—Report of the Committee for investigating the Nature
of Intestinal Secretion ;—Report of the Committee on the Teaching of Physics in
Schools ;—Preliminary Report for investigating Isomeric Cresols and their Deriva-
tives ;—Third Report of the Committee for collecting Fossils from localities in
North-western Scotland ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—On the Bel-
fast Harbour ;—Report of Inquiry into the Method of making Gold-assays ;—Report
of a Committee on Experiments to determine the Thermal Conductivities of certain
Rocks ;—Second Report on the Exploration of the Settle Caves ;—On the Industrial
uses of the Upper Bann River;—Report of the Committee on the Structure and
Classification of the Labyrinthodont ;—Second Report of the Committee for record-
ing the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of thé
Erratic Blocks of England and Wales, &c.;—Sixth Report on the Treatment and
Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on the Anthropological Notes and Queries for the
use of Travellers ;—On Cyclone and Rainfall Periodicities ;—Fifth Report on Earth-
quakes in Scotland ;—Report of the Committee appointed to prepare and print
Tables of Wave-numbers ;—Report of the Committee for testing the new Pyrometer
of Mr. Siemens ;—Report to the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty on Experi-
ments for the Determination of the Frictional Resistance of Water on a Surface,
&e. ;—Second Report for the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Elec-
trical Units ;—On Instruments for measuring the Speed of Ships;—Report of the
Committee on the possibility of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of
Indigenous Animals ;—Report of the Committee to inquire into the economic effects
of Combinations of Labourers and Capitalists ;—Preliminary Report on Dredging on
the Coasts of Durham and North Yorkshire ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;—Re-
port on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures,

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. John Tyndall’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or tae FORTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Bristol,
August 1875, Published at £1 5s.

CONTENTS :—Eleventh Report on Kent’s Cavern;—Seventh Report on Under-
ground Temperature ;—Report on the Zoological Station at. Naples ;—Report of a
Committee appointed to inquire into the Methods employed in the Estimation of
Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Commercial Products ;—Report on the present state
of our Knowledge of the Crustacea;—Second Report on the Thermal Conduc-
tivities of certain Rocks ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee for extending the
Observations on the Specific Volumes of Liquids ;—Sixth Report on Earthquakes
in Scotland ;—Seventh Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Re-
port of the Committee for furthering the Palestine Explorations ;— Third Report of
the Committee for recording the position, height above the sea, lithological
characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England and Wales, &c. ;—
Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report of the Committee for investigating
Isomeric Cresols and their Derivatives ;—Report of the Committee for investigating
the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian
Formations of England ;—On the Steering of Screw-Steamers ;—Second Report of
the Committee on Combinations of Capital and Labour ;—Report on the Method of
making Gold-assays ;—Highth Report on Underground Temperature ;—Tides in the
River Mersey ;—Sixth Report of the Committee on the Structure of Carboniferous
Corals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Settle Caves ;—On the
River Avon (Bristol), its Drainage-Area, &c.;—Report of the Committee on the
possibility of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of Indigenous
Animals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to superintend the Publication of
the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—Report on Dredging off the
Coasts of Durham and North Yorkshire in 1874 ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;—On
the Analytical Forms called Trees;—Report of the Committee on Mathematical

822

Tables ;—Report of the Committee on Mathematical Notation and Printing ;—Second
Report of the Committee for investigating Intestinal Secretion ;—Third Report of
the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir John Hawkshaw’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe FORTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
September 1876, Published at £1 5s.

CONTENTS :—Twelfth Report on Kent’s Cavern;—Report on Improving the
Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry ;—Results of a Comparison of the
British-Association Units of Electrical Resistance ;—Third Report on the Thermal
Conductivities of certain Rocks ;—Report of the Committee on the practicability of
adopting a Common Measure of Value in the Assessment of Direct Taxation ;—
Report of the Committee for testing experimentally Ohm’s Law ;—Report of the
Committee on the possibility of establishing a ‘ Close Time’ for the Protection of
Indigenous Animals ;—Report of the Committee on the Effect of Propellers on the
Steering of Vessels ;—On the Investigation of the Steering Qualities of Ships ;—
Seventh Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report on the present state of our
Knowledge of the Crustacea;—Second Report of the Committee for investigating
the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian
Formations of England ;—Fourth Report of the Committee on the Erratic Blocks of
England and Wales, &c.;—Fourth Report of the Committee on the Exploration of
the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave) ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1875-76 ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles, 1875-76 ;—Ninth Report on
Underground Temperature ;—Nitrous Oxide in the Gaseous and Liquid States ;—
Eighth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Improved Investiga-
tions on the Flow of Water through Orifices, with Objections to the modes of treat-
ment commonly adopted ;—Report of the Anthropometric Committee ;—On Cyclone
and Rainfall Periodicities in connexion with the Sun-spot Periodicity ;—Report of
the Committee for determining the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat ;—Report of the
Committee on Tidal Observations ;—Third Report of the Committee on the Condi-
tions of Intestinal Secretion and Movement ;—Report of the Committee for collect-
ing and suggesting subjects for Chemical Research.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. T, Andrews’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tate FORTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at Ply-
mouth, August 1877, Published at £1 4s.

ConTENTS :—Thirteenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Second and Third Reports
ou the Methods employed in the estimation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Com-
mercial Products ;—Report on the present state of our Knowledge of the Crustacea
(Part III.) ;—Third Report on the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New
Red Sandstone and Permian Formations of England ;—Fifth Report on the Erratic
Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Fourth Report on the Thermal Conducti-
vities of certain Rocks ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1876-77 ;—
Tenth Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Effect of Propellers on
the Steering of Vessels ;—Report on the possibility of establishing a ‘ Close- Time’
for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;--Report on some Double Compounds of
Nickel and Cobalt ;—Fifth Report on the Exploration of the Settle Caves (Victoria
Cave) ;—Report on the Datum Level of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain ;—
Report on the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report of the Anthropometric Com-
mittee ;—Report on the Conditions under which Liquid Carbonic Acid exists in
Rocks and Minerals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Allen Thomson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

823

PROCEEDINGS or tut FORTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Dublin,
August 1878, Published at £1 4s.

CONTENTS :—Catalogue of the Oscillation-Frequencies of Solar Rays ;—Report
on Mr. Babbage’s Analytical Machine ;—Third Report of the Committee for deter-
mining the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat ;—Report of the Committee for arrang-
ing for the taking of certain Observations in India, and Observations on Atmospheric
Electricity at Madeira ;—Report on the commencement of Secular Experiments upon
the Elasticity of Wires ;—Report on the Chemistry of some of the lesser-known
Alkaloids, especially Veratria and Bebeerine ;—Report on the best means for the
Development of Light from Coal-Gas ;—Fourteenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—
Report on the Fossils in the North-west Highlands of Scotland ;—Fifth Report on
the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks ;—Report on the possibility of estab-
lishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Report on the
occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples;—Report of the Anthro-
pometric Committee ;—Report on Patent Legislation ;—Report on the Use of Steel
for Structural Purposes ;—Report on the Geographical Distribution of the Chiro-
ptera ;—Recent Improvements in the Port of Dublin;—Report on Mathematical
Tables ;—Eleventh Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Explora-
tion of the Fermanagh Caves ;—Sixth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland ;—Report on the present state of our Knowledge of the Crus-
tacea (Part IV.) ;—Report on two Caves in the neighbourhood of Tenby ;—Report on
the Stationary Tides in the English Channel and in the North Sea, &c. ;—Second
Report on the Datum-level of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain ;—Report on
Instruments for measuring the Speed of Ships ;—Report of Investigations into a
Common Measure of Value in Direct Taxation ;—Report on Sunspots and Rainfall ;
—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Sixth Report on the Exploration
of the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave) ;—Report on the Kentish Boring Exploration ;—
Fourth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Jurassic, New Red
Sandstone, and Permian Formations, with an Appendix on the Filtration of Water
through Triassic Sandstone ;—Report on the Effect of Propellers on the Steering of
Vessels.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Spottiswoode’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe FORTY-NINTH MEETING, at Sheffield,
August 1879, Published at £1 4s.

CONTENTS :—Report on the commencement of Secular Experiments upon the
Elasticity of Wires ;—Fourth Report of the Committee for determining the Mechan-
ical Equivalent of Heat ;—Report of the Committee for endeavouring to procure
reports on the Progress of the Chief Branches of Mathematics and Physics;—Twelfth
Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report on Mathematical Tables ;—Sixth
Report on the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks ;—Report on Observations
of Atmospheric Electricity at Madeira ;—Report on the Calculation of Tables of the
Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms ;—Report on the Calculation of Sun-
Heat Coefficients ;—Second Report on the Stationary Tides in the English Channel
and in the North Sea, &c. ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report
on the question of Improvements in Astronomical Clocks ;—Report of the Committee
for improving an Instrument for detecting the presence of Fire-damp in Mines ;—
Report on the Chemistry of some of the lesser-known Alkaloids, especially Veratria
and Beeberine ;—Seventh Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ire-
land ;—Fifteenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report on certain Caves in Borneo ;—
Fifth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Jurassic, Red Sand-
stone, and Permian Formations of England ;—Report on the Tertiary (Miocene)
Flora, &c., of the Basalt of the North of Ireland;—Report on the possibility of
Establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Report on
the Marine Zoology of Devon and Cornwall ;—Report on the Occupation of a Table
at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report on Excavations at Portstewart and
elsewhere in the North of Ireland ;—Report of the Anthropometric Committee ;—
Report on the Investigation of the Natural History of Socotra ;—Report on Instru-

824

ments for measuring the Speed of Ships ;—Third Report on the Datum-level of the
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain ;—Second Report on Patent Legislation ;—On
Self-acting Intermittent Siphons and the conditions which determine the com-
mencement of their Action;—On some further Evidence as to the Range of the
Paleozoic Rocks beneath the South-east of England ;—Hydrography, Past and
Present.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Allman’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or raz FIFTIETH MEETING, at Swansea, August
and September 1880, Published at £1 4s.

CoNTENTS :—Report on the Measurement of the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity ;—
Thirteenth Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report of the Committee for
devising and constructing an improved form of High Insulation Key for Electrometer
Work ;—Report on Mathematical Tables ;—Report on the Calculation of Tables
of the Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms ;—Report on Observations of
Luminous Meteors;—Reports on the question of Improvements in Astronomical
Clocks ;—Report on the commencement of Secular Experiments on the Elasticity
of Wires ;--Sixteenth and concluding Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report on the
mode of reproduction of certain species of Ichthyosaurus from the Lias of England
and Wiirtemburg ;—Report on the Carboniferous Polyzoa ;—Report on the ‘ Geological
Record’;—Sixth Report on the Circulation -of the Underground Waters in the
Permian, New Red Sandstone, and Jurassic Formations of England, and the Quantity
and Character of the Water supplied to towns and dis'ricts from these formations ;-—
Second Report on the Tertiary (Miocene) Flora, &c., of the Basalt of the North of
Treland ;—Highth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—
Report on an Investigation for the purpose of fixing a Standard of White Light ;—
Report of the Anthropometric Committee ;—Report on the Influence of Bodily Exercise
on the Elimination of Nitrogen ;—Second Report on the Marine Zoology of South
Devon ;—Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—
Report on accessions to our knowledge of the Chiroptera during the past two years
(1878-80) ;—Preliminary Report on the accurate measurement of the specific in-
ductive capacity of a good Sprengel Vacuum, and the specific resistance of gases at
different pressures ;—Comparison of Curves of the Declination Magnetographs at
Kew, Stonyhurst, Coimbra, Lisbon, Vienna, and St. Petersburg ;—First Report on
the Caves of the South of Ireland ;—Report on the Investigation of the Natural
History of Socotra ;—Report on the German and other systems of teaching the Deaf
to speak ;—Report of the Committee for considering whether it is important that
H.M. Inspectors of Elementary Schools should be appointed with reference to their
ability for examining in the scientific specific subjects of the Code in addition to
other matters ;—On the Anthracite Coal and Coalfield of South Wales ;—Report on
the present state of our knowledge of Crustacea (Part V.) ;—Report on the best means
for the Development of Lizht from Coal-gas of different qualities (Part II.) ;— Report
on Paleontological and Zoological Researches in Mexico ;—Report on the possibility
of establishing a ‘ Close Time’ for Indigenous Animals ;—Report on the present state
of our knowledge of Spectrum Analysis;—Report on Patent Legislation ;—Pre-
liminary Report on the present Appropriation of Wages, &c. ;—Report on the present
state of knowledge of the application of Quadratures and Interpolation to Actual
Data ;—The French Deep-sea Exploration in the Bay of Biscay ;—Third Report on
the Stationary Tides in the English Channel and in the North Sea, &c. ;—List of
Works on the Geology, Mineralogy, and Paleontology of Wales (to the end of 1873) ;—
On the recent Revival in Trade.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. A. C. Ramsay’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR

THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

idk SE

OF
OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS,

CORRECTED TO JANUARY, 1882.

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OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1881-82.

PRESIDENT.
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D. F.R.S., Pres. L.S., F.G.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.
His Grace the ARCHBISHOP OF YorK, D.D., F.R.S. ) Professor G. G. Stokes, M.A. D.C.L., LL.D.,

"The Right Hon. the Lonp Mayor oF York. Sec. R.S.
‘The Right. Hon. Lord Houcuron, M.A., D.C.L., | Sir Jonn HawKsHAw, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.

E.R.S., F.R.G.S. ALLEN THOMSON, Esq., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E
‘The Ven. Archdeacon CREYKE, M.A. Professor ALLMAN, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E.,
‘The Hon. Sir W. R. Grove. M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. E.L.S.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
C. W. SIEMENS, Esq., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.1.C.B.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

The Right Hon. the Lord Mount-TEmMPLe. F, A. ABEL, Esq., C.B., F.R.S., V.P.C.S., Director of
Captain Sir F, J. Evans,K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,| the Chemical Establishment of the War Depart-

F.R.G.S., Hydrographer to the Admiralty. ment.
Colonel A. C. Cook®, R.E., C.B., F.R.G.S., Director- | Professor Dz CHAUMONT, M.D., F.R.S.

General of the Ordnance Survey. Puitie LuTLey ScLaTer, Esq., M.A., Ph.D.,

Wynpuam §, Porrat, Esq.
Professor PRESTWICH, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S.

iLOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT SOUTHAMPTON.
C, W. A. JELLICOE, Esq. JOHN E. LE FEuvreE, Esq. Morris MILEs, Esq.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT SOUTHAMPTON.
J. BLountT THOMAS, Esq.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,

F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S.

ABEL, F. A., Esq., C.B., F.R.S. Hueers, W., Esq., F.R.S.

* Apams, Professor W. G., F.R.S. HuGueEs, Professor T. McK., F.G.S8.
BATEMAN, J. F., Esq., C.E., F.R.S. JEFFREYS, J. GWYN, Esq., F.R.S.
CAYLEY, Professor, F.R.S. NEWTON, Professor A., F.R.S.

Der La RUE, WARREN, Esq., F.R.S. PENGELLY, W., Esq., F.R.S.

Evans, Captain Sir F. J., C.B., F.R.S. PERKD, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.

Evans, J., Esq., F.R.S. Pirt-RiveErs, General A., F.R.S.

Foster, Professor G. C., F.R.S. PRESTWICH, Professor, F.R.S.

GLAISHER, J. W. L., Esq., F.R.S. RAYLEIGH, Lord, F.R.S.

Harcourt A. VERNON, Esq., F.R.S. SANDERSON, Prof. J.S. BuRDON, F.R.8.
Hastines, G. W., Esq., M.P. Sorby, Dr. H. C., F.R.S.

HAWKSHAW, J. CLARKE, Esq., F.G.S. THUILLIER, Gen. Sir H. E. L., C.S.1., F.R.S.
HEYWooD, J., Esq., F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. Doucias Gatton, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W.
FRANCIS MAITLAND BALrouR, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Trinity College, Cambridge.
SECRETARY.
Professor T. G. BoNNEY, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., 22 Albemarle Street, London, W.

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., University College, London, W.C.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,

‘The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

General Sir EDwarpD SABINE, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir Joun Lupspock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres. L.S.
WILLIAM SpoTTriswoonpK, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres. R.S.

' PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
‘The-Duke of Devonshire. Sir William R. Grove, F.R.S. Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S.
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.G. Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S.
Sir G. B. Airy. Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.I. Dr. T. Andrews, F.R.S.
General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B. Prof, Stokes, M.A., D.C.L. Dr. Allen Thomson, F.R.S.
The Earl of Harrowby. Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., Pres. R.S.
The Duke of Argyll. Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, D.C.L. Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S.
Dr. Richard Owen, D.C.L. Dr. Carpenter, C.B., F.R.S. Sir A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S,

Sir W.G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. | Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.

F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., Pres. R.S. | George Griffith, Esq., M.A.
Dr.T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. Dr. Michael Foster, Sec. R.S. P. L. Sclater, Esq., F.R.S.
Gen. Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B., F.R.S.
AUDITORS. :
Dr. W. J. Russell, F.R.S. | Professor G. C. Foster, F.R.S.

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*

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT

OF SCIENCE.

1882.

* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report,
+ indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members not entitled
to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in ttalics.

Notice of changes of Residence should be sent to the Secretary, 22 Albemarle

Street, London, W.

Year of
Hlection.

1866.
1881.
1863.

1856.
1865.

1873.
1860.
1878.

1854.
1877.

1873.
1869,

1877.
1873.

ace Richard, F.R.A.S. Marlborough House, Burgess Hill,

usSeX.

tAbbott, George J., United States Consul, Sheffield and Nottingham,

*Abbott, R. T. C. Auburn Hill, Malton, Yorkshire.

*ABEL, FREDERICK Aveustus, C.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Director of the
Chemical Establishment of the War Department. Royal Arsenal,
Woolwich.

tAbercrombie, John, M.D. 15 Suffolk-square, Cheltenham.

*A BERNETHY, JAMES, M.Inst.C.H., F.R.S.E. 4 Delahay-street, West-

minster, 8. W.

tAbernethy, James. Ferry-hill, Aberdeen.

tAbernethy, Robert. Ferry-hill, Aberdeen.

*Asney, Captain W. de W., R.E., F.RS., F.R.AS., F.C.S8. 3 St.

+ Alban’s-road, Kensington, London, W.
t{Abraham, John. 87 Bold-street, Liverpool.
§Ace, Rev. Daniel, D.D., F.R.A.S. Laughton, near Gainsborough,

Lincolnshire.

tAckroyd, Samuel. Greayes-street, Little Horton, Bradford, York-
shire.

tAcland, Charles T. D. aaa Exeter.

*Acland, Francis E. Dyke, R.A. Oxford.

*Acland, Rev. H. D. Loughton, Essex.

Actanp, Henry W. D., M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.GS.,
Radcliffe Librarian and Regius Professor of Medicine in the
University of Oxford. Broad-street, Oxford.

6

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1877. *Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.A. 13 Vincent-square, Westminster,
S.W.

1860.

1872.

1876.

1871.
1879.
1877.
1869.

1873.
1879.

1865,
1864.
1871.

1842.
1871.
1859.

1871.
1862.

1861.
1872.

1859.

1873.
1858.
1850.

1867.
1859.
1871.
1871.

tActanp, Sir Tomas Dyxn, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., M.P. Sprydon-

cote, Exeter; and Athenzeum Club, London, 8.W.
Adair, John. 13 Merrion-square North, Dublin.

tApams, A. Lurry, M.A. M.B., F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Natural
History in Queen College, Cork. 18 Clarendon-gardens, Maida.
Hill, London, W.

tAdams, James. 9 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.

*Apams, JoHN Coucn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of
the Observatory and Lowndsean Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridge. The Observatory,.
Cambridge.

tAdams, John R. 35 Queen’s-gate-terrace, London, 8.W.

*Apams, Rey. THomas, M.A. Clifton Green House, York.

tApams, WitrtaM. 3 Sussex-terrace, Plymouth.

*ApAms, WiLLIam GRYLLs, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.8S., Professor
of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King’s College, London.
43 Notting Hill-square, London, W.

tAdams-Acton, John. Margutta House, 103 Marylebone-road,
London, N.W.

tAdamson, Robert, M.A., Professor of Logic and Political Economy
in Owens College, Manchester. 60 Parsonage-road, Withing-~
ton, Manchester. 5

ADDERLEY, The Right Hon. Sir Cartes Bowyrr. Hamshall,
Coleshill, Warwickshire.

Adelaide, The Right Rey. Augustus Short, D.D., Bishop of. South
Australia.

*Adkins, Henry. Northfield, near Birmingham.

*Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

*Ainsworth, John Stirling. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

Ainsworth, Peter. Smithills Hall, Bolton.

*Ainsworth, Thomas. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

tAinsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

tAreure, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T. Holly Lodge, Campden
Hill, London, W.; and Airlie Castle, Forfarshire.

Atrry, Sir George Brppett, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.5.,
F.R.A.S., The White House, Croom’s Hill, Greenwich, 8.E.
§Aitken, John, F.R.S.E. Darroch, Falkirk, N.B.
Akroyd, Edward. Bankkfield, Halifax.

tAtcocr, Sir Rurmerrorp, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. The Athe-
neum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.

tAleock, Thomas, M.D. Side Brook, Salemoor, Manchester.

*Alcock, Thomas, M.D. Oakfield, Sale, Manchester.

*Aldam, William. Frickley Hall, near Doncaster.

ALDERSON, Sir Jamus, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Consulting Phy-
sician to St. Mary’s Hospital. 17 Berkeley-square, London, W.
f{AnexanpER, General Sir Jawzus Epwarp, K.C.B., K.C.LS.,
F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Westerton, Bridge of Allan, N.B.
tAlexander, Reginald, M.D. 13 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

{ALExanDER, Witrr1aM, M.D. Halifax.

tAlexander, Rev. William Lindsay, D.D., F.R.S.E. Pinkieburn, Mus-
selburgh, by Edinburgh.

tAlison, George L. C. Dundee.

tAllan, Alexander. Scottish Central Railway, Perth.

tAllan, G., C.E. 17 Leadenhall-street, London, E.C.

§ALLEN, ALFRED H., F.C.S. 1 Surrey-street, Sheffield.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 7

Year of
Election.

1879.
1878.
1861,
1852.

1863,

1873.
1876.
1878,
1850.
1850,
1874.
1876.
1859.

1880
1875

1880
1880
1880

*Allen, Rev. A. J.C. Peterhouse, Cambridge.

tAllen, John Romilly. 5 Albert-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

tAllen, Richard. Didsbury, near Manchester.

*ArttEN, WiLLIAM J. C., Secretary to the Royal Belfast Academical
Institution. Ulster Bank, Belfast.

tAllhusen, 0. Elswick Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*ArtMAN, GroreE J., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.L. & E., MRA. F.LS.,
Emeritus Professor of Natural History in the University of
Edinburgh. Ardmoor, Parkstone, Dorset.

tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire,

tAnderson, Alexander. 1 St. James’s-place, Hillhead, Glasgow.

tAnderson, Beresford. Saint Ville, Killiney.

tAnderson, Charles William. Cleadon, South Shields.

tAnderson, John. 31 St. Bernard’s-crescent, Edinburgh.

tAnderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast.

tAnderson, Matthew. 137 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

tAnpErRson, Patrick. 15 King-street, Dundee.

.§§ Anderson, Richard. New Malden, Surrey.

. tAnderson, Captain 8., R.E. Junior United Service Club, Charles-

street, St. James's, London, S. W.

. *Anperson, Temprst, M.D., B.Sc. 17 Stonegate, York.

. §Andrew, Mrs. 126 Jamaica-street, Stepney, London, E,

. *Andrew, Thornton, M.I.C.E. Cefn Kithen, Swansea.

*AnprReEws, Tuomas, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. F.R.S.E., M.R.LA.,
F.C.S. Fortwilliam Park, Belfast.

1877. §Anextt, Jonny, F.C.S. 81 Ducie-grove, Oxford-street, Manchester.

1859, tAngus, John. Town House, Aberdeen.

1878. tAnson, Frederick H. 9 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.

Anthony, John, M.D. 6 Greenfield-crescent, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.

Apsonn, James, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.R.LA., Professor of
Mineralogy at Dublin University. South Hill, Blackrock, Co.
Dublin.

1868, tAppleby, C.J. Emerson-street, Bankside, Southwark, London, S.E.

1870. tArcher, Francis, jun. 38 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.

1855. *Arcumr, Professor Toomas C., F.R.S.E., Director of the Museum
et Science and Art, Edinburgh. West Newington House, Kdin-

urch.

1874, tArcher, William, F.R.S., M.R.I.A. St. Brendan’s, Grosvenor-road
East, Rathmines, Dublin.

1851. tAreyL, His Grace the Duke of, K.T.,D.C.L., F.R.S. L.&E., F.G.S.
Argyl! Lodge, Kensington, London, W. ; and Inveraray, Argyle-
shire.

1861. tArmitage, William. 95 Portland-street, Manchester.

1867. *Armitstead, George. Errol Park, Errol, N.B.

1879. *Armstrong, Sir Alexander, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. The
Albany, London, W.

1873. §Armstrong, Henry E., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. London Institution,
Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.

1878, tArmstrong, James. 28 Renfield-street, Glasgow.

1874.

1857.

1870.

TARTS; James T., F.C.S. 17 The Willows, Breck-road, Liver-

pool.

Armstrong, Thomas. Higher Broughton, Manchester.

*Armsrrone, Sir Winttam Groree, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
8 Great George-street, London, S.W.; and Jesmond Dene,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tArnott, Thomas Reid. Bramshill, Harlesden Green, London, N,W.

8

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

18538.
1870.
1874.
1873.
1842,

1866,

1861.
1875.

1861.
1861.
1872.

1858.
1866.
1865.
1861.
1865,

1863.
1861.
1858.
1842,

1881.
1881.

1858.
18638.

1860.

1865.
1881.
1878.

1877.

1853.

1863.
1877.
1870.
1878.
1865.
1855.

1866,

*Arthur, Rev. William, M.A. Clapham Common, London, 8.W.
*Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Holsworthy, North Devon.
tAshe, Isaac, M.B. Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
§Ashton, John. Gorse Bank House, Windsor-road, Oldham.
*Ashton, Thomas, M.D. 8 Royal Wells-terrace, Cheltenham,
Ashton, Thomas. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester.
tAshwell, Henry. Mount-street, New Basford, Nottingham.
*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors.
Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.
tAspland, Alfred. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
*Aspland, W. Gaskell. Care of Mrs. Houghton, Moorfield, Knuts-
ford:
§Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.
tAston, Theodore. 11 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
§Atchison, Arthur T., M.A. 60 Warwick-road, Earl’s Court, London,
S.W

tAtherton, Charles. Sandover, Isle of Wight.

tAtherton, J. H., F.C\S. Long-row, Nottingham.

{Athin, Alfred. Griffin's Hill, Birmingham.

Atkin, Eli. Newton Heath, Manchester.

*Arxinson, EpmMunp, Ph.D., F.C.S. Portesbery Hill, Camberley,

Surrey.

*Atkinson, G. Clayton. 21 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

tAtkinson, Rey. J. A. Longsight Rectory, near Manchester.
*Atkinson, John Hastings. 12 East Parade, Leeds.
*Atkinson, Joseph Beayingtén. Stratford House, 113 Abingdon-road,
Kensington, London, W.

§Atkinson, J. T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.

§Atkinson Robert William. Town Hall-buildings, Newcastle-on-

Tyne.

Raman William. Claremont, Southport.

*ATTFIELD, Professor J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Bloomsbury-
square, London, W.C.

*Austin-Gourlay, Rey. William E. C., M.A. The Rectory, Stanton
St. John, near Oxford.

*Avery, Thomas. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Axon, W. E. A, Fern Bank, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

*Aylmer, Sir Gerald George, Bart. Donadea Castle, Kileock, Co.

Kildare.

*Ayrton, W. E., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Physics in the City
and Guilds of London Technical College. 68 Sloane-street,
London, 8. W.

*Ayrton, W.S., F.S.A. Clitiden, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.

*BaBIncTon, CHARLES Carpat#, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. 5 Brookside,
Cambridge.

Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.
Backhouse, Thomas James. Sunderland.

tBackhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.

t{Badock, W. F. Badminton House, Clifton Park, Bristol.

§Bailey, Dr. F. J. 51 Groye-street, Liverpool.

{Bailey, John. 3 Blackhall-place, Dublin.

{Bailey, Samuel, F.G.S. The Peck, Walsall.

{Bailey, William. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolver-
hampton.

tBaillon, Andrew. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham.

Year of
Election.

1866.
1878.
1857.

1878.

1858.
1858.
1866.
1865.
1861.
1881.
1865.
1849.
1865.
1875.
1875.
1881.

1871.

1871.
1875.

1878.

1866.

1878.

1876.
1869.

1852.
1879.
1870.
1866.
1861.
1859.

1855.

1871.
1852.
1860.
1876.
1868.
1881.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 9

{Baillon, L. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham.

{Baily, Walter. 176 Haverstock-hill, London, N.W.

tBariy, Wri Herre, F.LS., F.G.S., Acting Paleontologist to
the Geological Survey of Ireland. 14 Hume-street; and Apsley
Lodge, 92 Rathgar-road, Dublin.

§Bain, Sir James. 3 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

*Bainbridge, Robert Walton. Middleton House, Middleton-in-Tees-
dale, by Darlington.

*Barnss, Sir Epwarp, J.P. Belgrave Mansions, Grosvenor-gardens,
London, 8.W.; and St. Ann’s Hill, Burley, Leeds.

{Baines, Frederick. Burley, near Leeds.

{Baines, T. Blackburn. ‘ Mercury’ Office, Leeds.

{Baker, Francis B, Sherwood-street, N ottingham.

{Baker, James P. Wolverhampton.

*Baker, John. St. John’s-road, Buxton.

§Baker, Robert, M.D. The Retreat, York.

{Baker, Robert L. Barham House, Leamington.

*Baker, William. 63 Gloucester-place, Hyde Park, London, W.

{Baker, William. 6 Taptonville, Sheffield.

*Baker, W. Mills. Moorland House, Stoke Bishop, near Bristol.

{Baxer, W. Procror. Brislington, Bristol.

§Baldwin,’ Rey. G. W. de Courcy, M.A. ~ Lord Mayor’s Walk,
York.

*Barnett, Richard, M.R.C.S. 36 High Street, Warwick.

*Batrour, Francis Marrianp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (GENERAL SEC-
RErARY.) Trinity College, Cambridge.

tBalfour, G. W. Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, Scotland.

{Bazrovur, Isaac BayxEy, D.Sc. 27 Inverleith-row, Edinburgh.

*Batrour, Joun Hurron, M.A., M.D., LL.D., E.RBS. L. & E., F.LS.
Emeritus Professor of Botany. Inyerleith House, Edinburgh.

*Ball, Charles Bent, M.D. 16 Lower Fitawilliam-street, Dublin.

*Batt, Jonny, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 10 Southwell-gardens,
South Kensington, London, 8. W.

*Baxt, Roperr Srawett, M.A., LL.D., F.RS., F.R.A.S., Andrews
Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin, and Astro-
nomer Royal for Ireland. The Observatory, Dunsink, Co.
Dublin.

{Barz, Vatenting, M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in Trinity
College, Dublin.

{ Ballantyne, James, Southcroft, Rutherglen, Glasgow.

{Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, 8. W.

{Bangor, Viscount. Castleward, Co. Down, Treland.

{Banham, H. French. Mount View, Glossop-road, Sheffield.

{BantstER, Rev. Witt1am, B.A. St. James’s Mount, Liverpool.

{Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.

*Barbour, George. Bankhead, Broxton, Chester.

{Barbour, George F. 11 George-square, Edinburgh.

*Barbour, Robert. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.

{Barclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland.

Barclay, Charles, F.S.A. Bury Hill, Dorking.

tBarclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Barclay, J. Gurney. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.

*Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.

*Barclay, Robert. 21 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

*Barclay, W. L. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.

§Barfoot, William, J.P. Whelford-place, Leicester.

10 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1863. *Barford, James Gale, F.C.S. Wellington College, Wokingham,
Berkshire.

1860. *Barkey, Rev. Arthur Alcock, B.D. East Bridgford Rectory,
Nottingham,

1879. {Barker, Elliott. 2 High-street, Sheffield.

1879. *Barker, Rey. Philip C., M.A., LL.B. Rotherham, Yorkshire.

1865. {Barker, Stephen. 30 Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1870.§§BaRK1y, Sir Henry, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 1 Bina-
eardens, South Kensington, London, 8.W.

1873. {Barlow, Crawford, B.A. 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster, S.W.

1878. {Barlow, John, M.D., Professor of Physiology in Anderson’s Col-
lege, Glasgow.

Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice (14th Regt. of Foot). 5 Great George--

street, Dublin.

1857. {Bartow, Perer WIM, F.R.S., F.G.S. 26 Great George-street,,
Westminster, S.W.

1873. §Bartow, W. H., C.E., F.R.S. 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster,.
S.W.

1861. *Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Chelten-.
ham.

1868. §Barnes, Richard H. (Care of Messrs, Collyer, 4 Bedford-row, London,.
W.C.

Barnes, Thomas Addison. Brampton Collieries, near Chesterfield.
*Barnett, Richard, M.R.C.S. 86 High-street, Warwick.
1881. §Barr, Archibald, B.Se., C.E. Castlehead, Paisley.
1859. {Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, East Grinstead, Sussex.
1861. *Barr, William R., F.GS. Fernside, Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire.
1860. {Barrett, T. B. High-street, Welshpool, Montgomery.
1872. *Barrett, W. F., F.R.S.E., M.R.1A., F.C.8., Professor of Physics
in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.
1874. {Barrington, R. M. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow.
1874. §Barrington-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. Salwarpe End, Droitwich.
1881. §Barron, G.B., M.D. Summerseat, Southport.
1866. {Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.
1858. {Barry, Rev, Canon, D.D., D.C.L., Principal of King’s College,
London, W.C.
1862. *Barry, Charles. 15 Pembridge-square, Bayswater, London, W.
1875. {Barry, John Wolfe. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
1881. §Barry, J. W. Duncombe-place, York.
Barstow, Thomas. Garrow Hill, near York.
1858. *Bartholomew, Charles. Castle Hill House, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
1855. {Bartholomew, Hugh. New Gasworks, Glasgow.
1858. *Bartholomew, William Hamond. Ridgeway House,Cumberland-road,
Headingley, Leeds.
1873. §Bartley, George C. T. St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-street,,
London, 8. W.
1868, *Barton, Edward (27th Inniskillens). Clonelly, Ireland.
1857. {Barton, Folloit W. Clonelly, Co. Fermanagh.
1852. {Barton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk.
1864. {Bartrum, John 8. 41 Gay-street, Bath.
*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.
1876. {Bassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, London, W.
1876. {Bassano, Clement. Jesus College, Cambridge.
1866. *Bassert, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, London, N.
1866. {Bassett, Richard. Pelham-street, Nottingham.
1869, {Bastard, S.S8. Summerland-place, Exeter.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 11

Year of
Election.

1871.

1848.
1873.
1868.

1842.
1864.

1852.
1851.

1881.
1869,

1863.
1861.
1867.
1867.
1867.
1868.
1851.

1866.
1875.
1876.
1860,
1872.
1870.
1855.
1861.
1871.
1859.
1864,
1860.
1866.
1870.
1858.
1878.
1873.
1874.

1873.
1871.

tBasrran, H. Cuartron, M.D., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
Pathological Anatomy at University College. 20 Queen Anne-
street, London, W.

{Bars, C. Spence, F.R.S., F.L.S. 8 Mulerave-place, Plymouth.

*Bateman, Daniel. Low Moor, near Bradford, Yorkshire.

tBateman, Frederick, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

Bareman, James, M.A., F.RS., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. 9 Hyde Park-

gate South, London, W.

*BATEMAN, JOHN FREpDERIC, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 16 Great
George-street, London, 8.W.

{Barrs, Henry Water, F.R.S., Assist.-Sec. R.G.S., F.L.S. 1 Savile-
row, London, W.

{Bateson, Sir Robert, Bart. Belvoir Park, Belfast.

tBatuH and Wetts, The Right Rev. Lord ArrHurR Hervey, Lord
Bishop of. The Palace, Wells, Somerset.

§Bather, Francis A. Red House, Roehampton, Surrey, 8. W.

tBatten, Jobn Winterbotham. 35 Palace Gardens-terrace, Kensing-
ton, London, W.

§Bavrrmayn, H., F.G.S. 41 Acre-lane, Brixton, London, 8. W.

TBaxendell, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 108 Stock-street, Manchester.

TBaxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.

tBaxter, John B. Oraig Tay House, Dundee.

tBaxter, The Richt. Hon. William Edward, M.P. Ashcliffe, Dundee.

tBayes, William, M.D. 58 Brook-street, London, W.

*Bayley, George. 16 London-street, Fenchurch-street, London,.
H.C

tBayley, Thomas. Lenton, Nottingham.
Bayly, John. Seven Trees, Plymouth.
*Bayly, Robert. Torr-crove, near Plymouth.
*Baynes, Robert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
Bazley, Thomas Sebastian, M.A. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Glou-
cestershire.
*BeateE, Lionezt §., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathological Anatomy
in King’s College. 61 Grosvenor-street, London, W.
tBeanes, Edward, F.C.S. The White House, North Dulwich, Surrey,
S.E

{Beard, Rey. Charles. 13 South-hill-road, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.

*Beatson, William. Ash Mount, Rotherham.

*Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.MLS., F.S.S. 18 Picea-
dilly, London, W.

*Beaumont, Rey. Thomas George. Chelmondiston Rectory, Ips-
wich.

*Beazley, Lieut.-Colonel George G., F.R.G.S. Army and Navy Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.

*Beck, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 31 Cornhill, London, E.C.

§Becker, Miss Lydia E. Whalley Range, Manchester.

yaageels Samuvet H., F.R.S.,F.G.8. 9 Grand-parade, St. Leonard’s-
on-Sea.

{Beddard, James. Derby-road, Nottingham.

§Brppon, Jonny, M.D., F.R.S. Clifton, Bristol.

{Bedford, James. Headingley, near Leeds.

{Bedson, P. Phillips, D.Se. Oak Leigh, Marple, near Stockport.

aaah Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York-
shire.

{Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.

tBell, A. P. Royal Exchange, Manchester.

§Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.

12 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.

1859. {Bell, George. Windsor-buildings, Dumbarton.

1860. {Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.

1855, {Bell, Capt. Henry. Chalfont Lodge, Cheltenham.

1880, §Bell, Henry Oswin. 13 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.

1879. {Bell, Henry 8. Kenwood Bank, Sharrow, Sheffield.

1862. *Be1, Isaac Lowrutay, F.R.S., F.C.S., M.LC.E. Rounton Grange,
Northallerton.

1875, {Bell, James, F.C.S. The Laboratory, Somerset House, London,
W.C

1871. *Bell, J. Carter, F.C.S. Kersal Clough, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester.

1858. {Bell, John Pearson, M.D. Waverley House, Hull.

1864. {Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.

1876. { Bell, R. Bruce. 2 Chifton-place, Glasgow.

1863. *Bell, Thomas. Crosby Court, Northallerton.

1867. {Bell, Thomas. Belmont, Dundee.

1875. {Bell, William. Witford House, Briton Ferry, Glamorganshire.

1842, Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Eagle Foundry, Manchester.

Bellingham, Sir Alan. Castle Bellingham, Ireland.

1864, *Bendyshe, T. 3 Sea-View-terrace, Margate.

1870. {Bennert, ALFRED W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Park Village East,
Regent’s Park, Londoti, N.W.

1836, {Bennett, Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.

1881. §Bennett, John R. Bedminster, Bristol.

1881. §Bennett, Rev. S. H., M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Bishophill Junior,

York.
1870. *Bennett, William. 109 Shaw-street, Liverpool.
1870. *Bennett, William, jun. Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liver-
ool, ;
1852. *pahrlach, Francis, F.S.A. 5 Tavyistock-square, London, W.C.
Benson, Robert, jun. Fairfield, Manchester.

1848. {Benson, Starling, F.G.S. Gloucester-place, Swansea.

1870. {Benson, W. Alresford, Hants.

1863. {Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1848, {BenrHamM, Georez, F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. 25 Wilton-place,
Knightsbridge, London, S.W.

1842. Bentley, John. 2 Portland-place, London, W.

1863. §BenTLEY, Ropert, F.L.S., Professor of Botany in King’s Col-
regs London. 1 Treboyir-road, South Kensineton, London,

W

1875. {Beor, Henry R. Scientific Club, Savile-row, London, W.

1876. {Bergius, Walter C. 9 Loudon-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

1868. {BrrKeLey, Rev. M. J., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Sibbertoft, Market
Harborough.

1863. {Berkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.

1881. §Berkley, H. Rorke. Prestwich, Manchester.

1848. {Berrington, Arthur V. D. Woodlands Castle, near Swansea.

1870. {Berwick, George, M.D. 36 Fawcett-street, Sunderland.

1862. {Besant, William Henry, M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge. :

1865. *Brssemur, Sir Henry, F.R.S. Denmark Hill, London, 8.E.

1858. {Best, William. Leydon-terrace, Leeds.

Bethune, Admiral, C.B., F.R.G.S. Balfour, Fifeshire.

1876, *Bettany, G. T., M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer on Botany at Guy’s Hospital,
London. 2 Eclkington-villas, Ashbourne-grove, East Dul-
wich, S.E.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 13

Year of
Election.

1880.

1859.
1874.
1863.

1870.
1863.
1864.

1877.
1881.
1873.
1879,

1880.
1866.

1871.
1868.
1866.
1877.

1881.
1869.
1834,
1876.

1877.
1859.

1876.
1855.
1870.
1878.
1863.

1849,

1846,
1878.
1861.
1881.
1869.

1880.
1870.

1859.
1859,

*Bevan, Rey. James Oliver, M.A. 72 Beaufort-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
tBeveridge, Robert, M.B. 36 King-street, Aberdeen.
*Bevington, James B. Merle Wood, Sevenoaks.
tBewick, Thomas John, F.G.S. Haydon Bridge, Northumberland.
*Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A. Shireshead Vicarage, Garstang.
{Bickerton, "A. W., F.C. 8. Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand.
tBigger, Benjamin. Gateshead, Durham.
{Biegs, Robert. 16 Green Park, Bath.
Bilton, Rey. William, M.A.,F.G.S. United Univ ersity Club, Suffolk-
street, London, 8. W.
{Binder, W. J., B.A. Barnsley.
§ Binnie, Alexander R. Town Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tBinns, J. Arthur. Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Binns, EK. Knowles. 216 Heavygate-road, Sheffield.
Birchall, Edwin, F.L.S. Douglas, Isle of Man.
Birchall, Henry. College House, Bradford,
§Bird, Henry, #.C.8. South Down, near Devonport.
*Birlin, Richard. Aspley Hall, near Nottingham.
*Birks, Rev. Thomas Rawson, M. A., Professor of Moral Philosophy in
the University of Cambridge. 6 Salisbury-villas, Cambridge.
*Biscnor, Gustav. 4 Hart-street, Bloomsbury, London, W.C.
{Bishop, John. Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich.
{Bishop, Thomas. Bramcote, Nottingham.
tBracurorp, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. Cornwood, Ivy-
bridge.
§Black, W. J. United Service Club, Edinburgh.
{Blackall, Thomas. 138 Southernhay, Exeter.
Blackburn, Bewicke. 14 Victoria-road, Kensington, London, W.
{Blackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshven, Fort William, N.B.
Blackburne, Rey. John, M.A. Yarmouth, Isle of Wight.
Blackburne, ‘Rey. John, jun., M.A. Rectory, Horton, near Chip-
enham.
tBlackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.
{Blackie, John Stewart, M.A., Professor of Greek in the University
of Edinburgh.
tBlackie, Robert. 7 Great Western-terrace, Glasgow.
*Brackiz, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S._ 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.
{Blackmore, W. Founder’ s-court, Lothbury, London, E.C.
§Blair, Matthew. Oakshaw, Paisley.
tBlake, C. Carter, D.Sc. Westminster Hospital School of Medi-
cine, Broad Sanctuary, Westminster, 8. W.
*BrakE, Henry Wottaston, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 8 Devonshire
place, Portland-place, London, W.
*Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset.
tBlakeney, Rey. Canon, M.A., D.D. The Vicarage, Sheffield.
§Blakiston, Matthew, F.R.G.S. 18 Wilton-crescent, London, S.W.
§Blamires, Thomas H. Close Hill, Lockwood, near Huddersfield.
tBlanford, W. T., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. ‘Geological Survey of
India, Caleutta.
en Rey. Lnonarp, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 19 Belmont,
ath.
§Bloxam, G. W., M.A., F.L.S. 44 Dacre-park, Lee, Kent.
{Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan-
cashire.
{Blunt, Sir Charles, Bart. Heathfield Park, Sussex.
tBlunt, Capt. Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey.

14 LIST OF MEMBERS.
_Year of
Election.
Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinburgh.
1858. *Blythe, William. Holland Bank, Church, near Accrington.
1867. {Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.
1870. {Boardman, Edward. Queen-street, Norwich.
1866. §Bogg, Thomas Wemyss. 2 East Ascent, St. Leonard's.
1859. *Bonn, Henry G., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.S.8. North End
House, Twickenham.
1871. {Bohn, Mrs. North End House, Twickenham.
1881. §Bojanowski, Dr. Victor de, Consul-General for Germany. 27
Finsbury-circus, London, E.C,
1859. {Bolster, Rev. Prebendary John A. Cork.
1876. {Bolton, J.C. Carbrook, Stirling.
Bolton, R. L. Laurel Mount, Aigburth-road, Liverpool.
1866. {Bond, Banks. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
Bond, Henry John Hayes, M.D. Cambridge.
1871. §Bonnry, Rev. Toomas Guorez, M.A., F.RS., FSA. F.GS.
Professor of Geology in University College, London. (SxEo-
RELARY.) 23 Denning-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1866. {Booker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham.
1861. §Booth, James. Elmfield, Rochdale.
1861. *Booth, William. Hollybank, Cornbrook, Manchester.
1876. {Booth, William H. Trinity College, Oxford.
1880.§§ Boothroyd, Samuel. Warley House, Southport.
1861. *Borchardt, Louis, M.D. Barton Arcade, Manchester,
1849. tBoreham, William W., F.R.A.S. The Mount, Haverhill, New-
market.
1876. *Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glasgow.
1863. {Borries, Theodore. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on- Tyne.
1876. *Bosanquet, R. H. M., M.A., F.C.S., F.R.S.A. St. John’s College,
Oxford.
*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.
1881. §Bothamley, Charles H. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
1867. §Botly, William, F.S.A. Salisbury House, Hamlet-road, Upper
Norwood, London, 8.E. vor.
1872. {Bottle, Alexander. Dover.
1868. {Bottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.
1871. *Borromiry, James Tuomson, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 2 Eton-
terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
Bottomley, William. 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington, London,
W.
1876. tBottomley, William, jun. 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington,
London, W.
1870. {Boult, Swinton. 1 Dale-street, Liverpool.
1868. {Boulton, W. 8. Norwich.
1866, §Bournz, SrepHEn, F.8.S. Abberley, Wallington, Surrey.
1872. {Bovill, William Edward. 29 James-street, Buckingham-gate,
London, 8. W. :
1870. tBower, Anthony. Bowersdale, Seaforth, Liverpool.
1881. *Bower, F. O. Elmscroft, Ripon, Yorkshire.
1867. {Bower, Dr. John. Perth.
1856. *Bowlby, Miss F. E. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.
1880. §Bowly, Christopher. Cirencester.
1863. {Bowman, R. Benson. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Bowman, Wi1t1AM, F.R.S., F.R.C.S. 5 Clifford-street, London, W
1869. tBowring, Charles T. Elmsleigh, Prince’s-park, Liverpool.
1863. {Boyd, Edward Fenwick. Moor House, near Durham.
1871. {Boyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 16

‘Year of
Election.

1865.
1872.
1869.
1870.

1880.
1861.
1857.

1863.

1862.

1880.
1875.
1864.
1870.
1864.
1879.
1865,

1872.
1867.
1861.
1852.

1857.
1869.

1873.
1868.
1877.
1881.
1860,
1866.
1875.
1867.
1870.
1870.
1879.
1870.
1866.
1863.

1870.
1868.
1879.

1879.
1878,

{Boyrz, The Very Rey. G. D., M.A., Dean of Salisbury. The
Deanery, Salisbury.

*Brasrook, KH. W., F.S.A., Dir. A.I. 28 Abingdon-street, West-
minster, S, W.

*Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Cathcart House, Cathcart-road,

London, 8.W
tBrace, Edmund. 3 Spring-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
Bracebridge, Charles Holt, F.R.G.S. The Hall, Atherstone, War-
wickshire.

§Bradford, H. Stretton House, Walters-road, Swansea.

“Bradshaw, William. Slade House, Green-walk, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Brady, Cheyne, M.R.ILA. Trinity Vicarage, West Bromwich.

Brady, Daniel F., M.D. 5 Gardiner’s-row, Dublin.

{Brapy, Guorer S., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in
the College of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 22 Faw-
cett-street, Sunderland.

§Brapy, Henry Bowmay, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S, Hillfield, Gates-
head.

*Brady, Rey. Nicholas, M.A. Wennington, Essex.

{Bragge, William, F.S.A., F.G.S. Shirle Hill, Birmingham.

§Braham, Philip, F.C.S. 6 George-street, Bath.

{Braidwood, Dr. Delemere-terrace, Birkenhead.

§Braikenridge, Rev. George Weare, M.A., F.L.S. Clevedon, Somerset.

{Bramley, Herbert. Claremont-crescent, Sheffield.

§BramweEt, Sir Freperick J., M.LC.E., F.R.S. 37 Great George-
street, London, 8.W.

{Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton,

{Brand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.

*Brandreth, Rey. Henry. Dickleburgh Rectory, Scole, Norfolk.

{Brazier, Jamus S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in Marischal
College and University of Aberdeen.

tBrazill, Thomas. 12 Holles-street, Dublin.

“BREADALBANE, The Right. Hon. the Earl of. Taymouth Castle,
N.B.; and Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.

§Breffit, Edgar. 83 Upper Thames-street, London, E.C.

{Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.

{Brent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth.

*Brett, Alfred Thomas, M.D. Watford House, Watford.

{Brett,G. Salford.

{Brettell, Thomas (Mine Agent). Dudley.

§Briant, T. Hampton Wick, Kingston-on-Thames.

{Bripeman, WILLIAM KEncetEy. 69 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

*Bridson, Joseph R. Belle Isle, Windermere.

tBrierley, Joseph, C.E. New Market-street, Blackburn.

§Brierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth.

“Brice, Joun. Broomfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.

*Briggs, Arthur. Cragg Royd, Rawdon, near Leeds.

*Bricut, Sir Cuartes Tirsron, C.E., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
20 Bolton-gardens, London, 8.W.

tBright, H. A., M.A., F.R.G.S. Ashfield, Knotty Ash.

BrieHr, The Right Hon. Joun, M.P. Rochdale, Lancashire.
tBrine, Commander Lindesay. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mail,
London, S.W. t

tBrittain, Frederick. Taptonville-crescent, Sheffield.

*Brirrain, W. H. Storth Oaks, Ranmoor, Sheffield.

Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum,

London, W.C.

16

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1859.
1865.

1853.
1878.

*Bropuurst, BERNARD Epwarp, F.R.C.S., F.L.S. 20 Grosyenor-
street, Grosvenor-square, London, W.

{Broprs, Rey. Purrr Brrrenenr, M.A., F.G.S. Rowington Vicar-
age, near Warwick.

tBromby, J. H., M.A. The Charter House, Hull.

*Brook, George, F.L.S. Fernbrook, Huddersfield, Yorkshire.

1880.§§Brook, G. B. Brynsyfi, Swansea.

1881.
1855.
1864,
1855.
1878.

1863.
1846.

1874.
1847.
1863.

1867.
1855.
1871.
1863.
1881.
1870.

1870.

1876.
1881.
1859.
1874.
1863.
1871.

1868.

1855.
1850.
1865.
1879,

1866.
1862.
1872.

1875.
1865.
1865.
1855.
1863.
1863.
1875.

§Brook, Robert G. Rowen-street, St. Helen’s, Lancashire.

tBrooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.

*Brooke, Rev. J. Ingham. Thornhill Rectory, Dewsbury.

tBrooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.

{Brooke, Sir Victor, Bart., F.L.S. Colebruok, Brookeborough, Co.

Fermanagh.

{Brooks, John Crosse. Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Brooks, Thomas. Cranshaw Hall, Rawtenstall, Manchester.

Brooks, William. Ordfall Hill, East Retford, Nottinghamshire.

{Broom, William, 20 Woodlands-terrace, Glasgow.

{Broome, O. Edward, F.L.S. Elmhurst, Batheaston, near Bath.

*Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.S., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Belgrave-
crescent, Edinburgh.

tBrown, Charles Gage, M.D. 88 Sloane-street, London, S.W.

tBrown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.

tBrown, David. 93 Abbey-hill, Edinburgh.

*Brown, Rev. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.

§Brown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.

§Brown, Horacz T. The Bank, Burton-on-Trent.

Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.

*Brown, J. Campsent, D.Sc., F.C.S. Royal Infirmary School of
Medicine, Liverpool.

§Brown, John. Osborne Park, Belfast.

*Brown, John, M.D. 66 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.

+Brown, Rev. John Crombie, LL.D., F.L.S. Berwick-on-Tweed.

tBrown, John S. Edenderry, Shaw’s Bridge, Belfast.

tBrown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

+{Brown, Rosurt, M.A., Ph.D., F.LS., F.R.GS. 26 Guildford-
road, Albert-square, London, 8. W.

{Brown, Samuel. Grafton House, Swindon, Wilts.

*Brown, Thomas. Evesham Lawn, Pittville, Cheltenham.

*Brown, William. 11 Maiden-terrace, Dartmouth Park, London, N.

tBrown, Wiliam. 33 Berkeley-terrace, Glasgow.

{Brown, William, F.R.S.E. 25 Dublin-street, Edinburgh.

{Brown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham.

tBrowne, J. Crichton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 7 Cumberland-terrace,
Regent's Park, London, N.W.

*Browne, Rev. J. H. Lowdham Vicarage, Nottingham.

*Browne, Robert Clayton, jun., B.A. Browne’s Hill, Carlow, Ireland.

{Browne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Northside, St. John’s, Sevenoaks,
Kent.

{ Browne, Walter R. Bridgwater.

*Browne, William, M.D. The Friary, Lichfield.

tBrowning, John, F.R.A.S. 63 Strand, London, W.C.

{Brownlee, James, jun. 380 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.

*Brunel, H. M. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.

{Brunel, J. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.

*Brunlees, James, C.K, F.G.S, 5 Vietoria-street, Westminster,
S.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. qe

Year of
Klection.

1875.
1868.

1878.
1877.
1875.
1875.
1861.

1859.
1867.

1871.
1867.

1881.
1871.
1864.

1865.
1848,

1880,
1869.
1851.

1848.
1875.
1871.
1881.
1845,

1865.
1863.

1842,
1875.
1869,
1881.

1874.
1876,
1859.
1877.
1881.
1881.
1860.
1877.
1874,
1866.
1879.

{Brunlees, John. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, 8. W.
tBrounton, T. LaupEr, M.D., F.R.S. 50 Welbeck-street, London,
W

§Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil.

tBryant, George. 82 Claverton-street, Pimlico, London, S.W.

tBryant, G. Squier. 15 White Ladies’-road, Clifton, Bristol,

ta Miss 8. A. The Castle, Denbigh.

{Bryce, James. York-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

Bryce, Rev. R. J., LL.D. , Principal of Belfast Academy. Belfast.

{Bryson, William Gillespie. Cullen, Aberdeen.

{BuccLtevcH AND QUEENSBERRY, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., D.C.L.,
ERS. L. & E., F.L.8. Whitehall-gardens, London, 8. W.; and
Dalkeith House, Edinburgh.

§BucHan, ALEXANDER, M.A., F.B.S. K., Sec. Scottish Meteorological
Society. 72 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.

tBuchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.

BucHanan, ANDREW, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine
in the University of Glasgow. 4 Ethol-place, Glasgow.

Buchanan, Archibald. Catrine, Ayrshire.

Buchanan, D. C. Poulton-cum-Seacombe, Cheshire,

§Buchanan, J. H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk.

{Bucnanan, Joon Youne. 10 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

§BucktE, Rev. Grorer, M.A. The Rectory, Weston-super-
Mare.

*Buckley, Henry. 27 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*BuckMan, Professor Jamzs, F.L.S., F.G.S. Bradford Abbas, Sher-
borne, Dorsetshire.

§Buckney, Thomas, F.R.A.S. Little Thurlow, Suffolk.

t{Bucknill, J. C., M.D., F.R.S. 39 Wimpole-street, London, W.

*Buckton, GrorcE Bowpter, F.R.S., F.L.8., F.C.S. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey.

*Bupp, JAMES PALMER. Yetalyfera Tron Works, Swansea.

§Budgett, Samuel. Cotham House, Bristol.

tBulloch, Matthew. 4 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.

§Bulmer, T, P. Mount-villas, York.

*Bunbury, Sir CHARLEs JAMES Fox, Bart., F.R.S., F.L.8., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. Barton Hall, Bury St. Edmunds.

tBunce, John Mackray. ‘ Journal’ Office, New-street, Birming-
ham.

§Bunning, T. Wood. Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Burd, John. 5 Gower-street, London, W.C.

{Burder, John, M.D. 7 South-parade, Bristol.

tBurdett-Coutts, Baroness. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, Loadon, W.

§Burdett-Coutts, W. L. A. B. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, Lon-

don, W.

{Burdon, Henry, M.D. Clandeboye, Belfast.

tBurnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

{Burnett, Newell. Belmont-street, Aberdeen.

{Burns, David, C.E. Alston, Carlisle.

§Burnure, William. Harlow, Essex. —

§Burroughs, 8. M. 7 Snow-hill, London, F.C.

Burrows, Montague, M.A. , Professor of Modern History, Oxford.

tBurt, J. Kendall. Kendal.

{Burt, Rev. J. T. Broadmoor, Berks.

*Burron, Freprrick M., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough.

tBury, Perey B. Cambridge.

B

18 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1864, {Bush, W. 7 Circus, Bath.
Bushell, Christopher. Royal Assurance-buildings, Liverpool.
1855. *Busk, Grorex, F.R.S., F.L.8., F.G.S. 32 Harley-street, Caven-
dish-square, London, W.
1878. {BurcnEr, J. G., M.A. 22 Coilingham-place, London, S.W.
1872. {Buxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.
1870. {Buxton, David, Ph.D. 298 Regent-street, London, W.
1868. {Buxton, 8. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.
1881. §Buxton, Sydney. 7 Grosvenor-crescent, London, 8.W.
1872. {Buxton, Sir T. Fowell, Bart. Wazrlies, Waltham Abbey, Essex.
1854, {ByzErtey, Isaac, F.L.S. Seacomhe, Liverpool.
Byng, William Bateman. 2 Bank-street, Ipswich.
1852. {Byrne, Very Rey. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh.
1875.§ §Byrom, W. Ascroft, F.G.S. 31 Kine-street, Wigan.

1863. {Cail, Richard. Beaconsfield, Gateshead.

1858, *Caine, Rey. William, M.A. Christ Church Rectory, Denton, near
Manchester.

1863. {Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.

1876. {Caird, Edward B. 8 Scotland-street, Glasgow.

1861. *Caird, James Key. 8 Macdalene-road, Dundee.

1855. *Caird, James Tennant. LBelleaire, Greenock.

1875. {Caldicott, Rey. J. W., D.D. The Grammar School, Bristol.

1877. {Caldwell, Miss. 2 Victoria-terrace, Portobello, Edinburgh.

1868. {Caley, A. J. Norwich.

1868. {Caley, W. Norwich.

1857. {Callan, Rev. N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth
College.

1853. {Calver, Captain E. K., R.N., F.R.S. The Grange, Redhill, Surrey.

1876, {Cameron, Ghinrles, M.D., LL.D., M.P. 1 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow.

1857. {Cammron, Cuartys A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.

1870. {Cameron, John, M.D, 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

1881. §Cameron, Major-General, C.B. 3 Dritteld-terrace, York.

1857. *Campbell, Dugald, F.C.S. 7 Quality-court, Chancery-lane, London,
W.C.

1874. *Camesett, Sir Groren, K.C.8.1., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. 13 Corn-
wall-gardens, South Kensington, London, S.W.; and Eden-
wood, Cupar, Fife.

Campbell, Sir Hugh P. H., Bart. 10 Hill-street, Berkeley-square,
London, W.; and Marchmont House, near Dunse, Berwick-
shire.

1876. {Campbell, James A. 3 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh.

1872. {Campsett, Rey. J. R., D.D. 5 Eldon-place, Manningham-lane,
Bradford, Yorkshire.

1859. {Campbell, William. Dunmore, Argyllshire.

1871. {Campbell, William Hunter, LL.D. Georgetown, Demerara, British
Guiana. (Messrs. Ridgway & Sons, 2 Waterloo-place, London,
S.W.)

CaMPBELL-J omNSTON, ALEXANDER Ropert, F.R.S. 84 St. George’s-
square, London, 8. W.

1876. §Campion, Frank, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. The Mount, Duffield-road, Derby.

1862. *Campron, Rey. Dr. Wint1am M. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

1868. *Cann, William. 9 Southernhay, Exeter.

1880.§§Capper, Robert. Cwm Donkin, Swansea.

1873. *Carbutt, Edward Hamer, M.P., C.E. 19 Hyde Park-gardens,
London, W.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 19

’ Election.

1877.
1876,

186].
1867.
1867.
1876.
1871.
1871.
1854,
1845.

*Carew, William Henry Pole. Antony, Torpoint, Devonport.

{Carkeet, John, O.E. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.

{Carlile, Thomas. 5 St. James’s-terrace, Glasgow.

CaR.isLE, The Right Rey. Harvey Goopwiy, D.D., Lord Bishop of.

Carlisle.

tCarlton, James. Mosley-street, Manchester.

{Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.

{tCarmichael, George. 11 Dudhope-terrace, Dundee.

{tCarmichael, Neil, M.D. 22 South Cumberland-street, Glasgow.

{CarpmntEerR, CHARLES. Brunswick-square, Brighton.

*Carprnter, P, Herbert, M.A. Eton College, Windsor.

{Carpenter, Rey. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport.

TCaRPENTER, WILLIAM B., C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.
56 Regent’s Park-road, London, N. W.

. §Carprenter, WitLtsm Lant, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.8. 56 Regent’s Park-

road, London, N.W.

. {Carruruers, WriiiaM, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S. British Museum,

London, W.C.
*Carson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., M.R.I.A. 18 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
tCarrs, ArpxanpEerR, M.D. Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.
{Carteighe, Michael, F.C.S. 172 New Bond-street, London, W.

. {Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.
. {Carter, Richard, C.E., F.G.S. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, York-

shire.

. {Carter, Dr. William. 62 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool.
. *Cartwright, E. Henry. Magherafelt Manor, Co. Derry.

§Cartwright, Joshua, A.I.C.E., Borough Surveyor. Bury, Lancashire.

tCarulla, Facundo, F.A.S.L. Care of Messrs. Daglish and Co., 8
Harrington-street, Liverpool.

{Cary, Joseph Henry. Newmarket-road, Norwich.

TCasella, L. P., F.R.A.S. 147 Holborn Bars, London, E.C.

. [Casey, John, LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Professor of Higher Mathe-

matics in the Catholic University of Ireland. 2 Iona-terrace,
South Cireular-road, Dublin.

. {Cash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry.
. *Cash, William, F.G.S. 388 Elmfield-terrace, Saville Park, Halifax.

Castle, Charles. Clifton, Bristol.

. {Caton, Richard, M.D., Lecturer on Physiology at the Liverpool

Medical School. 18a Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

. [Cator, John B., Commander R.N. 1 Adelaide-street, Hull.

{Catto, Robert. 44 King-street, Aberdeen.
*Cayendish, Lord Frederick, M.P. 21 Carlton House-terrace, London,
S.W

: tCawley, Charles Edward. The Heath, Kirsall, Manchester.
. §Caytey, Arruur, LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S., Sadlerian Professor

of Mathemathics in the University of Cambridge. Garden
House, Cambridge.
Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire.
*Cecil, Lord Sackville. Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent.

. §Chadburn, Alfred. Brincliffe Rise, Sheffield.
. {Chadburn, C. H. Lord-street, Liverpool.
. *Chadwick, Charles, M.D. Lynncourt, Broadwater Down, Tunbridge

Wells.

. {Cuapwickx, Davip, The Poplars, Herne Hill, London, 8.E,

Cuapwicxk, Epwin, 0.B. Richmond, Surrey.
B 2

20 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
lection.

1859. tCOhadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester.

*CHattis, Rev. Jamzs, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian Professor of
Astronomy in the University of Cambridge. 2 Trumpington-
street, Cambridce.

1859. {Chalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.

1865. {CuamperLarn, J.H. Christ Church-buildings, Birmingham.

1842. Chambers, George. High Green, Sheffield.

1868. {Chambers, W. O. Lowestoft, Suffolk.

1877. *Champernowne, Arthur, M.A., F.G.S. Dartington Hall, Totnes,
Devon.

*Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York.

1881. *Champney, John E. Woodlands, Halifax.

1865. tChance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1865. *Chance, James T, 51 Prince’s-gate, London, S.W.

1865. {Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1861. *Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S.__Frewen Hall, Oxford.

1877. §Chapman, T. Algernon, M.D. Burghill, Hereford.

1866. {Chapman, William. The Park, Nottingham.

1871. sChevpel William, F.S.A. Strafford Lodge, Oatlands Park, Wey-

ridge Station.

1874. tCharles, John James, M.A., M.D. 11 Fisherwick-place, Belfast.

1871. {Charles, T. C., M.D. Queen's College, Belfast.

1836. CHARLEsWwortH, Epwarp, F.G.S. 277 Strand, London, W.C.

1874. {Charley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland.

1863. tCharlton, Edward, M.D. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1866. {Caarnocx, Ricwarp SrepHen, Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. Junior
Garrick Club, Adelphi-terrace, London, W.C.

Chatto, W. J. P. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, 8.W.

1867. *Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S. Inrwell House, Drinkwater Park,
Prestwich.

1864. {Cunapitz, W.B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hyde Park-place, Cum-

berland-gate, London, 8. W.

1874. *Chermside, Lieutenant H.C., R.E. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co.,
Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, London, 8. W.

1879. *Chesterman, W. Broomsgrove-road, Sheffield.

1879. t{Cheyne, Commander J.P., R.N. 1 Westgate-terrace, West Bromp-

ton, London, 8. W.
1872. §CurcuEstER, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Stanmer House, Lewes.
CurcnEstER, The Right Rev. RrcHarp Durnrorp, D.D., Lord

Bishop of. Chichester.

1865. *Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Cowley House, Oxford.

1842. *Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-grove, Plymouth-grove, Manchester.

1863. {Cholmeley, Rev. C. H. Dinton Rectory, Salisbury.

1859. {Christie, John, M.D. 46 School-hill, Aberdeen.

1861. {Christie, Professor R. C., M.A. 7 St. James’s-square, Manchester.

Crristison, Sir Rozert, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.E., Professor

of Dietetics, Materia Medica, and Pharmacy in the University
of Edinburgh. Edinburgh.

1875. igs ae George, F.C.S. 8 Rectory-grove, Clapham, London,

.W.

1876. *CurystaL, G., B.A., Professor of Mathematics. 15 Chalmers-
street, Edinburgh.

1870. §CauRcH, A. H., M.A., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry to the

ae Academy of Arts, London. Royston House, Kew,

urrey.

1860, ee William Selby, M.A. St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London,
E.C.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 21

Year of

Election,

1881.

1857.
1868.
1865.
1869.
1857.

1859.
1877.

1876.
1876.
i861.

1855.
1865.
1875.

1872.
1881.
1875.
1861.
1877.
1851.

1861.

1856,
1866.
1850.
1859.
1875.

1861.

1854.
1878.

§ChurchiJl, Lord Alfred Spencer, F.R.G.S. 16 Rutland-gate, Lon-
don, S.W.
tChurchill, F., M.D. Ardtrea Rectory, Stewartstown, Co. Tyrone.
JClabburn, W. H. Thorpe, Norwich.
tClapham, Henry. 5 Summerhill-grovye, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tClapp, Frederick. 44 Magdalen-street, Exeter.
fClarendon, Frederick Villiers. 1 Belvidere-place, Mountjoy-square,
Dublin.
{Clark, David. Coupar Angus, Fifeshire.
*Clark, F. J. Street, Somerset.
Clark, G. T. 44 Berkeley-square, London, W.
tClark, George W. Glasgow.
tClark, Dr. John. 138 Bath-street, Glaszow.
{Clark, Latimer. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-street, London,
S.W.
tClark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.
{Clarke, Rey. Charles. Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tClarke, Charles S. 4 Worcester- terrace, Clitton, Bristol.
Clarke, George. Mosley-street, Manchester.
*CLARKE, Hypr. 32 St. George’s-square, Pimlico, London, 8. W.
§Clarke, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. 20 Bootham, York.
{CLARKE, I oun Hryry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
*Clarke, John Hope. Lark Hill House, Edgeley, Stockport.
{Clarke, Professor John W. - University of Chicago, Illinois.
{Crarxe, Josuva, F.L.S. Fairycroft, Saffron Walden.
Clarke, Thomas, M.A. JXnedlington Manor, Howden, Yorkshire.
tClay, Charles, M.D. 101 Piccadilly, Manchester.
*Clay, Joseph Travis, I'.G.S. Rastrick, near Brighouse, Yorkshire.
*Clay, Colonel William. The Slopes, Wallasea, Cheshire.
tClayden, P. W. 15 Tavistock-square, London, W.C.
{CrzcHorn, Hueu, M.D.,F.L.8. Stravithie, St. Andrews, Scotland.
tCleghorn, John. Wick.
{Clegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire.
§CLELAND, Joun, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the Univer-
sity of Glasgow. 2 College, Glasgow.

. [Clements, Henry. Dromin, Listowel, Ireland.

{Clerk, Rev. D. M. Deverill, Warminster, Wiltshire.

. §Cliff, John, F.G.8. Linnburn, Ilkley, near Leeds.
. *CLIFION, R. Beriaxy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-

mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Portland
Lodge, Park Town, Oxford.
Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.
tClose, The Very Rev. Francis, M.A., D.D., eae of Carlisle.
§Close, Rev. Maxwell H., F.G. 8. 40 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.

1866.§§CrLosr, THomas, FSA. St. James’s-street, Nottingham.

1873.
1859.

1861.
1863.
1881.

1868.
1855,
1855.

1851.

{Clough, John. Bracken Bank, Keizhley, Yorkshire.
{Clouston, Rey. Charles. Sandwick, Orkney.
*Clouston, Peter. 1 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
*Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklineton.
*Clutton, William James. The Mount, York.
tCoaks, J. B. Thorpe, Norwich.
*Coats, Sir Peter. Woodside, Paisley.
*Coats, Thomas. Fergeslie House, Paisley.
Cobb, Edward. 18 Great Bedford-street, Bath.
*Connorp, Joun CHEVALLIER. Holywells, Ipswich ; and Atheneum
Club, London, 8. W.

22 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1864, tCopsotp, T. Spencer, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany
and Helminthology in the Royal Veterinary College, London.
74 Portsdown-road, Maida Hill, London, W.
1864. *Cochrane, James Henry. Lochiar, Cork.
1861. *Coe, Rey. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Highfield, Manchester-road,
Bolton.
1881. §Coffin, Walter Harris, F.C.S. 94 Cornwall-gardens, South Ken-
sington, London, 8. W.
1865. {Coghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme.
1876. {Colbourn, E. Rushton. 5 Marchmont-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1853. {Colchester, William, F.G.S. Springfield House, Ipswich.
1868. {Colchester, W. P. Bassingbourn, Royston.
1879. {Cole, Skelton. 387 Glossop-road, Sheffield.
1876. {Colebrooke, Sir T, E., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. 14 South-street, Park-
lane, London, W.; and Abington House, Abington, N.B.
1860. {Coleman, J. J., F.C.S. 69 St. George’s-place, Glasgow.
1878. {Coles, John, Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S. 1 Savile-row,
London, W.
1854. *Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.
1857. {Colles, William, M.D. 21 Stephen’s-ereen, Dublin.
1869, {Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.
1854. {CoLtinewoop, Curmsrrt, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 2 Gipsy Hill-
villas, Upper Norwood, Surrey, 8.E.
1861. *Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. | Anthropological Institute, 4 St.
Martin’s-place, London, W.C.
1865. *Collins, James Tertius. Churehfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1876. §Cottins, J. H., F.G.S. 57 Lemon-street, Truro, Cornwall.
1876. {Collins, William. 3 Park-terrace East, Glasgow.
1868. *Cotman, J. J..M.P. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon-
street, London, E.C.
1870. {Coltart, Robert. The Hollies, Aigburth-road, Liverpool.
1874. {Combe, James. Ormiston House, Belfast.
*Compron, The Ven. Lord Anwyn, Dean of Worcester. The Deanery,
Worcester.
1846. *Compton, Lord William. 145 Piccadilly, London, W.
1852. {Connal, Michael. 16 Lynedock-terrace, Glasgow.
1871. *Connor, Charles C. Hope House, College Park East, Belfast.
1881. §Conroy, Sir John, Bart. Arborfield, Reading, Berks.
1876. {Cook, James. 162 North-street, Glascow.
1876, *Cooxr, Conrad W.,C.E. 5 Westminster-chambers, London, 8.W.
1881. §Cooke, F. Bishophill, York.
1868. {Cooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.
Cooke, James R., M.A. 73 Blessington-street, Dublin.
Cooke, J. B. Cavendish-road, Birkenhead.
1868. {Cooxn, M. C., M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, London, N.
1878. {Cooke, Samuel, M.A., F.G.S. Poona, Bombay.
1881. §Cooke, Thomas. Bishophill, York.
1859. *Cooke, William Henry, M.A., Q.C., F.S.A. 42 Wimpole-street,
London, W.; and Rainthorpe Hall, Long Stratton.
1865. {Cooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.
1863. {Cookson, N. C. Benwell Tower, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
1869. §Cooling, Edwin, F.R.G.S. Mile Ash, Derby.
1850. {Coopmr, Sir Hunry, M.D. 7 Charlotte-street, Hull.
Cooper, James. 58 Pembridge-villas, Bayswater, London, W.
1879.§§Cooper, Thomas. Rose Hill, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
1868. tCooper, W. J. The Old Palace, Richmond, Surrey.
1846. {Cooper, William White, F.R.C.S. 19 Berkeley-square, London, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

ts
we)

Year of
Election.

1878.
1868.
1881.
1863.
1842.
1855.

1881.
1870.

1857.
1855.
1874.

1864.

1869.
1879.
1876.
1876.
1874.
1834.
1876.

1863.
1863.
1872.
1873.

1871.
1860.

1867.
1867,
1867.
1870,
1867.
1867.
1866.

1876.
1857.
1879.
1858.
1876,
1871.

1871.

1871.
1870.

{Cope, Rev. 8. W. Bramley, Leeds.

tCopeman, Edward, M.D. Upper King-street, Norwich.

§Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holeate-lane, York.

{Coppin, John. North Shields.

Corbett, Edward. Ravenoak, Cheadle-hulme, Cheshire.

{Corbett, Joseph Henry, M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology
in Queen’s College, Cork.

§Cordeaux, John, Great Cotes, Uleeby, Lincolnshire.

*Corrintp, W. H., M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiéne
and Public Health in University College. 10 Bolton-row,
Mayfair, London, W.

Cory, Rey. Robert, B.D., F.C.P.S. Stanground, Peterborough.
Cottam, George. 2 Winsley-street, London, W.

{Cottam, Samuel. Brazenose-street, Manchester.

{Cotterill, Rey. Henry, Bishop of Edinburgh. Edinburgh.

*Cotterill, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechanics. Royal
Nayal College, Greenwich, S.E.

{Corron, General Freprrick C., R.E., C.S.1. 13 Longridge-road,
Earl’s Court-road, London, 8. W.

{Corron, Witttam. Pennsylvania, Exeter.

§Cottrill, Gilbert I. Shepton Mallett, Somerset.

TCouper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

{Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

tCourtauld, John M. Bocking Bridge, Braintree, Essex.

{Cowan, Charles. 38 West Register-street, Edinburgh.

{Cowan, J. B., M.D. Helensburgh, N.B.

Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.

tCowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.

{Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.

*Cowan, Thomas William. Comptons Lea, Horsham.

*Cowans, John. Cranford, Middlesex.

Cowie, The Very Rey. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., B.D., Dean of Man-
chester. The Deanery, Manchester.

tCowper, C. E. 8 Great George-street, Westminster, 8,W.

fCowper, Edward Alfred, M.1.C.E. 6 Great George-street, West-
minster, 8. W.

*Cox, Edward. 18 Windsor-street, Dundee.

*Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.

tCox, James. Clement Park, Lochee, Dundee.

*Cox, James. 8 Fallmer-square, Liverpool.

*Cox, Thomas Hunter. Duncarse, Dundee.

tCox, William, Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee.

*Cox, William H. 150 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

Craig, J. T. Gibson, F.R.S.E. 24 York-place, Edinburgh.

{Cramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B.

tCrampton, Rey. Josiah. Nettlebeds, near Oxford.

{Crampton, Thomas Russell. 18 Victoria-street, London, S.W.

{Cranage, Edward, Ph.D, The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire.

{Crawford, Chalmond. Ridemon, Crosscar.

*CRAWFORD AND BAtcarres, The Right Hon. the Earl of, F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S. 47 Brook-street, London, W.

ee William Caldwell, M.A. 27 Ziecelhaiiser-strasse, Heidel-

erg.

{Crawshaw, Edward. Burnley, Lancashire.

*Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Cathedine, Bwlch, Breconshire.

1879.§§Creswick, Nathaniel. Handsworth Grange, near Sheffield.

1876,

*Crewdson, Rev. George. St. George’s Vicarage, Kendal.

24

LIST OF MEMBERS.

lection.
CreykE, The Venerable Archdeacon, M.A. Bolton Perey Rectory,
Tadcaster.
1880. *Crisp, pen B.A., LL.B. 5 Lansdowne-road, Notting Hill, Lon-
don, V
1858. {Crofts, thn Hillary-place, Leeds.

1878.
1859.

1857.

1866.

1870.
1865.

1879.
1855.
1870.
1870.
1870.

186].
1868.
1867.

1855.
1870.
1871.
1866.
1861.
1863.
1860.
1859.
1873.

§Croke, John O'Byrne, M.A. The French College, Blackrock,
Dublin.

tCroll, A. A. 10 Coleman-street, London, E.C.

{tCrolly, Rev. George. Maynooth’ College, Treland.

{Cronin, William. 4 Brunel-terrace, Nottingham.

tCrookes, Joseph. Marlborough House, Brook Green, Hammersmith,
London, W.

§CrookzEs, WittraM, F.R.S., F.C.S. 7 Kensington Park-gardens,
London, W.

{Crookes, Mrs. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, London, W.

tCropper, Rev. John. Wareham, Dorsetshire.

tCrosfield, C. J. 16 Alexandra-drive, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

tCrosfield, William,sen. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.

*Crosfield, William, jun, 16 Alexandya-driv e, Prince’s Park, Liver-
pool.

{Cross, Rev. John Edward, M.A. Appleby Vicarage, near Brigg.

{Crosse, Thomas William. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

§CrosskEY, Rey. H. W., F.G.S. 28 George-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

tCrosskill, William, C.E. Beverley, Yorkshire.

*Crossley, Edward, F.R.A.S. Bemerside, Halifax.

tCrossley, Herbert. Broomfield, Halifax.

*Crossley, Louis J., F.M.S. Moorside Obser vatory, near Halifax.

§Crowley, Henry. ” ‘Trafalgar-road, Birkdale Park, Southport.

tCruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, New castle-on-Tyne.

tCruickshank, John. Aberdeen.

tCruickshank, Provost. Macduff, Aberdeen.

tCrust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding.

Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.

1878.§§Culverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin.

1859.
1874.
1861.
1861.
1877.
1852.
1869.

1855.
1850.
1866.

1881.
1867.

1857.
1878,
1881,

1865.
1854,

tCumming, Sir A. P. Gordon, Bart. Altyre.

{Cumming, Professor. 33 Wellington-place, Belfast.

*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Elms, Handforth, Manchester.

*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. The Elms, Handforth, Manchester.

tCunningham, D. J., M.D. University of Edinburgh.

t{Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.

{CunnrneHam, Roser O., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural His-
tory in Queen’s College, Belfast.

tCunningham, William A. 2 Broadwatk, Buxton.

{Cunningham, Rey. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland.

tCunnineton, John. 68 Oakley-square, Bedford New Town, London,
N.W.

§Curley, T., C.E., F.G.8S. Hereford.

*Cursetjee, Manockjee, F.R.G.S., Judge of Bombay. Villa-Byculla,
Bombay.

t{Curris, ARrauR Hitt, LL.D. 1 Hume-street, Dublin.

§Curtis, William. Caramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.

§Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depét, Belvedere-road,
Lambeth, London, S.W.

tDaglish, John. Hetton, Durham.
{Daglish, Robert, C.E. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.

Year of

Lo
cr

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1863.
1853.
1866.
1867.
1870.

1859.
1859.

1862.
1859.
1876.
1849.
1861.

1876.

1881.

1878.
1848.

1878.
1872.
1880.
1870.
1871.
1859.
1872.
1875.
1870.
1842.
1873.
1870.
1864.

1881.
1875.
1856,

1859.
1873.
1864.
1857.

1869.
1869.

1860.
1864.

tDale, J.B. South Shields.

{Dale, Rev. P. Steele, M.A. THollingfare, Warrington.

tDale, Rey. R. W. 12 Calthorpe-street, Birmingham.

{Dalgleish, W. Dundee.

{Dallinger, Rev. W. H., F.R.S. Sheffield College, Glossop-road,
Shetheld.

Dalmahoy, James, F.R.S.E. 9 Forres-street, Edinburgh.
tDalrymple, Charles Elphinstone. West Hall, Aberdeenshire.
{Dalrymple, Colonel. Troup, Scotland.

Dalton, Edward, LL.D., F.8.A. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.
*Dalton, Rey. J. E., B.D. Seagrave, Loughborough.
t{Dansy, T. W. Downing College, Cambridge.
tDancer, J. B., F.R.A.S. Old Manor House, Ardwick, Manchester.
t{Dansken, John. 4 Eldon-terrace, Partickhill, Glasgow.

*Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada.

*DarsisHtrE, Ropprt DuKrnFierp, B.A., F.G.S. 26 George-street,
Manchester.

{Darling, G. Erskine. 247 West George-street, Glasgow.

Darwin, Cuartus R., M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., Hon. F.R.S.E.
and M.R.LA. Down, near Bromley, Kent.

*Darwin, GEorcr Howarp, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge.

§Darwin, Horace. 66 Hills-road, Cambridge.

{DaSilva, Johnson. Burntwood, Wandsworth Common, London,
S.W.

{D’Aulmay, G. 22 Upper Leeson-street, Dublin.
TDavenport, John T. 64 Marine Parade, Brighton.
§Davey, Henry, C.E., Rupert lodge, Grove-road, Headingley, Leeds.
{Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 8 Peel-street, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.
{Davidson, James. Newhbattle, Dalkeith, N.B.
{Davidson, Patrick. Inchmarlo, near Aberdeen.
{Davipson, THomas, ¥.R.S., F.G.S. 8 Leopold-road, Brighton.
TDavies, David. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol.
TDavies, Edward, F'.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.
Davies-Colley, Dr. Thomas. Newton, near Chester.
*Davis, Alfred. 5 Westminster-chambers, London, S.W.
*Dayis, A. 8. 12 Suffolk-square, Cheltenham.
{Davis, Cuartus E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.
Davis, Rev. David, B.A. Lancaster.
§Davis, George E. Dagmar Villa, Heaton Chapel, Stockport.
*Davis, JAMES W., F'.G.S., F.S.A. Chevinedge, near Halifax.
*Davis, Sir Jonn Francis, Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Holly-
wood, near Compton, Bristol.
*Davis, Richard, F.L.S. 9 St. Helen’s-place, London, E.C.
tDavis, William Samuel. 1 Cambridge Villas, Derby.
*Davison, Richard, Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire.
}Davy, oe W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, near
Dublin.
tDaw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.
{Daw, R. M. Bedtord-circus, Exeter.
Dawes, John Samuel, F.GS. Lappel Lodge, Quinton, near Bur-
mingham.
*Dawes, John T., F.G.S. Cefn Mawr Hall, Mold, North Wales.
tDawxrys, W. Boyn, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., Professor of
Geology and Paleontology in the Victoria University, Owens
College, Manchester. Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Manchester.
Dawson, John. Barley House, Exeter.

26

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1855.
1859.

1879.
1871.

1870.
1861.
1859.
1861.
1870.
1866.

1878.§
1854,

1879.
1870.
1875.

1870.
1874.

1856.

1874.

1878.
1868.

1869.

1868.

1881.
1872.
1873.
1852,

1864,

1863.
1867.

{Dawson, Joun W., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., Principal of M‘Gill
College, Montreal, Canada.

*Dawson, Captain William G. Plumstead Common-road, Kent,
S.E

§Day, Francis. Kenilworth House, Cheltenham.

tDay, Sr. Jonn Vincent, C.E., F.R.S.E. 166 Buchanan-street,
Glasgow.

§Dracon, G. F., M.L.C.E. Rock Ferry, Liverpool.

{tDeacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington.

tDean, David. Banchory, Aberdeen.

tDean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.

*Deane, Rey. George, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Spring Hill College,
Moseley, near Birmingham.

{Desus, Hernricu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
at Guy’s Hospital, London, 8.E. i

§Delany, Rev. William, St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore.

*De La Rupr, Warren, M.A., D.C.L., Ph.D., E.BS., F.CS.,
F.RA.S. 735 Portland-place, London, W.

{De la Sala, Colonel. Sevilla House, Navarino-road, London, N.W.

{De Meschin, Thomas, M.A., LL.D. 4 Hare-court, Temple, London,
E.C

Denchar, John. Morningside, Edinburgh.
{Denny, William. Seven Ship-yard, Dumbarton.

Dent, William Yerbury. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.
*Denton, J. Bailey. 22 meen pees London, S.W.
§De RANcE, Cnartes E., F.G.8. 28 Jermyn-street, London,

*Dursy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, M.A., LL.D., F.R.8., F.R.G.S.
23 St. James’s-square, London, 8.W.; and Knowsley, near
Liverpool.

*Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. Henleaze Park, Westbury-
on-Trym, Bristol.

tDe Rinzy, James Harward. Khelat Survey, Sukkur, India.

{Dessé, Etheldred, M.B., F.R.C.S. 43 Kensington Gardens-square,
Bayswater, London, W.

Dr Taster, Grorcr, Lord, F.Z.S. Tabley House, Knutsford,
Cheshire.

{Drvoy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Powderham Castle,
near Hxeter.

*DryonsuinE, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
E.G.S., F.R.G.S., Chancellor of the University of Cambridge.
Devonshire House, Piccadilly, London, W.; and Chatsworth,
Derbyshire.

{tDrwar, James, M.A., F.RS., F.R.S.E., Fullerian Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and Jacksonian
Professor of Natural Experimental Philosophy in the University
of Cambridge. 19 Brookside, Cambridge.

§Dewar, Mrs. 19 Brookside, Cambridge.

tDewick, Rev. E. 8. 2 Southwick-place, Hyde Park, London, W.

*Drnw-SurtH, A. G, 7s Eaton-square, London, 8. W.

{tDrcxr, Gnoren, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.8., Professor of Botany
in the University of Aberdeen.

*Dickinson, F.H., F.G.S8. Kingweston, Somerton, Taunton; and 121
St. George’s-square, London, 8. W.

{Dickinson, G. “T, Claremont- -place, Neweastle-on-Tyne.

tDickson, ALEXANDER, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University
of Edinburgh. 11 Royal-cireus, Edinburgh.

bo
“I

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Ilection.

1881. §Dickson, Edmund. West Cliff, Preston.

1862. *Dixxz, Sir Cusrtes Wenrwortu, Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. 76
Sloane-street, London, 8. W.

1877. §Dillon, James, C.E. 17 Kildare-street, Dublin.

1848, {Dittwyn, Lewis Liurwntyy, M.P., F.LS., F.G.S. Parkwerne,
near Swansea.

1872. §Dinzs, Grorcr. Woodside, Hersham, Walton-on-Thames.

1869. {Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock.

1859. *Dingle, Rey. J. Lanchester Vicarage, Durham.

1876. {Ditchfield, Arthur. 12 Taviton-street, Gordon-square, London,
W.C

1868, {Dittmar, W. Andersonian University, Glasgow.
1874, *Dixon, A. E. Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast.
1858. {Dixon, Edward, M.I.C.E. Wilton House, Southampton.
1879. *Dixon, Harold B., M.A., F.C.S. Trinity College, Oxford.
*Dobbin, Leonard, M.R.L.A. 27 Gardiner’s-place, Dublin.
1851. {Dobbin, Orlando T., LL.D., M.R.LA. Ballivor, Kells, Co. Meath.
1860. *Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. 34 Westbourne Park, London,

iW;

1878. *Dozson, G. E., M.A., M.B.,F.L.S. Royal Victoria Hospital, Netley,
Southampton.

1864. “Dobson, William. Oakwood, Bathwick Hill, Bath.

1875. *Doewra, George, jun. Grosyenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

1870. *Dodd, John. 6 Thomas-street, Liverpool.

1876. {Dodds, J. M. 15 Sandyford-place, Glasgow.

Dolphin, John. Delvyes House, Berry Edge, near Gateshead.

1851. {Domvile, William C., F.Z.S. Thorn Hill, Bray, Dublin.

1867. {Don, John. The Lodge, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.

1867. {Don, William G, St. Margaret's, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.

1878. {Donham, Thomas. Huddersfield.

1869. {Donisthorpe,G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter.

1877. *Donkin, Bryan, jun. May’s Hill, Shortlands, Kent.

1874. {Donnell, Professor, M.A. 76 Stephen’s-green South, Dublin.

1861. {Donnelly, Colonel, R.E. South Kensington Museum, London, W.

1881. §Dorrington, John Edward. Lypiatt Park, Stroud.

1867. {Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.

1871. {Dougall, John, M.D. 2 Cecil-place, Paisley-road, Glascow.

1863. *Doughty, Charles Montagu. Theberton Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk.

1876. *Douglas, Rey. G.C. M. 10 Fitzroy-place, Glasgow.

1877. *Douglass, James N., C.E. Trinity House, London, F.C.

1878. {Douglass, William. 104 Baggot-street, Dublin.

1855. {Dove, Hector. Rose Cottage, Trinity, near Edinburgh.

1870. {Dowie, J. Muir. Wetstones, West Karby, Cheshire.

1876. §Dowie, Mrs. Muir, Wetstones, West Karby, Cheshire.

1878. {Dowling, Thomas. Claireville House, Terenure, Dublin.

1857. {Downtne, S., C.E., LL.D., Professor of Civil Engineering in the
University of Dublin. 4 The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

1878. {Dowse, The Right Hon. Baron. 38 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.

1865. *Dowson, E. Theodore. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk.

1881. §Dowson, Joseph Emerson, C.F. 3 Great Queen-street, London, 8S. W.

1868. {Drusser, Henry E., F.Z.8. 6 Tenterden-street, Hanover-square,
London, W.

1873.§§Drew, Frederic, F.G.S., F.R.G.S8. Eton Collexe, Windsor.

1869. §Drew, Joseph, LL.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Weymouth,

1879. {Drew, Joseph, M.B. Foxgroye-road, Beckenham, Kent.

1865, eae: Robert A. 6 Stanley-place, Duke-street, Broughton, Man-
chester’.

28

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1879.
1872.
1874.
1866.
1870.
1856.

1870.
1867.

{Drew, Samuel, M.D., D.Sc., PRS EL. Chapeltown, Edinburgh.

*Druce, Fr elon 27 Oriental-place, Brighton.

{Druitt, Charles. Hampden-terrace, Rugby-road, Belfast.

*Dry, Thomas. 25 Gloucester-road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

§Drysdale, J. J.. M.D. 364 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

*Ducrm, The Richt. Hon. Heyry Joun Reynorps Moreron, Earl
of, F.R.S.,F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, London, W. ; and Tort-
worth Court, Wotton-under-Kdge.

t{Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.8. Holme House, Columbia-road,
Oxton, Birkenhead.

*Durr, The Right Hon. Mounrstuarr ExpHinstone GRant-, M.P.,
LL.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. York House, Twickenham, Middlesex.

. {Dufferin and Clandeboye, The Right Hon. the Karl of, K.P., K.C.B.,

LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Clandeboye, near Belfast, Ireland.

77. {Duffey, George F., M.D. 30 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.

75. {Duttin, W. E. L'Estrange, C.E. Waterford.

. *Duncan, Alexander. 7 ‘Prince’ s-gate, London, S. W..
. TDunean, Charles. 52 Union-place, Aberdeen.
. *Duncan, James. 71 Cromwell-road, South Kensington, London, W.

Dunean, J. F., M.D. 8 Upper Mertion- street, Dublin.

. Duncan, J ames Matthew, M.D. 30 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh.
: §Duncan, PETER Marin, M.B.,F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Geology

in ‘King’s College, "London. 4 St. George’s-terrace, Regent’s
Park-road, London, N.W.

. §Duncan, William 8. 79 Wolv erhampton-road, Stafford.

. §Duncombe, The Hon. Cecil. Nawton Grange, York.

. §Dunhill, Charles H. Gray’s-court, York.

3. “Dunlop, William Henry. Annanhill, Kilmarnock, Ayrshire.

. {Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.

76, *Dunn, Jumes, 64 Robertson-street, Glasgow.

76, tDunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-str eet, Glasgow.

. {Dunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Logic in the Catholic Uni-

versity of Ireland. 4 Clanwilliam- -place, Dublin.

. {Duns, Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Mdinburgh.
. {Duprey, Perry. W oodbury Down, Stoke Newington, London, N.
. {D’Urban, W. 8S. M., F. L.S. 4 Queen-terrace, Mount Radford,

Exeter.

. {Durnam, Arruur Epwarp, F.R.C.8., F.L.S., Demonstrator of

Anatomy, Guy’s Hospital. 82 Brook-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.

Dykes, Robert. Kilmorie, Torquay, Devon.

*Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Woburn.

. {Eade, Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
. {Eadson, Richard. 13 Hyde-road, Manchester.
7. {Earle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A, West Alvington, Devon.

*EARNSHAW, Rey. Samurt, M.A. 14 Broomfield, Sheffield.

. §Eason, Charles. 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.
. *Haston, Epwarp, C.E., F.G.S. 11 Delahay-street, Westminster,

S.W.

3. §Easton, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.
. {Easton, John,C.E. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helensburgh,
N.B.

. §Eaton, Richard. Nuttall House, Nuttall, Nottinghamshire.

Ebden, Rev. James Collett, M.A., F.R.A.S . Great Stukeley Vicarage,
Hur tingdonshire.

. tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 29

Election.

1858.
1870.

1855.
1859.
1870.
1867.
1867.
1855.
1859.
1873.

1876.
1868.

1863.
1880.
1855.
1861.

1864,
1872.

1879.
1864.

1877.
1875.
1864,
1880.
1864.
1869.
1862.
1863.
1863.
1858.
1866,
1866.
1853.

1869,

1869.
1844,
1864.

*Eddison, Francis. Martinstown, Dorchester.
*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. 29 Park-square, Leeds.
*Eddy, James Ray, F. G.S. Carleton Grange, Skipton.
Eden, Thomas. Talbot-road, Oxton.
* Edgeworth, Michael P., FL. 8, F.RAS, Mastrim House, Ancrley,
London, SL.
t£dmiston, Robert. LElmbank-crescent, Glasgow.
tEdmond, James. Cardens Haugh, Aberdeen.
*Edmonds, F. B. 72 Portsdown-road, London, W.
*Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee.
tEdward, Charles. Chambers, 8 Bank-street, Dundee.
*Epwarps, Professor J. Baxrr, Ph.D., D.C. it Montreal, Canada.
*Fisdale, David A., M.A. 38 Dublin-str eet, Edinburgh.
tEleock, Charles. 39 Lyme-street, Shakspere-street, “Ardwick, Man-
chester.
tElder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
tElger, Thomas Gwyn Empy, F.R.A.S. St. Mary, Bedford.
Ellacomhe, Rey. H. T., F.S.A. Clyst St. George, Topsham, Devon.
tEllenberger, J. L. Worksop.
*Flliot, Colonel Charles, C.B. Muirhead, Davidson’s Mains, N.B.
§Elliot, Robert, FBS. Wolfelee, Hawick, N.B.
*Exiior, Sir Watrer, K.C.S.1., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wolfelee, Hawick,
N.B.
tElliott, EK. B. Washington, United States.
tEliott, Rev. EZ. B. 11 Sussex-square, Kemp Town, Brighton.
Hiliott, John Foge. Elvet Hill, Durham.
§Elliott, Joseph W. Post Office, Bury, Lancashire.
*“ELLIs, ALEXANDER Jouy, B.A., F.RS., F.S.A. 25 Argyll-road,
Kensington, London, W.
Ellis, Arthur Devonshire. School of Mines, Jermyn-street, London,
S.W.; and Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
*Ellis, H. D. 67 Ladbroke Grove-road, Notting Hill, London, W.
*Ellis, Joseph. Hampton Lodge, Bri: whton,
§Ellis, J. H. Town Hall, Southport.
tEllis, J. Walter. High House, Thornwaite, Ripley, Yorkshire.
*Ellis, Rev. Robert, A.M. The Institute, St. Saviour’s Gate, York.
{Erx1s, WirriaM Horton. Hartwell House, Exeter.
Ellman, Rev. KE. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.
Elphinstone, H. W., M.A., F.L.S. Cadogan-place, London,
W

fEmbleton, Dennis, M.D. Northumberland-street, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.

{Emery, Rey. W., B.D. Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.

{Empson, Christopher. Bramhope Hall, Leeds.

{Enfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.

Enfield, William. Low Pavement, Nottingham.

Bnglish, pa Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate,
ul

tEnglish, J.T. Stratton, Cornwall.

ENNISKILLEN, The Right Hon. Witiiam Witiovensy, Earl of,
LL.D. D.C.L, FRS., F.C. S., MRA. 65 Eaton-place,
London, S.W.; and Florence Court, Fermanagh, Ireland.

*Enys, John Davis. Care of F. G. Enys, Esq., Enys, Penryn,
Cornwall.

{Erichsen, John Eric, F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Professor of Clinical Surgery
in University College, London. 6 Cay endish-place, London, Ww.

*Iskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins-hey, Liverpool.

30

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1862.

1878.

1869,

1881.
1870.
1865.
i876.

1869.
1861.

1881.
1876.
1865.
1875.
1866.
1865.
1871.
1868.

*Esson, WIt1iAM, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., FR.A.S. Merton College ;
and 1 Bradmore-road, Oxford.

tEstcourt, Charles, F.C.S. 8 St. James’s-square, John Dalton-street,
Manchester.

Estcourt, Rev. W. J. B. Long Newton, Tetbury.

tErnerer, Roserr, F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.S., Paleontologist to the
Geological Survey of Great Britain. Museum of Practical
Geology, Jermyn-street ; and 19 Halsey-street, Cadogan-place,
London, 8. W.

§Evans, Alfred. Exeter College, Oxford.

*Evans, Arthur John, F.S.A. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempsted.

*Hyans, Rey. Cuarzes, M.A. The Rectory, Solihull, Birmingham.

tEvans, Captain Sir Freprricx J. O., K.C.B., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.S., Hydrographer to the Admiralty. 116 Victoria-street,
Westminster, S.W.

*Evans, H. Saville W. Wimbledon Park House, Wimbledon,
S.W.

*Eyans, Joun, D.C.L., LL.D., V.P.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S. 65 Old
Bailey, London, E.C.; and Nash Mills, Hemel Hempsted.

§Evans, Lewis. Silver Lead Mine, Llanfyrnach, Pembrokeshire.

tEvans, Mortimer, C.E. 97 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

tEvans, Supastran, M.A., LL.D. Highgate, near Birmingham.

tEvans, Sparke. 3 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol.

{Evans, Thomas, F.G.S._ Belper, Derbyshire.

*Eyans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.

§Eve, H. Weston, M.A. University College, London, W.C.

*Everert, J. D., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in Queen’s College, Belfast. Rushmere, Malone-
road, Belfast.

1880.§§Everingham, Edward. St. Helen’s-road, Swansea.
1863. *Everitt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire.

1881.
1874.
1874.
1859.
1876,
1871.
1846.

1866.

1849,
1865.
1876.
1870.
1878.

1864.
1877,

§Ewart, J. Cossar, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the
University of Aberdeen. Aberdeen.

Ewart, William, M.P. Glenmachan, Belfast.

tEwart, W. Quartus. Glenmachan, Belfast.

*Ewing, Archibald Orr, M.P. Ballikinrain Castle, Killearn, Stizrling-
shire.

*Ewing, James Alfred, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mechanical En-
gineering in the University of Tokio, Japan. 12 Laurel Bank,
Dundee.

*Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol.

*Eyre, George Edward, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 59! Lowndes-square,
London, 8.W.; and Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants.

}Eyrn, Major-General Sir Vincent, K.C.S.L, F.R.G.S. Atheneum
Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.

Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.
tEyton, T, C, Eyton, near Wellington, Salop.

tFarrtery, Tuomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds.

tFairlie, James M. Charing Cross Corner, Glasgow.

{Fairlie, Robert, C.E. Woodlands, Clapham Common, London,
S.W

7B airlie, Robert F. Palace-chambers, Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W.
{Falkner, F. H. Lyncombe, Bath.

§Faraday, F. J., F.S.S. College Chambers, 17 Brazenose-street, Man-
chester.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 51

Election.

1879.
1859.
1861.
1866.

1857.
1869,

1859,

*Farnworth, Eruest. Swindon, near Dudley.

{Farquharson, Robert O. Houghton, Aberdeen.

{Farr, Wituam, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. 78 Portsdown-road,
Maida Hill, London, W.

*Farrar, Rey. Freperick Witt1Am, M.A., D.D., F.R.S., Canon of
Westminster. St. Margaret's Rectory, Westminster, S.W.

{Farrelly, Rev. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth.

"Faulding, Joseph. The Grange, Greenhill Park, New Barnet,
Herts.

*Fawcerr, The Right Hon. Henry, M.A.,M.P., Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Cambridge. 51 'The Lawn, South
Lambeth-road, London, 8.W.; and 8 Trumpington-street, Cam-
bridge.

. {Faweus, George. Alma-place, North Shields.

*Fazakerley, Miss. The Castle, Denbigh.
{Felkin, William, F.L.S. The Park, Nottingham.
Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulyerstone, Lancashire.

*Fettows, Franx P., F.S.A., F.S.S. 8 The Green, Hampstead,
London, N.W.

{Fenton,S.Greame. 9 College-square ; and Keswick, near Belfast.

*Fergus, Andrew, M.D. 3 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.

{Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosyenor-terrace, Glasgow.

TFerguson, John. Cove, Nige, Inverness.

*Ferguson, John, M.A., Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Glasgow.

tFerguson, Robert M., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 8 Queen-street, Edinburgh.

tFerguson, Sir Samuel, LL.D.,Q.C. 20 Great George’s-street North,
Dublin.

. [Ferguson, William, F.L.S., F.G:S. Kinmundy, near Mintlaw,

Aberdeenshire.
*Fergusson, H. B. 13 Airlie~place, Dundes.
*FERNIE, JouN. Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.
{Frrrers, Rey. Norman MacLrop, M.A., F.R.S. Caius College,
Cambridge.
{Ferrier, David, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Forensic Medicine
in King’s College. 16 Upper Berkeley-street, London, W.
{Fiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.
tField, Edward. Norwich.
*FreLD, Rogers, B.A., C.E. 5 Cannon-row, Westminster, S.W.
tPielden, James. 2 Darnley-street, Pollokshields, near Glasgow.
Finch, John. Bridge Work, Chepstow.
Finch, John, jun. Bridge Work, Chepstow.
*Findlater, William. 2 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.
§Firth, Lieut.-Colonel Sir Charles. Hecekmondwike,
{Firth,G. W. W. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
Firth, Thomas. Northwick.
*Firth, William. Burley Wood, near Leeds.
*Fiscuzr, Witt L. F., M.A., LL.D., FRS. St. Andrews,
Scotland.

. [Fishbowne, Admiral E.G., R.N. 26 Hogarth-road, Earl’s Court-

road, London, S.W.

{Fisuer, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlston Rectory, near
Cambridge.

§Fisher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.

. {Fisher, William. Norton Grange, near Sheffield.

*Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 2 Park-crescent, Oxford.
tFishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.

32 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election. ;

1871. *Fison, Frederick W., F.C.S. Eastmoor, Ilkley, Yorkshire.

1871.

1868.
1878.
1878.
1857.

1857.
1881.
1865,

1850.

1881.
1876.
1876.
1867.
1870.
1869.

1862.

1881.

{Frron, J. G., M.A. 5 Lancaster-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W

{Fitch, Robert, F.G.S., F.S.A. Norwich.

Fitzgerald, C. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.

§FrrzaEraLp, GrorGs Francis, M.A. Trinity College, Dublin.

{Fitzgerald, The Right Hon. Lord Otho. 18 Dominick-street,

¢ Dublin.

{Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 51 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.

§Fitzsimmons, Henry, M.D. Minster-yard, York.

tFleetwood, D. J. 45 George-street, St. Paul’s, Birmingham.

Fleetwood, Sir Peter Hesketh, Bart. Rossall Hall, Fleetwood,

* Lancashire.

tFleming, Professor Alexander, M.D, 121 Hagley-road, Birmingham.

Fleming, Christopher, M.D. Merrion-square North, Dublin.

§Fleming, Rev. Canon James, B.D. The Residence, York.

{Flemine, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, near Glasgow.

{Fleming, Sandford. Ottawa, Canada.

§Fiercurr, Atrrep E, 5 Edge-lane, Liverpool.

{Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.

{Fiurcner, Lavrveron E., 0.1. 41 Corporation-street, Manchester.

Fletcher, T. B. E., M.D. 7 Waterloo-street, Birmingham,

{Frowrr, Wir1aM Henry, LL.D., F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.C.S.,
Hunterian Professor of Comparative Anatomy, and Conservator
of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. Royal College
of Surgeons, Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.C.

77. *Floyer, Ernest A., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. 7 The Terrace, Putney, 8.W.
. §Foljambe, Cecil G. S., MP. 2 Carlton House-terrace, Pall Mall,

London, S.W.

. tFoote, Charles Newth, M.D. 3 Albion-place, Sunderland.
. §Foote, Harry D’Oyley, M.D. Rotherham, Yorkshire.
. §Foote, R. Bruce. Care of Messrs. H. 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill,

London, F.C.

. *Forners, Professor Guorez, M.A., F.R.SE. 4 Coates-crescent,

Edinburgh.

. §Forbes, W. A., B.A. West Wickham, Kent.

Ford, H. R. Morecombe Lodge, Yealand Conyers, Lancashire.

. {Ford, William. Hartsdown Villa, Kensington Park-gardens East,

London, W.

. *Forpuam, H. Grorez, F.G.S. Odsey Grange, Royston, Herts.

*Forrest, William Hutton. 1 Pitt-terrace, Stirling.

. tForster, Anthony. Finlay House, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea.
. *Forstrr, The Right Hon. Wir11am Epwarp, M.P., F.R.S. 80

Eccleston-square, London, 8.W.; and Wharteside, Burley-in-
Wharfedale, Leeds.

54, *Fort, Richard. Read Hall, Whalley, Lancashire.

. {Forrescvr, The Right Hon. the Harl. Castle Hill, North Devon.

. {Forwood, William B. Hopeton House, Seaforth, Liverpool

. tFoster, A. Le Neve. East Hill, Wandsworth, Swrey, 8.W.

. tFoster, Balthazar, M.D., Professor of Medicine in Queen’s College,

Birmingham. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham.

. *Fosrer, Crement Lz Neve, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.8. Llandudno.
. *Foster, Grorcr Oarry, BA., F.RS., F.C.8., Professor of

Physics in University College, London. 12 Hilldrop-road,
London, N.

*Foster, Rev. John, M.A. 19 Queen’s-square, Bath.

§Foster, J. L. Ogleforth, York. ,

LIST OF MEMBERS, 33

Year of
Election,

1845,
1877.
1859.

1873.
1863.
1859.
1873.
1870.
1866.
1868,
1876,
1870.

1860.
1876.

1860.
1881.

1866.

1846.

1859,

1865,
1871.

1859.
1871.
1860.
1847,

1877.
1865.

fFoster, John N. Sandy Place, Sandy, Bedfordshire.

§Foster, Joseph B. 6 James-street, Plymouth.

*Fosrrr, Micuart, M.A., M.D., Sec. RS, F.LS., F.C.S. Trinity
College, and Great Shelford, near Cambridge.

} Foster, Peter Le Neve.

{Foster, Robert. 30 Rye-hill, N ewcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Foster, S. Lloyd. Brundall Lodge, Ealing, Middlesex, W’.

“Foster, William. Harrowins House, Queensbury, Yorkshire,

{Foulger, Edward. 55 Kirkdale-road, Liverpool.

{Fowler, George, M.LC.E., F.G.8. Basford Hall, near Nottingham,

{Fowler, G, G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.

“Fowler, John. 4 Kelvin Bank-terrace, Glasgow.

"Fowler, Robert Nicholas, M.A., M.P., F.R.G.S. 50 Cornhill,
London, E.C.

*Fox, Rev. Edward, M.A. Upper Heyford, Banbury,

tFox, St. G. Lane. 9 Sussex-place, London, 8.W.

*Fox, Joseph Hayland. The Cleve, Wellington, Somerset.

tFox, Joseph John. Church-row, Stoke Newington, London, N.

*Foxwell, Herbert S., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in Uni-
versity College, London. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*Francis, G. B. Inglesby House, Stoke Newington-green, London, N.

Francis, WILLA, Ph.D., F.L.S.,F.G.8., F.R.A.S, Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, London, E.C.; and Manor House, Richmond,
Surrey.

i Pawenany) Epwarp, D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal School of Mines. The Yews, Reigate
Hill, Surrey.

*Frankland, Rev. Marmaduke Charles. Chowbent, near Manchester,

tFraser, George B. 3 Airlie-place, Dundee.

Fraser, James. 25 Westland-row, Dublin.

Fraser, James William. 84 Kensington Palace-gardens, London, W.

*Fraser, Jonn, M.A., M.D. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.

tFrasrr, Toomas R., M.D., F.RS.L& E. 3 Grosvenor-street,
Edinburgh.

*Frazer, Daniel. 113 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.

{Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.

tFreeborn, Richard Fernandez. 38 Broad-street, Oxford.

“Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S. West-street, Chichester,
Sussex.

§Freeman, Francis Ford. Black Friars House, Plymouth.

{Freeman, James. 15 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

1880.§§Freeman, Thomas. Brynhyfryd, Swansea.

1869,

1869.
1841,

1857,
1869,

1847,
1875,

1875,
1872.

Frere, George Edward, F.R.S. Roydon Hall, Diss, Norfolk.

. {Prexe, The Right Hon. Sir H. Barrze E., Bart, @.0.S.L, G.C.B.,

F.R.S.,F.R.G.S. 42 Duke-street, Grosvenor-square, London, W.
tFrere, Rev. William Edward. The Rectory, Bilton, near Bristol.
Freeth, Major-General S. 30 Royal-crescent, Notting Hill, London,.
W.

*Frith, Richard Hastings, O.E,, M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.I. 48 Summer-
hill, Dublin.

{Frodsham, Charles. 26 Upper Bedford-place, Russell-square, Lon-
don, W.C. ;

tFrost, William. Wentworth Lodge, Upper Tulse Hill, London, 8, W,

tFry, F. J. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

Fry, Francis. Cotham, Bristol. *
*Fry, Joseph Storrs. 2 Charlotte-street, Bristol,
"Fuller, Rey. A. Pallant, Chichester,
c

34

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.

of

Election.

1859
1869

1864.
1881.

1857.
1863.
1876.
1850,
1861.

1876.
1865.
1861.
1861.
1875.
1860.

1860,

1869,
1870.

1872.

1870.

1877.
1868.

1862.
1865.
1842.
1873.
1874.

1870.
1870,
1842,
1847.
1862,

1875
1875
18738
1871

{Furter, Freperick, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the Uni-
versity and King’s College, Aberdeen.

{Furter, Gores, C.E., Professor of Engineering in Queen’s College,
Belfast. 6 College-gardens, Belfast.

*Fumeaux, Rey. Alan. St. German’s Parsonage, Cornwall.

§Gabb, Rey. James, M.A. Bulmer Rectory, Welburn, Yorkshire.
*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey.
tGacus, AtpHonsz, M.R.L.A. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin.
*Gainsford, W. D. Richmond Hill, Sheffield.

{Gairdner, Charles. Broom, Newton Mearns, Renfrewshire.

{Gairdner, Professor W. T., M.D. 225 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

{Galbraith, Andrew. Glasgow.

Gaxprarru, Rey. J. A., M.A., M.R.LA. Trinity College, Dublin.

{Gale, James M. 23 Miller-street, Glasgow.

{Gale, Samuel, F.C.S. 338 Oxford-street, London, W.

tGalloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.

{Galloway, John, jun. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.

{Gattoway, W., H.M. Inspector of Mines. Cardiff.

*Gatron, Captain Doveras, C.B., D.C.L., E.RS., F.LS., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. (GENERAL SEcRErARY.) 12Chester-street, Grosvenor-
place, London, S.W.

*Gazron, Francis, M.A., F.RS., F.GS., F.R.G.S. 42 Rutland-
gate, Knightsbridge, London, S.W.

tGaron, Jonny C., M.A., F.LS. 40 Great Marlborough-street,
London, W.

+Gamble, J. C. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.

*Gamble, John G., M.A. Capetown. (Care of Messrs. Ollivier and
Brown, 37 Sackville-street, Piccadilly, London. W.)

§Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel D. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.

tGamble, William. St. Helen’s, Lancashire,

tGamerr, Arravr, M.D., F.RS., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in Owens College, Manchester. Fairview, Princes-road, Fal-
lowfield, Manchester,

{Garner, Ropert, F.L.S. Stoke-upon-Trent.

tGarner, Mrs. Robert. Stoke-upon-Trent.

Garnett, Jeremiah. Warren-street, Manchester.

{Garnham, John. 123 Bunhill-row, London, E.C,

*Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B., M.R.LA,, F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

+Gaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.

*Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Clayton Lodge, Aigburth, Liverpool,

Gaskell, Rey. William, M.A. Plymouth-grove, Manchester.

*Gaskell, Samuel. Windham Club, St. James’s-square, London, 8S. W.

*Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S. Felbridge Park, Hast
Grinstead, Sussex.

§§Gavey, J. 43 Stacey-road, Routh, Cardiff.

. Gaye, Henry S. Newton Abbott, Devon.

. t@each, R. G. Cragg Wood, Rawdon, Yorkshire,

. tGeddes, John. 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

1859, tGeddes, William D., M.A., Professor of Greek in King’s College,

Old Aberdeen.

1854, {Gee, Robert, M.D. 5 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1867. {Grrere, ArncurBatD, LL.D., F.R.S. L.& E., F.G:S., Director General

1871.

of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Geological
Survey Office, Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.
§Geikie, James, F.R.S. L.& E., F.G.S, Balbraith, Perth.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 35

Year of
Election.

1875, “George, Rev. Hereford B., M.A., F.R.G.S. New College, Oxford.
1870. tGerstl, R., F.C.S. University College, London, W.C.
1870, *Gervis, Walter S., M.D., F.G.S. Ashburton, Devonshire.
1865, {Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham,
1871. {Gibson, Alexander, 10 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
1874, {Gibson, The Right Hon. Edward, Q.C., M.P. 23 Fitzwilliam-
square, Dublin.
1876, “Gibson, George Alexander, M.B., D.Sc., F.G.S8, 1 Randolph Cliff,
Edinburgh.
*Gibson, George Stacey. Saffron Walden, Essex,
1870, {Gibson, Thomas. 51 Oxford-street, Liverpool.
1870. {Gibson, Thomas, jun. 10 Parkfield-road, Prince’s Park, Liver-
ool.
1842, eitees, JosEpH Henry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Harpenden, near
St. Albans.
1857, tGilbert, J.T., M.R.I.A. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin,
1859, *Gilchrist, James, M.D. Crichton House, Dumfries.
Gilderdale, Rey. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex.
1878. §Giles, Oliver. 16 Bellevue-crescent, Clifton, Bristol.
Giles, Rev. William. Netherleizh House, near Chester.
1878. {Gill, Rev. A. W. H. 44 Eaton-square, London, S.W,
1871. *Gitt, Davip. The Observatory, Cape Town.
1881. §Gill, H.C. Bootham, York.
1868, {Gill, Joseph. Palermo, Sicily. (Care of W. H. Gill, Esq., General
Post Office, St. Martin’s-le-Grand, E.C.)
1864, {Gitt, THomas. 4 Sydney-place, Bath.
1861. *Gilroy, George. Hindley Hall, Wigan.
1867. {Gilroy, Robert. Oraigie, by Dundee.
1876. §Gimingham, Charles H. 465 St. Augustine’s-road, Camden-square,
London, N.W.
1867. §GinsBuRe, Rev. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D, Holmlea, Virginia Water
Station, Chertsey.
1869, {Girdlestone, Rey. Canon E., M.A. Halberton Vicarage, Tiverton,
1874. *Girdwood, James Kennedy. Old Park, Belfast.
1850. pee. George, F.C.S., F.R.G.S, 31 Ventnor-yillas, Cliftonville,
Brighton,
1849. *Guapstonz, Jonn Hart, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S. 17 Pembridge-
square, Hyde Park, London, W.
1875. “eae: Ernest Henry. 1 Dartmouth-place, Blackheath, London,
EH.

1861. *Guaisner, Jaws, F.R.S., F.R.AS, 1 Dartmouth-place, Black-
heath, London, S8.E.

1871. *Guatsuer, J. W. L., MA, F.RS., F.RAS, Trinity College,
Cambridge.

1881, *GuazeBroox, R. T., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1881, §Gleadow, Frederic. 13 Park-square, Leeds,

1870. §Glen, David Corse, F.G.S. 14 Annfield-place, Glasgow.

1859. [Glennie, J. S. Stuart. 6 Stone-buildings, Lincoln's Inn, London,
W.C.

1867, Gloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh.

Glover, George. Ranelagh-road, Pimlico, London, S.W.

1874. {Glover, George T. 30 Donegall-place, Belfast.

1874. {Glover, Thomas. 77 Claverton-street, London, S.W.

1870. {Glynn, Thomas R. 1 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

1872. {Gopparp, Ricnarp. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1878. *Godlee, J. Lister. 3 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.

1880. §Godman, F. D. 10 Chandos-street, Cavendish-square, London, W.

C2

36

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1852.
1879.

1846.

1876.

1877.
1881.
1873,
1878.

1852.
1870.
1842,

1865.
1869.
1870.

1871.

1857.
1865.

tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.

§Godwin-Austen, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.Z.S. Deepdale,
Reigate.

{Gopwrn-AustEeN, Rosrrt A. C., B.A., F.RS., F.G.S. Shalford
House, Guildford.

tGoff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.

{Gorr, James. 11 Northumberland-road, Dublin.

§Goldschmidt, Edward. Nottingham.

tGoldthorp, Miss R. F. C Cleckheaton, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tGood, Rey. Thomas, B.D. 51 Wellington-road, Dublin.

tGoodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Treland.

t Goodison, George William, CE. “Gateacre, Liverpool.

*GoopMAN, Joun, M.D. 8 "Leicester-street, Southport.

t{Goodman, J. D. Minories, Birmingham.

tGoodman, Neyille. Peterhouse, Cambridge.

*Goodwin, Rey. Henry Albert, M.A., F.R.A.S. Lambourne Rectory,
Romford.

*Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.8. 20 King-street, St. James’s, London,
S.W.

tGordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin.

tGore, George, LL.D., F.R.S. 50 Islington-row, Edgbaston, Bir-

mingham.

. tGossage, William. Winwood, Woolton, Liverpool.

*Gotch, Francis. Stokes Croft, “Distal.
*Gotch, Rey. Frederick W illiam, LL.D. Stokes Croft, Bristol.
*Gotch, Thomas Henry. Kettering.

. §Gott, Charles, } M.LC.E. Parktield-road, Manningham, Bradford,

Yorkshire.

. tGough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.
. {Gough, The Right Hon. George 8., V iscount, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.

St. Helen’s, Booterstown, “Dublin.

. §Gough, Thomas, B.Se., F.C.S. Elmfield College, York.
. tGould, Rev. George. Unthank-road, Norwich.
. {Gourlay, J. McMillan, 21 St. Andrew’ s-place, Bradford, York-

shire,

. [Gourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.
. §Gow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

Gowland, James. London-wall, London, E.C.

. §Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,

Yorkshire.

. {Grafton, Frederick W. Park-road, Whalley Range, Manchester.

. *GRAHAM, Oynrtt, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Colonial Office, London, 8. W.

. {Grawame, James. Auldhouse, Pollokshaws, near Glasgow.

. *Grainger, Rey. Canon John, D.D., M.R.LA. Skerry and Rathcayan

Rectory, Broughshane, near Ballymena, Co. Antrim,

. tGranv, Sir ArexanpzEr, Bart., M.A., Principal of the University of

Edinburgh. 21 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh.

. Grant, Hon. James. Cluny Cottage, Forres.
. ¢GRant, Colonel James A., O.B., C.S.L, F.RS., F.LS., F.R.G.S.

19 Upper GPosyenor-stréct, Tiautont W.

. *GRANT, Rares M.A., LL.D., F, RB.S., F.R.A.S., Regius Professor of

Astronomy in the University of Glasgow. The Observatory,
Glasgow.
siren Ricwarp B., C.E., F.G.S, 22 Whitehall-place, London,
W

. tGrantham, Richard F, 22 Whitehall-place, London, 8. W.
. §Gray 8, E. 126 King Henry’s-road, London, N.W.

-LIST OF MEMBERS. 37

Year of
Election.

1874,

1881.
1864.
1865.
1870,
1876.
1881.
1864.
1859.
1870,
1878.

{Grayes, Rev. James, B.A., M.R.I.A. Inisnag Glebe, Stonyford, Co.
Kilkenny.

§Gray, Alan, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

*Gray, Rev. Charles. The Vicarage, Blyth, Worksop.

tGray, Charles. Swan-bank, Bilston.

TGray, C. B. 5 Rumford-place, Liverpool.

{Gray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasgow.

§Gray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York,

{Gray, Jonathan. Summerhill House, Bath.

{Gray, Rev. J. H. Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire.

{Gray, J. Macfarlane. 127 Queen’s-road, Peckham, London, S.E.

§Gray, Matthew Hamilton. 14 St. John’s Park, Blackheath, London,
S.E

1878.§§Gray, Robert Kaye. 14 St. John’s Park, Blackheath, London,
S.E.

1881.
1873.

1854.

1866,
1873.

1869.
1872.
1872.
1879.
18658.
1881.
1863.
1875.
1862.

1877.

1849,

1861,

1833.

1860.

1868,

1861.

188].

1875.

1869,
1875.

1871.

1859.
1875.
1870.
1878.
1859.

1870.

§Gray, Thomas. 21 Haybrom-crescent, Glasgow.

{Gray, William, M-R.I.A. 6 Mount Charles, Belfast.

*Gray, Colonel WinrrtAm. Farley Hall, near Reading.

*Grazebrook, Henry. Clent Grove, near Stourbridge, Worcester-
shire.

§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 101 Friar-gate, Derby.

{Greaves, James H., C.E. Albert-buildings, Queen Victoria-street,
London, E.C.

{Greaves, William. Station-street, Nottingham.

{Greaves, William. 3 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London, W.C.

*Grece, Clair J., LL.D, Redhill, Surrey.

tGreen, A. F. Leeds,

*Greenhalgh, Thomas. Thornydikes, Sharples, near Bolton-le-Moors,

§Greenhough, Edward. Matlock Bath, Derbyshire.

tGreenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire.

tGreenwood, Frederick. School of Medicine, Leeds.

“Greenwood, Henry, 32 Castle-street, and the Woodlands, Anfield-
road, Anfield, Liverpool.

{Greenwood, Holmes, 78 King-street, Accrington.

tGreenwood, William. Stones, Todmorden.

*Grec, Ropert Purrips, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts, ;

Grege, T. H. 22 Ironmonger-lane, Cheapside, London, E.C.
{Grecor, Rev. Warrer, M.A. Pitsligo, Rosehearty, Aberdeenshire.
tGregory, Charles Hutton, O.E. 1 Delahay-street, Westminster,

S.W,

§Gregson, Samuel Leigh. Aigburth-road, Liverpool.

§Gregson, William. Baldersby, Thirsk.

tGrenfell, J. Granville, B.A., F.G.S. 5 Albert-villas, Clifton, Bristol.

Grey, Sir Gerorez, F.R.G.S. Belgrave-mansions, Grosyenor-
gardens, London, S.W.

tGrey, Mrs. Maria G. 18 Cadogan-place, London, 8.W.

*Grierson, Samuel, Medical Superintendent of the District Asylum,
Melrose, N.B.

{Grrerson, THomas Boyrn, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.

§Grieve, David, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Seafield House, Anstruther,
Fifeshire.

Grieve, John, M.D. 21 Lynedock-street, Glasgow.

{Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.

*GrirritH, Gzores, M.A., F.0.S. Harrow.

Griffith, George R. Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
§Griffith, Rey..Henry, F.G.S. Barnet, Herts.

38

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1868,
1870.
1847.

1879.
1875.
1870.
1842,
1881.

1864,
1869.

1863.
1869.

1867.

1842.
1856,

1862.
1877.
1866.

1880.
1868.
1860,

1876,

1859.

1857.

1876,

1865,

1866.
1881.

1866.

1842.
1870.
1848.
1870.

Griffith, Rev. John, M.A., D.C_L. Findon Rectory, Worthing, Sussex.
TGrifith, N. R. The Coppa, Mold, North Wales.
{Griffith, Thomas. Bradford-street, Birmingham.
Grirritus, Rey. Joun, M.A. Wadham College, Oxford.
§Griffiths, Thomas, F.C.8., F.S.S. Silverdale, Oxton, Birkenhead,
{Grignon, James, H.M. Consul at Riga. Riga.
TGrimsdale, T, F., M.D. 29 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
Grimshaw, Samuel, M.A. Errwod, Buxton.
§Gripper, Edward. Nottingham.
tGroom-Naprrer, Cuartes Orrrzy, F.G.S. 18 Elgin-road, St.
Peter’s Park, London, N.W.
§Grote, Arthur, F.L.8., F.G.8. 20 Cork-street, Burlington-gardens,
London, W.
Grove, The Hon. Sir Wrz1t1Am Rozerz, Knt., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Guinness, Henry. 17 College-green, Dublin.

Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.

*GuisE, Lieut.-Colonel Sir Wirt1am VERNON, Bart., F.G.S., F.L.S.
Elmore Court, near Gloucester.

tGunn, John, M.A., F.G.S. Irstedd Rectory, Norwich.

tGunn, William, F.G.S. Barnard Castle, Darlington.

{Gintuer, AtBerTC. L. G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Keeper of
the Zoological Collections in the British Museum. British
Museum, London, W.C.

§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea.

*Gurney, John. Sprouston Hall, Norwich.

*GurnEY, Samvurt, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 20 Hanover-terrace, Regent's

: Park, London, N.W.

*Gutch, John James. Holgate Lodge, York.

t{Guthrie, Francis. Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.

tGurariz, Frepericr, B.A., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Physies in
the Royal School of Mines. Science Schools, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.

tGwynne, Rey. John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland.

tGwyther, R. F. Owens College, Manchester.

tHackney, William. 9 Victoria-chambers, Victoria-street, London,
S.W.

*Hadden, Frederick J. South Cliff, Scarborough.
§Happon, AtrreD Cort, B.A., F.Z.S., Professor of Zoology in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.
tHaddon, Henry. Lenton Field, Nottingham.
Haden,G. N. Trowbridge, Wiltshire.
Hadfield, George. Victoria-park, Manchester.
tHadivan, Isaac. 3 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
tHadland, William Jenkins. Banbury, Oxfordshire.
tHaigh, George. Waterloo, Liverpool.
*Hailstone, Edward, F.S.A. Walton Hall, Wakefield, Yorkshire.

1879.§§Hake, H. Wilson, Ph.D., F.C.S. Queenswood College, Hants.

1869.

1875.
1870.

TtHake, R. C. Grasmere Lodge, Addison-road, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.

tHale, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Eton College, Windsor,

tHalhead, W. B. 7 Parkfield-road, Liverpool.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 39

Year of

Election.

1872.
1879.
1881,

1854.
1859.
1872.

1866,
1860.
1873.
1868.

1858.

1866.
1869.
1851.
1881.
1878.
1878.

1875.
1863.
1850,
1861,

1857.
1847,

1876.
1865.
1867.
1859.
1853,

1865.
1869.
1877.
1869.
1874.
1872.
1880.

1858.
1881.
1876.
1878,

Hatreax, The Right Hon. Viscount. 10 Belgraye-square, London,
S.W.; and Hickleston Hall, Doncaster.

{Hall, Dr. Alfred, 30 Old Steine, Brighton.

*Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.

§Hall, Frederick Thomas, F.R.A.S. Dancershill House, near Barnet,

Herts.

*Haxt, Huen Frrer, F.G.S. Greenheys, Wallasey, Birkenhead.

{Hall, John Frederic. Ellerker House, Richmond, Surrey.

*Hall, Captain Marshall. 13 Old-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.

*Hall, Thomas B. Australia. (Care of J. P. Hall, Esq., Crane
House, Great Yarmouth.)

*Hatt, TownsuenD M.,F.G.S._ Pilton, Barnstaple.

tHall, Walter. 11 Pier-road, Erith.

*Harrerr, T. G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.

*Harierr, Wirrram Henry, F.L.S. Buckingham House, Marine
Parade, Brighton.

Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.

*Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S. The Leys, Barrow-on-
Soar, near Loughborough.

{Hammron, ArcHIBALD, F.G.S. South Barrow, Bromley, Kent.

§Hamilton, Rowland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W.

{Hammond, 0. C. Lower Brook-street, Ipswich.

*Hammond, Robert. 110 Cannon-street, London, E.C,

tHanagan, Anthony. Luckington, Dalkey.

§Hance, Edward M., LL.B. 103 Hartington-road, Sefton Park,

Liverpool.

tHancock, O. F., M.A. 86 Blandford-square, London, N.W.

tHancock, John. 4 St. Mary’s-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Hancock, John, J.P. The Manor House, Lurgan, Oo. Armagh.

ke Walter. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, London,

tHancock, William J. 23 Synnot-place, Dublin.

tHancock, W. Nurtson, LL.D., M.R.LA. 64 Upper Gardiner-
street, Dublin.

tHancock, Mrs. W. Neilson. 64 Upper Gardiner-street, Dublin.

tHands, M. Coventry.

tHannah, Rev. John, D.C.L. The Vicarage, Brighton.

tHannay, John. Montcoffer House, Aberdeen.

tHansell, Thomas T. 2 Charlotte-street, Sculcoates, Hull.

*Hancovrt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. Cowley Grange,
Oxford.

Harcourt, Egerton V. Vernon, M.A., F.G.S. Whitwell Hall, York-
shire.

tHarding, Charles, Harborne Heath, Birmingham.

tHarding, Joseph. Millbrooke House, Exeter.

§Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.

tHarding, William D. Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk.

tHardman, E. T., F.C.S. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

tHardwicke, Mrs. 192 Piccadilly, London, W.

§Hardy, John. 118 Embden-street, Manchester.

*Harn, Cuartms Joun, M.D., Professor of Clinical Medicine in
University College, London. Berkeley House, 15 Manchester-
square, London, W.

tHargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds.

§Hargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.

tHarker, Allen. 17 Southgate-street, Gloucester.

*Harlmess, H. W. Sacramento, California.

40

.LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1871.
1875.

§Harkness, William. Laboratory, Somerset House, London, W.C.
*Harland, Rey. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.LS., F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.

1877. *Harland, Henry Seaton. Brompton, Wykeham Station, York.

1862.

*Harey, Gores, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 25 Harley-street, London,
W.
*Harley, John. Ross Hall, near Shrewsbury.

1862. *Harvey, Rev. Rosrrz, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Mill Hill School, Mid-

dlesex; and Burton Bank, Mill Hill, Middlesex, N.W.

1868, *Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.

1881.

*Harmer, Sidney F., B.Sc. King's College, Cambridge.

1872. tHarpley, Rey. William, M.A., F.C.P.S. Clayhanger Rectory,

1871.

Tiverton.
*Harris, Alfred. Lunefield, Kirkby-Lonsdale, Westmoreland.

tHarrtis, GroneE, F.S.A. Iselipps Manor, Northolt, Southall, Mid-
dlesex.

1863. {Harris, T. W. Grange, Middlesbrough-on-Tees.
1873. tHarris, W. W.. Oak-villas, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1860. {Harrison, Rey. Francis, M.A. Oriel College, Oxford.

1864.

tHarrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.

1873. {Harrison, George, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.C.S. 14 St. James's-row,

Sheffield.

1874. tHarrison, G. D. B. 3 Beaufort-road, Clifton, Bristol. ;
1858, *Harrison, JAMES Park, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park,

London, W.

1870. {HARRison, Recinatp. 51 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1858. {Harrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull.
1863. {Harrison, T, HE. Engineers’ Office, Central Station, Newcastle-on-

1849,

1876.
1881.

Tyne.

f{Harrowsy, The Right Hon. Duprey Rypmr, Earl of, K.G., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 39 Grosvenor-square, London, W.; and
Sandon Hall, Lichfield.

*Hart, Thomas. Bank View, 33 Preston New-road, Blackburn,

§Hart, Thomas. 11 Richmond-terrace, Blackburn,

1875. {Hart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.

1871.

Hartley, James. Sunderland.

tHartley, Walter Noel, F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.

1854.§§Hartnup, Joun, I.R.A.S. Liverpool Observatory, Bidston,

Birkenhead.

0. tHarvey, Enoch. Riversdale-road, Aigburth, Liverpool.

*Harvey, Joseph Charles. Knockrea, Douglas-road, Cork,
Harvey, J. R., M.D. St. Patrick’s-place, Cork.
. {Harvey, R. J.. M.D. 7 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
. *Harwood, John, jun. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-Moors.
. tHasrines, G. W., M.P. Barnard’s Green House, Malvern.
Hastings, Rey. H. 8. Martley Rectory, Worcester.
. [Hastings, W. Huddersfield.
. {Haventon, Rey. Samvrt, M.A., M.D., D.O.L., F.R.S., M.R.LA,,
F.G.8., Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Dublin.

1874. {Hawkins, B. Waterhouse, I'.G.S. Century Club, East Fifteenth-

1872

street, New York.
. *Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 20 King-street, St. James’s, London,
S.W.
*THAWKSHAW, Sir Joun, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. Hollycomhe,

Liphook, Petersfield; and 33 Great George-street, London,
SW.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 41

Election.

*Hawksuiw, Joun Crarxz, M.A., F.G.S. 25 Cornwall-cardens,
South Kensington, S.W.; and 33 Great George-street, London,
S.W.

{Hawxstey, THomas, C.E.,F.R.S., F.G.S. 30 Great George-street,
London, S.W,

{Hawthorn, William. The Cottage, Benwell, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

Hay, Sir Andrew Leith, Bart. Rannes, Aberdeenshire.

tHay, Arthur J, Lerwick, Shetland.

“Hay, Rear-Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Jony C. D., Bart., C.B.,
M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, London, 8. W.

tHay, Samuel. Albion-place, Leeds.

tHay, William. 21 Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.

tHayden, Thomas, M.D. 30 Harcourt-street, Dublin.

“Hayes, Rev. William A., M.A. 3 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.

tHayward, J. High-street, Exeter.

*Hsywarp, Roprrt Batpwry, M.A., F.R.S. The Park, Harrow.

*Hazlehurst, George S. The Elms, Runcorn,

§Huap, Jnremran, C.E., F.C.S. Middlesbrough, Yorkshire.

tHead, R. T. The Briars, Alphington, Exeter,

tHead, W. R. Bedford-circus, Exeter.

tHeald, Joseph. 22 Leazes-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Healey, George. Matson’s, Windermere. :

*Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, near Manchester.

{Hearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-strect, Plymouth.

{Hearder, William. Rocombe, Torquay.

{Hearder, William Keep, F.S.A. 195 Union-street, Plymouth.

{Heath, Rey. D. J. Esher, Surrey.

{Heath, G. Y., M.D. Westgate-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Hearurisrp, W. E., F.C.8., F.RGS., F.RSE. 20 King-street,
St. James’s, London, S.W.

{Heaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, near Bimingham.

tHeavisrpr, Rey. Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich.

{Hxcror, James, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Geological Survey
of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand.

tHepprs, M. Fosrer, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University
of St. Andrews, N.B.

tHedgeland, Rey. W. J. 21 Mount Radford, Exeter.

tHedley, Thomas. Cox Lodge, near Neweastle-on-Tyne.

*Hemans, George William, C.E., M.R.LA., F.G.S. 1 Westminster-
chambers, Victoria-street, London, S.W.

tHenderson, Alexander. Dundee.

{Henderson, Andrew. 120 Gloucester-place, Portman-square, Lon-
don, W.

“Henderson, A. L. 49 King William-street, London, E.C.

tHenderson, James Alexander. Norwood Tower, Belfast.

“Henderson, William. Williamfield, Irvine, N.B.

*Hunprerson, W.D. 9 U niversity-square, Belfast.

*Henderson, Commander W. H., R.N. H.M.S. Nelson, Australia.

tHeyyessy, Henry G., F.R.S., M.R.1LA., Professor of Applied
Mathematics and Mechanics in the Royal College of Science
for Ireland. 3 Idrone-terrace, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

tHennessy, Sir John Pope, K.C.M.G., Governor and Commander-in-
Chief of Hone Kong.

. “Henrici, Olaus M. I. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mathe-
matics in University College, London. Meldorf Cottage, Green-
hill Park, Harlesden, London, N.W.

Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester.

43 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.
Henry, Mitchell, M.P. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, W.
1874, {Henry, Rey. P. Sautpam, D.D.,M.R.LA. Belfast.
*Henry, WILLIAM CHartss, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S8., F.C.S,
Haffield, near Ledbury, Herefordshire.
1870, {Henty, William. 12 Medina-villas, Brighton.
1855, *Hepbwn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Baldwyns, Bexley, Kent.
1855, {Hepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W.
Hepburn, Thomas. Clapham, London, 8. W.
1871. {Hepburn, Thomas H. St. Mary Cray, Kent.
Hepworth, John Mason. Ackworth, Yorkshire.
1856, tHepworth, Rey. Robert. 2 St. James’s-square, Cheltenham,
1866, {Herrick, Perry. Bean Manor Park, Loughborough.
1871. *HerscHeL, Professor ALEXANDER §., B.A., F.R.A.S. College of
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1874. §Herschel, Major John, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Mussoorie, N. W. P.
India. (Care of Messrs. H. Robertson & Co., 5 Crosby-square,
London, E.C.)
1865. {Heslop, Dr. Birmingham.
1873. tHeugh, John. Gaunt’s House, Wimborne, Dorset.
Hey, The Ven. Archdeacon, M.A., F.C.P.S. Clifton, York,
1881. §Hey, Rey. William Croser, M.A. Clifton, York.
1866, *Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire,
1866. {Heymann, L. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.
1879. §Heywood, A. Percival. Duffield Bank, Derby.
1861. *Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere.
*Hxzywoop, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.GS., F.S.8. 26 Ken-
sington Palace-gardens, London, W.
1861, *Heywood, Oliver. Claremont, Manchester.
Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester.
1875, tHrcxs, Henry, M.D., F.G.S. Heriot House, Hendon, Middlesex,
N.W.

1881. §Hicks, Thomas. 2 George’s-terrace, Harrogate.

1877. §Hicks, W. M., M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1864. *Himryn, W. P., M.A. Castle House, Barnstaple.

1854, *Higgin, Edward. Troston Lodge, near Bury St. Edmunds.

1861, *Higein, James. Lancaster-avenue, Fennel-street, Manchester.

1875, tHiggins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.C.P., F.R.C.8., F.R.S.E. Alfred
House, Birkenhead.

1871. t{Hieems, Crement, B.A., F.C.S. 103 Holland-road, Kensington,

London, W.
1854, {Hieerns, Rev. Henry H., M.A. The Asylum, Rainhill, Liver-
pool.

1861. *Higgins, James. Holmwood, Turvey, near Bedford.
1870. {Higgingon, Alfred. 135 Tulse Hill, London, 8.W.
Hildyard, Rey. James, B.D., F.C.P.S8. Ingoldsby, near Grantham,
Lincolnshire.
Hill, Arthur. Bruce Castle, Tottenham; Middlesex.
1880.§§ Hill, Benjamin. Cwmdwyr, near Clydach, Swansea.
1872, §Hill, Charles, F.S.A. Rockhurst, West Hoathley, East Grin-
stead.
*Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory, Harlow.
1881, §Hill, Rev. Edwin, M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1857, §Hill, John, C.E., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.I. County Surveyor’s Office,
Ennis, Ireland.
1871. {Hill, Lawrence. The Knowe, Greenock.
1881. §Hill, Pearson, 50 Belsize Park, London, N.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 43

Year of
Election,

1876.

1865
1871
1858

1870.

1865.
1863.
1881,
1861.
1868.
1861.

1870.

1881.
1864,
1864.
1864,
1879.
1879.
1866.

1877.
1877.
1876.
1852.

1863.
1880.

1873.
1873.
1863.
1863.
1865.

1854,
1873.
1879,
1878.

1865,
1866.
1873.
1876.

1870.

1875
1847

THill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.

fHills, F. C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S.E.

*Hills, Thomas Hyde. 338 Oxford-street, London, W.

tHincxs, Rey. Tuomas, B.A., F.R.S. Stancliff House, Clevedon,
Somerset.

{Hiwps, G. J., Ph.D., F.G.S. 11 Glebe Villas, Mitcham, Surrey,

“Hindmarsh, Luke. Alnbank House, Alnwick,

{Hinds, James, M.D. Queen’s College, Birmingham.

{Hinds, William, M.D. Parade, Birmingham.

§Hingston, J.T. Clifton, York.

“Hinmers, William. Cleveland House, Birkdale, Southport,

{Hirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.

“Hirst, T. Arcuzr, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, S.E.; and Athenzsum Club, Pall Mall, London,
S.W.

fHitchman, William, M.D., LL.D., F.LS. 29 Erskine-street,
Liverpool.

*Hoare, Rey. Canon, Godstone Rectory, Redhill.

Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W.

§Hobbes, Robert George. The Dockyard, Chatham.

{Hobhouse, Arthur Fane. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8.W.

{Hobhouse, Charles Parry. 24 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.

{Hobhouse, Henry William. 24 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.

§Hobkirk, Charles P., F.L.S. Huddersfield.

§Hobson, John. Tapton Elms, Sheffield.

{Hocxry, Cuartus, M.D, 8 Avenue-road, St. John’s Wood, Lon-
don, N. W.

tHockin, Edward. Poughill, Stratton, Cornwall.

tHodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth.

tHodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast.

tHodges, John F., M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s
College, Belfast.

“Hopexin, Tomas. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D. Science Schools, South Kensing-

ton Museum, London, S.W.

“Hodgson, George. Thornton-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tHodgson, James. Oakfield, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.

THodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.

tHodgson, R. W. North Dene, Gateshead.

*Hormann, Aveust Wituetm, M.D., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
10 Dorotheen Strasse, Berlin.

*Holcroft, George. Byron’s-court, St. Mary’s-gate, Manchester,

*Holden, Isaac. Oakworth House, near Keighley, Yorkshire.

{Holland, Calvert Bernard. Ashdell, Broomhill) Sheffield.

*Holland, Rey. F. W., M.A. Evesham.

“Holland, Philip H. 3 Heath-rise, Willow-road, Hampstead, Lon-

don, N. W.

{Holliday William. New-street, Birmingham.

*Holmes, Charles. 59 London-road, Derby.

{Holmes, J. R. Southbrook Lodge, Bradford, Yorkshire,

tHolms, Colonel William, M.P. 95 Cromwell-road, South Kensing-
ton, London, S.W.

{Holt, William D. 23 Edge-lane, Liverpool.

*Hood, John. The Elms, Cotham Hill, Bristol.

tHooxrr, Sir Josrpm Datroy, K.C.S.1., K.O.B., M.D., D.O.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.LS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S, Royal Gardens,
Kew, Surrey,

44 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1865. *Hooper, John P. Coventry Park, Streatham, London, S.W.
1877. *Hooper, Samuel F., B.A. Tamworth House, Mitcham Common,
Surrey.
1856. tHooton, Jonathan. 80 Great Ducie-street, Manchester,
1842. Hope, Thomas Arthur. Stanton, Bebington, Cheshire.
1865. {Hopkins, J.8. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1870. *Horxinson, Jonny, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. 78 Holland-road, Ken-
sington, London, Ww.
1871. *Horxinson, Jonn, F.L.S., F.G.8S, 235 Regent-street, London, W.;
and Wansford House, Watford.
1858. {Hopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.
Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.
1876. *Horne, Robert R. 150 Hope-street, Glaszow.
1875. *Horniman, F. J. Surrey House, Forest Hill, London, 8.E.
1854. {Horsfall, Thomas Berry. Bellamour Park, Rugeley.
1856. {Horsley, John H. 1 Ormond-terrace, Cheltenham.
1868, {Hotson, W. C. Upper King-street, Norwich.
Hovenron, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Travellers’ Club, London, 8. W.
1858. {Hounsfield, James. Hemsworth, Pontefract.
Hovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath.
1879. *Howard, D. South Frith Lodge, Tonbridge.
1863. {Howard, Philip Henry. Corby Castle, Carlisle.
1876. tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
1857. tHowell, Henry H., ¥.G.S. Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn-
street, London, S.W.
1868, tHowxtn, Rev. Canon Hinps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich.
1865. *Howxxrr, Rey. Freprricx, F.R.A.S. East Tisted Rectory, Alton,
Hants.
1863. tHoworrs, H. H. Derby House, Hecles, Manchester.
1854. tHowson, The Very Rey. J.S., D.D., Dean of Chester. Chester.
1870. tHubback, Joseph. 1 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.
1835. *Hupson, Henry, M.D., M.R.LA. Glenville, Fermoy, Co. Cork.
1842. Jeeps Robert, F.R. 3, E.G.8., F.L.8. Clapham Common, London,
8.)

1879. Hinde Robert S., M.D. Redruth, Cornwall.

1867. {Hudson, William H. H. » MLA. 19 Bennet’ s-hill, Doctors’ Commons,
London, E.C.; and St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1858, *Huecins, W mi1aM, D.C.L. Oxon., LL. D. Camb., FR. S., F.R.A.S.
Upper Tulse Hill, Brixton, London, S.W.

1857. tHugeon, William. 30 Park-row, Leeds.

1871. *Hughes, George Pringie, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
berland.

1870. *Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-court, Liverpool.

1876. *Hughes, Rey. Thomas Edward. Wallfield House, Reigate.

1868. sHuanns, T. M‘K., M.A., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of Geology
in the Univ ersity of ‘Cambridge.

1863. {Hughes, T. W. 4. Hawthorne-terrace, Newcastle-on- Tyne.

1865. tHughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham.
“Birmingham.

1867. §Huxt, EpWAnp, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., Director of the Geological
Survey of Ireland, and Professor of Geology in the Royal College
of Science. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. 47 Portland-place, London, W. ;
and Breamore House, ” Salisbury.

1861. {Humwn, Rey. Canon ABRAHAM, DCL. LL.D., F.S.A. All Souls’
Vicarage, Rupert-lane, Liverpool.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 45

Year of
Election.

1878.

tHumphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon.

1880.§§Humphreys, Noel A., F.S.S. Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on-

1856,
1862.

1877.
1865.
1864,
1875.

1868.
1867.
1881.
1881,
1869,

1879.

1865.
1875.
1869,
1861,

1870.

1876.
1876.
1868.

1864.

1857.
1861.
1882.

1871.
1879.

1873.
1861.
1858.
1881.
1876.
1871.

1876,
1862.

1870.
1857.
1862.

Thames,

{Humphries, David James. 1 Keynsham-parade, Cheltenham.
*Humpury, Grorce Murray, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Cambridge. Grove Lodge, Cambridge.

“Hunt, Arruvr Roorr, M.A., F.G.S. Southwood, Torquay.
tHunt, J. P. Gospel Oak Works, Tipton.
tHunt, W. 72 Pulteney-street, Bath.
“Hunt, William. The Woodlands, Tyndall's Park, Clifton, Bristol.
Tunter, Andrew Galloway. Denholm, Hawick, N.B.
{Hunter, Christopher, Alliance Insurance Office, North Shields,
tHunter, David. Blackness, Dundee.
§Hunter, F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Durham.
§Hunter, Rey. John. 38 The Mount, York.
“Hunter, Rev. Robert, F.G.S. Rose Villa, Forest-road, Loughton,
Essex.
§Huntineron, A. Kx., ¥.C.S., Professor of Metallurgy in King’s College,
London. _ Abbeville House, Arkwright-road, Hampstead, Lon-
don, N.W.
{Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.
{Hurnard, James. Lexden, Colchester, Essex,
tHurst, George. Bedford.
“Hurst, Wilham John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn,
Treland.
tHurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Appleton, Widnes, near Warrington.
Husband, William Dalla. May Bank, Bournemouth.
{Hutchinson, John, 22 Hamilton Park-terrace, Glasgow.
tHutchison, Peter, 28 Berkeley-terrace, Glasgow.
*Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E. 29 Chester-street, Edinburgh.
Hutton, Crompton. Putney Park, Surrey, S.W.
*Hutton, Darnton. (Care of Arthur Lupton, Esq., Headingley, near
Leeds.)
{Hutton, Henry D. 10 Lower Mountjoy-street, Dublin.
*Horron, T. Maxwett. Summerhill, Dublin.
tHuxtry, Tomas Huyry, Ph.D., LL.D., E.BS., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Professor of Natural History in the Royal School of Mines,
4 Marlborough-place, London, N.W.
Hyde, Edward. Dukintield, near Manchester,
“Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

§Ibbotson, H. J. 26 Collegiate-creseent, Sheffield.

Thne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.

§Iikin, J. I. 19 Park-place, Leeds.

Tlles, Rev. J. H. Rectory, Wolverhampton.

tIngham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.

§Ingham, John. 28 St. Saviourgate, York.

{Inglis, Anthony. Broomhill, Partick, Glasgow.

fInexis, The Right Hon. Joy, D.C.L., LL.D., Lord Justice General
of Scotland. Edinburgh,

{Inglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

fIneram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Regius Professor of Greek in the
University of Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.

“Inman, William. Upton Manor, Liverpool.

fIrvine, Hans, M.A., M.B. 1 Rutland-square, Dublin.

ie . B., MA., F.G.S, South Kensington Museum, London,

46

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election,

1881.
1863.

1865.
1870.
1859.
1876.
1879.
1874.
1866.

1869.
1863.

1874.
1865.
1872.
1860.
1865.

1858,
1881.

1876.
1859.
1850.
1870.
1853,

§Ishiguro, Isoji. The Japanese Legation, 9 Cayendish-square, Lon-
don, W.
*Ivory, Thomas. 23 Walker-street, Edinburgh.

{Jabet, George. Wellington-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

tJack, James. 26 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

tJack, John, M.A. Belhelvie~-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.

tJack, William. 19 Lansdowne-r oad, Notting Hill, London, WV.

§Jackson, Arthur, F.R.C.S. Wilkinson-street, Sheffield.

*Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Cheadle, Cheshire.

tJackson, H. W., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 15 The Terrace, High-road,
Lewisham, S.E.

§Jackson, Moses. The Vale, Ramsgate.

*Jackson-Gwilt, Mrs. H. Moonbeam Villa, The Grove, New Wim-
bledon, London, S.W.

*Jaffe, John. Cambridge Villa, Strandtown, near Belfast.

*Jaffray, John. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{James, Christopher. 8 Laurence Pountney Hill, London, E.C.

tJames, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.

*JAMES, Sir Water, Bart., F.G.S. 6 Whiteball-gardens, London,
S.W

{James, Willian. C. Woodside, Plymouth.
§Jamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Arts,
Glasgow.

tJamieson, J. L. K. The Mansion House, Govan, Glasgow.

*Jamieson, Thomas F., F.G.S, Ellon, Aberdeenshire.

{Jardine, Alexander. Jardine Hall, Lockerby, Dumfriesshire.

tJardine, Edward. Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.

*Jarratt, Rey. Canon J., M.A. North Cave, near Brough, York-
shire.

JARRETT, Rey. THomas, M.A., Professor of Arabic in the University
of Cambridge. Trunch, Norfolk.

1870.§§Jarrold, John James. London-str eet, Norwich.

1862.

1856,
1855.
1867.
1861.
1852.
1881.
1862.
1878.
1880,
1852.

1872.
1878,

{Jeakes, Rey. James, M.A. 54 Aygyll-road, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.

Jebb, Rev. John, Peterstow Rectory, Ross, Herefordshire.
{Jmurrery, Henry M., M.A., F.R.S. 488 Hich-street, Cheltenham.
*Jeffray, John. Cardowan House, Millerston, Glasgow.
tJ ee Howel, M.A., F.R.A.S, 5 Brick-court, Temple, London,

E.C.

*Jurrreys, J. Gwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS., Treas. G.S., F.R.G.S.
Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London, S. W,

jJztterr, Rey, Joun IL. B.D. ,M. R.LA., Provost of Trinity College,
Dublin.

§Jetticon, C. W. A. Southampton.

§Jenxin, H. OC. Frremine, F.R.S., M.1.C.E., Professor of Civil
Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. 3 Great Stuart-
street, Edinburgh.

§ Jenkins, Major- General J. J. 14 St. James’s-square, London,
S.W.

*Jznkins, Joun JonEs, M.P. The Grange, Swansea.
Jennette, Matthew. 106 Conway-street, , Birkenhead.
tJennings, Francis M., F.G.S., M.R.I.A. Brown-street, Cork.
jJennings, W. Grand Hotel, Brighton.
tJephson, Henry L. Chief Secretary’s Office, The Castle, Dublin.
dias Rey. 8. John, M.A. Chobham Vicarage, Woking Station,
urrey.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 47

Year of
Election.

1872. tJesson, Thomas. 7 Upper Wimpole-street, Cavendish-square,

London, W.
Jessop, W illiam, j jun. Butterley Hall, Derbyshire.
1870, *Jevons, W. Srantry, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. 2 The Chestnuts,
West Heath, Hampstead, London, N.W.

1872. *Joad, George C. ’Oaktield, Wimbledon Park, Surrey, S.W.

1871. *J ohnson, David, F.C. 8., F.G.S. Barrelwell House, Chester.

1881. §J ohnson, Captain Edmond Cecil. 12 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.

1865. *Johnson, G. J. 36 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

1875. §Johnson, James Henry, F.G.S., F. S.A. 73 "A lbert-road, Southport.

1866. {Johnson, John G. 184 Basinghall-street, London, E.C.

1872. {Johnson, J.T. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.

1861. {Johnson, Richard. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.

1870.§§Johnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. Higher Bebington Hall, Birken-
head.

1863. {Johnson, R. 8S. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.

1881. §Johnson, Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham.

*Johnson, Thomas. Bache Hurst, Liverpool-road, Chester,

1861. tJohnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham.

1864. {Johnston, David. 13 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.

1859. {Johnston, James, Newmill, Elgin, N.B.

1864, {Johnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, London,
N.W

*Johnstone, James, Alva House, Alva, by Stirling, N.B. ©
1864. tJohnstone, John. 1 Barnard-yillas, Bath.
1876. tJohnstone, William. 5 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
1864, tJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.
1871. §Jorny, Wittram, F.RS.E., F. G. S., H.M. Inspector of Schools.
Inverness, N.B.
1881. §Jones, Alfred Orlando, M.D. Belton House, Harrogate.
1849. {Jones, Baynham. Selkirk Villa, Cheltenham.
1856. tJones,C. W. 7 Grosyenor-place, Cheltenham.
1877. {Jones, Henry C., F.C.S. 166 Blackstock-road, London, N.
1881, §Jones, J. Vivian. Firth College, Sheffield.
*Jones, Robert. 2 Castle-street, Liverpool.
1873. {Jones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.
1880. §Jones, Thomas, 15 Gower-street, Swansea.
1860. {Jonrs, THomas Rupert, F.R.S., F, G.S., Professor of Geology at the
Staff College, Sandhurst, Powis Villa, Camberley, Surrey.
1864, §Jonzs, ee WiLovGHsy, Bart., F.R.G.S. Cranmer Hall, Fakenham,
Norfo
1875. *Jose, J. E. 3 Queen-square, Bristol.
*Joule, Benjamin St. John B., J.P, 28 Leicester-street, Southport,
Lancashire.
1842, *Jovxrz, James Pruscorr, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 12 Wardle-road,
Sale, near Manchester.
1847, {Jowrrr, Rey. B., M.A., Regius Professor of Greek in the University
of Oxford. Balliol College, Oxford.
1858. tJowett, John. Leeds.
1879, {Jowitt, "A. Hawthorn Lodge, Olarkehouse-+r oad, Sheffield.
1872, {Joy, Algernon, Junior United Service Club, St. James’ s, London,
S.W.

1848, *Joy, Rey. Charles Ashfield. Grove Parsonage, Wantage, Berkshire.
Joy, Rev. John Holmes, M.A. 3 Coloney-terrace, Tunbridge Wells.
etl ubb, Abraham, . Halifax.
1870, {J udd, John Wesley, F.R.S.,F.G.S, 4 Auriol-road, West Kensington,
London, Avs

48

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1868.

1857.
1859.

1847.
1872.
1875.
1881.
1878.

1876.
1864.
1853.
1875.

1876.
1866.

1857.
1857.
1855.
1876.
1881.
1868.
1869.
1869.
1861.
1876.
1876.
1865,

1878.
1860.

1875,
1872.

1875.
1871.
1855.
1870.

1864.

1860.
1875.
1870.

1869.
1861.
1876.

*Kaines, Joseph, M.A., D.Sc. 401 Finsbury-pavement, London, E.C.

Kane, Sir Roprrt, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.C.S., Prin-
cipal of the Royal College of Cork. Fortland, Killiney, Co.
Dublin.

{Kavanagh, James W. Grenville, Rathgar, Ireland.

tKay, David, F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington,
London, W.

Kay, John Cunliff. Fairfield Hall, near Skipton.

Kay, Robert. Haugh Bank, Bolton-le-Moors.

*Kay, Rev. William, D.D. Great Leghs Rectory, Chelmsford.

{Keames, William M. 5 Lower Rock-gardens, Brighton.

{Keeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.

§Keeping, Walter, M.A., F.G.S. The Museum, York.

*Kelland, William Henry. 110 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.; and
Grettans, Bow, North Devon.

tKelly, Andrew G. The Manse, Alloa, N.B.

*Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset.

tKemp, Rey. Henry William, B.A. The Charter House, Hull.

tKunnepy, ALEXANDER B. W., C.E., Professor of Engineering in
University College, London. 9 Bartholomew-road, London, N. W.

{Kennedy, Hugh. Redclyffe, Partickhill, Glasgow.

tKenrick, Wilkam. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester.

{Kent, William T., M.R.D.S. 51 Rutland-square, Dublin.

*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.

*Ker, Robert. Dougalston, Milngavie, N.B. °

{Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow,

§Kermode, Philip. Ramsay, Isle of Man.

tKerrison, Roger. Crown Bank, Norwich.

*Kesselmeyer, Charles A. 1 Peter-street, Manchester,

*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. 1 Peter-street, Manchester.

*Keymer, John. Parker-street, Manchester.

{Kidston, J. B. West Regent-street, Glasgow.

{Kidston, William. - Ferniegair, Helensburgh, N.B.

*Kinahan, Edward Hudson, M.R.LA. 11 Merrion-square North,
Dublin.

{Kinahan, Edward Hudson, jun. 11 Merrion-square North, Dublin.

{Kiyawan, G. Henry, M.R.LA., Geological Survey of Ireland. 14
Hume-street, Dublin.

*Kinch, Edward, F.C.S. Agricultural Colleze, Cirencester.

ory: os E. M. 34 Cornwall-road, Westbourne Park, London,

*Kine, F. Ambrose. A-vonside, Clifton, Bristol.
*King, Herbert Poole. Theological College, Salisbury.
tKine, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.
§King, John Thomson, C.K. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.
King, Joseph. Welford House, Greenhill, Hampstead, London,
N.W

§Krxc, Kersurne, M.D. 27 George-street, and Royal Institution,
Hull.
*King, Mervyn Kersteman. 1 Vittoria-square, Clifton, Bristol,
*Kine, Perey L. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
{King, William. 13 Adelaide-terrace, Waterloo, Liverpool.
King, William Poole, F.G.S. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
tKingdon, K. Taddiford, Exeter.
{Kingsley, John. Ashfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.
§Kingston, Thomas, Strawberry House, Chiswick, Middlesex.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 49

Year of
Election.

1835.
1875.

1867.
1867.

1870.
1865.
1860.

1876,

1875.
1870.
1881.
1869,
1870.
1836.
1872.

1873.
‘1872.
1842.
1870.
1874.
1876.

1835.
1875.
1881.
1870.
1865.

1858.
1859.

1870.
1870.
1880.
1877.
1859,

1871.
1877.

1859,
1864,
1870.

1865,

Kingstone, A. John, M.A. Mosstown, Longford, Ireland.
§Kivezerr, Cuartes T., F.C.S. 17 Lansdowne-road, Tottenham,
Middlesex.
tKinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.
“Krynarrp, The Right Hon. Lord. 2 Pall Mall East, London,
S-W.; and Rossie Priory, Inchture, Perthshire.
{Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool,
tKirkaldy, David. 28 Bartholomew-road North, London, N.W.
{Krrxman, Rey. Tuomas P., M.A., F.R.S. Croft Rectory, near
Warrington.
Kirkpatrick, Rey. W. B., D.D. 48 North Great George-street,
Dublin.
“Kirkwood, Anderson, LL.D., F.R.S.E. 12 Windsor-terrace West,
Hillhead, Glasgow.
tKirsop, John. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.
{Kitchener, Frank E. Newcastle, Staffordshire.
§Kitching, Langley. 50 Caledonian-road, Leeds.
tKnapman, Edward, The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter.
{Kneeshaw, Henry. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.

Knipe, J. A. Botcherby, Carlisle.

*Knott, George, LL.B., F.R.A.S. Knowles Lodge, Cuckfield, Hay-
ward's Heath, Sussex.

*Knowles, George. Moorhead, Shipley, Yorkshire.

{Knowles, James. The Hollies, Clapham Common, 8.W.

Knowles, John. The Lawn, Rugby. }
{Knowles, Rey. J. L. 103 Earl’s Court-road, Kensington, London, W,
{Knowles, William James. Cullybackey, Belfast, Ireland.
tKnox, David N., M.A., M.B. 8 Belgrave-terrace, Hillhead,

Glasgow.
a) George James. 2 Coleshill-street, Eaton-square, London,
W.

Knox, Thomas Perry. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, W.C.
*Knubley, Rev. E. P. Staveley Rectory, Leeds.
§Kurobe, Hiroo. Legation of Japan, 9 Cavendish-square, London, W,
{Kynaston, Josiah W., F.C.S. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
{Kynnersley, J. C.S. The Leyeretts, Handsworth, Birmingham.

§Lace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds.

§Ladd, William, F.R.A.S. 11 & 18 Beak-street, Regent-street, Lon-
don, W.

tLaird, H.H. Birkenhead.

§Laird, John, jun. Grosvenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead,

*Lake, Samuel. Milford Docks, Milford Haven.

§Lake, W.C., M.D. Teignmouth.

{Lalor, John Joseph, M.R.IL.A. 2 Longford-terrace,* Monkstown,
Co. Dublin.

tLancaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire,

fLandon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.A.S. 8 The Circus, Green-
wich, London, S.E. :

tLang, Rey. John Marshall, D.D. Barony, Glasgow.

{Lang, Robert. Langford Lodge, College-road, Clifton, Bristol.

{Langton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.

*Langton, William. Docklands, Ingatestone, Essex.

tLanxester, E. Ray, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Comparative Ana-

“tomy and Zoology in University College, London. Exeter
College, Oxford; and 11 Wellington Mansions, North Bank,
London, N.W.
D

50 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

£880, *Lansdell, Rev. Henry. Eyre Cottage, Blackheath, London, 8.E.
Lanyon, Sir Charles. The Abbey, White Abbey, Belfast.
1878. tLapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
1881. §Larmor, Joseph, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s
College, Galway.

1861. *Latham, Arthur G. Lower Kine-street, Manchester.

1870. *LarHam, Batpwin, C.E., F.G.S. 7 Westminster-chambers, West-
minster, 8. W.

1870. {Laughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Royal Naval
College, Greenwich, 8.E.

1870. *Law, Channell. Sydney Villa, 36 Outram-road, Addiscombe,
Croydon.

1878. {Law, Henry, C.E. 5 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, 8. W.

1857. tLaw, Huch, Q.C. 9 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

1862. {Law, Rey. James Edmund, M.A. Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire.
Lawley, The Hon. Francis Charles. Escrick Park, near York.
Lawley, The Hon. Stephen Willoughby. Hscrick Park, near

“York.

1870, tLawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.

1881. §Lawrence, Rey. F., B.A. St. Mary’s Rectory, Castlegate, York.

1875. {Lawson, George, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Botany.

Halifax, Nova Scotia.

1857. {Lawson, The Right Hon. James A., LL.D., M.R.LA. 27 Fitz-

william-street, Dublin,

1868. *Lawson, M. Atpxanper, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the

University of Oxford. Botanic Gardens, Oxford.
1868, tZawton, Benjamin C. Neville Chambers, 44 Westgate-street,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1853. {Lawton, William. 5 Victoria-terrace, Derringham, Hull,

1865. tLea, Henry. 385 Paradise-street, Birmingham.

1857. {Leach, Colonel R. E. Mountjoy, Phoenix Park, Dublin.

1870. *Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S., F.G.8S., F.S.A. Old Change, London,

E.C. ; and Painshill, Cobham.
1847. *Learaam, Epwarp Atpam, M.P. Whitley Hall, Huddersfield ;
and 46 Eaton-square, London, 8. W.

1844, *Leather, John Towlerton, F.S.A. Leyenthorpe Hall, near Leeds.

1858, {Leather, John W. Newton-green, Leeds.

1863. {Leavers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham.

1872. t{Lepour, G. A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the College of

Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Weedpark House, Dipton,
Lintz Green, Co. Durham.

1858. *Le Cappelain, John. Wood-lane, Highgate, London, N.

1861. {Lee, Henry. Irwell House, Lower Broughton, Manchester.

1853. *Lzr, Jomy Epwarp, F.G.8., F.S.A. Villa Syracusa, Torquay.

1859. tLees, William. Link Vale Lodge, Viewforth, Edinburgh.

*Leese, Joseph. Glenfield, Altrincham, Manchester,
1881, §LEe Freuver, J. E. Southampton.
1872. {Lereven, G. Suaw, M.P., F.R.G.S. 18 Bryanston-square, London,
W.

*Lerroy, Lieut.-General Sir Jonn Henry, C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A.,
FE.R.S., F.R.G.S. Tasmania.
*Legh, Lieut.-Colonel George Cornwall. High Legh Hall, Cheshire.
1869. {Le Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.
1868. {LercrsteR, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G. Holkham, Norfolk.
1856. {Lmten, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L. 87 Portman-square,
London, W.; and Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth.
1861, *Leigh, Henry. Moorfield, Swinton, near Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS. SOL

Year of
Election,

1870.
1880.
1867.
1870.
1859.
1863.

1867.
1878.
1861,

1871.

1874,
1861.
1872.
1871.
1856.
1852.

1880,
1866.

1879.
1870.
1853.
1860.

1876.
1862.

1878.
1881.

1870.
1871.

1876.
1870.
1876,
1861.

1876.

f{Leighton, Andrew. 35 High-park-street, Liverpool.
§Leighton, William Henry, F.G.S. 2 Merton-place, Chiswick, S.W.
§Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.
{Leister, G. F. Greshourn House, Liverpool,
tLeith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inyerkindie, N.B.
“Lenpy, Major AveusrE Freperic, F.L.S., F.G.S. Sunbury House,
Sunbury, Middlesex.
tLeng, John. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.
{Lennon, Rey. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland.
tLennox, A.C, W. 7 Beaufort-gardens, Brompton, London, S.W.
Lentaigne, Sir John, 0.B., M.D. Tallaght House, Co. Dublin; and
1 Great Denmark-street, Dublin.
Lentaigne, Joseph. 12 Great Denmark-street, Dublin.
§Lzonarp, Huen, F.G.S., MR.ILA., F.RGSI. St. Dayid’s, Mala-
hide-road, Co. Dublin.
tLepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast.
{Leppoc, Henry Julius. Kersal Crag, near Manchester.
tLermit, Rey. Dr. School House, Dedham.
{Leslie, Alexander, C.K. 72 George-street, Edinburgh.
{Leslie, Colonel J. Forbes. Rothienorman, Aberdeenshire.
{Lestrm, T. E. Cree, LL.B., Professor of Jurisprudence and Political
Economy in Queen’s College, Belfast.
§Lrrcner, R. J. Lansdowne-terrace, Walters-road, Swansea.
§Lzv1, Dr. Leonz, F.S.A., F.S.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Com-
mercial Law in King’s College, London, 5 Orown Office-row,
Temple, London, F.C.
{Lewin, Lieut.-Colonel, Tanhurst, Dorking,
{Lewis, Atrrep LiongL. 35 Colebrooke-row, Islington, London, N.
{Liddell, George William Moore. Sutton House, near Hull.
tLrpett, The Very Rey, H. G., D.D., Dean of Christ Church,
Oxford.
tLietke, J.O. 30 Gordon-street, Glasgow.
{Litrorp, The Right Hon. Lord, F.L.S. Lilford Hall, Oundle, North-
amptonshire,
*Lrerick, The Right Rev. CuartEs Gravzs, D.D., F.R.S., M.R.1.A.,
Lord Bishop of. The Palace, Henry-street, Limerick,
{Lincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire.
§Lindley, William, C.E., F.G.S. 10 Kidbrooke-terrace, Blackheath,
London, 8.E.
*Lindsay, Charles. Ridge Park, Lanark, N.B.
tLindsay, Thomas, F.C.\S. 288 Renfrew-strect, Glasgow.
{Lindsay, Rev. T. M., M.A., D.D. Free Church College, Glasgow.
Lingwood, Robert M., M.A., F.\L.S., F.G.S. 1 Derby-villas, Chel-
tenham.
§Linn, James, Geological Survey Office, India-buildings, Edinburgh.
§Lister, Thomas. Victoria-crescent, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
fLittle, Thomas Evelyn. 42 Brunswick-street, Dublin.
Littledale, Harold. Liscard Hall, Cheshire.
*Liveine, G. D., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Cambridge. Cambridge.
*Liversidge, Archibald, F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Geology
and Mineralogy in the University of Sydney, N.8S.W. (Care
of Messrs. Tritbner & Oo., Ludgate Hill, London, E.C.)

1864.§§Livesay, J. G. Cromarty House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight.
1880,§§Llewelyn, John T, D. Penllegare, Swansea.

Lloyd, Rey. A, R. Hengold, near Oswestry.
Lloyd, Rev. C., M.A. Whittington, Oswestry.
D2

52

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1842.
1865.

Lloyd, Edward. King-street, Manchester.
{Lloyd, G. B. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham.
*Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S. Acock’s-green, near Birmingham.

. tLloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham.

Lloyd, Rev. Rees Lewis. Belper, Derbyshire.
*Lloyd, Sampson Samuel. Moor Hall, Sutton Coldfield.
*Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Myrod House, Wednesbury.
*Losiey, James Loean, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 59 Clarendon-road, Ken-
sington Park, London, W.; and New Atheneum Club, 8.W.
*Locke, John. 133 Leinster-road, Dublin.

. *Locke, John. 88 Addison-road, Kensington, London, W.

tLockyer, J. Norman, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 16 Penywern-road, South
Kensington, London, 8. W.

. *Lopex, Ortver J., D.Sc. 26 Waverley-road, Sefton Park, Liver-

pool.
. {Login, Thomas, C.E., F.R.S.E. India.
. tLong, Andrew, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.

{Long, H. A. Charlotte-street, Glasgow.

. tLong, Jeremiah. 50 Marine Parade, Brighton.

*Long, John Jex. 727 Duke-street, Glasgow.
{Long, William, F.G.S. Hurts Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk.

. §Longden, Frederick, Osmaston-road, Derby.

Lonerretp, The Right Hon. Mounrirort, LL.D., M.R.i.A., Regius
Professor of Feudal and English Law in the University of
Dublin. 47 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

t{Longmuir, Rev. John, M.A., LL.D. 14 Silver-street, Aberdeen.

75. *Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.B., F.C.S. Southfield Grange,

‘Wandsworth, 8.W.

. §Longstaff, George Dixon, M.D., F.C.S._ Southfields, Wandsworth,

S.W.; and 9 Upper Thames-street, London, E.C.

. *Longstaff, Lieut.-Colonel Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands,

Wimbledon, S.W.

. *Longstaff, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, 8. W.
. *Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden.

tLosh, W.S. Wreay Syke, Carlisle.

. *Love, James, F.R.A.S. 12 Regent's Park-terrace, Strathbungo,

Glasgow.

. *Lovett, W. J. 96 Lionel-street, Birmingham.

*Low, James F. Monifieth, by Dundee.
*Lowe, Lieut.-Colonel Arthur 8. H., F.R.A.S. 76 Lancaster-gate,
London, W.

. *Lowz, Epwarp Josrrn, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.M.S.

Shirenewton, near Chepstow.

tLowe, G. C. 67 Cecil-street, Greenheys, Manchester.

tLowe, John, M.D. King’s Lynn.

{Lowe, Ste Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin-
burgh.

. §Lubbock, Arthur Rolfe. High Elms, Hayes, Kent.

*Lussocr, Sir Jonny, Bart., M.P.,D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres. L.S.,
F.G.S. (Presrpenr.) High Elms, Hayes, Kent.

. §Lubbock, John B. High Elms, Hayes, Kent.

§Lubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, London, W.
tLucas, Joseph. ‘Tooting Graveney, London, 8. W.

*Luckeock, Howard. Oak-hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Lucy, W. C., F.G.S. The Winstones, Brookthorpe, Gloucester.
§Luden, C. M. 4 Bootham-terrace, York.

*Luis, John Henry. Cidhmore, Dundee.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 53

Year of
Election.

1875.
1866.
1875.
1850.
1853.
1858,
1864.
1874.
1864.
i871.

1874,
1857.

1878.
1862.

1852.
1854.

1876,
1868,

1878.

1879.
1866.
1838.
1840.

1871.

1866,
1863.
1855.

1876.
1840.

1863.

1872.

1874.

1878.
1859,

1858.
1876.

1871.
1878.

1878.
1878,

tLumley, J. Hope Villa, Thornbury, near Bradford, Yorkshire.

*Lund, Charles. 48 Market-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tLund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

*Lundie, Cornelius. Teviot Bank, Newport Road, Cardiff.

tLunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull.

*Lupton, Arthur. ‘Headingley, near Leeds,

*Lupton, Darnton. The Harehills, near Leeds.

*Lupton, Sydney, M.A. Harrow.

*Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.

tLyell, Leonard. 42 Regent's Park-road, London, N.W.

tLynam, James, C.E. Ballinasloe, Ireland.

tLyons, Robert D., M.B., M.R.I.A, 8 Merrion-square West,
Dublin.

tLyte, Cecil Maxwell. Cotford, Oakhill-road, Putney, S.W.

*Lyrs, F’, MAxwett, F.C.S, Cotford, Oakhill-road, Putney, S.W.

t{McAdam, Robert. 18 College-square East, Belfast.

*Macapam, Stevenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.8S., Lecturer on
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh ; and Brighton House,
Portobello, by Edinburgh.

*Macapam, WILLIAM Ivison. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh.

{MacaLisTER, ALEXANDER, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in

the University of Dublin. 13 Adelaide-road, Dublin.

§MacAlister, Donald, B.A., B.Sc. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital,

London, E.C.

§MacAndrew, James J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.

*M‘Arthur, A., M.P. Raleigh Hall, Brixton Rise, London, 8.W.

Macaulay, Henry. 14 Clifton Bank, Rotherham, Yorkshire.

Macavunay, James, A.M., M.D. 25 Carlton-road, Maida Vale,
London, N. W.

{M Bain, James, M.D., R.N. Logie Villa, Vork-road, Trinity, Edin-

burgh.
*MacBrayne, Robert. Messrs, Black and Wingate, 5 Exchange-
square, Glasgow.

{M‘Catrayn, Rev. J. F., M.A. Basford, near Nottingham.

tM‘Calmont, Robert. Gatton Park, Reigate.

t{M‘Cann, Rev. James, D.D., F.G.S. 8 Oak Villas, Lower Norwood,

Surrey, S.E.
*M‘Cietiann, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
M‘CrELLand, JAMEs, F.S.S. 32 Pembridge-square, London, W.
{M‘Crintock, Rear-Admiral Sir Francis L., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.G.S,
United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.

*M‘Clure, J. H. The Wilderness, Richmond, Surrey.

tM‘Clure, Sir Thomas, Bart. Belmont, Belfast.

*M‘Comas, Henry. Homestead, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.

*M‘Connell, David C., F.G.S. Care of Mr. H. K. Lewis, 186 Gower-

street, London, W.C.
tM‘Connell, J. E. Woodlands, Great Missenden.
tM‘Culloch, Richard. 109 Douglas-street, Blythswood-sqnare, Glas-

ow. .
tMDonald, William. Yokohama, Japan. (Care of R. K. Kneyitt,
Esq., Sun-court, Cornhill, E.C.)
tMcDonnell, Alexander. St. John’s, Island Bridge, Dublin.
MacDonnell, Hercules H. G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.
tMcDonnell, James. 32 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.
tMcDonnell, Robert, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.L.A. 14 Lower Pembroke-
street, Dublin.

54

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1881.
1871.
1855.
1879.
1854,
1867.
1855.
1872.
1873.

1855.
1876.
1859.
1874.
1859.
1867.
1854.
1871.

1873.
1880.

1865.
1872.

*M‘Ewan, John. 3 Douglas-terrace,-Stirling, N.B.

§Macfarlane, A., D.Se., F.R.S.E. The University, Edinburgh.

tM‘Farlane, Donald. The College Laboratory, Glasgow,

*Macfarlane, Walter. 22 Park-circus, Glasgow.

§Macfarlane, Walter, jun. 22 Park-cireus, Glasgow.

*Macfie, Robert Andrew. Dreghorn, Colinton, Edinburgh,

*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.

tMacGeorge, Andrew, jun. 21 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.

{M‘George, Mungo. Nithsdale, Laurie Park, Sydenham, 8.E.

tMcGowen, William Thomas. Oak-ayenue, Oak Mount, Bradford,

Yorkshire.

{MacGregor, James Watt. 2 Laurence-place, Partick, Glasgow.

tM‘Grigor, Alexander B., LL.D. 19 Woodside-terrace, Glaszow.

{M‘Hardy, David. 54 Netherkinkgate, Aberdeen.

{MaclIlwaine, Rey. Canon, D.D., M.R.I.A. Ulsterville, Belfast.

{Macintosh, John. Middlefield House, Woodside, Aberdeen.

*MIntosu, W. C.,M.D.,F. RS. L. & E., F.L.S. Murthly, Perthshire,

*Maclver, Charles. 8 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

{Mackay, Rey. A., LL.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hatton-place, Grange, Edin-

burgh.

tMcKenpricxr, Jonny G., M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of the Institutes
of Medicine in the University of Glasgow, and Fullerian Pro-
fessor of Physiology in the Royal Institution, London.

*Mackenzie, Colin. Junior Athenzeum Club, Piccadilly, London, W.

}Mackeson, Henry B., F.G.S. Hythe, Kent.

*Mackey, J. A. 24 Buckingham-place, Brighton.

1867.§§ Mackie, Samuel Joseph, CE., F.GS. 22 Eldon-road, Kensington,

1865.
1850,
1867.
1872.

1873.

1860,
1864,
1873.
1876.
1876,
1862,

1868.
1875.
1875.
1861.

1878.
1862.

1874,
1871.

1870.
1867.

London, W.

*Mackinlay, David. 6 Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

{Mackintosh, Daniel, F.G.S. Whitford-road, Tranmere, Birkenhead.

{Macknight, Alexander. 12 London-street, Edinburgh.

{Mackson, H. G. 25 Cliffroad, Woodhouse, Leeds.

*McLAcu3an, Rosert, F.R.S,, F.L.S. 39 Limes-grove, Lewisham,
S.E.

tMcLandsborough, John, C.E., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. South Park Villa,
Harrogate, Yorkshire.

tMaclaren, Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire.

{MacLaren, Duncan. Newington House, Edinburgh.

tMacLaren, Walter 8. B. Newington House, Edinburgh.

tM‘Lean, Charles. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

{M‘Lean, Mrs. Charles. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

{Macleod, Henry Dunning. 17 Gloucester-terrace, Campden Hill-road,
London, W.

§M‘Leop, Hersrrt, F.R.S., F.C.S. Indian Civil Engineering
College, Cooper’s Hill, Echam,

{Macliver, D. 1 Broad-street, Bristol.

tMacliver, P. 8S. 1 Broad-street, Bristol.

*Maclure, John William, F.R.G.S., F.S.S. Whalley Range, Man-
chester.

*M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Donnybrook, Ireland.

oo Alexander. Streatham-lane, Upper Tooting, Surrey,

WwW

{MacMordie, Hans, M.A. 8 Donegall-street, Belfast.

tM‘Nas, Writr1am Ramsay, M.D., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin. 4 Vernon-parade, Clontarf, Dublin.

tMacnaught, John, M.D. 74 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.

§M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 55

Year of
Election,

MacNert, The Right Hon. Sir Jonny, G.C.B., F.R.S.E., F.R.GS,
Granton House, Edinburgh.
1878. {Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.
1852. *Macrory, Adam John. Duncairn, Belfast.
*Macrory, Epmunp, M.A. 2 Ilchester-gardens, Prince’s-square,
London, W.
1876. *Mactear, James. 16 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
1855. {Macyrcar, Rev. Joun Grason, D.D., LL.D. Moffat, N.B.
1868. {Magnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich.
1875. *Magnus, Philip. 48 Gloucester-place, Portman-square, London, W,
1879. {Mahomed, F. A. 13 St. Thomas-street, London, 8.E.
1878. {Mahony, W. A. 34 College-ereen, Dublin.
1869, {Main, Robert. Admiralty, Whitehall, London, S.W.
1866. {Mayor, Ricuarp Henry, F.S.A., Sec. R.G.S. British Museum,
London, W.C.
*Matanipg, The Right Hon. Lord Tazor px, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., F.S.A., M.R.DA. Malahide Castle, Co. Dublin.
*Malcolm, Frederick. Morden College, Blackheath, London, S.E.
1881. §Malcolm, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. 72 Nunthorpe-road, York.
1874. {Maleolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.
1863. {Maling, C. T. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1857, {Mallet, John William, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S, Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Virginia, U.S.
1846. {Mansy, Cuartus, F.R.S., F.G.S. 60 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde
Park, London, W.
1870. {Manifold, W. H. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1866. §Mann, Rosert Jamus, M.D., F.R.A.S. 5 Kinesdown-yvillas, Wands
worth Common, 8. W.
Manning, His Eminence Cardinal. Archbishop’s House, West-
minster, 8. W.
1866. {Manning, John. Waverley-street, Nottingham.
1878. §Manning, Robert. 4 Upper Ely-place, Dublin.
1864. {Mansel, J.C. Long Thorns, Blandford.
1870. {Marcoartu, Senor Don Arturo de. Madrid.
1864. {Marxaam, Crements R., O.B., F.R.S., F.L.S., Sec.R.G.S., F.S.A,
21 Eccleston-square, Pimlico, London, 8. W.
1863. {Marley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.
*Marling, Samuel 8. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
1881, *Marr, John Edward, B.A., F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge.
187]. {Marreco, A. Frimre-. College of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-

Tyne.
1857. {Marriott, William, F.C.S. . Grafton-street, Huddersfield.
1842. Marsden, Richard. Norfolk-street, Manchester.
1870. {Marsh, John. Rann Lea, Rainhill, Liverpool.
1865, {Marsh, J. F. Hardwick House, Chepstow.
1864, {Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 37 Grosvenor-place, Bath,
1881, §Marshall, D. H. Greenhill Cottage, Rothesay.
1881. §Marshall, John. Church Institute, Leeds.
1876. {Marshall, Peter. 6 Parkgrove-terrace, Glasgow.
1858. {Marshall, Reginald Dykes. Adel, near Leeds.
1849, *Marshall, William P. 14 Augustus-road, Birmingham,
1865, §Marren, Epwarp Brypon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge,
1848. {Martin, Henry D. 4 Imperial-circus, Cheltenham.
1878. {Martin, H. Newell. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
1871, epee — Hugh, M.A, Greenhill Cottage, Lasswade, by Edin-
urgh,

56

Year of
Election

1836.

1865.
1865.
1875.
1878.

1847.

1861.
1879.
1868.

1876.
1876.

1870.
1865.
1861.

1881.
1865.
1858.
1860,

1863.
1865.

1876.
1864.

1868.
1835.
1878.
1863.
1881.
1871.
1879.
1881.

1867.

1879.
1866.

1854.
1881.
1847.

1863.
1877.
1862.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Martin, Studley. 177 Bedford-street South, Liverpool.

*Martindale, Nicholas. Queen’s Park, Chester.

*Martineau, Rey. James, LL.D., D.D. 35 Gordon-square, London,
W.C.

tMartineau, R. F. Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

tMartineau, Thomas. 7 Cannon-street, Birmingham.

tMartyn, Samuel, M.D. 8 Buckingham-villas, Clifton, Bristol.

{Masaki, Taiso. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street Within,
London, E.C.

{Masketyne, Nevin Srory, M.P., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of
Mineralogy in the University of Oxford, 389 Cornwall-gardens,
London, W.

*Mason, Hugh. Groby Hall, Ashton-under-Lyne.

Mason, James, M.D. Montgomery House, Shetlield.

t{Mason, James Wood, F.G.8. The Indian Museum, Calcutta.
(Care of Messrs. Henry 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, London,
E.C.)

§Mason, Robert. 6 Albion-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

{Mason, Stephen. 9 Rosslyn-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

Massey, Hugh, Lord. Hermitage, Castleconnel, Co, Limerick.

{ Massy, Frederick. 50 Grove-street, Liverpool.

*Mathews, G.S. 52 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

*Maruews, Wititam, M.A., F.G.S8. 60 Harborne-road, Birming-
ham.

§Mathwin, Henry, B.A. Bickerton House, Southport.

t{Matthews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

t{Matthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorlishire.

tMatthews, Rev. Richard Brown. Shalford Vicarage, near Guild-
ford.

t¢Maughan, Rev. W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Maw, Georaz, F.LS., F.G.8., F.S.A. Benthall Hall, Broseley,
Shropshire.

t+Maxton, John. 6 Belgraye-terrace, Glasgow.

*Maxwell, Francis. Balgrove, North Berwick.

*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick.

t{Mayall, J. E., F.C.S. Stork’s Nest, Lancing, Sussex.

Mayne, Edward Ellis. Rocklands, Stillorgan, Ireland.

*Mayne, Thomas. 33 Castle-street, Dublin.

tMease, George D. Bylton Villa, South Shields.

§Meek, Sir James. Middlethorpe, York.

tMeikie, James, I'.S.8. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.

§Meiklejohn, John W.S., M.D. H..M. Dockyard, Chatham.

*Meldola, Raphael, F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.1.C. 21 John-street, Bed-

ford-row, London, W.C.

{Mrtproum, Cuaruzs, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Port Louis, Mau-
ritius.

*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.

tMetto, Rev. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. St. Thomas’s Rectory, Brampton,
Chesterfiela.

{Melly, Charles Pierre. 11 Rumford-street, Liverpool. —

§Melrose, James. Clifton, York.

tMelville, Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen's College, Gal-
way.

{Melvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.

*Menabrea, General Count. 35 Queen’s-gate, London, 8S. W.

{Mernnett, Henry J. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
London, E.C.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 57

Year of
Election.

1879. §Merivale, John Herman, Professor of Mining in the College of
Science, Newcastle-on-T'yne.
1879.§§Merivale, Walter. Engineers’ Oftice, North-Eastern Railway, New-
castle-on-Tyne. .
1868. §Murririenp, Cuartes W., F.R.S. 20 Girdler’s-road, Brook Green,
London, W.
1877. {Merrifield, John, Ph.D., F.R.A.S.° Gascoigne-place, Plymouth.
1880. §Merry, Alfred S. Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea.
1871. { Merson, John. Northumberland County Asylum, Morpeth.
1872. *Messent, John. 429 Strand, London, W.C.
1865. {Messent, P.T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
1869. {Mratz, Lovis C., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in Yorkshire College,
Leeds.
1881. §Mickle, Mrs. H. B. 12 Gillygate, York.
1865. {Middlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1881. *Middlesbrough, The Right Rey. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of.
Middlesbrough.
1881. §Middleton, A. Morton. Castle Eden, Co. Durham.
1876. *Middleton, Robert T., M.P. 197 West George-street, Glasgow.
1866. {Midgley, John. Colne, Lancashire.
1867. {Midgley, Robert. Colne, Lancashire.
1881. §Mrxes, Morris. Barron Villa, Hill, Southampton.
1859. {Millar, John, J.P. Lisburn, Ireland.
1863, {Millar, John, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S8. Bethnal House, Cambridge-road,
London, E.
Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth.
1876. {Millar, William. Hightield House, Dennistoun, Glasgow.
1876. {Millar, W. J. 145 Hill-street, Garnethill, Glasgow.
1876. {Miller, Daniel. 258 St. George’s-road, Glasgow.
1875. {Miller, George. - Brentry, near Bristol.
1861. *Miller, Robert. Poise House, Bosden, near Stockport.
1876. *Miller, Robert. 1 Lily Bank-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. .
1876. {Miller, Thomas Paterson. Morriston House, Cambuslang, N.B.
1868, *Milligan, Joseph, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. 6 Craven-
street, Strand, London, W.C.
1868,.*Miris, Epmunp J., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C0.S., Young Professor of
Technical Chemistry in Anderson’s College, Glasgow. 60 John-
street, Glasgow.
*Mills, John Robert. 11 Bootham, York.
1880.§§ Mills, Mansfieldt H. Tapton-grove, Chesterfield.
Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, Bart., G.C.B., F.R.S.E. 13 New-
street, Spring-gardens, London, S. W.
1867. *Mirnz-Homn, Davin, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 10 York-place,
Edinburgh.
1864. *Mitron, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.G.S. 17 Grosvenor-street,
London, W.; and Wentworth, Yorkshire.
1880. §Minchin, G. M., M.A. Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper's
Hill, Surrey.
1865, {Minton, Samuel, F.G.S. Oakham House, near Dudley.
1855. {Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow.
1859. {Mitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen.
1876. -Mitchell, Andrew. 20 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
1863, tMitchell, C. Walker. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1873. {Mitchell, Henry. Parkfield House, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1870. §Mitchell, John. Hall Foot, Clitheroe, Lancashire.
1868. {Mitchell, John, jun. Pole Park House, Dundee.
1862. *Mitchell, W. Stephen, M.A., LL.B. Caius College, Cambridge.

58 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1879. t{Mrvart, Sr. Gzuorexr, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S., Professor of
Biology in University College, Kensington. 71 Seymour-street,
London, W.
1855. *Moffat, John, C.K, Ardrossan, Scotland.
1854.§§Morrar, Tuomas, M.D., F.G.8., F.R.A.S., F.M.S. Hawarden,
Chester.
1864. {Mogg, John Rees. High Littleton House, uear Bristol.
1866, {Mocermpen, MarrHew,F.G.S8. 8 Bina-gardens, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.
1861. {Moxzesworru, Rev. W. Nassau, M.A. Spotland, Rochdale,
Mollan, John, M.D. 8 Fitzwilliam-square North, Dublin.
1878. §Molloy, Constantine. 70 Lower Gardiner-street, Dublin.
1877. *Molloy, Rev. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
1852, {Molony, William, LL.D. Carrickfergus.
1865, §Motynrvx, WitiiaM, F.G.S. Branston Cottage, Burton-upon-
Trent.
1860. {Monk, Rey. William, M.A., F.R.A.S. Wymineton Rectory, Hicham
Ferrers, Northamptonshire.
1853. {Monroe, Henry, M.D. 10 North-street, Sculcoates, Hull.
1872, §Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 3 Porchester-place, Edgware-road,
London, W.
1872. {Moon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
1881. §Moore, Henry. 4 Sheffield-terrace, Kensington, London, W.
Moore, John, 2 Meridian-place, Clifton, Bristol.
*Moorz, Jonn Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. 118 Eaton-square,
London, S.W.; and Corswall, Wigtonshire.
1866, *Moorn, Tuomas, F.L.S. Botanic Gardens, Chelsea, London,
S.W.
1854. {Moorz, Toomas Jonn, Cor. M.Z.S. Free Public Museum, Liver-
pool.
1877. {Moore, W. F. The Friary, Plymouth.
1857. *Moore, Rey. William Prior. The Royal School, Cavan, Ireland.
1877. {Moore, William Vanderkemp. 15 Princess-square, Plymouth.
1871. t{Morr, ArexanpER G., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 3 Botanic View, Glas-
nevin, Dublin.
1881. §Morgan, Alfred. 97 Hartineton-road, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
1873. {Morgan, Edward Delmar. 15 Rowland-gardens, London, W.
1833. Morgan, William, D.C.L. Oxon. Uclifield, Sussex.
1878.§§Morean, Wriitiam, Ph.D., F.C.S. Swansea.
1867. {Morison, William R. Dundee.
1863, {Mortny, Samunt, M.P. 18 Wood-street, Cheapside, London,
E.C

1881. §Morrell, W.W. York City and County Bank, York.
1865. *Morrieson, Colonel Robert. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London,

1880.§ §Morris, Alfred Arthur Vennor. Wernolau, Cross Inn R.8.0., Car-
marthenshire.
*Morris, Rey. Francis Orpen, B.A. Nunburnholme Rectory, Hayton,
York.
1880. §Morris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea.
1881. §Morris, John, M.A., F.G.S. 15 Upper Gloucester-place, London,
N.W.

1880.§§Morris, M. I. E. The Lodge, Penclawdd, near Swansea.
Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.
1876.§§Morris, Rev. S. S.0., M.A., R.N., F.C.S. H.M.S. ‘ Garnet,’
S. Coast of America.
1874, {Morrison, G. J., C.E. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S, W,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 59

Year of
Election.

1871. *Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh.

1879.§§Morrison, Dr. R. Milner. 20 Pentland-terrace, Edinburgh,

1865. §Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Driffield.

1869, {Mortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter.

1857. §Morton, Groner H., F.G.S. 122 London-road, Liverpool.

1858. *Morron, Henry Josrru. 4 Royal Crescent, Scarborough.

1871. {Morton, Hugh. Belvedere House, Trinity, Edinburgh.

1857. {Moses, Mareus. 4 Westmoreland-street, Dublin.

Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart., D.C.L. Rolleston Hall, Burton-upon-

Trent, Staftordshire.

Moss, John. Otterspool, near Liverpool.

1878. *Moss, Jon Francrs. Ranmoor, Sheffield.

1870. {Moss, John Miles, M.A. 2 Esplanade, Waterloo, Liverpool.

1876.§§Moss, Ricuarp Jackson, F.C.S., M.R.L.A. 66 Kenilworth-square,

Rathgar, Dublin.

1873. *Mosse, George Staley. Clarendon House, 16 Stanford-road, Lon-

don, W.

1864, *Mosse, J. R.. Public Works Department, Ceylon. (Care of Messrs.
H. 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, London, 1.C.)

1873. {Mossman, William. Woodhall, Calverley, Leeds.

1869. §Morr, Atsert J., F.G.S. Crickley Hall, Gloucester.

1865. {Mott, Charles Grey. The Park, Birkenhead.

1866. §Mort, Freprricx T., F.R.G.S. Birstall Hill, Leicester.

1862. *Movar, FrepErick Jonny, M.D., Local Government Inspector. 12
Durham-villas, Campden Hill, London, W.

1856. wie Rev. J. G., B.D. Fulmodeston Rectory, Dereham, Nor-
oll.

1878. *Moulton, J. Fletcher, M.A., F.R.S. 74 Onslow-gardens, London,
S.W

1863. {Mounsey, Edward. Sunderland.
Mounsey, John. Sunderland.
1861. *Mountcastle, William Robert. Bridge Farm, Ellenbrook, near
Manchester.
1877. {Mount-Epecunsn, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount-
Edgeumbe, Devonport.
Mowbray, James. Combus, Clackmannan, Scotland.

1850. {Mowbray, John T. 15 Albany-street, Edinburgh.

1876. *Muir, John. 6 Park-gardens, Glascow.

1874, {Muir, M. M. Pattison, F.R.S.E. Owens College, Manchester.

1876. §Muir, Thomas. High School, Glasgow.

1872. {Muirhead, Alexander, D.Sc., F.C.S. 29 Regency-street, West-

minster, S. W.
1871. *Murrurapd, Henry, M.D. Bushy Hill, Cambuslang, Lanarkshire.
1876. *Muirhead, Robert Franklin, B.Sc. Meikle Cloak, Lochwinnoch,
Renfrewshire.
Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, E.C,
1880. §Muiler, Hugo M. 1 Grunangergasse, Vienna.
1866. {MunpetrA, The Right Hon. A. J., M.P., F.R.G.S. The Park, Not-
tingham.
1876.§§Munro, Donald, F.C.8. 97 Eglinton-street, Glasgow.
1872. *Munster, H. Sillwood Lodge, Brighton.
1864, {Murcu, Jzrom. Cranwells, Bath.
*Murchison, John Henry. Surbiton Hill, Kingston.
1864, *Murchison, K. R. Brokehurst, East Grinstead.
1876. {Murdoch, James. Altony Albany, Girvan, N.B.
1855, {Murdoch, James B. Hamilton-place, Langside, Glasgow.
1852, {Murney, Henry, M.D. 10 Chichester-street, Belfast.

60

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1852.
1869,

1871.
1859.

1872.
1863.
1859.
1874.
1861.
1870.
1859,

1842.
1876.
1876.

1839.
1872.

1866.
1850.
1864.

1873.
1873.
1855.
1865.
1876.
1868.
1866.

1857.
1852.

1869.
1842.

1879.
1866.
1876,
1842,
1865.
1866.

1860.

1872.

t{Murphy, Joseph John. Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.
tMurray, Adam. 4 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park, London, W.
Muwray, John, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 50 Albemarle-street, London, W. ;

and Newsted, Wimbledon, Surrey.

{Murray, John. 3 Clarendon-crescent, Edinburgh.

t{Murray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.

*Murray, John, C.E. Downlands, Sutton, Surrey.

Murray, Rey. John. Morton, near Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.

Murray, J. Jardine. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.

Murray, William. 34 Clayton-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Murton, James. Hichfield, Silverdale, Carnforth.

Musgrave, James, J.P. Drumglass House, Belfast.

Musgrove, John, jun. Bolton.

Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.

§Mytnzg, Rozert Wrian, F.RS., F.G.8., F.S.A. 2 Middle
Scotland-yard, London, 8. W.

Hite #44444

Nadin, Joseph. Manchester.

§Napier, James S. 9 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

{Napier, John. Saughfield House, Hillhead, Glasgow,

*Napier, Captain Johnstone, C.E.. Laverstock House, Salisbury.

*Naprer, The Right Hon. Sir Joszpn, Bart., D.C.L., LL.D.
4 Merrion-square South, Dublin.

{Nares, Captain Sir G. S., K.C.B., R.N., F.BS., F.R.G.S. 23 St.
Philip’s-road, Surbiton.

t Nash, Davyd W., F.S.A., F.L.S. 10 Imperial-square, Cheltenham.

*Nasmyra, JAMEs. Penshurst, Tunbridge.

tNatal, The Right Rey. John William Colenso, D.D., Lord Bishop

of. Natal.

tNeill, Alexander Renton. Fieldhead House, Bradford, Yorkshire.

{Neill, Archibald. Fieldhead House, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tNeilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow.

t Neilson, W. Montgomerie. Glasgow.

tNelson, D. M. 48 Gordon-street, Glasgow.

tNevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich.

*Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of

Dunedin, New Zealand.

tNeville, John, C.E., MR.LA. Roden-place, Dundalk, Ireland.

{Nevintz, Parks, C.E., MR.LA. 58 Pembroke-road, Dublin.

{Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 8 Abereromby-square, Liverpool.

New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire.

Newall, Henry. Hare Till, Littleborough, Lancashire.

*Newall, Robert Stirling, F.R.S, F.R.A.S. Ferndene, Gateshead-
upon-Tyne.

tNewbould, John. Sharrow Bank, Sheffield.

*Newdigate, Albert L. 25 Craven-street, Charing Cross, London, W.C.

t{Newhaus, Albert. 1 Prince’s-terrace, Glasgow.

*Newman, Professor Francis Wrtcram. 15 Arundel-crescent,
Weston-super-Mare.

*Newmarcy, Wiitram, F.R.S. Brook House, Addlestone, Wey-

bridge.

*Newmarch, William Thomas. 1 Elms-road, Clapham Common,
London, S.W.

*Newron, Arrrep, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag-
dalen College, Cambridge.

tNewton, Rey. J. 125 Eastern-road, Brighton.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 61

Year of
Election.

1865.
1867.
1875.
1866.
1888.
1861.
1871.
1867.
1881.
1867.
1878.
1877.

1863.

t{Newton, Thomas Henry Goodwin. Clopton House, near Stratford-
on-A.von.

tNicholl, Thomas. Dundee.

tNicholls, J. F. City Library, Bristol.

{Nicwotson, Sir Cartes, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. The Grange, Totteridge, Herts.

*Nicholson, Cornelius, F.G.S., F.S.A. Ashleigh, Ventnor, Isle of
Wicht.

*Nicholson, Edward. 88 Mosley-street, Manchester.

§Nicholson, E. Chambers. Herne Hill, London, 8.E.

{Nicnorson, Henry Atreyrnz, M.D., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural History in the University of St. Andrews, N.B.

§Nicholson, William R. Clifton, York.

t{Nimmo, Dr. Matthew. Nethergate, Dundee.

{Niven, Charles, M.A., F.R.S., FR.A.S., Professor of Natural

Philosophy in the University of Aberdeen. Aberdeen.

tNiven, James, M.A. King’s College, Aberdeen.

{Nixon, Randal C.J., M.A. Green Island, Belfast.

*Noste, Captain ANDREW, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Elswick Works,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1880.§§Noble, John. Rossenstein, Thornhill-road, Croydon, Surrey.

1879

1870.
1860.
1859.
1868.
18653,
1865.
1872.
1881.
1881.

1869.

1868.
1861.
1878.
1878.
1878.
1878.

1858,

tNoble, T.S., F.G.S. Lendal, York.

tNolan, Joseph, M.R.L.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

*Nolloth, Rear-Admiral Matthew §., R.N., F.R.G.S. United Service
Club, 8.W.; and 18 North-terrace, Camberwell, London,

S.E.
tNorfolk, Richard. Messrs. W. Rutherford and Co., 14 Canada
Dock, Liverpool.
Norgate, William. Newmarket-road, Norwich.
§Norman, Rev. Atrrep Mzeriz, M.A. Burnmoor Rectory, Fence
House, Co. Durham.
Norreys, Sir Denham Jephson, Bart. Mallow Castle, Co. Cork.
a Ricwarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birming-
am.
{Norris, Thomas George. Corphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.
§North, Samuel William, M.R.C.S., F.G.S. 84 Micklegate, York.
§North, William, B.A., F.C.S. 34 Bernard-street, Russell-square,
London, W.C.
t{Norrucorr, The Right Hon. Sir Srarrorp H., Bart., K.G.C.B.,
M.P., F.R.S. Pynes, Exeter.
*Norruwicx, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A. 7 Park-street, Grosvenor-
square, London, W.
tNorwich, The Hon. and Right Rey. J.T. Pelham, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. Norwich.
tNoton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham.
Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.
tNugent, Edward, C.E. Seel’s-buildings, Liverpool.

{O’Brien, Murrough. 1 Willow-terrace, Blackrock, Co. Dublin,
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.
tO’Carroll, Joseph F. 78 Rathgar-road, Dublin.
f{O’Conor Don, The, M.P. Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland.
Odgers, Rey. William James. Savile House, Fitzjohn’s-avenue,
Hampstead, London, N. W.
*Optine, Witt1aM, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Waynflete Professor of
Cheney in the University of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens,
xford.

62 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1857. {O’Donnavan, William John. 54 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar,
Dublin.

1877. §Ogden, Joseph. 46 London-wall, London, E.C.

1876. {Ogilvie,Campbell P. Sizewell House, Lenton, Suffolk.

1859. {Ogilvie, Rev. C. W. Norman. Baldovan House, Dundee.

1874. §Ogilvie, Thomas Robertson. Bank Top, 3 Lyle-street, Greenock,
N.B.

*OciLvIE-ForBrs, GEORGE, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of
Medicine in Marischal College, Aberdeen. Boyndlie, Fraser-
burgh, N.B.
1863. {Ogiwy, G. R. Inverquharity, N.B.
1863. {Ocitvy, Sir Jonn, Bart. Inverquharity, N.B.
*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby.
1859, {Ogston, Francis, M.D. 18 Adelphi-court, Aberdeen,
1837. {O’'Hagan, John, M.A.,Q.C. 22 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.
1874. {O’Hacan, The Right Hon. Lord, MR.LA. 34 Rutland-square
West, Dublin.
1862. {O’Ketty, JosrrH, M.A.,M.R.LA. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
1881. §Oldfield, Joseph. Lendal, York.
1853. §OLpHAM, James, C.K. Cottingham, near Hull.
1863. {Oliver, Daniel, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in University College,
London. Royal Gardens, Kew, Surrey.
*OmMaAnneY, Admiral Sir Erasmus, O.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.
The Towers, Yarmouth, Isle of Wight.
1880, *Ommanney, Commander E. A., R.N., 44 Charing Cross, London, W.
1872. tOnslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James’s, London,
S.W.
1867. {Orchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee,
1880,§§O’Reilly, J. P., C.E., Professor of Mining and Mineralogy in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.
1842, Ormerop, GrorceE Warerne, M.A., F.G.S. Brookbank, Teign-
mouth.
1861. Ormerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester; and 11 Wood-
land-terrace, Cheetham Hill, Manchester.
1858. {Ormerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.
1880, *Ormiston, Thomas, C.K. Ormsdale, Thurlow Park-road, Dulwich,S E.
1835. Orprn, Joun H., LL.D., M.R.LA. 58 Stephen’s-creen, Dublin.
1838. Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin,
1876. {Orr, John B. Granville-terrace, Crosshill, Glasgow.
1873. {Osborn, George. 47 Kingscross-street, Halifax.
1865. tOsborne, E.C. Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*OstER, A. Foterr, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1877. *Osler, Miss A, F. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1865. *Osler, Henry F. 50 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1869, *Osler, Sidney F. 1 Pownall-gardens, Hounslow, near London.
1881. *Ottewell, Alfred D. 75 Grange-road, Middlesbrough,
1854, {Outram, Thomas, Greetland, near Halifax.
OvERSTONE, SAMUEL Jonns Luoyp, Lord, F.G.S. 2 Carlton-gardens,
London, 8.W.; and Wickham Park, Bromley.
1870. tOwen, Harold. The Brook Villa, Liverpool.
1857. {Owen, JamesH. Park House, Sandymount, Co. Dublin.
Owen, Ricwarp, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S.,
Hon. M.R.S.E., Director of the Natural-History Department,
British Museum. Sheen Lodge, Mortlake, Surrey, S.W.
1877. {Oxland, Dr. Robert, F.C.S. 8 Portland-square, Plymouth.

1872, *Paget, Joseph, Stuffynwood Hall, Mansfield, Nottingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 63

Year of
Election,

1875. {Paine, William Henry, M.D., F.G.S. Stroud, Gloucestershire.
1870. *Palgrave, R. H. Inglis. 11 Britannia-terrace, Great Yarmouth,
1873. {Palmer, George, M.P. The Acacias, Reading, Berks.
1866. §Palmer, H. 76 Goldsmith-street, Nottincham.,
1878. *Palmer, Joseph Edward. lLiyons Mills, Straffan Station, Dublin.
1866. §Palmer, William. Iron Foundry, Oanal-street, Nottingham.
1872. *Palmer, W. R. Hawthorne, Rivercourt-road, Hammersmith, W.
Palmes, Rev. William Lindsay, M.A. Naburn Hall, York.
1880, *Parke, George Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. Barrow-in-Furness, Lanca-
shire.
1857. *Parker, Alexander, M.R.I.A. 59 William-street, Dublin.
1863. {Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1863. {Parker, Rey. Henry. Idlerton Rectory, Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
1874. {Parker, Henry R., LL.D. Methodist College, Belfast.
Parker, Richard. Dunsecombe, Cork.
1865. *Parker, Walter Mantel. High-street, Alton, Hants.
Parker, Rey. William. Saham, Norfolk.
1853. {Parker, William. Thornton-le-Moor, Lincolnshire.
1865. *Parkes, Samuel Hickling. 6 St. Mary’s-row, Birmingham.
1864. {Parkes, WitttAmM. 23 Abingdon-street, Westminster, S.W.
1879. §Parkin, William, F.S.S. The Mount, Sheffield.
1859, {Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. West View, Toller-lane, Bradford, York-
shire.
1841. Parnell, Edward A., F.C.S. Ashley Villa, Swansea.
1862, *Parnell, John, M.A. 1 The Common, Upper Clapton, London, E.
Parnell, Richard, M.D., F.R.S.E. Gattonside Villa, Melrose, N.B.
1877. {Parson, T. Edgeumbe. 36 Torrington-place, Plymouth.
1865. *Parsons, Charles Thomas. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1878. {Parsons, Hon. C. A. 10 Connaught-place, London, W.
1878. {Parsons, Hon. and Rey. R. C. 10 Connaught-place, London, W.
1875, {Pass, Alfred C. Rushmere House, Durdham Down, Bristol.
1881. §Patchitt, Edward Cheshire. 128 Derby-road, Nottingham.
1861. {Patterson, Andrew, Deaf and Dumb School, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.
1871. ia ae A. Henry, 3 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London,

1863. {Patterson, H. L. Scott's House, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1867. {Patterson, James. Kinnettles, Dundee.

1876. §Patterson, T. L. Belmont, Margaret-street, Greenock.

1874. {Patterson, W. H., M.R.I.A. 26 Hich-street, Belfast.

1863. {Pattinson, John, F.C.S. 75 The Side, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1863. {Pattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne. :

1867. §Pattison, Samuel Rowles, F.G.S. 50 Lombard-street, London,
E.O

1864, {Pattison, Dr. T. H. London-street, Edinburgh.

1879, *Patzer, F. R. Stoke-on-Trent.

1863. {Paux, Bensamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

1863. {Pavy, Freperrck WrrtiAM, M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer on Physiology
and Comparative Anatomy and Zoology at Guy’s Hospital, 35
Grosyenor-street, London, W.

1864, {Payne, Edward Turner. 3 Sydney-place, Bath.

1881. §Payne, J. Buxton. 15 Mosley-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1877. {Payne, J.C. Charles, 5 Princess-gardens, The Plains, Belfast.

1881. §Payne, Mrs. 5 Princess-gardens, The Plains, Belfast.

1866, {Payne, Dr. Joseph F, 78 Wimpole-street, London, W.

1876, {Peace,G. H, Morton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester,

64

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

i879.
1847.

{Peace, William K. Western Bank, Sheffield.
{Pxracu, Cnartes W., Pres. R.P.S. Edin., A.L.S. 30 Haddington-
place, Leith-walk, Edinburgh.

. [Peacock, Thomas Francis. 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London,
W

C. ;
. *Pearce, Horace, F.L.S., F.G.S. The Limes, Stourbridge.
. tPearce, W. Elmpark House, Govan, Glasgow.

*Pearsall, Thomas John, F.C.S. Birkbeck Literary and Scientific
Institution, Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane, London, W.C.

. §Pearse, Richard Seward. Southampton.

. §Pearson, John. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.

. *Pearson, Joseph. Lern Side Works, Nottingham.

. §Pearson, Richard. 23 Bootham, York.

. [Pearson, Rev. Samuel. 48 Prince’s-road, Liverpool.

. §Pease, H. F. Brinkburn, Darlington.

. *Pease, Joseph W., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guisborough.

. [Pease, J. W. Newcastle-on-Tyne.

. *Pease, Thomas, F.G.8. Cote Bank, Westbury-on-Trym, near

Bristol.
Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

. *Peckover, Alexander, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Harecroft House, Wisbech
, 2

Cambridgeshire.
*Peckover, Algernon, F.L.S. Sibald’s Holme, Wisbech, Cam-
bridgeshire.

. *Peek, William. St. Clair, Hayward’s Heath, Sussex.

*Peel, George. Soho Jron Works, Manchester.

. {Peel, Thomas. 9 Hampton-place, Bradford, Yorkshire.

. §Peggs, J. Wallace. 21 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, S.W.

. *Peile, George, jun. Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.

. *Peiser, John. Barnfield House, 491 Oxford-street, Manchester.

. {Pemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London,
W.C

. tPemberton, Oliver. 18 Temple-row, Birmingham.

. *Pender, John, M.P. 18 Arlington-street, London, 8. W.

. {Pendergast, Thomas. Lancefield, Cheltenham.

. §PencELty, Witr1aM, F.R.S,, F.G.S. _Lamorna, Torquay.

. §Penty, W.G. Melbourne-street, York.

. {Percival, Rev. J., M.A., LL.D., President of Trinity College, Oxford.
. {Prrcy, Jonn, M.D., I'.R.S., F.G.S., 1 Gloucester-crescent, Hyde

Park, London, W.
*Perigal, Frederick. Thatched House Club, St. James’s-street,
London, 8. W.

. *PerKIn, WitLIAM Henry, F.R.S., F.C.S. The Chestnuts, Sudbury,

Harrow.

. §Perkins, Loftus. 140 Abbey-road, Kilburn, London, N.W.

Perkins, Rey. R. B., D.C.L. | Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucester-
shire.

. *Perkins, V. R. 54 Gloucester-street, London, S.W.

Perry, The Right Rev. Charles, M.A., D.D. 32 Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

. tPerry, James. Roscommon.
. *Perry, Jonn. 14 Talgarth-road, West Kensington, London, 8.W.

*Perry, Rey. 8. G. F., M.A. Tottington Vicarage, near Bury.

. *Prrry, Rey. 8. J., F.RS., F.R.AS., F.M.S. Stonyhurst College

Observatory, Whalley, Blackburn.

. *Petrie, John. South-street, Rochdale.

Peyton, Abel. Oakhurst, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 65

Year of
Election.

1871.

1882.
1867.

1863.

1870.
1853.
1853.

1877.
1863.
1862.
1872.

1880.

1881.
1868.
1868.
1864,
1870.
1870.
1871.

1865.
1873.
1857.
1863.

1877.
1868,
1876,
1859.
1866.
1875.
1864,
1868.

1872.
1869.
1865.
1842,

1867.

1857.
1861.
1881.
1846,

*Peyton, John E. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 1 Uplands, St. Leonard’s-
on-Sea.
§Pfoundes, Charles, F.R.G.S., Spring Gardens, London, S.W.
{PuHayreE, Lieut.-General Sir Arruur, K.C.8.1, C.B. Atheneum
Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
*PHENE, Jonn SamveEt, LL.D., F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton-
terrace, Oakley-street, London, S.W.
{Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.
*Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.
*Philips, Herbert. 35 Church-street, Manchester.
Philips, Robert N. The Park, Manchester.
§Philips, T. Wishart. 33 Woodstock-road, Poplar, London, E.
{Philipson, Dr. 1 Savile-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Phillips, Rev. George, D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge. ;
{Puities, J. ARTHUR, F.R.S, 18 Fopstone-road, Earl’s Court-road,
London, S.W.
§Phillips, John H., Hon. Sec. Philosophical and Archeological
Society, Scarborough.
§Phillips, William. 9 Bootham-terrace, York.
{Phipson, R. M., F.S.A. Surrey-street, Norwich.
{Purrson, T. L., Ph.D., F.C.S. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey, S.W.
tPickering, William. Oak View, Clevedon.
{Picton, J. Allanson, F.S.A. Sandyknowe, Wavertree, Liverpool.
tPigot, Rev. E. V. Malpas, Cheshire.
{Pigot, Thomas F.,C.E., M.R.LA. Royal College of Science, Dublin.
*Pike, Kbenezer. Besborough, Cork.
tPrxe, L.OweEn. 25 Carlton-villas, Maida-vale, London, W.
{Pike, W.H. 4 The Grove, Highgate, London, N.
{Pilkington, Henry M., M.A.,Q.C. 45 Upper Mount-street, Dublin.
*Pim, Captain Beprorp C. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. Leaside, Kingswood-
road, Upper Norwood, London, S.E.
Pim, George, M.R.IL.A. Brenanstown, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin.
Pim, Jonathan, Harold’s Cross, Dublin.
§Pim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
{Pinder, T. R. St. Andrew’s, Norwich.
{Pirie, Rev. G. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
{Pirrie, William, M.D., LL.D. 238 Union-street West, Aberdeen.
{Pitcairn, David. Dudhope House, Dundee.
{Pitman, John. Redcliff Hill, Bristol.
tPitt, R. & Widcomb-terrace, Bath.
{Prrr-Rivers, Major-General A. H. L., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.GS., .
F.S.A. 4 Grosvenor-gardens, London, S.W.
{Plant, Mrs. H. W. 28 Evington-street, Leicester.
§Prant, Jamus, F'.G.S. 40 West-terrace, West-street, Leicester.
{Plant, Thomas L. Camp Hill, and 33 Union-street, Birmingham.
Prayrarr, The Right Hon. Lyon, C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., MP.,
ERS. L. & E., F.C.S. 68 Onslow-gardens, South Kensington,
London, 8S. W.
{Prayrarr, Lieut.-Colonel R. L., H.M. Consul, Algeria. (Messrs. King
& Co., Pall Mall, London, 8.W.)
{Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland.
*Pocuin, Henry Davis, F.C.S. Bodnant Hall, near Conway.
§Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds.
{Porn, WrtrraMm, Mus. Doc, F.R.S., M.LC.E. Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
*Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A. Middleton Tyas Vicarage,
Richmond, Yorkshire.
E

66

Year of
Election

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Pollock, A. 52 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.

1862, *Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,

1854,
1868.
1874.

1866.
1863.

1857.

1873.
1881.
1876.
1857.
1867.

1856.
1869,

1881.

1871.
1856,

1872.

1881.
1875.
1870,
1875.
1876.
1875.
1864.

1835.
1846.

1876.
1872.

1881.
1865.

Cornwall.

{Poole, Braithwaite. Birkenhead,

{Portal, Wyndham 8. Malsanger, Basingstoke.

{Porter, Rev. J. Leslie, D.D., LL.D., President of Queen’s College,
Belfast.

§Porter, Robert. Montpelier Cottage, Beeston, Nottingham.

{Potter, D. M. Cramlington, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Porrer, Epmunp, F.R.S. Camfield-place, Hatfield, Herts.

*PouNDEN, Captain Lonspaxs, F.R.G.S. Junior United Service Club,
St. James’s-square, London, §8.W.; and Brownswood House,
Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford.

*Powell, Francis 8. Horton Old Hall, Yorkshire; and 1 Cambridge-
square, London, W.

§Powell, G. S. Baden, M.A., F.R.A.S. 8 St. George’s-place, Hyde

Park Corner, London, 8.W.

t{Powell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton,
Bristol.

{Power, Sir James, Bart. Edermine, Enniscorthy, Ireland.

{Powrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.

*Poynter, John E. Clyde Neuk. Uddingston, Scotland.

*Prerce, WitttamM Hewry, F.R.S. Gothic Lodge, Wimbledon
Common, London, 8.W.
Prest, The Venerable Archdeacon Edward. The College, Durham.
§Preston, Rev. Thomas Arthur, M.A. The Green, Marlborough.
*Prestwicn, JosepH, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Geology in the University of Oxford. 34 Broad-street, Oxford ;
and Shoreham, near Sevenoaks. (

{Price, Astley Paston. 47 Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields, London, W.C.

*Pricn, Rev. Barryotomew, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Sedleian
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford,
11 St. Giles’s, Oxford.

tPrice, Dayid S., Ph.D. 26 Great George-street, Westminster,

WwW

Price, J. T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.

§Price, Peter. Crockherhtown, Cardiff.

*Price, Rees. 2 Blythe-villas, West Kensington Park, London, W.

*Price, Major W. E., F.G.S._ Hillfield, Gloucester.

*Price, William Philip. Tibberton Court, Gloucester.

{Priestley, John. 174 Lloyd-street, Greenheys, Manchester.

tPrince, Thomas. 6 Marlborough-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

*Prior, R. C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
NEW

*Pritchard, Andrew, F.R.S.E. 87 St. Paul’s-road, Canonbury, Lon-
don, N.

*PrircHarD, Rey. CHares, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Professor
of Astronomy in the University of Oxford. 8 Keble-terrace,
Oxford.

*PritcHaRD, Urpan, M.D., F.R.C.S. 3 George-street, Hanover-
square, London, W.

tPritchard, Rey. W. Gee. Brignal Rectory, Barnard Castle, Co.
Durham.

§Procter, John William. 28 St..Paul’s-square, York.

tProctor, R. 8S. Summerhill-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Proctor, Thomas. Elmsdale House, Clifton Down, Bristol.
Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 67

Year of
Blection.

1863.
1863.
1879.

1865.
1872.
1871.
1875.
1867.
1842,

1852.
1860.

1881.

1874.
1866.
1878.
1860.
1868.

*Prosser, Thomas. 25 Harrison-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne,

{Proud, Joseph. South Hetton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 4 Cambridge-villas,

* Richmond Park-road, Kingston-on-Thames.

{Prowse, Albert P, Whitchurch Villa, Mannamead, Plymouth.

*Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Manor, Stevenage, Herts.

*Puckle, Thomas John. Woodcote-grove, Carshalton, Surrey.

{Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.

*Pullar, Robert. Tayside, Perth.

*Pumphrey, Charles. Southfield, King’s Norton, near Birmingham.

Punnet, Rey. John, M.A., F.C.P.S. St. Earth, Cornwall.

{Purdon, Thomas Henry, M.D. Belfast.

{Purpy, Frepericx, F.5.8., Principal of the Statistical Department of
the Poor Law Board, Whitehall, London. Victoria-road, Ken-
sington, London, W.

§Purey-Cust, Very Rey. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York, The

Deanery, York.

{Purser, Freperick, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin.

tPursur, Professor Joun, M.A., M.R.LA. Queen’s College, Belfast.

{Purser, John Mallet. 3 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.

*Pusey, S. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon.

tPye-Smirn, P. H., M.D. 56 Harley-street, W.; and Guy’s Hos-
pital, London, 8.E.

1879.§§Pye-Smith, R. J. 7 Surrey-street, Sheffield.
1861. *Pyne, Joseph John. The Willows, Albert-road, Southport.

1870.
1860.

1870.
1877.
1879.

1855.
1878.

1854.
1870,
1864.
1865.
1845,
1867.
1861.
1867.
1876,
1873.

1835.
1869,

1860,
1865,

Rabbits, W. T. Forest Hill, London, S.E.’
tRapverirre, CHAartes Brann, M.D. 25 Cayendish-square, London,
WwW

tRadcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool.

Radford, George D. Mannamead, Plymouth.

tRadford, R. Heber, M.1.C.E. Wood Bank, Pitsmoor, Sheffield.

*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.

*Radstock, Lord. 70 Portland-place, London, W.

fRae, John, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 2 Addison-gardens South, Ken- '
sington, London, W.

{Raffles, Thomas Stamford. 13 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

{Raffles, William Winter. Sunnyside, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

tRainey, James T. St. George’s Lodge, Bath.

Rake, Joseph. Charlotte-street, Bristol.

tRamsay, ALEXANDER, F'.G.S. Kilmorey Lodge, 6 Kent-gardens,
Ealing, W.

tRamsay, Sir AnpRrew Cromaiz, LLD., F.R.S., F.G.S, 15

Cromwell-crescent, South Kensington, London, 8. W.

{Ramsay, James, jun. Dundee.

tRamsay, John, M.P. Kildalton, Argyleshire.

*Ramsay, W. F., M.D. 89 Hammersmith-road, West Kensington,
London, W.

tRamsay, Witr1AM, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Bristol.

*Ramsden, William, Bracken Hall, Great Horton, Bradford, York-
shire.

*Rance, Henry (Solicitor). Cambridge.

*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.M. 10 Castletown-road, West Ken-
sington, London, 8. W.

tRandall, Thomas. Grandepoint House, Oxford.

tRandel, J. 50 Vittoria-street, Birmingham.

E 2

68

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Yesr of
Election.

1868.
1863.

1861.
1872.

1868.

1870.

1865.

1870.
1862.

1852.
1863.
1863.

1861.

1875.
1878.

1881,
1876,

1874
1850

Ranelagh, The Right Hon. Lord. 7 New Burlington-street, Regent-
street, London, W.
*Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. Bedford.
§Ransom, William Henry, M.D., F.R.S. The Pavement, Notting-
ham.
tRansome, Arthur, M.A. Bowdon, Manchester.
Ransome, Thomas. 34 Princess-street, Manchester.
*Ranyard, Arthur Cowper, F.R.A.S. 25 Old-square, Lincoln’s Inn,
London, W.C.
Rashleigh, Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London.
WwW

Rarcrrer, Colonel Cuartzs, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A,, F.R.G.S. Wyd-
drington, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

. {Rate, Rev. John, M.A. Lapley Vicarage, Penkridge, Staffordshire.

. {Rathbone, Benson. Exchange-buildings, Liverpool.

. {Rathbone, Philip H. Greenbank Cottage, Wavertree, Liverpool.

. §Rathbone, R. R. Beechwood House, Liverpool.

. tRattray, W. St. Clement’s Chemical Works, Aberdeen.

. TRayenstein, KE. G., F.R.G.8. 10 Lorn-road, Brixton, London,

S.W.
Rawdon, William Frederick, M.D. Bootham, York.

. tRawlins, G. W. The Hollies, Rainhall, Liverpool.
. *Rawrnson, Rey. Canon Groner, M.A., Camden Professor of An-

cient History in the University of Oxford. The Oaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.

. *Rawxryson, Major-General Sir Henry C., K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.,

F.R.G.S. 21 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W.

. §Rawson, Sir Rawson W., K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. 68 Corn-

wall-gardens, Queen’s-gate, London, S.W.

*Rayieren, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Professor
of Experimental Physics in the University of Cambridge. 5
Salisbury-villas, Cambridge.

tRayner, Joseph (Town Clerk). Liverpool.

tRead, William. Albion House, Epworth, Rawtry.

*Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A., F.L.S. 12 Blake-street, York.

§ReAvE, THomis Metrarp, C.E., F.G.S. Blundellsands, Liverpool.

*Readwin, Thomas Allison, M.R.I.A., F.G.8. 8 Bloomsbury-square,

London, W.C.

*RepFern, Professor Peter, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.

t{Redmayne, Giles. 20 New Bond-street, London, W.

tRedmayne, R. R. 12 Victoria-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales.

{Reep, Sir Epwarp J., K.C.B., M.P., F.R.S. 74 Gloucester-road,
South Kensington, London, W.

tRees-Moge, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol. _

§Reichel, The Ven. Archdeacon, D.D. The Archdeaconry, Trim,

Treland.

§Reid, Arthur S., B.A., F.G.S. 12 Bridge-street, Canterbury.

tReid, James. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

. tReid, Robert, M.A, 35 Dublin-road, Belfast.

. {Reid, William, M.D. Cruivie, Cupar, Fife.

1881. §Reid, William. 193 Blake-street, York.
1875. §Rerotp, A. W., M.A., Professor of Physical Science. Royal Nayal

1863,
1863.
1867.

College, Greenwich, 8.E.
§Renats, E. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham,
tRendel, G. Benwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tRenny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 69

Year of

Election.

1871. {Rexnoxps, James Emmrson, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.R.I.A., Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the University of Dublin. The Laboratory,
Trinity College, Dublin.

1870, *Reynotps, Ossorne, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering in
Owens College, Manchester. Fallowfield, Manchester.

1858. §Rryrnoxps, Ricwarp, F.C.S. 13 Briggate, Leeds.

1858. *Rhodes, John. 18 Albion-street, Leeds. '

1877.
1877.

1863.

1861.
1869.
1865.

1868.

1870.

1870.

1881.
1861.

1876.

1863.
1870.
1868.
1877.

1861.
1872.
1862.
1861.
1863,

1881,

1873.
1873.

1867.
1855.
1867.
1869,
1854.
1869.

1878.
1859.
1870.
1857.

1881.

1879.
1879.
1868,

1859

*Rhodes, John. 360 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire,

*Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Via
Stimmate, 15, Modena, Italy.

tRicwarpson, Bensamrn Warp, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. 12 Hinde-
street, Manchester-square, London, W.

tRichardson, Charles. 10 Berkeley-square, Bristol.

*Richardson, Charles. 4 Northumberland-avenue, Putney, S.W.

*Richardson, Edward. 6 Stanley-terrace, Gosforth, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.

*Richardson, George. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.

Richardson, J. H. 38 Arundel-terrace, Cork.

tRichardson, Ralph. 16 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.

Richardson, Thomas. Montpelier-hill, Dublin.

§Richardson, W. B. Elm Bank, York.

tRichardson, William. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.

§Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

tRichter, Otto, Ph.D. 6 Derby-terrace, Glasgow

Rickards, Dr. 86 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.

§Rickrrrs, CHariEs, M.D., F.G.S. 22 Areyle-street, Birkenhead.

tRicketts, James, M.D. St. Helen's, Lancashire.

*RIDDELL, Major-General Cuartes J. Bucuanan, C.B., R.A., F.R.S.
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon.

*Riddell, Henry B. Whitefield House, Rothbury, Morpeth.

tRidge, James. 98 Queen’s-road, Brighton.

tRidgway, Henry Ackroyd, B.A. Bank Field, Halifax.

tRidley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, London, N.W.

*Rigby, Samuel. Bruche Hall, Warrington.

§Rigg, Arthur. 79 Warrington-crescent, London, W.

thipley, Edward. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.

{Ripley, Sir Henry William, Bart. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.

*Ripon, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.R.G.S, 1 Carlton-gardens, London, 8S. W.

tRitchie, John. Fleuchar Craig, Dundee.

tRitchie, Robert, C.E. 14 Hill-street, Edinburgh.

TRitchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.

*Rivington, John. Babbicombe, near Torquay.

tRobberds, Rev. John, B.A. Battledown Tower, Cheltenham.

*Rossrns, Jonny, F.C.8. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida Vale, London,
W

tRoberts, Charles, F.R.C.S. 2 Bolton-row, London, W.

tRoberts, George Christopher, Hull.

*Roserts, Isaac, F.G.8. Kennessee, Maghull, Lancashire.

tRoberts, Michael, M.A. Trinity College, Dublin.

§Roberts, R. D. Clare College, Cambridge.

tRoberts, Samuel. The Towers, Sheffield.

{Roberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield.

§Roserts, W. Cuanpter, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S., Chemist to the
Royal Mint, and Professor of Metallurgy in the Royal School
of Mines. Royal Mint, London, E.

. TRobertson, Dr, Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen,

70 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1876. {Robertson, Andrew Carrick. Woodend House, Helensburgh, N.B.

1867.§§Robertson, David. Union Grove, Dundee.

1871.
1870.
1876.
1866.
1861.
1852.
1859.

1873.
1861.
1865.
1878.
1876.
1881.
1875.
1860.

tRobertson, George, C.E., F.R.S.E. 47 Albany-street, Edinburgh.

*Robertson, John. 4 Albert-road, Southport.

{Robertson, R, A. Newthorn, Ayton-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

{Rosrrrson, WrrL1aAM Trnpat, M.D. Nottingham.

tRobinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.

tRobinson, Rey. George. Tartaragham Glebe, Lougheall, Ireland.

tRobinson, Hardy. 156 Union-street, Aberdeen.

*Robinson, H. Oliver. 34 Bishopsgate-street, London, H.C.

§Robinson, Hugh. 82 Donegall-street, Belfast.

{Rosinson, Joun, C.E. Atlas Works, Manchester.

tRobinson, J. H. Cumberland-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

tRobinson, John L., C.E. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.

tRobinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.

§Robinson, Richard Atkinson, 195 Brompton-road, London, S.W.

*Robinson, Robert, C.E., F.G.S. 2 West-terrace, Darlington.

{Robinson, Admiral Sir Robert Spencer, K.C.B., F.R.S. 61 Eaton-
place, London, 8. W,

Roxsinson, Rev. Tomas Romney, D.D., F.R.S., F.R.AS.,
Hon. F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A., Director of the Armagh Observatory,
Armagh.

» {Robinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.

. {Robinson, William. 40 Smithdown-road, Liverpool.

. *Robson, E. R. 41 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.

. {Robson, Hazleton R. 14 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.

. Robson, Neil, C.E. 127 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

. *Robson, William. Marchholm, Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edin-

burgh.

. §RopweEtt, Grorce F., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Marlborough College,

Wiltshire.

. {Roe, Thomas. Grove-villas, Sitchurch.
. tRoeErs, JAmEs EK. THorowp, M.P., Professor of Economic Science

and Statistics in King’s College, London. Beaumont-street,
Oxford.

. {Rogers, James 8. Rosemill, by Dundee.

. *Rogers, Nathaniel, M.D. 87 South-street, Exeter.

. {Rogers, T, L., M.D. Rainhill, Liverpool.

. §Roxrit, A. K., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon. Fellow K.C.L.

Thwaite House, Cottingham, Hast Yorkshire.

. {Romanes, George John, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S8. 18 Cornwall-terrace,

Regent’s Park, London, N. W.

. {Ronalds, Edmund, Ph.D. Stewartfield, Bonnington, Edinburgh.
. {Roper, C. H. Magedalen-street, Exeter.
. *Roper, Freeman Clarke Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.S. Palgrave House,

Eastbourne.

. §Roper, W.O. Southfield, Lancaster.
. *Roscon, Henry Enrrerp, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Pro-

fessor of Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester,

. {Roseby, John. Haverholm House, Brigg, Lincolnshire.

. {Ross, Alexander Milton, M.A., M.D., F.G.8. Toronto, Canada.

. {Ross, David, LL.D. 32 Nelson-street, Dublin.

. §Ross, Captain G. E. A., F.R.G.S. Forfar House, Cromwell-road,

London, 8. W.

. {Ross, James, M.D. Tenterfield House; Waterfoot, near Manchester.
. *Ross, Rey. James Coulman. Baldon Vicarage, Oxford.
. [Ross, Rey. William. Chapelhill Manse, Rothesay, Scotland.

py

|

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1880,
1869,

1865.
1876.
1861.

1881.
1872.

1861.
1881.
1865.
1877.
1881.
1855,
1881.
1881.
1862,

1876.
1861.

1875.

1869.
1873.

1847.

1875.

1876.
1865.

1852.
1876.
1862.
1852.
1875.
1871.
1881.
1879.

1875.

§Ross, Colonel William Alexander. Acton House, Acton, London,
W

*Rosse, The Right Hon. the Earl of, B.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., M.R.LA. Birr Castle, Parsonstown, Iveland.

*Rothera, George Bell. 17 Waverley-street, Nottingham.

tRottenburgh, Paul. 13 Albion-crescent, Glasgow.

tRouth, Edward J., M.A., F.RS., F.RA.S., F.G.S. St. Peter’s
College, Cambridge. -

§Routh, Rey. William, M.A. Clifton Green, York.

*Row, A. V. Nursing Observatory, Daba-gardens, Vizagapatam,
India. (Care of Messrs. King & Co., 45 Pall Mall, London,
S.W.)

tRowan, David. Elliot-street, Glasgow.

§Rowe, Rey. G. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York.

§Rowe, Rey. John. Load Vicarage, Langport, Somerset.

§Rows, J. Brooxrne, F.L.S., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Plymouth.

§Rows, R. C., M.A., Professor of Pure Mathematics in University
College, London. University College, London, W.C.

*Rowney, Tuomas H., Ph.D., F.0.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway. Salerno, Salthill, Galway.

*Rowntree, Joseph. 19 Bootham, York.

*RownTrEE, J. 8. The Mount, York.

tRowsell, Rev. Evan Edward, M.A. Hambledon Rectory, Godal-
ming.

tRoxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.

*Royle, Peter, M.D., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. 27 Lever-street, Man-
chester.

{Ricxer, A. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Physics in the
Yorkshire College, Leeds.

§Rupier, F. W.,F.G.8. The Museum, Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.

{Rushforth, Joseph. 43 Ash-grove, Horton-lane, Bradford, York-
shire.

{Rusxtn, Joun, M.A., F.G.S., Slade Professor of Fine Aria in the
University of Oxford. Corpus Christi College, Oxford.

pane The Hon. F. A. R. Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park,

urrey.!

*Russell, George. 103 Blenheim-crescent, Notting Hill, London, W.

{Russell, James, M.D. 91 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

Russell, John. 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.
RussEx., Jonn Scorz, M.A., F.R.S. L.& E. Sydenham, 8.E.

*Russell, Norman Scott, Sydenham.

§Russell, R., C.E., F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.

§Russett, W. H. L., A.B., F.R.S. 5 The Grove, Highgate, Lon-
don, N.

*RussELL, Wri1taM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
in St. Bartholomew’s Medical College. 34 Upper Hamilton-
terrace, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W. \

{ Rutherford, David Greig. Surrey House, Forest Hill, London, S.L.

§RurHERForD, Witt1aM, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of the
Institutes of Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.

§Rutson, Albert. Newby Wiske, Thirsk.

Rutson, William. Newby Wiske, Northallerton, Yorkshire.
maar a ae Fitzherbert, R.N. 41 Cromwell-gartlens, London,

tRyalls, Charles Wager, LL.D. 3 Brick-court, Temple, London, E.C.

1874.§§Rye, E.O., F.Z.S., Librarian R.G.S. Royal Geographical Society,

1 Savile-row, London, W.

72 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1865, {Ryland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.
1861, *Rytanps, THomas GuazEBRoox, F.L.S., F.G.S. Highfields, Thel-
wall, near Warrington,

Sazing, General Sir Epwarp, K.C.B., R.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.BS.,
F.RAS., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 13 Ashley-place, Westminster,

1871. {Sadler, Samuel Champernowne. Purton Court, Purton,near Swindon,
iltshire.

1866. *St. Albans, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near
Nottingham.

1880.§§Sakurai, J. 96 Camden-street, London, N.W.

1881. §Salkeld, William. 4 Paradise-terrace, Darlington.

1857. {Satmon, Rev. Groren, D.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Regius Professor of
Divinity in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.

1873. *Salomons, Sir David, Bart. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.

1872. sa Para M.A., F.R.S., F.L.8. Brookland Avenue, Cam-

ridge,

1861. *Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.

1861. *Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Tulloch, Perth.

1876. {Sandeman, David. Woodlands, Lenzie, Glasgow.

1878. {Sanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent.

1872. {Sanders, Mrs. 8 Powis-square, Brighton.

1872. {Sanprerson, J. 8. Burpon, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Physiology in University College, London. 26 Gordon-square,
London, W.C.

Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.
1864. {Sandford, William. 9 Springfield-place, Bath.
1854. Pandy, The Right Hon. Lord, M.P. 39 Gloucester-square, London,

1873. {Sands, T. C. 24 Spring-gardens, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1865. {Sargant, W. L. Edmund-street, Birmingham.

1868, {Saunders, A.,C.E. King’s Lynn.

1881. §Saunders, Howard, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 7 Radnor-place, London, W.

1846. {SaunpERs, TRELAwNEY W. India Office, London, 8. W

1864, tSaunders, T. W., Recorder of Bath. 1 Priory-place, Bath.

1860, *Saunders, William. 3 Gladstone-terrace, Brighton.

1871. §Savage, W. D. Ellerslie House, Brighton.

1872. *Sawyer, George David. 55 Buckingham-place, Brighton.

1868. {Sawyer, John Robert. Grove-terrace, Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich.

1868. §Schacht, G. F. 7 Regent’s-place, Clifton, Bristol. :

1879, *Schafer, E. A., F.R.S., M.R.C.S., Assistant Professor of Physiology
in University College, London. Boreham Wood, Elstree,
Herts.

*Schemmann, J. C. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt &

Sons, Birmingham.)

1880, *Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt
& Sons, Birmingham.)

1842. Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.

1874. §Scholefield, Henry. Windsor-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1876. {Schuman, Sigismond. 7 Royal Bank-place, Glasgow.

Scouncx, Epwarp, F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersall Moor, Man-

chester.

1873. *Scuusrer, ARTHUR, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Applied
Mathematics in Owens College, Manchester.

1861. *Schwabe, Edmund Salis. Ryecroft House, Cheetham Hill, Man-
chester.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 73

Year of
Election.

1847. *Scrarer, Partie Luriey, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., See.
Zool. Soc. 11 Hanover-square, London, W.
1867, {Scorr, ALExanpER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.
1881. §Scott, Alexander, B.A., B.Sc. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1878.§§Scott, Arthur William. St. David's College, Lampeter.
1881. §Scott, Miss Charlotte A. Girton College, Cambridge.
1876. {Scott, Mr. Bailie. Glasgow.
1871. {Scott, Rev. C.G. 12 Pilrig-street, Edinburgh.
1872. {Scott, Major-General H. Y. D., C.B., R.E., F.R.S. Sunnyside,
Ealing, W.
1871. {Scott, James S. T. Monkrigg, Haddingtonshire.
1857. *Scorr, Roperr H., M.A., F.R.S:, F.G.S., F.M.S., Secretary to the
Council of the Meteorological Office. 6 Elm Park-gardens,
London, S. W. ‘
1861. §Scott, Rev. Robert Selkirk, D.D. 16 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.
1874. tScott, Rey. Robinson, D.D. Methodist College, Belfast.
1864. {Scott, Wentworth Lascelles. Wolverhampton.
1858, {Scott, William. Holbeck, near Leeds.
1869. {Scott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon.
1881. *Scrivener, A. P. Weston Turvill, Tring.
1859. {Seaton, John Love. Hull.
1877. {Seaton, Robert Cooper, B.A. Dulwich College, Dulwich, Surrey, SE,
1880.§§Sedgwick, Adam, B.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1880. §Seebohm, Henry, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 6 Tenterden-street, Hanoyer-square,
London, W.
1861. *Srrtey, Harry Govirr, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.GS., F.Z.8.,
Professor of Geography in King’s College, London. 14 Oppidans
road, Primrose Hill, London, N.W.
1855. {Seligman, H. L. 135 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
1879. §Selim, Adolphus. 21 Mincing-lane, London, E.C.
1873. {Semple, R. H., M.D. 8 Torrington-square, London, W.C.
1858. *Senior, George, F.S.S. Rosehill, Dodworth, near Barnsley.
1870. *Sephton, Rey. J. 92 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
1875. §Seville, Thomas. Blythe House, Southport, Lancashire.
1878. {Sewell, Rev. E. M.A., F.G.S., F.R.GS, Ilkley College, near
Leeds
1868. {Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.
1861. *Seymour, Henry D. 209 Piccadilly, London, W.
jee ee 15 Upper Phillimere-gardens, Kensington, Lon-
on, W.
1871, *Shand, James. Fullbrooks, Worcester Park, Surrey.
1867. §Shanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.
1881. §Shann, George, M.D. Petergate, York.
1869, §Shapter, Dr. Lewis, LL.D. The Barnfield, Exeter.
1878, {SHarp, Davip, M.B. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
Sharp, Rev. John, B.A. Horbury, Waketield.
1861. {SHarp, Samvet, F.G.S., F.S.A. Great Harrowden Hall, near
Wellingborough.
*Sharp, William, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Horton House, Rugby.
‘ii William, B.A. Mareham Rectory, near Boston, Lincoln-
shire,
1854, *Shaw, Charles Wright. 3 Windsor-terrace, Douglas, Isle of Man.
1870. {Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.
1865. {Shaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham.
1881. *Shaw, H. S. Hele, M.A. 2 Pembroke-vale, Clifton, Bristol.
1870, {Shaw, John, 24 Great George-place, Liverpool.

74

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1845,

1878.
1881.
1839.

1863.
1870,

1880.
1866.
1867.

1870.

1875.
1881.
1861.
1877.
1873.

{Shaw, John, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S. Hop House, Boston, Lincoln-
shire.
{Shelford, W., C.E. 35a Great George-street, Westminster, 8. W.
§Shenstone, W. A. Clifton College, Bristol.
Shepard, John. 4 Highfield-place, Manningham, Bradford, York-
shire.
tShepherd, A. B. 49 Seymour-street, Portman-square, London, W.
§Shepherd, Joseph. 29 Hverton-crescent, Liverpool.
Sheppard, Rey. Henry W., B.A. The Parsonage, Emsworth, Hants.
§Shida, R. 1 St. James’s-place, Hillhead, Glasgow.
{Shilton, Samuel Richard Parr. Sneinton House, Nottingham.
tShinn, William C. 4 Varden’s-road, Clapham Junction, Surrey,
S.W.
*SHOOLBRED, JAMES N., C.E., F.G.S. 3 Westminster-chambers,
London, 8. W.
{Shore, Thomas W., F.0.8. Hartley Institution, Southampton.
§Shuter, James L. Lawn House, Tufnell Park, London, N.
*Sidebotham, Joseph. The Beeches, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. The Beeches, Bowdon, Cheshire.
{Sidewick, R. H. The Raikes, Skipton.
Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

. *Siemens, Alexander. 12 Queen Anne’s-cate, Westminster, 8. W.
. *Sremens, C. Wintram, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.LC.E.

(Presrpent Erxzcr.) 12 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster,
Ww

; {Sigerson, Professor George, M.D., F.L.S., MR.LA. 3 Clare-street,

Dublin.

. {Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.

. {Sime, James, Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.

. {Simkiss, T. M. Wolverhampton.

. tSimms, James. 138 Fleet-street, London, H.C.

. §Simms, William. The Linen Hall, Belfast.

3. {Simon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-gardens, London, W.

. {Simon, John, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.C.8., Surgeon to St.

Thomas’s Hospital. 40 Kensington-square, London, W.

. {Simons, George. The Park, Nottingham.
. *Snrpson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-

versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.

. {Simpson, G. B. Seatield, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.

. Simpson, John. Maylirk, Kincardineshire.

. {Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.

. {Smreson, Maxwett, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of

Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork.

. {Simpson, Robert. 14 Ibrox-terrace, Glasgow.

Simpson, William. Bradmore House, Hammersmith, London, W.

. {Sinclair, James. Titwood Bank, Pollockshields, near Glasgow.

. {Sinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast.

. {Sinclair, Vetch, M.D. 48 Albany-street, Edinburgh.

. *Sinclair, W. P. 19 Devonshire-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

. *Sircar, Mahendra Lal, M.D. 51 Sankaritola, Calcutta. (Care of

Messrs. 8. Harraden & Co., 3 Hill’s-place, Oxford-street, Lon-
don, W.)

5. {Sissons, William. 92 Park-street, Hull.
. {Skertchly, Sydney B. J., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-

street, London, 8.W.

. §StapEn, Watter Percy, F.G.S., F.L.S. Exley House, near Halifax.
. {Slater, Clayton. Barnoldswick, near Leeds.

“I
or

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1870. {Slater, W. B. 42 Clifton Park-avenue, Belfast.

1842. *Slater, William. Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

1877. {Sleeman, Rey. Philip, L.Th., F.R.A.S., F.R.M.S. Clifton, Bristol.

1849, {Sloper, George Elgar. Devizes.

1849, {Sloper, Samuel W. Devizes.

1860.§§Sloper, S. Elgar. Winterton, near Hythe, Southampton.

1872. {Smale, The Hon. Sir John, Chief Justice of Hong Kong.

1867. {Small, David. Gray House, Dundee.

1881. §Smallshan, John. 81 Manchester-road, Southport.

1858. {Smeeton, G. H. Commercial-street, Leeds.

1876. {Smeiton, James. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

1876. {Smeiton, John G. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

1867. {Smeiton, Thomas A. 55 Cowgate, Dundee.

1876. §Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

1877. {Smelt, Rey. Maurice Allen, M.A., F.R.A.S. Heath Lodge, Chel-
tenham.

1857. {Smith, Aquilla, M.D., M.R.IL.A. 121 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.

1868. tSmth, Augustus. Northwood House, Church-road, Upper Norwood,

Surrey, SL.

1872. *Smith, Basil Woodd, F.R.A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead
Heath, London, N. W.

1874. *Smith, Benjamin Leigh. 64 Gower-street, London, W.C.

1873. {Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.

1865. {Smira, Davo, F.R.A.S. 40 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

1865. {Smith, Frederick. The Priory, Dudley.

1866. *Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.

1855. {Smith, George. Port Dundas, Glasgow.

1876. {Smith, George. Glaseow.

*SmitH, Henry Jonny SrepHeEn, M.A.,LL.D.,F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,F.C.S.,
Savilian Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford,
and Keeper of the University Museum. The Museum, Oxford.

1860. *Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 18 Harley-street, Cavendish-square,
London, W.

- 1870. {Smith, H. L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire.

1870. {Smith, James. 146 Bedford-street South, Liverpool.

1871. eg John Alexander, M.D., F.R.S.E. 10 Palmerston-place, Edin-

ureh.
1876. *Smith, J. Guthrie. 173 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
1874. {Smith, John Haigh. Beech Hill, Halifax, Yorkshire.
Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, near Coalport, Shropshire.

1871. {Smith, Professor J. William Robertson. Free Church College,
Aberdeen.

*Smith, Philip, B.A. The Bays, Parkfields, Putney, 8. W.

1860, *Smith, Protheroe, M.D, 42 Park-street, Grosvenor-square, Lon-
don, W.

1837. Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.

1847. §Smrru, Ropprt Anevs, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 22 Devonshire-street,
Manchester.

*Smith, Robert Mackay. 4 Bellevue-crescent, Hdinburgh.

1870. {Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.

1866, {Smith, Samuel. 38 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, F.C.

1873. {Smith, Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.

1867. {Smith, Thomas. Dundee.

1867. {Smith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.

1859. {Smith, Thomas James, F'.G.8., F.C.S. Hessle, near Hull.

1852. {Smith, William. Kelinton Engine Works, Glasgow.

1875. *Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton, Bristol.

76

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election
1876.
1878.
1874,
1850.

1874.
1870.
1878.
1857.

1864,

1854.

1878.
1879,

1859,
1879.
1865.
1859.
1856.
1863.
1863.
1879.§
1869

1854,
1881,
1861.
1861.
1863,

1875.
1864,

1864.
1864,
1878.
1846.
1864.
1854,
1853.
1877.

1879.
1858.

tSmith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

{Smithson, Joseph 8. Balnagowan, Rathmines, Co, Dublin.

{Smoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.

*Suyru, Cartes Prazzt, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for
Scotland, Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edin-
burgh. 15 Royal-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Smyth, Henry, C.E. Downpatrick, Ireland.

{Smyth, Colonel H. A., R.A. Barrackpore, near Caleuita.

§Smyth, Mrs. Isabella, Wigmore Lodge, Cullenswood-ayenue, Dublin,

“Suyra, Joun, jun, M.A., C.E., F.M.S. — Lenaderg, Banbridge,
Ireland.

{SarvrH, Warreron W., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Lecturer
on Mining and Mineralogy at the Royal School of Mines, and
Inspector of the Mineral Property of the Crown. 5 Inverness-
terrace, Bayswater, London, W.

{Smythe, Lieut.-General W. J., R.A., F.R.S. Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.

§Snell, H. Saxon. 22 Southampton-buildings, London, W.C.

§Sornas, W. J., M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in

University College, Bristol. 4 The Polygon, Clifton, Bristol.

“Sorry, Epwarp, F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.A. Park House,
Sutton, Surrey.

Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell.

*Sorsy, H. Crrrron, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.G.S. Broomfield, Sheffield.

*Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Sheftield.

*Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.

{Southall, Norman. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C.

{Southwood, Rey. T. A. Cheltenham College.

{Sowerby, John. Shipcote House, Gateshead, Durham.

*Spark, H. King. Starforth House, Barnard Castle.

§Spence, David. Brookfield House, Freyinghall, Yorkshire.

. “Spence, J. Berger. Erlington House, Manchester.

§Spence, Peter, F.C.S. Erlington House, Seymour-groye, Manchester.

§Spencer, Herbert E. Lord Mayor's Walk, York.

{Spencer, John Frederick. 28 Great George-street, London, 8. W.

*Spencer, Joseph. Springbank, Old Trafford, Manchester.

“Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co,

Durham,

{Spencer, W. H. Richmond Hill, Clifton, Bristol.

*Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.LS., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen Park, Highbury,
London, N.

§Spicer, William R. 19 New Bridge-street, Blackfriars, London,
E.C

“SPILtER, JoHN, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N.

§Spottiswoode, George Andrew. 3 Cadogan-square, London, 8. W.

“Sporriswoopg, WiitraM, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres. R.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.S. 41 Grosvenor-place, London, 8S. W.

*Spottiswoode, W. Hugh. 41 Grosvenor-place, London, S.W.

*Spracuz, Tuomas Bonp, 29 Buckingham-terrace, Edinburgh,

{Spratt, Joseph James. West Parade, Hull.

Square, Joseph Elliot, F.G.S. 24 Portland-place, Plymouth.

{Sevarg, Wittram, F.R.C.S., F.R.G.S. 4 Portland-square, Ply-
mouth,

*Squire, Lovell. The Observatory, Falmouth.

{Stacye, Rey. John. Shrewsbury Hospital, Sheffield.

*Srarnton, Henry T., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. Mountsfield, Lewis-
ham, 8.E.

LIST OF MEMBERS. ‘7

Year of
Election.

1865.
1837.

§Sranrorp, Epwarp C.C. Glenwood, Dalmuir, N.B.
Staniforth, Rev. Thomas. Storrs, Windermere.

1881. §Stanley, William Ford. Cumberlow, South Norwood, Surrey, 8.E.

Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.

1866. {Starey, Thomas R. Daybrook House, Nottingham.

1876

. §Starling, John Henry, F.C.S. The Avenue, Erith, Kent.
Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.

1873. *Stead, Charles. Saltaire, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1881.
1881.
1857.
1870.
1863.
1873.
1861.
1872.
1879.
1881.
1861.
1863.
1876.
1870.
1861.
1880.
1868.
1878.

§Stead, John. Southport, Lancashire.

§Stead, W. H. Southport, Lancashire.

{Steale, William Edward, M.D. 15 Hatch-street, Dublin.

§Stearn, C. H. 2 St. Paul’s-villas, Rock Ferry, Liverpool.

{Steele, Rev. Dr. 35 Sydney-buildings, Bath.

§Steinthal,G. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

{Steinthal, H. M. Hollywood, Fallowfield, near Manchester.

tStennett, Mrs. Eliza, 2 Clarendon-terrace, Brighton,

*SrePHENSON, Henry, J.P. Endcliffe Vale, Sheffield.

§Stephenson, J. F. 3 Mount-parade, York.

*Stern,S. J. Littlezrove, East Barnet, Herts.

tSterriker, John. . Driffield, Yorkshire.

{Steuart, Walter. City Bank, Pollockshaws, near Glasgow.

*Stevens, Miss Anna Maria. Belmont, Devizes-road, Salisbury.

*Stevens, Henry, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 4 Trafalgar-square, London, W.C.

*Stevens, J. Edward. 10 Cleveland-terrace, Swansea.

{Stevenson, Henry, F.L.S. Newmarket-road, Norwich.

{Stevenson, Rey. James, M.A. 21 Garville-avenue, Rathgar,
Dublin.

1863. *SrEvenson, JAMES C., M.P., F.C.S. Westoe, South Shields,

1855.
1864.
1875.

1876.
1867.
1868.
1876.
1867.
1865.
1864.

1854,

1862.
1874.
1876.
1859.
1857.

1878.
1861.

{Srewart, Barrovr, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in Owens College, Manchester.

{Srewart, Cuarres, M.A., F.L.S. St. Thomas’s Hospital, London,
S.E.

*Stewart, James, B.A., M.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, near
Bristol.
tStewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s-road, Glaseow.
{Stirling, Dr. D. Perth. ;
{Stirling, Edward. 34 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, London, W.
{Stirling, William, M.D., D.Sc. The University, Aberdeen.
*Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. 14 Atkinson-street, Deans¢ate, Manchester.
*Stock, Joseph 8. The Grange, Ramsgate.
{Sroppart, Witrram Watrer, F.G.S., F.C.S. Grafton Lodge,
Sneyd Park, Bristol.
{Stoess, Le Chevalier Ch. de W. (Bavarian Consul). Liverpool.
*Sroxss, GEORGE GABRIEL, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec. R.S., Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Lens-
field Cottage, Cambridge.
{Sronr, Epwarp James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of the
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.
{Stone, J. Harris, B.A., F.LS., F.C.S. 11 Sheffield-gardens, Ken-
sington, London, W.
{Stone, Octavius C., F.R.G.S. Springfield, Nuneaton.
{Stone, Dr. William H. 14 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S.W.
{Srongy, Brypon B., C.E., F.R.S. M.R.LA., Engineer of the Port
of Dublin. 42° Wellington-road, Dublin.
*Stoney, G. Gerald. 8 Palmerston Park, Dublin.
*SronrEy, GrorcE Jounsronr, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., Secretary to
the Queen’s University, Ireland. 38 Palmerston Park, Dublin.

78

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1876.
1854.
1873.

1867.
1859.
1874.
1871.

1881.

1876.
1865.
1881.

1879.

1859.
1867.
1876,

1878.
1876.
1872.
1864,

§Stopes, Henry, F.G.S. Kenwyn, Cintra Park, Upper Norwood, 8.E.
Store, George. Prospect House, Fairfield, Liverpool.

{Storr, William. The ‘Times’ Office, Printing-house-square, Lon-
don, E.C.

tStorrar, John, M.D. Heathview, Hampstead, London, N.W.

§Story, Captain James. 17 Bryanston-square, London, W.

§Stott, William. Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.

*SrracHey, Lieut.-General Ricwarp, R.E., C.S.1L, F.R.S., F.R.G.S.,
F.LS., F.G.8. Stowey House, Clapham Common, London,

§Strahan, Aubrey, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-
street, London, 8. W. ; 1

{Strain, John. 143 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

{Straker, John. Wellington House, Durham.

§Strangways, C. Fox, F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W.

*Strickland, Charles. Loughglyn House, Castlerea, Ireland.

{Strickland, Sir Charles W., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton,

Strickland, William. French Park, Roscommon, Ireland.

{Stronach, William, R.E. Ardmellie, Banff.

{Stronner, D. 14 Princess-street, Dundee.

*Srrurners, JoHN, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University
of Aberdeen.

{Strype, W. G., C.E. Wicklow.

*Stuart, Charles Maddock. Sudbury Hill, Harrow.

*Stuart, Rev. Edward A. 22 Bedford-street, Norwich.

{Style, Sir Charles, Bart. 102 New Sydney-place, Bath.

1873.§§Style, Rev. George, M.A. Gigeleswick School, Yorkshire.

1879,
1857.
1873.
1873.
1863.
1862.

1863.

- 1881.

1881.

1876.
1881.
1861.
1862.

1862.
1879.

1870.
1868.

1873.
1873.

1847,

1862.
1847,

*Styring, Robert. 8 Hartshead, Sheffield.

tSutnivan, Witr1aM K., Ph.D., M.R.L.A. Queen’s College, Cork.

{Suteliffe, J. W. Sprink Bank, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tSutcliffe, Robert. Idle, near Leeds.

{Sutherland, Benjamin John. 10 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*SUTHERLAND, GEORGE GRANVILLE WuxLIAmM, Duke of, K.G.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Stafford House, London, 8. W.

{Surron, Francis, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich.

§Sutton, William. Town Hall, Southport.

§Swales, William. Ashville, Holgate-road, York.

{Swan, David, jun. Braeside, Maryhill, Glasgow.

§Swan, Joseph W. Mosley-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Swan, Patrick Don 8. Kirkcaldy, N.B.

*Swan, Witr1aM, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of St. Andrews, N.B.

*Swann, Rey. 8. Kirke, F.R.A.S. Forest Hill Lodge, Warsop,
Mansfield, Nottinghamshire.

§Swanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield.

Sweetman, Walter, M.A., M.R.LA. 4 Mountjoy-square North,

Dublin.

*Swinburne, Sir John, Bart. Capheaton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Swindell, J.S. E. Summerhill, Kingswinford, Dudley.

*Swinglehurst, Henry. Hincaster House, near Milnthorpe.

§Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D, Cleckheaton.

{Sykes, H. P. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W.

{Sykes, Thomas. Cleckheaton, near Leeds.

{Sykes, Captain W. H. F. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W,

SytvesTER, JAMES JosEePH, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Atheneum Club,

London, 8. W. :

LIST OF MEMBERS. 79

Year of
Election.

1870.

1881.
1856.
1859.

1860.
1859.
1855.
1872.

1865.
1877.
1871.

1867.

1874.
1866.

1878.
1861.
1856.
1857.
1863.
1870.

1858.
1876.
1879.
1864.
1878.
1874.
1867.
1880.

1874.
1881.
1879.
1861.

1873.
1881.
1865.

1876.
1878,
1881.

1870.

tSymes, Ricwarp Guascorr, A.B., F.G.S. Geological Survey of
Treland, 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

§Symington, Thomas. 13 Dundas-street, Edinburgh.

“Symonds, Frederick, M.A., F.R.C.S. 35 Beaumont-street, Oxford.

{Symonds, Captain Thomas Edward, R.N. 10 Adam-street, Adelphi,
London, W.C.

{Symonps, Rey. W.S., M.A., F.G.S. Pendock Rectory, Worcester-
shire.

§Symons, G. J., F.R.S., Sec.M.S. 62 Camden-square, London,
N. W.

“Symons, Wittr1aM, F.C.S. 26 Joy-street, Barnstaple.
Synge, Francis. * Glanmore, Ashford, Co. Wicklow.
{Synge, Major-General Millington, R.E., F.8.A., F.R.G.S. United
Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.

{Tailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, N.B.

*Tart, Lawson, F.R.C.S._ 7 Great Charles-street, Birmingham.

{Tarr, Perer Gururim, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh. George-square, Edinburgh.

fTair, P. M., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. Oriental Club, Hanoyer-square,

London, W.

§Talmage, OC. G., F.R.A.S. Leyton Observatory, Essex, E.

{Tarbotton, Marrott Ogle, M.I.C.E., F.G.S. Newstead-grove, Not-
tingham.

{Tarrry, Huex. Dublin.

*Tarratt, Henry W. Mountfield, Grove Hill, Tunbridge Wells.

{Tartt, William Macdonald, F.S.8. Sandford-place, Cheltenham.

*Tate, Alexander, C.E, Longwood, Whitehouse, Belfast.

{Tate, John, Alnmouth, near Alnwick, Northumberland.

{Tate, Norman A. 7 Nivell-chambers, Fazackerley-street, Liver-
pool.

*Tatham, George, J.P. Springfield Mount, Leeds.

{Tatlock, Robert R. 26 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.

tTattershall, William Edward. 15 North Church-street, Sheffield.

*“TawneY, Epwarp B., F.G.S8. Woodwardian Museum, Cambridge.

“Taylor, A. Claude. Clinton-terrace, Derby-road, Nottingham.

{Taylor, Alexander O'Driscoll. 3 Upper-crescent, Belfast.

TTaylor, Rey. Andrew. Dundee.

§Taylor, Edmund. Droitwich.

Taylor, rederick, Laurel Cottage, Rainhill, near Prescot, Lan-
cashire.

{Taylor,G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.

“Taylor, H. A. 112 Cromwell-road, London, 8.W.°

{Taylor, John. Broomhall-place, Sheffield.

*Taylor, a ohn. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-street, London,
E.C.:

{Taxror, Joun Error, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.S. The Mount, Ipswich.

“Taylor, John Francis. Holly Bank House, York.

{Taylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.

*Taytor, Ricuarp, F.G.S. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-
street, London, E.C.

{Taylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glasgow.

{Taylor, Robert, J.P., LL.D. Corballis, Drogheda,

§Taylor, Rev. S. B., M.A., Chaplain of Lower Assam, Gauhatti,
Assam. (Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., 55 Parliament=
street, London, 8. W.)

Taylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon,

80

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1858.

*Taylor, William Edward. Hesketh Park, Southport.
tTeale, Thomas Pridgin, jun, 20 Park-row, Leeds.

1880.§§Tebb, Miss. 7 Albert-road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

1869.
1876.
1879.
1880.

1865.
1881.
1866.
1871.
1871.

1835.
1870.
1879.
1871.
1875.

1875.
1869.
1881.
1869.
1880.

1881.
1875.
1859.

1870.

1861.
1864.

1873.
1876.
1874.
1876.

1863.
1867.
1855.

1850.

1850.
1868.

1876.
1874.
1871.
1871.

tTeesdale, C.S. M. Whyke House, Chichester.

{Temperley, Ernest. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

§Temple, Lieutenant George T., R.N. The Nash, near Worcester.

§Temple, Sir Richard, Bart., G.C.S.I., F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club,

London, 8. W.

tTennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Terry, Mr. Alderman. Mount-villas, York.

tThackeray, J. L. Arno Vale, Nottingham.

tThin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh.

{TuiseLron-Dyrnr, W. T., M.A., B.Sc., F.B.S., F.L.S, 10 Gloucester-
road, Kew. .

Thom, John, Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.

t¢Thom, Robert Wilson. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.

*Thomas, Arthur. Endcliffe House, Sheffield.

t¢Thomas, Ascanius William Nevill. Chudleigh, Devon.

*THomas, CHRISTOPHER JAMES. Drayton Lodge, Redland, Bristol.

Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol.

{Thomas, Herbert. 2 Great George-street, Bristol.

tThomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.

§THomas, J. Brounr. Southampton.

t{Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. Custom House, London, E.C.

*Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S, The Laboratory, West Wharf,
Cardiff.

§Thomas, Sydney G. 27 Tedworth-square, London, S.W.

{Thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.

{Thompson, George, jun. Pidsmedden, Aberdeen.

eee Harry Stephen. Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, York-
shire.

{Tnomrson, Sir Henry. 35 Wimpole-street, London, W.

Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairtield, near York.

*Thompson, Joseph. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Manchester.
{Tnompson, Rev. JosrrpH HussereRave, B.A. Cradley, near
Brierley Hill.

{Thompson, M. W. Guiseley, Yorkshire.

*Thompson, Richard. Park-street, The Mount, York.

t{Thompson, Robert. Walton, Fortwilliam Park, Belfast.

§THompson, Sirvanus Puuizirs, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S., Professor
of Physics in University College, Bristol.

{Thompson, William. 11 North-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

t¢Thoms, William. Magdalen-yard-read, Dundee.

{Tuomson, Atten, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E. 66 Palace Gardens-
terrace, Kensington, London, W.

{Tuomson, Sir Coartes Wrvittz, LL.D., F.R.S.L.& E., F.GS.,
Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of
Edinburgh. 20 Palmerston-place, Edinburgh.

Thomson, Guy. Oxford.

*Tromson, Professor JAmEs, M.A., LL.D., C.E., F.RS. L. & E.
Oakfield House, University Avenue, Glasgow. ,

§THomson, JAmzEs, F.G.S. 3 Abbotsford-place, Glasgow.

*Thomson, James Gibson. 14 York-place, Edinburgh.

t{Thomson, James R. Dalmuir House, Dalmuir, Glasgow.

tThomson, John. Harbour Office, Belfast.

*Tuomson, Jon Mrtxar, F.C.S. King’s College, London, W.C.

tThomson, Robert, LL.B. 12 Rutland-square, Edinburgh.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 81

Year of
Election.

1847,

1877.
1874.

1876.
1871.
1880.
1871.
1852.

1867.
1845.
1881.
1871.
- 1881.
1864.

1871.
1868,
1870.
1873.
1874.

1873.
1865,

1876.
1861.

1857.
1856.
1864,

1863.
1865,

1865.
1873,

1861.
1872,

1875.
1863.

1859.

1873.
1875,

“THomson, Sir Wittram, M.A., LL.D., D.O.L., F.RS. L. & E. F
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow,
The University, Glasgow,

*Thomson, Lady. The University, Glasgow.

§THomson, Witt1aM, F,R.S.E., F.0.S. Royal Institution, Man-
chester.

{Thomson, William. 6 Mansfield-place, Edinburgh.

{Thomson, William Burnes, F.R.S.E. 1 Ramsay-gardens, Edinburgh.

§Thomson, William J. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.

{Thornburn, Rey. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.

{Thornburn, Rev, William Reid, M.A. Starkies, Bury, Lancashire.

*Thornton, Samuel, J.P. Oakfield, Moseley, near Birmingham.

tThornton, Thomas. Dundee.

{Thorp, Dr. Disney. Lyppiatt Lodge, Suffolk Lawn, Cheltenham.

§Thorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.

tThorp, Henry. Briarleigh, Sale, near Manchester.

*Thorp, Josiah. New Mills, near Huddersfield.

*THorr, WILLIAM, B.Sc., F.C.S. 39 Sandringham-road, Kingsland,
London, E.

{Tuorrr, T. E., Ph.D., F.RS.L.& E., F.O.S., Professor of Che-
mistry in Yorkshire College, Leeds.
{Tuumtimr, Lieut.-General Sir H. E. L., R.A, OSL, E.RS.,
F.R.G.S, 32 Cambridge-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W.
{Tichborne, Charles R. O., LL.D., F.0.S., M.R.LA. A pothecaries’
Hall of Ireland, Dublin.

*“TrppEMAN, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.

tTilden, William A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.0.S.° Clifton College, Bristol.

{Tilghman, B. C. Philadelphia, United States.

{Timmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A. Elvetham-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

Tinker, Ebenezer. Mealhill, near Huddersfield.

*Tinnz, Joun A., F.R.G.S. Briarley, Aigburth, Liverpool,

tTodd, Rev. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, London, S.E.

*“TopHuNTER, Isaac, M.A., F.R.S., Principal Mathematical Lecturer
at St. John’s College, Cambridge. Brookside, Cambridge.

tTombe, Rev. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.

{Tomes, Robert Fisher. Welford, Stratford-on-A von.

*TomLinson, OwaArtEs, F.R.S.,F.0.8. 3 Ridgmount-terrace, High-
gate, London, N.

tTone, John F, Jesmond-villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwick-
shire.

§Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield.

*Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal School of Mines, J ermyn-street,

London, 8. W.

*Topham, John, M.I.C.E. High Elms, 265 Mare-street, Hackney,
London, E.

“Tortey, WituaMm, F.G.S., A.LC.E. Geological Survey Office,

Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
§Torr, Charles Hawley. Harrowby House, Park-row, Nottingham.
§Torrens, Colonel Sir R. R., K.O.M.G. 12 Chester-place, Hyde
Park, London, W.
ae Very Rev. John, Dean of St. Andrews. Coupar Angus,
B

Towgood, Edward. St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire.
{Townend, W. H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tTownsend, Charles. Avenue House, Cotham Park, Bristol.

F

82 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1857. *Townsenp, Rey. Ricwarp, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.
1861. ¢{Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.
1877. {Tozer, Henry. Ashburton.
1876. *Trail, Professor J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. University of Aber-
deen, Old Aberdeen.
1870, tTrart, Witttam A., M.R.LA. Geological Survey of Ireland, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.
1875. {Trapnell, Caleb. Severnleigh, Stoke Bishop.
1868. {TraevarR, Ramsay H., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology.
Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh.
1835. ‘Travers, Robert, M.B. Williamstown, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
1865. {Travers, William, F.R.C.S. 1 Bath-place, Kensington, London, W.
Tregelles, Nathaniel. Liskeard, Cornwall.
1868. {Trehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.
1869. {Trehane, John, jun. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
1870. {Trench, Dr. Municipal Offices, Dale-street, Liverpool.
Trench, F. A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.
1871. {Trrpz, AtrrepD, F.0.8. 14 Denbigh-road, Bayswater, London, W.
1879. t{Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield.
1877. {Trmmen, Heyry, M.B., F.L.8. British Museum, London, W.C.
1871. {Trmen, Rowrand, F.L.S., F.Z.S. Colonial Secretary’s Office, Cape
Town, Cape of Good Hope.
1860. §Tristram, Rev. Henry Baxsr, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS., Canon
of Durham. The College, Durham.
1869. {Troyte,C. A. W. Huntsham Court, Bampton, Devon.
1869. {Tucker, Charles. Marlands, Exeter.
1847. *Tuckett, Francis Fox. 10 Baldwin-street, Bristol.
Tuke, James H. Bank, Hitchen.
1871. {Tuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire.
1867. {Tulloch, The Very Rev. Principal, D.D. St. Andrews, Fifeshire.
1881. §Tully, G. T. 10 West Cliff-terrace, Preston.
1854. {TurNBULL, James, M.D. 86 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1855, §Turnbull, John. 37 West George-street, Glasgow.
1856. {Turnbull, Rev. J.C. 8 Bays-hill-villas, Cheltenham.
1871. {Turnbull, William, F.R.S.E, 14 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh,
1873. *Turner, George. Horton Grange, Bradford, Yorkshire.
Turner, Thomas, M.D. 31 Curzon-street, Mayfair, London, W.
1875. {Turner, Thomas, F.S.S. Ashley House, Kingsdown, Bristol.
1863. *TurnER, Wiitr14M, M.B., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh.
1842. Twamley, Charles, F.G.S. Ryton-on-Dunsmore, Coventry.
1847. ¢{Twiss, Sir Travers, Q.C., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 3 Paper-
buildings, Temple, London, E.C.
1865. {TyLor, Epwarp Burner, D.O.L., F.R.S. Linden Wellington,
Somerset.
1858. *Tynpatt, Jonn, D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution. Royal Institu-
tion, Albemarle-street, London, W.
1861. *Tysoe, John. 28 Heald-road, Bowdon, near Manchester.
1876. *Unwin, W. C., A.L.C.E., Professor of Hydraulic Engineering.
Cooper’s Hill, Middlesex.
1872. {Upward, Alfred. 11 GreatQueen-street, Westminster, London,S. W.
1876. {Ure, John F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
1859. {Urquhart, W. Pollard. Craigston Castle, N.B.; and Castlepollard,

Treland.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 83

Year of
Election.

1866. tUrquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
1880. §Ussuur, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.

“Vance, Rev. Robert. 24 Blackhall-street, Dublin.
1863. {Vandoni, le Commandeur Comte de, Chargé d’Affaires de S. M.
Tunisienne, Geneva.

1854, {Varley, Cromwell F., F.R.S. Cromwell House, Bexley Heath, Kent.

1868. { Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newington, London, N.

1865. *Vartry, S. Atrrep. Hatfield, Herts.

1870. {Varley, Mrs. 8. A. Hatfield, Herts.

1869. {Varwell, P. Alphington-street, Exeter.

1875, {Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.

1849. *Vaux, Frederick. Central Telegraph Office, Adelaide, South Aus-

tralia,

1873. *VERNEY, Captain Epmunp H., R.N., F.R.GS. Rhianva, Bangor,
North Wales.

Verney, Sir Harry, Bart., M.P. Lower Claydon, Buckinghamshire.

1866. {Vernon, Rev. E. H. Harcourt. Cotgrave Rectory, near Nottingham.

Vernon, George John, Lord. 32 Curzon-street, London, W.; and
Sudbury Hall, Derbyshire.

1879.§§Veth, D. D. Leiden, Holland.

1864, *Vicary, Wii11aM, F.G.S, The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.

1868. {Vincent, Rev. William. .Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.

1875, {Vines, David, F.R.A.S. Observatory House, Somerset-street, Kings-
down, Bristol.

1856, { Vivian, Epwarp, M.A. Woodfield, Torquay.

“Vivian, H. Hussey, M.P., F.G.S. Park Wern, Swansea; and 27
Belgrave-square, London, 8.W.

1856. §VorncxEr, J. Gu. Aveustus, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. 39.
Argyll-road, Kensington, London, W.

1875. {Volckman, Mrs. E. G. 43 Victoria-road, Kensington, London, W.

1875. {Volckman, William. 43 Victoria-road, Kensington, London, W.

£Vose, Dr. James. Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.

1860. ena, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucester-
shire.
1859. { Waddington, John. New Dock Works, Leeds.
1879. *Wake, Bernard. Abbeyfield, Sheffield.
1870. §Waxe, Cuartes Stanruanp. 2 Westhourne-avenue, Hull.
1873. { Wales, James. 4 Mount Royd, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1869, *Walford, Cornelius. 86 Belsize Park-gardens, London, N.W.
1849. §Warker, Cuartzs V., F.R.S., F.R.AS. Fernside, Reigate Hill,
Reigate.
Walker, Frederick John. The Priory, Bathwick, Bath.
1866. { Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.
1855. { Walker, John. 1 Exchange-court, Glasgow.
1866, “Warxer, John Francis, M.A., F.O.PS., FOS, F.G.S., F.LS,
16 Gillygate, York.
1881. §Walker, John Sydenham. 83 Bootham, York.
1867. *Walker, Peter G. 2 Airlie-place, Dundee.
1866, tWalker, S. D. 88 Hampden-street, Nottingham.
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
1881. *Walker, William. 14 Bootham-terrace, York.
1863, }Wattace, Atrrep Russet, F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Nutwood Cottage,
Frith Hill, Godalming.
F2

84 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1859, }Wartacz, Wii11aMm, Ph.D., F.C.S. Chemical Laboratory, 188 Bath-
street, Glasgow.
1857. { Waller, Edward. Lisenderry, Aughnacloy, Ireland.
1862. {Wallich, George Charles, M.D., F .R.GS., F.L.S. 162 Holland-
road, London, W.
1862, {Waxpotz, The Right Hon. Spencer Horatio, M.A., D.C.L., M.P.,
F.R.S. Ealing, Middlesex, W
Walsh, John (Prussian Consul). Dundrum Castle, Co. Dublin.
1863. t{Walters, Robert. Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1881, §Walton, Thomas. Oliver's Mount School, Scarborough.
Walton, Thomas Todd. Mortimer House, Clifton, Bristol.
1863. {Wanklyn, James Alfred. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, 8,W.
1872. {Warburton, Benjamin. Leicester.
1874. §Ward, F.D. Fernleigh, Botanic-road, Belfast.
1881. §Ward, George, F.C.S._ Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.
1879, {Ward, H. Marshall. Christ's College, Cambridge.
1874. § Ward, John, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Lenox Vale, Belfast.
1857. {Ward, John S. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.
1880, *Ward, J, Westney. 41 Head-street, Colchester.
1863. {Ward, Robert. Dean-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Ward, William Sykes, F.C.S. 12 Bank-street, and Denison Hall,
Leeds.
1867, { Warden, Alexander J. Dundee.
1858. {Wardle, Thomas. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire.
1865. {Waring, Edward John, M.D., F.L.S. 49 Clifton-gardens, Maida Vale,
London, W.
1878, §Warieron, Ronrrt, F.C.S. Harpenden, St. Albans, Herts.
1872. *Warner, Thomas, 47 Sussex-square, Brighton.
1856. { Warner, Thomas H. Lee. Tiberton Court, Hereford.
1875, {Warren, Algernon. Naseby House, Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol,
1865. *Warren, Edward P. 13 Old-square, Birmingham.
Warwick, William Atkinson. Wyddrington House, Cheltenham,
1856. { Washbourne, Buchanan, M.D. Gloucester.
1876, {Waterhouse, A. Willenhall House, Barnet, Herts.
1875. *Waterhouse, Major J. 1 Wood-street, Calcutta, (Care of Messrs.
Triibner & Co., Ludgate-hill, London, E.C.)
1854, {Waterhouse, Nicholas. 5 Rake-lane, Liverpool.
1870. {Waters, A. T. H., M.D. 29 Hope-street, Liverpool.
1875.§§Waters, Arthur W., F.G.S., F.L.S. Woodbrook, Alderley Edge,
near Manchester.
1875. {Watherston, Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. Bowdon, Cheshire,
1881. §Watherston, E. J. 12 Pall Mall East, London, S.W.
1867. Watson, Rey. Archibald, D.D. The Manse, Dundee.
1855. {Watson, Ebenezer. 1 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
1867. { Watson, eee Edwin. Thickthorne House, Oringleford, Nor-
wich.
*Warson, Henry Hoven, F.C.S. 227 The Folds, Bolton-le-Moors,
1873. *Watson, Sir James. Milton-Lockhart, Carluke, N.B.
1859, LA ea Forsxs, M.A., M.D., F.L.S. India Museum, Lon-
on, 8. W.
1863, { Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, near Gateshead-on-Tyne,
1863. {Watson, R.S. 101 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1867, t{Watson, Thomas Donald. 41 Cross-street, Finsbury, London, E.C.
1879. *Warson, Witt1am Henry, F.C.S, Braystones, near Whitehaven,
Cumberland.
1869. {Watt, Robert B. E., C.E., F.R.G.S. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.
1861. ¢{Watts, Sir James. Abney Hall, Cheadle, near Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 85

Year of
Election.

1875. *Wartts, Joun, B.A., D.Sc. 57 Baker-street, Portman-square,
London, ‘W.
1846.§§ Watts, John King, F.R.G.S. Market-place, St. Ives, Hunts.
1870, §Watts, William, F.G.S. Oldham Corporation Waterworks, Pie-
thorn, near Rochdale.
1873. *Warts, W. Marswatt, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar School, near
Settle.
Waud, Major E. Manston Hall, near Leeds.
Waud, Rev. 8S. W., M.A., F.R.A.S., F.O.P.S. Rettenden, near
Wickford, Essex.
1859. {Waugh, Edwin. Sager-street, Manchester.
1859, *Wavenry, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.S. 7 Audley-square,
London, W.
*Way, J. THomas, F.C.S. 9 Russell-road, Kensington, London, 8. W.
1869. { Way, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.
1871. {Webb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.
*Wess, Rev. THomas WIttrAM, M.A., F.R.A.S. Hardwick Vicar-
age, Hay, South Wales.
1866, *Wexss, WILLIAM FRepeErtIck, F.G.S., F.R,G.S. Newstead Abbey,
near Nottingham.
1859. {Webster, John. 42 King-street, Aberdeen.
1834, { Webster, Richard, F.R.A.S. 6 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C.
1854, {Weightman, William Henry. Farn Lea, Seaforth, Liverpool.
1865. {Welch, Christopher, M.A. University Club, Pall Mall East,
London, 8S. W.
1881. §Welcombe, Henry 8. Station Hotel, York.
1867. §Wertpon, Watrer, F.R.S.E. Rede Hall, Burstow, near Crawley,
Surrey.
1876. §Weldon, W. F. R. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1879. § Wells, Charles A. Etna Iron Works, Lewes.
1881. § Wells, Rev. Edward, B.A. Flamstead Vicarage, Dunstable.
1850. { Wemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D. St. Andrews, N.B.
1881. *Wenlock, The Right Hon. Lord. Escrick Park, Yorkshire.
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.
1864, *Were, Anthony Berwick. Whitehaven, Cumberland.
1865; {Wesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington
House, London, W.
1858. {West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.
1870. {West, Captain E. W. Bombay.
1853. {West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.
1853. {West, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull.
1870. =) ete lag a William. 10 Bolton-gardens, South Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
1842. Westhead, Edward. Chorlton-on-Medlock, near Manchester.
1857. *Westley, William. 24 Regent-street, London, S.W.
1863. {Westmacott, Percy. Whickham, Gateshead, Durham.
1875. *Weston, Joseph D. Dorset House, Clifton Down, Bristol.
1864, {Wersrropp, W.H.S.,M.R.I.A. Lisdoonvarna, Co. Clare,
1860, {Wexsrwoop, Jonny O., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the
University of Oxford. Oxford.
1853. { Wheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.
1866. ee Charles C. 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s Park, London,

N.W.

1847. t{ Wheeler, Edmund, F.R.A.S. 48 Tollington-road, Holloway, Lon-
don, N. r

1878. *Wheeler, W.H.,C.E. Churchyard, Boston, Lincolnshire.

86

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election,

1879.
1873,

1874.
1859.

1876.
1864.
1837.

1876.
1878.

1859.
1865,
1869.
1859.
1877.
1861,
1861.
1861.

1871.
1881.
1866,
1874.
1852.

1870.
1857.

*Whidborne, George Ferris, M.A., F.G.S. Charante, Torquay.
{Whipple, George Matthew, B.Sc., F.R.A.S, Kew Observatory,
Richmond, Surrey.
{Whitaker, Henry,M.D. 33 High-street, Belfast.
*WHITAKER, WILLIAM, B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28
Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.
tWhite, Angus. Hasdale, Argyleshire.
t White, Edmund. Victoria Villa, Batheaston, Bath.
Wuire, James, F.G.S. 8 Thurloe-square, South Kensington,
London, 8S. W.
*White, James. Overtoun, Dumbarton.
{White, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.
White, John. 80 Wilson-street, Glasgow.
tWauuirez, Joun Forses. 16 Bon Accord-square, Aberdeen,
tWhite, Joseph. Regent’s-street, Nottingham.
{White, Laban. Blanford, Dorset.
{tWhite, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.
*White, William. 365 Euston-road, London, N.W.
{Whitehead, James, M.D. 87 Mosley-street, Manchester.
*Whitehead, John B. Ashday Lea, Rawtenstall, Manchester.
*Whitehead, Peter Ormerod, C.E. Drood House, Old Trafford,
Manchester.
Whitehouse, William. 10 Queen’s-street, Rhyl.
tWhitelaw, Alexander. 1 Oakley-terrace, Glasgow.
§ Whitfield, John, F.C.S. 113 Westborough, Scarborough.
{ Whitfield, Samuel. LEversfield, Eastnor-grove, Leamington.
{t Whitford, William. 5 Claremont-street, Belfast.
{Whitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.
Whitley, Rey. Charles Thomas, M.A., F.R.A.S. Bedlington,
Morpeth.
§Whittem, James Sibley. Walgrave, near Coventry.
*Waurty, Rev. Jouw Inwine, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. 94 Baggot-
street, Dublin.

. *Whitwell, Mark. Redland House, Bristol.

*WHITWoRTH, Sir JosEPH, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. Stancliffe,
Matlock, Derbyshire.

. {Wairworru, Rey. W. Atten, M.A. 185 Islington, Liverpool.
. [Wiggin, Henry. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birmingham,

. § Wigglesworth, James, Wakefield.

. *Wigglesworth, Robert. Minster-yard, York.

. }Wigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin,

§Witserrorce, W. W. Fishergate, York.

. { Wilkie, John. Westburn, Helensburgh, N.B.

. { Wilkinson, George. Temple Hill, Killiney, Co. Dublin.

. § Wilkinson, Joseph, F.R.G.S. York.

. §Wirxrnson, Ropert. Lincoln Lodge, Totteridge, Hertfordshire.
. {Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.

. § Wilks, George Augustus Frederick, M.D. Stanbury, Torquay.

*Willert, Alderman Paul Ferdinand. Town Hall, Manchester

. {Willet, John, C.E. 35 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
. }Wrttert, Heyry, F.G.S. Arnold House, Brighton.

Witiiams, Cuarres JAMEs B., M.D., F.R.S. 47 Upper Brook-
street, Grosyenor-square, London, W.

. *Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 47 Upper Brvok-street,

Grosvyenor-square, London, W.

. *Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 1 Gorse Lane, Swansea.
. *Williams, Herbert A., M.A. 91 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

-

LIST OF MEMBERS, 87

Year of

Election.

1857.
1870.

1875.

1879.

1869.

1877.

1865.

1850.

1857.
. 1876.
1863.
1876,

1865.
1859.

1865.

1878.
1859.

1876
1874.

1850.
1876.
1865.
1847.
1861.

t Williams, Rey. James. Llanfairinghornwy, Holyhead.

§WILtiAMs, Joun, F.C.S. 14 Buckingham-street, London, W.C.

*Williams, M. B. North Hill, Swansea,

} Williams, Matthew W., F.0.S. 18 Kempsford-gardens, Earl’s
Court, London, S.W.

Williams, Robert, M.A. Bridehead, Dorset.

}Wuittrams, Rey. SrerHen. Stonyhurst College, Whalley, Black-

b

urn.
*Williams, W. Carleton, F.C.S. Owens College, Manchester.
{ Williams, W. M. Belmont-road, Twickenham, near London.
*WILLIAMsON, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, Ph.D., LL.D., For. Sec. R.S.,
F.C.S., Corresponding Member of the French Academy, Professor
of Chemistry, and of Practical Chemistry, University College,
Lansions (GENERAL TREASURER.) University College, London,
t Williamson, Benjamin, M.A., F.R.S._ Trinity College, Dublin.
{ Williamson, Rev. F.J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.
Williamson, John. South Shields.
{ Williamson, Stephen. 19 James-street, Liverpool.

Wr1amson, Witt1aM C., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in
Owens Oollege, Manchester. 4 Egerton-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.

*Willmott, Henry. Hatherley Lawn, Cheltenham.
*Wills, Alfred, Q.C. 12 King’s Bench-walk, Inner Temple, London,
E.C

Wills, Arthur W. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Wills, W. R. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

} Wilson, Alexander S., M.A., B.Sc. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.

}{ Wilson, Alexander Stephen, C.E. North Kinmundy, Summerhill,
by Aberdeen.

Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh.

tWuzson, Major OC. W., C.B., R.E., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Director of the
Topographical and Statistical Department of the War Office.
5 Lansdowne-terrace, Rodwell, Weymouth.

{ Wilson, Dr. Daniel. Toronto, Upper Canada.

t Wilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.

Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.

*Wilson, Frederick. 73 Newman-street, Oxford-street, London, W.

{ Wilson, George Daniel. 24 Ardwick-green, Manchester.

1875. § Wilson, George Fergusson, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.L.S. Heatherbank,
Weybridge Heath, Surrey.

1874. *Wilson, George Orr. Dunardagh, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

1863. {Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B.

1879.§§ Wilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield.

1855.
1857.
1865.
1858,

1879.

1876.

1847.

1861.

1867,
1871.
1870.

{ Wilson, Hugh. 75 Glasford-street, Glasgow.

{ Wilson, James Moncrieff. Queen Insurance Company, Liverpool.
tWuson, James M., M.A. The College, Clifton, Bristol.
*Wilson, John. Seacroft Hall, near Leeds.

Wuson, Jonny, F.G.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Agriculture in the
University of Edinburgh. The University, Edinburgh.
{Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, Kast Bank-road, Sheffield,

{Wilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, S. W.
*Wilson, Rev. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.
t Wilson, Thomas Bright. 24 Ardwick-green, Manchester.

t Wilson, Rev. William. Free St. Paul’s, Dundee.

*Wilson, William E. Daramona House, Rathowen, Ireland.

t Wilson, William Henry. 31 Grove-park, Liverpool.

88

‘LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1861.

1877.
1868.
1863.

1881.

1865.
1861.

1870,

1875.
1856.

1878.

1881.

1864,
1871.

1850.

1865.
1861.

1872.

1863.
1870.

1850,

1865.
1871.

1872.
1869.

1866.
1870.

1881.
1877.
1856.
1872.

1874.

*WILTSHIRE, Rev. THomas, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S. 25 Gran-
ville-park, Lewisham, London, S.E.

tWindeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.

tWinter, C. J. W. 22 Bethel-street, Norwich.

*Winwoop, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. 11 Cavendish-crescent,

Bath.

*Wood, Alfred John. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.

*Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Bridge of Earn, N.B.

*Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire.

*Wood, George B., M.D. 1117 Arch-street, Philadelphia, United
States.

*Wood, George S. 20 Lord-street, Liverpool.

*Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.

*Woop, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. Holwell Rectory, Sherborne,
Dorset.

§Wood, H. Trueman, B.A. Society of Arts, John-street, Adelphi,
London, W.C.

§Wood, John, B.A., F.R.A.S. Wharfedale Cottage, Boston Spa,

Yorkshire. ;

t Wood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire,

tWood, Provost T. Barleyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh.

tWood, Rev. Walter. Elie, Fife.

Wood, William. Edge-lane, Liverpool.

*Wood, William, M.D. 99 Harley-street, London, W.

{Wood, William Rayner. Singleton Lodge, near Manchester.

§Wood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.

*Wood, Rev. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Higham, Rochester.

*WoopaLL, Major Joun Woopatt, M.A., F.G.S. St. Nicholas House,
Scarborough.

{Woodburn, Thomas. Rock Ferry, Liverpool.

*Woodd, Charles H. L., F.G.S. Roslyn House, Hampstead, London,
N.W

Woodhill, J. C. Pakenham House, Charlotte-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

{ Woodiwis, James. 51 Back George-street, Manchester.

tWoodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex.

| Woodman, William Robert, M.D. Ford House, Exeter.

*Woons, Epwarp, O.E. 3 Great George-street, Westminster,
London, 8. W.

a eee 1 Drapers’-gardens, Throgmorton-street, London,
E

*Woopwarp, C. J., B.Sc. 76 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.

tWoopwarp, Henry, F.R.S., F.G.S. British Museum, London,
W.C

t} Woodward, Horace B., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8S. W.

§ Wooler, W. A. Sadberge Hall, Darlington.

tWoollcombe, Robert W. 14 St. Jean d’Acre-terrace, Plymouth.

{ Woolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark.

Woolmer, Shirley. 6 Park-crescent, Brighton.

_ Worcester, The Right Rev. Henry Philpott, D.D., Lord Bishop of.

‘Worcester.
tWorkman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast.

1878.§§ Wormell, Richard, M.A., D.Sc. 165 Loughborough-road, London,
S.W,

1863. *Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 89

Year of «
Election.

1855.

1856.
1879,
1871.

1861.
1857,

1866.
1876,
1874,
1865,

1855.

1876,
1871.
1867.

1863,
1867.
1871.
1862, {W

1875.

1865.

1867,
1879.
1877,
1879,

1870.

1876.
1876,

1868,
1876.
1871,

*Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A. Stourbridge. Worcester-
shire.
Worthington, Archibald. Whitchurch, Salop.
Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey. ;
Worthington, William. Brockhurst Hall, Northwich, Cheshire.
tWorthy, George S. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent,
Hampstead-road, London, N. W.
§Wrentmore, Francis, 34 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London,
S.W

§Wrient, C. R. A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
in St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School, Paddington, London, W.
*Wright, E. Abbot. Castle Park, Frodsham, Cheshire.
{Wrieut, E. Percevat, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA., Professor
of Botany, and Director of the Museum, Dublin University
5 Trinity College, Dublin. ;
t Wright, G. H. Heaton Hall, near Derby.
{ Wright, James. 114 John-street, Glasgow.
Wright, Joseph. Cliftonville, Belfast.
tWright, J. S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham.
“Wright, Robert Francis. Hinton Blewett, Temple-Cloud, near
ristol,
{Wrieut, Tuomas, M.D., F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.S. St. Margaret’s
terrace, Cheltenham.
Wricur, T. G., M.D. Milnes House, Wakefield.
fWright, William. 101 Glassford-street, Glasgow.
{Wrightson, Thomas. Norton Hall, Stockton-on-Tees.
{Wownscu, Epwarp AtFrep. 146 West George-street, Glasgow.
Wyld, James, F.R.G.S, Charing Cross, London, W.C.
*Wyley, Andrew. 21 Barker-street, Handsworth, Birmingham.
tWylie, Andrew. Prinlaws, Fifeshire.
tWynn, Mrs. Williams. Cefn, St. Asaph.
yNNE, ARTHUR Brrvor, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of
India. Bombay.

Seer Thomas Henry, 0.E. 387 White Ladies-road, Clifton,
ristol.

*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster.
{Yates, Edwin. Stonebury, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Yates, James. Oarr House, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
tYeaman, James. Dundee.
{Yeomans, John. Upperthorpe, Sheffield.
§Yonge, Rev. Duke, Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.
*Yorx, His Grace the Archbishop of, D.D., F.R.S. The Palace,
Bishopsthorpe, Yorkshire.

fYoune, James, F.R.S.L.&E., F.0.8. Kelly, Wemyss Bay, by
Greenock.
*Young, James, jun., F.0.S. Kelly, Wemyss Bay, by Greenock.

fYoune, Joun, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the University
of Glasgow. 38 Cecil-street; Hillhead, Glasgow.
tYoungs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich.
fYuille, Andrew. 7 Sardinia-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. :
{Yuxz, Colonel Henry, 0.B. 3 Penywern-road, South Kensington,
London, S.W.

90

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1871.
1881.
1870.
1872.
1861.

1880.
1864.

1861.
1864,
1855,
1871.
1881.
1878.
1880.
1870.
1876.
1872,
1866.
1862,

1872.
1870.

1881.
1876.
1848.
1861.
1874.
1872.
1856.
1842.
1881.

1866.
1861.
1870.
1876,

1852.
1866.
1871.
1862.

1876.

HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY tas EMPEROR or raz BRAZILS.

Professor G. F. Barker. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

Professor Van Beneden, LL.D. Louvain, Belgium.

Ch. Bergeron, C.E. 26 Rue des Penthiévre, Paris.

Dr. Bergsma, Director of the Magnetic Survey of the Indian Archi-
pelago. Utrecht, Holland.

Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. Halbiirtgasse, 1, Griz, Austria.

Dr. H. D. Buys-Ballot, Superintendent of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht Holland.

Dr. Carus. Leipzig.

M. Des Cloizeaux. Paris.

Dr. Ferdinand Cohn. Breslau, Prussia.

Professor Dr. Colding. Copenhagen.

Professor Josiah P, Cooke. Harvard University, United States,

Signor Guido Cora. 17 Via Providenza, Turin.

Professor Cornu. L’Ecole Polytechnique, Paris.

J. M. Crafts, M.D.

Professor Luigi Cremona, The University, Rome.

Professor M. Croullebois. 18 Rue Sorbonne, Paris.

Dr. Geheimrath von Dechen. Bonn.

Wilhelm Delffs, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Heidel-
berg.

Hiitessor G. Devalque. Liége, Belgium.

Dr. Anton Dohrn. Naples.

Professor Dumas. L’Institut, Paris.

Captain J. B. Eads, C.E. St. Louis, United States.

Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.

Professor Esmark. Christiania.

Professor A. Favre. Geneva.

Dr. W. Feddersen. Leipzig.

W. de Fonvielle. Rue des Abbesses, Paris.

Professor E. Frémy. L’Institut, Paris.

M. Frisiani.

C. M. Gariel, C.E., Secretary of the French Association for the

Advancement of Science, Paris.

Dr. Gaudry, Pres. Geol. Sdc. of France. Paris.

Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden.

Governor Gilpin. Colorado, United States.

Dr. Benjamin A. Gould, Director of the Argentine National Observa-
tory, Cordoba.

Professor Asa Gray. Harvard University, United States.

Professor Edward Grube, Ph.D. Breslau.

Dr. Paul Giissfeldt, of the University of Bonn. 33 Meckenheimer-
strasse, Bonn, Prussia.

Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
Amsterdam. Leiden, Holland.

Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.

Year of

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 91

Election.

1881.
1872.
1881.
1864,
1877.
1868.
1872.
1861.
1881.
1876.
1867.
1876.
1862,

1881.
1876.
1877.
1862.
1878.
1874.
1856.

1877.

1876.
1872.
1877.

1846,
1871.
1871.
1869.
1867.
1881.
1867.

1862.
1848.
1855.
1877.
1864.
1856.

1875.
1866.

1864.
1869,
1874.
1848.
1856.
1857.
1870.
1868.

Dr. Edwin H. Hall. Baltimore, United States.

Professor James Hall. Albany, State of New York.

M. Halphen. 21 Rue Ste. Anne, Paris.

M. Hébert, Professor of Geology in the Sorbonne, Faris.

Professor H. L. F, Helmholtz. Berlin.

A. Heynsius. Leiden.

J. E. Hilgard, Assist.-Supt. U.S. Coast Survey, Washington.

Dr. Hochstetter. Vienna.

Dr. A. A. W. Hubrecht. Leiden.

Professor yon Quintus Icilius. Hanover.

Dr. Janssen, LL.D. 21 Rue Labat (18° Arrondissement), Paris.

Dr. W. J. Janssen. The University, Leiden.

Charles Jessen, Med. et Phil. Dr., Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Greifswald, and Lecturer on Natural History and Librarian
at the Royal Agricultural Academy, Eldena, Prussia.

Professor W. Woolsey Johnson. Annapolis, United States.

Dr. Giuseppe Jung. 26 Via Monforte, Milan.

M. Akin Karoly. 5 Babenbergerstrasse, Vienna,

Aug. Kekulé, Professor of Chemistry. Bonn.

Dr. Felix Klein. Munich, Bavaria.

Dr. Knoblauch. Halle, Germany.

Professor A. Kélliker. "Wurzburg, Bavaria.

Laurent-Guillaume De Koninck, M.D., Professor of Chemistry and
Palzontology in the University of Liége, Belgium.

Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. 55 Dorotheenstrasse,

Berlin.

Professor von Lasaulx. Breslau.

M. Georges Lemoine. 76 Rue d’Assas, Paris.

Dr. M. Lindeman, Hon. Sec. of the Bremen Geographical Society,
Bremen.

Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium.

Professor Jacob Liiroth. Technische Hochschule, Munich.

Dr. Liitken. Copenhagen.

Professor C. S. Lyman. Yale College, New Haven, United States.

Professor Mannheim. Rue de la Pompe, 11, Passy, Paris.

Professor O. C. Marsh. Yale College, Newhaven, United States.

Professor Ch. Martins, Director of the Jardin des Plantes. Montpellier,
France.

Professor P. Merian. Bale, Switzerland.

Professor J. Milne-Edwards. Paris.

M. Abbé Moigno. Paris. <

Professor V. L. Moissenet. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.

Dr. Arnold Moritz. St. Petersburg, Russia.

Edouard Morren, Professeur de Botanique 4 l'Université de Liége,
Belgium.

Dr. T. Nachtigal. Berlin.

Chevalier C. Negri, President of the Italian Geographical Society,
Turin, Italy,

Herr Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.

Professor H. A. Newton. Yale College, New Haven, United States.

M. A. Niaudet. 6 Rue du Seine, Paris.

Professor Nilsson. Lund, Sweden.

M. E. Peligot, Memb. de l'Institut, Paris.

Gustav Plarr. 22 Hadlow-road, Tunbridge, Kent.

Professor Felix Plateau. Rue du Casino, 15, Gand, Belgium.

Professor L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of

Munich.

92

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1872.
1873.

1866.
1850.

1881.

1857.

1857.
1874.
1872.
1873.
1861.
1849,
1876.
1873.
1864,
1866,

1881,

1881.
1845,
1871.
1870.
1852,

1864,

1842,
1881,

1874,
1876.
1872.
1875.

Professor Victor von Richter. St. Petersburg.
Baron von Richthofen, President of the Berlin Geographical Society,
71 Steglitzer-strasse, Berlin.

M. dela Rive. Geneva.

F, Roemer, Ph.D., Professor of Geology and Paleontology in the
University of Breslau. Breslau, Prussia. :

Professor W. B. Rogers. Boston, United States.

Professor Henry A. Rowland. Baltimore, United States.

Baron Herman de Schlagintweit-Sakinliinski, Jaegersberg Castle,
near Forchheim, Bavaria.

Professor Robert Schlagintweit. Giessen.

Dr. G, Schweinfurth, Cairo.

Professor Carl Semper. Wurzburg, Bavaria.

Dr. A. Shafarik. Prague.

M. Werner Siemens. Berlin.

Dr. Siljestrém. Stockholm.

Professor R. D. Silva. Ecole Centrale, Paris.

Professor J. Lawrence Smith. Louisville, United States,

Adolph Steen, Professor of Mathematics. Oopenhagen.

Professor Steenstrup. Copenhagen.

Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. 28 Rue de l’Arbaléte, Paris.

Professor Stiirm. Miinster, Westphalia.

Dr. Svanberg. Upsala.

Dr. Joseph Szabo. Pesth, Hungary.

Professor Tchebichef, Membre de l’Académie de St. Pétershourg.

M. Pierre de Tchihatchef, Corresponding Member of the Institute of
France. 1 Piazza degli Zuaai, Florence.

Dr. Otto Torell, Professor of Geology in the University of Lund,
Sweden.

Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.

Professor Wartmann. Geneva.

Professor H. M. Whitney. Beloit College, Wisconsin, United

States.

Professor Wiedemann, Leipzig.

Professor Adolph Wiillner. Aix-la-Chapelle,

Professor A. Wurtz. Paris.

Dr. E. L. Youmans. New York.

98

LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.

GREAT BRITAIN

Admiralty, Library of the.

Anthropological Institute.

Arts, Society of.

Asiatic Society (Royal).

Astronomical Society (Royal).

Belfast, Queen’s College.

Birmingham, Midland Institute.

Bristol Philosophical Institution.

Cambridge Philosophical Society,

Chemical Society.

Civil Engineers, Institute of.

Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of.

Dublin, Royal College of Surgeons in
Treland.

» Royal Geological Society of

Treland.

, Royal Irish Academy.

——,, Royal Society of.

East India Library.

Edinburgh, Royal Society of.

——, Royal Medical Society of.

——, Scottish Society of Arts.

Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum,

Geographical Society (Royal).

Geological Society,

Geology, Museum of Practical.

Glasgow Philosophical Society.

——,, Institution of Engineers and Ship-
builders in Scotland.

Greenwich, Royal Observatory.

Kew Observatory.

Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute.

AND IRELAND

Leeds, Philosophical and Literary So-
ciety of.

Linnean Society.

Liverpool, Free Public Library and
Museum.

, Royal Institution.

London Institution,

Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.

——, Mechanics’ Institute.

Mechanical Engineers, Institute of.

Meteorological Office.

Neweastle-upon-Tyne Literary and
Philosophical Society.

Nottingham, The Free Library,

Oxford, Ashmolean Society.

—, Radcliffe Observatory.

Plymouth Institution.

Physicians, Royal College of.

Royal Engineers’ Institute, Chatham.

Royal Institution.

Royal Society.

Salford, Royal Museum and Library.

Statistical Society.

Stonyhurst College Observatory.

Surgeons, Royal College of.

United Service Institution.

University College.

War Office, Library of the.

Wales (South), Royal Institution of,

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

Zoological Society.

EUROPE.

Alten, Lapland. Literary and Philoso-
phical Society.

Berlin ..........0: Der Kaiserlichen Aka-
demie der Wissen-
schaften.

= arr Royal Academy of

lences.

Breslau ......... Silesian Patriotic So-
ciety.

BOD, (ec oencenses University Library. ©

Brussels ......... Royal Academy of

ciences.

Charkow ......... University Library.

Coimbra ......... Meteorological Ob-
servatory.

Copenhagen ...Royal Society of
Sciences,

Dorpat, Russia... University Library.

Frankfort ...... Natural History So-
ciety.

Geneva ......... Natural History So-
ciety.

Gottingen ...... University Library.

Harlem ......... Société Hollandaise
des Sciences.

Heidelberg ...... University Library.

94

Helsingfors ...... University Library. Paris)’ c.tteretsec: Royal Academy of
Kasan, Russia ... University Library, Sciences.
Kiels.cdutececdecs Royal Observatory. een Leta Aed School of Mines.
IGOV .s-scaceetostes University Library. Piltovanicesers Imperial Observatory.
Lausanne......... The Academy. Rome: 3.052.556: Accademiadei Lyncei.
Leyden ......... University Library. ———S sagieseteoven Collegio Romano.
TG Pe: oe... tccee = University Library. ea | ghaeaenteades Italian Geographical
Lisbon ............ Academia Real des Society.

Sciences. mo av csaiecleyrs Italian Society of
Milan Scscsects «3. The Institute. Sciences.

Modena. .........Royal Academy. St. Petersburg . University Library.
Moscow ......... Society of Naturalists. |} —— ............ Imperial Observatory.
mecaenanateuees University Library. Stockholm ......Royal Academy.
Wired ny PE Se University Library. MUTI ose. ose ses Royal Academy of

INEPIGS ssicceseescs Royal Academy of Sciences.

Sciences. Wtrechto s.r... University Library.
Nicolaieff......... University Library. WVIONNB. -oi00sstare The Imperial Library.
Paris)’ sae snee dees Association Francaise } —— ............ Central Anstalt fir

pour l’Avancement Meteorologie und

F des Sciences. Erdmagnetismus.
xP scieacnsaious Geographical Society. | Zurich............ General Swiss Society.
$$ revvereevees Geological Society.
ASIA.

Agra... ceeeeaces The College. Calcutta ......... Hindoo College.
Bombay ......... Elphinstone Institu- |} —— ............ Hoogly College.

dea EL TA) yee. | = svt danse agent Medical College.
wes beamiatias Grant Medical Col- | Madyas............ The Observatory.

LegoMs? foiodl, || <=". hesitess University Library.
Calcutta ......... Asiatic Society.

AFRICA.

Cape of Good Hope. . . The Observatory.

AMERICA.
Aan: |) s.0is 5 = <0 The Institute. Philadelphia ...American Philosophi-
Boston ............ American Academy of cal Society.
Arts and Sciences. | —— ............ Franklin Institute,
Cambridge ...... Harvard University | Toronto ......... The Observatory.
Library. Washington ...Smithsonian Institu-
New York ...... Lyceum of Natural tion.
History. sa Eadie 5 United States Geolo-
Philadelphia ...American Medical As- gical Survey of the
sociation. Territories,
AUSTRALIA.
Adelaide. . . . The Colonial Government.
Victoria . . . . The Colonial Government.

9 3 & Spottiswoode & Co., Printers, New-street Square, London,
kutow F(?
: 4 On dy &

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EXTRACT FROM THE PREFACE.

Eighteen years have now passed since this Commentary on the Holy Scriptures was
undertaken. Its publication was commenced ten years ago, and the concluding volume
is now presented to the public. Its conception was due to the late Lord Ossington, then
Speaker of the House of Commons, and to that circumstance it owes its familiar title of
“‘The Speaker’s Commentary ’’—a title, however, which derives a further justification
from the warm interest he maintained in the progress of the work and the constant
encouragement it received from him. = bs « = . =

The Editor cannot but express his deep thankfulness that a work involving so many
difficulties, and liable to so many unforeseen disturbances, should thus have been brought
to its conclusion without any substantial deviation either from the principles or the form
adopted and explained at its commencement. * x x i gs -

As stated on the title page, it was from the outset a primary purpose of the Commen-
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The Land of the Midnight Sun.

SUMMER AND WINTER JOURNEYS THROUGH SWEDEN, NORWAY,
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WiTH DEscrIPTIONS OF THE INNER LIFE OF THE PFOPLE, THEIR MANNERS
AND CUSTOMS, THE PRIMITIVE ANTIQUITIES, &c., &c.

By PAUL B. DU CHAILLU,

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Life, Letters, and Journals of
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EDITED BY HIS SIsTER-IN-LAW, MRS. LYELL.

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Christian Institutions ;

ESSAYS ON ECCLESIASTICAL SUBJECTS.
By ARTHUR PENRHYN STANLEY, D.D.,

Late Dean of Westminster,

Third Edition. Svo. 12s.

CONTENTS:
BAPTISM. THE CLERGY.
THE EUCHARIST. THE Pope,
EUCHARIST IN THE EARLY CHURCH, THE LITANY.
EUCHARISTIC SACRIFICE. CREED OF THE EARLY CHRISTIANS.
REAL PRESENCE. Lorvb’s PRAYER.
BopDy AND BLoop oF CHRIST. GENERAL COUNCILS ; CONSTANTINOPLE,
ABSOLUTION, EPHESUS, CHALCEDON,
ECCLESIASTICAL VESTMENTS. TEN COMMANDMENTS,

THE BASILICA.

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culture. But the result is very charming in its simple beauty and perfect rhythm.

* * * b * * * * *

‘‘We must leave this interesting and fascinating book to the discrimination of its readers.
Few books that haye latterly come into our hands are more charming, or more need the
function of descriminating scriptural knowledge and good sense." —British Quarterly Review.

Letters and Journals of
Field-Marshal Sir Wm. Gomm, G.C.B.,

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF IN INDIA, CONSTABLE OF THE TOWER,
AND COLONEL OF THE COLDSTREAM GUARDS.

1799—1815.
THE HELDER— BERGEN — COPENHAGEN —ROLICA — VIMIERA — CORUNNA— WAL-

CHEREN EXPEDITION—BusACoO—TORRES VEDRAS—FUENTES D’ONOR—ALBUERA
— BapDajos—SALAMANCA—BURGOS—VITTORIA—PY RENEES— WATERLOO, &c, &c.

EpviITED BY FRANCIS CULLING CARR GOMM,

H.M. Madras Civil Service.

Portraits. Svo. 12s,

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value and interest, both from the historical importance of the scenes which are here presented
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book is full of brightly told anecdotes which will charm every reader.”—AJlen's Indian Mail.

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The Outlook.

A CHARGE DELIVERED AT HIS PRIMARY VISITATION IN
NOVEMBER, 1881,
By THE LORD BISHOP OF ROCHESTER.
With a Map. 8vo. 2s.

CONTINUATION OF

Elwin’s Edition of the Works of Pope.

VOLUME III. of the POETRY.
CONTAINING THE SATIRES, MORAL ESSAYS, &c., WITH
INTRODUCTION AND NOTES.

EpiteD sy W. J. COURTHOPE, M.A.
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ALREADY PUBLISHED:
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just appreciation has been executed by the new editor with consummate tact and skill. He
comes to each point of the Pope case neither as an advocate nor as a prosecutor, but in a
thoroughly judicial spirit."—1/r. Mark Pattison in the ‘‘ Academy.”

Life and Correspondence of Dr. Arnold,

FORMERLY HEAD MASTER OF RUGBY, AND PROFESSOR OF
MODERN HISTORY AT OXFORD.

By ARTHUR PENRHYN STANLEY, D.D.

Late Dean of Westminster.

Twelfth Edition, with the Author's final Corrections, and an Unpublished Poem
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With Portrait. 2 Vols. Crown 8vo. 12s.

The Odyssey of Homer,
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THE

Student’s History of the English Church.

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ACCESSION OF HENRY VIII.

SECOND PERIOD.—From THE ACCESSION OF HENRY VIII. TO THE SILENCING
OF CONVOCATION IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

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2 Vols. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d. each.

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Old Deccan Days;

HINDOO FAIRY LEGENDS CURRENT IN SOUTHERN INDIA.
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By MARY FRERE.
WITH INTRODUCTION AND NoTEs BY SIR BARTLE FRERE, Bart.
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Lectures on Architecture,

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Renaissance,

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Life, Works, and Times of Titian.

WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF HIS FAMILY, CHIEFLY FROM
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Second and Cheaper Edition. ‘With Portrait and Illustrations. 2 Vols. 8vo. 215.

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Handbook of Travel Talk.

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Oe Se

Voyage of the “Fox” in the Arctic Seas
IN SEARCH OF SIR JOHN FRANKLIN anv His COMPANIONS.
By SIR LEOPOLD McCLINTOCK, R.N.

fifth Edition, containing a SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER on the recent Searching
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Life and Works of Michel Angelo,

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English Studies ;

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NEW VOLUMES AND ,NEW EDITIONS.

_ HANDBOOK FOR TRAVELLERS IN THE
BENGAL PRESIDENCY.

FROM CALCUTTA TO JAGHERNAULT ON THE SOUTH, ALLAHABAD
ON THE WEST, DARJEELING ON THE NORTH, AND
RANGOON ON THE EAST.

By E. B. EASTWICK, C.B.,

Author of the Handbooks to Madras and Bombay.

With Maps and Plans. Post 8vo.

HANDBOOK—YORKSHIRE:

DONCASTER, HULL, SELBY, BEVERLEY, SCARBOROUGH, WHITBY,
HARROGATE, RIPON, LEEDS, WAKEFIELD, BRADFORD,
HALIFAX, HUDDERSFIELD, SHEFFIELD.

New and Revised Edition. Map and Plans. Post 8vo.

24 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF FORTHCOMING WORKS.

HANDBOOK—WILTS, DORSET, AND
SOMERSET:

SALISBURY, CHIPPENHAM, WEYMOUTH, SHERBORNE, WELLS,
BATH, BRISTOL, TAUNTON, &c.

New and Revised Edition. Map. Post 8vo.

eS

HANDBOOK FOR TRAVELLERS IN
GREECE,

THE IONIAN ISLANDS, CONTINENTAL GREECE, ATHENS, THE
PELOPONNESUS, THE ISLANDS OF THE ASGEAN SEA,
ALBANIA, THESSALY, AND MACEDONIA,

New and thoroughly Revised Edition. Maps. Post 8vo.

————

HANDBOOK—GLOUCESTER, HERE-
FORD, AND WORCESTER:

CIRENCESTER, CHELTENHAM, STROUD, TEWKESBURY, LEO-
MINSTER, ROSS, MALVERN, KIDDERMINSTER,
DUDLEY, BROMSGROVE, EVESHAM.

New and Revised Edition. Map. Post 8vo.

—_—_++——

HANDBOOK—NORTH WALES:

LLANGOLLEN, BANGOR, CARNARVON, BEAUMARIS, SNOWDON,
LLANBERIS, BETTWS Y COED, DOLGELLY, CADER IDRIS,
CONWAY, &c.

New and Revisid Edition. Map. Lost 8vo.

BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.

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