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REPORT

OF THE

SIXTY-PIPTH MEETING

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

es

HELD AT Polak Wairoa tia’
4 on 5 i >»
ne =% Ik

-F ee

IPSWICH IN SEPTEMBER 1895.

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1895.

Office of the Association: Burlington House, London, W.

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LONDON

CONTENTS,

en ee
Page
GHaners and ‘tules'of the Association v.........s.c.secnssedeerscvereessstetevecees XXVil
Places and Times of Meeting, with Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local
SSSCTSbARICS|TFOM-COMMENCEMEDE _es.ceceiae dois cui ov date ncessaunawndans ve dpyedessp XXXViil
Trustees and General Officers, 1831-1895.............: Fh dss ginal Vea hSs <0 ict ty ]
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from 1832... li
MS IOEMEMenINg Wectiresns LER iio. c25h 5. Sees asars sceck Seened ee enc hou de cleeeeee Ixix
Heeetures:to the Operativei@lasses. $v ..26) 1... flush eh edcte eee asblope ed eadedebeste Ixxi
~ Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Ipswich Meeting ..........., Ixxiii
MMPeE A AAC OUNCHL WL BID—OG Jo. Jccke vas .ve se saeaea cect cseeoudnsdees ae L asaaes Coats Ixxv
PASSE OSE NCCOUUU Ieee ery). ccacd nase sepocecneccredsycsnsshteeces aang ROne emda toes Ixxvi
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings ...... Ixxviii
Report of the Council to the General Committee ..............scceeeeseereeeeeees box
Committees appointed by the General Committee at the Ipswich Meet-
eee bs CPARICTE ROU E23. s.csing't ja ceased «vndetexdius + <nh sain SAGE waded tite a asotdpeides lxxxiv
Communications ordered to be printed 27 eatenso .............cceeeeeeeeeeseeeees xcli1
Regulations regarding Grants of Money ............0.ccccsceceeceecseseaeeeeceues XCiV
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action if
I RSE nasa tas iin St iessen a sete Daa tena «sd Jasace hand -ocopunagia XCiV
Pepe SnCL) Cta Nis hOLM MONG, ws «2acwasig dose la¥s vives oo 28es 2 veut mneh) «« vdaWepacdtasde XCV
arecen of Meeting in [896 amd 897... .i..cseescevees0css0ceecssaasancdocesioaseosens x¢evi
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants
(BLE TTR GEL Gily 170/207 talline AE ii aia UM a Oe er A ia ae xevii
SAL un GS TE Gd exii
Address by the President, Sir Dougtas Gatron, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.... 3

b
bo

hy REPORT—1895.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

[An asterisk * indicates that the title only is given. The mark + indicates the same,
but a reference is given to the journal or newspaper where it is published in extenso. }

Page
Corresponding Societies.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor R.
Metpota (Chairman), Mr.'l. V. Hormss (Secretary), Mr. Francis GALTON,
Sir Dovetas Gatron, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. J. G.
Garson, Sir Joun Evans, Mr. J. Hopxinson, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr.
W. Wuitaker, Professor E. B. Poutron, Mr. CurHpprt PreK, and Rev.
WAnONNE SES PRISTRAM. 5.05. .1nv'e0ssrowewasnina swctesnes overseen seeans spices tau: on eeeeereeh 39

Underground Temperature.—T wenty-first Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor J. D. Evrrurr (Chairman and Secretary), Lord Kenyin, Mr.
G. J. Symons, Sir A. Gerxiz, Mr. J. GuatisHer, Professor E. Hurt, Pro-
fessor J. Prestwicu, Dr. C. Lz Neve Foster, Professor A. S. HERSCHEL,
Professor G. A. Lzespour, Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr. W. Gattoway, Mr.
JosrpH Dickinson, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. E. WETHERED, Mr. A. StRAHAN,
and Professor Micuiz Smira. (Drawn up by Professor EVERETT) ... ..... 75

The Uniformity of Size of Pages of Scientific Societies’ Publications.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor 8. P. THomrson (Chairman),
Mr. G. H. Bryan, Dr. C. V. Burton, Mr. R. T. Grazeproox, Dr. G.
JOHNSTONE Sroney, and Mr. J. SWINBURNE (Secretary).........02sssseeeeeeeees Cis

Comparison of Magnetic Instruments.—Interim report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor A. W. Ricker (Chairman), Mr. W. Watson (Secre-
tary), Professor A. ScuusrprR, and Professor H. H. Turner, appointed to
confer with the Astronomer Royal and the Superintendents of other
Observatories with reference to the Comparison of Magnetic Standards
with a view of carrying out such Comparison ..........s..:seceeeeeeeeeeeenseeees 79

The Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteorological Pheno-
mena.—Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J. Symons
(Chairman), Professor R. Mrtpota, Mr. J. Hopxrnson, and Mr. A. W.
CLaYDEN (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary) ........c:ccccssseeereeeees 80

Solar Radiation Eleventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir G. C.
Stoxes (Chairman), Professor A. Scuusrer, Mr. G. Jonnstone SroneEy,
Sir H. E. Roscon, Captain W. pe W. Annzy, Mr. C. Curzz, Mr. G. J
Symons, Mr. W. E. Witson, and Professor Hersert McLxop, appointed
to consider the best Methods of Recording the Direct Intensity of Solar
Radiation 81

Pee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee eee eee eee eee

Investigation of the Earthquake and Voleanic Phenomena of Japan. Four-
teenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord Ketviy, Professor
W. G. Avams, Mr. J. T. Borrominy, Professor A. H. Gruen, Professor

CnG. Kworr, and Professor Jon Msinu (Secretary). (Drawn up by the
Secretary)

CONTENTS. Vv

Page

T, ‘The: GraysMalne Seismograph ........ Bee. .c0se ccecseeesscesseecesenes 81
II. Observations with Horizontal Pendulums ..................:0e0eseeeeee 84
Rep yet bee) Vets AGS oo inde v ctisndany apes vas dnernna uve widens on cnwas sine aves 85

(6) Observations at Kamakura...............:0. 0 cessscceseessenserevees 88

Beapee Rte Ri ritenret tmnt ie cos puas cine Sage cep teks sm wean. Mac ePeet cones ovmeciice san es 90

(ad) The Movements of the Pendulums ................:..cecseeeece eens 90

Move CM EN MAR DS ee ot ca tan. tc te epeeaaraas aver sber eer seanatedenveeds nanhats 91

(fA) The Observations tv LOO. ..cpy even. <ccs eats sepseegurceceeensensese 94

(g) Sensitiveness of the Instruments ................sccceceeeeseeeeeeees 94

(WZ) md DES ed nut) aa aca eBddonde dice 64 Joh 0Gaee Gone ak bod... eb one Gouc en enc aaac 95

(¢) Extract from Journal of Records obtained in 1894............... 96

(j) The Wandering of the Pendulums ...... ........-seccsecseceserers 99

’k) Movements of Water in a Well..............002 cceeseceeceecneenenes 104

(2) An Experiment on Evaporation ...........csccsseseneseneeeeneeeees 106

(m) Effects produced by emptying a Well ............ccsecseseeeereeees 107

(a) wbdrthqualkestesnsds.c.cssccdecescsest=tenve cscs shdbdidedouacbebecbhebegaade 108
(OMNES AT cree ie pans adetcdrinaddoiadosso cae SisBoorecbe Jeckeeboneeceiduacsa sso 109

(p) Observations at Yokohama and Kanagawa................s.seee+ 109

(GA) (BOWE INOS) Seeecenc: S6Gr 0: donnennsodonsnnondeon seen oocedoondeaceso0c (cose 110
III. The Tokio Earthquakes of June 20, 1894 ............... POR crt: 111
Vee MasCellanegus, 1.) .cscx.04 sneer sedecosdae (nedsncnsetage temmneonsh oumeenane ee rep 112

Investigation of the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of Japan. Fif-
teenth Report of the Committee, consisting of the Right Hon. Lord
Ketvin, Professor W.G. Apams, Mr. J. T. Borromizy, Professor A. H.
Green, Professor C. G. Knorr, and Professor Jonn Miine (Secretary).

ermmstiia) DY tite CCCLALY) 2.20.02 cascss.coecestceccscsosecsnadescusautcngrow scree 113
I, The Gray-Milne Seismograph..............ceccececceceeneseeeeecneneeeeeens 118
II. Observations with Horizontal Pendulums ..............seceeeeeeeeeeees 115
(a) The Instruments, Installation, Character of Movements ...... 115
(6) Daily Wave Records .................. Pet cnecatit ite site Neca tele 2: 122
(ce) Tremors, Microseismic Disturbances, or Earth Pulsations ...... 126
(d) The Slow Displacement of Pendulums..................:00seeeeee 128

(e) Periodic movements of several days’ duration, and wandering
ofsthetpendalimeptis: 22538 odssodcssnese nese ses cease nekldsdenas. dabere 129
(f) The Daily Change in the Position of the Pendulums............ 130
(Gp yee iar al, NV Bis conn san td seb soo dee cine segue «ae get aan ope he's ghode> 131
(a) MB TeMOL eh. ote cis. cecees ute dsecenetes «wade ste anerieeses qh seetles'a it ict s 139
(i) Meteorological Tables for Tokio............... ceeceecneeeceneeeeeeens 148

III.

(7) Earthquakes recorded by Horizontal Pendulums in Tokio ..... 147
Description of a Catalogue of 8,33] Earthquakes recorded in Japan
between January 1885 and December 1892..................4+ 149
(a) History of the Catalogues ...............ce.sccecesceerseecseens sears 149
(6) Explanation of the Catalogues .............c:cceceseeeeceeneneenee ees 151

vi REPORT—1895.

Page

(c) Object of the Catalogues .......:...ssseeeeceeeeseneseneseeeeneeeeeees 153
(d) Results already obtained or shown by the Catalogue and Map

Ot! COMENER oes eo. coc esac ocean onnt ovistiels a oeoene nse a ties Sa ee mEnmrtte as 155

IV. On the Velocities with which Waves and Vibrations are propa-
gated on the surface of and through Rock and Karth.
(Compilation) 2.2. 0:.044iessres0ssncontenmace ne giee ee eee emmnee ay 158

Tntroduction le-.isccenacted5 ee salts eadfte kon pameemaaer eet mee eeemEE nea 158
(a) Observations on Artificially Produced Disturbances. Experi-

ments of Manner, ApBot, Fovaut and Livy, Gray, and
1.) Rt pope MRE Seer Se terer ancre acisneeeer ho Mncanredtintccbacs..osootbnee 159

(6) Observations on Earthquakes. Where the wave paths have
been short: (Mitnr and Omori). Where the wave paths
have been long: (NrwcomsBe and Dutron, AGAMENNONE,
Ricco, CancaNnt, von Respuur-PascHwitz, MILnp) ......... 163

(c) The Probable Nature and Velocity of Propagation of Harth-
quake Motion. The suggestions of Dr. C. G. Knorr, Lord
RAYLEIGH, Lord) KBE VIN yh cass a5 sensint ew saeee cater sttmes senses 170

(d) The Paths followed by Earthquake Motion. Hypotheses of
Hopkins and SHesacu, Scumrpt, and a suggestion by the

WELDED sos cfs c cae cased se acccen veaaualies veltace reset cperseenteueaseaeees 173
(2) Clone RODS 5. assgs cok emo vedo es nan gies na enes sone ra ane piace tees 178
V. Miscellaneous Notes relating to Large Earthquakes, &c...............- 179

ApprenDIx.—On Causes producing Movements which may be Mistaken
for arth Dremoraict, ss<s,ee-0sses sec neoseonasaanes baer Bes sc 182

Earth Tremors.—Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J.
Symons, Mr. C. Davison (Secretary), Sir F. J. BRAMWELL, Professor G. H.
Darwin, Professor J. A. Ewrne, Dr. Isaac Ropurts, Mr. THomas Gray,

Sir Jonn Evans, Professors J. Prrstwicu, E. Hurt, G. A. Lepour, R.
Metpona, and J. W. Jupp, Mr. M. Watton Brown, Mr. J. GuaisHER,
Professor C. G. Knorr, Professor J. H. Poyntine, Mr. Horace Darwin,
and Dr. R. Copptann, appointed for the Investigation of Earth Tremors in
this country. (Drawn up by the Secretary) ............:.0.sesseevecescecscseeeers 184.

ApprnpDix.—Note on the History of the Horizontal and Bifilar Pen-
dulums, By ©. DAVISON: c....2.cc.csnesconmsnceeeass5s sae oaea tts aee eee tnaer 184

Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis. -Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Lord McLaren (Chairman), Professor A. Crum Brown (Secretary),
Dr. Jonn Murray, Dr. Atexanppr Bucnan, Hon. RatpH ABERCROMBY,
and Professor R. Coprnanp. (Drawn up by Dr. BUCHAN) .......:...000008 186

Experiments for Improving the Construction of Practical Standards for Elec-
trical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
CargEy Foster (Chairman), Lord Ketvin, Lord Rayxereu, Professors
AyRTon, J. PERRY, and W. G. Apams, Drs. O. J. Loper, Joun Hopxinson,
and A. Murrueap, Messrs. W.H. Preece and HerBert TAYLOR, Professor
J. D. Everett, Professor A. Scuusrer, Dr. J. A. Fremtne, Professors
G. F. FrrzGeraxp, G. Curysrat, and J. J. Taomson, Messrs. R. T. GuazE-
BROOK (Secretary) and W. N. Suaw, Rev. T. C. Frrzparrick, Dr. J. T. Bor-
TOMLEY, Professor J. Vir1amu Jonus, Dr. G. Jounstone Stoney, Professor
8. P. THompson, Mr. G, Forsus, Mr. J. Renin, and Mr. E. H. Grirriras 195

APPENDIX.—On Magnetic Units. By Dr. O. J. LopGe ............++00+ 197
Remarks on the above. By Professor EVERETT.........+-+ 207

Remarks on the above. By Professor G. Canny Foster
and Dr. G, JOHNSTONE STONEY .........00 cssesscccesseees -- 208

CONTENTS. Vil

Page
Comparison and Reduction of Magnetic Observations.—Keport ot the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor W. G. Apams (Chairman), Mr. C. CHREE
(Secretary), Lord Krtyxry, Professor G. H. Darwin, Professor G. Curystat,
Professor A. ScHusTpR, Captain E. W. Creax, The Astronomer Royat,
Mr. Witt1am Exzis, and Professor A. W. Ricker. (Drawn up by the
aE UND) MMR waite oe soso thE och “ca seos Jae once dbgie gon rcG see eecisGas neigh tel Sovtmanine’ 209

Analysis of the Results from the Kew Declination and Horizontal
Force Magnetographs during the selected “Quiet” Days of the

Five Years 1890-94. By C. CHREE, Sc.D. ...........cccecceecesseeeeeee 209
SHOTIONS 1—3.— Introductory: .....0..22.. ccs evereevssetescereececccscccces senses 209
Suctrons 4-6.—Non-cyclic Nature of Results obtained from “ Quiet”

DD cine Me NOE its Soh eteeire tec. was dossier etaee Sac eeenc reas Meotmccatest tees 210
Ssctrons 7-8.—Tables of Diurnal Inequalities for each Month of Year,

for Quartets, Halves, and. Whole Year, .<....:0¢.+.0-..4se<scasacadse aceaee 213
Szcrrons 9-10.—Harmonic Analysis of Diurnal Inequalities ; Times

auasVicixirira ScercA, ire Mages hac cabins Sain As «TMS LOU TNL. Saks otvew arid 216
Srcrions 11-12.—Resultant of Horizontal Forces to which Diurnal

meq uallttyig'dites. st eeecase ced. scedtsse net aere nate eete tere cetrcentes came sectce 218

Sections 13-15.—Variation of Ranges and Sums of Departures from
Mean for Day throughout the Year, with Harmonic Analysisof Ranges 221

Secrions 16-20.—Annual Inequalities (or Cyclic Part of Yearly
SVATISTIONS) caicicctaghic soci eaie a SPOS sats gornatodslade daicte daca Andante PomeRUE eR acces 223

The Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. J. H. Guapstons (Chairman), Professor H. E. ARMsTRONG
(Secretary), Professor W. R. Dunstan, Mr. GrorcE Gtadstone, Sir Jonn
Lussock, Sir Puinre Maenvs, Sir H. E. Roscoz, and Professor S. P.
SREROMEDS ONG 5.5 BEE. Tucioulil wasnigyetiaut dae Soap snag snd sade tstaetatnagaos ye des gcwwn tates tc} 228

Quantitative Analysis by means of Electrolysis.—Second Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor J. Emerson Rrynoxps (Chairman), Dr.C. A.
Koun (Secretary), Professor P. FRANKLAND, Professor F, CLowzs, Dr. Huex
Marsuatt, Mr. A. E. Frercuer, Mr. D. H. Naeger, Mr. T. Turner, and
Maton ee LSA) OUMDUAN Is Se tna cutecces car eosnats fev eesode settee tetaasctteto een teen atte 235

The Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor H. McLnop, Professor W. C. Ropprts Austen, Mr. H. G. Manan,
Bea clme Vir) SET a INA Daya arty ave atin ese eicreanaopedeideidet sects Cadeigbusmnoben se aceue te 263

The Action of Light upon Dyed Colours.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Dr. T, E. Taorre (Chairman), Professor J. J. Hummes. (Secretary), Dr.
W. H. Perxr, Professor W. J. Russert, Captain W. pr W. AsNey,
Professor W. Srrovup, and Professor R. Mrxpora. (Drawn up by the
IPR Tea rayy Paros hatlaibyeaee deat etc wines eeeeiannicelastladtoracinals ae mana cepaep Ne ase eek des 263

fsomeric Naphthalene Derivatives—Ninth Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor W. A. Titpen and Professor H. E. Armstrone.
(Drawn up by Professor ARMSTRONG) ........... Eva taneacoet sat Se census a eat tae 272

Wave-leneth Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. HE. Roscon (Chairman), Dr. Mar-
SHALL Warts (Secretary), Mr. J. N. Lockyzr, Professors Drwar, G. D
Liverine, A. Scuuster, W. N. Harrtny, and Wotcorr Gisss, and
Captain Apnuy. (Drawn up by Dr. WATTS) | ......:..c.ssscedesescescseessesesrs 273

The Production of Haloids from Pure Materials.—Report of a Committee con-
sisting of Professor H. E. Anmstrone, Professor WynpHAm R, Dunstan,
Mr. C. H. Borwamey, and Mr. W. A. Supnstonse (Secretary)............0065 341

viii REPORT—1895.

Page
How shall Agriculture best obtain the Help of Science? By Professor R.
WABINGION | MAA), BERS: sccitth.3 act tesemaea tee teee cee eeeee. eee See eee meen 341

High-level Flint-drift of the Chalk.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Sir Jonn Evans (Chairman), Mr. B. Harrison (Secretary), Professor J.
Prestwicu, and Professor H.G. Spe.ey. Drawn up by Mr. B, Harrison 349

The Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius —Final Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. H. Bavprman (Chairman), Dr. H. J. Jonnsron Lavis
(Secretary), Mr. F. W, Rupusr, and Mr. J. J. H. Teaxt, appointed for the
purpose of Investigating the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its
Neighbourhood... ssesc.s.25ese0 geese oe Ses'oneceues tse doasth see ee pana sheet: Cen enEeEeEe 351

The Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales, and the In-
fluence of the Artificial Abstraction of Shingle or other Material in that
Action.—Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W.
Waitakpr (Chairman), Messrs. J. B. RepMan and J. W. Woopatt,
Major-General Sir A. Crarke, Admiral Sir E. Ommanney, Admiral Sir
Grorce Nares, Captain J. Parsons, Admiral W. J. L. WHarton,
Professor J. Prestwich, Mr. Epwarp Easton, Mr. J. S. VALENTINE,
Professor L F. Vernon Harcourt, and the late Mr. W. Topiey, and

Mr. C. KE. Dz Rawncz (Secretaries). (Drawn up by C. E. Dp Rance) ...... 352
APPENDIX I.—Summary of Previous Reports .............ssscesseeeeeesees 304
Appendix II.—Information received and collected since 1888 ......... 359
Appendix JII.—Various Scheduled Returns: Replies to Printed

Queries circulated by the Committee ...............s:sscessccssceerseceees 372

AppENDIx IV.—Second Chronological List of Works on the Coast-
changes and Shore-deposits of England and Wales. By W.
Wairtaxker, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc.Inst.C.E. .....ccccecseceeesees 388

Structure of a Coral Reef.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor T. G. Bonnny (Chairman), Professor W. J. Sotzas (Secretary),
Sir ArcurpaLp Gerxin, Professors A. H. Green, J. W. Jupp, C. Lap-
wortH, A. C. Happon, Boyp Dawxins, G. H. Darwin, S. J. Hickson, and
A. Stewart, Admiral W. J. L. Waarton, Drs. H. Hicxs, J. Murray,
W.T Branrorp, Le Neve Fosrsr, and H. B. Guppy, Messrs. F. Darwin,
H. O. Forsus, G. C. Bournz, A. R. Bryniz, J. W. Grecory, and J. C.
HawxsHaw, and Hon. P. Fawcerr, appointed to consider a project for
investigating the Structure of a Coral Reef by Boring and Sounding......... 392

The Circulation of Underground Waters.—Twenty-first Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr E. Huts (Chairman), Sir Doveras Garton, Mr.
J. GuaisHEer, Mr. Prrcy Kenpatt, Professor G. A. Lesour, Mr. E. B.
Marten, Mr.G. H. Morton, Professor PrestwicH, and Messrs. I. RoBERTS,
Tuos. 8S. Srooxr, G. J. Symons, C. Ty~ppn-Wrieut, C. WrTHERED,
W. Waitaker, and C.E Dr Rance (Secretary). (Drawn up by C. E. De
SEVAUSED) scan apron scion peed sbSawnnnnipuk en peace ice dacee come is Se vee ae aaa 893

APPENDIX. Second List of Works. By W. WHITAKER.............:006+ 394

Cetiosaurus Remains.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
A. H. Green (Chairman), Mr. Jamus Parker (Secretary), the Ear of
Dvucrz, Professor E. Ray Lanxestrer, and Professor H. G. SEELEY,
appointed to examine the Ground from which the Remains of the Cetiosaurus
in the Oxford Museum were obtained, with a View to determining whether
other parts of the same Animal remain in the Rock ......sesssseeeceeeeeeeenees 405

The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs
of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Sixth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor Jamus GEtk1E (Chairman), Professor
I. G. Bonnry, Dr. Temprsr AnpERsoN, the late Dr. VALENTINE Batt,

CONTENTS. 1x

Page
Mr. James E. Beprorp, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Mr. Epmunp J.
Garwoop, Mr. J. G. Gooncnrnp, Mr, Wittiam Gray, Mr, Roperr
Kinston, Professor T. McKenny Hueuers, Mr. Arraur S8. Rem, Mr.
J.J. H. Tratt, Mr. R. H. Tropeman, Mr. W. W. Warts, Mr. Horace B.
Woopwarp, and Mr. Osmunp W. Jzerrs (Secretary). (Drawn up by the
Secretary) ..........sessessscnnssenceecsscceeseccseosscesctacsscescanseneceaseeseconnenees 404

Stonesfield Slate——Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. B.
Woopwarp (Chairman), Mr. E. A. Watrorp (Secretary), Professor A. H.
Green, Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Mr. J. WrnpoEs, appointed to open further
sections in the neighbourhood of Stonesfield in order to show the relation-
ship of the Stonesfield Slate to the underlying and overlying strata.
(Drawn up by Mr. Epwin A. WALFORD, Secretary) ......ssessseeeeeeeeeeseees 414

The Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.—Twelfth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor T. WittsHrrE (Chairman), Dr. H. Woop-
WARD, and Professor T. Rupert Jones (Secretary). (Drawn up by
(ProtessorlL., RUPERT JONES) sa.04 one cisoiese scien ss endian ose oseiesinee «hs clsigesieps|-iissies 416

Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland.—Twenty-second Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professors E. Hurt (Chairman), J. PRrest-
wicu, W. Boyp Dawxrns, T. McK. Hueuss, T. G. Bonney, Messrs. C. E.
De Rance, P. F. Kenpatt (Secretary), R. H. Trppeman, and J. W.
Woopatt, and Professor L. C. Mratt. (Drawn up by the Secretary) ... 426

Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland.—Twenty-third Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor E. Hutt (Chairman), Professor J.
PrestwicH, Professor W. Boyp Dawxtns, Professor T. McK. Huenas,
Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E. Dz Rance, Mr. P. F. Kunpatz (Secre-
tary), Mr. R. H. Tippemay, Mr. J. W. Woopatt, and Professor L. C.

Miary. (Drawn up by the Secretary) ..........secscsscecseecegeneeeeceseeeeeees 430
Some Suffolk Well-sections—By W. Wuuttarer, B.A., F.R.S., F.GS.,

MAME EAC). Up 05 venir seleichsumis 0» oninisaGinlesiscvass sduxmeat ot the apsehteietattetteds ataels ae 436
On the Dip of the Underground Paleozoic Rocks at Ware and Cheshunt. By

JosePH FRANCIS, M.Inst.C.E. ..........0.cscsccseeessceseesecoers PS. So tecceteeatos 44]

Physiological Applications of the Phonograph.—Report by the Committee,
consisting of Professor Joan G. McKenpricx (Chairman), Professor G. G.
Morray, Mr. Davin 8S. Wineate, and Mr. Jonn 8S. McKunopricx, on the
Physiological Applications of the Phonograph, and on the True Form of the
Voice-curves made by the Instrument ..............cec cece ee eec eee ee eee eeeeeeeees 454

The Marine Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Irish Sea.—Third Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor A.C. Happon, Professor G. B.
Howns, Mr. W. E. Hoyts, Mr. Ciremenr Rep, Mr. I. C. THompson,
Mr. A. O. Watrer, Professor F. E. Weuiss, and Professor W. A.
HarpMan (Chairman and Reporter) ............cscceeeeceeeececaceseencnecseceeees 455
The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Fifth Report of the Committes,
consisting of Professor A. Newron (Chairman), Dr. W. T. Buan-
ForD, Dr. S. J. Hicxson, Professor C. V. Ritzy, Mr. O. Saxvry, Dr.
P. L. Sctarer, Mr. KE. A. Smiru, and Mr. D. Swarr (Secretary) ............ 467
Investigations made at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at
Plymouth.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. C. BournE
(Chairman), Professor E. Ray Lanxusrer (Secretary), Professor M.

RCA MIGR, and ETOLESSOL) S..2EL., VINES, oc 0<056- cee. 0 -peeetmovsncaeeddee oss ss teleosesle 469
I.—On a Blood-forming Organ in the Larva of Magelona. By

IDE OREN CH, UCHANAN SEUSCh (cesing qneesiats sageaesarsncn- decsdaiccwtssecseeses 469
II.—On the Nervous System of the Embryonic Lobster. By Ener J.

Juin IBESTOo Sougeeence Ge “COC one S ee GEOR CEE ic APO R OSE ALCOR Rear Cae iC cie Bae Eere 470

III.—On the Echinoderm Fauna of Plymouth. By J. C. SuMNER...... 471

x REPORT—1895.

Page
The Present State of our Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West
India Islands, and on taking Steps to investigate ascertained Deficiencies in
the Fauna and Flora.—Eighth Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr.
P. L. Sctarer (Chairman), Mr. Georce Murray (Secretary), Mr. W.
CarrutTHers, Dr, A. C. L. G. GuntueEr, Dr. D. Saarp, Mr. F. DuCanr
Gopman; and Professor A, NG WION ....c0.22-aysuesscesesscses contens ste ceeeenneeeee 472

Index Generum et Specierum Animalium.—Report of a Committee, consist-
ing of Sir W. H. Frowrr (Chairman), Dr. P. L. Sctarrr, Dr. H. Woop-
waRD, and Mr. W. L, Sciarer (Secretary), appointed for superintending
the Compilation of an Index Generum et Specierum Animalium ............ 473

Migration of Birds.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A.
Newton (Chairman), Mr. Joun Corpravx (Secretary), Mr. J. A. Harvie-
Brown, Mr. Wm. Hacin Crarks, Mr. R. M. Barrineton, and the Rev.

E. Ponsonpy KnvsLey, appointed to make a Digest of the Observations on
the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Light-vessels ..............c00es0eee 473

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. Scrater, Professor E. Ray Lanikester,
Professor J. CossAn Ewart, Professor M. Fosrrr, Professor 8. J. Hickson,

Mr, A. Sepewick, and Mr. Percy SLADEN (Secretary) .......:eccccseeeeeeeeee 474
AppenDIx I.—The Maturation and Fecundation of the Ova of certain
Echinoderms and Tunicates. By M. D. HIG ..........00...0cc:eecee eee 475
Appenpix II.—List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological
Station from July 1, 1894, to June 30, 1895 ..........cccececeeseeeeeeeene 477
Apprnpix II{.—List of Papers which were published in 1894 by
Naturalists who have occupied Tables in the Zoological Station ...... 478

The Climatology of Africa.—Fourth Report of a Committee, consisting of
Mr. E. G. Ravensrery (Chairman), Mr. Batpwin Larnam, Mr. G. J.
Symons, Mr. H. N. Dickson, and Dr. H.R. Mitt (Secretary). (Drawn up
py die ObpInMen)s. 3. .reccseees cantesimos ons codevuiieisitvennds »acsskaiedaet eee 480

The Exploration of Southern Arabia.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Mr. H. Sersonm (Chairman), Mr. J. Turoporr Benr (Secretary),
Mr. E. G. Ravenstern, Dr. J. G. Garson, and Mr. G. W. Broxam.
(Drewn,up by Mor BE) i355. ceesnnccannd€scieessks-b) asec% =nccnnte tty ta ane 49]

Calibration of Instruments used in Engineering Laboratories.—Report of a
Committee, consisting of Professor A. B. W. Kunnepy, F.R.S. (Chairman),
Professor J. A. Ewine, F.R.S., Professor D. S. Carper, Professor T. H.
Buarg, and Professor W. C. Unwin, F.R.S. (Secretary). (Drawn up by
EES SBETOUREY)|) (2 wenansuns Bii-t cok cayman tend aee iy nuacteceon tems scatateaee woctbsandat At 497

An Ancient Kitchen Midden at Hastings, and a Barrow at the Wildernesse.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Joun Evans (Chairman), Mr.
W. J. Lewis Anzorr (Secretary), Professor J. Prestwrcon, Mr. CurHBert
Park, and Mr. ArtHur J. Evans. (Drawn up by the Secretary)..........++ 500

Anthropometric Measurements in Schools.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor A. Macatistrr (Chairman), Professor B. WINDLE
(Secretary), Mr. E. W. Brasroox, Professor J. Crunanp, and Dr. J. G.
C0 Seen Th i eee 503

Mental and Physical Defects of Children.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Sir Doveras Gatton (Chairman), Dr. Francis WARNER (Secretary),
Mr. E. W. Brasrooxr, Dr. J. G. Garson, and Dr. WILBERFORCE SMITH.
(Report drawn up by the Secretary) ...........ccccccccscssssessnssscccseessrenesere 503
AppEnpdIx I.—Defects enumerated individually and in groups as
distributed amongst the Nationalities and Social Classes, &c. ......... 506
Appendix II.—Groups of Children and their Percentage Distribution
on the numbers seen and numbers noted............seeceee- eB Ropes 68 a 508

CONTENTS. Xl

' Page
Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom,—Third Report of the Com- ;
mittee, consisting of Mr. E. W. Brasroox (Chairman), Mr. F'RANcIs GALTON,

Dr. J. G. Garson, Professor A.C. Happon, Dr. JosspH ANnpDuRsON, Mr, J.
Romitty Axten, Dr. J. Beppor, Professor D. J. CunnineHAm, Professor
W. Boyp Dawkins, Mr. Artuur Evans, Sir H. Howorru, Professor R.
Mexpota, General Pirr-Rivers, Mr. E. G. Ravenste1y, and Mr. KE. Sipney

Harrianp (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Chairman)................60..06- pee US
Apprnprx I.— Circular to local Societies ..............2seececcseweneeeeceees 511
‘Appmnprix I1.—Circular to Medical Men ........c.cccccserecesscccceceevcces 512

AppEnpDIx II].—Explanatory Notes, by Mr. E. Sipney Harrtanp ... 515
_ The Lake Village of Glastonbury.—Second Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Professor W. Boyp Dawxrns, Sir
Joun Evans, General Pirt-Rivers, and Mr. A. Bu.ierp (Secretary).

(Drawn up by the Chairman and Secretary) ...............eeee seeeeeeeeseeee eens 519
iReport... By Dx. BR. MUNRO 5...12..2<- sep .nse~soneetsomssganeenseineravsnece 519
EI.—Report on the Work carried on during the past year. By

PAMPER EER Es UECHIDD bets crea hess oa nid roe iom aisles sacs deingbidelsie seo s[ed nie dallas» 9Ss0 520

On the North-Western Tribes of Canada.—Tenth Report of the Committee,
_ consisting of Dr. E. B. TyLor, Dr. G. M. Dawson, Mr. R. G. HALrsurton,
Smee PEUAEION ccs5's ch sc oelv aides se arcs sees ner occacenaal ti dnayneeasecseesessdesmaenis 522

Fifth Report on the Indians of British Columbia. By Franz Boas ... 528

xii

REPORT—1895.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Page
Address by Professor W. M. Hicks, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., President of the f

SIC CLIOMM ericnjnaiscesle siasteldeesiccsas se cess .sicwieeeoattee doe acisnemeeeeteese she acre emt eeee taeeeeE 595

1, On the Reichsanstalt, Charlottenburg, Berlin. By Sir Dovetas Gatton,
ROR ce coin div dos dsesertandencvcds cnn eceae ste etaee meee ee tee eee en eee eee 606

2. On the Teaching of Geometrical Drawing in Schools. By O. Henrtctr,
Sa tedecessgeee canes ccdenecssc0cacchos «ak vantaceananateneck eek te rene ee en teeee eee 608
Bey “Interim: Heport on Cosmic Dust .~..s.pekvecrcectseescacces ose estore rent ae nnemee 609
4; Report on Underground Temperature ~..........0..0..cescesecscevssnadeumenettees 609
5. Report on the Sizes of the Pages of Periodicals ...............sssccssecsesecenes 609
6. Report on the Reduction of Magnetic Observation .............0ececceeeeeeeeeee 609
7. Report on the Comparison of Magnetic Instruments...............sseeeeeeseenees 609

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
A joint Meeting with Section B.
1. The Refraction and Viscosity of Argon and Helium. By Lord Rayreren,

bo

EC RUSS: ackieacasccehessewanbowcnsentecd weneecst sects ete coe 609

. On Specific Refraction and the Periodic Law, with reference to Argon and

other Elements. By Dr. J. H. Guapstone, F.R.S. ..........sescsecceveenesre 609

. *A Discussion ‘On the Evidence to be Gathered as to the Simple or Com-

pound character of a Gas, from the Constitution of its Spectrum.’ Opened
by Professor A. ScHustpR and Lord RayrpieH

- The Constituents of Cleveite Gas. By C. Runex and F. PascueEn ......... 610
. On Motions competent to produce Groups of Lines which have been

observed in Actual Spectra. By G. Jounstonn Sronzy, M.A., D.Sc.,
Wein aecemers (364 vasdeaaennsstivds os vuntineUunadus seossiana <scdeheeeenetttse seen 610

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
I. MatHEMATICS.

*On the Translational and Vibrational Energies of Vibrators after Impacts
on fixed Walls. By luord Kunyin, Pres, B.S. ......c:0:.-.00s een 612

. On Bicyclic Vortex Aggregates. By Professor W. M. Hicxs, F.R.S....... 612
. On Hill’s Spherical Vortex. By Professor W. M. Hioxs, F.R.S. ......... 612

————

CONTENTS. Xili

Page

. Ona Dynamical Top. By G. T. WALKER, M.A. 2......eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 613
. *Suggestions as to Matter and Gravitation in Professor Hicks’s Cellular

Vortex Theory. By C. V. Burton, D.Sc. ........::eeeeeeeeeseeeeeeseeeeeeeeens 613

.*On the Graphical Representation of the Partition of Numbers. By

Major P. A. MacmaHon, SU BS al rk ee ds oe oS A Naaceed auc. BaHAORER RE rene 6138

. On a New Canon Arithmeticus. By Lt.-Col. AtLan CunninewaM, R.E. 613
. On Mersenne’s Numbers. By Lt.-Col. Arran Cunninewan, R.E.......... 614
. Recent Developments of the Lunar Theory. By P. H. Cowrtt,M.A ... 614
. The Relation between the Morphological Symmetry and the Optical

Symmetry of Crystals. By Witttam BARLOW.........-.----eeeeerrersrreeeees 617

. Ona Species of Tetrahedron the Volume of any member of which can be

determined without employing the proof of the proposition that Tetrahedra
on equal bases and having equal altitudes are equal, which depends on
the Method of Limits. By Professor M. J. M. Hint, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 619

. On Absolute and Relative Motion. By Professor J. D. Kvprerr, F.R.S. 620
. On the Magnetic Field due to a Current in a Solenoid. By W. H.

PRUNE ENTE MES OA esa enrsisa deers cm sebRciealp plete es'ams entero saelevfelalssiyveitamiaispiamiane) f (aGiajee*-us 620

. On the Law of Error in the Case of Correlated Variations. By 8S. H.

MAUI AE i Seucnese se recite. aan. sapesestarecenasarcvos+nalsceinns na ia dattanseates 621

DepartmENT II]. MerTEOROLOGY.

1. Probable Projection Lightning Flashes. By Ertc Sruart Brucs, M.A.,
BPR NCO SOC! 156. J. eet heeaee ond wot ide cdat laden se losagow sn adewenlcancctianeees 624
2, Report on Solar Radiation ..............eesssseeeeceeeee seen eeetee reese eeee eens 625
3. Report on Harth Tremors ...........2--:ssecssssseeeeseeeeeeeeeeeeeneeeeeneee eee nes 625
4, Reportson Earthquakes in Japan ..............cseecceeeesssaeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 625
5. On some Experiments made with Lord Kelvin’s Portable Electrometer.
By ARTHUR SCHUSTER, FIRS. ........eeeseeseeeeeeeeeee cess eee eeeeeeereeeere nes 625
6. On Indian Thunderstorms. By ©. MICHIE SMITH ..............eecseeeere ees 626
7. *On the Zodiacal Light considered as an Atmospheric Phenomenon. By
BEMBEIMAN LCD DE ate ia cee ta ce stecee. bins besssasioss seaten*stetenaaatineeer cle sdea shar Wee 626
8. *On the Local Origin of the Aurora Borealis. By W.H. Woop ......... 626
9. Report on the Application of Photography to Meteorology ...... . 2.2.0.4: 626
10. Report on the Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis ...............++- 626
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
1. *A Discussion ‘On the Objective Character of Combination Tones’......... 626

Notes on the Objective Existence of Combination Tones. By A. W.
PER: MA. EES. ceccescneecccnsencesscnsscabneceectuectewsedevecneneddensoseee 626

. *A Discussion ‘On a New Practical Heat Standard.’ Introduced by a

Paper by HE. H. Grimrivis, FURS. .....ceceeceeeeee esse eeeeeeeeeeeeseneeseeees 628

. On the Thermal Conductivities of Mixtures of Liquids. By CHartus

FL. LES, D.Sc. ........cceepeeeececesteeeeeenceeceeeeeessansceeeeeeaeesseecerseceeeeens 628

. A Method of Comparing the Heats of Evaporation of Different Liquids

at their Boiling Points. By Professor W. Ramsay, Ph.D., F.R.S., and
Miss DorotHy MARSHALL, B.Sc. .........cccecseeceeeeeeeeecee es settee eenenenenens 628

. {On a Harmonic Analyser. By G. U. YULB........cseeeeneeeeneeeeceeeeestees 630

Xiv REPORT—1895.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

1, On the Electrification and Diselectrification of Air and other Gases. By
Lord Kenvin, Macnus Macrean, and ALEXANDER GALT ..............406

2. Do Vertical (Earth-Air) Electric Currents exist in the United King-
Gomi seby Am We ebUUCKHR, FES. o<. ris: 0ciccs+ 0narchiansonecer eh eeeneeent ete eeee

3. *On the Equation connecting the Potential Difference, Current, and
QWenethi ofthe Hlectric Arc. “By Mrs, AYRION ....c.5:1-essseeeemeseeees-ten te

4. *On the back E.M.F and True Resistance of the Are. By Professor
NateAvE ron, RS, ,ands Ts Manns -$3...3.54 <ceaseus donee eee cae

5. Note on the Electrolysis of Iron Salts. By W. M. Hicks, F.R.S., and
GPM SIBIAY a ciples esa os Scie «isin auletng's <b ob osu vcoi pist eoke peieyl ds ope mane oe

6. *On a Magnetic Field Tester. By Professor W. E. Ayrton, F.RS.,
BOO MD SMATHE © \eire.stsessceceetescacescecuceeseensetyes atts otces et hoe mee Nee

. On the Velocity of Light in Rarefied Gases through which an Electrical
Discharge is passing. By Epwin Epser, A.R.C.S., and Sypnny G.
SMAI Gs) JA. ONS tary aia acitod seme ta tees mea eRe ahem Mee Oe cnuaenae eee

8. On the Hysteresis of Iron in an ‘Alternate Magnetic Field. By
feawor 'G, Bary. Ai. 2i sccio. cee. ane jn daavatsosahs sayeas uncmecaapae teens

“1

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1. On the Change of Molecular Refraction in Salts or Acids dissolved in
Water. By Dr. J. H. Guapstong, F.R.S., and Water Hippert, F.I.C.
Report on Electrical Standards,....,......s«-0+++s+s<szsei plans} » sme ats aRae apie

. On the Choice of Magnetic Units. By Professor Smnvanus P. THome-
BON? HOHE. Sy .ccuseeicempencene uta we ogeen'esdmnaeckinbottecs sands enn eee ee

4, *On some New Methods and Apparatus for the Delineation of Alternate
Current Wave Forms. By J. M. Barr, W. B. Burnie, and CHARiEs

co bo

RODGERS! «2.3 eens sabusepiten alvseruabehhcc eee. toecenste. othe ene te Reee eee eae
5. *On Alternating Wave Tracers. By Professor W. E. Ayrron, F.R.S.,
arid) "T) Miatraraere 5 See ea eek ec. era ccee tne poh anne ee
6. *On the Relation between Speed and Voltage in Electric Motors. By
Professor W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S., and T. MATER °....c.cs00.sech ane

7. *On some recent Improvements in Measurements of High Temperatures.
Tllustrated by ap gay recently acquired by the Kew Observatory —
Committee, By. HH. GRireirns, (HAR.S.. cescscc<.+coccs-as teense setae

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

THURSDAY SEPTEMBER 12.
Address by Professor R. Murnpota, F.R.S., For.Sec.0.8., President of the
WOCHOM 5: :s0icredvadacadsacseute edvmrestencadann seeteomees cabins col acnnted ket aaa

1. A New View of the Genesis of Dalton’s Atomic Theory, derived from
Original Manuscripts. By Sir H. E. Roscoz, F.R.S., and ARTHUR
EL Ageaprin, fostapeteet tte | eae ele aes, oo

. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.................+++
. The Action of Nitric Oxide on some Metallic Salts. By H. A. AUDEN,

co bo

635

BSe;, and G. J. Rowiun,, MiSe) ¢...<1.01)-s00n...osaeee tees Meek eee 656

CONTENTS, XV
- Page
4, On the Respirability of Air in which a Candle Flame has burnt until it
is. extinguished, By Frank Crowns, D.Sc. ......0.......cccecceseseececeenvees 658
5, The Action of Light upon the Soluble Metallic Iodides in presence of
. Cellulose: By Doverss J! P. Berrien, BA. fillies. ee cececc ene eee 658
_ 6. Second Report on Quantitative Analysis by means of Electrolysis ......... 659
: 7 Report on Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements............... 659
i
. MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
+ A Discussion in conjunction with Section K (Botany) on the Relation of
EMEC MEGNNG LO) SCLOUCO ty saenasece ac sanassanecsarecc ssc athasccc sess sacacs fesse. 660
How shall Agriculture best obtain Help from Science? By Professor R.
Warrineton, F.R.S. ..........- b Mids dae Dae eae seg asoa ee esta aeae eae SENET ese dls « 660 ;
* Agriculture and Science. By T. HENDRICK ...........:escecsessecsescsenese 660

* The Application of Science to Agriculture. By M. R. J. Dunsvay...... 660

1. Work at the Agricultural Experimental Stations in Suffolk and Norfolk.
ci "TL TEs “WCOLDRGE s gndsbne seh copsone conpe app nes psecocacead cu onpeabconaedacent es Sacncnaan 660

2. Report on the Preparation of Haloids from Pure Materials .................. 660
3. Interim Report of the Committee on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy ... 660

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

1. Some Remarks on Orthochromatic Photography. By Dr. H. W. VoceEn 660

2 On the Sensitising Action of Dyes on Gelatino-bromide Plates By
PMMRES DO DEEA MD so cute oboe saitre dasa gic caiteoxp « dudiesaecatuidns debacrappnintnt@erieh 661

3. Report of the Committee on the Action of Light on Dyed Colours ......... 662
4, On some Stilbene Derivatives. By J.J. Supporoven, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.1.C. 662
5. Note on the Constitution of Camphoric Acid. By J. J. Supsoroven,

co Say, LEbna| Dh Del Ona Sse Te ne es een etc Ana eet orn ei 663
6, *Experimental Proofs of van ’t Hoff’s Constant, Dalton’s Law, &c., for very
Dilute Solutions. By Dr. M. WiItDERMANN ...............ceeceseeeeeeeneoee eee 663
7. The Formation and Properties of a New Organic Acid. By Huwry J.
EMAL EN TOM, MEAL 1, O60 slave cchaddevweten kes cuca dsavdeed vbMedagaced 663
8. On the Velocity of Reaction before Perfect Equilibrium takes place. By
PRERENDER MANIN, Ene Ds. Ueetne sean see wosc consol ttaseetsasctiesUddeateancd 663
9. Chemical History of Barley Plants. By C. F. Cross and C, Smiru......... 665

Section C.—GEOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
ddress by W. Wuirtarer, BA, F.RS., F.GS., President of the
Section scacente soe HORCEBHOUIE: TEES TO CEC Seon BU or cRCOEBODE ETC SGET conan ERTS eee eres 666

3 The Southern Character of the Molluscan Fauna of the Coralline Crag
tested by an analysis of its characteristic and abundant species. By
EMail ees care caneveinanaddaenetececy sauces enpmneaees 675

2, On the Derivative Shells of the Red Crag. By F. W. Harmer, F.G.S. 676

xvi REPORT—1895.

10.

Page

. On the Stratigraphy of the Crag, with especial reference to the Distribution

ofthe Horaminitera. . By El. W.BURBOWS inn. «snceseec.ssss ».-oieniteeameenaaene 677

. Note on a Section at the North Cliff, Southwold. By Horace B.

Woopwarbd, F.G.S. ........ pou solighvecuedite sedeaaceargee de kee’. ins7a fe.ckye » are Ree EERE eee 6738

. On Recent Coast Erosion at Southwold and Covehithe. By Joan

RAPT EAIR MAGUS: yesh 2x005<aees- Rate wee e SeeReR SRR yeu ina en sonnei cine Cee 678

. Observations on Hast Anglian Boulder Clay. By Rev. KE. Hitt, M.A.,

UGS a oc ese S. sa addes tows ch leven eeephebaaeacesone ot ees es oes Jase 2 0's eat 679

. Indications of Ice-raft Action through Glacial Times. By Rey. E. Hitt,

MEAT EGS). ace ons ec dsienansncmadeeedlaneee eee craic. suid s diade'dea)o0iceldo sate ee 679

. On Traces of an Ancient Watercourse. By Rev. E. Hrx1, M.A., F.G.S. 679
. Further Notes on the Arctic and Paleolithic Deposits at Hoxne. By

Crement Rep, F.LS., F.G.S., and H. N. Rrptey, M.A., F.LS. ......... 679
Some Suffolk Well-sections. By W. Wartaxer, F.R.S.............:0:00000 680

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

]. On Pitch Glaciers or Poissiers. By Professor W, J. Sottas, D.Sc., F.R.S. 680
2, *Notes on the Cromer Excursion. By Cirement Rem, F.G.S. ............ 681
3. On the Tertiary Lacustrine Formations of North America. By Pro-
fageGr: Wx OOLL, piss ccs dencccncbet este. nosso tiie ds oesate cal: s0s's. age gee eee nce meine 681
4, The Glacial Age in Tropical America. By R. Brake WHITE ............ 682

. On Pre-Glacial Valleys in Northamptonshire. By Brrsy THompson,

TEV OR SREB DH 6 els peecieisocano 102 cuehsacnd kena saascmip ad sanoddhnocbapubsesdaomicotoos. Aucoin. 683

. Notes on some Tarns near Snowdon. By W. W. Warts, M.A., F.G.S. 683

. “Interim Report on the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits of Clava, &c. 684
. “Interim Report on the Calf Hole Cave Exploration...............-..:::00000 684
. Report on the High-level Flint Drift of the Chalk ...........csceeee ceeeeees 684
. Report on the Rate of Erosion of Sea Coasts ..............scceseesseeeeeeeee aes 684
~ Final Report on Underground, Waters. vi. ..55..600.0 05 5..%x.ncnsttnsuscnapaeenea 684
.On Modern Glacial Strie. By Prrcy F. Kenpatt, F.G.S., and

Ja Tuomas; AVB.AC.SG:. os sccee cave sass ceaoaneb av chs actadeate pasaictes s hoagie eee eee 684

. Notes on the Ancient Physiography of South Essex. By T. V. Hotmus 685

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

. Restorations of some European Dinosaurs, with Suggestions as to their

Place among the Reptilia. By Professor O. C. MARSH ............00esee0es 685
Report on the Investigation of the Locality where the Cetiosaurus Remains
in the Oxford Museum were found 4.20. 0.0..0.-6cecsessesnnoneeo0s ses ome eeeeeeame 688

. Preliminary Notice of an* Exposure of Rhawtic Beds, near East Leake,

Nottinghamshire. (Fourth Contribution to Rhvetic Geology.) By
Monrtacu Browne, HG.S., FZ.S. 0.1.00 sieevsedescsdavcdsee ss ox-snpeeaamanmeee 688

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

. Probable Extension of the Seas during Upper Tertiary Times in Western

Eugope:.: By Ge BS DOLGEUS... oj... c0.sieetssedtnasspaashspesees aaeeen tae aaa 690

CONTENTS. XVil

2. *On the Present State of our Knowledge of the Upper Tertiary Strata aa
Belgium. By EH. VAN DEN BROEK ........ccseessecsseeceeesseneceenseceeneeeenees 691
3. *On the Discovery of Fossil Elephant Remains at Tilloun (Charente).
By MARCELLIN BOULE ............ccccceecceseree cecneeeeeeceensawensacseecneceaens 691
4, *On Earth Movements observed in Japan. By J. Minne, F.R.S. ......... 691
5. Reports on the Volcanic and Seismological Phenomena of Japan............ 691
6, Final Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius ........0...:.sseeeeees 691
7. Report on Harth Tremors ..........ccsscssecseeneeseeeeteceeeeseeeseesseneeeesensees 691
8. Interim Report on the Investigation of a Coral Reef.............:::esseeeeeees 691
9. Report on Geological Photographs ........ss:csescssseecsseesseeesreeeeeeenrens 691
10. The Auriferous Conglomerates of the Witwatersrand, Transvaal. By
EREDERICK Hi, Hatcn, Ph:D., F.GS....c.cccecescoscesdeceeccssssaneccsarsessens 691
11. Report on the ‘ Stonesfield Slate ’...........ccceeseseesseeeeeeteneeea sess eseaneseee 692
12. On the Strata of the Shaft sunk at Stonesfield, Oxon, in 1895. By

bo

WIEN A WALFORD; PUGS eo) ce eee a ie iia cptectnteeccecatedeettedesee 692

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

. The Trial-boring at Stutton. By W. WaiItAKER, F.R.S. ...... ccc eeeeeeee 693
. The Dip of the Underground Paleozoic Rocks at Ware and at Cheshunt.

By Josnre PRanots, M.Trst.O5Bi.....0.:c.ccsvecsanqresscsdartesrsivensesdeslvsema en 693

. On the Importance of extending the Work of the Geological Survey of

Great Britain to the Deep-seated Rocks by means of Boring. By F. W.
PEW ASRIMUELR WE. (2S) eaganiga dee ois akiiaces ts <r 4s <tcaa eh tars ganas e aba ateiebIe saklalosatinat a: 693

. The Cladodonts of the Upper Devonian of Ohio. By Professor E. W.

DEA POLH, WSC, CLOGS) cence deensosisn- cae remarci-iesosminedsnagnecesisacabiasdesumase'siae 694

. The Great Devonian Placoderms of Ohio, with Specimens. By Professor

EW. CLAYPOLEY D.Sc: (ond?) 2.) due. .c- ote oncnsedsswansnsesoccedscussensseanesas 695

. Notes on the Phylogeny of the Graptolites. By Professor H. A.

Nicuorson, M.D., D.Sc., F.G.S., and J. E. Marr, M.A,, F.RS.,

BEML Ses cabsssssasc. [baseeaeeees cure cas Nedant «nodteae OebdaePaetca bce betwee cnaaauEradade 695
7. Zonal Divisions of the Carboniferous System. By E. J. Garwoop,
Ren 2.G.S;; and J... Marr, MA, RS cc2128 aisiisss dos as saveaccaes 696
8. Twelfth Report on Palaeozoic Phyllopoda .................seceese-seesneneeeeees 696
9. *Interim Report on the Eurypterid-bearing Deposits of the Pentland Hills 696
10. On some Decapod Crustacea from the Cretaceous Formation of Van-
couver’s Island, &c. By Henry Woopwarp, FURS. .......cecceeseeeeeeeees 696
‘11. *Interim Report on the Registration of Type Specimens ..............6:2006+ 697
12, Twenty-third Report on Erratic Blocks ..............cscceceeeceeseeeeeeeeeeeenes 697

Section D.— ZOOLOGY (INCLUDING ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY).

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Address by Professor Wi1Lt1AM A. Hurpmay, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.,

IBresident-Of GH) SOCOM Zest Nec cosas deceoavercues Suvekoerdeedeedtedeesewedererdeee 698
1. Third Report on the Marine Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Irish Sea 714
2, Interim Report on the Migration of Birds .........ccsccseeeeseeeneeeneneeeene ees 714

1895. a

xviii REPORT—1895.

oa w oo

Se

co aon

. Fifth Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands .................seseee 714
. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples 714
. Report on Investigations made at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological

PAGROUIBGIGM ALP UVAMOUUH J:-...0.002c..0cceescascucesaaccepnen set Eisen es yareereaeenae 714

Report on the Investigation of the Zoology and Botany of the West
qian llama ses, 2 AGC Reed. vs Vaacseccleseeoe dodde stomata tet sdeeiee seek aeEeeeeee 714

. Report on the Compilation of an Index Generum et Specieram Animalium 714
. Report.on Physiological Applications of the Phonograph ..........2..000008 714
. Some Remarks on the Stereornithes, a Group of extinct Birds from South

Ameticn, By O, W,, ANDREWS .:..::-<nsponsepsereost-aep-onsseeae sree 714

. Some Facts and Reflections drawn from a Study of Budding in Compound

Ascidians, By Professor W. HE. Rivrrer......5..00.+.+s00s. dso sees +usineaoshwasienne 715

. Outlines of a new Classification of the Tunicata. By Water GarstANne,
WAAC S. oarcn da csuyat drips nn on isn o.dafi> gun’ dhiasp caine ee fale aeiielaa al alana alee 718

12. *On the Presence of Skeletal Elements between the Mandibular and

Hyoid Arches of Hexacanthus and Lemargus. By Dr. Partie Ware, 719 ©

13. *On the Presence of a Sternum in Hexanchus griseus. By Dr. PHILIP
AVVIHIMISEINE sa cccccssawae eeoost rte anus teas eae ntameereen esse ck eamases cn ceraeny ces ae amma 719
14, On the Creodonta. By Professor W. B. Scorr .............ssscsscoscceseeenees 719

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
1. On some Results of Scientific Investigation as applied to Fisheries. By

Professor’ We Cy MSENTOSE, BUR Ss i220. tee beccs once cs coece enone sue ateanctmeaueee 720

. *On the Royal Dublin Society’s Fishery Survey. By Professor A. C.

EVA DON cones hese ree edtoe nade bead Cee cece eee Leber s ob eniaseae ses tern se eaeeeetteetene 723

. *On the Fishery School at Ringsend, near Dublin. By Professor A. C.

HEVATADION aoe voc dpcicea cenie ce dacs pp sence tenuateanceense sessed cab ve ana ieee eae 723

. Oyster Cultural Methods, Experiments and New Proposals. By

BasHFORD DEAN, Assistant U.S. Fishery Commission ............ssessseeeees 723

. On Oysters and Typhoid: an experimental inquiry into the effect upon

the Oyster of various external conditions, including pathogenic organisms.
By Professor Rupert W. Boycs, M.B., M.R.C.S., and Professor W. A.
ITERD MAN, DD)SC.,.BRSs covassvecoccsenshiees cade! sqiecaepseeceseventakass cena . 725

. *Onthe Oyster Culture in the Colne District. By Dr. H.C. Sorpy, F.R.S. 726
. *On Fish and Fishing Grounds in the North Sea. By J. T. Cunnine-

HAM; BiAs,, acerca veaasnatenuats saensttvbay oxoshios sas devndenomees wean ddedcan ¢t tere eanEeee 726

. The Organisation of Zoological Bibliography. By Hrrserr Havitanp

FPTEDD; BSD: cccsiescccencstadesteccse sens covebeseasSeuedesssces bon esen- theese aiaeerEe 726

. The ‘ Date of Publication’ of Zoological Memoirs. By Hrrpert HavILaAND

Ber POD eer edt. . back dds cnn dese RUC ochatekp eve cuh Sec eak Caeser an (27

. On Economy of Labour in Zoology. By Tuomas R, R. Srepprne, M.A. 728
. On the Septal Organs of Owenia fusiformis. By Professor G. Ginson... 728
- *On a simple and efficient Collecting Reservoir for the Surface Tow-net.

By: Wo GARSPAING. 55 020:4.5.>0.0-»»»07+enuspitemnlaasaas aallpenest ens paiiean eee eanne 729

. On the Statistics of Wasps. By Professor F, ¥, EDGEWORTH ...........0008 729

CONTENTS. xix

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

Page
1. *On Insect Transformations. By Professor L. C. Miatr, F.R.S. ......... 73
2. On Mounting Marine Animals as Transparent Lantern Slides. By H.C,

SUED LLU SLD Ma O81 oS Be Seen Pare enn cnet ee ai ae neem 730
3. Description of Methods for Collecting and Estimating the number of Small

Animals in Sea Water. By H.C. Sorsy, LL.D., F.R.S. ............0.000- 730
4, On the Conditions affecting Bacterial Life in River Water. By E.

SER GAINACITAN Dy DD, Or Dits iE TRUS, ccs cc aces ciate cecsecateccsnaceastaeecspencocsssecte tes 731
5. *On the Exploration of the Islands of the Pacific. By Professor A. C.

arias ken Th ease ran tron ads ba Qs ths wovtncae mh NS Belen geneen cansean handsbe 731

- 6. On the Coccidee of Ceylon. By E. E. Green .................cesececscenceeeeves 731

7. *Criticisms on some points in the Summary of the Results of the
‘Challenger’ Expedition. By Dr. H. O.-FORBES .........-...ssccesceseeescese 732

8. Observations on the Marine Fauna of Houtman’s Abrolhos Islands,
Western Australia, By W. Savinun-Kent, F.L.S., F.Z.8. oo... eee 732

9. *On the Hereditary Polydactylism. By Dr. Greaa WILSON .......00....+8 733

10. *On the Reproduction of the Common Crab. By Dr. Greage Witson ... 733

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

1. Observations on Instinct in Young Birds. By Professor Luoyp Morean,

Be Se A BSOC EY SMa. cacanecalie- Yas deed gett se nee'd cojet’h «ges cesse peace saga eek lees 733
2. Notes on the Early Development of the Ganoids, Lepidosteus, Acipenser,

andvAmia., By, BASHEORD DUAN ....0<....cscaunc-egencedssapeesgdecdes saatynaeeate 734
3. On some questions relating to the Morphology and Distribution of

Mredseet. 9 ysl OMAR 25 io2.cktuacetees coats ecespstasedencesiedeccncasaceneass 734

4, On the Spermatogenesis in Birds. By J. E. S. Moort...........00.0....00 735
5. On the Development of the Teeth in Certain Insectivora. By M. F.

ROM WARD. 00 oso tacatasenscnsneseneqencaecnuyunsecuacepadieesptbeete «eit veasacemediys 736

6. On the Mammalian Hyoid. By Professor G. B. How8s .................0006 736
7. On the Poison Apparatus of Certain Snakes. By G. S. Waser,

, ES a ee ee eae ere tees 737
8. On the Value of Myology as an Aid in the Classification of Animals. By

SMG PARAON Spy HUE, ©.9,. 0c 2ccecessagsesseysesntscciscsieotesncedecseses Sacssncheree sce 737

9. *On Ultimate Vital Units. By Miss Nana LAYARD............:.c.ceceeeeee ee 737

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Address by H. J. Macxrnper, M.A., F.R.G.S., President of the Section...... 738
1, On a Journey in Tarhuna and Gharian in Tripoli. By H. Swainson

RPE WS. A725. 4Vds Tene svutectabs bededadee tus beherecncercoaseisnsecescoensencs 749

my *On Roeckalls By) MinLeriCHRisty) | 2... .concvete sine cevenieales on’ sieve cle seieee 749

3, *On Western Siberia and the Siberian Railway. By Dr. A. Marxorr... 749
a2

xx

REPORT—1895.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
Page
1. A Voyage to the Antarctic Sea. By C. E. BoRCHGREVINE...............4+ 750
2. The Oceanography of the North Sea. By H. N. Dickson, F.R.S.E....... 752
3. *Oceanic Circulation. By Dr. Joun Murray, F.R.S.E, ..........:scceeeeees 752
. The Maps used by Herodotus. By J. L. Mypus, M.A.........::ceecenneeeees 752

. On the Sixth International Geographical Congress, London, 1895. By

Major LEONARD DARWIN, Sec. R.GLS.......cc.s.sescnesseeennreeeconnsecsansecsees 753

. On the Cosmosphere: an instrument combining the Terrestrial and

Celestial Globes for the purpose of demonstrating Astronomical-Geogra-
phical Phenomena and Navigational Problems. By W.B. Brargre ...... 756

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

1, An Expedition to Ruwenzori. By G. F. Scorr Extior, M.A. .........06 756
2. Report on the Climate of Tropical Africa ...........s.sssccosessecnneenccencoens 758
3. Three Years’ Travelling and War in the Congo Free State. By Captain
Brel ALTIN ID HEME Shas saNeds sate. « «cue eenamarabenele nace s® ef'hietelaaenis ersten ete ae tee sae ie
4, The Progress of the Jackson-Harmsworth Polar Expedition. By ARTHUR
IMONEMETORE, EVG. SO.» Bick Ges cetessac cnsaeeenerens ssahes dnsen ce doses teed Deeeenee 759
5 *The Struggle for Existence under Arctic Conditions. By A. TREvor
AMIE Sas anova noa sca ledeaioossonneconbeuRerthes rooed ey (Faken cu jars enes0Nescameenne 760
6. The Port of the Upper Nile in relation to the Highways of Foreign Trade.
By. JAMES TURNBULL PLAYFAIR HBATLEY .......ccseccssereecenscetceeseaueenes 760
7. Exploration in the Japanese Alps, 1891-94. By the Rev. Watter
WVESTON, MLA.) BIR. GRSS. vactcaceteasewemart MMos dumber ees Uulcthes Sante bie sane ramet 761
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
1. Report on Explorations in South Arabia..............sscessseseescedccsenseseenes 762
2. Kormosa.: By JON DODD oe. oo. vcweeiete siee' sven vesivistines vesivots'e ste eoe th aaa 762
3. Russian Possessions in Central Asia. By Dr. A. MARKOFP...........00.000 762
4, The Towns of Northern Mongolia. By Dr. A. MARKOFF...............000005 763
5

. Notes on the Topography of Caria. By W.R. Paton and J. L. Myrns... 763

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Address by L, L. Pricz, M.A., F.S.8., President of the Section...............0+. 764
1. Comparison of the Rate of Increase of Wages in the United States and in
Great Britain, 1860-1891. By A. L. Bow ny, M.A, ...........cseccneeeneee 775
2, *Bimetallism with a Climbing Ratio. By Henry Hices, LL.B............. 776
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
1, The Normal Course of Prices. By Wiirt1am Smart, M.A., LL.D.......... 776
2.

“A Proposal for a System of International Money. By W. A. SHAw. ... 777

_ CONTENTS. xxl

Page

"3 *The Gold Standard. By Hon. Guorer PEEL. ....c.ccccccscsessssseessereees 777
4. The Menace to English Industry from the Competition of Silver-using
Gountries,. ) By LS. GUNDREssssecsscosccscdcdscorcedeedcendee sdacssbesusccvseeess 777
5, On the Preservation of the National Parochial Registers. By H. Paton, :
SN cee esa oo anh ic pane scary ioamn anions dv's dann oVoticsaadanuncaniasynaerons 778
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
1. *Agriculture in Suffolk. By Captain E.G. Preryman, M.P................ 779
2. Agriculture of Suffolk from a Tenant’s Point of View. By Herman
PRDOREE Baye k das ch ciaaid » oc WebGplaet Sula tA n te clleieohia vd a vtecle os nidclei sist Sad odislashiee bade dale 779
8. Co-operative Rural Banks. By Harozp E. Moors, FSI. ......... ees 779
4, Co-operation in the Service of Agriculture. By H. W. Worrr............. 780
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
1. The Probability of a Cessation of the Growth of Population in England
and Wales before 1951. By EDWIN CANNAN o.sesesseeseeeeeseeeeeeeeesesenes 780
2, On the Correlation of the Rate of General Pauperism with the Proportion
of Out-relief given. By G. U. YULB ..........cccseecsesecsseneeseensenseenen cane 781

. *The State and Workers on the Land. By Rev. J. Frome Wixxrnson.... 781
. *The National Value of Organised Labour and Co-operation among

‘Women. By Mrs, Beprorp Fenwick 781

Seem e eee eee teeters eee eee eee eeseeeeee

Section G.TMECHANICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Address by Professor L. F. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., President

RNELLG SECHLON: raacvansseceddeorarensteeesaaadonesseucltts dec decent» done Weise deck elastance nct = 782
1, Light Railways as anJAssistance to Agriculture. By Major-General

Wosper, ©.B., R.E., M. Inst. C.B. .......ccccecceeeeeeeeeeecnereeneeeeneeen enone 798
2, The Gobert Freezing Process for Shaft-sinking and Tunnelling under

Rivers: By A. GOBERT .......cccccecccececconneecceeeesaneesceeadecenaeeseeeaensss 794.

. *East Anglian Coal Exploration, Description of Machinery employed. By

DTM RIRU TARTAN, «cen Tete clk wo ntaetee eaiviod om aceeNicesdeutnnaedeceriesesesessgedeseliocaseens 795

. The Effect of Wind and Atmospheric Pressure on the Tides. By W. H.

WHEELER, M.Inst.C.B. ........0...ccsscsecsecsececneenecenceetensensessaseneeaeones 795

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

1. *Notes on Autumn Floods of 1894. By G. J. Symons, F.R.S. .....eeeeee 796
2, *On Weirs in Rivers. By R. C. Napzur and F. G. M. Sronzy ......... 796
_ 8, An Experiment in Orgau-blowing. By W. Anperson, C.B., D.C.L.,

EUR Se cccecwe nec ewewesces de ciesencaceccecewsisests dedueiceeuedddeccesdeceesesevencererstccebes 796

. *The Growth of the Port of Harwich. By W. BIRt ........::::eeeeeeeeeees 796

xxii REPORT—1895.

Page
5. The new Outlet of the River Maas at the Hook of Holland, and the Im-
provement of the Scheur Branch up to Rotterdam. By L. F. VERNON
Harcourt, M.A. M.Inst.0.E ........cccccccnseeenerseeeeeeneescunteceneseuneaaans . 796

6, The Snowdon Mountain Tramroad. By F. Oswxtt, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E, 798

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

1, First Report on Standardising ..........::ssessessseeereeereeeeeeeeeereeseereeenens 799
2. Report on Coast Erosion ........eccccseseseeeceesessesaeeeeeterenneasecesennes .. 799
3, Dredging Operations on the Mersey Bar. By AnrHony GEORGE LysTER,

IMT HHO OBI, cc. caves dockins cbsieevss on nbioenesss eso aatsoulsdainasenete «pg san ele eheneeans 799

4. *On Carbonic Anhydride Refrigerating Machinery. By E, Husker ... 799

5. On the Deodorising of Sewage by the Hermite Process. By J. Naprmr,
F.C.S., Public Analyst for County of Suffollk...........ssseseesseeeereseeeeeeees 800

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
1. The Modern Application of Electricity to Traction Purposes. By

[PETE DAWSON <c.ccscwscassceve-rcseosceccseednnceacs sovcserachcwspesestlnes'sseuaeseis 800
2, An Improved Portable Photometer. By W.H. Prexcs, C.B., F.RS.,

and A. P. TRoTTER, B.A., A.M. Inst.C.E. .....-..sccscceecessersenseescesceeeeen 801
3. On Storage Batteries. By H. A. HARLE.............:sesseseeceeesereeneeeeenees 802
4, The Development of the Telephone Service in Agricultural Districts, By

Major-General WEBBER, C.B., R.E., M.Imst.C.H, .......-.cecesseseeeeeeeeeeees 804

5. Some Lessons in Telephony. By A. R. Bewnert, M.Inst.E.E. ........... 806

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

1. The Field Telegraph in the Chitral Campaign. By P. V. LuKg............ 809
2. *A Movement designed to attain Astronomical Accuracy in the Motion

of Siderostats. By G. JoHNSTONE STONEY, F.R.S, .......eeceeeeeeeeeeeeeene 810
3. *On Modern Flour Milling Machinery. By F. W. TURNER.........+:c00000 810
4, On the Production of Letterpress Printing Surfaces without the use of

Types. By JOHN SOUTHWARD. ........cccccccccecccnecceeceeccasenenseneaccessoosse 810
5. Memorandum on the British Association Screw Gauge for Small Screws,

By R. E. Crompton, M.Inst.C.E., Pres.Inst.H.H. ............cssseneeeeeweenees 812
6. Uniform Factor of Safety for Boilers and Machinery of Steamships. By

JOHN THY: 5. ccsacopoas coaecnesndnas ase sieeneospier sane ori kiepa es =nhe sean es mame 818

7. Experiments on the Transfer of Heat through Plates with variously
arranged Surfaces. By Wuttram Grorce WALKER, M.Inst.M.E.,

AVM Imsti Bis fescscessteccttecsedacna< cance nces onarneseenes cnc. ees aa: eee 814
8. A New Principle of Aérial Navigation. By Lieutenant B. BapEn-

IPOWELDY /Stacactsccenis: cxtiesavessagien sseienocicUs 0c 0a Sens se 0epes cacedenasehaannemmaes 814
9. *Receiver and Condenser Drop. By Professor A. E, ELLIOTT ............ 815

Srcrion H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Address by Professor W. M. Frinpers Perris, D.C.L., LL.D., President of
the Section

1, *On a Recent Discovery of the Remains of the Aboriginal Inhabitants of
Jamaica. .By!Sir WH. FLowEs, K.CiB., FURS. meee. eesccssosveeeens 824

eee eeeeeeeeeeere ere eee eer errr re eee eee eee eerererrrrr rrr ere eee eee eee)

CONTENTS. XXill

2, On Skulls of Neolithic Invaders of Egypt. By Professor W. rary
— Founpers Preterm, D.C.L,, LL.D. .ccceceeeceeeeseencereenneeneeeenseneeeeessoes 824
8. *On Neolithic Invaders of Egypt. By Professor W. M. FLmnprrs
PETRIE, D.C.L., LL.D....cceececceeeeecnreeceenneeseaeesceneneseuerseeeeneceraneeese 824
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
1, Stone Implements in Somaliland. By H. W. SETON-KARR .........0004 824
2. *On Flint and Metal Working in Egypt. By Professor W. M. FLInpERs
Perris, D.C.L., LL-D. ........cceeecesescreeeneescreeceesenecceeceeaesssuesaaaeseans 825
8. On Flint Implements with Glacial Markings from the North of Ireland.
By W. J. KNowWLEs, MoR.LA. .....ceeeeeeee essence eeeeeeeeeeeeeaaenernereeeeeecees 825
4, Report on the Plateau Flints of North Kent .isicet 0. oc i vecdees leanbveetes 826
5. On Graving Tools from the Terrace-gravels of the Thames Valley. By
FH. Stopes .....ssseeeecceseeeeccseecnetnceeceeseceseuueeneeeseeecseaagantsesereeseeaeaes 826
6. On Paleolithic Projectiles. By H. STOPES ....sscseseeeeesseeeeeeeeeeneneee ees 826
7. The Senams, or Megalithic Temples of Tarhuna, Tripoli. By H.
SWAINSON COWPER, F.S.A. .........cccsecseerneececceeseeeeaeeneceseceteeneeesere 827
8. Report on the Kitchen Midden at Hastings.............:sssseseeeeeseeeeeeeeeeees 827
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
1. Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada..........:0cessceeeeeesserseees 827
2. The Samoyads of the Arctic Tundras. By ArtHUR MonTEFIORE, F.G.8.,
HER Se, oe ccegancs eaine te seaiencevesm~cpceeds pops eesemapiesiassastesseses0ae4ssarvecsiensese 828
3. On Cannibalism. By Captain S. L. HINDE .........seeseeeeeeeeeeees teen eees 829
4, Report on the Mental and Physical Defects of Children .........+.++.++++++5 830
5. Report on Anthropometric Measurements in Schools...........-.:sssssssveee 830
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
1. *Horns of Honour and Dishonour and Safety. By F. T. ELWoRTHY ...... 830
2. On the Origin of the Dance. By Mrs. Litty Grove, F.R.GS. ....eee- 830
3. Report of the Ethnographical Survey Committee ..........sssseeseeeeeeeeerers 831
4, On Ethnographical Observations in East Aberdeenshire. By J. Gray,
VSG tp eeeebstseinssvestsacstqcenascacerscesuarccenssetanseeaesemtnseresctnendese scescnses 831
5. *On the Suffolk Dialect. By C. G. DE BETHAM ..........-sseseesecseeeeeeeeeees 831
6. *General Conclusions on Folk Lore. By EDWARD CLODD............00-2++00
7, *Illustrations of Folk Lore. By Professor A. C. HADDON .......sseseeeeees 831
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
1. +Discussion on Interference with the Civilisation of other Races .........++- 832
Protest against the Unnecessary Uprooting of Ancient Civilisation in
Asia and Africa. By Ropprt N. Cust, LL.D..........ceceeeeeeeereeeeeeees 8382
2. The Light thrown on Primitive Warfare by the Languages and Usages pet

Historic Times. By Rev. G. HARTWELL JONES, M.A.........ccseeeeeseereees

XXiV REPORT—1895.

Page

3. *On a Paleolithic Skeleton from the Thames Valley. By Dr. J. G.
KARBON seweasv es ansicpsrapioy<pancceceessuy'soec\uenveessshe ot soanttrshen: He eeeeneeeene 833
4, *Qn the Skulls of the New Race in Egypt. By Dr. J. G. Garson......... 833
5. *On the Andamanese. By MAURICE PORTMAN ............:sccscesscssceecseees 833
6. *On the Eskimo, By F. Linxiarer and J. A. FOWLER ...........seceeeeeee 833

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

1, The Neolithic Station of Butmir. By Dr. R. MUNRO .............cceeeeeeees 835

2, On Primitive European ‘Idols’ in the Light of New Discoveries. By
ACRE ie DEVVANS, «MOA, EIS. A......ve+roesnedscbanes tee sstea-huece per iynmeT cae 834
8. *Interim Report on Prehistoric and Ancient Remains in Glamorganshire 835
4, Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury .0..........seececeseecesseeeereeaes 835
5. The People of Southern Arabia. By J. THroporn BEnT................00065 835

Section K.—BOTANY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Address by W. T. Tu1sptron-Dynr, M.A., F.R.S., C.M.G., C.LE., President
REGUS SOCLIOT 0.058 Aisha «phonies op Wipsns vagabae as sidadsai sve sbasha yee peer eae 836
1. On a False Bacterium. By Professor MarsHaLL WARD, F.RS............. 850
2. On the Archesporium. By Professor F. O. Bowne, F.R.S, ......cccceeeneene 851

8, Note on the Occurrence in New Zealand of two forms of Peltoid Trente-

pobliacez, and their relation to the Lichen Strigula. By A. VAauGHAN
JENNINGS, F.L.S. cB sGS: | wsnckecteell. Loses Gate, Jee keue hack aes .. 851

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

1, Experimental Studies in the Variation of Yeast Cells. By Dr. Emit Cu.
EARN VC ak Scapa ss twas sk Sodtetees eae ceete cetatee tevent outs ERC 852
2, On a New Form of Fructification in Sphenophyllum, By Graf Sonms-
EAUBAGE, . 6 5042+000400iens aawdasecetenoede dpcecbe vas Savina ey albigennk kik oaleaneanaaa 852
3. The Chief Results of Williamson’s Work on the Carboniferous Plants.
By De, DAH, Score, BeBe: seuecss ens ssbevandivs ioedeieet lets tees 852
4, The Localisation, the Transport and Réle of Hydrocyanic Acid in
Pangium edule, Reinw. By Dr. I. M. TREUB ..........s.ssssescssevecessssees 853
5, Exhibition of Models illustrating Karyokinesis, By Professor J. Brer-

TAN MV ARMER Moana cds stot cone Scone shiek Cores teteenn cect then eee ee 853

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
Joint Discussion with Section B was held on the Relation of Agriculture

to Science.

1

On the Destruction of a Cedar Tree at Kew by Lightning. By W. T.
ASLISELTON-D) WER, HVE, «osaveeoncesuesoomee.dasoncsOle etn: eee 854

CONTENTS. xXV

Page:
2. On the Formation of Bacterial Colonies. By Professor MarsHaLh
MURRELL S os caida ceeacta'e se Nasr acca ess leads Secde ss eslesnwesuinsseatecsssavedsbveverscee . 854
3. On a Supposed Case of Symbiosis in Tetraplodon. By Professor F, E.
(ot: ee Bab anions hens Moen haan eae sp meitas hws Suse nablvedieeaetine ven anivnialeNepe se 855:
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
HeOnvAmber, By Dr. CONWENTZ, Danzig ......ccseceoerscovcsseesscscesborceeses 855:
2. The Wealden Flora of England. By A. C. SEWARD...............cceee eee eeee 856.
3. On the Diurnal Variation in the Amount of Diastase in Foliage Leaves.
By Professor J. REYNOLDS GREEN, F.R.S. ..........csccecceseeceeeeeceeee seeeee 856
4. On the Structure of Bacterial Cells. By Harotp WaGBR .................. 856.
5. On the Prothallus and Embryo of Danza. By G. BREBNER ............... 857
6, On Cross- and Self-fertilisation, with special reference to Pollen Prepotency.
J3ny diy) \AVANIIS: agate apene andor basooecedsrceastoncdunthcor ReabCaopearoscascs an sepnase 857

List Of PIA hs.

PLATE I.

Mlustrating the Report on the Uniformity of Size of Pages of Scientific Societies’
Publications,

PLATES ILI.-IV.

Illustrating the Fourteenth Report on the Investigation of the Earthquake and
Voleanic Phenomena of Japan.

PLATES -Vi5, Vis

Illustrating the Report on the Comparison and Reduction of Magnetic Observa-
tions.

PLATE VII.
Illustrating the Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada.

ERRATUM.

In 1884 (Montreal) Report
Page 288, Table, second column. For 44 read 47.

OBJECTS AND RULES

OF
THE ASSOCIATION.

——_4+——.

OBJECTS.

Tur AsgocraTion contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a

more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any

_ disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.

RULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.
All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled

- to become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation

to conform to its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council to become Life Members of the Asso-
ciation, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.

Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.
Lire Mempers shall pay, on admission, the sam of Ten Pounds. They

shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be

published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association.
Annvat Surscrisers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,

and in each following year the sum of OnePound. They shall receive

XXVili REPORT—1895.

gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis ; but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any
subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the
sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the offices of the Association.

Assoctiatss for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.

The Association consists of the following classes :—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Poundannually. [May resume their Membership after
intermission of Annual Payment. ]

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |

5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchaseit at reduced (or Members’)
price, according to the following specification, viz. :—

1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845,
a further sum of Five Pounds.

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

2. At reduced or Members’ Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.

Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription,
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. ]

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874,
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per volume.!

Application to be made at the Office of the Association.

Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Sccretaries,

1 A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, at £10 the set.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xxix

Meetings.

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two
years in advance; and the arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the
Officers of the Association.

General Committee.

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—

Crass A. Permanent MEMBERS.

1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.

2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
matting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must be
sent to the Assistant General Secretary at least one month before the Meeting
of the Association. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member
of the Association to be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final.

Cruass B. Temporary Memsers.!

1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
conditions hereinafter explained. Claims under this Rule to be sent to the
Assistant General Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.

2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
«ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.

3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.

4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.

Organising Sectional Committees.?

The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their
names are submitted to the General Committee for election.

From the time of their nomination they constitute Organising Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,? and of preparing Reports

1 Revised by the General Committee, 1884.

2 Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.

3 Notice to Contributors of Memoirs——Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which
they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organising Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become

xxx REPORT—1895.

thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first
meeting. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ex officio members
of the Organising Sectional Committees.’

An Organising Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
11 a.m., to nominate the first members of the Sectional Committee, if
they shall consider it expedient to do so, and to settle the terms of their
report to the Sectional Committee, after which their functions as an
Organising Committee shall cease.”

Constitution of the Sectional Convmittees.3

On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the
General Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at
2 p.m, in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
number from day to day.

The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day in the Journal of

the Sectional Proceedings.

Business of the Sectional Committees.

Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday, and on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, for the
objects stated in the Rules of the Association. The Organising Committee
of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours of meeting of the Sectior
and the Sectional Committee except for Thursday and Saturday.°

The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—

1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.
2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the

necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several Communications, that each author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
, addressed to the General Secretaries, at the office of
the Association. ‘For Section......... ? If it should be inconvenient to the Author
that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send in-
formation thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors who send in their
MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers are accepted,
will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their Reports and
abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual Volume
unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Assistant General
Secretary before the conclusion of the Meeting.

1} Sheffield, 1879. 2 Swansea, 1880. 3 Edinburgh, 1871.

4 The meeting on Saturday is optional, Southport, 1883. * Nottingham, 1893,

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Xxxi

Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly.

3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organ-
ising Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees.!

At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association
and printed in the last volume of the Report. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organising Committee.” The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed, At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday
in the Journal.

On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers

_ which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed

——— ees crc CerS—<C TT

to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 A.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.

Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.

Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the
Sectional Meetings, to the Assistant General Secretary.

The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ew officio
temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxix), and will
receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets
entitling them to attend its Meetings.

The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association, and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the
state and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or
Committees for the execution of such Reports or researches ; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.

In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee shouid be named, and

1 These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877.

2 This and the following senterce were added by the General Committee, Edin-
burgh, 1871.

XXXil REPORT—1895.

one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have notified per-
sonally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Chairman to have
the responsibility of receiving and disbursing the grant (if any has been made)
and securing the presentation of the Report in due time; and, further, it is
expedient that one of the members should be appointed to act as Secretary, for
ensuring attention to business.

That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on a
Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient working.

That a tabular list of the Committees appointed on the recommendation
of each Section should be sent each year to the Recorders of the several Sec-
tions, to enable them to fill in the statement whether the several Committees
appointed on the recommendation of their respective Sections had presented
their reports.

That on the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Committee for a
special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional Committee, the
number of Members of such Committee be then fixed, but that the Members to
serve on such Committee be nominated and selected by the Sectional Oom-
mittee at a subsequent meeting.!

Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.

The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant General Secretary
for presentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be
done, the Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.

N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can
be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the
‘General Committee.

Notices regarding Grants of Money.”

1. No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of
the British Association without special permission from the General
Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended
except in accordance with the Rules of the Association.

2. In grants of money to Committees the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the Members.

3. Committees to which grants of money are entrusted by the Association
for the prosecution of particular Researches in Science are ap-
pointed for one year only. If the work of a Committee cannot be
completed in the year, and if the Sectional Committee desire the
work to be continued, application for the reappointment of the
Committee for another year must be made at the next meeting of
the Association.

4, Each Committee is required to present a Report, whether final or in-
terim, at the next meeting of the Association after their appoint-
ment or reappointment. InterimReports must be submitted in
writing, though not necessarily for publication.

1 Revised by the General Committee, Bath, 1888.
* Revised by the General Committee at Ipswich, 1895.

hy

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION, XXXill

5. In each Committee the Chairman is the only person entitled to
call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Riicker, F.R.S., for
such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be
required.

6. Grants of money sanctioned at a meeting of the Association expire on
June 30 following. The Treasurer is not authorised after that
date to allow any claims on account of such grants.

7. The Chairman of a Committee must, before the meeting of the Associ-
ation next following after the appointment or reappointment of
the Committee, forward to the Treasurer a statement of the sums
which have been received and expended, with vouchers. The
Chairman must also return the balance of the grant, if any, which
has been received and not spent ; or, if further expenditure is con-
templated, he must apply for leave to retain the balance.

8. When application is made for a Committee to be reappointed, and to
retain the balance of a former grant which is in the hands of the
Chairman, and also to receive a further grant, the amount of such
farther grant is to be estimated as being additional to, and not
inclusive of, the balance proposed to be retained.

9. The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting
to whom a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the
Committee of Recommendations in every case where no such
report has been received.

10. Members and Committees who may be entrusted with sums of money
for collecting specimens of Natural History are requested to re-
serve the specimens so obtained to be dealt with by authority of
the Association.

11. Committees are requested to furnish a list of any apparatus which
may have been purchased out of a grant made by the Association,
and to state whether the apparatus will be useful for continuing
the research in question, or for other scientific purposes.

12. All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Asso-
ciation are to be deposited at the Office of the Association when
not employed in scientific inquiries for the Association.

Business of the Sections.

The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation shortly
before the meeting commences. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto
can be used for no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the
Association.

At the time appointed the Chair will be taken,! and the reading of
communications, in the order previously made public, commenced.

Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.

1 The Organising Committee of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours
of meeting of the Section and Sectional Committee, except for Thursday and
Saturday.

1895, b

XXX1V REPORT—1895.

A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.

Duties of the Doorkeepers.

1. To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.

. To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Assistant General Secretary.

. Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.

bo

(J)

No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the Programme, p. l.

Duties of the Messengers.

To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed cn
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.

Committee of Recommendations.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

Presidents of the Association in former years are ex officio members of
the Committee of Recommendations.!

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.

All proposals for establishing new Sections, or altering the titles of
Sections, or for any other change in the constitutional forms and funda-
mental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of
Recommendations for a report.”

If the President of a Section is unable to attend a meeting of the
Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Committee shall be
authorised to appoint a Vice-President, or, failing a Vice-President,
some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice
of the appointment being sent to the Assistant General Secretary.®

1 Passed by the General Committee at Newcastle, 1863.
* Passed by the General Committee at Birmingham, 1865.
3 Passed by the General Committee at Leeds, 1890.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXV

Corresponding Societies.'

1. Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
tions, and publishes notices of the results.

2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the
List of Corresponding Societies. Applications must be addressed to the
Assistant General Secretary on or before the Ist of June preceding the
Annual Meeting at which it is intended they should be considered, and
must be accompanied by specimens of the publications of the results of
the local scientific investigations recently undertaken by the Society.

3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. This Committee shall make an annuai report to the
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.

4, Every Corresponding Society shall return each year, on or before the
Ist of June, to the Assistant General Secretary of the Association, a
schedule, properly filled up, which will be issued by him, and which will
contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may
be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee.

5. There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association
a list, in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre-
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the
results of the local scientific work conducted by them; those papers only
being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of
one or other of the various Sections of the Association.

6. A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time
a Member of the General Committee.

Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.

7. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies is em-
powered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommen-
dations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee.

8. The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding
Societies Committee shall be ew officio members.

9. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries
to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
part in the meetings.

10. The Secretaries of each Section shall be instructed to transmit to

1 Passed by the General Committee, 1884.
b2

Zxxvi REPORT—1895.

the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommen-
dations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of
Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of
Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
carried into effect.

11. It will be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opere~
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of publishing results.

Local Committees.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers.
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

Officers.

A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.

Council.

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.

(1) The Council shall consist of !

1. The Trustees.

2. The past Presidents.

3. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.

4, The President and Vice-Presidents elect.

5. The past and present General Treasurers, General and
Assistant General Secretaries.

6. The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing
Meeting.

7. Ordinary Members.

(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.

(3) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of

1 Passed by the General Committee at Belfast, 1874.

ak.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION, XXXVil

whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.

(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary
Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election
be ineligible for nomination :—I1st, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years; and,
2nd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
— observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.

(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of the Members of the General
Committee whom they recommend for election as Members of
Council.

(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the
Officers of the Association.

Papers and Communications.

The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty
weserve his right of property therein.

Accounts.

The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.

1895.

REPORT

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XXXIX

PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.

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1895.

REPORT

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xli

PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.

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1895.

REPORT

xiii

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REPORT—1895,

xliv

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/
|
; |
—
| |
| |

REPORT—1895.

xlvi

‘SOU AN VW “bsg ‘aasvag snsuy

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PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES,

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ae — — - a

1895.

REPORT

xlviii

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xlix

4

PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.

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iaaal —

1 REPORT—1895.

TRUSTEES AND GENERAL OFFICERS, 1831—1895.

TRUSTEES.

1832-70 (Sir) R. I. Murcutson (Bart.), | 1862-81 Sir P. EGERTon, Bart., F.R.S.
F.R.S. 1872-95 Sir J. LUBBOCK, Bart., F.R.S.

1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Hsq., F.R.S. 1881-83 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., Pres.
1832-39 C. BABBAGE, Esq., F.R.S, RS.

1839-44 F. BAILY, Esq., F.R.S. 1883-95 Lord RAYLEIGH, F.R.S.
1844-58 Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S. 1883-95 Sir Lyon (now Lord) PLAYFAIR,
1858-82 General E. SABINE, F.R.S. F.R.S.

GENERAL TREASURERS.
~ 1831 JONATHAN GRAY, Esq. 1874-91 Prof. A.W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S,
1832-62 JoHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S. 1891-95 Prof. A. W. RUCKER, F.R.S.
1862-74 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.
1832-35 Rev. W. VERNON HARcouRT, | 1865-66 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S.

FE.R.S. 1866-68 F, GALTON, Esq., F.R.S., and

1835-36 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT, Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S.
F.R.S., and F, Batty, Esq., | 1868-71 Dr. T. A. Hrgst, F.R.S., and Dr.
F.R.S. T. THOMSON, F.R.S,

1836-37 Rev. W. VERNON Harcourt, | 1871-72 Dr.T. THomson,F.R.S.,and Capt.
¥.R.S., and R. I. MURCHISON, DOUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.
Esq., F.R.S. 1872-76 Capt. DOUGLAS GALTON, F.B.S.,

1837-39 R. I. MugcuHison, Esq., F R.S., and Dr. MICHAEL FosTEr,
and Rev. G. Peacock, F.R.S. F.R.S.

1839-45 Sir R. I. Murcutson, F.R.S., | 1876-81 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.RB.S.,
and Major E. SABIN#, F.R.S. and Dr. P. L. SCLATER, F.B.S.

1845-50 Lieut.-Colonel E.SABINE,F.R.S. | 1881-82 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.,

1850-52 General E. SABINE, F.R.S., and and Prof. F. M, BALFouR,
J. ¥F. Roy Le, Esq., F.R.S. F.R.S.

1852-53 J. F. Roy eg, Esq., F.R.S. 1882-83 Capt. DOUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.

1853-59 General E. SABINE, F.R.S. 1883-95 Sir DouGLAS GALTON, F-.R.S.,

1859-61 Prof. R. WALKER, F.R.8. and A. G. VERNON HARCOURT,

1861-62 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S. Esq., F.R.S.

1862-63 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and | 1895-96 A. G. VERNON HARCOURT, Esq.,
Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S. E.R:S., and Prote. He AS

1863-65 W. Horxins, Esq., F.R.S., and ScHAFER, F.R.S.

F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES.
1831 JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Seeretary. { 1881-85 Prof. T. G. Bonnny, F.R.S.

1832 Prof. J. D. FORBES, Acting Secretary.

Secretary. 1885-90 A. T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A.,
1832-62 Prof. JOHN PHILLIPS, F.R.S. Secretary.
1862-78 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A. 1890 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting
1878-80 J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A., Secretary.

Assistant Secretary. 1890-95 G, GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.

1881 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting
Seerctary.

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.

Date and Place

Presidents

Secretaries

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

1832.
1833.
1834,

Oxford
Cambridge
Edinburgh

seeeee

1835. Dublin

1836. Bristol

seecee

1837.
1838.

Liverpool...

Newcastle

1839. Birmingham

1840. Glasgow ...

1841, Plymouth
1842. Manchester

1843. Cork.........
1844. York.........
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
: ton.
1847. Oxford

seeees

1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
_ 1852. Belfast......
- 1853. Hull.........

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.

Rev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Rey. Dr. Robinson

Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S....

Prof. Forbes, F.R.S.........000-

Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S.......

Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
F.R.S.

Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.I.A. ...

The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...

The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely.

Sir John F. W. Herschel,
Bart., F.B.S.

Prof. Powell,
F.R.S.

Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ......

William Hopkins, F.R.S.......

M.A.,

Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.

Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
F.R.S.

Prof. W. Thomson, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely, F.R.S.

Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone.

Prof. Forbes, W. 8S. Harris, F. W,
Jerrard.

W. 8S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.

J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof,
Stevelly.

Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith,

Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev,
W. Scoresby.

J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly,
G. G. Stokes.

John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G,
Stokes.

Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G,
Stokes.

Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.

Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.

W.J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof.Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.

8. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.

Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.

B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
Prof, Stevelly, J. Welsh.

c 2

hii

REPORT—1 895.

Date and Place

1854, Liverpool...

1855. Glasgow ..
1856, Cheltenham
1857. Dublin

seeeee

1858.

1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge

1863. Newcastle

1864.

1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869, Exeter

aeneee

1870. Liverpool...

1871, Edinburgh

1872. Brighton...
1873, Bradford...
1874. Belfast......

1875. Bristol

ween

1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin

eeeeee

1879. Sheffield ...

Presidents

Secretaries

Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
B.S.

Prof. Kelland, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.

Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,
F.RB.S., M.R.LA.

Rev. W. Whewell,
V.P.B.9:

1D MIDE

The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
F.R.S.
Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....

G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

Prof. G. G. Stokes,
F.R.S.

Prof.W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.R.S.

M.A.,

Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.

W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.

Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
F.B.S.
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
F.RB.S.

J. Clerk Maxwell,
LL.D., F.R.S.

M.A.,

Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E.

W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.B.S.
Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S. .

Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
M.R.LA.

Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
LL.D., F.B.S.

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

Prof, G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S.,
Pres. Physical Soc.

Rev. Prof. Salmon,
D.C.L., F.BR.S.

George Johnstone
MSA. aE. Ras.

J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof..
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.

Tyndall.

C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,.
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.

Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof..
Tyndall.

J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J.S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F.
Jenkin, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T..
Whitley.

Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rey. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.

Fleeming Jenkin, Prof.H.J.8. Smith,
Rev. 8. N. Swann.

Rey. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.

Prof. G. C. Foster, Rey. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.

Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.

Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.

Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.

Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher,
Prof, A. S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.

Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S. Hersche}.

J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.

Prof. W. F. Rarrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.

D.D.,|Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.

W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.

Stoney,|A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, D>.

O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS,

liii

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1880. Swansea ...| Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A.,W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
F.RB.S. Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
Maer, VOrkKs...c..0. Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,| Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Dr. O. J. Lodge,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.
1882. Southamp- | Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Baye W. M. Hicks, Dr. O. J. Lodge, D.
ton. M.A., F.R.S. MacAlister, Rev. G. Richardson.
1883. Southport | Prof.0O. "Henrici, Ph.D., F. R.S.|W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.
1884. Montreal ...| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,|C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, A. John-
: LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. son, O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
1885. Aberdeen...|Prof. G. Chrystal, M.A.,|R.E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
F.R.S.E. W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.
1886. Birmingham|Prof. G. H. Darwin, M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
TED), Hees J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.
1887. Manchester |Prof. Sir R. S. Ball, M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
LL.D., F.R.S. H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.
1g88: Bath........ Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald, M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
F.R.S. Lodge, W. N. Shaw.
1889. Newcastle- |Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
upon-Tyne| R.E., F.R.S. Lodge, W. N. Shaw, H. Stroud.
1890. Leeds ...... J. W. L. Glaisher, Sc.D.,|/R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge,
F.RB.S., V.P.R.A.S. W.N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud.
1891. Cardiff...... Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc.,|R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
nD... Hens: Lodge, Prof. A. L. Selby.
1892. Edinburgh /|Prof. A. Schuster, Ph.D.,|R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
F.RB.S., F.R.A.S. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.
1893. Nottingham | R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S.|W. T. A. Emtage, J. Larmor, Prof.
A. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.
1894. Oxford...... Prof. A. W. Riicker, M.A.,|Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,
F.RB.S. J. Walker.
1895. Ipswich ...|Prof. W. M. Hicks, M.A.,|Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge
F.R.S. G. T. Walker, W. Watson.
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.
£832. Oxford...... John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. |James F. W. Johnston.
1833. Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Prof. Miller.
1834. Edinburgh Dy LOD Care ceenptmncs sas aoa Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
1835. Dublin...... Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ......|Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.
1836. Bristol...... Rey. Prof. Cumming ......... Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.
1837. Liverpool...| Michael Faraday, F.R.S....... Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds.
1838. Newcastle | Rev. William Whewell,F.R.S.)| Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.
1839. Birmingham | Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. .|Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson,
1840. Glasgow ...| Dr. Thomas Thomson, F, R.S.|Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.
1841. Plymouth...|Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. ......... J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M.
Tweedy.
1842. Manchester |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.
1843. Cork......... Prof. Apjohn, M.R.I.A......... R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.
1844. York......... Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......| Dr. L. Playfair, E. Solly, T. H. Barker.
1845. Cambridge |Rev. Prof. Cumming ......... R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof, Miller,

E. Solly.

liv

REPORT—18908.

ey

Date and Place

1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847, Oxford......
1848. Swansea
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast......
1853. Hull.........

1854, Liverpool

1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham

1857. Dublin......
1858.
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford

seeeee

1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge

1863. Newcastle
1864.
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter......
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford...
1874. Belfast......
HS7o- Ee TIStoll :..c..
1876. Glasgow
1877. Plymouth...

1878, Dublin

Prot

Presidents

Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,
F.RB.S.
Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,

F.R.S.

...|Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ......

John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......
Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E.

Prof. Thomas Graham, F’.R.S.
Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.

Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,

mp
DetueWDes

Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.

Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.8.
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...

Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.I.A.

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.

Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B.,F.R.8,

Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S......

Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. W.H. Miller, M.A.,F.R.S.

Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
F.R.S.
W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S.
Prof. W. A. Miller,

V.P.R.S.

H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.

M.D.,

T. Anderson,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.

M.D.,

Dr. Debus; HORS. eserecs

Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof, T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.

Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....

Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S....

Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.

A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,
E.RB.S.

TW. Ho euking FBS. 22...

HPPA DOL HS Ra Ste ereecencuecdes

Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,

F.R.S,

Secretaries

Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall,
B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.

T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.

R. Hunt, G. Shaw.

Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.

T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.

Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.

H. S. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.

Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr.
Price.

Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.

J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.

Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.

Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.

J. 8. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.

H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.

Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.

A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs.

A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof,
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.

J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.

A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.

Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. Jd.
Russell, Dr. Atkinson.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher,
Dr. W. J. Russell.

J.T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
E. Thorpe.

Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.

Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.

Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.

Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.

W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.

Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.

W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T, Wills.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lv

: Date and Place

:

1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.

1886

1887

1888.

1889
1890

Sheffield ...

Swansea ...

Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen...

, Birmingham

. Manchester

. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
. Leeds

seeeee

. Edinburgh

1893. Nottingham

1895.

. Oxford

Ipswich

Presidents

Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S.

Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,
F.R.S.

Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.8.

Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,
F.RB.S.

Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...

Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., Sec. C.S.

W. Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.

Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S.

Prof. W. A. Tilden,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S.

Sir I. Lowthian Bell, Bart.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

Prof. T. E. Thorpe, B.Sc.,
Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.8.
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,

C.B., F.R.S.
Prof. H. McLeod, F.R.S.

D.S8ce.,

Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds,
M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Prof. H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S.

Secretaries

H. 8. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts, J.
M. Thomson.

|P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, Dr.

W. R. Eaton Hodgkinson, J. M.

Thomson.

|P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, T. Gough.

P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
J. L. Notter.

|Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
H.ForsterMorley,Dr.W.J.Simpson.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley, W. W.
J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.

| Prof. H. B. Dixon, H. Forster Morley,
R. E. Moyle, W W.J. Nicol.

H, Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel, W.
W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattinson, jun.

|C. H. Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

C. H. Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
W. W. J. Nicol, G. 8. Turpin.

J. Gibson, H. Forster Morley, D. H.
Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

J. B. Coleman, M. J. R. Dunstan,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

A. Colefax, W. W. Fisher, Arthur
Harden, H. Forster Morley.

SECTION B (continwed).—-CHEMISTRY.
...|Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. ......|E. H. Fison, Arthur Harden, C. A.

Kohn, J. W. Rodger.

GEOLOGICAL (ann, untm 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

1832.

1833. Cambridge.|G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. pte
1834. Edinburgh .| Prof. Jameson

1835.
1836.

1837.

1838.
1839.

Oxford

seeeee

Dublin
Bristol

Liverpool...

Newcastle...

Birmingham

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ...

.|John Taylor.

W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
J. Phillips; T. J. Torrie. Rev. J. Yates,

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

Bes Oe GTUb se csens.scsccseseess'e
Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geog.,R.I. Murchison, F.R.S8.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—
Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.
C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—
Geography, Lord Prudhoe.
Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.

Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.

William Sanders, S. Stutchbury,
T. J. Torrie.

Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.— Geo-
graphy, Capt. H. M. Denham, R.N.

W.C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geography, Capt. Washington.

George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick-
land, Charles Darwin.

lvi

Date and Place

1840.

1841.
1842,
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.

1847.
1848.

Glasgow ...

Plymouth...

Manchester

Cambridge.

Southamp-
tor.

Swansea ...

1849. Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh!

. Hull
. Liverpool..

Ipswich

. Belfast......

ae eeneee

. Glasgow ...

. Cheltenham

. Manchester
. Cambridge

. Newcastle

REPORT—1895.

Presidents

Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.R.S.

H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......

Richard E. Griffith, F.R.8.,
M.R.LA.

Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres.
Geol. Soc.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,
F.R.S.

Leonard Horner, F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.K.S.

Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.8.

Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,
F.R.S.

Sir Charles Lyell,
F.G.S.

Sir Roderick I. Murchison,
F.R.S.

FBS:

SECTION C (continued)

-«.| WilliamHopkins, M.A.,F.R.S.

Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.........

Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S8.
Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S....

Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S....

The Lord Talbot de Malahide

William Hopkins,M.A.,LL.D.,
F.R.S.

Sir Charles Lyell,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.

Lieb;

Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
F.R.S., F.G.8.

Secretaries

W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.

W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D.,
R. Hutton.

£. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, .H. E. Strickland.

Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
land.

| Prof, Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.

Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rev. W. Thorp.

Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,
Prof. Oldham.— Geography, Dr. C.
T. Beke.

Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
Starling Benson, Prof.

Prof, Ramsay.

Oldham,

J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof.
A. C. Ramsay.

‘A, Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,

Prof. Nicol.

.— GEOLOGY.

C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.

James Bryce, James MacAdam,
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.

Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.

Nicol.

Rey. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.

Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders,
Robert H. Scott.

Prof. Nicol, H. \C. Sorby, E: W.
Shaw.

Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
D. C. L. Woodall.

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T.
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert

Jones, H. C. Sorby.

E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.

Sorby, Themas Sopwith.

1 At a meeting of the General Committee held in 1850, it was resolved ‘ That
the subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology,
to constitute a separate Section, under the title of the ‘“‘ Geographical and Hthno-
logical Section,” for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page 1xii.

‘Sea? )

all dite

SS =

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lvii

Date and Place

1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.

1882.

1883

1884.

IS ES ee eeneene
Birmingham
Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich ...
Exeter ......
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton...
Bradford ...
Belfast......
Bristol......
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Dublin

Sheffield ...
Swansea ...

Southamp-
ton.
. Southport

Montreal ...

1885. Aberdeen...

1886. Birmingham

1887. Manchester

1888.

1889
1890

1891.

1892
1893
1894

. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
. Leeds

. Edinburgh
. Nottingham
. Oxford

seeeee

1895. Ipswich ...

..-|Archibald Geikie,

Presidents
Proted.s ebillips, LL.D,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir R.°I. Murchison, Bart.,
K.C.B.

Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

F.BS.,
F.G.S.

R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
F.G,8.

Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.

R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, |
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. J. Phillips,
F.R.S., F.G.8.

Prof, ull,*- Me A.;-9ESRsS5
F.G.S.

Dr. T. Wright, F.R.S.E., F.G.8.

Prof. John Young, M.D.......

W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S.

D.C.L.,

John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.

Prof. P. M. Duncan, F.R.S.

H. C. Sorby, F.RB.S., F.G.S....

A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S:,
F.G.S.

R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Enola {Wi .C.
LL.D., F.R.5.

W.T. Blanford, F.RS., Sec.
G.S.

Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.
G.S.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Henry Woodward, LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.

Prof. J. Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. A. H. Green,
F.R.S., F.G.8.

Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

Prof. C. Lapworth, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.8.

J. J. H. Teall, M.A., F.RB.S.,
F.G.S.

L. Fletcher, M.A., F.B.S.

Williamson,

M.A.,

W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S. ...

Secretaries

W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
Sorby, W. Pengelly.

Rey. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.

R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.

Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
Woodward.
Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Rev. H. H. Winwood.

W. Pengeliy, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.

R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.

L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.

L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
Topley.

F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman.

L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Topley.

J.Armstrong,F.W.Rudler,W.Topley.

Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.

E. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.

W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.

W. Topley, W. Whitaker.

J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker.

T. W. Shore, W. Topley, E. West-
lake, W. Whitaker.

R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top-
ley, W. Whitaker.

F. Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
Topley, W. Whitaker.

C. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H.
Teall, W. Topley.

W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W.
Topley, W. W. Watts.

|\J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top-
ley, W. W. Watts.

Prof. G. A. Lebour, W. Topley, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.

Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.

J. E. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J.
E. Marr, W. W. Watts.

W. Galloway, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

H. M. Cadell, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

J. W. Carr, J. HE. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

F. A. Bather, A. Harker, Clemen
Reid, W. W. Watts.

F, A. Bather, G. W. Lamplugh, H
A. Miers, Clement Reid.

lviii

Date and Place

1832.
1833. Cambridge!
1834, Edinburgh.

1835.

1836
1837

- 1838

1839

1840.

1841,
1842.

1843.
1844,

1845.
1846.

1847.

REPORT—1895.

Presidents

. Liverpool...
. Newcastle

. Birmingham
Glasgow ...

Plymouth...
Manchester

se eeeeeee

Cambridge
Southamp-
ton.

seeeee

Secretaries

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.

Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ...

| Prot, Gaba vececsscsccsessssee

Rey. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S.

| Bev. Prof, J. 8. Henslow.
|C. C. Babington, D. Don.
|W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

seme een eter eeseeeseee

aterm etenees

Way stla CLGBy .....cerssscnene
Sir W. Jardine, Bart. .........

PromsOxens daR.S. icccesces sa
Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......

John Richardson, M.D.,F.R.S.

Hon. and Very Rey. W. Her-
bert, LL.D., F.L.S.

William Thompson, F.L.S....

Very Rey. the Dean of Man-
chester.

Rev. Prof, Henslow, F.L.S....

Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,
F.R.S.

H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S. |

\J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.

J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, 8.
Rootsey.

C. C. Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson.

J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
Dr. Richardson,

E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.

Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.

J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.

Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
Turner.

iG. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.
Patterson.

Prof, Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
Dr. Lankester.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.

Dr. Lankester, T, V. Wollaston, H.
Wooldridge.

Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.

Wollaston.

SECTION D (continued).—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.

[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Sub-
sections and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. Ixi.]

1848. Swansea ...,L. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S..........

1849

1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.

1857.

. Birmingham
Edinburgh

Ipswich
Belfast

Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

Dublin

| William Spence, F.R.S. ......
Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E.

.../Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,

F.R.S.

Cee ee ewe ere eeeessewenee

C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E.
Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S.

F.R.S.

Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,|

Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-
frey, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.

Lankester.
Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.
Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.
Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.
Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.

1 At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. lxi.

2 E— —————————————————— ULL

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

.

lix

eee

Date and Place

1858. Leeds ......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester

1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle

1864, Bath.........

1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter

1870. Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh.

Presidents

C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.
Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....
Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S.

se eeeeeee

Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D.. F.R.S....

Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S.
T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ...

SECTION D (continued)

Secretaries

‘Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.

Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.

'W.S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.

Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.

...|H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.

Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
|Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.

,—BIOLoGy.!

Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.| Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H,

—Physiological Dep., Prof.
Humphry, M.D., F.R.S.—
Anthropological Dep., Alf.
R. Wallace, F.R.G.S.

—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.

B. Tristram, W. Turner, HE. B,
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.

.| Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.| C. Spence Bate, Dr. S. Cobbold, Dr.

M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.

Rey. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.| Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.

—Dep. of Physiology, W.
H. Flower, F.R.S.

M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T.
Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.

George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.| Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,

—Dep. of Bot. and Zool.,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Ethno., EB. B. Tylor.

E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T, Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
tram.

Prof. G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,|Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
F.R.S., F.L.S.— Dep. of| Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.

Anat. and Physiol., Prof. M.
Foster, M.D., F.L.S.—Dep.
of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S.

JT. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
kester.

Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,|Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,

F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and
Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Turner, M.D.

E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
King.

1872. Brighton ..,|SirJ. Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.— | Prof. Thiselton- Dyer, H. T. Stainton,

Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S.

Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Lamprey; Dr. Gamgee, E. Ray
Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.

1873. Bradford ...| Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,

Anat.and Physiol.,Prof. Ru-
therford, M.D.— Dep. of An-
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.

R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.
H. Lamprey.

1 At a meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved ‘That the
title of Section D be changed to Biology ; > and ‘That for the word “Subsection,”
in the rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word “Department

be substituted.’

lx

REPORT—1892,

Date and Place |

Presidents

1874. Belfast

seenee

1875, Bristol

1876, Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...

1878, Dublin

1879. Sheffield ...

41880. Swansea ...

1881. York..

1882. Southamp-
ton.!

1883. Southport *

1884. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...

Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.—Dep. of An-
throp., Six W.R. Wilde, M.D.

P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of
Anat.and Physiol.,Prot.Cle-
land, M.D., F.R.8.—Dep. of
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston,
M.D., F.RB.S.

A. Russel Wallace, F.R.G.S.,
F.L.S.—Dep. of Zool. and
Bot., Prof. A. Newton, M.A.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Dr. J. G. McKen-
drick, F.R.8.E.

J. GwynJeffreys, LL.D.,F.RB.S.,
F.L.S.—Dep. of ‘Anat. and.
Physiol., Prof. Macalister,
M.D.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Francis Galton, M.A.,F.R.8.

Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.
of Anat. and Physiol. BR.
McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.

Prof. St. George Mivart,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.

A. C. L. Giinther, M.D., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., F. M. Balfour, M.A.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.

Richard Owen, C.B., M.D.,
F.R.S.—Dep.of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. H. Flower, LL.D.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Prof. J. S. Burdon
Sanderson, M.D., F.R.S.

Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S.
— Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. M. A. Lawson, M.A.,
F.L.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins,
M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropal.,
W. Pengelly, F.R.S.

Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,
F.B.S.

Prof. W. C. McIntosh, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S. F.R.S.E.

Secretaries

W.T. Thiselton- Dyer, R. O. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler.

E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof.
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.

'E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.

Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.
Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
son.

E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler.

Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden, .
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.

Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
Schifer.

G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-
wick.

G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
W. North, John Priestley, Howard
Saunders, H. E. Spencer.

G.-
Nias, Howard Saunders,
wick, T. W. Shore, jun.

Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B.
A. Sedg-

es W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr,
G. A. Woods.

Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, A.
Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.

W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson,

J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.

1 The Departments of Zoology and Botany and of Anatomy and Physiology were

amalgamated.

ce ‘Anthropology was made a separate Section, see p. Ixviii.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

Presidents

lxi

Secretaries

1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester

1888. Bath

eee eeeaee

1889, Newcastle -
upon-Tyne

1890. Leeds

1891.” Cardiff

eee

1892. Edinburgh
1893. Nottingham!

1894, Oxford? ...

1895. Ipswich ...

W. Carruthers, Pres. L.S.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. A. Newton, M.A., F.B.S.,
F.L.S., V.P.Z.S.

W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G.,
F.R.S., F.L.S8.

Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson,
M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,
M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B.,
E.RS., F.L.S.

Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

Rey. Canon H. B. Tristram,
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. I. Bayley Balfour, M.A.,
F.R.S.

Prof, T. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.
W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof,
H. Marshall Ward.

C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Har-
mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,
Prof. H. Marshall Ward.

KF. E. Beddard, 8. F. Harmer, Prof.
H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner,
Prof. W. D. Halliburton.

C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Har-
mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.

S. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
Dr. §. J. Hickson, Prof. F. W.
Oliver, H. Wager, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.

F. E. Beddard, Prof. W.A. Herdman,
Dr. S. J. Hickson, G. Murray, Prof.
W.N. Parker, H. Wager.

G. Brook, Prof. W. A. Herdman, G.
Murray, W. Stirling, H. Wager.
G. C. Bourne, J. B. Farmer, Prof.
W. A. Herdman, 8. J. Hickson,

W. B. Ransom, W. L. Sclater.

W. W. Benham, Prof. J. B. Farmer,
Prof. W A. Herdman, Prof. 8. J.
Hickson, G. Murray, W. L. Sclater.

SECTION D (continwed).—ZOOLOGY.

| Prof.

W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.(G. C. Bourne, H. Brown, W. EH.

Hoyle, W. L. Sclater.

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

1833. Cambridge
1834, Edinburgh

Dr. J. Haviland
Dr. Abercrombie

Dr. H. J. H. Bond, Mr. G. E. Paget.
Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.

SECTION E (UNTIL 1847).—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.

1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool...

seseee

1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow

1841, Plymouth...
1842. Manchester

.../James Watson, M.D.

Dr. J. C. Pritchard
Dr. P. M. Roget, F.R.S. ...

Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.

...| Dr. Symonds.
Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ......... Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,

Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

T. E. Headlam, M.D. ......... T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S8....| Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.

Dr.J.Brown, Prof, Couper, Prof. Reid.

SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.
P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. B.S. |Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. S.

Sargent.

Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.|Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.

1843. Cork ......... Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ...|Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
1844. York......... |J. ©. Pritchard, M.D. .......-. I. Erichsen, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
1845, Cambridge | Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ...... Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster.

1 Physiology was made a separate Section, see p. ]xviii.
2 The title of Section D was changed to Zoology.

Ixii

REPORT—1895.

Date and Place

1846

. Southamp-
ton.

Presidents

Secretaries

Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

|
i

C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar
gent.

1847. Oxford! .,.|Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......;Dr. Thomas K, Chambers, W. P,
Ormerod.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.

1850. Edinburgh | Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E. |
1855. Glasgow ...|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. | Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers,
1857. Dublin...... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ...... Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern,
1858. Leeds ...... \Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,|C. G. Wheelhouse.

F.R.S.
1859. Aberdeen... | Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.|Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.
1860. Oxford...... Prof.G.Roleston,M.D.,F.L.S. | Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith,
1861. Manchester | Dr. John Davy, F.R.S. L.& E.|Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith,
1862. Cambridge |G. E. Paget, M.D................ G, F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
1863. Newcastle |Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.|Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turrer.
1864. Bathei:.! Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D.,|J.S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.

F.B.S.
1865. Birming- Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,/Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,

ham.” F.R.S. Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.

p. lv

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C,

-

ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION
1846.Southampton|Dr. J. C. Pritchard

D.
Dr. King.

1847. Oxford ...... Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. ...|Prof. Buckley.
1848. SWANSED “°5.0].55 ccoossescssdecesnavcsvcsecenodssvasse G. Grant Francis,
A849) DITMINe NAM |< sancsapssaeeudusepeesaeneross anes. Dr. R. G. Latham.

1850. Edinburgh |Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm! Daniel Wilson.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

1851. Ipswich ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.,|R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr,
Pres. R.G.S. Norton Shaw.

1852. Belfast...... Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,|R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
F.R.S. Shaw.

HSb35: Hull ..... 0a R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. |R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.

Norton Shaw.

1854, Liverpool... |Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,| Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
F.R.S. Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw,

1855. Glasgow ...|Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,;Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr,
F.R.S. Norton Shaw.

1856. Cheltenham |Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson,|R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
K.C.B. Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.

1857. Dublin...... Rev. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,|R. Cull, 8S. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.
Pres. R.LA. Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.

1 By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were

incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Phy-
siology’ (see p. lviii.). Section E, being then vacant, was assigned in 1851 to

Geography.
2 Vide note on page lix.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

xiii

Presidents

Secretaries

1858. Leeds

eeeeee

1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle

1864, Bath.........

1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee

1868. Norwich ...

1869. Exeter ......
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...
1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast......

1875. Bristol

1876. Glasgow ...
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin
1879. Sheffield ...

1880. Swansea ...

1881. York.........

1882. Southamp-
ton.

1883. Southport

Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.S8t.S.,
F.R.S.

Rear - Admiral Sir James
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
FE.R.S.

John Crawfurd, F.R.S..........

Francis Galton, F.R.S..........

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.RB.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.RB.S.

Major-General Sir H. Raw-
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.

Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,
LL.D.

. Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.

Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,
F.R.S.

R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O’Cal-
laghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
Wright.

Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.

Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.

J.W.Clarke, Rev. J.Glover, Dr. Hunt,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.

C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson.

H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.
R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet,
C. R. Markham, Thomas Wright.

H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, Clements
R. Markham, S. J. Mackie, R.
Sturrock.

T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R.
Markham, T. Wright.

SECTION E (continued).—GEOGRAPEHY.

Sir Bartle Frere,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S.

K.C.B.,

Francis Galton, F.R.S..........
Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.

Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.

Lieut. - General Strachey,
R.E.,C.S.1.,F.R.S., F.R.G.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S.

Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S.......

Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.,
E.RB.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
son, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

Clements R. Markham, C.B.,
F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.

Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,
C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.B.S.,
¥.R.G.S.

Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.L.,
C.B., F.R.S.

Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.1.,
F.R.G.S.

Ticot Col! He Ho Godwin:
Austen, F.R.S.

H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,
J. H. Thomas.

H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
Mott, Clements R. Markham.

A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.

E.G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
Thomas.

\H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, F. F.

Tuckett.

H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. Oliphant
Wood.

H. W. Bates, F. E. Fox, EH. C. Rye.

John Coles, HE. C. Rye.

H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C.

ye.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye.

J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates,
E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye

John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, E. C.
Rye.

lxiv

REPORT—1895.

Date and Place

Presidents

Secretaries

1884.
1885.

1886. Birmingham

1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.

1833.
1834.

1835.
1836.

1837.
1838.

1839. Birmingham

1840.
1841.
1842.

1843.
1844.

1845.
1846.

1847.
1848.

1849. Birmingham

Montreal ...

Aberdeen...

Manchester

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds

Carditi sc...»
Edinburgh

Nottingham
Oxford......

Ipswich ...|

Edinburgh

Dublin
Bristol

aeneee

Liverpool...

Newcastle

Glasgow ...
Plymouth...

Manchester

Cambridge

Southamp-
ton.

Oxford

Swansea ...

Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,
K.C.M.G., F.R.S.,V.P.8.G.8.

Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,
LL.D., F.B.S.

Maj.-Gen. Sir. F. J. Goldsmid,
KGS oly, Cab. pictus.

Col. Sir C. Warren, R.E.,
G.C.M.G., F.RB.S., F.R.G.S.

Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E.,
K.C.B., F.B.S., F.R.G.S.

Col. Sir F. de Winton,
K.C.M G., C.B., F.B.G.S.

Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert
Playfair, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S,

E. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S.,
F.8.8.

Prof. J. Geikie, D.C.L., F.B.S.,
V.P.R.Scot.G.8.

H. Seebohm, Sec. B.S8., F.L.S.,
¥.ZS.

Rev. Abbé Laflamme, J.S. O'Halloran,
E. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.

J.S. Keltie, J. S. O'Halloran, E. G.
Ravenstein, Rev. G. A. Smith.

F. T. §. Houghton, J. 8S. Keltie,
KE. G. Ravenstein.

Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. 8. Keltie,
H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein.

J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G.
Ravenstein.

J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, R.
Sulivan, A. Silva White.

A. Barker, John Coles, J. 8. Keltie,
A. Silva White.

John Coles, J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mac-
kinder, A. Silva White, Dr. Yeats.

J. G. Bartholomew, John Coles, J.8.
Keltie, A. Silva White.

Col. F. Bailey, John Coles, H. O.
Forbes, Dr. H. R. Mill.

Capt. W.J. L. Wharton, R.N., \John Coles, W. S. Dalgleish, H. N.

TMS
J. Mackinder,
F.R.G.S.

H. M.A.,

Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill.
John Coles, H. N. Dickson, Dr. H.
R. Mill, W. A. Taylor.

STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.
Cambridge | Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. ........./J. E. Drinkwater.

Sir Charles Lemon, Bart.......

Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.

SECTION F.—STATISTICS.

Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......
Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.5.

Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon

Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........
Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........

Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P.,
E.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S.......

G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...

Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ..

Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F-.R.S.,
F.L.S.

Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam

Gp shOTcer dE Ds sccacasststts

Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.

J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ...
Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton......

1850. Edinburgh |Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,
i V.P.R.S.E.

}

W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.

Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood.

W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.

W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.

F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.

C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
Rawson.

Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.

Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.

.|Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.

J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
cock.
J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.

J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.

Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
Neison.

Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
Stark.

1855. Glasgow es)

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lxv

Date and Place

Presidents

1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast......

1853. Hull

1854. Liverpool...) Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. .........

...|Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...

His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin.
James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.

R. Monckton Milnes, M.P....

Secretaries

J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.

Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
MacAdam, jun.

Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch.

E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.

J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh,

SECTION F (continued ).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
1856. Cheltenham/ Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P.

1857. Dublin

1858. Leeds .......

1859. Aberdeen...

1867. Dundee

.
$

1860. Oxford

1861. Manchester

1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle .

1864. Bath

1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham

1868. Norwich....
1869. Exeter

1870. Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast

ee eeee

1875. Bristol......
1876. Glasgow

1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin

1879. Sheffield ...

1880. Swansea ...
Peel. York.....:...

1882. Southamp-
ton,

1895.

His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin, M.R.LA.
Edward Baines

Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ......
Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......
William Newmarch, F.R.S....

Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........
William Tite, M.P., F.R.S....

William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,
E.R.S.

Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P.

Prof. J. E. T. Rogers

see eweerseee

M. E. Grant-Duff, M.P. .......

Samuel*Brownl tt siz. 29.60.35

Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.

Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.

Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves.........

Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....!

Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.|

ond) OFM a cami... cwees dees se

James Heywood, M.A.,F.R.S.,
Pres. 8.5.

... | Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.L,

M.P.

Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue

Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D..,|
M.R.LA.

G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
8.8.

Goa Wing blastin os siVi IPs so52 sa. ant

Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant-Duff, |

_ M.A., F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,
M.P., F.BR.S.

Rey. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr,
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
M. Tartt.

Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Newmarch.

T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, S. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M,

Smith, Dr. John Strang.

Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.

David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
HE. Macrory, Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.

H. D. Macleod, Hdmund Macrory.

T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.

E. Macrory, H. T. Payne, F. Purdy.

G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
EK. Macrory.

|R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.

Prof, Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.

Rey. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.

E. Macrory, F. Purdy, C. T. D.
Acland.

Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.

J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.

J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.

J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.

Prof. Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Hans
MacMordie. ©

F, P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.

A. M'‘Neel Caird, T.G. P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack.

W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.

W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.

Prof. Adamson, R. E. Leader, C.
Molloy.

N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.

C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.

G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. 8. Fox-
well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy.

Ixvi

Date and Place

1883.

1884.

1885.

1886.

1887.

1888.
1889.
1890.

1891.

1892.

1893.

1894,
1895.

1836.
1837.
1838.

1839.
1840.

1841.
1842.

1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.
1848.
1849.
1850.
1851,

Southport

Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham

Manchester

Newcastle-

upon-Tyne
Leeds

seeeee

Cardiff

Edinburgh
Nottingham

Oxford

Ipswich

pam MENICe. eM CAs teosacn

Bristol .....-
Liverpool...
Newcastle

Birmingham
Glasgow ...

Plymouth
Manchester

Cambridge

South’mpt’n
Oxford......
Swansea ...
Birmingh’m
Edinburgh

Ipawich .....

.|Sir John Robinson

REPORT—1895.

Presidents

R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S.

Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,
G.C.S.I., C.LE., F.R.G.S.
Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,

Litt.D.
J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.S.

Robert Giffen, LL.D.,V.P.S.8.

Rt. Hon, Lord Bramvell,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, M.A.,
F.S.S.

Prof, A. Marshall, M.A., F..S.

Prof. W. Cunningham, D.D.,
D.Sc., F.8.8.

Hon. Sir C. W. Fremantle,
K.C.B.

Prof. J. 8. Nicholson, D.Sc.,
FE.S.S8.

Prof. C. F. Bastable, M.A.,
F.S.S.

.|E. Cannan, Prof. E. C.

Secretaries

Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. S.

Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy.

Prof. H. 8S. Foxwell, J.S. McLennan,
Prof. J. Watson.

Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8.
Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss.

F. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.

Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-
worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes,
J. E. C. Munro, G. H. Sargant.

Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T. H. Elliott,
H. §. Foxwell, L. L. F. R. Price.

Rev. Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elliott,
F. B. Jevons, L. L. F. R. Price.

W. A. Brigg, Rev. Dr. Cunningham,
T. H. Elliott, Prof. J. E. C. Munro,
L. L. F. R. Price.

Prof. J. Brough, E. Cannan, Prof.
E. C. K. Gonner, H. Ll. Smith,
Prof. W. R. Sorley.

Prof. J. Brough, J. R. Findlay, Prof.
E. C. K. Gonner, H. Higgs,
L. L. F. R. Price.

Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, H. de B.
Gibbins, J. A. H. Green, H. Higgs,
1) Geen. serice:

E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
W. A. 5S. Hewins, H. Higgs.

K. Gonner,

H, Higgs.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S
Rev. Dr. Robinsor ............
Charles Babbage, F.R.S.......

Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.
Stephenson.

Pee eeeweeesee

John Taylor, F.R.S. ......e00
Rev. Prof. Willis, F.R.S ......
Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.J.A....
DOHnNaylorel. Raw. -cacccsetsne

George Rennie, F.R.S..

Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F. R. s.
Rev. Prof.Walker, M. Ne F.a.S.
Rev. Prof.Walker, M.A.,F.8.S.
Robt. Stephenson, M.P., F.R.S

Reve ive WODINSORF s+. ce. scar ene
William Cubitt, F.R.S..

.{T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.

Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.

R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T.
Webster.

W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T-.
Webster.

J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
C. Vignoles.

.|Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.

J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J.

Thomson, Charles Vignoles.
James Thomson, Robert Mallet.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
.|Rev. W. T. Kingsley.

.| William Betts, jun., Charles Manby,

J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.
R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.

.|Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.

Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.

.!John Head, Charles Manby

1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool...

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1853.

1854.
1855.

Liverpool...
Glasgow ...

Cheltenham
Dublin

1856.
1857. Dublin......
Leeds ......
Aberdeen...

1858.
1859.

1860. Oxford

1861. Manchester

1862.
1863.

Cambridge
Newcastle

1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham

ae eeeeeee

1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee......
1868. Norwich

1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...
1873. Bradford ...

1874. Belfast

1875. Bristol

1876. Glasgow ...

_ 1877. Plymouth...

1878. Dublin ......
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea
1881. York.........

1882. Southamp-

ton
_ 1883. Southport

1884. Montreal...

Ixvii

Presidents

John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S.

William Fairbairn,
E.R.S.

John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ...

W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
F.R.S.

George Rennie, F.R.S. ......

Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
E.R.S.

William Fairbairn, F.R.S....

Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

C.E.,

Prof.W.J.Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.RB.S.
J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....

William Fairbairn, F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S.

Sir W. G. Armstrong, cae D.,
F.R.S.

Thomas Hawksley, V.P. Inst.
C.E., F.G.S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine, |
LL.D., F.B.S.

... |G. P. Bidder, C.H., F.R.G.S.

C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..........|
Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S. |

Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S..
F. J. Bramwell, C.E.

W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. .........

Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.R.S.E.
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.

C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ......
Edward Woods, C.E.

eee eeeene

Edward Easton, C.E.

J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech.
Eng.

.../James Abernethy, V.P. Inst.

C.E., F.R.S.E.
Sir W. G. Armstrong,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
John Fowler, C.E., F.G.S. ...

C.B.,

J. Brunlees, Pres. Inst.C.E.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.,
V.P.Inst.C.E.

Secretaries

John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.

James Oldham, J. Thomson, W.
Sykes Ward.

J. Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thomson,

L. Hill, W. Ramsay, J. Thomson.

...|C. Atherton, B. Jones, H. M. Jeffery.

Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.

J. CO. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.

R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.
Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F'. Harrison,
Henry Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson
H. Wright.

W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.

P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacotr.
J. F. Spencer.

..|P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.

P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea.
W. P. Marshall, Walter May.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
O. Tarbotton.

P. Le Neve Foster, John P, Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C.
Manby, W. Smith.

P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.

H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.
King, J. N. Shoolbred.

'H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie,

J. P. Smith.

'H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,

J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.

Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman,
E. H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw,
J. N. Shoolbred.

|A. T. Atchison, J. N.Shoolbred, John

Smyth, jun.

W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.

W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar,
J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.

A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.
Shoolbred.

A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.

A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, J. F, Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.

A. IT. Atchison, F. Churton, H. T.
Wood.

A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J
Kennedy, H. T. Wood.

9

=

ad

Uxvi

i

Date and Place

4885. Aberdeen...

REPORT—1895.

Presidents

Secretaries

B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........

A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E.
Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.

C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.

C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall,
BE. Rigg.

C. W. Cooke, W. LB. Marshall, E.
Rigg, P. K. Stothert.

C. W. Cooke, W. LB. Marshall, Hon.

| OO, A. Parsons, E. Rigg.

E. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B.

Marshall, E. Rigg.

|\C. W. Cooke, Prof. A. C. Elliott,
W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg.

C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, W. C.
Popplewell, E. Rigg.

|C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E.
Rigg, H. Talbot.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, Rev. F. J. Smith.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, P. G. M. Stoney.

ROPOLOGY.

E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S....|G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. R. Saundby.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
A. M. Paterson.

iG. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J.
Harris Stone.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
R. Morison, Dr. R. Howden.

|G. W. Bloxam, Dr. C. M. Chadwick,

Dr. J. G. Garson.

|G. W. Bloxam, Prof. R. Howden, H.
Ling Roth, E. Seward.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. D. Hepburn, Prof.
R. Howden, H. Ling Roth.

G. W. Bloxam, Rev. T. W. Davies,
Prof. R. Howden, F. B, Jeyons,
J. L. Myres.

H. Baifour, Dr. J. G.Garson, H. Ling
Roth.

J. L. Myres, Rey. J. J. Raven, H.
Ling Roth.

SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY (including Experimenta

|Prof F. Gotch, Dr. J. S. Haldane,
M. 8. Pembrey.

1886. Birmingham Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst.
C.E.

1887. Manchester | Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,
LL.D., F.B.S.

1888. Bath......... W. oH. Preece, F.RBS.,
M.Inst.C.E.

1889. Newcastle- | W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E. ...

upon-Tyne

1890. Leeds ...... ‘Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.B.S.,
F.R.A.S.

1891, Cardiff...,,./T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.E.,

1892. Edinburgh |Prof. W. C. Unwin, F.RS.,
M.Inst.C.E.

#893. Nottingham Jeremiah Head, M.Inst.C.E.,
F.C.S.

1894. Oxford...... Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy,
F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.

1895. Ipswich ...|Prof. L. F. Vernon-Harcourt,
M.A., M.Inst.C.E.
SECTION H.—ANTH

1884. Montreal...

1885. Aberdeen...| Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S.

1886. Birmingham |Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.L,
M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S.

1887. Manchester | Prof. A. H. Sayce, M.A. ......

1888. Bath......... Lieut.-General _ Pitt-Rivers,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

1889. Newcastle- |Prof. Sir W. Turner, M.B.,

upon-Tyne}| LL.D., F.R.S.

1890. Leeds ...... Dr. J. Evans, Treas. RS,

F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.

1891. Cardiff...... Prof. F. Max Miiller, M.A. ...

1892. Edinburgh | Prof. A. Macalister, M.A.,

M.D., F.R.S.

¥893. Nottingham) Dr. R. Munro, M.A., F.R.S.E.

1894. Oxford...... Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B.,
E.R.S.

1895. Ipswich ...|Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie,
D.C.L.

PATHOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL PsyCHOLOGY).

4894. Oxford...... Prof. E. A. Schifer, F.R.S.,

M.R.C.S.
SECTION K.—BOTANY.
1895.

Ipswich ... | W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F.RB.S. | Prof. F. E. Weiss, A. C. Seward.

a we

1849.

1852.

LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.

LIST OF EVENING

lxix

LECTURES.

Date and Place

1842. Manchester

1843. Cork

1845. Cambridge

1846. Southamp-

ton, ;

1847.

1848. Swansea

Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh

1851. Ipswich ...

Belfast......

1863. Hull..,......

1854. Liverpool...

1855. Glasgow ...

1856. Cheltenham

Lecturer

Charles Vignoles, F.R.S....

Sir M. J. Brunel
Ltr eV CHI SOMs, ce wslvcsces sana
Prof. Owen, M:D., F.R.S.......
Prof. E. Forbes, F'.R.S..........

seca weer eee eree

DO LNSOM esse eres code eets
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ........
Dr. Falconer, F.R.S.............

G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........
Wrarrkts Groves HUN Sac, .saccsacee

Rey. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S.
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S.......

Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S....

---(John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......

W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....
Hata aye His Hua -Avese vaca 5
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.

Dr. Mantell, F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

eee eeeeeeeee

G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal

Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.

<

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.B.S.,
F.G.S.

Robert Hunt, F.R.S...
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F, R. Ss.
Col. E. Sabine, V.P. R. Ss.

Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson

Col. Sir H, Rawlinson ........

W. R. Grove, F’.RB.S..........

Subject of Discourse

The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.

The Thames Tunnel.

The Geology of Russia.

The Dinornis of New Zealand.

The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aigean Sea.

The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.

-|Geology of North America.

The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwali&
Hills in India.

Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.

Geology of Russia.

...| Fossil Mammaliaof the British Isles.

Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
Properties of the ExplosiveSubstance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; alse
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.

Shooting Stars.

Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.

The Dodo (Didus ineptus).

Metallurgical Operations of Swansea
and its Neighbourhood.

Recent Microscopical Discoveries.

Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.

Transit of different Weights with
varying Velocities on Railways.
Passage of the Blood through the
minute vessels of Animals in con-

nection with Nutrition.

Extinct Birds of New Zealand.

Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.

Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.

Recent Discoveries in the properties
of Light.

Recent Discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.

Some peculiar Phenomena in the
Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.

.|The present state of Photography.

Anthropomorphous Apes..

..| Progress of Researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.

Characters of Species.

..| Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities

and Ethnology.

-|Recent Discoveries in Assyria and

Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform Research up to the
present time.

.. (Correlation of Physical Forces,

lxx

REPORT—1895.

Date and Place

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

1864.
1865.

1866.

1867.

1871.

73. Bradford .

. Oxford

. Belfast

. Bristol

seeeee

. Aberdeen...

. Manchester

2 Cambridge

. Newcastle

Birmingham

Nottingham

Dundee......

. Norwich ...

. Liverpool...

Edinburgh

. Brighton ...

carro

. Glasgow ..,

| Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.

i Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,

..| Prof. W. C.Williamson,

Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D.O-L,
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L....

Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S.

Prof.W.A. Miller, M.A., F.B.S.

G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron.
Royal.

Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., ¥.R.S.

rota OGM TH BS. vc esee cess

Prof. Williamson, F.R.6.......

James Glaisher, F.R.S.........

ENOtWOSCOCs Hh Ou scr sccsure
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ......
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S..........

William Huggins, F.R.S.......

Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S.......
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.......

Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S. |
J. Fergusson, F.R.S.............
Drs Win Odline. HORS: csc.
J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S....
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., .R.S.

LL.D., F.R.S.
AA ADE]. FN HDss0sesu vecesess

EBs DyloruhsR.S. sc.

Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. K. Clifford

tee we eneeee

™

igs
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart. M. P. ;
F.R.S.

Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. .........
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S..........
Prof. Tait, F.R. 's. E.

The Atlantic Telegraph.

Recent Discoveries in Africa.

The Ironstones of Yorkshire.

The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.

Geology of the Northern Highlands.

Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.

...| Physical Constitution of the Sun,
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.

Arctic Discovery.
Spectrum Analysis.
The late Eclipse of the Sun.

The Forms and Action of Water.

Organic Chemistry.

The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to
Dynamics.

The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.

..|The Chemical Action of Light.

Recent Travels in Africa.

Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.

The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.

Insular Floras.

The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.

The present state of Knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.

Archeology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.

Reverse Chemical Actions.

Vesuvius.

The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebulz.

The Scientific Use of the Imagina-
tion.

Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
tion with Naval Architecture.

Some Reeent Investigations and Ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.

..| The Relation of Primitive to Modern

Civilisation.
Insect Metamorphosis.

The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.

.|Coal and Coal Plants.

Molecules.

Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects.

The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.

The Colours of Polarised Light.

Railway Safety Appliances,

.| Force.

Sir Wyville Thomson, F. R. 8.

The Challenger Expedition.

a *

Da

1877.

1878.

1879.
1880.
1881.

1882.
1883.

1884.

1885

1886.
1887.

1888.

1889.

1890.
1891.

1892.

1893.

1894.

1895.

te and Place

Plymouth...

Dublin

Sheffield ...

Swansea

Southamp-
ton.
Southport

Montreal...

. Aberdeen...

Birmingham

Manchester

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne

aeeeee

Edinburgh

Nottingham

Oxford......

Ipswich

LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.

lxxi

Lecturer

W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,
F.R.S.

Prof. Odling, F.R.S...........06
G. J. Romanes, F.L.S..........
Prof. Dewar, F.R.S, .:.........-

W. Crookes, F.R.S. .........008
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.

... | Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins, F.R.8.

Francis Galton, F.H.S..........
Prof. Huxley, Sec. B.S.

W. Spottiswoode, Pres. R.S....

Prof. Sir Wm. Thomsen, F.R.S.

Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S.

Veron toy Gets el 621) OS) GAS eee

Prof. J. G@. McKendrick,
F.R.S.E.

Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. ......

Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.8.

Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S. ...

John Murray, F.R.S.E..........

A. W. Riicker, M.A., F.RB.S.

Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D....

Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S. ..

Col. Sir F. de Winton,
K.C.M.G.

Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S....

Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
F.R.S.

Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.R.S.

Walter Gardiner, M.A.........

E. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S....
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S8.
Prof. L. C. Miall, ¥.L.8., F.G.S8.

Prof. A.W. Riicker, M.A.,F.BR.8.

Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,
D.Sc., F.RB.S.

Prof. J.A. Ewing, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E.

Prof. A. Smithells, B.Sc.

Prof. Victor Horsley, F.R.S.

J. W. Gregory, D.Sc., F.G.S.
Prof. J.Shield Nicholson, M.A.

... | Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.5.,

Prof. Perey F. Frankland,
E.R.S.

Subject of Discourse

The Physical Phenomena connected
with the Mines of Cornwall and
Devon.

The New Element, Gallium.

Animal Intelligence.

Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.

Radiant Matter.

Degeneration.

Primeval Man.

Mental Imagery.

The Rise and Progress of Palzon-
tology.

The Electric Discharge, its Forms
and its Functions.

Tides.

Pelagic Life.

Recent Researches on the Distance
of the Sun.

Galvanic and Animal Electricity.

Dust.

The Modern Microscope in Re-
searches on the Least and Lowest
Forms of Life.

The Electric Light and Atmospheric
Absorption.

The Great Ocean Basins.

Soap Bubbles.

The Sense of Hearing.

.|The Rate of Explosions in Gases,

Explorations in Central Africa.

The Electrical Transmission of
Power.

The Foundation Stones of the Earth’s
Crust.

The Hardening and Tempering of
Steel.

How Plants maintain themselves in
the Struggle for Existence.

Mimicry.

Quartz Fibres and their Applications,

Some Difficulties in the Life of
Aquatic Insects.

Electrical Stress.

Pedigrees.

Magnetic Induction.

Flame.

The Discovery of the Physiology of
the Nervous System.

Experiences and Prospects of
African Exploration.

Historical Progress and Ideal So-
cialism.

Magnetism in Rotation.

The Work of Pasteur and its various
Developments.

——

lxxii

REPORT—1895.

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.

Subject of Discourse

Date and Place Lecturer

1867. Dundee...... Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.

1868. Norwich ...|Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F. B.S.

1869. Exeter ...... Prof, Miller, M.D., F.R.S.

1870. Liverpool... |Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,
F.B.S.

1872. Brighton ...| W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.

1873. Bradford ...|C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1874, Belfast...... Prot jOdling SH sh-Sissdcaes sey

1875. Bristol ...... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.

1876. Glasgow ...|Commander Cameron, C.B.,
RN.

1877. Plymouth ...|\W. Ele PLe@Ce....ccccssscosscsceves

1879: Sheffield ....| Wi. He Ayrton. seccscccecesssereee

1880. Swansea ...|H. Seebohm, F.Z.S. ..........0.

ES PYVOLK: «.c5scn0 Prof. Osborne Reynolds,
F.R.S.

1882. Southamp- |John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas. B.S.

ton.

1883. Southport |Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.RB.S. ...

1884. Montreal ...| Prof. R. 8. Ball, F.R.S.........

1885. Aberdeen ...|H. B. Dixon, M.A. ............

1886. Birmingham|Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.R.S.

1887. Manchester | Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S. ......
1888. Bath......... Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P.,
F.B.S.

1889. Newcastle- |B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........

upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds ...... Prof. J. Perry, D.Sc., F.R.S.
1891. Cardiff ...... Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.S8.
1892. Edinburgh | Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.
1893. Nottingham | Prof. Vivian B. Lewes.........
1894. Oxford...... Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.
W895. Ipswich, ...| Dr. A... Hison)......:cs<:s rine

Matter and Force.
A Piece of Chalk.

.|Experimental Illustrations of the

modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum,

Savages.

Sunshine, Sea, and Sk
Fuel.

The Discovery of Oxygen.
A Piece of Limestone.

A Journey through Africa.

Telegraphy and the Telephone.

Electricity as a Motive Power.

The North-East Passage.

Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
flakes.

Unwritten History, and how to
read it.

Talking by Electricity—Telephones.

.|Comets.

The Nature of Explosions.

The Colours of Metals and their
Alloys.

Electric Lighting.

The Customs of Savage Races.

The Forth Bridge.

Spinning Tops.

Electricity in Mining.
Electric Spark Photographs,
Spontaneous Combustion.

.|Geologies and Deluges.

Colour.

oe"

a aS

:

lxxili

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT
THE IPSWICH MEETING.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

President.—Professor W. M. Hicks, M.A., D.Sc., F.B.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S. ; Prof. O. Henrici, F.R.S. ;
Lord Kelvin, Pres.R.S.; Lord Rayleigh, Sec.R.S.; Prof. A. W.
Ricker, F.R.S.

Secretaries.—Professor W. H. Heaton, M.A.; Professor A. Lodge, M.A.
(Recorder); G. T. Walker, M.A. ; W. Watson, B.Sc.

SECTION B.—-CHEMISTRY,

President.—Professor R. Meldola, F.R.S8., For.Sec.C.8.

Vice Presidents.—Prof. P. P. Bedson, D.Sc. ; Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S. ;
Professor E. Frankland, D.C.L., F.R.S.; J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D.,
F.R.S. ; Professor Ira Remsen, Ph.D. ; Sir Henry E. Roscoe, D.C.L.,
F.RS.

Secretaries.—E. H. Fison; C. A. Kohn, Ph.D., B.Sc. ; Arthur Harden,
M.S8c., Ph.D. (Recorder) ; J. W. Rodger.

SECTION C.— GEOLOGY.

President.—W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents—Gustave Dollfus; L. Fletcher, M.A., F.R.S.; F. W-
Harmer ; Rev. E. Hill, M.A.; J. E. Marr, M.A., F.R.S. ; E. van
den Broek.

Secretaries.—F. A. Bather, M.A.; G. W. Lamplugh; Alfred Harker,
M.A. ; Clement Reid, F.L.S. (Recorder).

SECTION D.—BIOLOGY.
President.—Professor W. A. Herdman, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S. ; P. L. Sclater, Ph.D., F.R.S. ;

Secretaries—G. C. Bourne, M.A. (Recorder) ; Herbert Brown, M.D. ;
W. E. Hoyle, M.A.; W. L. Sclater, M.A.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.
President.—H. J. Mackinder, M.A., F.R.G.S.

lxxiv REPORT—1895.

Vice-Presidents.—Major L. Darwin ; Col. H. H. Godwin Austen, F.R.S.
Sir Joseph Hooker, F.R.S. ; J. ’ Scott Keltie ; John Murray, D.Sc.
E. G. Ravenstein ; Cal Sir C. Warren, F.RS.

Secretaries.—J, Coles, F.R.A.S.; H. N. Dickson, F.R.S.E. ; Hugh Robert
Mill, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. (Recorder) ; ee Taylor, F.RS.E.

.
>
>

SECTION F,—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS,

President.—L. L. Price, M.A.,

Vice-Presidents.—Professor F. Y. Edgeworth, M.A., D.C.L., F.S.S. ; The
Hon. Sir Charles Fremantle, K.C.B.; J. B. Martin; J. E. C. Munro ;
R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S. é

Secretaries.— KE. Cannan, M.A., F.8.8. ; Professor E. C. K. Gonner, M.A.,
F.S.8. (Recorder); H. Higgs, LL.B.

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Professor L. F. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., M.Inst.C.E..

Vice-Presidents.—Professor A. B. W. Kennedy, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. ; E.
Rigg, M.A.; Professor Silvanus P. Thompson, F.R.8.; W. H.
Wheeler, M.Inst.C.G.

Secretaries.—Professor T. Hudson Beare, F.R.S.E. (Recorder) ; Conrad
W. Cooke; W. Bayley Marshall, M.Inst.C.E. ; F. G. M. Stoney,
M.Inst.C.E.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

President. —Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L.

Vice-Presidents.—Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S.; Sir W. H. Flower,
K.C.B., F.R.S. ; R. Munro, M.D., F.R.S.E.

Secretaries.—J. L. Myres, M.A.; Rev. J. J. Raven, D.D. ; H. Ling Roth
(Recorder).
SECTION K,—BOTANY.
President.—W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G., C.LE., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Professor Bayley Balfour, M.A., F.R.S.; Professor
F. O. Bower, F.R.S.; F. Darwin, F.R.S.; Sir Joseph Hooker,
F.R.S.

Secretaries.—Professor F. E. Weiss (Recorder) ; A. C. Seward, M.A.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1895-96.

PRESIDENT.
Captain SIR DOUGLAS GALTON, K.C.B., D.C.L,, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.G.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Most Hon, the Marquis or Briston, M.A., The Right Hon. Lorp HENNIKER, F.S.A.
Lord-Lieutenant of the County of Suffolk. The Right Hon, LorpD RENDLESHAM.

The Right Hon. Lorp WarsineHAM, UL.D., F.R.S., | J. H. BARTLEeT, Esq., MAYOR OF IpswicH.
High Steward of the University of Cambridge. Sir G. G. SroxEs, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S.

The Right Hon. Lorp RayuricH, D.C.L., Sec.R.S., | Dr. E. FRANKLAND, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Lord-Lieutenant of the County of Essex. Professor G. H. DARWIN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

The Right Hon. LorpD Gwypyr, M.A., High | Friix T. Coppoxp, Esq., M.A.
Steward of the Borough of Ipswich.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
SIR JOSEPH LISTER, Barr., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Right Hon, the EArt or Dunsy,G.C.B., Lord | THE Principat of University College, Liverpool.

Mayor of Liverpool. W. RatHeone, Esq., LL D.
The Right Hon. the Eart or Serron, K.G., Lord- W. Crookgs, Esq., F.R.S.

Lieutenant of Lancashire. GrorGE HOLT, Esy., J.P.
Sir W. B. Forwoop. T. H. Ismay, Esq., J.P., D.L.

Sir Henry E. Roscor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
A. G. VeErnNoN Harcourt, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres.C.S., Cowley Grange, Oxford.
Professor E. A. SCHAFER, F.R.S., University College, London, W.C.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., College Road, Harrow, Middlesex.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor ARTHUR W. RtckeEr, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT LIVERPOOL.
Professor W. A. HERDMAN, F.R.S. | Isaac C. THompson, Esq., F.L.S. | W. E. Witnink, Esq.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT LIVERPOOL.
REGINALD BUSHELL, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

AnpeErson, Dr. W. C. B., F.R.S. Poutron, Professor E, B., F.R.S.

AYRTON, Professor W. E., F.R.S. RaAmMsAyY, Professor W., F.R.S.

BakeER, Sir B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. REYNOLDS, Professor J. Emmrson, M.D.,
Boys, Professor C. VERNON, F.R.S. F.R.S.

EDGEWORTH, Professor F. Y., M.A. SHAw, W.N., Esq., F.R.S.

EVANS, Sir J., K.C.B., F.R.S. Symons, G. J., Esq., F.R.S.

FOXWELL, Professor H.S., M.A. TEALL, J. J. H., Be, F.R.S.

Harcourt, Professor L. F, VERN ON, M.A. THISELTON-DykErR, W.T., area. . C.M.G., F.R.Sz
HERDMAN, Professor W. A., F.R.S. THOMSON, Professor 3.M . F.R.S.E.
HORSLEY, Professor Vic TOR, F.R.S. Unwin, Professor W.C., EF, RS.

LODGE, Professor OLIVER J., F.R.S. VINES, Professor Sie; ERS.

MARKHAM, CLEMENTS R., Esq., C.B., F.R.S. WARD, Professor MARSHALL, F.R.S.
MELDOLA, Professor R., ERS. WHITAKER, W., Esq., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
The Right Hon. Sir Jonn Lussock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.
The Right Hon. Lord RayLrieu, M. -A., D. C. L. nite Ds; Sec. R.S., E.R,
The Right Hon. Lord PLayFratr, K.C Be Ph. D., LL. D,» F.R.S.

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.

Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B., I’.R.S.

Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. | Sir Frederick Abel, Bart., F.R. S.

Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., Sec.R.S. Dr. Wm. Huggins, D.C. Te F.R

| Lord Playfair, K.C.B., F.R.S. Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D., nae
| Sir Wm. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S. | Prof.J.S.Burdon Sanderson,F.R.S.

Lord Kelvin, LL.D., Pres.R.s. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.8, The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G.,

Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. Sir F. J. Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S. F.R.S.

GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.

The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T.
Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D.
The Rt.Hon. Sir W.R.Grove,F.R.S.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.1.
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S,

F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S G. Griffith, Esq., M.A. Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Prof, Michael Foster, Sec.R. Ss. P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. | Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B. F.R.S
AUDITORS.

Dr. T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S. | Ludwig Mond, Esq., F.R.S. | Jeremiah Head, Esq., M.Inst.C.E.

REPORT—1895.

THE GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT,

RECEIPTS,
& 8s dad
Balance broupht!forwardy......scsscssccccccocenvenesterteasterenen ee 1094 2 6
Tate Compositions) ys. was dessaris-css <eeecasaccetose ra cever te eee ee aaa 310 0 0
New Annual Members’ Subscriptions ....0.......ssssecesecaseecees 1990 0 0
Annual SUPECrIPLODSittaccsrsscscentecesseeerere coreeerarc eaten eee 654 0 0
Sale: of Associates MICKEtS oss cecscsdososte ce son ceca secoeenetertereee 915 0 0
Dalevor Ladies Tickets mara. sestcotterest co ccseseseseceuceseeemtnene 449 0 0
Sale of Index, US61=[O0 Rett sres:s cree -neces-cocesedenes 238 903
Bale: ofouher Publications resect, < ot sseccssecsenae se 174 3 1
————— 212 12 4
Interest on Deposit at Oxford Bank ...............cceceeeeeeeeers 714 7
Interestion HixeheqmertBills!...csesa.scdvcc.avevcstesteonee tenet tree AO raZs
© Dividendstoni@ansolstwten:cesvaeccrcac.<csescccsacaacectee tere ttemeee 20615 4
Dividends on) India per Cents. <..ccsstsonsessoeecenetoes Severe 104 8 O
Unexpended Balance of Grant for exploring the Lake Village
ab GlasLOngiyi von ctaces anecenacabemn ats saec seee eer £5 40. 12
Unexpended Balance of Grant from the Erratic
Blocks: Gommiubiee).:...).-.dtessduechatsnessteceetas dooce 318 0
Unexpended Grant from the Committee for making
Observations in South Georgia ............cec0ee00e 50 0 O
= SDSS ee
o 4
Mi
ca
£4214 0 7
Investments
£ 5s. d.
June 30, 1894: Consols...........sccccsccesessseees Weveccauescetceapas 7537 3 5
India'3 per' Gents. rcitestieveseoscenens fesgeneee 3600 0 0
£11137 3 5

T. E. THORPE, g
LUDWIG tonne peers:

— eo

GENERAL TREASURER S$ ACCOUNT. Ixxvii
a a I EC, eee ee

from July 1, 1894, to June 29, 1895. Cr.
1894-95. PAYMENTS.
& d,
Expenses of Oxford Meeting, including Printing, Adver-
tising, Payment of Clerks, &¢. ..........ccececeeese Soats Saekbie aoe aloo, ie]
Rent and Office Expenses ...... Roe vasee acess apiocotentnce comooscege esi a(S Saas,
Commission on Purchase of Exchequer Bills.............. waters z 215 6
Compilation of Index 1861-90 .............0.0.00 excosbotaacted deer LOO ONG
SAI AT LCS ss fax on casas saalettoeekh SAR eNews aaisshecaws eacsaaay, OU aSe OLNO
Printing; Bindings &o5 (as.ct..dsee.2s. Svein Sielsisleisiviatee Mathes Sas TOTS la 13
Payment of Grants made at Oxford:
y Boe ce
25 0 0
10 0 0
75 0 0
100 0 0
50 0 0
25 0 0
50 0 0
10,0) 0
ean
sie, ON 'O.
Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ......... 30 0 0
Electrolytic Quantitative Analysis ..........cccecceeee 30 0 0
HirraticsBlockse%. isc. acie sissies Bio ininielelecaisterstn sien /eiaieleipievelote’s 10.40) 0
Pp aleOLOiC) PHYNODOUS, cancun heuome aesicencn eo her cote 5 0 0
Photographs of Geological Interest ...........eesceeece 10 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, &C. .......eeccueeceee 10 0 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland Hills............c.eeeeeeee 3, i) 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
LS fae
0 0
Index of Genera and Species of Animals ............0 50 0 0
Climatology of Tropical Africa .............ceccseeeces 5 0 0
Exploration of Hadramut 50 0 0
Calibration and Comparison of Measuring Instruments.. 25 0 0
Anthropometric Measurements in Schools .............- 5 0 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury ..............000. apeeee sd 30 0 0
Exploration of a Kitchen-midden at Hastings ......... ce tO 06
MthnoprapHical Simveyon cr etecccces cocks niente ta. 10 .0.-9
Physiological Applications of the Phonograph......... - 25 0 0
Corresponding Societies ......sccccceceeccsccs af aa, 530) 40) '0
977 15 5
In hands of General Treasurer :
At Bank of England, Western Branch £683 12 5
Less Cheques not presented ............ 63 00
————- 620 12 5
Hxchequer*Billss, 25% eels, see CECE OCOCHISAR 1000 0 0
Cash...... A SaCORE, ones eae radant wopaadhenldeteacsanessecdeccctas Lat 6
——_— 162119 11
£4214 0 7
Account.
£ & d.
Mine 29, 1896: Consols ....2....c0s0ssseceadeceus since FasngssccnmamOG Ghose.
indi acd per, Contay eaten wre ok St ecticss «esse 3600 0 O

_——

£11,187 3 5

8 2 an es

ARTHUR W. RUCKER, General Treasurer.

July 9, 1895.

Ixxvili

REPORT—1895.

Table showing the Attendance and Receipts

Date of Meeting

Where held

Presidents

1831, Sept. 27......
1832, June 19......
1833, June 25...
1834, Sept.
1835, Aug.
1836, Aug.
1837, Sept.
1838, Aug.
1839, Aug. 26
1840, Sept. 17......
1841, July 20 ......
1842, June 23.,....

Kune
ouNo®

1845, June 19......
1846, Sept.10 . ...
1847, June 23 ..,...
1848, Aug. 9......
1849, Sept. 12
1850, July 21 ..
1851, July 2.........
1852, Sept.1 ..
1853, Sept. 3
1854, Sept. 20 ......
1855, Sept. 12 ......
1856, Aug. 6
1857, Aug. 26 ......
1858, Sept. 22 ......
1859, Sept. 14
1860, June 27
1861, Sept. 4
U86250ct, Loe
1863, Aug. 26 ......
1864, Sept. 13
1865, Sept. 6
1866, Aug. 22
1867, Sept. 4
1868, Aug. 19......
1869, Aug. 18 ......
1870, Sept. 14......
LSTA CIS | es
1872, Aug. 14 .:....
1873, Sept. 17
1874, Aug. 19
1875, Aug.
1876, Sept.
1877, Aug.
1878, Aug.
1879, Aug.
1880, Aug.
1881, Aug.
1882, Aug.
1883, Sept.
1884, Aug.
1885, Sept. 9
1886, Sept. 1
1887, Aug. 31
1888, Sept.5 ......
1889, Sept. 11
1890, Sept. 3 ..
1891, Aug. 19 ..
1892, Aug. 3
1893, Sept. 13
1894, Aug. 8
1895, Sept. 11

: Edinburgh .

‘| Bristol ..
d Liverpool . nae
Newcastle-on-Tyne...

‘| York ;

.| Edinburgh
.| Belfast

i Southampton

Cambridge .
Dublin ..

Birmingham
Glasgow.......
Plymouth ....
Manchester ,
Cork ..

Cambri 5
Southampton —
Oxford
Swansea.......
Birmingham

Ipswich ....

Hull ..
Liverpool .
Glasgow.......
Cheltenham .
Dublin ....
Leeds... ...
Aberdeen .
Oxford’ <-.5)
Manchester |
Cambridge ......

Birmingham,
Nottingham .
Dundee .......
Norwich

Exeter ....
Liverpool .
Edinburgh
Brighton ,.,.
Bradford ,
Belfast wer

Southport ......
Montreal ....
Aberdeen ......
Birmingham
Manchester ..,
Bathucs «sc. teeta
Newcastle-on-Tyne..,.

.| Leeds...
.| Cardiff

Edinburgh
Nottingham ..
Oxford

Ipswich

...| The Rey. A. “Sedgwick. FERS.

...| Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L...

...| The Rey. Provost Lloyd, ED:
.| The Marquis of Lansdow ne

e The Marquis of Breadalbane
...| The Rey. W. Whewell, F.R.S.
.| The Lord Francis Egerton...

...| Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart....
...| Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart.
...| Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart
...| The Marquis of inane ee aaa
...| The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. .
.| Sir David Brewster, K.H.

...| The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S.
...| The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ...
...| Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D...

.| The Rey. Humphrey playa D.D.

"| H.R.H. The Prince Consort |
...| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A.
.| William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.

_..| Sir William G. Armstrong, O.B.
.| Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A. ...

.| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L

‘| Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.
.| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.

: Prof. T. Andrews, MD.
.| Prof. A. Thomson, M.D.,
.| W. Spottiswoode, M. i NES ER

...| Sir John Lubbock, Bart. e

a ere OW Siemens. F.R.S. autesee
...| Prof. A. Cayley, D.C.L., ERS

...| Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S.
.| Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B.

1] Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.O.L., a
.| Sir F. J. Bramwell, ERS. .

The Rey. W. Vernon aberiand

The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S.' .
The Rey. G. Peacock, DD.

G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal
Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S.
William Hopkins, F. R. Ss.

Richard Owen, M.D., D.O.L

.| The Rev. Professor Willis, M.A.

.| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D. ...
.| William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S. ...
.| The Duke of Buccleuch, K.O.B.
.| Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. ...

.| Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D.

.| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, TaD:

Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
FERS.

Sir John Hawkshaw, OE

.| Prof. G. J. Allman, ees
.| A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.

.| Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G.

Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B., FI
.| Sir F. A. Abel, O.B., FRS.
.| Dr. W. Hugg ins, F.R.S.
.| Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., ERS. .
.| Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson

The Marquis of Salisbury,K.G.,F.R.S.

‘| Sir Douglas Galton, F.R.S

Old Life | New Life
Members, | Members

TTT Ee

169 65
303 169
109 28
226 150
313 36
241 10
314 18
149 3
227 12
235 9
172 8
164 10
141 13
238 23
194 33
182 14
236 15
222 42
184 27
286 21
321 113
239 15
203 36
287 40
292 44
207 31
167 25
196 18
204 21
314 39
246 28
245 36
212 27
162 13
239 36
221 35
173 19
201 18
184 16
144 11
272 28
178 17
203 60
235 20
225 18
314 25
428 86
266 36
277 20
259 21
189 24
280 14
201 17
327 21
214 13

* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843.

+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only.

————

ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS.

at Annual Meetings of the Association.

lxxix

Attended by | |
Amount Sums paid
received | on Account
old New een during the | of Grants Year
Annual | Annual mentee | Ladies |Foreigners| Total Meeting (for Scientific
Members | Members | | Purposes
— _ — _ _— 353 — — 1831
= { = = = = = — = 1832
—_ } — _ — — 900 | -- _ 1833
_— — —_ — — 1298 = £20 0 0 1834
et at =! = 2s = — 167 0 0 1835
— es = — — 1350 = | 435 0 0 1836
_ — _ -- — | 1840 _— | 92212 6 1837
= — — |, 11004 _— 2400 -- 932 2 2 1838
= _— a = 34 1438 —— 1595 11 0 1839
oS _ = = 40 1353 _— 1546 16 4 1840
46 317 _ 60* — 891 — 1235 10 11 1841
75 376 33t 331* 28 1315 _ 144917 8 1842
71 185 _— 160 — - — 1565 10 2) 1848
45 190 of 260 — — — 981 12 8 1844
94 22 407 172 35 1079 — 831 9 9 1845
65 39 270 196 36 857 — 685 16 0 1846
197 40 495 203 53 1320 _— 208 5 4 1847
54 25 376 197 15 819 £707 0 0} 275 1 8 1848
93 33 447 237 22 1071 963 0 0] 15919 6 1849
128 42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 0} 34518 0 1850
61 47 244 141 37 710 620 0 0| 391 9 7 1851
63 60 510 292 9 1108 1085 0 0} 304 6 7 1852
56 57 367 236 6 876 903 0 0; 205 0 0 1853
121 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0} 38019 7 1854
142 101 1094 543 26 2133 2311 0 0} 48016 4 1855
104 48 412 346 9 1115 1098 0 0} 73413 9 1856
156 120 900 569 26 2022 2015 0 0} 50715 4 1857
111 91 710 509 13 1698 1931 0 0} 61818 2 1858
125 179 1206 821 22 2564 2782 0 0} 68411 1 1859
177 59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0} 76619 6 1860
184 125 1589 791 15 3138 3944 0 0| 1111 5 10 1861
150 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 0 | 129316 6 1862
154 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0O/ 1608 3 10 1863
182 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 0 0/ 128915 8 1864
215 149 766 508 23 1997 2227 0 O/ 1591 7 10 1865
218 105 960 771 11 2303 2469 0 0/ 175013 4 1866
193 118 1163 771 a 2444 2613 0 0| 1739 4 0 1867
226 117 720 682 45t 2004 2042 0 0/1940 0 0 1868
229 107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 0 | 1622 0 0 1869
303 195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 0 0| 1572 0 0 1870
311 127 - 976 754 21 2463 2575 O 0} 1472 2 6 1871
280 80 937 912 43 2533 2649 0 0| 1285 0 0 1872
237 99 796 601 11 1983 2120 0 0} 1685 0 0 1873
232 85 817 630 12 1951 1979 0 0} 115116 O 1874
307 93 884 672 17 2248 2397 0 0} 960 0 0 1875
331 185 1265 712 25 2774 3023 0 0| 1092 4 2 1876
238 59 446 283 11 1229 1268 0 0| 1128 9 7 1877
290 93 1285 674 17 2578 2615 0 O| 72516 6 1878
239 74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 0} 1080 11 11 1879
171 41 389 147 12 915 899 0 0; 731 7 7 1880
313 176 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 0O| 476 8 1 1881
253 79 516 189 21 1253 1286 0 0/1126 111 1882
330 323 952 841 5 2714 3369 0 0| 1083 3 3 1883
317 219 826 74 =|26&60H.$) 1777 1538 0 0| 1173 4 0 1884
332 122 1053 447 6 2203 2256 0 0| 1385 0 0 1885
428 179 1067 429 11 2453 2532 0 0| 995 0 6 1886
510 244 1985 493 92 3838 4336 0 0| 118618 0 1887
399 100 639 509 12 1984 2107 0 0/1511 0 5 1888
412 113 1024 579 21 2437 2441 0 0| 1417 O11 1889
368 92 680 334 12 1775 1776 0 0} 78916 8 1890
341 152 672 107 35 1497 1664 0 0/ 102910 0 1891
413 141 733 439 50 2070 2007 0 0| 86410 0 1892
328 57 773 268 17 1661 1653 0 0} 907 15 6 1893
435 69 941 451 77 2321 2175 0 O| 58315 6 1894
290 31 493 261 22 1324 1236 0 0} 97715 5 1895

¢ Including Ladies. $ Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting.

ixxx REPORT—1895.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Report of the Council for the Year 1894-95, presented to the General
Committee at Ipswich on Wednesday, September 11, 1895.

The Report of the Council for 1894-5 was considered and ordered
to be presented to the General Committee :—

Tue Councin have received reports from the General Treasurer
during the past year,and his accounts from July 1, 1894, to June 29,
1895, which have been audited, will be presented to the General
Committee.

The Council have nominated the Mayor of Ipswich, J. H. Bartlet,
Esq., M.D., Vice-President of the Association.

The invitation to hold the Annual Meeting of the Association at
Toronto in 1897 has been renewed, and will be brought before the
General Committee on Monday.

The election by the General Committee of Sir Douglas Galton as
President of the Association for the year which begins to-day, deprives
us for the future of his services as General Secretary. The Council desire
to record their grateful sense of the unfailing zeal and energy which Sir
Douglas Galton has displayed in the affairs of the Association during a
tenure of office which has extended over twenty-four years. The Council
have consequently had to consider the appointment of a successor, and
desire now to nominate Professor E. A. Schafer, F.R.S., for election to the
office of General Secretary. Professor Schafer has been communicated
with, and has expressed his willingness to serve.

In accordance with a request received from the Lords of the Committee
of Council on Education, who have been asked to send Delegates to the
International Congress of Zoology at Leyden, the Council resolved to
nominate Sir W. H. Flower to represent the Association.

The Council have elected the following Foreign Men of Science Cor-
responding Members :—

Prof. F. Beilstein, St. Petersburg.

Prof. Edouard van Beneden, Liége.

Prof. J. 8. Billings, Deputy Surgeon-
General, Washington.

Prof. D. H. Campbell, University Palo
Alto, California.

M. Cartailhac, Toulouse.

Dr. A. Chauveau, Paris.

Prof. T. W.W. Engelmann, Utrecht.

Dr. Wilhelm Forster, Berlin.

Prof. Léon Fredericq, Liége.

Prof. C. Friedel, Paris.

Prof. Ludimar Hermann, Kénigsberg.

Prof. Dr. J. Kollmann, Basle.

M. Maxime Kovalevsky, Beaulieu-sur-Mer.

Prof. L. Kny, Berlin.

Dr. Otto Maas, Munich.

Prof. A.M. Mayer, Hoboken, New Jersey.

Prof. Gésta Mittag-Lefller, Stockholm.

Dr. Edmund von Mojsisovics, Vienna.

Prof. R. Nasini, Padua.

Prof. H. F. Osborn, Columbia College,
New York.

Baron C. R. Osten-sacken,
berg.

Prof. Wilhelm Pfeffer, Leipzig.

Prof. P. H. Schoute, Groningen.

Prof. E, Strasburger, Bonn.

General F, A. Walker, Boston.

Heidel-

Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration and action if

desirable :—

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lxyxi

(1) That the Council of the Association be requested to give their full support
to the efforts being made to induce the Government to send out a fully-
equipped expedition for the exploration of the Antarctic and Southern Seas.

In reference to this resolution, the Secretaries received the following
communication from Mr. Clements R. Markham, President of the Royal
Geographical Society :—

‘I have the honour to bring to the notice of the Council of the British
Association the steps that have been taken, within the last year, with a
view to the renewal of Antarctic research.

‘On November 27, 1893, a very important and interesting paper was
read to a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society by Dr. John Murray,
of the “ Challenger” Expedition, a copy of which is enclosed. The argu-
ments and the detailed information contained in Dr. Murray’s paper
appeared to my Council to place the importance of renewing Antarctic re-
search in such a convincing light that they resolved to take action in the
matter. I, therefore, appointed a Committee of experts to report upon
the points bearing on the renewal of Antarctic research, and on the
despatch of an expedition.

‘On the receipt of the Report of this Society’s Antarctic Committee, a
copy of which I enclose, the Secretary of the Royal Society was addressed
with a view to the matter receiving the consideration of the Council
of that influential body. It was referred to a very strong Committee,
which made its report last May, a copy of which is enclosed. The
Report of this Committee of the Royal Society dwells chiefly on the
requirements of magnetism, and shows the necessity for despatching an
Antarctic Expedition for the completion of magnetic observations, which
are both of scientific and practical importance. The Committee also
points out that many other branches of science besides magnetism will be
largely advanced by such an expedition ; and, referring to the present
condition of the ice in the southern circumpolar region, it considers that
the despatch of an expedition may assume a character of urgency.

‘It is very encouraging to find that the President and Council of the
Royal Society, as I am informed in a letter from the Secretary, a copy of
which is enclosed, fully indorse the views of the Committee as regards the
great scientific importance of the results of Antarctic research.

‘The Council of the Royal Society, however, considered it their duty
to raise the subject of expense, and in a private interview at the Admiralty
a Deputation was informed that the Chancellor of the Exchequer, as then
advised, could only confirm a doubt that had been raised whether the
Imperial finances could bear the expense of the proposed expedition.

‘ At the present juncture the question of the cost of the expedition is
irrelevant. An exaggerated estimate may have been made by those
who are unacquainted with the arrangement of heads of account and
other details, and who have not taken various collateral points into con-
sideration, It will be for the members of the Deputation eventually
selected by the united scientific and other bodies to ascertain the actual
cost, and to place themselves in a position to answer all questions of
expense, when the proper time comes for the subject of Antarctic research
being brought before Her Majesty’s Government for favourable considera-
tion. They will, I believe, be able to show that the trifling expense bears
no comparison with the gain to science, to the Navy, and to Imperial
interests.

1895. e

lxxxll REPORT—1895.

‘Meanwhile the time has come for the leading scientific bodies of the
Empire to declare, as regards their various departments, that they concur
in the view already expressed by the Royal Society, the Royal Geo-
graphical Society, and the British Association, that a renewal of Antarctic
research is of great importance to science.

‘The Council of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science was the body through whose influential representations the
memorable expedition led by Sir James Ross was despatched to the
Antarctic regions. True to its excellent traditions, your Council has
invariably given its support to similar proposals, and I therefore feel
confident that the British Association will retain its place in the front
rank of those who seek to promote the advancement of science by
Antarctic research.

‘The President and the Council of the Royal Geographical Society
now request that you will once more bring the question of the results of
Antarctic discovery to the notice of your Council for serious consideration,

with a view to co-operation and to the undertaking being unanimously

advocated by the scientific societies of Great Britain and Ireland.’

The Council resolved to express their sympathy with, and approval
of, the effort which is being made by the Royal Geographical Society to
organise an expedition for the exploration of the Antarctic Sea, but did
not consider that any further action could usefully be taken by them at
present.

(2) That the Council be requested to call the attention of the Civil Service
Commissioners to the Report of a Committee of Section F on the Methods
of Economic Training, and especially to the recommendations (contained on
page 2) with regard to the position of Economics in the Civil Service
Examinations.

The following are the passages referred to in the Resolution :—

‘In most Continental countries Economics occupies a place more
or less prominent in the courses of training and in the examinations
through which candidates for the legal profession or the Civil Service
have to pass... .

‘The two studies are cognate, and according to the view of your Com-
mittee not only would the institution of an examination in Economics at
some stage of legal degrees and qualifications be advantageous profession-
ally, but the work of those who had enjoyed a legal training would react
favourably on the advance of the science. In addition, Economics should
receive a much more important place in the Civil Service Examinations,
and should, if possible, be made compulsory on those entering the higher
branches.’

The Council, after considering this question, referred it to a Com-
mittee, consisting of the President and Officers, with Professors H. Sidg-
maak Foxwell, and Edgeworth. The report of the Committee was as
ollows :—

‘ Legal studies and qualifications for the position of Barrister-at-Law
depend entirely on the Inns of Court, and they believe that the Civil
Service Commissioners have no influence over the legal examinations.

‘The recommendations proposed with regard to the Civil Service is
that Economics should, if possible, be made compulsory on those who
enter the higher branches of the Service. This proposal, if carried out,
would produce an entire revolution in the mode of appointing to the Civil

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxxiii

Service ; for, as a rule, examinations are restricted to the first entry, and
are not imposed on persons proceeding from a lower grade to a higher.

‘It is also worthy of mature consideration whether the present is a
favourable juncture for pressing on the Government a more rigid demand
for economic knowledge from its servants, when the science itself is the
“subject of keen contention, and two schools of thought, diametrically
opposed to each other, have arisen, to some extent in this country, and to
a much greater extent on the Continent.

‘The Committee, in view of these considerations, recommend that any
further action on this matter be postponed.’

This report was adopted by the Council.

The report of the Corresponding Societies Committee for the past

year, consisting of the list of the Corresponding Societies, and the titles
of the more important papers, and especially those referring to Local
Scientific Investigations, published by those Societies during the year
ending June 1, 1895, has been received.

The account of the Conference of Delegates at Oxford has, in accord-
ance with a resolution of the Council, been published in the Report for
1894.

The Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Galton, Professor R. Meldola, Sir Douglas Galton, Sir Rawson Rawson,
Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir J. Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. W. Whitaker,
Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Professor

-E. B. Poulton, Mr. Cuthbert Peek, and the Rev. Canon Tristram, is
hereby nominated for re-appointment by the General Committee.

The Council nominate Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., Chairman, Dr. J. G.

Garson Vice-Chairman, and Mr. T. V. Holmes, Secretary, to the Confer-
ence of Delegates of Corresponding Societies to be held during the meeting
at Ipswich.

In accordance with the regulations the retiring members of the

Council will be :—

Professor E. Ray Lankester. Professor A. W. Reinold.
Professor G. D. Liveing. Professor J. J. Thomson.
. Mr. W. H. Preece.

of the Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are dis-
tinguished by an asterisk in the following | list :-—

The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary members

Anderson, Dr. W., F.B.S. *Poulton, Professor H. B., F.R.S.
Ayrton, Professor W. E., F.R.S. Ramsay, Professor W., F.B.S.
Baker, Sir B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. Reynolds, Professor J. Emerson, M.D.,
Boys, Professor C. Vernon, F.R.S. | E.R.S.
Edgeworth, Professor F. Y., M.A. *Shaw, W. N., Esq., F.R.S.
_ Evans, Sir J., K.C.B., F.R.S. Symons, G. J., Esq., F.R.S.
_ Foxwell, Professor H. S., M.A. Teall, J. J. H., Esq., F.R.S.
*Harcourt, Professor L. F. Vernon, *Thiselton-Dyer, W. T., Esq., C.M.G.,
M.A., M.Inst.C.E. E.R.S.
f Herdman, Professor W. A., F.R.S *Thomson, Professor J. M., F.R.S.E.
_ Horsley, Professor Victor, F.R.S. Unwin, Professor W. C., F.RS.
_ Lodge, Professor Oliver J., F.R.S. Vines, Professor 8S. H., F.R.S.
_ Markham, Clements R., Esq., C.B., Ward, Professor Marshall, F.B.S.
EBS. Whitaker, W., Esq., F.R.S.
_ Meldola, Professor R., F.R.S.

e2

lxxxiv

REPORT—1895

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
TpswicH MEETING IN SEPTEMBER 1895.

1. Receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Making Experiments for improv-
ing the Construction of Practical
Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements.

[And the unexpended balance of
last year’s grant in the hands of
the Chairman, 18/. 14s. 6d.]

The Application of Photography
to the Elucidation of Meteoro-
logical Phenomena.

For Calculating Tables of certain
Mathematical Functions, and,
if necessary, for taking steps to
carry out the Calculations, and
to publish the results in an
accessible form.

[The unexpended balance of last
year’s grant in the hands of the
Chairman, 15/.]

Seismological Observations.

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Professor G, Carey
Foster,

Secretary.—Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.

Lord Kelvin, Professors W. E.
Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Adams,
and Oliver J. Lodge, Lord Ray-
leigh, Dr. John Hopkinson, Dr.
A. Muirhead, Messrs. W. H.
Preece and Herbert Taylor,
Professors J. D. Everett and A,

Schuster, Dr. J. A. Fleming, |

Professors G. F. FitzGerald,
G. Chrystal, and J. J. Thomson,
Mr. W. N. Shaw, Dr. J. T.
Bottomley, Rev. T. C. Fitz-
patrick, Professor J. Viriamu
Jones, Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney,
Professor 8. P. Thompson, Mr.
G. Forbes, Mr. J. Rennie, and
Mr. E. H. Griffiths.

Chairman.—-Mr. G, J. Symons.

Secretary.—Mr. A. W. Clayden.

Professor R. Meldola and Mr. John
Hopkinson.

Chairman.—Lord Rayleigh.

Secretary.— Professor A. Lodge.

Lord Kelvin, Professor B. Price,
Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher, Professor
A. G. Greenhill, Professor W. M.
Hicks, Major P. A. Macmahon,
and Lieut.-Colonel Allan Cun-
ningham.

Chairman.—Mr, G. J. Symons.

Secretaries.—Mr. C. Davison and
Professor J. Milne.

Lord Kelvin, Professor W. G.
Adams, Mr. J. T. Bottomley, Sir
F. J. Bramwell, Professor G. H.
Darwin, Mr. Horace Darwin,
Mr, G. F. Deacon, Professor J. A.
Ewiazz, Professor A. H. Green,
Protussor C. G. Knott, Professor
G. A. Lebour, Professor R. Mel-
dola, Professor J. Perry, Pro-
fessor J. H. Poynting, and Mr.
Isaac Roberts.

Grants

ots
os
on

15 00

80 00

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Oe ee eS Se eee eee

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

To assist the Physical Society in
bringing out Abstracts of Phy-
sical Papers.

To co-operate with Professor Karl
Pearson in the Calculation of
certain Integrals.

[Last year’s grant renewed. ]

To conferwith British and Foreign
Societies publishing Mathema-
tical and Physical Papers as to
the desirability of securing uni-

formity in the size of the pages

of their Transactions and Pro
ceedings.
[Last year’s grant renewed. ]

Considering the best Methods of

Recording the Direct Intensity |

of Solar Radiation.

Preparing a new Series of Wave-
length Tables of the Spectra of
the Elements.

The Action of Light upon Dyed
Colours

The Electrolytic Methods of Quan-
titative Analysis.

[Balance of last year’s grant
renewed. |

The Carbohydrates

of Barley
Straw.

Publishing in pamphlet form the
Papers on the Relation of Agri-
culture to Science, together
with the discussion which fol-
lowed.

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Dr. E. Atkinson.
Secretary. — Professor A.
Riicker.

W.

Chairman.—Rev. Robert Harley.

Secretary.—Dr. A. R. Forsyth.

Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher, Professor A.
Lodge, and Professor Karl Pear-
son.

Chairman.— Professor 8. P. Thomp-
son.

Secretary.—Mr. J. Swinburne.

Myr. G. H. Bryan, Mr. C. V. Burton,
Mr. R. T. Glazebrook, Professor
A. W. Riicker, and Dr. G. John-
stone Stoney.

Chairman.—Sir G. G. Stokes.

Secretary.—Professor H. McLeod.

Professor A. Schuster, Mr. G. John-
stone Stoney, Sir H. E. Roscoe,
Captain W. de W. Abney, Mr. C.
Chree, Mr. G. J. Symons, and
Mr. W. E. Wilson.

Chairman.—Sir H. EB. Roscoe.

Secretary.—Dr. Marshall Watts.

Mr. J. N. Lockyer, Professors J.
Dewar, G. D. Liveing, A.
Schuster, W. N. Hartley, and
Wolcott Gibbs, and Captain
Abney.

Chairman.— Dr. T. E. Thorpe.
Secretary.— Professor J. J. Hum-
mel.

"Dr. W. H. Perkin, Prof. W. J.

Russell, Captain Abney, Prof. W.
Stroud, and Prof. R. Meldola.

Chairman.—Professor J. Emerson
Reynolds.

Seeretary.—Dr. C. A. Kohn.

Professor Frankland, Professor F.
Clowes, Dr. Hugh Marshall, Mr.
A. E. Fletcher, Mr. D. H Nagel,
and Professor W. Carleton
Williams.

Chairman.—Professor R. War-
ington.

| Secretary.—Mr. Manning Prentice.
| Mr. C. F. Cross.

Chairman.—Professor R. Meldola.
Secretary.—Professor R. Waring-
ton.

lxxxv

Grants

£
100

15

30

10

10

50

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

Ixxxvi

REPORT—1895.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

To investigate the Erratic Blocks
of the British Isles and to take
measures for their preservation.

The Description and Illustration
of the Fossil Phyllopoda of the
Paleozoic Rocks.

To investigate the Character of
the High-level Shell-bearing de-
posits at Clava, Chapelhall, and
other localities.

The Investigation of the Eury-
pterid-bearing Deposits of the
Pentland Hills.

[3/. renewed. ]

To consider a project for investi-
gating the Structure of a Coral
Reef by Boring and Sounding.

[Last year’s grant renewed. ]

To examine the ground from which
the remains of Cetiosaurus in
the Oxford Museum were ob-
tained, with a view to deter-
mining whether other parts of
the same animal remain in the
rock.

[207. renewed. ]

To ascertain by excavation at
Hoxne the relations of the
Paleolithic Deposits to the
Boulder Clay, and to the de-
posits with Arctic and Tem-
perate plants.

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Professor E. Hull.
Secretary.—Mz, P. F. Kendall.
Professors T. G. Bonney, and J.
Prestwich, Mr. C. E. De Rance,
Professor W. J. Sollas, Mr. R. H.
Tiddeman, Rev. 8. N. Harrison,
Mr. J. Horne, and Mr. Dugald
Bell.
Chairman.—Rey. Prof. T. Wilt-
shire.

Secretary —Yrofessor T. R. Jones.

Dr. H. Woodward.

Chairman.—Mr. J. Horne.

Secretary.—Mr. Dugald Bell.

Messrs. J. Fraser, P. F. Kendall,
T. F. Jamieson, and David
Robertson.

Chairman.—Dr. R. H. Traquair.
Secretary.—Mr. M. Laurie.
Professor T. Rupert Jones.

Chairman.—Professor T, G. Bon-
ney.

Secretary.—Professor W. J. Sollas.

Sir Archibald Geikie, Professors
A. H. Green, J. W. Judd, C.
Lapworth, A. C. Haddon, Boyd
Dawkins, G. H. Darwin, S$. J.
Hickson, and A. Stewart, Ad-
miral W. J. L. Wharton, Drs. H.
Hicks, J. Murray, W. T. Blan-
ford, Le Neve Foster, and H. B.
Guppy, Messrs. F. Darwin, H.
O. Forbes, G. C. Bourne, A. R.
Binnie, J. W. Gregory, and
J. C. Hawkshaw, and Hon. P.
Fawcett.

Chairman.—Professor A. H. Green.

Secretary.—Mr. James Parker.

Earl of Ducie, Professor EH. Ray
Lankester, Professor H. G.
Seeley, and Lord Valentia.

Chairman.—Sir John Evans.

Secretary.—Mr. Clement Reid.

Miss E. Morse, Mr. E. P. Ridley,
and Mr. H. N. Ridley.

Grants

eae teh
10 00

10 00

10 00

25 00

25 00

a

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

To explore certain Caves in the
Neighbourhood of Singapore,
and to collect their living and
extinct Fauna.

To ascertain the Age and Rela-

tions of the Rocks in which |

Secondary Fossils have been
found near Moreseat, Aberdeen-
shire.

To enable Mr. H. C. Williamson
to investigate the Fertilisation
of the Eel, and the Development
of the testis in Teleostean
Fishes, or, failing this, to ap-
point some other competent in-
vestigator to carry on a defi-
nite piece of work at the Zoo-
logical Station at Naples.

To enable Mr. Darnell Smith or
other naturalist to investigate
the relations between physical
conditions and marine Fauna
and Flora, at the Laboratory of
the Marine Biological Associa-
tion, Plymouth.

[57. renewed. ]

The Zoology, Botany, and Geology
of the Irish Sea.

To report on the present state of
our Knowledge of the Zoology
of the Sandwich Islands, and to
take steps to investigate ascer-
tained deficiencies in the Fauna,
with power to co-operate with
the Committee appointed for the
purpose by the Royal Society,
and to avail themselves of such
assistance in their investiga-
tions as may be offered by the
Hawaiian Government. The
Committee to have power to
dispose of specimens where ad-
visable.

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Sir W. H. Flower.

Secretary.—Mr. H. N. Ridley.

Dr. R. Hanitsch, Mr. Clement
Reid, and Mr. A. Russel Wal-
lace.

Chairman.—Mr. T. F. Jamieson. 10

Secretary.—Mr. J. Milne.

Mr. A. J. Jukes-Browne.

Chairman.—Dr. P. L. Sclater. 100

Secretary.—Mr. Percy Sladen.

Professor E. Ray Lankester, Pro-
fessor J. Cossar Ewart, Pro-
fessor M. Foster, Professor S. J.
Hickson, Mr, A. Sedgwick, and
Professor W. C. M‘Intosh.

Chairman.—Mr. G. C. Bourne. 15

Secretary. — Professor E. Ray
Lankester.

Professor M. Foster and Professor

S. H. Vines.

Chairman.—Professor W.A.Herd- | 50
man.

Secretary.—Mr. I. C. Thompson.

Professor A. C. Haddon, Professor
G. B. Howes, Mr. W. E. Hoyle,
Mr. A. O. Walker, Mr. Clement
Reid, Professor F. E. Weiss, Dr.
H. O. Forbes, and Mr. G. W.
Lamplugh.

Chairman.—Professor A. Newton. | 100

Secretary.—Dr. David Sharp.

Dr. W. T. Blanford, Professor S. J.
Hickson, Mr. O. Salvin, Dr. P. L.
Sclater, and Mr. Edgar A, Smith.

lxxxvii

o
o

00

00

00

00

Ixx xviii

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

REPORT—1895.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

The Investigation of the African
Lake Fauna by Mr. J. E. Moore.

The Elucidation of the Life Condi-
tions of the Oyster under Normal
and Abnormal Environment,
including in the latter the effect
of sewage matter ard patho-
genic organisms.

Climatology of Tropical Africa,

To report on methods of Calibrat-
ing the measuring instruments
used in Engineering Laborato-
ries, and to take steps for Com-
paring the Measuring Instru-
ments at present in use in dif-
ferent laboratories.

[25/. renewed. ]

To consider means by which better
practical effect can be given to
the Introduction of the Screw
Gauge proposed by the Associa-
tion in 1884.

The Physical Characters, Lan-
guages, and Industrial and So-
cial Condition of the North-
Western Tribes of the Dominion
of Canada.

The Lake Village at Glastonbury.

An ancient Kitchen-midden at
Hastings already partially ex-
amined, and a Settlement called
the Wildernesse.

[Unexpended balance in the hands
of the Chairman 2/. 6s. 6d.]

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Dr. P. L. Sclater.

Secretary.—Professor G. B. Howes.

Dr. John Murray, Professor E.
Ray Lankester, and Professor
W. A. Herdman.

Chairman.—Professor W. A. Herd-
man.

Secretary.-—Professor R. Boyce.

Mr. G. C. Bourne and Professor
C. 8. Sherrington.

Chairman,—Mr. E. G. Ravenstein.

Secretary.—Mr. H. N. Dickson.
Sir John Kirk, Dr. H. R. Mill,
and Mr. G. J. Symons.

Chairman.—Professor A. B. W.
Kennedy.
Secretary.—Professor W.C. Unwin.

Chairman.—Mr. W. H. Preece.

Secretary.—Mr. Conrad W. Cooke.

Lord Kelvin, Sir F. J. Bramwell,
Sir H. Trueman Wood, Maj.-
Gen. Webber, Mr. R. E. Cromp-
ton, Mr. A. Stroh, Mr. A. Le
Neve Foster, Mr. T. P. Hewitt,
Mr. G. K. B. Elphinstone, and
Mr. T. Buckney.

Chairman.—Professor E. B. Tylor.

Secretary.—Mr. Cuthbert E. Peek.
Dr. G. M. Dawson, Mr. R. G. Hali-
burton, and Mr. H. Hale.

Chairman.—Dr. R. Munro.

Seeretary.—Mr. A. Bulleid.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Gen-
eral Pitt-Rivers, Sir John Evans,
and Mr. Arthur J. Evans.

Chairman.—Sir John Evans.

Secretary.—Mr. W. J. Lewis Ab-
bott.

Professor Prestwich, Mr. Cuthbert
Peek, and Mr. Arthur J. Evans.”

40 00

10 00

30 00

10 00

100 00

30 00

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE,

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

lxxxix

Subject for Investigation or Purpose Members of the Committee Grants
£ s. d.
To organise an Ethnographical | Chairman.—Mr. E. W. Brabrook. | 40 00
Survey of the United Kingdom. | Secretary.—Mr. HE. Sidney Hart-
(202. renewed. | land.
Mr. Francis Galton, Dr. J. G.
Garson, Professor A. C. Haddon,
Dr. Joseph Anderson, Mr. J. |
Romilly Allen, Dr. J. Beddoe, |
Professor D. J. Cunningham,
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins,
Mr. Arthur J. Evans, Mr. F. G.
Hilton Price, Sir H. Howorth,
Professor R. Meldola, General
Pitt-Rivers, and Mr. E. G.
Ravenstein.
To co-operate with the Committee | Chairman.—Sir Douglas Galton. | 10 00
appointed by the International | Sec7etary.—Dr. Francis Warner.
Congress of Hygiene and Demo- | Mr. E. W. Brabrook, Dr. J. G.
graphy in the investigation of Garson, Dr. W _ Wilberforce
the Mental and Physical Condi- Smith, and Mr. White Wallis.
tion of Children.
To carry out an investigation on | Chairman.—Professor J. G. Mc- | 25 00
the Physiological Applications Kendrick.
of the Phonograph, and on the | Secretary.—Professor G. G. Mur-
true form of the voice curves ray.
made by the instrument. Mr. David S. Wingate and Mr. John
8S. McKendrick.
Corresponding Societies Com- | Chairman.—Professor R. Meldola.| 30 0 0
mittee for the preparation of | Secretary.—Mr. T. V. Holmes.
their Report. Mr. Francis Galton, Sir Douglas
Galton, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr.
G. J. Symons, Dr. J. G. Garson, |
Sir John Evans, Mr. J. Hopkin- |
son, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr.
W. Whitaker, Professor EK. B.
Poulton, Mr. Cuthbert Peek, and
Rev. Canon H. B. Tristram.
Anthropometric Measurements in | Chairman.—Professor A. Mac-
Schools. alister.
[ Unexpended balance in thehands | Secretary.—Professor B. Windle.
of the Chairman 2/. 14s.] | Mr. E. W. Brabrook, Professor J.
Cleland, and Dr. J. G. Garson.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Lord McLaren.
Secretary.—Professor Crum Brown.
Mr. John Murray, Dr. A. Buchan, Pro-
fessor R. Copeland, and Hon. R.
| Abercromby.

Co-operating with the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society in making Meteoro-
logical Observations on Ben Nevis.

REPORT—1895.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

To confer with the Astronomer Royal
and the Superintendents of other
Observatories with reference to the
Comparison of Magnetic Standards
with a view of carrying out such
comparison.

Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Ob-
servations.

The Collection and Identification of
Meteoric Dust.

The Rate of Increase of Underground
Temperature downwards in various
Localities of dry Land and under
Water.

The present state of our Knowledge in
Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry.

That Mr. John Brill be requested to
draw up a Report on Non-commuta-
tive Algebras.

That Professor 8. P. Thompson and Pro-
fessor A. W. Riicker be requested to
draw up a Report on the State of our
Knowledge concerning Resultant
Tones.

The mode of Teaching Geometrical
Drawing in Schools.

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Professor A. W. Riicker.

Secretary.—Mr. W. Watson.

Professor A. Schuster and Professor H.
H. Turner.

Chairman.—Professor W. G. Adams.

Secretary.—Mr. C. Chree.

Lord Kelvin, Professor G. H. Darwin, |
Professor G. Chrystal, Professor A.
Schuster, Captain E. W. Creak, the
Astronomer Royal, Mr. William Ellis,
and Professor A. W. Riicker.

Chairman.—Mr. John Murray.

Secretary.—Mr. John Murray.

Professor A. Schuster, Lord Kelvin, the
Abbé Renard, Dr. A. Buchan, the Hon.
R. Abercromby, Dr. M. Grabham, Mr.
John Aitken, Mr. L. Fletcher, and
Mr. A. Ritchie Scott.

Chairman.—Professor J. D. Everett.

Secretary.—Professor J. D. Everett.

Professor Lord Kelvin, Mr. G. J. Symons,
Sir A. Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Professor
Edward Hull, Professor J. Prestwich,
Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, Professor A. §.
Herschel, Professor G. A. Lebour, Mr.
A. B. Wynne, Mr. W. Galloway, Mr.
Joseph Dickinson, Mr. G. F. Deacon,
Mr. E. Wethered, Mr. A. Strahan, and
Professor Michie Smith.

Chairman.—Mr. W. N. Shaw.
Secretary.—Mr. W. C. D. Whetham.
Rey. T. C. Fitzpatrick.

Chairman.—Professor O. Henrici.

Secretary.—Professor O. Henrici.

Captain Abney, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, Mr.
Rk. B. Hayward, Professor Karl Pear-
son, Professor W. Cawthorne Unwin.

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xci

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

The Establishment of a National Phy-

sical Laboratory for the more accu-
rate determination of Physical Con-
stants, and for other Quantitative
Research, and to confer with the
Council of the Association.

The Investigation of the direct Forma-
tion of Haloids from pure Materials.

Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.

The Properties of Solutions.

Reporting on the Bibliography of Solu-
tion.

The Continuation of the Bibliography
of Spectroscopy.

The Action of Light on the Hydracids
of the Halogens in presence of
Oxygen.

To inquire into the Proximate Chemical
Constituents of the various kinds of
Coal.

The Teaching of Natural Science in
Elementary Schools.

The Collection, Preservation, and Syste-
matic Registration of Photographs
of Geological Interest.

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Sir Douglas Galton.

Secretary.—Professor O. J. Lodge.

Lord Rayleigh, Lord Kelvin, Sir H. E.
Roscoe, Professor A. W. Riicker, Pro-
fessor R. B. Clifton, Professor Carey
Foster, Professor A. Schuster, Professor
W. EH. Ayrton, Dr. W. Anderson, Dr.
T. E. Thorpe, Mr. Francis Galton, and
Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.

Chairman.—Frofessor H. E. Armstrong.

Secretary.—Mr. W. A. Shenstone.

Professor W. R. Dunstan and Mr. C. H.
Bothamley,

Chairman.—-Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.—Professor H. H. Armstrong.

Chairman.—Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.—Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.
Professor W. Ramsay.

Chairman.—Professor W. A. Tilden,

Secretary.—Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.

Professors H. McLeod, 8. U. Pickering,
W. Ramsay, and 8: Young.

Chairman.—Professor H. Mcleod.
Secretary.—Professor Roberts-Austen.
Mr. H. G. Madan and Mr. D. H. Nagel.

Chairman.—Dr. W. J. Russell.

Secretary.—Dr. A. Richardson.

Captain Abney, Professor W. Noel Hart-
ley and Professor W. Ramsay.

Chairman.—Sir I. Lowthian Bell

Secretary.— Professor P. Phillips Bedson.

Professor F. Clowes, Mr. Ludwig Mond,
Professors Vivian B. Lewes and E.
Hull, and Messrs. J. W. Thomas and
H. Bauerman.

Chairman.—Dr. J. H. Gladstone.

Secretary.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.

Mr. George Gladstone, Professor W. R.
Dunstan, Sir J. Lubbock, Sir Philip
Magnus, Sir H. EH. Roscoe, and Dr.
Silvanus P. Thompson.

Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie.

Secretaries.—Mr. O. W. Jefis, and Mr.
W. W. Watts.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, Prof. W. Boyd
Dawkins, Prof. T. McKenny Hughes,
Dr. T. Anderson, and Messrs. A. S.
Reid, E. J. Garwood, W. Gray, H. B.
Woodward, J. E. Bedford, R. Kidston,
R. H. Tiddeman, J. J. H. Teall, and
J. G. Goodchild.

xcli a

REPORT—1895.,

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

To open further Sections in the
neighbourhood of Stonesfield in order
to show the relationship of the
‘ Stonesfield Slate ’ to the underlying
and overlying strata.

To explore the Calf-Hole Cave, at the
Heights, Skyrethorne, near Skipton.

To investigate the nature and probable
age of the High-level Flint-drift in
the Face of the Chalk Escarpment
near Ightham.

To consider the best Methods for the
Registration of all Type Specimens
of Fossils in the British Isles, and
to report on the same.

To study Life Zones in the British Car-
boniferous Rocks.

To report on the present state of our
Knowledge of the Zoology and
Botany of the West India Islands,
and to take steps to investigate
ascertained deficiencies in the Fauna
and Flora.

Compilation of an Index Generum et
Specierum Animalium.

To make a Digest of the Observations on
the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses
and Light-vessels.

Investigation into the Life History and
Economic Relations of the Coccidz of
Ceylon by Mr. E. E. Green,

Zoological Bibliography and Publica-
tion.

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Mr. H. B. Woodward.

Secretary.—Mr. E. A. Walford.

Professor A. H. Green, Dr. H. Woodward,
and Mr. J. Windoes.

Chairman.—Mr. R. H. Tiddeman.

Secretary.—Rev. E. Jones.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Professor
L. C. Miall, Mr. P. F. Kendall, Mr. A.
Birtwhistle, and Mr. J. J. Wilkinson.

Chairman.—Sir Jolin Evans.

Secretary.—Mr. B. Harrison.

Professor J. Prestwich and Professor
H. G. Seeley.

Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward.

Secretary.—Mr. A. Smith Woodward.

Rev. G. F. Whidborne, Mr. R. Kidston,
and Mr. J. E. Marr.

Chairman.—Mr. J. E. Marr.
Secretary.—Mr. E. J. Garwood.
Mr. A. H. Foord.

Chairman.—Dr. P. L. Sclater.

Secretary.—Mr. G. Murray.

Mr. W. Carruthers, Dr. A. C. Giinther,
Dr. D. Sharp, Mr. F. Du Cane Godman,
and Professor A. Newton.

Chairman.—Sir W. H. Flower.
Secretary.—Mr. W. Sclater.
Dr. P. L. Sclater and Dr. H. Woodward.

Chairman.—Professor A. Newton.
Secretary.—Mr. John Cordeaux.

| Mr. John A. Harvie-Brown, Mr. R. M. |

Barrington, Mr. W. E. Clarke, and Rev.
EH. P. Knubley.

Chairman.—Mr. R. McLachlan.

Secretary.—Professor G. B. Howes.

Lord Walsingham, Professor R. Meldola,
Professor L. C. Miall, Mr. R. Newstead,
Dr. D. Sharp, and Colonel C. Swinhoe.

Chairman.—Sir W. H. Flower.

Secretary.—Mr. F. A. Bather.

Professor W. A. Herdman, Mr. W. E.
Hoyle, Dr. P. Lutley Sclater, Mr.
Adam Sedgwick, Dr. D. Sharp, Mr.
C. D. Sherborn, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing,
and Professor W. F. R. Weldon.

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Xcili

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose Members of the Committee

Regulations of the Post Office regarding | Chairman.—Lord Walsingham.

the carriage of Natural History speci- | Secretary.—Dr. H. O. Forbes.

mens to Foreign Countries. Mr. R. McLachlan, Dr. C. W. Stiles, and
Colonel C. Swinhoe.

The Necessity for the immediate inves- | Chairman.—Sir W. H. Flower.
tigation of the Biology of Oceanic | Secretary.—Professor A. C. Haddon.
Islands. Mr. G. C. Bourne, Dr. H. O. Forbes, Pro-
fessor W. A. Herdman, Professor 8, J.
Hickson, Dr. John Murray, Professor
A. Newton, Mr. A. E. Shipley, and Pro-
fessor W. F. R. Weldon

The position of Geography in the Edu- | Chairman.—Mr. H. J. Mackinder.
cational System of the Country. Secretary.—Mr. A. J. Herbertson.

Mr. J. S. Keltie, Dr. H. R. Mill, Mr. E.G.
Ravenstein, and Mr. Eli Sowerbutts.

The effect of wind and atmospheric | Chairman.—Professor L. F. Vernon Har-
pressure on the Tides. court.

Secretary.—Mr. W. H. Wheeler.

Mr. G. F. Deacon, and Professor W. C.
Unwin.

For carrying on the Work of the An- | Chairman.—Sir W. H. Flower.
thropometric Laboratory. Secretary.---Dr. J. G. Garson.

Dr. Wilberforce Smith, Professor A. C.
Haddon, and Professor B. C. A. Windle.

The Prehistoric and Ancient Remains | Chairman.—Dr. C. T. Vachell.
of Glamorganshire. Secretary.— Mr. E. Seward.

Lord Pute, Messrs. R. W. Atkinson,
Franklen G. Evans, James Bell, and
T. H. Thomas, and Dr. J. G. Garson.

Linguistic and Anthropological Charac- | Chairman.—Mx. E. Sidney Hartland.
teristics of the North Dravidians— | Secretary—Mr. Hugh Raynbird, jun.
the Ura-ons. Professor A. C. Haddon and Mr. J. L.

Myres.

The best methods of preserving Vege- | Chairman.—Dr. D. H. Scott.
table Specimens for Exhibition in | Secretary.—Professor J. B, Farmer.
Museums. Professor Bayley Balfour, Professor
Errera, Mr. W. Gardiner, Professor J.
R. Green, Professor J. W. H. Trail,
| and Professor F. E. Weiss.

Communications ordered to be printed in extenso.

Professor R. Warington’s paper on ‘How shall Agriculture best receive help
from Science?’

Mr. W. Whitaker’s paper on ‘Some Suffolk Wells.’

Mr. Joseph Francis’s paper on ‘ The Dip of the Underground Palexozoic Rocks at
Ware and Cheshunt.’

XclV REPORT—1895.

Regulations regarding Grants of Money.

The regulations were revised, and are given on p. xxxii.

Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action
of desirable.

That the Council be requested to consider whether it be desirable to take steps
in order to bring the following resolution under the notice of H.M. Government and
the Trustees of the British Museum :—

‘That in view of the importance of preserving the remains of the various civilisa-
tions of this Empire which are fast disappearing, and in order to prevent the loss
and dispersion of collections of ancient and modern Anthropology which may be
offered to the nation, it is highly desirable to acquire less costly and far more
extended storehouse space than can be provided in London,’

That the Council be requested to bring before the Government the importance of
securing for the National Collections the type collection of preparations of Fossil
Plants left by the late Professor W. C. Williamson.

That it is desirable to reprint collections of the Addresses delivered by the
Presidents of Sections in separate volumes for sale.

That the Council be requested to provide the Geological Survey maps and
sections of the district in which the Association meets each year, to be placed in
a conspicuous position in the Meeting Room of Section C.

XCV

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by the
General Committee at the Ipswich Meeting, September 1895.
Names of the Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer

forthe respective Grants are prefiwed.

Mathematics and Physics.

The

£ i s.od.:
*Foster, Professor Carey—Electrical Standards (And unex-

pended balance 18/7. 14s. 6d.) ......... Rad dias Mn. See aaee 5 0 0
*Symons, Mr. G. J.—Photographs of Meteorological Phe-

MMMM shes) Mee os 8 besten ak abicis teas» «ane SORE RE SMRe de coac dela 15 0 0
*Rayleigh, Lord—Mathematical Tables (Unexpended balance

TM cis ata des Vices trol? Bot tut aautie gaus i b- ate onc sre —
alae Mr. G. J.—Seismological Observations ............... 80 0 0
* Atkinson, Dr. E.—Abstracts of Physical Papers ............... 100 0 0
*Harley, Rev. R.—-Calculation of Certain Integrals(Renewed) 15 0 0
Thompson, Professor 8. P.—Uniformity of Size of Pages of

memaactirons, we. (Renewed) .......-cntsansess creas ccqyhtare nes oF o...0
*Stokes, Sir G. G.—Solar Radiation 30 0 0

Chemistry.
*Roscoe, Sir H. E.—Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of

PD MMPCTMERES (ics . 40) vans cid Godinnlt) die dkpaellded- dade baw Pel hag 10 0 0
*Thorpe, Dr. T. E.— Action of Light upon Dyed Colours ...... 5 0 0
*Reynolds, Professor J. E.—Electrolytic Quantitative Analysis

Meme asprin AG wietegase. davasaclczaumasaattielanee'der Sl aed 10.0.0
Warington, Professor R.—The Carbohydrates of Barley Straw 50 0 0
Meldola, Professor R.—Reprinting Discussion on the Re-

lation of Agriculture to Science Sadteipds son, Sd aceh apes aa yOl'5 0

Geology.
*Hull, Professor E.—Erratic Blocks. | .:.....00:0.cssseeeadese0e sede 10 0 0
*Wiltshire, Professor T.—Paleozoic Phyllopoda................. 5 0 0
*Horne, Mr. J.—Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, &e. ......... 10 0 0
*Traquair, Dr. R. H.—Eurypterids of the Pentland Hills

ECHO WOO). 2.1. sth E46) ede smut anh aeveaa hare 5.60.90
*Bonney, Professor T. G.—Investigation of a Coral Reef by

Boring and Sounding (Renewed) ................c00eccceceeeee 10 0 0
*Green, Professor A. H.—Examination of Locality where the

Cetiosaurus in the Oxford Museum was found. (201. re-

RRND: crete snrnindie < Satie oe ed. «earnestness ac oa aee ro 25 0 0
Evans, Sir John—Palzolithic Deposits at Hoxne ......... 25 0 0
Flower, Sir W. H.—Fauna of Singapore Caves .................. 40 0 0
Jamieson, Mr. T. F.—Age and Relation of Rocks near More-

NES es Re oie a ee aR RR en 10 0 0

Carried forward............ oa saan £470 0 0

* Reappointed.

xcVi REPORI—1895.

£3. d.
Brno LOPWald. ...icsccsesosevesay din cenmsteaeeiepepedsnesisen 2c Ul leat
Zoology.
*Sclater, Dr. P. L.—Table at the Zoological Station, Naples 100 0 0
*Bourne, Mr. G. C.—Table at the Biological Laboratory, Ply-
mot ( OL. TENG WOO) ...02i7e +> sre omeaess aes eines Heeiees yaataeiees 15 0 0
*Herdman, Professor W. A.—Zoology, Botany, and Geology
Ghathenlrish Sea. \. << was ites Re ee ete ec ose oes ceee 50 0 0
*Sclater, Dr. P. L.—Zoology of the Sandwich Islands ......... 100 0 0
Sclater, Dr. P. L.—African Lake Fauna............ 0.0... .00000 00: 100 0 O
Herdman, Professor W. A.—Oysters under normal and
abnormal environment sy iescctea-ceahiassoies vibe ses oa eyoaia secon 40 0 0
Geography.
*Ravenstein, Mr. E. G.—Climatology of Tropical Africa ...... 10 0 0
Mechanical Science.
Kennedy, Professor A. B. W.—Calibration and Comparison
of Measuring Instruments (251. renewed) .......-.... 042045 30 0 0
*Preece, Mr. W. H.—Small Screw Gauge ............... 0.00000 10 0 0
Anthropology.
*Tylor, Professor E. B.—North-Western Tribes of Canada
(761. 15s. renewed) i.e eae tate ces LOO OD
*Munro, Dr. R.—Lake Village at Glastonbury (5/. renewed) 30 0 0
*Evans, Sir J.—Exploration of a Kitchen-midden at Hastings
(Unexpended balance 21. 6s. 6d.) ..........0cssseeeeereeeee oe ~—
*Brabrook, Mr. E. W.—Ethnographical Survey (20/. renewed) 40 0 0
*Galton, Sir Douglas—Mental and Physical Condition of
Ghildrert’4..0:22.. 22... Woe eso. 2s, Pee LOO
*Flower, Sir W. H.—Anthropometric Measurements in Schools
(Unexpended balance, 20. 148.) .....-...-..cesereceeeeecreseenes —
Physiology.
*McKendrick, Professor J. G.—Physiological Applications of
ake PHonosraph: «1:17.20 eegee cence mecegeens yak ehasr mene seeps 20° 0" 0
Corresponding Societies.
*Meldola, Professor R.—Preparation of Report .................5 30 0 0
£1,160 0 0

* Reappointed.

The Annual Meeting in 1896.

The Meeting at Liverpool will commence on Wednesday, Sep-

tember 16.
The Annual Meeting in 1897.

The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1897 will be held at

Toronto, Canada.

lV.

xevil

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes.

1834. £3. d
Tide Discussions .......0c..+60 20 0 0

1835. :
Tide Discussions ...........0+6+ 62 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0

£167 O O

1836.
Tide Discussions ..,..........+. 163 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
Thermometric Observations,

AMMA raeialechine vclesivow are ocave ses 50 0 0
Experiments on Long-con-

tintied Heat .......s.c0cscoees ilgeice (0)
Rain-gauges .......ec..ece0e oc eG 0)
Refraction Experiments ...... 1b 0) 0
Lunar Nutation.................. 60 0 0
PEBETINOMELCTS \......0c0cces0s000 15 6 0

£435 0 0

1837.

Tide Discussions ...........0.08 284 1 0
Chemical Constants ............ 2413 6
Lunar Nutation...........ccc0008+ 70 0 O
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0
Wides ati Bristol ..,.....ccse.cesss 150 0 O
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature............ 93 3 0
Vitrification Experiments 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ............ 8 4 6
Barometric Observations ...... 30 0 0
[SAEOTHELETS 5.,.05.ccceceorscecosess 1118 6

£922 12 6
1838.
Tide Discussions ............... 29 0 0
British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations

and Anemometer (construc-

OTM eseceser dat ses cece onccscs ss 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Sub-

stances (Preservation of)... 19 1 10
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10
ISCO! TICES *.,.......c0ccceeseees 50 0 O
Growth of Plants ............... 75 0 0
MiG in Rivers ...........sseee0s 3.6 6
Education Committee ......... 50 0 O
Heart Experiments ............ 5 3 0
Land and Sea Level............ 267 8 7
Steam-vessels...............cc0008 100 0 0
Meteorological Committee 31 9 5

£932 2 2

1895.

1839.

eas es
Fossil Ichthyology ............ 110 0 0

Meteorological Observations
at: Plymouth, &c. .........00. 63 10 0
Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2 0
Bristol! Tides’... ..cccecserovcease 35 18 6

Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature........,... 2111 O
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 0
Cast-iron Experiments......... 103 0 7
Railway Constants ............ 28 7 0
Land and Sea Level............ 274 1 2
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 4
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 171 18 0
Stars in Lacaille ............... 11 0 6
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue 166 16 0
Animal Secretions............. . 1010 6
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 O
Atmospheric Air ...........e006 146 $1 0
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3.0 0
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 0

Hourly Meteorological Ob-

servations, Inverness and
IKGINETISSIO! aces ceersssevcecsdsees 49 7 8
Fossil Reptiles ......,..cececeeee 118 2 9
Mining Statistics ............... 50 0 0
£1595 11 0
SSS

1840.

Baistol MMS ees neem «-oscne=% ss 100 0 0
Subterranean Temperature... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments ............ 18 19 0
Lungs Experiments ............ 813 0
Tide Discussions .............0+ 50 0 0
Land and Sea Level...... feeOr Lie E
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 0
Stars (Lacaille) ...............008 415 0
Stars (Catalogue) .............85 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air ..........0.608 15 15 0
Waterion Irom <csite.sec.ceoutes 10 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 70 0
Meteorological Observations. 5217 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population ............ 100 0 0
School Statistics ............... 50 0 0
Forms of Vessels ..........00... 184 7 0

Chemical and Electrical Phe-
MOMENA ecerseasasesetcdaceeces 40 0 0

Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth .........sescse00e 80 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9
£1546 16 4

if

xeviil

1841.
£ 8 G.
Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature.........-.+ 8 jou 0
ACHINOMECTOLS: ose sc. .cecesnscersos LOUTO: <0
Earthquake Shocks .........+ ae tld Pia NO
ACTIG: POISONS Na...05.0060s+-s000% Bn Oa
Veins and Absorbents ......... 320:50
Mud in Rivers ..........sseeeeee 50) a0
Marine Zoology .......scsesseeeee 1512 8
Skeleton Maps .......-s:.ssseees 20 0 0
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 185 0 0
Stars (Lacaille)..............s00» (Meme Tie Lo)
Stars (Nomenclature of) ...... ly ames ES RAG)
Stars (Catalogue of)............ 40 0 O
WWiDETODUITON ss snpadecmsstenianicn 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations

BGIMVELNESS ....00.0csssbeiane 20 0 0
Meteorological Observations

(reduction of) ..........+000- 25 0 0
Fossil Reptiles .........scceeseee 50 0 O
Foreign Memoirs ........ -....- 62 0 6
Railway Sections ............. “ OO, We #0
Forms of Vessels ..........0+0+. 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations

AULELYIMOULH stesscseesrsanssies 55 0 0
Magnetical Observations ...... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-

RONG Biecntecs svansensi a. teopnaes 100 0 0
Tides at Leith .............0000 50 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations ...... 9 6 3
eR CESIOL WCU c. sccasacseossicoetias Bb. 0.30
Radiate Animals ............... 20 0

£1235 10 11

1842.

Dynamometric Instruments.. 113 11 2
Anoplura Britanniz ............ 5212 0
Tides at Bristol ...............4. 59 8 0
Gases on Light ...............008 30 14 7
Chronometers.......e.ses.s0s costo 261 LT 16
Marine Zoology..........0....00. ey 0}
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 0
Statistics of Education......... 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-

ZS egpeccense erence eriseero- 28 0 O
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 0 O
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
Railway Sections ............... 161 10 0O
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 0
Fossil Reptiles (publication

OE Report) Re. sexesesewes ss. sta 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels ............... 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on

BiOcKS) ......<5 ees cencinn sceeaniels 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments

iL PLYMODtA <. se cccenseecss 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dyna-

mometric Instruments ...... 90 0 O

REPORT—1895.

£ 8. d.
Force: Of WAN Ge rete nesnotiag tance ee ¥10. .0-£0
Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8 O O
Vital Statistics .............+. Fee 0)
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O
£1449 17 8
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature
OEIStHES* scAcsiievesan-seaeeeenes 20 0
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Firth of
FH OTGH Gio nstecsOetnecs cpeneeeeeee 120-7007. 0
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
N'VELNOSS etssassnantccscseesen 7712 8
Meteorological Observations
Sie LYING UH! het datetbascrs sas 55 0 0
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth ...... 10 0 0
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
THO Wye tac piss sa dccaseaneenenpes 20 0 0
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations .......0....e006 50. (0 a0
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities ........ Reacts 39. 6,0
Construction of Anemometer
AL UDVETIOSS Soa cepentesaanplen 5612 2
Magnetic Co-operation......... 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory ....... eee OU, On LO
Action of Gases on Light...... 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries... 133

Experiments by Captive Bal-
BONS Pee acs asiresenveseenve
Oxidation of the Rails. "of

Ran WAYS: cescceadebisicensesrece
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles ..........0..++
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections .........s0cse-s0

Registration of Harthquake
rode) cae ee
Report on Zoological Nomen-
CIALUTE! 5.02 scnesneedeacseneseser
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester......
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...
Marine Testacea (Habits of) .

Marine Zoology ...... Saito.
Marine Zoology ....+...++ss000¢ =
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia ......
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents .......+... :

Vital Statistics .......00. Beaavess

bo

(=)
Cr OO. 0. ois
Die a dls I Le ae

147

KF OOoDnn oo SO

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£8. ad.
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 70 0 0
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 O
Morin’s Instrument and Con-
stant Indicator ............... 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength
PRUE CCTIAIS! Fe dcsvoveceoeverees 60 0 0
£1565 10 2
1844.
Meteorological Observations
at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0
Completing Observations at
PREP O UG on ce asicin cure nieirein(war 35 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological
@O-Gperation ..............6000 258 4
_ Publication of the British
Association Catalogue of
SUSIE) oasuod HE pOCp ESCH Ee amec nee 35 0 0
Observations on Tides on the
East Coast of Scotland ... 100 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature
PII SUOUS) seedsiad.ccscaces’s 1842 2 9
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
Pau Metopsidcleteeis o's) aesieie sslowaseis TOT Se
Instruments for Kew Obser-
MEME delethis reve sees: esehcsa asl oot D
_ Influence of Light on Plants 10 0 0
_ Subterraneous Temperature
BME ATA Soo ice caecacnoss se 5 ADIN)
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
WHY SECLIONS 0.2... ..ccssec tee Leu 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes
ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0
Registering the Shocks of
Earthquakes ............ 1842 23111
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the
Aigean and Red Seas 1842 100 0
Geographical Distributions of
Marine Zoology......... 1842 010
Marine Zoology of Devon and
REAM oo cic ancecseeaanneee 10 O
_ Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 10 0
4 Experiments on the Vitality
BROS CCS) sn ccasacccesest aaehesaee 9 0
‘Experiments on the Vitality
BEE EUS| tess cscs a0 00.50 1842 8 7
' Exotic Anoplura .............4. 15 0
Strength of Materials ......... 100 0
Completing Experiments on
__ the Forms of Ships ......... 100 0
_ Inquiries into Asphyxia ...... 10 0
Investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals...... 50 0
_ Constant Indicator and Mo-
rin’s Instrument ......1842 10 0
£981 12

aoe oo So GS "SoSo°" Co 6 oo o

XC1X
1845.
£ 8. a.
Publication of the British As-

sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations

ab Tnverness') 2s, tisstelswcates 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological

Co-Operation 22 J .dteeeestee 1616 8

| Meteorological Instruments

at HGINbUrPh..wccccdenscene LS Mas 79

Reduction of Anemometrical

Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0
Electrical Experiments at

Kew Observatory ............ 43 17 8
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 149 15 Q
For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0
Gases from Tron Furnaces... 50 0 0
The Actinograph ..............- 15 0 0
Microscopic Structure of

DHEMIS cotet cecesepececstresdetout Z20ONO
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843 10 0 O
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1848 2 0 7
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0° 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall. 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-

CIMEBE tease dnacce spatende wee tasriee 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and

Mortality in York.. ......... 20 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 15 14 8

£831 9 9
ay
1846.
British Association Catalogue

OL (SHANSR. 5.Pecr ac. seeece < 1844 211 15 0

Fossil Fishes of the London
I) Wi@layccmnaccsseserr cree sestectses s 100 0 O
| Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1829 ......... a OPO
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 146 16 7
Strength of Materials ......... 60 0 O
Researches in Asphyxia ...... 616 2
Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 2 15 10
Vitality of Seeds .........1845 712 3
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0 0
Expenses attending Anemo-

IMELENG ES cadeccsneacateniestes dactaee Le Ge 6
Anemometers’ Repairs......... 2 3 6
Atmospheric Waves ............ 3.3 3
Captive Balloons ......... 1844 819 8
Varieties of the Human Race

1844 7 6 3
tatistics of Sickness and

Mortality in York............ 12 050

£685 16 0
£2

c REPORT—1895.

1847.

te
$
RX

Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1829.........+6. 50/0) 0
Habits of Marine Animals... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-

CINES!\ ccpeceae tsutacdensetaaeies» 20 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Atmospheric Waves ........++ 6 9 3
Vitality of Seeds ........sc000+- Bae T
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6

£208 5 4
1848.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 1]
Atmospheric Waves ........+.+ 310 9
Vitality of Seeds ...........+++. 915 0
Completion of Catalogue of

RSUATS i iisiamaicassassendesitestee 70 0 0
On Colouring Matters ......... 5 0 0
On Growth of Plants ......... 15 0 0

£275 1 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at

Kew Observatory ...........- 50 0 0
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Gitto.........cccs.es (heen as
Vitality Of Seeds: ......cscscasns ayia al
On Growth of Plants ......... 5 0 0
Registration of Periodical

IPOMOIMIG IA) ee neetplansnnee sense LO ORG
Bill on Account of Anemo-

metrical Observations ...... By as) 0)

£159 19 6
1850.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0 0O
Periodical Phenomena......... 15 0 0
Meteorological Instruments,

PNZOTCR cenotenaiee seveae tants +o 25 0 0

£345 18 0
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

(includes part of grant in

TGA) Peresietcstaa sence ceepancesss 309 2 2
MHeory Of HeCatiieseccssecceccae ss 2009
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-

mals and Plants.............. oO 0)
Vitality of Seeds ..............6 5 6 4
Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries......... 12 0 0
Researches on Annelida ...... 10 0 0

£391 9 7

1852.
£ 3. d.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

(including balance of grant

for 1850)... ...csccsecscacesenaee 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduc-

tion of Heat ............sseeee 5 2 9
Influence.of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 0
Researches on the British An-

TLCLIG Ay wove nasdececeesneasnnsisse’ 10 0 0
Vitality of Sceds ...........s00+ 10 6x2
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 0

£304 6 7
1853.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0
Experiments on the Influence

of Solar Radiation ......... 15 0 0
Researches on the British

AMNMNECLIGA,. .00.500-s00eseecheveee 10 0 0
Dredging on the East Coast

OL) SCOUlANG wwe scaayecesee reese 10 0 O
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0

£205 0 0
1854.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

(including balance of

former Grant).......scssesccees 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax......... ll 0 0
Effects of Temperature on

Wrought Tones ci cede.-vsneses 10 0 O
Registration of Periodical

Phenomena.........ssecesceeeee 10 0 0

| British Annelida ............++. 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds’ ...........cc0s Disp Zula
Conduction of Heat ............ 4 2 0

£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ...... 10 0 0
Physical Aspect ofthe Moon 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds ............006 10 711
Map of the World............... 15 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... A ORU

£480 16 4
1856.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
tory :—
1854... tees BAD OVO
ISHBaie ees £500 0 oy oth 0a

eS a

4

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£ 3. da.
Strickland’s Ornithological

SYNONYMS ~........c.ceceeseeeee 100 0 O
Dredging and Dredging

PRIYA eth esecaseeccccsccesscnes 913 0
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical

Phenomena®............seeseeeees 10 0 0
Propagation of Salmon......... 10 0 O

£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 350 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-

DHOMES so cccncsscccssssvecsossoces 40 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 10 0 O
Dredging on the West Coast

DE MCOUANG: <......cc0csseece 00 10 0 0
Investigations into the Mol-

lusca of California ......... 10 0 O
Experiments on Flax ......... 5 0 0
Natural History of Mada-

ANCA ere ccsc sacs cexoasistesiscisevae 20 0 0
Researches on British Anne-

TTCAMEREPE ile asle no eiecsassriesnnse 25 0 0
Report on Natural Products

imported into Liverpool... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Sal-

Pica annie ks le vac esiencnvindee es 10 0 0
Temperature of Mines......... i780
Thermometers for Subterra-

nean Observations............ 5 7 4
PR AMOAGSY... 2. s0.cnccaieacecessas 5 0 0

£507 15 4
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-

HATES Fo piasc a cave sat sicssssnesvenss 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast

DEISCOLIANG ........ssessoresacac 10 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 5 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 1813 2
Report on the British Anne-

CE Bectenticlvseceacsines vacates nace 25 0 0
Experiments on the produc-

tion of Heat by Motion in

TRIMS eh ois can cises scnisanon sieeve 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Pro-

ducts imported into Scot-

TA dace ts cess once Jpacropebitec ce 10 0 0

£618 18 2
1859.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 15 0 0

Cl
Sus as
Osteology of Birds ............ 50 0 0
Irish TUnicatay eevervunerestecs.s 5 0 0
Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 O
British Meduside ............+0. 5 0 0
Dredging Committee ......... 5 0 0
Steam-vessels’ Performance... 5 0 0O
Marine Fauna of South and
West of Ireland............... 10 0 O
Photographic Chemistry ...... 10 0 0
Lanarkshire Fossils ............ 20 0 1
Balloon Ascents.........seeeeeees 39 11 O
£684 11 1
1860.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 16 6 O
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 145 0 0
Inquiry into the Performance
of Steam-vessels .......0.20. 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow
Sandstone of Dura Den 20 0 O
Chemico-mechanical Analysis
of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 0
Researches on the Growth of
PANE Shen vesisecesees cs cemmaceste 10 0 O
Researches on the Solubility
OLS SALES! ccinsecsseeepscnnesst ce 30 0 O
ResearchesontheConstituents
Ob NIANMTES © 5. cor escnessuasnsls 2DEeOr'O
Balance of Captive Balloon
113 6

INC COUNES seine: ce chemstteessests

£766 19 6

1861.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 500 0 0
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0 0
Dredying North and Kast

Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0 0
Dredging Committee :—

1860......£50 0 0

1861......£22 0 0 \ ‘aloiead
Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0 0
Solubility of Salts ............ 20 0 0
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 0
Fossils of Lesmahagow ...... 15 0 O
Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0
Chemical Alloys .............., 20 0 O
Classified Index to the Trans-

ACUHIONSs..ecer-tersec ress ssdonacers 100 0 0
Dredging in the Mersey and

DGS coeperonncetrconanowecdocnse sob Gy. (Ope (0)
WipN Circles Sreesesessesee tr esenss 30 0 0
Photoheliographic Observa-

WKGIEES: caasogbecr cinsnonachucdsodsc 50 0 O
Prison! Diet yitivsseccscecesceeney = 20°70" "0
Gauging of Water............0+8 LOPsO; 20
Alpine ASCENtS Jes.n.c. sceedeane 6 5 10
Constituents of Manures...... 25 0 O

£1111 5 10

cli

Coo co ooo coo ®&

looooooocoo on

1862.

£ 8.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0
Paint THAW Ss vee vo oc vorclnieme 21 6
Mollusca of N.-W. of America 10 0

Natural History by Mercantile
Miamines (i asee- bears eee ans 50
Tidal Observations ............ 25 0
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40 0

Photographic Pictures of the
PO TUE Nera ni ctaleiiaisinalctolejeae vsibelasisiarss 150 0
Rocks of Donegal.............+ 25 0

Dredging Durham and North-
umberland Coasts ............ 25:10
Connection of Storms ......... 20 0

Dredging North-east Coast
oie, Treen EnatGl sae sonbatin od anos Se,
Ravages of Teredo ...........- Ee tl

Standards of Electrical Re-
SUSPANICO Weccccts.cccxoescsiiecaens 50 0
Railway Accidents ............ 10 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 O
Dredging Dublin Bay ......... 10 0
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0)
ETISGMEDIET! Sones sie encessecnes'ias 20 0
Gauging of Water.............+. 12 10
Steamships’ Performance...... 150 0
Thermo-electric Currents ... 5 O

AUZSS AUG" 16
1863.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory...

Balloon Committee deficiency 70

Balloon Ascents (other ex-

DEWISES)) Gagripegdraocemesesceacor 25
TINA LO ZOE tals. « 0.0is 510.» sian symispis's aie siels sais 25
ICO PIPHOSSILS) wispistan'sscscmesweitsiennts 20
PELE ET UI OS ee siaircie a's sec cceiey eed eee AD
Granites of Donegal............ 5
ISON MOLCU Er awdbe somes cadesiscse 20

Vertical Atmospheric Move-

SVCIAUS ie cise issie siesta seicnsia'selom ie 13
Dredging Shetland ............ 50
Dredging North-east Coast of

COPANO srerwcareapseesseigesses 25
Dredging Northumberland

ALGOMA ceiccecssccslssamacs 17
Dredging Committee superin-

ii eyelolesael\~ 2,58 sodoucna dee ssOeoee 10
Steamship Performance ...... 100
Balloon Committee ............ 200
Carbon under pressure ......... 10
Volcanic Temperature ......... 100
Bromide of Ammonium ...... 8
Electrical Standards............ 100
Electrical Construction and

Distribution! secsssqesdeesess 40
Luminous Meteors ............ 17
Kew Additional Buildings for

Photoheliograph ............ 100

oS Si

oo

o oo ooooococo

i=) oo ocoooocoo oo

=
Oo

So oOo ocoooococeo

REPORT—1895.

£ 38. da.
Thermo-electricity ............ 15 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ..........++ 8 0 0
FLV GTOId acs vesraavetsnsisces-<>ssep oo, LOWMOYEO
£1608 3 10
1864.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0O
I@oa ROSSI ys recs aeseannseerrs 20, (0820)

| Vertical Atmospheric Move-

METIUS) cece sesso seasiaseenee maces 20 0 0
Dredging, Shetland ............ 75 0 0
Dredging, Northumberland... 25 0 0

| Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ...... LOVOFO
Standards of Electric Re-

SISUAMLCES .teneoet ree er eibeas sce 100 0 O
Analysis of Rocks ............ 10 0 0
Ty MOL at veaseeaeenacenewese soars LOUOAO
Askham's Gites. sc tecancceseere 50 0 O
Nitrite of ‘Amiyle 2. c..cn-cesee 10 0 0
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 0 9
RAI CAUSES ses ecseseeseseceaces 19 15 8
Cast-iron Investigation .....- 20 0 0
Tidal Observations in the

18 hyve 0) sya eer nncricoarrorrccaeen a7 50 0 O
pectral Raystocessss-ravesseaasee 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20° '0"°0

£1289 15 8
1865.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 100 0 O
Tehygeligortobrypanme visscc ont: 2850350007 13 0 0
Haln=Cauees " orescces cena aescets 30 0 0
Tidal Observations in the

La R bh en ele RR onoctnendeite donot Gao
Hexylic Compounds ............ 20 0 0
Amyl Compounds ............... 20 0 0
Prigh WO 1OTa .. sexsnescaee seers 25 0 0
American Mollusca ............ 3 OO

| Orcanic Acids! Vieeseseeees eee 20°00
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10 0 0
HUry PLerusy. 2cssseseeeeenheenecass 50 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0
Malta Caves Researches ...... 30 0 0
Oyster Breeding .............0. 25.00
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150 0 0O
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100 0 0
Moon’s Surface Observations 35 0 0
Marine Hanna feestsseeessces 25 0 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25 0 0
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50 0 0
Zoological Nomenclature...... 5 0 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies

in) Waiter ts...cctgusshesetrscss< 100 0 0
Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8 10 10
Luminous Meteors ....... svc £0) ORO

£1591 7 10

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1866.
Coit:
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0

Lunar Committee............... 64 13
Balloon Committee ............ 50 0
Metrical Committee............ 50 0
PIGISM MAIN TAL)... ..scncoeeces 50 0
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 15 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 50 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20 0
Chemical Constitution of

IOAAUBEEOWS oe -s50esoqenniova acess 50 0
Amyl Compounds ............... 25 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0
Malta CavesExploration ...... 30 0
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon

and Cornwall ............-s-e00 25 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25 0
Dredging Hebrides Coast ... 50 0
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies

PNVVILEL vecen crease sossonsccsece 50 0
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-

ReOa genie ce cccos vase faeces oss Ss 29 0
AO MLOTULS....-...c00eseceo ens 10 0
BPISM AMNeIda .........:022-.606 15 0
Catalogue of Crania............ 50 0
Didine Birds of Mascarene

EATS ence sish-h odelaasinee's)-qet'e 50 0
Typical Crania Researches ... 30 0
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100 0

£1750 13

1867.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0
Meteorological Instruments,

DME GING, ceancscaeevtntecessccee 50 0
Lunar Committee ............... 120 0
Metrical Committee ............ 30 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 100 0
Palestine Explorations......... 50 0
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30 0
ripisheRaintall. . .ccdecesssb «ane 50 O
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 25 0
Luminous Meteors ............. Oa)
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-beds 30 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 75 0
Steamship Reports Condensa-

tion ...... oc cpa Serbencetamutt ozs 100 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0
Ethyl and Methyl Series...... 25 0
Fossil Crustacea ..........0s.+ 25 0
Sound under Water ............ 24 4
North Greenland Fauna ....... 15 0

Do. Plant Beds 100 0
Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25 0
IBAbEOG LAWS ....20cccaseees eee OOseO

#1739 4

coloooooocoososo ocoocooooeocoocoeo (=)

SCSCloO Oo Cot 0O Coo ooO SoSocCooCCoKRSO ®&

ee)

1868.
£
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600

Lunar Committee ............... 120
Metrical Committee............ 50
Zoological Record............+0+ 100
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150
Steamship Performances ...... 100
British Rainfall....... “PCOCTEP EOE 50
Luminous Meteors............... 50
OrganicvAcids: | waestceg.s0cses< 60
Fossil Crustacea.........0-sseeees 25
Methyl Series: 20. scsssats4-encsie 25
Mercury and Bile ..............- 25
Organic Remains in Lime-
SLONESHOCKS vacsnanmnedes ess 25
Scottish Harthquakes ......... 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds .......-...: 50
Greenland Explorations ...... 100
HOSSUGH OVA. tas. cssceaneaee doses 2
Tidal Observations ............ 190

Underground Temperature.., 50

| Spectroscopic Investigations

cili

oa
.

colo co coscocoscoooo cooocooooeoesesooe

co|'o coo ooooooooo oscoecsescoooeseso &

of Animal Substances ...... 5
Secondary Reptiles, kc. ...... 30
| British Marine Invertebrate
HAG cacttheacits ceca tecesseceaae 100
£1940
1869.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600

Lunar Committee........... Seana a

Metrical Committee.............++ 25

Zoological Record .............+5 100
| Committee on Gases in Deep-

Well! Waters: cnrsncaneeosastees 25

|) SBxLibisheRalmrallle co. ceccscussecs 50
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,

GEC rerteilals siaseetate eee ate Merc 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations...... 150
Steamship Performances ...... 30
Chemical Constitution of

CaStwlnONsces. «i. <teanesemoaelens 80
Iron and Steel Manufacture 100
Methyl Series). sc... <onesses sense 30
Organic Remains in Lime-

StONG ROCKS: -.......-senssoesars 10
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 10
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds ......... .. 30
ROSS MIME LORAn caceirsaniswsdareneet a 25
Tidal Observations ............ 100
Underground Temperature... 30
Spectroscopic Investigations

of Animal Substances ...... 5
OYVEaNIGLA CIOS, tsnsc.cesdeeweseise 12
Kiltorcan Fossils ............66- 20

ooo ooocooooo ooo ooo oo coooo

ooo” coc ocooo oco ooo oo ooes>

civ
£ 3. d.
Chemical Constitution and

Physiological Action Rela-

CONS rw ccsgapeasceeucpesedase vey 15 0 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 10 0 0
Products of Digestion ......... 10 0 0

£1622 0 0
1870.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 600
Metrical Committee............ 25
Zoological Record............... 100
Committee on Marine Fauna 20
Mars in Wishes ..............0.9 10
Chemical Nature of Cast

Ngee tec ceecoce es tor eoeens 80
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
Heat in the Blood............... 15
British Ranta. .cccesccesve ote 100
Thermal Conductivity of

Iii (ORO ER Ret See eo ace 20
British Fossil Corals............ 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 4
Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ 15
MUCOUS LON terse eit cace ee cae 25
Tidal Observations .....-....., 100
Underground Temperature... 50
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20

Mountain Limestone Fossils 25
Utilisation of Sewage .........
Organic Chemical Compounds
Onny River Sediment
Mechanical Equivalent of

eceooooooo eosoocso ooooo

—

Son Soto)

ole ooooooooocoooo oocco ooooo

1871.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 600
Monthly Reports of Progress

aniChemistryievesscstc. <taess 100
Metrical Committee..........., 25
Zoological Record............... 100
Thermal Equivalents of the

Oxides of Chlorine ........, 10
Tidal Observations ............ 100
Hossil Ploray tenses eee - 25
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
British Fossil Corals ........, 25
Heat in the Blood.........,..... 7
British Rainfall ee eee 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150
Fossil Crustacea ........e..005 25
Methyl Compounds ............ 25
Lunar Objects ........cccscssss 20

ooocowoococe Q'S so

Soeoooaocoooo coo o

REPORT—1895.

£. 8. a.
Fossil Coral Sections, for

Photographing ........s..0+0+ 20 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ 20 0 0
Moab Explorations ........... - 100 0 O
Gaussian Constants .........++6 40 0 0

£1472 2 6
1872.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 300 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 75 0 0
Zoological Record............... 100 0 0
Tidal Committee .............., 200 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 25 0 0
Exploration of Moab............ 100 0 0
Terato-embryological Inqui-

TICS ives. asecetvecestusessseocerere 10 0 O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 0
Heat in the Blood............... '15 0 0
Fossil Crustacea ........0.0..0 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants of Malta ... 25 0 O
Gonar Opyjectsmiiy.sscsssseeese ee 20 0 0
Inverse Wave-lengths ......... 20 0 0
British: Rainfall. ....c..cascseses 100 0 0
Poisonous Substances Anta-

PONISI. ccccseesccesesess sears 10 0 0
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-

SUUULION WGC. ease reacetneeete 40 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 50 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of Me-

DAIS" cecsenocsecsecwaee ean ceseetenes 25 0 0

£1285 0 0

1873,

Zoological Record............+.. 100 0 0
Chemistry Record.............+ 200 0 O
Tidal Committee ............... 400 0 O
Sewage Committee ............ 100 0 O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants ............... 25 0 0
Wave-lengths .......ssescsceces 150 0 0
British Rainfallrs.:.:..:ccccsc0se 100 0 0
Hssential Oust itaseestossteccanes 30 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants ......... see LOPS PD
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Underground Temperature... 150 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20 0 0
Timber Denudation and Rain-

fall .....csipsseaeemeeee cee ee 20 0 0
Luminous Meteors.............+. 30 0 0

£1685 0 0

)

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1874.

£
Zoological Record............+4 100
Chemistry Record............... 100
Mathematical Tables ......... 100
Elliptic Functions............++ 100
Lightning Conductors ......... 10

Thermal Conductivity of
PIERS cocsasserconcercsceessnecss 10

Anthropological Instructions 50
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150

Luminous Meteors ..........+ 30
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15
mihisn, MaIntall, .....0...scsscnce 100
Essential Oils............:.sese00e 10
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50
Mauritius Meteorology ...... 100
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20
Marine OrganismS............++. 30
Fossils, North-West of Scot-
MAW ewe cccsscsacccocsevessnecécses 2
Physiological Action of Light 20

Trades Unions
Mountain Limestone-corals 25
Erratic Blocks
Dredging, Durham and York-

sees ee seeeeneseees

Seer e mew nenreneeee

i
coooo cooocoocococoo ooooce

Shire CoastS ....ccsceerceseees 28 5
High Temperature of Bodies 30 0
Siemens’s Pyrometer ........+ 3 6
Labyrinthodonts of OCoal-

MNCASUTES..cc¢erssserscnennsdsciens 7 15

£1151 16

_————— oe

1875.

Elliptic Functions ............ 109 0 O
Magnetisation of Iron ......... Ze 10), 0
British Rainfall..............00+ 120 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Chemistry Record............... 100 0 O
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid.............4 10 0 0
Isometric Cresols .............4. 20 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 15 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Development of Myxinoid

PES OS i ogee slstlvveaeiicws tute 20 0 0
Zoological Record............066 100 0 0
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 0
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 0

£960 0 0

1876.
Printing MathematicalTables 159 4 2
British Rainfall.............0000° 100 0 O
Bere SPTAW 30000 6.5e3sceccs cboeee 915 0
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0

£
Tsomeric Cresols ......sseeeeees 10
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
ACETATE. ....cccrecsceccressseceess 5
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid.........+0++++ 13
Exploration of Victoria Cave 100
Geological Record..,.........++. 100
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100
Thermal Conductivities of
ROCKS p.sekccesess<gendestsenens 10
Underground Waters ......... 10
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 1
Zoological Record........+++++- 100
@loseURimes sy. e-necncsssenssbeseeee 5
Physiological Action of
SOMMG! <5 .. ne, -cwesscuess! «ves 25
Naples Zoological Station ... 75
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15
Physical Characters of Inha-
bitants of British Isles...... 13
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10
Effect of Propeller on turning
of Steam-vessels ..........++ 5
£1092
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acid in
Wiiina Crculs\ 227 sess sviespeanielon seas 20
Elliptic Functions ............ 250
Thermal Conductivity of
ROCK Sy ect soncecesece seohar cube 9
Zoological Record............+++ 100
Kent’s Cavern .....s.ceceeseeeee 100
Zoologica] Station at Naples 75
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
Elasticity of Wires ..........+« 100
Dipterocarpez, Report on ... 20
Mechanical Equivalent of
ICA De cosensscteescadesasuesec sant 35
Double Compounds of Cobalt
BNGUNTCKC ly sasswacnastedees eevee 8

Underground Temperature... 50

Settle Cave Exploration ...... 10
Underground Waters in New
Red Sandstone ...........+0 10
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
ACCTALCS (easssenveccnsnesedenees 10
British Earthworks ............ 25
Atmospheric Electricity in
pbetshts\y Anas eeectcrceccre uo re 15
Development of Light from
Coal-2as .....0.0..-ssccncesenes= 20
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid...........+4+. 1
Geological Record............+«+ 100
Anthropometric Committee 34
Physiological Action of Phos-
phoric)AGids | GC. ..2.6. socom 15
£1128

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REPORT—1895.

cV1
1878.
chu Sees De
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0
Geological Record............... 100 0 0
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Siphon
Recorder saecscvecazed eoetettesee HO)
Zoological Station at Naples- 75 0 0
Investigation of Underground
Waters) css Sniiniecesesese To wOee.0
Transmission of flectrical
Impulses through Nerve
SGPUCHONe sete cosets ads 30 0 0
Calculation of Factor Table
for ATR MAIO ccassecvesees 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0
Zoological Record .............. 100 0 0
Fermanagh Caves Explora-
LOR Sepacscetenctote cee ihe 15 0 0
Therma] Conductivity of
IROCKS: |. . htestacs se teesestes acs 416 6
Luminous Meteors............... 10:05 0
Ancient Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples ............... 75 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland 20 0 0
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth ............ fie On)
Record of Zoological Litera-
RUC reo catiiie ec'esneskeactee tee dete 100 0 0O
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 O
Exploration of Caves in
BOTH EDM etm csecctes cet vest oy 50 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Record of the Progress of
GEOLOG yn omanetcccrs ios nccvocses 100 0 O
Fermanagh CavesExploration 5 0 0
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts............... 25 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions... 150° 0 0
Underground Waters............ 10 0 0
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 0
Improvements in Astrono-
mical| Clocks aencssse seein 30 0 0
Marine Zoology of South
Wevon.....ccsrosemee ee 20 0 0
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat ...... -. 1215 6

Kd

(—) Ste}

1
0

ou kor lic. nox isl 76e soseo. |S

£1080 11 11

£
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum........ - 40
Tables of Sun-heat Co-
CMICIeNtS <.....2.-++candenndeetes 30
Datum Level of the Ordnance
DU VOY iss .ceees/-ckeras Shari eaeee 10
Tables of Fundamental In-
variants of Algebraic Forms 36
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-
servations in Madeira ...... 15
Instrument for Detecting
Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22
Instruments for Measuring
the Speed of Ships ......... 17
Tidal Observations in the
English Channel ............ 10
1880.
New Form of High Insulation
Key oe... arsanteseaceeseste ee 10
Underground Temperature... 10
Determination of the Me-
chanical Equivalent of
HLCah A, caeedee ves soos tee eee 8
Elasticity of Wires ............ 50
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30
Fundamental Invariants ...... 8
Laws of Water Friction ...... 20
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum......... 20
Completion of Tables of Sun-
heat Coefficients ............ 50
Instrument for Detection of
Fire-damp in Mines......... 10
Inductive Capacity of Crystals
and Paraffines .............0. 4
Report on Carboniferous
POLY ZOa) (estas cwecsbas ceceee cee LO
Caves of South Ireland ...... 10
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-
BAULUBF. =... .cspaceeeenieesep tees, 10
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50
Geological Record............... 100
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of North Ireland ............ 15
Underground Waters of Per-
mian Formations ............ 5
Record of Zoological Litera-
LUTE \eiteons seco suteneieate voisvees LOO
Table at Zoological Station
aibyWNaples ic. sasnes steessoneneee 75
Investigation of the Geology
and Zoology of Mexico...... 50
Anthropometry ............ sneaee 50
Patent Laws .........sscsseerscee 5
£731

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GENERAL STATEMENT.

1881.
£
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30
Underground Temperature... 20

Electrical Standards........ ... 25
High Insulation Key............ 5
Tidal Observations ............ 10
Specific Refractions ............ 7
MeHossil PolyZ0a ........cecceeeaee 10
- Underground Waters ......... 10
Harthquakes in Japan ......... 25
Tertiary Flora ..........-..+.04- 20

Scottish Zoological Station ... 50
Naples Zoological Station ... 75
Natural History of Socotra... 50
Anthropological Notes and

, PUTCTIOS hee scucccccenccsaceees vas 9
a Zoological Record...........+.++ 100
Weights and Heights of
Human BGM Sse esesccest sens 30

£476
1882.

Exploration of Central Africa 100 0 0

Fundamental Invariants of

Algebraical Forms ......... 76
Standards for Electrical

Measurements ...........-+6- 100
Calibration of Mercurial Ther-

MMPUMELCES | Uccaccscsnscacerescese 20
Wave-length Tables of Spec-

tra of Elements............... 50
Photographing Ultra-violet

Spark Spectra ............... 25
Geological Record............... 100
Earthquake Phenomena of

+1. (Gili. 355 28d8eeMagsBHbeEpeaasaeee 25

Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic
DUS Mee cece ce snc'ssaaiauesiess 10

Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15

Geological Map of Europe ... 25

Circulation of Underground

Bees etet ts iidececlehsrcecincacsse 15
Tertiary Flora of North of

EBGTENGIS cecaadoccccsses cossreess 20
PSEUINM POLY ZOG....2- cen oenavocess 10
Exploration of Caves of South

Of JLiGl2nals a peeyaP ROE eeacc one 10

Explorationof Raygill Fissure 20
Naples Zoological Station ... 80
Albuminoid Substances of
PIOMNM eres ea ssecseessscaccsrossrs 10
Elimination of Nitrogen by

Bodily Hxercise............... 50°

Migration of Birds ............ 15

_ Natural History of Socotra... 100

Natural History of Timor-laut 100
Record of Zoological Litera-
Be ecerdehichicesssmss sande sbaspra 100

ao sro -OoCoCOCOoOMSooSooo
lo CoO cooCoOoSCOrROCSCOSCS &

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1883.
£
| Meteorological Observations
On) Ben NeVIS'..........c0serses 50
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
WHIGIVEGR. <cseneanceaneces emeuences 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
J APANG re scnnsnsreroseenetassesces 50
Fossil Plants of Halifax...... 20
British Fossil Polyzoa ......... 10
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
ZOIC ROCKS) (iseegacnsceseaduss ass 25
Erosion of Sea-coast of Eng-
land and Wales ......ces..s00- 10
Circulation of Underground
WAbCISs.ncccedlecnacusapetenennitns 15
Geological Record..........+.+++ 50
Exploration of Caves in South
Of Mimelamdig..ice.wesaesresste=- 10
Zoological Literature Record 100
Migration of Birds ............ 20

Zoological Station at Naples 80
Scottish Zoological Station... 25
Elimination of Nitrogen by

Bodily Exercise..........-.+0« 38

Exploration of Mount Kili-
WIA-NYATO.ressccsseecuensvecss 500

Investigation of Loughton
Camp dst Messivetsssuipeeieerss 10
Natural History of Timor-laut 50
Screw Gauges...... oe een Seeds 5
£1083

1884.

Meteorological Observations
on Ben NeVis ...........e0ceeee 50

Collecting and Investigating
Meteoric Dust.............se0ee 20

Meteorological Observatory at
ChepStOW.....ccsccsceerccscecees 25
Tidal Observations...........++ 10

Ultra Violet Spark Spectra... §
Earthquake Phenomena of

JAPAN re wiamadeien seins citunes emacs 75
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15
Fossil Poly 20d... .......cesceescone 10
Erratic Blocks of England ... 10
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-

ZOMG HNOCKS a vachechaacscnenever=s 15

| Circulation of Underground

Wiatersiees acces scspepmateneneens 5

| International Geological Map 20
Bibliography of Groups of

Invertebrata .......0ecesseeee 50
Natura] History of Timor-laut 50
Naples Zoological Station ... 80
Exploration “of Mount Kili-

ma-njaro, Hast Africa ...... 500
Migration of Birds............. 20
Coagulation of Blood........--0 100
Zoological Literature Record 100
Anthropometric Committee... 10

£173

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1885.
£
Synoptic Chart of Indian
OCGA. ctonscennen cepen ore meee 50
Reduction of Tidal Observa-
IONS ceases collsnoheal etme enone rik 10
Calculating Tables in Theory
Of Numberss.sceassen-eeaneausne 100
Meteorological Observations
lon Bene Nevisiscnscesesceiere ves 50
Meteoric Dust ..........densce-s 70
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt
Solutions........... orion oaaponod 25
Physical Constants of Solu-
PONS? .-. snow een setincteseaeeas ere 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
WIUS2 cease wcieatcasvaneescsaeetveces 25
Raygill Fissure ...............00. 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
SIAPAM™ acswessnessscsevsesss sass 70
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palaeozoic
ROCKStt ac ccoeratacsceveose tees 25
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds. 50
Geological Record ..............+ 50
Circulation of Underground
INV AUCIS 3. oc nscvsstecressteroch ccs 10
Naples Zoological Station ... 100

Zoological Literature Record. 100

Migration of Birds ............ 30
Exploration of Mount Kilima-

HEL] AO Meteieeais vs cessebaccadersy sere 25
Recent Poly z0a......sssce.ccsecsse 10
Granton Biological Station ... 100
Biological Stations on Coasts

of United Kingdom ......... 150

Exploration of New Guinea... 200
Exploration of Mount Roraima 100

£1385

1886.

Electrical Standards............ 40
SOAR ACTALION sss atw ase teste cs 9
Tidal Observations ............ 50
Magnetic Observations......... 10
Observations on Ben Nevis... 100
Physical and Chemical Bear-

ings of Electrolysis ......... 20
Chemical Nomenclature ...... 5

Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds... 2

Caves in North Wales ......... 25
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
MMOS neue ctoreteiatissccesseete 30
Geological Record............... 100
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 15
Zoological Literature Record. 100
Granton Biological Station... 75
Naples Zoological Station...... 50

Researches in Food-Fishes and
Invertebrata at St. Andrews

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REPORT—1895.

£
Migration of Birds ............ 30
Secretion of Urine.............0+ 10
Exploration of New Guinea... 150
Regulation of Wages under
sliding) Scales, sqse.cse/as 10
Prehistoric Race in Greek
Tslands:....psensreroscoweereeeeeey 20
North-Western Tribes of Ca-
MAGA. 65 do sevnnsilswchne chee eeeeeee 50
£995
1887.
Solar Radiation .............00s.- 18
Hlectroly sis... sonsces-=sseessn ts 30
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 75
Standards of Light (1886
feartebaue)) ionsoaonntoece en ona 20
Standards of Light (1887
TAME) trensspesrcaoacatnsea cows 10
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations ...............006 15
Magnetic Observations......... 26
Electrical Standards ............ 50
Silent Discharge of Electricity 20
Absorption Spectra ............ 40
Nature of Solution ............ 20
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
IVALLIS (ciheas <en aoe cen eke aan 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(1886 grant), 22. c.csessecieress 50
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
GSS 7 cranit) esses scacsmeneera 50
Cae Gwyn Cave, N. Wales ... 20
Hrratic BlOCKS: |. cc.csscn-s=eseers 10
Fossil Phyllopoda ............... 20
Coal Plants of Halifax........ 25
Microscopic Structure of the
Rocks of Anglesey............ 10
Exploration of the Eocene
Beds of the Isleof Wight... 20
Underground Waters ......... 5
‘Manure’ Gravelsof Wexford 10

Provincial Museums Reports 5
Lymphatic System
Naples Biological Station
Plymouth Biological Station
Granton Biological Station...
Zoological Record
Flora of China
Flora and Fauna of the
Cameroons
Migration of Birds
Bathy-hypsographical Map of

British sisles ee sasm ies cena 7
Regulation of Wages ......... 10
Prehistoric Race of Greek

ESlanGS..ssenoreveseerasaisece sass 20
Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20

£1186 18

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GENERAL STATEMENT.

1888.
£
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 150
Electrical Standards............ 2
Magnetic Observations......... 15
Standards of Light ............ 79
Hlectrolysis ......sceseecseeeees 30
Uniform Nomenclature in
INIGECHANICS) savccssoccaceescceee 10
Silent Discharge of LElec-
MEVCMGYs carcnsscccescccctvescneesss 9
Properties of Solutions ...... 25
Influence of Silicon on Steel 20

Methods of Teaching Chemis-
EMT Wows <ctuccsesspesecececssececs 10

Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-
TUVEH ives sderasccesvedeccecseree

Action of Light on Hydracids 20
Sea Beach near Bridlington... 20
Geological Record ...........6... 50
Manure Gravels of Wexford... 10
Erosion of Sea Coasts ......... 10
Underground Waters ......... 5

Paleontographical Society ... 50
Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth.,. 50
Carboniferous Flora of Lan-
cashire and West Yorkshire 25
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
ORULSERM cock Reticle dolaicclc dc bisiet'd a « 20
Zoology and Botany of West

Thalia) 0 Basderageenoscn eee nora 100
Flora of Bahamas .......0+.....+ 100
Development of Fishes—st.

PAMICINGWS ssh oscceccsceadsonssne 50
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 100
Migration of Birds ............ 30
Milora OF China. .....0../csecceees 75
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Lymphatic System ............ 25

Biological Station at Granton
Peradeniya Botanical Station 50

Development of Teleostei ... 15
Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar

7) TZTLLOS) 88 Se yeocdpeepeposepennca 5
Precious Metals in Circulation 20

Value of Monetary Standard 10
Hffect of Occupations on Phy-

sical Development............ 25
North-Western Tribes of
BAA mekssceisecsscesssceeees 100
Prehistoric Race in Greek
JSG000 | banc deocosonc ce cocvogeces 20
£1511
1889.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50
Hlectrical Standards............ 75
BIGCLTOLY SIS i525 cdeccvdace levscaee 20
Surface Water Temperature... 30
Silent Discharge of Electricity
WOR SCN. sc1circscseescgs cavcen

So onNnooocs

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£
Methods of teaching Chemis-

EY Festa ctetienivieivielsieein ols eincinielewwinie 10
Action of Light on Hydracids 10
Geological Record.........seese+ 80
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan 25
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

DVLLS: waisieweieciescrletieicsleieslsle salesman 20
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 20
Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of

Wile DGlc<steasensnccesecceeomncrsts 15
West Indian Explorations sea LOO
Flora of China ........0.cseseeee 25
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Physiology of Lymphatic

DYSUCIML wee deseesecenste-seadece 25

Experiments with a Tow-net 5
Natural History of Friendly
Tslamds........-s:coemescsssressens
Geology and Geography of
Atlas Range...
Action of Waves and Currents

eee e eee eneeene

In HstuarieS ......sccccceseses 100
North-Western Tribes of

Camaday erat t<ecsaaenetechserenes 150
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 30
Corresponding Societies ...... 20

Marine Biological Association 200
‘ Baths Committee,’ Bath...... . 100

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1890.
Electrical Standards............ 12
Hlectrolysis .......ccsssseesecees 5
Hlectro-optics..........cbssecacses 50
Mathematical Tables ......... 25
Volcanic and Seismological

Phenomena of Japan ...... 75
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 15
Properties of Solutions ...... 10
International Standard forthe

Analysis of Iron and Steel 10
Influence of the Silent Dis-

charge of Electricity on

Oxyeen) Pirie incsd ce tad-aseres 5
Methods ofteachingChemistry 10
Recording Results of Water

NDIAIEVISIS (Wels scecletdh olaeisteetchotse dele 4
Oxidation of Hydracids in

Subic bie vavescweasesce«aaeweae 15
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VAS iaaescseee sa eer secant cress 20
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 10
Circulation of Underground

Wahersscsmneersssetenvanemeusets 5
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 15
Cretaceous Polyzoa ............ 10
Geological Photographs ......
Lias Beds of Northampton... 25
Botanical Station at Perade-

UVR co nmaeaeeanel ane cnausteane 25

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cx REPORT—1895.

Lis. a 1892.
Experiments with a Tow-

TABS dSgneuocs spopecnEcRea oar 4 3 9 | Observations on Ben Nevis ...
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 O | Photographs of Meteorological
Zoology and Botany of the Bhenomena)....cssasshsiecebeeees

West India Islands ......... 100 0 O | Pellian Equation Tables ......
Marine Biological Association 30 0 0 | Discharge of Electricity from
Action of Waves and Currents Points. .. 2d....530sdsasseesauaa

41) HISGUATICS | 1s.c.scsneceeseses 150 0 O | Seismological Phenomena of
Graphic Methods in Mechani- JAPAN |. ocx8iqhs..sehns aeeaeat ee

(GIL SETEAKES «ce Beeqnonoaeco-oecrS 11 0 O | Formation of Haloids .........
Anthropometric Calculations 5 O 0 | Properties of Solutions ......
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 25 0 0! Action of Light on Dyed
Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 0 | . Colours: .irartt-assaedee

See 5 | Mura tie Blocks. -teaceseceuceaee
£799 168 Photographs of Geological
apr Sa Enter ESb .. isenesascemcacneeenen

Underground Waters. a eee

1891. oe of Elbolton

Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50 Meester eh Oldbury Hill

Electrical Standards............ 100 Cretaceous Polyz0a .....ss000
Hlectrolysis...........+..+s+e:000++ 5 Naples Zoological Station

Seismological Phenomena of Marine Biological Association

Mois ner ass onssenasos sone eae 10 Deep-sea Tow-net ...........06+
Temperatures of Lakes......... 20 Fauna of Sandwich Islands...
Photographs of Meteorological | Zoology and Botany of West

Phenomena. ....+..-+sseeeeeees 5 India Islands i... sadsssicsssa0

NS

id

i

PROUD lowe svilsceo'sescsesescnes os
Ultra Violet Rays of Solar
SECURIT cos.tcandesaccve cases

Climatology and Hydrography

of Tropical Africa ......... «.
Anthropometric Laboratory...
Anthropological Notes and

International Standard for QUETIOS’ iate.snSt Ree -cdeenee
Analysis of Iron and Steel... Prehistoric Remains in Ma-
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva- Shonaland!sscstetees.eeenteee =

LVS A. < cn cuacqucenaxduecidas raaane

North-Western Tribes of

Formation of Haloids ......... ania: « :2554sse.sa eee
Action of Light on Dyes ...... Corresponding Societies ......
Geological Record ...........0...
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
RANTS gets + <iicieicins a's tana Sica ates oth
Fossil Phyllopoda...............
Photographs of Geological 3
HMLETES) t.2.hate Socaswasseteck en 1893.
Lias of Northamptonshire Electrical Standards............
Registration of ‘Type-Speci- Observations on Ben Nevis...
mens of British Fossils...... Mathematical Tables .........

Investigation of Elbolton Cave
Botanical Station at Pera-

EN aimemetaane rs « ds sth takeeegs
Experiments with a Tow-net
Marine Biological Association

Intensity of Solar Radiation
Magnetic Work at the Fal-
mouth Observatory .........
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
WATIVGN Recess ten aiocsvess canes

Disappearance of Native Hirratic BlOGKS .....:....00-se000
laMtS i eaechetebetadewasccetacics 0 Fossil Phyllopoda.............+8
Action of Waves and Currents Underground Waters .........
In Estuaries .............0000- 0 Shell-bearing Deposits at
Anthropometric Calculations 0 Clava, Chapelhall, &c. ......
New Edition of ‘Anthropo- Eurypterids of the Pentland
logical Notes and Queries’ 0 1S RUE eae fas eee mcs

North - Western Tribes of Naples Zoological Station
Canada Jassancatisrenceteccsss 0 Marine Biological Association
Corresponding Societies ...... 0 Fauna of Sandwich Islands
£1,029 10 Zoology and Botany of West

nda Eslands coreseswesaneneads

eo FS S&S SS FS OSSS0OSSD Coo oo coco So GMie™~ 6:3
ooo o' S89 SCO S&S Secoesos Sse co’ ooo: os Sore

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oOo Sood © S000 Si alcooo

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£ 8. a,
Exploration of Irish Sea ...... 30 0 O
_ Physiological Action of

Oxygen in Asphyxia......... 20 0 0
Index of Genera and Species

RGPATIEIGNS) ceniocecscncscsaveses 20 0 0
Exploration of Karakoram

Mountains ...........cseseeees 50 0 0
Scottish Place-names ......... 10870
Climatology and Hydro-

graphy of Tropical Africa 50 0 O
Economic Training ............ Deo 10
Anthropometric ‘Laboratory oe Om.O
Exploration in Abyssinia...... 257 0) 0
North-Western ‘Tribes of

MBA ievsicas-cesecansecsexcas 100 0 O
Corresponding Societies ...... 30 0 0

£907 15 6
1894.
Electrical Standards............ 25: 0 0
Photographs of Meteorological

(PHENOMENA. ..c055...0c.5e:-20-. 10 0 0
Tables of Mathematical Func-

FDTD pag de ager ndeqdneceeeaeee 1 Ok 40
Intensity of Solar Radiation 5 5 6
Wave-length Tables............ LOS O00)
Action of Light upon Dyed

(Calo utes) » Ce Saanos eee peaaee cot 5 0 0
Erratic Blocks ...........sssccee 15> "0"..0
Fossil Phyllopoda ...........++++ 5 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at

ROIAMASICES Verenccccsstctecsessss 20 0 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland

ETE, Set iold- wcekcicss «<seaiceses 5 0 0
New Sections of Stonesfield

“LU LIPS) qaacnes a BEOoe aE SEEe cece 14 0 0
Observations on Earth-tre-

FOIE tess-+c2cssscecsscese=sncee 50 0 0
Exploration of Calf- Hole

ree eer ian eveabveessnccrcecrcns be OO
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 5 0 0
Zoology of the Sandwich

LE Un CIES yoec oeSgapongeeseLenene 100 0 0
Zoology of the Irish Sea ...... 40 0 0
Structure and Function of the

Mammalian Heart............ 10°00
Exploration in Abyssinia 30 0 0
Economic Training ............ 910 0
Anthropometric Laboratory

BIPAIDRING Sc vassccesavcoscccnca see By O10,
Ethnographical Survey ...... 10 F Ome
The Lake Village at Glaston-

RUDE asec secsdncspandaa ces 40 0 0

_ Anthropometrical Measure-
__ ments in Schools ............ 5 0 0
Mental and Physical Condi-

tion of Children............... 20 0 0

Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0 0
£583 15 6

:

cxXl
1895.
res: id.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Photographs of Meteorological
PHENOMENA, .......0.25ceceeeree 10 0 0
Barth Tremors: . 2...cc.ccsessese 75 0 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Reduction of Magnetic Obser-
vations made at Falmouth
Observatory .........sesseee0s 50 0 0
Comparison of Magnetic Stan-
Gander pasesesscececessatsersreses 25 0 0
Meteorological Observations
OnUBeneN Gus ecsecdssecenan te - 50) 0 0
Wave-length Tables of the
Spectra of the Elements... 10 0 0
Action of Light upon Dyed
(Bie, acnee cone coocecentencoc ag
Formation of Haloids from
|). (Pore Materals” 20ve..csse--- 20 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
WAGLVES Tes hae abe eieae ye casaaah = 30 0 0
Electrolytic Quantitative An-
le... ILVSIS, wysiaccns chap que cues dns ste 30 0 0
Brratig RIocks= <-:capsrqpencncs 10 0 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ... ..... 5 0 0
Photographs of Geological In-
HALES: ..cia.cuesecvenerecencegeee 10 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at
Claw aigiSiCs. vane censh cance ones ov om 10 0 O
Eurypterids of the Pentland
12 ad | Barer epsoceecoceconcnncocecec 3.0 0
New Sections of Stonesfield
ISJENKE: Mami od: che --p oaener Bane 50 0 0
Exploration of Calf Hole Cave 10 0 0
Nature and Probable Age of
High-level Flint-drifts ...... 10 0 0
Table atthe Zoological Station
at Naplesvijaes...¢ test OS. 100 0 0
Table at the Biological Labo-
ratory, Plymouth ............ 15 0 0
Zoology, Botany, and Geology
of the Irish Sea........,...-.- 35 9 4
Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands ......... 50 0 0
Index of Genera and Species
Gf Animals Wesseseeedscacdedosa<2 50 0 O
Climatology of Tropical Africa 5 0 O
Exploration of Hadramut 50 0 0
Calibration and Comparison of
Measuring Instruments 25 0 0
Anthropometric Measure-
ments in Schools ...........- 5 0 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 30 0 0
Exploration of a Kitchen-
midden at Hastings ......... 10-00
Ethnographical Survey ...... 1OE7208'0
Physiological Applications of
the Phonograph............... 25 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 30 0 0
£977 15

lor

exii REPORT—1895.

General Meetings.

On Wednesday, September 11, at 8 p.m., in the Public Hall, Ipswich,
the Most Hon. the Marquis of Salisbury, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S. (repre-
sented by the Right Hon. Lord Kelvin, D.C.L., Pres.R.8.) resigned
the office of President to Captain Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.8., F.R.G.S., F.G.8S., who took the Chair, and delivered an
Address, for which see page 3.

On Thursday, September 12, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place at
the Museum.

On Friday, September 13, at 8.30 p.m., in the Public Hall, Professor
Silvanus P. Thompson, F.R.S., delivered a discourse on ‘ Magnetism in
Rotation.’

On Monday, September 16, at 8.50 p.m., in the Public Hall, Pro-
fessor Percy F. Frankland, F.R.S., delivered a discourse on ‘The Work
of Pasteur and its Various Developments.’

On Tuesday, September 17, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place at the
Museum.

On Wednesday, September 18, at 2.30 p.m., in the Lecture Hall,
the concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings of the
General Committee and the Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes were
explained to the Members.

The Meeting was then adjourned to Liverpool. [The Meeting is
appointed to commence on Wednesday, September 16, 1896.]

Noel te >, . Tt wor oe

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_ PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

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ADDRESS
BY

SIR DOUGLAS GALTON, K.C.B., D.C.L, F.BS.,

PRESIDENT.

b My first duty is to convey to you, Mr. Mayor, and to the inhabitants of
_ Ipswich, the thanks of the British Association for your hospitable invita-
: tion to hold our sixty- -fifth meeting in your ancient town, and thus to recall
_.the agreeable memories of the similar favour which your predecessors con-
farce on the Association forty-four years ago.
| In the next place I feel it my ahibge to say a few words on the
great loss which science has recently sustained—the death of the Right
f Hon. Thomas Henry Huxley. It is unnecessary for me to enlarge,
_ in the presence of so many to whom his personality was known, upon
his charm in social and domestic life; but upon the debt which the
. Association owes to him for the assistance which he rendered in the
_ promotion of science I cannot well be silent. Huxley was preeminently
" qualified to assist in sweeping away the obstruction by dogmatic au-
"thority, which in the early days of the Association fettered progress in
certain branches of science. For, whilst he was an eminent leader in
. biological research, his bcitelleatustl power, his original and intrepid mind,
his vigorous and masculine English, made him a writer who explained the
Bdcepest subject with transparent clearness. And as a speaker his lucid
and forcible style was adorned with ample and effective illustration in the
lecture-room ; and his energy and wealth of argument in a more public
arena exeoly: helped to win the battle of evolution, and to secure for us
the right to discuss questions of religion and science without fear and
without favour.

_ It may, I think, interest you to learn that Huxley first made the
B2

~
‘
Be

4 REPORT—1895.

acquaintance of Tyndall at the meeting of the Association held in this
town in 1851.

About forty-six years ago I first began to attend the meetings of the
British Association ; and I was elected one of your general secretaries
about twenty-five years ago.

It is not unfitting, therefore, that I should recall to your minds the
conditions under which science was pursued at the formation of the Asso-
ciation, as well as the very remarkable position which the Association
has occupied in relation to science in this country.

Between the end of the sixteenth century and the early part of the
present century several societies had been created to develop various
branches of science. Some of these societies were established in London,
and others in important provincial centres.

In 1831, in the absence of railways, communication between different
parts of the country was slow and difficult. Science was therefore local-
ised ; and in addition to the universities in England, Scotland, and Ire-
land, the towns of Birmingham, Manchester, Plymouth and York each
maintained an important nucleus of scientific research.

ORIGIN OF THE BritisH ASSOCIATION.

Under these social conditions the British Association was founded in
September 1831.

The general idea of its formation was derived from a migratory
society which had been previously formed in Germany ; but whilst the
German society met for the special occasion on which it was summoned,
and then dissolved, the basis of the British Association was continuity.

The objects of the founders of the British Association were enunciated
in their earliest rules to be :

‘To give a stronger impuise and a more systematic direction to scien-
tific inquiry ; to promote the intercourse of those who cultivated science
in different parts of the British Empire with one another, and with
foreign philosophers ; to obtain a more general attention to the objects of
science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which im-
pede its progress.’

Thus the British Association for the Advancement of Science based
its utility upon the opportunity it afforded for combination.

The first meeting of the Association was held at York with 353
members.

As an evidence of the want which the Association supplied, it may be
mentioned that at the second meeting, which was held at Oxford, the
number of members was 435. The third meeting, at Cambridge, numbered
over 900 members, and at the meeting at Edinburgh in 1834 there were
present 1,298 members.

At its third meeting, which was held at Cambridge in 1833, the
Association, through the influence it had already acquired, induced the

ADDRESS. 5

Government to grant a sum of 500/. for the reduction of the astronomical
observations of Baily. And at the same meeting the General Committee
commenced to appropriate to scientific research the surplus from the sub-
scriptions of its members. The committees on each branch of science
were desired ‘to select definite and important objects of science, which
they may think most fit to be advanced by an application of the funds of
the society, either in compensation for labour, or in defraying the expense
of apparatus, or otherwise, stating their reasons for their selection, and,
when they may think proper, designating individuals to undertake the
desired investigations.’

The several proposals were submitted to the Committee of Recommen-
dations, whose approval was necessary before they could be passed by the
General Committee. The regulations then laid down still guide the
Association in the distribution of its grants. At that early meeting the
Association was enabled to apply 6007. to these objects.

I have always wondered at the foresight of the framers of the
constitution of the British Association, the most remarkable feature of
which is the lightness of the tie which holds it together. It is not bound
by any complex central organisation. It consists of a federation of
Sections, whose youth and energy are yearly renewed by a succession of
presidents and vice-presidents, whilst in each Section some continuity

_ of action is secured by the less movable secretaries.

The governing body is the General Committee, the members of which are
selected for their scientific work ; but their controlling power is tempered
by the law that all changes of rules, or of constitution, should be submitted
to, and receive the approval of, the Committee of Recommendations. This
committee may be described as an ideal Second Chamber. It consists of
the most experienced members of the Association.

The administration of the Association in the interval between annual
meetings is carried on by the Council, an executive body, whose duty it
is to complete the work of the annual meeting (a) by the publication of
its proceedings ; (b) by giving effect to resolutions passed by the General
Committee ; (c) it also appoints the Local Committee and organises the
personnel of each Section for the next meeting.

I believe that one of the secrets of the long-continued success and
vitality of the British Association lies in this purely democratic constitu-
tion, combined with the compulsory careful consideration which must be
given to suggested organic changes.

The Association is now in the sixty-fifth year of its existence. In
its origin it invited the philosophical societies dispersed throughout Great
Britain to unite in a co-operative union.

Within recent years it has endeavoured to consolidate that union.

At the present time almost all important local scientific societies
scattered throughout the country, some sixty-six in number, are in corre-
spondence with the Association. Their delegates hold annual conferences
at our meetings. The Association has thus extended the sphere of its action:

6 REPORT—1895.

it places the members of the local societies engaged in scientific work
in relation with each other, and brings them into co-operation with
members of the Association and with others engaged in original investi-
gations, and the papers which the individual societies publish annually
are catalogued in our Report. Thus by degrees a national catalogue
will be formed of the scientific work of these societies.

The Association has, moreover, shown that its scope is coterminous
with the British Empire by holding one of its annual meetings at Montreal,
and we are likely soon to hold a meeting in Toronto.

CONDITION OF CERTAIN SCIENCES AT THE FORMATION OF THE
British ASSOCIATION.

The Association, at its first meeting, began its work by initiating a
series of reports upon the then condition of the several sciences.

A rapid glance at some of these reports will not only show the enor-
mous strides which have been made since 1831 in the investigation of
facts to elucidate the laws of Nature, but it may afford a slight insight
into the impediments offered to the progress of investigation by the
mental condition of the community, which had been for so long satisfied
to accept assumptions without undergoing the labour of testing their
truth by ascertaining the real facts. This habit of mind may be illustrated
by two instances selected from the early reports made to the Associa-
tion. The first is afforded by the report made in 1832, by Mr. Lubbock,
on ‘ Tides,’

This was a subject necessarily of importance to England as a dominant
power at sea. But in England records of the tides had only recently been
commenced at the dockyards of Woolwich, Sheerness, Portsmouth, and
Plymouth, on the request of the Royal Society, and no information had
been collected upon the tides on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland.

The British Association may feel pride in the fact that within three
years of its inception, viz. by 1834, it had induced the Corporation of
Liverpool to establish two tide gauges, and the Government to undertake
tidal observations at 500 stations on the coasts of Britain.

Another cognate instance is exemplified by a paper read at the second
meeting, in 1832, upon the State of Naval Architecture in Great Britain.
The author contrasts the extreme perfection of the carpentry of the internal
fittings of the vessels with the remarkable deficiency of mathematical,
theory in the adjustment of the external form of vessels, and suggests
the benefit of the application of refined analysis to the various practical
problems which ought to interest shipbuilders—problems of capacity, of
displacement, of stowage, of velocity, of pitching and rolling, of masting,
of the effects of sails and of the resistance of fluids ; and, moreover, sug-
gests that large-scale experiments should be made by Government, to
afford the necessary data for calculation.

Indeed, when we consider how completely the whole habit of mind of
the populations of the Western world has been changed, since the beginning

ADDRESS. 7

of the century, from willing acceptance of authority as a rule of life to a

—

f

universal spirit of inquiry and experimental investigation, is it not pro-
bable that this rapid change has arisen from society having been stirred
to its foundations by the causes and consequences of the French Revolu-
tion ?

One of the earliest practical results of this awakening in France was
the conviction that the basis of scientific research lay in the accuracy of
the standards by which observations could be compared ; and the follow-
ing principles were laid down as a basis for their measurements of length,
weight, and capacity: viz. (1) that the unit of linear measure applied
to matter in its three forms of extension, viz., length, breadth, and
thickness, should be the standard of measures of length, surface, and
solidity ; (2) that the cubic contents of the linear measure in decimetres
of pure water at the temperature of its greatest density should furnish at
once the standard weight and the measure of capacity.'_ The metric sys-
tem did not come into full operation in France till 1840 ; and it is now
adopted by all countries on the continent of Europe except Russia.

The standards of length which were accessible in Great Britain at the
formation of the Association were the Parliamentary standard yard lodged
in the Houses of Parliament (which was destroyed in 1834 in the fire
which burned the Houses of Parliament); the Royal Astronomical
Society’s standard ; and the 10-foot bar of the Ordnance Survey.

The first two were assumed to afford exact measurements at a given
temperature. The Ordnance bar was formed of two bars on the principle
of a compensating pendulum, and afforded measurements independent
of temperature. Standard bars were also disseminated throughout the
country, in possession of the corporations of various towns,

The British Association early recognised the importance of uniformity
in the record of scientific facts, as well as the necessity for an easy method
of comparing standards and for verifying differences between instruments
and apparatus required by various observers pursuing similar lines of
investigation. At its meeting at Edinburgh in 1834 it caused a com-
parison to be made between the standard bar at Aberdeen, constructed by
Troughton, and the standard of the Royal Astronomical Society, and
reported that the scale ‘was exceedingly well finished ; it was about
shoth of an inch shorter than the 5-feet of the Royal Astronomical
Society’s scale, but it was evident that a great number of minute, yet
important, circumstances have hitherto been neglected in the formation
of such scales, without an attention to which they cannot be expected
to accord with that degree of accuracy which the present state of science

demands.’ Subsequently, at the meeting at Newcastle in 1863, the

Association appointed a committee to report on the best means of
providing for a uniformity of weights and measures with reference to the
1 The litre is the volume of a kilogramme of pure water at its maximum density,

and is slightly less than the litre was intended to be, viz., one cubic decimetre. The
weight of a cubic decimetre of pure water is 1000013 kilogrammes.

8 REPORT—1895.

interests of science. This committee recommended the metric decimal
system—a recommendation which has been endorsed by a committee
of the House of Commons in the last session of Parliament.

British instrument-makers had been long conspicuous for accuracy of
workmanship. Indeed, in the eighteenth century practical astronomy had
been mainly in the hands of British observers ; for although the mathe-
maticians of France and other countries on the continent of Europe were
occupying the foremost place in mathematical investigation, means of
astronomical observation had been furnished almost exclusively by English
artisans.

The sectors, quadrants, and circles of Ramsden, Bird, and Cary were
inimitable by Continental workmen.

But the accuracy of the mathematical-instrument maker had not
penetrated into the engineer’s workshop. And the foundation of the
British Association was coincident with a rapid development of mechanical
. appliances.

At that time a good workman had done well if the shaft he was turn-
ing, or the cylinder he was boring, ‘was right to the =,nd of an inch,’
This was, in fact, a degree of accuracy as fine as the eye could usually
distinguish.

Few mechanics had any distinct knowledge of the method to be pur-
sued for obtaining accuracy ; nor, indeed, had practical men sufficiently
appreciated either the immense importance or the comparative facility of
its acquisition.

The accuracy of workmanship essential to this development of me-
chanical progress required very precise measurements of length, to which
reference could be easily made. No such standards were then available
for the workshops. But a little before 1830 a young workman named
Joseph Whitworth realised that the basis of accuracy in machinery was the
making of a true plane. The idea occurred to him that this could only
be secured by making three independent plane surfaces ; if each of these
would lift the other, they must be planes, and they must be true.

The true plane rendered possible a degree of accuracy beyond the
wildest dreams of his contemporaries in the construction of the lathe and
the planing machine, which are used in the manufacture of all tools.

His next step was to introduce an exact system of measurement,
generally applicable in the workshop.

Whitworth felt that the eye was altogether inadequate to secure this,
and appealed to the sense of touch for affording a means of comparison.
If two plugs be made to fit into a round hole, they may differ in size by a
quantity imperceptible to the eye, or to any ordinary process of measure-
ment, but in fitting them into the hole the difference between the larger
and the smaller is felt immediately by the greater ease with which the
smaller one fits. In this way a child can tell which is the larger of two
cylinders differing in thickness by no more than ;,),,th of an inch.

Standard gauges, consisting of hollow cylinders with plugs to fit, but

ADDRESS. 9

differing in diameter by the y,);5th or the +,},;oth of an inch, were given
to his workmen, with the result that a degree of accuracy inconceivable
to the ordinary mind became the rule of the shop.

To render the construction of accurate gauges possible Whitworth
devised his measuring machine, in which the movement was effected by a
screw ; by this means the distance between two true planes might be
measured to the one-millionth of an inch.

These advances in precision of measurement have enabled the degree
of accuracy which was formerly limited to the mathematical-instrument
maker to become the common property of every machine shop. And not
only is the latest form of steam-engine, in the accuracy of its workman-
ship, little behind the chronometer of the early part of the century, but
the accuracy in the construction of experimental apparatus which has
thus been introduced has rendered possible recent advances in many lines
of research.

Lord Kelvin said in his Presidential Address at Edinburgh, ‘ Nearly
all the grandest discoveries of science have been but the rewards of accu-
rate measurement and patient, long-continued labour in the sifting of
numerical results.’ The discovery of argon, for which Lord Rayleigh and
Professor Ramsay have been awarded the Hodgkin prize by the Smithsonian
Institution, affords a remarkable illustration of the truth of this remark.
Indeed, the provision of accurate standards not only of length, but of
weight, capacity, temperature, force, and energy, are amongst the founda-
tions of scientific investigation.

In 1842 the British Association obtained the opportunity of extending
its usefulness in this direction.

In that year the Government gave up the Royal Observatory at Kew,
and offered it to the Royal Society, who declined it. But the British
Association accepted the charge. Their first object was to continue
Sabine’s valuable observations upon the vibrations of a pendulum in
various gases, and to promote pendulum observations in various parts of
the world. They subsequently extended it into an observatory for com-
paring and verifying the various instruments which recent discoveries in
physical science had suggested for continuous meteorological and magnetic
observations, for observations and experiments on atmospheric electricity,
and for the study of solar physics.

This new departure afforded a means for ascertaining the advantages
and disadvantages of the several varieties of scientific instruments ; as well
as for standardising and testing instruments, not only for instrument-
makers, but especially for observers by whom simultaneous observations
were then being carried on in different parts of the world; and also for
training observers proceeding abroad on scientific expeditions.

Its special object was to promote original research, and expenditure
was not to be incurred on apparatus merely intended to exhibit the
necessary consequences of known laws.

The rapid strides in electrical science had attracted attention to the

10 REPORT—1895.

measurement of electrical resistances, and in 1859 the British Association
appointed a special committee to devise a standard. The standard of
resistance proposed by that committee became the generally accepted
standard, until the requirements of that advancing science led to the
adoption of an international standard.

In 1866 the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade entered
into close relations with the Kew Observatory.

And in 1871 Mr. Gassiot transferred 10,0007. upon trust to the Royal
Society for the maintenance of the Kew Observatory, for the purpose of
assisting in carrying on magnetical, meteorological, and other physical
observations. The British Association thereupon, after having maintained
this Observatory for nearly thirty years, at a total expenditure of about
12,000/., handed the Observatory over to the Royal Society.

The ‘Transactions’ of the British Association are a catalogue of its
efforts in every branch of science, both to promote experimental research
and to facilitate the application of the results to the practical uses of

- life.

But probably the marvellous development in science which has
accompanied the life-history of the Association will be best appreciated
by a brief allusion to the condition of some of the branches of science
in 1831 as compared with their present state.

GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE.

Geology.

At the foundation of the Association geology was assuming a promi-
nent position in science. The main features of English geology had been
illustrated as far back as 1821, and, among the founders of the British
Association, Murchison and Phillips, Buckland, Sedgwick and Cony-
beare, Lyell and De la Beche, were occupied in investigating the data
necessary for perfecting a geological chronology by the detailed observa-
tions of the various British deposits, and by their co-relation with the
Continental strata. They were thus preparing the way for those large
generalisations which have raised geology to the rank of an inductive
science. :

In 1831 the Ordnance maps published for the southern counties had
enabled the Government to recognise the importance of a geological
survey by the appointment of Mr. De la Beche to aflix geological colours
to the maps of Devonshire and portions of Somerset, Dorset and Cornwall ;
and in 1835 Lyell, Buckland and Sedgwick induced the Government to
establish the Geological Survey Department, not only for promoting
geological science, but on account of its practical bearing on agriculture,
mining, the making of roads, railways and canals, and on other branches
of national industry.

es

ADDRESS. 11

Geography.

The Ordnance Survey appears to have had its origin in a proposal of
the French Government to make a joint-measurement of an are of the
meridian. This proposal fell through at the outbreak of the Revolution ;
but the measurement of the base for that object was taken as a founda-
tion for a national survey. In 1831, however, the Ordnance Survey had
only published the l-inch map for the southern portion of England, and
the great triangulation of the kingdom was still incomplete.

In 1834 the British Association urged upon the Government that the
advancement of various branches of science was greatly retarded by the
want of an accurate map of the whole of the British Isles ; and that,
consequently, the engineer and the meteorologist, the agriculturist and the
geologist, were each fettered in their scientific investigations by the
absence of those accurate data which now lie ready to his hand for the
measurement of length, of surface, and of altitude.

Yet the first decade of the British Association was coincident with a
considerable development of geographical research. The Association was
persistent in pressing on the Government the scientific importance of
sending the expedition of Ross to the Antarctic and of Franklin to the
Arctic regions. We may trust that we are approaching a solution of the
geography of the North Pole ; but the Antarctic regions still present a
field for the researches of the meteorologist, the geologist, the biologist,
and the magnetic observer, which the recent voyage of M. Borchgrevink
leads us to hope may not long remain unexplored.

In the same decade the question of an alternative route to India by
means of a communication between the Mediterranean and the Persian
Gulf was also receiving attention, and in 1835 the Government employed
Colonel Chesney to make a survey of the Euphrates valley in order to
ascertain whether that river would enable a practicable route to be formed
from Iskanderoon, or Tripoli, opposite Cyprus, to the Persian Gulf.
His valuable surveys are not, however, on a sufficiently extensive scale to
enable an opinion to be formed as to whether a navigable waterway
through Asia Minor is physically practicable, or whether the cost of
establishing it might not be prohibitive.

The advances of Russia in Central Asia have made it imperative to
provide an easy, rapid, and alternative line of communication with our
Eastern possessions, so as not to be dependent upon the Suez Canal in
time of war. If a navigation cannot be established, a railway between
the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf has been shown by the recent
investigations of Messrs. Hawkshaw and Hayter, following on those of
others, to be perfectly practicable and easy of accomplishment ; such an
undertaking would not only be of strategical value, but it is believed
it would be commercially remunerative.

Speke and Grant brought before the Association, at its meeting at
Newcastle in 1863, their solution of the mystery of the Nile basin, which

12 REPORT—1895.

had puzzled geographers from the days of Herodotus ; and the efforts
of Livingstone and Stanley and others have opened out to us the interior
of Africa. I cannot refrain here from expressing the deep regret which
geologists and geographers, and indeed all who are interested in the pro-
gress of discovery, feel at the recent death of Joseph Thomson. His
extensive, accurate, and trustworthy observations added much to our
knowledge of Africa, and by his premature death we have lost one of
its most competent explorers.

CHEMICAL, ASTRONOMICAL AND PHysICAL SCIENCE.
Chemistry.

The report made to the Association on the state of the chemical
sciences in 1832, says that the efforts of investigators were then being
directed to determining with accuracy the true nature of the substances
which compose the various products of the organic and inorganic king-

- doms, and the exact ratios by weight which the different constituents of
these substances bear to each other.

But since that day the science of chemistry has far extended its
boundaries. The barrier has vanished which was supposed to separate
the products of living organisms from the substances of which minerals
consist, or which could be formed in the laboratory. The number of dis-
tinct carbon compounds obtainable from organisms has greatly increased ;
but it is small when compared with the number of such compounds which
have been artificially formed. The methods of analysis have been per-
fected. The physical, and especially the optical, properties of the various
forms of matter have been closely studied, and many fruitful generalisa-
tions have been made. The form in which these generalisations would
now be stated may probably change, some, perhaps, by the overthrow or
disuse of an ingenious guess at Nature’s workings, but more by that
change which is the ordinary growth of science—namely, inclusion in
some simpler and more general view.

In these advances the chemist has called the spectroscope to his aid.
Indeed, the existence of the British Association has been practically coter-
minous with the comparatively newly developed science of spectrum
analysis, for though Newton,! Wollaston, Fraunhofer, and Fox Talbot
had worked at the subject long ago, it was not till Kirchhoff and
Bunsen set a seal on the prior labours of Stokes, Angstrém, and Balfour
Stewart that the spectra of terrestrial elements have been mapped out and
grouped ; that by its help new elements have been discovered, and that
the idea has been suggested that the various orders of spectra of the same

‘ Joannes Marcus Marci, of Kroniand in Bohemia, was the only predecessor of
Newton who had any knowledge of the formation of a spectrum bya prism. He not
only observed that the coloured rays diverged as they left the prism, but that a
coloured ray did not change in colour after transmission through a prism. His book,

Thaumantias, liber de arcu calesti deque colerum apparentium natura, Prag, 1648, was,
however, not known to Newton, and had no influence upon future discoveries.

— >. a

ADDRESS. ko

element are due to the existence of the element in different molecular
forms—allotropic or otherwise—at different temperatures.

But great as have been the advances of terrestrial chemistry through
its assistance, the most stupendous advance which we owe to the spectro-
scope lies in the celestial direction.

Astronomy.

At the third meeting of the Association, at Cambridge, in 1833, Dr.
Whewell said that astronomy is not only the queen of science, but the
only perfect science, which was ‘in so elevated a state of flourishing
maturity that all that remained was to determine with the extreme of
accuracy the consequences of its rules by the profoundest combinations of
mathematics ; the magnitude of its data by the minutest scrupulousness
of observation.’ But in the previous year, Airy, in his report to
the Association on the progress of Astronomy, had pointed out that
the observations of the planet Uranus could not be united in one
elliptic orbit ; a remark which turned the attention of Adams to the
discovery of Neptune.

In his report on the recent progress of Optics, Brewster in 1832
suggested that with the assistance of adequate instruments ‘it would be
possible to study the action of the elements of material bodies upon rays
of artificial light, and thereby to discover the analogies between their
affinities and those which produce the fixed lines in the spectra of the
stars ; and thus to study the effects of the combustions which light up
the suns of other systems.’

This idea has now been realised. All the stars which shine brightly
enough to impress an image of the spectrum upon a photographie plate
have been classified on a chemical basis. The close connection between
stars and nebule has been demonstrated ; and while the modern science
of thermodynamics has shown that the hypothesis of Kant and Laplace
on stellar formation, so far as it assumed a fiery cloud for the beginning,
is no longer tenable, but that in all probability it gives the true explana
tion of stellar evolution, if for the fiery cloud we substitute cold meteoric
particles, as suggested by Waterston! and by Lord Kelvin? at the
Liverpool meeting of the British Association in 1854.

We now know that the spectra of many of the terrestrial elements in
the chromosphere of the sun differ from those familiar to us in our labora-
tories. We begin to glean the fact that; the chromospheric spectra are
similar to those indicated by the absorption going on in the hottest stars, and
Lockyer has not hesitated to affirm that these facts would indicate that in
those localities we are in the presence of the actions of temperatures sufti-

' In Note Lona paper on ‘The Physics of Media,’ communicated to the Royal
Society, December 11, 1845, read March 5, 1846, and published, in 1892, in the
Transactions, with an introduction by Lord Rayleigh.

* Brit. Assoc. Report, 1854, Pt. I1., pp. 59-63; Mathematical and Physical Papers,
vol, ii., art. lxix., p. 40. '

14 REPORT—1895.

ciently high to break up our chemical elements into finer forms. Other
students of these phenomena may not agree in this view, and _pos-
sibiy the discrepancies may be due to default in our terrestrial
chemistry. Still, I would recall to you that Dr. Carpenter, in his Presi-
dential Address at Brighton in 1872, almost censured the speculations of
Frankland and Lockyer in 1868 for attributing a certain bright line in
the spectrum of solar prominences (which was not identifiable with that
of any known terrestrial source of light) to a hypothetical new substance
which they proposed to call ‘helium,’ because ‘it had not received that
verification which, in the case of Crookes’ search for thallium, was afforded
by the actual discovery of the new metal.’ Ramsay has now shown that
this gas is present in dense minerals on earth ; but we have now also
learned from Lockyer that it and other associated gases are not only
found with hydrogen in the solar chromosphere, but that these gases,
with hydrogen, form a large percentage of the atmospheric constituents of
some of the hottest stars in the heavens.

The spectroscope has also made us acquainted with the motions and
even the velocities of those distant orbs which make up the sidereal uni-
verse. It has enabled us to determine that many stars, single to the eye,
are really double, and many of the conditions of these strange systems
have been revealed. The rate at which matter is moving in solar cyclones
and winds is now familiar to us. And I may also add that quite recently
this wonderful instrument has enabled Professor Keeler to verify Clerk-
Maxwell’s theory that the rings of Saturn consist of a marvellous com-
pany of separate moons—as it were, a cohort of courtiers revolving round
their queen—with velocities proportioned to their distances from the
planet.

Physics

If we turn to the sciences which are included under physics, the pro-
gress has been equally marked.

In optical science, in 1831 the theory of emission as contrasted with
the undulatory theory of light was still under discussion.

Young, who was the first to explain the phenomena due to the inter-
ference of the rays of light as a consequence of the theory of waves, and
Fresnel, who showed the intensity of light for any relative position of the
interference-waves, both had only recently passed away.

The investigations into the laws which regulate the conduction and
radiation of heat, together with the doctrine of latent and of specific heat,
and the relations of vapour to air, had all tended to the conception of a
material heat, or caloric, communicated by an actual flow and emission.

It was not till 1834 that improved thermometrical appliances had
enabled Forbes and Melloni to establish the polarisation of heat, and thus
to lay the foundation of an undulatory theory for heat similar to that
which was in progress of acceptation for light.

Whewell’s report, in 1832, on magnetism and electricity shows that

ADDRESS. 15

these branches of science were looked upon as cognate, and that the theory
of two opposite electric fluids was generally accepted.

In magnetism, the investigations of Hansteen, Gauss, and Weber in
Europe, and the observations made under the Imperial Academy of Russia
over the vast extent of that empire, had established the existence of mag-
netic poles, and had shown that magnetic disturbances were simultaneous
at all the stations of observation.

At their third meeting the Association urged the Government to
establish magnetic and meteorological observatories in Great Britain and
her colonies and dependencies in different parts of the earth, furnished
with proper instruments, constructed on uniform principles, and with
provisions for continued observations at those places.

In 1839 the British Association had a large share in inducing the
Government to initiate the valuable series of experiments for determining
the intensity, the declination, the dip, and the periodical variations of the
magnetic needle which were carried on for several years, at numerous
selected stations over the surface of the globe, under the directions of
Sabine and Lefroy.

In England systematic and regular observations are still made at
Greenwich, Kew, and Stonyhurst. For some years past similar observa-
tions by both absolute and self-recording instruments have also been made
at Falmouth—close to the home of Robert Were Fox, whose name is in-
separably connected with the early history of terrestrial magnetism in
this country—but under such great financial difficulties that the continu-
ance of the work is seriously jeopardised. It is to be hoped that means
may be forthcoming to carry it on. Cornishmen, indeed, could found no
more fitting memorial of their distinguished countryman, John Couch
Adams, than by suitably endowing the magnetic observatory in which he
took so lively an interest.

Far more extended observation will be needed before we can hope
to have an established theory as to the magnetism of the earth. We
are without magnetic observations over a large part of the Southern
Hemisphere. And Professor Riicker’s recent investigations tell us that
the earth seems as it were alive with magnetic forces, be they due to elec-
tric currents or to variations in the state of magnetised matter ; that the
disturbances affect not only the diurnal movement of the magnet, but
that even the small part of the secular change which has been observed,
and which has taken centuries to accomplish, is interfered with by some
slower agency. And, what is more important, he tells us that none of
these observations stand as yet upon a firm basis, because standard instru-
ments have not been in accord ; and much labour, beyond the power of
individual effort, has hitherto been required to ascertain whether the
relations between them are constant or variable.

In electricity, in 1831, just at the time when the British Association
was founded, Faraday’s splendid researches in electricity and magnetism
at the Royal Institution had begun with his discovery of magneto-

16 REPORT—1895.

electric induction, his investigation of the laws of electro-chemical decom-
position, and of the mode of electrolytical action.

But, the practical application of our electrical knowledge was then
limited to the use of lightning-conductors for buildings and _ ships.
Indeed, it may be said that the applications of electricity to the use of
man have grown up side by side with the British Association.

One of the first practical applications of Faraday’s discoveries was in
the deposition of metals and electro-plating, which has developed into a
large branch of national industry ; and the dissociating effect of the
electric arc, for the reduction of ores, and in other processes, is daily
obtaining a wider extension.

But probably the application of electricity which is tending to pro-
duce the greatest change in our mental, and even material condition, is
the electric telegraph and its sister, the telephone. By their agency not
only do we learn, almost at the time of their occurrence, the events which
are happening in distant paris of the world, but they are establishing a
community of thought and feeling between all the nations of the world
which is influencing their attitude towards each other, and, we may hope,
may tend to weld them mcre and more into one family.

The electric telegraph was introduced experimentally in Germany in
1833, two years after the formation of the Association. It was made a
commercial success by Cooke and Wheatstone in England, whose first
attempts at telegraphy were made on the line from Euston to Camden
Town in 1837, and on the line from Paddington to West Drayton in 1838.

The submarine telegraph to America, conceived in ]856, became a
practical reality in 1861 through the commercial energy of Cyrus Field
and Pender, aided by the mechanical skill of Latimer Clark, Gooch, and
others, and the scientific genius of Lord Kelvin. The knowledge of
electricity gained by means of its application to the telegraph largely
assisted the extension of its utility in other directions.

The electric light gives, in its incandescent form, a very perfect
hygienic light. Where rivers are at hand the electrical transmission of
power will drive railway trains and factories economically, and might
enable each artisan to convert his room into a workshop, and thus assist
in restoring to the labouring man some of the individuality which the
factory has tended to destroy.

In 1843 Joule described his experiments for determining the mechani-
cal equivalent of heat. But it was not until the meeting at Oxford, in
1847, that he fully developed the law of the conservation of energy, which,
in conjunction with Newton’s law of the conservation of momentum, and
Dalton’s law of the conservation of chemical elements, constitutes a
complete mechanical foundation for physical science.

Who, at the foundation of the Association, would have believed some
far-seeing philosopher if he had foretold that the spectroscope would
analyse the constituents of the sun and measure the motions of the stars ;
that we should liquefy air and utilise temperatures approaching to the

ADDRESS. 17/

absolute zero for experimental research ; that, like the magician in the
‘Arabian Nights,’ we should annihilate distance by means of the electric
telegraph and the telephone ; that we should illuminate our largest build-
ings instantaneously, with the clearness of day, by means of the electric
current ; that by the electric transmission of power we should be able to
utilise the Falls of Niagara to work factories at distant places ; that we
should extract metals from the crust of the earth by the same electrical
agency to which, in some cases, their deposition has been attributed %

These discoveries and their applications have been brought to their
present condition by the researches of a long line of scientific explorers,
such as Dalton, Joule, Maxwell, Helmholtz, Herz, Kelvin, and Rayleigh,
aided by vast strides made in mechanical skill. But what will our
successors be discussing sixty years hence? How little do we yet know of
the vibrations which communicate light and heat! Far as we have ad-
vanced in the application of electricity to the uses of life, we know but
little even yet of its real nature. We are only on the threshold of the
knowledge of molecular action, or of the constitution of the all-pervading
zther. Newton, at the end of the seventeenth century, in his preface to
the ‘Principia,’ says: ‘I have deduced the motions of the planets by
mathematical reasoning from forces ; and I would that we could derive
the other phenomena of Nature from mechanical principles by the same
mode of reasoning. For many things move me, so that I somewhat sus-
pect that all such may depend on certain forces by which the particles of
bodies, through causes not yet known, are either urged towards each other
according to regular figures, or are repelled and recede from each other ;
and these forces being unknown, philosophers have hitherto made their
attempts on Nature in vain.’

In 1848 Faraday remarked : ‘ How rapidly the knowledge of molecular
forces grows upon us, and how strikingly every investigation tends to
develop more and more their importance !

‘A few years ago magnetism was an occult force, affecting only a few
bodies ; now it is found to influence all bodies, and to possess the most
intimate relation with electricity, heat, chemical action, light, crystallisa-
tion ; and through it the forces concerned in cohesion. We may feel
encouraged to continuous labours, hoping to bring it into a bond of union
with gravity itself.’

But it is only within the last few years that we have begun to realise
that electricity is closely connected with the vibrations which cause heat
and light, and which seem to pervade all space—vibrations which may be
termed the voice of the Creator calling to each atom and to each cell of
protoplasm to fall into its ordained position, each, as it were, a musical
note in the harmonious symphony which we call the universe.

1895. ‘

18 REPORT—1895.

Meteorology.

At the first meeting, in 1831, Professor James D. Forbes was requested
to draw up a report on the State of Meteorological Science, on the ground
that this science is more in want than any other of that systematic direc-
tion which it is one great object of the Association to give.

Professor Forbes made his first report in 1832, and a subsequent
report in 1840. The systematic records now kept in various parts of the
world of barometric pressure, of solar heat, of the temperature and physi-
cal conditions of the atmosphere at various altitudes, of the heat of the
ground at various depths, of the rainfall, of the prevalence of winds, and
the gradual elucidation not only of the laws which regulate the movements
of cyclones and storms, but of the influences which are exercised by the
sun and by electricity and magnetism, not only upon atmospheric condi-
tions, but upon health and vitality, are gradually approximating meteor-
ology to the position of an exact science.

England took the lead in rainfall observations. Mr. G. J. Symons
organised the British Rainfall System in 1860 with 178 observers, a
system which until 1876 received the help of the British Association.
Now Mr. Symons himself conducts it, assisted by more than 3,000 observers,
and these volunteers not only make the observations, but defray the ex-
pense of their reduction and publication. In foreign countries this work
is done by Government officers at the public cost.

At the present time a very large number of rain gauges are in daily
use throughout the world. The British Islands have more than 3,000,
and India and the United States have nearly as many; France and
Germany are not far behind ; Australia probably has more—indeed, one
colony alone, New South Wales, has more than 1,100.

The storm warnings now issued under the excellent systematic organi-
sation of the Meteorological Committee may be said to have had their
origin in the terrible storm which broke over the Black Sea during the
Crimean War, on November 27, 1855. Leverrier traced the progress of
that storm, and seeing how its path could have been reported in advance
by the electric telegraph, he proposed to establish observing stations which
should report to the coasts the probability of the occurrence of a storm.
Leverrier communicated with Airy, and the Government authorised Ad-
miral FitzRoy to make tentative arrangements in this country. The idea
was also adopted on the Continent, and now there are few civilised coun-
tries north or south of the equator without a system of storm warning.'

' It has often been supposed that Leverrier was also the first to issue a daily
weather map, but that was not the case, for in the Great Exhibition of 1851 the
Electric Telegraph Company sold daily weather maps, copies of which are still in
existence, and the data for them were, it is believed, obtained by Mr. James
Glaisher, F.R.S., at that time Superintendent of the Meteorological Department at
Greenwich.

ae

ADDRESS. 19

BIoLoGicaL ScIENcE.

Botany.

The earliest Reports of the Association which bear on the biological
sciences were those relating to botany.

In 1831 the controversy was yet unsettled between the advantages
of the Linnean, or Artificial system, as contrasted with the Natural
system of classification. Histology, morphology, and physiological botany,
even if born, were in their early infancy.

Our records show that von Mohl noted cell division in 1835, the
presence of chlorophyll corpuscles in 1837; and he first described
protoplasm in 1846.

Vast as have been the advances of physiological botany since that
time, much of its fundamental principles remain to be worked out, and I
trust that the establishment, for the first time, of a permanent Section for
botany at the present meeting will lead the Association to take a more
prominent part than it has hitherto done in the further development of
this branch of biological science.

Animal Physiology.

In 1831 Cuvier, who during the previous generation had, by the colla-
tion of facts followed by careful inductive reasoning, established the
plan on which each animal is constructed, was approaching the termina-
tion of his long and useful life. He died in 1832; but in 1831 Richard
Owen was just commencing his anatomical investigations and his brilliant
contributions to paleontology.

The impulse which their labours gave to biological science was
reflected in numerous reports and communications, by Owen and others,
throughout the early decades of the British Association, until Darwin
propounded a theory of evolution which commanded the general assent of
the scientific world. For this theory was not absolutely new. But just
as Cuvier had shown that each bone in the fabric of an animal affords a
clue to the shape and structure of the animal, so Darwin brought harmony
into scattered facts, and led us to perceive that the moulding hand of the
Creator may have evolved the complicated structures of the organic
world from one or more primeval cells.

Richard Owen did not accept Darwin’s theory of evolution, and a
large section of the public contested it. I well remember the storm it
produced—a storm of praise by my geological colleagues, who accepted
the result of investigated facts ; a storm of indignation such as that which
would have burned Galileo at the stake from those who were not yet -
prepared to question the old authorities ; but they diminish daily.

We are, however, as yet only on the threshold of the doctrine of

evolution. Does not each fresh investigation, even into the embryonic

stage of the simpler forms of life, suggest fresh problems ?

v2

20 REPORT—1895.

Anthropology.

The impulse given by Darwin has been fruitful in leading others to
consider whether the same principle of evolution may not have governed
the moral as well as the material progress of the human race. Mr. Kidd
tells us that nature as interpreted by the struggle for life contains no
sanction for the moral progress of the individual, and points out that if
each of us were allowed by the conditions of life to follow his own inclina-
tion, the average of each generation would distinctly deteriorate from that
of the preceding one ; but because the law of life is ceaseless and inevit-
able struggle and competition, ceaseless and inevitable selection and re-
jection, the result is necessarily ceaseless and inevitable progress. Evolu-
tion, as Sir William Flower said, is the message which biology has sent
to help us on with some of the problems of human life, and Francis
Galton urges that man, the foremost outcome of the awful mystery of
evolution, should realise that he has the power of shaping the course of
future humanity by using his intelligence to discover and expedite the
changes which are necessary to adapt circumstances to man, and man to
cireumstances,

In considering the evolution of the human race, the science of pre-
ventive medicine may afford us some indication of the direction in which to
seek for social improvement. One of the early steps towards establish-
ing that science upon a secure basis was taken in 1835 by the British
Association, who urged upon the Government the necessity of establishing
registers of mortality showing the causes of death ‘on one uniform plan in
all parts of the King’s dominions, as the only means by which general laws
touching the influence of causes of disease and death could be satisfactorily
deduced.’ The general registration of births and deaths was commenced
in 1838. But a mere record of death and its proximate cause is insuffi-
cient. Preventive medicine requires a knowledge of the details of the
previous conditions of life and of occupation. Moreover, death is not
our only or most dangerous enemy, and the main object of preventive
nedicine is to ward off disease. Disease of body lowers our useful energy.
Disease of body or of mind may stamp its curse on succeeding generations.

The anthropometric laboratory affords to the student of anthropo-
logy a means of analysing the causes of weakness, not only in bodily,
but also in mental life.

Mental actions are indicated by movements and their results. Such
signs are capable of record, and modern physiology has shown that bodily
movements correspond to action in nerve-centres, as surely as the motions
of the telegraph-indicator express the movements of the operator’s hands
in the distant office.

Thus there is a relation between a defective status in brain power and
defects in the proportioning of the body. Defects in physiognomical
details, too finely graded to be measured with instruments, may be
appreciated with accuracy by the senses of the observer ; and the records

ADDRESS. 21

show that these defects are, in a large degree, associated with a brain
status lower than the average in mental power.

A report presented by one of your committees gives the results of
observations made on 100,000 school-children examined individually in
order to determine their mental and physical condition for the purpose of
classification. This shows that about 16 per 1,000 of the elementary
school population appear to be so far defective in their bodily or brain
condition as to need special training to enable them to undertake the
duties of life, and to keep them from pauperism or crime.

Many of our feeble-minded children, and much disease and vice, are
the outcome of inherited proclivities. Francis Galton has shown us that
types of criminals which have been bred true to their kind are one of the
saddest disfigurements of modern civilisation ; and he says that few deserve
better of their country than those who determine to lead celibate lives
through a reasonable conviction that their issue would probably be less
fitted than the generality to play their part as citizens.

These considerations point to the importance of preventing those
suffering from transmissible disease, or the criminal, or the lunatic, from
adding fresh sufferers to the teeming misery in our large towns. And in
any case, knowing as we do the influence of environment on the develop-
ment of individuals, they point to the necessity of removing those who are
born with feeble minds, or under conditions of moral danger, from sur-
rounding deteriorating influences.

These are problems which materially affect the progress of the human
race, and we may feel sure that, as we gradually approach their solution,
we shall more certainly realise that the theory of evolution, which the
genius of Darwin impressed on this century, is but the first step on a
biological ladder which may possibly eventually lead us to understand
how in the drama of creation man has been evolved as the highest work
of the Creator.

Bacteriology.

The sciences of medicine and surgery were largely represented in the
earlier meetings of the Association, before the creation of the British
Medical Association afforded a field for their more intimate discussion.
The close connection between the different branches of science is causing
a revival in our proceedings of discussions on some of the highest medical
problems, especially those relating to the spread of infectious and epidemic
disease.

It is interesting to contrast the opinion prevalent at the foundation of
the Association with the present position of the question.

A report to the Association in 1834, by Professor Henry, on contagion,
says :—

‘The notion that contagious emanations are at all connected with the
diffusion of animalcule through the atmosphere is at variance with all
that is known of the diffusion af volatile contagion.’

Whilst it had long been known that filthy Connie in air, earth

22 REPORT—1895.

and water fostered fever, cholera, and many other forms of disease,
and that the disease ceased to spread on the removal of these con-
ditions, yet the reason for their propagation or diminution remained under
a veil.

Leeuwenhoek in 1680 described the yeast-cells, but Schwann in 1837
first showed clearly that fermentation was due to the activity of the yeast-
cells ; and, although vague ideas of fermentation had been current during
the past century, he laid the foundation of our exact knowledge of the
nature of the action of ferments, both organised and unorganised. It
was not until 1860, after the prize of the Academy of Sciences had
been awarded to Pasteur for his essay against the theory of spon-
taneous generation, that his investigations into the action of ferments?
enabled him to show that the effects of the yeast-cell are indissolubly
bound up with the activities of the celi as a living organism, and that
certain diseases, at least, are due to the action of ferments in the
living being. In 1865 he showed that the disease of silkworms, which
was then undermining the silk industry in France, could be successfully
combated. His further researches into anthrax, fowl cholera, swine fever,
rabies, and other diseases proved the theory that those diseases are con-
nected in some way with the introduction of a microbe into the body of
an animal ; that the virulence of the poison can be diminished by culti-
vating the microbes in an appropriate manner ; and that when the virulence
has been thus diminished their inoculation will afford a protection against
the disease.

Meanwhile it had often been observed in hospital practice that a patient
with a simple-fractured limb was easily cured, whilst a patient with a
compound fracture often died from the wound. Lister was thence led, in
1865, to adopt his antiseptic treatment, by which the wound is protected
from hostile microbes.

These investigations, followed by the discovery of the existence of a
multitude of micro-organisms and the recognition of some of them—
such as the bacillus of tubercle and the comma bacillus of cholera—as
essential factors of disease ; and by the elaboration by Koch and others
of methods by which the several organisms might be isolated, cultivated,
and their histories studied, have gradually built up the science of bac-
teriology. Amongst later developments are the discovery of various
so-called antitoxins, such as those of diphtheria and tetanus, and the
utilisation of these for the cure of disease. Lister’s treatinent formed a
landmark in the science of surgery, and enabled our surgeons to perform
operations never before dreamed of ; whilst later discoveries are tending
to place the practice of medicine on a firm scientific basis. And the
science of bacteriology is leading us to recur to stringent rules for the

} In speaking of ferments one must bear in mind that there are two classes of
ferments: one, living beings, such as yeast—‘ organised’ ferments, as they are
sometimes called—the other the products of living beings themselves, such as
pepsin, &c.—‘ unorganised’ ferments. Pasteur worked with the former, very little
with the latter

ADDRESS. 23

isolation of infectious disease, and to the disinfection (by superheated steam)
of materials which have been in contact with the sufferer.

These microbes, whether friendly or hostile, are all capable of multi-
plying at an enormous rate under favourable conditions. They are found
in the air, in water, in the soil ; but, fortunately, the presence of one species
appears to be detrimental to other species, and sunshine, or even light
from the sky, is prejudicial to most of them. Our bodies, when in health,
appear to be furnished with special means of resisting attacks, and, so
far as regards their influence in causing disease, the success of the attack
of a pathogenic organism upon an individual depends, as a rule, in part
at least, upon the power of resistance of the individual.

But notwithstanding our knowledge of the danger arising from a
state of low health in individuals, and of the universal prevalence of
these micro-organisms, how careless we are in guarding the health
conditions of everyday life! We have ascertained that pathogenic
organisms pervade the air. Why, therefore, do we allow our meat,
our fish, our vegetables, our easily contaminated milk, to be exposed
to their inroads, often in the foulest localities? We have ascertained
that they pervade the water we drink, yet we allow foul water from our
dwellings, our pigsties, our farmyards, to pass into ditches without
previous clarification, whence it flows into our streams and pollutes our
rivers. We know the conditions of occupation which foster ill-health.
Why, whilst we remove outside sources of impure air, do we permit the
occupation of foul and unhealthy dwellings ?

The study of bacteriology has shown us that although some of these
organisms may be the accompaniments of disease, yet we owe it to the
operation of others that the refuse caused by the cessation of animal and
vegetable life is reconverted into food for fresh generations of plants and
animals.

These considerations have formed a point of meeting where the
biologist, the chemist, the physicist, and the statistician unite with the
sanitary engineer in the application of the science of preventive medicine.

o
5

ENGINEERING.
Sewage Purification.

The early reports to the Association show that the laws of hydro-
statics, hydrodynamics, and hydraulics necessary to the supply and removal
of water through pipes and conduits had long been investigated by the
mathematician. But the modern sanitary engineer has been driven by
the needs of an increasing population to call in the chemist and the
biologist to help him to provide pure water and pure air.

The purification and the utilisation of sewage occupied the attention of
the British Association as early as 1864, and between 1869 and 1876 a
committee of the Association made a series of valuable reports on the
subject. The direct application of sewage to land, though effective as a

24 REPORT—1895.

means of purification, entailed difficulties in thickly settled districts, owing
to the extent of land required.

The chemical treatment of sewage produced an effluent harmless only
after having been passed over land, or if turned into a large and rapid
stream, or into a tidal estuary; and it left behind a large amount of
sludge to be dealt with.

Hence it was long contended that the simplest plan in favourable
localities was to turn the sewage into the sea, and that the consequent
loss to the land of the manurial value in the sewage would be recouped by
the increase in fish-life.

It was not till the chemist called to his aid the biologist, and came to
the help of the engineer, that a scientific system of sewage purification
was evolved.

Dr. Frankland many years ago suggested the intermittent filtration of
sewage ; and Mr. Bailey Denton and Mr. Baldwin Latham were the first
engineers to adopt it. But the valuable experiments made in recent
years by the State Board of Health in Massachusetts have more clearly
explained to us how by this system we may utilise micro-organisms to con-
vert organic impurity in sewage into food fitted for higher forms of life.

To effect this we require, in the first place, a filter about five feet thick
of sand and gravel, or, indeed, of any material which affords numerous
surfaces or open pores. Secondly, that after a volume of sewage has
passed through the filter, an interval of time be allowed, in which the air
necessary to support the life of the micro-organisms is enabled to enter
the pores of the filter. Thus this system is dependent upon oxygen and
time. Under such conditions the organisms necessary for purification are
sure to establish themselves in the filter before it has been long in use.
Temperature is a secondary consideration.

Imperfect purification can invariably be traced either to a lack of
oxygen in the pores of the filter, or to the sewage passing through so
quickly that there is not sufficient time for the necessary processes to
take place. And the power of any material to purify either sewage or
water depends almost entirely upon its ability to hold a sufficient propor-
tion of either sewage or water in contact with a proper amount of air.

Smoke Abatement.

Whilst the sanitary engineer has done much to improve the surface
conditions of our towns, to furnish clean water, and to remove our
sewage, he has as yet done little to purify town air. Fog is caused by the
floating particles of matter in the air becoming weighted with aqueous
vapour ; some particles, such as salts of ammonia or chloride of sodium,
have a greater affinity for moisture than others. You will suffer from
fog so long as you keep refuse stored in your towns to furnish ammonia,
or so long as you allow your street surfaces to supply dust, of which much
consists of powdered horse manure, or so long as you send the products of

hin

ADDRESS. 25

combustion into the atmosphere. Therefore, when you have adopted
mechanical traction for your vehicles in towns you may largely reduce
one cause of fog. And if you diminish your black smoke, you will
diminish black fogs.

In manufactories you may prevent smoke either by care in firing,
by using smokeless coal, or by washing the soot out of the products of
consumption in its passage along the flue leading to the main chimney-
shaft.

The black smoke from your kitchen may be avoided by the use of coke

or of gas. But so long as we retain the hygienic arrangement of the

open fire in our living-rooms I despair of finding a fireplace, however well
constructed, which will not be used in such a manner as to cause smoke,
unless, indeed, the chimneys were reversed and the fumes drawn into
some central shaft, where they might be washed before being passed into
the atmosphere.

Electricity as a warming and cooking agent would be convenient,
cleanly, and economical when generated by water power, or possibly wind
power, but it is at present too dear when it has to be generated by means
of coal. I can conceive, however, that our descendants may learn so to
utilise electricity that they in some future century may be enabled by its
means to avoid the smoke in their towns.

Mechanical Engineering.

In other branches of civil and mechanical engineering, the reports in
1831 and 1832 on the state of this science show that the theoretical and
practical knowledge of the strength of timber had obtained considerable
development. But in 1830, before the introduction of railways, cast iron
had been sparingly used in arched bridges for spans of from 160 to 200
feet, and wrought iron had only been applied to large-span iron bridges on
the suspension principle, the most notable instance of which was the Menai
Suspension Bridge, by Telford. Indeed, whilst the strength of timber had
been patiently investigated by engineers, the best form for the use of iron
girders and struts was only beginning to attract attention, and the earlier
volumes of our Proceedings contained numerous records of the researches
of Eaton Hodgkinson, Barlow, Rennie, and others. It was not until
twenty years later that Robert Stephenson and William Fairbairn erected
the tubular bridge at Menai, followed by the more scientific bridge erected
by Brunel at Saltash. These have now been entirely eclipsed by the skill
with which the estuary of the Forth has been bridged with a span of
1,700 feet by Sir John Fowler and Sir Benjamin Baker.

The development of the iron industry is due to the association of the
chemist with the engineer. The introduction of the hot blast by Neilson,
in 1829, in the manufacture of cast iron had effected a large saving of fuel.
But the chemical conditions which affect the strength and other qualities
of iron, ard its combinations with carbon, silicon, phosphorus, and other
substances, had at that time scarcely been investigated.

26 REPORT—1895.

In 1856 Bessemer brought before the British Association at Cheltenham
his brilliant discovery for making steel direct from the blast furnace,
by which he dispensed with the laborious process of first removing the
carbon from pig-iron by puddling, and then adding by cementation the
required proportion of carbon to make steel. This discovery, followed
by Siemens’s regenerative furnace, by Whitworth’s compressed steel, and
by the use of alloys and by other improvements too numerous to
mention here, have revolutionised the conditions under which metals are
applied to engineering purposes.

Indeed, few questions are of greater interest, or possess more industrial
importance, than those connected with metallic alloys. This is especially
true of those alloys which contain the rarer metals; and the extraordinary
effects of small quantities of chromium, nickel, tungsten and titanium on
certain varieties of steel have exerted profound influence on the manu-
facture of projectiles and on the construction of our armoured ships.

Of late years, investigations on the properties and structure of alloys have
been numerous, and among the more noteworthy researches may be men-
tioned those of Dewar and Fleming on the distinctive behaviour, as regards
the thermo-electric powers and electrical resistance, of metals and alloys at
the very low temperatures which may be obtained by the use of liquid air.

Professor Roberts-Austen, on the other hand, has carefully studied
the behaviour of alloys at very high temperatures, and by employing his
delicate pyrometer has obtained photographic curves which afford addi-
tional evidence as to the existence of allotropic modifications of metals,
and which have materially strengthened the view that alloys are closely
analogous to saline solutions. In this connection it may be stated that
the very accurate work of Heycock and Neville on the lowering of the
solidifying points of molten metals, which is caused by the presence of
other metals, affords a valuable contribution to our knowledge.

Professor Roberts-Austen has, moreover, shown that the effect of any
one constituent of an alloy upon the properties of the principal metal has
a direct relation to the atomic volumes, and that it is consequently possible
to foretell, in a great measure, the effect of any given combination.

A new branch of investigation, which deals with the micro-structure
of metals and alloys, is rapidly assuming much importance. It was
instituted by Sorby in a communication which he made to the British
Association in 1864, and its development is due to many patient workers,
among whom M. Osmond occupies a prominent place.

Metallurgical science has brought aluminium into use by cheapening
the process of its extraction ; and if by means of the wasted forces in our
rivers, or possibly of the wind, the extraction be still further cheapened
by the aid of electricity, we may not only utilise the metal or its alloys in
increasing the spans of our bridges, and in affording strength and lightness
in the construction of our ships, but we may hope to obtain a material
which may render practicable the dreams of Icarus and of Maxim, and for
purposes of rapid transit enable us to navigate the air.

_

ona ere

ADDRESS. 27

Long before 1831 the steam-engine had been largely used on rivers and
lakes, and for short sea passages, although the first Atlantic steam-service
was not established till 1838.

As early as 1820 the steam-engine had been applied by Gurney, Han-
cock, and others to road traction. The absurd impediments placed in their
way by road trustees, which, indeed, are still enforced, checked any progress.
But the question of mechanical traction on ordinary roads was practically
shelved in 1830, at the time of the formation of the British Association,
when the locomotive engine was combined with a tubular boiler and an
iron road on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.

Great, however, as was the advance made by the locomotive engine of
Robert Stephenson, these earlier engines were only toys compared with
the compound engines of to-day which are used for railways, for ships, or
for the manufacture of electricity. Indeed, it may be said that the study
of the laws of heat, which have led to the introduction of various forms of
motive power, are gradually revolutionising all our habits of life.

The improvements in the production of iron, combined with the de-
veloped steam-engine, have completely altered the conditions of our com-
mercial intercourse on land ; whilst the changes caused by the effects of
these improvements in shipbuilding, and on the ocean carrying trade,
have been, if anything, still more marked.

At the foundation of the Association all ocean ships were built by
hand, of wood, propelled by sails and maneuvred by manual labour ; the
material limited their length, which did not often exceed 100 feet, and
the number of English ships of over 500 tons burden was comparatively
small.

In the modern ships steam power takes the place of manual labour.
It rolls the plates of which the ship is constructed, bends them to the
required shape, cuts, drills and rivets them in their place. It weighs the
anchor ; it propels the ship in spite of winds or currents ; it steers, venti-
lates, and lights the ship when on the ocean. It takes the cargo on board
and discharges it on arrival.

The use of iron favours the construction of ships of a large size, of forms
which afford small resistance to the water, and with compartments which
make the ships practically unsinkable in heavy seas, or by collision. Their
size, the economy with which they are propelled, and the certainty of their
arrival, cheapen the cost of transport.

The steam-engine, by compressing air, gives us control over the tem-
perature of cool chambers. In these not only fresh meat, but the delicate
produce of the Antipodes, is brought across the ocean to our doors without
deterioration.

Whilst railways have done much to alter the social conditions of each
individual nation, the application of iron and steam to our ships is revolu-
tionising the international commercial conditions of the world ; and it is
gradually changing the course of our agriculture, as well as of our do-
mestic life.

28 REPORT—1895.

But great as have been the developments of science in promoting the
commerce of the world, science is asserting its supremacy even to a greater
extent in every department of war. And perhaps this application of science
affords at a glance, better than almost any other, a convenient illustration
of the assistance which the chemical, physical, and electrical sciences are
affording to the engineer.

The reception of warlike stores is not now left to the uncertain
judgment of ‘ practical men,’ but is confided to officers who have received
a special training in chemical analysis, and in the application of physical
and electrical science to the tests by which the qualities of explosives, of
guns, and of projectiles can be ascertained.

For instance, take explosives. Till quite recently black and brown
powders alone were used, the former as old as civilisation, the latter but
a small modern improvement adapted to the increased size of guns. But
now the whole family of nitro-explosives are rapidly superseding the old
powder. These are the direct outcome of chemical knowledge ; they are
not mere chance inventions, for every improvement is based on chemical
theories, and not on random experiment.

The construction of guns is no longer a haphazard operation. In spite
of the enormous forces to be controlled and the sudden violence of their
action, the researches of the mathematician have enabled the just propor-
tions to be determined with accuracy ; the labours of the physicist have
revealed the internal conditions of the materials employed, and the best
means of their favourable employment. Take, for example, Longridge’s
coiled-wire system, in which each successive layer of which the gun is
formed receives the exact proportion of tension which enables all the layers
to act in unison. The chemist bas rendered it clear that even the smallest
quantities of certain ingredients are of supreme importance in affecting
the tenacity and trustworthiness of the materials.

The treatment of steel to adapt it to the vast range of duties it has
to perform is thus the outcome of patient research. And the use of
the metals—manganese, chromium, nickel, molybdenum—as alloys with
iron has resulted in the production of steels possessing varied and extra-
ofdinary properties. The steel required to resist the conjugate stresses
developed, lightning fashion, in a gun necessitates qualities that would not
be suitable in the projectile which that gun hurls with a velocity of some
2,500 feet per second against the armoured side of a ship. The armour,
again, has to combine extreme superficial hardness with great toughness,
and during the last few years these qualities are sought to be attained by
the application of the cementation process for adding carbon to one face
of the plate, and hardening that face alone by rapid refrigeration.

The introduction of quick-firing guns from ‘303 (i.c. about one-third)
of an inch to 6-inch calibre has rendered necessary the production of metal
cartridge-cases of complex forms drawn cold out of solid blocks or plate
of the material ; this again has taxed the ingenuity of the mechanic in the
device of machinery, and of the metallurgist in producing a metal possessed

ee

ADDRESS. 29

of the necessary ductility and toughness. The cases have to stand a
pressure at the moment of firing of as much as twenty-five tons to the
square inch—a pressure which exceeds the ordinary elastic limits of the
steel of which the gun itself is composed.

There is nothing more wonderful in practical mechanics than the
closing of the breech openings of guns, for not only must they be gas-
tight at these tremendous pressures, but the mechanism must be such
that one man by a single continuous movement shall be able to open or
close the breech of the largest gun in some ten or fifteen seconds.

The perfect knowledge of the recoil of guns has enabled the reaction
of the discharge to be utilised in compressing air or springs by which guns
can be raised from concealed positions in order to deliver their fire, and
then made to disappear again for loading ; or the same force has been used
to run up the guns automatically immediately after firing, or, as in the
case of the Maxim gun, to deliver in the same way a continuous stream
of bullets at the rate of ten in one second.

In the manufacture of shot and shell cast iron has been almost super-
seded by cast and wrought steel, though the hardened Palliser projectiles
still hold their place. The forged-steel projectiles are produced by methods
very similar to those used in the manufacture of metal cartridge-cases,
though the process is carried on at a red heat and by machines much more
powerful.

In every department concerned in the production of warlike stores
electricity is playing a more and more important part. It has enabled
the passage of a shot to be followed from its seat in the gun to its
destination.

In the gun, by means of electrical contacts arranged in the bore, a time-
curve of the passage of the shot can be determined.

From this the mathematician constructs the velocity-curve, and
from this, again, the pressures producing the velocity are estimated, and
used to check the same indications obtained by other means. The velocity
of the shot after it has left the gun is easily ascertained by the Boulangé
apparatus.

Electricity and photography have been laid under contribution for
obtaining records of the flight of projectiles and the effects of explosions
at the moment of their occurrence. Many of you will recollect Mr. Vernon
Boys’ marvellous photographs showing the progress of the shot driving
before it waves of air in its course.

Electricity and photography also record the properties of metals and
their alloys as determined by curves of cooling.

The readiness with which electrical energy can be converted into heat
or light has been taken advantage of for the firing of guns, which in their
turn can, by the same agency, be laid on the object by means of range-
finders placed at a distance and in advantageous and safe positions ; while
the electric light is utilised to illumine the sights at night, as well as to
search out the objects of attack.

30 REPORT—1895.

The compact nature of the glow-lamp, the brightness of the light, the
circumstance that the light is not due to combustion, and therefore inde-
pendent of air, facilitates the examination of the bore of guns, the insides
of shells, and other similar uses—just as it is used by a doctor to
examine the throat of a patient.

INFLUENCE OF INTERCOMMUNICATION AFFORDED BY BrivrisH ASSOCIATION
ON ScieNcE ProGRress.

The advances in engineering which have produced the steam-engine,
the railway, the telegraph, as well as our engines of war, may be said to
be the result of commercial enterprise rendered possible only by the
advances which have taken place in the several branches of science
since 1831. Having regard to the intimate relations which the several
sciences bear to each other, it is abundantly clear that much of this pro-
gress could not have taken place in the past, nor could further progress
take place in the future, without intercommunication between the
students of different branches of science.

The founders of the British Association based its claims to utility
upon the power it afforded for this intercommunication. Mr. Vernon
Harcourt (the uncle of your present General Secretary), in the address he
delivered in 1832, said : ‘How feeble is man for any purpose when he
stands alone—how strong when united with other men !

‘It may be true that the greatest philosophical works have been
achieved in privacy, but it is no less true that these works would never
have been accomplished had the authors not mingled with men of corre-
sponding pursuits, and from the commerce of ideas often gathered germs
of apparently insulated discoveries, and without such material aid would
seldom have carried their investigations to a valuable conclusion,’

I claim for the British Association that it has fulfilled the objects of
its founders, that it has had a large share in promoting intercommunication
and combination.

Our meetings have been successful because they have maintained the
true principles of scientific investigation. We have been able to secure
the continued presence and concurrence of the master-spirits of science.
They have been willing to sacrifice their leisure, and to promote the
welfare of the Association, because the meetings have afforded them the
means of advancing the sciences to which they are attached.

The Association has, moreover, justified the views of its founders in
promoting intercourse between the pursuers of science, both at home and
abroad, in a manner which is afforded by no other agency.

The weekly and sessional reunions of the Royal Society, and the
annual sowrées of other scientific societies, promote this intercourse to
some extent, but the British Association presents to the young student
during its week of meetings easy and continuous social opportunities for

ADDRESS. 31

making the acquaintance of leaders in science, and thereby obtaining
their directing influence.

It thus encourages, in the first place, opportunities of combination,
but, what is equally important, it gives at the same time material assist-
ance to the investigators whom it thus brings together.

The reports on the state of science at the present time, as they appear
in the last volume of our Proceedings, occupy the same important position,
as records of science progress, as that occupied by those Reports in our
earlier years. We exhibit no symptom of decay.

ScrencE IN GERMANY FOSTERED BY THE STATE AND MUNICIPALITIES.

Our neighbours and rivals rely largely upon the guidance of the State
for the promotion of both science teaching and of research. In Germany
the foundations of technical and industrial training are laid in the Real-
schulen, and supplemented by the Higher Technical Schools. In Berlin
that splendid institution, the Royal Technical High School, casts into
the shade the facilities for education in the various Polytechnics which we
are now establishing in London. Moreover, it assists the practical work-
man by a branch department, which is available to the public for testing
building materials, metals, paper, oil, and other matters. The standards
of all weights and measures used in trade can be purchased from or tested
by the Government Department for Weights and Measures.

For developing pure scientific research and for promoting new applica-
tions of science to industrial purposes the German Government, at the

_ instance of von Helmholtz, and aided by the munificence of Werner

von Siemens, created the Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt at
Charlottenburg.

This establishment consists of two divisions. The first is charged
with pure research, and is at the present time engaged in various thermal,
optical, and electrical and other physical investigations. The second
branch is employed in operations of delicate standardising to assist the
wants of research students—for instance, dilatation, electrical resistances,
electric and other forms of light, pressure gauges, recording instruments,
thermometers, pyrometers, tuning forks, glass, oil-testing apparatus,
viscosity of glycerine, &c.

Dr. Kohlrausch succeeded Helmholtz as president, and takes charge
of the first division. Professor Hagen, the director under him, has
charge of the second division. A professor is in charge of each of the
several sub-departments. Under these are various subordinate posts, held
by younger men, selected for previous valuable work, and usually for a
limited time.

The general supervision is under a Council consisting of a president,
who is a Privy Councillor, and twenty-four members, including the
president and director of the Reichsanstalt ; of the other members, about
ten are professors or heads of physical and astronomical observatories

82 REPORT—1895.

connected with the principal universities in Germany. Three are selected
from leading firms in Germany representing mechanical, optical, and
electric science, and the remainder are principal scientific officials con-
nected with the Departments of War and Marine, the Royal Observatory
at Potsdam, and the Royal Commission for Weights and Measures.

This Council meets in the winter, for such time as may be necessary,
for examining the research work done in the first division during the
previous year, and for laying down the scheme for research for the ensuing
year ; as well as for suggesting any requisite improvements in the second
division, As a consequence of the position which science occupies in
connection with the State in Continental countries, the services of those
who have distinguished themselves either in the advancement or in the
application of science are recognised by the award of honours; and thus
the feeling for science is encouraged throughout the nation.

ASSISTANCE TO SciENTIFIC RESEARCH IN GREAT BRITAIN.

Great Britain maintained for a long time a leading position among
the nations of the world by virtue of the excellence and accuracy of
its workmanship, the result of individual energy ; but the progress of
mechanical science has made accuracy of workmanship the common
property of all nations of the world. Our records show that hitherto, in
its efforts to maintain its position by the application of science and the
prosecution of research, England has made marvellous advances by means
of voluntary effort, illustrated by the splendid munificence of such men
as Gassiot, Joseph Whitworth, James Mason, and Ludwig Mond ; and,
whilst the increasing field of scientific research compels us occasionally
to seek for Government assistance, it would be unfortunate if by any
change voluntary effort were fettered by State control.

The following are the principal voluntary agencies which help forward
scientific research in this country :—The Donation Fund of the Royal
Society, derived from its surplusincome. The British Association has contri-
buted 60,000/. to aid research since its formation. The Royal Institution,
founded in the last century, by Count Rumford, for the promotion of
research, has assisted the investigations of Davy, of Young, of Faraday,
of Frankland, of Tyndall], of Dewar, and of Rayleigh. The City Com-
panies assist scientific research and foster scientific education both by direct
contributions and through the City and Guilds Institute. The Commis-
sioners of the Exhibition of 1851 devote 6,000/. annually to science
research scholarships, to enable students who have passed through a
college curriculum and have given evidence of capacity for original
research to continue the prosecution of science, with a view to its advance
or to its application to the industries of the country. Several scientific
societies, as, for instance, the Geographical Society and the Mechanical
Engineers, have promoted direct research, each in their own branch of
science, out of their surplus income ; and every scientific society largely
assists research by the publication, not only of its own proceedings, but

ADDRESS. 33

often of the work going on abroad in the brinch of science which it
represents.

The growing abundance of matter year by year increases the burden
thus thrown on their finances, and the Treasury has recently granted to
the Royal Society 1,000/. a year, to be spent in aid of the publication of
scientific papers not necessarily limited to those of that Society.

The Royal Society has long felt the importance to scientific research
of a catalogue of all papers and publications relating to pure and applied
science, arranged systematically both as to authors’ names and as to sub-
ject treated, and the Society has been engaged for some time upon a
catalogue of that nature. But the daily increasing magnitude of these
publications, coupled with the necessity of issuing the catalogue with
adequate promptitude, and at appropriate intervals, renders it a task
which could only be performed under International co-operation. The
officers of the Royal Society have therefore appealed to the Govern-
ment to urge Foreign Governments to send delegates to a Conference to
be held next July to discuss the desirability and the scope of such a cata-
logue, and the possibility of preparing it.

The universities and colleges distributed over the country, besides their
function of teaching, are large promoters of research, and their voluntary
exertions are aided in some cases by contributions from Parliament in
alleviation of their expenses.

Certain executive departments of the Government carry on research
for their own purposes, which in that respect may be classed as voluntary.
The Admiralty maintains the Greenwich Observatory, the Hydrographical
Department, and various experimental services ; and the War Office
maintains its numerous scientific departments. The Treasury maintains
a valuable chemical laboratory for Inland Revenue, Customs, and agri-
cultural purposes. The Science and Art Department maintains the Royal
College of Science, for the education of teachers and students from ele-
mentary schools. It allows the scientific apparatus in the national
museum to be used for research purposes by the professors. The Solar
Physics Committee, which has carried on numerous researches in solar
physics, was appointed by and is responsible to this Department. The
Department also administers the Sir Joseph Whitworth engineering re-
search scholarships. Other scientific departments of the Government are
aids to research, as, for instance, the Ordnance and the Geological Surveys,
the Royal Mint, the Natural History Museum, Kew Gardens, and other
lesser establishments in Scotland and Ireland ; to which may be added,
to some extent, the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, as well
as municipal museums, which are gradually spreading over the country.

For direct assistance to voluntary effort the Treasury contritutes
4,000/. a year to the Royal Society for the promotion of research, which

is administered under a board whose members represent all branches of

Science. The Treasury, moreover, contributes to marine biological ob-
servatories, and in recent years has defrayed the cost of various expedi-

1895. D

34 REPORT—1895.

tions for biological and astronomical research, which in the case of the
‘Challenger’ expedition involved very large sums of money.

In addition to these direct aids to science, Parliament, under the
Local Taxation Act, handed over to the County Councils a sum, which
amounted in the year 1893 to 615,000/., to be expended on technical educa-
tion. In many country districts, so far as the advancement of real scien-
tific technical progress in the nation is concerned, much of this money
has been wasted for want of knowledge. And whilst it cannot be said
that the Government or Parliament have been indifferent to the promotion
of scientific education and research, it is a source of regret that the Govern-
ment did not devote some small portion of this magnificent gift to afford-
ing an object-lesson to County Councils in the application of science to
technical instruction, which would have suggested the principles which
would most usefully guide them in the expenditure of this public money.

Government assistance to science has been based mainly on the principle
of helping voluntary effort. The Kew Observatory was initiated as a
scientific observatory by the British Association. It is now supported
by the Gassiot trust fund, and managed by the Kew Observatory Com-
mittee of the Royal Society. Observations on magnetism, on meteorology,
and the record of sun-spots, as well as experiments upon new instruments
for assisting meteorological, thermometrical, and photographic purposes,
are being carried on there. The Committee has also arranged for the
verification of scientific measuring instruments, the rating of chrono-
meters, the testing of lenses and of other scientific apparatus. This
institution carries on to a limited extent some small portion of the class
of work done in Germany by that magnificent institution, the Reichsanstalt
at Charlottenburg, but its development is fettered by want of funds.
British students of science are compelled to resort to Berlin and Paris
when they require to compare their more delicate instruments and ap-
paratus with recognised standards. There could scarcely bea more advan-
tageous addition to the assistance which Government now gives to science
than for it to allot a substantial annual sum to the extension of the Kew
Observatory, in order to develop it on the model of the Reichsanstalt.
It might advantageously retain its connection with the Royal Society,
under a Committee of Management representative of the various branches
of science concerned, and of all parts of Great Britain.

ConcLusIoNn.

The various agencies for scientific education have produced numerous
students admirably qualified to pursue research ; and at the same time
almost every field of industry presents openings for improvement through
the development of scientific methods. For instance, agricultural opera-
tions alone offer openings for research to the biologist, the chemist, the
physicist, the geologist, the engineer, which have hitherto been largely

a

ADDRESS. 30
overlooked. If students do not easily find employment, it is chiefly at-
tributable to a want of appreciation for science in the nation at large.

This want of appreciation appears to arise from the fact that those who
nearly half a century ago directed the movement of national education
were trained in early life in the universities, in which the value of scientific
methods was not at that time fully recognised. Hence our elementary,
and even our secondary and great public schools, neglected for a long time
to encourage the spirit of investigation which develops originality. This
defect is diminishing daily.

There is, however, a more intangible cause which may have had influence
on the want of appreciation of science by the nation. The Government,
which largely profits by science, aids it with money, but it has done very
little to develop the national appreciation for science by recognising that
its leaders are worthy of honours conferred by the State. Science is not
fashionable, and science students—upon whose efforts our progress as a
nation so largely depends—have not received the same measure of recog-
nition which the State awards to services rendered by its own officials, by
politicians, and by the Army and by the Navy, whose success in future
wars will largely depend on the effective applications of science.

The Reports of the British Association afford a complete chronicle of
the gradual growth of scientific knowledge since 1831. They show that
the Association has fulfilled the objects of its founders in promoting and
disseminating a knowledge of science throughout the nation.

The growing connection between the sciences places our annual
meeting in the position of an arena where representatives of the different
sciences have the opportunity of criticising new discoveries and testing
the value of fresh proposals, and the Presidential and Sectional Addresses
operate as an annual stock-taking of progress in the several branches of
science represented in the Sections. Every year the field of usefulness of
the Association is widening. For, whether with the geologist we seek
to write the history of the crust of the earth, or with the biologist to trace
out the evolution of its inhabitants, or whether with the astronomer, the
chemist, and the physicist we endeavour to unravel the constitution of the
sun and the planets or the genesis of the nebule and stars which make
up the universe, on every side we find ourselves surrounded by mysteries
which await solution. We are only at the beginning of work.

I have, therefore, full confidence that the future records of the British
Association will chronicle a still greater progress than that already
achieved, and that the British nation will maintain its leading position
amongst the nations of the world, if it will energetically continue its
voluntary efforts to promote research, supplemented by that additional
help from the Government which ought never to be withheld when a
clear case of scientific utility has been established.

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REPORTS

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STATE OF SCIENCE.

Corresponding Societies.— Report of the Cominrittee, consisting of
Professor R. MELpoLa (Chairman), Mr. T. V. HotmEs (Secretary),
Mr. FrANcIS GALTON, Sir DotGLas GALTON, Sir Rawson Rawson,
Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir Jonn Evans, Mr. J.
Hopkinson, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. W. WHITAKER, Professor
E. B. Poutron, Mr. CurHpert PEEK, and Rev. Canon H. B.

TRISTRAM.

Tue Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Association beg
leave to submit to the General Committee the following Report of the
proceedings of the Conference held at Ipswich.

The Council nominated Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., Chairman, Dr.
J.G. Garson, Vice-Chairman, and Mr. T. V. Holmes, Secretary to the
Ipswich Conference. These nominations were confirmed by the General
Committee at the meeting held at Ipswich on Wednesday, September 11.
The meetings of the Conference were held at the Co- -operative Hall,
Ipswich, on Thursday, September 12, and Tuesday, September 17, at
3.30 p.m. The following Corresponding Societies nominated as delegates
to represent them at the Ipswich meeting :—

Belfast Natural History and Philosophi- Alexander Tate, M.Inst.C.E.
cal Society.

Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club : . G. P. Hughes.

Birmingham Natural History and Philo- J. Kenward, F.S.A., Assoc.M.Inst.
sophical Society. C.E.

Buchan Field Club . ; John Gray, B.Sc.

Burton-on-Trent Natural History and James G. Wells.
Archzological Society.
Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club . W. W. Watts, F.G.S.
Chester Society of Natural Science and Osmund W. Jeffs.
Literature.
Chesterfield and Midland Counties Insti- WM. H. Mills, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E,
tution of Engineers.
Croydon Microscopical and Natural His- W. F. Stanley, F.R.A.S.
tory Club.
Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Capt. G. R. Elwes.
Field Club.
East Kent Natural History Society A. S. Reid, M.A., F.G.S.
East of Scotland Union of Naturalists’ Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson, M.A.

Societies.
Essex Field .Club . 2 T. V. Holmes, F.G.S.

40

REPORT—1895.

Federated Institution of Mining Engi-
neers.

Glasgow Geological Society

Glasgow Philosophical Society

Hertfordshire Natural History Society .

Ireland, Statistical and Social Inquiry,
Society of.

Isle of Man Natural History and Anti-
quarian Society.

Liverpool Geological Society .

Malton Field Naturalists’ and Scientific
Society.

Manchester Geographical Society

North Staffordshire Naturalists’
Club.

Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society

North of England Institute of Mining
Engineers.

Northamptonshire Natural History So-
ciety and Field Club.

Perthshire Society of Natural Science

Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society

Royal Cornwall Geological Society .

Somersetshire Archeological and Natu-
ral History Society.

Warwickshire Naturalists’ and Archeolo-
gists’ Field Club.

Woolbope Naturalists’ Field Club .

Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union .

Field

M. H. Mills, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E-
J. Barclay Murdoch.

Robert Gow.

John Hopkinson, F.L.S.

R. M. Barrington, LL.B.

His Honour Deemster Gill.

E. Dickson, F.G.S.
Dr. E. Colby.

Eli Sowerbutts, F.R.G.S.
C. E. De Rance, F.G.S.

H. B. Woodward, F.G.S.
Prof, J. H. Merivale, M.A.

C. A. Markham, F.R.Met.Soc.
A.S. Reid, M.A., F.G.S.

J. Reginald Ashworth, B.Sc.
T. R. Polwhele.

F. T. Elworthy.

W. Andrews, F.G.S.

Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A.

M. B. Slater, F.L.S.

Ipswicu, First CoNFERENCE, SEPTEMBER 12, 1895.

The Corresponding Societies Committee were represented by Professor
R. Meldola, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. Hopkinson, and Mr. T. V. Holmes
(Secretary). The Chairman of the Conference opened the proceedings
with the following address :—

Address of the Chairman, G. J. Symons, F.R.S.

Just as with the great Association under whose auspices we meet, so
with the numerous and intellectual bodies which you represent—each
has a double duty. The duty to humanity of doing its best to in-
terpret truthfully the lessons of the world in which we live, so that by
increasing knowledge future generations may learn to make better use of
its marvellous stores, and perchance repair some of the waste which has
gone on in the past, and which is still going on. Our other duty is
to advance the cause of the various bodies with which we are connected.
Of course you know this as well as I do, but in these days when a universal
genius has become an impossibility, and progress can be effected only by
limiting one’s work to some corner of the field of science, there is great:
danger Tot specialisation leading to forgetfulness of generalisation, and
of what is the end of all research. You all know the necessity for inter-
communication, which in the early years of this century rendered the
formation of the British Association imperative, and you know how that
need was met. I hold that this Conference and the work which it is doing
are an equal necessity of the present time. How could workers in any
branch of science know all that was being done by local effort without
our index to your proceedings! The world is the better for the knowledge
which you gain being rendered generally accessible, and both the British

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 4)

Association and the local societies gain the strength which arises from
federation.

The Council having nominated me to the honourable office of Chair-
man, my first and most pleasant duty is to offer you a hearty welcome ;
and my second, which is a somewhat personal one, is to ask you to
remember that it is not given to every chairman mentally to photograph
every one present, and to remember not merely every face, but the name
of its owner ; it is one thing to be Chairman whom every one can see and
recognise, it is quite another thing for the Chairman to remember all the
faces before him. It is therefore from no lack of courtesy, but from the
physiological necessity, that I request that each delegate will preface his re-
marks by mentioning his name, and that of the Society which he represents.

I have already intimated my opinion that if a man wishes to do good
work for science he must take some field, or corner of a field, and labour
there. I have only a corner—rainfall, but I think that I know enough
about some other parts of the field of meteorology to point out spots
where good work could be done—and work precisely suitable for the
members of your societies. Of course in the few minutes during which I
may detain you I cannot enter into details, but there is such an organisa-
tion as the Post Office. I do answer as many letters as I can, and an
extra twenty or thirty will make no appreciable difference.

Now, to take up the syllabus :—

1. Meteorological observations in general.—Do not encourage the
keeping of records from any but good instruments, properly placed. A
hard frost occurs, and forthwith there is a crop of wonderful records, some
from thermometers badly placed, some from thermometers which never
were good, some from good thermometers allowed to go wrong. An
incorrect statement is much worse than none at all; see to it then that
such records as you publish are worthy of your Society. I say no more
on this head because the Royal Meteorological Society has published,
almost at cost price (ls.), an amply illustrated pamphlet, ‘Hints to
Observers,’ which will show any one what, and when, and how, observations
ought to be made. It is by no means necessary to start with an elaborate
and costly set of instruments ; but see to it that the instruments which
you do have are good, and that no records except from good and tested
instruments, properly placed, ever appear in your volumes.

2. Sea and river temperature.—I have interpolated the words ‘and
river’ because I ought to have put them in the syllabus originally, and
because my attention has been drawn to the subject by an excellent
summary of Dr. Adolf Forster’s work upon the temperatures of European
rivers, by Mr. H. N. Dickson, given in the September number of ‘The
Geographical Journal.’ You will remember that for a few years there was
a Committee of the British Association studying river temperature ; and I
am sure that if your societies took up the investigation, a fresh committee
could be appointed, so that we should not need to go to a German book to
learn the details of the temperature of the Thames. The work is easy,
healthy, and inexpensive. Easy, because it merely involves a walk to a
bridge, a jetty, or a p‘er-head, the lowering of the thermometer into the
water, entering the reading, and carrying it home again ; healthy, from the
regularity of the walk ; and inexpensive, because the verified K. O.
thermometer and its copper case, cord, and everything, could be sent to

- any part of the country complete for a sovereign.

42 REPORT—1895.

3. Harth temperature at shallow and at great depths. —The second half of
this subject has often been brought before you, because the Underground
Temperature Committee is the oldest one of the British Association. It,
as you know, deals chiefly with the temperature in mines and in deep
shafts and wells. Any one who can obtain good records at depths of, or
exceeding, 1,000 feet can do useful work, but I am doubtful whether much
more can be learned in this country by observations at depths between
10 feet and 1,000 feet than we already know. I insert the words, ‘in
this country,’ because I do not think that the law of decrease for tropical
and for arctic localities is known. Unfortunately we have no representa-
tives of such localities here, or we might sow: a productive seed. Obser-
vations at shallow depths—say 3 inches to 10 feet—are becoming less rare
than they were, and the time is not distant when the law of temperature
variation for shallow depths will be known with sufficient accuracy. That
much has yet to be ascertained, many persons learned by burst water-
pipes last winter. I mention this as an illustration of the application of
scientific records to the welfare of mankind, not as an indication that I
consider the mischief to have been wholly produced by soil temperature ;
but I must not digress.

4. Phenological work.—I am afraid that this word ‘phenological’ has not
proved very acceptable. I once heard an inquiry what meteorology had
to do with prisons—and it turned out that the querist had overlooked the
‘h,’ and reading it as ‘ penological’ thought that it must have something
to do with punishment. However, I need not tell you that it means the
laws of the life history of plants and animals ; in fact, an endeavour to
record the progress of the seasons not by thermometers or by rain-gauges,
but by plants, trees, insects, and birds, and the study of the relations between
the indications of the natural history phenomena and those of the instru-
ments and efforts to separate cause and effect. It has always seemed to
me a class of work peculiarly adapted for the local scientific societies,
for their Botanical and Entomological Sections. The Royal Meteorological
Society has spent a considerable sum in promoting this work, and in the
hands of Mr. E. Mawley it is progressing. Personally, I am not competent
to pronounce any criticism upon the work beyond this, that Mr. Mawley
has devoted himself to it, and has produced tables and diagrams of great
interest. But I do say this, that I think that the naturalists should either
co-operate heartily with the meteorologists, or else should show that the
meteorologists are attempting the impossible or the undesirable.

5, Early meteorological records.—lt is a prevalent idea (especially with
executors) that old manuscript books of observations are useless. I have
every reason to believe that a long deceased relative of my own assisted
in burning part of the oldest record of the rainfall in this country—that
begun at Townley in Lancashire in 1677; and what she did at the
beginning of this century has been done by scores of others, and will be
until mankind are much more thoughtful and much better informed than
they yet are. But I am not addressing you in the capacity of executors,
but as representatives of large local bodies, many of them with museums
and libraries ; and I invite you to see to it that any such records that
you have are properly cared for.

Another suggestion—the practice is fortunately rapidly spreading of
publishing the early parochial registers. If each society represented here
would make it a rule to go through all such publications as have been
issued within its area, and print in chronological order all the notes on

—————=—s rh ee)

an pa

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 43

earthquakes, storms, frosts, floods, &e., which can be collected, much good
would be done. Of course this can be done for unpublished as well as
for published records.

6. Records of river and well levels.—The second half of this subject
has so often been brought before you by Mr. De Rance, the Secretary of
the British Association Committee on Underground Water, that I need
merely mention it. The first part refers to a subject involved in my next
_ and last heading, and to which, therefore, I will at once proceed.

7. Records of floods and the placing of flood-marks.—It is very strange
that Englishmen (Britons I had better say, for our Irish and Scotch
friends are equally bad) are so nearly the worst nation in Europe for
looking after their rivers. J do not refer to fouling by sewage and by
manufacturing refuse, or to defective engineering—I do not know where
we stand in those respects—but I refer to records of river levels, to scale
marks on the bridges, to automatic recorders of their rise and fall, to
arrangements for warning the owners of low-lying property when floods
are probable, and to the classification, levelling, and publication in full, of
particulars as to old flood-level marks, and the due marking of new ones

_ when floods occur. I do not suggest that your societies should themselves

do all this, but that they should bring it before their Parish and County

_ Councils, and couple their request with the offer of any assistance in their
_ power. Of course the suggestion will be received politely, the great cost

_ will be urged,and in many cases nothing will be done. Forgive my

detaining you to hear a little true story. Years ago I suggested such
arrangements to an influential man in York—nothing was done. In
1892 York had a flood, not so bad as some on record, but one which cost
the Corporation a very large sum ; they paid it, and that steed having
_been stolen they have figuratively locked the stable door by adopting all
the arrangements suggested above. If the Councils do not take your
advice, they must remember that your attendance will be on their
minutes, to be referred to when their town or district suffers as York did.

The Chairman then read a letter which he had received from Mr. R.
Ashworth, of the Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society, who regretted
his inability to attend and sent some notes showing what meteorological
work was being done in his district.
Mr. T. V. Holmes (Secretary) wished to make a few remarks with
regard to the list of papers read before the Corresponding Societies and
appended to the Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee. He
hoped that the secretaries of the various local societies, in sending in their
lists, would be very careful where the paper, from its title, might belong
_ to either of two sections, to group it with that section to which it had
most affinity. Examination had in some cases caused a paper to be
classed with another section than that originally given. It was very

necessary also that the names of papers sent in should not be those of
“mere popular lectures, but of investigations of a more or less original
- character. It had occasionally happened that when reference had to be
_ made to some paper on the list in order to ascertain its true nature it had
been found that the paper in question had not been sent to Burlington
House. No paper would in future be placed on the list published by
the British Association unless it could be consulted at the Office.

The Chairman then invited discussion on the subjects mentioned in his

address.

AA, REPORT—1835.

Captain G. R. Elwes (Dorset) laid upon the table a paper on the rain-
fall in Dorset, which had been compiled by a member of the Dorset Natural
History and Antiquarian Field Club, Mr. Eaton, from records kept in the
county of Dorset during the last forty years. It was a most careful and
exhaustive piece of work, and was illustrated by maps and diagrams.
Mr. Eaton wished to have the paper submitted to that conference of
delegates with the view of eliciting remarks upon it.

The Chairman said that Mr. Eaton was an old friend of his, and
he had much pleasure in testifying to the excellence of his work. One of
the maps of Dorset was shaded so as to show the proportionate amount of
the rainfall, the other the varying elevation of the land, and, as might have
been expected, there was a fair amount of parallelism between the two.
Mr. Eaton’s work was an admirable example of the way in which the
rainfall of a county should be worked out, a labour especially requiring
much patience and perseverance. He wished they could have such
memoirs for every county.

Mr. Sowerbutts remarked upon the difficulty of discussing Mr. Eaton’s
paper in the absence of copies of it, and Professor Meldola said that
there was not much to discuss, as the paper had been brought forward
simply as an example of the way in which such work should be done.
Professor Merivale asked whether it would be possible to obtain copies of
Mr. Eaton’s paper, and Captain Elwes said that he would do his best
to get copies for any gentlemen who would give in their names.

Mr. Hopkinson stated that twenty years ago he began to record the
rainfall of Hertfordshire with about twenty observers, and he had since
done his best to add to their number, with the result that there were now
about forty. The report which he had published last year contained the
monthly returns from forty observers in Hertfordshire. He had obtained
about thirty daily records, which were worked up and analysed but not
published. In the Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History
Society much space was devoted to meteorological work and to phenology,
and he hoped that the Sccieties in other counties would work similarly at
these subjects. He trusted also that delegates would preserve any early
meteorological records they might discover.

Mr. De Rance, in illustration of the increasing usefulness of local
societies, mentioned the fact that two Committees of the British Asso-
ciation, of which for many years he had been secretary—that on Coast
Erosion, and that investigating the Circulation of Underground Waters—
had just ceased to exist in consequence of the admirable way in which
their work had been taken up by the Corresponding Societies.

His Honour Deemster Gill mentioned that the subject of Coast Erosion
had been taken up by a Committee of the Legislature of the Isle of Man,
of which he was a member, but their investigations were not yet complete.
But they had found that for some twenty miles on the west, the north-
west, and the north, erosion had been going on to a very large extent, the
evidence showing a destruction of land of about twenty acres to the mile
within the last fifty or sixty years. The whole of the information would
be sent to the proper Department when the investigation was concluded.
Deemster Gill added, in reply to a question, that the portion of the coast
mentioned was not rocky but sandy.

The Chairman remarked that the meteorology of the Isle of Man was
being looked after by Mr. A. W. Moore, and Deemster Gill added thai all
that was necessary was being done there in that department.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 4S

Mr. Sowerbutts asked whether it was desirable that the Manchester
Society should collect the results of observations at the observatories, and
forward them to the Meteorological Society, and the Chairman replied
that it was just one of the things wanted. Mr. Sowerbutts added that,
though there were several observatories whose observations were hardly
worth having, there was a thoroughly efficient one in the Park, under the
Whitworth Trustees, another at St. Bede’s, and a third at the Manchester
Waterworks.

Captain Elwes hoped that it might be possible to induce local scientific
societies to co-operate for the discovery of flint implements, and the for-
mulation of results. He wished that they would make this branch of
investigation a more special feature of their work than it was at present.

Mr. Osmund W. Jeffs, Secretary to the British Association Committee
for the Collection and Preservation of Geological Photographs, stated that
it had been proposed by the Committee, and adopted by the Council of the
British Association, that the photographs collected, should be placed in the
Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street. The first part of the collec-
tion, consisting of 800 photographs, had already been deposited there, and
the rest would be handed over as soon as possible. As, however, a great
many parts of the British Isles were still unrepresented, it was proposed that
they should go on collecting. From some of the eastern counties no pho-
tographs whatever had been sent, and on that very day he had been pro-
mised some from that neighbourhood. He hoped, therefore, that the
_ delegates would remember that they were still collecting, and would men-
tion the fact to their respective societies.

Mr. De Rance, after complimenting Mr. Jeffs on the results he had
achieved, remarked that it would be a good thing if each society would
_ issue a circular, and send it to other local societies, so that all might know
what photographs had been taken in each locality, and were available,
and, on the other hand, in what districts photographers were most needed.

Mr. Sowerbutts dwelt on the very valuable results already attained by
Mr. Jeffs, and proposed a hearty vote of thanks to him for his exertions.
This vote was seconded by His Honour Deemster Gill. After a few words
in support of it from the Chairman it was carried unanimously Mr. Jefts,
in acknowledgment of the vote of thanks, said that they were due rather to
the Geological Photographs Committee than to himself personally, and
that the work could not have been carried out as it had been but for the
active co-operation of a great number of the local societies.

Mr. J. B. Murdoch (Glasgow) thought that in too many of their
investigations Scotland was excluded. He might mention as an example
the British Association Committee for recording the position, &c., of the
Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland.

Mr. De Rance stated that the Erratic Blocks Committee was formed
many years before the meetings of the delegates of the Corresponding
Societies began to take place. Any Scottish member of the British
Association might have brought the matter before the General Committee
and proposed the extension of the work to Scotland.

Some remarks were made by Mr. Sowerbutts and Mr. G. P. Hughes
on Scotland as a nursery of boulders, and the Chairman said that his
impression was that many years ago some one suggested the inclusion of
Scotland in the labours of the Erratic Blocks Committee, and was
answered by a speaker who stated that the Royal Society of Edinburgh
was already at work on the subject, and that it would be unwise to

46 REPORT—1895,

trespass upon its territory. For his own part he was always pleased
to co-operate with his Scottish friends, and had done so on the question
of rainfall, and it would appear that in this Erratic Blocks Committee the
exclusion of Scotland was the result of deference to her susceptibilities.

Mr. Murdoch replied that it was quite true that for many years a
Boulder Committee had existed in Scotland, but the work had been
entirely under the control and direction of Mr. Milne Home, who was
now dead, and who, for some time before his death, had been unable to
get about the country. Mr. Milne Home’s Committee had issued eight
yearly reports, which were very valuable, as many of the boulders were
not only tabulated, but figured. But for some time the work had been
practically at a standstill.

The Chairman remarked that in that case it was certainly desirable
that steps should be taken to have Scotland included.

Deemster Gill said that the boulders of the Isle of Man were being
noted by the Society to which he belonged, but not, he thought, by any
extraneous body.

Professor Merivale remarked that for some time they had been dis-
cussing matters connected with Section C. He wished, before the meeting
ended, to say a few words on Flameless Explosives (Section G). The
North of England Institute of Mining Engineers had been continuing
their experiments, and had published one report. They were still going
on with their labours, and another report would be published shortly.
He had nothing to say then as to the results of their experiments.

The Chairman supposed that the Conference was, as usual, in favour
of an application to the General Committee for a grant of 30/. to enable
the Corresponding Societies Committee to carry on its work.

Professor Meldola moved that an application for a grant of 30/. should
be made, remarking that the amount named was only just sufficient to
cover their expenses. The proposition was seconded by Mr. Hopkinson
and carried unanimously.

Srconp CONFERENCE, SEPTEMBER 17, 1895.

The Corresponding Societies Committee was represented by Dr,
Garson (in the chair), Mr. Hopkinson, Mr. Symons, and Mr. T. V.
Holmes (Secretary).

Dr. Garson said that Mr. Symons could not take the chair, as he was
then at the meeting of the Committee of Recommendations. It was
usual at their Second Conference to consider the recommendations from
the various Sections respecting work in which it was thought the Corre-
sponding Societies might usefully co-operate. He would therefore, in the
first place, call upon the representative of Section A.

Section <A.

Mr. White Wallis stated that Mr. Symons, who had been chosen the
representative of Section A, had asked him to attend the Conference in
his stead. It had been resolved that the Committees for investigating
Earth Tremors and Seismological Phenomena in Japan should be merged
into one with the title of ‘Committee for Seismological Observations.’ Its
members would be Mr. G. J. Symons, chairman; Mr. C. Davison and Mr.
J. Milne, secretaries ; Lord Kelvin, Professor W. C. Adams, Mr. C. H.
Bottomley, Sir F. J. Bramwell, Professor G. H. Darwin, Mr. Horace
Darwin, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Professor J. A. Ewing, Professor A. H. Green,
Professor G. C. Knott, Professor G. A. Lebour, Professor R, Meldola,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 47

Professor J. Perry, Professor J. H. Poynting, and Dr. I. Roberts. A
grant of 80/. had been made to this Committee. The Committee for the
application of Photography to Meteorology had been re-appointed with a
grant of 15/., and the Underground Temperature Committee had been
re-appointed without a grant. They were aware that the observatory of
Professor Milne in Japan had been destroyed by fire, and that he now had
an observatory in the Isle of Wight, hence the merging of the Committee
for Seismological Observations with that for the observation of Earth
Tremors. It was hoped that Professor Milne, who was particularly clever
in designing inexpensive apparatus, might be able to produce suitable
apparatus at a small cost for taking seismological observations, which
might be widely distributed over the country, and be largely used by
members of local scientific societies. With regard to the Meteorological

- Photographs Committee, no special work for the Corresponding Societies

had been suggested by the Committee, who were simply anxious to obtain
photographs of lightning, rainbows, halos, &c. The Committee was just
then arranging for synchronous photographs of clouds. Near Exeter they
had a straight base line about a quarter of a mile long. Photographic
observatories had been erected at each end, and there was a signalling
apparatus between the two points, so that photographs of passing clouds
might be obtained from both observatories simultaneously. Work of this
kind, however, would hardly be taken up warmly by those societies which
were mainly natural history societies, though he hoped it would commend
itself to those more devoted to engineering, geology, and meteorology.

_ The Chairman hoped that delegates would make special note of the work
just described.

The Rev. J. O. Bevan asked if anything was known of the meteoro-
logical work formerly done at Stonyhurst by Father Perry. He believed
similar work was still being done there, and would like to know if there
had been any communication between the authorities at Stonyhurst and
the Meteorological Photographs Committee. If meteorological work was
still carried on at Stonyhurst, it was important that the Committee should
know what was being done there.

Mr. Sowerbutts knew that the work done by Father Perry was still
being carried on at Stonyhurst, and that the Father in charge was a highly
trained scientific man. He was afraid that town societies could never do
anything in noting earth tremors on account of the tremors caused by
passing trains, waggons, &c. He did not know any spot within seven
miles of Manchester where a recording instrument might safely be placed,
unless it were at the bottom of a coal mine.

The Rev. J. O. Bevan believed that these superficial tremors were of

short duration and would not affect the observations made with any

properly-constructed meteorological instrument. Had they any connection,
he asked, with the Observatories at Greenwich and at Kew ?

Mr. White Wallis said that the Committee were certainly in communi-
cation with both Kew and Greenwich, and he would note the suggestion

that they should communicate with Stonyhurst. As regards the supposed

difficulty of making observations on earth tremors in towns he might say

_ that modern instruments were practically unaffected by passing vibrations
from railway trains, &ec. A tremor of such short duration was not repre-

sented on these instruments. They had one in a cellar, but though the
vibration of a passing train was felt in the house, it was not recorded by
the instrument. Darwin’s bifilar pendulum was somewhat expensive

_ Professor Milne accomplished the same result in a much simpler way.

48 REPORT—1895.

The Chairman pointed out that the delegates might understand from
what had been said that the whole cost of the needful apparatus would
not necessarily exceed from 20/. to 25/., inciuding the erection of a suit-
able column on which to place it.

Section C.

Mr. A. 8. Reid, representing Section C, remarked that Mr. Osmund
Jeffs, Secretary to the Geological Photographs Committee, had wished to
resign, but had been persuaded to retain the post for another year, Mr.
W. W. Watts having consented to act as co-secretary during that time,
and afterwards to become sole secretary. Mr. Jeffs, however, would
always be glad to forward any photographs which may reach him. The
Committee had at one time thought of bringing their work to a conclu-
sion, but had lately felt that it would not be judicious to do so. The
Erratic Blocks Committee had altered their title so as to include Scotland,
and had added some Scottish geologists to their list of members. In
answer to the Chairman, who asked in what way the Corresponding
Societies could assist the Geological Photographs Committee, Mr. Reid
replied that the best plan was for persons interested to write to Mr. Jeffs
for information. The Committee were sending out a new circular con-
taining instructions as to the best methods of using the camera, and the
best kind of camera to use, together with an abstract of the opinions
collected on those subjects.

Mr. Sowerbutts wished delegates to remember that platinotype photo-
graphs were the best to send, as those printed by the bromide process often
faded very rapidly, while platinotype prints would not.

Mr. Murdoch had been glad to learn that Scotland was now included
in the sphere of the Erratic Blocks Committee, and hoped that the
Earth Tremors Committee, which was still a purely English Committee,
would also be modified so as to comprise Scotland.

The Chairman remarked that these and other Committees were com-
posed of members of the British Association who were chosen on account
of their special work and quite irrespective of their nationality or place of
residence. In some cases there were observers only in England. But,
whatever its title, every Committee was anxious to get information from
whatever quarter it was obtainable.

Mr. Hopkinson said that as regards the Erratic Blocks Committee, the
reason for the exclusion of Scotland was the fact that a similar Committee
for Scotland already existed in Edinburgh. In other cases it was simply
an oversight. He was glad that the Geological Photographs Committee
continued to exist, as there would always be a reason for its existence,
one of its chief objects being to obtain photographs of temporary sections.

Mr. Reid remarked that the Committee did not wish to cease to exist,
but they hoped the work would be taken up and carried on at the Jermyn
Street Museum.

Mr. M. B. Slater thought that an exchange of local geological photo-
graphs among the various Corresponding Societies would be a good thing.

Mr. Sowerbutts approved of Mr. Slater’s suggestion, and was sure that
the Manchester Geographical Society would gladly exchange photographs
with any other societies. They were then receiving some very handsome
geological photographs from the Carpathian Society.

The Chairman remarked that the Geological and Geographical Societies
would be most likely to welcome an exchange of geological photographs.

:

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 49

Mr. Hopkinson thought that most of the Corresponding Societies would
wish to exchange geological photographs.

A discussion here took place on some practical difficulties attending
the interchange of photographs, such as the burden likely to be laid on
the shoulders of the amateur photographer, &c., in which Mr. Gow, Mr.
Reid, Mr. Sowerbutts, Mr. Slater, and the Chairman took part. Mr.
Hopkinson thought that the work of printing and distributing copies of
photographs might easily be done at the Jermyn Street Museum at a
small fixed charge, and Mr. Reid inclined towards a plan brought under
his notice by Mr. Gray of Belfast. At that town a photographer had
been appointed who received the negatives taken by various members of
the local society and furnished as many copies as were desired at a small
fixed charge. Persecution of the amateur was thus avoided.

Section E.

Mr. Sowerbutts said that the Committee of Section E had passed a
resolution referring to the difficulties at present thrown in the way of
pupils who wish to become teachers of geography, marks gained in that
subject not counting except in certain cases. They had requested the
General Committee of the British Association to permit them to have a
Committee for the purpose of examining and reporting to the Association
on the condition of the teaching of geography in Great Britain. They
wished to make a careful examination into the teaching of geography in
all schools, especially secondary schools, and to report next year. They
had not asked fora grant. It was probable that the Corresponding So-
cieties might be asked to furnish certain information, and he hoped their
Secretaries would reply as promptly as possible.

The Rev. J. O. Bevan did not know whether he was in order in refer-
ring to the report of the Conference of Delegates at Nottingham. He
should have liked to know in what county ‘children attending schools
were not taught geography in any way.’ Having had a large experience
of secondary schools, he also considered the statement made at Notting-
ham that geography is absolutely ignored in secondary schools to be de-
cidedly erroneous, though it was not taught in every primary school except —
in connection with reading.

Mr. Reid asked if the Committee meant to inquire into the teaching
of geography in such schools as Eton and Harrow.

Mr. Sowerbutts replied that they hoped to extend their inquiry from
primary schools to the Universities. They wanted the Committee of the
Royal Geographical and other societies to see whether some method can-
not be devised by which geography may be placed on an equal footing
with other subjects, and be made a paying subject to the teacher.

Mr. Hopkinson (Hertfordshire) said that geography was taught in
nearly all the schools with which he was acquainted, and was well taught
in those of the Church Schools Company.

The Rev. J. O. Bevan remarked that the Geographical Society had
instituted examinations in geography in secondary schools, and gave gold
medals and other prizes.

Mr. Sowerbutts rejoined that the Royal Geographical Society were so
dissatisfied with the results of these examinations—the whole of the
medals having been taken by two schools—that they had resolved to
discontinue them. The Manchester Geographical Society had had a

similar experience in Lancashire, Yorkshire, and Cheshire.
1895. E

50 REPORT—1895.

Section H.

Mr. Hartland said that he was there owing to the very sad and sudden
bereavement sustained a few weeks ago by Mr. Brabrook, the Chairman
of the Ethnographical Survey Committee, who was consequently unable
to attend. The Ethnographical Survey was a matter in which the Corre-
sponding Societies were especially capable of rendering assistance. Indeed,
without their aid, it was almost impossible that the work could be carried
to a successful issue. The Committee drew up in the early part of the
year a circular to the local societies offering them copies of the schedule.
Hitherto, however, they had met with little response from the local socie-
ties. Possibly the schedule was not sufficiently self-explanatory. The
work of the Ethnographical Survey had so many branches that one of
them could hardly fail to interest the more active members of the local
societies. When the Committee had obtained its grant, as it hoped to do,
it proposed to begin operations in Galway, having found a thoroughly
qualified man to undertake the work, the expense having been estimated
at 20/. He hoped to be able to report progress at the next meeting, and
would be very glad, in the meantime, if the Corresponding Societies would
circulate their schedules and bring the Survey under the notice of their
members.

Mr. Slater said that he wished to say a few words on behalf of Dr.
Colby, who was unavoidably absent. Dr. Colby (Malton) was chairman
of a sub-committee which was already going on with the work, though it
was not sufficiently advanced to allow of a report this year. However, he
hoped to be able to send one next year. The district in which Dr. Colby
was working was a very primitive one.

Mr. Hartland remarked that the Malton Naturalists’ Society was one
of those which had responded to their circular.

The Chairman noted the great variety of the work proposed by the
Ethnographical Survey Committee. Besides the physical measurements
required, and the colour of the hair, eyes, &c., there was a wide field for the
amateur photographer, for those interested in folklore, linguistic differ-
ences, place-names, and local variations in tastes and habits. The Ethno-
graphical Committee have a certain number of instruments which they are
willing to place in the hands of those who would undertake measurements.
The note drawn up by Mr. Hartland would still further exemplify the
kind of work required. The Committee had met with great success during
the past year, and the work done around Ipswich was very satisfactory.
He trusted that the delegates would urge their societies to form local
centres everywhere to carry on the work.

Mr. Hartland wished to draw attention to a point which had not been
mentioned, the preservation of ancient monuments of all kinds, which
should be scheduled, described, and photographed. He had just received
a letter from the secretary of a local committee in Pembrokeshire, who
stated that some ancient stones and some pit dwellings had already been
discovered there.

The Chairman wished to say a word or two about another Committee—
that concerned with the measurement of school-children. Many schools
had been doing good work in their own way, but, unfortunately, there had
been no uniform system, so that the results at one school could not be
compared with those at another. The Committee, after inquiring into the
various systems practised, had drawn up one which he hoped would prove
acceptable to the various schcols. It was of the highest importance that

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 51

some uniform system should be adopted. Professor Windle of Birmingham
would be happy to send a schedule of the various measurements required,
and of the way in which they should be made.

The Rev. J. O. Bevan spoke of the desirability of expediting the
Archeological Survey of the kingdom which had been begun a few years
ago. He had been working at the map of Herefordshire for some years,
and it was then almost ready for publication. It could not be too widely
known that the Society of Antiquaries was willing to bear the expense of
printing the maps if the work on them was done in accordance with the
conditions laid down. He was surprised that this work had not been
taken up more energetically by properly qualified persons in the different
districts, so that it might be executed with as little delay as possible. He
hoped each delegate would take an early opportunity of reporting the
proceedings at these Conferences to the society he represented.

The Chairman believed that it was generally understood that it was
the duty of each delegate to report their proceedings to his society.

Mr. Hopkinson stated that he had brought the work of the Ethno-
graphical Survey Committee before the Hertfordshire Natural. History
Society, but had failed to get the matter taken up. He found that the ques-
tions asked were considered too inquisitorial. “Possibly a simpler system
might be found to answer better in practice, as more persons or societies
would then be found willing to undertake the work.

Mr. Hartland replied that, though they hoped in many cases to get
the elaborate measurements asked for, they were glad to obtain such
measurements and photographs as could be procured. He was afraid that
the elaboration of their schedule must have acted to some extent as a
deterrent, though it was drawn up as a standard to which they hoped to
attain, not as necessarily obligatory in every case. Possibly, if this were
understood, societies would respond more warmly to their appeals for help.

Dr. Brett (Hertfordshire) said that since the York meeting of the
British Association fifteen years ago it had been his custom as a medical
man to record the weight, height, colour of hair and eyes, é&c., of children.
He had up to that time made about three thousand observations, but had
not yet been able to put his records into shape.

Mr. Hopkinson (referring to the Ethnographical Survey) remarked
that his experience was that of others as to the difficulty of getting any
one to make the very elaborate series of measurements asked for. He
would suggest some simpler scheme as an alternative.

Mr. Hartland hoped that members who objected to the elaborate
measurements would take up the subjects of dialect, folklore, or
historical or prehistoric monuments. They wanted information on all
these points.

The Chairman remarked that the work might usefully be divided
among various sub-committees. If that were done all societies would
do good work in one department or another, if not in all.

The Conference then came to an end.

The Committee recommend the retention of all the societies now on

_ the list except the Cumberland and Westmoreland Association, which has

ceased to exist.

The Committee have pleasure in reporting that the Caradoc and
Severn Valley Field Club and the Buchan Field Club have been added
to the list of Corresponding Societies.

1895.

REPORT

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IOyyNY JO eweNy

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 75

Underground Temperature — Twenty-first Report of the Commuttee,
consisting of Professor J. D, EVERETT (Chairman and Secretary),
Lorp Ketvin, Mr. G. J. Symons, Sir A. GEIKIE, Mr. J. GLAISHER,
Professor E. Hunu, Professor J. Prestwicu, Dr. C. Le NEvE-
Foster, Professor A. S. HERSCHEL, Professor G. A. LEBouR,
Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr. W. Gattoway, Mr. JosEpH DICKINSON,
Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. E. WETHERED, Mr. A. STRAHAN, and
Professor Micuie Smitu. (Drawn up by Professor EVERETT.)

INFORMATION as to underground temperature in the southern hemisphere
has hitherto been very scanty. Importance therefore attaches to observa-
tions which have recently been taken in a deep bore in New South Wales
by T. W. Edgeworth David, Professor of Geology in Sydney University,
and E. F. Pittman, Government Geologist. The following account is
derived from a paper by these gentlemen to the Royal Society of N.S.W.,
read December 6, 1893, supplemented by letters from Professor David to
the Secretary of the Committee.
The bore is 2,929 ft. deep, and is the second of two which have been
sunk at Cremorne on the shores of Port Jackson.
_ A protected maximum thermometer had been furnished by the sec-
“retary to Professor David when he went out to Sydney in 1882 ; but it
‘had passed through several hands, and was not forthcoming when the
opportunity for observation occurred. Professor David had accordingly
to avail himself of such instruments as were accessible, and he borrowed
four maximum thermometers, including two inverted Negretti’s belonging
to Mr. H. C. Russell, the Government Astronomer, which had Kew certi-
ficates. They were similar in pattern to those adopted by the Committee,
except that there was no outer glass-case. In place of this, ‘a strong
piece of wrought iron water-pipe, about two feet three inches in length,’
wasemployed. ‘A cap-piece was sweated on to the lower end of this tube,
the threads of the screw in the cap-piece and pipe being filled with molten
solder, and the cap:piece being screwed on while the solder was still
molten.’ ‘The lower end of the pipe was then filled to a depth of about
wo inches with prass turnings. The thermometers were next carefully
lowered into the tube.’ They had their bulbs uppermost, as usual. ‘ Brass
turnings were then packed around them in order that the heat might be
conducted rapidly to their bulbs from the water in the bore. Strings
were fastened to the bulbs to facilitate the withdrawal of the thermo-
eters from the tube after the experiment of taking the temperature had
een completed. The ends of these strings were carried close up to the
p of the pipe, the brass turnings being packed around them like tamping
ound a fuse in a shot-hole. A few cardboard wads and a layer of loose
per two inches in thickness were inserted in the upper portion of the
tube, to prevent the conduction downwards of the artificial heat, which
would otherwise travel down to the thermometers from the upper end of
he tube when it was dipped in the molten solder, previous to the upper
“€ap-piece being sweated on. A ring-bolt for attaching the lowering cord
was screwed into the upper cap-piece, with molten solder sweated into it ;
and the whole cap-piece was then screwed and sweated on to the upper
end of the tube in the same manner as the lower cap-piece.’

76 REPORT—1895.

The first experiment was a failure, the thermometers, though left for
about an hour near the bottom of the bore, indicating about the same
temperature that they had before lowering. This failure is attributed
either to the non-conducting action of a few thicknesses of soft paper in
which the bulbs were wrapped, or to the mercury which had left the bulbs
having returned to them again while the tube was being conveyed from
the bore to the plumber’s shop, where the cap-piece was removed.

In the second experiment ‘no paper was wrapped round the bulbs,
but the brass dust was continuous from the bulbs to the sides of the iron
pipe. At the depth of 2,733 ft. an obstruction was encountered which
prevented the tube from going lower, and which also caused the suspend-
ing wire to kink and break. After an immersion of about twenty-seven
hours, the wire was successfully grappled, and the tube brought to the sur-
face. ‘The upper cap-piece was then rapidly heated in a chafing dish of
charcoal made of an old nail-can, with a hole cut out of the bottom just
sufficiently large to admit of the upper end of the tube being passed up
it, and oxygen gas from a compressed cylinder was blown through a
Fletcher’s blowpipe on to the charcoal, so that in less than half a minute
the solder in the threads of the cap-piece was melted ; the lower portion
of the tube containing the thermometers being meanwhile wrapped in wet
cloths to prevent the heat travelling downwards. The cap-piece having
been unscrewed and the thermometers withdrawn, the highest temperature
registered was found to be 97° F. ‘ Not a drop of water had found its
way into the tube.’

On the following day the experiment was repeated, no wire being used
for lowering, but only tarred rope; and sheet lead was wrapped round
the tube to increase the weight. The tube was left down for one hour,
and the maximum temperature registered was 96° F. The difference of
1° below the former observation is what might fairly be expected from
the stirring of the water and the thermal capacity of the sheet lead
which, with the tube, weighed 30 1b, The first result, 97° F., is therefore
adopted as the true temperature at the depth of 2,733 ft. The mean sur-
face temperature, as determined by Mr. H. C. Russell, is 63° F., giving
an increase of 34° in 2,733 ft., which is at the rate of 1° F. for 80 ft.

As regards the possibility of disturbance of temperature by convection,
Professor David mentions in a letter to the Secretary that the bore was
only four inches in diameter. He also says, ‘ You understand, of course,
that we can do nothing in the way of taking temperatures in a diamond-
drill bore until the bore is quite completed, owing to the chilling of the
rock at the sides of the borehole by the cold water which is being con-
stantly forced to circulate under pressure through the bore.’

The temperature of the water of Port Jackson at the greatest depths
near Cremorne, varying from 45 to 63 ft., was found (on December 6,
1893) to be uniform at 68° F. As this temperature is higher than that of
the ground at the same level, no cooling effect can be attributed to the
water. The slow rate of 1° F. per 80 ft., deduced from the observations,

_ would therefore appear to be a good approximation to the truth.

It is expected that shafts will shortly be sunk at Cremorne, and will
afford opportunity for the systematic observation of rock temperatures
from the surface to a depth of nearly 3,000 ft. ‘The first 1,000 ft. will
be in horizontally bedded sandstone, and the remainder chiefly in clay
shales, with interstratified sandstones and conglomerates.’ The observa-
tions will be taken by Professor David and Mr. Pittman, with the—

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Tlustrating the Report on the Uniformity of

Size of Pages of Scientific Socteties' Publications,

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Committee's slow-action
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The Committee desi
valuable member, Mr. P

The Uniformity of Size
Report of tha Com’
(Ohairman), Mr. |
GLazeBRook, Dr. |
(Secretary).

‘Tur importance of ad
pages of scientific publ
collected reprints of p:
deayoured to have the
more than passing in|
cases, be handed down
subject, and it is, there
iy the omission of on
Yeing bound up with t
he Committee hay
their attention chiefly
mathematical and phy
recommend as standa
guided by the consid
extent attained, and t
accomplished without
‘principal journals, anc
Tn deciding wheth
size of the margin is
‘Thus the ‘ Bulletin of
4 centimetre wider a
British Association,’ «
till have exactly the
“at the top and botts
Physical Rocicty’ an

“Magazine” although
“arises the necessity 0}
pied hy the letterpres

tance from the ou
stance from the to
n of the last lir
the margin: 1
in at the top ar
(6=d).

y adopting a m
and a Banceh

rrr. £

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE, vr

~ Gommittee’s slow-action thermometers, in holes bored in the sides of the
shafts.
The Committee desire to express their regret at the loss of their
valuable member, Mr. Pengelly.

The Uniformity of Size of Pages of Scientific Societies’ Publications.—

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor 8. P. THompson
(Chairman), Mr. G. I. Bryan, Dr. C. V. Burton, Mr. R. T.
GLAZEBROOK, Dr. G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, and Mr. J. SWINBURNE
(Secretary).

rs

oe bia a re eee
wee. a .

[PLATE I]

‘Tue importance of adopting one or two uniform standard sizes for the
‘pages of scientific publications will be evident to all specialists who have
collected reprints of papers on any branch of science, and who have en-
_deavoured to have them bound into volumes. Such collections are of
more than passing interest, and they might, with advantage in many
cases, be handed down to posterity as records of work in any particular
subject, and it is, therefore, of importance that they should not be spoiled
by the omission of one or two papers whose size precludes them from
being bound up with the rest.

The Committee have thought it advisable in their first year to confine
their attention chiefly to reporting on the size of the pages of existing
mathematical and physical publications, and to deciding on what sizes to
recommend as standards. In the latter matter they have been largely
guided by the consideration that uniformity has been already to some
extent attained, and this report will show that the desired results can be
accomplished without making any radical changes in the sizes of the
principal journals, and, indeed, without altering most of them at all.

In deciding whether two papers can or cannot be bound together, the
size of the margin is quite as important a factor as the size of “the paper.
‘Thus the ‘Bulletin of the New York Mathematical Society’ is more than
a centimetre wider and two centimetres higher than the ‘ Report of the
British Association,’ and yet if it were cut down to the same size it would
still have exactly the same margin at the sides, and 6 mm. more margin
at the top and bottom of the pages. Again, the ‘Proceedings of the
Physical Society’ are printed with the same type as the ‘ Philosophical
Magazine,’ although one is medium and the other demy octavo. Hence
arises the necessity of taking an internal measurement of the space occu-
pied by the letterpress, as well as an external measurement of the size of
the paper page.

__ This may be estimated as in fig. 1, which represents the opened pages
of a book. a, b denote the width and depth of a paper page, ¢ is the
distance from the outside edge of the letterpress to the back, and d is the
tance from the top of the running headline or number of the page to the
bottom of the last line of letterpress, exclusive of the ‘ signature.’ Hence
a—cis the margin at the side of the page, and 6—d is the sum of the
en at the top and bottom, so that if these are equal each is equal

+ (b—d).

“By adopting a minimum limit for the size of the pages (measured by
a, b), and a somewhat smaller maximum limit for the internal measure-

U

al!

78 REpoRT-—1894,

ments c, d, we shall secure that all papers can be bound together without
cutting the margin down below a certain limit. In fixing the limits we
must allow for a little of the
margin being cut away in
binding.

Octavo Pusiications.—In
the octavo sizes, the diagram,
Plate I., shows an overwhelming
preponderance of medium and
demy octavo, the demy size
being not only in the majority
in point of number, but also in-
cluding many of the'most impor-
tant publications. The royal
octavo size recently proposed by
the Royal Society is only repre-
sented by about two journals, of which the ‘Proceedings of the Royal
Artillery Institution’ is one. On the other hand, the space occupied by
the letterpress, as shown by the measurements c, d, is no greater in several
of the medium size than in the majority of demy octavo, and there would,
therefore, be no difficulty in cutting these down in binding. The Com-
mittee, therefore, recommend the following sizes :—

Standard Octavo Size.—-Paper demy, the pages measuring 14cm. x 22cm.,
or, when uncut, 53 in. x 83 in. The width c, measured from the stitching
to the edge of the printed matter to be 12 cm., or 45 in., and the height, d,
of the printed portion including the running headline, to be 18 cm.,or 7 in.

Limit of Octavo Size.—The paper page not to be less than 14 cm. x 21°5
em., or 54 in. x 8} in., and the letterpress not to exceed the measurements
c=12'5 em., or 42 in., d=18°5 cm., or 74 in. Reprints and unbound
numbers of journals to be issued with their edges uncut, or cut not more
than 0:25 cm.,.or }in., all round.

The use of standard as well as limiting sizes will easily be understood.
Where publications fall within the limiting size there is little or no need
for the size of the pages to be altered at present ; but when any alteration
is made in the size, or in the case of new journals or papers printed by
their authors for private circulation, it would be desirable to conform
exactly to the standard size, which would ultimately become general.

Taking, first, the limiting sizes, and allowing for 0°25 em., or } in.,
being cut off the margins in binding into volumes, the pages of these
would measure 13°5 cm. x 21 cm., or 53 in. x 81 in., and this would allow of
a margin of not less than 1 cm., or 3 in., all round, which is quite enough.

Tf the standard sizes should become generally adopted the bound and
cut volumes would measure the same, and the margin would be 2 em., or
+ in., at the sides, and 1°6 cm., or 2 in., at the top and bottom.

In the diagram it will be seen that there are journals which do not
fall within the limiting dimensions. Where @ and 6 fall short of the
limits this could be remedied in some cases by leaving the edges uncut.
Where c is too large, the letterpress could be brought a little nearer the
stitching in imposing for press ; where d is too great, the pages could be
shortened by a line or two. ; :

Quarto PusiicaTions.—The corresponding dimensions for the prin-
cipal quarto publications are given in the same diagram. Here, again, we
find medium quarto (24cm. x 30cm., or 95 in. x 12in.) and demy quarto

Fig. 1.

;

UNIFORMITY OF SIZE OF PAGES OF SOCIETIES’ PUBLICATIONS. 79

(22 cm. x 28°5 cm., or 8? in. x 11} in.) almost universal, but the pre-
ponderating sizes approach most nearly to demy, and on account of the
large margins of many journals this is the most convenient size of the
two, besides making the volumes less unwieldy. The Committee, there-
fore, recommend, in cases where it is desired to retain the quarto size, the
following measurements :—

Standard Quarto Size.—Paper demy, the pages measuring, when uncut,
22 cm. x 28°5 em., or 8? in. wide x11} in. high. Reprints and unbound
numbers of this size to be uncut, or cut 0°25 cm., or }in. Measurements
of letterpress to be c=18°5 cm., or 74 in., d=21°5 cm., or 84 in.

Limits of Quarto Size—Paper pages not to measure less than 21:5 cm.,
or 83 in., wide x 28 cm., or 11 in., high. Letterpress not to exceed the
measurements c=19 cm., or 7} in., d2=23 cm., or 9 in.

The same remarks as to the advantage of standard and limiting sizes
apply as in the case of the octavo. Allowing for 0-25 em., or } in., being
cut offin binding, the limiting sizes will allow of a margin of not less than
2 em., or 4 in,, all round, while the standard size will give a margin of 3-25
em., or 1} in., at the sides, and 2°5 cm., or 1 in., at the top and bottom.

Puates often get sadly mutilated when different papers are bound
together, and sometimes this even happens when a volume of any periodi-
calis bound up. Where they are folded over they not infrequently get
cut in two by the guillotine. To avoid this the Committee recommend
that the dimensions of the illustrations should never exceed 13 cm. x 20 cm.,
or 5} in. x 74 in., for octavo plates, and 21 cm. x 25 em., or 8} in. x10 in.,
for quarto, the width being measured from the back of the book. Where
plates have to be folded, the fold should be 12°5 cm., or 5 in., from the
stitching in octavo, and 20-5 em., or 8} in., in quarto papers. Any folding
plate should, when referred to elsewhere than in the opposite page of
letterpress, have a blank space equal to the breadth of the paper page at
the left hand, so that when open it can be referred to without closing the
portion of the book being read that refers to it. This should be carried
out even when the diagram or plate would not otherwise have to be folded,
in order to reduce the trouble of reference.

Each article should begin a page. If possible it should begin a right-
hand page. It is then possible to bind up any article with others on the
Same subject without having also to bind up the last half page of another
paper. This difficulty can be overcome to some extent by splitting the
paper. The pages of some of the journals abstracted in the ‘ Proceedings
of the Physical Society’ are split, one side being sent to each abstractor.

Comparison of Magnetic Standards.—Interim Report of the Commit-
tee, consisting of Professor A. W. Ricker (Chairman), Mr. W.
Watson (Secretary), Professor A. ScHuUSTER, and Professor H. H.
TURNER, appointed to confer with the Astronomer Royal and the
Superintendents of other Observatories with reference to the Com-
parison of Magnetic Standards. with a view of carrying out such
Comparison.

Proressor Ricker and Mr. Watson have carefully compared three Kew-
pattern magnetometers in order to investigate the causes of the discre-
pancies between the measurements of declination made with them. They

80 REPORT—1895.

find that if the greatest care be taken in the manufacture of the wooden
box and the metallic adjuncts which are close to the magnet the discre-
pancies disappear.

In other words, the cause of the difficulty, in these three instruments
at all events, is, not the metal base, but the much smaller masses of metal
which are nearer to the magnet.

The three magnetometers are now in good accord.

A week has been spent at each of four observatories for the purpose
of comparing one of these magnetometers and a dip-circle with the obser-
vatory instruments. Professor Riicker made the observations at Kew
and Falmouth ; Mr. Watson, those at Stonyhurst and Valentia.

The greater part of the work which the Committee undertook has thus
been accomplished.

It is still necessary to compare the instruments again with the instru-
ments at Kew to ascertain that they are unaltered by transfer from one
place to another; and as a new magnet-house is about to be built at
Greenwich, it has been thought better to postpone the comparisons at
that observatory until the house is ready for use.

The reductions of the observations which have been made are not yet
finished. A full report will be made when the work is completed.

The Committee therefore ask to be reappointed, but no further grant
is required.

The Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteorological
Phenomena.—Fifth Report of the Commnuttee, consisting of Mr.
G. J. Symons (Ohairmaw), Professor R. Metpoia, Mr. J.
Hopkinson, and Mr. A. W. CLAYDEN (Secretary). (Drawn wp by
the Secretary.)

In the report which the Committee presented last year, it was proposed
that an agreement should be entered into with the London and South-
Western Railway Company for the use of a site on their land, in order to
carry out some measurements of cloud altitudes by means of photography.
This has been done. The cameras have been placed in position, and
almost the whole time at the disposal of the secretary for such purposes
has been spent in perfecting the electrical connection for releasing the
two shutters simultaneously. Considerable trouble has been experienced
in doing this. The apparatus, which worked admirably over a short dis-
tance, proved unreliable over the greater distance (200 yards) at present
adopted. The agreement with the railway company provides that the
connecting wire shall be removed when not in actual use, thereby
necessitating as light a wire as can be made to suffice, which of course
implies a considerable resistance. The result is that a more sensitive
electric detent is required for the shutters, especially as it seems not
unlikely that the distance may have to be increased by another 100 yards
when the measurement of the highest varieties of cloud is attempted.
This is still engaging the attention of the secretary to the Committee.
Some observations have been made, but although they confirm the
belief that the method will prove valuable they have not yet been reduced
to actual measurements. It should be remembered that the method is
only applicable to those varieties of cloud which are visible at the same
time as the sun, and that the opportunities of making observations cannot

65% Report Brit

Yokohana On

Fig, 1—Line from two «clits Tho gap is an interval of one hour.

30am TKS com On Rook

| |

Fig, 2.—Lino from broad slits, shows the unfelt earthquakes on Feb. 3
‘An earthquake which was felt ought to be at A.

6pm

6am Feb LIE 6am Fa7e Ipn

Fig. 8.—Daily curves on surfaco. Instrument A Tokzo.

jz ok Ip 6pm
Feb Pp.
ince pe Oe PEM? OF 6pm.

mr

6am. Feb. 5H

Fia, 4.—Daily curyes underground (E) correspond to fig. 8 Toko
ame 6am, Sen26 reg,
6pm

Jan27 Gam

Fo, 6—Underground tremors—dally curves—wandering of pendulam

jarfaco tremors, dying ont and recommencing,

Tekvo
A May 2p e i mi f
Ce Team ae oe
a Tekuo.

Fig. 7.—Curvo and tromors produced et the time a well was ompticd.
*.* All gaps at or ncar noon represent an interval of ona huur.

EXAMPLES OF RECORDS PROM HORIZONTAL PENDULUMS,

Ilustrating the Fourteonth Report of the Committee on the Bartlquake and Voleanie Phenomena of Japan.

—

ON THE ELUCI
coineide with the pos
course of a short time
have been finished

Committee, ti
that, they may carry
ask for a further grant

Solar Radiation. —E
Sir G. C. Stoke
JOHNSTONE STONE
Mr, 0. Curee, M
H. McLeo
ding tha Dire

Tie Committee regret
Sxperiments have been
the last’ meeting of the
ntinue the experime
the tnexpended balanc

Tiveitigation of the
Fourteenth Repor
Lord KEtyiy, Pri
). Borroytey, F
0. G. Kyorr,

ecretary). (Dri

L The Gray-aitne
UL Oe

(0) The Diagriors
(@) Tie Morcments i
ieee?

(6) Earthquakes

W) The Ubserrations

) Senniticencss of t)
Rents

G) Daity Tring

( Petmet’ Seva J
Records sbiained vs

IT
in fist of this form «
jafeite of the British A

wumment. at the Centr
Sm indebted to M,

fr L
Heap olowing table

ON THE ELUCIDATION OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 81

coincide with the possibility of making them, very frequently in the
course of a short time such as that which has elapsed since the cameras

_have been finished.

Your Committee, therefore, ask to be reappointed for another year, so
that they may carry out the work in hand, and with that object in view
ask for a further grant of 15/.

Solar Radiation.—LHleventh Report of the Committee, consisting of
Sir G. C. Stokes (Chairman), Professor A. ScHuster, Mr. G.
JOHNSTONE STONEY, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Captain W. DE W. ABNEY,
Mr. C. Cures, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. W. E. WILson, and Pro-
fessor H. McLEop, appointed to consider the best Methods of
Recording the Direct Intensity of Solar Radiation.

THE Committee regret to have to report that for various reasons no
experiments have been made with the Balfour Stewart actinometer since
the last meeting of the Association. As Mr. Wilson has undertaken to
continue the experiments, the Committee ask for reappointment and for

‘the unexpended balance of the previousie grant.

Investigation of the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of Japan.
Fourteenth Report of the Commvittee, consisting of the Rt. Hon.
Lord Ketvin, Pres. 2.S., Professor W. G. Apams, F.R.S., Mr. J.
T. Borromuey, F.R.S., Professor A. H. GREEN, I’.R.S., Professor
C. G. Kwotr, F.R.S.L., and Professor JoHn MILNE, F.B.S.
(Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

[PLATES ILIV.)

CONTENTS.

I. The Gray-Milne Seismograph . 81 (j) The Wandering of the Pen-
Il. Observations with Horizontal dulums . ; “eco

Pendulums . } 84 (k) Movements of Water in @
(a) The Instruments D 85 Well . 104

(b) Observations at Kamakura 88 (2) An Exper iment on Ev apo-
(ce) The Diagrams . uO ration . . 106

(d) The Movements of the Pen- (m) Effects pr oduced are ec mpty-
dulums . : : 90 inga Well . LOW
(e) Earthquakes. 91 (n) Earthquakes. : . 108
(f) The Observations in Tokio. 94 (0) Tremors. - . 109

(g) Sensitiveness of the Instru- (p) Observations at Yokohama
ments . 3 ; >. 94 and Kanagana . ‘ . 109
(h) Daily Tilting : : 95 (q) Conclusions ‘ 110:

(@) E£etract from Journal if Ill. The Tokio Earthquakes of June
Records obtained in 1894 . 96 20, 1894 : J ; oy Se
IV. Miscellaneous . : : 2 te

I. Toe Gray-MILne SEISMOGRAPH.

Tux first of this form of seismograph, constructed in 1883, partly at the

expense of the British Association, still continues to be used as the standard
instrument at the Central Observatory in Tokio.
I am indebted to Mr. K. Kobayashi, the Director of the Observatory
ae following table of its records :—
G

82

REPORT—1895.

Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at the Central Meteorological Observatory in Tokio
between April 19, 1893, and May 17, 1894

Maximum
Period and
Amplitude of Amplitude of

Maximum
Period and

= i f Horizontal Vertical | Nature
No. | Month | Day Time Duration Direction Motion Motion G)
Shock
secs. | mm, | secs. | mm,
1893.
H. M.S. M. S.
1322 Iv, 19 | 11 25 25 p.m. = = slight i =
1,323 * 21 7 10 57 P.M. 70 _ 2 2 — — | quick
1,324 ie 26 10 0 46 A.M. — — — — _ — --
1,325 a 30 11 32 19 a.m. — E-W. = we = = =
1,326 Wu 1 2 5 6AM. _ _- — — —- — —
1,327 a 11 4 52 33 A.M. — E.-W. — — - — | quick
1,328 o a4 8 57 14 A.M. —_ — _— — —_ — —_
1,329 ‘ 17 9 56 44 A.M. _— _ _- — — — --
1,330 ts 18 3 32 38 P.M. — —_ — = — — —
1,331 a 21 9 10 40 A.M. — — — = — — —
1,332 as 24 7 0 32 am. — — — = —_ — —
1,333 a 8 58 57 P.M. 1 30 E.-W. — — —_— — slow
1,334 3 28 7 24 55 P.M. — = = Be — _ =
1,335 Sy 30 010 2AM. — — — — —_ -- —
1,335} VI. 4 227° 17 a.m. 0 3 E.-W. — — — — slow
1,337 oy By 9 7 38 a.m. — — — z= — — —
1,338 a rH 11 2 31aA™M. 01 N.N.W.-S.5.E Or4 06 _— _ quick
1,339 * 9 2 53 27 a.M. — — — — = ——
1,340 7 FF 4 48 41 pM. — =: 33 = so == Ben
1,341 os 10 8 6 44 A.M. _ — _ _— —_ _— _
1,342 a 12 4 8 0AM. 1 50 W.N.W.-E.S.E. 05] 08 _— = qnick
1,343 es 13 7 44 16 P.M. 3 50 N.-S. 1:2 50 = — slow
1,344 “5 18 7 19 10 P.M. + _— — = _ _
1,345 4 21 0 35 21 a.m. _ — — a= =~ — —
1,346} VII. 5 9 52 42 P.M. — — — — ue = —
1,347 “5 6 8 9 52 PM. _ — — = hs ay ==
1,348 s 18 545 6 AM. a — = = = — a
1,349 os 19 8 38 23 P.M. 2 30 E.-W. 0-9 4 — _— slow
1,350] VILL. 2 6 25 54 A.M. — —_— — — — — —
1,351 ; 20 0 28 27 P.M. 0 4 N.N.W.-S.S.E. 0°5 36 0°3 1 quick
1,352 . 22 9 37 55 A.M. 2 30 _— V1 0-7 _ — slow
1,353 IX. 4 5 7 30 4.M. 2 30 N.N.E.-S.S.W. 1-0 07 — = ”
1,354 10 5 0 22 a.m. — — — = — — —
1,355 ~ 15 9 38 47 A.M. — — = aos ee ax =.
1,356 ¥ 5 6 28 22 p.m. = = a a4 —_ =
1,357 IX. 17 9 56 41 AM. — — — = es == ==
1,358 “4 - 1 39 31 P.M. — — — = eS = =
1,359 >. 6 Tou), But — =. = = = = =s
1,360 os 10 8 27 21 pM. — — — = = = =
1,361 BY 19 0 57 17 AM. os — = fa a — =
1,362 XI, 13 10 52 55 p.m. — oo = = = = =
1,363 15 9 41 23 4.M. L 4 E.-W. 0-9 03 = — | quick
1,364 y 28 1 15 29 a.m. = — = ae = = —
1,365{ XII 29 11 33 57 a.m. L's N.E-S.W. 05 09 — — | quick
1894.
1,366 iT. 4 1 37 20 P.M. 0 55 E.-W. Os 05 slight quick
1,367 “ 10 6 56 4PM — — — — —_— — —
1,368 “a Ke 6 46 23 P.M 3 15 E.-W. _ —_— — —_ slow
| 1,369 s 12 2 50 33 a.m — — = = a = se

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN,

CATALOGUE OF EARTHQUAKES

No. | Month | Day Time | Duration |
H. M. S. M.S
1,370 im 16 5 29 40 A.M. —
1,371 * 18 3 45 21 P.M. 0 48
1,372 ce 25 10 48 11 A.M. _—
1,373 EL 2 7 114 PM. —
1,374 .. 16 2 0 53 P.M. —_—
1,375 ry 18 11 36 40 P.M. —_
1,376 ‘ 20 829 3 A.M. 4 20
1,377 rc 24 9 33 54 P.M. 0 55
1,378 on 25 417 42 a.M. 3 40
1,379 _ 27 053 OM. 2 21
i: en » | 10 51 39 pM. =
1,381} IIT. 3 10 20 9 P.M. ain)
1,382} 4, 5 | 11 0 38a.x. | 0
1383) 45 6 | 8 29 30a.m. |
1,384 a 10 8 38 53 P.M. a
1,385 Pe 12 4 8 LPM. —
1,386 rs 13 7 28 38 P.M. —
1,387 a 14 8 59 57 A.M. —
1,388 ” ” 6 18 11 yo, —_
1,389 ” 16 2 54 18 A.M. —
1,390 ER 20 | 11 33 53 P.M. =
1,391 ” 21 3 9 10 PM. | —
1,392 a 22 229 9PM. —
1,393 ” ” 2 38 42 P.M. =
1,394 2” » wt 39-PM. —
1,395| ., 3 7 27 49 pM. 0 10
1,396 i 93 7 48 53 pM. eo)
1,397 ” ” 10 6 16 P.M. —
1,398 ” ” 11 58 45 p.m. —_—
1,399 ri 23 0 45 54 A.M. _—
1400! ,, pe) 7 3i5'39 ae | |
1,401}, 26 2 36 12 a.m. =
1,402 ” ” 412 12 a.m. =*
1,403 = 29 6 0 27 P.M. —
1,404| IV. 1 11 29 38 a.m. ~-
1,405 a 2 56 31 3 aM _
1,406] ,, 4 8 57 25 P.M. =
1,407 93 7 77 10’ P.M. —
1,408 % 12 10 13 40 p.m. —
1,409 mA 14 2 39 30 A.M. —
1,410 bs 4 3 34 32 A.M. 2 40
1,411 = 15 151 5 a.m, —
1,412 Br 17 3 54 52 PM. —
1,413 3 25 9 21 57 A.M. 218
1,414 AY 28 1 23 49 aM. —_—
1,415| V. 2 11 26 39 P.M. --
1,416 5 4 | 10 51 55 a.m. _
1,417 a 6 6 3 22 pM. —
1,418 ‘* 10 411 39 aM. 2 50
1,419 if 16 5 52 45 P.M. —_—
1,420 ” 17 6 129 a.m. _—

9
85
continued.
Maximum Maximum
Period and | Period and
Amplitude of |Amplitude of
bots Horizontal Vertical | Nature
Direction Motion Motion of
Shock
i]
secs. | mm. secs.| mm. |
E-W. 10 04 — —_— slow
E-W. — _— — — —
rE-W. 16 51 slight slow
N.N.W.-S.S.E. | 07 07 = — ee
N.-S. ote} 68 — — =
E.-W. 14 24 slight quick
N.N.E.-S.2.W. | 11 3 | — — slow
N.E.-S.W. 07 03 slight 5
liege oe | aces 7 ¥
-- he = ens, ) = == =
red — ne ee oe: pe
_ 36 53 slight slow
N.-S. — _ —_— = P
ES.E-W.N.W.| 06 | 1:3 04 | 10 | quick
E.-W. 1:2 0°5 — —_ slow
N.N.E.-S.S.W. | 0:7 05 — “=

84 REPORT—1895.

Remarks.

Shock 1,351.—Commenced very gently for about 36 seconds, when a violent shaking,
lasting 16 seconds, took place. It then died out.

Shock 1,352.—This commenced gently for 32 seconds, after which, for 9 seconds, the
motion was strong. Then it died out.

Shock 1,366.—Strong motion, lasting 15 seconds, commenced after 9 seconds of pre-
liminary motion.

Shock 1,368.—Was very slow and gentle. After one minute the horizontal motion
was marked for about 13 seconds. During 26 seconds it showed
nineteen large waves.

Shock 1,376.—At first this was slow, but became stronger after 3 minutes 12 seconds,
when for the next 30 seconds it was pronounced.

II. OBSERVATIONS wiITH HorizontaL PENDULUMS.

In the years 1883, 1884, 1885, 1887, 1888, 1892, and 1893 I embodied
in Reports to the Association some account of work which had been
carried out in Japan in the investigation of earth tremors or pulsations
and earth tilting. The Twelfth Report (1892) describes a pair of extremely
light horizontal pendulums the movements of which were recorded on
photographic plates or films, and gives some account of the analysis of
the resulting records. The observations were continued during the
following year, and, as stated in the Thirteenth Report (1893), it was
observed that the direction of earth-tilting movement and also of earth-
quake movement in the majority of cases coincided with the direction in
which strata have been folded to form mountain ranges bordering the
Tokio plain. Another observation was that certain earthquakes had been
preceded by an abnormal amount of tilting.

In consequence of the liberality of the Royal Society of London dur-
ing the last year I have been enabled to extend these observations, using
six horizontal pendulums, each provided with photographie recording
apparatus.

The places of observation have been in Tokio, at my house, on a massive
stone column, and at a place about 1,000 feet distant in an underground
chamber ona concrete bed ; at Kanagawa, in an artificial cave driven in a
soft tuff rock at a depth of 50 feet below its junction with 50 feet of over-
lying alluvium ; at Yokohama, in a cave driven at the junction of the tuff
and alluvium ; and at Kamakura, in a cave in the tuff which at this place
is hard and dips at an angle of 80° N.E. All these places lie from Tokio
ona §.S.E. line, and are respectively 20, 25, and 38 miles distant from my
house. At Kanagawa and at my house there is only one instrument, and
the booms of these pendulums point N.W. At the other stations two
instruments have been or are now being used, and these are placed at
right angles to each other, one pointing N.W., or parallel to the strike of
the rocks, and the other N.E., or parallel to the dip. At Kamakura
observations were made for two and a half months, when the instruments
were brought to Yokohama. At this latter place, owing toa series of
accidents, one of which was the collapse of the roof of the cave, up to the
present the observations have been extremely few. At Kanagawa,
although the cave is wet, the observations have been fairly continuous.
In Tokio, where I am able to see the instruments every day, but few inter-
ruptions have occurred. The chief part of this report, therefore, refers te
Kamakura and Tokio.

— sh

ae

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 85

(a) The Instruments.

Although pendulums made of pieces of aluminium wire and held up
with quartz fibres with their mirrors and lenses have given excellent
results, the apparatus required good installation and careful manipulation.
As these requirements were not obtainable, excepting in Tokio, before
commencing observations in the country my first task was to design an
instrument of a simple character, not easily put out of order, and which
would give continuous records for at least one week. This was done, and
as the six instruments which have been made have worked satisfactorily
I give the following description of one of them.

Fig, 1

The pendulum stand A, fig. 1, with its upright, which is 50 cm. high, is
of one piece of cast iron.! ‘The distance between the levelling screws work-
ing in brass sockets is 23cm. The back screw tilts the upright and gives
the required degree of stability to the pendulum ; one of the lateral screws is
used in adjusting and calibrating the pendulum. It carries a pointer
moving over a graduated arc. By turning it, for ae one degree, which

means raising “this corner of the instrument sky of a millimetre (the

1 The form of the bed-plete is that of a right-angled triangle with the right
angle near A.

86 REPORT—1895.

serews having a millimetre pitch), the corresponding deflection of the pen-
dulum maybe noted. The turning is done by a lever projecting from the
head of the screw.

The boom of the pendulum is an aluminium tube 4 feet (120 cm.) in
length, carrying a sliding weight, W, and a movable point to which the
supporting tie can be attached. This tie, which is of thin brass wire, at
its upper end terminates with about an inch of untwisted silk. On the
inner end of the boom tkere is a quartz cup which bears on a steel needle
projecting slightly upwards from the base of the cast-iron stand. The
suggestion that the needle should project from the stand rather than from
the boom is due to Dr. von Rebeur-Paschwitz. It gets over the difficulty
of having anything which may be markedly magnetic in motion ; and
secondly, in case of violent disturbance, the relative verticality of the
points of support is less liable to alteration.

The instrument is adjusted so that the needle bears normally on the
centre of the quartz cup, or so that the centre of gravity of the system
falls about G.

At the outer end of the boom a stiff wire rises vertically upwards.
Clamped to this at the required height is a horizontal wire 15 em. long,
carryipg a thin zinc plate p, measuring 6 cm. by 10 cm. In the centre of
this, and parallel to the length of the boom, there is a slit about 0°5 mm.
broad and 2 cm. long. As the boom moves to the right and left, this slit
floats over a second slit about 5 em. long in the lid of the box covering
the drum which carries the recording paper. These two slits are at right
angles to each other, so that the light from a lamp reflected downwards
by a plane mirror only reaches the drum as a spot.

A. well-defined spot, which means a clear, sharp line on the photo-
graphic film, can be obtained without fine adjustment. That is to say,
the distance between the film and the slit, or between the stationary and
moving slits, may be anything between 1 and 5 mm. _ Projecting an inch
or so beyond the moving plate and attached to it is a pointer moving
over a scale fixed on the cover of the box containing the clock of the
recording drum. This can be inspected and the position of the boom at
any time noted by looking through the glass plate at m.

The recording drum, on which the photograph-paper is fixed with a
spring clamp, as in a recording barometer, is of thin sheet brass 5 cm.
wide and 105 cm. in circumference (some are much less). It is turned at
the rate of 15 cm. per 24 hours, and a film therefore lasts one week.

The clocks, which are an American type intended to run 8 days,
have fitted to the slowest moving arbour four wheels, the last of which
turns a disc with slots round its edges once a week. The recording
drum, which can be dropped into its bearings, carries a large crank.
When in position the clock is slid in a groove until one of the slots catches
the outer end of the crank arm ; after this the cover is put over the clock
and drum, and the whole is pushed on grooves into the end of the case
covering the pendulum.

Hollow wooden drums, which are easily driven by the clock-work,
have a tendency to warp, and this may result in a want of uniformity in
the motion.

Brass drums in the damp atmosphere of a cave in a month or so tend
to rust, and this rust may act upon the photographic film to such an
extent as to render it illegible.

Up to the present time ordinary kerosene lamps have been used, but

OO —————

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 87

as they require attention at intervals of from 8 to 12 hours they are being
replaced by lamps such as are used in magnetic observations burning
benzine.

Every day from 12 noon to 1 p.m. the lamps are removed and a reading
is taken, so that time intervals are marked on the photographs and scale
values are obtained.

It does not seem necessary that the boom should be made of alumi-
nium, as I obtain what appear to be equally satisfactory records with booms
of brass oreven wood. The most delicate pendulum I have has a boom made
of varnished bamboo with brass fittings. It is about 5 feet in length, and
when last rated had a period of 55 seconds. I say last rated because I
find that this pendulum, like all others I work with, changes its period, and
therefore its sensitiveness, from week to week. I notice that this source of
error when computing results is also found in the infinitely better con-
structed and better installed apparatus used by Dr. von Rebeur-Paschwitz.

When the pendulum has its 55-second period one millimetre deflec-
tion on the photographic plate is equivalent to a tilt of 0-08 second of are.
With this degree of sensitiveness a 141b. weight placed on the column,
which is old and massive, at a distance of 2 feet from the instrument
causes a deflection of 0-5 mm. My weight on the floor at the outer end of
the boom produces no visible effect.

In this condition the pendulum is, however, often too sensitive, as it
will, from time to time, wander an inch or so to the right or left of its
mean position, and the spot of light fall outside the film. A sensitiveness
of 1 mm. motion per 05 are is usually quite sufficient, and I do not think
that apparatus like those of Wolf, d’Abbadie, Darwin, or von Rebeur-
Paschwitz capable of recording tilting of from 4}, to 3}, of a second
could be used on the alluvium of Tokio even when installed on a con-
crete bed underground.

Such apparatus might, however, be used on the solid rock which crops
out round the Tokio plain.

An attempt to test the accuracy of one of the horizontal pendulums
was made by placing it on an iron plate resting on a plank 18 in. broad,
13 in. thick, which in turn rested on supports near its end 6 feet apart.
It was then adjusted, so that trials with the test screw indicated that turns
of 10° gave an average deflection of 11-5 mm.

Side by side with the pendulum a transit instrument having a good
telescope was placed, and this read on a scale fixed ona brick wall at a
distance of 720 feet. The supporting plank was then loaded at its middle
until the telescope showed a deflection of 14 in. on the scale and the
pointer of the pendulum moved 93 mm. From this it seems that the
pendulum indicated a tilt of 1 in 562, while the angular tilt of the

telescope was 1 in 616.

These are the means of a series of experiments, and assuming that the
readings through the telescope were correct, then the pendulum indications
are about 10 per cent. below their true values. On the other hand,
assuming that the readings through the telescope were one inch too small,
and it was difficult to read within that quantity, then the pendulum
indications are 2°3 per cent. short of their true value. A great source of
error no dovbt resides in the test screw of the pendulum.

The instrument described will be recognised by those engaged in
similar investigations as coarse in construction, roughly approximate in
its records, and because it is large as being in all probability subject to

88 REPORT—1895.

convection currents, unequal heating in its parts, and other interferences.
In spite of these objections, I find it satisfactory. It is cheap, easily put
up to read from 1” to 0’"5, easily worked, while the light is near the film,
and therefore in the best position to use with ordinary bromide paper.

With more delicate apparatus, on the Tokio plain at least, no matter
what the size of the foundations might be, the results of my experiments
show that such instruments continually require readjustment in order to
keep the light on a film of manageable breadth, while if installed on the
rocks in the mountains I fancy that, owing to earthquakes or the gradual
yielding of the column, there would be a constant change in the mean-
ing of the deflections. In two of my pendulums I notice that sometimes
they gradually become more sensitive and sometimes less sensitive.

The columns I am using underground are of brick, 2 ft. high and 2 ft.
square, put together with pure cement. On the top of these, at first, I
placed a slab of marble ; but because I noticed that in a damp atino-
sphere there was a marked chemical action taking place between the brass
screws and the stone on which they rested, the marble has been replaced
by slate.

(b) Observations at Kamakura.

Kamakura, one of the ancient capitals of Japan, lies on the western
side of the Miura Peninsula, facing the Pacific Ocean. On account of its
ancient temples and its enormous bronze Buddha it is visited by almost
all travellers to Japan. The geologist has an interest in visiting this
place, as it has been the site of a series of earthquakes, which, with their
accompanying sea waves on more than one occasion, are said to have laid
waste a city of a million people. The place is prettily situated amongst
Tertiary hills which rise to heights of from 100 to 600 feet around the
plain on which the ancient capital stood. The cliff-like faces of these
hills show a series of conformable beds dipping about 30° N.E. These
beds, which are soft grey coloured clay stones or beds of consolidated
ashes, are from a few inches to a few feet in thickness, and are traversed
by numerous small faults the throw of which, so far as I have observed,
does not exceed six feet. Near to the temples, caves have been excavated,
which are used as shrines; while similar but smaller caves have been
made by farmers, and are used as storehouses.

The general relationship of the strata at Kamakura to the alluvium
and diluvium overlying tuff at Yokohama and Tokio is shown in the ac-
companying section.

At Kamakura the tuffs are crushed and faulted, but before reaching
Yokohama they pass into gentle folds, and then become horizontal and are
capped with some fifty feet of reddish earth and gravel. This condition,
with the exception that the overburden is perhaps 100 feet in thickness,
continues up to Tokio.
~ At Yokohama the tuffs, which almost entirely consist of a light grey

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 89

coloured clay rock, are visible as cliffs from 50 to 80 feet in height. In
Tokio, however, they only crop out at one or two places at the bottom
of deep cuttings. The depressions in the section represent the flood
plains of rivers which are filled with soft alluvium.

Rather than working on strata which had been so far crushed and
crumpled that further yielding is hardly to be expected, I should have
preferred a site gn the strata which are gently folded, and where a
measurable amount of yielding may yet be in operation.

Although I had the choice of several caves as Kamakura, all of them
were situated at some distance from the railway. To go and return from
the one I selected took six hours, and it was therefore seldom that it was
visited more than once a week. Very fortunately I received assistance
from Mr. P. E. Heerman, a gentleman who happened to be staying in the
neighbourhood, while one of the officials from the railway station kept the
lamps burning, and three times a day took readings of the instruments.
That the latter was attended to regularly was shown by a slight change in
the intensity of the photographic trace at the times when the lamps were
adjusted, a gap when they were removed to be refilled and a slight notch
in the diagram from a self-recording thermometer at the times when the
doors of the cave were opened, and the times at which these various marks
were made coincided with the times at which the readings were noted as
having been made.

The cave seems to have been excavated on the line of a fault which,
curiously enough, is with difficulty recognisable on the face of the cliff
itself, but which is quite apparent in a photograph. The entrance to the
cave, which faces 8.E., was, with the exception of the door, blocked up
with a wooden wall faced on the outside with a bank of earth and rubble
work 4 feet in thickness. The dimensions of the cave were 20 feet by
20 feet, with a height of from 7 to 10 feet. One corner of this was
partitioned off with wooden walls to form a room 10 feet square, and
from this the débris was cleared out to reach the solid rock on which two
brick platforms were built.

These were one brick thick and laid with pure cement. On the end
of each of these platforms, which were at right angles to each other—one
running N.W. and the other N.E.—a small pillar three bricks high and
one brick square was built and capped with a slab of marble. These
were finished on January 7, and the cave was left open for one week to
facilitate the drying. At the end of that time, on January 14, as the
cement appeared to haye set, the instruments were placed on the slabs
and the records commenced. From that date, with but few interruptions
continuous photographic traces were obtained until March 18. These
machines I have called C and D. Machine C recorded tilting parallel to
the strike, while D recorded movements parallel to the dip. By a lifting
on the S.E. side the readings of the index attached to C increased in value,
while the readings of D increased with a lifting on the 8.W. side.

At the end of each week, when a photographic film was renewed, the
sensitiveness of the instrument was determined, after which it was re-
adjusted. These determinations are given in the following table. The
ratio of unity to the numbers in the first two columns is the tangent of the
angle through which the instrument would have to be tilted to produce
a deflection on the photographic trace of one millimetre ; the corresponding
angles in seconds of arc are given in the third and fourth columns. At
the commencement it will be observed that to produce a deflection of one

90 REPORT—1895.

millimetre in C a tilt of about 2’’ would be required. Between February
18 and 25 the same deflection was obtained by a tilt of about 0/’-27.
Because D recorded more motion than C, it is important to notice that this
occurred notwithstanding the fact that on all occasions, excepting between
February 4 and February 11, C was very much more sensitive than D.

Sensitiveness of Cand D.

Date C D Cc D

Jan. 14-21 | 115,776 86,400 UTS AED |
PRPAIEP AS} 313,560 250,560 0’ 66 0'"-82

3. 2Oe 434,160 280,800 | 0-48 0'-73
Feb. 4-11 313,560 355,600 0-66 O'-58
Swiss 578,880 280,800 0:35 0'"73

53-9 BB8=25 771,840 280,800 | 0":27 0'° 73

» 2-4 675,360 302,400 0'"30 0'"68
March 4-11 627,120 216 000 | O32 0'-95
ey, nbd Eales} 482,400 259,200 0-42 0'-79

The temperature variations in the cave during 24 hours never exceeded
eee 6s
(c) The Diagrams.

At first sight, with the exception of places where earthquakes have
been recorded, the photographic traces appear to be a series of long
straight lines, and the fact that movements have taken place to the right
and left of a normal position can in most cases only be seen by looking
along their length (see fig. 2, Plate JI.). The curves which are thus
seen are too long and flat to admit of accurate measurement, and although
the films had only moved at a rate of about 6 mm. per hour there is great
uncertainty in determining points of inflection. For these reasons both
the angular deflections and the periods occupied in describing them are
only rough approximations. In the diagrams, Plate ITI., the observations
extending over nine weeks are plotted as a series of curves. The vertical
lines indicate noon and midnight of successive days, which are marked with
their dates. The horizontal lines, which are 10 mm. apart, indicate seconds
of arc. Ifthe curve for C goes downwards from its starting point the
movement is equivalent to a rising on the 8.E. side, while if the D curve
descends this means that the S.W. rises. The angular values for the
various deflections are marked on the diagrams, while earthquakes recorded
by seismographs but not by the pendulums are indicated by dots. Earth-
quakes recorded by the pendulums but not by seismographs are shown by
short straight lines.

(d) The Movements of the Pendulums.

From the diagrams it is clearly seen that during any week the pendulums
have once or twice wandered away from and then returned to their
starting point. Because the movements or periods of comparative rest of
the two instruments approximately coincide in time, as, for example, during
the fifth week, I take it that the cause of these movements is something
more general than a warping of the supporting columns. The movement
of D or that which is parallel to the dip has usually been greater than
that indicated by C or parallel to the strike. For example, it may he

65% Report Brit. Assoc., 1895. Plate III

Movement of horizontal pendulums at Kamakura.

ez 7°92
aS
‘

\I
|

SCE
“fe

3

Illustrating the Fourteenth Report of the Committee on the
Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of Japan.

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 91

imagined that between February 28 and March 3 the dip of the rocks
increased and then decreased through an angle of 4-08. About the same
time the movement at right angles to this was 2/88. With the exception
of a wave indicated by C between February 6 and 7, which had a period of
24 hours, all the other movements have had periods of from 48 to 70
hours. In this respect the movements are strikingly different from those
recorded in Tokio, where diurnal waves are very frequent. Another
remarkable feature in the records is the entire absence of tremors, which
in Tokio on the alluvium often result in producing a photographic trace from
5 to 10 millimetres, and sometimes even more than this, in breadth (Plate
IL, figs. 5 and 6). Although it is premature to offer an explanation for the
Kamakura movements the following statement may be made. As the
changes in temperature in the cave were usually too small to be measur-
able itis not likely that the wandering of the pendulums can be attributed
to such a cause. Any effect that the heat of the sun may have had upon
the face of the cliff in which the cave is situated, in raising its tempera-
ture or by withdrawing moisture from its surface, would probably be
diurnal in its character. The only sunshine records which I have taken
commence on February 25. From that day to February 28 there were 28
hours of sunshine which was followed by dull weather until March 11.
Although the end of the period of sunshine was followed by a great move-
ment, considerable movements occurred during the comparatively cloudy
weather. Because the records are few this observation, however, carries but
little weight. Rain, which only fell between February 8 and 9, and again
between March 5 and 6, does not show any connection with the movements.
Notwithstanding these observations, since the wandering of pendulums in
Tokio, as will be shown later, is apparently connected with the movement
of subterranean water, which in turn is related to percolation from the
surface, it does not seem unlikely that the movements at Kamakura may
also find a partial explanation in a somewhat similar cause. The only
other explanation, which, however, has not yet been verified, is that they
result from rock crumpling which is still in progress, and for this reason
the greatest motion is parallel to the dip.

Conclusions of practical importance which I arrive at are that although
pendulums which will record a tilting of 0'’"3 are sufficiently sensitive to
be used on the Tokio plain, an instrument of much greater sensibility is
required to study movements on the rock, and, further, that all who have
to carry out physical investigations requiring a steady platform will gain
great advantage by installations on the rock where tilting is small and
diurnal movements and tremors are not appreciable to instruments such
as I have employed.

(e) Earthquakes.

The earthquakes which have been recorded by the Kamakura instru-
ments in 1893 are as follows :—

The following 26 disturbances are clearly shown upon the photographic
traces. In addition to these there area number of slight irregularities with
amplitudes of 1 mm., or under, which have been omitted, first, because
they are very small, and secondly, because they might or might not be due
to earth disturbances. While the observations were going on, that is,
between January 14 and March 18, by means of seismographs in Tokio, 21
shocks were recorded. These were disturbances that were felt in Tokio, and
itis known that several of them were also felt in Kamakura. It is probable

92 REPORT—1895.

|

| Range of. . | Instrument
Month} Day Time motion ieee: Duration on which Remarks
in mm. | = | recorded
hr. min. | secs, hr. min.
I 18 8 46 P 15 80'-00 2] 2-10 | Recorded in Tokio!
25 841A 14° | 11-48 |} 0 10 | D C not working |
25 9 21A 8 6.56 |.0 20 | D :. as
26 fils ye: Ala oes |
II. | 1-2 | Six slight disturbances
3 8 380A) 12 5'-76 | 0 45) Cand D | D gives 8'"76
| 10 OOA | 6 ZS? 1O' Se1'8'| "CO aid 0) Sette
OR SORAG Nieatdis st 90527601170): 2186) ieCland D de Sie ie Sie 7G6
4 | 7 OA} Slight |
5 | 718A? Fh CN LE
| 3 54P Sioa VSS TO CO ams) C
TOUS aemeaoe 2 | vo" | C
6 454A Dre Wan 2 APES C
Si e250 Ac 2 6°96 | 0 30 D
| 6 304 | 3 UGA Orta Ou D
| 6 50A | -f Dao Ou lO D
19 | 7 31A | 6 41°38 | D
| 8 OOA | Oo) eS | D
8 264 | 6 4''-38 | D
20 8 B0A 5 135 C On D438 Re-|
| corded in Tokio)
27 12 50A 1 ome eee) C On D 4''-38. Re-|
| corded in Tokio)

that had a seismograph been placed in Kamakura all these shocks and
possibly a few others would have been recorded. The horizontal pendulums,
however, have only recorded three of the Tokio series, and to the remaining
18 they have been insensible. On the other hand, they have recorded 23
disturbances which the Tokio seismographs have failed to record. Although
Ihave not yet had time to fully analyse the records of earthquakes given by
the Tokio pendulums, from what I have seen of them I know that the
results will be similar. On many occasions I have watched a horizontal
pendulum while a sharp disturbance lasting from 15 to 30 seconds has been
taking place. All that happens is that there is a slight elastic switching
in a vertical direction of the pointer at the end of the boom. The boom
does not swing, and I have not observed a blurr in the photographic trace.
(Plate II. fig. 2.) On the other hand, whenever an earthquake instead of
simply producing elastic vibrations throws the surface of the ground into
undulations, the pendulums behave most erratically. They do not swing

but they are forced first to one position and then to another. Now and then
they may pause for two or three seconds, but only to start, perhaps, more
vigorously than before. It is interesting to watch a seismograph writing
an earthquake, but a horizontal pendulum actuated by earth waves is one
of the most attractivesights that a seismologist can witness. When a seismo-
graph is disturbed you feel the motion that causes it to move, and in two or
three minutes all is ended ; but when a horizontal pendulum is disturbed
nothing is felt, and its spasmodic movements may continue for one or two
hours. Fig. 3, p. 109, shows what is almost continuous motion for 5 hours 24
minutes. Already I have had the ae fortune to see this phenomenon five
times. On the last occasion, Mar ch 2 22, at 7.27 p.m., I sent a messenger to
call my colleague, Mr. C. D. West, who arr ived some 15 minutes later, when
we watched the big boom stopping and starting from various positions for 1

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 993

hour 47 minutes. These waves had a submarine origin about 40 miles off
the N.E. corner of Yezo, in about 43° N. lat. and 146° E long., and to reach
Tokio had travelled some 570 miles. I think that they have been recorded
in Rome, and I have written to Dr. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz to learn
whether they were noted at Potsdam, Wilhelmshaven, and Strassburg.
They ought to have reached the Birmingham instrument about midday on
March 22.

While I am writing in Sapporo (Yezo), on June 20, at 2.32 P.m., a
terrible earthquake has happened in Yokohama and Tokio. As we are
9 hours E. of Greenwich this should be recorded at the above stations
and those in Russia at about 6.30 a.m. on the same day.

From the manner a pendulum behaves I infer that its movements are
due to the fact that itis being tilted, and because the photographic records
are always less than the distances through which I have seen it move, the
values given for the tilting are less than those which actually happened.
Ti a pendulum is set swinging, for example, by standing near its column,
through a distance of, say, 5 mm., it will come to rest in about 5 minutes.
In calculating the duration of a disturbance allowance has been made for
this factor.

The point of greatest importance in connection with the foregoing
remarks is the inference that the catalogue of Kamakura earthquakes
represents a series of large disturbances which have travelled very great
distances. Had there been any local disturbances sufficiently great to
produce earth-waves, then the pendulums must have recorded the same,
but no such disturbances occurred. As it is not likely that earthquakes
originating at a distance could in any way he connected with local tilting,
if earthquakes and tilting have any connection those which might be
compared with the curves already given are those of local origin which
have been recorded by seismographs in the vicinity, and not those which
are shown on the photographic films. Between January 24and March 18
fifteen shocks were noted in Tokio, which cannot be seen on the photo-
graphic traces. Because nearly all these were of the nature of elastic
vibrations it is probable that they were for the most part of local origin.
This is a point which can only be definitely settled by analysing the reports
accumulated at the Meteorological Bureau, which for various reasons’
cannot be done in time for the present report. These 15 shocks are indicated
on the curves as black dots, and it is certainly worth observing that they
chiefly occur during the seventh, eighth, and ninth weeks when tilting was
marked. Because the observations are few and because I am not yet ina
position to analyse all the materials which have been accumulated, too great:
stress should not be laid upon this last observation. It only indicates the
nature of an inquiry that is being made.

The Jast point to which attention must be called in connection with
the Kamakura disturbances is that the greatest motion has nearly always
been in the direction of the dip, that apparently being the direction of
least resistance to yielding. By reference to the catalogue it will be seen
that there are three instances where small disturbances have only been
recorded by C, but in ali other cases the records are given by both instru-
ments, the dip record being much the larger, or the record has been given
by D alone. For example on February 8 D was tilted for 30 minutes

through an angle of nearly 7”, while C did not show that any motion
had taken place.

94 REPORT—1895.

(f) The Observations in Tokio.

Although the observations made in Tokio were carried on at two
stations, because these stations were only 1,000 feet apart, and because
both were on the alluvium which here forms a layer perhaps 100 feet in
thickness above the tuff rock, it was anticipated that the records would to
some extent be similar in character. For this reason they are described
together.

Machine A, which is similar to those used at Kamakura, is installed on
a table-like stone column in my house. The column is 4 feet square and
rises clear of the floor from a concrete bed. For a few hours in the
morning and in the afternoon the sun produced a marked tilting as it
shone upon the column through a window on the south side ; on closing
this window by a shutter on the outside and by a curtain on the
inside, this effect disappeared, while the diagram from a self-record-
ing thermometer occasionally showed during 24 hours a steady rise or
a steady fall of 1° or 2° C. More usually, however, the diagram showed
that from 9 or 10 a.m. until 5 or 6 p.m. there had been a rise of 4°
or 5° C., after which the temperature fell until next morning. This is
a point to be noted, because it will be shown that the daily tilting and,
in a less marked degree, the intensity of a tremor storm have a similar
periodicity.

The water level beneath my house oscillates above and below 36
feet.

Machines E and F, which are underground, only differ from A in the
fact that their booms are brass tubes. Machines A and F are parallel to
each other, and point N.W. Machine E is at right angles to A and F.
With an increase in the readings of A or F the movement corresponds to
a lifting of the ground on the N.E. side of these instruments. An
increase in the scale readings of E corresponds to a tilting on the 8.E.
side.

The underground chamber is excavated on a flat piece of ground about
20 feet below the site of my house. It is 13 feet deep and 20 feet square.
The floor is covered with } in. of asphalt, which rests on a bed of concrete
6 in. thick, which in turn rests on a bed of well-rammed gravel. The
walls and ceiling are brick with clay puddle on the outside. Above the
chamber a wooden house has been built ; the entrance is by double doors,
and it is fairly well ventilated by gratings for the admission of air and a
short iron chimney for its exit. The daily fluctuations in temperature
in this underground room are practically zero, the diagram from a self-
recording thermometer showing a straight line which at present indicates
a steady rising of 1° C. per week. The water level in a well about 80
yards distant, where I have established a tide gauge, is about 25 feet below
the surface. The floor of the chamber is therefore about 12 feet above
water level, but it must be remembered that this level may rise and fall
through 2 or 3 feet.

(g) Sensitiveness of the Instruments.

From time to time the sensitiveness of the instruments was determined,
and if necessary they were readjusted.

The first column in the accompanying table indicates the number of
millimetres through which the end of the boom travelled by a 1° turn of

'

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 95

the sensitising screw in the bed plate, the pitch of the screw being 1 mm.
One complete turn of the screw attached to A tilted the bed plate of this
instrument through an angle of | in 228. For E and F one complete turn
represented an angle of 1 in 222.

The ratio of unity to the numbers in the second and fourth columns is
the tangent of the angle corresponding to a deflection of the boom through
a distance of 1 mm., the values of these angles expressed in seconds of are
being given in the third and fifth columns.

A E and F
Ee — eo

25 199,800 1-03 |

5 | 399,600 O'-51

6 479,520 0-43

6-5 519,480 0'-39
10 820,800 0/25 799,200 0'-26
10°5 861,840 0'-23

11 902,880 o”-22 | 879,120 0-23
12 984,960. 0/20
13 1,038,960 0-19
14 | 1,118,880 0-18

To bring the points of E or F to the centre of the scale, a rough
adjustment is made with the sensitising screw, after which the boom may
be slightly moved to the right or left by means of a stone about 40 Jb. in

_ weight which I shift on the Hoor of the chamber towards or away from
the instrument.

(h) Daily Tilting.

The approximate times at which the diurnal wave reached its maxi-
mum and minimum, and the amplitudes of these waves for dates between
January 24 and March 1, 1894, are given in the table, p. 97. Should it be
necessary the table may be completed from December 9, 1893, up to the
middle of June 1894. With but few interruptions the records have been
continuous. It will be observed that the records for F, which is parallel to
A, are only one or two in number. The letter s means that the diurnal wave
is too small to be measurable, while blank spaces indicate that it was not
visible, the photographic trace being a straight line. Had greater sensi-
bility been given to F it is quite possible that the daily wave would have been
recorded ; but this could not be done because, even with the stability it
_ had during three days, the end of the boom often wandered through a dis-
tance greater than 1 inch, and the spot of light left the film. This wander-
ing of the pendulums has been already referred to. On two occasions when
_F gave measurable waves (January 31 and February 2) the times of their
occurrence approximately coincided with the movements of E and A—that
is, the movement of the pendulums in one direction was reached in the
evening, after which'they gradually returned to reach their norma! position

_in the morning. The pendulums E and A, although at right angles to

each other, have shown a marked synchronism in their movements. It
would seem that these two instruments have either been simultaneously
acted upon by independent forces, or that they have recorded components
of a common force, which has acted in different directions at the two
' stations.

The latter explanation appears to be the more satisfactory, because

96 REPORT—1895.

periods of steadiness when the diagrams were practically straight lines
happened at the same time, and because the large or small movements of
A have agreed in time with the large or small movements recorded by E.
As illustrative of this synchronism, the movements of these instruments
between February 15 and February 25 have been plotted as curves (see
Plate IV.).

Once or twice it will be observed that crests of waves have been
reached after midnight or in the morning, which agrees with the results
published in 1893 (Thirteenth Report). In the majority of instances,
however, this has been reversed, and the movement of the pendulum in
one direction has been completed at any time between 4 p.m. and 10 p.M.,
and it has returned to its original position between 5 a.m. and 10 a.m.
Because the waves on the original diagrains are long and flat it is usually
difficult to determine with any accuracy the exact time at which an
excursion in any one direction has been completed. Sometimes the boom
has remained at rest at one of its limits for five or six hours before the
return journey has been commenced. The movement from 5 or 10 a.m.
until 4 or 10 p.m. has nearly always been quicker than the return motion
during the night.

The amplitude of motion does not seem ever to have exceeded 3’’:00.
In 1893 I described movements of from 2’-00 to 10:00 ; but these which
I now discuss are the result of observations with several instruments,
although I cannot answer for any great degree of accuracy, I am inclined
to consider the new determinations as being nearer the truth. The move-
ments of KE, which is underground, have usually been greater than those
recorded by A in my house. In a few instances, however, the deflections
of A have been the greater.

As an appendix to the table on p. 97 short abstracts from my journal
are added :—

(t) Extract from Journal of Records obtained in 1894.

In the following extracts the sensitiveness of the instruments means
the angular tilting required to produce a deflection of one millimetre of
the points at the end of the booms. These degrees of sensitiveness for
the instruments E, A, and F are given in fractions of seconds of are
immediately after the date.

January 24-27 (018, 0/23, 0”:43).—From the 24th to the 25th E
showed a rapid 8.E. lifting of 3’ when the light spot left the film. A small
earthquake occurred at 10.48 a.m. onthe 25th. From the 25th tothe 27th
there was a 8.E. lifting of 1-62. Daily waves of 1/44 and 1/26 are
well marked. All instruments showed tremors, but they are most marked
underground on E, where they reach 12 mm. On A and F the daily waves
are hardly visible.

January 27-30 (0':19, 0'-23, 0’-18).—E moved 5’32, and the light
spot left the film. It shows tremors reaching 14 mm. A and F agree
in showing a N.E. lifting, but the daily wave is only seen on A when
the tremors reach 10 mm. The tremors are most pronounced under-
ground.

January 30-February 2 (0°43, 0:23, 0'18).—E shows similar
characters to A and F, that is, the trace is at first straight, and then two
daily waves and three small earthquakes. For the first day A and F are
straight, but for the other two days there are daily waves. F shows a

65% Report Brit. Assoc., 1895.

‘undye fo Duamousyd ovuwo0 4
pun aynnbypwwny ayy uo aajnumon ayy fo yoda yyuaninog oy buyvusnyy

‘]]eM & UL IojyeM Jo (gq) punoisiepun pue 9oRyan
uorjom A[rep Surmoys ssatovry, uo stunjnpued jo min nab ae RIEuOTS aOR

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 97

E A F |
| A
—_.""“_ —————_—————o~ | SS A
ae +a | Timeof | Timeof | =| Timeof | Timeof | Re
; ea an i) ime o ime 0 Bo ime 0: ime o “qo |} Timeof |
4 ag B= | Sinusof | Crestof | 25 | Sinusof | Crestof | 2% | Sinusof | 5
ay Wave Wave iP Wave Wave 3 » Wave | 3
|
189t Mh " u”
Jan. 24-25 3.30-9.30 P 2°70 — s — — s = = (=
» 20-26 | 11.30 P-1.30 A | 144 — LOA _ — s _— — 16
» 26-27 | 11.0P-12.0 | 1:26 9.0.4 8 = = 5 = 25 ms
» 3l-1 6.0 P-8.0 P 0°86 9.0 A 6P 0°69 7.0 A 9.0 P-10.0 P| 0°36 4.04 —
Feb. 1- 2 7.0 P-9.0 P 0°60 | 5.0-9.0 A 5 P-6 P O92 6.0A 8.0 P-9.0 P | 0°36 | — =
eae 6.0 P 0°80 TOA - _ — — hear = ate
~ ee 6.0P 0°80 7.0.4 = = = a) get wa =
aed 5 1.0P 0°80 7.04 a= = = a tyes = Ee
2 §6RG = — 6.0A 8P-9P = = s SS =
» 6-7| 5.0P-10.0P | 1:29 8.04 5P-6P | 161 9.0.4 5 —t us a
» 8 5.0 P-10.0 P 0°85 6.0 A 5 P-6 P 115 8:30 A s | 0°46 — —
a, 8=0 = 086 | 7.0A = = = rol dy Vea af 27
» 210 4.0 P-4.0 A s 10.0 A 4P O78 — 8 ge a = =
ahem 7.0P 0:86 3.0.4 3P-5P | 0-78 aa 5 pe a =
» 11-12 7.0P 0°86 = = — — s bse = =
> 12-13 10.0 P 0°86 6.0 A _— — — Large and irregular —_
» 12-14 3.0 A 0°86 7.380 A _— = = $s —_— — —_
» 14-15 9.0 P 1:29 7.30 A a —_— —_— s = = eae
s 15-16 12.0PM 043 10.0 A _ O1 6.0A —_— — — ==
s, 16-17 | 10.0 P-12.0P | 1:29 8.0A 6 P-8P 0) 9.0 A
» 17-18 | 10.0P-12.0P | 1°72 9.0 A. 6P 175 TOA — — = =
» 18-19 9.0 P 2°58 10.0A 10P 2°50 0A s — — —
» 19-20 6.0P 1:29 6.0.4 6P 1:25 | 1A-GA 5 = = ae
» 20-21 6.0 P 215 6.0A 7.0 P 2°25 2A-6A — s — 1
21-22 = = = = =: = = 25 - 2
9 22-23 6.0 P 1:72 6.0A 4.0 P O75 TOA a s — pe
3) 23-24 4.0 P-6.0 P 1:29 | 6A-7A 6.0 P 0-75 6.0 A = 3 — _
sy 24-25 6.0 P 1°72 GA | 5.30 P O75 —_— — s — —
» 25-26 6.0 P-7.0 P 172 6A 4.0 P _ — - s = =
y 26-27 10.0A 2°58 6A | — s — | = s = Sa
Mar. 1- 2 11.0P 301 9.0 A — 05 —_— — = — a
s 238 6.0 P-1.0 A | 2°15 5.0.A — 0-5 — = = = 2
» 38-4] 6.0 P-12.0P | 0°86 2.0A — — — = = = 2
» 5-6 7.0P 1:29 10.0 A — s — = s = =
Be ag 8.0 P 215 | 10.04 = s = - $ ey =
ae oe 9.0P 1:72 9.0 A — s — = $ = =
” 8- 9 — s => —_ 8 _— — —— —— 112
» 9-10 _ $s _ —_— s — — = — | 3
» 10-11 _ 8 _— — — _— = = az | 19
_abae es 3 ze 2.0 P 1-0 6A 26 pa i Eee
>», 13-14 — s —_ Irregular = a= ds =
» 15-16 Clock repairing — — — = ees =e 8
in leotr ba a 8.0 P 25 WA a. — ee 35
eagle 2 ¥ 7.0 P 25 12.4 us Le =e Eas
23-24 - 2 6.0 P 1:60 104 2 ae #4 se
ss 24-25 id - 6.0 P 1:40 104 a = an 5
» 26-27 ”» ” 10P 1:60 WA — — — 4
» 30-31 » ” 10.0 A 10 6A — = = 20

steady N.E. rising of 2/70 until February 2, when at 7 p.m. there was an
earthquake. Tremors are slight.

Pebruary 2-5 (0!:43, 0-23, 0”-23).—E shows the usual daily tilting
with small trémors. . After the earthquake of the 2nd F continued to rise
until the 3rd, when at 8 p.m. the light left the film.

February 5-7 (0:43, 0/23, 0'-23).—The daily waves in E and A
are pronounced, and when one is large the other is large also, and vice versd.
In F the waves are not so marked. Tremors are slight on A, but under-
ground in E and F they reach 3 mm.

February 8-12 (0-43, 0'-26, 0'-23).—E daily deflection (9-10) slight,
but from 10-11 like A. On A the daily deflections are well marked,
but on F they are very slight. F, however, falls from 84-67 (3-91).
Tremors are greater on the surface, reaching 6 mm., than they are under-
ground,

1895. Ht

98 REPORT—1895.

February 12-15 (0'"43, 0-25, 0'39).—E shows well-marked daily
curves. A outof order, and therefore no record. F found to have changed
its sensitiveness ; therefore reset, so that 1°=0'"23. From 12-13 F
wandered from 75:5 to 52 (8/’-97), and again from the 14—15 it crept from
72 to 62 (230). These movements, which so often occur with F, meana
change in sensibility.

Both instruments show tremors of 3 mm.

February 15-19 (0/48, 0:25, 0’:26).—On E and A the daily waves
are seen as a succession of symmetrical waves, gradually increasing in
height and in length. Close upon the crest of the last and largest of these
waves an earthquake occurs. F only shows the last of these daily waves,
the remainder of the trace being a straight line, indicating a slight N.E.
sinking (1/30). Tremors on all three instruments are slight.

February 19-22 (0/43, 0'25, 0-25).—E and A show a continuation
of the daily waves. Between the 21st and 22nd both instruments gave a
straight line. F only shows the wave of 20-21, but it shows a N.E. sinking
from 76 to 40 (8-00).

On the 20th, at 9.30, there was a strong shock. A shows two series
of strong tremors, which are only faintly indicated by the underground
instruments.

February 22-26 (0':43, 0:25 0'26).—E and A show well-defined
daily waves. F is nearly astraight line, but wandered about 30 mm., as if
N.E. had sunk.

Tremors are seen from 6 A.M. until noon on the 23rd, and again from
6 p.m. on the 24th to 4 p.m. on the 25th: on A and F they reach about
5 mm.

The earthquake of the 24th is not shown.

February 26—March 1 (0:43, 0/25, 0'26).

The daily curves on E are marked, but they are irregular. The shock
of the 27th occurs just over the crown of the daily wave, which was at
10p.m. The crest of this tilting, both in time and amplitude, was unusual.

On A and F the daily curves are slight ; on A, like E, they are
irregular.

Tremors of 2 or 3mm. are shown on A and F onthe 26th, 6 to7 P.M.;
27th, 6 a. to 4 P.; and on the 28th, 6a. to 1 p. The last are visible
on E.

F wanders by a N.E. sinking through 10 mm. On March 1 the
direction of motion commenced to change, that is, there was a N.E. lifting.

March 1-5 (0/43, 0'-25, 0'-26).—On E the daily curves are large,
but at unusual times.

A shows slight daily curves, but a N.E. lifting of 10 mm. F shows a
N.E. lifting of 22 mm. 2

Tremors are seen on A on the 2nd, 2 A. to 11 A. ; and this agrees with
E, but not with F, which shows slight tremors, March 1, from 9.30 a. to
midnight.

March 5-8 (0/43, 0'°25, 0'25).—E shows a well-marked series of
daily curves, and wanders 8 mm., as if the S.E. was rising. The daily
curves on A are slight, but the trace is faint. F wanders 40 mm. as if
the N.E. was rising.

On March 6 small tremors are recorded, but only on A.

March 8-12 (0':48, 0-25, 0':26).—E shows slight daily curves on
the Sth, 1 p. to10 pr. Asinks on N.E. side 4 mm., showing tremors of
6mm. It then rises to the 10th, 8.30 p. 12 mm. At 8.40 an earth-
quake.

ON THE EARTHQUAKE-AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA IN JAPAN. 99

F rises on N.E. side 40 mm.

Tremors on E and F are slight.

March 12-15. (0/43, 0/25, 07-26).

The daily curve is barely visible on E, which shows small tremors. A
shows curves, but they are irregular, and the N.E. sinks 15 mm. F rises
23 mm., that is, the direction of motion is contrary to A. Both A and F
show small tremors.

March 15-19 (043, 0:25, 0’:26).—E clock stopped, and therefore
no records until end of month. From the 15th to 16th A was steady,
but from this date onwards it gave large daily curves.

On the 15th, and at 3 a.m. on the 18th, there were earthquakes.
During the three days A rose 9mm. _ F does not show daily curves, but
it rose 39 mm.

The conclusions I arrive at respecting this section of the report is,
that instruments on the surface and underground show diurnal move-
ments, which closely agree in the times at which they occur. These move-
ments are most pronounced underground by pendulum E, the excursions
of which have in nearly all instances been greater than those shown by
pendulum A in my house. The crest of a wave which corresponds to a
N.E. lifting on A and a 8.£. lifting on E has usually been reached
between 4 p.m. and 10 p.m., the movement in the opposite direction being
completed between 5 4.m.and 10 a.m. It does not seem that air temperature
has had any measurable effect in the production of these movements, because
they have been most marked beneath the surface, where the change in
temperature during twenty-four hours has practically been zero. The
opportunities for observing whether they hold any relationship with rain-
fall have been few. It is possible that the rainfali of March 16 and 17
may have been connected with the large motions of A between March 16
and 18, but the largest motions of E on March 1 and 2 occurred during a
dry period. After the rainfall of January 25 and 26, and again after
that of February 8 and 9, it may be noticed that the time at which E
completed its N.W. excursion was delayed, while after that of March 16
and 17 pendulum A was delayed in its N.E. movement, and these are the
only occasions on which rain fell in any quantity.

(j) The Wandering of the Pendulums.

The following table shows the daily change which has taken place in
the position of the pointer of pendulum A, and for a few days that which
has taken place with pendulums F and E. The numbers indicate so many
millimetres of motion. The sign + prefixed indicates that the scale
readings were increasing, while the sign — indicates that they were
becoming smaller. When the signs for A and F are similar, then these
two pendulums were moving in the same direction. The difference
between the readings of an instrument when a new film was put on and
when it was taken off gives the distance through which a boom has been
displaced during periods of three or four days: this quantity is also ex-
pressed in seconds of arc. The fifth column gives the rainfall in milli-
metres, and the sixth the number of hours of sunshine, but only between
February 25 and April 30. These latter records were taken for me

by my colleague, Prof. W. K. Burton.

H2

100 REPORT—1895.

seismographs

Z| Seaimeae
Date A F E ue ea | gs
a |me] 88
:| BA
Jan. 24-25 al Sil =) 1
» 625-26 sai] +4 =15 16
+ M6227 etl +1 +15
{ —1 +4 +7
| 0"23 | +129 | +1:26
» 228 +2 +12 +26
” 28-29 +3
» 29-30 +3 +5
+8 +13 =2
+ 1” 84 + 2!'-34 —0'":57
» 30-31 —! eral +3
a Bi Lhep,.)) 2 +6
Feb. 1-2 iy 44
<7 a | +2
—0"-46 +2'-70 +086
paeteZ8 —4
» 3d4 +3
a 4-9 0
== ass 0
= 0-23 — 1-78 0
” 5-6 +12
» 6-7 +1
» 1-8 +1 =8
| { | pt 5 +2
| +3/-29 Sarit +0'"86
| rh 9 —6 Lig
| et) ei
S020 0
spelled at)
) j, —8 ay +2
||. -2'"08 391 | +0'"86
(eee a Sa fetes
| nee L253 —2 —23 —3
. ss +4 +22 0
| » okdedb 0 ~10 +5
| | | +2 S13! +2
iWedeners” 15) Opal OLA
Bee 1s Ayr
ot LEEG: +8
ah es +5

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA IN JAPAN. 101
A se | £26
Date A F E é e eke Es 2
'S Oh |) Bis 8
fo] oa pay o-3
+1 —5 +3
+025 | —1''30 | 41/29
Feb. 19-20 +10 1
. PDEA 212 1
oy PU =i 2
bts —94 =o
| S0!-75 Ie 60 —1'"-29
=) 22-23 +3 0
» 2a-24 229)
» 24-25 +3 8 2
»» 25-26 +1 5
+5 +3 0
+125 | 0-78 0
u] 7 —
9) 26-27 29 7 1
3 21-28 +2 9 1
» 28-1 (Mar.) =iK0
a1 =4 0
O25) | — eo" 0
March 1-2 +4 +4 £39)
” 2-3 +4 2 2
‘a 3-4 +1 +30 —3 2 1
» 45 1
+9 +32 =i
+995 | +8''32 | —0''-43
a 5-6 +1 +27 +6 6 1
a 6-7 +2 +15
» 7-8 —4 +15 +4
—1 +15 +8
—0!''-25 + 31-75 + 3/44
~ ~ !
re 8-9 + 1 12
BS OETO +6 3
ee Olt 0 12 1
Pier =6 2 9
i a +34 ai
l beO'T25 | eree Negras
ee 11s =6 9 1
5 Re =6 4 2
14-15 =8 6 5 1
eal +23 =
—3''-25 | +598 | —O0'-86

102 REPORT—1895.

nan n
| 7 ae | 2f| gee
Date A F E 22/44 aS t
25 68 see
= ae Bes
=] 3 23
| March 15-16 | +8 8 6 1
a) eee +6 35 6
5 Mis —3 9
eho) | —2 3
Pasi i, ie 39 +8
| +2'7-25 + 10/714 43°44
| ay 6L9=20 ok
3 20-21 —4 4 1
5 alee -2 9 ri
(Heesig: 2 |
| —2''50
meee —7 | 9 9
» 2e-2t —6 |
” —25 +18
[ +5 +4
| +1125 | 411-04
” 25-26 +9 Dd 2
b= —4 = 3 4 2
» 27-28 0 20
Sie ce) —6 ah 8
| -1 —10 |
| 0-20 | —2'-60
HES tO) Fehrs. i i 6 1
ay ot Weonl +1 | 5
» 91-1 (Apr.)| +1 | 8g 1
|
a oe |
{ aril —18
| + 0'"-20 —4''68
April 1-2 A 10 1
” 2-3 +2 8
” 3-4 +6 8
[ +2 = FA |
| 0'"-40 —1'"-04 /
fake, | |
” 4-5 18) ] 1 1
” 5-6 +5 7.
” 6-7 0 6
» 7-8 all 5 1
[ +4 an)
[| +080 | +-0'52
|

_—

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA IN JAPAN. 103

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gee rs) —21
| 0'':92 +0'°3 + Q2''-32
a f +1 38 26
| +0'-23 | —0'"96
iibies f +1 —1 ili 17
| + 0/193 —0'"12 1'"-39
iY (aera mtg +19 16
|| 092 | +2'"0 —1''-60
3-16 [| , Pres Toa

An examination of the above table leads to several important results.
In twenty-four cases the motion underground has been greater than that

104 REPORT—1895.

on the surface, while in six cases it has been less than that on the surface.
These instances are taken from the three or four day periods. If the
analysis was made for daily periods, the difference between the amount
of motion recorded underground and that recorded on the surface would
be yet more marked. Whenever the movements of the surface instrument
A have been great, exceeding 1’ in seven instances, its direction of
motion has corresponded with the direction of movement of the instru-
ment which is placed in a parallel direction F. In two cases the directions.
of movement between A and F have been opposite to each other. ‘When,
however, the movements of A have been small or less than 1’’ the cases of
agreement and of disagreement in direction of motion are practically
equal, there being 6 of one and 11 of the other. For January, February,.
and March rainfall seems to have been followed by considerable dis-
turbances underground, the movements during dry periods being compara-
tively small. The instrument on the surface has, however, shown several
marked exceptions to the latter rule, its pointer having moved from 8 to
12 mm. (2” to 3”) at least five times when the displacement could not be
attributed to the saturation of the soil.

During April and May, although a considerable amount of rain fell,
the movements of the underground instruments were small, but it must be
remembered that during these months percolation was in all probability
very small as compared with that of January, February, and March.
Instrument A, on the contrary, showed on several occasions very large
movements between April 13 and 14, moving as much as 30 mm. or 6”, and
from what has gone before it is not necessary to assume that these dis-
turbances were directly connected with rainfall.

Up to the date of writing this report I have not been able to obtain
from the Meteorological Department factors which enable me to make
any accurate estimate of the ratio of percolation to evaporation, but it
may be taken, as a general rule, that percolation and the fluctuations in
height of subterranean water are greater during the winter months than
they are during the summer, and if the instruments partly owe their move-
ments to movements of underground water, these movements ought to be
most pronounced in winter, and this seems to have been the case. Since the
commencement of May, up to June 6, E and F have wandered but little, the
diagrams being fine straight lines like fig. 1, Plate II., and without tremors.
It must also be observed that it has been the instruments in the under-
ground chambers within 12 feet of water level which have moved the most..

To throw additional light upon the part that subterranean water may
have played in influencing the motion of the pendulums the following
experiments were made :—

1. The movements of water in an unused well were recorded.

2. A rough measurement of the rate at which moisture was evaporated
from ground near to one of the instruments was made.

3. A well near to'one of the instruments was twice emptied of its
water.

(k) Movements of Water in a Well.

From April 18 until June 8, I established a tide gauge in an unused
well 80 yards to the east of the underground chamber. It consisted of
a large wooden float carrying a bamboo mast 30 feet in length, the top of
which projected through a hole in a lid which covered the top of the well.
As the mast rose and fell a pencil in contact with a sheet of paper on a drum

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 105

recorded the motion. The diagrams obtained indicate the following facts.
Very shortly after heavy rain the well commences to rise, and the rising
continues for three or four days after the rain has ceased. The upward
motion, which at times has been as much as7 or 8 inches in 24 hours, even-
tually becomes slower for about two days, after which the water falls slowly.
A more important observation, however, is that during any 24 hours
there are fluctuations in the rate of rising or falling which when the well
is nearly steady are distinct, but when the coming up or going down of
the water is rapid they are barely visible. A number of these daily
fluctuations are shown on Plate IV. About midnight and for some hours
afterwards the water is at its highest, and it is again high during the
middle of the day. It is lowest in the evening and the early morning,
which is the time when the greatest quantity of water is being drawn
from wells throughout the city. The nearest well from which water is
drawn to the one in which the gauge is established is on the east side,
about 60 yards distant.

In the following table the dates refer to the interval between noon of
one day to noon of the succeeding day. The figures in the columns
indicate the hours at which the well commenced to sink and then to rise
in the afternoon and evening, and when it again commenced to sink and
to rise in the morning. The time midway between the rising in the
evening and the sinking in the morning may be taken as the crest of the
night wave, the crest of the midday wave being halfway between the
A.M. rising and the p.m. sinking of the next day. The omission of dates
or hours indicates that the inflections on the diagram were indistinct or
absent. The letters R, F, or S in the sixth column indicate whether the
well was rising, falling, or steady.

The time at which the well commences to rise in the evening is
fairly constant, about 8 p.m. This precludes the idea that the diurnal
motion may be dependent upon the tides in the neighbouring bay,
which is some two miles distant. The most irregular figures are those
indicating the time at which the well commences to sink in the morning,
which as summer approaches, when the city rises at an earlier hour, also
tends to become earlier, and therefore assist in confirming the suggestion,
that the rising and falling of the water are due to the facts that larger
quantities of water are being used in the morning and evening than are
being used during the middle of the day and the middle of the night.

The amount of these fluctuations has seldom exceeded 5 mm., and
the day and night waves have about the same amplitudes. Professor
Franklin H. King found that a heavily loaded train moving slowly
past a well at a distance of 140 feet caused the water in the well
to slightly rise, from which it might be inferred that the rising and falling
of water in a well might be accompanied by a rising and sinking of the
surrounding surface. If this were the case then during a day and night
the horizontal pendulums in Tokio ought to show a double curve. In
some few instances there is a tendency to show such a double motion, as,
for example, in fig. 5, Plate II. But because one of the curves is faint
and because it is of rare occurrence, the 12-hour movement in the well is
by no means sufficient to explain the daily wave indicated by the pendulums.
It must, however, be remarked that the period of well observations coin-
cides with a period when daily curves were not well marked, and what
happened in the well when they were distinctly marked I have at present
no means of ascertaining.

106 REPORT—1895.

P.M. A.M. General
Date SS | behaviour
Sinking Rising Sinking Rising of well

April 18-19
20-21
21-22
22-23
3, 23-24
an BABB
5, 30-1 (March)
March 2-3
627
7-8
- 9-10
>, LO-11
11-12
12-13
14-15
15-16
18-19
19-20
20-21
21-22
25-26
26-27

Peters ail tt lel

| o|

it
—
wie

|

ane | vo | ea ae acy om oo oo oo | aa roo | | o | | |

WOUONNTONOABANOBDOOS

(1) An Experiment on Evaporation.

Because it was found that a load of about 1,000 1b., made up of men and
boys standing outside my observatory wall at a distance of 15 feet from
pendulum A, would deflect it 2 mm., the following experiment was made.

In my garden a strong beam was rested on knife edges on the top of
a stake driven into the ground. On one end of this a box 1 foot 6 inches
square, and 6 inches deep, was hung, so that it could swing freely in a hole
cut in the ground. The box was filled with earth which came from the
hole, and was covered with turf like the surrounding lawn. This load was
balanced by weights suspended at the other end of the beam attached to
which there was a pointer moving over a scale. During three fine days it
was found that the box lost weight at the rate of about 4 lb. per day per
square foot of surface, and as the surface of the material “in the box was
similar to that of the surrounding ground with which it was level, it was
concluded that similar ground in the neighbourhood lost weight at about
the same rate.

During a night the gain by precipitation of dew was sometimes as
much as 1:2 oz. per square foot. No doubt many accurate observations
have been made on the variation in the rate of evaporation and condensa-

1

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 107

tion of moisture from and upon various natural surfaces, but I have not
been able to consult them.

In open ground 30 per cent. of the rainfall may percolate, but in a
forest as much as 80 per cent. may find its way downwards, the difference
being due to evaporation ; but as evaporation may cease or even be re-
presented by condensation during the night, it would seem that the volume
of water in surface wells especially on hot days following rainy weather
might have a daily fluctuation. Such a fluctuation would, however, only
account for the rising of water during the night and for an additional rise
about midday.

Another point to be noted is the fact that the alternations of evapora-
tion and condensation mean that neighbouring areas, some of which are open
and others covered with forest every 12 hours, are wnequally relieved of
considerable loads. For example, from an area of about 140 feet square in
front of my house, which faces south, every day during fine weather about
5 tons of moisture are removed. From the back of the house, which is
sheltered from the sun, and where the ground is always damp, compara-
tively but little is evaporated. The underground chamber is sheltered by
a grove of trees on its south and west sides, and on the east side it is open,

and pendulum E behaves as if a load were removed from the east side

during the morning and afternoon, and that side of the ground had con-
sequently risen. Pendulum A in my house, where there is an evaporation
area on the east, south, and partly on the west side, usually behaves
like E, to which, however, it is at right angles.

By comparing the table of daily waves with the rainy days when there
was no sunshine, when it may be assumed that evaporation was small, as,
for example, between March 8 and 11, it will be observed that the daily
curves for A and E were not measurable. On sunny days, even if it
rained, the curves were pronounced, but they were also large on other days,
when, however, evaporation may possibly have been great.

To settle this question future diagrams must be compared with the
records obtained from a hygrometer exposed to the open or by two pen-
dulums in parallel positions, but on the opposite sides of a piece of forest
land. Two pendulums thus placed ought at the same time to move in
Opposite directions, that is, during the day each boom ought to move
towards the forest.

An observation entirely opposed to what is here suggested is that made
by Professor Kortazzi at Nicolaiew, who placed a hydrograph in the
cellar where a horizontal pendulum was established, and found that the
diagrams given by the two instruments were very similar. This he
attributed to the stone column carrying the pendulum behaving like a
sponge and absorbing moisture. When the openings to the cellar were
closed and the pillar covered with a waterproof material the effect of
moisture almost entirely disappeared.

(m) Effects produced by emptying a Weill.

To determine what effect a slight disturbance of subterranean water

_ would produce on a horizontal pendulum, on May 21 I employed men to

rapidly empty a well which is 104 feet distant in an E.N.E. direction from
pendulum A. The well is 42 feet 7 inches deep, 2 feet 7inches in diameter,
and on this particular day it contained 13 feet 1 inch, or about 2 tons of
water.

108 REPORT—1895.

For several days the pointer of the pendulum had been fairly steady,
pointing at division 70 on the scale of millimetres. What happened when
the well was emptied is given in the table below.

The photographic trace with interruptions in it when the light was
removed is shown in fig. 7, Plate II. The movement of the pointer from
70 to 79 indicates a tilt of 1/36 and the direction of motion was as if a.
load had been taken away on the well side, and the ground on that side
had therefore risen. This may be explained by the fact that as the water
came to the surface it was run into a gutter to flow away quickly down a
hill. The pendulum remained between 77 and 82 until May 27, when the
experiment was repeated. It started at 80, and in 6 hours and 40 minutes
it reached 86, and here it has remained with a tendency to get higher but
not to return.

3 Position of | Distance ;
aay Time pendulum | to water ee
ft. in.
21st 8.30 A.M. 70 36 6 | Taking out water for house
S40 72
8.50 ,, Commence to empty well
9 Binion: 72 |
9.30 ,, 73
9.45 ,, 73 48 11 | Well empty excepting 8 inches.
Water bubbling in
OO 75 40 7 | Water rising
12.00 ,, 76
12.30 P.M. 37 8 ‘, i
4.00 ,, 79 Maximum deflection reached
5.25 ,, 79 36 0 | Water higher than at the commence-
7.10 4h ment
22nd | 7.30 A.M. (ae ap * 10 a i ‘

Not only was tilting produced by these operations, but as seen in the
photograph tremors were induced.

It might have been anticipated that by emptying the well and the
subsequent inflow of water to refill the same—if in consequence of this
operation a superficial movement took place—this would have assumed
the form of a quaquaversal dip towards the well. What happened was
exactly the reverse, from which it may be inferred that the motion
of the pendulum was due to the removal of a weight rather than to the
movement of the subterranean water.

(n) Barthquakes.

In the last column of the table showing the wandering of pendulums,
the number of earthquakes which occurred on various days is given.
These are the earthquakes which were recorded by seismographs in Tokio,
and it is only one or two of these like the disturbances of March 22,
when earth waves were produced, that are recorded by the pendulums. As
already stated when speaking of the Kamakura records, although it is
probable that most of these shocks were of local origin, this fact cannot
be ascertained until the records accumulated at the Meteorological
Department have been analysed. Two things, however, are very remark-
able, the first being that at about the time of nearly all the shocks,
pendulum A has shown abnormally large movements, and secondly there
are only three occasions when the movements of A have been moderately

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 109

large that earthquakes have not occurred.. The tremor storms which were
numerous in the early part of the year have no doubt obliterated many of
the unfelt earthquakes to which the pendulums were sensitive. Notwith-
standing this, there are a considerable number of disturbances on the
traces, the record of which must be left for a future report. The most
remarkable of these was recorded by pendulum F, which at the time was
steady and producing a clear sharp straight line (see fig. 3). This was
on June 3, when at 4.36 p.m. the pendulum commenced to move from side
to side, and, with the exception of two or three intervals of about five
winutes, it continued to move until 10 p.m. Although 14 points of
maximum may be counted, the photograph represents what is practically
a continuous earthquake of 5 hours 24 minutes’ duration. The picture is
that of a series of small flat cones, each inverted, with their axes in one
straight line. No displacement of the pendulum took place, and after the

Fig. 3.

About half actual size.
The gap at or near noon represents an interval of one hour.

disturbance it continued to draw the same thin line. I do not know
where this or the other unfelt earthquakes originated. The rate at which
the decided movements are propagated is from 2°5 to 4 kilometres per
second, and there are reasons for believing that many of them, like that
of March 22, originated beneath the bed of the ocean.

(0) Tremors.

In the extracts from the Journal (pp. 96 to 99) it will be seen that
tremors or earth pulsations have often been recorded, and that some-
times these were greater underground than on the surface. During the
last two months they have been greater on the surface. Previous analyses
have shown that they nearly always accompany a steep barometric gradient.
They are sometimes marked when the daily curve is barely visible, but
small tremors at least usually accompany these waves, and'they are more
pronounced during the night and early morning, when the rate at which
a pendulum is being displaced is relatively slow. The fact that small
tremors were produced at the time the well was emptied is a fact not to
be overlooked when considering their origin.

I regret to say that a more careful examination of the tremor records
must be left for a future report.

(p) Observations at Yokohama and Kanagawa.

As already stated, the instruments at Kanagawa (1) and (G and n) at
Yokohama are underground, and stand on short brick columns rising from
soft tuffrock. The softness of this rock may be judged of from the fact that

_ when a person stands near one of the columns, the boom of the pendulum is

deflected from 5 to 17 mm., from which it appears that, as a foundation to
resist loading effects, the tuff rock is no better than a slab of concrete on
the alluvium in Tokio. Owing to the collapse of the roof of the Yoko-
hama cave, which caused a delay of two weeks, and owing to the fact that
the clocks have been continually stopping, and good clocks cannot be found

110 REPORT—1895.

in Tokio or Yokohama, the records from this place are extremely few.
Those which have been obtained, extending over two or three days, show
straight lines likefig.1, Plate II. There are neither daily curves nor tremors.

From Kanagawa, although the cave is very wet and the conditions for
observing very unfavourable, for about two months everything has worked
satisfactorily. Like the Kamakura records they do not show tremors or
daily waves, but they do show unfelt earthquakes and wandering. For
example, on May 5 the boom moved as if by a N.E. tilting as much as
14’. This it reached on May 7. From this date it slowly returned to its
starting point, which it reached on May 12. Small shocks occurred on
the 2nd, 4th, and 6th.

(q) Conclusions.

Tnasmuch as the analysis of materials already accumulated is not yet
completed, and as certain experiments require to be repeated or amplified,
it is premature to formulate definite conclusions. All that can therefore
be done is to outline the form which conclusions may possibly assume.

Although I understand that Italian observers have found that tremors
are as marked underground, even on the rock, as they are on the surface
in Japan, this seems to be only true for the alluvium. Underground on
the rock at three stations, with such instruments as I have employed,
there has not been even an indication of tremors. Neither have
daily waves been observed. All the pendulums, whether on the rock
or on the alluvium, from time to time leave their normal position,
moving for two or three days in one direction and then slowly returning.
These movements, which have been called wanderings, sometimes indicate
a tilting of as muchas 14”, Because these movements have often been
accompanied by local earthquakes, it seems possible that they may
actually represent rock bending, the earthquakes announcing the fact
that resistances to the process are being overcome.

Some of the wanderings noted on the alluvium may possibly be
attributed to disturbances in the subterranean circulation of water after
rainfall.

Although the daily movement of the pendulums has been most marked
by those which are nearest to water level, because they only show a single
wave during the day, while the water in a neighbouring well rises and
falls twice during the 24 hours, the daily wave cannot altogether be
attributed to the movement of subterranean water. Because certain
diagrams have shown a superimposed wave, it is possible that the cha-
racter of the daily wave may now and then be influenced by subterranean
water. Because a wave may be produced by relieving an area in the
vicinity of a pendulum of a load, as, for example, by taking 2 tons of water
out of a well which is 104 feet distant from pendulum A, and pouring the
water away down a slope, it seems likely that the daily wave is produced
by an action of this description. The action suggested is that which
takes place every day when the sun shines or the wind blows across
ground which is open and that which is covered, for example, by forests or
buildings. By evaporation one area is rapidly relieved of a load, while
the adjacent area loses but little. For example, experiment shows that
on fine days an open grass-covered area 140 feet square in front of my
house, which is 120 feet long and runs E. and W., loses in 12 hours about
5 tons of moisture. At the back of the house, where the ground is
sheltered from the sun, evaporation is small. As confirming this view it

.

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 111

is observed that pendulum A is steady on dull wet days, but on warm
days the daily curves are well defined. Farther, although A and E move
at the same time, they move in opposite directions, but each usually moves
towards the side from which the greatest load is being removed by
evaporation.

III. Tue Toxio EartHquakeE oF JuNE 20, 1894,

On June 20, at a few minutes past two in the afternoon, Tokio,
Yokohama, and the surrounding districts were shaken by an earthquake
which was more violent than any which has been recorded since 1855.
On June 25 it was reported that in Tokio alone 33,940 buildings had
suffered damage, some being entirely ruined, 140 persons had been
wounded, and that 26 had been killed. In Yokohama, where many
chimneys fell and houses were unroofed, 6 people were killed. When
statistics are completed and it is known what has happened in other
places these numbers will be increased. Small fissures were formed in
the ground at Tokio in 96 places, many walls were shattered, while stone
lanterns and tombstones were overthrown, twisted, or deranged.

The following facts are taken or deduced from the records obtained at
the Central Observatory and the University Laboratory, both of which are
in Tokio, at a distance of about 1} mile from each other. To these are
added observations from the Hitotsubashi Observatory, which is situated
on soft ground lying between the Central Observatory and the University,
at which places the ground is comparatively hard.

Hitotsu-
— Central Observatory |University Laboratory| bashi Ob-
servatory
Time . a F s .| 2b.4m.10s.P.M.| 2h. 2m. 30s. P.M.
Duration 5 . P a 4h. 4m. 48s, 4 mins. 30 secs. 5 mins.
Direction . N.E-S.W. N.E.-S.W.
Maximum horizontal motion 76 mm. or 59 mm. 80 mm. 130 mm.
Period of $3 1:3 sec. 2 secs. 1'5 sec.
Maximum vertical motion 5 18 mm. 10 mm. 45 mm.
Period of . 5 ‘ 1:0 sec.

At the University for the first 10 seconds the horizontal motion was
slight, when it suddenly became severe, reaching 80 millimetres. The
severe motion continued for about a minute, during which time there
were more than 10 pronounced movements. As the range of motion was
outside the limits of seismographs with multiplying indices these were
deranged or broken, and complete diagrams were only obtained at the
University and Hitotsubashi, where there are seismographs without such
indices, the recording surfaces for which are only set in motion at the
time of violent disturbances. Until the diagrams have been carefully
analysed I am inclined to think that the recorded horizontal motions may
represent the angles through which the seismographs have been tilted,
rather than the range through which a given point suffered horizontal
displacement.

Assuming for the present that these quantities are what they are
represented as being, then at the University and at Hitotsubashi the
maximum accelerations were respectively 400 and 1,000 millimetres per
sec. per sec. Inthe Nagoya-Gifu earthquake of 1891, when nearly 10,000

112 REPORT—1895.

lives were lost, the maximum accelerations, calculated on more certain
data, varied between 3,000 and 8,000 millimetres per sec. per sec. At the
University there is a seismometer, consisting of a number of iron shot,
arranged on a ledge round the top of a strong post, beneath which there
isa bed ofsand. These shot were not projected, but all of them, excepting
one on the N.E. side, simply fell. The duration of the disturbance is of
course that given by seismographs. Horizontal pendulums may have been
tilted backwards and forwards for one or two hours. For some time after
the shock it was observed that the Sunida River, which runs through
Tokio, rose and fell as if its bed continued to be agitated. The direction
of motion, as with nearly all earthquakes, was varied, and the direction
given is that which was most pronounced.

The times at which the commencement of the disturbance was recorded
at places some distance from Tokio are as follows :—

District Time. P.M. Tutensity
Be Mores
Yokosuka . Dek O20 Strong
Numazu 23? 2b || 4
Utsunomiya 2 4 16 z
Mayebashi ete 3G) » clocks stopped
Kofu. 2/300 | 5 =
Choshi Zueey 6009) Weal
Nagoya 2 4 44 5
Gifu . 2) 4°28 kr
Osaka 2 4 0 ” ” ”
Hikone 2° oF te
Fukushima Dede) 2H _
Aomori 256 40 Feeble
Sakaye 2-10 ra

From these times and the distribution of destruction it may be
assumed that Tokio was well within the epicentral area.

A remarkable feature distinguishing this earthquake from most others
is that during the next three days instead of a long series of after shocks
only three disturbances were recorded, The primary shock does not
appear to have been accompanied by any sound, while one of the secondary
shocks, at 4.25 p.m., on the 20th was preceded by a roaring sound.

At many places telegraph and telephone wires were broken. Under-
ground the pipes of the Yokohama Waterworks were caused to leak,
drains were deranged, and there was a falling in of material in a railway
tunnel. A curious fact communicated to me by my colleague Professor
W. K. Burton is that in his house, where he was barely able to keep his
feet while the shaking was going on, several decanters were not upset,
but their stoppers were shot out. This is similar to what has occurred on
more than one occasion with the lamp glasses at the Kannonsaki light-

house in Tokio Bay.

TV. MisceLLANeEous.

In addition to the foregoing work two numbers of the ‘Seismological
Journal’ have been issued and the manuscript of a catalogue of Japanese
earthquakes between 1885 and 1892 has been completed. This catalogue
gives the date, the time, the area shaken, and the position of the origin
for 8,337 shocks. Appended to each shock are a series of numbers, and

‘

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 113

a line traced through these, as shown on a key map, is an outline of the
Jand area which was disturbed. The object of this catalogue, which is
different from previous publications of the same description, was stated in

the last report.

Investigation of the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of Japan.—

Fifteenth Report of the Commuttee, consisting of the Right Hon.
Lord Ketvin, Professor W. G. Apams, Mr. J. T. Borromtey,
Professor A.H. GREEN, Professor C. G. Knott, and Professor JOHN
MILNE (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

ConreENTS.

AGE

I. The Gray-Milne Seismograph . - - ; ’ . . . . 118
Il. Observations with Horizontal Pendulums bs . - Sooeglal
(a) The Instruments, Installation, Character of Movements 4 - idle
(b) Daily Wave Records . : 5 : - 122
(ec) Tremors, Microseismic Disturbances, or Earth Pulsations : : 26
128

(d) The Slow Displacement of Pendulums..
(e) Periodic movements of several days’ duration, and wandering of 129

the pendulums.

(7) The daily change in the epee o the uae ‘ ? ; . 130
(gq) The Diurnal Wave. ! H z Seal Hh
(h) Tremors . : : : : : - : . | 139
(i) Meteorological Tables for Tokio. : A . 143
(j) Earthquakes recorded by Horizontal Pendulums in Tokio : : 147

III. Description of a Catalogue of 8,331 Earthquakes recorded in res 149
between January 1885 and December 1892.

(a) History of the Catalogues . : “ : ° 5 : 5 . 149

(b) Explanation of the Catalogues . c : é Fi ; : . 151

(ec) Object of the Catalogues. 153

(a) Results already obtained or shown By y the Catalogue and Map of 155
Centres.

IV. On the Velocities mith which Waves and Vibrations are propagated on 158
the Surface of and through Rock and Earth. (Compilation).

Introduction.
(a) Observations on Artificially Produced Disturbances. Experiments 159

of MALLET, ABBOT, FOUQUE and Livy, GRAY and MILNE.

(4) Observations on Earthquakes. Where the nave paths have been 163
short: (MILNE and OMOoRI). Where the ware paths have been
long: (NEWCoMB and DUTTON, AGAMENNONE, Ricco, CANCANI,

Von REBERUR-PASCHWITZ. MILNE).

(e) The Probable Nuture and Velocity of Propagation of Earthquake 170
Motion. The suggestions of Dr. C. G. KNoTT, LORD RAYLEIGH
LorpD KELVIN.

(d) The Paths Followed hy Earthquake Motion. Hypotheses of HOPKINS 173
and SEEBACH, SCHMIDT, and a sugaentien YY the writer.

(e) Conclusions . : F 1

V. Miscellaneous Notes elacis to pee hathouiba, Se... 5 : 1
APPENDIX.—On Causes producing Movements which may be Mistaken foe 182
Earth Tremors.

I. Tue Gray-MILNnE Seismocrapu.
The first of the above seismographs, constructed in 1883, partly at the

_ expense of the British Association, still continues to be used as the

_

_ standard instrument at the Central Observatory i in Tokio.

T am indebted to Mr. K. Kobayashi, the Director of the Observatory

for the following table of its records :—

1895. I

114 REPORT—1895, |

Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at the Central Meteorological Observatory in Tokio
between May 1893 and February 1894.

| Maximum Maximum
Period and | Period and
Amplitude of |Amplitude of
f a irec- | Horizontal Vertical at:

No. | Month} Day Time Duration Fees Motion Motion ane of

secs. | mm. | secs. | mm.

1894.
H. M. S. M.S. |
1,421 ‘Vie 22 11 51 48 p.m. 0 30 Ew. slight slight | slow, weak
1,422! ,, 28 8 13 02 A.M. =u = = = =) | = slight
1,423 by 29 6 45 56 A.M. 5
1,424] Vis 5 | © 28 05 P.M. “3
1,425 9 14 4 59 52 P.M. -- i
1,426 a 20 5 16 52 A.M. 0 | — 03 0°35 — _ slow
1,427 2 Pa 2 410 PM. 4 48 S.W. | 13 76 | 1:0 18 | quick, strong
1,428 > ss 4 22 44 P.M. 1 45 W.N.W.| 1:2 0°6 _ — slow, weak
ago}, A 93451 pMm.| 043 |W.N.W.| 0-7 | 06 slight J
1,430 a 25 5 15 36 P.M. 1 45 W.S.W.| 0°8 4:8 “4 : quick, weak
1,431 » 27 4 23 59 A.M. _ _— — _ - — slight
82 le iy 30 | 10 56 28 pM. = = = = See =
1,433] VII. 9 9 41 19 pM. — — — — — — i
1,434| ,, 10 | 433 Oam.| 045 E.-W. | 05 | 06 |e slow |
1,435| —,, 5 81328 am.| 1 34 E-W. | 06 | 0:6 = = }
1,436]; ,, 12 0 54 28 A.M. = = = = she slight :
1,437 5 17 | 11 121 pM. SHG N.W. | 07 17 05 0-6 quick, weak
1,438 5 25 10 24 2 A.M. 0 56 N.W. 06 08 05 0-2 slow, weak
1,439) VIII. 1 8 44 35 A.M. —_ E.-W slight — —_ weak
1,440 5 “4 4 013 P.M. — — — = —_— — slight
1,441 ” 29 7 55 18 pM, 6 1 N.N.E. | 1:8 1:8 _ — slow, weak |
1,442 IX. 12 9 015 PM 0 57 N.W. 06 O7 slight FS
1,443], 13 | 340 3 PM = et een eee slight :
1,444 = 17 8 53 56 P.M 1 25 S.S.W. | 1:2 05 — —_ slow, weak
1,445 * 21 8 2 36 AM _— — — — — = slight
1,446] ,, » | 75816 an = eee) ee Ny ae 4
1,447 = aS 10 25 41 pM tee — —_ — — — s
1,448 99 24 4 32 28 P.M — — _ -— — — i }
1,449 sa 29 7 24 43 A.M = — — — — — a ;
1,450 X. 7 830 3 PM 8 0 N.W.| 2°3 43°7 17 2°4 quick, strong
1,451 5 8 9 48 28 AM == —— a — == slight
1,452 22 5 36 31 P.M — E-W. — —_ — — slow, quick
1,453 XI. 11 8 54 4 P.M — — —_ — — = slight
1,454| ,, 15 | 9 42 39 pm = = = = = i 7
1,455 5 18 1 813 PM 1 38 N.-S. 13 0-2 — — slow, weak
1,456 ia 21 10 42 14 pM —— — — — = Ss slight
1,457 # 22 8 13 53 AM — = — = = = eS
1,458 3 28 1 5 22 aM 3 56 E.-W. | 30 15 -- _ slow, weak
1,459 a a9 6 44 51 A.M = — — — == — slight
1,460 an 30 8 30 57 pM hey é W.N.W.| 0°6 5°09 0-2 old quick, strong
1,461) XII. 1 6 36 59 pM 0 49 N.W. | 08 0-7 — -- quick, weak
1,462 ay 16 17 0PM — — _ — = Ee slight
1,463 iy 23 3 5 1PM — —_ — — = bos F
1,464 sk 28 1 430 am — — — — = = ef
1,465 “ 31 10 7 42 AM 3 5 W.N.W.| 1°6 1:8 — _ slow, weak
1895.

1,466 ne, 6 tA ei: _ — — — —_— — slight
1,467 5 10 343 5 AM. _ — —_ — f< = E
1,468 Es a 617 5 AM. — — — = = a es
1,469 Ss ht 5 53 30 P.M. — — — 15 = = is
1,470 55 14 1 9 .9 AM, — = —_ = ,%, <— =
1,471 53 18 914 3AM 315 |W.N.W.} 0:9 14 0:3 0-2 quick, weak
1,472 ay i 2 54 35 AM — =, —_— —= = _— slight
1,473 My ‘ 10 48 24 P.M. 4 4 |N.N.W,| 0:9 41 0-7 |11-0 quick, strong
1,474 a 5 1117 4PM a == se = = a slight
1,475| ,, 19 | 020 44 aM. -- = aie | pees | ee -
1,476], 7 327 7AM. es = = = = fee i
Arti cs 9 43 55 PM. = — 2s a SAB ng Ry a
1,478 > 21 4 52 47 aM. — — A. = =. oe
1,479 ” » 8 29 22 a.m. 0 10 N.S | 0-7 0-2 slight quick, weak
1,480 5 s 7 31 22 P.M. — — = a — =: slight
1,481 + m5 919 28 PM. _— = = — +25 = >

1,482 » 23 8 56 10 A.M.

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 115

ae ae ae OF RABBAQU ARES —-ompionuad,2

Maximum Maximum |
Period and | Period and |
Amplitude of |Amplitude of) |
. irec- | Horizontal Vertical | Tat off
No. | Month | Day Time Duration puree Motion Motion N ed aH
secs. | mm. | secs.) mm. |
! |
13895.
H. M.S. M.S |
1,483 1G 23 2 12 30 PM. 210 N.-S 0-7 2-4 06 | 06 quick, weak |}
1484) ,, 24 830 9 AM. == = slight |
i5| |, «| 25 | 11 4442 ae | — aie eee dient ES NE =
1,486 ine 3 1 49 15 P.M. — — — = — — 5 |
| 1,487 a 4 6 30 25 A.M. = — = — = — Pe
+ 1,488 pa 5 | 1 46 36 P.M. — -- _ — = — f {
1,489 “ 17 5 37 10 A.M. — — = a= -= = Fs |
1,450 as 18 052 O AM. — —_ = — == — ¢ |
1,491 » » 8 37 33 A.M. — — — — — — rn
3,492) 23 | 11 326 aM. _ = = = = ees =
1,493 3 BS 1114 8 A.M. 0 12 E.-W. | 0°9 0-2 — _- slow, weak }
1,494 is 28 | 10 39 28 a.M. — — = = — — slight '
1,495 IIf. 1 5 33 48 P.M —- os |
1,496 5 3 4 14 50 P.M = ~ ES. = = ar i
1,497 Ff 9 0 28 19 pw =e ae ws nE ~~ =, a i
1,498] ,, 15 7 19 52 pM = = = a Ey. As
1,499 - 16 0 423 PM 0 58 E.-W. | 0:8 Or4 aa —_— —_ \
1,500} ,, 20 1 5 26 pM 0 42 E-W.| 07 | 05 a = |
1,501 » 27 2 8 OPM ”
| 1,502 ” 30 3.35 39 AM _ _ — — — — 9 |
“| 1,503 + 31 8 53 41 A.M.? — — — — — — | perhaps due to |
} wind
1,504; IV. 2 3 12 34 P.M — -- — — — — —
5} 1,505), 3 853 19 AM mf 2 = = a | ee a
| 1,508} 3 | 74944 pMm.| 158 N.W. | 07 | 1:3 | 06 | 0°3 =
1,507| ,, 4 | 14132pm.] 1 0 |N.N.W.| 1:2 (igen |) ee ea
1,508 5 5 310 O A.M. 1 8 N.-S. | 0:7 03 — — —
1509 ” 5 915 39 AM. => —_— _— — — slight
| 1,510 ” 5 [:11 24 3 aM. -- — = — _— — pA
; 1511 A 6 4 32 36 P.M. — — = = a x
| 1,512 Ry 9 312 7 AM. 1 8 N.W. 0-7 1:2 —|/—- _—
1,513 a 12 3 7 28 AM. 0 52 WN.W.| 0:3 0°3 _— = =
| 1,514 35 12 10 21 29 P.M. _ _ a —_ —|—- 3
1,515 = 13 10 41 46 A.M. - _ — — — — a
1516) 17 1 53 38 P.M. = = as =e ie é.
1,517 ” 22 7 9 3 AM. _ —_— — — es —, et
SIS | 4 93 | 3 21 59 aM. = = = = as |} ft
»} 1,519) ,, 25 016 19 A.M. = = = 2s = |= 5
| 1,520 ” 27 358 5 P.M. — = _— — — _ 7
) 1,521|- V. 1 | 225 1am. = = a ee a is
1,522 3) 2 415 7 AM. _ —_— — — — — 35

II. OBSERVATIONS WITH HorIzoNTAL PENDULUMS.

(a) The Instruments, Installation, Character of Movements.

Since 1893 nineteen sets of records have been obtained from horizontal
pendulums installed either in Tokio or its vicinity. In the following
description the different installations or sets of instruments are indicated
by letters of the alphabet. The instrument at A, which was in my house,
occupied the same position from the commencement of the observations
until February 17, 1895, when it was destroyed by fire. The instruments

at other stations were kept in position until they had given continuous
records for a period of from one to four months, when they were moved
to a new locality. Although these periods may appear short, they seem
to have been amply long to determine the general character of the move-

ments to be expected at any given station. Instruments within a mile of
12

116 REPORT—1895.

my house were visited every day, while those at a distance—as, for ex-
ample, at Kamakura (C and D)—were visited at least once a week. Not-
withstanding the time taken in making journeys to the more distant
stations, one of which occupied from ten to twelve hours, because the
clockwork kept going for a week and the lamps burned for two or three
days, it was often possible to keep six instruments working simultaneously.
The notes and photograms for 1893 and 1894 obtained from stations A,

Fie. 1.—Map showing Positions of Pendulums.

Scale about wlio

LDistarues uv yards trom
J-H6 R-3500 N-/200 @dI5UU

E, F, C, D, G, H, and I, which were destroyed by fire, are fortunately
described in the fourteenth report to this Association. In order to show
the relationship of these observations to those made during the past year
at A, H, I, and the remaining eleven stations, they are briefly referred to
in the following notes.

The sensibilities of the different instruments which are described in
the Report for 1894 are indicated by the number of millimetres the end
of the boom was deflected by turning one of the screws in the bed plate

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 117

one degree. The pitch of a screw was one millimetre, and its distance
from the axis on which the bed plate was tilted may be taken at 220
millimetres. All the instruments excepting A had usually a sensibility
of 1° for 3 mm., which is approximately equal to a tilting of 1” for each
millimetre of deflection. Occasionally the sensibility was increased two-
fold or threefold. The reason for this indefiniteness respecting sensibility
is that the notes relating to the calibration of the instruments were burned.
The chief value of these determinations is to give angular values for the
diurnal wave, and because it will be shown that this is a quantity with
large variations depending upon locality and weather, the necessity of
accurate measurements becomes more apparent than real.

The Pendulum at A.—Sensibility, September 26, 1894. 1°=12 mm.
or 1 mm.=0'20. This instrument, which was adjusted to have a sensi-
bility twice or six times greater than the other instruments, was installed
in my private observatory on a massive well-built stone column resting
upon a bed of concrete. ‘Towards the east and west it was protected by
60 feet of building, but to the north and south by only about 10. feet. The
only window in the room, which was on the south side, was always closed
by a curtain on the inside anda solid shutter upon the outside. The
reason that it was oriented to record N.E. and 8.W. motions was because,
as was explained in the last Report, there were reasons for believing that
in such a direction earthquake and other motion had a maximum. The
daily movements were often eclipsed or made indefinite by the occurrence
of tremors. When they were visible, although on one occasion they were
represented by deviations of 8 mm., it was rarely that they exceeded 2 or
3mm. In many instances it seems that a second wave was superimposed
upon the ordinary diurnal disturbance. Excursions towards the N.E. were
usually completed between 5 and 15 hours, while the 8.W. motion ended
between 0 and 3 hours (fig. 6, p. 134).

Pendulums at C and D.—These were installed upon rock in a cave at
Kamakura, about 27 miles distant from the pendulums in Tokio. One of
these recorded motion in the direction of the dip of the strata, and the
other in a direction at right angles to this. Their records are described
in the Report for 1893-94.

Pendulums at E and F.—These pendulums were in directions N.E.
and N.W. or parallel to C and D. The N.W. booms were parallel to A.
The installation was in an underground chamber, where as at Kamakura
the daily change in temperature was practically unappreciable. These
records are described in the Report for 1893-94.

Pendulums at G and H.—The pendulums G and H were placed on the
rock in a cave at the Yokohama Brewery. Their orientation corresponded
to that of C and D or E and F, and their records are referred to in the
above-mentioned Report.

Pendulum at I.—This pendulum was in an exceedingly damp cave
at Kanagawa, about three miles distant from G and H. Its boom, like
that of A, pointed towards the north-west. The few records obtained
from this station are described with those of the above-mentioned three
stations.

The Pendulum at J.—Sensibility, August 18, 1894, 1°=6°5 mm.,
or 1 mm.=0/"39. January 5, 1895, 1°=3 mm., or 1 mm.=0'"80.

This was an aluminium boom which, with its plate and index, had a
total length of about 4 feet 9 inches. Its cast-iron stand rested upon a
slab of slate upon the top of a short brick column, which rose from a layer

118 REPORT—1895.

of concrete covering a bed of gravel rammed into the natural earth. It
was covered by a coarse wooden case. The whole arrangement was shel-
tered by a small wooden hut, 9 feet long and 7 feet broad, and up to the
eaves 6 feet in height. This hut, like all the other huts, admitted so much
light that the photographic films had to be changed at night. Currents of
air came in freely, and, as might be expected, there were considerable
fluctuations in temperature.

On the west side the ground was flat and open, and it was also fairly
open towards the north and south. On the east side, however, it was
sheltered by a small hill and trees, behind which came a pond, more trees,
and then instrument K, which had a small tract of open ground upon its
eastern side.

The westerly motion, which varied from 5 to 40 mm., usually took
place between 18 or 21 hours and 6 or 9 hours, that is to say, the pendulum
commenced to move towards the west at about 6 or 9 a.m., and continued
this motion until 6 or 9 p.m. (fig. 7). During the night the easterly or return
motion was gentle, and usually less than the motion towards the west.

On wet cloudy days no curves were visible.

Tremors were not marked at this station.

Comparing the N.E. and8.W. motions of A with the E. and W. motions
at J in 24 instances these movements were completed at about the same
hour. In 21 instances, however, there is a difference between them of
from 5 to 10 hours.

An experiment which was made at this station was to dig a trench
round the hut on its south and west sides. This was 5 feet in depth, while
its distance from the column was about 10 feet. The only effect that this
produced upon the daily diagrain seems to have been that the points of
inflection in the curve became somewhat sharper, the range of motion of
the pendulum remaining constant.

Pendulum at K.—Sensibility, September 20, 1894, 1°=4:5 mm., or
1 mm.=07:50. November 21, 1894, 19=3 mm. The installation of
this instrument, excepting the fact that it was exposed to open ground
towards the east and north, and sheltered by a grove of trees upon the
south and west, was similar to that at J. The instrument itself was like
that at J.

The diurnal movements had a range of from 4 to 40mm. The westerly
excursion usually commenced at 5 or 6 a.M., and continued until about 4
or 6 p.m. (fig. 8). The motion was therefore about one hour in advance of
that at J, which roughly corresponds to the difference in time at which
‘the ground in their respective vicinities were exposed to the morning sun.
Comparing the hours at which the easterly and westerly motions of J and
K were completed in fifteen cases, they closely agree. When these
hours do not agree, K has usually reached its western limit from one to
four hours before J. In two instances it completed this movement seven
hours after J, while in two other cases one pendulum has been near its
western limit, while the other has practically completed its movement in
an opposite direction.

Tremors were not marked. The object in placing J and K, which
were 275 yards distant from each other, on opposite sides of a small grove
of trees, was with the expectation of finding that at the same time they
moved in opposite direction. It is seen that the expectation was not
realised.

Pendulum at L.—This instrument, which in construction is very like

ee

a

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 119

that at A, and is similarly oriented, stands beneath a wooden case on the
concrete floor of a cellar in the north-western corner of the Engineering
College at the Imperial University. It is without recording apparatus.
Its pointer floats over a scale, and its position is noted every day about
noon. When first set up on September 19, 1894, it had a period of
28 seconds. Its movements, which are indicated in millimetres, the sign
+ meaning displacement towards the west and — towards the north and
east, have been gradual. They were as follows :—-
1894, During September —lor2

October 1-October 21 —2

October 21—October 31 +2

November 1—November 24 —7

November 24-December 3 +7

December 3—December 20 —2

Pendulum at M.—The object of this pendulum, which was installed
upon the same column as A, was somewhat different from that of the others
described in this series. It consisted of an aluminium boom loaded at its
outer end with a weight of about 300 grms. In addition to this it
carried a small vessel of ink from which a capillary tube projected, making
the total length of the boom about 4 feet 6 inches. This tube was
balanced, so that it barely touched the surface of a band of paper moving
at the rate of about 8 inches per hour. The force required to deflect the
boom one millimetre when applied at a distance of 4 feet from the agate
pivot was approximately one milligramme. Before it was destroyed by fire
it recorded the occurrence of several local earthquakes, and, considering its
sensibility to tilting, it is probable that it would have recorded the gravi-
tational elastic waves of disturbances originating at great distances. A
necessary adjunct to such an apparatus in order to obtain an open diagram
is the addition of a quick speed feed for the paper, which must come into
action directly the pendulum commences to be deflected to the right and
left of its normal position, Such a device was designed for me by my
colleague, Mr. C. D. West, and it apparently works more satisfactorily
than the original form of this kind of apparatus which is found in the
Gray-Milne seismograph.

Pendulum at N.—Sensibility, January 5, 1895, 1°=3 mm. January 25,
1895, 1°=2°5 mm., or 1 mm.=1-03. The pendulum used at this
station was originally at K. The hut was situated on the western side of
Uyeno Park, near to its southern extremity. It was sheltered by trees
on its eastern and southern sides. On its western side, where it was open,
there was a steep scarp leading down to the Shinobadzu Pond, which lies

‘in the bottom of a flat open valley. A, J, and K were on the plateau on
the opposite side of this valley, the heights of these stations being about
50 feet above the flat plain on which the greater portion of Tokio is
situated., The movements were usually small, seldom exceeding 7 mm.

The westerly movement commenced from about 6 or 9 P.M., and con-
tinued until about noon next day ; that is to say, that about the tume when
the instruments wpon the opposite hill or plateau were going eastwards, the
instrument at Uyeno went towards the west, and vice versa (fig. 10, p. 136).

Pendulum at O.-—Sensibility, January 12, 1895, 1°=1:°5 mm.
January 22, 1805, 1°=1:5 mm. Station O was situated at a place about
20 yards to the south of J. It only differed from the instrument at this
latter station in the fact that the boom of the pendulum pointed from
west towards the east, and it therefore recorded north and south motion.

120 REPORT—1895.

During the few weeks it was used, it showed a small but regular diurnal
fluctuation, being farthest north about 3 or 5 p.m., and farthest south
between 9 a.m. and noon (fig. 12, p. 137).

Pendulum at P.—Sensibility about the same as N. The instrument
used at this station was the same as that used at N and K.

The hut faced an open space about 70 yards square on its northern
side, but on all other sides it was shaded by high trees. For one or two
hours about mid-day a few rays of sunshine reached the roof of the hut
and the northern side of the open space. That the ground within 20 or
30 yards of the hut had but little sunshine may be inferred from the fact
that after a fall of snow this remained upon the ground for ten or fifteen
days. On open ground the snow disappeared in two or three days.
During the day this would slightly thaw upon its surface, and at night it
would freeze. About 50 yards to the east, a bluff sloped down to the
Tokio plain.

Observations were only made between January 14 and February 4.
The movements were extremely irregular, the most peculiar happening
between January 14 and January 26. On these days, excepting the 23rd

* and 25th, during the night the pendulum made a rapid excursion towards
the east, returning to its normal position some time about noon on the
following day. These abnormal movements took place upon nights when

Fig. 2.
2.20 Liv

2.50pm Jar l5 1215 2 ee gee ’ Tan. 13 (895
: ere

Lastwardsis unknown

it was unusually cold, and therefore they may have been due to the freez-
ing of moisture beneath or in the vicinity of the column (fig. 2).

Pendulum at @.—This instrument, which is in charge of the Meteoro-
logical Department, is as well installed as the pendulum at A. Jt stands.
on a stone column in a dark room in the same building with a self-
recording electrometer. The boom, which at first was partly made of
lacquered bamboo, but which has been replaced by one of aluminium,
points from north to south. Immediately outside the room there is one
of the castle walls sloping down to a deep moat, beyond which comes the
plain of Tokio.

The diurnal movements are slight, but decided, the westerly excur-
sion being completed at from 3 to 6 p.m., and the easterly at about 6 A.M.,
which corresponds to the motions at J and K. Tremors are slight.

Pendulwm at R.—This pendulum was set up in a hut in the garden at
No. 17, Kaga Yashiki, Tokio. At a distance of about 5 yards on its
western side a steep bank leads down to a road, which joins a second road
at right angles on the north side of the hut, about 30 feet below the level
of the garden.

The instrument is intended to act as a seismograph, sensitive to slight
vibratory motions, while from the length of its boom, which is about
3 feet, it is also able to record slight changes in level. The first 2 inches
of the boom is a small metal tube, at one end of which there is an agate
cup. This boom is continued by a reed, at the end of which there is a

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 12]

black filament of straw. To balance the weight of the reed and straw a
light arm, resting upon a pivot on the underside of the brass tube, carries.
at its extremities two smal] weights. Assuming the pivoted mass, which
has a considerable moment of inertia and but little weight, to be the centre
of oscillation of the system, which is held in a horizontal position by 2
thin wire tie, then the arrangement is that of a conical pendulum seismo-
graph, having a multiplication of about twenty, and without the friction
of a writing pointer. The black hair at the extremity of the boom floats
above the slit in the box containing the drum, carrying the photographie
film, which moves at a rate of 2 inches per hour. The resulting diagram
is a white line showing the position of the shadow of the hair-like
filament.

A modification of this instrument was to reduce the length of the
boom to 2 feet, and because the trace given by the shadow of the filament
at the end of the boom was wanting in sharpness, the filament was re-
placed by a thin plate of mica about half an inch square, with a small slit
in its centre, similar to that used in the larger apparatus. Because the
floating plate attached to the boom does not cover the whole of the slit im
the box above the drum carrying the photographic film, the diagram is a
black line given by the spot of light from the crossed slits, bounded on the
right and left by a black band, the irregularities on the inside edges of
which correspond with the irregularities on the central line. Every hour
a separate clock depresses on one end of a balanced lever, at the other end
of which there is a light vane which rises in front of the lamp, and cuts
the light off for one minute. The result is that the central line (when
there are no tremors), and the two bands at all times, are transversely
marked by a distinct white line. Not only do the bands indicate time,
and repeat the sinuosities and other movements shown on the central line,
but by the presence or absence of striations they immediately show whether
the clock driving the drum has been working regularly.

Instead of cutting off the light from the lamp, the light is now cut off
the edge of the fixed slit by the hour hand of a watch moving horizontally
across the same (fig. 3).

Fie. 3.

An experiment made at this station was to obtain diagrams on films,
which only moved at the rate of 75 mm. in twenty-four hours, or 3 mm.
: per hour, which, from the results obtained, appears to be a suitable speed

for recording diurnal waves and earth tremors (fig. 9). The western elonga-
tion is completed rather suddenly between 7 and 8 a.m. (nineteen and twenty
hours). The eastern movement, which is performed with extreme irregu-
larity, is ended about 4 p.m. The amplitude of this wave is about 30 mm.

122 REPORT—1895.

During the day, or from 7 a.m. until about 9 p.m., tremors are absent, but
they occur in a very marked manner between 9 p.m. and 7 A.m., when they
suddenly cease (fig. 9).

The central part of fig. 3 shows a white band the width of a small plate
of blackened mica at the end of a reed boom. In the mica there is a
broad and a narrow slit,which correspond to the broad and thin lines in
the diagram. The object of the broad line is to obtain a photogram,
when the boom and its plate of mica are displaced rapidly, at which times
sufficient light may not pass through the narrow slit to affect the bromide
paper. When the motion is slow the fine slit gives the best definition. The
vertical white marks at distances of 41 mm. apart are made by the pro-
longation of the minute hand of a watch crossing one end of the fixed
slit every hour. If the instrument be disturbed at known times, and the
times at which these disturbances took place be determined by the
irregularities produced on the broad and thin bands, the errors in these
readings vary between three and twenty seconds. Should the paper
move irregularly, this is shown by differences in the length of the spaces
representing hours, while the times at which retardation or acceleration
took place are shown by vertical striations in the broad black bands.
This is the form of recording surface which I am using to obtain photo-
grams of movements due to earthquakes. It is not suitable for tremors
or daily waves.

Pendulum at S.—This pendulum, originally at N, commenced its
records on April 24, 1895, at the Agricultural School at Komaba, which
is five and a half miles distant in a 8.W. direction from the University.
Komaba is situated on a flat plateau, and the nearest irregularity in the
contour of the ground from the instrument which stands in the middle of
a field partly covered with corn is at a distance of about half a mile, where
there is a small valley. The soil is so light and dusty that a walking-
stick may be pushed into it for a depth of two or three feet. Beneath
this comes a red earth. The records show tremors, but they are small.

A westerly motion of about 5 mm. is completed at about eighteen
hours, or 6 A.M., and an easterly movement of equal amount at about three
hours, or 3 p.m. (fig. 11, p. 137).

On the 8.E. side of the instrument the ground is bare, and during the
day the pendulum moves to this side.

(b) Daily Wave Records.

In the following tables the localities or instruments are indicated by
capital letters. The times at which an instrument completed its N.E.,
S.W., E., or W. excursion are indicated by hours, 0 or 24, corresponding
to mid-day, and 12 to midnight. The figures in brackets give in milli-
metres the amplitude of the displacements. When a dash takes the place
of hours it means that the displacements were too small to be measured,
or that the diagram was a straight line. When the space for hours is
left blank, it signifies that for some reason or other, either that no diagram
was taken or that it has been lost. A record like 9-15 on October 15
means that the S.W. motion of A was completed between nine and fifteen ©
hours.

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 125

Daily Waves.
! | .
1 | J ! K
1 | | }
vi i | Remarks
i | B | w. } E. | W. |
+ | |
}
:i
f 1894.
} October 13 .} 9(3] | 19(3) || 12¢7] | 23071 ||
ay, 14. 6 [3] 19[3] || 6 [5] 23 [5] 5
es 15 3 9-15 [3] || irregular 6 \
Pde 2.) 15 [8] » FA
ely. 21 [8] / |
me 18. | 3-6'(5] 15=91 18 [35]
gs very | slight 5-12 [35] | 3-6
| 19 [15] 18 [25] |
» 20. ” » | 6 [15] 3-6
19 [8]
+ Coal hal 6 [8] |! 9 13
18 [18] 18 [12]
Wa kee: 9 13 | 6 [18] || 6 [12]
18 24 23 [14] 0 | 23 [18]
Mw ..23 . 5 11 0 6 [14] | 4[8] |
16 24 21 [5] || 18 [12]
pect . | 15 [5] 25 [5] 6 [5] Irregular and ||
| broken |
’ 21 [18]
vel ebb 9 15 6-15 [18] i
18 24 23 [6] |
26 6 6 [6] 6
21 [6] 21 [4]
ae | 6 [6] slight |
| November 4 18 [15] 21 [40] | The deflections for A
a, 5 4 4[15] || 4 | are too small and ir-
‘ 15 21 [18] | 18 [40 2] regular to be relied
oH 6 6 | upon. :
18 15-21 [14] | J does not change much
as 7 6-9 || between 2 and 10, and
18 21 [14] again from 15 to 16
a 8 6-12 || hours.
22 [14] N The motion of K is more
ay 9 6-12 uniform without
21 [10] periods of rest.
BS 10 6-9
| 15-21 [18]
a 11 small
ch 12 21 , J no wave, but tremors
x, 13 10 24 6-9 at 21 and a westerly
21 [20] tendency.
a 14 12 21 6-9
21 [19]
4 15 6
21 [19]
» 16 6-9
18 [15]
“4 17 6
” 18 6 From 20th to 21st and
18 [20] 24th to 25th were
on 19 4 9 5 [5] times of rain, and J
12 24 [15] 12 to does not show a daily
> 20 7 0 22 wave.
12 0 With K from the 19th
” 21 3 and 7 6 to the 20th at 22 hours
6,14 || 19 [28] 18 [40] where there was rain,
hiss 22 3 6 the daily curve is
q 17 19 [23] 15 [40] absent or small.
o> 23 9
i 21 15 [40]
van 24 0 0 no diagram
0 ) Machine K was moved
toN.

124.

REPORT—1895.

DAILY WAVES—continued.

|
A J | N |
— | Remarks
N.E. S.W. E. | W. | E W. |
1
1894
November 25
22
¥ 26 5 9 [30] 12-15
18 22 24
” 27 9 [30] 15
21 24
= 28 5 6, 12 [20] |
18 9 [5], 21
9 29 6 9 [20] 15-18
12 24 24 The diagrams are fairly
” 30 4 [12] straight during a
12 heavy tremor storm.
December 2 4 [4] With J no motion from
24 21 10 to 21 hours or |
3 3 9 [15] 9 during the night. The
15 [5] 21 24 daily wave occurs
‘5 4 5 [10] 8 or 9 during the time that
15 [2] 12-20 24 the ground is un-
= 5 19 5 [10] 6 equally heated on the
15 12-20 24? two sides of the hut.
- 6 7 5[10] || 4-15
14 19 10-21 24
5 7 0 5 [10] 6 12
12-23
“s 8 0 0 24
0 0
Ps 9 11 0 18-24
24 0
4 10 12 0 9-12
21 21 | For J no daily wave
os ll 5 6 [20] | from the 8th to the
18 19 10th at 21 hours when
+ 12 6 [20] there was rain. Very
18 little motion between
*3 13 5 5 [15] | 15 and 21 hours.
” 14 ? 8 [15] |
én 16 6-12 straight
24
A 17 18 6 [12] 6-9
24 21 21-24 [3]
“5 18 9 18-21 6 [10] 5
18-24 [5]
on 19 21 6 [10] 6-9
18-21 [4] |
» 20 off the film 9 |
» 21 [4]
3 21 21 a 9
» 23 [4]
3 22 6-9 a 6-9
23 [4]
* 23 mp 6 [20] 15 23 [5]
5 24 6 [20] 6
24 23 [4]
2 25 7 5 [12] 6
9-24 15-24 [7] |
= 26 5 [12] 7
9-23 18-24 [7] |
. 27 12-16 [21]| 12-18 .
23 24 [3]
28 6 7 [3] 15-21 [5] 18-21
24 24 [5] |
a 29 6
” 30 small | ]
12 \ 12-15 For J from 15 to 24 |)
24 | hours not much mo- |
os 31 | 1 8[12] | 6-9 tion. The daily curves | |
{ are sudden. |
15 18-21 N gives smooth flat }
waves: |

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 125

DAILY WAVES—continued.

A J j N
= NE. | SW. Deeg bee es aaa Remarks
| 1895.
January 1. 23 1 7 (10) 6
15 18-21
m3. 9-12 5
24 23 21
x ae 5 || 6 [15] 6 |
18 1 18-21
» 4. 5 J |
12 | 18-21 |
” 5 ‘-\
- i. 6? 21
: 7. 6 15-21
; 3. Sic |) 18
4 9. straight H
oD: |
A dz Oo |
NE. | S.W. Ber] in We a aes Beatie
6 |; On 13th at 14h, 20m, 18-21 The curious movements
15 18 moved quickly east- 2-6 | of P which are large
0 5 wards off the scale. 0-3 18-24 | displacements, taking
14 19 It returned on the! 30 minutes or 1 hour
0 6 14th at 3h. but! 24 for their completion,
14 went off again at 18 appear to have taken
0 8 12h. 15m. to return place on frosty nights.
16 24 again next day at O gives a smooth curve
2h. 30m. It left the with an amplitude of
scale again at 1Lh. 4or 5 mm.
30m., and move-|
ments seem to have
continued during |
the week, the pen-
dulum being steady |
and on the scale
from about 3 to 12
hours
Up to the 20th the}! On the 20th it went 5 19
trace is practically|| quickly eastward
a straight line at 7h. and returned
to go westwards at bo
18h. 30m. Passed
to the east on the
21st at 12h. 30m.,
and returned onthe
22nd at 2h. 18m.,
when it was steady
until 15h. 34m,,
when it went east- |
wards. It was |
steady from the
23rd to the 25th, |
when at 15h. it went |
again eastwards.
Returned at 3h, on |
the 26th and re-
mained steady |
0 cv) 0 21 The wayes on O are de-
23 || cided and regular. It
18 24 8 3 1Z is difficult to determine
12 19 the hour for the south-
6 12 0 4 18 ern elongation,
18 24 18 24
9 18-21 0 3 21
15°5 off film }
_ — 23 4 15-18
_ — = = Rain.
15
no curves 12°15 off film towards diagram bad
east
returned at 23 hours
irregular and then
no diagram

126 REPORT—1895.

(c) Tremors, Microseismic Disturbances, or Earth Pulsations.

In these tables the instruments or localities are indicated according to
the letters of the alphabet. The hours between which tremors were
marked are, for example, given thus, Oct. 13, 3 to 24. The times at which
they attained a maximum range are given thus, max. 15 to 18. 0 or 24
indicates mid-day. The small tigures in brackets give in millimetres the
range of motion of the pendulum, as shown upon the photograms.

Date A J K Remarks
1894.
Oct.
13 | 3 to 24, max. 15 to 18 (5) From the 13th to the Slight tremors be- | With the ex-
14 | 0 to 6 (2), 15 to 24 (2) 21st very slight tremors, | tween the 18th and | ception of the
15 | 0 to 6 (1), 12 to 24, max. 19 (3) but there are three | 19th only, and the | 13th when there
16 | 0 to 3 (2), 18 to 24 (2) decided diurnal waves | easterly sinus of | was rain the
17 | 0 to 6 (2), 15 to 24, max. 19 (4) | the easterly sinuses of | this day agrees |large tremors
18 | 0 to 6 (2), 12 to 24, max. 19 (6) | which on the 17th, 18th | with the records of | andlarge waves
19 | Oto 1 (1), 12 to 24, max. 22 (4) | and 19th coincide with | J and thelargetre- | occur on the |
20 | 0 to 24, max. 18 (4) the maximaof tremors. | mors of A on the | fine days.
The largest wave co- | 18th
incides with the most
pronounced tremors on
the 18th
21 | Oto 6 (0), 9 to 21, max. about | 15 to 21, max. 19 (3) 14 to 17 (3) On the 26th,
18 (5) 27th, and 28th, J
22 | 12 to 24, max. 18 to 21 (10) 20 to 24 (2) 0 when there
23 | 0 to 3 (5), 8 to 24, max. 18 to 21 | 15 to 18 (2) 0 were no. tre-
10 mors, the daily
24 | 0 to 4 (5), 6 to 24, max. 15 to 21 | 6 to 21, max. 18 (3) Off scale curves of J and
(15) K are feeble.
25 | 12 to 24, max. 18 to 21 (10) 12 to 18 (2) * _
26 | 0 to 6, trace of trems. about 18 0 0 _
27 | About 21 a trace 0 0 _
Noy.
4 | 7to10(4) ~- — —
5 | 15 to 24, max. 15 to 21 (9) 9 to 18 and 21 to 23, | About 18 slight =
| slight
6 | Oto 3 and 9 te 24, max. 18 to 21 — Diagram ceases _
(12) after 6th
7 | 13 to 24, max. 18 to 21 (7) 12 to 21 (2) — _
8 | 15 to 18, max. 18 (3) 18 slight — —
9 | 18 to 23, max. 21 (3) — — _
10 | 12 to 21, max. 18 (10) -= —_— —
11 | 12 to 24 small 9 to 21, max. 19 (2) Slight llth to noon
12 | 0 to 22, max. 18 (10) 12 to 21, max. 18 (3) No diagram of the 13th
13 |} 12 to 22, wax. 18 to 21 (8) 9 to 21, max. 19 (3) —_ clouds and rain.
14 | 12 to 21, max. 18 to 21 (6) 12 to 19, max. 17 (2) _ Although there
15 | 13 to 22, max. 18 to 21 (5) 6 to 21, max. 18 (2) — are no daily
16 | 15 to 24, max. 18 to 21 (6) 6 to 16, also 21 to 24, _ curves, tremors |
max. 15 (2) oecur with the
morning _fre-
quency. Tre- |
mors are marked .
while the pen-
dulum is moy-
ing eastward
and during its
comparative rest
of 15 to 21 hours.
17 | 0to6 0 to 6 -— Windy morning.
18 | 11 to 23, max. 16 to 21 (9) 6 to 18, max. 12 (2) No record —
19 | 17 to 22, max. 19 (4) 12 to 16, max, 14 (2) 12to16,max.14(2) | J and K for
20 | 8 to 11 (2), 18 to 21, max. 19 (3) | 9 to 11 and 13 to 18, | 6 to 9and 16 to 17, | 19th to 20th no
max. 17 (1) max. 15 (2) © curve, but there
are tremors,
21 | 18 to 21, max. 19 (2) 15 to 19, max. 18 (2) 0 For 20th to| ©
22 | 15 to 23, max. 21 (2) 0 0 2ilst on J no
curve, but tre-
mors.
23 | 18 to 23, max. 21 (4) 0 0 —

24 | 12 to 24, max. 18 and 24 (5) 0 0 —

oe

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN.

127

TREMORS, MICROSEISMIC DISTURBANCES, OR EARTH PULSATIONS—continued.

Date

0 to 21, max. 12 (4)
16 to 22, max. 19 (5)
No diagram

A J
1894,
0
max. 18 (3)
Off film
max. 18 (3)

16 to 22, max. 19 (4)
18 to 24
0 to 24, max. 15 to 21 (15)

0 to 24, max. 16 to 21 (10)

0 to 22, max. 0 to 18 (10)
8 to 24, max. 18 to 21 (8)

12 to 24, max. 15 to 23 (8)

0 to 4 and 7 to 24, max. 17 to 21
(10)

12 to 24, max.

12 to 24, max.

13 to 24, max.

11 to 24, max.

18 to 21 (8)
18 to 20 (8)
18 to 21 (4)
22 (6)

0 to 18 and 22 to 24, max. 12 (5)

0 to 6 (5) and 22 to 24 (5)
0 to 5, 9 to 23, max. 18 to 21 (5)

15 to 23, max. 21 (6)
0 to 8 (3) and 18 to 24 (4)

0 to 24, max. 9 to 18 (10)
0 to 3 and 2 to 24, max. 18 (8)
0 to 3 and 9 to 23, max. 15 to 21

(8)
12 to 22, max. 18 (7)
15 to 22, max. 20 (6)
16 to 22, max. 18 to 21 (5)
15 to 21, max, 21 (4)

18 to 21 (2)
0 ie 5 (4) and — to 23, max, 19
4
— to 23, max. 20 (10)
to 24, max. 18 to 21 (10)
to 5 (5), 7 to 12(8), 15 to 24 (8)
to 24, max. 12 to 18 (10)
2? to 24, max. 20 (8)
to 24 (6)
to 24 (6)

aroo-

12 to 24, max. 18 (5)

0 to 4 (3), 12 to 22, max. 18 and
21 (6)

15 to 24, max. 21

6 to 24 (6)

0 to 24, max, 19 (9)

12 to 18 (6)

0 to 3 (2), 21 to 24 (1)

0 to 3 (2), 10 to 24 (2)

0 to 12 (1), 10 to 24 (1)

0 to 3 (1), 15 to 24, max. 21 (5)

18 to 22, max. 21, (3)
0 to 24, max. 18 to 23 (3)

0 to 2 and 9 to 24, max.
2 (2)

0 to 20, max. 20 (2)

15 to 22, max. 19 (2)

b

15 to 20, max. 19 (2)
Slight

15 to 20, max. 18 (3)
7 to 21, max. 14 to 18 (2)

9 to 24 slight

0 to 18 slight, max. 18
(3)

12 to 24 slight

0 to 24 slight, max. 12
(2) and 18 (2)

12 to 15 slight

Slight

Slight
9 to 18 (2)
0 to 21 slight

12 to 20, max, 16 (2)
Off the film

tal aitalicd

Slight up to 21
Slight 12 to 23

1895.

Slight 9 to 23
9 to 21 (2)

Slight 12 to 21

till feat St ct

N

Remarks

0

0

0

18 to 22, max. 21 (3)

2 to 4and 10 to 24,
max. 18 (3), 22(4)

max. 18 (5)

0 to 3 (1) and 15 to
21 (1)

6 to 18 slight

8 to 24, max. 12 (5)
and 18 (5)

0 to 4and 21 to 24

0 to 6 (3) and 21 to
24 (3)

15 to 24 (1)

0 to 3

0

Slight at 23 (3)

Oto 24intermittent
up to 4

0 to 17 (5) and
boom held by a
spider’s thread

21 to 24 (4)
0 to 4 (2)

18 to 21 (1)
23 (1)

0 to 4 (4)

—to7
15 to 23, max. 21 (3) |

15 to 21 slight
W2to1ls ,,

12to21 ,,
3to2l

7 to 24 (1)
10 to 24 (1)
12 to 24 (1)
18 to 24 (1)
0 to 24 (1)

eb TA

|

Midday tremors
at N might be
due to traffic,
but not those on
the 3rd.

On the 9th up
to midnight
very many thou-
sands of people
were in the park
and round the
pond near N
celebrating the
capture of Port
Arthur and the
naval battle at
Yaloo.

Tremors of N
about midday
may be due to
traffic.

Htaltalheatee ate fi tt ea ste

ae)

The diagrams
for N between
the 6th and 13th

‘| were destroyed,

and these re-
eords are from
notes.

128 REPORT—1895,

TREMORS, MICROSEISMIC DISTURBANCES, OR EARTH PULSATIONS—continued.

\Date A 12 (@) Remarks
1895.
Jan |
14 | 0 to 3,7 to 24, max. 18 (10) Trems. during day of | Very slight tre-
15 | 10 to 24, max. 18 (8) (2), but during the | mors on nearly all
16 | 13 to 23, max. 18 to 21 (5) nights of the 13th, 14th | days
17 | 9 to 21 (2) and 15th. the light spot |
18 | 7 to 23, max. 19 (4) off the film |
19 | 15 to 23, max. 20 (4) — |
20 | 14 to 19, max. 18 (3) Slight |

21 | 12 to 24, max. 18 (4)

tel ted Tat hea

Pili, al oll SA) a) Saas

22 | 16 to 21, max, 19 (3) —

23 | 0 —_

24 | 18 to 24, max. 21 (3) —-

25 | 0 to 4, 9 to 24, max. 18 (5) —

27 | Bto 7 (1) 0 to 9 (5), 18 to 24 (5) 15 to 18 slight

28 | 8 to G (1), 15 to 23, max. 20 (2) | 3 to 21 (2) 6 to 12 at 18 (2)

29 15 to 21, max. 19 (2) | 12 to 21, max. 18 (2) 9 to 18 (1)

30 | 2 to 6,11 to 22, max. 16 (5) 3 to 15 (2) then off the | — to 18 (1)

film
es No record, 18 to 22, max. 21 (2) | 15 to 18 (1) 6 to 10 (1) —

feb.
1 | 3 to 6, 18 to 23, max. 18 (3) 3 to 6 (2), 12 to 24 (2) ae ss
2 | 0 to 24 (3) 6 to 12 (2), then off the | Slight tremors, but —_

film the diagram is bad

3 | 0 to 4(2), 15 to 21, max.18(5) | 0 to 24 (2) — —
4 | 15 to 21, max. 18 (5) No diagram — =
5 | 14 to 20, max. 18 (3) “ = —
6 | 18 to 20, max. 19 (2) as = =
7 | 18 to 24 (3) i = =
8 | 0 to 4 (3), 15 to 21, max. 19 (3) % _ =

(d) The Slow Displacement of Pendulums.

All my horizontal pendulums, whether they were situated upon the
rock or upon the alluvium, have crept away from their normal position.
While some of them have moved towards the east, others have moved
towards the west. Irregularities like these have been noticeable upon
newly built light foundations. Pendulums like those at A and L, where
the foundations were massive and old, during the time that they were
ebserved, had a general tendency to creep towards the west or south-
west. These movements, which were often interfered with by permanent
displacements caused by earthquakes, closely resembled the gradual dis-
placements observed at stations upon the rock, where, for earthquakes at
least, the yielding parallel to the dip of the strata was greater than it was
in a direction at right angles to the same.

Although my intention when installing the instruments parallel and
at right angles to the dip was to determine in which of these two direc-
tions yielding was the most pronounced, the observations were not con-
tinued sufficiently long to determine whether such changes as were
observed had any connection with the secular movements which around
Yokohama are apparently proceeding with unusual rapidity. To carry
out this investigation, which would not be difficult for a resident at
Kamakura, where caves are numerous, at least two installations would
be required, and it is not unlikely that within a period of two or three
years some measurement of geological changes would be obtained. I also
regret to say that the duration of the observations was not sufficiently
long to determine whether the wandering of the pendulums had an
annual periodicity such as might be expected from the results obtained by

observers in Europe.

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 129

(e) Periodic movements of several days’ duration, and wandering
of the pendulums.

In order to determine the existence or non-existence of periodical
movements greater than twenty-four hours, the mid-day position of
instruments A and J were plotted on squared paper. This was done
for dates between October 13 and December 4, 1894. Because the
instrument at K during the period wandered so rapidly towards the east,

Fiaq. 4.
OctiS _18 23. 28 Nee 7 72.77 28 .27 Ded?

ANE NOY nial

Bar >A AN

re aS I
sl olf fons fh ool

laetieadgtgeeh li hi

RAL Leb.
MNOS

“i a

i da ro
LAL AY YM
alt Abed but ul siya

A

S
S
S

and had in consequence to be repeatedly re-adjusted, its records have not
been considered. Whether the mid-day reading is the best one to
represent the mean daily position of the instruments must for the present
be left until a second examination of the diagrams has been made, when
the analysis may be continued up to the end of the first week in
February 1895 (fig. 4).
; Fig. 5.

O73 177 214 25 29Nor2e2 C 10 14 18 22 26 30
1834.

By drawing a free curve through the diagrams of mid-day positions
of A and J, and reducing this horizontally and vertically one-fourth, the
two curves shown in the accompanying figure are obtained (fig. 5).

During the complete period considered neither of the pendulums
hhas changed much in its mean position. Whatever slight changes have

1895. K

130 REPORT—1895.

taken place may be due to the direction in which the instruments or their
foundations have warped, or, what is equally probable, they may each
have moved away from an exposed area which, in consequence of evapora-
tion, may have been rising. About this general movement of the pendulums
which might be included in the previous section of this report, because it
only refers to observations extending over fifty-two days with pendulums,
one of which had a light foundation, no definite conclusions can be stated.

One thing, however, which is clear, and which can hardly be
attributed to the warping of instruments or their foundations, is that
the pendulums wandered at the same time in the same directions. For
the first four days the pendulums at A and J moved westwards, for the
next twelve days they moved eastwards, after which there was a slight
westerly and then an easterly motion up to the fortieth day, when they
both turned quickly westwards. This synchronism in direction of motion
is evidently due to some general cause, which may act on the surface of
the earth or within its interior. A barometric curve determined in
a manner similar to that in which the curves for A and J were deter-
mined shows that atmospheric pressure was near its maximum when the
pendulums were at their western limits, but the relationship between this
curve and those of the pendulums is not sufficiently clear to conclude
that the movements of the pendulums have been altogether due to
fluctuation in atmospheric pressure. Possibly the movements may have
been due to evaporation and precipitation lightening or loading some
particular area in the vicinity of the pendulums.

The earthquakes of local origin indicated by circles on the curve for
A, which occurred during the time that there was a rapid westerly
motion, suggest the idea that the movements may have a hypogenic —
origin.

(f) On the daily change in the position of the pendulums.

The table below gives in millimetres the difference in the mid-day read- —
ings of the positions of the pendulums A and J. The sign + indicates —
that during the past twenty-four hours the pendulum has moved so many ~
millimetres towards the west, while the sign — indicates a displacement —
towards the east. The sign ? means that no reading had been taken or
that no displacement was observed.

1894 A J | 1894 A J
———|- —|— -|@
October 14 . -— 1 — 5 | October 31 . i — 2 peat
+ 15. + 5 + 20 November 1. : - 3 + 6 |
‘. 16. -— 1 + 8 | ise — 2 — 6
of ts + 3 +12 ‘y Bile +1 se, al
| eal Si:6 — 6 +3 " 4. ? + 8
Fr 19). — 4 -— 3 | a 5... + 1 mss
A 00) 05 =4 Nats | - 6. asf ~10
% Dire — 38 ade i ry fe + 4 = 1
5 Eze — 3 |) —17 | 3 8. =a + 6.5
3 23. - 8 — 7 a 9). 2 SU Ge |
8 24. + 5 + 7 | 3 LOM. ? ao
* 25. — 8 — 3 Lies +3 ee
See — 6 +5 ro ee ate an 7
Fh at +7 + 7 oP ark ? eh
Fr 28 . + 4 + 3 3 14. — 4. aay
* 2003 — 6 —13 . Uses — 3 +10
5 30. ? — 4 5 16. + 2 #393)

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 131

1894 A J 1894 A J
November 17 . - + 2 — 1 December 3 + 6 +12
a 18 . : 2 — 4 = 4 = 5 sli
7 LO. F — | Sits) ‘a 5. + 1 — 2
lo oe eae Hage cea en is 6. am ea
* Vik - + 7 sedis 1 “3 7 + 2 2
PUSS 99 aS +34 f ant ao — 3
PP 23 + 2 2 _ On ? 10
Bl 24 — 1 + 3 se 10. ? | ?
ba 25 ee = #1 * Tile eh SSA)
ta DG +12 +16 cee dae. =e = 4
dant 9 eg Seems te ig ?
As 28°. + 2 + 9 sy 4. es ek) — 6
Ns 29% ? ? 4: ls +e | ? + 4
eae ar 5 15 eat 16) al + 4
December 1. ae, Sie | F 1 ae ? — 7
ae ; : = fi sendy |

An inspection of this table shows that, although the pendulums A and
J were separated by a distance of about 270 yards, and were differently
installed, there has been a general agreement in the direction of their
displacements, and that this is particularly marked when the movements
of A were decided. When there has been disagreement in the direction
of motion, the movements of A have usually been small, and it is not
unlikely that such discrepancies would disappear if a time had been taken
to represent the daily mean position farther removed from the hour at
which the western movement of the diurnal wave commences. The
changes indicated in the table are also shown diagrammatically in con-
junction with a curve showing the fluctuations of the barometer (p. 129).

What is true for A and J is generally true for J and K. Although
between October 13 and November 20 there are six decided barometrical
fluctuations, and during the same interval there are six decided westerly
movements of J, the crests and depressions of these diagrams do not
retain the same relative position. For example, on October 17 the
barometrical crest corresponds to the westerly extension of J, while an
November 5 a similar movement of J corresponds to a barometrical
depression. Although at times it appears as if there were a close relation-
ship between barometrical fluctuation and the movements of the pen-
dulums, the diagram (fig. 4) indicates that, although both phenomena are
nearly identical in having a periodicity of between two and seven days, it

_ does not show that they are absolutely synchronous. It seems that the

instruments at J and K, which were within six feet of exposed ground,
with or after rain moved westwards, but equally large westerly motions

_ have occurred without rain.

g. On the Diurnal Wave.

In considering the results towards which the observations of the
daily wave point, it is necessary to consider the observations made during

_ the past year in conjunction with those described in the Report for

1893-94.

When instruments were installed upon the rock in caves as at Kama-
kura (C and D), at Kanagawa (I), and in Yokohama (G and H) the daily
wave was not perceptible. This by no means precludes the possibility of

K 2

132 REPORT—1895.

its existence in such places, and had instruments of greater sensibility been
employed it is likely that it might have been detected. It was perceptible
and often measurable, but by no means pronounced in the records from
my house (A), where the instrument was well founded and in an east and
a west direction, well protected trom temperature effects upon the sur-
rounding soil. It must not be forgotten that this instrument was the
most sensitive, being capable of recording changes of 0-1. Had the
sensibility of this instrument not exceeded that of other instruments less
favourably installed, it is doubtful whether it would have shown any
marked trace of the daily wave.

Two instruments in an underground chamber (E and F), whereas in the
caves the daily change in temperature did not exceed 1° C., often showed
the daily wave in a marked manner, but it was not so great as it was at
stations J and K upon the surface. The conclusion to which these
observations lead is that the daily wave is not due to fluctuations in tem-
perature immediately near to the instruments, but that it is a surface
phenomenon which penetrates to a depth of at least 12 feet in the
alluvium.

An instrument upon the surface (J) the ground round which was —

exposed to the sun upon all sides excepting the east, and another (K)
which was exposed on all sides excepting the west, showed large diurnal
waves, and notwithstanding the fact that between these two stations there
was a pond and a grove of tall trees, the pendulums usually moved in the
same direction at about the same time. The magnitude of the movements
was different, but with this exception the only other difference was that
J, the open ground round which was exposed to the afternoon sun for one
or two hours longer than the open ground round K, continued its westerly
motion for one or two hours longer than K (figs. 7 and 8).

An experiment made at J was to dig a trench 5 feet in depth round
the south and west sides of the hut. This did not appear in any
way to affect the amplitude of the daily wave, but it seemed to increase
the suddenness with which the westerly displacement commenced, and at
the same time the number of hours occupied in making a complete wave
was reduced. With an instrument at O, a few yards from J, which

recorded north and south motions, the wave was regular but of small

amplitude, the northern movement coinciding with the western motion of
J and K. The direction of maximum tilting may therefore have approxi-
mately been W.N.W. and E.S.E. On the western side of a plateau

facing the eastern slope of the plateau on which A, J, K, and O were

situated, an instrument N showed a daily wave, but the westerly excursion
of the pendulum was completed only a few hours later than the easterly
excursion was completed by those upon the opposite hill. It appeared as
if the two bluffs, or at least the trees upon them, inclined towards each
other, and then away from each other once in twenty-four hours.
Between the two bluffs there is an open valley, in which there"is a lake or
pond nearly half a mile in breadth.

That the records at N were small may be attributed partly to the fact
that the instrument never had given to it any great degree of sensitive-
ness, and partly to the fact that on all sides excepting the west the ground
immediately round the instrument was well shaded by tall trees. There
is, however, a large open space about 100 yards to the east of this station.
At another station P, on the eastern side of the plateau, on which N was
situated, and at a distance from it of about 200 yards, the movements,

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 133

especially upon frosty nights, were extremely erratic, and they ma
probably have been produced by the freezing of the ground. When the
cold was not great the movements were small, and here, again, the ground
around the instrument was so well shaded by trees that after a snow-
_ storm it would take from ten to fifteen days to melt away the snow, which
at other places disappeared in one or two days. At Q, R, 8S, and O
the movement during the day was towards the side on which the ground
_ near to the instruments was most exposed to the sun.
One very important observation especially marked at stations where
_ large diurnal waves were recorded was that on rainy or cloudy days these
instruments were steady, and no diurnal wave was recorded.
The general conclusion to which these observations on the diurnal wave
_ point is that on the alluvium on open ground, the daily wave is most
pronounced on the surface, it is less in amplitude, but it may be decided at
a depth of 12 feet ; while ona massive foundation the ground round which
is well protected by a building or trees the wave is slight. Deep under-
_ ground on a rock foundation with instruments such as I have had at my
disposal it is not perceptible, but it is not improbable that a residual effect
of the surface motion might be detected with more delicate apparatus.
The cause of the motion is not any immediate effect of temperature upon
the instruments, nor if we except the case where actual freezing of moisture
in the ground round and possibly inside one of the huts took place does it
appear to be due to expansion or contraction in or near the foundations
“accompanying the acquisition or withdrawal of heat.
The most active cause producing the movement which takes place
during the day may be the fact that the ground on different sides of an
“instrument is unequally exposed to effects producing evaporation. The
retrograde motion during the night, which is smaller and more gentle than
at which has happened during the day, may be due to the unequal
condensation of moisture on two sides of a station.
1. Hifects accompanying Evaporation (Daylight Hffect).—As the side
of a station from which most moisture is withdrawn to be dissipated in
the atmosphere has been relieved of a load, we should expect it to rise,
and this effect ought, in alluvium, to be perceptible to some depth. The
Same area, because it is contracting like a drying sponge, may sink, but
this would be a superficial action.
On open ground, under favourable circumstances, the load taken away
“from a surface of earth by evaporation may amount to 4 or 5 lb. per
Square yard, or from an area 20 yards square, about 1 ton. Experiment

e

has shown that 2 tons of water taken out of a well and run off down a
hill will cause a pendulum at a distance of 20 or 30 yards to behave as if
the ground upon the well side had risen. If these premises are correct,
then an instrument well surrounded by trees or buildings, because the
evaporation is slight and is not likely to be much more marked upon one
_ Side than it is upon another, should show but little motion. A pendulum
at a station freely and uniformly exposed upon all sides should also
show but little change. During the morning a north-south pendulum
would be expected to move slightly towards the west. For some hours
after the sun’s meridian passage there would be a pause in such displace-
Ment, after which a retrograde motion would set in. An instrument
‘with open ground upon its eastern side would, during the morning, be
expected to move westwards ; while at the same time another instrument,
with the western side as an evaporation area, would move eastwards. It

,

Fig. 6.
A.—Moves west from 3 A.M or 6 A.M. to 3 P.M., or from noon to 9 P.M., or midnight.
STIG 3 Noon 21 é 0

TGS 7,

™
rn
~
t
vs)
Dd
&>
=
a
&
~

18 13. ote 9 6 3 0
| T
|

Moun Westward. es

Diagrams of Diwrnal Waves are reduced about one-half.

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 135

is not likely that pronounced movements would be recorded upon rock,
neither should there be an appreciable trace of diurnal waves on days
when it was wet or cloudy.

2. Contraction due to Desiceation.—If the desiccation due to heating
by the sun is followed by contraction, we should expect that during the
day a pendulum would move towards the side losing the greatest amount
of moisture ; that is to say, its movement would be in a direction opposite
to that accompanying the removal of a load due to evaporation. On
ground covered by trees or buildings, or on ground uniformly open all
round, but little motion should be expected. Whatever effect was observed
it is not likely that it would penetrate many inches beneath the suriace.

The following is a comparison of these considerations, with the
observed movements of the various pendulums and the character of the
surrounding ground.

For 100 yards to the east and west of A the ground is equally open.
The most open ground, however, lies to the east. It would therefore be
expected that movement during the day due to unloading would be west-
wards. The observed movements, however, although generally westwards,
showed too many irregularities, and were too feeble to justify a conclusion
that they were due to such an influence (fig. 6).

For 100 yards round station J the ground is more open upon the
western side than upon the eastern side, and the westerly motion might
therefore be attributed to desiccation and contraction upon this side.
Beyond this limit, however, the ground is most open upon the eastern
side, which might therefore, by evaporation, rise. This would give a
westerly motion (fig. 7).

Fie. 8.
K.—Moves west from 6 A.M. to 8 or 6 P.M.

Nom ti 18 Gow 9 6 3 0

For 100 yards round K the ground is most open upon the eastern side,
and desiccation would result in an eastern displacement. The westerly
motion recorded seems to find its only explanation in the fact that the
eastern side of the instrument is more open than the western side, but
the reason that these movements were greater than those at J is not
clear (fig. 8).

Immediately to the west of R there are tall trees and a deep cutting.
So long as the sun shines over these trees upon an area 50 or 190 yards
long to the east of the instrument, the pendulum moves towards the area

136 REPORT—1895.

which is drying. Beyond this limit, however, there is far more open
ground on the N.W., W., and 8.W. sides of the station than there is in
opposite directions, and the pronounced easterly motion may therefore
be due to the unloading on the western side (fig. 9).

Fig. 9.
R.—Moves east from 8 A.M. to 3 or 4 P.M.

lz 9 6 3 Noon 21 18 15 12
1
Afternoon peti

ate

4

Wh
| hin

ii,

lan.

All round station N for a distance of at least fifty yards there are
either high trees or shrubs. Beyond this limit in a westerly direction but
at a lower level there are a pond and flat ground. In an opposite direction

Fic. 10.
N.—Moves east from 9 A.M, to 6 or 9 P.M.
Cho THRE BBB NODDY 21 UN TE IN OD 6 alk

ein Westwards \_,

on the same level there is at a distance of about one hundred yards a
smaller area of open ground facing the Exhibition buildings. The move-
ment is therefore as if the ground on the side of the largest evaporation
area had arisen. But the movement is small (fig. 10).

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN, 137

Near to the instrument at S on the west side the ground is covered with
green corn about one foot in height, while towards the S.E. there is a
strip of bare ground perhaps fifty yards wide and one hundred yards in
length. The movement, which, however, is slight, is towards the area
most open to the sun.

Neglecting this strip, then, there is very much more open ground on
the western than upon the eastern side of the station, and the movement
may be explained on the assumption that this side, because it loses the
most weight, rises relatively to the other (fig. 11).

E Fig. 11.
S.— Moves east from 6 A.M. to 3 P.M.
Tiomaba. §
Bt On Bas 3s MOM ay 21 RO ACL

Ap26 3 '

Near to O the ground is somewhat more open on the north side, and
it would appear that the motion was towards this side. Because the
movements are slight, they might equally well be explained as a com-
ponent of a south-eastern tilting due to greater relief of load upon the
§.E. side, which is more exposed than that in the opposite direction.

Although a diagram may be modified by contraction following desic-
cation in the immediate vicinity of an instrument, this detailed examina-
tion of the observations in relation to the localities at which they were

Fig. 12.
O.—Moves north from 9 A.M, to 5 P.M.

North, Motion

made tends to the conclusion that diurnal waves are in part distortional
effects of the earth’s surface due to unequal relief of load from various
areas by evaporation. When the movements have been absent or small,
the instruments have been, at stations on the solid rock, well protected by
trees or on an open plain. Many anomalies occur which still require an
explanation, the most remarkable perhaps being the smallness of the
motions at A, where the hypothesis requires that they should have been
pronounced. The intermittent character in the movement at R may pos-
sibly be connected with the deep cutting on its western side, which breaks

138 REPORT—1895.

the continuity of the ground upon that side, which it is assumed in order
to produce the easterly deflection must rise.

I put forward these conclusions simply as being, for the present at least,
the best that Iam able to arrive at as explanatory of my own observa-
tions. The conclusions reached by Dr. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz only
partly confirm my results. In the British Association Report for 1893,
on p. 316, he says that ‘the range of motion is on an average very nearly
proportional to either the quantity of sunshine or the maximum oscillation
of temperature during the day.’ This and the fact that the movements
at Teneriffe, where the observatory appears to have been founded on and
surrounded by soil and rock, were very much more pronounced than they
were at Potsdam and Wilhelmshaven, where the soil was comparatively
soft, apparently support the view that the diurnal wave may be a distor-
tional effect due to evaporation. On p. 320 of the same report, however,
he says that ‘at Potsdam as well as Orotava the average range of daily
motion agrees most remarkably with those meteorological elements which
we may consider as a measure of the intensity of solar radiation. But I
must not omit to remark that the single days do not show this coincidence
equally well. For cloudy days occur with a large range of oscillation, and
clear days with a small range.’

Although my observations in Japan have shown that when it was
cloudy and wet the diurnal wave has been absent, it is not impossible that
there may be cloudy days when, in consequence of wind, evaporation may
occur, and in consequence the daylight distortion may be marked.

3. Hffects due to Condensation (Night Hffect).—It has been shown that
at a favourably situated station the evaporation effect which has been
marked during the morning may late in the afternoon be the means of
starting a retrograde movement. It, however, remains to be explained
why a motion possibly commenced in this manner continues slowly during
the night until about 6 a.m. upon the following morning. Because this
movement is comparatively small it may be produced by the addition or
removal of a comparatively small load.

The precipitation of dew, which on a uniform area like evaporation
follows in the wake of the sun, represents a feeble load, but the retrograde
motion continues when dew is not visible. But although dew may not be
visible, if we look beneath a board which has been lying on the ground
all night it is usually found to be very wet. This observation suggested
the idea that just as moisture is condensed beneath a board, so it may
be condensed in the ground within one or two inches of the actual
surface.

During a hot day moisture is evaporated from the soil, which is per-
ceptibly heated to a depth of about one foot. Shortly after sunset the
surface to a depth of one or two inches is chilled or in winter it is frozen.
The result of this is, that moisture rising as vapour and by capillarity
from water-bearing strata is condensed on the underside of the chilled sur-
face. Like the dew we see ona uniformly covered surface the underground
dew should be first precipitated on the eastern side of a station and sub-
sequently upon the western side, and therefore during the night the surface
on the former side gains weight at an earlier hour than the latter.

To determine how far superficial soils gain in weight by an action of
this description, independently of moisture precipitated from the atmo-
sphere or condensed as it rises out of the ground, the following experi-
ments were made. Two boxes each 1 ft. 6 in. square and 2 in. deep were

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 139

balanced on the extremities of beams carried upon knife edges. One box
had a bottom made of tin and the other of fine wire netting, and each was
filled with earth. Excepting when they were weighed, by placing weights
at the other ends of the beams, they were allowed to rest on the soft
earth of my garden. Sometimes it was found that during a night both
boxes would lose weight, but at other times it was found that the weight
of the box with the tin bottom had not changed, whilst the one with the
wire netting had gained from 2 to 2-5 ounces, which apparently showed
that there had been a condensation of moisture coming up from beneath
of 10 ounces per square yard, or about one-eighth of that which might
have been removed during a day by evaporation. As my notes upon
these experiments were destroyed by fire, what is here said can only be
taken as indicating the character of a phenomenon which hitherto has not
received attention.

Whether the causes which have been described are sufficient to account
for the diurnal movements of a horizontal pendulum remains for future
investigators to decide.

The gradual taking away of weight, followed by a gradual addition of
weight unequally on the two sides of a pendulum during each period of
24 hours, will account for the observed movements, and in the evapora-
tion of moisture during the day and the precipitation of moisture on
the surface, together with its condensation beneath the surface during the
night, we have phenomena which relieve or load surfaces in the required

manner.

(h) Tremors.

In the third Report to the British Association, 1883, after observing
tremors with the ordinary Italian form of tromometer, I attributed their
origin either to the effects of high winds or to small but rapidly recurring
variations in atmospheric pressure, such as may be observed during a
typhoon.

After analysing a long series of records of these movements, which
were obtained from an automatic tremor recorder, and comparing the
results with observations made in Italy, the conclusion arrived at was that
tremors were at a maximum when the barometrical gradient was steep,
no matter whether at the place where the tremors were observed the
barometer was high or whether it was low.

This relationship between tremors and the state of the barometric
gradient, although it did not explain the origin of tremors, tended to
destroy the distinction between tremors which occur with a low barometer,
and are called baro-seismic motions, and those which appear during periods
of high pressure, which are called volcano-seismic disturbances.

An examination of the photograms obtained from the horizontal
pendulums, which permit of more accurate analysis than those previously
obtained, although it does not show that tremors only occur at the times
when the barometric gradient is steep, shows that at such times tremor
storms are marked. These same diagrams, however, on account of the
relationship they show between tremors, the changes in the position of a
horizontal pendulum, barometrical pressure, and the diurnal wave, lead
me to withdraw the suggestion that, because steep gradients are usually
accompanied by wind, such winds, whether they are local or distant, may
be the immediate cause of tremors. In their times of occurrence winds

140 REPORT—1895.

and tremors undoubtedly show a close relationship, and therefore the former
may, by its mechanical action upon buildings, trees, and the surface of a
country, produce slight tremors, and influence the character of a record.

The points which are marked in connection with the recent
observations are as follows :—

1. Relationship of Tremors to Localities and Instruments.

Tremors have been pronounced at Station A, the instrument at which
station, however, was the one most sensible to changes of level. At
stations on the surface in Tokio they have been feeble, but have varied
in their intensity. Underground upon the rock they have never been
observed. This latter observation, which is based upon records obtained
from five instruments, is in direct opposition to the observations made at
Rocca di Papa in Italy, where, I understand, tremors are as pronounced
underground as they are upon the surface.

At Station A, an instrument which showed tremors even in a more
marked manner than the large horizontal pendulum, was a similar instru-
ment made of a few millimetres of aluminium wire, a small mirror, and a
needle point, weighing only a few grammes, a comparatively large form of
which is described in the Report for 1892. On account of the manner in
which the spots of light reflected from the mirrors of a pair of these
instruments placed side by side would come to rest, and then start
suddenly to move in the same direction, I was led to the conclusion that
they were actuated by an intermittent tilting, and therefore that tremors,
rather than being elastic vibrations, had the character of wave-like
undulations.! The fact that the instrument most sensitive to changes of
level gave the most pronounced records appeared to strengthen this sup-
position, and I was led to call these movements earth pulsations.

The only effect produced by heavy gusts of wind striking the building,
or the beating of a steam hammer at a distance of fifty yards, is to pro-
duce a temporary vibration in the pointers of an instrument ; but there is
no angular displacement, and consequent swing, which characterises the
movements during a tremor storm.

An important observation made at Station A was that tremors were
produced when two tons of water were taken out of a well distant about
thirty yards. The operation caused the ground upon the well side to rise,
and the horizontal pendulum was gradually displaced in an opposite
direction. From this it may be inferred that either the pendulum took
up its new position intermittently, or that the level of the ground changed
intermittently. Whichever it may have been, it may be concluded that
whenever a rapid change in the inclination of the ground takes place,
horizontal and probably other pendulums may be caused to swing, and, as
will be seen in the next section, at least a portion of the tremor records
may be explained on the supposition that they are due to such causes.

2. Relationship of Tremors to the Diurnal Wave.

(1) Even when a horizontal pendulum is steadily following the diurnal
wave and no tremors are visible, slight tremors nearly always appear
about 6 or 9 A.M., just at the time when its easterly excursion has been
completed and it turns to commence a relatively rapid motion towards the
west (figs. 9 and 13).

) The instruments were under the same cover. See Appendix.

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 141

(2) Should there be a tremor storm extending over one or two days
there is a maximum motion at about 6 or 9 a.m. (figs. 9 and 13).

(3) Large daily waves nearly always correspond with pronounced
tremors (47 cases).

(4) When no daily wave appears, or when it is feeble, which usually
happens when the weather is dull or wet, there have been eight cases of
feeble tremors, and nine cases where tremors have been practically
absent.

(5) The greatest motion is experienced, or motion is most frequent, while
the pendulum is moving eastwards—an observation which is connected
with the remarks in the next section.

3, Relationship of Tremors to the Hours of Day and Night.

(1) It has been shown that tremors are most frequent or at their
maximum at about 6 or 9 a.m. (figs. 9 and 13).

(2) The hours during which storms are the most frequent are from
9 P.M. or midnight until mid day. During the afternoon and evening,
therefore, tremors are not so frequent.

(3) The tremors at 6 or 9 a.m. may be attributed to irregular move-
ments accompanying the reversal in the inclination of the ground which

Fig. 13.

oO
i=]

oat 2 18 15 2 9 6

4i[Nya ) va ih CDi ac
‘Niu Mabe AH

LN AY ALR TIND HPAee e

Pe Th Aida iit MANNE Kb
wid Au ay

ae

be attributed to an intermittent change in level, it then becomes neces-
sary to explain why the smallest changes in level are most intermittent in
their character, which supposition’ is improbable. The accompanying
figure shows how a tremor storm which may continue over several days
has a maximum at 6 or 9 A.m., and also, as it dies out, that it terminates
with slight tremors at these particular hours. It is taken from instru-
ment A.

takes place at these hours, but if the tremors which occur at night are to

142 REPORT—1895.

4, Relationship of Tremors to Barometrical Conditions.

(1) Tremors are apparently as marked with a high barometer as with
a low barometer.

(2) Tremors chiefly occur with steep barometric gradients.

(3) They are marked when barometric changes are rapid, whether the
barometer is rising or whether it is falling.

(4) Although it is not likely that the daily fluctuation of the barometer
should have any marked effect upon the production of tremors, it may be
noted that the maximum of tremors occurs when the barometer is at its
greatest height and about to fall rapidly to its daily mimimum. Mr. T.
Wada, of the Meteorological Observatory, has kindly given me the follow-
ing table showing the daily barometrical maxima and minima deduced from
eight years’ observations :—

|

|
— | Fluctuation Maxima | Minima
BS yt gE 4 Fuse TE as
| mm. Hour | Hour
Winter . A ; ed 2°23 9 A.M. 2 P.M.
Spring . 19 eee rer
Summer 1°35 ae | 4 ,,
Autumn | 174 + ey, | Sine

For the year 760°00— 758 30=1'70 mm., at 9 A.M.

5. Relationship of Tremors to Wind, Temperature and sub-Surface
Condensation.

Although tremors have occurred when a heavy wind was blowing in
Tokio, as, for example, on October 26, tremors have been marked when
wind was practically absent. Neither does there appear to have been
any marked connection between the occurrence of tremors in Tokio and
the wind at Choshi, which is situated on the coast about 50 miles west
from Tokio.

Although the morning breeze is apparently stronger than that in the
evening, it does not seem to be connected with the morning frequency of
tremors.

Tremors are most frequent at the hours when the temperature is
lowest, or during the time that sub-surface condensation is taking place.
Tremors are at a mimimum during the time that the ground is becoming
heated, and there is a free flow of moisture in the form of vapour from the
earth to the atmosphere.

Tremors and Waves on the Coast.—At the various lighthouses round
the coast of Japan at 2, 6, and 10 a.m. and p.m., records are made of the
force of the waves. In these records 0 = calm and 6 = waves, which are
unusually large. JI have compared the records from Jogashima, 33 miles
south of Tokio, and Inuboye, 53 miles west of Tokio, with the records
of tremors, but I do not observe any connection between them (see
Tables). i

Occurrence of Tremors in Manila.—A. set of diagrams which clearly
show the relationship between various atmospheric phenomena and the
occurrence of tremors are the monthly sheets of the Meteorological Obser-
vatory in Manila, where from some date prior to 1883 observations have
been made with Bertelli’s tromometer. Tremor storms are apparently

—_——-- -

—— SS —

”

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 143

frequent from the end of June until the end of November, and accompany
winds having a velocity of from 50 to 100 km. per hour, the barometer
being Jow. During the remaining months of the year although slight
tremors are frequent it is seldom that they are pronounced. When winds
are fairly strong, reaching 30 or 40 km., unless these are continuous over:
several days the tremors are slight. Cases occur when tremors are fairly
frequent with a low barometer (757 mm.) whilst there was but little wind.
On the other hand, with a wind not exceeding 30 km., there have been
decided tremors with a high barometer (763 mm.). The conclusion to be
derived froin these records, which, however, do not show the state of the
barometric gradient, is that tremors are frequent with high winds, with
winds of moderate intensity if these are continuous over several days, and
at times when the barometer is low. Because they are sometimes absent
when a wind of moderate intensity is blowing, it would seem that their
appearance may be more closely connected with changes in barometrical
pressure than with the mechanical effects of wind upon surface irregulari-
ties. They do not appear to be connected with daily changes in tempera-
ture, the hygrometric state of the atmosphere, or with the occurrence of
earthquakes.

Since writing the above Father M. Saderra, 8.J., Director of the Obser-
vatory at Manila, writes me as follows: ‘Evidently the results are influenced
by atmospheric currents, but in an indirect manner, as is proved by the
fact that the hours of greatest wind force an@® greatest movements of the
tromometer do not always coincide. The influence is verified by means
of the vibratory motion which the wind produces in the earth itself by
impinging against mountains. It now remains to observe and study this
influence and endeavour to ascertain which wind exerts most influence.
Hitherto this has not been feasible, but now, God helping, I will set
about doing it.’

Although these observations throw a certain amount of new light upon
the occurrence of tremors, and possibly explain their morning frequency,
the causes producing tremor storms are yet obscure In Japan, at least,
they appear to be a surface phenomenon which exhibits itself in different
degrees in different localities. Although the longer period motions of hori-
zontal pendulums show that changes in barometrical pressure may be suf-
ficient to produce changes in level, it does not seem unlikely that rapid
alterations in barometrical pressure over an area, the yielding of different
portions of which are unequal, may be sufficient to create irregular
mechanical disturbances in such a district, and the motion once started as
with s severe earthquake may continue for several hours after the initiat-
ing weuse has ceased. Whatever may be the cause of these ubiquitous
phenomena, because they interfere with so many delicate physical opera-
tions, they certainly demand serious attention. For the assistance of
those who desire to scrutinise the analyses of which I have only given
the results or to make new investigations, the following list of meteoro-
logical conditions during the period which has been considered is here
appended. (See Appendix, p. 182.)

(i) Meteorological Tables for Tokio, October 13, 1894, to January 1895.

The following tables have been extracted or computed from informa-
tion given in the weather maps which are issued three times per day by
the Central Meteorological Office in Tokio :—

1895.

REPORT

144

GL, 0-3 68 | 68° | T6 | TL
OT| OT) FL | FL | TL | og
OT] OT) 19 | #9 | 99 | L+
8L| 1) 28 | OF | FF | 0G
OL) ET|/ GL | 88 | 82 | 69
G1] OL) TL | &L | FO | 09
GL] ST} 99 | FL | 02 | OF
2) 81) 9F | 26 | LL | #9
Z| 06|F8 | 98 | 88 | ¢8
LT} LT) 28 | 16 | 68 | %9
LI) @1| 6S |%¢ | 92 | Le
0-T| G1} LOL | @1L | T-0L | 28
GI] OL) 16 | G6 | 28 | GL
OT! OT; 82 | 96 | 82 | 2-9
BI} @1|99 | 12 | e¢ | 09
0:3) GG) PL | $6 SOL | €-6T
0%) SL) GIL | OL | LOT | 6-6
0-3) 01/6 | 28 | #8 | Ld
0-2| 01/98 | 06 | &2 | 0-9
0610-6) 62 | 0.6 | 22 | FL
0-8) GT) 21 | IL | FIT | GOT
0%! @T) 90L OL | 9-01 | $6
06) OL) $6 | 00T | 0-6 | 0:8
L1) Ot) £8 | 90T | TOL | 6-6
OG) @L) GEL FEL | GEL | GIT
G| 81) LIL | FIT | $0T | F-6
O01) ¢6 | G8 | &8 | 18
61/08 | T6 | 06 | $6
1036/98 | 06 | G8 GL
|@1/ G2 | 96 | #8 | 98
ST) 16 G8 | OL | £6
| 2-1) @6 | 00T | #6 | TOT
| SL) &IL | $-0T | SOL | 26
| OT! GOL |} 66 | T6 | £6
OL) TET | GE | MBL | BBL
(OT) SEL | REL | HEL | LEE
| O-T| 220 | LET | @EL | F-6L
| 80| L&T | el | 98L | 6-30
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£8 | 98 | OF | ¢& | OF | LO+] BE9 | 2.29 | 129
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F68T

145

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN.

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1895,

1895.

REPORT

146

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Jojyotmoreg

S68T

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 147

The barometer readings are given as the number of millimetres above
700.

The barometrical change is the difference in the readings on successive
days taken at 2 p.m.

The numbers representing barometric gradient are the number of
millimetres on the weather map (where 1 mm.=6 geo. miles), which cor-
respond to a difference in pressure of 5mm. Where a number is omitted
it means that the barometrical pressure has been fairly uniform over
Central Japan.

Temperature is indicated in the Centigrade scale and rain in milli-
metres.

To show the state of the weather the following signs have been used—
cl=cloudy, c=clear, r=rain, f=fine, fy=fog, and s=snow.

The relative humidity is in percentages, 100 being saturation.

Tension is expressed in millimetres of mercury.

_ The force of waves is recorded at 2, 6, and 10 a.m., and at 2,6, and 10
p.m. at the various lighthouses round the coast. The scale employed is as
follows :—O=calm, 1=smooth, 2=moderate, 3=rough, 4=high, 5=very
high, 6=tremendous. In the tables the mean value for the above hours
is given for Jogashima, 3:3 miles south from Tokio, and for Inuboye, 53
miles east of Tokio.

(j) Earthquakes recorded by Horizontal Pendulums in Tokio, October 31,
1894, to February 7, 1895.

To obtain Greenwich mean time, subtract nine hours. The instrument
which recorded a given shock is indicated by its letter. The numbers
in brackets indicate the width in millimetres of the displacement as
shown upon the photographic trace. The times given are obtained by
a rough measurement of the diagrams. For several of these disturb-
ances it would have been desirable to have made the time observations

more accurate, but owing to the loss of my notebooks by fire, this is now

impossible.
1894
Oct. 13 8.59 (5), A. Sudden commencement.

21.27. J.

15 7.0 (2), A. Sudden commencement.
7.80 (2) ,, > re
OAS EG) a ww <5

18 1.20(6) ,, Gradual »

ES KOR @) ae
4.33 (2), J
7.88-(h), ,,
TOT CL, 5

26 9.0, K. Three slight disturbances.

27 2.10 (10). A.
18.0 (10), A. Commenced gently; duration 1 hr. 45 min.
18:5. J. : 3 of 3 hrs. 0 min.
Ui Se oy 6 i 2 brs. 25 min.

28 4.20 (3), A

29 11.9 (6), ,,

31 8.0 » Slight.
9.30 5 7
10.0 (5), ,,

' Time evidently wrong,

148

Nov. 2

REPORT—1895.

1.30. J. Commenced gently, duration 30 min.

16.30. J, + lhr.30 min. Three shocks.
20.0 (10), A. Commenced gently.

21.0. J. Slight.

5.30 to 6.30. A. Two shocks of (38) and (8.)

7.00? A. Slight.

10:07 ,, %
4.0 22 ”
7.30 5, 5
9.02

4.302 (10), A

0.0to9. A. About seven disturbances.
2.0, A. Slight.

5.0 (5), A. Commenced gently, duration 3 hrs.
2.0 to 2.30 (10), A

4.0to7.0(5) ,,

10 0 (5)

9.0, about J. Strong. Local origin.

12.0. J.

22.0 to 24.0. A. Several small disturbances.

1.0, 3.0, 4.30 to 6.0, 7.0 and 8.0, each about (5). A.

2.0, several ; 2.45, 4.0, 4.30 and 9.0, each (2) to (4). A.

1.0. 2.0, 4.0 and 5.0. A. AJ] doubtful.

3.0 (15). local origin ; and up to 9.0, four shocks each (2). A.
18.0 (20).

19.0 (5).

9.0 and 11.0 (8) or (4)? A.
2.0 to 3.0(5)? A.

3.0 and 6.30 Es
6.15 and 7.15 (5). J
7.30 (2). A

9.0 and 11.0(1). A.

3.15 and 4.0 (1). _ ,, (local origin).
7.0 and 2.0, and 23.45 (1). A.

3.0 to 5.0. A. May be tremors.
2.0 and 7.30 (5). A.

3.0 and 7.0 (27).

9.30 (2). A.

ROG.

21.0 (4). Earthquake. A.
21.0 (2).

3.0 and 6.0 (3), introduction to a tremor storm. (Local origir..)
11.0, large earthquake. A. (Local origin.)
11.0.
3.0 and 4.30 (2). A. Local origin.
9.0. A. Slight. Local origin.
7.80, 10.0 and 11.0. Slight. A.
(kOe HAS
6.0 to 8.0. O. Perhaps tremors or three quakes.
SO), A.
PRON GL) Ne
10.0. A.
10.0, A.
1.30 and 8.30 A.
8.0. A.

a oe

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN, 149

One of the most interesting of these disturbances is that which was
recorded at three stations, at about 18 hours, on October 27. The origin
of this was near to the Antipodes of Japan, in the Argentine Republic.
In the shaken district Dr. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz tells me that the mean
velocity of progagation was about 1:2 km. per sec. Mr. C. Davison tells
me that it reached Europe to be recorded at Rome with a mean velocity
for the large motion, of 3:17 km. per sec., the preliminary vibrations
having a velocity of 10°38 km. per. sec. These latter movements reached
Charkow and Nicolaiew with velocities of 11:47 and 9:47 km. per sec.
If the record J for Japan can be assumed to be approximately correct,
then the movements recorded in Japan, if they were propagated over the
surface of the earth, reached that country with a mean velocity of 19 km.
per sec.! The figure is reduced from the record of K.

Fig. 14.

:
Oct. 27th |
| 1894 H

»

III.—Description oF A CaTanocuet oF 8,331 EARTHQUAKES RECORDED
IN JAPAN BETWEEN JANUARY 1885 AND DecremBer 1892.

(a) History of the Catalogues.

In order to determine the number of shocks which are felt per year in
Japan, and to obtain some general idea as to their distribution, in 1880,
with the assistance of Mr. Toshiwo Nakano, the present writer communi-
cated with residents in all the principal towns of the Empire, asking them
to furnish information about the seismic activity, both past and present,
of the districts in which they resided. An examination of the replies
which were received led to the conclusion that on the average there were
three or four shocks per day, or for Japan alone there were as many shocks
per year as Professor Heim had calculated for the whole globe (‘ Trans.
Seis. Society,’ vol. iv. p. 30). In the following year, in order to determine
the extent of country which was shaken by a given shock, bundles of post-
cards were sent to very many towns and villages within a range of about
100 miles of Tokio, with a request that every week one of these cards
should be returned with a statement of the earthquakes which had been
felt. The result of these communications showed that nearly all the
shakings which disturbed Tokio came from the east and north, and seldom
passed beyond the mountain ranges to the west and south. These facts
having been established, the barricade of postcards was extended north-
wards until it reached Sapporo, which is about 450 miles north from
Tokio. With this system, between October 1881 and October 1883, 387
earthquakes were recorded, for each of which a map was drawn showing

‘ They may have passed through the earth with a velocity of 13 km. per second.

150 REPORT—1895,

the area which had been shaken and the approximate centre from which
each disturbance had originated. To render the observations more com-
plete, one or two watches were given to telegraph operators (a few of the
more enthusiastic observers provided themselves with good time-keepers),
and seismographs were sent to the following stations :—

Geo. Mile. J'rom Tokio.
Nagasaki. : - 3 : . 550 W.S.W.
Kobe . : ; ; : 4 2 ZO W. by 8.
Yokokama . : : . : Seas: S.W. by S.
Chiba . : : : : ‘ ao ait K. by 8.
Kisaradzu. : 5 3 ; ae pel 8.E. by §.
Kamaishi : : : : leo N.N.E.
Hakodate. : : : : te N. by KE.
Sapporo ‘ ] : - : . 450 N. by EH.

From these observations it was definitely shown that the greater
number of earthquakes had their origin along the seaboard or beneath the
ocean, that the volcanic and mountainous regions of Japan are singularly
free from shakings, and that the country might be divided into seismic
regions (‘ Trans. Seis. Soe.,’ vol. vii. Part II.). The establishment of these
and other important results in 1884 led the Imperial Meteorological
Department, then under the direction of Mr, Arai Ikunosuke, to under-
take the continuation and extension of investigations, the labour and
expense attending which were altogether too great to be borne by an
individual. On the retirement of Mr. Arai the work was continued by
Mr. K. Kobayashi, the present Director of the Bureau, and it is to his
kindness that I am indebted for access to the vast amount of material
that has beenaccumulated. The observing stations from which this mate-
rial is being derived, and which for the last two years has been pouring in
at a rate too fast for analysis, are as follows :—

Gunyakusho (district offices). (As several of the smaller of
these are controlled by their larger neighbours, postcards

and letters are only forwarded from 527) 804
Kencho (offices at the capitals of provinces) . 43
Fu (arge cities), Tokio, Kyoto, and Osaka ; , 3
Light-houses . ; ; : ; : F ; 4 7) NGS
Light-ships . F 5 : : : : ‘ 4 : 3
Meteorological Observatories (of these 39 have instruments). 52

Total number of reporting stations - . 968

The information derived from these stations, which are distributed
over the Empire, an area of 140,000 square miles, is from time to time
supplemented by records obtained from stations under the control of the
Imperial University and those of private observers.

When an earthquake is felt, according to the area over which it has
extended, the number of postcards, letters, and diagrams which may be
received at the central station vary between three or four and several
hundreds. From the catalogue it will be seen that between 1885 and
1892 more than 8,331 shocks have been recorded, and for each of
these a separate map has been drawn. To draw these maps, which has
been entirely the work of the Meteorological Department, it is possible
that 80,000 to 100,000 documents were examined. For reducing this
bulky mass of matter into the comparatively small and accessible form in
which it has been published, my thanks are due to Mr. M. Suzuki, a former

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 151

assistant of the Meteorological Bureau, who has worked with me, pointing
out doubtful information, translating papers, calculating areas, determining
centres, filling in maps, and in carrying out other tedious operations for
the last twelve months.

The chief reason for terminating the catalogues at the end of 1892 is
because the material subsequent to that date has not yet been reduced to
the map form, and to examine all the documents necessary to accomplish
this would have occupied at least another year ; also it may be added that
what has been done is in all probability sufficient to determine whether
work of this description is likely to lead to results of sufficient importance
to guarantee its continuance.

(b) Explanation of the Catalogues.

In the first catalogue the shocks are placed in chronological order from
1 to 8,331. When disturbances have apparently been simultaneous in
two distant localities, they are included under a single number.

In the second and third columns the date and time for each disturbance

are given. When the latter is noted to seconds, the record refers to the

commencement of motion at an observatory, like that in Tokio, which is
provided with automatic chronographs. Until the end of 1887, these
records, which are practically correct, refer to Tokio mean time, or
9 hr. 19 min. 1 sec. before Greenwich mean time. Subsequently to this date
the times given are those of Long. 135° E., or nine hours before Greenwich
mean time. The other time records are only approximately correct, and
eannot be used in any investigation relating to the velocity with which
earthquake motion is propagated.

The fourth column gives in square ri (1 square 7i=5'96 square miles)
the land area which was shaken. For small shocks which were only felt
at one or two stations the determination of this quantity has largely
depended upon the judgment of the observer. The figures given are those
obtained from the maps by means of a planimeter and entered in the
records of the Meteorological Department. In the second catalogue, based
upon a second inspection of the maps, it will be noticed that many mate-
rial alterations have been made in these quantities. Im many instances
the land areas of the first catalogue are total areas, but in others they only
represent an insignificant portion of a disturbed tract, the centre of which
was beneath the bed of the ocean. The limits of the areas given are those
places round an origin up to which the movement was perceptible to
people or sufficiently strong to have been recorded by ordinary seismo-
graphs. With instruments like delicately adjusted horizontal pendulums,
there is no doubt that movements might have been detected far beyond these
arbitrary limits. For example, shock number 4,145 has assigned to it a
land area of 15,750 sq. 72, when we have good reasons for believing that
with suitable instruments it might have been noted at any point upon the
surface of our globe.

The number in the fifth column approximately indicates, as shown
upon the key map, the epicentre of a disturbance, or a number on the
coast line nearest to a submarine origin. In the second catalogue, the
position of a submarine origin, by means of a distance in tens of miles
and the direction in which it is to be measured from a central number, is
defined more closely. On the key map the numbers referring to squares,

152 REPORT—1895.

each 10 miles by 10 miles, commence at the top and run from left to right
down to the bottom of the same.

A line drawn on the key map through the numbers in the sixth column
gives the boundary of the land surface which was shaken. The area
of this should be equal to the quantity in the second column. By com-
pleting, when it may be necessary, this outline seawards, a total area is
obtained, which is indicated by its major and minor axes in the second
catalogue. !

In the small map, which is a photographic reproduction of a map the
same size as the key map, the small dots indicate the position of all the
epicentral numbers, and the large numerals ranging from | to 15, districts
in which earthquakes are frequent. Districts 6 and 7 are bounded by
straight lines because there was not sufficient space in which to place all
the dots. For example, in District 7 all the dots indicate earthquakes
which originated about the centre of this district. Until October 28,
1891, the disturbances in this district were not more numerous than they
are in District 8.

When an earthquake has been felt at the extremities of the Empire,
and at the same time not along a great length of coast line, as in Districts
1 and 10, it is often difficult to determine the direction or distance from
‘ the coast line of its origin. In these cases the assumption made has been
that the shocks just reaching the coast have originated from about the
same locality as the larger shocks which have spread some distance along
the shore line, these stronger disturbances being severe at places just
reached by their feebler successors. The signs + and — along the coast
line indicate that near these places there are evidences of secular elevation
or depression. This information was obtained by the help of Professor
D. Kikuchi, who kindly assisted in the distribution of a circular to various
towns and villages round the coast of the Empire inquiring whether from
maps, traditions, or observations there were reasons to believe that
changes had taken place in the relative position of the land and water.
The large black dots on the map indicate the positions of more or less
active volanic cones, in the neighbourhood of which there are huge bosses
of voleanic rocks and many ancient craters. The dotted lines show the
boundaries of provinces, which are usually the ridges of high mountains
dividing one seismic region from another.

If analyses of this catalogue show that it is of any value, it is clear
that several advantageous changes may be made in a system for its con-
tinuation. As it stands it is only a tentative effort to provide investi-
gators with a new kind of data, which may lead to investigations not
hitherto possible. None of the facts, excepting a few of the time obser-
vations, claim any great degree of accuracy. The object of the list drawn
up for me by Dr. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz is explained in the next
section.

The long list of corrections, additions, and suggestions at the end of
the volume, inasmuch as they have, so far as possible, been inserted in the
second catalogue, almost entirely refers to the first catalogue. Although
they show that actual errors occur in work of this description, they also
show that from given data different persons may arrive at different results.

1 The unit is 10 geographical miles.

a a re ee

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 153

(ec) Object of the Catalogues.

The principal object of the catalogues, as we have indicated, is to
furnish investigators with a certain quantity of material relating to the
occurrence of earthquakes, different from that which has hitherto been at
their disposal, on account of the want of which it has been impossible to
make many desirable inquiries.

Many catalogues exist, like those of Perrey, Mallet, Kluge, de Bal-
lore, and Fuchs, in which the actual number of records are equal to, or
greater than, the number of earthquakes now noted, and which are
equally good as foundations for a particular class of investigations.
The incompleteness of these catalogues, however, is seen in the fact
that they give for the whole world a frequency less than the present
list gives for a small portion of it like Japan. If, for example, we take
Dr. C. W. C. Fuchs’ ‘Statistik der Erdbeben,’ 1865 to 1885, giving a list of
some 8,000 disturbances, out of these Japan is credited with from three to
thirty shocks per year, while a truer estimate would have been from 500 to
1,000. Again, it is often difficult to distinguish between shocks which
have shaken a few square miles and those which have disturbed an empire.
Large shocks and small shocks, primary shocks and after shocks, are with
difficulty separable, and no data have been available enabling an investi-
gator to separate disturbances arising from the yielding of strata in one
area from those due to fracturing which might take place in a neighbour-
ing region. Even when the lists of a particular observatory have been
examined by themselves, inasmuch as its records are those of shocks of
local orgin combined with those of shakings which originated at distances
of several hundreds of miles, all that we can expect to find is a relation-
ship between earthquake occurrence and influences of a widespread
character. Such investigations have been made for the records of obser-
vatories, countries, and the world, with the result that a more or less
pronounced annual and semi-annual periodicity and traces of what is
apparently a lunar influence have been discovered.

No doubt many and very just objections may be made as to the
aceuracy of much of the material in the present list; but because it
enables us to give approximate weights to the different shocks, to dis-
tinguish between primary and secondary disturbances, and to divide the
country to which it refers into distinct seismic or natural districts, it is
to be hoped that it will open the way for investigations along new lines.

Although the catalogues suggest several investigations hitherto impos-
sible, inasmuch as it so often happens that one inquiry becomes the
parent of another, it is impossible to indicate all the paths which may be
followed. A suggestion given by the list, which shows that shocks
originating in Japan have travelled to Europe, is that a ring of twelve or
twenty-four stations situated round our globe would in a very short time
give us valuable information, not simply about its crust, but possibly also
about its interior.

One set of investigations which may possibly lead to interesting
results will be those relating to the frequency and periodicity of earth-
quake shocks which may be considered as having equal values, or receive
values relative to the area they have disturbed. Each of these analyses
may be made for Japan as a whole, or for special seismic districts ; in the
former case the object being to determine whether the occurrence of

154 REPORT—1895.

earthquakes is dependent upon influences which simultaneously affect
Japan as a whole, and in the latter case to determine how far their
frequency may be related to phenomena of a more local character.

As an example of an influence which affects Japan as a whole, the
difference in the summer and winter barometrical gradients crossing the
country may be taken, while tidal loads along the coast would be expected
to produce effects in different districts at different times.

Not only is it open for us to determine effects due to external
influences, but these, so far as possible, must be distinguished from effects
resulting from internal conditions. The great frequency in District 7 was
entirely due to the shocks succeeding a terrible disturbance which took
place on October 28, 1891; and if these after shocks, which at first
occurred at the rate of 1,700 per month, and which apparently result
from the settlement of disjointed strata, are included in any general list,
it is clear that they might accentuate or destroy any law respecting a long
period frequency. What is true for District 7 is also true for District 11.
By themselves they yield information about the rate at which an enormous
quantity of broken-up strata settles to a state of equilibrium, and because
the district around the epicentrum is for some time after the primary
. disturbance in an extreme state of seismic sensibility, it is quite possible
that there may be fluctuations in the rate at which quiescence is ap-
proached, due to external influences. Other problems which suggest
themselves are the possible relationships between the seismic activity
of the various districts, the times taken for different areas under the
influence of secular movement to attain varying degrees of seismic sensi-
bility, and the connection between earthquake occurrence and the
geotectonic character of the country. If the object of an analysis is
to discover a relationship between earthquake frequency and exogenous
phenomena which recur at long intervals, it would seem advisable to omit
long lists of after shocks, and only to take into consideration disturbances
which occur in districts where seismic activity is in a normal state. On
the contrary, should we seek a relationship between the occurrence of
earthquakes and phenomena which recur at intervals of not more than
a few days, as, for example, barometrical fluctuations or the rising and
falling of the tide, this precaution is hardly necessary.

Rinse District High Water, Full

; | 7 end Change |
h,
Nemuro : 1 4. 299
Tsugaru Strait . 2 | Siren
Hachinohé 3 4 40
Yamada 4 4 15
Kinkasan 5 4+ 30
Tnuboye-saki 6 5 45

Yedo Bay . | 6 5-45
Mia-ura ) 7 6 00
Kii Channel 8 6 00
Bungo Channel : ‘ : : ; ail 9 6 00
Kagoshima Bay : 2 : ; A al 10 6 50

Shimabara Gulf ; 5 ; , : 5 14 Co aye |
Idzumo Coast . , . : . a 12 1°20
Echizen Coast . ; , ‘ ; ‘ D4 13 2 00
Toyama Bay. ; : é ; ‘ ; 14 3 06
Off Niigata : ; : . . ‘ , i} 2), bp

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 155

For the latter investigation, the most desirable lists to use would be
those referring to shocks originating beneath the ocean or along the sea-
board, and as an assistance to this I give the preceding table, showing the
times of high water at full and new moon on the coasts for the fifteen
seismic districts shown in the small map.

Nothing has been said about the possible relationship between earth-
quakes and volcanic eruptions, first, because we have no reason to believe
that, with the exception of a few feeble shocks which may precede or
accompany an eruption, there is any marked direct connection between
these two phenomena, and secondly, because the present catalogue does
not extend over a sufficiently long period of years to lend itself to such
an investigation. Although one or two new investigations have been
here suggested, the principal work will be a repetition of old analyses,
taking advantage of the fact that we are now able to deal with natural
districts, to give carthquakes, where required, relative weights, and to
distinguish between after shocks, the occurrence of which is but little
influenced by epigenic actions of long periodicity, and those of a district
where seismic strain is in a normal condition.

As to whether seismology will be advanced by carrying out these and
other inquiries which may present themselves is a question which
cannot yet be answered. It may be or it may not be, but the catalogue,
which could not have been compiled without the generous assistance of
the Royal Society of London and the kindness of the director and
officers of the Imperial Meteorological Department of Japan, by allowing
access to their unequalled store of valuable facts, will, it is hoped, settle
the question as to whether it is desirable to continue in its present
form the largest and probably the most perfect seismic survey which has
hitherto been attempted.

I am glad to say that some of the features presented by the catalogues
are now being analysed by Dr. C. G. Knott, of Edinburgh.

(d) Results already obtained or shown by the Catalogue and
Map of Centres.

After Shocks.—About the time that the catalogue was commenced,
Mr. F. Omori undertook an examination of the shocks succeeding
the great earthquake of October 28, 1891. which are now indicated
upon the map in District No. 7. This he did, following up the in-
vestigation oy an analysis of the disturbances since 1889 in District 11,
a series which recently occurred in District 10, and another series
belonging to a region lying between 8 and 9, which, although now
quiescent, about forty years ago was unusually active. As an outline of
Mr. Omori’s investigations is published in the ‘Seismological Journal,’
vol. iii. p. 71, and in greater detail in the ‘Journal of the College of
Science,’ vol. vii. Part II., it would be out of place to give any detailed
reference to them here. Briefly, it seems that when a large disturbance
is followed by a long series of after shocks the number of these is roughly
proportional to the area first shaken, or what may provisionally be called
the intensity of the initial impulse. The character of the curves which
represent the frequency of the after shocks in relation to time is
remarkably similar, and having determined by observation the form of
the earlier portions of a frequency curve, it seems possible to roughly

156 REPORT—1895.

calculate, not only the number of shocks which will be experienced before
the district settles to its normal state of seismic activity, but also the
interval of time that will be involved in such an operation. For the
earthquakes considered by Mr. Omori it may be concluded that the
earth’s crust had been so far fractured that there was an approximate
similarity in the heterogeneity of the disjointed material, which there-
fore, as it settled, gave rise to after shocks following a somewhat similar
law. Another observation was that the larger of the after shocks
travelled to greater distances than their smaller companions, and in con-
sequence there was a marked difference in frequency at places situated
at different distances from the primitive origin. If there is any law in
this decrease in frequency with distance, then the frequency of what are
evidently after shocks observed upon a coast line, as in Districts 1 and 10,
might enable an observer to make a rough estimate of the distance of
an inaccessible submarine origin. That satisfactory results would be
obtained from such an investigation is, however, doubtful.

Distribution of EHarthquakes.—An inspection of the map of earth-
quake origins or centres shows that the central portions of Japan, which
are the mountainous districts where active volcanoes are numerous, are
singularly free from earthquakes. The greater number of disturbances
originate along the eastern coast of the Empire, and many of these have
a submarine origin. That very few earthquakes are shown on the coast
line between Districts 1 and 2 isin a great measure due to the fact that
in this region there are but few observing stations, the island of Yezo
in which these districts are situated being sparsely populated. A line
drawn from N.N.W. to 8.S.E., or from numbers 7 to 557, is the chief
anticlinal axis of the northern island, and from the southerly prolonga-
tion of this beneath the ocean, earthquakes from time to time originate,
which shake, not only the eastern coast of Yezo, but also many of the
districts on the main island. Although districts like 11, 9, 8, and then
through 7, suddenly northwards up to 13 or 14, lie along the strike line
of the southern portion of the Empire, a greater number of earthquakes
seem to originate from the face of the steep monoclinal slope which Japan
presents towards the Pacific Ovean.

Lines, 120 geographical miles in length, running in an easterly or
ssouth-easterly direction from the highlands of Japan into the Pacific
Ocean, like similar lines drawn from the Andes westwards into the same
‘ocean, have a slope of 1 in 20 to 1 in 30, and in both of these districts
earthquakes are frequent. On the contrary, along the face of flexures
which are comparatively gentle, being less than half these amounts, which
may he seen along the borders of most of the continents and islands of
the world, earthquakes are comparatively rare. The inference from this
is that, where there is the greatest bending, it is there that sudden
yielding is the most frequent. In the case of many of the Japanese
earthquakes, this takes place along the face of a monoclinal feature of
the world’s surface, and the intimate relationship between monoclines and
faults is known to all geologists, the former being, in the words of Sir
Archibald Geikie, an incipient stage of the latter.

Earthquakes and Secular Movements.—Another feature indicated by
the map or known to the writer from personal observation is that earth-
quakes are frequent in those districts where there are evidences of secular
elevation or depression, that is to say, in those districts where movement
“of the earth’s crust is yet slowly taking place.

lt tle

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN, Toa

Tn Districts 1, 2, 5, 6, and 7 the writer knows from repeated observa-
tion that there are evidences of very recent elevation, and certainly in
these districts earthquakes are extremely frequent. The signs + and —
in the neighbourhood of Districts 8, 9, 11, 12, and 13, and along the
Inland Sea, lying to the north of 8 and 9, but to the south of 12, also
show a like relationship.

The only exceptions to the general rule appear to be the westerly
portion of the district between 12 and 13, where there are evidences of
secular movement, and earthquakes are of rare occurrence, and 1 in 5
cases where these conditions are reversed. The district No. 14 presents
a series of earthquakes originating along the line of a valley between
high mountains running from N.N.E. to 8.S.W. Another good example
of earthquake fracturing following a line of weakness down a valley
between high mountains until it reached the plain was the disturbance
of October 28, 1891, which, as has been explained, resulted in the abnor-
mal conditions shown in District 7.

In Japan, therefore, earthquakes have been frequent along the steep
monoclinal face of the country, in the synclinal trough of deep valleys,
possibly along the continuaticn of the Yezo anticlinal, and in districts
where secular movement is in progress. In Italy earthquakes originate
along tiie anticlinal of the Apennines, and from what we know of the
geological history of the country, which had its greatest growth in
Tertiary times, and from the bradyseismic movements on the coast, it
is not unlikely that the shakings it experiences announce the fact that
secular yielding is yet in progress. The earthquakes of Switzerland and
those which shake the Himalayas, and the younger mountains of the
world, may also be taken as due to orogenic causes which seem to be so
actively in operation in Japan. ‘

Earthquake Sownds.—A. map which has been prepared, but which has
not been reproduced with the catalogue, shows the distribution of earth-
quakes accompanied by sound phenomena, ‘To indicate that a sound was
heard, a dot is used, for a sound with a shock the sign +, for a sound
before a shock the sign—, while for a sound after a shock the sign | .
After a volcanic explosion it might be expected that a sound wave
propagated through the atmosphere would succeed a trembling of the
ground.

As the latter sign occurs but seldom, although there are one or two cases
of its occurrence in Districts 6, 7,12, and 14, generally near active or old
volcanoes, and about two cases in District 8, it may be assumed that
earthquake sounds, rather than representing atmospheric waves radiating
from an epifocal area, represent elastic vibrations transmitted cenaee
the ground, and therefore arrive at a given station in advance of any
quasi-elastic surface undulation. Inasmuch as earthquake sounds only
travel a few miles from their origin, the intervals between them and an
earth movement which can be felt are very small. The result of this is
that it often appears that the two phenomena are simultaneous, and
therefore on the map we find nearly as many signs indicating ‘sound with
shock’ as those which indicate ‘sound before shock.’ Sounds are often.
\izard which cause people to run from their houses, expecting a shock
which does not come. The dots on the map represent sounds which have
been to ordinary observers simultaneous with an actual shaking of the
ground. Taking the districts in order, we find tke sound phenomena
distributed as follows :—

158 REPORT—1895.

1. Sounds fairly frequent on the coast at the most easterly and most
southerly portions of the district. Iniand and on the northern coast they
are rare. This may indicate that the majority of earthquake origins le
to the 8.E. and are submarine.

2 and 3. Sounds are rare. Many of the origins of these shocks are
submarine. The coast between 2 and 3 is composed of soft materials.

4 and most easterly part of 5. Here the coast is rocky, built up of
Paleozoic strata. Sounds are fairly frequent. In the southern part of 5,
where there is much soft Tertiary material, sounds are rare.

6. Sounds are frequent in the northern part of the district, which is
mountainous, while in the plain of Musashi, constituting the southern
part, they are rarely heard.

7. Amongst the Paleozoic hills of the district, and extending down
into the plain, sound phenomena accompany about 30 per cent. of the
disturbances.

8 and 9. Although the districts are mountainous, sounds are rarely
heard. Possibly the shocks originate beneath the ocean.

10, 11, and 12. Sounds are fairly frequent.

13. Here, which is another mountainous region, sound phenomena

_are common.

14. Sound is occasionally heard.

15. Along a sandy coast bordering a plain, sound phenomena seem
never to be heard

Generally sound is heard in rocky mountainous districts, while on the
alluvial plains it is but very rarely observed.

Earthquakes which have been propagated to Europe.—The object in
appending to the catalogue‘a list of earthquakes which was kindly drawn
up for me by Dr. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz is to show that some of the
Japanese disturbances have travelled as far as Europe, where for minutes
or hours, although they were unfelt by persons, they caused movements
in delicately adjusted horizontal pendulums. A similar series of unfelt
disturbances originating in distant countries or beneath the oceans have
been recorded in Japan.

TV. ON THE VELOCITIES WITH WHICH WAVES AND VIBRATIONS ARE
PROPAGATED ON THE SURFACE OF AND THROUGH Rock AND
Eartu. (A Compiation.)

Introduction.

Because the observations which have been made upon the rate at
which waves and vibrations are transmitted through rock and earth are
so varied and oftenapparently contradictory, it has been thought advisable
to select from the vast amount of material which is at our command a
series of illustrations from experiments upon artificially produced disturb-
ances, and from the records of actual earthquakes in which personal and
instrumental errors have been small.

Amongst the real or apparent difficulties are the following :—

1, Along the same path, earth waves, originating from a powerful

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 159

impulse, travel at a higher rate than those resulting from an effort of
lower intensity. 2. Near toan origin, the velocity of propagation is greater
than it is between points at a distance. 3. After a disturbance has
decreased in its speed of transmission it may be accelerated, and this
acceleration cannot be with certainty attributed to its having entered a
more elastic medium. 4. As an earthquake radiates, it is preceded by a
series of minute tremors, the velocity of propagation of which is certainly
very much higher than that of the main disturbance.

(a) Artificially produced disturbances. 1, Experiments of Mr. R. Matter,

In the experiments of the late Robert Mallet conducted at Killiney
Bay, Dalkey, and Holyhead (‘ British Association Report,’ 1861) the initial
impulse was caused by the explosion of charges of gunpowder. The
electrical contact which caused the explosion released a chronograph
which was stopped by an observer directly he saw, by means of a
microscope magnifying 11°39 times, an agitation caused by the resulting
wayes ina dish of mercury. After corrections for the intervals of time
thus noted, in round numbers the results obtained were as follows :—

In wet sand , . : : 5 . 0°251 km. per. sec.

In discontinuous granite . 5 . « SOBOS 5 Saas

In more solid granite : 3 ; « “ODD: = Spares
id In granite at Holyhead (mean). d oh) ORE, ee aS

The charges of powder employed varied between 25 lb. and 12,000 Ib.,
and with but one exception it was clearly shown that the velocity of wave
propagation increased with the force of the initial impulse. For example,
at Holyhead the relationship between the quantity of explosive and the

_ resulting velocities was as follows :—

12000

Powder in lb. . | )

2100 2600 | £200 | 4400 | 6200

2. Lxperiments by General HW. L. Anzor.

In 1885 when Flood Rock was destroyed by the explosion of 240,597 lb.
of rack-a-rock and 48,537 lb. of dynamite, the most distant observing
station was 182-68 miles off. The instant of the explosion was noted at
all the points of observation by means of electrical connections and
chronographs, while the arrival of the first tremors and their duration
‘was recorded by observers who watched the disturbance of an image
reflected from the surface of mercury.

The Hallet’s Point observations, where the initial impulse was due to
the explosion of 50,000 lb. of dynamite, and others made in connection
with subaqueous explosions at the school of submarine mining at Willet’s
Point, were conducted in a somewhat similar manner. In the following
table, which has been drawn up from the scattered writings of General
Abbot, the velocities have been reduced to uniform units :—

160 REPORT—1895.

- «| Magnifying | Mercury in Pr
+e Diane in power of | agitation velorke ees
telescopes sec P v
1 Flood Rock ex.
288,934 Ib. aft Ss 4 80 11,577 m. eet ee
explosive. ;
2 ; . 16:78 14 104 4,086 m. H 2.
3 E: * 36°65 18 35? | 4,537 m. $ i
4 “ e 48-52 Cr ie 5,068 m. i 3
5 i: » | 14489 154 | 74 |3,958 mn. - ‘
6 s 5 | 182-68 750) | 95+ | 1,335 m. is *
31 76 ~=—-| 5,008 m. ( x ‘ i:
7 ’ » | 48t |) 16 | 70 | 6,248 m. { eee DNEE
rictag: pe) | eae 6,243 m. | aS
8 Ks i. eae OA A OE meee alice s 3
Hallet’s Pt. ex.) | . :
9 50,500 Ib. dy- | 513 6 och LeGSiqe \t,180m: 1 Rbraueh lay ans)
namite. ) | :
| S Through water &
10 + 3 8°33 12 | 72 | 2,530 m. shore of East
| | river.
i F 4 0-33 6 231,378 m. { i oak a
12 uf eg erasers 12 19 1,618 m. e $
13 400 lb.dynamite.| 1:17 6 8 1,045 m. ey ss
iain S. " 1:17 12 18 | 2,686 m. “ 2
115 200 ,, B 1:34 6 9 | 2,051 m. sf ’
16 4, 55 ¥ Tea Nate alle 17> |/2:669 ms ¥ s
yt ere: ‘, 5a 12 1,609 m. ‘ “s
18 701b. powder. | 140 | 6 inst. | 878 m. | Hae
g 3
a gma aber 6 6 | 1,694 m. | aed Aa
hi . 1°34 12 15 2,565 m.| Vater

From the above data it is clear, as Abbot shows, that the rate at
which a shock is transmitted increases with the intensity of the initial
explosion ; that when a high magnifying power has been used, tremors in
advance of those revealed by a low power have been noticed, with the
result that the apparent velocity in the former case is greater than in the
latter ; and that the velocity of propagation has been higher through rock
than through soft material like drift.

A query put forward by General Abbot is whether still higher velocities
would have been recorded had telescopes with a greater magnifying power
been used. The answer is apparently in the afliirmative, and therefore if
we wish to compare the observations amongst themselves, not only must
we choose those in which the initial impulse has been the same, but where
the observers have employed similar instruments. Comparing observations
10 and 12, but not overlooking the fact that No. 10 was largely transmitted
through water, and again 16 and 17, it might be concluded that as a
wave advances its velocity is diminished ; but from the first five observa-
tions it would seem that there is at the commencement an increase in the
initial velocity until it reaches a maximum, after which there is a
diminution. This increase in the rate of transmission at the outset of a
wave from its origin is again seen in experiments 9and 11. The difference
in the velocities recorded for experiments 18 and 19 may be due to the
fact that in the case of the shallow torpedo much of the initial energy was

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 161

expended in throwing up a jet of water 330 feet in height into the air. A
point well worthy of notice is the fact that the gunpowder waves had
a more gradual increase than those observed in shocks produced by
dynamite ; in other words, the former had a closer relationship to what is
so often observed in the records of actual earthquakes than the latter

had.
3. Experiments of MM. Fovaut and Livy.

In the experiments of MM. Fouqué and Lévy the velocity of vibrations
on the surface and underground was determined by recording the intervals
between the shock which was usually produced by the explosion of from
4 to 8 kilos. of dynamite, and the displacement of an image produced by
a ray of light on a photographic plate moving with uniform motion. The
ray of light was reflected from a surface of mercury at the receiving
station. The highest velocity was obtained between a point underground
and the surface, along a line of 383 metres in length, which gave a velocity
of 2,526 metres. In this case the shock was due to an explosion of 8 kilos.
of dynamite.

The general results obtained were as follows :—

Character of Ground | x et et edn ea ae ee
m. m. m. m
1. In granite on the surface . , ; wh 2.450 tors. 141 | 219 — 108
_ | 2. Underground to surface and underground |

to a greater depth. : : é 2 2,000 to 2,526 || 1,212 — 440
3. In grés permiens not so compact ; Sh 0: | =
4, In limestone from surface to underground | 632 | = f
5. In sable de Fontainebleau . . : d | 300 —

The velocity evidently increased with an increase in the amount of
explosive employed, and it was greatest in the more elastic rocks.

_ The discrepancy which exists between the above and Mallet’s deter-
mination for granite (507 m.) only disappears if we compare it with the
second maximum in the photographic record (325 m. to 543 m.).

_ The second set of experiments, considering the nature of the material
in which they were obtained and the smallness of the charges employed,
ive remarkably high results, the velocity for the first maximum exceeding
that obtained by firing a larger charge of dynamite in granite on the
surface. In a single experiment to determine the velocity between a
lower and a higher level underground, the direction of the wave path is
unfortunately not very different from that of the stratification, and there-
fore is not comparable with those velocities along paths from the upper
level nearly transverse to the stratification between it and the surface,
If we are allowed to accept the results of Mallet’s experiments, which
show that the velocities in these two directions are in round numbers as
18: 1-0, then we may conclude that the velocity between the lower level
and an upper level was markedly greater than it was from the latter
upwards to the surface.

These experiments show that the velocity between two points on the
surface is less than it is between the surface and a point underground.
They also indicate that the velocity with which vibrations are transmitted
may vary with the depth of the wave path.

1895, M

162 REPORT—1895.

4. Observations of Prof. J. Mitne and Prof. T. Gray.

In the author’s experiments, which were commenced in conjunction
with Professor Thomas Gray in 1881, and continued at various times
during the next four years, the object was not simply to determine the
rate of transmission of earth waves, but also to determine their general
character. Usually the movements resulting from the fall of a heavy
weight, or the explosion of dynamite or gunpowder, were recorded by
seismographs. The weights employed varied from 1,710 Ib. to 2,000 Ib.,
while the charges of dynamite, which were exploded in holes 8 or 10 feet
in depth, seldom exceeded 2 1b. Although the ground in all cases
excepting one was soft, the resultant vibrations up to distances of about
600 feet were sufficiently large to be recorded as clear diagrams by
bracket and other seismographs.

At various stations usually in a straight line joining them with the
focus of the explosion, seismographs were installed, which wrote their
movements on the smoked surface of a long plate of glass, the motion of
which was controlled by clockwork. One seismograph was placed so that
it wrote the movements parallel to the line of installation. These are
called normal vibrations. A second seismograph was arranged to
record the movements at right angles to such a direction. These
are called transverse vibrations. A vertical lever seismograph was
occasionally employed to give the vertical motion. A fourth pointer
actuated by an electromagnet in connection with a short pendulum
swinging across mercury gave a broken line marking small but equal
intervals of time.

By the depression of a contact key, the receiving plates at all the
stations were set in motion, the pointers of the seismographs drew fine
straight lines on the smoked surfaces, while the pendulum indicated
intervals of time. A few seconds later a second contact was made and
the charge exploded, and the seismographs gave open diagrams of the
resulting vibrations. When the earth motion had ceased, all the plates
were stopped and were ready to receive a second diagram without any
readjustments. One observer controlled all the stations, and the only
errors due to human interference may have arisen from slight differences
in the sensibilities given to the recording instruments. This, however,
disappears when velocities were determined, not from the commencement
of a disturbance, but from the sharp commencement of the violent vibra-
tions or from the intervals of time between the appearance of particular
waves at the different stations.

Observations were also made with seismographs having single indices
by observing the disturbance created in similar dishes of mercury, and
with other arrangements.

The results of observations made respecting velocity of propagation
were as follows :—

1. The velocity of transit of vertical vibrations near to an origin
decreases as a disturbance radiates. Normal vibrations, although they
have shown a decrease in velocity between the second and third stations,
have also shown a decided increase. This latter observation has been
marked with the transverse motions.

2. Near to an origin the velocity of transit varies with the intensity
of the initial disturbance.

3. In different kinds of grounds, with different intensities of initial

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 163

disturbance, and with different systems of observation, I determined
velocities lying between 630 (192 m.) and about 200 (61 m.) feet per
second.

4, In my experiments the vertical free surface wave had the quickest
rate of transit, the normal being next, and the transverse motion being
the slowest.

5. The rate at which the normal motion outraces the transverse
motion is not constant.

6. As the amplitude and period of the normal motion approach in
value to those of the transverse motion, so do the velocities of transit of
these motions approach each other.

(6) Observations on Earthquakes.

The observations quoted in this section commence with those where
the wave paths have not been more than a few hundred feet from station
to station. These are followed by the results obtained from instruments
separated from each other by distances of from three to six miles, a few
hundred miles and so on up to velocities determined over paths equal to
a quarter of the earth’s circumference.

1, Observations in Japan.

i For several years the author took diagrams of earthquakes at seven
stations, each about 900 feet apart. These stations were in electrical
connection, so that one pendulum marked time intervals upon each of the
moving surfaces upon which diagrams were being drawn. From fifty sets
of diagrams, representing fifty different earthquakes, it was only in five
nstances that the same wave could be identified at the different stations.
The result of these identifications led to calculation of velocities of 1,787,
1,302, 1,825, 869, and 501 metres per second.

_ Even these determinations cannot be accepted without reserve,
because it is found that waves may spread out as they pass from station
to station, a given wave splitting up into two waves, &c. Hence «@
velocity calculated from a wave (a) may be different from a velocity of a
wave (b), and yet both are part of the same disturbance. In the diagram
from one station a large wave may have a slight notch _upon its cr est, at

rd station it is so large that the single wave appears as two waves.
As in the artificially produced disturbances, although an earthquake
becomes feebler as it radiates, it apparently increases in its duration.
_ The same system of observation has recently been elaborated in
Japan, but the distances between stations have been increased to several
Riles. Because the commencement of a disturbance at a given station
‘varies with the sensibility given to the seismograph, the determinations
of velocity depend upon the identification of particular waves upon the
diagrams obtained from at least three stations. Up to the present this
has only been possible on one or two occasions. On November 30, 1894,
at 8.30 p.m., a velocity of 5 km. per second was obtained, other dis-
_ turbances giving from 2-4 to 36 km. per second.
The following are examples of velocity determinations made in Japan
Berean stations which have access to the telegraphic system of -the

country, and which are provided with seismographs and clocks which
M2

164 REPORT—1895.

automatically record the time at which a particular vibration was drawn.
At each of the observatories it is therefore possible to calculate the
instant at which a given instrument commenced to write its record.

In 1891, on December 9 and 11, strong shocks originated in the
province of Noto on the west coast, which were observed in Gifu, Nagoya,
and Tokio, The mean velocity determined from these records was
2°31 km. per second.

The destructive disturbance of October 28, 1891, which was recorded
in Europe, was followed by many after shocks, the times of arrival of
seventeen of which were accurately noted at Osaka, Nagoya, Gifu, and
Tokio. The origin of the main shock was about five miles to the west of
Gifu. To reach Tokio, a distance of 151 miles, took 120 seconds. The
average time taken for all eighteen shocks was 118 seconds, and the
average velocity was 2:40 km. per second, the rate of transmission to
Osaka being the same as it was over the much longer path to Tokio.

The primary disturbance seems to have reached Shanghai at a rate of
about 1°61 km. per second, and Berlin at about 2°98 km. per second.
For the Shonai shock on October 22, 1894, as a mean obtained by the
method of least squares from observations at ten stations from 60 to 300
miles distant from the origin, a velocity of about 1:95 km. per second was
obtained.

Giving these last determinations, all of which were computed by
Mr. F. Omori, weights proportional to the number of observations each
represents, the average rate at which disturbances are propagated over
long distances in Japan is 7,560 feet, or 2°3 km. per second, a rate which
fairly well agrees with that at which the large waves of similar dis-
turbances travel from Japan to Europe.

2. Observations along Wave Paths of Great Length.

Next we will turn to earthquakes which have been noted at distances
from their origins greater than those at which it has been possible to
observe in Japan—a notable example of which are the observations made
at the time of the Charleston Earthquake on August 31, 1886. Over
400 observations were made. A number of these were obtained from
clocks which had been stopped, and as many of these were regulators
which had daily been compared with a time signal, there is no reason to
doubt their accuracy. All these observations, which were made on wave
paths between 300 and 924 miles in length, were subjected to a rigorous
analysis by Professor Simon Newcomb and Captain Charles Dutton, with
the result that an average velocity of 5,184 m. was determined, and there
was no indication of any sensible variation in speed. Considering the
phase of motion which in the majority of instances was in all probability
observed, this result 1s remarkably high.

A valuable study of the rate at which vibrations may be propagated
through the earth’s crust is one made by Dr. G. Agamennone of a series
of shocks which in 1893 had their origin near to the island of Zante.
These were recorded at the various stations mentioned along the foot of
the diagram Fig. 15, the one farthest from the origin being Potsdam. The
lengths of the various wave paths are indicated in kilometres. The time
intervals measured vertically are on a scale of 20 seconds per millimetre.
For five shocks straight lines connect a series of points indicating the
differences in time between the occurrence of the shock near to its origin

f ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN, 165

Sand the time at which maximum motion was experienced at the various
_ stations.

The dotted lines connect similar points for the commencement of the
disturbance. The time of these commencements undoubtedly varied with
the sensibilities of the recording instruments, and therefore it will be
noticed that they have only been taken into account for Rome, Nicolaiew,

Fig. 15.

Ewe El
ae

as

‘OT

Pe ee |
ae

Bis
Ee

ees

NES
Pee AS 3

~
S
~
Ss

waiag we
ied waa ae

Zant ot pt
Renee

CALTASSO

.

ES
ey

ane
. IN

Ss
8
&
erie)
Catlama in
eel LAE
\

Corfia

Moneo
Denevento
Roma
Fadova =
Mota
SG. PUTO

Lotsdainr

Strassburg, where records were obtained from the great pendulum of

Collegio Romano, or from the horizontal pendulums of Dr. E. von

eur-Paschwitz.

__ The principal object in reproducing this series of observations is to see

_ if there is any reason for believing that there is any variation in the
velocity with which a given disturbance is propagated.

166 REPORT—1895.

In examining this diagram it must be remembered that near to an
origin the difference in time between the maximum phases of an earth-
quake and its actual commencement may be only a few seconds, while at
a great distance the records of sensitive instruments show that the same
interval may be many minutes. When instruments of such sensibility
are near to an origin, my own observations seem to show that they are
not set into any sensible amount of motion before the ordinary seismo-
scopes or seismographs, and therefore for places comparatively near to
the origin of a disturbance, when observations were made with the latter
type of instrument, I should be inclined to think that the phases of
maximum motion might be approximately coincident with the times of
commencement of movement.

An inspection of the diagram pomts towards the following results :—

No. 1. The velocity for the first 550 km. is greater than it is toa
point which is more remote.

No. 2. This is the only disturbance for which observations are made
at points comparatively near to the epicentre, for which they show a
very high velocity. Between stations distant 300 and 1,100 km. from
the origin the velocity decreases, but beyond this limit it apparently
increases.

No. 3. The chief difference between this and No. 2 is that the point of
inflexion of a free curve drawn between the points of observation, instead
of being at a distance of 1,100 km. from the epicentre, is at about
1,500 km. from that point.

No. 4. The velocity is apparently greater at a distance from the epi-
centre than near to it.

No. 5. This resembles No. 4.

If we omit the one case which shows a high velocity in the immediate
neighbourhood of the origin—which, however, is in perfect accordance
with results obtained with artificially produced disturbances—there
remains the clearly marked observation that to Catania and Mineo the
velocities are, as compared with the rate of propagation to more distant
stations, relatively low. Professor A. Ricco, who discusses these observa-
tions, gives us every reason to believe that the time observations at
Catania are correct, while those at Mineo may be in error, owing to the
manner in which it receives the time signals from Rome, which finally
reach the observatory by circolare.

Professor Ricco concludes that the low velocity between Zante and
Catania may be accounted for by the fact that the motion was entirely
transmitted through water, because the velocity recorded of 1,439 km. per
second practically coincides with that of 2 sound wave in water. Professor
Ricco adds that Bertelli has shown that the shocks of earthquakes felt on
shipboard and the sound waves have been simultaneous. From one of
Abbot’s experiments, however, we have seen that a wave velocity obtained
from a water path was greatly increased.

The following is Agamennone’s table of velocities, which, although
they represent averages, show that the lowest is the one on August 4,
which had the shortest range :—

a tee lh i

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 167

Velocity of Velocity of

No. of af clots oh) No. of | Max. Motion No. of Commence-
Date Stations Waaed out wh Stat ons based on cer- | Stations | ment of Motion
con- Pishndatlons con- tain Obser- | con- at Certain
sidered or ‘| sidered vations. | sidered Stations.
Km. | Km.
| |

Jan. 3L ‘ 7 4:04 4 | 2°86 4 3°08
Feb. 1 6 3°28 4 2°42 4 3:92
March 20 . 5 2°33 3 | 2°82 3 Cle0,
April 17 10 2°55 5 | 2°59 5 3°16
August 4 3 2°12 2 | 2°36 2 2°83
Mean t — 2-40 Seis | 2°45 — 2:34

|

The averages of velocities to the Italian stations and the actual veloci-
ties to Mineo and Catania, which may be compared with the first deter-
mination in the preceding table, clearly show that the apparent velocity
to the nearer stations was lower than it was to stations which were more
distant, :—

Italian Stations. Mineo. | Catania.

a Kn. ims | Km.

January 31 5°76 83 114

February 1 4-26 2-04 1:43

March 20 : : : : Es) 1°86 Wr 1°98

ee i oF 2-09 ‘96 1:20
August 4. 212 3°05 —

Dr. A. Cancani, who has devoted much attention to the velocities with
_ which earth disturbances are transmitted, is apparently inclined to attri-
bute the high velocities sometimes observed near to an epicentre—which,
however, is not the case with those just quoted—to the more rapid transit
of a longitudinal wave. He, however, adds that at such places, and even
at distant places, the normal and transversal waves may occur together,
and the velocities determined on such occasions will have intermediate
values. In fairly homogeneous earth it has been shown that, within
100 feet or so from the origin of an artificia! disturbance, a normal move-
ment outraces the transversal disturbance, but such a separation is not
observed, nor should we expect it to be observed, at distant stations
(see pages 162 and 163).
When Dr. Cancani quotes my opinions that ‘velocities of 2 or 3 km.
per second refer to the propagation of a motion not unlike the swell upon
an ocean’ as not being contrary to his ideas, it must be clearly under-
stood that I do not refer such movements to the purely distortionai elastic
waves of an isotropic solid.!

Amongst other observations quoted by Dr. Cancani to show that the
velocity with which earthquake waves are propagated is higher nearer to
an epicentre than at a distance, I select the four following, which have
reference to the Andalusian disturbance of December 25,1894 :—

To Lisbon, distance 530 km. velocity in km. per sec. 4:2
;, Pare St. Maus, Pe 1.350 3 os pa 3:2
4, Greenwich, Fe. 1,620 ae a * 3°6
3, Wilhelmshaven, 5 2,000 ix a a 28

1 R. Accad. dei Lincet, vol. iii. 1894, p. 410

168 REPORT—1895.,

Dr. Agamennone, after examining the data on which these tables are
founded, shows that the conclusion to which they point disappears if the
time taken at Cadiz by the stopping of two clocks was a minute too late,
while the times at Greenwich and other observatories correspond to the
beginning of the motion. From the calculations of Offret relating to the
Ligurian earthquake of February 23, 1887, it would appear that the
velocity of propagation increased as a disturbance radiated, but such
anomalies may aiso be explained by the assumption that there were errors
in the time observations near to the epicentre.

As another indication of what is apparently the reverse of the results
adduced by Dr. Cancani, we may take either the earthquakes of Zante or
the following Japanese earthquakes, observed in Europe by Dr. E. von
Rebeur-Paschwitz :—

Spherics1 Ve'ocity
Date Locality Distance. BMA ERD)
: rea. in km. per sec.

1889, April 17 . ; ; ol eeotsdamll ase . 8,950 S20
5 Ue \s : is 2°79
Wilhe]mshaven : 9,070 | 350
1889, July 28 . ‘ é . | Potsdam . M : 8,810 2-98
: Wilhelmshaven 5 8,940 a31
1892, May 11 . ‘ . , | Strassburg - ; 9 520 3°07
Nicolaiew, I. . : 7,910 2°75
7 as : 45 2-41
1892, October18 5 . | Strassburg’ : ; 9,520 3°83
Nicolaiew. I. . ¢ 7,910 | 2°55
HF 1 ae 5 + 2°24
1892, November 4 . 4 . | Strassburg, I. . ‘ 9,520 3:15
PA I. 3 - 2°64
Nicolaiew ; 54 7,910 Pr (6 |
1893, March 23 : , . | Strassburg, I. . : 9,520 4:13
| ie II. 4 3 3°62
Nicolaiew ; A 7,910 3°72
Average . 3 : ; : . ; : : ; ‘ . 3:10

The centre of the second disturbance is taken near to Kumamoto,
while that of the others as being near to Tokio.
Arranging the above according to distance, we find :—
6 observations for 7,910 km. give a velocity of 2°73
5 a 8,900 rn “4 3°16
6 7 9,520 on ~ 3°41

The numeral I. refers to the greatest increase in motion, while IT.
refers to the maximum itself, and it will be observed that the value for
TJ. is always less than it is for I.

A good series, showing the widely different results which may be
obtained as to the velocities with which given disturbances are propagated,
may be found in the British Association Report of the Committee on
Earth Tremors for 1894. The earthquakes to which these refer are those
of April 20 and 24 of 1894, which originated in North-east Greece, and
which were recorded by different types of instruments at 41 different
stations in Europe, the length of the wave paths being from 701 to
2,455 km. The velocities obtained vary between 1:29 and 11-71 km. per
second. The high velocities are those obtained from records of the com-

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND YOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 169

mencement of movement by the more sensitive classes of instrument, the
records from which also give the lower values, if the arrival of the dis-
turbances is taken as being the time when they recorded maximum phases
of motion.

As a last example of the different results which may be obtained from
the same record, I take that observed at Rocca di Papa on March 23,
1894. The shock originated beneath the ocean about 70 miles S.E. of
Nemuro, on the north-east coast of Yezo (Lat. 42° N., Long. 146° E.).
It was observed at Nemuro in Greenwich mean time at 10.20.45 a.m.

The times at Rocca di Papa and the resulting velocities were as
follows :—

First tremors, 10.36.0 G.M.T. 11:35 km. per sec.
Decided motion, 1 Un I OS 3-06 Re
Maximum motion, 11.19.0 ,, 2°69 y

In Tokio it was observed at 10.27.40 G.M.T., after which four after-
shocks were noted. The average time difference between the observations
at Tokio and Nemuro was 6 min. 43 sec., and the difference in their
distances from the origin is about 600 miles, from which an average
velocity of about 2°3 km. per second is calculated. If it is assumed that
the first tremors reached Rocca di Papa by direct radiation along a chord
or through the earth, then their velocity may be reduced to 8 or 10 km.
per second (see example on p. 149).

3. Conclusions.

Very many records might be added to those which have been given,
but it does not seem likely that, until we are in possession of a series of
records taken at long distances apart on the surface of our globe by means
of instruments which are similar, which have sufficient sensibility to record
preliminary tremors, and which record upon surfaces moving sufficiently
quickly to allow of accurate time determinations, that our present know-
ledge will be greatly increased. Because the waves of a disturbance change
in period as they travel, while one wave breaks up to form two or more
waves, and this even in ground which is apparently homogeneous, a given
earthquake may show as many velocities as there are waves between which
we choose to make measurements. What weknow from experiments, and
what we should expect from & priori reasoning, is that the rate at which a
disturbance is propagated varies with the nature of the medium through
which it is transmitted. Experiments have shown that the vibrations fol-
lowing an artificial disturbance, where the initial impulse has been strong,
travel more quickly than those where the originating cause has been feeble f
also that there is apparently a higher velocity very near to an origin than
at a distance. The latter phenomenon seems to find confirmation in the
records of certain earthquakes. Although it may be difficult to interpret
the meaning of these latter observations, when we endeavour to find an
explanation for the existence of the long series of preliminary tremors
which are recorded at places nearly a quarter of the earth’s circumference
from an origin, and which have apparently reached these places by travel-
ling at rates of 9 to 12 km. per second, the difficulties which confront
us are still greater. The next section is an attempt to explain these
phenomena.

170 REPORT—1895.

(c) On the Probable Nature and Velocity of Propagation of the
Movements resulting from an Larthquake Disturbance.

If it is assumed that the crust of the earth has the character of an
isotropic elastic solid, then from an earthquake centrum two types of
waves may emanate. In one of these the direction of vibration of a
particle is parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave or normal
to its front, as in a sound wave, whilst in the other it is transverse to such
a direction, or, so far as this character is concerned, it is like the move-
ments in a ray of light.

These two types of movements, which are respectively known as
condensational and distortional waves, are propagated with different
velocities, which depend upon certain clastic moduli and the density of the
material.

These velocities may be respectively expressed by the quantities
mip aud /n/p, where p is the density of the material, 2 the modulus
of rigidity or resistance to distortion, and m a modulus depending upon
the modulus of rigidity and the bulk modulus or resistance to compression
k, which is equal to £+3n.

The first conclusion to which the theory leads is that the condensa-
tional wave has a higher velocity than the distortional wave, and therefore
the first ought to outrace the latter. With artificially produced disturb-
ances at points near to origins in fairly homogeneous earth, a phenomenon
similar to this has been observed, but whether the preliminary tremors
preceding more decided movements observed at great distances represent
condensational waves propagated from an origin is yet uncertain. From
experiments made in conjunction with Professor T. Gray to determine the
elastic moduli of granite, marble, tuff, clay rock, and slate, and the veloci-
ties with which normal and transverse movements have been propagated
in alluvium, Dr. C. G. Knott drew up the following table as representing
average constants involved when determining the velocities with which
disturbances may be propagated through fairly solid rocks :—

Density " : - p=3
Rigidity : ‘A : - m=1°5x10"' C.G.S. units
Ratio of the wave moduli : . » minr=3

With the above numbers the velocity of a distortional wave would
be 2-235 km. per second, while the condensational wave would have a
value about double this quantity. Should we accept the records made of
decided movements which had their origin in Japan, but which have been
recorded in Europe as representing distortional waves, then our expecta-
tions based upon theory closely accord with what has been observed.

On the other hand, because it has been shown that small vibrations
have been noted which have travelled at rates of from 9 to 12 km. per
second, the fact must not be overlooked that we are not yet in possession
of sufficient constants to apply the theory to all the cases which have been
observed. Even if we had the constants referring to the elasticity and
density of material in the interior of our earth, when we consider the
heterogeneity of the materials through which a disturbance probably
passes, as Dr. C. G. Knott and other writers point out, there are serious
objections to the assumption that waves with a high velocity are due
to the transmission of normal motions, while those with a lower velo-
city represent the less rapid transversal vibrations, At every boundary

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 171

between two media different in their elasticity, either a condensational or
a distortional wave is broken up into reflected and refracted distortional
waves as well as reflected and refractecdl condensational waves, and there-
fore as a disturbance travels through the heterogeneous mass of materials
constituting the earth’s crust there is, in every probability, a continual
change in the character of the motion.

Not only does this consideration make it appear unlikely that the
tremors which have been observed at stations far removed from an origin
if they were propagated on or near to the swrface of the earth are due to
condensational waves, while the more pronounced movements which
succeed them represent the distortional waves, but it also indicates that
at a given station there should be no definite relationship between the
motion of an earth particle and the direction of propagation of an earth-
quake. For feeble earthquakes, and for those recorded at points outside a
megistoseismic area, this latter conclusion is remarkably concordant with
observation.

On the other hand, however, if preliminary tremors are movements
which have been transmitted at great depths through a medium where
V</p is constant or changes gradually, it is likely that they have a con-
densational character.

Next we may consider the probable nature of surface waves. Lord
Rayleigh, in a paper on waves propagated along the plane surface of an
Elastic Solid,' investigates ‘the behaviour of waves upon the plane free
surface of an infinite homogeneous isotropic elastic solid, their character
being such that a disturbance is confined to a superficial region of thick-
ness comparable with the wave-length. The case is thus analogous to
that of deep water waves, only that the potential energy here depends
upon elastic resilience instead of upon gravity.’

Two cases are discussed, but the results are very similar. <A particle
at the surface moves in an elliptic orbit with its major axis perpendicular.
The displacement parallel to the plane surface penetrates into the solid
for an incompressible solid about the eighth of a wave-length, and to
about the fifth into the solid when the Poisson ratio has a value of one-
fourth. The surface waves are propagated at a slightly slower rate than
a purely distortional wave is propagated.

From observations made upon earthquakes near to their origin, it
seems that when vertical motion appears it is accompanied by horizontal
displacements greater than that required by the formula given by Lord
Rayleigh, but the question arises whether the accepted horizontal move-
ments are not more apparent than real, being displacements due to tilting
of the recording instruments. That at the time of a strong earthquake
surface waves have an existence, because they have been seen, been felt,
and been recorded by instruments, is a fact not to be disputed. As they
spread the distance between crest and crest apparently increases, and
calculations have been made to determine their height and length. About
the path described by a constituent particle nothing has yet been experi-
mentally determined. The decided movements which have been recorded
at great distances from their origin, which have been referred to as possibly
being distortional waves, because they slowly tilt pendulums from side to
side, are not unlikely to be long flat undulations which near to the origin
were decided surface waves. If this is the case, the phenomenon to be

1 Proc. Lond, Math. Soc., vol. xvii. 1885-6.

Lye REPORT—1895.

investigated is not the transversal vibrations of a truly elastic solid, but it
is a quasi-elastic surface disturbance, the propagation of which is accele-
rated by the influence of gravity.

The preliminary tremors have, however, yet to be explained. At
stations within 100 miles of an origin, as recorded by seismographs, these
outrace the main disturbance—with which, however, they are invariably
connected—and often overlap it, by perhaps ten seconds. At a distance
of 6,000 miles they seem to outrace it by half an hour.

Dr. C. G. Knott suggests that they are due to the quasi-elastic dis-
turbances which accompany earthquakes. When the earth movement is
violent, and possibly accompanied by destruction, the material of the
earth’s surface is either strained beyond its limit of elasticity, or at least
so far strained that the resulting movements are governed by coefficients
other than those due to rigidity and compressibility. As these quasi-
elastic waves pass through a region of discontinuity, or as they lose
energy, they may be suddenly or gradually transformed into a purely
elastic disturbance.

Although changes of this description may take place as a disturbance
passes from medium to medium, inasmuch as it implies the creation of
tremors as the surface waves progress, much in the same way that a
trotting pony or a railway train creates the sound waves which run before
them, we are led to the conclusion that the preliminary tremors have a
velocity very much higher than those already calculated. Because this
cannot be accepted, the only explanation remaining is the assumption
that the preliminary tremors are movements originating at an earthquake
centrum and propagated possibly as condensational waves along paths yet
to be discussed through our earth. If this is made, then apparent velocities
of 11 or 12 km. per second, as observed for example on March 22, 1894,
may be reduced to actual velocities of about 9 km. per second.

Should a more extended and systematic observation confirm this pro-
visional assumption, we shall then be in a position to discuss from a new
point of view the physical nature of the materials constituting the interior
of our globe which apparently transmits motion at a greater rate than
glass or steel.

Points not yet touched upon are the increase of velocity with an
increase in the intensity of the initial disturbance, and a decrease in
velocity as a disturbance radiates, both of which phenomena are marked
near to the origin of artificial disturbances. The only explanation which
suggests itself for both these phenomena is that around the epicentrum
there is a region to which motion is communicated partly by elastic yield-
ing and partly as a push. The volume of ground which may be thus
disturbed is called by my late colleague, Professor T. Alexander, an earth-
quake core. In the case of an artificial disturbance originating near to
the surface, the distance to which this effect extends will depend upon the
suddenness and magnitude of the initial disturbance. With an earth-
quake originating underground, the distance to which a high epifocal
velocity may be noticeable will not only depend upon the above two con-
ditions, but also upon the depth of the focal origin. The greater this
latter quantity becomes, the greater will be the radius of the epicentral
area in which there may be not only a real increase in velocity but also a
high apparent velocity.

The conclusion to which these considerations and the observations
which have been made lead is that an earthquake gives rise to at least

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 173

three kinds of movements, each of which has a different velocity of
propagation. On the surface of the earth there is an undulatory motion
which from the researches of Lord Rayleigh we might expect to travel at a
rate slightly slower than a distortional wave, but as pointed out by
Lord Kelvin it is probable that this rate is accelerated by the influence of
gravity. What we should expect and what we find are therefore fairly in
accordance. From a centrum to various points upon the surface of the
earth we should expect truly elastic waves to be propagated, the velocities
of which would vary along paths of varying depths. At great depths, as
for example along a straight or curvilinear path between Japan and
Europe, the velocity of propagation might be higher than that of a con-
densational rarefactional wave in glass, and exceedingly high velocities
have apparently been observed. Lastly, in an epifocal area there may be
instantaneous disturbance or an apparent high velocity due to bodily
displacement within an earthquake core and the transmission of elastic
and quasi-elastic vibrations, or to the combination of such phenomena.

(d) The Paths followed by Earthquake Motion.

What has next to be considered are the paths by which an earthquake

originating at a centrum reaches various points upon the surface of the

lobe.

4 Three hypotheses present themselves. Motion may reach various
points on the earth’s surface along the rectilinear wave paths of Hopkins
or Seebach, by curvilinear paths as suggested by Dr. A. Schmidt, or lastly
by either of these paths, after which from an epifocal area the radius of
which is not likely to exceed the focal depth, there is a transmission on the
surface of elastic gravitational waves.

Before discussing the merits of these hypotheses, it may be well first to
consider the case or cases to which they are applicable.

Because we have no evidence of a disturbance being simultaneously
felt at a number of places on the surface of our globe and at their anti-
podes, and for other reasons, we may exclude the idea of a disturbance
having originated near to the centre of our sphere. Nor can it be admitted
that a disturbance originated at half or quarter such a depth, for if it did
so, then in an epicentral area, possibly 400 miles in diameter, apparent
velocities should have been observed which not only would be enormously
high, but would be at least five times greater than those observed between
more distant stations.

From what we know respecting the causes of earthquakes, it is a
reasonable supposition to imagine that their origins are confined to the
erumpling of a superficial layer of the material constituting the crust
of our globe, which according to the Rev. O. Fisher and other investi-
gators, in all probability does not exceed thirty miles in thickness. The
enormous faulting which has accompanied certain disturbances shows that
at least a portion of the initial impulse was delivered actually at the
surface. About the depth to which such faults have descended or the
mean depth from which an earthquake has originated, we have no certain
information. Confining our considerations to disturbances which have
originated at depths which are extremely small relatively to the radius of
our earth, we may now turn to the hypotheses respecting earthquake
radiation,

174 REPORT—1895.

1. Hypotheses of Hoplhins and Seebach.

In 1847 Hopkins drew attention to the fact that the velocity with
which a wave passes from one point of the surface of the earth to another
point is only an apparent horizontal velocity which may be denoted as v.
For example, if in fig. 16 the origin of a disturbance be O, C be its
epicentre on the surface of the earth H’ H, and Op, Op, be the direction of
two earthquake rays, then the apparent velocity is the distance p, py»
divided by the time interval between the observations at the two points
p, andp,. During this interval the distance travelled by the wave within
the earth has been spo.

The trwe velocity which may be called V is that with which it travels
within the earth, as, for example,
between the centrum and the epi-
centre. To show the relationship
between these two velocities it is
assumed that the true velocity is
constant. On this assumption if O
is a centrum, wave fronts may be
represented by circles of coseismals, _
the distances apart of alternate
members of which are equal and
represent the distance travelled
in unit time, which for conveni-
ence may be taken at one second.
The true velocity V is therefore
equal to spy, while the apparent
velocity recorded on the surface
iS Py py. From the construction
SPo=P| Po Sin #, or V==Vv sin 0.

From this it follows that for points near to the epicentre C, the
apparent velocity is very much greater than the true velocity, while
between points at some distance from C the two velocities tend to become
equal to each other, The law of this decrease in the apparent velocity is
shown geometrically by drawing Seebach’s hyperbola, which runs from C
through a series of ordinates the lengths of which are equal to the
differences between the time at which C was shaken and p, ps, &c., were
disturbed. The asymptote to this curve intersects the seismic vertical at
the origin, and therefore if we are satisfied with the hypothesis, having
given a number of time observations and knowing the position of the
piceuire, the method may be used for determining the depth of a seismic

ocus.

This hypothesis indicates why a disturbance should apparently be pro-
pagated with a high velocity near to its epicentre, but that this rapidly
approaches a constant value.

Fig. 16.

2, Hypothesis of Schmidt.

As pointed out by Dr. A. Schmidt, directly we deal with an earthquake
which has been propagated over a great distance it is necessary when
constructing the velocity curve to take into consideration the curvature
of the earth.

This curve (fig. 17), which has lost its hyperbolic character, shows by

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 175

the convexity of its upper part that after a decrease in velocity in the
epicentral regions at great distances the velocity again increases to
become infinite. Dr. Schmidt has likewise shown that actual observations
which have been made upon earthquakes are best satisfied by a velocity
curve drawn on the supposition that the actual velocity within the earth

Fig. 17.

is not a constant, but varies with a change in elasticity and density of the
rocks through which the waves are propagated.
As we descend in depth on account of an increasing temperature it is

_ probable that with other changes there is a change in the elastic moduli of

rocks. This being admitted, it then follows that a series of waves start-
ing from a centrum would be propagated at a greater rate downwards than
upwards towards the surface, while the normals to such a series of waves
would by refraction gradually be bent upwards.

As illustrative of what would occur under the supposed conditions,
Dr. Schmidt gives a diagram like fig. 18,
in which coseismals have been drawn, on
the assumption that the velocity has in-
creased proportionately with the depth. In
this case the earthquake rays which are
perpendicular to successive coseismals are
by refraction turned upwards, and no
longer radiate in straight lines. The co-
seismals meet the surface at intervals,
which first decrease from the epicentre
and then increase, indicating a decrease
and then an increase in the apparent ve-
locity. The value for v is never less than
the velocity at the centre, but after rapidly
decreasing until it equals this value, it again
increases. The velocity curve or earthquake hodograph which shows these
changes is drawn through points determined as they were determined for
Seebach’s hyperbola. If there is an increase in the velocity of propaga-
tion of earth waves or in the quantity «/p as we descend beneath the
surface, whether we take the centrum near to the surface or at a great

176 REPORT—1895.

depth, the resulting hodograph retains its character. Although the evi-
dence that there is an increase in the velocity of propagation of waves as
we trace them beneath the surface is by no means so complete as might
be desired (see p. 161), Dr. Schmidt compares the advantages which the
curvilinear propagation presents over that of the rectilinear transmission
employed by Seebach.

It will be observed that in fig. 18 there is a great concentration of
earthquake rays in the epifocal region which would correspond to the
destruction which is so noticeable in such districts, while with rectilinear
radiation the absence of such concentration is not in accord with the
results of experience. Although both hypotheses agree in showing a
higher apparent velocity near to the epicentre, in Seebach’s hyperbola an
identical limit is reached for the apparent horizontal velocity for all
earthquakes, while Schmidt’s modification of the laws shows that the
apparent velocity on the surface cannot be less than that between the
focus and the first coseismal, with which it varies. From this it follows
that for limited areas the latter method admits the possibility of very high
velocities resulting from earthquakes originating at reasonable depths.
With rectilinear propagation on the contrary, to obtain such high veloci-
ties as have been observed, it is necessary that origins should be situated
at enormous depths.

Should a disturbance originate near the surface, Schmidt’s hodograph
consists of two symmetrical concave branches which meet in an angle at
the centre, indicating that the velocity increases from the epicentre
outwards.

After indicating the above and other advantages presented by the
hodograph over the hyperbola as representing the velocity with which
earth waves are apparently propagated, Dr. Schmidt takes a number of
earthquakes for which good time observations have been obtained and
plots the resulting curves. These which refer to earthquakes felt over
moderate areas show the characteristic inflexion point denoting an
increased velocity in the outer portion of the disturbed tract.

The following are examples of his results :—

Middle Germany, March 6, 1872.—Longest wave path 400 km,
Here the hodograph is distinct in character with a point of inflexion at
about 11 miles from its vertex, having a slope indicating a velocity of
2-5 miles per minute. Ata distance of 36-7 miles the velocity is 15 miles
per minute. The curve passes much more closely through the points
representing time and distance than the hyperbola of Seebach. Possible
depth, 5 to 10 miles. Mallet’s method, dependent upon a single observation,
gives 1°9 to 2-9 miles.

Herzogenrath, October 22, 1873.—Longest wave path 150 km. In
this case the hodograph is practically concave, throughout its length
indicating an origin near the surface. It is indicated over a radius of
17 miles. Possible depth is less than 3 km. By Seebach’s method it may
be from 0 to 14 km.

Swiss Earthquake, January 7, 1887.—Longest wave path, 150 km.
The general character of this hodograph is like the last. At the point
of inflexion the velocity is 170 m. per second, and at 150 km, it is
1,300 m. The depth of the centrum is from 1 to 6 km.

Charleston Earthquake, August 31, 1886.—Longest wave path,
1,500 km. Here the hodograph is nearly a straight line. The depth
of the centrum may exceed 120 km.

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 17

In the case of the first three of these examples, their hodographic
character may be due to the fact that observations were made in epifocal
areas, within which disturbances radiating from a centrum were recorded ;
but in the last example this character has been lost, because most of the
times which were noted probably refer to the arrival of a surface disturb-
ance capable of being felt, and which might have been recorded by ordinary
seismographis.

These latter records are therefore such that we could not expect them
to conform with the hypothesis under consideration, and until a number
of stations separated by long distances are provided with instruments
capable of recording minute tremors which may go through the earth.
Until these have been established, it would seem that the confirmation of
the attractive theory put forward by Dr. Schmidt must remain in abeyance,

3. A Suggestion that there are three Classes of Movement.

The last hypothesis is one that takes into consideration three classes of
movements which immediately round an epicentre are hopelessly confused.
These are the truly elastic disturbances which from a focus reach the
surface of the earth along rectilinear or curvilinear paths, forced displace-
ments, and quasi-elastic waves, causing tumultuous movements in the
centre of a megistoseismic area, and long undulatory elastic-gravity waves
which are propagated over the surface of the earth.

The escape of energy is most pronounced along the paths cf least
resistance, that is round the seismic vertical to an epifocal area, and then
radially over the surface of the globe. The rate of propagation of the
surface waves seems to be about 2 or 3 km. per second, and it may be
fairly constant. The minute tremors which have been observed at
stations 6,000 miles distant from their originating cause, if they travelled
_ through the superficial crust of the earth they did so at a rate of perhaps
_ 12 km. per. second, while if they were created on the passage, their
velocity, which is increased, becomes more abnormal. Assuming that they
came as condensational waves through the earth, then their velocity
is reduced to 8 or 10 km. per second, a quantity which, as suggested
_ by Dr. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz, may possibly throw new light upon the

nature of materials constituting the interior of our earth. At present
the facts bearing upon this latter question are both few and imperfect. To
confirm or dispel the important conclusions indicated by the few facts at
our disposal, it would seem desirable that investigations should be extended
_ in such a manner that the results obtained by ditferent observers would be
comparable. With a set of stations situated round the globe at intervals.
of 15° or 30° apart, provided with instruments similar in character,
similarly installed and similarly worked, which are capable of recording
not simply small changes in level but also minute vibrations, we might
easily extend our present knowledge, not simply respecting the propaga-
tion of surface undulations, but possibly of motion transmitted through
the rigid globe. An indication of the latter phenomenon would be an
enormous increase in the apparent velocity of a disturbance as it approached
the antipodes of its origin, while the concentratiov of energy in such a
region would suggest internal refraction.

Other phenomena which might be recorded would be the diurnal and
longer period wanderings of the instruments, local earthquakes and earth
tremors. The latter, although important in themselves, because they so

1895, N

178 REPORT— 1895.

often eclipse the effects of earthquakes, should, by proper instalment of
the instruments, be as far as possible minimised.

(e) Conclusions.

If we except the curious results respecting the velocity of propagation
of motion which we might expect to find, and which apparently exists in
an epifocal area, the phenomenon of greatest interest, the study of which
may lead us to important conclusions respecting the physical constitution
of the interior of our globe, are the so-called preliminary tremors of earth-
quakes which are often continued as superimposed serrations on the quasi-
elastic motions. In Japan these have been recorded and studied for the
last 15 years, but it has only been within the last year or two that their
appearance has been recognised in Europe.

All that I know about these latter records is what I learn by letters
from Dr. EK. von Rebeur-Paschwitz, and what I have seen in the publica-
tions of Dr. Agamennone and other Italian observers, and the conclusion
is that these tremors are the reappearance of a phenomenon which has for
so many years puzzled seismologists in Japan. If this is so, and if they
really possess the abnormally high velocities attributed to them, seismo-
logists may be on the verge of probing our earth to depths greater than
it was thought probable that the study of earthquakes could possibly lead.
Although something farther may yet be learned by studying the elastic
gravitational surface disturbances, we know that whether they are recorded
on paths of about 600 miles in length in Japan, or on paths of 6,000 miles
in length between Japan and Europe, they travel at a rate of about
3 km. per second. All that is now required is to increase the accuracy of
the observations by adopting such methods of noting the arrival of these
disturbances that the records at each station refer to the same phase of
motion.

Before the short list below was completed, I unfortunately lost my
library and everything else by fire. It is therefore possible that some of
my quotations may be incomplete and perhaps inaccurate. Such writings
as have been referred to, so far as I am able to give them, are as
follows :—

References.
Dr. A. Schmidt (Stutt- Wellenbewegung und Erdbeben. ‘Jahreshefte des Vereins
gart). fiir vaterl. Naturkunde in Wiirtt.,’ 1888.
a 7 : . Untersuchungen tiber zwei neuere Erdbeben, das Schwei-

zerische vom 7. Januar 1889 und das Nord-Amerikanische
vom 31, August 1886. Jdid., 1890.
Petacehini 4 - Terremoto calabro-messinese del 16 Novembre 1894.
‘Reale Accademia dei Lincei,’ vol. 3, p. 275.
= , 4 . Sulla reeistrazione a Roma del terremoto calabro-messinese
del 16 Novembre 1894. Jbid., p. 365.
Dott. A. Cancani . - Sulla velocita di propagazione del terremoto di Constanti-
nopoli del 10 Luglio 1894. TZoid., p. 409.
» . . - Sugli strumenti pit adatti allo studio delle grandi ondula-
zione provenienti da centri sismici lontani. Jdid.,
p. 551.
” . H + Sulle ondulazioni provenienti da centri sismici lontani.
‘Annali dell Officio Centrale di Meteorologia e Geodina-
mica,’ vol. 15, part 1, 1893.
Dott. G. Agamennone. Velocitd di propagazione delle principali scosse di terre-
moto di Zante nel recente periodo sismico del 1893.
‘Reale Accademia dei Lincei,’ vol. 2, p. 392.

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 179

Dott. G. Agamennone . Alcune considerazioni sulla velocita di propagazione delle
principali scosse di terremoto di Zante nel 1893. Zbid.,
vol. 3, p. 383.
a rf . Aleune considerazioni sui differenti metodi fino ad oggi
adoperati nel calcolare la velocitaé di propagazione del
terremoto andaluso del 25 Dicembre 1884. Jbid., p.
303.
-f “p . Velocitd superficiale di propagazioni delle onde sismiche,
in oceasione della grande scossa di terremoto dell’
Andalusia del 25 Dicembre 1884, Jdid., p. 317.
7 * . Sulla variazione della velocité di propagazione dei terre-
moti, attribuita alle onde transversali e longitudinali.
Tbid., p. 401.

Robert Mallet . . Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena. ‘British
Association Reports,’ 1851.
is P , . Report of the Experiments made at Holyhead, &c. Tbid.,
1861.
William Hopkins . . Report on the Geological Theories of Hlevation and Earth-

quakes. Jbdid., 1547.

Prof. Simon Newcomb The Speed of Propagation of the Charleston Earthquake.

and Capt. Dutton, C.K. ‘Am. Journ. of Science,’ vol. 35, January, 1888. Also

other publications lost by fire.

F.Fouqué et Michel Lévy Expériences sur la vitesse de propagation des secousses
dans les sols divers. ‘L’Académie des Sciences de
l'Institut de France. Tome 30.

General H. L. Abbot . On the Velocity of ‘Transmission of Earth Waves. ‘ Am.
Journ. of Science and Arts,’ vol. 15, March, 1878. Also
other publications lost by fire.

J. Milne. ~ f . Seismic Experiments. * Trans. Seis. Soc.,’ vol. 8.
ae - : : n a Seismic Survey made in Tokio 1884-5. Jbdid.,
vol. 10.

Dr. C.G. Knott. . Earthquakes and Harthquake Sounds as illustrating the
General Theory of Vibrations. Jdid., vol. 12.
Dr. E. von Rebeur-Pasch- Many papers lost by fire.
witz.

V. Miscettanrous Notes RELATING TO LArGeE Earruquakes, «ce.

1. Large Earthquakes.—During the past twelve months Japan has
been visited by several destructive earthquakes, seismographic records of
which are given in the list of shocks recorded by the Gray-Milne seismo-
graph in Tokio. The velocities with which certain of these disturbances
were propagated in Japan will be found in the fourth section of this
report. At least three of the shocks were recorded in Europe, and to
determine the velocities with which they were propagated diagrams and
notes relating to observations made in Japan have been forwarded to Dr.
E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz and Dr. P. Tacchini. The most notable dis-
turbances were as follows.

June 20, 1894. Reference was made to this shock in the report for
1894. In Tokio it was felt very severely, destruction being equally great
amongst foreign-built brick buildings on the high ground, and amongst
similar structures in the foreign concession on the low ground. An ex-
cellent diagram, obtained from a seismograph without multiplication, has
been published in the ‘Journal of the College of Science ’ (Imperial Uni-
versity of Japan). The after shocks were extremely few in number.

N2

180 REPORT—1895.

October 22, 1894, 5.20 p.m. This shock, which created great destruc-
tion within an area not more than thirty miles in diameter round Shonai
on the N.W. coast of the main island, does not appear to have been recorded
by the Gray-Milne seismograph in Tokio.

The destruction it occasioned in the vicinity of its origin was enormous.
More than 300 people lost their lives, while in some respects the country
was more fissured and broken up than it was around Gifu in 1891, at which
time nearly the whole of Japan was sensibly shaken. Sand hills or dunes,
which have a breadth of 3,000 to 4,000 feet at their base, were fissured and
sunk along their crests for a breadth of between 200 and 300 feet, and these
openings extended for several miles. Fissures of great length were formed
in the plains, whilst water and sand were shot upwards, and ring-like
craterlets produced. One of the most curious phenomena was the fill-
ing up of wells with sand, and the shooting upwards for a height of
several feet of their wooden linings. The after shocks were few in
number.

January 18, 1895. At 10.48 p.m. on this date Tokio was again
severely disturbed, and from the feelings of the inhabitants it was difficult
to say whether the movement was more or less severe than that of June.
The fact that many buildings which escaped the latter shock were on this
occasion more or less shattered suggests the idea that the distribution of
‘ movement throughout the city was somewhat different.

The origin of the disturbance was apparently from 60 to 100 miles to the
north or north-east of Tokio, and from this centre the preliminary tremors
recorded by a seismograph outraced the main shock by 6 or 8 seconds.
Had the writing pointer of the seismograph recorded its movements pho-
tographically, it is likely that this interval would have heen inereased.
Tt will be of great importance to determine the interval between the
preliminary tremors and the elastic surface gravitational waves for this
shock as recorded in Europe.

Owing to the number of destructive earthquakes which occurred prior
to the three here mentioned, so many observations have been accumulated
that up to the present no time has been available for their analysis. The
observations and notes collected by the writer relating to disturbances
which have taken place during the last few years, which in themselves
would have formed a voluminous report, were unfortunately destroyed by
a fire referred to in the next paragraph.

2. The Destruction of Books and Pamphlets relating to Seismology.—it
is with regret that I have to announce that on February 17 my house
and observatory were entirely destroyed by fire. The losses consisted of
collections of books, instruments, and other things accumulated during the
last twenty years, the stock of the Transactions of the Seismological
Society, which at the time were packed ready for shipment to Europe, and
about 1,500 books and pamphlets relating to Earthquake and Volcanic
Phenomena. AJ] that I saved was the clockwork of a new seismograph
and a bundle of photograms. The analysis of the latter forms the chief
portion of this report.

3. Alterations in the Construction of Chimneys.—One effect of the
recent earthquakes in Tokio has been to cause householders to rebuild the
upper part of their chimneys with thin iron plate, while factory chimneys
from 50 to 100 feet in height have for a length of 20 or 30 feet at about
two-thirds up from their base been strengthened with a series of strong
iron bands connected vertically by iron straps, it being observed that x

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 181

was usually near to this point that

fracturing occurred.

4. Huperiments on the Vibration
of Chimneys and Buildings.—Short-
ly after my fire Professors Tanaka-
date, Mano, and other Members of
the Earthquake Committee to which
Tam attached took diagrams of the
natural vibrations of the brick chim-
ney stack which was left standing
after my fire. The chimney is 18
feet in height, and has a rectangular
section of 3 feet 8 inches by 3 feet
1 inch and two flues. With a rope
and a windlass, a deflection of the
top of the stack of one inch and a
half was obtained, when the rope
was suddenly released The result
was that the chimney vibrated for
about 20 seconds, and a record of
these vibrations was obtained upon
a band of paper. One of the dia-
grams is reproduced, fig. 19. The
period of motion has apparently
varied with the range of swing ; for
example—

Range of Motion 1:25 in Period 1:7 second.
” ” ” “50 ” ”? 85 ”
oy Be " aOR: xr “43 on

When we remember that the greatest
portion of the destruction occasioned
by earthquakes is due to the fact
that various portions of a building,
in consequence of not synchronising
in their movements, are mutually
destructive, while solitary structures
may be destroyed in consequence
of the agreement between their
natural period and that of an earth-
quake, it seems likely that observa-
tions like the one now described may
lead to important rules being for-
mulated for builders.

The next experiments will be on
the vibration of wooden buildings.

5. The Earth Waves of Earth-
quakes.—On several occasions the ap-
paratus described in the Report for
1893 has given diagrams showing the
amount of tilting which accompanies
certain earthquakes. The period of
these angular displacements closely
coincides with the periodicity of hori-

19.

Fia.

Tn
OUND =

=f Sez.

Ke —-— ----- - -~---

:
E
=

182 REPORT—189d.

zontal displacement, and its amount has varied between one and three
minutes of are. The original instrument has unfortunately been destroyed
by fire.

6. Work at the Central Observatory wnder the Directorship of K.
Kobayashi, Esq.—Athough records from the 968 outside observing sta-
tions have accumulated at a quicker rate than that at which they can be
tabulated for analysis, many important improvements have been made in
the working of the central station. In one room all instruments intended
for country stations are tested. These instruments are simplified types
of the Gray-Milne seismograph. One test is for the time-recording
clocks, another for the clock driving the recording surface, and a third for
the multiplication of the horizontal and vertical seismographs. Although
several types of spring clocks have been tested, their rates are far from
being satisfactory. Cheap pendulum clocks give good rates, but they are
generally disturbed at the time of an earthquake. In another room an
exceedingly large seismograph, without multiplication, is arranged to
record severe motions. Ina third room, which is alive with the ticking
of clocks and chronometers which are at stated intervals compared with
time signals from the Astronomical Observatory, there are four seismo-
graphs and various types of contact makers. A glass dise recording sur-
face, on which the pointers for vertical and horizontal motion rest, is
continuously in motion. The recording surfaces of the other instruments
“are set in motion by the contact makers, after which time intervals are
marked upon them from a break circuit chronometer. Mr, N. Outska,
who is in charge of this department, finds that for horizontal and vertical
contact makers having equal multiplication the former almost invariably
closes its circuit before the latter.

APPENDIX.

On Causes producing Movements which may be mistaken for Earth
Tremors.

The following note refers to observations and experiments made at a
small observing station which has recently been established at Nhide, in
the Isle of Wight. I reached Shide on July 30, and on the following
day a pit was excavated in a dry stable, about 3 ft. 6 in. in depth, down
to the upper surface of the disintegrated chalk.

On August 6 and 7 a brick pier, 6 feet in height and 1 ft. 6 in.
square, was built on a concrete bed to rise freely in the pit. The necessary
wooden covering for this was completed at noon on the 16th, and that
evening an extremely light horizontal pendulum like R was installed and
set to work. This instrument, which I call T, gave a beautifully defined
two-line diagram until the 21st, when the clock ceased to drive the film,
which had become damp and sticky. This was clearly due to moisture
from the drying column being confined in the casing which covered its
upper part and the instrument. To overcome the difficulty I placed
inside the case two trays, each about 6 in. by 3 in., of calcium chloride.
Immediately after this the pendulum commenced to swing, its range

ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 183
sometimes reaching + inch. This continued until the 25th, when, sus-
pecting that the cause might be due to air currents resulting from rapid
desiccation, I removed the calcium chloride, and the movements ceased.
I have repeated the experiment several times, with the result that when
the calcium chloride is introduced, movements are produced, which in
the developed film have the appearance of a violent tremor storm, and
when it is taken away the diagram is a clear straight line. We have
here a cause of air currents which has not yet received serious atten-
tion. Another cause of movement, which is easily verified by experi-
ments on a very light pendulum beneath a glass covering, may be due
to the unequal heating of the surrounding walls. If portions of the tremors
which have been recorded are due to causes, such as these which act
within the casings, then it is understood why extremely small and light
pendulums have shown more movement than those which are compara-
tively large and heavy. After my last twenty installations, and those
which preceded them, the horizontal pendulums might be arranged
according to their sensibilities as follows. The most sensitive are those
with booms from one quarter to 3 or 4 inches in length, the next are those
like R, and the one at Shide T, where the boom is of reed or straw about
2 ft. 6 in. in length, following which are booms about 5 feet in length of
bamboo like A, and lastly, as the least sensitive, are the somewhat shorter
and comparatively heavier hooms of brass or aluminium used at the
remaining stations. The only exceptions in the last group were the
instruments E and F in the underground chamber, which recorded
tremors almost equally as large as A. In this-chamber, although there
was but little appreciable daily change in temperature, the ventilation
was good, and therefore there may have been considerable changes in the
hygrometric state of the atmosphere entering the covering cases, which
were of wood resting upon a floor of asphalt. A difference in the rate
at which moisture was absorbed or evaporated from the walls of this
casing might possibly give rise to air currents. The five instruments in
badly ventilated caves may have failed to show tremors, partly on
account of their inertia, and partly perhaps because there was neither
any sensible change in temperature nor in the dryness or wetness of the
atmosphere. That tremors were practically absent from all the instru-
ments on the surface, can only be attributed to their inertia, or to the fact
that they were so well ventilated that no difference in temperature within
their coverings was possible ; but as the huts and casings were similar to
that of R, the most probable explanation is the former.

The most difficult things which require explanation respecting earth
tremors, assuming them to result from air currents due to differences in
temperature or desiccation within the walls that inclose the instruments,
are the facts that tremors have in all cases but one been most pro-
nounced between 6 a.m. and 9 a.m., and during the night, and that they
accompany certain meteorological conditions already formulated.

Before attempting these explanations it would be advisable to com-
pare the movements of two light pendulums standing on the same column,
one having walls varying in character, and the other, if possible, in
vacuum.

1&4 REPORT—1895.

Earth Tremors.—Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of. Mir Gr
J. Symons, Mr. C. Davison (Secretary), Sir F. J. BRAMWELL, Pro-
fessor G. H. Darwiy, Professor J. A. Ew1nc, Dr. Isaac Roperts,
Mr. THomas Gray, Sir Jonny Evans, Professors J. PRESTWICH,
EK. Huu, G. A. Lesour, R. MEtpoua, and J. W. Jupp, Mr. M:
Watton Brown, Mr. J. GLAisHER, Professor C. G. Knorr, Pro-
fessor J. H. Poyntine, Mr. Horace Darwin, and Dr. R. CopeLann,
appointed for the Investiqation of Earth Tremors in this Country.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

APPENDIX.—WNote on the History of the Horizontal and Bifilar Pendulwns.
By C. DAVISON . : - ° : - paye 184

Srvce their last Report was presented, the Committee have purchased
two bifilar pendulums from the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Com-
pany. These instruments are similar in most respects to the pendulum
with which experiments were made in 1893 (Report, 1893, pp. 291-303),
but several improvements have been introduced in order to correct one or
two defects which those experiments brought to light. The changes made
are described in the Report of 1894 (pp. 145-146, 158-160), and a
detailed account of the new instrument is given in ‘ Nature,’ vol. 1,
1894, pp. 246-249. Each pendulum is provided with a photographic
recording apparatus. One of them has been erected on the old foundation
in the cellar of the Secretary’s house at Birmingham, but at too recent a
date to allow any results to be included in this Report. It was intended
that the second instrument should be placed in a building about three-
quarters of a mile to the east of the first, but it was afterwards found
that the construction of the foundation might endanger the stability of
the walls. Arrangements are accordingly being made for the erection of
this instrument on another site in the neighbourhood of the former, and
it is hoped that a comparison of the records of both may be completed
before the next meeting of the Association. The second pendulum will
then be available for use elsewhere.

The Committee recommend that they be reappointed, with the addi-
tion of Mr. G. F. Deacon.

APPENDIX.

Note on the History of the Horizontal and Bifilar Pendulums.
By C. Davison.

In previous Reports of this Committee, as well as in those of the
Committee on the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity (1881-82), reference is
made to the history of the horizontal and bifilar pendulums. A recent
work by Mr, Claudius Kennedy! contains an interesting chapter on this
subject, and gives some additional facts which it seems desirable to
embody in this note.

‘A Few Chapters in Astronomy (London, 1894), pp. 93-103.

EARTH TREMORS. 185

In the following bibliography, the first date is that of the year in
which, so far as known, the instrument was originally constructed.

1. 1832. L. Hengeller : ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ vol. xlvi., 1873, pp. 412-416.
9. 1851. A. Gerard : ‘ Edinburgh, New Phil. Journ.,’ vol. lv., 1853,
pp. 14-16 ; Kennedy, pp. 94-95.
3. 1862. Perrot : ‘Paris, Acad. Sci. Compt. Rend.,’ vol. liv., 1862,
pp. 728-729, 851-852.
4. 1869. Rey. M. H. Close : Barrett and Brown’s ‘ Practical Physics,’
1892, p. 241 ; Kennedy, p. 96.
5. 1869. F. Zollner: ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ vol. xliii., 1872, pp. 491-496.
6. 1871. C. Delaunay : ‘Paris, Acad. Sci. Compt. Rend.,’ vol. xevii.,
1883, p. 250.
7. 1879. Lord Kelvin : 1880-81, G. H. and H. Darwin : ‘ Brit. Assoc.
Rep.,’ 1881, pp. 93-112.
8. 1887-88. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz : ‘Nova Acta der ksl. Leop.
Carol. Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher,’ Bd. lx., 1892,
pp. 1-216 ; ‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.,’ 1893, pp. 303-309,
9. 1892. J. Milne: ‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.,’ 1892, pp. 107-109 ; ‘ Fed.
Inst. Mining Eng. Trans.,’ 1893, pp. 6-7; ‘Seismol. Journ.,’
vol. i. 1893, pp. 88-90.
10. 1893. H. Darwin : ‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.,’ 1893, pp. 291-299 ; 1894,
pp. 145-146, 158-160 ; ‘ Nature,’ vol. 1, 1894, pp. 246-249 ;
‘Seismol. Journ.,’ vol. 1i., 1894, pp. 61-63.

In every case, I believe, except those numbered 8 and 10, the principle
of the instrument was discovered independently. The horizontal pendu-
lum has also been designed as a time-recorder for small disturbances by
Professor J. Milne (Japan, ‘Seismol. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. iii, 1881, pp. 61-
62 ; ‘Nature,’ vol. xlii., 1890, p. 347); Professor T. C. Mendenhall
(‘ Amer. Journ. Sci.,’ vol. xxxv., 1888, p. 105) ; and Professor G. Grablo-
vitz (‘ Boll. della Soc. Seismol. Ital.,’ vol. i., 1895, pp. 12-17).

All the different forms of horizontal and bifilar pendulums agree in
one respect : the vertical distance between their points of support is very
great compared with the horizontal distance between them. In principle
they merely differ in the method of suspension ; and, according to this
method, they may be grouped in the following three classes :—

1. The pendulum in which the rod or mirror is suspended by two
wires. These may be again subdivided : (a) The pendulums of Close and
H. Darwin, and practically also of Delaunay, and Lord Kelvin and the
Darwins, in which the centre of gravity of the rod or mirror lies between
the two points of attachment of the suspending wires. (>) The pendulums
of Hengeller, Perrot, and Zéllner, in which it lies outside them.

2. The pendulums of Gerard and Milne, on which the rod is supported
by one wire and on one steel point.

3. The pendulum of von Rebeur-Paschwitz, which is supported on two
steel points.’

' In this class should be included Professcr Ewing’s borizontal pendulum seis-
mograph, which, though designed for a different purpose, also records slow tilts of the
ground (Zneyel. Brit. vol. xxi. p. 628).

186 REPORT—1895,

Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Lord McLaren (Chairman), Professor A. CRruM
Brown (Secretary), Dr. JouN Murray, Dr. ALEXANDER BucHan,
Hon. RatrpH ABERCROMBIE, and Professor R. CopELAND. (Drawn
up by Dr. Bucnan.)

Tue Committee was appointed, as in former years, for the purpose of
co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making Meteoro-
logical Observations on Ben Nevis.

The hourly eye observations by night as well as by day have been made
uninterruptedly by Mr. Omond and his assistants during the year at the
Ben Nevis Observatory ; and the continuous registrations and other
observations have been carried on at the Low Level Observatory at Fort
William with the same fulness of detail as during the previous four years.

The Directors of the Observatories tender their cordial thanks to
Messrs. C. M. Stewart, B.Sc., A. D. Russell, and C. T. R. Wilson for
valuable assistance rendered as volunteer observers during the summer
months for about six weeks each, thus giving greater relief to the members
of the regular observing staff.

For the year 1894, Table I. shows the monthly mean and extreme
‘ pressures and temperatures, hours of sunshine, amounts of rainfall, number
of fair days and of days when the amount exceeded one inch, the number
of hours of bright sunshine ; and this year for the first time the mean
rainband (scale 0-8) at both Observatories, and the mean hourly velocity
of the wind in miles at the top of the mountain. The mean barometric
pressures at the Low Level Observatory are reduced to 32° and sea level,
while those at the top of the Ben are reduced to 32° only.

TABLE I.

1894 | Jan. | Feb. 'March April May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year

Mean Pressure in Inches. |

Ben Nevis Ob- | 24°980) 25°086, 25°192) 25286) 25°357! 25°450) 25°369! cls gt 25°665! 25°357! 25°181! aba 25°291
servatory | | |
Fort Wiliam | 29°595 29°697, 29°764 29-844) 29°951, 29:960' 29-220) 29°823) 30°232) 29°915| 39°716 29°828) 29°845

Differences .| 4:615| 4°61], 4°572| 4:558, 4°594| 4°510| 4-451, 4-484) 4067) 4°558| 4°535| 4:596| 4°354
Mean Temperatures.
} } | | | | ° | ° | (9) | ° }
BenNevisOb-| 21-7 | 240 | 282 | ait) 24 | 382 | 433 | ab2| sf | 387) sla | 276 | sto
servatory | / | . | | fae
Fort William | 39°3 | 40:3 | 42:9! 484 46-9 | 54°S | 58:9 | 55-2 | 510) 456 | 46-7 | 411) 47-6
Differences . | 17:6 | 16:3 | 14:7 | 17°3.| 178] 166 | 15°6 | 160 | 13°77 | 12°9 | 15°4 | 13°5 | 15°6
Extremes of Temperature, Maxima.
| \ \ / i |
° ' °
BenNevisOb-| 25-4) 362 41-2 40:3 451) 635 | 62:9) 53:9 S51 | 55:5 436 41-0) 635
servatory | | . | . )

62°6 611

Fort William | 535 | 52:0 63-1 7
21:9 | 218) 160) 14

Differences .| 181 | 15°8

Extremes of Temperature, Minima.

° °o ° ° ° ° | ° | ° ° °o ° °
Ben NevisOb-) 0:7 | 12°3 | 17°6 | 22'8 | 1671 | 283 | 32:6 | 310 | 26-4 | 171 | 20:3 | 11-2 | O7
servatory | | | |
Fort William | 20°8 | 21:5 | 287 | 33:9 | 81:7 380 | 47°38 | 42°6 | 37°3 | 245 | 31:7 | 244) 20°8
Differences .| 20°71 |° 92 111 | lll | 15°6 971 14:7 | 116 | 10:9 7-4] 114 |} 13:2 | 201

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 187

TABLE I.—continued.

1894 | Jan. | Feb. |March| April May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | ea

Rainfall in Inches. |
17-70! 1:32| 4:68) 17-40) 14:93 149-96 |

‘|Ben NevisOb- | 15°96 | 33°55 | 1458 3°50! 6°66) 833] 11°35
servatory | | | | | | | | |
Fort William 11°79) 13°62 9°36 | 1:37 | 3°78} 313) 5:70) 7:72) 0:24) 2°06) 11°62) 878 79°17 |
| Differences .| 4:17| 19°84] 5-221 2-13) 2°88) 5-20| 565) 9°98) 1-08| 2°62, 578) 615| 70:79 |
Number of Days 1 in. or more fell. .
Ben Nevis Ob- 4 11 6 1 0 3 4 6 0 1 5 oh, Oy, |S A0er
servatory |
Fort: William 3 3 3 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 2 2 16
Differences . 1 8 3 1 0 2 3 5 0 1 Sali 8 30
Number of Days of no Rain.
Ben NevisOb- 4 2 Tay eel8 2) 10 12 |e fF | | 13 3 6 , 119
servatory | | j | |
| Fort William 6 8 14,920 | 12 i9 | 12; rks 25 21 BP e it 157
| Differences .| 2 1 OF seule? 7 3 | 6 rh 2 % 1138
Mean Rainband (scale 0-8).
BenNevisOb-; 2:0 27 19 | 1:9 1'8 be ed ee el a ee py eae 14 | 20
servatory | | |
Fort William | 3:0 44 33 36 38 48 | 53 5-2 36 | 3°6 4-4 30 | 40
Meeteronces ©}! 1:0 | 1-70pC4 | 17.| 20] 241 28 | ay | 21 | 7 [SSP t)e | 20
Number of Hours of Bright Sunshine.
|BenNevisOb-} 3 9/101 y e) 78) 117) 115 | 45 | 126 | 91 15} 28 | 810 |
| _ servatory | } | }
Fort William 16 2u | 132 165 ; 171 170 | 143 | 76 147 | 91 13} 16 | 1,160 |
Differences . 13 11 31 | 83] 93] 53 28} al | 2k 0 —2|-12 350
Mean Hourly Velocity of Wind in Wiles. |
‘BenNevisOb-| 26 ; 19 | 18 | 19 | 11 | 10 | 12 He ede bea ate en seul bez)
| servatory | | | | | |
Percentage of Cloud.
Nevis Ob-| 95 96 | 69 80 85 77 80 89 | 58 | 69 91 84 81 |
oS | |
75 80 54 60 76 73 73 72 56 66 84 79 71
20 16 15 20 9 4 7 17 2 3 7 5 10

or 0°'8 greater than the mean of previous years, being the excess above
mean at western stations in Scotland from Ayrshire to Ross-shire.
‘The mean temperature at the top of Ben Nevis was 32°:0, or 0°-9 above
the mean for the same years, being thus nearly the same excess as at the
wer Observatory.
_ The lowest mean monthly temperature at Fort William was 39°°3 in
anuary, being 0°-7 above the mean ; and at the top of the Ben 21°-7 in
January, which is 2°] under the mean. This gives an unwonted large
| difference of temperature between the Observatories for January, which
_ Was occasioned by a comparative absence of anticyclonic weather and the
relatively low temperature accompanying at the upper station, and the
singular want of sunshine, there being registered for the whole month

_ At Fort William the mean temperature of the whole year was 47°°6, |

.

188 REPORT—1895.

only three hours of sunshine. On the other hand, anticyclonic weather
was of frequent occurrence in September, October, and December ; and
accordingly in these months sunshine was large, being absolutely the highest
hitherto recorded in September and October, and having been only
exceeded in December. It will be also observed that during these months
the difference of temperature between the two Observatories was much less
than usual, owing to the higher temperature of the auticyclones at the
top of the Ben. The highest monthly mean temperature at Fort William
was 58°-9 in July, or 2°-2 above the mean ; and at the top 43°-3 in the
same month, or 3°°0 above the mean. The month of greatest excess
above the average was November, whose mean temperature at Fort
William was 46°:7, or 4°-1 above the mean, while at the top it was 31°°3
or 3°'2 above the mean. This great excess of temperature was about the
same in all parts of Scotland, and was occasioned by an extraordinary
predominance of south-westerly wind, which exceeded any observed in
November during the past forty years. The sunshine was markedly
deficient, and hence temperature at the top was relatively lower than
at Fort William. The following show the deviations of the monthly
results from their respective means :—

TasLeE IT.
Top ot Fort
Ben Neyis William
fo} fe)

January ‘ : : : F j : . —2°0 O7
February. <i : ¢ ; : : on OIG 18
March . ; J , F é ? et ES ok
April. ; e : ‘ 4 : «roe: a4
May . ; ‘ 3 : : ‘ . —d7 — 26
June . ; : , : : ; ‘ . -—O7T —O0'5
July . : : : : : : - Papers 0) 2°2
August : ; : 2 : : : . —06 -—11
September . ; : ; : ‘ : . —0°2 -—19
October i : ; : ‘ f : 2, SVR —14
November . : ‘ ‘ ; 5 7 : 3:2 4-1
December . : : 4 : , . Sees) UE
wear. F . : : 3 : 5 2 109 0-8

The maximum temperature at the top was 63°°5 on June 30, and
$1°5 at Fort William on July 1. The minimum temperature at the top
was 0°-7 on January 6, and at Fort William 20°-8 on January 6.

The above minimum temperature 0°:7 is absolutely the lowest yet
observed on the top of Ben Nevis. The conditions under which it
occurred are seen in the following extract from the day’s observations :—

Taste III.— Weather accompanying Low Temperature of
January 6, 1894.

| Hour of Observation, |3 A... |4A.m.|53.m./6 A.M. |7A.M.!/8 Ac, || 9 A.M. | 10 am. {11A.m.] Noon] 1 p.m.
, Barometer, at | | | |

|
*877| °863) 827) -804

| 32°, 24 in.+ } | ‘784 \| °782 || *785| :807 829] 834] °840
Dry Bulb = . |13°0 (133 11-2 90 | 52 || 07 10 2°0 34 39 42 |
| Wet Bulb x . (128 131 {110 88 | 5:0 0-4 0-9 1°38 a1 3°38 40
| Wind Direction . E. BE. |E.byS.| E. | £E.S.E.! E.S.E.|| E.S.E.| 3.E.by E,| §.E. | S.E. |S.E.by E.
| Do. miles per hour, 25 25 38 38 43 38 38 30 29 29 29

| Melted Snow ininch. “008 | — 005} :003| -007;; — *002}) -004 004} -009|) -006

Cloud tog

So |

fog | fog | fog | fog | fog | fog fog fog | fog fog |

SS a ae Cee ee Pte ee RS ae

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 189

This low minimum temperature occurred at the same time as the lowest
barometric reading of a small satellite cyclone passing over the British
Islands (see Daily Weather Reports). As the centre of the disturbance
advanced, tenperature very rapidly fell, and thereafter rose steadily, but
more slowly than it had fallen, and the easterly winds acquired a little
southing. The wind was high throughout, attaining at 7 A.M. a velocity at
the rate of 43 miles an hour, accompanied by constant fog and showers
of snow. It is this type of weather, a temperature approaching zero,
near the point of saturation, and fog drifted onward with very high
wind, which is the most disagreeable and prejudicial to health of all
weather encountered at this high elevation. It may also be noted that
the dip in the temperature was coincident with the dip in the barometric
pressure.

The registrations of the sunshine recorder on the top show 810 hours
out of a possible 4,470 hours, being 130 hours more than in 1893. This
equals 18 per cent. of the possible sunshine. The maximum was 126
hours in September, which is higher than any previously recorded Sep-
tember ; and the minimum 3 hours in January, being the lowest yet
recorded in this month. At Fort William the number for the year was
1,160 hours, being 95 hours in excess of the previous year. As the
number of hours of possible sunshine at Fort William is, owing to the
surrounding hills, only 3,497 hours, the sunshine of 1894 here was 33 per
cent. of the possible number.

TabiE LV.—Lowest Hygrometric Observations during each Month of 1894.

| oy | |
_— Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April} May | June | July | Aug. | Sept.| Get. Nov. | Dee.
ides P | vid ve,
i} ° ° ° | ° ° ° ht eel aa ofS) 6 °
Dry Bulb. ° 25°8| 204] 243] 29:4) 30:6] 40:0 | 62°09) 520) 496) 50} 42:0) 22:0
Wet Bulb 23°3| 144] 188] 242 | 23°99) 292} 48:1) 36°; 31°38) 34! 30-3) 16:9
Dew: point 13:5 |—27°6|—131| 65| 45) 15:3) 363| 21:6) 12°2| 164) 159/168
Elastic Force . 3 7080} -010|} -023] -058| :053/ -087 | 214] 116; -075| -vY¥1} -089] :019
Relative Humidity ) | | | | | |
Sarnration=100 57 9; 18 36 31 35 | od 39 Py

25 | 34 | 16

Of these lowest monthly humidities the lowest (9) occurred at 1 p.m. on

_ February 14, at which hour the dew-point was — 276° and the elastic force

0-010 inch. The previous month (January) presents a striking contrast to
this, the lowest humidity being no lower than 57. It is also to be noted
that during the eight months from April to November the dew-point on
no occasion fell to zero.

At the top the percentage of cloud covering the sky was 81, being 3 |
less than the average of previous years. The variation during the months
was great, being above 90 per cent. in January, February, and November ;
while, on the other hand, the minimum was 58 per cent. in September and
69 per cent. in October. At Fort William the annual mean was 72 per
cent., the maximum being 84 per cent. in November, and the minimum
54 per cent. in March.

The mean rainband (scale 0-8) observations at the top was 2-0 for the
year, the maximum being 2°7 in February and the minimum 1-5 in Sep-
tember, when the weather was eminently anticyclonic. At Fort William
the means were for the year 4:0, the maximum 5:3 in July, and the mini-
mum 3:0 in January and December.

190 REPORT—1895.

The mean hourly velocity of the wind at the top was 16 miles, the
monthly mean maximum being 26 miles in January, and the minimum
10 miles in June. For the five months from May to September the mean
was 11 miles per hour, but for the six months from November to April
the mean was 20 miles per hour. The relations here indicated among the
seasons substantially hold good year by year.

The rainfall for the year at the top was 149-96 inches, being 3°63 inches
above the average. At Fort William the amount was 79°17 inches, which
is 4:07 inches above the average. The maximum monthly rainfall at
the top was 33°55 inches in February, and the minimum 1°32 inch in
September. At Fort William the maximum monthly fall was 15°62
inches in February, and the minimum fall 0-24 inch in September.
The above are the smallest monthly amounts yet recorded at either of
the Observatories, and the maxima are higher than any hitherto recorded
for February.

These two months were a strong contrast to each other. In February,
cyclone succeeded cyclone in swift succession to each other accompanied
with heavy and destructive gales, deluges of rain, and heavy snowfalls ;
whereas September was for much the greater part of the month under
the influence of anticyclones, accompanied with clear sky, dry and well-
nigh rainless weather. At the top of the Ben 6-67 inches of rain fell on

_February 6, being, except on October 3, 1890, the greatest daily fall on
the records of the Observatory.

At the top the rain fell on 246 days, and at Fort William on 208 days,
being respectively 14 aud 30 days under their averages. The maximum
number of days on which rain fell at the top and at Fort William was 27
days in January, and the minimum number 9 days at the top and 5 at
Fort William in September.

During the year the number of days on which an inch of rain was
exceeded was 46 days on Ben Nevis and at Fort William 16 days. In
February the numbers were 11 days and 3 days respectively.

Auroras are reported to have been observed on the following dates :—
February 13, 25 ; March 24, 25, 30, 31; April 28; August 23, 31 ; Sep-
tember 1, 2, ‘oF, 30; October 2, 4, 5, 26, 27, 30, 81; November 23, 24, 26;
December 1.

St. Elmo’s Fire was seen on January 25; February 4, 9; March, 3, 4,
6, 9, 12; May 29, 30; June 18; July 7, 21: November 8, 15.

The Zodiacal Light was observed on March 24, 25, 26,

Thunder and lightning reported on February 3, 8; July 6, 7, 21;
August 15; September 17; lightning only on January 29, February 4, 25,

Almost daily during the last week of February there were strong
earth-currents in the telegraph cable between the base and summit of the
hill.

At Fort William the mean atmospheric pressure at 32° and sea-level
was 29-845 inches, and at the top 25-291 inches, the difference being thus
4-554 inches, being only very slightly above their averages. At the top
the highest pressure during the year was 25992 inches in June, and the
lowest 23°742 inches in December, the difference being 2°250 inches, a
rather large difference.

Mr. A. J. Herbertson has made further progress in carrying on, at
the two Observatories and in the south of France, the research on the
hygrometry of the atmosphere referred to in last report. The work is
now in an advanced stage of preparation, and the results will shortly be

vu

ce ae

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 191

published in the 7’ransactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and in
the Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society.

Much work has been done in the offices in Edinburgh and Fort
William in recopying, on separate daily sheets, the hourly observations
of the two Observatories, in connection with a strictly scientific examina-
tion of the two sets of observations in their bearings on the meteorology
of north-western Europe.

This important research was begun by Dr. Buchan in spring last, and
it has since occupied any time that has been available after the discharge
of his official duties. The subject has been divided into several parts,
and each is treated separately by itself, in its relations with the other
observations more or less closely connected with it. The following are
the selected divisions of the research : Cyclones ; anticyclones ; differ-
ences of temperature between the top and bottom of the mountain, much
smaller than the normal difference, including inversions of temperature,
when the temperature at the top is higher than that at Fort William ;
large differences of temperature, much exceeding the normal difference,
particularly in their close connections with coming storms ; great dryness
of air at top, which occurs with anticyclones, and their intimate bearing
on the movements of these important weather factors ; marked differences
of wind at top and bottom, both as regards direction and force, especially
in their close relationship to the extent of the ‘droop’ cf the barometric
pressure likely to occur with the coming cyclone ; relations of the obser-
vations above and below to the storms reported by the keepers of the
Scottish Northern Lighthouses ; conditions under which very diverse
readings of the two barometers occur, as regards time of phases, and
character of the fluctuations ; and an examination of the whole observa-
tions with the reported rainfall at about a hundred stations selected from
all parts of Scotland.

In these inquiries the weather maps of this and other European
countries at the time are examined. The general method of treatment
may be best shown by an example. Thus in dealing with cyclones, the

following data are collected and entered in the respective columns of the

sheet for cyclones, viz., position in Europe of the cyclone ; position of the
nearest anticyclone at the time, with its highest recorded barometer and
place ; the direction in which Ben Nevis is situated from the cyclone,
whether N., N.E., E., &e. ; distance of Ben Nevis from the centre of the
cyclone in miles ; temperatures at the Observatories ; humidities at ditto,
sunshine and cloud at ditto ; barometer at Fort William, at sea level ;
lowest recorded barometer at centre of cyclone, and its position ; wind at
sea level from daily weather maps, and at top of mountain ; and the light-

houses at which storms occurred.

It will be recognised that several of these points have been to some
extent already adverted to in our previous reports; but what is now
attempted to be done is an inquiry into their relations to each other. The
unique character of the inquiry results from the fact that the High Level
Observatory on Ben Nevis is situated right in the general path of the
eyclones of north-western Europe, whereas the other high level observatories
and stations of Europe that have been used in similar investigations are
altogether outside that path. So far as'it has gone, the inquiry already
points to the result that there can be no doubt most important modifica-
tions will require to be made as to the theories of the cyclone more gener-
ally held by meteorologists at the present time.

192 REPORT—1895.

It being felt that more assistance was required to expedite this
work of discussion: than it is in the power of the directors to give,
application was made to the President and Council of the Royal Society
for a grant of 100/. from the fund placed at their disposal by the Govern-
ment Grant Committee. The application was granted, and the money
will be applied in paying assistants for doing portions of the routine
work of the offices in Edinburgh and Fort William, in order to give
Dr. Buchan and Mr. Omond time for carrying on the inquiries sketched
out above.

The examination of the Hourly Barometric Curves during fine, clear
days and during cloudy days respectively, have been continued, on
account of their very high value in connection with the work of the two
Observatories. To our last report six tables were appended, giving the
hourly values for each month for the top of the mountain for Fort
William, and for Trieste, near the head of the Adriatic, for clear and
cloudy days respectively.

During the year Mr.Omond has continued these most laborious caleula-
tions, so that your Committee are in a position to add four Tables to the
above. The two new stations are Magdeburg, in Germany, selected because
its comparatively dry climate forms an adwirable contrast to the rather
wet climates of Fort William and Trieste, and San José, situated in lat.
9°-56' N., long. 84°°0 W., and at a height of 3,756 feet above the sea, As
its height approximates to that of Ben Nevis, the observations made at
this Observatory, which is situated only ten degrees from the equator,
form an excellent comparison with those made at the top of Ben
Nevis.

Tables V.-VIII. give the departures in thousandths of an inch from the
daily means of the barometer at each hour of the day at Ben Nevis, Fort
William, Trieste, Magdeburg, and San José, on fine or sunny days, and
on cloudy or overcast days. In each case, three years have been taken,
though not the same years at each station, the figures being ‘ bloxamed,’
as in last report. San José is chiefly interesting as showing how a tropical
station in a steady climate, where every reading of the barometer during
the three years lay between 26:000 and 26-400 inches, with rain falling
only at certain seasons, and then almost wholly confined to the afternoon
hours, differs from the records of a temperature zone-station with a vari-
able climate.

This is not the place to enter on any adequate discussion of the results,
but it is of importance to point out that the characteristically low morn-
ing maximum, and very high evening maximum during cloudy days at
Ben Nevis, Fort William, Trieste, and Magdeburg, in all seasons, do
not occur at San José in similar weather. It is, however, different as
regards the two daily minima at San José, the morning minimum being
distinctly larger on cloudy than on sunny days, and the afternoon minimum
less. There are also marked characteristics, in cloudy weather, of the
barometric pressure at Fort William and Trieste, suggesting that in such
weather the temperature of the atmosphere, taken as a whole, falls to a
greater extent than when the sky is clear, and tension is consequently
more reduced; but that the temperature of the lower strata of the
atmosphere rises to a less extent than it does in sunny weather, when the
surface of the earth is screened by clouds, resulting in a reduced ascending |
current from the heated ground.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 193

Taste V.—Showing at Magdeburg the Mean Hourly Variation of Pressure,
in thousandths of an inch, during fine or sunny days. The minus
sign shows means under the average.

Latitude = e S 6 3220 aa
Longitude. é é é . 11°37 EH.
Height . : “ : : de oh Ud Che ditie
| |
Hour Jan. | Feb. | Mar.| Apr. | May | June| July} Aug.| Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year
|
1AM —7}|-—11} —-10]—-4 3 2 | OF Se bre ee Lec ee
ae — 7|-—11/ -10] —5 1 1/ — 0} — 3] — 8} —11} —10 — 6) —-
oy ee —8/-10|—9|—4 1 2}—1]—3]/— 8] —12| —12} —9]|—6
ad —10 | —11; —9); —3 2 5 2} —2)|—7|—10} —12) —10} = 5
Be ss —10 |} —"8 | — 5 1 6 9 5 1/—4}]—6]—9]-10|—92
(me S95 || Sa 3 Soh DSi 1 oe 8 2— 1) =— 6) = Tl eB
ae ay BAO Is IS |e LON) Wile 15. iy 10 C1 | =) 6 9h]
g) Oi ol 20) Pr 2222 22 he 2s We OT 20) AS )e TS TO. ees. eer
OF A 1d |eezOy e224 |i 28) Jon: ior 2015 19 le 18 ie Te) “a2 ts
IR 9 20 ees I 26s ee he 22) le OTe ie 690s 20) | 20)" 20) 1g) by
Like 12 em 25 1 2b 2 LZ We STG A 7a 18: TOs 17 |e b 18
Noon 9} 16] 15] 14 9 oi wal TON Oe ee Ge 6 11
1 PM. —0 i 11 6 2 | 2 3 3 4 5B i | pa 3
2. = 7a 11 | tay A Vy fa) || Pg eS (iy ae
ate a See, Me SP 12 16 1 AS, 8 ee pg, | 0 |
Bi <3 — 7}— 8} —14| —19 | —23 | —20 | —17 | —17 | -14 | —11] — 8] = 7} =14|
aus =) fe 8 |i —15 22 27 | —28 | 24 91 |) 14 | og i 4 | 2 3) Bag |
bd 3 le G, WETS 21 BL 29 Oe ie On an ee ae | Bal) PO a) yeh)
ae 2/—2)|— 8] —15 | —22 | —26 |} —23 |} —16} —6] —a 5 Ae = 91)
Se 5} —1]/— 3] — 8] —13 | -18] —15| —8|]—0 3 6 6|— 4}
9:1 53 6§;—1;/—3/—4]/—5]/—7])—7]—3]-0 3 6 (Miles A
BO! 3 2;—5|/—6]—4;—0/-—2]-1 1/—0 0 2 4|—1!
iW, —1}/—8/—8]|-38 3 2 1 1/—3|/—5|—83 2|—2
Midnight | — 5| —11} —11]} — 3 2 2 ON 82 8 —10N ee 5

“Tape VI.—Showing at Magdeburg the Mean Hourly Variation of Pres-
sure, in thousandths of an inch, during cloudy days. The minus sign

.

shows means under the average.

Hour Jan. | Feb, | Mar. | April) May | June} July | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Year

1 AM. 6 9 9 3 6 10 16 14 10 9 5 6 9
2 ,, 6 7 6|—1 1 4 9 7 4 4 4 5 5
Be 3s 3 2/—0|/-—7|/-—3]-1 5|/-—0)/—4/—4/]-1 35-1
a 55 —1}/-3/)/—5|—8/)/—8]-1 2} — 6 | —10/ —11]-—6]-—-2/-—4
Bh ss a | Ve fl aril ee 1 T= 84 —13 1410) — 16 |= 6
meno! 5; —5;-7/;-—7|—5;—-—0 Lite Lili— Si — TA — 17 We 8 7 es
7 ., aaa) = 44) 5 4 16) == 91) Aoi Sg) es 4
MS: «55 1|-—0 1 5 7 4 1|—3)— 3) =— 4)—3/—0] —o
8. 2|)—0 2 6 6 3/—1/—2/)—1)])—2 1 1 1
Le; 4 1 5 7 8 3|/—-—1 1 3 1 5 4 4
Dy 35 3 2 4:|| 10 6 3) -—2 0 3 2 4 2 3

F Noon —90 1 2 7 2|/—2!-—-7/)-—3 1;—2/-—1/)}-—3]—0
|| ae se —9|/-—6/-—38 3) = 24) = (be — 100) — Si) Bn) — 4) — § | Sia }— s
2 ,, Sage 1a 8) ell! — (Sal Te Gill = Allies Gal, 10. | uae | peng
Bal, —14 | —14 | -13 | — 7] —11 | -11| -14] —9|—6|—8]~-—9]| -13] —11

Bt ys —ll | —13 | —14 |] —11} —15 | —13/ -15|] —~9|}—7|)-—7/—~6|—9 —ll
Be — 8} —11 | —14 | —13 | —16 | —16 | —i6 | -11| —-7) —4| —2|—5]|—1w

Ge ts; —3]/—4]|— 8] —10| —14] —13] —13 | —10} — 4 1 2 | cie eee

doe oy al 1}/—1/—4/—6/-—8/—8|-5 1 6 5 3/-—1
a, 6 6 5 2 o;—2}]-1 4). 8)\ + JL 8 8 5
aes 8 9 9 6 7 8 9 12 12 15 10 9 10

1 ae Mig) 19) 12 Si) JON p a Teale ABG| ABS Sai Lory oa) ete re

1 12 14 14 8 10 14 18 18 14 15 11 12 13
Midnight 11 14 14 7 10 14 21 2u 16 16 11 12 14

1895. oO

194 REPORT—1895.

Taste VII.—Showing at San José the Mean Hourly Variation of Pres-
sure, in thousandths of an inch, during fine or sunny days. The minus

sign shows means under the average.

Latitude . : : 5 a aOecoGl ING

Longitude . : : ae oa Wong Wie

Height 3 ; : : ‘ 3,756 ft.

| | | |
Hour Jan. | Feb. | Mar.| April, May | June| July | Aug. | Sept.) Oct. | Nov.| Dee. | Year
‘
1AM. 13 15 15 14 12 DVT Oy eae 12) TA Sasa ay. Late
Oe, o}/—1}/—1}/—-1/—1]-2 0 1 1 1 1 3 0
ope th Bois Rh a a ra ee in ene ae | S| ee
Bis —13 | —13 | —15 | —15 | —13 | —14 | —12 | —13 | —12 | —J2 | —12 | —)1-_| =13
Bi 55 —5/—6/—8|—9]/—8]-1l1|—9]|-10|-—8|/—7|/—6]—3]-—8
Ci 7 8 3 3 2)/—2)—4/—4/-1 3 3 8 2
Thentss 21 Sage 1S ie 14 11 7 7 10 | 15 17 21 15
ee 38 B84) 39.1) 98 |e 24 19 15 18 23 bh Oat 88 34 27
i 41 492 39 33. | 29 PEs DRM Mls SOs 35 37 33
OWS, 3 38] 39 34] 29] 85 24 24 27 al 32 | 33 34 31
ies 25 26 23] 18 15 14 15 17 19 |}2 20 S20") 21 20
Noon 3 5 5 1}/-1 6 2 4 2)—1)/—3)—2 1
lpm —23 | —20 | —20 } —21 | —21 | —i6 |} —14 | —15 | —20 | —25 | —27 | —27 | —91
23 —42 | —40 | —39 | —39 | —37 | —30 | —27 | —29 | —36 | —40 | —42 | —43 | —37
Bhs —56 | —55 | —54 | —52 | —47 | —39 | —38 | —42 | —49 | —d51 | —54 | —56 | —49
Aes —h6 | —57 | —57 | —55 | —56 | --43 | —42 | —44 | —49 | —51 | —54 | —56 | —51
Dies —48 | —52 | —50 | —47 | —40 | —82 | —32 | —33 | —37 | —38 | —41 | —46 | —41
Gis —31 | —36 | —34 | —28 | —21 | —15 | —15 | —17 | —19 | —20 | —21 | —25 | —94
Tags — 8 | —13} —11} —«&|—2/—0}/—o0/—2}/=8)/—3)/—1]—4)|]&4
BY ks 6 3 6 10 S31 12 10 9 11 11 14 9 9
Sih 19 17 20} 25 24 23/0 a2 21 23 24| 28 21 22
Mies 28] 27 32 84] 22 29| 98 29 3) 31 32 24 20
Tiles 31 33 Bo 40) Ik Sa. )6 132 ez 28 29 27 | 28 28| 381
Midnight 23] 30 30 31 DG 22 COO e n2 22 | 20 |) 19 20 23
|

Taste VIII.—Showing at San José the Mean Hourly Variation of Pres-
sure, in thousandths of an inch, during cloudy days. The minus sign
shows means below the average.

Hour Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April!) May | June} July | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Year
ory 4 i
A CATNG 10 9 9{ 10} 10 9.\- 10 aie ass) i aa 9} 10
25 —3)—5|/—4|/—7)/—6|—5)—2]-—2 0o;/-1 " Olea es
oes =14 (E180 17 | —19} =—18 | Tt dO 1 eg
Cae —18 | —21 | —22 | —24 | —22 |; —20 |} —15 | —16 | —14 ] —16 } —15 | -—18 | —19
Ds —11 | —13 | —15 | —19 | —20 | —18'] —14 | —14 | —12 | —12 | —10 | —12 | —14
eae =i — Ay = 4) = 6) —105 = Si) — 10 aR Sb 4 Seon a eee
7 1 14 13 12 8 4 2 2 6 9 11 13 13 9
Sys 25 O71) Aad), 21 15 13 12 16 19 23 24 25 20
ns 36 38 35 31 24 23 21 24 27 31 33 35 30
LOS 38 38 35 31 27 26 25 26 29 33 37 38 32
ns ie 23 25 26 23 21 19 19 17 18 20 22 22 21
Noon 4 6 8 8 8 7 7 3 0;—2;]=—1 1 4
1PM. —19 | —13 | —11 | —12 | —11 | — 9| — 7 | =11 | —14 | —22 | —25 | —992 | —15
Os ed =36 i — 321) —289) —270—95 if Son N19) 97 Pog iit==34 A395 | ar ig
Be —47 | —45 | —41 | —40 | —36 | —33 | —32 | —33 | —37 | —40 | —45 | —4g8 | —49
Corr 5 —48 | —47 | —44 | —44) —41 | —39 | —3 =—38 | —41 | —43 | —47 | —50 | —43
bys —35 | —36 | —38 | —38 | —34 | —31 | —31 | —31 | —30 | —31 | —36 | —35 | —34
6 —22 | —24 | —25 | —20 | —15 | —13 | —15 | —15 | —17 }] —18 } —21 | —20 | —19
"ie = pil we 3 6 AN A = A a at
Sve 7 6 6 10") 12 11 7 8 9 12 11 hl 9
hes 20ul) 9 188) eA) 257i| - 26)||, 28"/h age TORE S208 «984k: 24s] Gop) iewoD
USS 29 28 29 #4 33 29 27 27 29 30 32 33 30
i rf 28 31 34 35 30 28 26 29 28 29 28 29

Midnight 21.| 22] 24] 25] 25] 22] a1] 18) 21] 20] 211 19] 2

i TO THE COMMITTEE ON ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 195
rh

Bxperiments for improving the Construction of Practical Standards for
Electrical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor Carey Foster (Chairman), Lord Ketvin, Lord Ray-
LEIGH, Professors AYRTON, J. PERRY, and W. G. Apams, Drs.
O. J. LopGe, Joun Horxrinson, and A. Murruead, Messrs. W. H.
PREECE and HerBertT TAytor, Professor J. D. EvERETT, Professor

.. A. Scuuster, Dr. J. A. FLeminG, Professors G. F. FirzGERALp,

G. CurystraL, and J. J. THomson, Messrs. R. T. GLAZEBROOK

(Secretary) and W. N. Suaw, Rev. T. C. Frrzparaicx, Dr. J. T.

Botromuiey, Professor J. Viriamu Jones, Dr. G. JOHNSTONE

Stoney, Professor S. P. Taompson, Mr. G. Forses, Mr. J. RENNIE, *

and Mr. EK. H. GRIFFITHS.

PAGE
APPENDIX.—On Magnetic Units. By Dr. O. J. LODGE . . : : LOM
Remarks on the above. By Professor EVERETT ; E e207
. ” By Professor G. CAREY Foster, and Dr.
G. JOHNSTONE STONEY. ° . 208

Tur work of testing resistance coils at the Cavendish Laboratory has
been continued. <A table of the coils tested is given.

Ohms.

.
|
:
|

No. of Coil Resistance of CoilinOhms | Temperature

Nalder, 4341 : £, No. 422 “99849 TPs, /
Nalder, 4650 : iy No. 423 | 1000(1—-00041) j 15° .
Elliott, 309 : ©, No. 42: ‘99902 13° |
Elliott, 310. P C, No. 425 “99915 13°-2
“| Eiliott,311 @, No. 426 99956 13° |
Elliott, 312 ’ ¢, No. 427 ‘99911 13°2
Elliott, 313 . &, No. 428 99993 13°
Miliott, 314 5. |. @, No. 429 99912 13°1 |
| Elliott, 315 xy No. 430 9-9901 11°-7
Mitt, 316 lk o, No. 431 9:9873 11°-6
Elliott, 317 : G, No. 432 9-9914 12°
Elliott, 318 -@, No. 433 100 (1 —-00014) 14%]
| Elliott, 319 ; ©, No. 434 100 (1—:00027 14°
Elliott, 320 : ¢, No. 435 100 (1—-00023) 13°-9
| Nalder, 4651 : ©, No. 436 99899 13°-8
| Nalder, 4653 ¢, No. 437 9-846 129
02

196 REPORT—1895.

Ohms—continued.

No. of Coil Resis'ance of CuilinObhms| Temperature
Nalder, 4654... @, No. 438 9-9833 1291
Nalder, 4655 z, No. 439 100 (1 — 00068) 14°°3
King Mendham . : ¢, No. 440 100075 1522)
Nalder, 4934 =. ; 3 iy No. 441 99926 14°1
rae coe @, No. 442 99969 13°-7
Wigston, 419 . : 0 Go, No. 443 9:9988 14°°3
Wigston, 440... @, No. 444 -99888 17°°3
Wigston, 450 . : 5 ©, No. 445 100 (1 —:0C030) iS
Wigston, 453. - ‘ : ©, No. 446 1000 (1 —:00067) Wiaie
Nalder,' 4561 . . * iy No. 409 1000 (1 + :00039) 15°23

The resistance coils referred to in the last report as defective in
insulation have been refilled, and up to the present their insulation has
proved satisfactory.

The publication of a paper handed in by Dr. Muirhead, giving further
results of tests made by Mr. E. O. Walker on the coils made by Dr. Mat-
thiessen twenty-five years ago, and since exposed to an Indian climate, is
deferred until the Cambridge coil, against which’ they were tested, can be
re-examined by the Secretary.

The set of standards ordered from Germany has only just arrived.
In the course of the next year a careful comparison will be made between
their values and those of the standards of the Association.

During the year the Committee have had under discussion a paper on
magnetic units prepared by Dr. Lodge and printed as an appendix to this
report, together with a communication received from Dr. Everett.

Taking into account the fact that the question of magnetic units is still
under discussion by various bodies, the Committee wish to come to no hasty
decisions, but they recommend for tentative adoption the following ter-
minology :—

1. That, as a unit for magnetic field, a hundred million ‘c.g.s. lines’
be called a weber.

Note.—A weber added per second at a steady rate to the field girdled
by a wire circuit induces one volt in every turn of that circuit.

Hence the webers ‘ cut’ by a closed wire circuit of 7 turns are equal to
the quantity of electricity in coulombs thereby impelled round that circuit
multiplied by /th its resistance in ohms.

2. That the c.g.s. unit of magnetic potential or of magneto-motive force
be called a gauss.

Note.—An ampere-turn corresponds to aa (or 1:2566) gauss.

Hence: the number 2f gausses round any closed curve linked on an
1 Retested (see Report for 1894).

——_—-

TO THE COMMITTEE ON ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 197

electric circuit is equal to 1:2566 times the number of ampére-turns in
this circuit,

3. That the termination -ance be used in general for words expressing
the properties of a definite body or piece of matter ; ¢.g., resistance, con-
ductance, inductance, permeance, reluctance, &c. ; and that the termina-
tion -2vity or -zlity or the like be used for words expressing the specific
properties of a material ; ¢.g., conductivity, resistivity, inductivity, refrac-
tivity, permeability, &e.

The Committee recommend that they be reappointed ; that Professor
G. Carey Foster be Chairman and Mr. R. T. Glazebrook Secretary.

APPENDIX.
MaGneric Units.
To the British Association Committee on Electrical Standards.

Believing that the Committee is impressed with the convenience of
affixing names to some of the more important units connected with the
magnetic circuit, I beg to suggest the following considerations and
recommendations, which I will write out as briefly as possible. The state-
ments are intended to be precise in their terms; but in several cases
alternative forms of definition are given.

(1) That the unit coefficient of self-induction, though frequently
useful, is by no means one of the most fundamental units, but should
be defined in a suitably subordinate manner, with reference to other and
more important quantities.

(2) That it would be a mistake so to define it as to discourage the
employment of the same term for as many other quantities of the same
‘dimensions’ as possible ; especially for the unit coefficient of mutual
induction, and for unit ‘ permeance.’

(3) That the essentially different quantities commonly called H and B
should be carefully kept distinct, although their measures in air have
been conventionally so arranged as to be numerically equal.

(Summary of known facts and definitions.)—H being the intensity of

magnetic force at a point, or the slope of magnetic potential (w),

eb
O,— Wy, = | Hds, along any length ad ;
a

and in a closed magnetic circuit the circuitation of H is equal to 47 times
the total electric current through the area bounded by the magnetic
circuit ; or,

cycle | Has = circuitation of H =| [deeds = 4rC,

or, at any point of space,
curl Ho = Vv = 4rc;
where c is current density.
__ If the electric circuit consists of n turns of wire threading the magnetic
circuit, and each conveying the current C,, then C=nC,.

198 REPORT—1895.

First quantity to be named.

(4) The first thing requiring a name is this quantity magnetic
potential, sometimes called magneto-motive force ; a quantity spoken of and
measured, not inconveniently but with insufficient generality, by electrical
engineers as ampére-turns. It has been proposed (by Mr. Heaviside, for

instance) that it be called gaussage, and that its c.g.s. unit be one gauss.

(5) The circuital gaussage round a closed curve “is 47 times the total
electric current through the area bounded by that curve.

In pe case of a magnetic circuit wound with wire the gaussage is

1} times es ” or 1-2566) the ampére-turns threading that circuit.

A cas may be best to retain the word ‘ gaussage’ for the whole of
a closed circuit ouly, and to speak of the difference of magnetic potential
between two points as the fall of gausses or the ‘ gauss-fall’ from a to 0.

(6) The gaussage, or gauss-fall, in any portion ab of a magnetic
circuit, is measured by the change in the potential energy of a unit pole as
it moves from a to 6 by any path which involves neither the cutting of
magnetic layers nor the encircling of currents (a long channel being
: imagined for its motion through solid material if necessary). Or, more
practically, it is measured by the induction through a iong narrow tube
whose ends are at «@ and b respectively, divided by “the permeance of that
tube. (Cf Chattock on a magnetic potentiometer, Phil. Mag., July 1887.)

In practice, however, gaussage is frequently calculable from the
ampere-turns to which it is due.

(7) Intensity of magnetic force, or H, will be naturally expressed as
gauss-fall per centimetre, or the gauss-gradient. For instance, the earth’s
horizontal intensity at some place is ‘18 gauss per linear centimetre, or
5‘4 gausses per foot.

Note.—H should not (strictly speaking) be expressed as so many lines
per square centimetre ; that mode of expression should be reserved for
induction-density B. H is the cause, and should be thought of as the slope
of magnetic potential, B is the effect. In a medium of so-called unit
permeability the two quantities are numerically equal, but they should
not be confounded ; any more than the slope of electric potential, or
electric-intensity (c), should be thought of as identical with current-
density, even in a medium of unit conductivity.

(8) The gauss-gradient inside a long or closed magnetic solenoid of
length /, wound uniformly with n turns of wire each conveying the current
C,, is 4 mnC,/l=47n,C, ; where n, is the total number of turns of
wire (in all the layers) to the linear centimetre.

This is the measure of H in the interior of such a solenoid, quite irre-
spective of the material with which it may happen to be filled.

(8a) That the rotation of the plane of polarisation caused by any
transparent body is equal to the number of gausses between the points
where the ray enters and leaves the body, multiplied by the appropriate
specific constant of its material (sometimes called Verdet’s constant) ; in
other words, that Verdet’s constant may be expressed in degrees or radians
per gauss.

Second quantity to be named.
(9) The second quantity requiring a name is the fofal induction in a

magnetic circuit, also called ‘total flux,’ ‘total lines,’ ‘electro-magnetic
momentum,’ and ‘electrotonic state.’ It is the quantity whose time-rate

TO THE COMMITTEE ON ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 199

of variation gives the voltage induced in an electric circuit surrounding it
once. It is proposed that its practical unit be called a ‘weber,’ and be
defined as equal to 108 ¢.g.s. lines (or unit tubes) of induction.

(Denote the quantity for the present by N, and its density by B.)

Summary of known facts.—e being the intensity of electric force, or
the slope of electric potential, or the volt-gradient at a point ; the cir-
cuitation of e=the induced EMF in a closed circuit=the rate of change
of induction through it ;

or; cycle | eds=E= -N=-|| Bds ;

or, at any point of space,
B=—curl e=—V ve.

Through a simple closed electric circuit of constant resistance,

i |Ed=| RCdi=RQ.

(10) The total induction through any area may be practically measured
by suddenly surrounding it with a closed wire circuit of » turns connect-
ing the terminals of a ballistic galvanometer, and measuring the quantity
of electricity thereby impelled through the galvanometer. ‘The induction
is equal to the quantity so impelled, multiplied by +th the resistance of
the circuit. If the quantity is one coulomb, and the resistance one ohm,
the induction is 1/nth of a weber. .

Or, otherwise, if the induction through any boundary changes at
the rate of one weber per second, the EMF excited in that boundary is
1 volt.

In the ease of a spiral wire circuit through which induction is varying at
the rate of a weber per second, one volt is excited in each turn of the wire.

(11) Another mode of measuring the total induction through an area
is to surround that area with a movable electric circuit of ~ turns of wire
conveying a known current, and to measure the potential (or mechanical)

energy of the circuit under those conditions. The induction is equal to
the potential energy of the circuit divided by ~ times the current circu-
lating in each turn of wire.

' Or, if the induction through a simple circuit carrying one ampere is
one weber, the potential energy of the circuit is one joule.

Derived quantities.

(12) Induction-density, or B, may be expressed as so many webers per
unit area ; say per square centimetre or per square inch, or whatever is
preferred for practical purposes.

For instance, the earth’s horizontal induction-density at some place is
“18 ¢.g.s. unit, ="18 x 10-8 weber per square centimetre. =18 microwebers
per square metre.

(13) The inductivity (), or absolute permeability of a medium at any
point under specified circumstances, is the ratio of B to H at that point,
and under those circumstances. In many substances this ratio is far from
constant. [It may be expressed in terms of henrys or other units of per-
meance per unit length (see below), instead of in ¢.g.s. units, if convenient.
For example, the inductivity of air is +1,th of a microhenry per centimetre

200 rREPORT—1895.

or one millihenry per kilometre.] More explicitly it is measured by the
webers per unit area divided by the gauss-fal] per unit length ; in other
words, by the ratio of the weber-density to the gauss-gradient.

(14) The relative inductivity of a substance as compared with that of
empty space (/#9) may be called simply its ‘permeability’ as at present,
and is a mere number.

(Its electrical analogue is specific inductive capacity (K/Ky), as contrasted
with absolute electric inductivity (K) ; which latter could be defined in
practical units as the ratio of the coulombs displaced per unit area to the
volt-gradient. )

Third quantity to be named.

The third quantity for whose unit a name is required is some form of
ratio between the two fundamental quantities whose units are here named
after Weber and Gauss respectively. It has been practically decided in
America that this unit shall be named after Prof. Henry, of Washington,
and that it shall equal 10° ¢.g.s. units, being equivalent to the earth-
quadrant or secohm ; but the precise mode of defirition has not yet been
finally agreed upon.

There are two quantities of the same physical dimensions to which the
name is applicable, viz., the coefficient of self or mutual induction of a
coil or coils of wire, and the permeance or inverse reluctance of a magnetic
circuit.

The most logical order is to define permeance first, as the ratio of the
webers of induction to the exciting gaussage, and then to say that the
inductance of a coil of m turns of wire is n? or 47m? or *4zn? times the
permeance of the magnetic circuit which it embraces, according to the
units of gaussage and current which have been decided on.

If the units of gaussage and current are both the c.g.s. units, then 47m?
is the numerical factor connecting inductance with permeance.

If the c.g.s. unit of gaussage is adopted along with the ampére-current,
then 477? is the factor.

But if the circulation of H due to one ampére-turn is adopted as the
practical unit of gaussage, then n* is the factor ; and the permeance of a
cylinder, instead of being simply oe is a

The apparent simplicity of this last system has much to recommend it
for commercial use, though it will complicate the specification not only of
permeance but also of magnetic fields and potentials ; but some incon-
venience due to the unfortunate definition of the unit pole, and the only
less unfortunate definition of the practical unit of current, cannot be
avoided ; and our aim must be to place the inconvenience where least
likely to be felt in every-day work.

First system.

We will begin with the more logical system, and with general statements
which apply to both.

(15) In a complete magnetic circuit the ratio of the total induction
to the corresponding gaussage under specified conditions is called the
‘permeance’ of that circuit under those conditions. It is not in general
constant.

Or, the permeance of any solenoidal portion of a magnetic circuit, if

TO THE COMMITTEE UN ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 201

free from intrinsic magneto-motive force or magnetic boundary layers, is
the webers through it divided by the gausses between its ends.

(16) The practical unit of permeance is that of a circuit in which a
weber is excited by a gauss. Its reciprocal is the unit of reluctance. The
practical unit so defined is 10% c.g.s. units.

Examples.—The permeance of a cubic metre of air to paraliel induction
from one face to the opposite is 1 microweber per gauss.

Under circumstances such that the permeability of iron is 400 times
that of air, the permeance of an iron ring of one decimetre cross section

2
me 250. = 100 ¢.g.s. = again one

27R

and one metre in mean diameter is

microweber per gauss.
It is, perhaps, a question whether this amount of permeance could be
ealled ‘a microhenry ’ without confusion.

Explanation.—The inductance (or self-induction-coefficient) of an
electric circuit consisting of turns of wire, so far as it is constant, is
defined to be equal to times the induction produced through it by a
current of one ampére in each turn. But the gaussage due to m ampere-

- 4rn : ; are fe cA
turns is” or ‘477; hence the inductance of a wire coil is -4n? times

10
the webers caused by each gauss in the magnetic circuit surrounded by it ;
i.¢., is ‘47m? times the permeance of that circuit considered as constant.

(17) A coil of wire threading n times a complete magnetic circuit of
unit permeance under any given circumstances is said to have ‘47n* units
of inductance under those circumstances ; and in general the inductance
of a coil of ~ turns is *477? times the permeance (as above defined) of the
magnetic solenoid enclosed by it. (‘The permeance may here be onsidered
variable. )

[With the ampére-turn as unit gaussage the ‘47 is prefixed similarly to
both inductance and permeance, so that only the factor m” is needed to
convert one into the other. See below. ]

(18) Thec.g.s, unit of inductance is equal to m times the induction excited
through a coil per c.g.s. unit of current in every turn of wire ; whereas the
practical unit of inductance is n times the webers excited per ampere ;
hence the practical unit of inductance is 10° times the c.g.s. unit.

The practical unit is called a ‘henry.’ (It has also been called
secohm and quadrant.)

Example.—If the above iron ring were wound closely with 1000 turns

of wire, the coil would have a coefficient of self-induction equal to a or

14 henrys whenever the permeability of the iron was 400.

A coil of 20,000 turns of wire, wound closely on the same core, would
have an inductance of 1} henrys if it contained air or other non-magnetic
substance.

Alternative mode of definition of inductance on first system.

Tn view of one of the above practical methods of measuring induction
experimentally, the inductance of coils of wire, both self and mutual, may
be defined more directly thus :—

(19) When of two simple circuits one conveys a current, the other
in general has induction caused through it ; and the ratio of the induction

202 REVORT—1895,

through either to the inducing current in the other is called the mutual
inductance of the circuits.

(20) Of two coils, with and »’ turns respectively, the total mutual
inductance is to be reckoned for every turn of wire on each coil, and is
therefore mm’ times the inductance of the mean turn of one coil on the
mean turn of the other.

(21) The mutual inductance of two coils is 477m’ times the permeance
of the largest magnetic solenoid which threads both. For if every turn
of one conveys a “current C, while every turn of the other surrounds an
induction N’ in consequence, the permeance of the magnetic solenoid
threading the second coil is P=N’/47nC ; but the total effective mutual
jacduchion, MC, through all the turns is n'N ’; hence M=4rnmn'P.

(22) When two coils each conveying one ampere are constantly con-
nected by one henry of mutual inductance, the kinetic energy of the field
due to their mutual action is one joule.

(23) If the se//-induction coefficient of a coil is being considered, its
total inductance may be taken as »? times the inductance of the mean
turn ; that is ~ times the total induction through it divided by the in-
ducing current. Or the weber-turns per ampere give the self-inductance
in hentys:

(23a) The expression weber-turns, to signify the product of the total
field into the number of spires surr ounding it, though at first sight not in
precise correspondence with the phrase ampére-turns where the current
circulates in the spiral instead of forming its core, is really accordant
with it, because a spiral and its core are geometrically interchangeable.

(24) The practical unit of inductance, whether self or mutual, is called
a henry ; anda coil of » turns has a henry of inductance, on itself or on
another of 7’ turns, when an ampére in one maintains 1/n’ weber of
induction (through itself or) through the other.

(25) When the induction through a coil varies for any reason at the
rate of one weber per second, the E.M.F generated in each turn is one volt.

(26) When the inductance of a soil is one henry, on itself or on another,
a small variation of current in it at the rate of one ampére per second
induces an EMF of one volt in itself or in the other.

(27) When the inductance of a coil conveying one ampére varies at
. the rate of a henry per second, the induced E.M.F is one volt.

(28) When the self-inductance of a coil is constantly, or on the
average, one henry, while an amptre current is generated in it, the
kinetic energy of the field due to that ampere is half a joule.

Second system.

(29) If instead of taking a gauss as equal to a c.g.s. unit of magnetic
potential, we take the circulation of H caused by one ampére-turn as
the practical unit of magneto-motive force, we shall have 1.ampére-turn

_. 10
ie units of gaussage.
T
(30) The practical unit of permeance will then be that in which a
weber of total induction is excited by each amptre-turn ; in other words,
it will be 47 x 10’ c.g.s. units of permeance.

(31) And the practical unit of inductance will be that of a coil in

2 Ube costar
which an ampére in every turn excites —th of a weber through every
n

J
TO THE COMMITTEE ON ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 2085

turn ; that is to say, the inductance of a coil willbe n* times the permeance
of the magnetic circuit surrounded by it.

(32) The difference between inductance and permeance is only one
of reckoning. Permeance is webers per ampére-turn. Inductance is
weber-turns per ampére.

SuMMARY OF THE ADVANTAGES OF THIS MoprE OF DEFINING
Unit INDUCTANCE.

The special feature of this mode of defining the ‘henry’ is that it makes
inductance depend on the simple ratio N/C, or weber-turns per ampere,
instead of on something more complicated.

It might possibly be defined as the ratio dN/dC, that is, as pro-
portional to the tangent of the slope of the B: H curve ; and such a defini-
tion would emphasise its, variability ; but certain practical advantages
would be lacking, because it would be detached from any connexion with
the permeance of the circuit. The N/C ratio on the other hand instantly
connects itself with permeance, and represents the slope of the secant
drawn from the origin to any point of the B:H curve. It exhibits the
variability sufficiently ; making the inductance reach a maximum at the
shoulder of the curve, and then slowly decrease as saturation sets in.

Tt is sometimes said—but the mode of expression is, to say the least,
very inconvenient—that there are three different principles on which to
define L, all leading to a different result : viz., numbering them inversely,
but giving them in their usual order :—

(3) Energy...) .. W=5 LC
(2) EMER...) H=L dC/dt
(1) Total induction N=LC

But the real facts to be expressed are not here exhibited. The real

facts are (), Nii

(2) E=dN/dt
(3) dW=CdN

The essential thing to name is therefore N ; and if 10° c.g.s. lines or

unit tubes be called a ‘weber,’ or a ‘ weber-turn,’ then a volt is a weber

or a weber-turn per second, and a joule is a weber-ampére-turn.
Nothing can be handier than that; and a henry can be defined as a

_ weber-turn per ampere.

Instead of saying as above that there are three ways of defining L, the
simplest thing is to say that two of the three equations as first given above
are incorrect, except for the special and in practice comparatively rare case

when L is constant. Written out correctly they stand as follows :—

(1) N=LC

deh, aks
2) E=LS =
?) Bie Se

(3) W=3 LO? 43 / CL
0

Tt is then obvious that (2) and (3) are too complicated to base a
definition upon, and that the first alone gives a feasible system.
The fact that L is decidedly not in general constant deprives the

204 RErORT—1895.

henry of any such importance as the ohm possesses ; moreover, it refers
explicitly to rather a special thing, viz., a coil of wire, and that under
specified conditions, if it contain iron; hence it would be rather absurd to
name this alone of all magnetic units. In the above communication, in
addition to a certain mode of defining the henry, it is urged that unit
total induction be named too ; for this is the quantity which is of real
engineering importance—this is the quantity to attain which field-magnets
are built, and in the midst of which armatures are spun.

It is also urged that it would be convenient if unit magnetic potential
could likewise be named, since electrical engineers have shown that they
have need of some such unit for the exciting cause of induction, by their
practical employment of the phrase ‘ampére-turns.’ The introduction of
a gauss unit, in some form not too obviously limited to the case of a wire-
wound coil, would assist teaching and would clarify magnetic ideas.

The present writer does not presume to decide between the two
alternative systems of defining ‘the gauss’ as given above: viz., the
¢.g.8, unit on the one hand, and the ampere-turn on the other.

OLIVER J. LODGE.
Liverpool: December 9, 1894. .

Postscript.— Another subject for discussion is whether L had better not
be defined as dN/dC ; with permeability as »=dB/dH to correspond.
This would make the three equations of page 203 stand thus :—

(1) N= LdC
(2) E=LC
(3) W=CN

A letter just received from Mr. Heaviside indicates that he would pro-
bably favour this course, and there is evidently much to be said for it.
IT need hardly add that he contemns my temporising method of dealing
with the 47 nuisance.

It need hardly be said that in the last resort it rests with practical
men to employ or decline any suggested system of units. Those who daily
deal with the quantities under consideration are the best judges of the
utility or otherwise of a suggested unit, provided always that they take
the trouble to give it a fair trial, and see how it works in practice. It
may be hoped that the above or similar suggestions will meet with eriti-
cism at the hands of such men, and in order to make a beginning of
criticism I asked the Departmental Lecturer on Electrotechnics at Uni-
versity College, Liverpool (Mr. F. G. Baily), to consider them with special
reference to

(1) The large size of the weber and henry units ;
(2) the handiest definition of the gauss ; and
(3) the least troublesome mode of bringing in the 4r.

His reply, which is annexed, covers these points, and also incidentally
refers to the ouantity called I or intensity of magnetisation.

Now, as must often have been pointed out, the equation B=H+4rI is
a barbarous one, involving as it does quantities of different dimensions in
one equation. Its true meaning is of course B=p)>H + (u—9)H ; which,
although algebraically only a roundabout method of writing B=,H, is yet

TO THE COMMITTEE ON ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 205

convenient, as exhibiting separately the part of the induction due to the

_ ether and the part due to a material medium.

The customary convention of further denoting (~—j19)/p19 by the
symbol 47x, and then christening «H as the magnetisation I, is likewise
convenient. With this definition « is a pure number, and I is a gauss-
gradient or field-intensity. Another, but on the whole less satisfactory,
definition, viz., the omission of jy from the denominator, would make « of the
same dimension as p, and I an induction-density.

The pull between two parallel magnetised surfaces of area A is ABH
+4r, that is to say, NH/8z, and is therefore measured in webers multiplied
by the gauss-gradient, or in joules per centimetre. But to maintain an
induction density B in air requires a gauss-gradient B/j, hence we might
write the pull across an air-gap as N?—87,1,A. If the induction-density
across an air-gap is expressed in microwebers per square centimetre the
tension there comes out in units of which 2,500 would make an atmo-

_ sphere ; or, roughly, in pounds per square foot.

As for the strength of a magnetic pole—a quantity which, though
~ fundamental in one sense, is seldom really dealt with—it will naturally be
expressed in ergs per gauss, or in joules per gauss if it is very strong.

Mr. Baily’s chief practical suggestions are first that a special unit of
_ permeance, other than the henry, is desirable ; and next that the 47/10
i had best be thrown on to the , soas to keep the gauss equal to one
_ ampére-turn. The fact that the inductivity of air will then cease to appear
_ in its artificial garb of unity may even be regarded as a positive advantage,
i because its existence will then be less likely to be ignored. But I
much fear that the ampére-turn as unit of gaussage, so near the C.g.8.
“unit in size and yet not equal to it, will be avkward and may lead to
mistakes. 9 19 ip

University College, Liverpool : January 15, 1895.

Dear Proressor Lopcr,—In reference to the sizes of the magnetic units
proposed by you, I find that the weber 108 ¢.g.s. would only be used in
fractions. The largest dynamo that I know of has a magnetic flux, or, as
you propose to call it, an induction, of ‘5 weber. From this the value will
go down to about ‘01 in small motors. These figures are, however, by no
means inconvenient.
__ Transformers will be rather smaller. In these the weber-turn is a con-
enient size and an interesting quantity, as it is given by } of the mean volts

per cycle, or, more accurately expressed, mean volts per unit frequency ~4.
Its numerical value will lie between, say, } and 50, according to the volts
and the frequency ; but it gives no indication of the size of the transformer.

The henry, 10° c.g.s., is also large. The inductance of choking coils
would in general be fractions of a henry. The inductance of the winding
of a transformer has no very important meaning, but it has a conve-
‘nient size. Measuring it as mean volts per unit frequency -~four times
the open circwit current in amperes, the inductance of the primary coil
ona 2 EP closed magnetic circuit 1,000-volt transformer would be about
40 henrys.

The inductance of pairs of cables would run from 100 to 1,000 micro-
henrys per kilometre, but the value would vary with the arrangement.

The induction per unit area is good ; having a value in practical work

from 1,000 to 20,000 ¢.g.8. units, it is given by 10 to 200 microwebers
per sq. cm.

.

206 REPORT—1895.

Gaussage would be about 50 in small transformers, up to 40,000 in
large dynamos. ‘The latter could be conveniently reckoned in kilogausses.
To make the gauss = | ampéere-turn appears to have great advantages i in
practice, and connects it directly with its usual source.

The idea of permeance is very useful, and the identification of its
dimensions with those of inductance is neat. But I think it is liable to
cause confusion, for the permeance of the core of a coil will be a different
number of henrys from the inductance of its wire. Moreover, the argu-
ment as to identical dimensions might equally be applied to the case of
amperes and gausses. I would ther efore have a new unit strictly connected
with the henry, so that inductance=n? x permeance in a coil of » turns.

As to the units of permeance: with the above meanings of gauss and
weber the permeance of a circuit would be 47A/10/, as you point out,
instead of wA//. But I wish to suggest a change in the method of
webers

gausses’

reckoning, namely, still to retain the value of the permeance as

webers per sq. cm.
gausses per cm.
“unit permeability of space, and giving it the value 1:2566 x 10-8 unit of
permeance for a unit cube. In this way both the troublesome 10-8 and
z/10 are dealt with in an easily intelligible way. To avoid the high
power of 10 it may be measured in micro- units of permeance, so that perme-
ability of space and air=-012566 micro-unit of permeance for a unit cube,
and permeability of soft iron=up to 25 micro-units for a unit cube. Thus we
have permeance=Ay//, where ,. is to be obtained from tables of its value,
which can easily be altered to this method. Inductance then becomes

weber-turns 9 webers'
a OF G02 =n” permeance.

amperes gausses

[Of course your phrase ‘ weber-turns per ampere’ means the same as the
above webers + amperes, and does not necessarily mean the weber-turns
caused by one ampere. |

It may be objected that the c.g.s. units of strength of field, unit mag-
netic pole and intensity of magnetisation do not bear any simple relation
to these practical’ units. This is chiefly important in the use of the mag-
neto-metric measurement of iron, and in the measurement of the mechanical
form of attraction between two magnetic surfaces in contact. But the
expressions are not in reality much “complicated 3 6.9.) present c.g.s. unit
of intensity of magnetisation is given by 4xI=(u—p,.) H, where »,=per-
meability of space—1, and H=c.g.s. unit of magnetic force. This becomes
4nT=(p' —p',) H’ 108, where H’ is the gauss-gradient in the magnetic
substance, and ju’,.= 012566 micro-unit of permeance for a cubic centimetre.

As thesingle magnetic pole is unchanged, the force on it will be=strength
of pole x gauss gradient x 12566 ; putas this is not a calculation of frequent
occurrence, except in magnetic surveys, the complication will not be serious,
Other magnetic relationships are almost entirely of academic interest only,
and would be carried out in ¢.g.s. units. Also the transition would pre-
sent no difficulties to people with a little scientific knowledge.

I am of opinion also that as the legal volt has no direct connection with
induction and velocity of motion, it is not necessary to define the practical
units as they are defined absolutely. Thatis, ohm and ampére are the start-
ing points, volt is obtained from them, weber from volt, gauss from ampere,
permeance unit from weber and gauss, henry from weber and ampére or

and permeability as - , therein giving up the convention of

. TO THE COMMITTEE ON ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 207

p from permeance, and soon. Thisismuch more easily explained to practical
and unscientific men than the absolute derivations are, and it is the order
in which they learn them.

: Yours very truly,
Francis G. Batty.

According to the proposal of the Chicago Chamber of Delegates, the
quantity which we call ‘inductance,’ and which is to be expressed in
‘henrys,’ is defined by the equation

dC

J
; ")

. . Remarks oN THE ABOVE (especially on pages 203 and 204).
;

‘

; E=L —-, for self-induction,

4 dt

® or

; E=M e for mutual induction,
: (ea)

;

both being comprehended in one definition, the inductance L or M being

but as me
5 : N dN
I think names are desirable both for ° C and for AC I would suggest
that the former be called ‘the total inductance,’ and the latter ‘the dif-
ferential inductance.’ The distinction would be somewhat analogous to
the distinction between the ‘ mean specific heat from 0° to ¢°’ and the ‘true
specific heat at ¢°.’ Both total and differential inductance should be ex-
pressed in ‘henrys,’ for they are quantities of the same kind, and when
there is no iron, &c., in the field they are equal.
- JTthink that the above mode of definition, involving as it does no
“magnitude except current and time, is more readily comprehended than
Dr. Lodge’s proposed definition, in which the magnitudes involved are
current, flux of induction, and the number of convolutions of the coil
through which the flux passes. In the definition proposed by the Chicago
delegates the consideration of the number of convolutions does not
enter.
For a circuit or two circuits not having iron, &c., in the field we may
_ define inductance (in henrys) as the E M.F. (in volts) due to variation of
current at unit rate (one ampére per second). When the field is modified
_ by the presence of magnetic material the above will be the definition of
_ ‘differential inductance.’
Pe The ‘total inductance ’ for any specified strength of current will be
_ the mean value of differential inductance for equal increments of current
from zero up to the specified strength.
I would suggest similar nomenclature in the case of permeability :

| calculated by dividing E in volts by in amperes per second, This

implies that Lor M is not to be defined as

oa should be called differential permeability, and} total permeability.

In some respects ‘mean’ or ‘average’ would be a more correct designa-
tion than ‘total’; but these words would be liable to be misunderstood as
referring to an average taken over the different parts of the body or cir-
cuit. ‘Total’ is to be understood as standing for ‘calculated on totals.’

208 REPORT—1895.

As regards the magnitude of the unit of inductance. While I agree with
Mr. Heaviside and Dr. Lodge that the unit pole ought to have been so
defined that the mutual force between two poles is equal to their product
divided by the surface of a sphere whose radius is their distance, a defini-
tion which would have made the line-integral of H due to a current C
equal to C itself instead of to 47C, I deprecate a mixing up of the two
systems. So long as we employ our present unit of intensity of mag-
netic field, which results from our present definition of the unit pole, we
cannot consistently reckon the line integral as equal to the ampére-turns.
Tt must be reckoned as 47 times the ampére-turns, and the flux N must
be reckoned as 47, times the ampére-turns. The practical inconvenience
of retaining the factor 47 cannot be considerable, for it isas easy to tabu-
late the values of 47 as the values of p.

Next as regards ‘permeance.’ I do not think it can conveniently be
reckoned in henrys. I would rather reckon it in ‘webers per ampére-
turn,’ which would be written ‘web. per amptu’; and there can be no
possible doubt as to the meaning intended when once we have fixed the
magnitude of the ‘weber.’ There seems to be no difference of opinion a
dN

dt’
E being in volts, N in webers, and ¢in seconds. ‘This is in accordance
with Dr. Lodge’s proposal ; but Dr. Lodge has not explicitly recommended
any name for the physical quantity which is measured in webers. Shall
we call it ‘weberage’? It greatly needs a name ; for ‘induction’ may
mean B instead of the surface integral of B, besides having many other
meanings.

When permeance varies according to the strength of current, I would dis-
tinguish between ‘total permeance ’ s and ‘differential permeance’ vase

As regards ‘ gaussage’ and ‘gauss fal I think the names will be
convenient in the senses proposed by Dr. Lodge, but I cannot agree with
his selection of a unit of measurement. The present definition of the
unit pole (on which the present unit current is based) requires us to
equate the line-integral in question to 47nC.

To be consistent we must reckon gaussage as equal to 47 times the
number of amptus. Dr. Lodge’s proposal is to reckon C, not in amperes
but in ¢.g.s. units, thus introducing, as it appears to me, an awkward

breach of continuity. ia Sa J. D. Evererr

S
to what this magnitude should be. It is fixed by the relation E =

Professor Carey Foster has written objecting to the term ‘ gauss-
gradient,’ instead of ‘magnetic gradient’ ; he prefers the latter, just as he
would prefer ‘temperature-gradient’ to ‘degree-gradient.’

Dr. Johnstone Stoney has also written, urging strongly that not the
v.g.s. unit of magnetic potential, but one-tenth of this quantity, should
receive a name, in order to make it harmonise with the ampere series ;
and further recommending that the names ‘weber’ and ‘ gauss,’ as above
suggested, should be interchanged.

/
,

t

‘

ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 209

Comparison and Reduction of Magnetic Observations.—Report of the
Conumittee, consisting of Professor W. G. ApAms (Chairman), Mr.
C. CHREE (Secretary), Lord Ketvin, Professor G. H. Darwin,
Professor G. CurystTaL, Professor A. ScHUSTER, Captain E. W.
Creak, The ASTRONOMER Royat, Mr. WIuu1AM ELLIS, and Pro-
fessor A. W. Ricker. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

[PLATES V. and VI. Thirteen Curves illustrating Results in §§ 7-8 and §§ 11-12.]

Analysis of the Results from the Kew Declination and Horizontal Force
Magnetographs during the selected ‘Quiet’ Days of the Five Years
1890-94. By C. Cures, Sc.D.

ConTENTs.
SECTIONS PAGE
1-3 Introductory . ; . ° + 209

4-6 WNon-cyclic Nature of Results obtained from ‘Quiet’ Days . é « . 210
7-8 ables of Diurnal Inequalities for each Month of Year, for Quarters,

; Halves, and Whole Year . 5 4 * 4 A - f 2. 213

9-10 Harmonic Analysis of Diurnal Inequalities ; Times of Maxima, $e. . . 216

11-12 Resultant of Horizontal Forces to which Diurnal Inequality is due . 218
13-15 Variation of Ranges and Sums of Departures from Mean for Day

throughout the Year, with Harmonic Analysis of Ranges : «tty Soe

16-20 Annual Inequalities (or Cyclic Part of Yearly Variations) . ° . 220

Introduction.

. §1. Tue hourly measurement of the Kew magnetic curves on five
quiet’ days a month, selected annually by the Astronomer Royal, has
een in operation since the beginning of 1890. Tables of the mean
ourly values for each month of the declination, inclination, horizontal

and vertical forces, based exclusively on these quiet days, have been

published annually in the ‘ Report’ of thé Kew Committee to the Royal

_ Society. Tables have also been given of the mean diurnal variations of

the several elements for the six winter months, the six summer months,
and the whole year.

With the consent of the Kew Committee I now propose to give a
general réswmeé of the results deducible from the declination and hori-
zontal force records on the selected quiet days of the five years 1890-94.

For some reasons it would have been desirable to allow a larger

_ number of years’ records to accumulate before entering on a general

discussion ; to have included, for instance, the complete cycle of ten or
eleven years believed to occur in magnetic phenomena would have
possessed obvious advantages. On the other hand twenty-five quiet
days for each month of the year seem a sufficient number for a com-
parison of the different months. Further, the frequent occurrence of
certain phenomena, depending apparently on the limitation of the inquiry
to ‘quiet’ days, which cause an appreciable amount of indeterminateness
in the results, has led me to think an early survey of the situation
desirable.

§ 2. The first thing to consider is the distribution of the selected
‘quiet’ days. The aim of the Astronomer Royal, he informs me, has been
to ensure, first, that the five days selected each month are good specimens

of ; stg ’ days ; and, secondly, that their mean comes near the middle of
: P

210 REPORT—1895.

the month. That the second object has been very satisfactorily accom-
plished, so far as a five years’ survey is concerned, will be seen from the
following table. The figures it contains are the intervals, in days, from
the beginning of the month to noon of its mean ‘quiet’ day, the 300
‘quiet’ days being grouped under the months to which they belong.

TABLE J.
Jan. Feb. | March}; April May June July | Aug. Sept. | Oct. | Nov. Dec.
|
17 13°3 15:7 15°6 160 15:3 15°3 | 15°6 | 13:3 | 167 137 | 15°5

In one of the 300 ‘ quiet’ days the Kew record was defective and has
been omitted. Its omission reduces the entry in the table under August
from 15:6 to 15-0.

The departures from the theoretically exact figures, 15-5 for months
of thirty-ene days and 15 for months of thirty days, are so small, con-
sidering the uncertainties arising from other sources, that I have decided
- to neglect them in getting out annual variations. Equal weight has also
been allowed to each month.

§ 3. In 1890 the diurnal variation at Kew was got out from measure-
ments at the hours! 1 to 24, counting from midnight. What has been
styled in the Kew ‘ Report’ ‘solar diurnal range’ meant in that year
the departure of the hourly values from the mean for the day taken as

(1]+[2]+ « . 6 +[24]}/24;

where by [7] is meant the value answering to the mth hour after the first
midnight. In the subsequent four years measurements were taken at
the first as well as the second midnight, and the mean for the day was

taken as
(O]+0]+ . . . . +[23]+[24]}/26.

This second method of fixing the daily mean is of course not mathe-
matically correct, as it attributes double weight to the midnight value ;
but the departure of the midnight value from the mean for the day—at
all events when inequalities are got out only for summer, winter, and the
whole year—is too small to cause appreciable error. The error in defi-
nition, if error it can be called, was, I think, fortunate for several reasons.
For instance it left no additional measurements to be made for the present
inquiry other than those at the first midnights of the sixty ‘quiet’ days
of 1890,

Non-cyclic Nature of Results obtained from Quiet Days.

§ 4. During the five years considered, the westerly declination at
Kew has been diminishing by about 6/°9 annually, the horizontal force
increasing by about 195 x 10-° C.G.8. units. Thus on an average there
occurred in twenty-four hours a decrease of about 0'-019 in declination,
an increase of about 53x10-° C.G.S. units in H.F. (horizontal force).
Now at Kew, declination is measured only to 0'1, and H.F. to 1 x 10~°
C.G.S. units. It is thus obvious that if two sets, each of 150 days, and

1 As in the Kew Reports, Greenwich, not local, time is employed. Local time is,
however, only 1 min. 15 sec. later than Greenwich time.

ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 211

twelve sets, each of twenty-five days, had been selected at random, the
mean diurnal variation got out from either set of 150 days would in all
probability have appeared almost truly cyclic, and the mean diurnal
variations got out from the twelve sets of twenty-five days might have
been expected, if not truly cyclic, to show about equally many increments
and decrements of the element considered in the twenty-four hours.
How far the actual result differs from this ideal is shown by the
following table.

The ‘total increment’ means the algebraic sum of excesses of the
values of the element considered at the second midnights of the twenty-
five quiet days in a month over the values at the first midnights ; in
other words, it equals twenty-five times the mean increment during a
‘quiet ’ day in the month specified. The five years supply of course five
Januarys, &c., or sixty individual months in all.

Tasie II.
DECLINATION Horizontau Force
Month Total Increment | Number of | Total Increment! Number of
in 25 ‘quiet’ Individual || in 25 ‘quiet’ Individual
days Months | days Months

; + zero — |} + zero —

January - 5 +16:0 5 OO O || 410-5 x 125 4 0 1
February . - . + 95 Dire Oleeec ail sailed ered aN)
March = 5 : + 65 Six Oly 2 || 5 60 4 1 0
April ° + 45 a > ss 40 5 ean! Pi teed|
May. + 65 a O “2 LO 4 1 0
June. — 65 DEMIR TS .I| , 35 3 betta
July . —11:0 Zit Owr visi 5 50 Bipie a0
August — 75 Wiihend h : 115 de Or 0
September + 40 3. 0 2 a 85 Dy Oe 20
October + 35 SS ae aD Ei yplohenl iota)
November. + 65 led ul ol | pee 2180) 5 0 0
December . 4 — 30 PS eo 43 | “7 30 4 0 1
Totals . 5 +29'0 3L 5 24 || +10~> x 1040 zs a (Re:

in 300 days | in 300 days

According to Table IT. if every day behaved like a ‘quiet’ day there
would be an annual increase of 35’ in westerly declination, instead of the
actually existing decrease of 7’, and an increase of 1265x10~° C.G.S.
units in H.F., instead of the actually observed 20 x 10~°.

Taking the figures as they stand, the evidence in favour of a general
tendency to a non-cyclic variation in the direction of increasing westerly
declination during ‘quiet’ days is perhaps not conclusive. Of the indivi-
dual months’ records twenty-four show a decrease, and the balance the other
way might be pure chance. The figures relating to the horizontal force,
however, unless ascribable to error, prove conclusively that during the five
years in question the force increased at a wholly abnormal rate on ‘ quiet’
days. It is difficult to imagine any cause of error working so uniformly
throughout the year. Supposing uncompensated temperature effect to

exist, for instance, the phenomenon should tend one way during one

season, the opposite during another. The interval between successive
r 2

212 REPORT—1895.

‘quiet’ days varied arbitrarily, so that the positions of the two midnights
of a ‘quiet’ day on the photographic sheets were constantly being inter-
changed. It may also be added that the phenomenon is not peculiar to
Kew, but may be seen in the published Greenwich and Falmouth results
for the same epoch.

§ 5. The phenomena seem not unlikely to be only another phase of
phenomena observed many years ago by General Sabine and Dr. Lloyd.
The former from a careful study of what he termed ‘disturbances’ con-
cluded that the aggregates of easterly and westerly declination disturbances
at Kew during 1858-62 nearly balanced, ‘there being in some years a
slight preponderance of westerly, and in other years of easterly deflection ;’!
at the same time he found ? ‘a slight preponderance of easterly values on
the average of the four years (1858-61).’ As regards the horizontal force
he deduced * from 5,932 disturbed observations at Kew during 1858-64
that ‘the ratio of the value of the disturbances decreasing the (horizontal)
force to those which increased it was nearly as 3:23 to 1.’ In agreement
with this last result Dr. Lloyd found‘ from an examination of the 335 (?)
most disturbed days at Dublin during the ten years 1841-50 that ‘the
mean effect of disturbances is to diminish that (the horizontal) force.’

The significance of these results, when taken along with the tendency
suggested by Table II. to a slight abnormal increase of westerly declina-
tion on quiet days, and the clear evidence of an abnormal increase of
horizontal force on these days, need not be dwelt on. Although the
vertical force lies outside our present inquiry, it may not be amiss to
mention that evidence of a connection of the kind foreshadowed above is
also supplied by it. The results, in fact, from the last five years at Kew
show a distinct abnormal decrease of vertical force on ‘ quiet’ days, while
General Sabine observed a very decided preponderance of disturbances to
be associated with increasing vertical force.

Whether the species of opposition in the phenomena exhibited by the
horizontal and vertical forces is to be associated with the fact that at pre-
sent the former element is increasing the latter decreasing seems an inter-
esting speculation, but it lies outside our present inquiry.

Method of Treating the Non-cyclic Diurnal Element.

§ 6. General Sabine got out tables according to which ‘ disturbances ’
at Kew were by no means uniformly distributed over the twenty-four hours ;
further he found that disturbances associated with easterly deflections
had different hours for maxima and minima from disturbances associated
with westerly deflections, and a like difference appeared between disturb-
ances associated with increasing and those associated with decreasing
horizontal force. If this be so, and if the non-cyclic phenomena observed
on ‘quiet’ days be in any way complementary to the disturbed phenomena,
then there is certainly ground for suspecting that the abnormal increase,
say, of H.F. observed in the mean ‘ quiet’ day of a certain month is not
uniformly distributed over the twenty-four hours. While fully recognising
the uncertainty of the hypothesis of uniform distribution of the non-cyclic
element, I have unhesitatingly adopted it provisionally. What General

* Phil. Trans. for 1863, p. 282.

? Proc. Roy. Soe., vol. xi. p. 590.

# Phil. Trans. for 1871, p. 310.

* 1 Treatise on Magnetism, p. 211.

DIURNAL INEQUALITY.

ination, Horizontal Force.
Declination

05 becca /
ee
Se ee
L

Sed bride a KANN Lee eH
‘

6
4
3!
2

1
ar

-2'

£9!

-¥g’
&

Abscisse time in hours from midnight.

Illustrating the Report on Comparison and Reduction of
Magnetic Observations.

ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 213

Sabine termed ‘disturbed’ observations included only some 10 per cent.
of the entire number; so that, even supposing the years to which his
results and the present results applied had been the same, it would hardly
have been possible to utilise his results in framing a better hypothesis.
Some light might have been thrown on the subject by taking measure-
ments at each hour of every day immediately preceding or succeeding a
‘quiet’ day, and examining the magnitude of the non-cyclic element for
each combination of twenty-four consecutive hours. The fact that this
would have entailed some 12,000 additional measurements put it out of
court so far as the present inquiry was concerned.

I have thus decided to regard the variation of an element throughout
the typical ‘ quiet’ day of a given month as composed of first a non-cyclic
part, consisting in a uniform increase or decrease throughout the twenty-
four hours, second a truly cyclic part spoken of as the diurnal inequality.

Thus suppose an increment 24 I to occur during the twenty-four hours ;
then the diurnal inequality is what remains of the observed hourly departures
from the mean for the day after the correction (12—#)I has been applied,
¢ denoting the number of hours elapsed since midnight. This correction
raises the values throughout one half of the day and depresses them
throughout the other. It of course leaves unchanged the mean value

{3((0]+[24])+[1]+ .. . +[23]} /24,

and after its application

[o]=[241.

The size of the correction applied to each month’s results for declination
and horizontal force is obvious from Table II., so that the uncorrected
values can easily be reproduced from the corrected ones recorded pre-
sently.

Tables of Diurnal Inequality and their Discussion.

§ 7. The following tables, III. and IV., give the diurnal inequality
in the several months and quarters of the year, as well as for winter,
summer, and the entire year. The values given under each month are
the arithmetic means from the data of the five years. The numerically
largest maxima and minima are distinguished by heavy type. The hours
are numbered continuously from midnight, so that 13 and higher numbers
refer to the afternoon. The results for hour 24, being the same as for
hour 0, are omitted.

A graphical illustration of the diurnal inequality for the year; for
winter, for summer, for midwinter (December and January), and for
midsummer (June and July), is afforded in Plate V. by the curves 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
for the declination, and by the curves 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 for the horizontal force.
The curves will facilitate the comprehension of the principal phenomena.
A comparison of the declination table and curves with the corresponding
results at Kew during the epoch 1858-62, as given by General Sabine in
the ‘Phil. Trans.’ for 1863, will be found of interest.

§ 8. In both tables the results proceed one figure further than the
actual measurements, the extra figure arising in the process of taking the
means. No smoothing process has been applied to the original data, and
no correction other than the elimination of the non-cyclic element. That
the results are trustworthy, as measurements of magnetic variation, to

214 REPORT—1895.

Taste III.—Diurnal Inequality of Declination

(aft

!
Hour. “sf a 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
{
‘ / / i 1] < ‘ / / ‘

January .« . | —1°36 | —1:17 | —0:86 | —0°68 | —0°69 | —O:80 | —0:84 | —0°97 | —1°34 | —148
February . . | —1:40 | —1°45 | —1°31 | —1°15 | —1°00 | —1:14 | —1-15 | —1°43 | —1°85 | —1°86
March 5 . | —1:°07 | —0:92 | —0°89 | —1°08 | —1°39 | —1°32 | —1:77 | —2°63 | —3°74 | —3*43
April. i . | —0°71 | —0-74 | —0°92 | —1:07 | —1°36 | —1'73 | —2'51 | —3-84 | —4°91 | —4°48
May. = . | —0°83 | —0°86 | —1-09 | —1°34 | —2°07 | —3°38 | —4:29 | —5°08 | —4°75 | —3°26
June. ° . | —0°45 | —0°76 | —0:90 | —1:27 | —2°10 | —3°57 | —484 | —5:29 | —5°12 | —3°79
July . O . | —0°66 | —0-'80 | —1°10 | —1:24 | —1:99 | —3°53 | —4:-49 | —4:73 | —4-77 | —3°65
August . . | —0°94 | —1°10 | —1°35 | —1°80 | —2°17 | —3°03 | —4:20 | —5°01 | —4:70 | —3°06
September . | —138 | —1:°43 | —1°58 | —1:°96 | —2°39 —2°56 —316 —3'85 | —396 | —2°40
October . . | —1°48 | —1:13 | —1:03 | —0:96 | —1:10 | —1:07 | —1°50 | —2°04 | —3°05 | —3:23
November . . | —1:15 | —0:82 | —0:79 | —0:74 | —0-75 | —0°95 | —114 | —1:33 | —1°84 | —1:93
December . . | —115 | —0°77 | —0-46 | —0°38 | —0°39 | —0°47 | —0°74 | —0°86 | —1:03 | —1°17
First Quarter . | —1:28 | —118 | —1:02 | —0°97 | —1:03 | —1:09 | —1:26 | —1°67 —2:31 | —2:26
Second Quarter | —0°66 | —0°78 | —0°97 | —1°23 | —1°84 | —2°89 —3°88 | —4:74 | —4°93 | —3°84
Third Quarter . | —0°99 | —111 | —1°34 | —1°67 | —2°18 | —3°04 | —3°95 —453 | —4'48 —3°04
Fourth Quarter | —1'26 | —0:90 | —6:76 | —0°69 | —0'75 | —0°83 | —1:12 | —141 | —L:97 | —2:11
Winter . . | —1:27 | —1:04 | —0°89 | —0°83 | —O:89 | —0°96 | —1°19 | —1°54 | —2°14 | —2:18
Summer . . | —O°83 | —0°95 | —1:16 | —1°45 | —2°01 | —2°97 —3°92 | —4°63 | —470 | —3-44
Year. ‘ . | —1:05 | —1-00 | —1:02 | —1'14 | —1°45 | —1:°96 | —2°55 | —3:09 | -—3°42 | —2°81

10

t
—0'33
—0°68
—158
—2:18
—0°31
—1°26
—136
—0-01
+0°49
—162
—0°82
—0:14

—0°86
—1:25
—0:29
— 0°86

—0°86
—077

—0°82

Hour. ‘ < 0 al 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
|
January . .|+7/4+7/)] +7 +19 +43 +60 +58 | + 64 | + 32 | — 26 | — 76
February . - | +37 | +23 | +424 +18 +24 +44 +47 | + 63 | + 35 | — 43 | —110
March. +57 | +50 | 445 +42 +41 +64 +71 | + 38 | — 31 | —126 | —195
April. - -| +79 | +74 +64 +65 +62 +66 +63 + 34 — 56 —163 —256
May . . «| +79 | +75 +51 +49 +31 +19 —24 — 90 —178 —244 —260
June. * - | +65 | +49 +44 +42 +37 +18 —40 —113 —183 —240 —259
July . sy . | +62 | +59 +38 4-46 +31 +16 —33 — 90 —155 —228 —272
August . - | +75 | +81 +69 +69 +62 +34 —10 — 94 —188 —268 —294
September - | +88) +82] +71 +55 +54 +40 +1 | — 62 | —156 | —231 | —265
October . - | +67 | +57 +59 +77 +68 +82 +82 + 50 — 20 —130 —218
November. . | +36 | +36 +38 +42 +63 +79 +85 + 65 + 15 — 75 —154
December. .| —16|—8]| —7 +3 +26 +42 +53 | +57 | + 36 | — 4 | — 68
First Quarter . | +34 | +26 +25 +26 +36 +56 +59 + 55 + 12 — 65 —127
Second Quarter. | +74 | +66 +53 +52 +43 +34 — 1 — 56 —139 | —216 —258
Third Quarter .| +75 | +74 +59 +457 +49 +30 —14 — 82 —166 —242 —277
Fourth Quarter | +29 | +28 +30 +40 +53 +68 +74 + 57 + 10 — 70 —145
Winter . -| +3 +27 +28 +33 +44 +62 +66 | + 56 +11 | — 67 | —136
Summer . SETS) +70 +56 +54 +46 +32 —7 | — 69 | —153 | —229 | —268
Year. . . | +53 | +49 +42 +44 +45 +47 +29 — 6 — 71 —148 —202

units in the last place cannot, I think, be maintained for a moment ; but
the omission of the last figure would render it impossible to give an
adequate idea of the extreme smallness of the variation during many
hours of the night.

The most conspicuous feature of the declination diurnal inequality,
especially in summer, is the rapid change from a maximum easterly
declination, occurring from 7 to 9 a.m., to a maximum westerly declination
about 1 p.m. In winter, as is apparent on inspection of the winter and
midwinter curves, there is a subsidiary westerly movement during the

ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 215

nination of non-cyclic element), + being to west of mean.

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

/ /

4351 | +3°02 | +1'98 | 41°37 | +0'82 | +0'36 | —o'03 | —o'54 | —1'02 | —1'23 | —1"49
+3:76 | +3°78 | +3:02 | +1°53 | +0°83 | +062 | +026 | —0:36 | —0°77 | —1:07 | —1:36
+599 | +5°50 | +3°91 | +1:70 | +035 | —0'10 | —0-48 | —0°55 | —0°88 | —1°01 | —0-96
+635 | +5°87 | +412 | +2:39 | +1:00 | 40°14 | —0-25 | —0:22 | —013 | —0:25 | —0-44
+685 | +616 | +449 | +242 | 40°89 | —0-:08 | —0-43 | —060 | —0-43 | —0:38 | —0:47
+595 | +579 | +466 | +3:25 | 41°84 | +0°93 | +034 | +027 | +018 | +0°3L | —0-28
"12 | +652 | +5°37 | +3:23 | +133 | +023 | —0:09 | —0:09 | +0°02 | —0°02 | —0-20
+723 | +628 | +449 | +214 | +030 | —0°45 | —0°30 | —0°33 | —0°31 | —0°60 | —O-71

+3" +651 | +540 | +336 | +165 | +050 | —0:00 | —017 | —0:50 | —0°56 | —O'61 | —1-02
+140 | +413 | +528 | 44°84 | +359 | 41:93 | +112 | 40°45 | —0°03 | —O'44 | —1°14 | —1°41 | —1°51
-143 | +318 | +3°95 | +326 | +221 | +140 | +062 | +0:25 | —0°04 | —0°59 | —1:0) | —1:23 | —1:18
106 | +1°99 | +2°65 | +244 | 41°90 | +115 | +051 | +0°30 | —0°12 | —0°65 | —111l | —1:28 | —1°32

41°29 | +3:45 +442 | +410 | +2°97 | +153 | +067 | +0:29 | —0:08 | —0-48 | —0°89 | —1:10 | —1:25
4195 | +499 | +639 | +5°94 | +442 | +269 | +124 | +033 | —O11 | —0718 | —0°13 | —O11 | —0-40

+5°54 | +662 | +6°07 | +441 | +2°34 | +071 | —0:07 | —0°19 | —O0°31 | —0-28 | —O-41 | —0°64
4130 | +310 | +396 | +351 | +257 | +149 | +075 | +034 | —0:06 | —0°56 | —1-:08 | —1:31 | —1°34
v

130 | +3°27 | +4:19 | +3°81 | +2°77 | +151 | +071 | +0°31 | —0°07 | —0°52 | —0-°99 | —1:20 | —1-29
2:39 | 45:27 |} +650 | +600 | +442 | +251 | +0°98 | +013 | —0°15 | —0'24 | —0:20 | —0:26 | —0'52

1°84 | +427 |} 45°35; +490 | +359 | +201 | +084 | +022 | —O-11 | —0°38 | —0°60 | —073 | —0°91

12 13 | 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 | 22 23
ll |
— 94 — 46 —22 |) —18 | — 12 + 3 + 29 + 35 + 23 + 15 + 3 + 5
—126 — 84 —41 | -15}—- 5 + 9 + 32 + 38 + 52 + 50 ee 37 + 33
—163 — 92 —31 | +20 | + 23 + 14 + 43 + 76 + 73 + 62 + 59 + 68
—223 —144 —68/} +1] + 38 + 70 + 83 +106 +105 + 97 + 92 + 88
—155 — 87 —21L | +33 | + 83 +127 +144 +152 +128 +120 +102 + 92
—150 | — 82 | —7]} +63] + 86 | +119 | +161 | +170 | +146 {| +125 | +102 | + 78
—188 —113 —18 | +68 | +105 +138 +157 +164 +145 +127 +104 + 85
—152 — 64 +2| +42] + 77 + 95 +129 +139 +129 +129 + 87 + 97
—105 — 21 +24) +18] + 11 + 35 + 70 + 99 +105 +108 + 92 +103
—186 | —106 | —52} —22} —13 | + 31 | + 59 | + 67 | + 67 | + 75 | + 67 | + 73
—146 —112 —60 | —22|}— 5 + 29 + 43 + 57 + 47 + 37 + 34 + 28
— 78 — 44 -21);-—7/+ 4 + 22 + 26 + 33 + 20 + 4 -—- il + 5
—128 | — 74 | —31}—4]+ 2 | + 9 | 4+ 35 | + 50 | + 49 | + 42 | + 33 | + 35
—176 —104 —32 | +32 | + 69 +105 +129 +143 +126 +114 + 99 + 86
—148 — 66 + 3) +43 | + 64 + 89 +119 +134 +126 +121 + 94 + 95°
—137 — 87 —44) -17 | -— 4 + 28 + 43 + 52 + 45 + 39 + 34 + 35
—lo2 | — 81 —38 | —1l1/}—- 1 + 18 + 39 + 51 + 47 + 40 + 33 + 35
—162 | — 85 | —i5 | +37 | + 67 | + 97 | +124 | +138 | +126 | +118 | + 97 | + 90
} |
|
—147 | — 83 —26 | +13 | + 33 + 58 + 81 + 95 + 87 | +79 | + 65 + 63

night, entailing two unmistakable maxima of westerly declination and two
of easterly in the twenty-four hours. This accords generaily with conclu-
sions I., 1I., III. for Dublin on pp. 175, 176 of Dr. Lloyd’s ‘ Treatise.’ His
further conclusion, IV., that ‘in summer the westerly movement during the
night disappears,’ is in more doubtful accord with the present results,
The variation during the night in summer is so very slow that a definite
conclusion would require the warrant of more data than are here avail-
able ; but according to Table III. there is, to say the least of it, the
suspicion of a slight secondary westerly movement in most of the summer

216 REPORT—1895.

months a few hours before midnight. To attain certainty in such a case .
one would require a very large number of observations for each month in
the year. When the results of several months are grouped together,
secondary maxima, unless occurring very nearly at the same hour in each
month, are apt to disappear. The smoothness of the mean curve for a
year or a half-year is doubtless in part due to the elimination of observa-
tional errors by means of the large number of observations included ; but
in some cases at least it arises from what may be termed the swicide of
secondary phenomena. Mutual extermination of very delicate phenomena
may even arise when so short a period as a month is dealt with as a
unit.

If, instead of the inequality of declination, the inequality of the
disturbing force perpendicular to the magnetic meridian be desired, then
the results of Table III. may be converted into C.G.S. measure of force
at the rate of 1’ to 53 x 10-° C.G.S. units.

In the horizontal force inequality the most conspicuous feature is
the minimum occurring from 10 to 11 a.m. In every month there is
an unmistakable maximum—especially conspicuous in summer—about
4 P.M.

In winter there is distinct evidence of a second minimum and maximum
during the night and early morning, the maximum being usually the largest
in the twenty-four hours. In summer the evidence in favour of a second
maximum and minimum appears somewhat uncertain. The results are in
general accord with the conclusions for Dublin on p. 184 of Dr. Lloyd’s
‘ Treatise.’

Harmonic Analysis of Diurnal Inequality.

§ 9. The diurnal inequality of one of the elements, say the declina-
tion, D, can be analysed into a series such as

Qrt st Te Qrnt - Inrnt
2D=a, cos = 40, fie + a cbs bei ee
ie oer eae ag. |
or

9 9
¢D=c, cos = (t—r,)+ . +c, cos or (t—t,)+..... (16)

Here ¢ is the time in hours measured from the first midnight ; » is an
integer ; @,, 6,, C,, T, are constants, connected by the equations

C.=Va,2+6,2 - : . ; : - (2)
= 74 tan-1 (6 3
fe an—!(b,/a,) . ; , ‘ . (3)

In what follows it is arranged that c, shall always be positive, and so
7, is the time of the first maximum, in an algebraic sense, subsequent to
midnight.

Supposing hourly values of the element known, one has twenty-three
constants at one’s disposal ; but here I have contented myself with deter-
mining the coefficients of the terms whose periods are respectively 24, 12,
8, and 6 hours. The subsequent terms appear in reality to be very small,
and any numerical results one might reach in connection with them
would be of doubtful accuracy.

The following table, V., gives the values of the a, 6, ¢ coefficients

ow ..

“ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS, 217

for the mean diurnal inequalities of winter, summer, and the whole

year. : :
The a, 6 coefficients for the ‘ year’ are the arithmetic means of those

for ‘ winter’ and ‘summer’; but as a check on the accuracy of the work

they were calculated independently.
Variation to the west in the declination is regarded as positive.

TABLE VY.

a, b, CF | a, b, Cy as b, CH a, b, €,

| / / 1 /
Winter . |=1'55|—1'17| 1°94 | +0'72|+1/21| 1°41 |—0-62 |—0'49| 0-79 |4+0°30| +0:25. | o-39
8D {Summer — 197 —2:59| 3-96 |42:05|41-64] 263 |—0-99|—0-61| 1:16 |+0-16| 40-095 | O-19

Year —1°76 |—1°88| 2°58 |41°39|}41:42| 1:99 |—0°81|—0°55| 0°98 |+0:23| +017 0:29
Winter.!+ 68 | — 3 68 —52} +11 53 +13 | —22 26 +2 +15 15
torent | Suumer }4+125 | —89 | 153 —52 |) +50} 73 | —3]| —27 27 +7 +10 13

Year .|+ 96 | —46 | 107 —52 | +31 61 +5) —25 | 25 +4 +13 13

The only change required in Table V. if time were measured from
noon, instead of as throughout the present paper from midnight, would
be the alteration of the signs of the entries referring to a,, 6), a3, and b3.

It should be explained that the calculations on which Table V. is based
proceeded in every case to at least one decimal place, usually two, beyond
that shown.

The table shows that in the case both of the declination and the
horizontal force, the terms whose period is twenty-four hours are very
much greater in summer than in winter, and the same phenomenon shows
itself in the terms in the declination whose period is twelve hours. On
the other hand the terms in the declination whose period is six hours
appear relatively much larger in winter than in summer. It would hardly
be prudent to attach too much weight to this last conclusion, in view of
the extreme smallness of the quantities involved ; but it is in accordance
with Tables XV. and XVI. of the ‘Greenwich Magnetical and Meteoro-
logical Observations’ for the two years 1890 and 1891. A comparison of
the other features common to these two Greenwich tables and to Table V.
will be found of interest. The Greenwich tables, it should be noticed, are
not confined to ‘quiet’ days, and in treating the horizontal force they
take as unit the (1/100000) of this force at Greenwich, or, say, 10-8 x 182
C.G.S. unit.

§ 10. The number of degrees in the angles 27n7,,/24 is easily obtained
from Table V. by means of the formula (3). Instead of giving these
angles explicitly I have preferred to give the times 7,, answering to the
earliest maxima in the day of the Westerly declination and the hori-
zontal force. These times are included in Table VI., along with the
earliest times in the day when the several terms of the types appearing
in (1,) vanish and have their minima. The interval between successive
maxima or successive minima is double that between successive zero-
points, and equals the periodic time, é.¢., is 24, 12, 8, or 6 hours, as the case
may be.

With one important exception—that of the harmonic term in the
declination whose period is twenty-four hours—the first maximum of
every term appears earlier in the day in summer than in winter. The
difference between the corresponding times in winter and summer is

218 REPORT—1895.

TABLE VI.
Peridot term Winter Summer Year
i |
hone Max. | Zero | Min. | Max. Zero | Min. | Max. | Zero | Min
h.m.| h.m.| h.m.| bhem.| be. m.|h.m.| b.m.| b.em.} b. m.
94 ee 1429) 829| 229/)1531|) 931] 331/15 8| 9 8] 3 8
ee H.F. 23 52| 552)1152/21 38) 338] 9388]2218) 418]1018
12 Decln Tesi 4.58 | eueosi| LT | 41 |) Tie oie aol eo
H.F 5 36| 236|1136] 432] 132)1032) 459) 159/1059
i
8 Decln .| 451) 251) O51| 442) 242) 042) 446) 246] 0 46
H.F 641| 041) 241] 552) 352) 152} 616) 016); 216
6 Decln 040] 210} 340) 030] 2 0} 3830| 0387) 2 7] 337
H.F 124) 254] 424) 055] 225} 355] 111) 241] 411

conspicuously greater in the case of the horizontal force than in that of
the declination.

There is, it will be noticed, a close coincidence between the time,
9 hr. 38 min., of the minimum in summer of the horizontal force term
whose period is twenty-four hours and the time, 9 hr. 31 min., of the
first zero in summer of the corresponding declination term. ‘The fact,
however, that no such coincidence presents itself between the correspond-
ing times in winter would suggest the phenomenon was in part at least
accidental. It can hardly be connected with the fact—shown conspicu-
ously by Tables III. and IV., or still better by curves 1 to 10—that the
time of the principal minimum of the total horizontal force inequality,
from 10 to 11 A.m., is nearly coincident with a time at which the total
declination inequality vanishes. Papers dealing with a theoretical con-
nection of the sort, by Professor A. Schuster and Mr. C. Chambers, will
be found in the ‘ Phil. Mag, for April and May 1886, and in ‘ Proce. Lit.
and Phil. Soe.,’ Manchester, Session 1886-87, pp. 23-46.

Resultant of Cyclic Horizontal Disturbing Forces producing the
Diurnal Inequality.

§ 11. The importance attaching to variations in declination suggests
most naturally the resolution of the horizontal disturbing force, to which
the diurnal inequalities just considered are due, into components ¢X and
eY respectively in and perpendicular to the magnetic meridian. The
preceding results show that, H denoting as usual the total horizontal
force, €X/H and éY/H are at most small quantities of the order 1/500.

Thus to a very close approximation we have

WonDs: a ee Cee

where 6H and éD are the inequalities of horizontal force and declina-
tion, while H is the mean value of the horizontal force for the time
under consideration.

ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 219

For the mean of the years 1890-94 we have
H='18211 C.G.8. units ;

whence
cY =530x 107-7 x 6D 5 e . e ry Py ‘ » (5)

where ¢D is supposed to be given in minutes of arc.

Resolution in and perpendicular to the magnetic meridian is some-
what inconvenient when the general features of terrestrial magnetism are
being considered, owing to the complicated relationships between the
magnetic meridians at different stations. Even in dealing with the
phenomena extending over a long interval of time at a single station, the
reference to a set of axes whose position is continually altering has its
disadvantages. When, however, the components of a force along two
rectangular axes are known, the components along any other pair in the
same plane are easily deduced when the inclination of the old to the new
axes is given. It will thus suffice to state that for the epoch 1890-94 the
mean magnetic meridian at Kew lay at 17° 36'-2 to the west of the
astronomical meridian.

§ 12. Instead of giving explicitly the components in and perpendicular
to the astronomical meridian I propose to consider the magnitude and
direction of the resultant horizontal disturbing force itself. Denoting its
intensity by », its inclination to the east of magnetic north by J, we
have to a sufficiently close degree of approximation

p=v (¢X)2-+(0Y)?=cH sec . . . : (6)
YStan"! (—dY /¢X)= fant) ( 20% H/2H) ° “ : (7)

Remembering that the inclination of p to the astronomical north is

—(17° 36’:2), it would be found a simple matter to deduce the com-

ponents of the disturbing force along and perpendicular to the astro-
nomical meridian from the calculated values of » and w.

The following table, VII., gives the values of » and y for the mean of
December and i anuary, or cand inter, the mean of June and July, or
midsummer, and the mean for the year at each hour. The greatest and
least values of p in each case are in heavy type.

In comparing Tables IV. and VII. the reader will require to notice that
the former refers to 10° cH, the latter to 10%». Table VII. was got out
from arithmetical means proceeding to two places beyond those retained
in Table IV., and an extra figure was retained in p», so that the arith-
metical accuracy of any resolution of p into orthogonal coordinates should
be as trustworthy as its previous resolution into éX and oY, 2.¢., into 6H
and HcD.

The angle 360° is to be added to the values of / under the hour 23 for

‘midsummer,’ and for hours subsequent to 18 in ‘midwinter’ and ‘ year,’
- it is desired to make out the true increase of y relative toa previous
our.

In the case of the yearly mean the vector p has a continuously pro-
gressive rotation from east to west through south, like the sun as seen
from the earth. This is the general character of the rotation at any
season ; but at midwinter there i is an unmistakable retrograde motion in
the early morning for several hours, and at midsummer there i is at least
@ suspicion of a retrograde motion from 8 to 10 p.m. From 10 a.m. to

1895.

REPORT

220

‘06E'T Suteq ava 94} 10J UvoUt ay} ‘sOMUINSprIUt ut gz¢E‘T 04 IOJUIMPIOL UI ZZ) WOL} SOtIVA SINOY FZ OY} 4Hoysnorq} d,OT Jo on[va uvatt OUT, ~

|
BT cLE | LF 008 | LFolS | woSl | Go | TS olSE| ST oBSE| SolBS | oFL] | FI oFNZ| OF ofSZ | 19 o98@| ° : au : * WeaX
I6L LG) 0&8 068 6T6 | 1Z8 0gL 9IT'T | tO06LT | ST9'S | TS6'% | GEY'S | ° *dx .0T
SF o8 | OF 898 | TE oLGE | 16 BSE | Lh oLLE| JF oGFE | ZS o9BE| 1B 0668 | SF o€86| TS oL9G| 1B ofSS | 0G oF SB) * ; “| JOUIUINSPIP,
$38 FE0'L 6S4'L cop] EL9'L 8I9‘T 98¢'T F9G'L 9EL‘S T1a'e | eves | 968's | ° ‘dx or E
19.098 | 122088 | 06008 | 91099 | 8% 09 | 12 oLZE| ZF 068 | ,FE 099Z | 199 0B9B | FE o19B | KE oF G2 | EI o88S, * : a JaqUIAMp UY
96L 999 @Lg €8¢ €he= In. Fee 9L¢ 019 SEO'T GOF'T b69'T PEPT | ° ‘dx .0 ete
ale : - ¢ *
&Z GS 1Z 0Z Gime de Si 1T 91 co FI ra ZI Inox]
U1 090 | FY oL9T| TE oF ST | 0G ol TT | ,9T 066 | SF oLL | 88099 | 8069 | oF | 6T 069 | LT oLF | s16 09F | * : he : - eax
$13 90'S | ZOT'G OFG6'T 1f9'T | #88'T IFT 168 9FL fefefe) LIL LOL : ‘dX OT
16 o661 | /€6 G91 TG oBEL | 67 oGGL | ES OTL} :8% o86 | SF ofS | OF oGL | 189099 | ET 06S | FS oLG | EF ofS | : *h } JOUIMINSpIP
GE'S SEL‘S 8g0'¢ 6IL'S SESS | «(00S'S L88'T géI'T L6L €L9 619 ToL : “dx ,01 :
(SF 090G | BF o69T| 8 oGOL | GT o19 | 9E o8E | FI o9E | OT ofE | ZF GE | 0069 | 1G006 | SF 006 | FF of6 | * : ah J9)ULM PIN
Stl‘ FOL SIL GIL GL) 669 TI9 StF 008 Fe =| «BIS 899 i x9 X01 se
II or 6 8 L 9 ¢ P ¢ z I 0 Inoy

‘TIA YIdV

bb oo eek

a)

Plate Vi f

SS

Abscisse time in hours from midnight.

Tllustrating the Report on Comparison and Reduction of
Magnetic Observations.

ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 221

2 p.m., the time of the day when the diurnal inequality is most in
evidence, the value of i) seems to vary very little with the season.

Curves whose radius vector is p, and vectorial angle J, illustrate the
variations of diurnal inequality in a conspicuous way. Numerous curves
of this kind, illustrating the results obtained at Greenwich for the years
1841-57, were given by Sir G. B. Airy in the ‘Phil. Trans.’ for 1863,
‘and a smaller number, referring apparently to the years 1873-75, were also
iven by Airy in the ‘Phil. Trans.’ for 1885. Several applications of
these curves to Dublin results appear in Dr. Lloyd’s ‘ Treatise.’ Following
‘these examples I have drawn curves 11, 12, and 13, Plate VI., based on
he results in Table VIT., for midwinter, midsummer, and the whole year.
The hours are stated beside the points on the curves to which they refer.
The prominent loop on the midwinter curve should be noticed. The
existence of a loop on the mean winter curve and its absence in the mean
_ summer curve for Dublin are referred to by Lloyd (loc. cit., p. 187). The
tendency to loops in winter months is conspicuous in Airy’s Greenwich
“curves.

Relative Intensity of the Forces to which the Diurnal Inequality 1s due
throughout the year.

§ 13. Without knowing the true nature of the disturbing force or
forces to which the diurnal inequality is due, it is difficult to suggest any
wholly satisfactory measure of intensity. Assuming the inequality to be
aha composite phenomenon, the counteraction of opposing forces may produce
_ the same effect at one hour as the absence of forces at another. All the
_ phenomena seem, however, to point to greatly increased activity of dis-
_ turbing forces in summer. The data given above as to the mean values
of p throughout the day at midwinter and midsummer make the former
_ mean only -374 of the latter. Evidence in the same direction is supplied
by the following table VIII., which gives for each month, each quarter and
half-year, and for the whole year, the sum of the hourly departures from
the mean for the day, irrespective of sign, along with the range, or algebrai-
cal difference between the extremes. To show how comparatively little
_ depends on how the non-cyclic element is dealt with, the table, in addition
to the results obtained after the non-cyclic element has been eliminated,
gives likewise the range deduced from the uncorrected data for each
month. The fractions, which the table records, refer exclusively to the
| corrected data.

_ The range and the sum of the inequalities in both declination and
horizontal force show a distinct minimum in December. In the declina-
_ tion both the range and the sum of the inequalities present an absolute
“maximum in August, with apparently a second, only slightly smaller

maximum, in May. The variation, however, especially of the range, is so

small from April to August that it would hardly be safe to conclude this
was the normal phenomenon in a year of ‘quiet’ days. In the horizontal
_ force there would appear to be a single maximum, whether for range or
sum of inequalities, in July ; but the difference between the results and
those for May, June, and August is extremely small.
$14. These conclusions are only partly in accord with those got out by
Dr. Balfour Stewart! for a long series of years, 1858-73, at Kew, and by
Mr. W. Ellis,? for a still longer series of years, 1841-77, at Greenwich.

1 Proc, Roy. Soc., vol. xxvi. 1877, p. 103.
2 Phil. Trans. for 1880, p. 544.

222 REPORT—1895.

Taste VIII.

Declination | Horizontal Force in C.G.S. measure
Sum of Sum of In- 's
Inequalities Range equalities x 10° Range x10
Month |
Hw oso mn i co H
5 ss | 3 tee eS s3 | 2 | o |S
so mee io] 3S co eo lee 3 2 Siar
=e 2s E g 28 a8 23 E 3 2s
Sa BA ° 4 24 Sa | $8 3S o BA
ae |) ee |) 2 Be a ee ee eee see
to Be) 8 |S | 8s | A EE Sr) ks
e A er lea 4 FI
January . - | 29/52 0°635 522 4°99 07559 823 0434 172 180 | 0°567
February . - | 35/95 0-773 5/72 564 0°632 1,132 0:598 214 205 0642
March. e 4758 1:024 9°78 9°73 1-089 1,689 0°892 290 282 0°883
April . . | 5145 1107 11°30 | 11/26 1261 2,371 1-252 386 381 1192
May e e | 59/32 1:276 12/00 | 11/93 1:337 2,571 1°358 428 | 411 1:288
June . e - | 59/26 1:275 11/18 | 11/25 1:259 2,610 1:378 434 429 1342
July . 4 «| 57°46 1:236 11-18 | 1129 1264 2,686 1-419 444 | 436 1:366
August . | 60°14 1:294 12/16 12/23 1:370 2,632 1390 450 | 433 1:355
September . | 55/04 1184 1050 | 10/47 1172 2,113 1116 386 372 1166
October 2 | 45°48 0-978 8°54 8'°52 0'954 1,964 1:037 332 317 0-991
November . | 32/59 0-701 5/92 5”°88 0-658 1,468 0°75 234 245 0°765
December . 2 | 24°03 0517 4/02 3/97 0°445 664 0°351 140 142 0 445
Means:
1st Quarter. - | 37°68 —_ _ 6"79 — 1,215 —_— _— 222 -~
7G Lae ea .- | 56°68 _ — 1148 — 2,517 —- — 407 —_—
8rd yg fw | STDS == = 11:33 = 2,477 = ry hei =
athe ee hk. SAS — = eg | — 1,365 = — |) 234 a
Winter A . | 35/86 _— _ 6°45 — 1,290 - — 228 —
Summer . 57/11 _— _— 1141 _ 2,497 — — 410 —
Year e 46'49 _ _ 8°93 _— 1,893 oa - 319 —_

The tables by Dr. Stewart and Mr. Ellis both give April as the month
in which occurs the largest maximum in the declination range. Dr.
Stewart’s table gives slightly smaller, and nearly equal, maxima in June
and August. In Mr. Ellis’s table the mean range for August is decidedly
higher than the mean for June, which latter, however, is a shade higher
than the mean for May and decidedly higher than the mean for July.
Again, the difference between the maximum and minimum ranges of
declination in Table VIII. is much greater than in either of the other
tables referred to. Thus, by Table VIII., the corrected range varies from
12'-23 to 3/-97, while in the general mean of the monthly results from the
thirty-seven years included in Mr. Ellis’s table the extremes are 11'-96
and 5'*78, and in Dr. Stewart’s table the ratio of the maximum to the
minimum monthly range is only 2: 1.

Dr. Stewart’s table is confined to declination, but Mr. Ellis gives
results for the range of horizontal force as well. The general means he
gives for the four months, April to July, are very nearly equal ; the
greatest value, that for April, being about 2 per cent. only in excess of
the least of the four, that for May. The difference between the greatest
and least of the mean monthly ranges of horizontal force in Mr. Ellis’s
table is again much less than the corresponding difference in Table VIIL.,
the minimum, appearing in December, bearing to the April maximum
the ratio 42 : 100.

The mest conspicuous difference between Table VIII. and the results
of Dr. Stewart and Mr. Ellis is that it shows no trace of a maximum of
activity in April, and indicates markedly increased activity in August.
It would, however, be precipitate to assume that the time of maximum

ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 223

activity falls later in the year now than in the epochs dealt with by
Dr. Stewart and Mr. Ellis. The different character of the materials
employed in the several cases must be borne in mind. Dr. Stewart took
into account all observations except the comparatively small percentage
falling under General Sabine’s definition of disturbed, and Mr. Ellis took
all but days of considerable magnetic disturbance ; thus the material
‘dealt with by both possessed presumably much eveater heterogeneousness
than that dealt with in Table VIII. Again, ' the mode in which the
results were treated was different. Dr. Stewart, it is true, apparently
took the means from groups of four successive years, but Mr. Ellis took
‘the mean of the ranges deduced from each single year’s records. The
taking a group of years probably depresses the mean range most in those
‘months in which the progress of the diurnal inequality is least regular.

Harmonic Analysis of Monthly Ranges.

§ 15. I have analysed into harmonic terms the quantities measuring
mean range for month

_ the departures from unity of the fractions — for both
mean range for year
declination and H.F. Putting for ee
; SI LN ad nema: Se tem alter sonics perils)

where ¢ is time in months from the middle of January, I find for the
declination
mean range for month T
mean range for year
+:08 sin 27%+-01 cos 3a—°04 sin3z%+°01 cos 47+:-00 sin 4x
+04 cos 5a—:03 sin 5a+'03 cos 6a . : : Z (9)
for the Horizontal Force
mean range for month eal

mean range for year

+:03 sin 2x+:00 cos 3a—:‘00 sin 3x+°03 cos ri ‘03 sin 4a
+:03 cos 5a+°01 sin 5a2+:01 cos 6x . 5 tO)
In both cases the terms whose period is the full year are , greatly pre-
dominant. There appears also in both cases an appreciable semi-annual
variation ; but the terms with shorter periods are very small, and little
weight can be attached to their numerical measure.

= —40 cos «+14 sin x—°'1] cos 2a

= —°43 cos x+:'08 sin x—:07 cos 2x

Annual Variation.

$16. The variation of a magnetic element throughout the year, like
variation throughout a quiet day, i is most simply regarded as composed
f two parts, a uniform drift or secular var vation, and a eyclic portion,
which may be called the annual inequality. This is a somewhat arbi-
trary separation. The increase of the horizontal force, for instance, from
year to year, got out from the observations of most observatories, is far
from uniform ; and if this be a true phenomenon the hypothesis that the
secular drift is uniform throughout the whole of one year can hardly
claim a physical basis. It is, however, at any rate a conyenient mathe-
matical fiction whose adoption can do no harm when its true character
is explicitly recognised.

294 REPORT—1895.

The following data are extracted from the annual Kew ‘Reports :—

TasLe LX.
| Year | 1890 | 1891 1892 1893 | 1894 |
Mean Declination . .| 17° 50'6 V7 To S6l7 WELZ DEGRA aT Oe a ri
Fc Ie, 18173 "18193 ‘18202 “18238 “18251

The mean values thence deduced for the secular variation are a
decrease annually of 6'9 in declination, and an increase annually of
10-6 x 195 C.G.S. units in horizontal force. It will be assumed that
these secular variations proceed uniformly throughout the mean year, got
by combining the five years 1890-94. To eliminate the secular variation
one adds to the observed values +0':575t¢ in the case of the declination,
and —10-® x 1°625¢ in the case of the horizontal force, ¢ being the time
elapsed in months from the middle of the mean year. Subtracting the
mean value for the year from the monthly means thus corrected, one
obtains the annual inequality.

§ 17. To make the true position of affairs clear, a brief explanation is
necessary of how the magnetic curves are standardised at Kew. Of late
years the practice has been to determine the value of the zero line for
each month’s curves by reference solely to the absolute observations of
that month. The same instruments are used for each observation of an
element, and every observation is independent of the others, except that
the constant usually called P in the formula for the horizontal foree—
i.e., the coefficient of the secondary term in the expression for the deflect-
ing foree—is determined from a whole year’s observations.

One of the most probable and subtle causes of error one has to provide
against in getting out an annual variation of any physical phenomenon is
a possible secular or annual variation in the measuring instruments.
This is especially the case with apparatus sensitive to changes of temper-
ature. Now it is unquestionably true that the horizontal force magneto-
graph is affected by changes of temperature, and though the underground
chamber it is worked in at Kew has a very small diurnal variation of
temperature, it has a considerable annual fluctuation. Thus, however
carefully temperature corrections might be determined and applied, the
suspicion of an ‘annual inequality’ being far other than it seemed might
not unreasonably be entertained, if the ultimate reference were to the mag-
netograph curves, either unstandardised, or standardised by reference to
the mean of a year’s absolute observations. It is partly to provide against
this that each month’s curves are referred to that one month’s absolute
observations.

These observations are taken about once a week and scattered over
tthe month, so that any secular or annual variation in the magnetographs
themselves must be very nearly eliminated.

As regards the absolute instruments there is, so to speak, no higher
court of appeal. There is no obvious ground for suspicion. The hori-
zontal force magnet has a temperature correction to apply, but this is only
to allow for the difference in its temperatures at the times of the vibra-
tion and deflection experiments in the same observation. This difference
in temperature is very small and very irregular, and even if the tempera-

ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 225

ture correction were considerably in error the consequence could hardly
be a regular annual variation, but merely an increased probable error in
each individual observation.

_ A second source of uncertainty is that the probable error in an abso-
lute observation and its comparison with the corresponding curve value
is somewhat large compared to the annual inequality it is desired to
“measure.

The number of observations, some twenty, on which the mean for each
month of the mean year depends may seem sufficiently large to render
‘any mere observational error insignificant. It must be remembered,
however, that on a considerable number of the days of absolute observa-
tion there proves to have been a good deal of magnetic movement. Some-
times the disturbance has been such as to render it necessary to discard
the observation entirely, and in other cases there is appreciable uncer-
tainty as to what is the true length of the curve ordinate to be taken as
answering to the observed absolute value. This will be readily under-
stood of the horizontal force, an absolute observation of which lasts
usually over an hour. The result of the absolute observation is a species
of mean value, to which some portions of the time occupied by the obser-
_yation contribute more than others. The determinations of the declination
are less subject to uncertainties of this sort ; but on the other hand the
‘range of its annual inequality seems to bear a much smaller ratio to the
secular variation than in the case of the horizontal force.

~ §18. The natural outcome of the second class of errors would obviously
be a series of fictitious discontinuities in passing from one month to
another of a year. Asa matter of fact there did appear an unnatural
amount of fluctuation in the figures obtained for the annual inequalities
from the mean values answering to the middle of the months. To get
rid of this I have deduced the annual inequalities in the following table,
X., from a series of values, each of which is the arithmetic mean of the
actually observed means of two consecutive months. These arithmetic
eans are attributed to the first day of the second month of the two.

The first two columns of the table give the departures from the mean

for the year of the actually observed means for the individual months ;
so that anyone who prefers to deduce the annual inequalities from these
an easily do so.
I ought to explain that in calculating Table X. some slight differences
‘were introduced from the declination results for 1890 published in the Kew
‘Report.’ The declination curves for that year had been standardised by
treating as a whole the absolute observations and corresponding curve
easurements throughout the year, instead of taking each month sepa-
rately. I have thought it best to remove this peculiarity of treatment,
referring for the purpose to the absolute observations for the year, of
which, of course, the record remained.

The numerically greatest and least values in the annual inequality
columns are in heavy type.

The ranges given by Table X. for the annual inequalities, viz., 1/"22
for the declination and 10-°x129 for the horizontal force, would be
- imereased to 1/52 and 10-§x141 respectively if the monthly means, for
_ the middle of each month, were taken and corrected for secular variation.

§ 19. The results obtained for the annual inequalities are much
smoother and more consistent than might have been expected ; but taking
_ the smallness of the apparent ranges, and the fact that the
- 1895. Q

f

226 REPORT—1895.

Taste X.—Dzifferences from Mean for Year commencing on January 1.

Monthly means, for middle Results answering to first
of month, uncorrected for d y of month after secular
Month secular variation correction applied
Dec'ination H.F. x 106 Declination HF.x10
i i
January . - - . + 3°32 —117 + 0°48 —13
February . ; : +315 — 73 + 0°36 -—14
March. : : : +168 — 86 + O11 —15
April : 3 : : + 0°83 — 22 —O0-47 — 5
May. : : : 5 +0°31 + 48 —0°58 +46
June : ‘ F : — 0°43 + 66 —0°63 +74
July. : : : é —0°70 + 27 —057 +47
August . . ; ; —0-70 + 55 —0'12 +24
September : : é —0'88 — 26 + 0°36 —18
October . : : - —2-01 | + 13 + 0°28 —55
November - : : — 2°22 + 25 +0:18 — 46
D: ember ; ‘ ‘ — 2°35 + 90 | +0759 —24

measurement of the curves proceeds only to the nearest 0'-1 in the case of
the declination, and to the nearest 1 x10~-° in the case of the horizontal
force, I do not think too much confidence should be placed upon details.

The results for the annual inequality of declination show unques-
tionably a good general agreement with those deduced by General Sabine !
from the undisturbed readings of the Kew magnetograph during the five
years 1858-62. General Sabine’s own paper treated each week of the
mean year separately ; but a summary giving mean results for the several
months appears on p. 76 of Walker’s ‘ Terrestrial and Cosmical Magnetism,’
where there is an interesting discussion of the question. According to
the summary, General Sabine’s results made the annual inequality
negative from May to August inclusive, and positive throughout the rest
of the year, the range amounting to almost exactly 2’. From General
Sabine’s own table one would deduce a principal maximum of westerly
declination in the latter half of October, with a second and only slightly
smaller maximum early in December, whilst the easterly movement was
conspicuously largest about the middle of July. The times at which
General Sabine observed the inequality to change sign are substantially
in accord with Table X.; and if the range he observed was decidedly
larger, this might be associated with the fact that the secular variation
during the epoch he dealt with was greater than during 1890-94. In case
this agreement should be referred to identity of apparatus, it may be as
well to mention that the declination magnet employed for the absolute
observations at Kew of late years came into use only in the beginning
of 1890.

A comparison of the declination results with those at other British
stations is unfortunately by no means so reassuring. For Dublin the
annual inequality got out from the mean of the years 1842-50 by
Dr. Lloyd ? makes the westerly declination below the mean from December
to June, and gives a range exceeding 4’, There are also conspicuous
differences between Table X. and the Greenwich results obtained by Sir

' Phil. Trans. for 1863, p. 292.
2 Treatise on Magnetism, p. 162.

ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 227

G. B. Airy | from the two periods 1841-47 and 1848-57. The results for
these two periods, however, it must be said, differ widely between them-
selves, the range deduced from the first being nearly thrice that deduced
_ from the second period.

Thinking more light desirable in the face of these discordances, I got
out the annual inequality for the mean of the five years 1887—91 from the
results published annually in Table XI. of the Greenwich ‘ Magnetical
and Meteorological Observations.’ Proceeding as in Table X., 2.e. taking
means for the first of each month, and applying the secular correction 6':4
deduced from the Greenwich tables, I obtain an inequality whose
resemblances to that shown in Table X. are not more conspicuous than
the divergences.

The largest easterly declination appears in April-May, the largest
westerly declination in September-October, and the range, 0'°6, is even
smaller than in Table X. Against these comparative agreements must,
however, be set the fact that the first three months of the year show an
easterly departure from the mean.

The divergences in the results obtained for the annual inequality of
declination do not, of course, necessarily imply that any of them are erro-
neous. The phenomena at any one station might not unnaturally present
considerable variations—at least in range—from year to year; and it is
conceivable that local influences may be more effective in this than in
other phenomena. It has also to be borne in mind that the data em-
_ ployed at the several stations were selected on different principles. Still,
1 am doubtful whether any more definite conclusion should be drawn
_ than that the annual inequality of declination near London is at present
a very small quantity.

§ 20. The annual inequality of horizontal force shown in Table X. is,
comparatively speaking, large and unmistakable ; its range is a large
fraction of the secular variation. In this instance there is a very fair
agreement with the results given on pp. 166, 167 of Lloyd’s ‘ Treatise ’ for
Dublin on the mean of the years 1841-50, the most conspicuous differ-
ence being that the Dublin range was some 50 per cent. in excess of that
given by Table X.

The only previous determinations, so far as I know, of the annual
variation of the horizontal force at Kew are those of General Sabine? and
‘Dr. Balfour Stewart,’ for the epochs 1857-62 and 1863-68 respectively.
The former found the horizontal force, corrected for secular change, to be
on an average about ‘00012 C.G.S. units higher in summer than in
winter, while the latter found no difference. This divergence might be
attributed to the epochs considered being different ; but I feel consider-
able doubt as to the data employed having being adequate. They appear
to have been in both cases simply the results of the absolute observations,
_ ungorrected by reference either to the magnetograph curves or to the

diurnal variation.

In conclusion, I have much pleasure in acknowledging my mdebted-
ness to Mr. T. W. Baker, chief assistant, and Mr. R.S. Whipple, librarian
at Kew Observatory, for explanations as to the methods of standardising

the magnetic curves at Kew, and for other valuable information and
assistance.

Phil. Trans. for 1863, p. 314. 2 Phil. Trans. for 1863, pp. 298, 299.
3 Proce. Roy. Soc., vol. xviii. 1870, pp. 238, 239.
Q 2

228 REPORT—1895.

The Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. J. H. GLADSTONE (Chairman), Professor
H. E. Armstrone (Secretary), Professor W. R. Dunstan, Mr.
GEORGE GLADSTONE, Sir Joan Lussock, Sir Partie Maanus, Sir
H. E. Roscoxr, and Professor S. P. THompson.

At the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, held at Sheffield in 1879, a Committee was appointed with
reference to the examination in the scientific specific subjects of the Code
in Elementary Schools. Mr. Mundella was the first Chairman, but he was
unable to continue such, as he shortly afterwards became Vice-President
of the Committee of Council on Education. The Committee was re-
appointed next year, with the object of reporting on the manner in which
rudimentary science should be taught, as well as examined. In 1881 the
Committee was again reappointed to watch and report on the working of
the proposed Revised New Code, and of other legislation affecting the
teaching of science in Elementary Schools. In November of that year
the Committee agreed upon certain recommendations, which were adopted
by the Council of the Association and transmitted to the Education
Department. The Government adopted some of these recommendations
in whole or in part. Since that date the Committee has been continued
annually, and has regularly reported on the progress of the teaching of
natural science in Elementary Schools. It has also used its influence in
respect of the great question of technical instruction, the formation of school
museums, Evening Continuation Schools, and other matters that have
come before the Legislature. When the Royal Commission on Elementary
Education was sitting, the Council of the British Association adopted a
Resolution of this Committee, authorising one of its members to give
evidence before the Commission, which was done accordingly. The
question of the method of teaching science to classes of young children
has also been considered recently, and formed part of the Report of the
Committee. As the object of this Committee more directly affects those
sections which deal with natural science, it was reappvinted last year under
the auspices of Section B.

With regard to the progress of scientific instruction in Elementary
Schools, the number of departments of schools in which the following
class subjects were examined by Her Majesty’s Inspector during the eight
years 1882 to 1890, when English was obligatory, were as follows :—

| | |
Class Subjects.—Departments | 1882-83 | | 1883-84 1884-85, 1885-86 | 1886-87 | 1887-88 1888-89 1800 1889--90

Enelislt, ¢) ey wavy wales ices] 028,868 5 ,080 | 19,431 | 19,608 | 19,917 "2 20,041 ou 20,153 | 20,304
Geography . . « .| 12,828 | 12,775 12,336 | 12,055 | 12,035 | 12,058 | 12,171 | 12,367
Elementary Science i 48 5L 45 43 | 39 | 36 | 36 32

The numbers during the last four years, when managers and teachers
have had full liberty of choice, have been as follows :—

ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, 229

Class Subjects Departments 1890-91 1891-92 | 1892-93 | 1893-94
Sereeh. ss | | 19,825 18175 | 17,894 | 17,082
| Geography . : a) 12,806 13,485 | 14,256 15,250

Elementary Science =| 173 788 LOT3 _ | 1,215

It will be noticed that during the former period, while the study of
English Grammar increased with the natural increase of schools, the study
of scientific subjects positively decreased ; but since that time, while
Grammar has steadily declined, Geography and Elementary Science have
increased.

The number of departments in ‘schools for older scholars’ for the
year 1893-94 was 22,779, of which 111 did not take any class subject,
leaving 22,668 as the number of departments with which the foregoing
table has to deal. But it must be borne in mind that History is taken in
2,972, and Needlework (for girls) in 7,675 departments, making, with the
other three subjects in the table, 44,144 in all. This shows an average of
nearly two class subjects to each department. As, however, there were no
less than 5,975 departments in which only one class subject was taken, it
is evident that the plan of teaching one subject in the lower division of a
school and another subject in the upper division, thus counting twice over
- in the statistical table, is largely adopted. This is further borne out by
the fact that, while only two class subjects are allowed to be taken by any
individual scholar, there are 4,388 departments in which three, and 197 in
which four or five, of these class subjects are taught. That Elementary
Science is taught in 1,215 departments must, therefore, be accepted with
the reservation that, in many cases perhaps, it is only a portion of the
school that gets the benefit of this instruction.

The number of scholars examined in the scientific specific subjects —
during the eight years 1882-90 has been as follows :—

1 ;
Specific Subjects——Children | 1882-83 1883-84 1884-85 | 1885-86 | 1886-87 | 1887-88 | 1888-89 | 1889-90
Algebra . . . «| 26,547 | 24,787 | 25,347 | 25,393 | 25,103 | 26,448 | 27,465 | 30,035

-} Buclidand Mensuration . - 1,942 2,010 | 1,269 1,247 995 1,006 928 977
Mechanics,A. . «. «| 2,042| 3,174) 3,527] 4844] 6,315 | 6,961 | 9,524 | 11,453

is IBY 7 - - —_— 206 239 128 33 331 127 209
Animal Physiology. é . | 22,759 | 22,857 | 20,869 | 18,523 | 17,338 | 16,940 | 15,893 | 15,842
Botany . . . - «| 3,280| 2604] 2,415| 1,992] 1,589] 1,598} 1,944] 1,830
Principles of Agriculture .| 1,357 | 1,859 | 1,481 | 1,351] 1,137] 1,151] 1,199 | 1,228
Chemistry . . .| 1,183} 1,047] 1,095] 1,158] 1,488 | 1,808] 1,531 | 2,007
Sound, Light,and Heat. . 630 | 1,253] 1,231] 1,334] 1,158 978 | 1,076 | 1,183

| Magnetism and Electricity . 3,643 3,244 2,864 2,951 2,250 1,977 1,669 2,293
Domestic Economy. . .| 19,582) 21,458 | 19,437 | 19,556 | 20,716 | 20,787 | 22,064 | 23,094
Total . . . «| 82,965 | 84,499 | 79,774 | 78,477 | 78,122 | 79,985 | 83,420 | 90,151

Number of scholars in Stan- ). . a
j dards V., VI., and VII. } 286,355 | 325,205 | 352,860 | 393,289 | 432,097 | 472,770 | 490,590 495,164

The numbers in the last column of table on p. 230 reveal a general advance ;
but the most marked proportional increase is to be found in the number
of scholars taking Chemistry and Magnetism and Electricity. The num-
bers during the last four years are :—

230 REPORT—1895.

Specific Subjects.—Children 1890-91 1891-92 1892-93 1893-94
Algebra. ; i : 31,349 28,542 |. 31,487 33,612
Euclid c ; 2 : 870 927 1,279 1,399
Mensuration . ; : 1,489 2,802 3,762 4.018
Mechanics . ; : : 15,559 18,000 20,023 | 21,532
Animal Physiology . : 15,050 13,622 14,060 To;20
Botany : : : 2,115 1,845 1,968 2,052
Principles of Agriculture . 1,231 1,085 909 1,231
Chemistry . F : P 1,847 1,935 2,387 3,043
Sound, Light, and Heat _. | 1,085 1,163 1,168 1,175
Magnetism and Electricity | 2,554 2,338 2,181 3,040
Domestic Economy . 7 27,475 26,447 29,210 | 32,922

|
Total ; 3 - | 100,624 | 98,706 108,434 119/295

With regard to the teaching of Mechanics, which has attained a
development, within the last few years, far greater in proportion than any
other of the scientific subjects, it is very satisfactory to note that of the
21,532 scholars above enumerated, no less than 3,407 had reached the
third stage of the syllabus, while 7,296 were examined in the second
stage. Considering how rapidly the elder children drop out of school
after they have passed the legal Standard of exemption, these figures augur
well for the value placed upon the instruction in this subject, which has
become almost a speciality of the London, Liverpool, Birmingham, and
some of the other large School Boards, and which is almost entirely carried
on by special instructors on the peripatetic system.

The sudden rise of more than 50 per cent. in the last two years in the
number of students in Chemistry does not admit of any such proportion
being found in the laver stages ; but considerably over one-fourth of the
whole were examined in the second and third stages. The recognition of
the importance of experimental teaching is leading to the establishment.
of well-appointed laboratories by some of the School Boards, such as
those of Hove and Handsworth, which can be made to serve also for the
teaching of this science in the Evening Continuation Schools.

Estimating the number of scholars in Standards V., VI., and VII. at
570,000, the percentage of the number examined in these specific subjects
as compared with the number of children qualified to take them is 20°9 ;
but it should be remembered that many of the children take more than
one subject for examination. The following table gives the percentage for
each year since 1882 :—

In 1882-83 eet: moeat OO 8. Cee
»» 1883-84

» 1884-85

» 1885-86 eas eee ee
,, 1886-87 sends -chnabik diiniewt Sa
», 1887-88 ARE Ones VEER:
», 1888-89 ne lee tierra ites = <,
, 1889-90 Bl nt cee ee
1890-91 Bt 7 40 oligt fo were
1891-92

, 1892-93 Lmeiternd bay ee
Sy ee

Oo

per cent.

DWH DOH HH Hebb bp
SSOSHABPOWSS
ONWIW KOSH ORDS

ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 231

The returns of the Education Department given above refer to the
whole of England and Wales, and are for the school years ending with
August 31. The statistics of the London School Board are brought up to
the year ending with Lady Day, 1895. They also illustrate the great
~ advance that has been made in the teaching of Elementary Science as a
class subject, and they give the number of children as well as the number
_ of departments.

Years Departments Children
1890-91 11 2,293
1891-92 113 26,674
1892-93 156 40,208
1893-94 183 49,367
1894-95 208 52,982

The total number of departments for ‘older scholars’ under the London
School Board at the last-named date was 820, so that in just over one-
fourth of the whole the teaching of Elementary Science has been
introduced into the curriculum.

The number of schools under the London School Board that are now
working in accordance with the syllabus of Elementary Physics and
Chemistry given in the day and evening schools Codes is steadily increasing,
and the work as it becomes better understood by the teachers is naturally
being better taught. About thirty schools under the Board will be
engaged in this work after the summer vacation, all of which are supplied
_ with the necessary apparatus. The old system of peripatetic experimental
lectures by a demonstrator has been practically superseded in the divisions
of Tower Hamlets and Hackney. The scholars are not now dependent on
a brief inspection of apparatus once a fortnight or three weeks, but can
use it at any opportunity given by the master of the class.

The enormous size of the classes—often 120—is, however, a serious
obstacle to the success of a scheme designed to cultivate the reasoning
faculties rather than the acquirement of knowledge of scientific facts and
_ theories ; in this sense it cannot be said that the scheme has yet had a
fair trial. Very much depends on the individual ability and enthusiasm
of the teacher, much more so than under the old system ; so that in most
eases the work is not satisfactorily carried on if the teacher himself has

not been through the whole course practically before he begins to teach
‘it ; in fact, the Science and Art system has left its mark so deeply engraved
_ on many teachers’ minds that it takes some time to instil more modern
notions into them.

The alteration in the system of inspection, though beneficial in all
subjects of school curriculum, will have an especially useful effect in the
teaching of science. Under the new conditions the work must be done
more thoroughly, and the subjects of the syllabus evenly distributed over
the year, thus preventing the rush and cram of revision in the period im-
mediately preceding the annual examination.

The training of teachers being, as above stated, the all-important
factor in securing the success of this scheme, more facilities are required
for bringing together the older teachers to form normal practical classes.
Tn considering the establishment of such classes it must be remembered
that teachers, already out of their training course, give their time volun-

232 REPORT—1 895.

tarily after a hard day’s work in school ; the conditions under which such
classes are held must therefore be made as easy as possible if they are
to be successful, and the sympathy and enthusiasm of the teacher are to be
aroused.

During the last year some fifty or sixty teachers under the London
Board went through practical courses at the demonstrator’s laboratory in
Whitechapel, where the accommodation will soon be quite insufficient to
meet the requirements of the district. Full and complete notes and sug-
gestions were issued to all teachers attending the courses, which were
much appreciated. The development of the work is largely due to the
establishment of this system of normal classes.

In the meantime the question of science teaching in girls’ schools has
not been left unattacked. Two schools have now adopted a course of
domestic science in lieu of domestic economy. A syllabus has been
devised to deal as far as possible with the nature of the processes and the
materials employed in the household. A short course of measurement
and weighing has been introduced with the double object of familiarising
the scholars with the decimal system and making them acquainted with

the instruments they will have to use in accurate experimental work.
The general effects of heat on matter, and their application to the work of
the laundry and kitchen, are then studied ; the modes of cooking and some
of the simpler changes involved, chemistry of air and water, combustion,
fuel, soap, hardness of water, and finally a few lessons are given on the
mechanics of the household, such as the structure of taps, locks, gas fit-
tings, hot-water boilers, flushing tanks, &e.

Classes have been held for the mistresses in this subject at the
laboratory, and it is generally considered by those who have been through
the course to combine mental training with the acquirement of valuable
information, Except that the physiological part of the Domestic Economy
is not touched, most of the important work in that syllabus which can be
dealt with by scientific methods has been considered.

During the coming winter classes will be held at Berner-street
Laboratory, London, E., in all stages of Elementary Natural Philosophy
and Domestic Science syllabuses, but it is only too clear that this course
involves commencing at the wrong end. Before any great headway is
made, work of this nature must be introduced into the teachers’ course of
training, and to this end it is essential that teaching on the lines of the
new syllabuses must be started in the Pupil Teachers’ and Training
Colleges.

Jn many parts of the country School Boards and County Councils are
beginning to follow in the wake of the London Board ; the subject is
becoming a popular one in Evening Continuation Schools, and is often
adopted as part of the elementary course for organised science schools.

The great obstacles to good science teaching at the present time in
Elementary Schools are—

. Large classes.

2. Multitude of subjects.

3. Insufficiency of the training course for teachers in science sub-
4

bt

jects.

. Effects of the old Science and Art system, which is clearly far
too formal, and pays far too little attention to ordinary
requirements.

The return of the work of the Evening Continuation Schools under

— =

ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 233

the Code of 1893 furnishes interesting data as to the instruction in
scientific subjects in these schools. Your Committee drew attention in
their Report for 1893 to the development which was taking place at that
time in this direction ; but pointed out that the Government return of
that year did not furnish precise information on the point. A new table
has been introduced this year, which gives the information desired. In the
following table your Committee give the number of ‘units for payment’
of the grant by the Education Department for the several scientific sub-
jects taken throughout England and Wales during the session 1893-94,
to which is appended a similar return for the schools under the London
School Board, extracted from the Board’s Annual Report upon their
Evening Continuation Schools. It may be necessary to explain that the
‘unit’ means a complete twelve hours of instruction received by each
scholar, fractions of twelve hours not counting.

Units for payment
Sta SUIS | England and London School

| Wales Board
re FT ORE RO nee 595 10
Algebra . ’ - ; : : : : 3,940 316
Mensuration . \ 4 ‘ i : : 14,521 279
Elementary Physiography : 3 ; 2,554 37
Elementary Physics and Chemistry . 4 6,500 79
Science of Common Things . s : 5 6,223 231
Chemistry . : : : : : Ht 3,484 212
Mechanics. ‘ : : : ‘ : 841 230
Sound, Light, and Heat ; 4 ; F 500 =
Magnetism and Electricity , a 2,359 | 662
Human Physiology . | 5,695 91
Botany . : 2 - | 336 5
Agriculture =| 3,579 —
Horticulture . | 438 —
Navigation ? | 42 =

The total number of units is (for England and Wales) 51,607, whereas
the number of scholars is 41,960, indicating that about one-fourth of them
must have received at least twenty-four hours of instruction. It is evident
that London is far behind the country in general in the teaching of these
science subjects in their Evening Continuation Schools, excepting in the
matter of Mechanics and Magnetism and Electricity. The stronghold of
this instruction is in Manchester and the other manufacturing districts.

It is especially interesting to note that 3,696 students took up Chemis-
try, and that a much larger number took the comparatively new subjects
of Elementary Physics and Chemistry, and the Science of Common Things.
Your Committee has already on a former occasion (1893) expressed
approval of the course on Elementary Physics and Chemistry in the
Evening School Code, which is a practical course intended to be carried
out experimentally by the scholars themselves, and deals, not with defini-
tions or descriptions, but with actual facts. The course on the Science of
Common Things is ‘a brief survey of the physical properties of bodies,
serving to determine their uses and relative value.’ It may be looked
upon as an introduction to physical and biological science in general, and
to its application to ordinary and domestic life.

In their last Report your Committee referred to the difficulties inter-

284: REPORT—1895.

posed by the regulations of the Code in making visits for the purposes of
education to such places as Kew Gardens, the South Kensington Museum,
&c., although the Science and Art Department have recognised the educa-
tional value of such attendances; and stated that Mr. Acland had favour-
ably received a deputation on the subject, and promised increased facilities.
This promise has been fulfilled ; and the Code of this year provides that
the time spent during school-hours in visiting museums, art galleries, and
other institutions of educational value may count towards the time re-
quired for an attendance at school. Her Majesty’s Inspectors are more-
over instructed to encourage these visits wherever such institutions exist.
It is stipulated that the teacher in charge should not have, as a rule,
more than fifteen scholars with him, and that no visits should be paid
unless some person competent to give information of a kind interesting to
young children is present. All these regulations appear wise and proper,
so that the real object of visits to these institutions may be attained ; and
the limitation of them to twenty in the course of the school year is not
unreasonable, as, with all the other matters that demand attention, more
time certainly could not well be spared.

The only other alteration of importance in the Code that concerns your
Committee is the new stipulation that object lessons must be given in all
schools to the children in Standards I., II., and IIT., and an excellent circu-
lar to Her Majesty’s Inspectors has recently been issued, pointing out the
true aim and nature of object teaching. It commences by drawing attention
to the two kinds of instruction which are often confused : (1) observation
of the object itself, and (2) giving information about the object. It dwells
upon the importance of the distinction, adding, ‘Object teaching leads the
scholar to acquire knowledge by observation and experiment ; and no
instruction is properly so called unless an object is presented to the
learner, so that the addition to his knowledge may be made through the
senses.’ It enforces the selection of subjects which can appeal to the
hands and eyes of the scholars, stating that ‘however well the lesson may
be illustrated by diagrams, pictures, models, or lantern slides, if the chil-
dren have no opportunity of handling or watching the actual object
which is being dealt with, the teacher will be giving an information lesson
rather than an object lesson.’. . . ‘It is Elementary Science only in so far
as it aids the child to observe some of the facts of nature upon which
natural science is founded; but as it deals with such topics without formal
arrangement, it differs widely from the systematic study of a particular
science.’ The circular contains many suggestions on the choice of objects ;
the avoidance of what is purely technical; the making of drawings or
models both by teacher and children; the relation of the parts of the
object to the whole; and the leading the children to describe accurately
what they have seen. Several complete schemes are given for guidance in
the appendix to the circular.

The Parliamentary Committee which has been considering the question
of decimal weights and measures, under the chairmanship of one of your
Committee, Sir Henry E. Roscoe, has just reported in favour of the per-
missive use of the metric system for all purposes for the next two years,
after which that system should become obligatory. It recommends that
it should be taught in all public schools as a necessary and integral part
of Arithmetic. The Elementary School Code has, for some years past,
contained a note to the effect that ‘the scholars in Standards V., VI., and
VII. should know the principles of the metric system,’ but it has not

ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 235

received much attention while so much time had to be spent upon the
tables of weights and measures in ordinary use. When these cease to be
legal, not only will the teaching of Arithmetic be rendered more rational,
but a large amount of time will be set free which can be applied to the
promotion of science teaching.

Looking back over the years that have elapsed since the passing of the
first Elementary Education Act, it is evident that the constant tendency
has been to add to the curriculum of the schools ; and some of the most
recently recommended additions to the time-table include manual instruc-
tion and physical exercises. The difficulty of finding time for these has
led to the suggestion that the generally recognised hours of schooling
might be extended in the case of the elder scholars. This course would
involve some practical inconveniences ; and in view of the fact that the
children pass their Standards now at an earlier and more immature age
than they did some years ago, it is a question worth consideration whether
the time has not arrived when the recognised school age should be raised
from thirteen to fourteen, and the work of the Standards made to spread
over this extended period. Such an arrangement would have the manifest
advantage of affording a broader and more practical education, without
over-pressure to either the teachers or the taught.

Quantitative Analysis by means of Electrolysis.—Second Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor J. EMERSON REYNOLDS (Chair-
man), Dr. C. A. Koun (Secretary), Professor P, FRANKLAND, Pro-
fessor F. Clowes, Dr. Huan Marswatyi, Mr. A. E. FLETCHER,
Mr. D. H. Nace, Mr. T. Turner, and Mr. J. B. CoLEMAn.

A PRELIMINARY report was furnished by the Committee last year in which
the contemplated plan of work was outlined.

The bibliography of the subject has been completed and is ap-
pended.

The experimental work has been carefully organised, and the results
on the determination of bismuth and of tin are nearly complete. Other
work is in progress, but the Committee prefer to hold over these results
until next year in order that they may be added to and may include
methods of separation of some of the metals.

Considerable attention has been given to the choice and arrangement
_ of the special apparatus required. A detailed description of the arrange-
ments adopted will be given in the next report.

As the bibliography is completed, the Committee propose to devote
their attention during the coming year exclusively to experimental
inquiries.

Bibliography on Methods of Quantitative Analysis by means of
Electrolysis.

The bibliography has been compiled from the following journals, and is
complete up to the end of 1894 :—

236 REPORT—1895.

Journal | pees a Abbreviation
1 | Journal of the Chemical Society . | 1847-1894 J. Chem. Soc.
2 | Journal of the Society of Chemical | 1882-1894) J. Soc. Chem. Ind.
Industry
3 | Chemical News . : j - | 1860-1894 Chem. News.
4 American Chemical Journal - - | 1878-1894} Amer. Chem. J.
5 | Journal of Analytical and Applied | 1887-1894| J. Analyt. & App. Chem.
Chemistry |
6 | Journal of the American Chemical | 1879-1894| J. Amer. Chem. Soc.
Society |
7 | Zeitschrift fiir analytische Chemie . | 1862-1894) Zeits. anal. Chem.
8 | Berichte der deutschen chemischen | 1868-1894 Ber.
Gesellschaft
9 | Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie . | 1892-1894] Zeits. anorg. Chem.
10 | Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie | 1887-1894} Zeits. phys. Chem.
11 | Zeitschrift fir Electrochemie . : 1894 Zeits. Electrochem.
(Organ der deutschen electroche- |
mischen Gesellschaft)

References to papers of importance published in journals other than
the above are also included, viz, :—

Journal Abbreviation
American Chemist. F : . | Amer. Chem.
Annales de Chimie et Physique ‘ ‘ . | Annales Chim. et Phys.
Berg- u. hiittenminnische Zeitung. ; 8 : . | Berg- u, hiitten. Zeit.
Bulletin de la Société Chimique . : 5 ; , Bull. Soc. Chim.
Chemiker-Zeitung . : d : < : ; . | Chem.-Zeit.
Comptes Rendus . j 3 ; : ‘ : . | Compt. Rend.
Dingler’s Polytechnisches Journal . 3 ‘ . . | Dingler Polyt. J.
Jahresbericht der Chemie . : ; . : . | Jahresber. Chem.
Journal of the Franklin Institute . : , : . | J. Franklin Inst.
Journal fiir praktische Chemie : : : - . | J. prakt. Chem.
Monatshefte fiir Chemie : ; : : : . | Monatsh. Chem.
Pharmaceutische Central-Halle . : : : . | Pharm. Central-Halle.
Repertorium der analytischen Chemie . : ‘ . | Rep. anal. Chem.
Zeitschrift fiir angewandte Chemie | Zeits. angew. Chem.

Books of Reference.
1. ‘Quantitative Analyse durch Electrolyse.’ A. Classen. 3rd edit.,
1892. Published by J. Springer, Berlin.
Translation, by W. H. Herrick, of 2nd edition, 1887, ‘Quantitative
Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis.’ Published by I. Wiley, New York.
2. ‘Electro-chemical Analysis.’ Edgar F. Smith. 1890. Published
by P. Blakiston, Philadelphia.

Arrangement of Bibliography.

The bibliography is divided into the following sections :—

I. General conditions for electrolytic analysis.

IT. Special apparatus employed.

III. Quantitative methods, for the determination of metals by means
of electrolysis.

IV. Quantitative methods, for the separation of metals by means of
electrolysis.

V. Special applications of electrolysis in quantitative analysis.

VI. Applications of electrolysis to qualitative analysis (including
sundry papers bearing on electrolytic analysis).

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REPORT

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REPORT

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poe orsoydsoyg 606 &g gsst “ "SMON “UIETD | * 4 “IL “e100][
“Poe ONIN 1 6T OSst | “UeY OD [eae is1e7) |” 4 ; ‘OD ‘moyon'y
‘prow ormmydng GF SLI | F9ST | ‘py4jod waysuiq |“ ** ‘D ‘Moyon'T
‘plow o1anydyng 16 ral E681 ‘mayo ‘skyd ‘syrez | * : ‘YT ‘S1equepna.ty
‘SO)B/BXO TNIMOMMY puv TUNISse{Og Ze 61 9881 : ; * ‘rag | ‘y ‘Stmpny pue “vy ‘masserp
‘ploe oljld pur oyv]exo WINIUOMULy So9L +1 1881 : . * ‘leg | ‘VW ‘sloy pue “Vy ‘aosse[D
‘oVe[VXO UINTUOWUL |
pue ‘ayvuoqieo wuntuomme ‘ayeydsoydordd wintpog | [gg 83 68ST ‘May "[eue ‘sq1ez | * : : * y ‘purig
‘HLANSIG °“¢

‘wobyoun sp § aprpot vanisseyod pue prov omopqooupsyT | GFLZ | CRG T68T_ | : : ro gr |) J * ‘9 ‘aUeUT}I0 A
| apiuphy sv tayeydius oulz pue uorynjos ploy 602 69 98st | * "smeN “TUIEyO | ° ° g * +, A100]

‘apruphy | |
| sp fjjend pup qojaw sv hyjend {poe o1opqooipAy CO, | 6 | O88~ "WAYY "[eUR 's}1az | * : 2 "2 ‘moyon'T

yoyo so hyjwod : prow oyexQ |) _, | . 4 eS Bap hese heey
‘apruphiy sp § prow o110qoorps } | G69T FI I8sf | oq | “VW sey puv “vy wesse[p
|
‘DINGSUY °“G
a} ATOIPOOTY JO worjzisoducy asvg aWnTOA eo yeuinor toqyny

[-penutyuo0o—sishzouzoayg fo suvau hq synjayy fo worpouruuajag ay2 sof spoyrazy aaunpquon’y

241

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS BY MEANS OF ELECTROLYSIS,

ea

"plow onmydng
*ploe o1mnydyng
‘apruvdo wnissejog |
“plow O1[ex@ J
‘pide OIMIIOT puv ojvULIOT

‘unhjowp so ‘ ayerpky WNUOMMIe pu plov O1TezAVY, |

‘wobjoun sv § ayeyexo wntaowuy f
‘apruedso uInIssejOg
‘aquipsy WINIMOMIUY pue plow OLIVIIY,
“prov ooydsoyd pue eyeydsoyd wntpog
“plow otinyd[ng \
2784908 WINIPOS ;
‘aye 790" [eIyNIN {
‘epruvdo winisseqjog
‘aJe[BxO TINTUOMMy
‘proe o1myding
‘apruvdo UMIsse}og
*plov o11oydsoyg
‘972]90¥8 UUNIpPOS pur y[vs [vIININ| |
‘ayerpAy WNIUOTIMIL pur I[vS [eIqnON
“Tes TeININ
‘mnbjvun sv S ayeyding
‘prow o1mmydyns puv oyeydins wniuommy
‘apluvso WNIsse}0g |
‘plo’ Ol[exo puv oJv[vxXO TANIUOWMUY
‘oye[exo UINIUOWMY
‘o}e[VXO WINTON y

‘oyerpséy WUNTUOMIULTy {

‘ayerpAy WniuowUe pue oyeydsoydosdd wnt pog
‘apruvso uNnissezog

ra

16
LT
FI
8T
Il
86
rag

9L8T
F881

G68T
T68T

F681
T68T
068T

Osst

6181
8L8T
6681

F68T
9881
O88T

T681
€68T

F681
F881
1881
6L8T
8181
688T
6181

‘NOINGYD ‘F

‘MEY '[BUL ‘s}197

‘19g

‘MIYH ‘SLOUB “S717
‘19g
*MLOOOIPOOLA “S}19Z

"are ‘ddy 3 ‘y4]vuy ‘“¢

eo. Te.

‘*p ‘meYD “LoUuLy
* *p ‘UlayO “IouLy

"meyD ‘jeue aa
: - Taq

‘woyO ‘Mosue 87107

‘pu ‘msyO ‘O09 “f¢
‘ - sMaN ‘WET
‘MeYO [VUE *s}197

‘Pp UEYD ‘IoMy
‘may ‘sfyd ‘sq107

*Iag
: . og
° . * 0g
"weyD ‘jeue ee

; ‘Jag
areH) ‘eur ‘83197
. « “9g

. .

.

“7 ‘uoszq Sir | *
‘¢ “‘purRpeT A

‘SH ‘NOTA

*4) ‘UUBUTFIO A
‘H ‘uaTevuloyy,

‘a “aH pue “7 “a Batata

“aL ‘agg
‘AE “TWIS

‘A “ys
‘A ‘BIOPNY
W ‘y7eadsnyy
* +7, ‘a1OOT
‘9 ‘moyonyT
* "Aa ‘sqQqh9

‘HT ‘S1oquepnely

.

‘vy ‘dasse[p
‘*y ‘dasse[p

VIN ‘sey pue “vy ‘aesse[p

. .

*p ‘UlaMer pas “yf “UTeysTIog

"M ‘A ‘ORIPTO
* oy ‘purig

1895

1895.

REPORT

24.2

‘o}ye[exXO MUNTUOMMe Ploy

‘aye[exo WINTUOWUy
“plow o1myding |

‘oye[exo UINTUOMUTy

‘ayelexo WnTUOMIUy

‘oqeydsoydorkd wintpog

“plow o1mydyng

‘oyvipéYy WnTuomIUYy
‘OpIpor wntssvjod pure ‘ayvrpAY wt pos ‘o7vI9.18} TLRxTV
‘ayerpAy pur ayeyd[us umtuouuy
‘a}VIpAY WInTMOTIMIY pu pIOe OMe AIRY,
‘oyerpAy pu ayeydins wnuommy
‘oyeipAY pue ozeydins mmtuomuy
‘ayeapéY WantuomM Uy
‘prov o110ydsoyg
‘aquipAY TanTUOW My
‘apruvdd wuntssvyog |
‘oqerpAy taniuowury | |
“9481410 10 ‘aqvI41"} ‘oqeja0"N ITRYLV
‘ayerpAy pure oyeydyns Beene
‘O97 B[RXO UIMIUOTUTy
‘unbypun sv $ayeyding
“oyeTexo tunTUOUUYy |
‘aqeapAy wantuomury |
7” ‘oqeydsoyd wmntpos |
‘aqyeipéY pue oyvydins wntuowmy |
‘a7 R[exXO WaNIUOWy
‘ay’[Vxo WUNTUOTIUTY ) |
‘9}B[VXO WNIssvyOg J
‘ayeydsoydoidd wintpog

83AJ01}99T7] JO UorjIsodu0g

(

3683 13 88st | Paget” haa ees BEE
L8LI 81 CSst ae me aE =
LOPS Bit F88T 4 - ° * “Lag
ZOOL FI I881 ‘ 4 * “19g
18g 8S 6881 * “MoT[D "TeUv ‘sz107
E&6 L 8981 * “WMayf) "TeUB *s}197
‘ad@ddog *9
163 CT 9281 * "MWSsYOY "[euv ‘sz107Z
9¢¢ PL s68T r “"msYyO “Ysyeuoy
FOE T F681 © “WaTOOIOI[Y “$4107
88 g 1681 ‘woy/) ‘ddy a -34,euy “fp
FE 9T LISI ‘WAYD ‘[RUv ‘SsqIEZ
g oa Z68T * ‘MaYyO ‘Mesure ‘sqI07
669 ST 6L8T * “Wat Teur *sztaZ
606 eg 988T | : * "SMON "TOTO
I IL GL8T * TOYO ‘[euv ‘sz1e7
‘oe: GI O8sT "WOT "TRUE 's}107
|
96 8 6881 * "puy "sy “008 ‘f. |
| 02g €1 168T | "tp wey) “reuy
| 26 rat e681 * ‘mayo ‘skyd ‘sj107
| ste 61 O8sTt | * MOTD ‘TeUe *sz107z
0906 16 T68T 7 7 - * OG
GC9T ia! TS8s1 : d : = asad,
18g 8% 688 | * "MAT ‘TRUe *s}T9Z
‘LIVAOD °G
asug | omnfoA | vax [euinor

YZ ‘ayjaypoR pu “y ‘uassep
: D : “VW MaSsRIO

"VW ‘uasse[p

VIN ‘sloy pur “y ‘uassep
. . . . ‘Vv ‘purig
ap booary ‘uvrpneqsiog

"i ‘UOSzYSTI A,
“) SUUROI4IO A
‘H ‘ueTRMoyy,
a “qnyy pue “Wy og ‘qyimg
. . . ‘d “i ‘IopeMyoR
. . . . a | ‘qaropniy
. . . . “Mm TUO
“T, ‘a100j1
UOTPOIT PlPJSuUL]

. . . .

‘9 ‘moxon'yT

f oyeSpooM % “VY “OD ‘UqOY
em ery ay 41049)
"Y ‘Staquepnesy

‘UUEUsIag 7" H ‘sntusser,y

“Vy ‘uasse[O
‘VW ‘Sloy pur “vy ‘uasseip
. ‘ *. . ‘Vv ‘purig

Ioyyny

"ponulqUo0d-e sishjoujaangy fo sumow hq spvyayy fo uorjvuruuajeg ayp tof spoyjayy aargnzrqumn)

243

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS BY MEANS OF ELECTROLYSIS.

*

‘plow ouyIN, | 123 296 9881 iy at geod tpsoTaAbeO “A as
‘ayeIpAY WNIMOTUMMY pue ploe O1IeIIVY, | S&F g T68L ‘moyQ ‘ddy 2 -44yeuy ‘¢ | Wy ‘aynyy pue “yg ‘qgimg ley
‘plov omoydsoyd pue ayuydsoyd wntpog | Gag ran O68T "Pp wsYO ‘reury | * g : “Lo ‘ugiug | pa
‘plore onyIN | ¢ <= 6681 * “WO “MASUR ‘S}IOZ | * . . A BIOPMAL |
‘ayerpAY puv ayer} wantuouuty ) | bn = ; = Al ; . ; : <r
‘ayeipAY WINIMOUIWUT puL o)RAIzIU TNISse}Og | | 0206 TG 8881 cast TL BLOPHAL
‘prow ormyding | e ° pee are 2 ; 6 = : Cae eernt
“prow OLIN J 809 el GSsT sfttq 39 ‘WIqD soyeuuy | V ‘e9oNr
‘plovommin | €4g 8 6L8T “ “Wey [Bae 's}I97 | P : * MN TEO
‘phe OLIN =| OST &@ CL8T : ‘WIYD ‘00g ‘][ng ,* TYoUpsayy pue Jesyosegd
‘aqeipsy puv ojyVIqIuU WntuoMMYy | 618 SI F6ST : : “qlez-"may | * . : * “WE ‘1271990
“proe OLIN ST 1G 8881 * "Wey D [eu 's}Iaz | * : ; * ‘199990
‘oyeuoqieo TunTUOTAUMe pus opruedd TUNISse}Og 606 ¢ 988T * "smant ‘uaYyO | * : : * +7, ‘aLO0N
*prloe OLIN, T II GLET * “MOYO "Teue ‘sq1ez | * * uorT}OIIIC. PlaJSUP]L
*plov OLIN | G86 9 68ST : : “qlaz-"maYyD | * g ‘g “pf ‘YsOpUTOR I
‘prow o1mnydying
*Splo@ ONUI1G} PUL OLT}TN, PIE § 1881 < ‘Wey “ouLy | ° : ‘df ‘qsoquroeyy
‘Spl’ OLIJIO puv OLIJIN
‘splov ory] pur omyty { | Sh 9 ssi ‘qeg-meyg |* +.“ SNOONT
‘apruvdso WNIsse]Og
‘aqyeuoq.ieo mnyaomy |
‘oqerpéy wantuoTHU
‘ayeqooe ents ae apluoyyo at | aa 61 O88T RODS SH ARS es wee 1) “RONCHI
UWINTpos ‘apo, yO wintuowMe pue piov ouoqootb cq
“prov o1908 Io ‘OTanydns ‘Ol4IN
“prow OLIN, &@ 8 6981 * “WAY *[BUB *S}T19Z ; : *— ‘moxon'T
‘prow onngdyng 966 LLT TO8T i ‘f'y4Jog qopsurq | * : ‘ ‘OD ‘Mmoxou'yT
‘prov ormnydyng tte cl 9181 * “WAY "TeUR ‘s}IOZ | * 3 : C urdieyT
“plow ONIN 9LT ST FL81 * ‘MLEYD ‘Twue ‘sy1ez | * ; 0 *M ‘odure yy
uvhjpun sp Sayeyding O1g €L 1681 : “"pmlayD “leuly | B S * "AA Ssqqny
“eyeing | 1&6 6 €98T * “Way ) "[BUB SIOZ * E : * "AA ‘SqqtD
‘poe om q
dedetarnnnemne } 16 61 €681 * ‘may ‘sfyd ‘sztez | * : *}] ‘Sioquopnel gy
‘ayeapéy TntuoMMY 818 91 G68T : : “POZ-"MIyD | ° : ‘d “) ‘qouqssorqg
‘prov onmyding | ¢¢l g T68I ‘moyp ‘ddy y4teuy‘ej° °° “a ‘ayepseoip
“oye[VxoO UNTUOMIYy 0906 16 FO8T ‘ i ’ pie bi , ’ “"y ‘uasse[p

1895.

REPORT

244

*‘soqye[exO UINIUOMIMe pue WNIsseyjOg

‘unbyoun sv t ayeyding

*S0]U[VXO TINIUOWUIe puL UINIsseyOg

‘o}e[exXO WINTUOTIMY

‘ajyeuoqiv.) wutuoTUY puv oyvqdsoydorsfd mntpog

“prow oummydyng |

‘apiuvdéd WINIsseyOg {
L

‘prov o:1oqdsoyd puv oyeydsoyd umnipog
‘aprydyns wntpog

“OpNoryo

‘apluevsd wnIssv}0g

‘apruvdd TaNIssejOg

‘apruvdd WINIsseq{og

“oproryp

‘aqeuedDOIy} WNTUOMMy

“plow ONIN

|
“plow o1mydying |

‘plow OlUIIOF pue 9yeUII0,7
*plow olnyd{ug

‘ayerpsY PUR 9}zVI}IU UUNTUOMIULY
*plov o1mydyng

“Ploe OLIN

J

|
J

|
J

9&3 8 688T
OLg el I681
090% 1B +681
ZS9I I I881
18 83 6881

‘NOUT “G6
LR: lees SSSI
‘NOIGNT ‘9

| Sey 5) Sk T68T

| SLIZ + 1681

| 902 eI | 68st

| #03 g 1681

| ¢69 — | °S68T

|e 61 | O8sT

| 46 Zi Ss|s«S68T

| FI 101 I68T
“dT0*) *)

| he cl 9L8T
LLG ||
ap; | af 28st

Sa Ne 681
GtT L S98T

| F08 I F681

|

*‘pantrjuoI— AAddoy

* “pul ‘weqt) “00g “¢
2 “Pp MEYD ‘Tey
: : > “rag
‘10g
* "THAYD ‘[RUB ‘s}187,

* “WAY ‘TeUR *sy1a7

‘-Iog
: “pp wWoYyO ‘eMy
‘moyD ‘ddy x -44,euy “¢
* “MAYO “AMISUB *SqIO7
* “WIOYQ ‘TBUR “Sq197 |

* -maeyO ‘shud *s}107
: “qsuy Ulyue YL

)

"TOYO ‘[BUL ‘s}1907
“ “pur "mayy ‘00g “¢
* -“MmeYyO ‘S1ouv *sy107
* "tay *[vue *s}187

* “MAYyOOIOETT *S}197,

9} {Toaqoayy JO woiztsodur0g

| aded | awnyog | vax

|

*pa7yeSpoo MM puey ‘p‘uyoy
. . . . "M ‘sqquy
‘vy ‘uassv[p

“VW ‘stoy puv “y ‘uasse[p

. . ‘ . ‘Vv ‘pueig

. . .

"TI “‘gyonyog

.

“A a ‘QyIUIg
“aA a ‘qQrUIg
“a ‘qyIMg

‘a ‘Hropny
“*¢ ‘MoxON'T

"YH ‘sioquepnory
“MT Toque

“A ‘WOSPYSIT AA
"e ‘puvjetowysa A,

"SH “SOE A,
. . . . 70) ‘UdIFTI

' "H ‘uerpmoyy

[euinor

qoyyny

‘penulju00—seshjougoang fo suvaw hg spvqazy fo uorynuruuagag ay? wof spoyjapy aayupyquon’y

245

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS BY MEANS OF ELECTROLYSIS.

‘apizo sp Sayerjyta 1eddoo puv prior o1}INN
‘apwwo Sp £ plow OIIJIN
‘apne SD § plow OIIZIN
yojaU sp S ayerpAY VANTpog
‘aprxo sp § * oyBITU raddoo puv prov o114yIN
‘)pyaU Sv i sploe ae pure OLIN |
‘OPUeo 8D ‘ prow OW4IN J
‘aprLo SD $ plow OWIGINE
yojau sp SayerIpAY
untuomme pur ‘ayeipAq wntIpos ‘aze1j1~3 wNTIpog
(pau sp t ayeqjooe I[ey[e pue azvijtey,
‘apie §p {plow LI} pur o}euoqiey
‘IPULO $Y * plow OLYIN
‘APO SY ILO OITJIN

‘apiwo SP {PINS OLIJIN }

“DIA SY Sayeyooe [V.1}NIN
‘apiwo sp S$ pioe o1myding
‘apiwo SV $ plow OIIJIN
[Dyas 8M Saplqo[go vANIpog |
DIU SY * aYyeYooR [BIJVIN }
‘IPO 8) < plo’ OLIN,
‘apiwo SD {plow OLIGIN
‘apuxo sp {plow OIIYIN }
yojIwW se {ayerexo tTantuomMUTy
"(Djau $p * plow o11e,1%} pue azeydsoydorkd wnipog \
‘(pjaw §p $ plow O1IyIU pue ayeydsoydordd wurpog |

N“

‘ayeipAT UINIpos pue 97eI171e} TINIssejod TNIpOYg
‘ayerpAy WUNTUOMIMe puL plow OLIe}IVY,

‘aye1}10 TanIpog

‘oye[exo WNnTUOMUMy

‘oqe[exo WNIUOMUMYy

‘aye[exXO WUNIUOMIMIY ploy

‘plow o110ydsoyg

*ploe O11z10 pue 97e1710 WNTUOMMYy

=

T F681
g €8st
GG ssl
OL LL8T
= G68L
1 6S8I
8 LL8I
RT 6L8T
9T LL8T
6 C681
FI SYST
TI GL8T
6 O88T
BLT FORT
LG F68T
GF €SsT
L1G F681
LG F68T
FI T8s8I
86 688T
‘ava'T “OL
FI S681
G T68L
OL 8881
T F68I
ar G68L
81 6181
€g¢ 988T

O8sT

* “Ws T901}N9[F *S}19Z
i * “Pp -wWeYyD ‘Ieuy
: Be cu9) ‘[eue ‘sq}1907
; * “19g

* ‘MOYO “MaSue 's}107 |

‘sf q 30 ‘WIYO sepeuuy
; * “puayy ‘ydurop
* “Ue YH *eue *sq187
‘ OH), ‘TRU ‘Sq107

" WyaYD :TeuR *s}197

"TOL

* ‘UaYyO ‘Teue ‘sy107Z |

' “MOYO ‘Teue ‘sz107

: ag ‘lod Jap Sury
: * Jog

‘qOZ “Uaqqny "n -S1og
‘leg
“19g
*"Iag

. . . .

. . . .

* “Ma ‘[eue ‘s}197

"Urey "Ys}eTOy

‘mayy ‘ddy 7 “y4;euy ‘f°

. ‘Pp WEYyO ‘IoUy
* “UIaT{90I499[] *S}197,
* ‘meYyO “MaSuv *sz197
* ‘UA “[eUe "84197
: ‘ —- SMON “TIED
* WeyD ‘Teue *s}1907

“+ “A ‘uapeuroyy,
* gy ‘Seuuey,
Ty ‘sqonqog
H ‘BIq99
"A Bropny

. . . . ‘Vv ‘QYOny
"y ‘QTONy

*y ‘TUIZzeoseyy puw Sa) epeted
‘¢ ‘folzHOse Hy pue ‘4 ‘tporvg
"T ‘snorpeyl
OM ‘AU
WOTJOIIL, playsur][

‘2 ‘Moxyon'T

*¢)) ‘Moxon'T
"y ‘lonesqowry

‘WW ‘PaenTy

“vy ‘uasse[D
“vy ‘dasse[pD

‘VWI ‘Sloy pur “y ‘dassetp

‘Vv ‘purig

9) Be A
A “Tq pue “yf “OL “atu

; ‘a ‘a “uyTUg
‘H ‘uepemoyy
“A ‘BIOpn
WV spuazeos WL Bue Ipoleg
* «yZ, ‘e100

‘0 ‘moyonT

. . .

1895.

REPORT

246

‘prow olmnyd[ng |
‘ayerpAy uNUOTMUTE pur oyeydsoydor4d mantpog |

‘apweo sp {ptoe oLmnygdyug \
‘apo sp S ayeyexo TUNTUOTUULY
‘apwo SY plow OLWIOF PUL 9}VUIIOT
‘apuco sp < prow oLmydjng
‘aprvo sp {plow OIAJIN
‘apweo sp §proe o1myding |
‘apivo sp {proe o1myding |
‘apo sp {prow OYIN } |
‘aprxo sp $ prow o1mmydyng | |
‘yojyau so SayeueXoorqy wuMtuouIUy | |
‘aprvo SD LpPlOw OWYIN J |
‘apivo sp $ plow olyIN |
‘apivo sp <pioe ommyding |
‘apiwo sp $proe oyeoy
‘apiwo sp Sayeyexo WInIssej{og
‘aprvwo SV S plow OITYIN |
‘apiro sp {soyeyTexXo TUNTUOTAMIe puv WINISSsLyOg J
‘apiuo
aqwipsy wuiuomUMe pue o}vydsoqdor<d wntpog

)
)
|
|
|

8D

‘APO SP £ PIOB OIAJINE
‘aprxvo
sv linqund ‘yojaw sv hyzvod {prow ova1s0y pur oyeuL1o
upbhy muy sp ‘apipor )
ulnIpos ‘plow OeyIBy,

tnissvjod pure ‘ayerpAéy

‘uohypun sp |

01 81 6L8T
T8¢ 83 6881
“RUNDOUATAL ‘EL

1191 LT F881
G83 I Z68I
FOE I F681
C8F 8 E88T
e -- Z68T
809 el Z8sT
926 98 LIST
60 eg 988T
I 61 Osst
rag SLE | F981
090% 18 +681
1982 1I F881
BZ9T FI I88I
1s | 8g 681

“ASANVONV AL mCAE
nor | Wa PBI
C8 I 2681
6Fls | #2 T68L

i

‘panwyuor—A¥ WT

‘MOTD ‘[BUeB ‘s}197,
‘TIOY[D ‘[eue *sq197

: : rag
‘MAYO “S10Uev ‘S197
mtecliptenalolic macy)

“May ‘Vue ‘S197

* "MOY ‘AadaR *S}107
‘s{yq Jo ‘WILY soTvuUy

* ‘puey ydu0p9

* — SMONT ‘ULOTID
‘MAYO [eur ‘syt97,

‘fC “yAlog J9pSurq
¥ % ° “faq

aq
19g

“MLAYO "[eUR ‘'S}IOZ

Og,
‘THOYO *S10Uev *S}197

. . .

19g

04 {Jor j0a]5f Jo Worz1sodt0g

| aseg | oungo |

180K

[suinor

“M ‘I “ATEIO
. ‘Vv ‘purig

“f “PUrpeTAL
‘SH ore
‘A ‘ue[BmoYy,
"T ayonqog

“A ‘Brophy
"ory Quon

* ty ‘Qqore

* +7, ‘aLO0][

‘DO ‘MoxON'T
‘9 ‘moxyon'y
*y ‘uesseiD
“*y ‘UessE[D

‘slay pur “yy ‘uesse[D

. ‘Vv ‘puvig

“f ‘pueperM
‘SH ‘YOTATe AA

“4 ‘UdeUIzIO A

JOqyNYy

“panulyu0o—srshjoupoayy fo suvau hq synjazy fo uoyvurusajag ay2 of spoyzry aaryopquon®

= ‘O}e[VXO WINTUOMM YT | COT FL T88T : a“ * * ‘19g | ‘Vv W ‘Steud pue ae weseei) |
a ‘oyeqdsoydordd wantpog 18¢ 83 688. |° * "MAYO "eur ‘s}187 | * ‘ y ‘purig |
‘IGMOIN ‘FL
: S°M ‘aos
n ‘aprxo sv $ ‘ worynos ploe Io [eaqynoN 06 8 Ggst |°* M4 **f “WeYyD “Jeury | -UP{sOH pur Ae “a ‘ygTUg
Me ‘apiwo sp $ ayepqA[our TTPALV 1¥G 63 es88r | ° * ‘Ua D "[BUL 'S}198Z : "TT ‘gyonqos
= ‘NONACHATIOR_L “ET
ee ‘apIpo!l UnIssejod puv spIIOTYO TIMoIEPT
Q ‘aqerpAy pur eprydius wmrpoy . Ch Re Ngo tonal cae Or ye ee ee
le ‘ayerpAYy WnIUOMMe pue ploe OLIV, 6FLG ¥6 T68T a VeEeaee
is ‘9]B[BxXO TINTUOWUTY
fe oqerpAy
mntmomme pues ‘eyeydsoydor4d wnipos “prow O1I}IN : Boss ; i t rie.

3] F ‘ayerpAy WNTUOTIMIY pue pov OLMIezAVY, FOE I F68T WaYyooryOI[T ‘SHOZ H ‘uoTRMmogy,
< “prow OLIN
g ‘plow OLIN | est L e68T | * ‘wayo ‘ddy x ‘4fteuy ‘¢ | ‘a'r oko ue a ‘yqTag

‘oprydns umrpog 206 | T68T | * ‘weyD ‘ddy x» 44]vuy f£ ° ‘a ‘THUS
ae -opraedo TUMTSSeI0q { | #93 ¢ 688L | * “Moy ddy 2 “y4yeay Et xT

‘ ; $93 IL 6Bkr 1° ‘p mayD ‘wouy J | ‘jexurrg pue “gy “a “WIUTS
we *plo’ OJIN 906 8 egst {°° 9‘ f WeYyQ OU | ‘qq “ueuy pue’ yg WITS
rs] ‘aqeipéy wNTuoMUTe pue ezyeydsoydor4d wutpog
=| ‘apluvdd UINIsseyOg
5 ‘oyeIpAY WINIMOTUMIY pu plow O11ezIVY, g — s6st |° * ‘MOYO ‘MOSUe ‘s}IOZ | * : : “a ‘WIopmiy
<q ‘plow ormmydyng
| “prow OLyIN
5 "s}]BS [BION if 61 OSeE. j°.. * “WeuD Pauw ‘eyez |" te ‘OD ‘Moyon'y
| ‘aprueso wuntssejod puv eployyo OLN] |
E ‘plo’ OLIPIU puv ojRA}IU SNOIMIIO][ 89g 93 een is * * ‘og 'moyO ‘f° . * gg tp ‘Avuuey
Ee ‘aqyeydns oLmMoreyy |

‘apravdo UINnTsseyoO
Ss Daye ae are | 16 SI e6sl |° * ‘woyo ‘skyd ‘sy107z | * : “Typ ‘Srsquepnery
~ ‘oyeuvAOory} WNTUOTIY TFL TOT T68t | ° ‘ ‘qsuy Ul[yUeIy Lf | * * YT eyueLy
‘ayIyd[ns tuntuoMUMe pu plo oworqoorp SH | ob ie peer |: ah ‘ay Tour ae H : s * ap “TT ‘vansoosyy

‘oye[exo NTUOMIMIY | 0903 13 a. re aS J S|) * : “y ‘dasse[O
“plow OMIN €3E 61 9881 |: * ake eiiat Ds amine ag ‘Stupor pay ny. ‘aasse[o

‘prow o1oydsoyd puv oyvydsoyd untpog
‘ayerpAy pure spuoryo untmomMMy
‘oyepAY IeY[V JO ssooxg|

“plO’ OMPIU PUB OFBIIN

‘ayerp<y WnTUOTIUYy
‘agpvuphy svt apraedso rex, y
‘aqyuipAy pave oyeydyns wntuomuy
‘oyeIpAY WNIUOMIMIe puL pPLoV O1Ie4IV YT,
‘ayeapAy puv oyeqd[ns wntmommy
‘aqerpéy wnmOmMe puv oyeqdins wutpog
‘ayeydsoydordd umntpog

‘ayerpsy pure oyeydjns wnuomuy |
‘prow o1mmydyng
‘ayerpéq TANtuOMMy
‘oyerpAY WAnIUOWMy
‘ayerpAy pue oyevydins wntmomMmy
‘prow o11oydsoyg
‘ayerpdAy TantuomMy

‘apluvsd wWnIssejOg |
‘ayerpAy, UINTUOTIUTW

‘ayerqIo 10 ‘oyerqie} ‘oye390" TTRYLV J
‘aprue{o wNIsseyog
‘ajyerpAy pue oyeyd[ns wntaowuy
‘aye]eVxO TUNIUOTUUIYy
‘aqyeapdéy WuntuomUTy
‘upbypuDn sv Sayeyding
‘ayeipAg WntuomMy
‘aqv[exoO TANTUOWUy

‘ayerpéy wantuoMMy }

REPORT—1895.

‘ayerphy puv ozeydyns wntuowuy
‘ayeTexo UUINIUOMULy

a34[01}09Tq] JO uorzisodwoy

248

90% eT 1681
31é SE | | O68T
143 6B | «S881

‘NOIGVTIVG “GT
163 ST | 9281
geo | FL | S68T
FOE I POST
88F g 1681
HE OT |- 2xaL
88E —_ | esl
g caine 1!
809 el esi
98% og | L281
eg 81 6181
961 I F681
606 eg | 98sI
I IL S181
I 6t | O8st
99% 8 6881
Gee st | 9281
ong eI T68T
FEE z e98I
16 aI | e68t
PIE 6I | 08st
090g | 26 «| F68T

“panwiyuegIi—TAMOIN

aseg | suinyo, | vox

;

*‘ponuryuco—seshzoujoarg Jo suvau hg synjapy fo worvunutajgag ay2 of spoypyy aarxyonjzuonnd)

.

‘*pulayO ‘1oury
‘Pp WEyD ‘IoMmy
‘WaYyO [Vue ‘sq197

“mAaYO ‘[eUR ‘sq197
‘MINYO “Ys}euoW
“MMITOOIOO[T ‘S919,

‘moyQ ‘ddy 2 4Ajeuy “¢

‘AYO "[eUe "szIO7

* “MAYO ‘MosUe 'S}107

‘WIDYO ‘MISUB ‘S{IOZ

‘skyq 49 ‘WIYD soreuuy

.

* ‘puay ydur0p
“UOYD ‘RUB "S}1O7
MAYOOIZOI[] “$9197
* smony ‘ATID
“MYO ‘[VUe ‘SzI97Z

‘HOY ‘[VUB ‘S107

‘puy ‘tmayD ‘90g “¢
‘TOYO “[eULV "sq187

<p WAYyD ‘Ieuy
‘MAYO "[eUuv ‘s}197
‘moyQ ‘skyd 's}107

‘MOYO [eu “sz197
2 Jog

[eunor

. « .

“A “H ‘qgtag
WH ole y pue’ Wg “yng
. . . "T ‘qyontog

“A ‘WOSpySII |
: « * +x) fUUBTOAIO A
‘H ‘uoyeuoyy,
pue “Wf of ‘qqratg
“'d “Wf ‘1opeayog
st at Baropmy

: ’ ; “WT ‘Bropny

. . ‘ . nv, Qqouy
“V ‘QTONYy

“M ‘TTO
* \H ‘199990
. : ‘J, ‘aLoo]T
uolqoaIIg: pleysuvyy

‘EIGN

3 ; ‘¢? ‘Moxony
"pe ‘aqes

-poom, pur “y “9 ‘aqoy

: : : : urd10 fT

: . : * "A ‘sqq)

ee SEGA

: 4 “yy ‘srioquopnor iy
‘q ‘uueUL

pue “FY ‘sniueser jy

: **y ‘desse[O

oyyny

249

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS BY MEANS OF ELECTROLYSIS.

‘ ‘apruvdo tntissty0g
‘ayeIpAY WNIUOMIUIe pus oyvydsoyd wmtpog
‘apruedd UINIsse}og
‘ayerpAy pure oyeydins wntuowmy
‘opruvdd wINIssejog }
‘apruedo tantssv}og
“Poe ONFIN }
‘prior ormnydyng
‘aqeipAy pue oyeydmns wurmommy
‘Plow ONFIN
‘apruedo winisseqog
‘prov o1jiu pue oyeqydscydorkd utntpog

*yyes 1edd' 9 yo aoussard ur uorynjos ourey[e 10 prloy |

‘apruvdd umissejod puv eproyyo wntpog

‘poe |
doydsoyd pure ‘ayeqdsoyd wmtpos ‘eprz0qyo wintpog | |
‘apltoyyo 10 eyeydng |

"plow orroydsoyd pue oyeydsoyd wntpog
*plov o1amydyng
‘apltoryo wuntIpog
‘apluesd WNIsseyOg \
*ploe O10, qoorpAy |
‘aye[VXO TANISSEOg
‘o7e[eXO TUINTUOTIULYy
“plow o1mmydyng
“plow o110,yoorpAH

ionic

os

#0E I FEST
638 ell 068T
#93 I 688I
z = S681
I 61 O88T
GF SLT FIST
LOZT St 2881
F3E 61 OS8T
0902 13 F681
18 8Z 6881
‘UHATIC “GT
ESF ae SCi|:SsS88T
IfZ 6G |sSCSS8T

‘NOINDTAY “QT

106 g T68T

raat 1681
‘NOIGOHY ‘JT

906 &T T68T
{69 = G68T
T 6I O8sT
16 6I €68T
F9FS LT P88I

‘NONILVIG “QT

— oe ee

* ‘urayd01,0901T '89197,

: ‘Pp UIEYO “TeuLy

: *"p WIOYD ‘1oULy
* “TIEYO ‘Ma.suev ‘sq197,

* "MOYO "[euB *sj197 |

‘pe -4d]og repsurg
cD BURT Sete Ades

‘og
* MLIYD ‘[eue *sy107

* ‘May "[eue 's}107
' "TAY *[eue “sz107

‘mayo ‘ddy » ‘44yjeuy *¢

. .

: ‘"p UIsYyO ‘Iomy
* "MdYO "MosUe ‘s}107
‘ “MOYO ‘TeUe ‘sy107,

* ‘mmeyo ‘sfyd ‘sq107

* "THaYyO ‘Teue ‘sqtez |

‘pusy ‘ydut0g |

4

. 4

‘H ‘tiojettoys,
“A a “qytg

. .

MT yoe yw BUA

‘A Bropmy

‘CO ‘moxonyT

‘OD ‘Moxon'T
"¢ ‘SImyn1yy

. .

‘q‘Uuewsiog x 7] ‘sntueser yp

: **y ‘masse
. . . ‘Vv ‘puvig

"T “qonqog
"I “gonyog

“Al “aT ‘yqimg
‘A ‘gyojeT pue “y ‘Aor

‘A “qyg
d j "\H BAOpny
*?) ‘moxon'T
; "HT ‘SioquepnorT

“*y ‘aassv[D

1895.

REPORT

250

Osst
T 6181

‘NOINVU) ‘EZ

‘opine sp LayeuLloy WINTpPOY \ | ToL $I
‘apixo sp {ayejooe wantIeq 10 ‘mmissejod ‘umntpog 66E

e '

‘Jog |
"fg ‘WaYyH ‘rouy J

|
|

‘TO “yytUIg

‘OPETVXO WININOMIUIY Ploy FOE T F681 | “ULOTOOIJOITY *S}197Z “H ‘doyymoyL
‘o]U[eXO UINIUOMIUY Ploy “tu | — S68 | “MOYO “MOSUL ‘s}197 * : af ‘propa
“prow oproydsoyg 606 69 988T | * SMON “UEYO | * ; : ~ “T “et00j
fo eesti Will I i, | OseE {* ‘uray ‘eur 'syioz |* tf ‘moyonry]
‘oyu[exo WNTUOWIULY 993 | 8 688 | PEL wep cos rE ‘ayeSPOOA xo 'D “Uqoy
‘oye[exO UINIUOMULY 16 SL €68T ‘uray ‘shyd ‘s}197 | *H ‘Ss1aquepner gy
‘plo’ o1J908 pue 9}v[VxXO UMIUOTIUTY | | o fs ; ‘ aes ioe : : Neer

‘aqe[exo umTmomMe poy J | 0906 | 216 F68T bq | WV Uesselo)
‘aprqdius wmiuomury LOFZ in FSS ? ‘ ‘ ~eg |° : G *+y ‘uasse[9

“oPETeXO TANTUOUL Ty 1 | Pa . . ° . 7 « be ‘ a
“pyow o1xopooupA TT }| GG9T ipl | 1881 | 190) WoW Sed pus Vy esse)

‘NIT, “ZS
‘apuco sv hwnd pup | | |
pojyauw sv hpzwod Sayerpky wmissejod 10 wmtuowmUly Gia ZG | 8st | “meyO "[BUe *S}I9Z | * : : “Ty ‘qyontog
‘oqvTexO TUNINOWIM Vy | 9c¢ IZ 88sl | y vy Ocha : : * uuvuUINneN
‘prov ormydns puv oyeydsoydosdd wmrpog 18¢ QZ | 6881 | WOO ‘BU “S107 | : : * *y ‘purig
WAITIVHY, “1Z
|
HON [OF Gurley] e 10 ploy { | eq | 66 | &88T | “HOY [RAB "s}OZ | * j ; T Gyonyos
Ll i
‘WOIWNTIAT, “OZ
2}{porpooTY Jo worytsoduog | aseg | alunyo A | iva | yeuinor 1oyyny
F ‘ponurjuoo—srshyowzoayy fo sumau hq sppzazy Jo worjnurmuajzag ay2 “of spoyzayy aargvprpuon’y

251

OF ELECTROLYSIS

MEANS

SIS BY

QUANTITATIVE ANALY

_ pur

‘ayerpAY wantuomury
‘plo’ OTUIIOF puv oyvVuII0,T
‘ayeIp fq wantpos puv o}eI41v} WUNIssejOg
‘ubhyoun sv Sayexpsy UINTUOWE PUL PIO’ O1IBITET, \
‘wobyoun sv § ayepexo tntuomuy |
‘aqeydyns puv ayepexo wmissej0g |
“prow oreo pu oyejo0e uIntpog f
‘ajyerpAy WANTUOMIMY puL prloe o1Ie,IVY,
*plov O1J008 puv 9}¥Y90e UINTpOg
‘prov o1mnqdyns puv oyeydinus wntuowuy
‘plow otja0u pure oyvipAy pure oyeydius wutuowuy
‘a}V[VXO UINISSv}Og

Seated |
‘ploe OL1}10 puv oyvjoov wNIUOTAMY |
\b

‘a7eJooe UINTUOTAMI\y
‘plow ormnydqng
‘apruv{o unissej}od |
‘ayeydsoqd umrpog
‘plow o110ydsoyg |
‘ayerp{q TeALV
‘apiuvéd WMNIssv}Og
‘up houD sp $ prow o1nydyng |
‘wohypun sp {prow otx0TyDoIpAH J
‘apiuvdéd wINIssvjOg |
‘aqyerpéy tantuomuLy
*‘ayeIIO IO ‘aqgvizIey ‘o9vI90R T[VIALY |
‘aqvipAY pue ayeyqdins wntuommy
‘o}e[exo WINTTOmMULY |
‘wvbjpun sy Sayeqdyng
‘plow O11vj1R} pue oyv[exXO WMNIssej0g
"plow O11e}1e} pur oye[exXoO areal
‘aye[exo TanIuOMIULy
‘oqeuoqivo UINTUOTIULe puv ayeydsoydosdd wimtpog
‘apruvdd WINISsP}0,7

‘ayuuoqivd wunimomnme

996
Og
0906

6G9T
189
OFF

|

918T
G68T
§681

T681

F681

T68T
6681
6881
LL8T
T88T
L181
6L8T

LL81
T68T

988T

G88L
LL81

{881

O88T

688T
T68I
F681

T881
6881
6L8T

‘MOYO “[VUV ‘sqI87,
“MOYO “S1loue °s}197
*"TaYD ‘gs}eVUOPL

. . . “19g

“ULdTOOIVOI[Y *S}1IZ

‘mayQ “ddy x ‘y4yeuy “¢

“UdYO “MISUV “SIOZ

eat qo “WIYO sopeuuy

* *puay -yduarog
ian ‘qyead “¢

}
“MOYO "RUB ‘s}197

‘MOY [eur ‘s}107,

‘Woz “Way “Nn -s10g

* SMON ‘WOT
"WIYD “90g "]1Ng
"UG ‘0g “1[Ng

‘Tez ‘mEyD

“MAYO “[VUe *S}107

‘pu ‘WIaYO ‘oog “f
‘Pp WaYyDO ‘IoMYy
arr as

og
"way "TeUE "s}19Z

* dog.

\

“A WOSSI
‘SH ‘yoraze Ay
“y ‘UURUTZIO A
“wy ‘UURU}IO A

"A ‘ueyemoyy,

‘A “aqnyy pue “7 of “qyrag

. . . . ‘a ‘giopny

. . . . ‘Vv ‘Qqony

“Vy ‘Quory

aq] pues ypreyqurey
“y ‘TUrZ

pue “y ‘tporeg
"vy ‘Tulz

pue “y) ‘pore

: uy ‘uesuyeN

. . . .

-ZBOSV IL

-ZCOSUI

*L ‘o100yy

S stethbee 2 ab he OIE
‘Vy OTN

QO ‘Moxon'y

. . . .

"9 ‘Mmoxon'T

{ e ‘eyes
“ROOM. PHB “vO ‘uqoy

“AM ‘Sqq 9
*y ‘uasse[O
WV “WW ‘S10u pue “y ‘ lad)

* “yy ‘pueig
"p ureaee pure “y ‘UTaysTIog

1895.

REPORT

252

| | | |
‘pOovomyIN | °° + .* Ga-| SF 9 {| F68l|* ° “moyp sioueenez > * * to “qarmg
‘PIOB ONIN | UZ IN “SH ‘dd “OD “PO | 29% 0 6st | * ‘wey ‘ddy » adyeuy ‘¢ | ‘af ‘weko 9 a“ “Tayag
‘plov OLIN | * dd | 831 L | 8681 | * “wraq “ddy 2 94feuy -¢ | ‘0 “f ‘reaTeg 2 “a “a ‘GaTOg
“plov o119719 puvapraedéo urnisse30q "7 mo | 88h BE O6BT fe AYO Tomy | “MT ‘equenT 9A" “Uatag
‘provonngding uz‘ IN‘ ed‘oo'po | 906 8 | S88 °° "Rk WaYyQ Youy | ‘gy ‘ueUy yy gy “qIMg
“prior | | | .
o1ej1e} pur oyeipdy WNIUOMMy* ; sng fey ‘qaleal ‘ceil ei oT -) eer a: ‘909 "MaYyO ‘Iemy cf - ; ‘9 ‘Ss ‘“Iayonmyog
*plovoliz10 puvapiuvdéounissejog | * e? SLO Me 2G 20 {S68 * carayg ‘sfyd ‘sytez | * : ‘yy ‘S1aquepnoary
*SO4U[ | |
-exO UIssvjod pue wntuomMmy | ° PSC ZAMRINS On Ss ege! |) 61 | 9gsl | ° ? 5 : * ‘nog | ‘yy ‘stupnyT pue “vy ‘aasse[p
"SOY |
-exXO UnIssejod puv uNnIueMUTy | * 4 : “ay | te! oan | Teer i: 3 : : Seer ye : : * “y ‘uasse[p
“HLOWSIG,
‘ayerpq pue apiydins untpog | * * + ug ‘sy | gem | § | 6881'* ° ‘pur "HED "008 “f | “f ‘a7eSpOoA, ¥ “VW “O ‘UGOY
‘ayeipAy pue oprydins umtpog ug sy | 0906 | «26, | HOSE "reg |" "V ‘uasse[p
‘ayerpdy pur eprydins wurpog : : . us 2686 | 16 SssL °- i 3 ‘ * weg | “W ‘STI249S pue “vy ‘uasseip
‘overpay pue aprydins umtpog | * = * ug'sy | ese | 6E | 98st °° °° * ‘reg | “Y ‘Stapwy pur ‘ "y. WossEIQ
‘oyerpAy puv eprydins umipog * ty sy | FOIL | SE ] 8st; tog | “Y “BrapnyyT pue “Vy ‘uasse[9

‘ANONILNY “T

ay ATo1300/q JO uot odmog woz pavesudas 189° | ebeg | TOA. | Iva Xt | yRuinoe

ioqiny

‘s]BJOUL 9T]} JO JapAO [wotyoqeYydye oatyepol OY} UT UBAIS ST doUEAoJor 94} ATTVOTZA]O.LJOoTO pouTUIeyep ore sTeyoUt
910 10 OM} Ue “AT[VOIQATOAJOOTA POUIULIOJOp ST YOIYA [eIOUL 9eYy9 JO pvoy oy} JepuN posuezIe ore suotRaedes 3
UM eo aT [eeebeut P SP qorqas | HF Jo Pvey, of}, AQpUrt | - UL

“UUNUTYLLT ‘ZT ‘AINDIII “6 ‘sraddog ‘9 ‘unIMIpRD “¢
‘OULZ “FT “wnTpelled “TT ‘UoIT “8 “HBQOD °¢ “YINUISI_ *G
“MOATIS “ET ‘TPX9IN “OT “PION *L “UUNTULOIY) “F “‘AuOWIyUY *T

—! S[ejoUL SUIMOT[OJ oYY JO Spvoy oY} JopuN poduvare ore uorTyeiedes Jo spoyyott oY,

‘sishjoupoarg fo sunau hg spojapy fo uoynunday ay) wof spoyrazy aarjoquywond) ‘AT

253

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS BY MEANS OF ELECTROLYSIS.

‘aqe[Vxo WNIuOMMY | * : 0 :

"plow o1ja0v puv 940490" wUNIpog
‘plow O1UIIOJ pue soqyvuI0,T

‘aprueéd uintssejog
‘prov o10yd
-soyd pue ayeydsoyd wmipog
‘apruvdd tnIssejog
*proe o10yd
-sogd pue oyeydsoyd wumrpog
‘opruevéd UINISseyOg
‘epruvdd wnisseyog
‘aptuedo winIssejog
*ploe O11e}1e} pue soqviqiey, }
*ploe o1j00e pur soqvjooy
“‘proe
O11e}1e} pue s}eipAy winiuoMMy
*plov o1toqdsoyg
*ploe oumyd
-INs pue ojeydins wnimommy
‘eprueéd wnissejog
*SOqR] |
-exo Unissejod pur mntuomMmy
*ploe 014008 pure 93v390" TuNIpog |
*SO4R]
“exo unissyjod pure wniuomUy
‘aqgeipsy
wniuomMe IO poe o1myd
[nus puev eyvydsoydoisd wmntpog
“poe ormmyding

| far

uz
* UZ IN ‘UW ‘Og ‘00 {
ce iy ae ee
tay te
"M ‘OW ‘sv
UZ “IN ‘eq ‘ID ‘IV
ES LAN 00)
uz
- 19
> ap

.

‘ug ‘sy ‘qg
‘aaare

“uz ‘ag ‘op |
uz ‘no ‘09 ‘sv S

UZ

ull

. . a
UZ ‘IN 8g ‘09

| 194% |

Zt | ¥gs8t |°
‘NOINOUH() ‘f

8T

$a
G86
6LL

O88I
668T
6681
6681

906
86P

T68T
0681

66E
POT
696
£8¢
906

O68T
O68T
688T
6881

G8s8T

C61
606

S681
988T

L6 €68T

8F¢ S881

TLLG | FL | I88T

18g 86 | 688T

"WOINGYY) “¢

“IYO 90g “TIME
* SMONT eet

: "maqD “BIOUL ‘S}197,

“‘msyD

Log

‘f ‘WayD. Ieuy

‘f ‘WeYD ‘1Ieuy
* +p Mey ‘lemy
‘"p WeYyD ‘oul
“Pf UleyH ‘iemy
‘ddy 7 A,euy “¢
‘Pp ‘WeYyD ‘IeMy

‘00g ‘WaYH ‘Iowy “f
* —- SANON “TOYO

‘wayO ‘sfyd ‘sq107
‘MAYO "[eae ‘sz197,

* “reg

WOH ‘[euv ‘sz107

‘rag |°

* "Wy ‘dasseIQ

*V ‘IOAX
‘SH ‘Norse Ay,
T'C ‘O0RTe A 9 “A “WAIHI

. . .

a“ “qgrag
MT Pye Yao WUT
ek gO
MT eyo 9A TTS
ET Tomer 9“ “ua

MC MC MRLC LILACS

‘a ‘ ‘Teuy 3 “Wy ‘yyIUg

Jo *g ‘Iayonmyog
* +y, ‘emo00yT

‘HT ‘s1aquopnor,

‘§ ‘Broqserrg

* *y ‘uassetO

“y ‘purig

1895.

REPORT

254

“pe ON}N
‘prov o1mmydyng

O48 eXO UNTUOTIUTYy

*SO}]
-eXO WINIUOTIMIY pu UINISseJOg

‘plow’ O111U 10 ‘plow

olmnyd{ns 10 ‘ayeapéy uMmou
-mv pure oyeqdsoydordd wmipog
“plo o1mmydyng

“Oprpor
tauissvjod pue oqeijie} 1[ex[V

‘ayeapay pur ayeydyns wntuowmy

‘ayeuoq.eo
wnIMoMUIe pues ploe o1oydsoyg
‘oyerpAy pue
‘ayeydins umiuowmte ‘prow onmyto
‘aqyeexo WHnTUOTIULy
*SO4rT
.-@xO wuniIssvjod pue wuntuowUy
‘a]e]eXO WUNTUOTIMLy
"SOqeT
-exO TinTIssejod pue wntuomMy
‘a]R]eXO TINTUOUL
-me pue ojyvydsoydorfd umtpog
‘ayeydsoydoidd winrpog

ayApor}0a]q JO UorzIsodur0y

e * e . po
Me mere | |
poe | 197 | LT | PSST
otioydsoyg ‘az ‘IN |
‘UW “SW “ed 10 ‘00 ‘TV |
|
; : : SUE Te pe Ieser
/
; UW | 189 | 8Z | 6ST
. ot | GOI 6 | OLSI
‘udddo9N °9
a re | A
ae oe ons 988 FI | S68T
° UAL “ID “TY “608 ¢g | 9881
UW ‘Of | BBL ZIT | GST
' of | 090 | 26 | F68T
|
: "onl | eo A
- uppgs| 4976 | 2T | F887
eet oan Cue | Name pil 1881 |
ret oe |
aid 3 /
‘a ‘2m ‘ty J | 182 88 | 68ST |

Wo. pozeredes spejapy

“LIVAOD “G

| asvg | [OA | qwox |

‘HAY “[eUv ‘S107
“WAYO [eur ‘s}197,

‘MOYO ‘s}RUOTL

sMoN “WAayO

“puayy “ydut0og |

* lag

‘UIYO ‘]BUe ‘S}19Z

* *y SuessrIp

* *y ‘Udassetp

: ‘ * yw ‘puvig
ap bovey ‘uorpneqstog

“ny ‘UURU4IO A

“J, ‘2100,

‘Vv “x ‘Soy ory
* *y ‘uasse[pD

"Ww ‘Uasse[p

* -y ‘uassr[O

*y ‘pueig

jeutnor

qoyyny

‘panutzu0e— srshzouzoayy Jo sunaw hq syojayy fo uorgvendag ay) sof spoypryy aarzoprzumng) “AT

pie)

2

iS)

F ELECTROLYSI

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS BY MEANS O

“plow ONIN,

(Plee ONIN,

“ple ONFIN

“Plow ONIN

‘poe ormydng
Pree onary

“plow OLIN
‘oyerpdAy tantuowULy

:

‘ppe eek
*‘ploe o1myding

‘plow OLQIN,
‘ploe ormyding

plo’ OLIN,

“prow OLIN,
‘aqeap<y tantmowury

“prov 911910 puv opruvdo unissvj}0g

‘aprue{o TunIsseqyog
“proe Olty1U Io prow o1myding

‘aqyerpéy rng}

*ploe o1mmydyne f
IO prov oH IEN |

*ploe’ OJIN
“plow 919008 10 ‘olIv}103
‘OI[VxXO pue oze]exo wuniuowMy
“plow OLIN
"plo® OLIN:
“plow OMFIN,
“plot ONIN

eae te

J

. s . . dd

dar
: : : * add
: sos aN
; P j Pg
: 9g ‘dd ‘sy ‘ag
, : yey
uz ‘oy ‘tN “XIN

ie qd if ne)

‘op “a ‘ee sy ‘as
uz ‘IN ‘uy ‘oy ‘og

a

ov

IN
as
qd Ta
SV a
A 1g
Se
po ‘sv ‘ag
uz
‘ug “SV IN ‘UD ‘ag
‘aq ‘09 ‘ID Ig ‘qg ‘sy

uz ‘Ug ‘VN ‘oy ‘yT
UN ‘SH ‘UN ‘SW ‘4d
Pd LY Oa 19 aio)
eo) Tao tg ‘sv ‘ag ‘IV
; qd “Ot |
TIN ‘OL “on J
: ad
: y -- TS
2 = ; - «2

qd ‘8V

9

a

LL81
181
8881
€68T
TL8T
G81
éL8T
O68T

698T
FO8T
F881
9L8T

GEST
F181

S681

G68T

I68T

‘puoryy ‘ydut0;)
; “TaTYD ‘00g ‘TING
* "MAYO "[eur ‘s}19e7
* "MOYO ‘“MISUV ‘s}107
: ‘"p WOYO ‘IEWy
‘ "THAD “[eue *s4107
* “MAYO *[euR ‘sq1e7
: : ‘Fez wey

* "‘UIEYD ‘Teue ‘sz1ez
" "pf 340g r9[surq
‘Waz “uaqyny "N -B19g

* “WLAN "[BVUe *s41987
‘0 syaz-"taTD

+ MHATD ‘[eue *s}197

* ‘mayp ‘sfyd ‘sz107

= .

“719Z~" WOO

iayO ‘ddy x ‘y4y;euy “fp

10g
. J . . “I9q
* "MOYO ‘S10uv ‘sy1907,
i “"weyD “‘B10Ue *sq107
— f "dog

B * "Vv ‘eqory
qoupso pure TOSTOSEO

* “iH ‘129990
*H ‘uosuessnyy
‘Wf ‘HOLE

. 79) aN ‘KEW
* OIqQ00IT. playsuey,
. . "M T ‘AVYLOW

. . .

‘OD ‘moxon'y

‘9 ‘moony
W ‘ueyry

uid1o77
“M ‘odueyy
“mM ‘odurey

* YY ‘Srequepnesy
‘d YD ‘qovqssorg
*g ‘oyepsvorp

* "y ‘UassRIO

. . . ‘Vv ‘aasse[O
. . eh: ‘Tasso
*y ‘uasse[pD

*y ‘UassripD

1895.

REPORT

NY

*ploe OLyIN
“plow O1ULIOJ pue soyemI0,,
‘ayeipAY puvoyeydms wniuowuy
“ploe ONGIN
“Plow OLIN
‘apruedo wanIsse4o,,
*Plo® OMGIN
“ploe OMGIN

“poe
911718} pue ayeipéy WNIUOWMYy
“prloe O14 N

*ploe o10yd
ayeydsoyd wmntpog

‘ayerpAy wumIuomMYy |
‘apruedo unissejog f

‘apluvdd UINISse}0g
‘ple ONFIN

“prow
o11ej1e} pue oyeipAy WntuoMUYy
“plo® ONFIN

-soyd pu

‘ay81}IU WINIPOS puv ploV OII4IN
*ploe o1mmyding

"SoqR |
-exO TINIUOMUIY pur UNIssej0g
“poe ONIN
‘opruedo wuntssej0g

“pre ONGIN {

*ploe o1mydyng

ey A[o1490/q JO UOT}IsOduI0g

IN ‘ag
UZ “IN ‘ad ‘op
a
qd
Seer > og
. . . BY ‘SH
: ey Ber
* uz ‘IN ‘aq ‘09 ‘po

‘ ‘ "ag

t qd ‘a
uz ‘IN

‘OH “ID ‘09 ‘po

, - sy

PO
; 5 149)

‘CW

ug ey ‘AS
IN

*3V oN oe PO
sptoe o1toydsoyd
pue ‘o1eqiey forjooe
‘sT[ey[e pue syjiva
oulyeyye ‘uz “py “IN
‘UN ‘dd ‘a ‘PO ‘IV

WOJ} poyeuvdos s[eqoyy

L6G ST | 9L8T
$86 T 6681
9€¢ FI | S681
SIP g E881
L116 696 | 988T |
OGF 9T | F68T |
L6T g €68T
696 L €68T
681 L §68T
861 L €68T
63E GI | O68T
83F GI | O68T
FOL GT | O68T |
If G O8sT
S6I ST | S68I
FTE 9T | LL8T
OSF — | 868T
} £69 — | 6681
809 €L | G88T
*panuzjuogI—AtddON
9 Bug | ‘JOA | Iw9X

* -"UIAYO ‘Teue 'sz107
* ‘MeYO “sLOUv *sq107
: * “MeO ‘syeuU0yY
: ‘"p ‘WeYD ‘IeuIy
; ‘f ‘94Jog aap surg
* 00g, "MeYH ‘Iamy “¢
* "mayO ‘s10uR ‘sz107

‘moyD ‘Udy » 44[puy “¢

‘moyD ‘ddy x -44[euy “P
‘mayD ‘ddy 2 “44,euy “¢

“"p TeYO ‘IEWy
; ‘Pp MOYO ‘IeUy

‘Pp ‘mMIYO “IeUy
“Pp "WMIYO ‘1emMy

* ‘00g "MAYO ‘IomMy “fC
* "MAYD ‘Teue ‘sy1e7,

* ‘May D ‘MesuR ‘sq107,

‘MOYO “MosuR ‘s}197

‘shy 32 ‘WIYO sopeuny

[vuinoe

“A ‘Wosyy StI A,
'S “H “SOrre |
“W) ‘WUPUI}IO A
. . ait cw a ‘ fouuey,

“AA ‘TURaS
‘a H ‘teouedg 79° Wa ‘ygtug
‘AH “yWIUIg

‘a ‘f ‘xakoy 3 “A “aw ‘yyTUIg
Td Sovrrem 3 “Wg ‘GAIA

Of ‘teqTeg 2 WT “a ‘YgTUIYg

‘TH ‘Wyrag

MT PyueT yg ‘yz

“MT Toque a gS
‘a ‘qyIWg

‘9 *§ “layonumyog
j ‘d ‘lapemyog

A PrIopnyr

* “a ‘propny

Vy ‘amon

1loyyny

‘ponutyu0o—srshpoujzoy gy fo suvow hq spnjapy fo uouvunday ay2 wof spoyrapy aargopyumn® * Ay

257

ELECTROLYSIS.

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS BY MEANS OF

raqerpdéy
unimowme pue plow o1reqIey,
‘ayery1o tanTpog
‘ayeuoqieo
tuntuoTUUe pue prov o110ydsoy,g
"SOqRl
“exo WnIssejod pur wntuoWMYy
‘wnhoup so i soyeyding
*SOqU]
-exO Wnissejod pue wniu0owMy
‘oJv[eXO TINTUOTWIUYy
*o}B[VXO WNTUOTIMYy
"SO]P
-exO tnissejod pue wntuomULy
‘aqe[exo TUNTUOMIIUY
SO} PL
-exO uUInIssvjod pue umntuowuUy
"$948
-exO UInIssvjod pue uwmtuomUy
‘ayeyexo TWNTUOMIMYy
*Sq9e]
“CxO UWnissejod puv wntuomMmy
‘ayelexo UnTUOTUUTy
‘aye[exo UUNTUOTIUTy
‘oqe[exO TUNIMOUL

“we puv ayeqdsoydorfd tuntpog

‘ayeqdsoydorkd wmipog

‘apruefo wmntissej0g
‘oyerpAy pure oprydins wntpog
‘apruevdd unIssejog

*pioe or10oyd
-soyd pue ojeyqdsoyd umrpog
‘apruedo uinissejog

: . - o.
‘ : "i ‘oo

: ; ult “10 ‘IV

ey, ‘aW ID ‘IV
‘ “Sol L¥i

}
"IN ‘09
‘ull ‘IV

uit}
~ «lV

* uz ‘pn ‘IN ‘09

ult

: : é 6 ay
proe onoddhoud |
‘plow Onn ing ‘Ol
1Z ‘A “ID ‘og wv |
‘UW ‘TV

ERE ee
' -* 9 “Sit ‘TY

. AK ‘SO ‘OW ‘sy
. A *M ‘ag ‘ow ‘Sy
UZ “Id “Pd “IN ‘ND ‘op
. . . uz ‘09
“4d ‘ND ‘sy

OT
€¢

8T

LT

‘meq ‘ddy puv ‘y4;euy “pc

*"p WaYyO “Iemy

SMON “WOO

‘ BET Met AO 7k

: ‘Pp ‘WayD ‘10uly
fia ¢ og
: . : log
2 : “9g
: ; ; ‘10g
; ; : Jog
: ' Jog
: : ; "reg

* ‘ureqg ‘skyd ‘sq107

8 gage
“WIS addy 3 ‘y4Teuy “f
‘f “WeYyD ‘lsmy

“"p WaYyD ‘Iouy

Riker }

a qn pase “yom ‘yqrorg
7 ‘Wa “qtg

L ‘e100yy

‘£ eye3poom 39‘ V “0 ‘WON

“AN ‘SqqT)

a

* "vy ‘dosseip
‘ : * "YW ‘UassR[O

* y ‘uassR[DQ

. . .

*y ‘uasse[pD

. 2 .

“y ‘aasseip

*y ‘uassrlp

‘V WN ‘sloy pure “y ‘uassetp

. . .

‘'y ‘puvig

‘I'd "OORITEM 29 aa “qatug

p A ‘YytUIg
“A AOL 3 “wy SOgTMg

“Aa “TOS

siete Sieues’ are: | ‘Broquepnels

‘apruvdsd UINISSeIOg

‘apiqdqus tantpog
‘aptuvdd UWINISstyog
‘apruvdso UINIsseyog
‘apluvdéd UINISse}0g
‘apruv{o TUnIsse}Og
“prow
OLIe}IV} pus ayerpAy wWintuomMUTy
‘aqerp dy
TINIUOTIM puv ayeydins wurpog
‘Phe OLIN
“prow olmmydyng
‘prow
olreyie} pus ayvipsy WntIuoMmMy

8 ‘plo’ OLIN
oO ‘apruvdo wanIsseyog |
— | |
*proe ONIN,
es l|
o) ‘plo’ O11g1U 10 |
a oMnydus 10 oyvIpAY WTO |
(ex) -ue pues oyeydsoydordd wmipog |

*SOqUT |
-exo UWNIssejod puy uINIUOMIUTy
‘ayeyexo TIMTUOTIM\y
“OpIpor
wuissvjod pue ayers, YeyLy

{

UIT

; uz ‘IN ‘NO

. . ug ‘sy
* AM ‘Pd ‘OW ‘sv
t uz ‘IN ‘09
at oe S¥ BO
Led 19

2 ug “qg ‘SV
e ; Se ON
Po
"UZ ‘IN ‘UW ‘Od

. . .

sy ‘ag
‘ig ‘sy
np ‘po
: O “Ig ‘IN
‘OW ‘Ot “ID
ha) "joy “Cyoy a1 Sin

ng

UyL

|
J

16

18g

86

T68T
T681
T681
O68T
O68T
688T
6881

€68T

F68T

S68T

988T

6881

‘AUNOUTT “6

|.

T&6G |
TT9T

ES

val

| fat | F88T

COST

“ponurzuodI— NOUT

* og }
* uray D Co) ‘yAyeuy “cf
* -moyg ‘ddy 2 y4yeuy “¢
‘Pp UIEyD “Iauy
‘Pp UEYDO “auy
‘pul O ‘IouUy
* mayo ‘ddy 2 ‘g4yeuy “¢

. .

‘00g “WsyD ‘IoUy ‘“f

‘TUaYO “MISUe ‘s}107

0 * -‘tmmaqg ‘shyd ‘sy1907

. . . . . “19g

: * “THO YD [BUY ‘S197
|

Og

ULOY) “S}LUOTT | *

VM
*£oToe OW, pure “7 “q ‘qyITIg

: ‘A “gatas
"WT oyury ya ‘qyaIg
WT eoyaen ya a “gag
“YO oyuer yy a TUL
WT Pyar “Gag

‘9 'g “IayonuyO,

* a Briopny

* yy ‘Sroquopneig

Qy ‘SIMpuy pure “y ‘uesse[p

"y ‘pueig

“£ ‘PULL AY

4 ‘UUBUIO A

9} {orjo1]4y JO doryrsodwog |

Woy paqe nds STPEJITT

ane, |

gl OUN

Iva

[euinor

Ioqny

258

‘panutquoo—sishpougoarg fo sunau hq synjazy fv uoizounday ayp sof spoyzeyy aa yo pquane?)

NN

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS BY MEANS OF ELECTROLYSIS.

‘plow o1moyd
-soyd pue ojeydsoyd umtpog
*ploe O10 oorpAPT
‘apruvdo wunissej0g

‘plow onoyd
-soyd pue ojvydsoyd wmrpog

“Oprpor
tuimissejod pue oyvIyIe, 1[eyxLV
‘ayerpAy pure ayeydins wntuowmuy
‘aqyerpAy pur oyeydyns wunraowuy

‘plow ormydyng
‘oqeipAY TnTMOWIULy
‘ayeumoqivo
TINTUOMIMIY pue plow oLoydsoyg
‘aqerpAy pur oyeyqdins wmtuowmy
‘oploryo puv oyerpAéy wantuouUry
‘oJR[VXO TUNTMOTIULy
*SOqRT
-BxO WnIssvjod pue untuomUy
*(aqeydsoyd
se uoezidierd 10938) o4vIp
-Ay pue ozeydius wntuowmmy
‘ayerpsy tuMm0UL
-mie puev ajeydsoydoidd wmrpog
‘oyeydsoydordd tintpog

"plow OILIINN
"plow OLIN

“opymedo sHADESSEIOT

- A vy | CéP FI
ug ‘sv ll ,,
SV ‘OH ‘ny J 16 él
“WONILV TG
qT CEP | tI
“‘WOIGVTIVq
uz |
Iv J 9&9 FI

* Of | PPE 9T
UW “SIT | 80g SI
' SIN | 93% G8
uy “0 ‘LV | 60 eg

UN ‘Od | BBL raat

7 Um | 22 96
UML | 9&3 8

UM | TLl6 | FT

7 faa t | -816 || TR

189 86

668I
&68T
‘EL

681
ab

€68T

LL8T
6881
LLST

988T
T68T
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6881

{88T

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€68T

‘mayO “‘ddy x ‘q4;euy “¢
‘uioyD ‘ddy 7 y4yeuy “¢

fs *"e ‘WeYyD ‘1eury

* ‘may ‘sfyd ‘sq1az, :

5 ‘"p ‘MoyQ ‘IoWy

, * ‘Ue OQ ‘syeUOPL

“ “MISO “Teue ‘sz07
ca) j0 “WIIYD sapeuuy
“puoy “ydut0p

: " SMON ‘UIAYD
2 “puayy ‘ydm0p

‘MIAO [BUR ‘sq107
* “puy ‘WayO “dog “P¢

. . . . ‘Iog

* ULaYD *[eue *syz107

* MHAYQ, ‘TRUE ‘Sz187,

ati toes . “og

: es : ‘AT 'a ‘yg

; 4 ; ‘a ‘HU

- * uy ‘umeT4I0 A,
3 . ’ ‘gq “SIapametog

pemmmmreserr 8 Oe|
. . . . ‘Vv ‘Qyony
. . . . “Ak ‘A100]
RE heat 4 Ware Gal au
. 2 ; * uUlequuy

"f ‘oyespooy ¥ “VW ‘O ‘UYOY
. . * “vy ‘uassetg

‘$a
‘spreyory pur’ ‘yy ‘Aouayo

cr a) OU CS |

‘af ako 3% “A “YT

‘ae ‘oko FA “A ‘UNUIg
id

‘aoe PAL puv “a “H ‘aqWg

ma

: *"Y ‘siaquopnarg | ,

1895.

REPORT:

260

*pyov ortnydyng )

poe omy f| @N ea ‘BW ‘dd | 80G | et | Z8sT
‘ayeuoqieo
wntuoulUe pue poe o1oydsoyg | * G UW “0 ‘IV | 606 9 | 988T
‘unhpuDv sv
‘prov o1mydins 10 omor,yoorpAy | * 4d. WN ‘OW ‘an ‘09 | 8g 6 S881
‘ayerpéy pure oyeydins wntuowmy le " UM | 992 8 6881
‘oye[VxO VINTUOWMLY Se OS | 2aRe HO PeeL |
*SOqRT
-ex0 Wnissejod puv ummowumy * Ul TLL16 tI 1881
‘ageapAY TantuoUt
“we pue oeyeydsoydordd wnmpog | - ; : ‘ UI
‘ayeydsoydorsd eatrece i "9 SSI a} Ts9 86 | Gust
‘ONIZ “FI
‘aptuvdo tanissey}0g PO | 0GF 9T | F681
plo’ OLIN “ ad | 696 Z S68T
‘opruvéd UINIsseyIOg “ so | 6LL GZ | G68T
‘apruvdd UWMNISseIOg . Id | LIP €T | T68I
‘apruedo tunIsse{0q A oe ‘Sy | 83F GL | O68T
‘apruvdo tanisseyog EN aL POL oI | O68T
‘apruvéd wnIssej}og ; * nO | $96 g 688T
‘poe o1myd
“Ins pue ojeydins wnwowmy * uz)
Ree wT cared - arf| 809 | st | eset
*Splov OT[VXO puv OITJIN : : * 4d | Qt§ — | 068T
‘oqyedy
“TU WINTUOWUe puv pIOv OLIN : : 2a
‘pore
oryiey pue epruvfo umisseyog }| - ‘ : . :
*sproe ee pure OLIN "8 | 26 GE | S681
‘ayerpfy pur oyeydius untuowuy | « : ‘po ‘sv
3g oe
‘apruvéo untssejog | IN ‘ng ‘09 “po ‘sy
‘UHATIC “ET
ayATOsqoaTY JO UoT}{[sodu09 Woly peqwaudas spezoyy asvg | ‘JOA | avox |

‘shad 99 ‘wIqO soyeuuy

z * — SMONT ‘TAT,
: : “qloz-" ms
: "PUT “WYN “90g “C
: + og
: F . og |

* "MHD ‘Teur ‘sz197 |

* ‘009 ‘MeO ‘1dmy ‘f

"meyg ‘ddy 2 “y4reay “¢

Jog
7 ‘+p ‘may ‘iu
: - Pp -wayD ‘EMy

“*p ‘MIEYO ‘IoWy

‘moyD “ddy 2 -44,eay “¢

‘shy g jo ‘WIYD soyeuuy
* "MOYO “MosUP “s}I07

* ‘tayo ‘sfyd ‘sq107

[eu.tnoe

“'V ‘QUONy

* +y, ‘aLooyT

sy s =) jah aoe
At ‘oye ouneny 9" ‘VO ‘aqoy
5 "Vy ‘uassviD

"sv “UaSSPTO

*y ‘pueig

‘aE HH ‘toouedy » “qq ‘ygTUg
df ‘oO 3 “wT “O ‘UGTIUG
TC ‘OOUlleM 9 “EaTUg
‘A TUNA 29 “A o “UyTUUg
WT Tear 9 Wg yyrag
WT Pee yw of yt
MT PyUeL 8 a “yy

"oy QTOry
*"?— ‘moxyon'y

yA ‘Sroquepnory

ioyyny

‘ponuyyuoo—sishzoujoayy fo suvow hq synjapy fo uoyuundag ay2 sof spoyzary angozyguond “AT

261

VE ANALYSIS BY MEANS OF ELECTROLYSIS

QUANTITATI

“TaNTMAI pep
SOIOIPE Lech
“YG MUsteg
“UNL
‘roddog

‘seshjouqoany fo supa

*sq]@S IOATIS Itoyy Jo siskporjooya oy} Aq ouTpor |
pue ‘aurmoiq ‘eulIo[yo Jo uORULUMIOJep yoorrpuy J
‘UOIT UL WOgI¥vO JO UOTZVUTUMIEJO,
‘sueSoeg Jo WoTyeUuTUMIaJep O19A[01}09[
‘sisfjoryoa[e Aq plow OlI}IU JO UOTZVULMIEYOp OTL],

“quad 1140979 94} Aq 971000TeTD JO UOT}epIxO

‘quarmMo O1mqoeTa OY} Aq yTUTOIYD Jo MoOTzIsoduIO0DaqT

*quarIMd O1140919 943 Aq soptydyus Jo uoTeprxO

*‘SUOTJVULULIOJOp 1eSns-J19AUT
04 perdde se zeddoo zo uoryempysa o1ATo1}0e79 OUT,
‘J90}S UL WOgIvo Jo MOTYQeUITIE\Oq
*£Teo1yApo1y09T9
SUIMIOIA PUR SULIOTYD JO UOVUIULIE}ep yoOoILpUT
“quar
-M9O O11qO9T9 BY} Aq SsoprluasIe OTT[VJOUL JO UOTyepIxO
‘uesor}IU pur
‘mntuoume ‘mmnissejod Jo UoyeUTMIOjep yooIIpUy

qoatqng

F9E
€GP
8&6
0066
GSE

IGP
GIL
086
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6816
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9166
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1G
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S681
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FL81

988T

6981
F681
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6881
0681
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6681
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THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 26

oo

The Bibliography of Spectroscopy._—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor H. McLeop, Professor W. C. Roperts AusTEN, Mr.
H. G. Manan, and Mr. D. H. NaGeEt.

Procress has been made with the catalogue of spectroscopic literature,

which has now been brought nearly up to date ; but, in view of the diffi-

culty of obtaining assistance from any one who is within reach of the
great scientific libraries, the Committee do not see their way to its further
continuance.

They therefore propose to bring the catalogue to a conclusion at the
end of the present year, so as to form a twenty-five-years’ record of spec-
troscopic literature.

Four instalments of the list of papers have been already issued, and
will be found in the reports of the Association for 1881, 1884, 1889, and
1894. The inconvenience of having to refer to four distinct volumes in
order to obtain a complete list of papers on any particular subject is
obvious, and the Committee strongly recommend that all the separate
instalments should be collected, rearranged, and issued as one continuous
catalogue. Mr. Madan is quite willing to undertake gratuitously all the
labour of doing this, the only question is that of expense of printing.

In an estimate obtained last year, Messrs. Spottiswoode & Co. stated
that the cost of printing 500 copies of the first three instalments (1881,
1884, and 1889) would be about 95/. The cost, therefore, of printing the
whole catalogue would be about 130.

If the above recommendation is approved by the Association, the Com-
mittee would suggest that the Association might undertake the responsi-
bility of the cost of printing, and be recouped (in part at least) by the
charge of 2s. 6d. per copy (which would produce 62/. 10s.). Or a higher
charge might be made.

It appears, moreover, not unlikely that other scientific societies—the
Royal Society, the Chemical Society, and the Physical Society—might be
induced to make grants, if, as is hoped, the catalogue would be of value
to those who are engaged in physical research.

The Committee desire to present the above subject for discussion, and
ask to be reappointed for one more year in order to finish their work.

The Action of Light upon Dyed Colowrs.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. 'f[. HE. THorPE (Chairman), Professor J. J.
Hummet (Secretary), Dr. W. H. PERKIN, Professor W. J. RUSSELL,
Captain W. DE W. ABnery, Professor W. Stroup, and Professor
R. Metpoua. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Durine the past year (1894-95) the work of this Committee has been
continued, and a large number of wool and silk patterns, dyed with vari-
ous natural and artificial red, orange, and yellow colouring matters, have

‘been examined with respect to their power of resisting the fading action

of light.
Similar patterns were exposed to light in the years 1892-93 and
1893-94, and have already been reported upon, but for want of sufficiént

264. REPORT—1895.

exposing space certain important groups of colouring matters had to
remain unrepresented, ¢.g., the Congo Reds, &c. These have now been
examined, together with additional coal-tar colouring matters recently
introduced, also certain Indian dyestuffs. With some few exceptions,
therefore, all the available red, orange, and yellow colours, as applied to
wool and silk, have now been exposed.

The general method of preparing the dyed patterns, and the manner
of exposing them under glass, with free access of air and moisture, were
the same as already adopted.

The thanks of the Committee are again due to James A. Hirst, Esq.,
in whose grounds the patterns were exposed at Adel, near Leeds.

Each dyed pattern was divided into six pieces, one of which was
protected from the action of light, while the others were exposed for
different periods of time. These ‘ periods of exposure’ were made equivalent
to those adopted in previous years by exposing, along with the patterns,
special series of ‘standards,’ dyed with the same colouring matters as were
then selected for this purpose. The standards were allowed to fade to the
same extent as those which marked off the ‘ fading period ’ in previous years,
before being renewed or removing a set of dyed patterns from the action

‘of light. The patterns exposed during the past year are therefore
comparable, in respect of the amount of fading which they have ex-
perienced, with the dyes already reported upon.

The patterns were all put out for exposure on June 20, 1894, cer-
tain sets being subsequently removed on the following dates :—July 14,
August 20, September 22, 1894 ; April 13, July 16, 1895. Of these five
‘periods of exposure’ thus marked off, periods 1, 2, 3 were equivalent to
each other in fading power, whereas periods 4 and 5 were each equivalent
to four of the first period in this respect ; hence five patterns of each
colour have been submitted respectively to an amount of fading equal
to 1, 2, 3, 7, and 11 times that of the first ‘fading period’ selected—viz.
June 20 to July 14, 1894.

_ The dyed and faded patterns have again been entered in pattern-card
books in such a manner that they can he readily compared with each other.

The foliowing tables give the general result of the exposure experi-
ments made during the year 1894-95, the colours being divided, according
to their behaviour towards light, into the following five classes: very
fugitive, fugitive, moderately fast, fast, very fast.

The initial numbers refer to the order of the patterns in the pattern-
books. The S. and J. numbers refer to Schultz and Julius’s ‘Tabel-
larische Uebersicht der kiinstlichen organischen Farbstoffen.’

In the case of colouring matters requiring mordants, the particular
mordant employed is indicated in brackets after the name of the dye-
stuff.

RED COLOURING MATTERS.

Cuass I. Very Fuairive Cotours. (WooL.)

The colours of this class have faded so rapidly that at the end of the
first ‘fading period’ (June 20 to July 14, 1894) only a very faint colour
remains, and at the end of the fifth period (one year) all traces of the
original colour have disappeared, the woollen cloth being either quite white
or merely of a faint tint which varies according to the colour of the origi-
nal pattern.

ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 265

Triphenylmethan Colour.
Wool Book V.
Acid Colour. 20. Bengaline PH extra. Constitution not published.

Azo Colours.

Direct Cotton 4. Rosazurin B. From o-tolidine and methy]-8-naphthylamine-sul-
Colours. phonic acid 6. §.and J. 199.
- 14. Naphthylene Red. From 1,5-diamido-naphthalene and naphthi-
onic acid. S. and J. 147.

* 15. Rosazurin G. From o-tolidine, methy]-8-naphthylamine-sulpho-
nic acid 8, and B-naphthylamine-sulphonic acid 6. 8. and J.
198.

os 46. Terra Cotta F. From primuline and p-sulpho-naphthalene-azo-
m-phenylene-diamine.
Developed Colour. 1. Primuline Red. From primuline and £-naphthol.

Natural Colouring Matters.
Wool Book VI.
Non-mordant Colour. 1. Orchil. From Roccella tinctoria
Mordant Colours. 7. Barwood (Al.). Wood of Baphia nitida.
2 8. Sanderswood (Al.). Wood of Pterocarpus santalinus.

Nores.—Rosazurin B and G become yellower during the fading process,
a change which is still more pronounced in the case of Naphthylene Red.
The Barwood and Sanderswood reds become brown during the first fading
period, and then rapidly fade to a pale drab, and finally, at the end of a
year, to a buff colour.

Crass II. Fuertive Conours. (Woot.)

The colours of this class show very marked fading at the end of the
second ‘fading period’ (July 14 to August 20, 1894), and after a year’s
exposure they have entirely faded, or only a tint remains.

20 Colours.

Wool Book V.
Acid Colours. 1. Azo Orchil R. Constitution not published.
3 4, Fast Acid Magenta. Constitution not published.
Sy 13. Emin Red. Constitution not published.
a 14, Azo Cardinal G. Constitution not published.
Direct Cotton 1. Brilliant Geranine B. Constitution not published.
Colours. 2. Brilliant Geranine 3B. Constitution not published.
# 3. Congo Rubin. Constitution not published.
3 5. Titan Red. Constitution not published.
% 9. Benzopurpurin 10B, From dianisidine and naphthionic acid,
8. and J. 214.
” 11. Hessian Purple N. From diamido-stilbene-disulphonic acid and
B-naphthylamine. 8. and J. 150.
by 13. Diamine Red NO. From ethoxy-benzidine, 6-naphthylamine-
B-sulphonic acid and 8-naphthylamine-3-sulphonic acid. 8. and
J. 203.
“I 18. Hessian Purple B. From diamido-stilbene-disulphonic acid and
B-naphthylamine-sulphonic acid (8 and 6). 8S. and J. 152.
Sy 19. Hessian Brilliant Purple. From diamido-stilbene-disulphonic acid
and f-naphthylamine-8-sulphonic acid. 8S. and J. 151.
4! 20. Hessian Purple D. From diamido-stilbene-disulphonic acid and
B-naphthylamine-mono-sulphonic acid y. 8. and J. 153.
a 21. Benzo Fast Red. Constitution not published.
5 22. Titan Scarlet C. Constitution not published.
* 24, Benzopurpurin 6B. From tolidine and a-naphthylamine-mono-

sulphonic acid L, 8. and J. 190.

266 REPORT—1895.

Direct Cotton 26. Deltapurpurin 5B. From tolidine, B-naphthylamine-6-sulphonic

Colours. acid, and 8-naphthylamine-sulphonic acid (8 and 8), §. and
J. 192.
eo 27. Deltapurpurin 7B. From tolidine and f-naphthylamine-é-sul-

phonic acid. S.and J. 200.

. 28. Congo Red, From benzidine and naphthionicacid. S. and J.163.

31. Benzopurpurin 4B, From tolidine and naphthionic acid. S. and
J. 189.

x 33. Benzopurpurin B. From tolidine and #-naphthylamine-mono-
sulphonic acid Br, §.and J. 191.

aa 34. Direct Red. From diamido-ethoxy-tolyl-phenyl and naphthionic
acid.

38. Congo GR. Constitution not published.

25 42, Deltapurpurin G. From benzidine and f-naphthylamine-mono-
sulphonic acid (8 and 5), 8. and J. 164.

5 44, Congo 4R. From o-tolidine, naphthionic acid and resorcinol.

+ 45, Direct Red. From diamido-phenyl-tolyl and naphthionic acid. S.
and J. 184.

Natural Colouring Matters.
Wool Book VI.
Mordant Colours. Ventilago madraspatana (root-bark) (A1.) (Sn.).
. Limawood (Al.) (Sn.). Wood of Caesalpinia echinata.
Camwood (Al.) (Sn.).
. Barwood (Sn.).
. Sanderswood (Sn.).

DANE

Nores.—Fast Acid Magenta becomes much bluer during the first
fading period, and assumes quite a purple colour, which gradually fades to
a purplish grey. Its behaviour is quite unlike that of ordinary Acid
Magenta, but very similar to that of Magenta itself, from which it is no
doubt derived.

Emin Red is one of the more fugitive colours of this class, and might
almost be placed in Class I.

Iso-Rubin R behaves like ordinary Magenta, and changes during the
first fading period to a purple, which soon fades still further.

The colours given by Ventilago madraspatana, Limawood and Camwood,
with tin mordant, are all a little faster than with aluminium. . The Cam-
wood, Barwood and Sanderswood colours with aluminium and tin mordants
all become brown and apparently darker during the first fading period ;
those obtained with tin mordant become much darker, and are somewhat
faster than the corresponding aluminium colours. This marked alteration
in hue during the early stages of the fading process is characteristic of
these dyestuffs, and distinguishes them readily from Ventilago madra-
spatana and Limawood.

Cuass III. Moprrarery Fast Cotours. (W00t.)

The colours of this class show distinct fading at the end of the second
period (July 14 to August 20, 1894), which becomes more pronounced at
the end of the third period (August 20 to September 22, 1894). A pale tint
only remains at the end of the fourth period (September 22, 1894, to
April 13, 1895), and at the end of a year’s exposure the colour has en-
tirely faded, or, at most, mere traces of colour remain.

Azo Colours.
Wool Book V.
Acid Colours. 6. Azo Carmine BX. Sodium salt of phenyl-rosinduline-tri-sulphonic
acid,
53 8. Crocein Scarlet 10B. Constitution not published.

Wool Book V.
‘Acid Colours, 3. Azo Acid Magenta B. From toluidine and dioxy-naphthalene-a-

ON THE ACTION. OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 267
Acid Colours. 9. Ponceau 10RB. Constitution not published.
s 10. Fast Wool Red. From naphthionic acid and f8-naphthol-disul-
phonic acid.
rf 11. Azo Bordeaux. Constitution not published.
x 15. Anthracene Red. Constitution not published.
5 16. Azo Cochineal. Constitution not published.
+ 19. Milling Scarlet. From di-m-amido-azoxytoluene, a-naphthol-

mono-sulphounic acid, and B-naphthol-disulphonic acid R.
Direct Cotton 6. Erica B. From dehydro-thio-m-xylidine and a-naphthol-e-disul-
Colours. phonic acid. S. and J. 69.
4 7. Geranine BB. Constitution not published.
. Erica G. Constitution not published.

8

n 17. Geranine G. Constitution not published.

BS 23. Brilliant Congo R. From tolidine, #-naphthylamine-mono-
sulphonic acid Br, and §-naphthylamine-disulphonic acid R.
S. and J. 193.

BS 25. Brilliant Purpurin R. From o-tolidine, B-naphthylamine-disul-
phonic acid R and naphthionic acid. $8. and J. 201.

oo 36. St. Denis Red. From diamido-azoxy-toluene and a-naphthol-
mono-sulphonic acid NW.

= 39. Dianthine 4B. Constitution not published.

= 40. Diamine Scarlet B. From benzidine, 8-naphthol-disulphonic acid
G, and phenol (ethylated). 8. and J. 169.

” 43, Brilliant Congo G. From benzidine, 6-naphthylamine-mono-sul-
phonic acid B and §-naphthylamine-disulphonic acid R. S&S.
and J 165.

Oxyketone Colour.
Mordant Colour. 4. Alizarin Maroon (Al.) (8n.). Amido-alizarin.
Natural Colouring Matter.
Mordant Colour. 4. Cochineal (Al.). The insect Coccus cacti.

Norre.—the more fugitive character of Alizarin Maroon as compared
with Alizarin shows that the introduction of the amido group (N H.,) into
the alizarin inolecule reduces considerably its power of giving fast colours.

Cuass IV. Fast Cotours. (Wooz.)

The colours of this class show comparatively little fading during the

first, second, and third periods. At the end of the fourth period of ex-

posure a pale shade remains, which at the end of the year’s exposure still
leaves a pale tint.

Azo Colours.

mono-sulphonic acid (1:8). 8. and J. 228.
% 5. Azo Acid Magenta G. From sulphanilic acid and dioxy-naphtha-
lene-a-mono-sulphonic acid (1: 8). S. and J. 229.

Triphenylmethan Colour.
Wool Book V.
Acid Colour, 2. Violamine A2R. Sodium salt of di-o-tolyl-rhodamine-disulphonic
acid.

Oxyketone Colour.
Wool Book VI.
Mordant Colour. 8. Purpurin (Al.) Tri-oxy-anthraquinone (1: 2: 4).

268 REPORT—1895.

Natural Colouring Matiers.
Wool Book VI.
Mordant Colours. 3. Lac-dye (Al.). The insect Coccus ilicis.
% 9. Munjeet (Al.). Root of Rubia cordifolia.

Nores.—The fastness of Violamine is worthy of special note, since
this dyestuff belongs to the Triphenylmethan colours, a group which
usually only furnishes fugitive dyes. Violamine is considerably faster
than the closely allied Rhodamine, which has been classed as a ‘ fugitive’
colour (see Report, 1892-93).

Cuass V. Very Fast Contours. (WOoL.)

The colours of this class show a very gradual fading during the dif-
ferent periods, and even after a year’s exposure a moderately good colour
remains,

RLY. Azo Colour.

Direct Cotton 16, Diamine Fast Red F. From benzidine, amido-naphthol-sulphonic
- Colour, acid G and salicylic acid. 8. and J. 179.

@Vocl Book VI, Oxyketone Colours.

Mordant Colours. 1. Alizarin Bordeaux B (Al.) (Sn.). Tetra-oxy-anthraquinone
GE 2ibis 8):

+ 2. Alizarin Bordeaux G (Al1.) (Sn.).

Sy 3. Alizarin Bordeaux GG (Al.) (Sn.).

9 5. Alizarin (Al.). Di-oxy-anthraquinone (1: 2).

+ 6. Anthrapurpurin (Al.), Tri-oxy-anthraquinone (1: 2: 7).
+ 7. Flavopurpurin (Al.). Tri-oxy-anthraquinone (1 : 2: 6).
Pr Nitro-alizarin (Zn.).

Wool Book VI. atural Colouring Matters.

Mordant Colours. 10. Chay-root (Al.). Root of Oldenlandia umbellata.
- 11. Morinda-root (Al.) (Sn.). Root of Morinda citrifolia.
> 12. Mang-kudu (Al.) (Sn.). Root of Morinda umbellata.
i 7. Lac-dye (Sn.).
9 8. Cochineal (Sn.).

Notes.—This class includes several colours of the alizarin group, so
well known for their general fastness to light, washing, milling, &c. The
superior fastness of the red given by Chay-root, as compared with that
obtained from Madder, is no doubt due to the absence of Purpurin in the
former.

The colours given by Lac-dye and Cochineal with tin mordant are dis-
tinctly faster than those with alumina.

Most noteworthy is the remarkable fastness of Diamine Fast Red,
since it belongs to the so-called ‘Congo Colours,’ a group which, as already
stated, usually supplies only such red dyes as possess at most a moderate
fastness to light.

ORANGE AND YELLOW COLOURING MATTERS.
Cuass I. Very Fucitive Conours. (Wo00tr.)
Azo Colour.

Wool Book VIII.
Developed Colour. Primuline Orange. From primuline and resorcinol.

ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 269

Natural Colouring Matters.

Wool Book VIII.

Non-mordant Colours. 3. Gardenia florida (fruit).

4. Coscinium fenestratum (root).
» 5. Evodia melizfolia (bark).

Norz.—tThe fugitive character of the dyes given by Coscinium fenes-

tratum and Evodia melicfolia, the colouring principle of which is the base
Berberine, is quite in accordance with the similar result obtained with all

other ‘basic colours.’

”

Cuass II. Fuarrive Contours. (Wo0t.)

zo Colours.
Wool Book VIII.
Acid Colour. 1. Metanil Orange 1. From m-diazo-benzene-sulphonic acid and
a-naphthol. §. and J. 77.

Basic Colours. 1. Tannin Orange R. From p-amido-benzyl-dimethyl-amine and
B-naphthol.

2. New Phosphine G. From, p-amido-benzyl-dimethyl-amine and
resorcinol.

”

Wool Book VII.
Direct Cotton 2. Toluylene Brown G.
Colours. 18. Nitrophenine. From p-nitraniline and dehydro-thio-p-toluidine.
Mordant Colours. 1. Cloth Brown R (Cr.) (Al.) (Sn.). From benzidine, salicyclic
acid, and 8-naphthol-sulphonic-acid. S. and J. 171.
3 4. Cloth Orange (Cr.) (Al.) (Sn.). From benzidine, salicylic acid,
and resorcinol. S. and J. 170.
13. Congo Brown R (Cr.) (Al.) (Sn.). From naphthionic acid and
Cloth Orange. S. and J. 216.
i 14. Congo Brown G (Cr.) (Al.) (Sn.). From sulphanilic acid and
Cloth Orange. S. and J. 217.
" 15. Cloth Brown G (Cr.). From benzidine, salicylic acid, and
dioxy-naphthalene (2: 7). 8S. and J, 172.

Natural Colouring Matters.

Wool Book VIII.
Mordant Colours. Jack-wood (Al.) (Sn.). Wood of Artocarpus integrifolia.
Kamila (Al.). Fruit glands of Mallotus philippinensis.

»

Nores.—Tannin Orange R deserves special notice since it is superior
in fastness to all other basic yellows hitherto examined.

The Indian dyestuff Kamala has been regarded by some as a fast dye-
stuff, but as applied to wool it cannot be so regarded ; applied to silk,
however, it is very much faster.

Crass III. Mopsratety Fast Contours. (WOoL.)

Azo Colowrs.
Wool Book VII.
Direct Cotton 5. Brilliant Orange G. Constitution not published.
Colours. 6. Toluylene Orange G (O.) (Cr.) (Al.) (Sn.). From tolidine, o-creso-
tinic acid and m-toluylene-diamine-sulphonic acid. 8. andJ.196.
7. Cotton Orange R. From m-sulphanilic acid and Cotton Orange G.
n 8. Cotton Orange G. From primuline and m-pheny lene-diamine-
disulphonic acid.
2, Benzo Orange R (Cr.) (Al.) (Sn.). From benzidine, salicylic acid,
and naphthionic acid. 8. and J. 173.
Cotton Yellow G (Cr.) (AL) (Sn.). From p-amido-acetanilide
and salicylic acid, &c. S. and J, 144.

270 REPORT—1895.

Wool Book VIII. Primuline Yellow. From primuline and phenol.
Wool Book VII.

Acid Colour. 2. Metanil Orange 2. From m-sulphanilic acid and f-naphthol.
S. and J. 77.

Unclassified.
Wool Book VIII.
Acid Colour. Xanthoproteic acid. Produced by the action of nitric acid on wool,

Natural Colouring Matters.
Wool Book VIII.
Mordant Colours. Jack-wood (Cr.). Wood of Artocarpus integrifolia.
35 Morinda-root (dyed without mordant). Root of Morinda citrifolia.

Norers.—-Benzo Orange R becomes yellower during fading ; at the end
of a year’s exposure there remains an olive-yellow of medium intensity.
With aluminium and tin mordants the fastness is about the same as with
chromium.

Toluylene Orange G and Cotton Yellow G, dyed as acid-colours, were
exposed last year and placed in this same class. The fastness of the
former is the same with chromium, aluminium, and tin mordants; the
fastness of the latter is greatest with chromium.

The comparative fastness of the colour given by Morinda-root without
the use of any mordant is somewhat interesting.

The bright orange-yellow colour produced by the action of commercial
nitric acid on wool, now known as Xanthoproteic Acid, was at one time
supposed to be identical with Picric Acid. Apart from the very decided
difference in shade of the two dyes, these exposure experiments confirm
most conclusively the present view that they are distinct colouring
matters. Picric Acid yellow rapidly changes from a pure lemon-yellow
to orange on exposure to light, whereas the orange-yellow colour due to
Xanthoproteic Acid undergoes no such change ; it merely becomes in the
early stages of fading a little duller and apparently slightly darker. Its
behaviour under the influence of light is very similar to that of such
colours as Curcumein and Azoflavin (reported upon last year), and may
possibly indicate that Xanthoproteic Acid belongs to the class of Nitro-
azo colours ; at present its constitution is entirely unknown.

Crass IV. Fast Contours. (Woot.)

The colours of this class show comparatively little fading during the
first, second, and third periods. At the end of the fourth ‘period of ex-
posure’ a pale shade remains, which at the end of the year’s exposure still
leaves a pale tint.

zoxy Colowrs.
Wool Book VII.
Direct Cotton 1. Chloramine Orange. Constitution not published.
Colours. 3. Diamine Orange D. Constitution not published.
* 4, Direct Orange 2R. Sodium salt of azo-stilbene-disulphonic acid.

Azo Colours.

Wool Book VII.

Direct Cotton 9. Cresotin Yellow R (Cr.). From o-tolidine and o-cresol-carboxylic

Colours. acid, ;

< 10. Diamine Yellow N (Cr.). From ethoxy-benzidine, phenol, and
salicylic acid (ethylated). 8. and J. 204.

a

ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 271

Nores.—The fastness to light of all the azoxy colours here mentioned
is so good that they might be almost equally well placed among the ‘very
fast’ colours.

The Direct Orange 2R here referred to is quite distinct from the
colouring matter of the same name mentioned in last year’s Report, and
there classed as a ‘ very fugitive’ colour.

Cresotin Yellow R and Diamine Yellow N were exposed last year,
applied as acid-colours. Here, where they are applied on chromium
mordant, they appear to be little or no faster to light; applied on
aluminium and tin mordants they are distinctly more fugitive.

Cuass V. Very Fast. (WOoz.)

The colours of this class show a very gradual fading during the different
periods, and even after a year’s exposure a moderately good colour remains.

Azoxy Colours.
Wool Book VIT.
Direct Cotton 10. Mikado Gold Yellow 2G. Constitution not published.
Colours. 11. Mikado Yellow, Constitution not published,
4 13. Direct Yellow G. Sodium salt of di-nitroso-stilbene-disul-
phonic-acid.

A 14. Diamine Fast Yellow A. Constitution not published.
AA 15. Mikado Gold Yellow 4G. Constitution not published.
A 16. Mikado Gold Yellow 6G. Constitution not published.
8 17. Direct Yellow 3G. Oxidation product of Direct Yellow G.

Azo Colours.
Wool Book VII.
Direct Cotton 9. Terra Cotta R. From aniline and salicylic acid (nitrated).

Colours. 12. Diamine Gold. From di-amido-naphthalene-disulphonic acid

(1: 5:3: 7) and phenol (ethylated),

os 5. Hessian Yellow (Cr.). From diamido-stilbene-disulphonic acid
and salicylic acid. S. and J. 154.

$ 6. Chrysamine R (Cr.). From o-tolidine and salicylic acid. 8S.
and J. 195.

6 7. Chrysamine G (Cr.). From benzidine and salicylic acid. S.and
J. 166

A 8. Cresotin Yellow G (Cr.). From benzidine and o-cresol-car-
boxylic acid.

x 11. Carbazol Yellow (Cr.). From diamido-carbazol and salicylic
acid. §. and J. 131.

Oxyketone Colours.
Wool Book VIIT.
Mordant Colours.

”

. Purpurin (Al.) (Sn.).

. Alizarin (Al.) (Sn.).

Anthrapurpurin (Sn.).

. Flavopurpurin (Sn.).

. Alizarin § (Al.) (Sn.). Sulphonic acid of alizarin.

. Alizarin 8S (Al.) (Sn.). Sulphonic acid of anthrapurpurin.
- Alizarin SSS(Al.) (Sn.). Sulphonic acid of flavopurpurin.

”

AOA Wr

Natural Colouring Matters.

1. Sophora japonica (Cr.) (Sn.),
3. Munjeet (Sn.).
Ss 4. Morinda-root (Sn.).
5. Madder (Sn.).
§. Chay-root (Sn.).

272 REPORT—1 895.

Nortss.—-The following Azo colours, reported upon last year, were ex-
posed after having been applied as acid-colours : Hessian Yellow, Chrys-
amine R and G, Cresotin Yellow G, and Carbazol Yellow. Those exposed
during the past year, and reported upon now, were applied upon chromium
mordant. The results now obtained show that all these colours when
dyed on chromium mordant are distinctly faster to light than when dyed
as acid-colours. An important additional advantage of the chromium
colours is that even after a year’s exposure the faded colours appear level,
showing none of the speckled appearance so frequently noticed with the
faded colours dyed by the acid method. When these colours are applied on
aluminium and tin mordants they are more fugitive, and may then be
classed as ‘fast’ or ‘moderately fast.’

It may be noticed that Madder, Munjeet, and Purpurin give faster
colours with tin than with aluminium mordant.

SILK PATTERNS.

All the foregoing colours were also dyed on silk, and the patterns were
exposed to light, along with those on wool, with the result that the rela-
tive fastness of the various colours was practically the same as on wool.

The only exceptions were the colours obtained from Morinda-root and
from Kamala. Morinda yellow, dyed without the aid of any mordant,
is much faster on silk than on wool, and although the colour becomes
brownish during exposure, it may be classed as ‘fast’ on silk.

The Indian dyestuff Kamala was reported upon last year and classed
as a ‘fugitive’ colour. This year the orange-yellow colour exposed was
obtained by applying it in conjunction with alum, and found to be much
faster than the colour obtained by dyeing in a simple alkaline bath (Na,,CO,).
A sample of the rich red-orange colour dyed in India was also exposed.
Both dyes examined this year may be classed as ‘ moderately fast.’

Tsomeric Naphthalene Derivatives—Ninth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor W. A. TILDEN and Professor H. HE. ArM-
stronG. (Drawn up by Professor ARMSTRONG.)

In previous reports reference has frequently been made to the trichloro-
naphthalenes : during the past year Dr. Wynne and the writer have at
length completed their examination of this series, and have satisfied them-
selves of the existence of 14, but only 14, such compounds, which is
in accordance with theory. A complete table of the 14 trichloronaphtha-
lenes having been published in the ‘Chemical Society’s Proceedings,’
No. 151, 1895, p. 85, it is unnecessary here to further refer to them.

It may be mentioned that the series is the largest hitherto known
isomeric series.

Tn completing the work on this subject not only have numerous pre-
parations been required, but it has been necessary also to make many
chlorine determinations, and the grant has been expended chiefly on these
latter. I am specially indebted to Mr. R. L. Jenks for his assistance in
the analytical work.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 273

Wawe-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. KE. Roscoe (Chairmyn),
Dr. MarsHaLL Warts (Secretary), Mr. J. N. Lockyer, Professors
Dewar, G. D. Livernc, A. ScHusterR, W. N. Harrey, and
Wotcotr Grisps, and Captain ABNEY. (Drawn up by Dr. WarTTSs.)

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS (in air at 20° C. and 760 mm.).
[See Explanatory Note, p. 294.]

Rowland: ‘ Astronomy’ and ‘ Astro-Physics,’ 1893, xii. 321.

|

Intensity Re iue ton
aud Weight Wave-lengths to. | 525
Character) Kind of Vacn» | S99
Element |____| Standard —____ I
In | Jno In| Io | In Are In Sun es ee
Are | Suo Are | Sun (@) (b) aul ¥
|
4 1 7714-686 | 2:09 3-5 | 12958°8
7 1 7699:374 |2-08) ;, | 12984:6
PAs] so 7 3 7671-994 | ,, 5, | 180380°9
0710 7 3 7670°993 | ,, », | 180326
[Arc] {6 8 3 7666°239 | ,, » | 18040°7
ne. O 8 3 7665:265 | ,, 3, | 18042°4
oO. 14 III. 3 7660778 | 2:07) ,, | 1380500
{6 . 14 III. 3 7659°658 | ,, 3, | 18051°9 «
O 14 1G 3 7628585 | ,, | 131051
{0 14 Ill. 3 | 7627232 | ,, + | LBLOT-4
O 12 III. { | 7624853 | 2:06) ,. | 131115
{ oO 12 Il. 4 7623°526 | ,, | 3°6 | 13113:7
] oO 10 II. 5 TG21:20T 10", VLSI.
[A*] 0 4 7594-059 | ,, » | 131646
2 3 1 7545°921 | 2°04) ,, | 13249°2
6 3 7511-286 | 2:03) ,, | 13309°7
6 3 7495'351 | ,, » | 133380
6 2 7462°609 | 2:02) ,, | 13396°5
6 3 7446038 | ,, », | 18426°4
6 2 .7409°554 | 2°01) ,, | 13492°5
7 2 7389°696 | 2:00) 3:7 | 13528-7
2 3 7331-206 |1-99) ,, | 13636°6
2 3 7321-056 |1°98) ,, | 13655°5
aha 4 7318°818 | ,, » | 138659-7
a 4 7304475 | ,, » | 18686°5
4 3 7300°056 | ,, » | 13694°8
10” 3 7290°714 | ,, » | 187124
6 3 7287-689 | ,, » | 187181
8 4 7273°256 | 1:97] ,, | 18745°3
3 2 7270°205 | ,, | ,, |.13876L1
8 3 4265833 | 5, | ,, | 138759'3
8 3 7264-851 | ,, » | 18761:2
4 2 7247-461 |1:96) ,, | 137942
15 TUT: 4 7243904 | ,, », |13801°0
4 5 7240:972 | ,, », | 18806°6
8 II. + 7233171 | ,, » | 13821°5
3 3 7232°509 | ,, », | 18822°8
6 4 7227-765 | ,, » | 13831°8
8 DET. 5 71223°930 | ,, » | 138839-2
wv? 6 4 7216°812 | ,, » | 13852°8

. -* Beginning of head of A, outside edge. + Single line at the beginning of the tail of A.
1895. T

REPORT—1895.

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

Inteneity | Reduction
and Weight Waye-lengths to
Character, Kind of Vacuo
Element Standard
In | In In| In In Are In Sun 3
Are | San Arc | Sun (a) (b) ss |
wy 10 Wie 5 7201°468 | 1:95) 3°8
wv 10 ep. 5 7200°753 | ,, oO
wv 7 3 4193°921 | ,, op
wv? ot 6 7186°552 | ,, +“
wv? 4 fa 7184-781 | ,, 5
wv? 3 6 7176°347 | ,, 6
? 3 5 7168°191 | 1:94] ,,
? 7 168 4 7148:427 | ,, "B
2 1 4 7147942 | ,, 6
? 6 iT. 5 712249); | 1-981 5,
? 4 Ii. 5 7090°645 | 1:92) ,,
2 4 ET 10 7040°058 | 1:91) ,,
2? 2 6 7038°470 | ,, ay
2 6 II. 8 70357159 | ,, “5
2 3 7 4027°(26 | ,, “4
1 1 1 7027-199 |) 5, ”
? SASL. 2 7024-988 | 1:90] ,,
2 3 LV; ff COZ3 TATE Nt yy a
Hf 4 IV. 1 7023:225 | ,, ”
wv? 6 IV. 9 7016690 | ,, |3°9
wv? 3 IV. 5 GOLG2IDs| ss eas
ij 3 ELT; 6 7011-585; |_,, ”
1 Be ol. 5 7006160 | ,, | 4,
? 4 EET. 3 7000143 | ,, 3
wv? bw aLVe 6 6999°174 | ,, | 45
wv? 5 II. 7 6989240 | ,, “A
wy 5 yi, 10 6986°832 | 1°89] ,,
1 2 5 6978°655 | ,, f
wv? 6 Ill. 12 6961°518 | ,, >
wvl 3 III. 10 6959°708 | ,, -
wv 8 I. 12 6956°700 | ,, a
bani: ) >| tid Meley 4 6953-838
wv? ; 2s : Er
wv? : 8 ie 10 6947:781 | 1:88) ,,
B,J f0: Bie ca 5 6935°530 | » | 4,
WYO. 1 III. 4 6934-646 | ,, xn
[B ino ; 2 II. 8 6929 838 | ,, “f
ntio, 2 1 5 6928:992 | ,, a
(B12: SF ern ll 6924-420 |» | 3
10 to ‘ on) als 8 6923-557 | ,, |
Fox: 4 T: 9 6919-245 | ,, ‘
[By] 10 ate. oF, 5 6918-363 | \,.| a
2? ; 2 It. 5 6916957 | ,, +
IND tire : 5 3 Vile 4 6914°819 | ,, np
[B,] Oo. 5 ie 4 6914:328 | ,, “f
8. oO. 5 Ti 5 6913°454 | ,, +
B (Oe. 6 I. 9 6909°675 | 1°87] ,,
Bo" Baloo ale 5 6908-785 | ,, | ,
[B,J { O. 6 I, 5 6905263 | ,, 5
110, 6b. — ae 5 6904358 | ,, |,
B On; 6 Ts 8 6901-113 | ,, as
BBall Oo" Gels re 6 6900199 | ., | ,,
BJ Eo 6 1 8 6897:195 | ,, 7
| [Bs 10 ee 7 6896-292 | ,, |,

Osci'lation
Fiequency
in Vacuo

138823
13883°6
13896°8
139111
139145
13930°9
13946°7
13985°3
13986°2
140362
14099°3
14200°6
14203'8
142105
14225°6
14226°6
14231°1
14233°6
142345
142478
14248°7
14258°2
14269°3
14281°5
14283°5
14303°8
14308°7
14325°5
14360°8
143645
14370°7

14376°6

143892
144146
14416°4
14426°4
14428°2
14437-7
14439°5
14448°5
14450°4
14453°3
14457'8
14458°8
14460°6
14468°6
14470°4
14477°8
14479°7
14486°5
144884
14494-7
14496°6

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 275

Element

lt

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

In
Are

—s
= —

OWOW PN EWR DWH NWH WWW OR WP EPROM NOIIwe He haa aan

>
=

ead

Ss

orb

3
2

——

Kind of
Standard

ala al alls

Il.
Ill.

=
alt al mal al al al sal cl call cll

jW
II.

Weight

In
Sun

In
Are

—
em o1ror ow

e fod e
enmbd &w om bw AOOQarkoanwondnae

ll
aor

—
ANNO SCUAeCANAAH

_

Wave-lengths

In Are

(a)

6708-070

In Sun

(b)

6893°559

6892°614
6890°149
6889-194
6886°987
6886:008
6884:083
6883°318
6882-772
6881:970
6880°176
6879294
6877:878
6876°957
6875°826
6874:884
€874:039
6873076
6872-493
6871°527
6871-179

68707186

6869-347
6869-141

6868:779

6868°393
6868-124
6867:800
6867-461
6855°425
6843°908
6841°591
6828°850
6820°614
6810°519
6807:100
6787:137
6772°565
6768°044
6752°962
6750°412
6726'923
6722-095
6717:934

6705353
6703813

_* The principal line in the head of B, a difficult double.
__ + These two lines are at the beginning of the head of B. There isa fine line
midway between them.
' ¥ A difficult triplet.

Reduction
to
Vacuo

O cillati n
Viequency
in Vacuo

145024
14504°4
14509°6
14511°6
14516:2
14518°3
14522°4
145240
14525:1
14526°8
14530°6
14532°5
14535°5
14537°4
14539°8
14541°8
14543'6
14545°6
14546°9
14548°9
14549°6

14551°7
14553°5
14554°0

145547

14555°5
145561
14556°8
14557°5
14583°1
146076
14612°6
14639°7
14657°4
14679°2
14686°5
14729°7
147615
147713
14804°3
14809°9
148616
148723
148515
14903 4
14909°5
149129

T2

276 REPORT—1895.

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

Intensity Reduction aq

and ore Weight Wave-lengths to aoe
Character | Kind Vacuo | 239
Element of aa 8
In In ae In | In | In Are In Sun me ee & s”

Arc} Sun Are| Sun} (a) (b) A i)
Fe . 5 I 10 6678°232 |1°81 | 4:0 | 149700
Fe 4 } ae 6 6663°696 | ,, | 4:1 |15002°6
2 1 iT. 4 6663'525 | ,, | ,, | 150030
Ni 5 5 i. 10 6643°882 {1°80} ,, | 15047°3
Fe 3 III. 7 6633992 | ,, | ,, | 15069°8
Fe ; 4 I 9 6609°345 | ,, | ,, | 151260
Fe 4 I. 12 6594115 |1:79)} ,, | 15160°9
Fe 5 if 11 6593161 | ,, | ,, | 151631
Fe 4 IV. 7 6G575:179.| 4, | 55 | 15204:6
2 2 III. 5 6574477 | ,, | 5, | 15206:2
wv 1 III. 6 6572°312 | ,, |, | 15211:2
Fe . 6 I; 13 6569°461 |1:78| ,, | 15217°8
[C]H 30 I. 13 6563:054 | ,, |, | 15232-7
wy. 2 III. 6 6552°840 | ,, | ,, | 15256°5
nS : \s L. 1 6546-486 | ,, | 4, |15271-3
2 3 I. 12 6534173 | ,, | ,, | 153001
wv 1 III. 7 6532°546 |1:77| ,, | 15303-9
Fe . 4 ine 10 6518°594 | ,, | ,, | 153366
(fat Es 6] 4 III. 7 6516°315 | ,, |, | 15342-0
Ca. Bul eb Ip 10 6499871 | ,, | 4:2 | 15380-7
Fe . 7 I. 9 6495:209 | ,, | ,, | 15391°8
Ca . 8] 6 I. 10 6494-001 |1'76| ,, | 15394-6
2 4 I. 8 6482:099 | ,, | ,, | 154229
wy. 4 1 ino 6 6480°264 | ,, | 5, |15427-3
Ca . 5] 5 7 1¢ 7 6471°881 | ,, | 5, | 15447-2
ne io) tae } I. 9 6462'835 | ,, | ,, | 154689
Ca. 5] 6 I. 6 6450:029 |1'75| ,, | 15499-6
Ca 10r| 7 I. 11 6439298 | ,, | ,, | 15525-4
Cd M. 1 6438680 ” ” 15526°9
Fe 6 I. 10 6431:063 | ,, | ,, | 15545°3
Fe 6 III. 10 6421°569 | ,, | | 155683
Fe 5 1B 8 6420°171 ” ” 15571'°7
Fe 7 I. 10 6411-°864 |1'74| ,, | 15591°9
Fe 6 I. 8 6408:231 | ,, | 5, | 15600-7
Fe . 5 3 IV. 6 6400°509 | ,, | ,, | 15619°6
Fe x 8 IV. 5 6400°200 | ,, | ,, | 15620°3
Fe 7 1g 9 6393°818 | ,, | ,, |15635°9
Fe t I. 6 6380:951 |1'73| ,, | 15667-4
Ni 5] 2 IV. 2 6378461 | ,, | » | 15673°6
Fe 6 I. 8 6358:902 | ,, | 4°3 | 15721°7
Fe 5 III. 8 6355'259 | ,, | 5, |15730:7
Fe . 5 16 6 6344°370 | ,, | 5 | 157577
Fe . ; 6 if 12 6337-042 |1:72] ,, |15775°9
Fe . & 6 16 12 6335:550)| |y50) ose | one
Fe . Fs 5 I. 13 6322:912 | ,, | ,, | 15811°2
Fe-(Ca) . 6 I. 14 6318'242 | ,, | ,, |15822°9
Fe . : 3 LV; 5 6315541 | ,, | 5, | 16829R7
Ni’. 6) 4 I. if 6314:874 | ,, | ,, | 15831°3
Fe fi i, 7 6301'719 |1'71| ,, | 15864-4
OL 3 I. di 6296'144 | ,, | ,, | 15878-4
O* 3 III. 6 6293152 | ,, |,, | 15886:0

* Second line in the second pair of tail of a.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 277

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

Intensity Reduction A
and Kina | Weight Wave-lengths to She
Character of Vacuo oa FI
ie ee en (SLANGSTO tan) eoia|t me ava wale |. an a ee
In | In , In| In| In Are In Sun }a4 1 é o

Are | Sun Are | Sun (a) (b) Jone =
2 II. 5 6289°608 |1°71)| 4:3 | 158949
2 Il. 7 6281°374 » | 9 | LOgLo:8
4” I, 9 6278°289 » |» | 169236
3 a 10 6270°439 » | >, | 15943°5
a I. 11 6265°347 |1'70| ,, | 15956°5
5 2 I. 9 6261:316 pre gy) |ogeGra
hep x 8 6256574 | » | » |15978-9
7 Te 9 6254-454 > |» | 15983°8
(a I, 9 6252°776 » |» | 15988°6
7 I. 9 6246°530 » |, | 16004°6
4 ie 8 6237529 | » |» |16027°7
2-6 7 I. 12 6230:946 |1°69| ,, | 16044°6
6 q. 10 6219-493 » | 44 | 160741
6 13 9 6213°646 eli | | LEOSS:2
6 i 10 6200°533 we list (hobeorZ
8 is 10 6191:770 {1°68} ,, | 161461
4 6 il 9 6§191°397 » | 9 |16147°0
6 Le 8 6180°419 sy Waw) PLOLT beg
5 6 if 8 6177:028 » |» | 16184°6
6 Ty 8 6173°554 lee LOEB ri
7 7 Te 8 6169-775 » | 9 | 16203°6
Gil Gekt nk 4 6169-260 | 5, | ,, | 16205-0
1dr] 10 | i. 9 6162383 | ,, |,, | 16223-1
5 ite 4 6160-970 » | | 162268
3 ae 5 6154:431 |1°67] ,, | 16244°0
LS de 9 6141934 dye [ste REZTT
8 IL. 9 6136°834 » | 5, | 16290°6
Pdr) +9) Ts it 61227428 » | 5). | 163290
5 6 1 8 6116415 |1°66| ,, | 16345-0
4 3 ie 8 6111°287 yltin | L6358:8
5 6 I. 8 6108°3388 » | | 16366°7
20 M. 4 6103'812 » | 99 | 163788
zs \ IV. 8 6103-449 | ,, | |16379°8
10r| 6 I. 9 61027941 » | | 163811
4 II. 4 6102°408 » | 9 | 16382°6
3 1s 12 6079°223 |1:°65/4°5 | 16445-0
Bal ok 13 6078-709 | ,, | ,, | 16446-4
a 13 6065-708 | ,, | ,, | 16481°6
5 is 9 6056:232 | ay | 265074
ry oe 2 8 6042316 |1°64| ,, | 16545-4
dalbe-o: 7 6027-265 | ,, | y | 16586:8
Gale ake 8 6024-280 | ,, | ,, | 16595-0
10 5 is 6 6022:017 | a) 1) LEGON
“ \ IV. 6 6020-347 | ,, | 5 | 16605'8
10 6 I. 8 6016°856 » | ey | 16615°5
10 6 ie 5 6013°717 lon pleG2ace
6 I. 6 6008°782 st | 59) | 2663758

First line of first pair in the tail of a.

*
+ Chief line in the a group, a very close doub!s,
} A difficult double.

978 REPORT—1895.
TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.
- Reduction

ena 5 Weight Wave-lengths to

Character! ind Vacuo
Element ot

7a 7) Sen Shandard

In | In In | In In Are In Sun Pea (ote

Arc} Sun Are | Sun (a) (b) A
Fe 4 BE 3) | 6008'196 |1°64 | 4°5
Fe 6 i 7 6003°245 {1°63} ,,
Fe 6 If if 5OSTH2SGUt sy) ||| gs
Fe 6 ik 6 5985-044 | » |»
wy 2 IV. 1 | BONT-2549|' fy iss
Fe 5 DUT: 13 5977 -005=|| Gar la
Fe 4 T; 12 5975:O 065) > 55" ss
Fe 5 if 12 5956°925 |1°62/4°6
Si 6 i 14 59487G1E|) $5 oles
Fe 6 Te 13 5934°883 | 4, | 55
Fe 6 ike 14 5980°410'| 55 | 5
wv 6 ile 12 5919-855 |1°61] ,,
Fe . 5 i: 16 SOWG ATS") 3,455
2wv. 5
a ; } I. 17 59143841 ,, | ,,
Fe . 5 I. 15 BSOD*8956) 55 alas
Fe? 1 ;
eet 4 } IV. 13 5901681 | 5, | »
Fe? \ i Par
ze i } IV. 10 5898395 | » | 9»
[D,]Na 10 1s 20 5896154 | 5, | »
Niv: ai 4: Iil. 14 5893°098 | ,, | 3
[D,]Na 15 II. 20 5890-182 |1°60} ,,
WV 3 IV. 8 5889°854 | 4, | »
wy 4
Ags } IV. 11 5884-048 |», |»
[D,]He 5875°982 | ,, | 3
Fe . 6 ie 16 5862-580 | ,, | »
Fe . 6 118 15 5859°810'| 4» | »»
Ca 10 ef AT, 14 bSaTOe2e|) all as
Ba 10} 5 I, 14 5853-903 |1°59] ,,
Ni S| ie 10 6 5831-832 | ,, | 4:7
Fe 6 IV. 14 5816'594 | ,, | 4;
Fe 5 I. 14 5809°437 | ,, | ,,
Fe 5 i 7 5806°954 | ,, |
Ni 7 5 I, 8 5805-448 | 1°58) ,,
Fe 5 I: 9 5984000) sy | ss
2 4 I, 10 5798:0871 5, | 4s
Fe = ;
Cr J 10 7 E, 16 OTILZOT | sy | as
Cre i. 5 E. 13 5788136 35 | as
(Gai . 6 4 Me 9 5784081 | ,, |
Cu? Co?. if I. 9 5782°346 | ,, | 5»
Fe . 5 I. 9 5775°304 |1°67] ,,
Si 5 De 6 BTT2Z:360| 45, “| 55
Fe 7 IV. 8 BGs Zao “5 |) 4,
2 By
Ni 5 Ts 9 5754884 | ,, | 4,
Fe 5 Ti 10 ray E3313: 2g Up Me
Fe 4 iT 10 SIUB2Z250 1,5 ||\55
Fe 3 JHU 10 5742°066 | ,, | ,,
Fe 5 le 10 5731-973 |1:56! ,,

* An exceedingly close double.

Oscillation
Fiequency io
Vacuo

16639-4

16653°2
16697°6
16703°8
16725°6
16726:2
16730°3
16782°6
16805°6
168449
16857°6
168877
168974
16903°3
16927°6

16939°7

16949°2

16955°6
169644
16972°8
16973°7
16990°5

17013°8
17052°7
17060°8
17067:0
17077°9
17142°6
171875
17208°7
17216°0
17220°5
172414
17242°4

17262°8

172720
172841
17289°3
173104
17319-2
17346°7
173718
17376°5
17379°8
17410°6
17441°3

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 279

Element

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

Intensity
and
Character
In | In
Arc | Sun

3
5 | o
6
5 5
6
5
4 5
6
4
2 3
a 2
a 5
il 4
2 4
2
Z 3
2 3
5,2) 4
2 2
2 6
2 2
5 5
6 3
2 2
5 4
fii 4
3 2
Tr) 6
5 4
10r} 6
6 4
5 4
6 5
4 3
3 2
3 2
2
10 7
5 3
5 4
5 4
3 4
2 3
l5r| 4
3 3
3 4
3 4

Kind of
Standard

M. Ill.

7
HH
| oon I aoe fl cn Be

anit =
in |
on er ne ee

He SR
latte at

M.I.

_
SHH

Ft et ete

lama!
_—

Be et te

Weight

In
Sun

In
Arc

10

bw phew to

as
MOM DMODNMDDDDOHMDNIDOMNANPEE

Wave-lengths

In Are
(a)

5711°374

5601°502
5598712
5598.563
5594689
5590°352
5588-977
5582°204

5528-672
5513:127

* Not recommended as a standard in the are.

+ Fe 5603-180
Ca 5603-080
Fe 5602:995 |}

{ In the arc this line is diffuse on one side.

edge of the band-like line.

In Sun
(b)

5715°309

5711°318
5709°760
5709°616
5708620
5701769
5688-434
5682861
5679°249
5675°648
5662°745
5658'096
5655°707
5645°835
5641°661
5634167
5624-768
5624-253
5615°879
5615°526

5603-097

5601°501
5598-715
5598°555
5594-695
5590°342
5588-980
5582-195
5576°319
5569848
5555°113
5544158
5543°418
5535073
5528°636
5513-207
5507-000
5501-685
5497-731
5487-968
5477-128
5466°608
5463-493
5463:174

Reduction
to Vacuo

Oscillation
Frequency in
Vacuo

1749271

1750430
175091
17509°5
175126
17533°6
175747
17592-0
17603°2
176143
17654°5
17669'0
176765
177074
17720°5
17744:0
17773°7
177753
17801°8
178030

17842°4

17847°50
17856°3d
17856°8d
17869°2
1788316
17887°45
17909°2b

.| 179281

179489
17996°5
18032°1
18034°5
18061°7
18082°7
18133°48,
18153°8
18171°2
181843
18216°7
18252°7
182879
18298°3
18299°4

The solar line corresponds to the

280

REPORT—1895.

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVH-LENGTHS—continued.

aa Fanny EERE 7

Intensity
and

Element

es

=| Q
© 5
Oar

x

ra

——

“© =

ROS CSE A SEO SO SOU Sy
POH WRAANNWARTAAIAT A AONw oH

gy
? oO
rn
4226
°
Ne
——
w —
bo OWA, oo TPP iro

ad
WNNETONF WHER OWOrO

ey
©
209 Cs GO > Or CD HE OTD OOD

He LO

ey
©
an, es ee,

isl
eo!
oO
*
ao

8

* A difficult double.
+ The red component, a difficult double.

Character

Kind of
Standard

Weight

In | In
Arc | Sun

ae
m7
re

iy
—
NOOK NRE OO CONCH DO ©

12
3
16

bo

Wave-lengths

Reduction
to Vacuo

In Are
(a)

5447°116
5434:725

5405979
5397°319

5350 670
5349-599

5270-445
5269°714

In Sun

(b)

5462°732

5455°826
5455-759
5455°666
5447-130
5434°742

5424°284

5415421

5410-000
5405°987
5397°346
5393378
5389-683
5383°576
5379°776

5371-686

53707165
5367°670
5363:056
5363°011
5361°813
5353592

5349-623
5333-092
5324'373
5316°950
5316°870
5316°790
5307-546
5300918
5296'873
5288°708
5283 803
5281-968

5276:205

5273554
5273443
5273°344
5270533
5270°4.95
5270448
5269°722

{ A difficult triplet.

| 18583-0

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

18300'9
18324:0
183243
18324°6
18353°3d

| 18395:10
| 18430°6

18460°8

18479'3
1849300
18522°5d
18536°2
18548°9
18569°9

18611-°0

18616°3
18625-0
186410
186411
18645°3
18673 9
18684-1
18687°8b
18745°7
187764
18802°7
18803:0
188032
18836:0
18859°5
18873°9
18903-0
18920°6
18927'1

18947'8

18957°3
18957°7
18958°1
189682
18968°3
18968°5d

18971-10

§ The 1474 lines is a triplet, or rather a double, the red component of which has
a:weak side-line to the violet ; probably the violet component is due to iron, and the

weak line to cobalt, but the red is unknown.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 281

Element

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS— continued.

Intensi'y
and
Character
In | In
Are} Sun
6 6
4r ja

5
8 3

(ii:
a
4r| 3 f
6} 2 \

1

2

6 }s
2 1
2 3
3 3
2 2
3) 3
iq 8
4 4
2 2
Bs 4
3 4
10r} 3
3 3
8r| 4
4 3
2 2
3 4
8 3
6 4
2 4
40r| 20
10r| 3
35r| 10
5 5
3 4
3 4
6 6
20r) §
2 2
1
4 4
2
6 2
2

2 1
4 3
? 3

5

Kind of
Standard

I.

ed Fe

ed) eed

co ea

Sietatalalatalltalala ire
re _

Reduction

Weight Wave-lengths to Vasio |. 2 S 2
a3
Ail eee
In| In In Are In Sun Soe) es
Arc} Sun (a) (b) cats es
1 8 | 5266-733 | 5266°729 | 1:44) 5-2) 18981:95
1 5265°884 | ,, » | 18985:0
2 5265°789 | ,, » -| 18985'3
1 2 | 5265°725 | 5265°727 | ,, » | 189855
2 3 | 5264408 | 5264:395 | ,, »» -| 18990°3d
3 5264°327 ” ” 18990°6
2 5 | 5262-408 | 5262°391 | ,, » | 18997°6b
1 5262°341 | ,, 3 | 189977
1 | 12 5261°880 | ,, » | 18999°4
1 5 | 5260°556 | 5260°557 | ,, », | 19004:20
12 5253°649 | ,, » -| 19029°2
11 5250°825 | 1:43) ,, | 19039°4
iat 5250°391 | ,, », | L9041:0
10 5242°662 | ,, « | 19069°1
9 5233°124 | ,, » -| 19103°8
8 5230°014 | ,, » | 19115:2
10 5225°690 | ,, 3) | L930
10 6217°559 | ,, », | 19160°8
10 5215°352.| 5» » | 19169:0
2] 12 | 5210-549 | 5210556 | 1-42) ,, | 19186-6d
10 5204°708 | 5, | 5:3 | 19208'1
: 11 5202°483 ” ” 19216°3
10 5198°885 | ,, », -| 19229°6
2 8 | 5193°134 | 5193°139 | ,, » | 19250°90
1 3 |} 5189-019 | 5189°020) ,, », | 1926626
7 5188°948 ” ” 19266°4
2/11 | 5183-791 | 5183:792 | ,, », | 1928568
1h) 5173'912 |1°41) ,, | 19322-4
2 9 | 5172°866 | 5172°871 | ,, 1, | 1932636
11 5171°783 | ,, » | 19330°4
33 5169°218 | ,, » | 19340°0
5 5169°161 | ,, », | 19340°2
3 | 5169066 | ,, » | 19340°5
2 3 | 5167-664 | 5167°686 | ,, », | 19345°76
1 5167°572 | ,, » | 193461
2 3 | 5167-488 | 5167-501 | ,, », | 19346°40
10 5165°588 | ,, | ,, -|19353°6
2 1 | 5165-241 | 5165:190} ,, » | 19354-9a
13 5162°448 | ,, » | 19365°4
11 5159°240 | ,, », | 193774
10 5155°937 | ,, » |19389°8
10 5154:237 | ,, » | 19396:2
9 5151:026 | ,, », | 19408°3
10 5146°664 | ,, » | 194248

the arc the first line of the first head of the green carbon band.

282

Element

Fe . ‘
Fe(Cu) .
Fe . .
Fe .

Cd .

Fe

P50
~

REPORT—1895.

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

Intensity
and
Character| Kind of
Standard
In | In
Arc | Sun
IV.
3 4 iW.
5 2 IV.
ANS) 1
( III.
5 6 Ta:
4 6 | III.
2 6
: \ I.
4 4 I.
3 2 ip
3 Bll
2} iis IV.
5 2 Ie
4 3
aoe } Il.
3 2 ls
BM 83 I.
33 2 LV:
Chee it
2 M.
4 3 if
4 4 i
10 3 IT.
2 2 Il.
Be 66 t.,
3 2 M.
33 2
a 2 \ IL.
a 3 II.
5 4
ie: |e. II
M.
3 3
tor Wele-e 2)
6 Up
33 4 II.
M.
10x
i }4 M. II
3 4 if
10 4 RT,
2 1
as } i.
3 3
: } IL.
3
; }s I.
8 | M. IV
6 | M. IV

Reduction
Weight Wave Lengths to
Vacuo
In | In In Are In Sun |, ay.
Arc | Suo (a) (b) A
2 5143-106 | 1°41) 5:3
5 5143°042 | ,, is
] 5142°967 | ,, se
5 5141:916 | ,, ay
4 5139°645 | ,, i
4 5139°539 | ,, FP)
4 5139°437 | ,, -
12 5133-871 | 1:40) ,,
9 5127°530) 1 |: a
9 5126°369 | ,, ss
9 WEY 4p
9 5115°558 | ,, | 5-4
11 SITO STON, Ss rf
11 5109°825 | ,, Aa
12 5105°719 | ,, yr
7 5097°176 | 1°39) ,,
9 5090959 | ,, .
1 5086001 ” ”
9 5083°525 | ,, mI
14 5068946 | ,, ;
12 5064°833 | ,, a
as) 56060252 | 1-38) ,,
12 5050-008 ” ”
2 1 | 5041-867 | 5041°795 | ,, Pr)
8 50367113 | ,, Ay
8 5020°210 | 1°37) 5:5
10 | 65014:412 | 5014422 | ,, a3
3 | 10) 5007-473 ” ”
5007°05 ” ”
10 5007°431 ” ”
8 5006°303 | ,, ”
10 5005°904 ” ”
5 5005-634 » ”
8 | 4999°668 | 4999-693 | ,, 7
7 4994°316 ” ”
1} 10] 4981°893 | 4981°915 | 1:36) ,,
5 4980°362 | ,, ”
8 4978-782 ” ”
10 4973:274 | ,, ”
4959°02 ” ”
3 4957-786 | ,, >
3 4957-482 | ,, A

* Commencement of the head of Mg band.

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

19438:2
19438°4
19438°7
19442°7
19451°3
19451°7
194521

194732

19497°3
19501°7

19519°1
19542°8
19561°9

195647
19580°5
19613°3
19637°3
19656-4
196660
19722°6
19738°6
19756°5
19796°5
19828 5a

19851-2

19914:0
19937°50

19964°6
199663

19964°8

19969°3
199709
19972:0

199957

20017'3
20067°10

20073°4
20079°7

201020

20159°8
201648
20166:0

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 283

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

Intensity Reduction »
and it Weight Wave-lengths to aes
Character) Kind Vacuo | £98
Element __ of re =e
In| In plandard n| In In Are In Sun il & oF
Arc} Sun Arc} Sun (a) (b) iil a i=
Ba* , 60 | 7| M.II.| 1| 10 | 4934-237 | 4934-247 | 1-35! 5-6 | 20260-95
Fe |. phy ete 12 4924-955 | ,, | ,, | 202992
Fe 2) 4| 1. 13 4924-109 | | | ») | 203026
Fe 9| 9| m.r. | 1] 7| 4920-676 | 4920-682 » | ;. | 2031685
Fe ein) k 4 4919183 |, | ;, | 20323-0
Pb Th. ile 4905-634 134] ,, | 20379.1
Fe 5 L. 14
ag Bile te } 4903-488 | ,, | ,, | 20388-0
Yt. 2| IL 11 4900:306 | ,, | ,, |20401:3
iy, 4.) 2s] oaks 1 4900098 | ;. | ,, | 204021
Fe . 7.) Miho. 11 4890945 |» | >. | 20440°3
[F] H 15| IL. 5 4861-496 | 1°33] 5-7 | 205641
Fe . dhs BREE Tg, 14 4859:934 | ,, | ,, | 205708
Fe? a4 re _ | 4824-325 |1:32| ;. | 20722°6
Mn 10| 6| M.L | 1/12] 4823-715 | 4823-697] ,, | ,, |20725°36
zn 3/ MI. | 1] 1] 4810-725 | 4810-723 | . | ,, |20781-20
sat a ee ee 3 4805-253 20804°8
2s ? 1 J 2 ” ”>
Cd . Mews. | |o08 4800-097 131] ,, | 20827-2
Mn . 10r| 6| M.I. | 1] 11 4783-607 | 4783601 | ,, | 5-8 | 20898-95
Mn . 15r|' 6 |. I. ret 4754-226 |1°30| ,, | 21028-1
Mn ff 3
re } ality \ um. 11 4727-628 |1-29 ,, | 211465
Zn. 4| 4| MI. | 2] 2| 4722339! 4729349] ,, | ,, |2117015
Ni. or} 6”) M.1I.| 1| 1 4714598 | 4714599 | |, | ., |21204-90
Ni 3.) apis) ide 13 4703-986 | | | 5-9|21252-7
Mg Bl ul ok: 1 | 11 | 4703-249 | 4703180 | ;, | ,, |21256-3b
Fe | 3) 4 ; j :
Ti } | oe hi 11 4691°581 | 1-28) ,, | 213089
2 dpdit oT. 14 4690°324 | ,, | ,, {213146
Ni 4) heim 12 4686395 |; | ., | 21332
Fe eae Ce ee 13 4683:743 | ,, | ,, | 218445
zn 2] M. 1 4680:319 » | | 21360-2
Fe s)4@| I 12 4679028 | |, | ,, |21366-1
Ca 42| M. | 3] 3| 4678-339] 4678353 | ; | |, |21369-15
4 ARS \ 1. re 4668-303 | ,, | ,, | 214152
Ni ér} 3| M.Ur.| 1] 1] 4648-833} 4648-835 |1-27| ,, |21504-90
Fe 2|4|/ 1 17 4643°645 | ,, | , | 215289
Fe 3| 4] IL 14 4638-194 | |. | 3, | 215542
Fe S71) 14h ho alle 14 4637°683 | ,, | ,, | 215566
Co 5 KLE ‘ 4
. : \s Il. 13 4629°515 | ,, | 6-0) 215945
mg ai Bae 11 4611-453 |1-26 ,, | 21679-1
Sr bor) 2| M.II. | 5] 4| 4607-606] 4607-509] ,, | ,, |21697-7a
Ct 46066 , | a | 217020
Li 50r M. 1 460225 | oy | 217225
Fe sl ec lewis 20 4602183 | ,, | ,, |21722°8
Ti? anh s-eils 15 4590129 | ,, |, |21779-9
Cr? dalek i 14 4588384 | ,, | ,, | 21788-2
Ca Ti BL) phe i 1 | 14 | 4578-807 | 4578-731 [1-25] ,, | 2183410

* A difficult double.

} First line in first head of blue cyanogen band (¢).

284

eee ee EE —

Element

REPORT—1895.

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

Intensity
and
Character
In | In
Arc | Sun

5 6
3 5
4 6
70r| 7
4

6 5
1

2

2 1
5 4
5

a| 1
3r] 2
6r| 6
8 5
4r} 3
Sr} 4
5r| 4
4r} 4
6 6
9r| 2
10r;} 8
1 1
2 3
15r| 10
5 5
4 5
5 1
oA 3
3 1
4 3
2 2
2 1
10r} 8
4r| 3
P(e) ee
4r| 2
10r| 4
8 2
6r| 4
aL) wz
4

10r} 4
4r| 3
5r| 3
L5r) 1b
8

2

1

Kind of
Standard

Weight Wave-lengths
In | In In Are In Sun
Arc | Sun (a) (b)
14 4572157
1 | 14 | 4571:281 | 4571:277
118} 4563939
6 8 | 4554-212 | 4554-213
3) 4513°883
4 4511474
ile 4508°456
4502°6
18 4501°444
{ 4499°315
8 4499:070
I 14 4497:041
2118 | 4494:756 | 4494°735
5 2 | 4456°791 | 4456°793
6 3 | 4456:055 | 4456°047
2 6 | 4454-949 | 4454-950
5 | 18 | 4447'912 | 4447-899
5 6 | 4435°856 | 4435°852
5 5 | 4435°133 | 4435°132
9 7 | 4425°616 | 4425-609
3 7 | 4415°298 | 4415-299
4413181
19 4407850
10 | 11 | 4404°928 | 4404-927
14 4391:149
10 | 11 | 4383°721 | 4383:721
1 | 17} 4876108 | 4376:103
1 | 14 | 4869:948 | 4369-943
10 4359°778
1 | 17 | 43&2°908 | 4352-903
11 4343°387
8 | 15 | 4825°932 | 4325:940
3 | 16 | 4318°816 | 4318°818
8 | 10 | 4808°072 | 4308:071
3 4308:034
3 3 | 4307-906 | 4307:904
4 4 | 4306:071 | 4306:071
1 4305°636
5 7 | 4302-690 | 4302°689
3 5 | 4299°153 | 4299°152
14 4293°249
2 2 | 4289°884 | 4289-881
3 5 | 4289°527 | 4289°523
2 4 | 4283:175 | 4283:170
1 2 | 4274-954 | 4274-958
8 9 | 4271:920 | 4271:924
12 4267958

Reduc-
tion to
vacuo

A+

y in

Oscillation
Vacuo

Frequenc

21865'5

21869'70
21904'8
21951°60
22147'8
22159°6
22174:4
22203°3
22909°0
22219°5
22220°7

22230°7

222420

22431°5

2243524
22440°7b
224.76°3D
2253740
22541-0D
22589°5d
22642°2a)
22653°1

22680°5
22695°6d
22766°8
22805-4
22845°1b
22877°3d

22930°5

22966°8D
23017'1

23110-00
23148710
23205°7b
23205:°9b
23206°60
23216°5

23218-9

23234°8b
23253°9b
23285°9

23304:2b
23306°16
23340°7b
23385°5d

«| 23402°26

234239

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE: ELEMENTS.

Element

Fe-1§
Ce-Fe-Ti

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

In | In
Arc} Sun

6r
20r

|

a
Se
Le}
=

Re POONA

40r

—

~ bo 0100 bo
eee

~
ia

Senet

or
wm

ee

iad
ee
AaAnInoroOnrFNNH DM ORR Www we oo ore

—HOmNONMTORON ANN WRAWRHO,-

6
40r} 1?
20r, 20
50r
7
20r

10} 1
4

1,
2

285

Kind of
Standard

_* First line in first head of cyanogen band (6).

¢ First line in second head of cyanogen band (6).

Reduction

Weight Wave-lengths to Ee
Vacuo | S58

ia

In | In In Ate In Sun u EES
Arc|Sun| (a) Gb) | = Pee. |
4| 3 | 4260-647 | 4260-638 | 1:17) 6-5 | 23464-12|
2/15 | 4264-494 | 4254-502 | ,, | ., | 23498-05)
4} 3] 4250°949 | 4250:956 | ,, | 66| 23517-6a
1] 1 4250-300 | 4250:290| ,, | 4 | 23521-20
9| 10] 4226898 | 4226-892 | 1:16) ,, | 23651-42
1 | 22 | 4229:396 | 4229-381 | ,, | » | 23676-70)
4| 2] 4216133 | 4216137] ,, | ,, | 23711-8a
6| 3 | 4215-688 | 4215-687] ,, | ,, | 23714:3a
2 4215-616 |. | » | 23714-7 |
2| 41] 4202-187 | 4202:188 | 1:15) ,, | 23790-52
2 | 22 | 4199-257 | 4199-263 | ,, | 6°7| 23807-0
5 | 6| 4197-256 | 4197-251 | ,, | ,, |23818-40)
20 4185-063 | 4 | » | 238878 |
41582 Ll4) ,, | 24042-2 |
17 4157-948 | 4, | 5, | 24043°6 |
13 4121-968 | 1:13) 6°8 | 24953-5 |
1| 12] 4121-476 | 4121-481 | ,, | ,, | 2428682)
14 4114-600 | ,, | » | 24296:9 |

12 4107°646 | ,, | ,, | 243380
10 4103101 | ,, | ” |24365-0 |
8 4088-716 | 1:12) 6:9) 24450:7 |
7 4083:928 | ,, | ,, | 24479:3 |
7 4083:767 | ,, | ,, | 244803 |
5 | 6 | 4077°876 | 4077:883 |] ,, | ,, | 24515-6d
14 4073920 | ,, | , | 245395
7| 9| 4071-903 | 4071-904 | ,, | ,, | 24551-6d
7| 7 | 4063755 | 4063-756 | ., | ., | 24600-90
8 4062602 | ,, | ,, | 24607:9

13 4055°701 | ,, | ,, | 24649°7

13 4048-893 | 1:11) 7-:0| 246911
“9 4047-373 » | oy | 247004 |
7| 7 | 4045975 | 4045-975 | ,, | ,, | 247089
2} 2] 4044-301 | 4044-293] ,, | ,, | 24719-20
4035°88 | 4035°38 | ,, | ,, | 24770°7 |
3| 4] 4034-642 | 4034-641 | ,, | ,, | 24778-20)
3] 4 | 4033-230} 4033-225 | ,, | ,, | 24787-10
3} 4] 4030919 | 4030-914 | ,, | ,, |24801-30'
10 4029:796 | ,, | ,, | 248081
a 4016578 | ,, | ,, | 24889:8 |

3 4005°305 |1:10| ,, | 24959-9

9 4003:916 | ,, | ,, | 249685

} Cobalt line measured.
§ Seven or éight lines, the brightest and most of the others due to Fe.

286 REPORT—1895.

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

Intensity Reduction g
and dj Weight Wave-lengths to Sie
Character| Bind Vacuo | 33%
Element of | aos 3
Standard | ‘oot
In | In In | In In Are In Sin | eae
Are | Sun Arc | Sun (a) (b) Carel ire i)
Co 1] 2
Mn 4 to II. 4 3987-216 | 1-10] 7-1 | 25073-0
?
aay & z \ mm 9 3986-903 | ,, | » | 250750
a 2 lo { Ill. 9 3984-078 | ,, | 5, | 250928
Fe-Ti 62) 4| IIL 14 3981-914 | ,, | 4, | 25106-4
Fe 6, |) 2eha tt 15 3977891 |” | ., | 95131-8
Ca* 5| 3} mM. | 1] 2| 3973-881 | 3973-835 |1:09] ,, |25157°5
Rupees ..| 0 | 4el-calh uu 3971-478 | ,, | » | 251724
7 oe M. 3970-05 "| 4 | 231815
[H] Cat .| 70r200) Mm. | 7| 6 | 3968-617 | 3968-620 | > | ,, |25190-6a
AD 8 30r| 15 | M.Iv.| 7| 8 | 3961-680 | 3961-676 | » | ., |25234-75
Fe . 3,|) Socal ul 3960-429 | ,, | » | 25242-7
Fe-Ca 5,6| 6| mm. | 1] 2] 3957-228| 3987-180] * | ., |25263-40
Fe . 2} 2] IL 13 3954-001 |» | 7:2| 252836
Yt 10| 2| IL 13 3950-497 | |. | ,, | 253061
Fe | aah Fal ape 15 3950101 | ,, | 5, | 253086
Ca! 4| 2} Mm. | 1] 2| 3919-070] 3949-034 | ” | |, | 2581540
Alt . 20r} 10 | M.Iv.| 7| 7| 3944165 | 3944159 | ” | |) |95346-7
‘Aes sap be \ mr. 15 3942-559 | ,, | ,, |25357-0
Fe-Co 4,4| 5] m0. | 1| 15] 3941-034] 3941-021 | ,, | ,, | 2536695
Fe . 8-|. 4) -eat: 8 3937-474 |” |” |95389:8
[K} Cat .| 75r\300| M. | 6] 6 | 3933-809 | 3933-809 |1°08| | |25413-4
Fe 10r| 8} M. | 1| 3] 3998-060] 3928-071 | ,, | ,, | 2545060
? pelid
wey ts } IL 12 3926123 | ,, | y | 254632
Fe . 8.|1 shnttt, 13 3925-792 | ,, | ,, | 25465-4
a - }4 Il. 15 3925345 | ,, | ,, | 254683
Ti G,| | Saeents 15 3924-669 | ,, | 5 | 254727
Fe 3| 3] IL | 11/12] 3916886] 3916-875 |» | 7 | 25528-40
Si 10r}10} M. | 4| 4| 3908-670 | 3905-666 | ., | 7°3| 25596-55
Fe sb adaamt 12 3897599 |» | ,, | 25649°5
Fe usr| 9|M.Iv.| 7] 6 | 3886-421 | 3886-427 |1:07| ., | 25723-3a
eorie |: d[e TET, 12 3883-773 | ,, | ., |23740°9
peutic! . M. IV. 8 | 3883:523 | 3883548 | ” | ; | 25742-3h
Cj 7|M.iv. | 5| 3] 3883-479 | 3883472 | > | ,, |25742:8a
rhe I a |=. 15 3875204 | ,, | ,, |25797-7
cq 4| m. | 4| 4] 3871-527| 3871-528] ,, | ,, |25822-30
cr 3.(\) lili 8 3864-441 | | ” | 958697
Fe 10r} 10 | Mm. Iv. | 2| 3] 3860-050] 3860-048 | ” | ” |25899-10
He) 9] Teel 7a) Sar ily 3856°517 |1:06) |, | 259228
Sate | | A slop BROT OE, 8 3843-406 | ,, | ., |26011°3
Fe. .| a| 7| M. | 1{| 2] 3840589] 3840584 | » | ;. |26030-40
Mg. .[40r|/ 20] M. 2 3838-430 |» |. | 26045-0

* Red component of double ; the violet component is due to Fe.

+ Solar line doubly reversed. { Red component of triplet.

§ Edge of first head of cyanogen band (7). || First line of first head of
cyanogen band (7). { Second head of cyanogen band (7). . ** One of the
lines in cyanogen band.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 287

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

* Central line of symmetrical group.

Intensity
and Weight Wave-lengths
Character} Kind of
Element Stavdard ;
In | In In | In In Arc In Sun
Are | Sun Arc | Sun (a) (b)
OF. 5 | M.IV. 1 1 | 3836°638 | 3836°652
27-C . 4 III. 8 3836226
Mg. 30r| 10 M. 2 3832°446
Mg. 20r] 8 M. 2 3829°505
Fe . 8r| 8 M. 1 | 1 | 3827:973 | 3827-973
Fe . 20r| 20 |} M. III 4 4 | 3826°024 | 3826-024
Mn (Cr) 5,lr| 5 IL. 10 3823°651
Fe . 5 | 6 Il. 10 3821°318
Fe . 30r} 30 | M. IIT 4 | 41] 3820°566 | 3820°567
Fe 20r} 20 | M. III 4} 3 | 3815-984 | 3815-985
Fe-Di 4,71 6 I. 15 3805°487
Fe 2) 3 I. 15 3804153
Fe 8/ 8 Ill. 2 3799-698
Fe 7| 7 III. 2 3798°662
Fe 8| 8 M. 3 | 4] 3795:148 | 3795°150
Fe-Cr ye III. 15 3794014
Fe 7r| 8 | M.III. | 3} 3 | 8788-029 | 3788-032
Ni 10r| 6 III. 15 3783°674
Fe ale IL. 15 3781°330
? 4 II. 15 3780°846
Th 40r M. 1 37765 :°869
Yt? 6 | 3|M.III 1| 1 | 3774478 | 3774-480
Fe 3] 4 III. 12 37707130
Fe 7r} 8 | M. III 9 | 8 | 3767:342 | 3767-344
Fe 9r| 10 M. 9 | 8 | 3763-939 | 3763-942
Fe l5r| 15 | M. IIL 8 | 7 | 3758°380 | 3758-379
Fe 2] 2 II. 12 3756°211
; I aaa 12 3754664
Fe . 20r| 20 | M. III. 7| 8 | 8749°633 | 3749-633
Fe . 10r} 10 | M. III 7/1 8 | 3748410 | 3748-409
Mg ai }7| I | 1] 9] s7erose | 3747-095
Fe Onn M. 6 | 5 | 3746:048 | 3746-054
Fe . 10 | 10 M. 8 | 6 | 3745:708 | 3745-701
Cr 3 | 2
| Fe ¥ 5] 6 | M.IIL) 4) 2 | 3743506 | 3743-502
Ti Se] 2h!
Fe . 25r| 30 | M. III. | 7 | 8 | 3737-280 | 3737-282
Ca 4r M.IV. | 2} 3 | 8737:081 | 3737-075
= alate 2 3736-969
Fe . 40r| 50 | M. III 8 | 7 | 3735:012 | 3735-014
Fe . 6r} 7 | M. III 5 | 3 | 3733:-467 | 3733-467
Fe . 5 5 I. 1 | 15 | 3732°549 | 3732°542
Fe . aril 7 M. 5 | 3 | 3727-768 | 3727-763
| t a 10] M. IIT. | 7] 5 | 3722°712 | 3722-691
Fe . 40r| 50 | M. III. | 11 | 10 | 3720:082 | 3720-086
Fe . a i 1 | 12 | 3716601 | 3716°585
Yt 10r} 3 | M.III. 1] 11] 3710-442 | 3710438

Reduction
to
Vacuo

fe.
A+ A

1:06} 7°3

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

26057°10
26060:0
26085°7
26105°7
261162
26129-4
26145°7
26161°7
26166°85
26198-2a
26270°4
26279°7
26310°5
263177
26342:0b
26349°9
26391°50
26421-9
26438°3
26441°7
264766
26486°30
26516'8
26536:4a
26560-4a
26599°7a
26615°1

26626:0

26661°8
2667050

26679°86
26687-3a
26689°7a
26705:4a
26749-9b

26751:40
26752:2

26766-la
26777°3

26783°9b
26818'la

26854:5a

26873°5a
26898'8b
26943°46

} Iron line measured.

288 REPORT—1895.

TABLE oF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

|Intensity | |Reduction A
aud Weight Wave-lengths to 5 (x
Character! Kind of Vacuoo | $eg
Element |__| Standard = G6
| | xs) ahs:
In | In In | In In Are In Sun |, 1_i6s
are Sun) Are | Sun (a) (b) A ool
| | | | |
Fe 10r} 10 | M. IV. 6 | 4 | 3709395 | 3709-397 | 1-03) 7-6 | 26951-0a
Fe 5 | 5 i 1 | 11 | 3707-201 | 3707:186 | ,, | ,, |26967-00
Fe* 72) el MeL, 7 | 5 | 3705°715 | 3705-711 | ,, | », | 26977-7a
Fe 5 |)-5 if 1 | 11 | 3695-208 | 3695°194 | 1:2) ,, | 27054-6d
Yt 3] M. IIT 1 | 1 | 3694-351 | 3694-349 | ,, | ,, |27060°80
Fe 10r} 8 | M.III.} 8 6 | 3687-609 | 3687607 | ,, » |271102¢
Fe 5 | 6 ig 1 | 14 | 3684-268 | 3684259 | ,, | ,, | 2713495
Pb Or) a AEF eS 3683°622 » | (7 | 2713895
Va 4
Fe t 3 | 6 I. | 1] 13] 3683-209 | 3683202 | , | . | 2714265
Co J 9
Fe . 8r| 8} M.III.| 8 | 7] 3680-064 | 3680-064 | ,, | ,, | 27165:7
Fe 4 5 3 I. | 13 3667°397 ” ” 27259°6
és |
a} Sl iapebect wrecks 3658688 | ., | ,, | 273245
meh; lor] 4] M.II. | 2/ 7 | 3653-639 | 3653-639 | 1:01) ,, | 273623
Co 5 3 I. 5 3652-692 | ,, » | 27369°4
Heys, 10r} 10 | M. III. | 10 | 11 | 3647-995 | 3647-995 | ,, | » | 274046
23 } male |s M.I. | 1] 14| 3640545 | 3640-536 | ,, | ,, | 2746085
Pbt . a) Oo le M. 4 3639°728 » | » | 274669
Fe -| 5] 5] M.IV. | 1] 1 | 3638-454 | 3638-435 | ,, | 7:8 | 27476:65
Ti 1dr} 3) M. II 3 1 | 3635°615 | 3635°616 | ,, », | 27497-9a
Vitis 5 3 M. 1 1 | 3633-277 | 3633-259 | ,, » | 2751575
Fe . 20r| 20 | M. IV. | 11 | 10 | 3631-616 | 3631-619 | ,, | », |27528.2a
Yt 3 2 | M. III 1 1 | 3628°853 | 3628°853 | ,, » | 27549°1
Fe 2\"3 I 10 3623-603 | ,, | 5, | 27589°1
Fe 4 4 M.J. | 11] 14] 3623-338 | 3623-332 | ,, » | 275911
Fe 4) 4] M.IV.| 2); 3 3622-161 | 3622-147 | ,, | ,, | 2760016
Fe 4 4M. III 2 2 | 3621:616 | 3621°606 | ,, » | 27604°3
Yt. 3 1 M. 1 1 | 3621:096 | 3621-122 | ,, », | 2760800
Fe . 20r) 20 | M. IV. | 11 | 10 | 3618-922 | 3618:924| ,, | ,, | 27624-7a
ae A *| 3) tury.) 1} 1] 3617-939 | 3617-920 |1-00| ,, | 2763240
Fe Aik IV. 1 | 15 | 3612-237 | 3612:217 | ,, | ,, | 27676:0d
Yt Teed i 1} 1] 3611:196 | 3611:193 | ,, | ,, | 27683°90
Fe 15r| 15 | M. III. | 11 | 10 | 3609-015 | 3609-015 | ,, » | 27700°6
Fe§ 4 6 M. 2 2 | 3606°836 | 3606°831 | ,, » | 27717-46
Fe 56] 7] M.IV. | 2] 2] 3605:621 | 3605635 | ,, | ,, .| 2772665
Cr. 1dr} 4 | M.IV 1} 2] 3605-497 | 3605-483 | ,, | ,, | 27727-76
Witer: 6 2 | M. IIL 1 1 | 3602-065 | 3602-061 | ,, » | 2775410
Yt (Fe) 102} 4) M.I. 1{ 1] 3600-884 | 3600-880 | ,, | ,, | 27763°2b
Ree 5| 4 ole 12 SHIT 92 Fle sy cea
C|l 3 M. 7 3590°523 » | 7:9 | 278432
Ore es : 2 M. 2 3686°041 » | 9» | 278780
Cq . leh ae M. 8 3585-992 330 || bau eomeny
Nits ae Pay |h ee M. 1| 11 3584-662 | 3584:662! ,, | ,, | 278887
* Violet component of double. fj Iron line measured.

~ Red component of double.

§ The solar line is a group of four; the second from the red is the brightest, and
due to Fe.

|| First line in first head of cyanogen band.

@ First line in second head of cyanogen band.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 289

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

Wave-lengths

Intensity
and Weight

Character| Kind of
Element | Standard

In | In In s, In Arc

Arc} Sun Arc | Sun (a)
teeta) .2.| 4 L 12
Fe . .| 30r| 40| M.IV.| 9| 6] 3581-344
Fe . 10/10| M. 1| 11 3570-412
Fe* . 20r| 20 | M. 8 | 4 3570-253
Fe 10r} 12] M. 6 | 4| 3565530
Fe} 1/1)
a oly! I. 12
Fe . 9r| 8 | M.III.| 3| 4| 3558-674
Fe . 2 3 I. 7
xt... ol? ooh eed. 1| 1] 3549-147
il 4 7 6
Fe . 3 | 5 Tt: 10
Th . 20r M. 1 3529°547
Fe . br| 7] M. 6| 5 | 3521-409
7h... 40r M. 1 3519342
ea... 6r| 5 I. 10
Fet . eG) a 2| 31] 3513-981
Tis We shire id 8
ma. 71 7 il3 4
Fe . 2 3 I. 4

2 e
a V4 Al bs \ mM. | 5| 4] 3497-991
Fe* . ? 5| M. 1! 1] 3497-266
ie \
fd } al pap ee 8
Fe . 10r} 10} M. 7| 3 | 3420-724
Ni. ar VB.) I n)
Ni | 2 |
Fe ae T 10
Co j 2 J
Fe} . orl 6 Mr 5 | 2] 2476848
Fet. 10r} 10 | M. 7| 3] 3475-602
ots var it } mM. | 7/| 3| 3466-010
Sr?. 8| 3 ie 8
Co 6r| 4 2 | 10
re. Sr} 8|M.IV.| 6| 4] 3444-024
Fe . 10| 10] M.IV.| 6] 4] 3441-135
Fe 15r| 15 | M.IV. | 7| 4] 3440756
Fe*. €| 6] M. 2| 1 | 3427-279
a... 2 I. 15
Fe . ae wr |. |” 1) te: 9406-065
Fe . 4 ai 11. 1/18 | 3406-602
Gt ane 1 I. | 1| 12 | 3405255
ee : A) ie 1 | 12} 3389-913
i 5 3 |
mi | 5| 3 }
Zr 4 1 I. 8 |
- ll ae 9
e 3 eS |
crt eee } I, 9

* Red component of double.
‘peti line of a group of six.

In Sun

(b)

3583°483

3581344
3570°402
3570°225
3565°528
3564°680
3558°670
3550-006
3549°145
3545°333
3540°266

3521-404

3518°487
3513-947
3510-987
3500 993
3500721
3197-991
3497:264
3491-464

3490°721
3486°036

3478-001

3476°831
3475594

3465°991

3464°609
3455384
3444-032
3441135
3410°759
3427°282
3425721
3406-955
3406°581

3405272
3389°887
3377667

3356°222
3351 877

3348-011

Reduction

Oscillation
Frequercy in
Vacuo

27897°9

27914°6

28000:26
28001-3a
28038"4a

28045°1

28092°5d
28161:0
28167°8b
281981
28238°5
28324:3
28389'7a
28406°4
28413:3
28450:0b
28474:0
28555°2
28557°5

28579°7
28585:7b
28633°2
28639'3a
28677'8
287441
28753-6a
287639a
28843-4a

28855°1
28932:1
29027-6a
29052:0
29055 2a
29169:4a
29182°6
29343-40
29346°6D

29357°9b
29491:10
29597°8

29786°9
29825°5

29860°0

+ Violet component of double.
§ Iron line measured,

1)

290

Element

REPORT —1895.

TABLH OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

Intensity
and
Character! Kind of
' Standard
In | In
Arc} Sun

2 2 JUG

5 5 r.
3,6) 4

3 1 I.
10 70) we (el
10 ia NEAL

3

3 II.
10r} 5 |} M.IV.
or Poo Ni 1.
3,2) 4 lip
4,7

A bs I.

6 5 I.
a0rl PGi Dla.
10 4 | i

1

3 Gu |

4|J
40r} 9 | M.IV.

6 re
l1or| 8 M.

6 4 Ill.

: }s I.

8 8 M.

6 4 I.

? th

6 5 M. III.!

6 } IT;
6 Ta;

4 3 if.

5 5 M.
LOx|. v4) MST.

3 3 M.

4 4 TI.

1 1 ie

5 Te
ik dul
8 M.
2 II.
3 TI.

4 2 UE
10r} 8 M.

3 1 ile

7 5 iis

2 T.

3 II.

2 ILL.
10r! 6 M.

Weight
In | In
Arc} 8un
8
10
10
1 5
ii 5
10 |
it 6
1 6
9
10
9 |
15 5
10
10
U5) 5
12
i i ue
| 12
1
3) 1
3
3 1
1 |
1|
6 |
1
1 5
1 1
5
5
1
5
1 1
3)
5
3
1
5
9
3
real
u
3

Wave-lengths

In Arc
(a)

In Sun
(»)

Reduction
to
Vacuo

ES
A

3306°481
3306:119

3303°119
33027504

3274-090

| 3247-671

3236°696

3225°907

3222°197

3214152
3200:040
3195°729

3158-994

3134:223

3101:994 |

3331-741
33187163

3308-928

3306471
3306 117

3303-648

3303°107
3302501
3295°957

3292°174

3287-791
3274-002
3267°839

3260-384

3247-680
3246°124

3236°697
3232-404

3231-421

3225923
3224°368

3222-203

3219-909
3219-697
3218390

3200-032
3195-702
3188164
3176104
3172175
3167290
3158:988
3153°870
3140°869
3137-441

3129-882
3191-275
3115°160

| 8109-434

3106677

0°93) 8°5
» | 86

”

|o-87|

* Second line from violet side of a group of four.
+ Second line from red side of a group of five.

Oscillation
uency in
acuo

ct

30005:8

30128°6
302127

30235°1d
30238°4d

30261:0

30265:9u
30271°56
30331°6

30366°5

304069
30534:la
30592°6

30662°5

30782°5a
30797 2

30886:°9d
30927'9

30937°3

30990:2a
31005:2

31025-9a

31048-0
31050:0
31062°6
31103°5
31240°83
31283:18
31357°1
3147671
3151571
31563°7
31646°70
31698°1
31829 2
318640
31896°7
319410
320291
32092:0
321510
32180°5
322281

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Element

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

291

Intensity Reduction q

and Weight Wave-lengths to Bice ll
Character} Kind of Vacuo s S a |
Standard eis

In | In In | In In Are In Sun | qa ia 2s”

Are | Sun Are | Sun (a) (b) nN oa)

20r| 8 M. 3 3101:673 0:87! 9:2 | 32931°5
6] 6 M. 3 3100:779 » | 99 | 32240°8
42 | 4 M. 3 3100-415 | oy | 322445
a 7 M. 3 3100:064 Shan lpeesoes
pe) Sql ORE 9 3095-003 | ,, | 5» | 3280079 }
2 ie 9 3094-739 | 4, | 5» | 323037

4 2 M. 8 30927962 ” ” 32322°3

| 20r| 10 M. 15 3092°824 |) | Seb eaed
Sr} 8 M. 1 3088-137 spall 52372'8 |
4 1s 1 3086891 | ,, | 4, | 32385°9

6r| 7 M. 5 3083°849 yy | 9:3 | B2417°7
| 20r| 7 M. 17 3082272 tulle 32434°3 |
5 I. 1 3080:863 | ,, | 4, | 32449-1

Til 2 I. 1 3079°724 | ,,| 4, | 324611
4 6 M. 3 3078°759 ” ” 32471°3
4 I. 6 3078148 | ,, | ,, | 32477°8

4| IIL. 6 3077'303 | ,, | ,, | 32486°7

2 M. 1 3077°216 | 99 | 32487°6

10r| 10 M. 4 3075°849 » | 9 | 82502-0
6 | 8 M. 3 3075°339 » | 3 | 32507-4
10r| 10 M. 10 3067:363 » | as | 32592°0
sr} 3] M.L. 1! 5 | 3061-932 | 3061:930 | 0:86] ,, | 32649°8b
3 II. 1 3061:098 | ,, | ,, | 32658°7

10r| 10 M. 15 3059-200 » | | 326790
10r| 10 M. 8 3057°557 » | 9 | B2696°6
5 I. 5 3055°821 | ,, | 4, | 32715-1
: } II. 1 3053'527 | ,, | 94|32739°6 |
3 Til 5 3053173 | ,, | 4, | 327434 |
} I. 5 3050:212 | | » | 327752 |

| 20r} 20 M. 13 3047-720 » | 9» | 32802-0
IL. 1 3046:778 | ,, | yy | 328122 |

| 10r| 3 II. 5 3044:683 | ,, | ,, | 328347
lier} 4|/ M.Iv.|] 3| 2| 3044114] 3044119 | ,, | ,, | 32840-9a
lar] 15 M. 10 | 2 3037°505 | 2037-492 | ,, | ,, | 32912-4a
| Bel Tie 7 3035°850 | ,, | 4, | 82930°3
| M. 1 3027-245 » | ay | B3023:9
| 10r| 10 M. 7 3025-958 yy | ay | 330380
4 Il. a hes 3025°394 | ,, |, | 3304471

5 IL. T 3024-475 | ,, | 9°5| 330541

aes b M. % 3024:154 ” ” 33057°6
15r M. 18 3021°191 0°85} ,, | 33090-0
25r | M. 18 3020°759 | a | 330948
lor! M. 15 3020°611 » | 9) | 83096'4
M. 1 3019-752 oy |g | BBLOBB

5 | M. 1 3019108 S| yy | BBLL29

5 M. 1 3017-747 4 | Seu

3 M. 1 3016:296 » | oy | BB1437

6 IV. 4 3014-274 | ,, | ,, | 33166°0

Ae) TV. 5 3012°557 | ,,| ,, 331849

4r M. 3 3009°696 pol | 3216-4
Tr M. 3 3009-327 | » |» | 882205
6r M. 15 3008-255 | ‘yll> ap baawag:4

U2

292

REPORT— 1895.

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

Intensity
and Weight Wave lengtts
Character) Kind of
Element | Standard | = = zee
In | Io In | In In Are In Sun
Arc| San Are | Sun (a) (b)
Fe 1 M. 3 3007-408
Fe 2 M. 1 3007°260
Ca 15r M. 3 3006978
2 4 IIT. 1 3005°404
? 3 7) + a 3005°160
Fe 8r M. | 15 3001-070
Ca 8r 1 ey 83 3000°976
Ca 6r M. 3 2999-767
Fe 4r M. 5 2999-632
Ca 10r M. 3 2997:°430
Ca Tr M. 3 2995074
Fe &r M. 18 2994°547
Si 4 M. 5 2987°766
Fe M. 1 2987°410
Fe 10r M. | 15 2983°689
Fe 2 Me t) 6 2981°570
Fe 12r M. | 15 2973°358
Fe 6r M. % 2973°254
Fe 4r M.~ FlGRa 2970°223
Fe 8r M. | 12 2967:016
Fe M. 1 2966°985
Fe 5 M. 3 2965°381
Fe 5 M. 3 2957°485
Fe Tr M. 4 2954:058
Fe 8r M. 4 2947:993
Fe 10r M. 4 2937:020
Fe 8r M. 3 2929°127
Fe 7r Met! 63 2912°275
Si 15 M. 12 2881°695
Mg 100r M. | 15 2852°239
Fe 6 iM. 41 6 2851°904
Fe 5 M. i 2844-085
Fe 3 M. 1 2843°744
Fe 3 M. 1 2838°226
Fe 4 Mis Liped 2832°545
Fe 5 M. 1 2825°667
Fe 3 M. 1 2823-389
Fe 5 M. 3 2813°388
Mg 20r M. 10 2802°805
Mn M. 3 2801°183
Mn M. 3 2798°369
Mg | 20r M. 12 2795°632
Mn M. 3 2794911
Fe M. 3 2788°201
Mg* Sr M. 5 2783:077
Fe M. 1 2781°945
Meg* br M. 5 2781°521
Meg* 8r M. 5 2779°935
Mg* 5r M. 3 2778381
Fe M. 2 2778340
Mg* 5r M. 5 2776:798
Fe M. 2 2772:206

Reduce ion
to
| Vacuo

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

| |

—9°5| 332417
» | oo 33243°4

| 33246°5
332639
33266°6
33312°0
33313°0
33326°4
» | 333279
3 | 33352°3
» | 33378°6
333844
»y | 83460°2
33464:2
»» | 33506:0
33529°8
33622°4
33623°6
33657°8
33694°2
33694°6
337128
33802°8
33842-0
» | Bool l7
34038°3
341301
343275
34691°8
35050°1
350542
351505
35154:7
” ” 35223°1
35293°7
35408'1
355340
35668'2
35688'9
357247
857597
35768'9
358550
35921°1
35935°7
I » | 35941°2
359617
35981'8
35982'3
| 7 | 360023
'10°5 | 36061°9

| S3ge)) 99

\ 5

* A remarkable symmetrical group of five Mg. lines.

a?

ON WAVE LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 293

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

Element

2 1/10
.} 10

Intensity
and
Character

In | In
Are Sun)

or

cr

10

Reduction

Weight Wave-lengths to = B32
Kind of | Vacuo | $89
Standard | - seb
| | oo
In| In| In Are InSun |,,/1_| 528
Are | Sun (a) (b) A
M. 2 2767-630 0°79,10°5 | 361215
M. 2 2762110 » | a | 361937
M. 2 2761876 » | x» | 3861968
M. 3 2756°427 » | 99 | 86268-4
M. 2 2755'837 || pao Boz Reel
M. 3 2750:237 »» 10°6 | 36349:9
M. 3 2742485 » |» | 36452°7
M. 3 2737°405 0:78} ,, | 36520°3
M. 3 2733673 » | + | 365702
M. 3 2723:668 » |L0°7 | 36704:5
M. 1 2721-762 » | x9 | 36730:2
M. 3 2720°989 » | 9 | 36740°6
M. 3 2719119 |) ae | 86765°9
M. 2 2706°684 » | sy | 369349
M. 3 2679148 0:7710°9 | 373144
M. 7 2631:392 0°76 11:1 | 37991°6
M. 3 2631125 » |» | BT995'S
M. 2 2611-965 a | sy | 382743
M. 3 2599:494 | 0°75 11-2 | 38457°8
M. 2 2598-460 lL, a> [eess | BOATSEL
M. 2 | 2593:810 te So fh fteat | BB oaeel
M. 2 2585963 | ,, |11:3 | 38659°0
M. p 2584-629 » | 9) | 38679°0
M. 2 2576-195 ys |» | 88805°6
M. 5 2575198 fe 1) sy | BSB2O7
M. 5 2568-085 ., 11-4 | 389281
M. 2 2549°704 0-74} ,, | 39208-8
M. 3 2546-068 | |, (11-5 | 39264-8
M. 3 2541 058 ” ” 39342°2
M. 2 2536°648 » | 9 | 39410°6
M. 3 2535-699 » | oy | 394254
M. 5 2528'599 », 11'6 | 39536-0°
M. 3 2527-530 1 Awl Gr PROBB2 7
M. | 10 2524-206 | | a» |89604:8
M. 3 2522-948 | 1. | yy | 396246
M. | 10 2519:297 | 4, | 9» | 39682°0
M. 3 2518'188 |, | 4, | 39699°5
M. 7 2516210 10:73! ,, | 39730°7
M. | 10 2514-417 | 4. | 9 | 897591
M. 3 2510°934 | » (11-7 | 39814-1
M. | 15 2506°994 » | » | 398767
M. 3 2501-223 | |, | a | 39968-7
M. | 20 2497°821 | sy |» |40028-2
M. | 20 2496:867 het. | 40088*5
M. 3 2491244 | ,, {11-8 | 40128:8
M. 3 2490°723 Yt ys | 401872
M. 3 2489-838 » | gy | 401515
M. 3 2488-238 . | Paola
M. 3 2484-283 » | gy | 40241°3
M. 3 2483359 » | 9 | 40256:2
M. 3 2479°871 | 4, |» | 40812°9
M. | 15 2478:661 » | ss | 40332°6
M. 3 2472974 ». |11°9 | 40425-2
M. 3 2462-743 0:72| ,, | 405932

294. REPORT—1895,

TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS—continued.

Intensity Reduction q 2

and Weight Wayve-lengths to Se,
Character | Kind of Vacuo | 2&3
LBV op S| Serie il ee & eR

In, In In | In In Arc In Sun At tS =

Are | Sun Arc! Sun (a) (b) r al
eos M. 3M 2457°680 0:72\12'0 | 40676'8
| Si. 3 M. | 10 2452°219 » | 1 | 407674
Fel. M. 3 | 2447-785 » | a | 408413
Siu 3 M. 10 2443°460 » |12°1 | 40913°5
Si 3) M. 10 2438°864 on » | 40990°6
Slice 8 M. 15 2435°247 » »» | 41051°5
Fe . M 2 2410°604 0°71)12°3 | 414711
| Fe . 4 M. 2 2406°743 AA » | 41537°6
Fe . 4 M. 2 2404-971 #5 », | 41568°2
Fe M. 2 Ppt spe} “a », | 41666°0
Gar >; 25r| M. 5 2398-667 2 », | 416775
Fe?. M. 3 2395-715 » (12-4| 41728°8
Fe . M. 2 2388:710 * » | 41851:2
Fe?. M. 3 2382°122 ,», |12°5 | 41966'9
Fe . . M. 2 2373771 0-70) ,, |42114°6
OA Niece 5 7 M. 3 2373°213 ., », | 42124°5
PATiay= : 6 M. 3 2367:144 » |12°6 | 42232°4
Fe M. 2 2364897 i »y | 422726
Fe M. 2 2348°385 », |12°7 | 42569'8
ile); ; M. 2 2343°571 ” », | 426564
Ba. . | 20r M. 1 2335°267 y» |12°8 | 428089
ane Pi 20r M. 1 2304364 0°69)13:0 | 48382°9
Fe?. : M. 2 2298-246 » |13°1 | 43498°3
Caves . | 20r M. 3 2275°602 0°68.13°3 | 48931:1
Sr 10r M. 1 2275'376 |» | 439855
Al 4 M. 2 2269-7161 * » | 44055'8
Al 3 M. 2 2263-507 “4 » | 44165°9
Si 2 M. 2 2218:146 0:67/13°7 | 45069:0
Si 4 M. 2 2216°760 . » | 45097:2
Si 2 M. 2 2211-759 », |18°8 | 45199-1
Si 3 M. 2 2210939 | ap | SO2 Los
Si 2 M. 2 2208-060 - » | 452748
| [Sion rae ; 3 M. 1 2165'990 0°66 14:2 | 46154°1
Siti. 3 2 M. 1 2152°912 yy [14:3 | 46434-4

EXPLANATORY Notre.—The first column gives the symbol of the element whose
wave-length has been measured, e.g. O signifies oxygen, wv water-vapour, &c. If a
letter stands at the left within brackets: thus, [A] [C], it is the ‘name’ of the line
in the solar spectrum. A mark of interrogation after the symbol means that it is
doubtful if the line is really due to that element. Two symbols on the same line
(e.g. Mn Di, 3295-957) signify that these two elements have apparently coincident

Mn
lines as their wave-length. Two or more symbols bracketed (e.g. Si } s260a
Fe
mean that the first has a line coinciding with one side of the corresponding solar
line, the second with the middle, &c. A mark of interrogation alone signifies that
the chemical origin of the line is unknown. ‘The fifth and sixth columns give the
‘weights’ to be attached to the lines as standards in the arc and solar spectrum
respectively. The fourth column gives the character of the standard. M. meansa
standard in the arc spectrum; I. a remarkably good standard in the solar spectrum ;
II. a good solar standard ; III. an ordinary solar standard; and IV. a rather poor solar
standard. Columns 7 and 8 give the wave-lengths in air at about 20° C. and 760 mm.
Lines marked with two dashes are double: thus 6’’, r signifies reversed.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES.OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 295

Wave-
length

T6161-2

6154-6
*+5896-2
*+5890°2
$5688°3
+5682°9
+5675°9
5670'4
$5153-7
5149-2
$4983'5
$4979°3
4752-2
47484
+4669-4
+4665°2
4581-7
4573°6
4570°4
4565-2
4555°7
4546-0
$4542'8
4539°0
+4500-0
444943
4393-7
4390-7
3533°8
$3303-1
*+3302°5

Soprum (Spark SPECTRUM).
Eder and Valenta: ‘Denkschr., Wien,’ Bd. Ixi. 1894.

Reduction] <cs,,
Intensity |'o Vacuum} 223 || Intensity
and y = ie Wave- and Z
Character un 12 || length | Character
A | Om
8s 168 | 4:4) 16226°2 3284°9 2s
8s 1:67| ,, | 16243°6|| 3280-8 2s
10s 1°61 | 4°6| 16955°5 || 3212°1 2s
10s 1°60] ,, | 16972°8 3093°1 6s
6bv 1:55| 4:8) 17575:1|| 380785 3s
6s + », | 17591°8 |} 3075°9 In
In $5 ny | Z613°6 3069°5 In
In ” » | 17630°6 || 3066-4 3s
5s 1°41] 5:3] 193982 3054°2 2s
5s 7 » | 19415-2 3037°2 In
6s 1:36 | 5:5 | 20060°7 2984°3 2s
6s pa » | 200776 || 2980-4 2s
2s 1:30} 5°8| 210371 || 2975°5 2s
2s » | oy | 21053-9|| 2951-4 2s
3bv 1:28} 5-9} 2141071 2921°4 ln
3s * » | 21429°4 2919°0 In
1 1:26 | 6:0| 21820:0 29060 3s
ib 1:25| ,, | 218586 29030 In
1 si »» | 21873°9 || *$2852°9 10s
a is » | 22898°9 2841°8 2s
1 ee 61} 21944°4 2809-0 3s
2s Pe » | 21991°3 || +2680°5 8s
2s 1:24] ,, | 22006°8 2672°2 In
3n 1°23) ,, |, 2221671 2612°5 2s
3n Ms 6:2 | 222442 || +2594:0 3s
In 120)| 6°3| 227536 || 2543°9 1s
ln <a » | 227691 || {2512-2 1s
2s 0:98] 8:0} 28290°2 2502°1 Is
10s 0:93 | 8:6 | 30266-0 2493°4 4s
10s ay » | 80271°5 2138-4 lv

Reduction
to Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

46749°5

td lll i Sil UI ee ee eee ee SS ee ee

Wave-
length

*47699'3

*47665°6
+6938°8
+6911-2

*45832-2
+5812°5

*45802-0

Porasstum (Spark SPECTRUM).
Eder and Valenta: ‘ Denkschr., Wien.,’ Bd. lxi. 1894.

Reduction

———S SS

Intensity to Vacuum
hae 1
aracter
At x
8s 2°08) 3°5
8s ” ”
8s 1:88} 3:9
7s UbsH CIR EF
3s 1°59 | 4:7
3s 158] ,,
4s

” ”

Bao

tees

@ga Wave-
'g ar, length
Or

12984°7 || *t5782°7
13041°8 || +5359-9
14407°8 || *75343°4
14465°4 || 5340-1
17141°5 || 5323°6
17199°6 || 5112-7

17280°7 || *f5099°3

* Occurs also in the Flame Spectrum.
+ Occurs also in the Arc Spectrum. See Report, 1892.

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction
to Vacuum

146),
1-40
139] y

See Report, 1894.

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

19605:1

296 REPORT—1895.

POTASSIUM (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction} ¢ p, | Reduction| cy,

.,_|toVacuum| .28 3 | . |toVacuum| -3 25

Wave- pate 258 | Wave- gre et =o
length | an 1 ms | length an 1 Sor
Character) 4 4 x GEs | mas | A+ x7 SEs

$5084 5 In | 1:39! 5:-4/ 196622 | 3716-9 In | 1-03 76 | 26896°5
5OST-4 In 1:38] 5, | 19767°6)| 37132 In | 4 | 4 | 269233
5006'8 2s 1:37| 5°5| 19967:3|) 36823 4s | 102] 7:7} 27149°2
$4965'5 In 1:36| , | 20133°5|| 36702 | In | ,, | , | 272888
$4943°8 1 135 | 5°6| 20221°8|| 36184 | 3s 1:01 | 7:8 | 27628:7
4832'3 3s 1:32| 5-7| 20688°4|| 36104 | 2 1:00} ,, | 27690-0
46607 3s 1-28 5:9) 214501) 3531-2 2 0°98 | 8:0} 283110}
4650:7 2s 1:27) ,, | 214962) 3481-5 In | 097] 8-1} 28716-2 |
46095 | 6s 1:26 6-0) 216883) 3476°7 In » | 99 | 28754°8 |
45061 6s 1:24} 6:1] 22186-0 | *t3447-0 10$ |: 0°96, 8-2 | 29002°5
4467°5 5s | 1:22 G2| 29377-7|| 3440°5 | 6s a | wp feeders
44572 | Jn 3 | oy | 22429-4 || 3433°8 | Is 30 a) age | ea
44243 | In | 121] 63| 225961|| 34215 | Is » | 83| 29218°6 |
43882 | 3s 1:20| ,, | 22782:1]| 3403°8 2s | 0°95 ,, | 29370°6 |
4309'3 Is 118| 6-4 | 23199°2|) 33854 | 6s | ,, | 84| 29530-2}
4305°1 25 » | 65| 23291-8|| 3381-4 is || syn| sob | eeoGod
4263-2 6s 1°17) ,, | 2345071 33730 1 0°94 ,, | 29638-8
4225°7 6s 116 | 6-6 | 23658-1|, 33628 1 3 | a» | 29728°7
4223-1 6s ot | 9» | 28672'7|| 3345-5 8s | ,. | 85} 29882-4
4210°3 1 | oy | 287447] 38264 | Is | 0-98) ., | 300540
41863 | 8s 1:15| 6-7 | 23880-7 || 3322-0 1s » | 86| 300937
41491 6s 1:14} 68 | 240948) 33123 3s Pera osionlts ples)
4134-7 6s alles 128078/8:11|| 2529058 38s | 092) ,, | 303791
411571 4s 1°13] ,, | 24293-9|) 3224-7 1s 091) 8.8) 31001°8
*t4047-4) | 45 -11| 7-0 | 247002 || 32209 2s 0°90; ,, | 31038-4
“440443 > s {iu | 247192 | #432175 2§ wo | ae | are
4040°2 1 » | 9» | 24744:2]] 3209-0 Is » | 89) 31153°5
4026-0 1 » | » | 24881°6|| 320271 Is ot: su eple20:6
4018'8 In » | » | 248760] 31902 | 2n Pipes eye
40123 2 1:10] ,, | 24916:4|| 3169-2 Is 0°89 | 9:0} 31544-7
4001-2 6s » | 71] 24985:4|| 81575 | | Is » | » | 81661-6
3995-0 Is » | 9 | 25024°2|| 3143-7 3s » | 9'1| 31800°6
3972°6 3s 1:09| ,, | 26165:3|| 3129°3 4s | 0'88| ,, | 31946°9
39667 4s » | + | 25202°8|) 3104-5 5n » | 92| 32202-1
3955°3 4s » | 72) 25275°3 || 431023 In jo | Gayl Be Beeae
3943°3 2s 9 ole avy (28352°3 || 20746 In | 0:87) 9:3] 32515:3
3984-7 Is 1-08| ,, | 25407-7 |) 30673 | In a. | 5s | OT
3927-0 1s » | 9 | 25457°5 || 3062-4 6s | 0-86) ,, | 32644-8|
3923°8 Is ae asl 25478'3) | S056 Lie In a 1 35
3898-1 8s » | 73| 25646-2|| 3051-5 | In » | 94| 827614
3884-2 Is DOF 55 | 2573870)! = 3030:0mu en ia oe he 4g eSB -9
3879-2 1s si. |) s9° DST TB S0R8O In | 0:85| 95} 330702!
3874-1 2s a» | a | 258051) 42992:3 4s » | 9°6| 33409°5
3862°3 Is » | » | 2588401] 29860 | | Im | | -,, |44,0ltads00
3818-5 In 106] ,, | 26181:0|] 2938-7 In | 0:83] 98] 34018:8
3800-8 1s 1:05 | 7-4} 263028 || 2853-5 In 0°81 10-1 | 35034-6:
3783-2 338 » | » | -26425:2)) 2833:0 |. 2n | ,, {10:2 852881
3767-1 Is 1:04| 7°5| 26538-1|| 28190 | 1 | 080j\10°3| 35463:3
3757-4 1s » | » | 266066|| 27805 | J 0-79 10-4) 359544
8749) Is » | » | 26665°6|| 27362 In | 0-78 10°6 | 36536-4
37445 1 » | 9 | 266983 || 2690-4 ia || 077 {108 37158°4
3739-2 In Petia, HasOTaGs2i| EGR". Ale a » |10°9| 37547°8
3727°5 In | 1:03] 76! 26820':0|| 26353 | 1 | 0°76 /11°0| 379353

\

§ Probably double.

——— S CUT ll

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 297

POTASSIUM (SPARK SPHCTRUM)—continued.

t Occurs also in the Arc Spectrum. See Report 1892.

Reduction Eb Reduction E bo
Wave. _ | Intensity to Vacuum a 5 S see: Intensity to Vacuum = g 3
length ani = ce || length an Boe
s Character) 4 + <- Gna Character| ) + i= ae eS
2614:0 1 0:76 |11-1| 38244-4 2274°4 In 0°68 |13°3 | 43954°3
2549-4 2s 0°74 |11-4| 39213°5 || 2268-1 In rs », | 44076°5
2440°9 1 0:72 |12:1| 40956°4 || 2261°8 1 yy \13°4] 44199°2
2379°5 1 0°71 |12°5 | 4201371 || 2258°3 1 3 » | 4£4267°7
2358-9 In 0°70 |126 | 42380-0 22549 1 “y » | 44334°5
23504 In yy {12-7} 42533°2 2248-4 1 », |13°5| 44462°6
2344-7 In ‘A », | 42636°7 2243°5 1 " » | 44559°7
2341-7 In i » | 42691°3 2203°9 1 0°67 |13°8 | 45360°3
CapMium (SPARK SPECTRUM).
Eder and Valenta: ‘ Denkschr., Wien.’ Bd. Ixi. 1894.
=. | Reduction =) Reduction
q S |to Vacuum 8 S 3 s $ | to Vacuum 8 eg
No.| Wave | 23 e222 |. | Wave- | 28 eo
. A = 5 | No. “rt By os
length as 1 3 oe | length aS 1 a2
Je . 4 pies Eres
64674] 2s | 1:76) 4:2) 154580) 4693:'7| 2s | 1:29] 5:9} 21299-2
1 6439°3| 10s | 1:75) ,, | 15525:-4| 6 | t4678:-4| 10s | 1:28] ,, | 21368-9
6057'7| 2s | 165} 45) 16503°4 $4662'7| 3s » | oy | 21440°9
6004-7} 2s | 1:63] ,, | 16649-1 | 46465} Is | 1:27) ,, | 21515:7
5958°7) 2s | 1:62] 4:6} 167776 46348] Is » | 60] 21569°9
5914-1} 2s | 161) ,, | 169041) 4631°3} Is # » | 21586°2
5791-1) 2s | 1°58) 4:7) 17263:2 4600'0| In | 1:26] ,, | 21733:1
5688:2| 4s | 1:55) 4:8) 17575-4 || 4581:9| Is ” », | 21819:0
5663°6| Is | 1:54] ,, | 17651°8 || 4541°6| Is | 1:24) 61} 220126
5640°6| Is rs » | 177238 | 4521:4| Is a +» | 221109
56116; Is | 153] ,, | 17815-4)}) 44913} Is | 1:23] 6:2} 222591
6490°'2| 6s | 1:50} 5:0} 18209°3 || 4487°8| 1s + » | 222764
5472°5| 6s | 1:49] ,, | 18268-2 44434] 2s | 1:22] ,, | 22499-1
53911) 2s | 1:47) 5:1) 18544:0|| 7 | f4415°9} 10s | 1:21] 6:3} 226891
2 5379°3| 10s x » | 18584:7 $4413:2| 2 ny » | 22653:0:
3 53386] 10s | 1:46] ,, | 18726:4)) 4403°5| 1 # »» | 22702:9)
5308'2| 1s | 1:45] ,, | 18833°7 | 4393°5| 1 1:20] ,, | 227546
5305°1| 3s - », | 18844°7 42939} 2s | 1:18] ,, | 22752°5
5203'9| Is » | 53} 1921-1 || 4272°9| 3s | 1:17] 6:5) 233968,
5174:3) 38s | 1:41] ,, | 19321:0 4271:2| 3s zs » | 2840671
61552} Is - » | 19392°6 | 4245°8| 4s » | 66] 23546:1
4 | +5086:1| 10s | 1:39] 5:4} 19656-0 | 42266} In | 1:16] ,, | 23653-1
5026°5| 1s | 1:37] 5°5| 19889-1 | 42171] 6s # » | 23706°4
4854°7| 2s. | 1:33) 5:7} 20592°9 | 4214:0} 2s ¢ » | 237238
5 | $4800-1] 10s | 1:31] ,, | 20827-2| 4191°8| 4s | 1:15}| 6:7) 23849°4
47836) Is » | 58] 20899-0 | 4177'5| 2s - » | 23931°1
4707°3| 2s | 1:29] 6:9| 21237-7| 4171'6| 2s 23964°9

298

CADMIUM (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

No.

8d

REPORT—1895.

r= Reduction
& 5 |to Vacuum s eg
Wave- | BS weg N Wave-
length | 2¢ | 1 3 Sr | length

£5 [pat |=-| 64

z AT de
4163-9} 2s | 1:14) 6:7| 24009-2 | 3840°6 |
41581] 5s 7 » | 24042°7 | 3837°9
4142-1} 4s » | 68} 24135°5 3808-2
4139°8| 2s ” », | 24149-0 $3614-6
4136:9} In x », | 24165°9 || 9a! +3613-0
41343] In ” », | 2418171 || 95] 43610°7
4130°9| In | 1:13) ,, | 24201-0) 3535°8
41271) 6s 53 », | 24223°3 $3501-2
41168} 3s = » | 24283°9 3499°3
4114-7) 5s + » | 24296°3 || 10a) 43467°8
4112°8|} 1 ” » | 24307°5 || 100 | +3466:3
41026} 1 5 » | 24368°9 |) 11 | 34037
4095:0| 7s » | 69) 24413°1 T3299'1
4092°5] 3s | 1:12] ,, | 24428:0||12@| 3285°8
4083°9] 1 £ » | 24479°5|1126| 3283°6
4077-4] 1 ce » | 245185 3276°9
40758; 1 s » | 24528°-2 3264-2
40721} 1 ry » | 24550°5 $3261°2
40688; 1 ss » | 24570°4 $3252°6
4066°3| 1 se » | 24585°5 3250°5
40641] 1 i » | 24598°8 3236°4
40577} ‘5s - » | 24637°6 3221°3
40540} In | 1-11] ,, | 2466071 3217°8
40491} 3s » | 10} 24689°8 3212-0
4044-7] 3s f- » | 24716°7 3209°9
4038-6} In : » | 247541 3201°8
40351] 3s : » | 24775°5 3197°5
4029:2|} 1 at » | 24811°8 3196-2
4023°3] 1 % » | 24848-2 31854
40185} 2n + 9 | 24877-9 3182°8
40148; In | 1:10} ,, | 24900°8 31785
4009:2|} 1n F » | 24935°6 31767
40060} In £ », | 249556 §3173°8
39941] 3s » | @1| 250298 3161°6
3992-0! 4s # » | 25043-0 3157-1
39884] 5s », | 250656 3153°6
39847} 3s Fs » | 250889 3141-2
3977°8} 6s 5 » | 25182°4]/13 | F3133°3
3976°8} 6s ” », | 25138°7 3129°5
39589} Ts | 1:09] ,, | 25252°4 31248
39510} 3s » | 72] 25302°8 3122°2
3945°7| 1 + » | 253368 3119-2
3940°4| 8s RS » | 25370°9 3113°5
3935°7| 38s | 1:08] ,, | 25401-2 30959
3919°6| 4s + » | 255056 3093:0
3910°5} In 3 » | 255650 3089°3
39029] In » | 73] 256147 || 14a) 3085-4
3899-4] 2s ff » | 25637°7 ||14b | +3081-0
3889'8| 1 107] ,, | 25701:0 3077°3
3865'4| 2s ” » | 25863°2 30689
3852°3|} 4s | 1:06] ,, | 25951:2 3065°0
38482] 2s a », | 259789 3059°5
8843°8| 2s + » | 26008°6 3053-2

§ Probably double.

Intensity and
Character

Reduction |
to Vacuum

1
A+ me

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

26030°3
26048°6
26251'7
27657°8
27670:0
27687'7
282741
28553°5
28569:0
28828°5
28841:0
29371°5
30302°7
30426°3
30445°7
30507°9
30626°7
30654°9
30735°8
30755°7
30889'7
31034°6
31068°3
31124:3
311447
31223°5
31265°5
31278°2
31384°3
31410°0
314524
31470°2
31499-0
31620°5
31665°6
317008
31825°9
31906°1
31944°9
31992°9
32019°6
32050°4
32109°0
32291°6
32321°9
32360°6
32401°5
32447°7
32486°7
32575°7
32617:1
32675'8
32743°1

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 299:

CapMIUM (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

eee

B. | Redaction) >, |. | Reduction | 4 aa
| £2 ito Vacuum) .2 8 3 == |to Vacuum] .- 35
| No. Wave- | £3 i 332 Il No. Wave- 2s | Bega
. length _ gs ly 5 SF | length hg 1 I o
r De on; PS n=
‘ 4 ey A+ re on a | i: (S) | At x Om =
J | —
. 3048-9, 3 | 08°6| 9-4} 32789°3 | $2633:1; In | 0°76 \11-0| 37967-0
30358) 1 es | 3203078) 2629:7| 1 » {Ll1l-1} 38016-0
30248 In »» | 9°5| 33050°5 || 26191} 2 ” » | 38169°9
3017-2) 3 0°85| ,, | 33133°8 | +2602°0| In | 0°75 )j11-2| 38420°8
. 30141; 1 » | 9 | 331679 | $2592:3| 1 9 » | 38564°6
. 3011-4) In » | » | 338197°6 25805} 1 » |11:3| 38740°9
3008'7} In 3 | 4 | 38227-4/118 | ¢2573°1} 10s ” » | 38852°3
3007°2| In » | 3 | sozde-0 72552'2| 5 O74 |11°4} 39170°5
30038; In 3 . | 33281°7 2546'5| 1 », |11°5| 39258°1
: 29962) 5n » | 9°6| 33366:0 $25449; 1 | ,, » | 39282°8
4 2987°3| 2n ” », | 38465-4 || 19 2499'9} 3 0:73 |11-7 | 39989-9
|15 | F2980°8| 10s | O84) ,, | 33538°4 2495:5| 1 ” » | 40060°4
. 29718) 2 » | 33640°0 2487:9| 3 » {11°8| 40182-7
29646) In » | 97) 33721°7 | 2478°7 |2(Cd?) sy » | 40331°9
12961°8| 2b’| ,, » | 33753°5 || 20 24700} 4 0°72 |11:9} 40473°9
29524) 2 ” » | 338610 | 24461) 2 » |12°0| 40869-4
2948'9| 4 ” » | 33901°2 | 2433°8| 1 5, {12-1} 410759
29266) J 0°83) 9°8 | 34159°5 24266) 1 » [12-2] 41197-7
2 29109) 4 » | 9:9) 34343°7 2423°9} In ” » | 41243°6
| 28937) 1 0°82 |10°0 | 34547°8 || 21 24189) 4 O71) ,, | 41328-9
$2880:'9 | 10b 3 »» | 34701°4 || 24186) 1 ” » | 41334-0
428684.) 5b | ,, |10°1| 34852:5| 2411'2| 1 »» [12:3] 41460°8
728620) 2b | O81) ,, | 349305 | 2377:0| 2 », |12°5| 42057°3
$2837-:0| 8b » |10°2| 35238°3 | 2375:0| 1 ” » | 42092°8
2834°4| 3b ‘ », | 309270°6 | 2355°4| 1 0°70 |12°6 | 42443-0
28239; 1 0°80 |10°3 | 35401-7 | 23505} 1 9 [12-7] 425314
28185) 1 i » | 35469°6 | 23435} 1 ” » | 42658°5
28055 | 2 o » | 35634-0 2333'2| 1 » |12°8| 428468
2802°7| 1 nc » | 396696 $2329'4| 7s » » | 42916°7
2795°7| 2 » |10°-4| 35758°8 || 22 | 2321-2) 8s | 0°69 /12°9| 43068°3
2780°1) 1 0:79| ,, | 35959°5 || 23 | ¢2313:0| 10b » {13:0} 43220°9
27751) 6s » {105} 36024-2 72306°7| 5s ” » | 43339-0
2773:1| In ” », | 36050°2 | $2288'1| 10sv| ,, |13°2| 43691-2
2767°2| 2 ” » | 36127-1 422675) 38s | 0°68 ]13°3| 44088:1
2764:3| 4s + » | 36165:0 || 24 | 2265-1} 10sv|_,, », | 44134°9
f2757:1; 1 » » | 36259°5 2248°7| 1 » |13°5) 44456°6
$2748°7 | 10s » {106} 36370°2 | $2239'9| 3 5 » | 44631°3
727340) 3 078} ,, | 36565°8 | 2228:1| In | 0°67 13:6) 44867-7
2726°9| 2 » |10°7| 36661:0) 22243) 3n » {13:7 | 44944°3
$2712-0 ne » | 36862°5 | 22040) Inv} ,, |13°8| 45358-2
27069} 2 BS », | 36931'9 || 25 | 72194-7| 5s », j13°9| 45550-4
{2677-7| 8 0°77 |10'9 | 37334°6 2187'9| 1 » {14:0} 45691-9
26710; 2 » | 37428%3 | 21831) 1 i » | 45792°4
26683) 2 oe » | 374661 72168°8| In | 0°66 |14:2| 46094-2
72660°5| 7 ” » | 375760 | $2144:5) Ssv} ,, |14-4| 46616°5
12639°8| 3b | 0°76 11:0, 37870-0 | 2111°6| 2sv} 0°65 j14°7 | 47342°7

Compare Hartley and Adeney’s list of Cadmium Spark Lines. Report, 1884

300 REPORT—1895.

Mercury (Line Spectrum).
Eder and Valenta: ‘ Denkschr., Wien,’ Bd. lxi. 1894.

The lines given below all occur in the spectrum of a mercury vacuum-tube
strongly heated and excited by a powerful condensed spark. Those marked * occur
also on a tube on higher pressure (10 mm. to 1,000 mm.) between 180° C. and 1,00U° C.
with the condensed spark. Those marked f+ occur in a highly exhausted tube between
15° C. and 80° C., with the spark without condenser. ‘Those marked § occur in the
condensed spark between mercury electrodes at atmospheric pressure, and those
marked || occur in the arc-spectrum.

** Probably double. @ Observed also by Vogel, Wied. Ann. v. 500.
Reduction to
’ : Vacuum ne
ica me ty Previous Measurements | —____ Pa
(Rowland) | Character (Angstrom) ae ie in Vacuo
A
6363°5 2*§ 6360 Huggins 173 | 4:3 157103
6152°3 9*S 6151-2 Thalén 167 | 44 16249°7
5889°1 8*§ DSsoa Fe,, 160 | 46 16975°9
5880°5 2 5 s 17000°8
5872°1 8*S Bolt) " a 1702571
5864-4 2 Se lp bards 170474
5854°5 1b | 1:59 ss 17076°3
5840°6 1 ees " 171169
5834-0 3 » AT | 17136°2
5819°1 4*§]| 56817 Huggins Ngee eran | 17180:1
5804°3 10*f|| 5800 iD 1358 |) 6) 17223°9
5790°5 2*t§ || 5789°6 Thalén 9» . 17265-0
5781°9 1 x 3 172906
5769°5 10*f§|| 57681, 157 a 17327'8
57466 3 to 3 wi 17396°9
5727-7 5 1:56 Bs 17454:3
5717-0 1 5 4:8 174869
5713-4 2 | - i 17497°9
5699-0 3 1:55 a 17542°1
5695°7 1 4 a 175523
5679-1 10*§ pGTSel 7; ra 17603°6
5665'8 3 154 53 176450
5662°5 3 : i 17655:2
5637°8 7* i if 177326
5596-0 8*S Boo Serle 153 | 49 178650
55879 2 1:52 a || 17890°9
5576°2 3 ” ” 17928 5
6571:2 8 ‘5 - 17944°6
5553°6 4*b Rt 18001:4
5541°0 6* Teo . 180424
5513-4 3b 1:50 | 18132°7
5501-4 2 a 50 | 181722
5490:0 3 4 ; 18209°9
**5 484-6 4 aa ae | 18227°9
5476°3 4 1:49 ) 18255°5
5461-0 10*t§||b 54606 FA A a 183067
5455-0 3 ase e 183268
5449°9 3 cab te 183440
5443-2 3 ile Sn 18366°5
5426°5 10*§b 42671, Viale Val epee) 184231
5416°9 3 hy wiles. A 18455°7
5398-5 2. | Leste WP 6pl | 18518°6
5393-4 eee A is 18536'1
6384-9 1 Ms os 18565°3

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLFS OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 301

MeRcuRY (LINE SPECTRUM)— continued.

Reduction to

Wave- Intensity | Previous Measurements hit sa Oseil'ation

length and (Angstrém ) aa. ear Frequency
(Rowland) | Character Aes ns in Vacuo

a

5373°2 3 1.47 51 18605°8
5365°5 2*§]| 364:6 Thalén ae ys 18632°5
5360°6 In 1:46 5S 18649°5
5355°5 1 Pan itoare 18667°3
5352°4 1 onl ess 186781
5346°3 3 % 5 18699°4
5334'3 2b ” ” 18741°5
5311°7 4 1:45 +4 18821°3
5308-0 1 35 = 18834°4
5294-7 2 7. 5-2 188816
5288°7 6* 1-44 3 18903:0
5284°2 3 % % 18919°1
5281°5 5 pets re 18928°8
5279'3 4*§ 52786 i, “ 7 18936°7
5275°5 1 3 in 18950°3
5273°7 4 as co 189568
5254:0 2 “ ” 19027'9
52428 ae 1:43 3 190686
5233°8 4* # 8 19101°4
5218-0 T*S baLy2 5 Wai 53 4 19159°2
52112 4 | 1:42 38 19184-2
5207:0 T*S 52062 _—s«, ess 5:3 19199°6
5196°6 4 * Py 19238'0
5190°7 1 Fa 19259°9
5187-5 2 ii is 192718
5172-4 2n 1-41 3 19328°1
5163:2 4* pe ers 19362°5
5149-2 4* a 5 19415°2
5141°5 1 ss 5 19444°3
51356 5 1-40 7 19466°6
5132-0 7§ 51312 —S,, % 19480°3
5113°7 1 54 19549'9
5107°3 3 f e 19574°4
51029 3 | * - in 19591°3
51005 1 1:39 % 196005
5098°4 2 = + 196086
50863 1 3 As 19655:3
5083-0 2 oe . 19668:0
50736 2 93 i 19704°5
5068-2 7 rs is 19725°5
5062°6 4 1:38 is 197473
5058°4 1 5 - 19763:7
5051-8 1 3 = 19789°5
5048-4 ZN 35 aa 19802°9
5045°7 4 | = i 198135
5042°4 2 a i 19826°4
5038°3 2 ‘ - 19842°6
5027-1 1 ss 55 19886°7
5020°9 2 137, ni 19911:2
5018°4 2 ¥ - 19921°2
5008°6 2b ee - 199602
4992°5 5 es x 20024°5
4986:7 3 1:36 i 20047°8
4981-3 3 Me 20069°6
4974-0 6* a 20099-0

302 REPORT—1895.

Mercury (LINE SPHCTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to
Wave- Intensity | Previous Measurements St ae Oscillation
length and (Angstrém ) ce ple Frequency
(Rowland) | Character u in Vacuo
At Re

4970°0 1 1:36 | 55 | 20115°2
4965-4 1 “ 20133°9
4959°7 4*§]|b 49581 Thalén : > 20157-0
4949-4 3 Doel A 20199-0
4943°4 1b » | 86 20223-4
4933-0 2 » x a 20266-0
4917-9 2 % a 20328'3
4916-4 4*+§]| 49161 ,, Loa oe 20334°5
4913-0 2 PM errr 5 203486
4902°1 4* 5 lS Se 203938
4898°3 i a - | 20409°6
4895°8 2 : Pe 204201
4880°2 1 * ei} 204854
4869°9 3)) » 1:33 3 an 20528'7
4867°3 4f ” aii 20539°7
4864'8 3 i * 20550°2
4856°6 3 S 57 20584:8
4849-4 1 7 ‘ont 20615°4
48446 9s 3 5 206358
4841°3 4* 132)! »,, 20649°9
4826-0 8*§ ad ae 20715°4
4813-0 4* ae | les 20771°4
4797-4 8* Pat ie 20838°9
AT73°7 1 th aesal BB: 20942°3
47681 6 | Nn a 20966°9
4753°4 3* (30 Ey 21031:8
ATALT 6* A OEY ae 21070°3
4740°3 1 aN aes 21089°9
4729°9 8 1:29) ae | 211363
4697-9 1 soe] Bala} 21280°2
4689°1 1 1:28 roe 21320°1
4687-0 1 5 eo 21329°7
4681-6 2n ee 21354:3
4667°5 2 . a 21418°8
4664-2 1 e i, 21434:0
4661:0 7* a ¥ 21448°7
4651-7 5 127 bl) ee 21491°6
4647°8 2 me ae fe 21509°7
4639'3 1 ae ee 2154971
4637-0 2 a Eh is 21559'8
4635°9 1* .; » | 21564:9
4634-2 1 ee 6-0 | 21572°7
4630°5 1 tl es 21589:9
4626-2 2b ale Pos 21610-0
4620°5 1 ee 21636°7
4616-5 1 126 Sh xs. 3 21655°4
46048 2 a a4 21710°5
4602-9 2 a 21719°4
4600°7 2 » |» 21729°8
4598:2 5* SS ae: 21741°6
4593°5 1 ah Bee - Ot 21763:9
4587-1 2 fe a 4 217943
4580°1 In 1:25 Hits, | 21827°6
4578°2 1 Seg te 21836°6

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 308

MEROURY (LINE SPECTRUM) —continued.

Reduction to

Wave- Intensity | Previous Measurements , aia Oscillation
length and (Angstrém) a Freouency
| (Rowland) | Character we ilps in Vacuo
a A

45715 1 1°25 6:0 21868°6
4568°8 2b » ” 21881°6
4562°3 21 « “p 61 21912°7
45538 6s ” ” 21953°6
4547°0 2 ”» ” 219864
4544-2 4 eae oes 2000-0
4541°7 1 | 1:24 ” 22012°1
4539°9 in oF ” 22020°8
4537°7 2n ” ” 22031°5
45349 1 ” ” 22045'1
4532°7 2 “4 ms 22055:8
4530°3 1 ” Pa 22067°5
4525°1 1 ” ” 22092°9
4522°9 6*3 HH ” 22103°6
45189 1 AY ” 22123°2
4516-4 4 ” ” 22135°4
4511°5 2 ” ” 22159°5
4507:2 2 5 ” 22180°6
4505-0 1b | | 1:23 ” 22191°5
44199°8 1 | ” ” 22217°1
4498-0 1 ” ” 22226°0
44950 1s os 6:2 22240°7
4493°2 1s | ” ” 22249°6
4491-9 1 ” ” 22256°1
4490°3 3 0 FA 22264:0
4486'8 8*b Se nie ass 22281-4

| 4483-7 3 “ 9 22296°8
_ 4480°7 1 S Ph 22311°7
4470°5 5* ” ” 22362°7
4466°7 2n 1:22 of 22381:7
4464°2 3 ~ ag 22394:2
4461-5 1 oss eo sedges

' 4459°3 3 ” ” 22418'8
| 4454-1 2n ss a 224450
| 4450-7 1* a, a 22462:2
«44464 3 ” ” 22483-9
4435'8 3: ” ” 22537°6
4434-2 2 ” y 22545'8
4431°6 2 7 63 22558°9
4425°9 8b 1:21 & 22588:0

j 4422:2 2 ” ” 22606'9
} ‘ 4420°6 2 ” ” 226151
4416-0 1 ” ” 22638°6
4415-4 3 os iy 226417
4414-0 3 aS 22648°9
44121 3 4 oy 22658°6
4408°4 i ! ” 22677-T
44015 10*b 9 ” 227132
4391-9 10*b | 1-20 a 22762°9
4385°7 8 “s ay db 227951
4382:9 8 mo a 22809°6
4378'7 8* ih tore Ble css 22831°5
4376-1 10* “A 35 22845:1
4372°6 2t | ” ” 228634
4369°6 1 To rae 22879'1

304 REPORT—1895.
MeERcuRY (LINE SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
. Vucuum sy oye
Wave- eee Previous Measurements | nines
length Character (Angstrom) | ae eles in Vacuo
A

4358°6 10*f§]| 4358°0 H.& A.,4358 1T.| 1:20 64 22936°7
4347-7 10*F§}| 4348-0 H. & A. 119 7 229943
4344-2 2 43410, cae et te 23012°8
4339-5 6*f§ || a3 aly ta 23037:7
4336°9 8 36 6 23051°5
4333°4 3 53 5) 23070°2
4329°1 1 + os 23093°1L
4327:2 5 6 nf 23103°2
4324-7 5 = 7 231166
4320°4 8 in ; 23139°6
4318°3 1 | 1-18 * 231509
4315°8 1 Ne gs of 23164°3
4314:2 \ 4 ” ” 23172°9
431279 ab a = 23179°9
4310°3 2 ree leer 23193°8
4308°6 1 », | 6:5 23202°9
4306°6 4 Sells bias 23213°7
4305°5 4 rm F 23219°6
4304:0 1 ” ” 23227°7
4301°7 2b ” ” 232401
4300°0 1 by os a 23249°3
4297°6 5 \ ¥ “r + 23262°3
4292°3 5 a 23291°0
42901 3 ” ” 23303°0
4288°2 2 5 23313°3

**4285°1 6 ” ” 23330°2
4282-7 6* - 2 23343°2
4276°7 3b Le es 23376°0
42701 3 % 4 234121
42642 8*b ” ” 23444°6
4261°6 8*b rr 4 23458°9
4259°0 2 * on 23473°2
4257°6 3 - ¥ 23480°9
42564 4 ” ” 23487°5
4255°2 2 A on 234942
4252-7 4 : 66 23507°9
4249-2 2b + A 23527°2
4248-9 5 ee + 235289
4237-7 5 1:16 +n 2359L1
4234°5 6* oF 6 23608°9
4232°8 4 A £ 23618-4
4230°1 ti = A 23633°5
4227-4 8* is as 236486
4225°4 2 _ es 23659°8
4221°6 6* ay ay 23681-1
4219°4 1 > e 23693-4
42186 2 ase | Ay 23697°9
4216°8 10*$b ree | ee 237081
42118 6* oP alaes: 23736°2
4206°6 5 5 - 23765°6
4200°8 1 15 5 23798-4
4199°1 1 3 6:7 23807°9
4196°8 6 x : 23821:0
4192-4 5* 3 +s 23846:0
41860 7 23882°4

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 305

Mercury (LINE SPECTRUM)—continued.

ge Ua to
. acuum eame
Wave- ss er Previous Measurements Peron
length Shaniee (Angstrém) 1 in see
A+ ye
4183°0 i 1.15 | 67 23899°6
4181°5 1 ” ” 23908°2
41785 8* ” oA 239253
41759 6 or 1 23940°2
4169:0 Oe 1-14 F, 23979°9
4167°8 1 ” ” 23986°8
4165°7 1 ” ” 23998'9
41646 1 Af 7 24005-2
4162:0 8* 99 + 24020°2
4157-1 4 “r * 24048-5
4155-1 a “ A 24060°1
4149°5 3 s ot 240926
4148°6 1 * 6°8 24097°7
4145:0 2 = oh 24118°6
4143°7 1 * A 24126°2
41405 1 | + 3 24144:9
41349 2* 9 7 24177°6
4132-7 1 9 5 24190°5
41243 2 ; 1:18 i 24239°7
41230 1 ” ” 24247°4
4120°9 8*Sb ” ” 24259°7
4117°5 3 ” ” 24279°8
4115°3 8*§ es Fh 24292°8
4109-1 6*§ FA s 24329°4
4106°9 6* oe + 24342°5
41041 8* 3 Ft 243591
4098:0 3 3 69 24395:2
4096'5 1 ” ” 24404:2
4093-1 2 Pp 1:12 “5 24424°5
4091°8 2 Pe # 24432-2
4088-4 2 a cf 244525
4086:9 i rf - 244615
4084°6 1 5 1 244753
4083:1 ae 3 i 24484°3
4080°7 1 EA oF 24498-7
4078:1 10*f§||b ” ” 24514°3
4077:0' 5 40775 H.& A. be Ps 8 24520°9
4073°6 4 eee fF 24541°4
4069°8 3 “5 ii 24564°3
4066:7 2 Fs i 24583°1
40625 2 ” ” 24608°5
4061°8 1 i ‘5 24612°7
4061:0 4 ” ” 24617°6
4057°9 4*t An 3 2463264
4056-0 1 $i 3 24647°9
4054°5 1 siti a 246570
4053°5 4 r 3 24663°1
4046°84 10*+§|| 4046-5 H & A. * 7:0 24703'9
4040°7 5*§ | ss 3 24741:2
4037°5 4 55 8 24760°8
4035°3 5 ss 3 247743
4033-0 Tb ” » 24788°4
4030°9 1*§ ee re 24801°4
4029-9 3 es is 24807°5
4024-4 8*§b 3 Ps 24841-4. |

1895. x

306 REPORT—1895.
Murcury (LiInE SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction
Wave- Intensity | Previous Measurements to Vaenum Oscillation
length and (Angstrém) Frequency

(Rowland) | Character re ting in Vacuo
A

4022-0 1 1:11 7-0 248562
4021:0 2 on ee 24862°4
402071 4 5 a 24868:0
4014'8 iE 1:10 et 24900°'8
4011:0 2 ” ” 24924-4
4010-0 1 5 39 24930°7
4006'0 8*b ” ” 24955°6
4003°5 4 a 71 24971°0
4001°8 3 és is 24981°6
3999°9 if ” ” 249935
3999-2 2 s oe 24997°9
3998-2 1 99 5 25004'2
3996°8 1 * = 25012°9
3995'8 1 5 i 25019°2
39938 6 a > 25031°7
3989 8 2 * 4 25056'8
39688 | 1 a ‘ 25063'1
39841 | 10*§||b 3984-0 H. & A. y > 25092°7
39788 4 as “ 2512671
3976°5 6 ] »” ” 25140°6
3971°6 1 ” ” 25171°7
39703 1 | ” 25 25179°9
3967°9 8*b a a 25195°1
39649 4* = 3 25214°2
3962-9 Bl x ” , 25226'9
3960°2 5s 3 :. 25244-1
3954-7 6 by 7:2 25279°2
395171 2 - 25302°2
3950°2 3 ee 25308'0
3948°3 Tb ” ? 25320°2
3945-2 6* ns = 25340°1
3942-3 3 - 7 253587
3939-6 3 35 . 2537671
3936-7 5 | 1:08 = 25394'8
3931-7 2 Se ss 254271
3930°3 2 s 4 2543671
3928°1 6 i 3 254504 |
3925-5 $b | 4 : 25467°3
3922-0 if | a ES 254900
3918-9 7 | if zs 25510°2
3916-4 5 ; ~ 255264
3914-5 5*§ | Al = 25538'8
3911-1 1 \ * gens 25561°]
3909-7 ] | e ie 25570°2
3908-9 2 “ 73 265753
3906-6 4*t¢$|[b 3 : 25590°4
3904-4 2 | ‘ bs 25604:'8
3903-7 3 ; :; 25609°4
3902.1 ies a 3 2561979
3901-6 ] - = 25623°2
3900°1 5 Ae 3 256331 |
3899-0 4 A 2 25640°3
3897°5 1 * 25650°2
389673 1 1:07 os 25658°1

———

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 307

Wave-
length
(Rowland)

3895-6
F 3887°3
: 3883-9
3882:0
38811
3878-0
3875°2
3874:3
3873°6
3870°3
3869°3
q 3864-0
3863°4
3860-4
3857°5
3856°6
3851:2
3845:1
3843:2
3842:0
3840°5
3839°49,
**3837°8
3835-9
3834-6
3833°6
3832-6
3829°6
3829-4
3826°8
3822°7
3820°69
3817-7
3816°3
3814-2
3812-7
38115
; 38111
} 3810-4
3809-0
¢ 3807°6
“Te 3803°6
: 3801°5
: 3797-6
“ 3795'8
* 3792-7
379049
3788°0
3787-2
37863
3784-6
3783:8
3782°5
3780°8
3779-7

C—O ee OO

MERCURY (LINE SPECTRUM) —continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Ot et OD
i=]

*

at
*
77)

Bea ees BENS CERO ras 02 Ol ats

*
770)
o

5 —~
%

ayn en ree abo Ss RA CTA BOARS BO Pets CAA
77) aR
5 o

woe
* *
ou

o

%
7)
lo”

RP NN RR Re ewe we

Previous Measurements

(Angstrom)

3859:0 H. & A.
38200 ,,
3807-0

3800°0 ,,
3790°0 ,,

Reduction to

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

Vacuum
eg 1
| + sree
A
| *
LO7 + | 7:3
” | ”
|
” ”
” 3
” ”
” ”
” ”
2” ”
|
| ” ”
|
| ” ”
| ” ”
| ”? ”
” ?
? 29
” ”
1:06 9
” ”
” ’
” ”
| ” ’
|
” ”
2 ’
j ” ,
7 ]
|
”
i
] ” ’
|
| LY 9
3? ”
” ”
” 39
” ”
” ”
=
- 74
1:05
) 105 | ss

S

~

25662°7

25717°5
25740:0
25752'6
25758°6
25779°2
257978
25803'8
25808°5
25830'5
25837°2
25872°6
25876'6
25896°8
25916°2
25922°3
25958°6
25999'8
26012'7
26020°8
26031:0
26038°4
26049°3
26062-2
26071:0
26077 8
26084°6
26105°1
26106°4
26124°2
26152-2
26166°6
26186°4
26196:0
26210°4
26220°7
262290
26231:7
26236°6
26246°2
26255:°9
26283°5
26298:0
263250
26337'5
26359°0
26375:0
26391'8
26397°3
26403-°6
26415°5
26421°1
264301
26442:0
26449-7
x 2

308

REPORT—1895.

Mercury (LINE SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wave-
length
(Rowland)

Intensity
and
Character

3776°5
3774-39
3770°7
3762'2
3759°9
37573
3756°6
3T555Y
3752'5
3751'8
3750°9
3747°5
3743°9
3742'6
3741°7
3740°7
37389
3735:0
3729°5
3726'9
37263
| 3724°7
| 37180
3715°5
3712:9
3711-2
3709°6
3708'2
3707°6
3707°0
3705°7
37049
3704-6
| 3703-4
3702'4
3701°4
3698'6
3695'6
3691'8
3690:0
3689:2
3688°5
3685°2
3680°7
3665°4
3663'3
3661°4
3659°4
3656-4
3654-9
3651-9
3650°3
3644-5
3642:5
2638-5

3n
8*b
5*§||b

*§ (br

1O*tS |b
3

i
1

8*f$ |
3

10*f$||
5

WODR RK RPWH NRF WORK WN RWW RE RW RE RE Ob eee br bw

or

Reduction to

Vacuum
Previous Measurements |__
(Angstrém) | 4

A+ | ae
1-04 TA

” ”
3770-0H. & A. wh Ce
” ”

” ”

” ”

, ”

” ”

” ”

3751:0 ” ” ”
” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

» ”

” ”

” ”

1:03 ay

”» ”
s 76

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

1:02 5

” ”

” ”

be ”

” ”

” ”
SOoL9) es ae
” ”

‘Sg » i »
” ”

| ” ”
1:01 oF

36544, ” ”
” %”

3650-09 5 4
” %”

ay »”
A 78

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

26472°1
26487°6
26512°8
26572°7
265889
26607°4
26612°3
26620°1
26641°4
26646°4
26652'8
266770
26702°6
26711°9
267183
26726'5
26738°3
26766'3
268057
26824'3
26828-7
26840°2
26888°6
269067
26925°5
26937°9
26949°5
26959°7
26964:0
26968°4
26977°8
26983°7
26985'9
26994°6
27001'9
27009°2
27029°6
27051°6
27079°5
27092:7
27098°5
27103°7
271280
27161:0
27274°4
27290°1
273043
27319°2
27341°6
27352°8
27375°3
27387°3
274309
27446-0
27476°0

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 309

MERcuRY (LINE SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to

Wave- | Intensity | previoys Measurements |__~"™ Oscillation
length and = ° (Angstrém) Frequency
(Rowland) | Character ee at in Vacuo
A
3633°5 3* 1:01 78 27513'9
3632°5 1 ” ” 27521-4
3630°3 5 9 oF 27538-1
3627°6 1 ” ” 27558°6
3623-4 Is ” ” 27590°6
3620°0 1 ” ” 27616°5
36186 5S ” ” 27627°2
3616°0 2 1:00 » 27647°1
3613°7 4S ” ” 27664:7
3610°7 1 ” x 27687-7
3609°1 1 ” | ” 27699°9
3607-6 5§ 3 5 27711:5
3604-2 28 ” “, 277376
3594-7 3§ 3 79 27810°8
3593-2 3§ 9 + 27822°4
3590°9 1§ A 278403
35777 28 0:99 x 27943-0
3561°5 5*t§||b 356071 H. & A. ” ” 28070°2
3549°6 1 ” 8:0 281642
3543-7 5*f§||b 3542°3—,, i ” 282111
3533'5 2 0:98 5 28292°6
3518°0 1 ” = 28417-2
35001 1 ” 81 28562°5
3494°5 1§ 34926 ,, 0:97 + 28608°3
3473°6 1§ 34734, ” » 28780°5
3456'3 1 0-96 | 82 28924°5
3451°8 2§ 34514, - 7 28962-2
3440°6 1 = -, 29056°5
3437°1 i ” of 29086°1
3434-7 1 29 5 29106°4
3431°7 2b y 8:3 291318
3423°5 1 2 4) 29201°6
34149 1 0°95 “5 29275:1
3410:0 1 5 a 29317°2
3407'1 1 ’ ” 293422
339671 if 9 8-4 29437°1
3390°5 5t§||b 3389°5 ‘ cf 29485°8
3386°6 s = nF 29519-7
3366°7 2t§||[n 3365°5 i, 0:94 + 29694:'3
3351°5 4t§|| 33512 ~—C, " 85 29828-9
33417 6t§|| 33412 Sy, fe Si 29916°4
3320°5 1 33264 =, 0:93 | 86 30107°3
3305°2 1$|| » is 30246°8
3278'5 2t§ 0:92 | &7 30493'1
3264:3 2tS || ” ” 30625°7
3227°5 2§ 0-91 | 88 309749
3208-7 3t§ a207- ss 0:90 | 8&9 311564
3207-7 1 ay a 31166".
3144°6 3$||b 0°89 | 91 31791-4
3135-9 1||/n 0:88 - 31879-7
31318 5t§|| 3130-4 » |» 31921-4
3125°8 5t§|| 31248 ry 5S 31982°7
8116°5 1 3 a9 32078°2
3107°7 1 or 9-2 32168:9
3096-0 2 || 3094:0 H. & A. 0:87 + 32290°5

310 REPORT—1895.

MERCURY (LINE SPECTRUM)—continued.

| Reduction to
Wave- Intensity : Me a Oscillation
length and Previous Measurements }——{_—_—_ Frequency
(Rowland) | Character | (Angstrom) ee ay in Vacuo
A
3093°3 1 0:87 | 9:2 32318-7
3090°6 1 bs 3 32347-0
3085°4 1§|n » ” 32401°5
3051-0 25 || 0:86 | 9-4 327667
3038°7 2i|s * ; 32899°4
3027°6 2Fll ” ” 33020°1
3023°7 2tll ” 9°5 33062°6
3021-6 3T$|| 3021-0 H. & A. 0:85 J 33085°5
3011-2 1jn s- 4 33199°8
3007'0 2§|[n * 5: 33246:2
2972°8 1s 084 | 96 33628°7
2967°4 St§|| 29664 4, + 97 33689'8
2955°3 1 - 5 33827°8
2953 3 m9 9 | ‘Nm ier 33850°7
2947°5 3t§ 29466, 7 - 339174
2942°6 ln / 0:83 | 9°8 33973'8
2941°3 ln it 7 33988'8
29398 1§ 35 ” 34006:1
2935°8 28 29355, . is 34052'5
2925°5 7t§ || 2925-2 » al | 34172°4
2916-4 3t$ | 2915-3 4, % 99 | 342789
2915°5 1 3 ‘ 34289'5
2893°7 =| ss 7F$ll 28929, 0:82 | 10-0 34547'8
28868 | 1§ § 5 34630°4
28822 =| 1f § . 34685°7
28733 | «28s * ‘ 34793-2
28651 | 28||b 5° 1104 34892-7
28571 | 4t§|| 0:81 » | 34990°4
23620 = | 1 ‘s an 35053-0
28479 | 8t§| | 28468 ,, i." HI 35103-4
28420 | In | i, si 351763
Ac! aca is x 35263-2
28335 | 26§|| 57) ee - 35281°8
28200 | 4t§ilb | 2819-7 0:80 | 10:3 354507
28065 | 1f§ | 2810-0 H. & A. * x 35621°3
23044 | 14§ 28045 - " 356479
2803°7 3t§ || | i. i 356569
27998 1§ | 27985 ,, - a. 35706'5
27912 =| «38 27900 si, eee! 358165
27891 =| 1 i, an 35843°5
27846 | 1 % ond 35901°4
2781-0 1 | 0-79 ah 35947°9
2774-7 25 | | 27732 ,, nt 10 36029°4
2767°6 1 ‘ _ 361219
27622. | 2 . ¥ 36192°5
27593 =| -2t§| D1608 5 é 36224-0
2752°9 6tS|| 2751-5 ie 363148
2741:3- | In 0:78 | 10-6 36468'4
27265 ~* | --1§ ss 4 Or 366664
27242 | 18 = ‘ 36697°3
2710°4 1§ § a 36884-2
2705°5 1§ te “ 36951-0
2702-7 25 27020 H. & A. » 1208 36989-2
2699°5 3tll “= i 37033'1
2686-7 28 |b | 0-77 ‘4 372096

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 311

Mercury (LINE SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to

Jae . .
Wave- Intensity | Previous Measurements Ypcuam Oscillation

length and make [an a Frequency
(Rowland) Character Capertnim) Pees eo in Woe
A
2675°2 1|| 0:77 | 10:9 37369'5
2672'8 1§]| eee ara 374030
26645 1 fhe sca | ae 37519°6
2660°6 1§]| § | 375746
2658°6 In 2657°6 H. & A. = ae | 37602°9
2655°3 2t§ || s — 37649°6
: 26539 2t§ |] 0-76 |11:0 37669°4
2652°2 3t§|| 26522 = 5, = 5 37693°5
2648°3 18} 9» - 377491
2642°7 28 |b 26446 5, ; : 37829°1
2640°5 1t 26406 ,, - * 37860°6
; 2629-0 In ese | LIL 380262
| 26257 ~-| 1 pi o 38074:0
| 2614°8 1 ” ” 38232°7
| 2609°7 28 | 0-75 | ,, 38307°5
2605°3 28 | LL 38372°1
2603-1 3t§ 26023, “ ne 384045
2598°3 1 = i 38475°5
7 2584:7 25 2584-2 ,, be LS 38677°9
| 2576°3 3t§|| nat: 5 388041
2575°2 25 25753. ay #5 = 38820°6
2564-1 1t$|| 0-74 | 11-4 38988°6
2561-4 1 i er 39029°7
‘| 2558-0 1§ z i 390816
2540°4 28 || Seagal 39352°4
2536-7 6tS || 25358 #8 eal 39409°8
2534-9 3t§]| 2533'8 % 33 39437°8
2524'8 28 |b 2522°7 sp Le 39595°5
2515-2 2§ 2514-3 O7ZBealonss 397467
2507-2 1 ater | 398734
2505-0 18} $ RS cath 39908°5
2499-4 1 ” ” 39997°9
2492°2 3t§s 2491-4 ee Gh ae 40113°4
| 24902 1§ a x 40145°6
2483-9 1t$ 2484-2 aed 9 402475
‘ zisoa | 1+ ss i. 40263°7
| 2482-1 2t5 || : 7 40276°7
: 2478°8 1¢§||n 2477-7 - i 40330°3
2478-2 1+ b = 40340°1
| 2469-5 18 072 |11:9 | 4048-1
2468°1 28 24680 H. & A. ‘s oH 40505:1
| 2464-2 44§]|| 2463-7, i mgt: 405692
2459°6 1§ 24593, e320 406450
| 2447-0 2+ || ¥ + 408544
f 2414:3 ATS 2414-3 0-71 | 12-2 41407-7
| 2412°3 1t$|| nT tas 41441-9
| 2407-6 4t§ 2407°3 . ts _ 41522°8
23996 86; 2i| ees 3 41661°3
93903 | 1§ 2390-0 i, Ae! | 418233
2380°1 In | tes 42002'5
2378'4 3t$|| Fs 42032°6
2374-1 1\jn - _ 42108°7
2369-3 2§ 0-70 | ,, 421941
2354°3 1§ 2355°2 H. & A. PT, 42462'8
2353°6 1} 4 2 424754

312 REPORT—1895.
MeERcuRY (LINE SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
ee eed Previous Measurements ore ered Oscillation
en on Oo .
(Sonlaad) Character aac ut py cee
ee ed ae

2352°6 1fn 0-70 | 12-7 42493°5
2345-4 248] = és 42623°9
2341°9 1§ 2342-2 H. & A. Fr sh 42687°7
2340°5 1§ 2340°0 a 12°8 427131
2339°3 3§ 5 is 42735-0
2335'1 1§n P: 5 428119
2327°5 In 7 139 42951°7
2323°1 ln | 0°69 FF, 43033°0
2321:0 1§n Res 3 430720
2315-0 1§b 2315-2 3255 ne 43183°6
2301-6 1} \|b | ,, {18-0 43435:0
22964 1§b 2296°5 os 13:1 43533°3
22920 2$n 2292°6 Me a 43616°9
2284-0 1 oneal Be: 43769°6
2264:0 2t§b 2264:2 0°68 | 13:3 441563
saan | 24$]| 2263°3 » | 134 44191-4
2260:4 27§]|| 2261-4 + » 44226°6
2258°6 In a a3 44261°8
22529 2§|l 2254-0 By 7 44373°8
2244-1 1§ "3 13°5 44547°8
2230:0 2§ 2231:0 0°67 |13°6 44829°4
2224°7 21§||b 2225°7 PA 13°7 44936°2
2191°3 1§ 2190°9 antes 14:0 45621-0
2150°6 1§ 21480 0°66 | 14:3 46484°3

Mercury (Banp SpecTRUM—SparK IN Vacuum TusBE witnout LryDEN
JAR).

Eder and Valenta, ‘ Denkschr. Wien,’ Bd. 1xi., 1894.

Reduction

Reduction Bo Bho
Wave: pee bo Vespan EEE Wave. iraty to Vacuum ese
length Character rae eee length Character 1|3e>

A+] =-| SES A+ |---| BES

‘tae? i oi os
|

@45171 | 2s) S| 1-24| 61/22132-0 4477-0 | 3 1:23 | 6-2 | 22330-2
B45143 | 2s} s| ,, | » | 221457 4474-6 | 1 » | 9 | 22342-2
A530.) T \br5| .,,, |», | 22152 4465°5 | 3 1:22| ,, | 22387°7
45105 | ea ae. Mueeral ee laded: 4462°6 | 1 a. eee ODS
45087 2) | ,, | », | 221732 4451°4 | 2 f », | 22458°6
45052 | 2 1:23] ,, |22190°5 *4448'8 | 1 » | se | 22a718
*45025 | 2 a »» | 22203°8 4434-8 | 1 as | gg | 22542-7
44979 | 2 - », | 22226°5 4433-4 | 1 il y, | 22549°8
44954 | 1 », | 6:2 | 22238'8 43963 | 38s, |] 121 63) 227401
44934 | 1 . »» | 22248°7 a{ 43950 3s} 8! ,, | ,, | 227468
44893 | 3 id » | 22269:0 4393°2 | 4s = 1:20! ,, | 227561
44872 | 3 a », |22279°4 a s5020 3s(P"E} .. |, | 22759°3
4484-9 | 1 - 5 | 22290°8 4391°5 | ie | » | 227650
4478'8 | 3 a » | 22321-2 43904|3)] wl ,, », | 22770°7

* Perhaps double.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 313

MERcURY (BAND SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wave-
length

4389°4
43881
4386°5
4385°2
4384-4
4382°8
4389-0
4381:3
4380-0
4378°3
4378-0
4376:2
4374-9
4374-5
[4372-6

4370°6
4369-4
4369'1
4368°3
436671
4364-0
[4358-6

4353-2
4352°6
4350-0
[4347°7

4344-0
43431
43406
[4339-5

*4338'4
4336°8
4332'8
4332°0
4330°6
4330°1
4328°7
4326-4
4321-1
4319-6
4318-0
4317°6
4315-2
4308°3
4307°3
4305°6
4303-2

Reduction

i

|

B Lie. | ta § Reo
Intensity °° ecu BS 3 | Wave- | intensity po penum = 8 3
ot Ra as | =a eee and Rey
\Character Ae pe S| = Character es | Se
ene | ke i Ae |
| | | |
3 1:20} 6:3 | 22775°8 42948 | 2 118 | 6°5| 232775
3 » | 95) | 220026 4292°4 | 2 9 «| gy =| BaZ90°5
4 > | 9» | 22790°9 | 4991:2 | 2 7 », | 23297:0
3 te || Sige abeeionicd: | 4289°8 | 1 | os ee a04-6
3 5 +, | 22801°8 42823 | 1 » | 9, | 23345-4
2 o », | 228102 | 42781 | 2 117! ,, | 23368-4
2 6 » | 22814°3 4275°3 | 1 3 » |zeeso't
3 “e », | 22818-0 | 42665 | 1 es » | 23431°9
2 6 » | 22824:7 42629 | 1 a » | 23451°7
2 a », | 22833°6 4260°6 | 1 Ry » | 23464-4
2 ue » | 22835°2 4250°7 | 1 =5 66 | 23518'9
2 nd », | 22844°6 42461 1 FS » | 235444
1 “A » | 22851°4 4243°6 | 1 1:16] ,, | 235583
1 », | 22853°4 4233°8 | 1 5) Roe BOLe:s
3, line 22863°4 &e,&e. | Numer- |
spec- | ,, - | ous very | |
trum] faint
2 * » | 228739 | lines
1 *. + | 22880°1 4218-9 | 3s | 4, | | 236963
1 | 2 lpeser-7 || *laoi83 (331 SS) a | decnh Begg
1 Fe 6-4 | 22885°8 42180 | 1 Ci rr » | 23701°3
3 ee 3 | 22827°3 42176 | 2 rb 5) 3 » | 23703°6
3 Fi », | 229084 2906°8:)1 | Sb 5 |os5 BaTOsd
10b, line 22936-7 42159 |1]) | , | » | 2387131
spec- s P 4215:0 | 1 PA +» | 23718°2
trum] 4214-1 | 4s » | 9 | 28723°3
2 119) ,, |} 22965 2 B 1 4913:8 4s Fe » | 287249
2 is », | 22968 4 4212°9 | 5 » | 3: | 237300
3 « »» | 229821 42121 | 1 » | gp | 287845
10b, line 22994:3 || *4211-2 | 4 » | | 23739°6
spec- ” 3 4210-2 | 1 » | | 23745°2
trum] : 4209-1 | 3 ., a eT DLA.
2 a! », | 230139 4208°7 | 2 re » | 23753°7
2 » | 49 | 280186 4207°6 | 2 » | yy | 28759°9
3 3 » | 23031°9 4207:2 | 2 55 3 | 23762-2
10b, line 23037°7 42067 | 1 oF » | 23765°0
spec- cs Ps 42063 | 3 5 » | 23767°3
trum] *4205'5 | 2 1:15] ,, | 23771°8
1 +s 3» | 23043°6 4204-7 | 2 * », | 23776°3
5 o » | 28052°1 4203°5 | 1 ae 3 | 287831
1 » | 99 | 23073°4 42028 | 1 | is [age eBBVOT1
1 i , | 23077°6 4201°9 | 2 | ie We sen hemBraa2
2 rs », | 23085°1 | 4201°3 | 2 eee » | 28795°6
2 E ,, | 23087°8 41998 | 1 | ,, | 67] 288039
3 : », | 23095°2 4198°6 | 1 | os Phy. t 8820-8
1 99 », | 23107°5 4197°6 | 1 eaream eames Ki
1 33 », | 23135°9 41970 | 3 p. [8s5 1 SEBESS
1 » | ». (231489 | 4195-2 11 | a | o | 238301
a 1:18] ,, |231525 | 4194-4 | 2 | 4, | 9 | 23884°6
2 as », | 23154°6 | 4192°8 | 1 “4 » | 23843°7
1 Opa ee 231675 | 41923 | 1 » | 99 | 23846°5
1 5 6°5 | 232045 4191°6 | 2 A » | 238850°5
1 | 9 | 23209-9 4190°3 | 1 y» | 93 | 28857-9
3 | gp | 232191 41891 | 2 » | 9 | 23864:8
1 23232:0 4187-1 | 4 238762

314 REPORT—1895.
MeERcuRY (BAND SPECTRUM)—continued
Reduction) gg, | Reduction} ¢ 5,
Intensity | to Vacuum | 8 2 Intensity | t© Vacuum} -& 25
euED Character 1 3 5 z | eng Character 1 So =|
At x On | At AE Ons
4185-9 | 2 1:15] 6°7| 23883:0|| 4101-6 | 2 1.13,, 6-8 | 243739
41851 | 2 yy | Ua 2S887-6 || 6 ALONG | 2 » | on poses
41836 | 3 - » | 23896-2 | 4097°8 | 1 » | 69) 24396-4
4181-3 | 38 » | 9 | 289093 4096°7 | 1 »» | o» | 24403°0
4181:0 1 ” ” 23911-0 | 4096°2 1 ” ” 24406:0
4180-2 | 1 » | » | 23915°6)} 4091°8 | 1 1:12] ,, | 244322
4179-7 | 2 59 | hes. RBOLS'S 4089°9 | 3 » | 9 | 244436
4178'8 | 2 » | > | 289236 || 4087°3 | 2 » | ose | 2445971
4177-2 | 3 » | » | 28982°8 || © 4085:5 | 2 » | 9 | 24469°9
4175°0 | 4 » | 9 | 23945-4/| 40845 | 2 » 10x) |) 248759
41739 | 2 » | » | 23951°7 4079°5 | 1 o> [aay eeeO5'9
41725. | 3 » | 9 | 23959-7 40790 | 2 » | x» | 24508°9
4172-0 | 2 3 » | 23962:6|| [40781 | 8b,line| ,, »» | 245143
41700 | 3 » |'a | 2389741 || spec-
416971 | 1 5 BESS trum]
4167-8 | 3 1°14|>,, | 239868 || 4077-1 | 3 » 1 5 | 245208
4167:2 | 1 3» | x | 239902 40766 | 2 | » | o» | 245233
4166-2 | 2 3; »» | 23996-0 4075°5 | 1 » | 9» | 24530°0
*4164:8 | 3b » | 5, | 240040] 4073-0 | 2 | op 4%, | BHS450
41641 | 1 ob (ys, 4008-4 40717 | 2 » | 9 | 24552°9
41621 | 3 » | 9 | 24019°6 4063-9 | 2 » | » | 24600°0
41600 3 (a | Sy” We SAO81-8 40620 | 1 53 , | 24611°5
4157'9 | 2 1 ees », | 24043-9 4059°6 | 1 ) » | 24626-1
4156-7 4 | 5, | » | 24050°8|/ 4058-4 | 2 » | 24633°3
4155-0 | 1 » | + | 24060-7|| [4057-9 | 3s,line | ,, | ,, | 246364
4153-9 | 3 | 4, |g | 24067-1 spec- |
41520 | 4 | 3 (ees Pedorert| trum]
41490 1 , | 68) 24095-4 4050°7 | 1 1-11) 7:0 24680-1
4148-4 | 3 » |» | 24098-9]) 4049°8 | 2 » | 9» | 24685°6
41452 | 1 . lace | BaLLT-6 40490 | 1 7 » | 24690°5
41446 1 a. [tay 1 BELLO 40481 | 1 » | 9 | 24695-9
4143-3 | 4 | ee Ae aa as 4047°6 | 3 » | 9: | 24699°0
4142-4 | 1 | ., | y | 24133°8]} [40468 | 10b,line ,, | ,, | 24703°9
4139-4 | 4 bk hi Iemma TS spec- | |
41391 | 3 m » | 24153-0} trum]
4138-4 | 1 bose.) Lae 40445 | 3 loys’ dogy: IeaeaeS
4134-6 | 3 lo 1 Oey Ieee OS 40420 | 1 3 | 9 | 247882
4133°7 | 3 |’, [. (eases 4040°6 | 1 » | » | 24741°8
4129-9 | 2 | 1:13] ,, | 242069] 4038-7 | 1 » | sy (eReTSe4
41295 | 2 | 5 | oy | 24209:2 40371 | 1 oi | tape HBS 3
4128°8 | 2 » [%5. | 242433 4035°1 | 2 | os | sp HAIRS 'S
4124-0 | 2 [hay Paes 40346 | 1 | so | Pere SS
4123°8 | 2 Lge | Sag, Gee |) eeog4eee » | Carel,
41233 | 2 | sy | sp | 242456 40328 | 1 » oon IRBOT
4121:7 | 1 » | 9 | 24255°0') 4031-6 | 1 » | 9 | 24797-0
4119-6 | 2 » | 9 | 24267-4|| 4030°8 | 1 | ss Toop 4 @8B02-0
4118-9 | 2 5s [op | 242715 |) 4029-8 | 2 la [ae DRT
4117-5 | 1 | fap) B4279°8 4027°8 | 1 | ay | age SBO#
4113°3 | 2 » | x | 24304:6 40268 | 1 » |» | 248266
41128 | 1 » | 9 | 243075 4026-2 | 1 as | oy | 24830°3
4109°8 | 1 » | 9 | 248253) 4025-4 | 1 » | oo P 248352
41090 | 1 » |» | 24330°0|| 4024-2 | 1 » lia meee?
4108-2 | 4 o> hg, 4) 24384-8 | » 0222 | 4 » | 2 | 24855-0
4105°2 | 1 ss | » | 248525]; 4020-4 | 1 » | oy || 2486671
41019 | 3 24372'1|| © 4020:2 | 1 oy las (eaaeeT4

sl
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 312

MERCURY (BAND SPECTRUM)—continued.

; Reduction | gp. Reduction! gp, a
Intensity to Vacuum s = =] Intensity to Vacuum | ae A =

Wave- and 3 2 g Wave- and ee AC e| = oR:
length (oharacter 1 = oe length =| Character 1 3 2.

Gieoival || Cece At 157 | Ope

4018°8 | 1 1-11/ 7:0} 248760 3970-7 | 1 1:09 | 7-1; 25177°4
fa4017°5 | 4 ” » | 248841 397071 | 1 FA » | 25181°2
| 44017°5 | 4s re, op 3969°7 | 3 of » | 25183°7
a401771 | 4s 7 » | 24886°6 | 396971 | 2 a » | 25187°5
*4016°2 | 2 ro} oy » | 24892°2 | 3967°8 | 3 ” » | 25195°8
40151 | 3 8) 1:10) ,, | 24899-0| 3965°7 | 4 ) » | 25209°1

; 40149 | 1 oa eS » | 24900°2 | 3965°4 | 4 ” » | 252110

4013°5 | 2 brig a » | 24908°9 3963°8 | 3 ” », | 26221°2

| 4013-2 | 1 si! 5 + | 24910°8 || 3962°8 | 2 “p » | 25227°6
8 f 4012-0 | 4s = » » | 24918°2 || 3962-0 | 2 ” » | 25232°7
14011-6 | 4s ” , | 24920°7 3960°9 | 1 3 » | 25239°7

, 4010°8 | 3 o6 » | 24925°7 || 3959°6 | 4 “5 » | 25248°0

| 4010°6 | 3 » | 24926°9 || 39589 | 3 ” » | 25252°4

J 4009°8 | 3 x » | 24931°9 || 3957-4 | 3 “1 » | 25262°0

| 4009°2 | 1 ” » | 24935°6 || 395671 | 1 ” 7:2 | 25270°2
4008°6 | 3 ne »» | 249394 || 39557 | 2 rr » | 25272°8
4008°0 | 2 + > | 24943°1 || 3953°5 | 4 99 » | 25286°8
4007-1 | 3 x » | 24948°7 3952°3 | 2 -r » | 25294°5
400673 | 1 Fy » | 24953°7 3950°6 | 2 a s, | 25305°4
40061 | 2 3 » | 24954:°9 3949:0 | 3 es », | 253157
4005°2 | 6 + » | 24960°5 3946°7 | 3 “6 » | 253304
40044 | 2 “ » | 24965°5 3945-2 | 3 7 » | 2538401
4003°9 | 2 “ » | 24968°6 3943°0 | 2 ” » | 253542
4003'1 | 7 5 71| 24973°5 394171 | 2 +f » | 253664
4001°8 | 3 FA » | 24981°6 3941-0 | 1 An 3, | 2536771
4000°9 | 2 eh s, | 24987°3 3939°6 | 3 rh, » | 25376°1
4000°4 | 4 a » | 24990°4 3938°5 | 2 7 » | 25383°2
3999°7 | 2 » | | 24994°8 39367 | 1 1:0 », | 25394:8
3998°9 | 2 » | 9 | 24999°8 3935:1 | 2 aa » | 25405°1

*3997°3 | 5 » | 9 | 25009°8 39346 | 2 ie » | 25408°3
3996°1 | 1 a » | 25017°3 3932°7 | 1 oF » | 25420°6
3995'6 | 3 FY 5 | 250204 3931-9 | 3 = » | 25425°8

3994:0 | 4 Pe » | 25030°5 3929°9 | 2 a » | 25438°7

, 3993-9 | 4 oy | 93 | 200311 3926°9 | 2 + » | 25458°2

: 3991°8 | 5 » | 9» | 250443 3923°9 | 3 Pr » | 254776

: 3990°9 | 1 FE » | 25049°9 || 39218 | 3 a » | 25491°3

: 399071 | ? a s, | 250549 39189 | 2 re » | 25510°2

¥ 3989°9 4 ” ” 25056°2 3918°1 2 ” ” 25515°4

f 3987°6 | 3 + » | 25070°6 39176 | 1 % » | 25518°6

‘| 3987°3 | 3 » | 9 | 28072°5 39158 | 3 » | 99 | 555304

7 3986:0 | 4 » | a | 25080°7 3914°6 | 1 : » | 205382

4 39854 | 4 a » | 25084°5 39132 | 2 a » | 25547°3

; 39833 | 3 2 » | 25097°7 3910°3 | 2 “i » | 255663

' 3982°4 | 3 “y » | 251038°4 3908°4 | 1 rf 73) 25578°6

} 8981°5 | 4 ce » | 25109°1 39067 | 3 = » | 25589°8
3980°6 | 3 ry ».| 251147] [8906-6 | 5s, line * » | 25590°4
39803 | 3 » » | 251166) spec-

39784 | 3 ‘5 » | 25128°6 | trum]

‘ 39769 | 2 5 > | 25138°1 |] 39043 | 1 fs » | 2560575
39766 | 3 i. 3, | 25140-:0 | 3902°2 | 1 + » | 25619°3
39754 | 2 1:09; ,, | 25147°6 3901°5 | 2 a 3 | 25623°9
39750 | 2 2, » | 25150°1 38985 | 1 os » | 25643°6
32742 | 1 = » | 26156°2 | 3897°7 | 3 a » | 25648°8
39731 | 4 » | 25162°2 38950 | 2 1:07| 7:3! 25666°6
3971:2 | 5 a » | 251742 38940 | 1 — » | 20673°6

316

REPORT—1895.

MERCURY (BAND SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction | gy, . | Reduction | ¢ p,. |
Wass Ee to Vacuum - g g aot ashen! to Vacuum a 5 |
pe Et Character 1 5 a” aie Character 1 5 cid
3892°1 | 2 1:07 | 7°3| 25685°8 || 37084 | 1 1:03 | 7:6} 26958°2 !
38881 | 3 » » | 25712°2 || 3706°9 | 1 3 || 26969
3887'8 | J ” » | 25714-2 | 37064 | 1 5 » | 26972°8
38851 | 1 » | 25732°1 | 37060 | 1 ” » | 26975°7 |
38824 | 2 ” » | 25750:0 | 37055 | 1 ” » | 26979°3
3878:0 | 2 3 3 | 200092 37031 | 1 sy) » | 26996°8
3876°6 | 1 99 » | 25788°5 3702°6 | 1 4 » | 270004
387571 | 2 3 » | 25798°5 | 3700°6 | 1 a » | 27015:0
3872-4 | 2 a5 9 |) 25816'5 3699°7 | 1 i » | 27021°6
3870°7 | 1 > » | 25827°8 | 3698°8 | 1 ” » | 27028-2
3867°6 | 3 ” » | 25848°5 | 36971 | 1 1:02} ,, | 27040°6
3864°7 | 2 ” » | 25867°9 3696°1 | 1 5S » | 27047°9
38617 | 1 ” » | 25888-0 3695°3 | 1 ¥ » | 270538
3856°6 | 2 1:06) 4, |) 25922°3 3694°8 | 1 ” » | 27057°5
3853°8 | 1 ” » | 20941°1 3694°5 | 1 4 » | 27059°7
8852°2 | 1 os » | 25951°9 3693:2 | 1 3 » | 27069:2
3850°9 | 1 e » | 25960°7 3692°3 | 1 » » | 270758
38452 | 1 # » | 25999°1 3690°7 | 1 + » | 270875
3833-2 | 1 “ », | 26080°6 | 3689°2 | 1 ae » | 27098°5
3830°7 | 1 ” » | 26097°6 | 3688°2 | 1 ” » | 27105°9
3820°6 | 1 ” » | 26166°6 3686°3 | 1 ” » | 27119°9
3807°3 | 1 1:05 | 7-4) 26257°9 36861 | 1 ” x | 27121°3
&e. &c. | numer- 36841 | 1 *” » | 271361
ous faint 3681°6 | 1 “f TT) 271544
lines 3680°7 | 1 » » | 27161:0
z 37286 | 2s, _,| 1°03] 7-6} 26812:2 3679°8 | 1 ” » | 271677
{ 3728:0 | 1s a| » | 7:6) 26816-4 3676°6 | 1 » » | 27919°3
3726-2 | 3 |byS| ,, » | 26829°4 36760 | 1 + an | 2095's
37251 | 1 A} » » | 26837°3 3675'1 | 1 ” » | 27202°4
3723°6 | 1 seal) 95 » | 26848°1 36711 | 1 ” » | 27232°1
3722°6 | 2 ci Rees », | 26855°3 3670°6 | 1 ” 9» | 272385°8
3722°3 | 1 ” » | 26857°5 3669°9 | 1 ” » | 27241:0
B3721°4 | 3 a » | 268640] &c. &c. | numer-
Sith | 1 % », | 26866:2 ious faint
*3720°4 | 1 % » | 26871°2 || lines
3719°6 | 3 s » | 26877-0 || ©
37183 | 3 ” » | 26886°4 a3500°1 | 1 } brs | 0°98) 8:1) 28562°5
37170 | 3 ” » | 26895°8 B3495'0 | 1 iq | 0:97] ,, | 28604°2 |
Foro |) J as », | 26903°8 5 |
37152 | 3 5 » | 26908°8 Le) |
37142 | 1 ” » | 2691671 a3274°5 | 1 \ brs | 0°92] 87] 305303.
3713:2 | 3 » | s | 26923°3| 632681) Tf | » | | 305902)
3712:0 | 2 or +» | 26932°1 eS
3711°0 | 3 rn » | 26939°3|| &c. &c. | numer-
3709°4 | 1 (4 » | 26950°9 ous faint
370877 | 1 5 » | 26956-0 lines

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 317

OxycEn Coat-Gas (FLAME SPECTRUM).
costae ‘Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 162 (1894).

Wave. Lae ‘ Oscillation ]
leneth _ and Previous Measurements Frequency
s Character | in Vacuo

ee \ | winst edge 56347 Watts 5635-43 K. & BR. } i{ 176064
Bey | Second edge | © | 55853 558550, | { es
aor sty, | eee ae | 17988-7
5520 J | Third “A : 5542°3., ~=— 5540°86 he 1} 181143
5492 | Fourth ,, Ss | 55035 ., 5492°8 PiazziSmyth | 18202
5473 Fifth ,, )&| 54784 ., 5473-0 % id 18267
5446 Sixth , | 4 | 5440 ,, 54488 ss » | 18355°5 |
pie2 | Seventh, |B] 525, (| || Std
5399 Kighth , | 6 18516
5872 Ninth ,, | 18609
5193 Tenth a | 19252-2
5170 First 2, 1 5165 » 9165:241 Rowland | 19336-2
5138 Second ,,) 9 5130-4 ,, 5129°8 Piazzi Smyth | 19457-9
5098 | Third 4) h. | 51000 ,, 5097-9 Fievez 19608
6086 | Fourth ,\<o 2 | 5082 ., 50869 ,, 19957
4952 | Fifth =, | & 8 | 495150 K. & R. | 201867
mea9—=i«i«d| Sixth «=i 4899-98 __,, 20409
4316 b Ls | 20756'8
aia | 4775-32, 20940°7
4765 4763°86 209837
47435, | b ‘ 4739°8 Watts 4737-18 K. & R. | 21075

| 4732°33
4732 | | b Z { ey 4 211244
4720 b 8) 4a + “471b14 =, 21181
4702 | b 2 | 4698-4, {gars | : 21261

ea)
4688 b 46842 ,, 4688-20, 21329
4679 b 4677, 4678°9 Fievez 21364
4672 4672'2 Fievez 21399
4462 22408
4405 22703
4395 } 22748
4378 b E. 4368 L. de B. 22840°9
4364 | 22910-4
4350 22979
4342 Fine line 4334-4 Piazzi Smyth 23029
4332 | 23080-0
4312 | ~ | 4813 Watts 4316°7 Piazzi Smyth | 23188
j 2 4315-0 Eder
4302 = 23239
4988 & | 4288°3 Piazzi Smyth 4287-6 Eder 233157
4282 S| 4281-8, » 42820 ,, 2335 2-0
| S| 42778, ») 42764 ,,
- 42739, s 23394
4268 42689 ,, » 42696 ,, 23430
4260 42631 ,, 3 40634. ,, 23466-0
4255 42560 ,, ee 0: 23495
4248 42481, 7 SBT ,, 23540
4240 42410, » 42443, 23582:9
4230 / | 4934-0 ,, », 42392 ,. 23642 9
| . &e. &e.

318 REPORT—1895.
OXYGEN COAL-GAS— continued.

Fo Intensit Oscillation
by ah and f Previous Measurements | Frequency
onpoe Character in Vacuo
ao15 | 4220 Watts 421612 K. & R. 23715
4208 CN < 4210 ,, 4197-24 ,, 23766°9
4196 (4196 ,, 4180-73, 23829

&e. &e. &e.

4003 s 24978
3998 s 25005
3992 s 25045
3984 s 25097°5
3973 s 25169-4
3963 s 252291
3954 8 25291
3946 s 25334
3938 s 253841
3932 s 254253
3926 s 254632
3920 s C 3920°8 Eder and Valenta 25509:0
3913 s 25538
3908 s 25572
3904 s 25606:2
3898 s 25645
oe b C 3893:1 Deslandres 25682°1
3882 CN 3883°55 K. & R. 25754:2
3868 » 93871°54 ie 258482 |
3856 » 3855°06 ty 259249
3846 259942 |
3840 » 3839:95 a 26033:1
3831 » 3831715 : 26093
3825°5 » 3825°40 a 26134:0
3823 | », 3823°90 5 26150°5
38183 | bY » 381936 ,, 26183°1
3815 » 3816°24 - 26206'8
3790 26379
3642°5 5, 3642°63 ba 27447
3579°5 9 wROTS oe # 27935
3568°5 » 3568-40 bs 28014
3563 en. GBH is 28059
3544°5 », 3545:07 by 28204
3528 » 3528°71 - 28335
3522 | » 3522°49 f 28384'8
34985 » 349717 is 28576}
3487'8 » 93487°61 it, 28664:4
3478°8 28738
3473'6 287-0)
3452 28961
3448 28993 |
3445 29014°3
3441 29054
3437 29082
3402 29387
8394 | 29453:1 |
3384 29543 |
3373 29632 |
3359 | | 3360-1 Deslandres 29763:0 |
3349 | 29858
3336°5 | 29967-0 |
3330 | 30027 0 |
3321 | 30103 9 |

_

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 319

OxYGEN COAL-GAS—continued.

Wave-
length

3313
3304
3299
3288
3278
3269
3256

Wave-length

6337
6172
5945
5777
5534
5473
5168
5037
4970°5
» 4945
4640
4589
4446
4249
4224-5
4183

Intensity Oscillation
and Previous Measurements Frequency
Character in Vacuo
30177°9
3305°3 Deslandres 30257°9
30303'9
30402
30492
30586
30708
OxyYGEN-CARBONIC OXIDE FLAMES.
Hartley: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 176 (1894).
Intensity Oscillation
and Previous Measurements Frequency
Character in Vacuo
2n 15778
2n 16204
2n 5955°6 Piazzi Smyth 16817
1 17313
2s 5540°86 K. & R. 18065
2s 5473 Piazzi Smyth 18266
y 2s 51653 ., 3 19347
1b 5079-5 ,, 5 19852
1b 20114
1b 20218
1b 21549°6
lb 21784
1b 22488
1b 23530°9
1b 23669
1b ‘ 23897°8
Lituium.

OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley : ‘ Phil. ‘Trans.’ clxxxv. 177 (1894).

Wave-length

| Oscillation Frequency |

6708°2
4602-4

Wave-length

Oscillation Frequency

| in Vacuo in Vacuo ,
14902°7 4132°4 24191°6
3232°8

21721°4

30923°7

REPORT—1895.

Sopium.

OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley: ‘Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 177 (1894).

3 Oscillation 4 Oscillation
: Intensity and ss Intensity and
Wave-length Character ey | Wave-length ee Preques
6518 b 15336 f 5688-26 8n 175749
6420 | 15570 ‘| 5682-9 8n 17587°4
6349 15744 { 4983°5 6n 20060-2
6290 | 15894 | 4979°3 6n { 20077°2
6271 | bY 15942 { 4669°4 4n 21409°6
| 6233 16038 | 4665-2 4n 21428°9
6138 b 16286 { 3303:07 8s 30265°6
6026 \ Jb 16590 3302°47 8s { 3027171
H 5896-16. 10s 16958°2
| ees _ 10s 16972°4
PorassiuM.

| Wave-length

|

OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).

Hartley: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 178 (1894).

| Intensity and
Character

| 5832-23
| 5802-01
5782°67
5353°6

| 5340-08
| 4047-36

Oscillation || : Oscillation
Frequency Wave-leogth tari aed Frequency
in Vacuo || : in Vacu>
171410 || 4044-29 8s 24718°8
172303 || (3447-49 | 6s 28997°8
17288:0 | { 3446°49 8s 29006°2
186516 | { 3217°76 4s 31068:0
18720'7 || | 3217-27 6s 31072°7
24700°1 |

|
|

A strong continuous spectrum from 4610 to 3440.

Cadmium yields one line only (the least refrangible of the triplets at cadmium 17)

326117.

Oscillation frequency 30654-4.

Zinc and zinc oxide give nothing but a continuous spectrum.

Catctum FLUORIDE.

OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).

|

Hartley : ‘Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 179 (1894).

| : Oscillation : Oscillation
Intensity and} 7, | as Intensity and
| Wave-length | Gharaccer aoe cad | Wave-length ira tte pieces
|, 62158 eb 16090 | 5352°5 | 4 18678
| 6009 1 | 16638 || 6316 | f 1 18807
| 5739 lactis | { 17420 | 5316 | a 18807
55835 J {17905 | 5303°5 | eet
5583°5 os f17905 || 4231* ds 23630
5503 | 18166

|

* Probably Kayser and Runge’s Calcium line 4226-91.

_ ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 321
2

SrrRoNTIUM OXIDE.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 179 (1894).

. _ =—
3 Oscillation : Oscillation
Intensity and Intensity and
Wave-length 2 Frequency || Wave-length ‘ 7 Frequenc
Character ma Vanna g Character a Vacn aS
| 6085 } b 16430 4591 sv? 21774
6053 16515 *4228 1 23644
5870? line 2s 17032 4216°5 1 23693
*5547 2n 18023 *4079 1 24510
*4609 4s 21691
: * Kayser and Runge record lines in the are-spectrum of strontium at 5543-49,
— 4607°52, 4226°91, and 4077°88.
Barium OXIbE.
E OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
; Hartley: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 180 (1894).
; é Oscillation : Oscillation
Intensity and 2 Intensity and
Wave-length Frequency Wave-length Frequenc
8 Character Sony Ut 5 Character ce 2 ed
5720 17478 5384 = J 18567
5712 2b 17503 || —~«6356 18665
5697 | 17546 5322) a 18784
5690 7 strong band 17570 5221 ¢ 19149
5660 (overlap- 17662 5162 b { 19368
5619°5 ping a weak 17790 | 30895 s | 19642
| one) 4932 20269
5587 17895 4887} b 20456
5555 17997 4862'5 | | \ 20559
5499 br 18178 4833 20684
} 5544 18032 4715 : 21202
| 5503 18163 || 4602} | Pvery faint, | 31506
MaGnesium OXIDE.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley : ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 181 (1894).
A
38
> Ae Po
4 Intensity and : aes
| Wave-length Gharkcter Previous Measurements B 3 2
és
3)
3929 25447
3885 | br 25752
3874 25805
3856 ) 4b° 25929
3852 43 25955
3834 br 26074
3805 6b* 26269
3805 1b 26269
3739 2b 26734
9
seg re bY aac near M and cag eid: Sie
3709 Bb ciated bands. 26950
3682 6bY 27151
3852 8s Mg. 2852:22 K. & R. 35050

1895. y

on REPORT—1895.

CALCIUM OXIDE.

OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM)
Hartley : ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 182 (1894).

r Intensity and - Oxciliation,
Wave-length Ghar Previous Measurements Frequency in
aracter Wace
6253 | 4b’ 15988
6116 | 16351
6075 \ 2br | 16463
5895 | ‘ 16964
5739 4b* 17424
5598 8b* | Ca 5594-64 K. & R. 17862
5485 } 18233
5445 2b¥ 18363
5493 | 18440
5390 L | 18545
5359 ~b | 18660
5341 18724
5322 18791
5304 2b’ 18852
4222 | 8br Ca 422691 K. & R. | 23681
4215 | | 23717

PuHosPHoRUS PENTOXIDE.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 183 (1894).

[ Oscillation

Wave-length Intensity and | Previous Measurements Frequency in
Character |

Vacuo

3279 Is | 30488
3274 Is | 30535
3271 1s | | 30563
3268 Is 30591
3255 1s 30713
3245 Is / | * 30808

ARSENIC.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley : ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 183 (1894).
Intute and | Oscillation
Wave-length EDS yon Previous Measuremcnts Frequency in
Character | Vacate
|

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 323

SELENIUM.

OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley : ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 184 (1894).

Intensity and . as
Wave-length Char y Previous Measurements Frequeney in

haracter Vann
4890 } 204439
4816 | by 20757°8
4804 } 20811
4746 br 4745 Salet | 21064°7
4720 \ | 21180
4676. br 4675 Pliicker & Hittorf 21381
4643 | 21529
4599 | br 21738
4569°5 21878°6
4491°5 \ br 22258°2
4407°5 br 22682
4339 br 23042
4299 br 23253:0
4222 by 236769
4170°5 by 23969'8
4124 br | 24242-4
4093 by | 24426
4041 br 24738
3976°5 br | 25141°1
3941°5 br 1 25364:3
3921°5 br 25500°3
3883 br | 25744:2
3851 by 25958
3827 br 26122°2
3796 br 26335°4
3749 by 26664
3733 br 26780
3707 by 26994

TELLURIUM.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley : ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 185 (1894).
Intensity and . Oseienos
Wave-length Ch. y Previous Measurements Frequency in

aracter Vacho
4818 2b 4820 Salet 20749
4760 4b 4767 21001
4702°5 b 21258°6
4668°5 b 4670 21414°6
4648 b 21510
4620°5 b 21635
4593 b : 21765
4580 b 21829
4532 b 220484
4495 b 22240
4470 b 4470 22365
4426 br 22589
4397 br 4400 22735
4379 br | 4378 22831

Pars

324

REPORT—1895.

TELLURIUM —continued.

- Oscillation
Wave-length mi teow! and Previous Measurements Frequency
AE in Vacuo
4335 2by 230641
4325 1b’ 4324°6 23206
4211 3bv 23740°9
4201 4200 23802°8
4179) {| i 41807 H.& A. 23923
4163 f ; 4170°3 H.& A. 24012'8
4151°5 by 24080'8
4130°5 br 24202'9
4120 4109-7 H.& A. 24265
4107 } 24340
4098 2 b 24393°6
4085 | 24471
4072°5 br 4072°7 H. & A. 24548°7
4025°6 | 24835°5
3999 by 24997°4
3937 by 25391°3
3880 br 25768
3769 by 265260
3708°5 by 26956'9
3661 by 23710°0
3604 by 27736
3560 lb 28083°6
3383°5 | 48 3382°4 H. & A. 29547
3281 4s 32800 __—,, 30469°S
3273 4s 32734, 30541
3248 4s 32468, 30781°9
ANTIMONY.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley : ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 187 (1894).
Rear lcrctli Intensity and Praviouaill : t Be
ave-lengt Character revious Measurements nequenny in
6511 by 18139
4675°5 | 21834
4503 J by 22203°4
4399°6 2br 22740
4273 2bY 23398
4132 2bv 24195°7
4079 2by 24511
4051 2b" 24676
4038°5 1br 24754°5
3990 lbY 25056
3949°8 by 25304
39365 br 25403
3913 by 25550
3910 by 25571
3890 by 25700
3853 br 25947
3813°5 by 26215
3778 by 26462°1
3751-9 by 26646

—— ee

a

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE

ANTIMONY— continued.

ELEMENTS. 325

Taorecbouand : Oscillation
Wave-length Cares tér Previous Measurements Frequency
in Vacuo
3748°5 br 26757
3700 br 27019
3686°5 Is 271179
{ 3676 Is 271958
3661 2br 27306
3664 2bY 27434
3626 2br 27571
3602 2b’ 27752
3573 2b* 27981
BIsMUTH.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley : ‘ Phil. Trans.,’ clxxxv. 188 (1894).
Hitensit a : Oscillation
Wave-length reise y au Previous Measurements Frequency in
aracter Varco
5805°5 17220
5714°2 | s | by 17495
5215°7 bY; 17802°4
5549 lb 18005°8
5422 1b’ 18438
5333 1b’ 18745
5310-1 | 1b 18827
5292 | 1b 18890°3
4850°5 | 1b’ 20609
47245 | lb 21159
47145 8b 21205
4707 s 21241
4691 br 21309°6
4672°8 br 21394
4632 br 21584°5
4582 br 21820
4544 by 220014
4516°5 by 22135
4484 br 22295
4441°5 by 22508
4420 by 22619
4399 by 22727
4382°5 br 22811
71373°5 1 22859
4353°5 22964
4366 by 22898'1
43212 s 23134
4256°5 py 23492
3872°5 by 25816-2
3845 br 26001
3752 by 26646
3652 br 273348
3527-9 2s 28342
35179 2s 28409
3510 5 2s 28467
3067 4s Water 3067-2 L. & D. 32592

326

REPORT—1895.

BISMUTH—continued.

Oscillation

Wave-length ert gens Previous Measurements i in
acuo
3023'8 2s Bi 3023°8 H. & A. 33061
2992-2 2s Bi 2992'2 sé, 33376
2983°1 2s Bi 29829 __s, 33431
2937°5 2s Bi 2937°5 ,, 34021
2900:2 2s Ag 29016, 34473
2897°2 | 2s BU23897-2, “4,s 34501
Leap.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley: ‘Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 190 (1894).
Intensity and P Cees
Wave-length Ch ya Previous Measurements Frequency in
aracter Weve
5675 by 17616
5620°5 by PbO 5615 Mitscherlich 17786
5585 17898°6
5460 | b PbO 5460 3 18301
5400 br 18512°4
5340 by PbO 5328 . 18721°4
5241 | 19074
| 52105 by | PbO 5220 5 19188
5194 19247
slut by | PbO 5144 = 194512
5051 by 19792
4980°5 br PbO 4993 is 20073
4961 2b 20152
4955 2b 20175
4925°5 2b 20296
4914°5 2b | PbO 4913 5, 20342
4901°5 2b 20396°9
4896 2b | PbO 4880 5 20418
4858 2b | PbO 4852 53 20579
4824 by PbO 4825 ay 20722°8
4748 by 21054:7
4707 by 21237°6
4657 br | PbO 4664 ts 21468
4608 pY | 21696°5
4597-5 by | PhO 4593 5 21745
4508°5 by 22173
4455 s PbO 4468 7s 22440
4370°5 by PbO 4381 3 22875
| 4314-5 Rs 23171
4225°5 | br 23659
4163 bY 24015
4140°5 Abe 24145°7
rR 4062°5 Liveing and p Sn
4059 6s Pb { pir Resets 246316
4028 by 24819
3985 by 25070
3954 by 25283
3913 br 255473
3880 by 25766

>
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 327

LEap—continued.

1 Ww feneth Intensity and Previ M t ES ito nade
q ave-lengt Character _ Previous Measurements wy vent in

3839 by 26043
83805 bY 26275
3783 br 26431
3740°5 bY 26727
371575 by 26906
3684 8s 27138
36715 1bY 27229
3655 1b’ 27349
3639°5 8s 27469
3610 by 27691
3594 bY 27817

3592-5 bY 27828°6

3571 by 279936
3555 by 28119
3501-5 bY 28552
3486 ay! 28677
3447 2b’ 29004
34315 2b’ ’ 29133
3405 bY 29359
3368 1bY 29686
3352°5 1b’ 29820
8845 1b’ 29890
| 3320 1bY 80111
i 3a0T ips 30226

3304 by 30260°9
3264 ‘bY 30626
» 3209°5 2by 31148
(2832°2) 2s 35284

TIN.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley: ‘Phil. Trans.’ clxxxvi. 193 (1894).
Intensity and . | Gecillation
Piieactae Previous Measurements Freguens in

bY , 21416
bY ; 21472

2br 4600 Salet 21689°5
2bv 21939
2b’ . 22062
2by | 22189
by / 22545

by | 22444-3
2b” 22882

2b’ i 22997 -4
bY 23222
by y 23439

bY : 4240 Salet j 23562°9
bY 23681
bY 24220
bY 24271

by 4080 Salet 24448°6

398 REPORT—1895.

TIN—continued.

Oscillation
sity ¢ ¥ Frequency in
Boeelenoas Intensity. and Previcus Measurements Ea
; 247865
4033 by 25113
3981 br 25278
3955 br 25588
3907 by 25828
3871 br 26048
3841 b® 26125
3827 br 26237
3810 by 26416
3787 2b 26581
3761 2b” 26822
3727 8bv 27046
3696 8bv 27632
3618 2b* 27849
3590 6bY 28182
3547 2br 28645
3490 6by 28969:3
3451 2b 29220
3421 4b 29454-1
3394 4b 30028-0
3329-5 8br 30307
3298°5 2b 30593
3268 6br 30906
3234-5 4b 31181°6
3206 5by 31452
3179 6br 32301
3095 4b 32573
3068-6 4br 32998
3038°8 lb 33177:0
3031 lbv 33444
2989 lb ub be
SILVER.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 195 (1894). -
Oscillation
; Bled Frequency in
Wave-length atch 2 E eyes aa Vacuo
|
| : 17791:7
5556'7 | 1s 55566 Thalén ] (ascatten) 181276
5515:0 Is n4ae-6 J 18231
5483°7 | Is 5465°66 K.& BR 18298°6
5463°4 | Is 2 : ‘ 21288
4696-0 Wistiband 4669 L. de B. 214964
pe ita a 21657
46165 | band 4622 L. de B. 217756
4591-onfus | ae ban r 21907°3
45634} | 3.4 bend 4570 L. de B. }(Angstrém) 22050°7
4533-4 f | z 221231
45190) | band 4518 L. de B. 22262:0
44909)f | Pe 22361°3
4470°9 \ Benen 4475:1 Thalén 22467
suo sie | Pa Tae 22594
4424-8 | | Gil hand 22677-0

4408-6

CN WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 329

SILVER—continued.

Oscillation

Wave length Tei en Previous Measurements Heaney in
43962 22741
4373°5 7th band 4396 L. de B. 92859
4360°7 0 22926
4347-0} | Sth band 22998-2
43309 23084
4300°5 9th band 23246-0
4294-7 23278°1
4283-2 \ 10th band 23341
4273-9 93392
4258-0 11th band 23478-3
4944-9 23529
4938-2 ; b 23588
4231-0 23628
4176-4 239375
4156-4 b 4052-7
4147-4 24105
4102-0 2s 24372
4091-0 9s 24437°6
4088-0 Qs 24455
4030°3 3 24810
3795-4 re 26340
3775-2 Is 26481
37127 Te 26926
3672-0 1s 27294
3631°5 Qs 27529-4
35765 2s 27952
3539°5 2s 3541°3 H. & A. 28245-4
3518-4 2s 284135
3510-0 } 2s 28481-3

289523
28971-1
br Ist group* ae
29019
29052°5
29090°4.
29127

3431-8 s | 29131
3421°8 s 29216
3418°5 s 29244-2
s
s

3418-1 29248
3415-1 by 2nd group 29274
34105 4s 29313
3407-0 5s 29343-5
3403-2 6s 29375°4
3401-0 | Ts 29394-9
3397°8 | 8s 29423-1
3395-0 29447

29469
29496
29523°9
33830 K. & R. re:
295922
2962571
br 3rd group Bre
29735°1

3362°2 |

330 . REPORT—1895.

SILVER—continued.

Oscillation

Wave-length ae Previous Measurements | wes ten in
== | and § SESE RS eet anes fe
3359°5 | s | 29758
33582 | os | 29770
3357-7 | s 29775
33548 | s | Third group 29809°7
33500 | 3s | (of 19 lines) . 29843
3347-2 | 4s | 29877:2
a 5s | 29879-0
3341-6 6s 2991 7-1
3336-4 | In 29964°7
33338 | In 29987
3331°7 In Fourth group 30007
33304 In; (of 6 lines) 30019
al | in| 30036 0
3327-4 in | | 30043-0
3319-9\ by 30112
3315-3 by | 30154
3309°2 by 30209:7
3305°5 br| Group of | | 302436
3297°3 \ by} 9 narrow | 30319°9
3293°5 br bands | 303449
3289-2 by 30393°9
3285°5 by ‘ 30428
32821 | ‘bv 30459
3276°4 / | Sbr 328080 K. & R. 30512
3271°3 2s 30560°5
3269°3 s | 30579
Tron.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 199 (1894).
* Double. + Present also in the spectrum of ferric oxide.
I : a Oscilla ion
Wave-length pee! an Previous Measurements | Frequency in
aracter | SWiata
feat acne
59277 | 593025 K. & R. |: 16865
57385 lb 17421
56898 | 17570
5689°8 ) b 17570
5619-4 | b | 17790
55943 b | 17870
5537°1 b | 18055
5385 b 18565
53248 5324°31 + ; 18775
5266°5 5266-72 ~—,, 18983°3
4479°3 4479-73 5, 22319
4459°7 | 4469-24 22417
4426-7 | 4427-44 ,, 22584
4405°7 | 440488 _,, 22692
4384-0 4383-70 Ss | 22804
43768 R437604 —,,, | 22842
4326°2 R4325:92 23109
' G4308°5 R4307°96 23204
*4272°4 4271:93 3 23400

|| Due to Manganese. _ R. A line marked R is one of Rowland’s ‘normal’ lines,

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 331

ITRON—continued.

Intensity and Oscillation

Wave-length Character Previous Measurements me in
4266'9 R4267:97 K. & R. 23430
4071°5 4071:99° +) ., 24555
4058°3 405830, 24633°6
4052-4 505275, 24669°8
4047°5 404590, 24700
4031-7 403084, 24796
4019°8 Mn 248695
4002°9 400533, 24975

3998-16,
3996°8 }399749 25013

$3980°6 398187, 25115

+3926°6 3928-05, 254583

$3921-1 3923-00 __,, 25496
3915-7 R3916-82 i, 25531

(390400,
3904-2 { ee 25606

$3900-4 _ 389980. 25631-2
3897'S 3898-05, 25648

$3896°5 389575, 25657
3894°6 3894-09 _, 25669

: (389202 _,, ADR
3891-5 389096 256902
3888-2 388863, 25711
388638,
3885:1 388561 25732
3880-2 25765

13877-6 387832 i, 25782°4
3874:3 387388 _,, 25804

$3860°5 386003, 25896

$3858-9 3859-49, 25907
3853°7 3854-51 25941
3845-4 384696 ,, 25998
3841-4 3841-19 26025
3839°1 384058, 26040

4 (383648,
3835°2 1383437 26067

$3825°9 3826-04, 26130
3821°5 leserr 26159

438212 pease er eat: 26163

13819°7 382056 _,, 26172°2
3810-6 3810°89 26235°1
380871 | 380886, 26252

| 3796-1 379513, 2633571
| 8785-2 3786-07, 26410-9
3772°6 37738418), 26497°3
3765°3 STERB0- 1 **, 26548
3763°3 376390 _,, 26565
| +8757-9 375836, 26599
| 3751-9 | 375197, 26645°0
| 3749-4 374961, 26668
3748-1 374839, 26672
3747-6 R3747:09 i, 26676
; : (374567, :
| 3743°5 [374345 26705:0
| 187369 a787-37O",, 26748
| 8735:5 373500, 26763
a peel 3727°78° |, 26815
Bp) 3727-9 3727-18 ,, 26817

332

REPORT—1895.

TRoN—continued.

: Oscillation
Intensity and : . :

Wave-length Charzie Previous Measurements ee. in
37223 372269 K. & R, 26857
$3720°2 3720°07 9 26872
3705'5 370570 i, 26969
3688°5 368777 i, 27095
3685'8 3687°58 27134
36816 | 368043 _,, 27154
3648°6 | 3647:99 _,, 27399
3631-0 363162, 27542
36092 360899 27692
N73581°1 358132 si, 27909
3569°6 357023, 27997
3565-0 356550 i, 28020
3531-2 28320
3501°8 350064 28559
13492°3 3490°65 + 28622
3475:5 | eeRaeu” 28752
3460°9 346002, 28827
03440°8 344107 ___s—,, 29045
$3400°2 3440°69 33 29060
3059°1 3059°19 65 32680
$3047-4 3047-71 " 32806
3039°1 304054 32896

: ( 8021°15 i
Tt3021°1 | 3020-70 if 33091
NICKEL.

OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).

Hartley: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxy. 203 (1894).

* Also in the spectrum of the flame of nickel tetra-carbony]l.

———

Wave-length

Intensity and

Previous Measurements

(Rowland) Character (Angstrém)
*3859 3857°8 L. & D.
*3809 38066,
*3784 37830,
*3776 37750,
*3619 36188,
*3611 36098,

3599 3597 as
*3574 3572 Cornu
*3569 3570°8 ,,

3527 35271 L. &. D.

3518 35191,

3613 3514-4,

3503 3501'8 i,

3496 34923 is,

3487 34852,

3475 3470:8) a;

3462 OSOL I es,
*3460 3457°9 5,

3453 34529,
*3445 3445°7 i,

Oscillation
Frequency in
Vacuo

25893
26248
26419
26478
27620
27687
27777
27972
28012
28339
28417
28459
28539
28599
28667
28769
28870
28892
28954
29017

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 333

NickEL—continucd.

Wave-length rey Peat Previous Measurements om
haracter Vacuo
#3436 | 3487-7 L. & D. 29097
*3433 34330 _,, 29123
*3423 Sao) Lanes; 29205
*3415 34138, 29276
*3392 BEE RES Aer 29469
*3391 33904 =, 29484
*3381 33800 29565
f*33713 ,,
*3370 | 33689 29665
*3316 SEG a 30148
¥3233 Bean Oi ss 30925
CoBALT.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley : ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 204 (1894).
; : Oscillation
Wave-length Intensity and Previous Measurements :
(Rowland) Character (Angstrém) sc ca 7:
4119 4120 Huggins 24270
3996 3397°3 L. & D. 25019
3899 39052 ss; 25633
3875 38732, 25797
3847°5 | 38448 ,, 25983
3819°5 27620
3612 36113 SC, 27680
3603 36016 27747
3596 35944, 27797
3578 35749, 27942
3571 35689, 27992
3536 3532°8 i, 28272
3531 35293, 28312
oe 35284, 28327
3527 28344
3517 35177, 28429
3513 35120 _—s, 28459
: 35097 i,
3509°5 35093. 28487
3504 35020 _ sy, 28529
3496 3495°1 28599
3483 34827, 28702
3468 34652, 28827
3463 34622 28870
3461 34606 ,, 28887
3454 34529, 28945
s344g9 i,
3449 (34486 28987
3443 34430, 29037
3432 Spree ae 29129
3415 | 34142, 29277
3413 1 oati7 " 29292
”
3409 34086, 29328

3405 ; 34085, 29357

334

REPORT—1895.

CHROMIUM.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).

Hartley : ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 205 (1894).

Wave-length Intensity and Previous Measurements Teme
(Rowland) Character (Rowland) aati
4290) . s 4289°87 Hasselberg 2330
4277 8 4274-91 ‘ 2337
4255 s 4254-49 + 2349
3607 s 3605-46 . 27716
3595 s 3593°57 oe 27802
3580 | 8 357881 + 27927

ALUMINIUM.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 207 (1894).
ee ; | . Oscillation
Wave-length | specs and | Previous Measurements Frequency in
| aracter | Warne
4042 s 24733
3968°3 8 25193
3953°5 s 25287
CoppPER.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 207 (1894).
Wave-length Intensity and Previous Measurements pettiness
Character (Angstrém) acne
5506°5 b 18155
5080 2s 19679
3290 b 3289°9 H. & A, 30389
: 32652 . :
3262°5 b { tice 30643
Copper OXIDE.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 208 (1894).
‘ : Oscillation
Intensity and Previous Measurements , =r

Liao Character (Angstrém) — o
5840 In 17120
5790 2n 17267
5747 4br 17397
5577 Bb 5563 L. de B. 17934
5356 5355 tp 18667
5296 br 5300 + 18875
5241 br 5239 7" 19077
5183 by 5150 3 19293°2

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 335

COPPER OXIDE— continued.

Oscillation

Intensity and Previous Measurements Th. .
paretength Character (ingetiinn) Brees = S
5107 by 5106 L de B. 19582
4957 by 4945 + 20167
4849 be | 4847 3 20616
4777 by 4757 ; 20926
4712 jane 4704 . ‘ 21219°7
4688 br 21324
4644 by 4659 cA 21525°6
4518 br 4522 os 22128
4456 Toe 4436 + 22438
4379 br -| 4353 “3 22833
4328 br 4331 - 23099
4280 br 4281 A 23355:0
4228 br 4217 +4 23643
4096 Is 24405
4080 1s 24507°6
4069 Is | 24569
4053 Is 24664
4040 1s | 24743
4031 1s 24802
4017 Is 24888
3282 4b 30452°8
3256 4b | 30697
MANGANESE.
OXYHYDROGEN (KLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley: ‘Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 1029 (1895).
* Seen also in the spectrum of manganese oxide.
aye
i Previous Measurements 3 s 3
tl 5 Intensity and revious
Beereleneth Character (Rowland) a 3.2
Te
*5855 2b Fe 5856:24 Kayser & Runge 17073
5813 s 17197
5800 s Fe 5800:21 rs . 17237
5764 1b* | 17345
5730 1b‘ 17446
5712 1b’ very weak 17503
5692 by 17563
#5AQ2 br Fe 5624-70 5 ch 17781
5598 3b 17858
| *5591 br Fe 5592°6 & ce 17881
| *5571 s Fe 5573:05 x . 17945
5556 br 17995
5532 8 18072
5500 s 18175
| *5478 s Fe 6476°82 o + 18250
— «6465 br 18293
— -*5445 s Fe 544705 —,, % 18360
— -*5438 s 18385
— *5402 4b* 13505

ia #539] b Fe 5393°30 a ” 18543

336

REPORT—1895.

MANGANESE—continued.

Wave length

Intensity and
Character

Previous Measurements

*5370'5
5364
*5347
*5315
*5270
*5235
*5199
*5166
*4830
*4791°5
*4762
*4064
*4056
*4049°5
*4041°3

*4036°5
*4029°5

*3894 7
*3874
*3860
*3847
*3835
3827
*3824
*3808
*3803
3764
*3621
*3612
*3607'5
*3604
*3600
*3589
*3587
*3578
*3576
*3571
*3568
*3566
*3562
*3549
*3543
*3536
*3554
*3533
*3530°5
*3529°5
3528
*3525
*3524
3515°5
3514°5
*3513
*3511

bY weak

”

S weak
s doubtful
s ”

DNENDMDMNANMNANDUAWDBMNM

Fe 5371-62 Kayser & Runge

Fe 5316°85 5 2
Fe 527004 ” 3
Fe 5233-05 3) +
Fe 5198-82 + +
Fe 5167°50 - ”
Fe 4832°84 5 F

Mn 4762:2 Thalén
Mn 4063°6 Thalén, Fe 406363 K. & R.
Mn 4055'5 Thalén
Mn 4049-0 Thalén
Mn 4041°6 Thalén

Mn 4035°6 Cornu
Mn 40306 _,,

Fe 3895'75 K. & R.

403316 ,,

4035°76 K.&R. |
Fe
4030°84_ _,,

Fe 386003 __,,
Fe 383437 __,,
Fe 382458 ss,
Fe 380547 ss,
Fe 362161
Fe 3608:99 _,,

Fe 3570°23
Fe

|
|
\

Oscillation
requency io

Vacuo

i
ioe)
lor)
rm
or

18637
18698
18810
18968
19095
19230

20696
20864
20992
24598
24649
24687
24735

| 24766

24810

25676
25808
25898
25985

| 26070
| 26125

26143
26255
26289

27607
27677
27712
27737
27792
27852
27870
27937
27954
28000
28020
28037
28067
28167
28217
28274
28288
28299
28317
28322
28342
28358
28367
28437
28447
28454
28475

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 337

MANGANESE—continued.

ee a Oscillation
Wave-length sada rat Previous Measurements Frequency in
aracter Vacuo
#3507 s doubtful 28504
¥*3503 s 4 Fe 3500°64 K. & R. 28537
*3498 8 i 28577
*3497 8 i Fe 3497:92 __,, 28587
*3493°5 s op 28617
*3185 s as 28685
*3476 s + Fe 3476°75 5: 28762
*3473'5 s z 28782
*3472 s a 28792
*3470°5 8 x Fe 347140 ——,, 28806
#3168 s $ Fe 3468-92, 28824
*3467 8 or) 28834
_ *3465 s is Fe 346595, 28852
*3464°5 s A} 28885
*3461 s f Fe 346002 __,, 28884
*3457 8 a Fe 3458:39 28921
¥*3453 s “5 Fe 3453:10 _,, 28954
*3448 s 3 28999
*3442 8 = Fe 3441:07 so, 29047
*3437 \ be 29085
#3434 | 29110
*3431 by 29140
*3419 br 29237
*3418 by 29250
*3415 by Fe 341792, 29272
*3413 by 29290
*3410 by 29318
3406 bY 29354
MANGANESE OXIDE.
OXYHYDROGEN (FLAME SPECTRUM).
Hartley : ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxv. 1033 (1895).
* Seen also in the spectrum of the metal manganese.
+ Bands peculiar to the owide of manganese
- Wave-length Intensity and Previons Measurements Be va
(Rowland) Character (Angstrém) i He
f 5873 by
\85 *5856 by 5858 Lecoq de Boisbaudran 17023
L Fe 58562 K. & R. (Rowland) 17071
5827 b 17155
5800 2b { 5807 L. de B.
| Fe 5800-21 K. & R. (Rowland) 17235
5752 3bY 5759 L. de B. 17380
5717 3bY 5719 oy 17485
a@\ 5681 3bY 5683 5 17598
| 5645 bY indistinct 5644 Watts 17700
*5622 s Fe 5624-70 K. & R. (Rowland) 17782
5607 by 5607 Watts 17830
*5591 bY Fe 5591 17880
5586 by 5587 L. de B. 17897

1895. Zz

338

MANGANESE OXIDE—continued.

REPORT—1895.

Wave length

'

Intensity and

Previous Measurements

Character (Angstrém)
*5575 2by Fe 5573:05 K. & R. (Rowland).
*5474 5473 L. de B.
*5443°5 n Mn 5543°1 Thalén
*5438 n
5432 by 5433 Watts, 5432 Huggins
5427 by 5427 L. de B.
*5405 4s Mn 5406°6 Thalén
*5400 4by Mn 5399'9 Thalén, 5398 L. de B.
*5368°5 br 5367 L. de B.
*5347 lb’ Mn 5348 Huggins
*5318 lbr Fe 5316°85 K. & R. (Rowland).
*5271 2b’ (E,) Fe 5270°43 K. & R. (Rowland)
*5234 3b” Mn. 5233°8 Thalén, (E,) Fe 5269°65
K. & R. (Rowland).
*5197 4bv Fe 5198'82 K. & R.
*5163 2br
5055 2bv
5018 2br
4976 2bY
4935 s
4896 | Edge of band
4853 Edge of ane} doukbfol
*4828 n Fe 4832°84 K. & R. (Rowland).
*4790 n
arms) |
*4762 s Mn 4761-3 Thalén
4749°5 ) 2br
4696 lby
4656 }t | 1b’
4600 Doubiful
4575 4s
SAO UP ae) Libr f Mn 4491-1 Thalén
4457 ff | Mn 44576 ,,
4403 ioe
4293 py
4273 r bY Mn 4271°6 Thalén
4252
&e. &e. Imperfect edges as far as 4226
4226 \ Mn 4227-0 Thalén
4135 by
4133 \ by br Fe 4132°15 K. & R. (Rowland).
4130 J bY
4125°5 | by
4121 3n
4079 4n Mn 40796 Angstrém
4075 2n
4065 In
*4062 In Fe 406363 K. & R. (Rowland).
*4054 5 4s Mn 4054°3 Thalén
*4049F 4s Mn 4048:7 Cornu
*4040 4s Mn 40iu'0 ——=»,
4b*

4by
4g

acuo

Vv;

Oscillation
Frequency in

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 339

Wave-length

3991
3988
#3894
3886
3882
3878
#3873
3869
3866
*3860
#3846
3842
#3833 5
#3894
#3809
3806-5
3752 |
3728 |
3721 i
3715
3670 |
3661 jt
3623
#3621 t
#3612
#3609
*3603
#3600
#3588
#3587
#3578
#3576
#3570
43564
#3561-5
#3559°5 }
3553
#3548
#35415
#3539
#3533
#3539
3530
43598-5
#3526
#3524
3523
3521
3520
3518
3513°5
#3513
#3510
#3506
#3502

MANGANESE OXxIDE—continued.

Intensity and
Character

2s double
4s
8s

Previous Measurements
(Rowland)

Mn 3989:2

”

Mn 3991-7 Lockyer (Angstrém).

Fe 3895°75 K. & R.

Fe 3886°38
Fe 3878°82

Fe 3860°3

| Fe 3841-19
| Fe 383437
| Fe 382458

”

”

3806-4 Cornu (Angstriém).

Fe 3727°78 E &.

Ye 3621:°6L

Fe 3608 99
Fe 3605°62

Fe 3570°23
Fe 356550

Fe 3526°51

Fe 3500°64

”

NR.

Oscillation
Frequency in
Vacuo

340 REPORT—1895.

MANGANESE OXIDE—continued.

|

gee
Bey,
Intensity and Previous Measurements BES
Wave-length Chashiner (Rowland) & mie
5a

i]
*3498 In 28582
¥*3496'5 In Fe 3497:92 K. & R. 28592
3494 In 28614
8492°5 In 28624
3490°5 In Fe 3490°65 28642
3488°5 In 28657
3487 In 28670
*3485 In 28686
3484 In 28695
3482°5 In 28707
3481 In 28722
34785 In 28741
3477 In Fe 347675 —,, 28754
*3475 } re Fe 3475°52 —,, 28766
*3474 28779
*3471 2s 28799
*3470 2s Fe 3471-40 __,, 28812
*3468 4s Fe 3468:92 __,, 28830
*3466 Is 28841
*3465 2s Fe 3465°95 _s,, 28852
*3463°5 23 28864
*3462 1s Fe 3460-02, 28875
3460°5 2s 28889
*3456 8s Fe 345839 __,, 28927
*345) Is Fe 3453°10 _,, 28970
*3449 28986
3447 br 29005
3445 2b” 29020
3444 2s 29030
*3441 2s Fe 344107 __,, 29051
3439 2s 29070
*3437 a 29088
*3433°5 29117
*3430 br 29148
*3417'5 Is 29252
*3415 s Fe 3415°61 ,, 29277
*3413 8s 29294
*3410 Is 29315
3409 1s 29324
3405 8s 29360
3406 8s 29402
3395 8s 29446
3391 8s 29484
3388 8s 29508

NotTE.—Unless otherwise stated, all wave-lengths are upon Rowland’s scale in air
at about 20° C. and 760 mm. pressure. All oscillation frequencies are in vacuo.

THE PRODUCTION OF HALOIDS FROM PURE MATERIALS, 34]

The Production of Haloids from Pure Materials.—Report of a Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor H. E. ArmsrronG, I’.R.S., Professor
Wrynpuam R. Dunstan, F.R.S., Mr. C. H. BoTHaMuey, and Mr,
W. A. SHENSTONE (Secretary).

Tur work of the Committee has been actively continued during a con-
siderable part of the past year.

The various preliminary difficulties involved in the preparation of
pure materials, and especially of chlorine, have now been largely over-
come, and it is anticipated that considerable progress will be made during
the coming year in investigating the behaviour of highly purified chlorine,
and the Committee ask to be reappointed for this purpose.

A considerable part of the grant made to meet expenses already
incurred in 1894 remains in hand, and therefore it is not necessary to ask
for a further grant this year.

How shall Agriculture best obtain the Help of Science? By R,
Warincton, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Rural Economy, Oxford.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in ewtenso. |

Our discussion to-day will, I trust, have practical results. The time is
certainly ripe for decided steps being taken. No doubt exists in the
mind of any one that British agriculture is in great need of some powerful

helping hand, which, in popular phraseology, shall ‘put it on its legs

again.’ There is probably also no doubt in the mind of any person in
this room that, if the farmer is to be enabled to do his best, agriculture
must be advanced from its original condition as an art, and that in future
its operations must be conducted with the full assistance of natural
science. The so-called ‘practical man’ may indeed believe that the
question we have met to discuss will be at once set aside as profitless if
we raise the preliminary question, Do you believe that the assistance of
natural science will remove agricultural depression ? I answer at once
that I do not know that it will, but that this is no reason for declining
the aid which science offers. When a sick man calls in a physician he
does not ask the preliminary question, Do you promise to restore me to
full health ? If the question were asked, the physician would positively
decline to make any such promise ; and yet the sick man would place
himself unreservedly in the physician’s hands, feeling that he could
not do better than make use of the best knowledge of the day on the
subject of his complaint. Now agricultural science should mean the
best knowledge of the day on the subject of agriculture, and a farmer
will surely do wisely to obtain the aid of this knowledge in all his
operations.

We have now to consider in what manner, by what methods, agricul-
ture may best obtain the aid of science. We might divide our answer to
this question into two parts. We might say, in the first place, that the
science of agriculture is still only in its infancy, and that if agriculture is

342 REPORT—1895.

to be effectively aided by science it is necessary that there should be a
great increase in the number of practical investigations of agricultural
questions. In the second place, we should add, that all the investigations
already made, or to be carried out, will fail of practical utility if the farmer
remains uninformed of the knowledge thus acquired. Our answer would
thus be, that we require, firstly, an extended system of practical investiga-
tions; and, secondly, an effective scheme of agricultural education. A]] that.
will be said to-day could probably be classed under one or other of these
two heads. I propose, however, in these opening remarks to adopt a less.
logical division of the subject. In order that our discussion may not
assume an academic character, but may, if possible, lead to some practica}
result, I will at once descend into the region of practical politics, and
endeavour to answer the question by pointing out what can most usefully
be done by (1) a Board of Agriculture, and (2) by County Councils, to
accomplish the objects of agricultural investigation and agricultural edu-
cation, which we believe to be so important.

There are certain kinds of work which can be accomplished best by a
central organisation ; work which is of general, national importance ;
work which is necessary to form the basis of future developments. Such
work should be at once undertaken by the Government, through a Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

We need a really complete agricultural and horticultural library, freely
open to the public. The literature of the subject is extremely large and
rapidly increasing ; much of it is quite beyond the reach of a private
individual, while it is of too special a character to be found in our
ordinary public libraries. To give one illustration. There are at the
present time about 300 fully equipped experiment stations in Europe
and America, besides many smailer institutions. The results of their in-
vestigations are published in numerous reports and journals in many
janguages. No person is able at present to refer to more than a small
part of this literature. Instead of consulting the original papers, one is
generally obliged to be content with the meagre abstracts furnished by a
German Jahresbericht or Centralblatt, and whatever does not find entrance
into these periodicals is lost to the general public. As an illustration of
what may be done in this direction by an energetic Board of Agriculture,
I may mention that the Department of Agriculture in the United States
compiles a card catalogue of all the published work of the fifty-five
American experiment stations, and supplies a copy of this catalogue to
each station.

We need also an English journal published monthly, in which the
results of the most important agricultural investigations should be made
accessible to the general scientific public. The advantage of this to
teachers and investigators would be very great. As such a journal could
not be expected to pay its expenses, it should be published for the benefit
of the country by the Government. The American ‘Experiment Station
Record’ is an example of work done in this direction: it is chiefly, but
not exclusively, concerned with the investigations made at the American
stations.

Another piece of work which belongs peculiarly to a central department
is the collection and preparation of national statistics. Statistics of acreage
under different crops, with the annual and average produce per acre, and the
number of live stock in the United Kingdom, are collected and published
by the present Board. The Board that we desire would go much further

=

HOW SHALL AGRICULTURE BEST OBTAIN THE HELP OF SCIENCE? 343

in this direction. We have at the present time no accurate idea of what is
the average composition of any portion of our agricultural produce, for the
simple reason that the collection of the scattered analyses, the rejection of
imperfect work, and the averaging of the remainder is so large an under-
taking that no private individual has had the courage to attempt the task.
The results of this present lack of national information are not unimport-
ant. We are obliged at the present time to employ German averages for
all purposes of teaching or calculation. These averages are in the main
prepared from German analyses, and relate to crops and foods grown in a
different climate, and under different conditions, to our own. In the
United States, the want of national statistics respecting the composition
of foods and crops has been supplied by their Department of Agriculture,
which has published in one volume more than 3,000 analyses of American-
grown foods, all properly classified and averaged. In the same way the
results of American digestion experiments, made exclusively with
American foods and American animals, have been collected and pub-
lished, thus again obviating the necessity for relying solely on German
figures.

An efficient Department of Agriculture should be provided with a staff
of officers representing all the sciences connected with agriculture ; these
officers should be furnished with suitable laboratories, and all the machinery
required for carrying out investigations and making reports. Thus
equipped the department would be able to attempt the solution of
agricultural problems of pressing importance. The work done at this
Government institution would also serve as a model for the investigations
carried on at the smaller experiment stations. The investigations thus
conducted with public money should be of a thoroughly practical character,
the results of which would have a direct bearing on the farmer’s work.
Let me venture on a single illustration. Persian barley has lately been
imported into England in considerable quantity ; its price has been lower
than that of any other kind of barley in the market. A question at once
arises in the mind of the cattle-feeder, Is it really cheap? Will asovereign
expended on these thin, shrivelled grains purchase a greater weight of food
substance, and fatten an animal better, than the same money spent on
English barley? The farmer can neither make a chemical analysis nor
carry out an accurate feeding experiment, but a properly equipped
Department of Agriculture could do both, and in a few weeks issue a report
which would be of substantial benefit to the farmers of this country.

Before leaving this part of the subject let us note what our brethren
across the water are doing in this matter. Canada, though a poor
country, and with a population of only five millions, has its central agri-
cultural laboratories, and its chemists and botanists employed under its
Department of Agriculture, and spends 15,000/. a year on the agricultural
investigations conducted at the central station at Ottawa and at the four
provincial stations. In the United States the annual cost of the in-
vestigations carried out by the Central Department of Agriculture at
Washington cannot be less than 60,000/., and this is exclusive of the
cost of the work done at the fifty-five experiment stations in the various
States, towards which 150,000/. is annually contributed by the National
Government. !

The figures quoted, both for Canada and the United States, do not include the

very considerable sums spent for the same objects by the local governments in these
countries,

3844 REPORT—1895.

We may certainly congratulate ourselves that we have at last a Board
of Agriculture, presided over by a Minister having a seat in the Cabinet.
The work done by the Board has already been of considerable benefit to
the country. What we desire is that far larger means should be placed at
its disposal; that the scope of its work should be enlarged ; and that,
especially, it should acquire a distinctly scientific character, which, as we
have already remarked, simply means that the best knowledge of the day
should be enlisted in the service of agriculture. We shall feel ashamed,
I think, when I mention the sum at present devoted by the Board to the
purpose of investigation. The grants made for education and investiga-
tion in the year 1894-95 may be summarised as follows :—

Collegiate centres . : s : 2 EL . £5,550
Dairy institutes . : c - n : 950
Instruction in forestry . : . : 250
Investigations by various associations : ° a 650

7,400

Thus 650/. is the whole sum directly devoted by the Board to the
_ purpose of investigation : some portion of the sums contributed to colle-
giate centres may, however, be employed for this purpose, as experiments
are conducted by some of the colleges thus assisted.

The 6,750/. distributed by the Board to educational institutions is
very wisely allotted to those giving a complete course of instruction.
The provision of a full course of training for teachers should always have
the first consideration in any educational movement.

In referring to the present national expenditure on agricultural educa-
tion we must not omit the grants made by the Department of Science and
Art to science schools and classes teaching the principles of agriculture.
The total grant amounted in 1893-94 to the sum of 2,937/. The Depart-
ment has recently attempted to improve the instruction given in these
classes. A new syllabus of the subject has been prepared for the use of
the teachers, with suggested experiments, and a few necessary diagrams,
The Honours examination has also been made much more thorough.

We next turn to the work done in this country by local authorities.
This is a very wide subject, and I can only glance at a few points. We
all know that a really large sum of national money has been placed in the
hands of the local authorities during the last few years, which they can
use at their discretion for the purposes of technical and secondary educa-
tion. The sum thus placed at the disposal of the local authorities in
England for the year 1894-95 amounted to about 744,000/., of which
about 600,000/. was actually spent on education. The particular educa-
tional objects aided vary, of course, very much in different localities, and
it is only in the counties that we can expect to find the teaching of
agriculture occupying an important place. The annual grant at the
disposal of the English counties somewhat exceeds 400,000/. It is very
difficult to tell how much of this is devoted to agricultural purposes. In
the case of a few counties, as Kent, Bedfordshire, and Berkshire, it
would appear from the figures published in the ‘ Record of Technical
and Secondary Education ’! that about one-third of the total grant is

1 T am indebted to the reports in this valuable periodical for much of the informa-
tion here given respecting the agricultural work of County Councils.

{/*

HOW SHALL AGRICULTURE BEST OBTAIN THE HELP OF SCIENCE? 345

allotted to agriculture, but in most counties the proportion is very much
less.

The mode in which this agricultural education is carried out is, of course,
very varied. It may consist simply in money aid to classes under the
Department of Science and Art; or the county may have its own
travelling lecturers, who deliver short courses on agriculture, horticul-
ture, dairy-work, poultry, bee-keeping, and the diseases of animals.
Purely technical classes on horse-shoeing, ploughing, hedging, draining,
are also common. The most popular, and certainly one of the most useful,
of these technical schools is the travelling dairy, by which practical in-
struction in butter-making is given at many centres throughout the
county. Asa help toa higher grade of instruction than is furnished by
these popular classes, the County Councils grant agricultural scholarships
available for the courses of instruction at agricultural schools and col-
leges, and in some instances at institutions of university rank. In a
few cases dairy institutes and agricultural colleges have been established
by County Councils, usually by the united action of two or three counties,
and in these cases considerable sums are annually set aside for their
support. The sketch we have given of County Council work will, how-
ever, leave a far too favourable impression if we do not bear in mind that
only a portion of the schemes mentioned are generally in use in any one
county.

As it is clearly most important that these new schemes of agricultural
education should be wisely and efficiently carried out, we may profitably
devote a few minutes to the consideration of some important points upon
attention to which any real success will largely depend.

With lads of the age at which they are usually in attendance at
elementary schools little can be done in teaching the scientific principles
of agriculture ; such lads have not acquired the previous scientific know-
ledge necessary for understanding what is to be taught. They may indeed
learn off answers to questions either from the blackboard or from a printed
text-book, and thus furnished they may pass examinations ; but the know-
ledge they have acquired is merely a knowledge of words, and will be of
no value to them in after-life. The foundation of habits of observation and
logical reasoning must, however, be laid in the elementary school if higher
instruction is hereafter to be given. This elementary training may
easily be made to have an agricultural bias. No better means of
educating a boy’s powers of observation can be found than a study of the
individual characters and modes of development of the various crops,
weeds, and insects of the farm.

When lads have passed through the elementary school their special
training should immediately commence ; any delay is most unfavourable to
the boy’s development. The time has now come when a distinction has to
be made between the students ; some are to be labourers, some are to be
farmers. For both technical instruction is required: the arts of agricul-
ture have to be mastered.!. The farmer's son, however, requires besides
this a higher course of study if scientific principles are to be introduced
into his future practice. One great need of the present day is the esta-
blishment of secondary agricultural schools, which shall be centres both for

° 1 In some countries, as Ireland and France, instruction in the art of agriculture is
given in connection with the elementary schools: this is, of course, possible if the
school engagements admit of time being thus spent, and there is convenient land
adjoining.

346 REPORT—1895.

purely technical and for scientific instruction. The farmer’s son on
entering such a school would commence at once his technical training, and
he would at the same time commence the study of elementary chemistry
and elementary biology and geology. Not till he had gone through
elementary courses on these subjects would he be prepared for instruction
in the scientific principles of agriculture.

It is from well-arranged schemes, in which the instruction proceeds
from first to last in a proper order, that the best results are to be expected ;
such schemes should gradually be made to take the place of the short mis-
cellaneous courses of instruction, imperfect in themselves, and given to an
audience unprepared for them. The principal use of popular lectures is
undoubtedly to arouse a general interest in the subject, and to show how
much there is to be learnt on agricultural matters. Miscellaneous lectures
have thus a great value in pioneer work, but it must never be supposed
that they can take the place of solid, systematic instruction.

Lectures to farmers are undoubtedly of very considerable importance,
as they are one of the few means of improving the practice of the present
generation, but they are the most difficult of all lectures to carry on
efficiently. The lecturer must be thoroughly acquainted with farming
practice, and with the conditions which determine profit and loss, or he
will bring his science into contempt. The teaching of science as science to
an audience of farmers will soon result in an empty room; but keen, practical
men will listen carefully to the conclusions drawn from scientific investiga-
tions when these can be shown to have a direct bearing upon their daily
work.

One of the greatest obstacles to the teaching of scientific agriculture
in the present day, whether in schools or in evening classes or lectures, is
the great lack of competent teachers. The best qualification which a
teacher can offer is that of graduate of one of the larger agricultural
colleges, but the supply of such men is extremely small. The qualification
sufficing for teaching the principles of agriculture under the Department.
of Science and Art is an extremely low one,! and should never in itself be
accepted as sufficient. A poorly qualified teacher solves all his difficulties
by adopting a popular text-book, and teaching this in a literal manner.
Unfortunately some of the text-books most largely used entirely fail to
represent the present condition of agricultural science, and persistently
teach a whole series of exploded errors. Technical committees should
not sanction the use of text-books of scientific agriculture which are
mere reprints of works written many years ago.

County Councils should recollect that all educational machinery re-
quires inspection. They act unadvisedly when they try to rid themselves
of trouble and responsibility by making grants to Parish Councils for tech-
nical education, and then leaving them to direct the work. It is necessary
always to ascertain how a teacher does his work. Does he illustrate his
lessons by specimens, diagrams, and experiments; or is his object simply to
cram for a written examination? Opportunity should be given to
teachers to improve themselves by further study. Schemes for Saturday

1 A person becomes qualified to conduct a class under the Department by
answering successfully six or seven questions, selected by himself out of twelve
or fourteen, from a paper drawn up to suit the capacity of lads of fifteen. ‘The new
regulations for the Honours examination, which come into force next year, will
provide a much higher qualification, as the successful candidates will in this case
have passed two examinations subsequent to the one just named.

HOW SHALL AGRICULTURE BEST OBTAIN THE HELP OF SCIENCE? 347

lectures to teachers, or classes for teachers held in the vacation months,
are of the greatest use if good men can be secured as instructors.

We must now speak of the relations of County Councils to agricultural
investigation. This kind of work has been undertaken at present by
only a few counties, and by them to a very limited extent: public opinion
is, indeed, not nearly so developed upon the subject of investigation as it
is on that of education. Practical investigations are, however, urgently
required if the operations of agriculture are to be carried out in a
scientific manner. The science of agriculture is, in fact, as yet in its
infancy, and can be perfected only by well-arranged experiment. There
is room for an immense variety of work. Every substance which the
farmer uses, every living organism (plant or animal) with which he is
concerned, every operation he conducts, must be thoroughly understood if
it is to be employed to the best advantage. Great Britain is singularly
behind other civilised countries in the work of agricultural investigation.
The reason has apparently been very simple. In most European countries,
and in the United States and Canada, the initiative has been taken by the
Government. Ministers, having a just idea of the conditions on which
national prosperity depends, have succeeded in obtaining public funds for
the support of experiment stations, institutions provided with laboratories
and skilled workers, and devoted to the elucidation of agricultural
problems. The German Empire alone has about fifty-four Versuchs-
Stationen, without reckoning the public laboratories occupied chiefly with
the analysis of manures and seed-testing. In England agricultural
investigation has been left to private enterprise, which during the
present century has produced one first-class experiment station—that of
Rothamsted—of which we are all rightly proud, but which is wholly
inadequate for the growing needs of the country.

I am not at this moment advocating the immediate creation of many
first-class experiment stations, though there is ample scope for such in the
hands of competent workers. One first-class station should certainly be
at once started under the immediate control of a reorganised Department.
of Agriculture, as without this the national investigations, which would
become one of the functions of this department, could not be carried
out. The great need at the present time is the creation of numerous.
local stations, to work upon the practical problems of each locality,
and so become centres of scientific teaching and scientific demonstra-
tion. If Parliament were to offer to give 1,000/. a year! towards the
support of a county experiment station, erected and maintained by the:
_ County Council, and subject to the inspection and approval of the De-

partment of Agriculture, a great start would be at once made in the right.
direction.

A few words may be said as to the kind of investigations to be
undertaken by a local experiment station. The subjects taken up will of
course depend upon the style of farming in the neighbourhood, the object
being in every case to bring scientific knowledge and methods into actual
touch with the farmer’s work. Some of the experiments would be

carried out on selected farms, possessing soils and climates typical of
considerable areas in the county. Comparative trials of different

Ee ee ee ee eer

1 This should be regarded as a minimum sum. In the United States each State
receives 3,000/. annually from the National Exchequer towards the maintenance of

__ its experiment station.
.

3848 REPORT—1895.

varieties of grain, root, or fodder crops upon the various soils of the
locality would be most useful.! Farmers usually go on sowing the same
kind of seed, or make a change only to something that is well advertised,
without ever ascertaining by actual experiment which of the manifold
varieties in the market is best fitted for the conditions of their own soil
and climate. Other experiments could only be conducted at the experi-
ment station. It is to be hoped that comparative trials of the nutritive
value of different foods would in all cases be undertaken : on this point
our knowledge is sadly deficient.2 The chemical analysis of foods, as
conducted at the present day, is no sufficient guide to their feeding value.
We need facts as to the actual effect of different foods upon the animal,
and we must then seek to bring our methods of analysis into consonance
with these facts.

Besides actual investigations these local agricultural stations might
be made to supply demonstrations which would be invaluable for teaching
purposes. If, however, agricultural secondary schools are established,
such demonstrations would find their most suitable home in these esta-
blishments. It will probably be desired in some cases to make the experi-
_ment station a place for the analysis of manures and feeding stuffs for

the farmers round. Ifa special assistant is allotted to this kind of work
there can be no objection to it ; but it would be folly to allow investi-
gations to be interrupted by attention to such matters.

At the present time the majority of the County Councils have not
made any commencement in agricultural investigations. Those councils
which have taken up the subject appear generally to have avoided any
responsibility of their own in the matter. The usual course has been
to make a grant to some agricultural college, or to some local Chamber
of Agriculture, on the understanding that they will carry on experiments
in the county. There is surely, however, no reason why a strong agri-
cultural committee should not be formed in every county by the
addition to their number of experts residing in the county. The
experiments at present carried on through the medium of agricultural
colleges and Chambers of Agriculture are almost all of one type: they
consist of the comparative trials of manures. This style of experiment
is indeed the only one which has found general favour in this country.
The fact is certainly regrettable, as it exhibits a poverty of idea on the
part of the experimenter, and a lack of apprehension of the many serious
problems which are awaiting solution.

Many important topics have been left unmentioned which will doubt-
~ less be taken up during the discussion which is to follow. My object has
been merely to give a brief sketch of the kind of national and local
work required if a real effort is to be made to give agriculture the aid
of science.

' In Essex and Nottinghamshire a commencement has been made of work of
this kind.

* In Norfolk valuable experiments have been made on the feeding value of oil-
cake containing different percentages of oil.

ON THE HIGH-LEVEL FLINT-DRIFT OF THE CHALK. 3849

High-level Flint-drift of the Chalk.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Sir Jonny Evans (Chairman), Mr. B. Harrison (Secretary),
Professor J. PrestwicH, and Professor H. G. SEELEY. Drawn
up by Mr. B. Harrison.

Tur Committee were appointed to investigate the nature and probable
age of the High-level Flint-drift in the face of the chalk escarpment near
Ightham, which appears to be productive of flakes and other forms of
flint probably wrought by the hand of man.

This patch of gravel has been preserved upon a promontory of the
chalk escarpment, at an altitude of 658 feet. It extends for some 70
yards, and attains a maximum thickness of 5} feet.

It is composed chiefly of sharp angular flint, varying in colour from
bluish-white to bleached-white. Accompanying this is a quantity of
deeply-stained ochreous flints, with here and there pieces of chert,
Oldbury stone, and rag.

Flakes made by man exist in thousands, and they preponderate over
the more elaborately worked specimens. Numerous scrapers, hollow-
notched and of horse-shoe shape, were obtained, as well as partially
finished implements ; but no perfect large tools, and none with any sign
of polishing.

The worked-flint material is similar to that spread out in the Holmes-
dale valley, where it is accompanied by large somewhat rude implements.
Amongst the deep ochreous flints some bear the look characteristic of the
plateau specimens. The matrix is usually clayey, of a dark red colour,
but in places it is quite chalky, and unstratified. A large quantity of the
flints are encrusted with carbonate of lime. With the view of tracing
the origin of this bed attention was directed to the ground above, in
hope of finding either a Neolithic settlement, or plateau implements am
sita. The latter having been traced to a position where an excavation
had brought them from a depth of six or seven feet (Pit A), it was decided
to dig a pit to obtain a section upon Parsonage Farm, Stanstead, by the
kind permission of the owner, Mr. Pink.

The excavation was closely watched by Mr. W. J. Lewis Abbott, F.G.S.,
and myself, and occasional visits were made by the Rev. R. Ashington
Bullen, F.G.S , acting under direction of Professor Prestwich, Mr. F. J. C.
Spurrel, Mr. Corner, F.G.S., and others interested in the subject.

The following is the section (see p. 350). f

Work was commenced on October 19, 1894, by digging a pit 12 feet
by 6 across. At the top, 2} feet consisted of a stony loam, with a large
percentage of ochreous flint, much worn, angular white flint, Tertiary
pebbles, and some evidence of southern drift. With a fairly even line of
demarcation came a grey Joam containing some small fragments of flint,
a few small Tertiary pebbles, and small rudely worked stones scattered
throughout at places. At about 5} feet this loam became more clayey,
and of a deep rich ochreous colour, overlying a gravel, about 12 inches in
thickness, composed of much-worn ochreous flints, some very large, and
many Tertiary pebbles. This gravel was hard and compact. From it I
secured very many worked implements. Heavy rain now hindered work
by filling the pit. Measuring off 12 feet in line we began to dig another
pit.

350 REPORT—1895.

Pit 1. Parsonaze-farm, near Ash, Kent.

umus and drifted material, white flints,
pebbles, and many ochreous flints worn and
worked.

Grey loam, with scattered small pebbles, and a
few small worked ochreous flints throughout;
the lower part of this deposit was more
clayey and deeply ochreous.

Gravel, about J2 inches thick, varying, confu-
sedly laid, very hard and compact; pebbles,
large flints, and many bearing work.

Pit 2. Parsonage-farm, near Ash, Kent.

Humus and drifted material, white flints,
pebbles, and many ochreous flints, worn and
* worked ; one piece of Oldbury stone.

‘Grey loam, with scattered small pebbles, and a
few small worked ochreous flints throughout ;
the lower part of this deposit was more
clayey and deeply ochreous.

Gravel, about 12 inches, varying, confusedly
laid, hard and compact; pebbles, large flints,
many bearing work. A few worked flints
were found, at 8 feet, in one spot.

This pit dug to a depth of 26 ft. passing
through sandy loams obliquely bedded;
lower Tertiary pebble-.

One foot tested by a hop-pitcher (iron bar) ; no
sign of chalk,

—: .

A. Pit dug by the owner in the spring of 1894, to about
10 ft. [Worked flints were found, ani Pit B was sunk
immediately adjoining it. ]

B. Pit 1. Sunk to the level of the gravel, about 7 ft.; work
interrupted by heavy rain.

C. Pit 2. Sunk at 12 ft. off toS.W. Gravel found at the
same level, 6 to 7 ft. Tertiary loams and sands, sunk
through to a depth of 26 ft.

Pit No. 2 presented precisely similar conditions, 2} feet of surface
drift, the grey loam, with its weathered pebbles and few small worked
stones, continuing until the ochreous clayey deposit was reached which
_ overlay a continuation of the gravel.

In this pit, however, the gravel was much stained at places and
hardened throughout by manganese. The seam of gravel proved to be
about 12 inches in thickness, varying at places. At one spot in this pit,
at a depth of 8 feet, a few worked stones were found lying in a sandy
matrix ; but below this, although a depth of 26 feet was pierced, no further
evidence of worked tools was found.

_ As the object was to investigate the nature of the deposits and to
reach the Chalk if possible, the work was continued until a depth of
26 feet was reached when, owing to the men working in danger of a slip,
and being so well in the Tertiaries, orders were given to fill in. At 26
_ feet a hop-pitcher (iron bar) was used to pierce about a foot more, but no
_ evidence of the chalk was forthcoming.

The Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius.—Final Report of the Committee,

consisting of Mr. H. Baverman (Chairman), Dr. H. J. Jounston
Lavis (Secretary), Mr. F. W. Rupier, and Mr. J. J. H. TEAL,
appointed for the purpose of Investigating the Volcanic Phenomena of
Vesuvius and its Neighbourhood.

Tue reporter having since the last meeting of the Association terminated
his residence in Naples, the continuous observations of the volcanic
phenomena of the district which he has carried on during the last sixteen
years have naturally come to an end. It is therefore not considered
advisable to ask for the reappointment of the Committee. In closing the
work of the Committee the reporter wishes to express his sincere thanks
for the valuable aid he has received.
An account of the eruption during the early months of this year was
published by the reporter in ‘ Nature’ of August 8, 1895.

352 REPORT—1895.

The Rute of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales, and the
Influence of the Artificial Abstraction of Shingle or other Material
in that Action.—Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr.
W. Warraker (Chairman), Messrs. J. B. RepMan and J. W.
WoopaLL, Major-General Sir A. CuarKke, Admiral Sir E.
OmmaNNEY, Admiral Sir GEorGE Nares, Captain J. Parsons,
Admiral W. J. L. Waarton, Professor J. Prestwicu, Mr.
Epwarp Easton, Mr. J. S. VALENTINE, Professor L. F. VERNON
Harcourt, and the late Mr. W. Toptey. and Mr. C. E. Dr
Rance (Secretaries). (Drawn up by C. E. DE Rance.)

APPENDIX PAGE

I.—Summary of Previous Reports ‘ : : 4 : . 854

1s —Information received and collected since 1888 . ‘ 359
Ill.— Various Scheduled Returns: Replies to Printed Queries circulated by

the Committee. 372

IV.—Second Chronological L ist of W ‘orks on , the " Coast- changes and Shore-
Deposits of England and Wales. By W. WHITAKER, B.A, F.B.S.,
F.GS., Assoc. Inst. C.E. = : , ; : f : 3 . 388

THE seaboard counties of England and Wales are twenty-nine in number :
of these Cornwall has the largest amount of coast, with a curiously
indented outline of hard Paleozoic rocks ; the county of Devon stands next
with similar rocks, except on the south-eastern const, where Secondary
rocks form the coast-line, and the rate of waste is considerable. The
counties of Lancashire and Yorkshire stand next, and are margined by
Secondary rocks and Drift, and the rate of erosion is excessive. Sussex
and Kent stand next as regards length of coast-line, and are wholly
composed of more or less soft Secondary and Tertiary deposits, offering
a ready prey to the devouring waves, often increased by badly designed
works of so-called protection. The last remarks apply to the coasts of the
whole of the remaining counties of England, except Northumberland,
where Upper Paleozoic Coal-Measures and Permians are being moderately
wasted by coast erosion, and Cumberland, where also, through the ancient
hard rocks of the Lake District being sea-margined by Coal-Measures and
Glacial Drift, very considerable coast erosion is taking place. Similarly in
Wales the hard rocks of the Cambrian Mountains are, or were, margined
by terraces of soft Coal-Measures and red rocks in Flintshire, Glamorgan-
shire, and Pembrokeshire ; and even in the western coast the sites of
terraces of Drift once present now underlie high-water mark ; a process
which would have been still more marked in North Wales had not the
London and North-Western Railway run for so many miles along its base,
necessitating that company keeping out the inroads of the sea.

Your Committee was appointed in 1881, at York, at the suggestion of
the surviving Secretary, who acted as Chairman in that year, his place
being taken by Sir John Hawkshaw in 1882, who was succeeded by Mr.
R. B. Grantham between 1883 and 1889. Since 1890 Mr. W. Whitaker
has been Chairman. <A preliminary Report, giving the form of inquiry
adopted by the Committee and widely circulated by them, was given in
1884, and detailed Reports appeared in 1885, 1886, and 1888: they
embodied a very large mass of facts of great value, given through the
courtesy of several public departments. No grant of money has been

~~

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 353

made since 1887. The three Reports published were edited by the late
Mr. W. Topley, whose loss your Committee have deeply to deplore, as
doubtless his judgment would have greatly aided them in formulating
the resolutions embodied in this Report, in the production of which they
are also deprived by death of two of their former Chairmen, Sir John
Hawkshaw and Mr. Granthani.

In the preliminary Report of your Committee in 1884 it was stated
that ‘the importance of the subject referred to’ them ‘for investigation
is universally admitted, and the urgent need for inquiry is apparent to
all who have any acquaintance with the changes which are in progress
around our coasts. The subject isa large one, and can only be success-
fully attacked by many observers working with a common purpose and
upon some uniform plan.’ Since that date important changes have taken
place, affecting both divisions of the reference of inquiry. The success
of the British Association in initiating the investigation of the more
important subjects now being undertaken by the provincial corresponding
scientific societies has resulted in offers of assistance from an increasing
number of observers able and willing to collect facts locally all over the
United Kingdom ; and your Committee are of opinion that the necessity
for their existence has ceased, and that the work could be successfully
carried on by local effort. The local information, however, so acquired
cannot be readily obtained for public purposes when only locally published,
and it appears to them that the corresponding societies might usefully
furnish their results annually to some department of the public service.

» Your Committee, nevertheless, consider that, valuable as would be
the results obtained locally in some districts by the local scientific
societies, there are large areas where no such societies exist, and many
where they might not care to undertake the work ; and, further, that the
work, however well carried out, is, in some cases, simply the noting of
the erosion of coasts, the destruction of churches, forts, villages, and
coastguard stations which they are powerless to prevent. They are of
opinion that the abstract of information obtained, herewith appended, is
amply sufficient to show the imperial necessity of preserving the area of
this country from the inroads of the sea in an efficient manner. It also

Proves that the work of devastation is largely aided by artificial opera-

tions of two classes : first, the abstraction and selling of shingle, sand,
cement-stone, and other rocks ; second, by badly designed preservation
works, sea-walls without sufficient land ties or concrete backing, and with
bad foundations and ill-designed slopes; groynes of unsuitable material,
incorrect construction, and improper direction to meet the storm-waves
at such angle as to arrest and detain the shingle brought to them.

As pointed out by Mr. Redman in 1885, the legal aspect of the case is
ably brought out in Hall’s ‘Essay on the Rights of the Crown to the
Sea-shore,’ republished in 1875 by Mr. Loveland Loveland, of the Inner
Temple, from which it appears that the ‘dominion or ownership over the
British seas, vested by law in the King, extends not only over the open

‘Seas, but also over all creeks, arms of the seas, havens, ports, and tidal

rivers, as far as the reach of the tide,’ and, further, ‘is not confined to the
mere usufruct of the water and the maritime jurisdiction, but it includes
the very fundum or soil at the bottom of the sea.’ And it is further
Stated that ‘with regard to the “constant and usual fetching of sea sand,
Seaweed, and gravel, between the high-water and low-water mark, and

licensing others so to do, and embankin g against the sea, and enjoyment
1895. AA

304 REPORT—1895.

of what is so inned”—these, it must be admitted, are all acts likely to be
done by the owners of the soil, and they afford colour that he who does
such acts is the owner ; but these acts may be usurpations or intrusions
on the King’s ownership, and primd facie are so.’

The late Mr. R. B. Grantham, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., in 1888, then
Chairman of the Committee, stated—what is equally true in 1895 in the
light of experience gained in the interval—that ‘the papers hitherto pre-
pared are very valuable ; but they are unconnected, and do not give the
means of enabling us to promote a system of protection in all parts of our
coasts. It seems essential that the information, to be practically useful,
should point out how a connected method of proceeding and operation could
be formed to prevent the wearing away of land.’

The preservation of the coast, and the conservation of our seaboard
counties, are matters of urgent necessity :—they affect many varied inte-
rests—the Government, County Councils, Crown rights, and private owner-
ship, but as to the department which should take charge of the work, the
Committee do not offer any suggestion ; they are unanimous as to how a
working result could be most quickly obtained.

APPENDIX I.
SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS REPORTS.

Form or INQUIRY CIRCULATED.

1. What part of the English or Welsh
Coast do you know well?
2. What is the nature of that coast ?

a. If cliffy, of what are the cliffs
composed ?
». What are the heights of the
cliffs above H.W.M.?
Greatest ; average ; least.

3. What is the direction of the coast-
line?

. What is the prevailing wind ?

, What wind is the most important——

Ap

a. In raising high waves ?
b. In piling up shingle?
e. In the travelling of shingle ?

6. What is the set of the tidal currents ?

7. What is the range of tide?

Vertical in feet. Width in yards
between high and low water.
At spring tide ; at neap tide?

8. Does the area covered by the tide
consist of bare rock, shingle, sand,
or mud ?

9. If of shingle, state—

a Its mean and greatest breadth.
bd Its distribution with respect to
tide-mark

e. The direction in which it travels.

d. The greatest size of the pebbles.

e. Whether the shingle forms one
continuous slope, or whether
there is a ‘spring full’ and
‘neap full.’ Ifthe latter, state
theirheights above the respec-
tive tide-marks.

10. Is the shingle accumulating or di-
minishing, and at what rate ?

11. If diminishing, is this due partly or
entirely to artificial abstraction ?
(See No. 13.)

12. If groynes are employed to arrest
the travel of the shingle, state—

a. Their direction with respect to
the shore-line at that point.

b. Their length.

e. Their distance apart.

da. Their height—

(1) When built.

(2) To leeward above the
shingle.

(8) To windward above the
shingle.

e. The material of which they are
built.
f. The influence which they exert.

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 355

23. If shingle, sand, or rock is being | 16. Apart from the increase of land by
artificially removed, state— increase of shingle, is any land

a. From what part of the foreshore | being gained from the sea? If so,

(with respect to the tidal Geta
range) the material is mainly | a. From what cause, as embanking
taken. salt-marsh or tidal foreshore.
b. For what purpose. b. The area so regained, and from
e. By whom—Private individuals. | what date.
Local authorities. Public
companies. 17. Are there ‘dunes’ of blown sand in
da. Whether half-tide reefs had, | your district? If so, state—
before such removal, acted as | a. The name by which they are
natural breakwaters. locally known.
24. Is the coast being worn back by the | IA Their mean ane, Ere avesip height,
sea? If so, state— . ec. Their relation to river mouths
‘ J rie and to areas of shingle.
a. At what special points or dis- a. If they are now increasing.
tricts. . e. If they blow over tbe land; or
b. The nature and height of the | are prevented from so doing
cliffs at those places. by ‘ bent grass’ or other vege-
e. At what rate the erosion now

tation, or by water channels.

takes place.
d. What data there may be for de- | 18. Mention any reports, papers, maps,
termining the rate from early | or newspaper articles that have
maps or other docnments. appeared upon this question bear-
e. Is such loss confined to areas ing upon your district (copies will
bare of shingle ? be thankfully received by the
Secretaries).
19. Remarks bearing on the subject that
may not seem covered by the fore-
going questions.

|
|
25. Is the bareness of shingle at any of |

these places due to artificial causes? |

a. By abstraction of shingle.

b. By the erection of groynes, and |
the arresting of shingle else- |
where. (

WN.B.—Ansners to the foregoing questions will in most cases be rendered more precise
and valuable by sketches illustrating the points referred to.

First Report.!

In this report is included General Report A, ‘On the South-eastern

_ Coast of England,’ by Mr. J. B. Repmay, C.E. He points out the disasters
which inevitably follow injudicious interference with the littoral movements
of beach, and that the erosion of the south-east coasts by the action of wind-
waves is assisted and increased by artificial agency, by removal of material,
-and by the treatment of works of defence in a selfish spirit, unaccom-
panied by concerted action, resulting in injury to adjoining frontages for
the benefit of those operated on, and he states that this is abundantly
illustrated in the records of such public departments as the Admiralty,
Woods and Forests, Office of Works, the Board of Trade, the Trinity
Corporation, and by the experience of nearly every harbour board, river
conservancy, and local drainage and sewage authority ; and he refers to
_ the Blue Books of the House of Commons as regards tidal harbours,
harbours of refuge, lighthouses and shipping, showing the confusion
caused by the division of local authority, and personal opposition of lords
of the manor to imperial requirements as to the conservation of the British
Isles from the ravages of the wind-wave, accelerated by the wholesale

|

1 Brit. Assoc. Report, 188%, pp. 404-46%.

306 REPORT—1895.

removal by ‘ballastage’ for road-making and building purposes, and im-
proper and badly conceived engineering works.

General Report B.—‘ The South-eastern Coast of England,’ by Colonel
E. C. Sim, R.E. (Retired). Shows severe loss of coast yee public pre-
servation works are neglected, and the value of their being carried out on
scientific principles. Groynes are valuable to check movement of shingle,
and to tie the foot of sea-walls and prevent their being undermined ; an
80-foot groyne protects only 100 feet of coast ; they should be directed
towards the prevailing dangerous winds, and if the coast suffers from both
south-east and south-west winds, land ties on both sides are necessary, and
in all cases the groynes should be so built as to get the beach to topple
over and accumulate on the leeward side as well as the windward.

General Report C.—‘ Erosion of Sea-coast, Langney (or Langley) Point,
and Beachy Head, Sussex,’ by F. W. Bourpinion,M.A., Eastbourne. Shows
that the removal of reefs of Upper Greensand rocks between tide-marks
has caused coast erosion, and the necessity of numerous strong groynes.

General Report D.—‘ The Coast of East Kent,’ by G. Dowkrr, F.G.S.
Sketches taken of Pegwell Bay between 1849 and 1884 show great erosion.

Detailed Reports.—1. ‘Sidmouth,’ by PrererR OrLtanpo HUTCHINSON.
Groynes entirely failed, and an esplanade wall had to be built. Considers
the land is subsiding beneath the sea at the rate of 10 inches per 100 years.

2. ‘Lyme Regis and Charmouth,’ by R. B. Grantuam. This report
does not refer to the destruction of the cliff between the places named, and
the fall of a churchyard at their westward end. The rate of erosion is
much facilitated by the removal of ‘cement stones’ at the base of the
cliff.

3. ‘Axmouth to Eype,’ by Horacz B. Woopwarp. Quotes much local
information ; annual waste of cliff about 3 feet per annum in soft rock and
1 foot in hard.

4, ‘Bridport Harbour,’ by H. B. Woopwarp. About 10,000 tons of
shingle removed away in six months, stated to be sometimes replaced ina
single tide.

5. ‘Weymouth,’ by Bernarp H. Woopwarp. Removal of shingle
now prevented ; groynes washed away in 1883.

6. ¢ Christchurch to Poole,’ by Rev. G. H. West, Bournemouth. Re-
moval of ironstone forming natural groyne has caused shingle to travel.

7. ‘Sandown Bay,’ by Lieut.-Col. Garnier, R.E., Parkhurst, Isle of
Wight. States the groynes east of Sandown to protect sea-wall do not
appear to have prevented the accumulation of shingle at Yaverland.

8. ‘Brading Harbour,’ by R. B. Granruam, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S.
Half and full tide reefs have protected the coast.

9. ‘Bembridge, &ec., Isle of Wight,’ by Lieut. Norris, R.E. The
serious loss of rich land, due to pressure ‘of land drainage of ‘ blue slipper,”
in the ‘ undercliff’ ; ; there i is only one 3-inch weephole to 8 yards of wall,
which is wholly insufficient.

10. ‘ Pagham,’ by R, B. Grantham, M.Inst.C.F., F.G.S. Reclaimed
lands safely’ sustained by taking land water in tunnel through natural
ie bank to low water on sea-front.

‘Worthing to Lancing,’ by R. B. Grantuam, Inspector under the
Land Commissioners. Groynes 200 feet in length, 500 feet apart, set at
angle of 63° to 80° to coast line, 15 in number, supported by land ties,
cause effectual accumulation of shingle.

12. ‘ Lancing to Shoreham,’ by R.-B. Granruam. Groynes similar to

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 357

above, built in 1877-8, have cost nothing since, and caused great increase
of shingle.

13. ‘ Littlehampton to Brighton,’ by W. E. C. Nourss, F.R.C.S. Gives
examples of medium-sized groynes, giving good results, but extra sizes
give no protection ; the coast generally is wasted and lowered, and many
buildings destroyed.

14. ‘Newhaven and Seaford,’ by A. E. Carry, Resident Engineer,
Newhaven Harbour Works, Sussex. Concrete sea-wall at Seaford, and
the Harbour Company’s wall, if united, now 1,400 yards apart, would save
this coast for many years.

15. ‘ Beachy Head to Hastings,’ by Colonel E. C. Sim, R.E., Brighton.
Points out that sea-walls at Hastings, Bexhill, Eastbourne, Newhaven,
Brighton, Worthing, &c., have arrested erosion of sea-coasts.

16. ‘St. Leonards and Hastings, by Ricuarp B.GrantHam. Groynes,
120 to 200 feet long, locally protect the buildings and shore at the back
of them.

18. ‘Deal,’ by Major A. C. Hepprer, R.E. At Walmer Castle an
anerease of shingle in a century. At Sandown Castle a decrease of 145
feet between 1741 and 1859.

19. ‘Sheerness,’ by Colonel Le Mrsurter, R.E. The parish of Warden
has lost 220 acres in 220 years.

20. ‘Chatham and Sheerness,’ by J. Cuisno~tm GoopEn, Tavistock
Square, London. Waste in the Medway estuary 157 feet in 14 years,
at Sharpness 11 feet per annum.

To this Report is appended a ‘ Chronological List of Works on the Coast-
Changes and Shore-Deposits of England and Wales,’ by W. Wuitaker,
B.A., F.G.8., of which 431 were received from the late Mr. Topley.

_ They range from the year 1675 to 1886.

Seconp Report, 1886.!
Detailed Report.—1. ‘Westgate to Margate, Kent,’ by R. B. GranTHAM,

M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. In places 20 feet of cliff has been lost between 1880

—

and 1886 ; a plan is given showing the area lost.
2. ‘ Estuary of the Colne,’ by Joun Bateman, Brightlingsea. Waste

_ of 100 yards between 1832 and 1886.

3. ‘The Deben to the Colne,’ by P. 8. Brurr, M.Inst.C.E., Engineer
to the Harwich Harbour Conservancy Board. Shingle diminishes where

_ coast not protected by groynes. The coast is worn back on an average 50
_ feet in 10 years, but occasionally double that amount.

5. ‘Aldeburgh to Cromer,’ by W. TraspEtt, C.E., Yarmouth.
Gorleston Cliff has retreated from 200 to 300 feet in the past 40 years.

6. ‘Weybourn to Happisburgh,’ by Atrrep C. Savin, Cromer.
Shingle entirely diminishes through artificial abstraction. Cliffs eroded
2 yards a year when not protected by sea-walls.

7. ‘Weybourn to Palling,’ by Ciement Rep, H.M. Geological
Survey. Erosionabout 2 yardsayear. Groynes near Eccles have stopped
this locally.

8. ‘North-west Coast of Norfolk,’ by J. S. Varentine, M.Inst.C.E.,
Westminster. Shingle taken where it accumulates, and where the coast is
bare of it the cliffs have wasted back 20 to 30 feet in 40 years

1 Brit. Assoc. Report, 1886, pp. 847-862.

358 REPORT—1895.

9. ‘The Coast of Pembrokeshire (Southern Part),’ by Kenneta W. A.
G. McAtrrn, Assoc.Inst.C.E., Pembroke Dock. No appreciable quantity of
shingle is removed, no groynes occur, and the shingle does not travel ; the
rocky coasts are holding their own, and have reached the maximum of
resistance, but traces of submerged forests at Newgale and Amroth point
to former encroachments.

10. ‘The Coast of Pembrokeshire (North-western Part),’ by Captain
Tuomas GriFFiTHs and H. Wuitrstpe Witiams, F.G.S. There are
traces of submerged forests, pointing to subsidence, some trunks of which
show traces of the axe.

TuHirD Report, 1888.!

Memorandum C.—‘ Notes on the Coast-line from Penarth to Porth
Cawl, in Glamorganshire,’ by Horace Woopwarp, F.G.S., Geological
Survey. Material has travelled from the west, and owing to encroach-
ments of the sea it has been heaped up on to old alluvial ground. The
erosion of rock cliffs is not large.

Memorandum D.—‘ Notes on the Coast from the Wyre to the Ribble,’
by A. Dowson, C.E., Westminster. Great denudation takes place between
Rossall Point and Blackpool, at the latter a sea-wall being twice destroyed.
Considers sea-walls without groynes cause the shingle in front of them to
be driven away, and solid groynes to cause dangerous scour, whilst open
groynes, allowing the water to pass through, arrest the shingle and stop
erosion.

Memorandum E.—‘ Notes on Coast of Durham between the Rivers
Tyneand Wear, by Hucn Bramwe 1, Whitburn Coal Company. At South
Shields large quantities of sand are removed from just above ordinary
and exceptional high tide marks for grinding sheet-glass; the sand is
blown up and no appreciable waste of the coast takes place. The Tyne
piers have absolutely stopped the travel of shingle from the north. Traces
of submerged forests occur at Whitburn.

Memorandum F,—‘ Copies of seven Reports to the War Office and to
other Government Departments on Various Parts of the South-Eastern
Coasts (1856-1867),’ communicated by J. B. Repman, M.Inst.C.E. Printed
by permission of the War Department.

1. ‘Sandown Castle.’ In April 1857 the Secretary of State for War
communicated to the Mayor of Deal to the effect that unless adjacent
landowners to Sandown Castle joined with the Government in carrying
out Mr. Redman’s scheme for preserving that coast, the Castle would be
dismantled and no further expenditure made on it. A copy of Mr. Red-
man’s report was sent to the Mayor, the coast then being worn back more
than 50 feet in four years, and he pointed out that at Walmer and the
Admiralty premises at Deal the removal of shingle is strictly forbidden,
and that this should be enforced along the length of the coast under con-
sideration. This was afterwards done for the Deal frontage, but through
no works being carried out as suggested, a recession of coast has taken
place of 150 feet in six and a quarter years.

2. ‘Sheerness Sea-Defences.’ Report from Mr. Redman to Major
Jervois, R.E. Refers to indiscriminate and injudicious removal of shingle
and material at Cheney Point, at low water, as hurtful to all interested
in the neighbouring foreshores, and even to the prospective advantage of

1 Brit. Assoc. Report, 1888, pp. 898-933.

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 359

the owner, who, however, if this be a public injury, could be stopped in
these operations through the Woods and Forests Department. In illustra-
tion, he refers to a recent case at the mouth of the Humber, where, by the
indiscriminate removal of pebbles from Spurn Point for ballast and other
purposes, a breach ensued which resulted in a very heavy expenditure, which
might have been avoided had attention been drawn to the matter earlier.

3. ‘Eastbourne Circular Redoubt Sea-Defences,’ by Mr. Redman
(1857) to Lieut.-Col. Owen, R.E. In 1805 the sea at high water was
120 feet seaward of the inside line of the counterscarp wall, or 250 feet
from the centre of the redoubt ; in 1808 the dimensions were 90 feet and
223 feet, showing a waste of 9 to 10 feet per annum. Surveys since that
period show a rate of only half that amount, 45 feet per year for forty-
nine years. Encroachment on this coast and the withdrawal of shingle are
general on both sides of Beachy Head, and the defences of the Circular
Redoubt have caused it to stand out as a point in front of the retreating
coast-line, as was the case at Sandown.

4. ‘ Sandown Castle.’ Report from Mr. Redman to the Secretary of
State for War, 1860, showing that permanent works for the isolated
defence of the Castle would cost 16,000/. Mr. Sidney Herbert (the then
Secretary of State for War) determined to abandon the Castle ; it was sold,
and proved so tough a morsel that it was only lowered barely to the ground
level. On the abutment of the drawbridge was the monogram of the great
Cecil, Earl of Burleigh, Queen Elizabeth’s Minister.

5. ‘ Dover, East-Cliff Shore. H.M. War Department and the Town
Council of Dover.’ Report from Mr. Redman to Lieut.-Colonel Jervois,
R.E., Deputy-Inspector of Fortifications, 1863. Recommended joint
treatment of the coast fronting Government and town property, 300 feet
and 1,100 feet respectively.

6. ‘Sheerness.’ Report by Mr. Redman to Lieut.-Colonel Jervois,
R.E., 1866. Recommends that where it is inevitable that shingle be taken
for contractors’ purposes for base of New Fort, it should be in short
defined lengths, and that a new length be not commenced until the sea
has begun to repair the damage.

7. ‘Isle of Grain.’ Report of Mr. Redman to the Secretary of State
for War, 1867. From a plan of 1784 it appears the sea has gained on the
land 700 feet to the north of the Isle of Grain Fort.

APPENDIX II.
INFORMATION RECEIVED AND COLLECTED SINCE 1888.

1.— Report on Coast Erosion, East Kent, 1895,
By Grorce Dowxer, £.G.S.

Since the year 1884, when I reported on our coast erosion to the
Committee of the British Association, I have made no minute survey of
the coast, but having from time to time visited most part of the shores of
East Kent, I have been able to note what has taken place during the ten
years that have elapsed.

First, in Pegwell Bay, Isle of Thanet, there has been a continuous and
large amount of erosion, not only from the sea having removed the talus
of the cliff and the shore accumulations, but the cliff itself has been cut

350 REPORT—1895.

back at a rapid rate, more especially in the part where it is mostly com-
posed of Thanet beds, at Clitf’s End, Thanet. This latter station has very
much altered during the last three years, nearly all the trees that fringed
the top of the clay beds having been thrown down and washed away.
And from the clay cliffs, the chalk to Pegwell and on to Ramsgate has
witnessed many falls of more or less extent, and not only so, but all the
talus is removed. There has been no attempt at erecting groynes or other
defences along this part of the coast to stop the encroachments of the sea;
but on the contrary there is going on a constant carting away of stones
and sand.

At Ramsgate, both east and west of the harbour, there have been
numerous falls of cliff, more especially after the winter ; the cliff being
for the most part perpendicular and devoid of beach or talus, the waves
beat against the base of the cliff and bring down the material, loosened by
rain and frost, by the concussion.

The exit from the harbour at low water has been much interfered with
in consequence of the accumulation of sand bars at the entrance, and on
several occasions during the winter the tug was unable to take out the
lifeboat by reason of these sand banks. After a time the sand is swept
round to the north side of the harbour and is subject to frequent changes,
but in the main it continues to fill the recess made by the harbour wall
much as it did in past years.

3. The river Stour has kept shifting its channel; in 1884 it was far
removed from the point where it found an exit for its waters to the sea
when the six-inch Ordnance map was made, and since then it has come closer
in to the shore of Pegwell Bay ; it has sand banks dry at each side of it
at ordinary low tide, while a large expanse of shallow water is left between
it and the shore, and the shifting in the mouth of the river may have had
something to do with the rapid erosion of Pegwell Bay.

North of Ramsgate there have been numerous falls of cliff, more espe-
cially between there and Dumpton Gap ; the current sets inward from
the mouth of the harbour and impinges on the coast here. Round the
north promontory of the Isle of Thanet the changes have not been so
marked, but for the most part there is an absence of beach.

From Margate to Birchington the sweep of the currents has been
from east to west ; at Birchington Bay the groynes erected for defence
have been swept away in some places, and the shingle swept clean out of
them in others ; near the Coastguard Station this is most apparent. An
esplanade erected near the termination of the chalk cliff some few years
ago seems rapidly being destroyed; it is situated just west of a promontory
of chalk cliff at Lower Gore end in the new one-inch Ordnance map sur-
veyed in 1892, and from this point to where the close groynes are erected
at the Commissioners of Sewers’ expenditure this erosion has been very
rapid, At the latter place the sea-defences have been effectual in main-
taining the sea-wall to Reculver ; indeed, here the beach has somewhat
accumulated of late, and I would remark that the drift direction of the
beach has been uniformly from east to west.

Turning now to the coast to the south, outside the Isle of Thanet, I
should observe that at Shellness Point the silting up by sand flats has
caused an advance of the coast line since I last reported ; but generally
a'ong the shore towards Sandown Castle I can perceive little alteration,
aid, indeed, although the authorities seemed to think the sea would
speedily wash away all traces of the old castle, and so sold the materials

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES, 361

that could be removed for building purposes, yet in spite of this the ruins
remain, as far as I can see, just where they were ten years ago. Beach
lines the shore here for a greater distance towards Pegwell Bay than
formerly. At the north end of Deal, towards Sandown, the authorities
have scarped the shore line and erected sea-defences by placing a timber
foot to beach and groynes and formed a promenade walk on the top. This
may have been effectual in protecting the shore, more especially as during
the last two years we have had a prevalence of north and easterly winds.
Through Deal to Walmer I can perceive but little change since my report
in 1884. I did not at that time continue any detailed survey of the coast
line beyond Walmer, but I reported generally, from cursory visits, on the
shore to Dover.

To the north shore of Kent, between Reculver and Whitstable, I have
made several visits since 1884. Between Reculver and Herne Bay the
destruction of the cliffs has been rapid, chiefly between Bishopstone and
Herne Bay, while on the front of Herne Bay itself there has been rather
an accumulation of beach. At Whitstable the tide does not run strong in
either direction, and it remains fairly stationary.

Between Whitstable and Sea Salter, to the west of the harbour, the
beach has continued to collect in semicircular ridges that sweep round
towards the shore, while opposite the Coastguard Station an old shore
accumulation, which has been covered by vegetation, is being gradually
washed away, and the sea is gaining on the land rapidly.

General Notes.—Walking along the coast from Lydden Spout to
Dover last summer, in company with Captain McDakin, Mr. Webb, and
Mr. Kerr, I could but notice the change that has come over this part of
our shore line since I can remember it, and having had exceptional oppor-
tunities of many visits in connection with our East Kent Nat. Hist. Society
dating back to the year 1858, in company with several eminent geologists,
I have ventured to give my experiences of the changes that I can re-
member. lLydden Spout flowed out from the chalk in a small waterfall,
starting from some considerable height (twenty feet above high-water mark)
above the bottom of the cliff. The talus at that time consisted of old beach,
covered with many rare wild flowers, and near to it was a series of steps in
a stone stair leading to the top of the cliff. This was on the occasion of the
visit of the members of the East Kent Nat. Hist. Society to Dover, when
a large party of ladies and gentlemen, under the guidance of Mr. H. B.
Mackeson, walked from Folkestone upper station to Copt Point, and thence
to Lydden Spout. In reference to this I should observe that the shore at
that time consisted chiefly of beach, and it would be exceedingly difficult
for such a party of ladies and gentlemen to accomplish this journey on
foot at the present time. First, the whole of a beach formerly met with at
the bay near Copt Point, Folkestone, is entirely swept away ; at the time I
allude to it was of considerable extent, and partly cemented into a pudding
stone by infiltration of water containing carbonate of lime. It was pointed
out by Mr. Mackeson that at that time the extension of the western pier
ef Folkestone harbour had deprived the fallen rocks of their supply and
covering of shingle. In the next place, many well-known spots in the
undercliff (called the Warren) then in existence have Jong since been
swept away. But what a contrast is presented by the shore at the present
time! At Lydden Spout, where we halted the other day, the waterfall
has disappeared among a huge mass of large fragments of fallen rocks,
which jut out to sea and form a most serious barrier to the advance of the

362 REPORT—1895.

pedestrian along the shore. The stair to the top of the cliff has long
since disappeared. Large and high boarded groynes erected to defend
the shore are entirely empty of beach stones. The old platform of high
beach on which we then botanised has all but disappeared, and the walk
to Dover from the shore is a work of difficulty from the constant barriers
of chalk blocks, which would of themselves form a trap for the beach, as
they had done in former years, had there been any beach to travel. Iv
appears to me that much of the fall of cliff and erosion of coast has been
brought about by the sea having removed all the beach to the west of
Dover and disposed of much of it between Shakespeare’s Cliff and the
Admiralty Pier, while no fresh beach has arrived from the westward to
take its place.

Just in Dover Bay the beach seems to ebb and flow inward and out-
ward ; but in the long run there seems more abstracted than replaced,
and eastward of the harbour the sea has swept away all the beach towards
the South Foreland, and many falls of cliff have taken place.

In conclusion, in my report made in 1884 I gave it as my opinion that
the beach was carried in the direction of the prevailing currents, and not,
as is generally stated, by the prevailing winds. In a note I received from

‘the late Mr. W. Topley I was informed that this view was not held by
Mr. Redman, nor by any of those contributing reports. But during the
last ten years I have met with no facts that in the least tend to throw
doubts upon the view I then expressed. The prevalence of north and
east winds does check the advance of the beach in that direction, and
when gales occur from that quarter accompanied by high tides the shifting
beaches and sands are thrown back in places ; but the effects are small
compared with the carrying power of the flood tide. Off Dover’and
Ramsgate the force of the flood tide greatly exceeds that of ebb. This is
shown in some observations made by E. K. Calver, Surveyor Master R.N.,
addressed to the Hydrographer of the Admiralty in January 1863, with
accompanying tables then given, and published as correspondence between
the Society of Antiquaries and the Admiralty in reference to Czsar’s
landing-place.

It is to be noted that the beach has been travelling from south to north
between the North and South Forelands, while at the north of Kent, between
Margate and Whitstable, it travels exactly in the opposite direction.

During the last two years there has been a preponderance of winds
from the north and east as compared with those from the south and west,
and we should have expected a corresponding change in the sea coast.
This has not been the case off Ramsgate. The sands from the Sandwich
flats are constantly driven towards Ramsgate, and they are carried by the
flood tide north of the harbour, where they constitute the Ramsgate
sands. During the north-easterly gales they were retarded in their north-
ward course and formed bars in front of the harbour ; this, I am informed
by the harbour master, has happened again and again ; but these bars are
removed again by the natural flow of the tide to the north. North-
easterly gales setting in shore here have probably had much to do with
the excessive erosion in Pegwell Bay and in causing a deflection in the
river’s mouth.

There appears to have been a constant similar motion in the direction
of the beach at Whitstable, this town being built upon a series of beaches
in parallel succession and curving towards the sea. At the present time
this is going on south of the town towards Sea Salter. Deal, on the other

—_— t——

— ee a oO

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 363

hand, is built on a series of beaches that run parallel to the shore. At
the latter place the first formed beach seems to have been at a lower level,
and at the north end of Deal cuts off the sea from the low marshy flat
behind. When the gasometer was put down some years ago, it was found
this marshy peaty soil was of considerable depth. The sand-hills likewise
cover some old beach.

My visits to New Romney and Lydd beach have been few and far
between, but on the last occasion, some five years ago, I visited Lydd,
New Romney, and Dymchurch, the beach at Dungeness was still
advancing, and the ridges of shingle making semicircular curves ; while
at Romney and Dymchurch the sea was attacking the land.

Why the beach should so accumulate at Dungeness is not apparent,
nor would prevailing winds account for it ; it is certain that the beach
travelling towards the north-eastern shores is arrested to its detriment.
I believe we must look for some other cause than the winds, such as a
change in the velocity or direction of the flood tide. It is evident from
historical data that a beach formerly existed between New Romney and
Hythe that protected the shore at Dymchurch. The remnant of this
beach is apparent in the neighbourhood of Hythe, the falls of which are
figured in Mr. Drew’s Memoir on the Geology of Romney Marsh, surveyed
in 1860.'. Mr. Drew has quoted some ancient charters, notably that of
King Egbert, A.p. 833, which had been brought to his notice by Canon
Jenkins and Mr. Mackeson in favour of a notion they entertained with
respect to the ancient river Lienen, which they supposed washed the base
of the Lynn Roman Castrum. But it will be seen that if the place called
Sartum in this charter is to be identified with the place now called
Sandton, between West Hythe and Butler’s Bridge, the charter quite
contradicts their inference with regard to the River Lienen, which places
the river south of that place, not on the north of it, as the Castrum now
stands. It will be seen in reference to the Geological Survey Map of
Romney Marsh that the ridges of shingle lines which tend inwards
towards Hythe and West Hythe from Dymchurch Redoubt are but the
remains of a much larger gathering of shingle which must have existed
here, and in Roman times had defended the Dymchurch marshes from
inundation.

2.—List of Stones from Dungeness. Collected by Rev. F. Gut when at
Lydd (now Rector of Edburton, Sussex). Examined in Geological
Survey Office, February 23, 1889.

General Remarks.—Many of the stones are from the Wealden beds,
probably of the Sussex coast.

Two may be from the Budleigh Salterton Pebble bed (6 and 43).

One is very like Cornish Elvan (7*); four others may possibly be
Cornish Elvans (9,* 15,* 18,* 27*). The general aspect, however, of the
igneous rocks is not such as one would expect in Cornish rocks.

Foreign pebbles from other parts of the Southern Coast (and also
those in the ‘ Drift’ at Selsea) have been referred to the rocks of Brittany,
&e., and such may also have been the origin of them.

Jt must always, however, be remembered that ballast may be thrown
out of ships at the ports along the coast, and also that ships travelling in

a only may be wrecked, and their contents be thrown up on the
each,

1 See Memoir on Romney Marsh, p. 20.

364

—_
oon

ie 2)

oa OrRWwhe

. Quartzite pebble.

. Clay ironstone.
. Sandstone.

. Doubtful.

. Hard ferruginous sandstone, ‘ Car-

AGoar whe

Doubtful.

_ Sandy ironstone.
. Sandy ironstone.
. Greenstone.

. Cherty sandstone.

? from the Green-
sand.

Such from
Budleigh Salterton.

Possibly Wealden.

as

stone.’ ? from Lower Greensand.

. Greenstone.
. Doubtful.
. Sandstone.

Chert, with sponge-spicules. ? Green-
sand,

. Doubtful.
. Syenite.
. Hard sandy ironstone or ferruginous

sandstone. (? may be Wealden.)

. Doubtful.

. ? Micaceous sandstone.
. Hard coarse grit.

. Ferruginous sandstone,
. Syenitic granite.

. 7? Sandstone.

24. Ferruginous sandstone.

? from lower
part of Hastings clitt (Fairlee clay.)

. Sandy ironstone.
. Pale grit.

From Wealden beds.

49.
50 to 65. Doubtful.

F. Sandstone.

REPORT—1895.

. Sandstone.

. Hard quartzose sandstone.

. Indurated shale.

. ? Decomposed igneous rock.

. Endogenetic erosa. From Wealden
beds.

. Sandstone.

. Calcareous grit.

. Felsite (?)

. ? Sandstone.

. Quartzite.

. Greenstone.

. Sandstone.

? Wealden beds.

9. Doubtful.

. Sandy ironstone. ? Wealden.

. ? Chalk flint, full of sponge-spicules.

Chalk flint.

. Quartzite.

pebble.

sue ls

Bilas

. Chert.

eat

. Syenitic granite.
Ferruginous sandstone.

? a Budleigh Salterton

. Sandstone.
. Sandy ironstone, probably Wealden.

. Ferruginous sandstone.
. Sandstone. ? Wealden.
? Wealden.

List No. 2, marked with Red *

Grit.

. Porphyritic felsite, or ? porphyrite.

. Felsite (?)

. Grit (fine grained).

. ? hornstone.

. Probably an artificial slag.

. Quartz porphyry, very like a Cornish

elvan.

. Endogenctic erosa, probably from the |
Wealden beds of the Hastings |

cliffs.

. Porphyritic felsite (? same rockas18*),

May possibly be a Cornish elvan.

. Syenite.

. Syenite.

. ? hornstone.

. Syenitic granite.

. Ventriculite in flint.
. Porphyritic felsite.

a Cornish elvan.
19

May possibly be |

17
18

19
20

21.
22.

23
24

25

| 26
| 27

28.
29.

30.

31

Syenite.
. Porphyritic felsite (? same rock as

9*). May possibly be a Cornish
elvan.
. Granite.
ees
ne
? peculiar rock, not known. Might

hereafter be useful for comparison.
mY
. Probably an artificial slag.
. Hornblende porphyry.
. Quartz rock.
. Porphyritic felsite.
a Cornish elvan.
? Hornstone.
ae
Sandstone, micaceous.

May possibly be

. Syenite.
2?

CP fad
A. Calcite vein in ? hornstone.

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 365

3.—Shingle Beaches. Copy of Report from Commander Davin Pear,
RN., Inspecting Commander, Folkestone District, to the Harbour
Department, Admiralty. October 9, 1844.'

1. The extent of shingle beach in the Folkestone district from Dover
Castle to the mouth of Rye Harbour is 35 miles. The general direction
is E.N.E. and W.S.W., but on the west side of Dungeness the coast lies
§.E. and N.W., and is the most exposed part of this district.

2. S.W. winds are those which bring the shingle. Moderate breezes
heap it up the most, and heavy gales at spring tides often form a number
of small ‘fulls’ into one.

3. It appears to come from the westward. Arises from the wearing
away of the cliffs, and travels along shore.

4. From the westward of Beachy Head. The pebbles, to my personal
knowledge, bear the same appearance from Dover, as far as the headland
mentioned, only they are larger at Eastbourne and Langley Fort, where
churches, houses, and walls are built of them.

5. Gales from whatever direction, accompanied with a heavy sea,
scour the beach ; but it depends on the angle at which the sea strikes the
beach whether the shingle is carried onward, and a heavy sea brings down
towards low-water mark many of the small ‘fulls’ formed in smooth
weather.

6. It loses from Rye Harbour to Dungeness Point, gains from
Dungeness Point to near Dymchurch, and loses from Dymchurch to
past Dover Castle.

7. A strip of land or rocks extends from the foot of the shingle to
low water. The tide from Rye Harbour to Dover leaves the shingle
generally at three-fourths ebb, except for two miles on each side of Dunge-
ness Point. No bed of shingle has been found under the sand, but stones
are mixed with the same.

8. A gale, followed by moderate weather, often brings up the shingle
from the lower to the upper part of the beach in a single tide to the
thickness of 3 or 4 feet.

9. The size of the shingle on Dungeness is from that of a man’s fist
to small gravel ; the large ones increase along the coast west to Beachy
Head, and are smaller at Dover than at Dungeness. The weight, large
packed with small, is one hundred and fifteen pounds per cubic foot.

10. Yes, variations exist; the cause, abrasion in passing along the
coast.

11. The shingle generally along the shore is only a narrow ridge,
extending from high to near low water ; but there are at places large
deposits from Beachy Head to Dover—viz. Langley Fort near Eastbourne,
Pett Level, Dungeness, and Hythe Bay. The average thickness may be
reckoned 20 feet, and their extent in all 25 square miles. At Dungeness
Point report states 70 feet as the thickness.

12. The greatest increase is at Dungeness Point, which js 6 feet
annuaily.

13. Cannot say respecting the Cornish bays, but in my opinion shingle
passes round headlands, across flats, and’ even crosses the mouths of
rivers where they join the sea.

1 The numbers given refer to a schedule of questions, evidently by the Harbour
Department in 1844, and have no reference to those used by this Committee.

366 REPORT—1895.

14, The shingle moves westerly with gales from the eastward, and vice
versd ; the wind and gales being more frequent from west or south-west
than east makes the shingle travel in an easterly direction.

15. The distance of the ridges at Dungeness are, where most regular,
about 25 yards, and also at Hythe and Langley Point ; from Dungeness
to the green fields in Denge Marsh is upwards of 2 miles. There is a
ridge extending from Dungeness east to Great Stone Point, formed in
a gale that occurred in November 1842, and from other small ‘fulls’
forming outside of it, I do not think any future gale will obliterate it.

16. The general angle from the top of the ‘full’ at spring tides to
where the shingle meets the sand is about 20°; but in smooth water,
close to the ‘fulls,’ the shingle often lies for 10 or 12 feet at an angle
of 45°.

17. Cannot state.

18. None to my knowledge.

19. The groynes from Dover to Beachy Head are all put down at right
angles with the shore. I cannot suggest a better direction,

20. The longer and the higher the groyne the more shingle will it
retain ; the longest and most efficient I know is that under East Cliff at
_ Hastings, which protects that town as far as the fish market ; its length
must be about 150 yards, and whilst the west side is of shingle, the east
side shows a vacant depth of 14 feet. The new harbour at Folkestone
may be considered as a groyne, as the ground on which part of a large
hotel and the harbour house now stand were, to my knowledge, in 1820
overflowed every tide.

4.— Notes on the Waste at Sheppey, by Professor Toomas McKenny
Huaues, in ‘ Geology of the London Basin.’ '

‘In Sheppey the most rapid waste appears to have occurred near
Warden Point, where within the memory of man the sea is said to have
cut back the cliff between 200 and 300 yards. An old soldier informed
me that he distinctly recollected that the year after the battle of Waterloo
there were houses standing as far from the church on the north-east as
those then built along the road to the west of it. I measured the distance
pointed out by him, and found it to be 220 yards.’

‘ All along the cliff as far as Lane End Coastguard Station the older
inhabitants tell of farm-buildings which they recollect standing on ground
long since swept away, with perhaps 200 feet of cliff below it. It would
be idle to speculate on the average rate of waste along the whole north
coast of the island with such insufficient data, but we may well suppose
that even when Lord Shorland swam his horse out to the Nore the distance
was perceptibly less than now.’

‘When a storm blows from the north or east a very heavy sea lashes
the north coast of Sheppey. The fallen clay and sand is removed from
the base of the cliff, and shingle heaped up along the low shore to the
west. Fresh slips in time occur, and so the whole cliff is being eaten back
very rapidly.’

‘The manner in which this goes on is as follows :—In the hot weather
the surface of the ground is cracked from the shrinking of the clay, and
the cracks are seen along the highest ground as gaping fissures, about

' Memoirs of the Geological Survey, by W. Whitaker, 1872, p. 387.

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 367

6 inches across and many yards in length and depth. When the rain
falls it finds its way into these, and softens the clay at the bottom. If
the crack is near the cliff, the half-detached mass being now heavier,
owing to the addition of the water, while the cohesion of the attached
portion is lessened, slips down to the shore below, sometimes almost un-
broken, sometimes breaking off by parallel cracks into a series of terraces,
or even in part creeping down among the fallen stiffer masses as a glacier-
like mud flow. Fine examples of slickenside are seen behind the slips.
The sea washes this débris away from the base of the cliff, and the process
is repeated.’

5.—An Account of Dunwich in 1589.! By RaputpnH Acas.

‘The Toune of Dunwich, a Coaste Toune, neare the Midle of the Sheire,
is scituate upon a Cliffe fortie Foot hie, or there about ; bounded on the
Easte with the Otian Sea ; on the Weaste with the Toune of Westleton,
and is girt on the Weaste and South, neare to the bodie of the Toune,
with an Auntient Bancke, whereof Parte is now builte with the Wall of
the Graveffriers ; the North and Southe ends are environed with diverse
Marishes, Shredds, and divided with Fleetes, Crickes, and Diches ; the
Auntient Haven there was somtime at the North Ende of the Toune,
where standeth now their Xeie, which Haven was utterlie choaked upp,
with a North-Easte Winde, the foretene Daie of Janwarie, Anno 1
Edward III. notwithstanding if it were recovered woulde not onlie pre-
serve the Toune from Danger of the Sea; but bie Helpe of a Sluce weaste-
ward, woulde be soe mainetained the same as might likelie bringe the same
Toune neare to her former estate and condition. At the Losse of this
Haven, another was opened verie neare the Place, where Dunwich Men
have, now in a shorte time, bie Helpe of Nature, prepared a Passage as
by ancient Inquisit, and other evidence maie plainelie appeare, videlez, fere
duas leucas ab antiquo Portu: That this Haven hath been offtentimes
chaunged ; for the whole Raunge of Shingle assureth it in noe Place
certaine, causing it to runne Southward bie trussing, and choakinge the
same with Beach, appeareth bie sondrie evidence, videlez. that the Men
of Bliborough, Walberswick, and Southwold, shall paie duelye to Dunwich
men their Toules and customes, ubicunq portus ille mutari contigerit.
That as novi portus ac filum aque ejusdem shall be the Boundes betwene
the Toune of Dunwich, and the Lordship of Bliborough, ubicung, dictum
novum portum in futurum diverti vel mutari per jactum sabuli vel aliunde
contigerit ; as also bie the view of the Place itselfe. Notwithstandinge

were it now runneth these have bie good happe lighted on an owse Banke,

at the South Side of the Haven, which causeth the back Water to turne
of the Beache, and to lie straight againe the Mouthe, as hath happened
divers’ times since the same was opened first. And although the North
Easte Windes have been, since the same was opened, most violent and
extreme, as also the 10, 11, 12, and 13 of this present Moneth, yet the
verie nexte Daie affter, being the fourteenth Daie, divers loaden crayers
went readilie out of the same. And whereas there are now to Flattes, on
the North Side of this Haven, which the Walberswick and Southwold Men

* Quoted from ‘An Historical Account of Dunw‘ch, anciently a City, now a
borough; Blithburgh, formerly a Town of note, now a Village; Southwold, once a
Village, now a Town-corporate ; with Remarks on some Places contiguous thereto.’
By Thomas Gardner : London, 1754 (British Museum piessmark 189 @ 17).

368 REPORT—1896,

would willinglie turne Dunwich men unto ; being notwithstandinge
Owners, under her Majestie, of the same Haven there, and more than a
Mile above, and the intended Cuttes of the said Walberswick and South-
wold men there, very dangerous to all Passengers, bie Reason of certaine
Flattes caled Passelie Sands, yf a Cutt were made both on a Levell, and
as appeareth Owessey Ground, from the Weaste Flatt toward their keies,
they should remedie those Flattes, and perfect the Haven as bie this
Platte may better appeavr.’

6.—First Report addressed to the Commuttee on the Erosion of Dover Cliffs,
1891-92. Ay Captain 8. Gorpon McDaxiy.!

The cliffs are composed of chalk, and reach an elevation of 526
feet on the west near Folkestone, and 400 feet at the South Foreland,
and extend for about six miles on each side of Dover. The coast has
been compared with the 6-inch Ordnance map of 1876. Marks at
about a height of 2 feet from the shingle or plane of marine erosion
have been placed in situations attacked by the sea. These consist of
half-inch holes, three inches deep, plugged with wooden pegs, and were
disposed in a triangle for 1890, perpendicularly for 1891, and hori-
zontally for 1892, the middle being the test-hole, the others only in-
dicating their position to the eye. Such holes are less liable to be
tampered with than other marks, and could not be counterfeited with
the means likely to be at the disposal of anyone mischievously in-
clined.

The results have been recorded, and an extract is appended, from
which it appears that at the Cornhill, about two miles east of Dover, the
erosion is not more than half an inch in twelve months, and in the hard
nodular chalk almost imperceptible

The same applies to St. Margaret’s Bay.

To the west of Dover the clitfs have suffered to a greater extent.

From Shakespeare Cliff to the Channel Tunnel works, about a mile,
the undercliff formed of old slips has been attacked and largely remoyed
this winter (1891-1892).

From the Folkestone cliffs, five miles west of Dover, the triangular
marks have disappeared. This part of the coast consists principally of
undercliff, formed by the ancient slips. The rock here is saturated with
fresh water, and the severe frosts of 1890, 1891, and 1892 have attacked
the surface to a depth of more than eighteen inches.

Looking at a map it will be seen that the coast recedes west of Dover.
This is due to two causes ; the minor cause, the soft grey chalk which is
here at the sea level, and the major cause, the springs which issue out
at the base of the cliffs, either over the surface of the Gault or that of
the impervious Lower Chalk, and so undermine the cliffs. Sudden falls of
thousands of tons forming an undercliff, which in its turn is removed by
the sea.

A great translation of shingle has taken place during the last ten years
from the Folkestone cliffs towards the Admiralty Pier at Dover, The
numerous wooden groynes in front of the South-Eastern Station are now
buried under the shingle.

East Kent Naturel History Society and Dover Natural History fociety.

i eee

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 369

In a similar manner the shingle carried from the front of the houses
known as the East Cliff some years previously was not replaced by

_ shingle from the west, owing to the Admiralty Pier intercepting it. This

is also the case still farther to the east, where a tunnel was made, about
twenty-two years ago, for the footpath that had been destroyed through
the protecting shingle beach having travelled eastwards, and not having
been replaced by fresh shingle from the westward. On February 23,
1891, an extensive fall of chalk took place from the cliff above Crab Bay,
about 300 yards east of the Cornhill Coastguard Station. At one o’clock
the same day a small quantity of chalk fell, and at five o’clock a huge
mass slid from the top of the cliff with a thundering noise like the report
of an explosion, the earthquake-like shock being felt in the Coastguard
houses. The cliff at this place is 320 feet high. This fall was reported
in the ‘ Dover Standard’ of the same date. I passed along this cliff at
four o’clock, or scarcely an hour before the fall, which was distinctly
heard by a gentleman walking on the Admiralty Pier at Dover, two
miles and a half distant. I noticed fissures on the top, from seven feet
wide to a few inches, running S8.E. fifty-five yards, and thirty yards
in length, then one parallel to the edge of the cliff for sixty-two
yards, and three others, forty-five yards, forty-one yards, and about
thirty yards, running 8.W. from the parallel fissure to the edge of the
cliff. For the whole distance of 330 yards from the Coastguard Station
eastwards there is evidence of a subsidence and many minor cracks or
fissures.

This fall occurred in calm weather, the winter having been remarkably
free from storms and the weather dry. There had, however, been a great,
deal of snow about the middle of the previous month, with intense frost,
the ground having been frozen to a depth of eighteen inches.

Still farther to the east at St. Margaret’s Bay, about four miles and
a half from Dover, the chalk on the sea line was without perceptible
erosion. One part of the south cliff overhangs in a most threatening

manner.
The marks are 3 in. holes 3 in. deep, drilled in chalk.
| Marks for—
= 1890 | 1891 ia
East of Dover (about 14 mile): Cornhill Stairs.
1. White soft chalk. S. G., 7 |
1:92. Absorption 15:36, | Erosionin12 mouths, | About 13 in. in 2
per cent. + inch years
2. Same bed as No.1 . - | Erosion, 4 in. in 12} Eroded 3 in. in 2 a
months years
3. Same bedas No.1 . . | Erosion, 4 in. in 5| Covered by fall of | ,,
months, covered by cliff.
fall of cliff in 12
months

4. Large mass of nodular | Intact in 12 months.! About 3in.in2years | 4,
chalk slipped from |
above. S.G.,2:25. Ab- |
sorption, 15:94 per cent.

5. Same bed as No.1 , . | Erosion, $ in. in 12 | Erosion, 13 in. in 2 as

months years

= ay bed as No.1 . . | Intact in 12 months.| li in.in2 yews . 2

iy BB

370

REPORT— 1895.

The marks are 3 in. holes 3 in. deep, drilled in chalk.

Marks for—

1890

or or He co RS wm . 0 bt &

ob

West Cliff, Dover: Shakespeare Cliff.

. In a hard noduiar block

detached from cliff

. In grey chalk
. In grey chalk. 8.G., 2:27.

Absorption,7°82percent.

. Large detached block, ex-

posed at all tides, hard
nodular chalk. 8S. G.,
2°25. Absorption, 15:94
per cent.

. Grey chalk. S. G., 2:27.

Absorption,
cent.

782 per

. Exposed to full action of

sea at all sides

Hard Meandrina chalk
forming part of under-
cliff, 5 miles west of
Dover

. Grey chalk ‘ i.
. Yellow soft chalk .
. Same bed as No. 3
. Same bed as No. 3

. Hard, nodular chalk, ex-

posed at every tide

A storm overturned
this in 5 months
Eroded } in. in 5
months
Erosion, 4 in. in 5

months
Erosion, # in. in 12
months,

Intact

Disappeared in 12
months

Folkestone Cui ffs.

Disappeared in 12
months

Disappeared in 12
months

Disappeared in 12
months

Lost 1 in, in 12
months

Thost 1 in: “ini WZ
months

Lost } in. in 12
months

Split through and
broken up

Obscured by shingle

Disappeared in 12
months

Obscured by move-
ments of shingle

Intact

Disappeared

Cliff falling

Disappeared

Disappeared

St. Margaret’s Cliff (four miles east of Dover): South side of Bay.

1°94. Absorption, 22°4
per cent,

. Same bed as No. 1

. Same bedas No.1 . 5

. This station only reached

by storm waves. White
bed. 8S. G., 1:94. Ab-
sorption, 18-4 per cent.

. Same bed as No, 1
. Same bed as No. 1

Intact in 12 months.

Intact in 12 months.
North side of Bay.

Intact in 2 years

Intact in 2 years
Intact in 2 years

. Grey white bed. S. G,, | Intact in 12 months. } Lost 1 in. in 2 years

Intact, but the shin-
gle fallen 6 ft.”
Shingle also moved.

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES, 371

7.—Second and Concluding Report on the Erosion of Dover Cliffs, from St.
Margaret's Bay to Folkestone, a distance of about eleven miles, addressed
to the Committee, May 1893. By Captain 8S. Gorpon McDakin.

The cliffs, composed of chalk, reach an elevation of 525 feet on the
west at Folkestone, and 400 feet to the east of Dover, to about 200 on
the south side of St. Margaret’s Bay ; the High Light, South Foreland,
374 feet ; and 88 to the north of St. Margaret’s Bay.

The coast has been compared with the 6-inch Ordnance map of
1876, and marked at twenty-four principal stations and eleven inter-
mediate ones with marks at about 2 feet above the shingle on plane of
marine erosion : these marks are bore-holes 5 inches deep by } inch wide.
This form was chosen as not so likely to be tampered with as other
marks, and because they would be difficult to imitate without a special
tool. Each year has a different mark.

1890 1891 1892 1893
© ~ Or: © -
©

The hole with the circle drawn round it is the test-hole, the others are
only indicating marks.

As in the former reports for 1890-1891,,.the changes are rather those
of the undercliff than the cliffs themselves ; this applies especially to the
Folkestone Cliffs and West Cliffs, Dover.

In last year’s report the foretold likelihood of a slip has been con-
firmed by a tremendous fall from the Abbot’s Cliff, which is here 450 feet
in height, amounting to many thousands of tons.

To the east of Dover (Cornhill) stations Nos. 5 and 6 in soft
white chalk have lost half an inch in twelve months. Stations 1, 2, 3,
and 4, in harder beds, particularly that of No. 4, in very hard nodular
chalk, exhibit little or no erosion.

West Cliffs, Dover—The sea has here attacked the undercliff and
talus. The marks 1, 2, 3, 4, on large detached block, have disappeared
by the block having been overturned, displaced, or buried, the actual
erosion of the surface not amounting, on an average, to more than about
half an inch in twelve months in exposed situations, and washed by every
tide. At No. 6, a large detached mass, the marks of last year (1892)
are intact on two faces.

Folkestone Cliffs.—Great inroads have been made on the undercliff
of the Warren in three years. The mark at Station No. 1, lost sight
of last year, was found again, even the mark .*. of 1890 being intact,
although 2 and 3 have disappeared. At No. 4 last year’s mark
(. . . 1892) also was intact, but 5 and 6 are lost or covered by falls of
the cliff.

St. Margaret’s Bay, four miles east of Dover.—South side of bay,
mark at Station No. 1 disappeared. Stations 2 and 3 intact, but a
soft band of chalk close to beach is here very much undercut by the sea,
so that large masses may be expected to fall. North side of bay, mark
at Station 1 of last year (. . . 1892) had been tampered with, an attempt
having been made to cut it out ; but taking the general surface and depth
of hole, the marine erosion was imperceptible. Stations 2 and 3, only
reached by storm-waves, were intact. The cliffs are here quite perpen-

BBY

372 REPORT—1895.

dicular, and about 88 feet in height. Since the 6-inch Ordnance map
of 1876 was published there has been no great loss of land, but several
heavy falls of cliff, amounting to some thousands of tons, as at the Corn-
hill Coastguard Station, two miles east of Dover, on February 23, 1891,
and the still larger one at the Abbot’s Cliff Coastguard Station (Lydden
Spout) early in the present year.

The recession of the coast line westwards from Dover to Folkestone is
no doubt caused by the uncertain foundation of underlying Gault clay,
which retains the water passing through the porous chalk, the sea carrying
away the débris: this is particularly the case where groynes or piers at
right angles to the shore have intercepted the shingle coming from the
west, that to the eastward of such obstructions gradually passing away in
that direction, and not being replaced by fresh accretions from the west.
The shore, being undefended by the shingle beach, is exposed to wave-
action.

The Folkestone pier intercepts the shingle that at one time defended
East Wear Bay, the Folkestone Cliffs, and the West Cliffs, Dover. The
Admiralty Pier, Dover, has in like manner robbed the foreshores of the
Esplanade, Dover, and the East Cliff, Dover, of their shingle, making
costly revétements and sea-walls necessary.

APPENDIX III.

VARIOUS SCHEDULED RETURNS: REPLIES TO PRINTED QUERIES
CIRCULATED BY THE COMMITTEE.

Hampshire Coast.
By RICHARD F. GRANTHAM, M.Inst.C.E.

1. Part of the coast of Hampshire, east of Christchurch, opposite Highcliffe, and the
village of Newtown.

2. a. Cliffs composed generally of a bed of sharp gravel, varying from 13 to 18 feet
in thickness, overlying the slippery Bartonclay. b. 80 to 100 feet.

3. Nearly east and west.

&. South-west.

5. South-west.

6. Flood tide eastwards, ebb westwards, generally.

7. Five feet in Christchurch Bay.

8. Shingle and sand.

Fig. 1.

:

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 373

9. a. I have not had an opportunity of measuring this. d. From 3 to 4 inches.

20. I should say stationary.

13. The degradation of the cliffs is due to the water issuing from the base of the
gravel over the slippery clay surface.

14. The face of the cliff has slipped away at a rate of 3 feet per annum, taking an
average line of about 3 mile in length during the last twenty-two years. This
is the rate as ascertained during that period, and it is probable that this has
been the average rate for a longer period.

The shingle beach appeared to me to be stationary; so now that drains
have been laid up the slipped slopes of the cliff to remove the water issuing
‘between the gravel and clay, the slopes will become consolidated, and slipping
will no longer take place.

15. It must be explained that the course of the channel of the river Avon formerly
ran parallel to the beach eastwards for some distance from its mouth in
Christchurch Harbour, but certain works executed some time ago by some
landowner at the mouth had the effect of diverting the course straight out to
sea, and: thus the channel parallel to the beach has become stopped. No
doubt this is the cause of the present stationary character of the beach, for
otherwise erosion would take place, and the slipping of the cliff further
facilitated by the undermining of the toe.

16. No.

17. No.

Sussex Coast.
By RicHARD F. GRANTHAM, M.Inst.C.E.
(1) Opposite Lancing.

1. Sussex coast, opposite Lancing. It is that portion which lies between ‘Shop's
Dam’ and the gap in the Worthing and Lancing Road, referred to in my
father’s returns, Nos. 11 and 12 in the Committee’s Report, dated 1885.

2. The main features of that part of the coast are described in those returns, but I
have, within the last two years, constructed nine groynes between Shop’s Dam
and the gap in the road, a distance of about 1,100 yards.

3. That is westwards of the groynes erected under my father’s superintendence ; but
I have had an opportunity of making a survey of that part of the coast, which
shows exactly the rate at which the sea has been advancing opposite Lancing.

8. Partly of shingle, partly of sand foreshore. Opposite the Coastguard Station,
west end of Lancing, chalk rocks and flints, covered with seaweed, can be seen
at low water slightly above the level of the sand foreshore. In sturms the
flints are loosened, raised up, and washed up on the shore.

9. The shingle lies in the form of a high bank, thus:

Fig. 2,

The base of the shingle bank is about 500 feet broad, and the top of it is
about 6 feet above H.W.O.S.T.; the land behind is below the level of H.W.
Formerly, in storms, the sea washed the shingle back, encroaching further
and further on the low-lying land. There is a ‘fall’ of shingle, but this varies
according to the state of the sea. It is generally just above H.W. springs.

11. I think that until the groynes were erected the quantity of shingle remained
constant, but it was perpetually being driven back.

42. a,b,andc. The new groynes point south-east at a rather greater inclination
with the shore line than those erected by my father. Their length is 300 feet,
and the width apart is 400 feet, except the three groynes at the west end, which
are 350 feet in length and rather closer together. d. The top end is 18 feet
above O.D. and 8 feet above H.W.O.S.T. e. Timber partly memel, partly

374 REPORT— 1895.

beech. f. Although tuey are not yet planked up, and although there
has been an unusual number of heavy gales during the past winter, 1893-94,
they have completely arrested the encroachment of the sea, so that no damage
has been done, nor has any shingle been swept back over the tank. The
groynes will be planked up in time as the shingle and sand accumulate.

13. a. No. d. No.

14. Before the groynes were erected the sea had washed the shingle back, so that
opposite the Coastguard Station at Lancing the high-water mark was at the
date of my survey (1891) 320 feet further inland; and at a distance of
160 yards west of Shop’s Dam, 70 feet further inland than it was at the date
of the Ordnance Survey (1875).

25. The influence of the new groynes in accumulating shingle had at first a slightly
deteriorating effect on the accumulation at the groynes my father erected,
but the gales of the past winter have brought up an immense quantity of
shingle, and those groynes are now filled again.

16. No.

17. No.

(2) Between Selsea Bill and Chichester Harbour.

1. Sussex coast, between Selsea Bill and Chichester Harbour.

2. Low cliff, varying from 4 to 11 feet above high water ordinary spring tides. The
cliff is composed of loamy clay mostly, but at the west end of the bay there is
gravel and sand about 4 feet below the surface. Clay appears on the shore at
low water.

3. North-west to south-east.

4. South-west.

5. South-west. When the wind is westerly or south-west the shingle travels from
about 4 mile east of Chichester Harbour eastwards to Selsea Bill, and from the
# mile east of Chichester Harbour westwards. When the wind is easterly the
shingle travels westwards from about 2 miles east of Chichester Harbour.

6. Flood tide eastwards ; ebb tide westwards.

7. (1) a. 16 feet 6 inches; b. 12 feet 6 inches. (2) Probably about 9 or 10 chains;

say 200 yards at springs, more at very low springs.

Sand mostly. There is some mud near the cliff, opposite Bracklesham Farm.

Shingle lies up against the foot of the cliff all the way.

9. a. Varies from 15 yards east to 24 yards west at ordinary seasons, but these
would vary in different seasons. wb. High water, spring tides, does not quite
cover it. e. I have stated this in answer to Question 5. d. About 9 inches
across every way. e. The shingle formed one continuous slope when I saw it,
and I should not think this varied.

10. I should say the quantity of shingle was generally maintained, the quantity
depending on different seasons.

11. Some has been taken away for repairs of parish roads; but this is only a small
quantity, and the removal is now stopped.

12. A weak form of groyne has been tried both at Thorney Farm ane at Cockham
Manor. The piles at the former are still standing, but those opposite Cockham
have disappeared. They were evidently weak. and required so much repair
that they were abandoned. a. At right angles to the shore. b. and ec. They
appeared about 100 feet long, and from 80 to 100 feet apart. e. Beech
timber.

53. a. From the end of Bracklesham Lane, and from the end of Cockbush Lane.
b. and e. Repair of parish roads by the waywardens. 4d. I should say not.

14. All the way along, at a considerable rate. a. From 6 to 8 feet per annum
opposite Bracklesham Farm; about 8 feet between Bracklesham Farm and
Cockham Manor Farm. b. 10 to 13 feet opposite Cockham Manor Farm.
e. During the winter 1891-92 the rate must have been from 15 to 20 feet opposite
Cockham Manor Farm, from the appearance of the remains of parts of the
cliff. d. These measurements agree with a comparison of the 1-inch Ordnance
map, surveyed in 1805, and the 6-inch Ordnance map, surveyed in 1873.

@5. There is nothing along this line of coast to cause an accumulation of shingle, so
what is there is deposited and left to be carried on or taken away by the sea.

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 875

There is, however, an increasing accumulation of shingle on the east side of
Selsea Bill, but I have not had an opportunity of examining this.

16. None.

17. No.

19. I should add that from opposite Marsh Farm to Thorney Farm there is low-lying
land below the level of high water. This is partly protected by a ridge of
shingle similar to that opposite Lancing. The sea is, however, constantly
sweeping this ridge backwards and encroaching on the land.

(3) About 1 Mile between Littlehampton and Bognor, Sussex.

2. A small portion of the English coast midway between Littlehampton and Bognor,
Sussex, for about one mile in length opposite the old Coastguard Station, in the
parish of Middleton.

2. It varies from low clay cliffs from 8 to 10 feet above H.W.M. to land which is
below the level of H.W., but protected by the accumulation of beach.

3. Generally east and west, but at the east end of the frontage it trends rather
towards the north.

4. South-west.

5. South-west, but the south-east wind will assist in piling up shingle when the
groynes are placed in a certain direction, in this case pointing south-east.

6. I believe the flood tide flows eastwards until about 1} hour before H.W. It
then turns and flows westwards.

7. (1) a. 16 feet. wb. 113 feet, (Admiralty Tide Tables). (2) I should say about
400 yards, but am not quite certain.

8. The area covered by the tide near H.W.M. consists of shingle, under which is a
yellowish loamy clay. The foreshore consists of sand overlying chalk marl.

9. a. Inthe general line of coast about 150 feet in breadth, but there is a bay or sudden
bend in the coast line where it measures about 270 feet, there being a large
accumulation of shingle in this bay. b. In the general line, roughly speaking,
about half the breadth would be above H.W.S.T., and about half below that
level on the windward side of the old groynes, but less than that proportion
below H.W.S.T. on the leeward side owing to scour. d. The largest are
chalk flints, and would measure about 6 to 8inches. e. The surface of the
shingle is formed in ‘spring’ and ‘neap fulls.’ I took several sections of
the surface in September, 1888, and found that they varied in height accord-
ing to the situation. Thus in the bay the ‘spring full’ is about 4 to 5 feet
above H.W.S.T., and the ‘neap full’ about level with H.W.S.T. In the
straight line of the coast the ‘spring full’ is about level with H.W.S.T., and
the ‘ neap full’ about 4 feet below it. These differences may be due to the
higher level of the planking on the groynes in the bay.

10. The shingle was being swept away in places when I first went there in September
last owing to the defective state of the groynes, but it is now accumulating
since I built new and more substantial groynes. I cannot say the rate.

21. The diminution was due, as I have said, to the worn-out condition of the old
groynes.

12. a. The old groynes for the most part are at rightangles to the shore-line.
b. I measured eight of them, and their lengths average about 240 feet each.
e. All sorts of distances apart, but they would average about 100 feet.
d. The old groynes have existed for many years, but I cannot say how long.
The shingle of the ‘spring full, on the windward side of the old groynes,
was about level with the top of the planking of the old groynes, but on the
leeward side it is in some places 4 and 5 feet, and in others 8 feet, below the
top of the planking. e. Timberpilesandplanking. f. They arrest the travel-
ling of the shingle on the windward side, but on the leeward side, as generally
happens in all ‘ right angle’ groynes, the sea scours out the shingle, and thus
H.W.M. encroaches nearer the land. [N.B.—I have referred here to the old
groynes, but the new groynes I have built this winter are placed in a different
direction, viz., pointing south-east. They are of timber, but are more sub-
stantially built than the old ones. The effect of them, which I ascribe to the
direction, has been very striking, since they have been finished in accumulating
beach and sand, both on their windward and leeward sides, so much so that

376 REPORT—1895.

the lower ends of the old groynes have been already nearly buried under the
sand. They are each about 250 feet long, and are placed there about 400
feet apart, so that there will be rather less than one half the original number
to maintain.

13. No.

14. a. Where there are cliffs, which I have referred to, they are gradually being worn
back at the rate of about 4to5feetper annum; but where the land is below high
water the beach arrested by the groynes protects it. The beach, however, has
occasionally at those low points been driven back inland and covered small
parts of the estate. d. I have no data of this kind. e. No; where there is
beach the cliff is still being worn back.

15. a. There is shingle all along the frontage I refer to, and it would in the low
places be dangerous to the land if it were swept away for any length.
b. In places where shingle has been swept away and the shore left bare it has
been entirely due to the defective state of the groynes. Where substantial
new groynes are erected they do for a time arrest the travelling of the shingle
and deprive the coast further westwards of so much as they absorb; but when
the groynes fill up towards the top of their planking, although if properly
built and placed they may still continue from time to time to coliect more,
the greater quantity passes on to the westwards, the remainder going to
increase the ‘ fulls,’ and so drive the H.W.M. seawards. The result of this
action may be seen between Lancing and Shoreham, further westwards, where,
according to mymeasurement, owing tothe groynes the beach has gained some
40 to 50 yards in breadth, driving high water so much seawards during the last
ten years.

16. No.

17. No.

18. I do not think there are any.

19. It should be observed that this part of the coast is not protected by any sea-
wall. It is dependent for its protection on the accumulation of beach; and as
the beach can only be secured by the groynes, their proper construction and
maintenance are of course of vital importance to the landowner where the
land lies below the level of high water.

Norfolk Coast.

Great Yarmouth. By Major A: G. CLAYTON, R.E., Norwich,

1. Great Yarmouth, Norfolk.

2. Flat sand.

3. North and south.

4. Variable.

5. a. North-west. b. West north-west. ¢. Shingle does not travel.

6. North and south.

7. (1) a. 4 feet. wb. 3 feet. (2) About 50 yards.

8. Sand; but at certain periods, generally spring and autumn, banks of shingle are
thrown up. ,

9. d. About the size of awalnut. e. The shingle is in detached banks only.

10. Apparently diminishing.

11. Yes.

12. There are no groynes.

213. a. Between high and low water. b. Ballast for fishing smacks and for roads
chiefly. d. No.

14. No.

16. No.

17. Yes. a. Denes. b. 5 feet and 8 feet d. No. e. No.

Cromer. By W. JAMES K. FRosvT.

7. (1) a. 16 feet. b. 12 feet. (2) a. 200 yards. b. 100 yards.

12. a, b, c. Tracing annexed showing particulars. d. (a) 8 feet (above usual beach
level), tapering seawards to 3 feet. (6) From 8 to 4 feet. (¢c) From top of
groyne to 3 or 4 feet. e. Timber, f. Accumulation of beach and protection

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES, 377

of sea-wall erected about forty years ago. Their influence in accumulating
beach is felt as far westwards as Runton, from 1 to 2 miles distant.

13. a. Mainly between high- and low-water marks. b. As building materials. For roads
and to potteries. ¢.(a@) Yes, purchased of lords of manors. (0) Surveyors of
Cromer and neighbouring parishes. (¢) Soho Mills Co., Statfordshire ; potteries,
and others by agreement with lords of manors. d. Yes; particularly at
West Runton, and between East and West Runton, where large quantities of
rock stones have been removed.

Hstuary of the Humber.
By C. Fox STRANGWAYS, Scarborough.

2. Part of the estuary of the Humber.

2. Low cliffs of warp and boulder clay. a. About 12 feet. wb. A foot or two below
H.W.M.

3. East and west, curving to the north-east.

8. Principally mud, a little shingle.

14. a. Quarter of a mile west of Ferriby Sluice and at Ferriby Hall. b. Warp
clay. Slightly below H.W.M. ec. 150 yards and 80 yards respectively since
Ordnance map sheet 86 was made. e. What little shingle there is does not
appear tu cause any difference.

16. The mud banks of the Humber shift and vary their position, and some of them
have been embanked since the publication of the Ordnance map, and are now
inhabited,

Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, and Westmorland.
Ey Lt.-Col. MELVILLE, C.R.E., Newcastle.

1. My sub-district comprises Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, and Westmor-
; land. I see Tynemouth in Northumberland most frequently.

2. Cliff, sinking to sandbanks further north. a. Principally sandstone. b. (a@) About
100 feet. (4) About 60 feet. (¢) About 20 feet.

3. North and south.

4. South-west and east, especially the latter in spring.

5. a. Kast.

6. Southward.

7. (a) 142 feet. (b) 11} feet. (¢) Average about 100 yards.

8. Sand with rocks in places.

10. Neither.

12. No.

13. No.

14. No.

16. No.

17. No.

Pensarn, near Abergele, Denbighshire, to Point of Ayr, Flintshire.
By C. E. DE RANCE, Stoke-upon-Trent.

1. Pensarn, near Abergele, Denbighshire, to Point of Ayr, Flintshire.

2. Sand dunes. a. Sand between Rhyl and Prestatyn, the dunes being wasted at
high tides by the sea. b. 25 feet; 14 feet; 5 feet.

3. E.N.E.

4. W.N.W.

5. a.N.W. b. N.W. ec. W.N.W.

6. W.S.W. to E.N.E.

7. a. (1) 27 feet. b. 14 feet. (2) At Rhyl, 700 yards; at Rhyl, 600 yards.
Equinoctial spring-tide at Rhyl, October 6, 1873, was 17 feet above O.D.;
high water-mark of 16 feet; tide, 11-43 feet above O.D.; low water of the
same, 10 feet below O.D. ;

378 REPORT—1895.

8. Sand with a narrow belt of shingle. ,

9. a. 80 to 100 yards. b. Above neap tide, high water-mark. ec. E.N.E. d. Between
Abergele and the mouth of the Clwyd 5 to 7 inches; also in the shingle banks
east of Prestatyn opposite Gronant, which project E.N.E. from the land
towards the mouth of the Dee, the slope is steep and the banks above 12 feet
in height. Between Rhyl and Prestatyn the pebbles are small, and chietly
derived from the Clwyd, which cuts off the eastward passage of the shingle.

21. At the mouth of the Clwyd it is diminishing, large quantities being daily
removed by flats and taken to Liverpool for ballast. At Rhyl it also wasted
away.

12. No.

13. Shingle is removed for building purposes by private individuals, with the consent
of the local authority, who also take it for footpaths.

14. Between Abergele and Rhyl the coast is embanked by the London and North-
Western Railway. a. Previously there was great denudation, and Abergele
parish formerly is stated by tradition to have extended far out to sea, and this
is supported to some extent by a tombstone, in the churchyard, with a Welsh
inscription of the sixteenth century.

17. Sand dunes, rising to about 26 feet, extend from Pensarn, near Abergele, to the
point of Ayr, except at Rhyl, where they have been removed artificially.
ce. Dunes occur on both banks of the River Clwyd; they rest in all cases on
shingle. e. Stopped by growth of ‘ Starr’ grass.

.18. Mr. Fergie Hall, F.G.S., has described the probable wasting of Denbighshire, in
historical times, in the ‘ Trans. Geol. Soc. of Liverpool,’ 1869.

~ Hoylake to Birkenhead, Cheshire.
By C. E. DE RANCE, 55 Stoke Road, Stoke-upon-Trent.

1. Hoylake to Birkenhead, Cheshire.

2. a. Between Hoylake and New Brighton sand dunes rising to 30 feet above high
water-mark ; these rest on peat beds and grey estuarine, extending out to low
water-mark, lying on boulder clay. b. At Leasowe an artificial embankment
is constructed on peat beds below high water-mark.

3. E.N.E.

a. W.toN.

S.a.W.toN. b.N.W. ec. W.S.W.

6. W.S.W.

‘7. (1) a. 27 feet. b. 14 feet, (2) 900 yards. The shore is known as Mockbeggar
Wharf, the seaward margin of which is traversed by the Rock Channel, outside
of which is the North Bank, a tract of sand several miles in extent.

8. The Hundred of Wirral in Cheshire is remarkable for its extent of coast-line.
Rock occurs at Burton Point, Hilbre Point, New Brighton, and at Eastham.
Shingle occurs from Nestor to West Kirby. Sand and peat from West Kirby
to the Red Noses near New Brighton.

9. a. 50 to 100 feet in the estuary of the Dee. b. Immediately under the glacial
drift cliff. ce. S.S.E. on the east coast of the Dee. d. 3to4inches. e. One
slope under the cliff.

10. Constant now, but formerly diminished.

11. Being taken in ‘flats’ to Liverpool for ballast; this was stopped by the Crown
agents, as it caused great erosion of the soft clay cliffs by exposing their base
to the tidal current.

12. No; nor in the Dee, but between Hoylake and the Red Noses fascines are
placed on the peaty shore, which wastes considerably except in the central
portion, where it is protected by the Leasowe embankment.

14. a. Between Hoylake and New Brighton various old neaps show constant wear-
ing back of the coast. The Leasowe Lighthouse having to be moved, the coast
shows a much diminished outline to that found by the Ordnance Survey about
forty years ago. b. No cliffs occur. e. The rate is over a yard a year.
e. No shingle occurs.

‘16. None.

17. The dunes commence against a rock slope at West Kirby, and terminate
against a similar slope at New Brighton. b. They rise to about 30 feet and

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 379

rest upon peat, the surface of which is beneath high-water mark. d. They
are prevented from increasing by the plantation of ‘Starr’ grass. In the centre
of the area is a village called Great Meols, which name is believed to be of
Danish origin, and to indicate that sand was there at that period. A very
remarkable series of antiquities derived from this coast are preserved in the
Liverpool Museum, ranging from Neolithic flint implements to coins of nearly
all the English monarchs.

Liverpool to Lytham.
By CHARLES E. DE RANCE, Stoke-upon-Trent.

1. Liverpool to Lytham. :

2. Between Liverpool and Southport a belt of sand dunes intervenes between the
coast and the inner country, ranging in width from half a mile at Seaforth to
3 miles at Formby. a. Between Liverpool at the mouth of the Mersey, and
Hesketh Bank at the mouth of the Ribble, no cliff occurs. b. Banks of
boulder, 20 to 30 feet high, occur at Hesketh Bank and Freckleton Point on
either side respectively of the trumpet-shaped opening of the estuary of
the Ribble.

3. North and south. The Ribble estuary east and west.

4. West to north.

5. b. No shingle occurs over the whole of this coast-line, there being no material to
‘furnish it except a little between Freckleton Point and Lytham.

6. From 8.8.W. to N.N.E.

7. a. (1) 27:8 feet. wb. 14:°6 feet (Princes Dock, Liverpool). Highest spring above
O.D. 12°65 feet ; neap high mark above O.D. 7:25 feet ; Ordnance datum 0-80
foot ; true mean water-level below O.D. 0°68 foot; old dock sill, Liverpool,
below O.D. 4:75 feet; Mersey tide gauge zero below O.D, 10°75 feet; lowest
low water below O.D. 14:75 feet. (2) At Crosby 950 yards; at Ainsdale
1,800 yards. Outside the Channel very extensive sandbanks occur several
square miles in extent.

8. Between Liverpool] and Southport, sand; between Southport and Hesketh Bank
of estuarian clays very finely laminated, especially on the coast margin. From
Freckleton Point to Lytham Sand very large sand banks occur at the mouth
of the estuary of the River Ribble.

9. Between Liverpool and Southport only a few scattered and far-between pebbles
occur; these are probably seaweed-borne.

25. No.

16. Between Hesketh Bank and Crossness a very large area of marsh land was
reclaimed by the late Mr. J. Fleetwood, of Bank Hall, for which he received
the medal of the Society of Arts. a. At Southport the Corporation has reclaimed
by embanking of tidal foreshore during the past twenty years, making building
land within sea-walls, and a further large tract occupied in gardens, and a
marine lake protected by embankments, the present high-water mark being
half a mile from that of 1869. b. Southport is about 1,600 yards from the
old coast-line, and is out of the water at equinoctial low tide.

17. A very extensive area between Waterloo, north of Liverpool, and Meols, north of
Southport, being 3 miles across at Formby over the whole of the district.
e. The sandhills stop at Meols, the supply of sand being cut off by the
estuarine clays forming the foreshore. d. Stopped by planting. e. Ammo-
phila arundinacea, or marram, is everywhere grown. In 1690 the deep-water
channel Jeft Formby, and sand began to blow, covering up the churchyard
and streets; but, in North Meols, Jameson in 1636 describes the sandhills.
It is probable they are of older date, as in William II.’s reign Roger de
Poicton gave the monks of Lancaster the tithes of ‘ Melis,’ and that name
would indicate sandhills, as it is still used in Iceland for sandhills, there
made up of volcanic sand.

380

REPORT—1895.

Lytham to Fleetwood.
By C. E. DE RANCE, Stoke-upon-Trent,

1. Lytham to Fleetwood.
2. Between Lytham and Blackpool, sand dunes. Between Blackpool and Norbreck,

glacial drift, clay and sands. Between Norbreck, Rossall and Fleetwood, sand
dunes. b. Ranges from 25 feet to 90 feet at Bispham. Much of the areas
north and south lying behind the sand dunes is beneath H.W.M.

3. North and south as far as Rossall Point. Between Rossall Point and the mouth of

the Wyre, east and west.

4. West to north.
5. a. North-west. b. North-west. ec. W.S.W.
6. E.S.E. at the mouth of the River Ribble ; §8.8.W. to N.N.E. to Rossall Point, thence

to Wyre from W.N.W. to E.N.E.

7. (1) 28 feet; (2) 14 feet. At Blackpool (1) 800 yards; (2) 500 yards.
8. Fringing the cliffs of shingle, thence to ebb low water of sand, then of boulder

clay, which also occur under the shingle; land water percolating the latter
flows over the surface of the clay in defined channels 10 inches deep and
6 inches wide.

9. a. 150 feet; 300 feet in the Blackpool area. Near Lytham occurs a miniature

10.

11.
12.

i3.

14.

chesil bank caJled the Double Stanner, which is steadily advancing ; between
it and the coast is a flat 600 ft. wide ; at the open end water flows through it
from the land. b. It terminates seawards a little above neap low-water
mark. e. North. Encaustic tiles during the storm of March 1869 travelled
from south shore to the Gwyn in two tides a distance of a mile. d. 7 inches;
between neap low-water and spring low-water many erratic boulders. occur,
some 6 feet in length. e. There is generally a ‘storm beach’ of very large
pebbles from 8 to 5 feet above the ‘spring full.’ At Norbreck each tide
receding leaves a succession of small ‘fulls.’

The quantity appears to be constant, except opposite South Beach, Blackpool.
At Fleetwood the shingle is accumulating ; it is cut off by the River Wyre.

Entirely due to artificial abstraction at South Beach, Blackpool.

a. Yes. That at Bailey’s Hotel is at right angles to the centre of the curved
sea-wall protecting that property; the wall and the groyne were built about
1880, and have stood very well. b. 8 feet. ec. 2 feet. e. Wood battens and
square piles. A groyne of sheet iron below Uncle Tom’s Cabin was destroyed
by the waves. Several wooden breakwaters are placed opposite South Beach,
Blackpool, and Fleetwood; they cause an accumulation of shingle on the
lee-side.

Shingle is indiscriminately carted away at Blackpool from any part of the
shore by (ce) at a greater distance than 60 yards from the coast line; the
underlying boulder clay is exposed by these operations, and is extensively
denuded by the sea, which gets leverage on its surface by the tearing up by
the waves of the large erratic boulders scattered through its mass; the large
blocks remain, but the smaller stones are swept up the beach, which is thus
steadily replenished. The holes left vacant by the removal of stones are oval,
the long axis corresponding to the tide, or N.W.E.

a. Yes, especially between Blackpool and Norbreck and Bispham. The cliffs
are 80 to 90 feet high, and consist of boulder clay, with a thick sand inter-
vening. Some years a loss of a yard takes place. And also between Bispham
and Rossall, where the sea-wall built by Sir Hesketh Fleetwood has been
allowed to be destroyed. ec. Shingle occurs on the face of the cliff; the
erosion is caused by (a) wind blowing away the sand and (0) land-springs,
removing the base of the sand, where it rests on the lower boulder clay.
d. There is a tradition that the cliff formerly extended to the large mass of
consolidated sand and gravel called the ‘Penny Stone,’ and that a gallon of
beer was at that period sold for a penny. There can be no doubt that it once
formed the base of the cliff, as the material only occurs on the surface of the
lower boulder clay. The Penny Stone is only seen at equinoctial springs.

15. After the heavy storm of March 1869, I found all the minor beach-fulls gone,

and the whole of the beach concentrated into one large stone beach under the
base of the cliff, and the sand in front of Blackpool also removed, showing an
extension surface of boulder clay from the height of erratic boulders then

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 881

exposed ; I infer the sand removed was 4 feet thick; in a few tides the normal
conditions were restored.

16. The steep bank of shingle between Lytham and Southshore is certainly increas-
ing; sand blown from the shore rests on the stone beach, and forms fresh
sandhills on the seaward side of the older one, causing a distinct gain of land;
the large sandbank seaward, known as the ‘ Crusaders,’ also is increasing.

17. Dunes extend from Lytham by St. Ann’s to Southshore; they rest inland on
peat, along shore on shingle. a. Sandhills. b. 20 to 40 feet. e. Kept down
by bent grass, locally called ‘ Starr’ grass. The site of the town of Fleetwood
was formerly occupied by sandhills, one of which has been preserved to form a
garden, and is known as the ‘Mount.’ Great destruction of the coast took
place in 1869, houses being destroyed, but this has been stopped by sea wall
and groynes.

18. Rossall ‘land mark’ formerly stood 100 yards further than at present, and
was erected on a massive stone base, which when the sea reached it was
removed inland of the house marked on the one-inch Ordnance Map as
‘Fenny’s.’ There is no vestige of it left, though it had been twice removed
before occupying the site shown in the Ordnance Map of 1848.

29. In the estuarine silt, near the site of the present Rossall landmark, a large
number of Roman coins were discovered, marking the site of top, probably of
an old Roman military chest; the level of the silt below the overlying blown
sand resting on it is below the present H.W.M., pointing to the levels of land
and sea, remaining constant since Roman times.

Hirosion of Yorkshire Coast.
By Captain A. H. KENNEY, R.E., February 1890.

The following notes on the above subject were forwarded to the Director-General
of the Ordnance Survey. and communicated by him to the Committee :—

1. The sea is gradually encroaching on the whole line of coast from Bridlington
to Spurn Head. The foreshore is all sand, the cliffs are all clay; there are no
rocks whatever along this coast. The high tides with an in-blowing wind undermine
the cliffs, the tops of which eventually slip or fall, and the continuous action of the
sea washes such slips or falls away. At Bridlington, Hornsea, and Withernsea sub-
stantial sea-walls and groynes have been constructed to stop further encroachment.

2. The following measurements give in feet the actual encroachments since the
6-in. survey at definite points, from which the average encroachments on the coast
line in the different 6-in. Yorkshire sheets mentioned have been deduced, viz.—

Erosion

‘ (Coast line surveyed but
Point A. Sheet 197 { Bagitockies By lee \ 165 ft.

sy B- Fr ditto 5 EES.
ees . ditto = 98%,,
wD: ditto . 165

”

Average erosion in Sheet 197 = 182 ft.
Point A. Sheet 213 (Coast line examined) . : . 244 ft.

oop ditto Pat A wmeatilar
eG. ditto fee rah were wren
eae 4 ditto FE ia tin'y ican:
5 eB. ditto Pit MN
coek ditto . 231

Average erosion in Sheet 213 =237 ft.
Point A. Sheet 228 . : : : é . . 132 ft.

we B ditto ‘ 5 F 2 : = 6b" .,
se, ditto 4 ‘ : : 4 o lGotss
Se 1D ditto : ; ; : * OO,
a (BS ditto . i : : ‘ : s 06";
bat AE ditto 5 ; 7 3 - 3 + a1b8355
oa ditto . 145

Average erosion in Sheet 228 =139 ft.

882

”

Onno of

REPORT—1895.

Point A. Sheet 243 . 3 5

ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto

Point A. North half of Sheet 257

ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto

Average erosion from Sheet 197 to 257 N.=215 ft.

Average erosion per year=5 ft. 10 in. nearly.

1852 =37 years.
If the Director-General desires it, I could mark the points from which these

measurements have been taken on the 6-in. sheets, lately forwarded with the present

Average erosion for Sheet 243 = 245 ft.

Average erosion in Sheet 257 N.=273 ft.

Erosion

158 ft.
207 ,,
383 ,,
198 ,,
218 ,,
251
264 ,,
OTs

The number of years being 1889—

coast line inserted on them, if they are returned to me for this purpose, or I could
forward 6-in. sheets which have been used in this office with these points marked on

them.

contours shown on the 6-in. sheets.

I attach a list of measurements to present top of cliff, and H.W.M. from certain
ancient and permanent fixed points inland. A copy of this list was sent some time
ago to the Secretary of the Coast Erosion Committee.

6-inch

Sheet Parish, &c.

and Plan

197-3 | Hornsea
” | ”

213-9 | Aldborougn

228-7 | Hilston .
” ”

228-11)| Tunstall . |

243-5 Withernsea |

257-2 | Holmpten . |

”

| Name of Fixed Object

1
Nearest Measure-

ments in Feet

Iregret I have no information as to heights of cliff beyond the levels and

i

Measurements due |

East in Feet

To Top |ToH.W.|| To Top | To H.W.)
of Cl ff Mark of Cliff Mark

St. Nicholas’ Church | 2,8100 | 3,141-0 | 3,225°0 | 3,339°0 |
Fr. A

Do. chancel end 2,695°0 | 3,0260 || 3,095:0 | 3,229:0 |

St. Bartholomew’s | 5,703-0 | 5,813-0 || 6,823:0 | 6,945°0
Church Fr. A

Do. chancel end... | 5,604:0 | 5,714:0 | 6,717-0 | 6,839-0

Old Windmill (Cen.) | 5,307-0 | 5,432°0 || 6,364:0 | 6,479-0
(Corn.)

St. Margaret’s Church] 3,215°0 | 3,308°0 || 3,940°0 | 4,047:0
iA

Do. chancel end. | 3,170°0 | 3,263°0 || 3,885°0 | 3,992°0

All Saints’ Church | 2,135:0 | 2,194:0 || 2,624-0 | 2,714-0 |
Fr. A

Do. chancel end 2,075°0 | 2,135-0 |) 2,548°0 | 2.6400

St. Nicholas’ Church 920-0 | 1,213-0 || 1,282-0 | 1,478°0 |
Fr. A

Do. chancelend . 840°0 | 1,137°0 || 1,186:0 | 1,382:0

St. Nicholas’ Church | 3,203:0 | 3,317-0 || 4,093°0 | 4,195°0
Fr. A

Do. chancel end 3,145°0 | 3,273-°0 || 4,038:0 | 4,140°0

A copy of this list of present measurements from fixed points inland was sent
to the Rev. E. M. Coie, Vicar of Westwang, Secretary of Yorkshire Coast Erosion
Committee.

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 383

Report by Captain C. E. Satvesen, F.2., July 1892. Communicated by
the Director-General of the Ordnance Survey.

In accordance with the Director-General’s instructions, dated May 9, 1892,
I now forward 6-inch sheets 163, 180,and 197, on which have been accurately
drawn from the new ;-), plans (surveyed in 1890) the ‘top of cliff? R.W.M. O.'T.,
L.W.M. O.T., extent of shingle, groynes, new beach marks and levels, and other
details that I consider will be useful in the question of erosion.

All additions to the 6-inch sheets named, with the exception of L.W.M. 0O.T.
(which is shown by a black line edged with blue), have been inserted in red.

The total length of the coast lines on 6-inch sheets 163, 180, and 197 is 12 miles
56 chains, and the total erosion from old top of cliff to new top of cliff is in this
distance 204-026 acres, giving an average width to the strip of coast removed of
132°5 feet. Taking the total time as forty years (6-inch sheets surveyed 1850-52,
555 plans in 1890), the yearly rate of erosion comes to about 3 feet 33} inches. The

2500 é
actual areas for separate sheets are as follows, viz.—

Yorkshire 6-inch sheet 163 - 59-147 acres | giving average width of strip
- relly . - 59593 ,, Jf =118°86 fect.
rg TOiieae 85:286_,, do. 157 67,

Total 204-026

—

The last result—viz., 157°67 feet—disagrees slightly with that arrived at by
Captain Kenney, R.E.; but his was only the average of four measurements, which
would hardly give such an accurate result.

I have in each case calculated the area from old top of cliff to new top of cliff,
as this represents the amount of land that is or probably could be put under
cultivation.

The average height of the cliffs in 6-inch sheets 163, 180, and 197 is 39-34 fect.

This result has been arrived at by computing the area of an elevation of the
coast-line made from data on the 6-inch sheets and new ;4,, sheets (B.M.’s pickets
and contours) and dividing by the total length of coast—viz., 12 miles 56 chains.
Multiplying the average width (132°5 feet) by average height (39:34 feet) and total
length (12 miles 56 chains), the result is 12,955,666 cubic yards of material washed
away in forty years, or an average of 25,503 cubic yards per mile per annum.

Report by Captain W Russext, RL, July 1892.

I forward herewith (Yorkshire) 6-inch sheets 47, 62, 77, 78, 94, 110, 111, 128,
129, and 146, on which have been shown the present high and low-water mark of
ordinary tides as obtained by the revision of the survey, and also any alterations in
the line of the tops of the cliffs.

From these it will be seen that the only place where the erosion has been at all
serious is at and south of Bridlington, and also just south of Filey.

All the rest of the coast being high cliffs, the action of the sea has been very
slight, and indeed along the greater portion there is no appreciable difference
between the old and new surveys. I also forward a report from T. C. A. Creok, who
has been in charge of the revision of the whole of the coast from Bridlington to
Whitby, in which he replies categorically to the questions asked.

The revision of the coast has as yet only been completed as far north as Whitby,
and beyond that town I am not able to afford any reliable information.

The distances between the old and new lines of the top of the cliff at various
places have been measured on the 6-inch plans, and are approximately given in feet
for purposes of comparison in the attached list.

1.—That portion of the east coast lying between Bridlington Quay and Whitby.

2.—It is composed principally of rock and chalk cliffs interspersed with sandy
bays, these latter being usually bounded by cliffs of alluvial soil. The whole of
the line of cliff from Bridlington to the Humber consists of a varying cliff of
brown unstratified clay and gravel from 20 to 50 feet high, the average probably
about 25 feet. From Bridlington northwards to Speeton the cliffs are of chalk,
forming the eastern boundary of the Yorkshire Wolds. These range in height from
50 feet at Bridlington to near 400 feet at Speeton; the average will probably be
about 200 feet. Continuing northwards from Speeton to Filey, the cliffs are formed of
boulder clay, and are of a pretty uniform height, averaging 100 feet. From Filey to

384 REPORT—1895.

Scarborough the cliffs consist of Oxford clay, calcareous grit, sandstone, and lime-
stone, the whole being surmounted by a considerable thickness of boulder clay. (In
the two small bays lying between these points, called Gristhorpe and Cayton Bays,
the cliffs are principally of boulder clay with here and there a little shale and sand-
stoney. These cliffs are undulating and vary in several places from 100 to 200 feet ;
the average will probably be about 180 feet. The Scarborough Castle Rock consists
of limestone and sandstone (Dogger Oolites), and rises 240 feet above high water.
And from hence, for upwards of a mile north, the cliffs are of boulder clay, which again
changes to rock; but for yet another mile it is principally boulder clay with here
and there a small cliff of sandstone at the bottom, after which, continuing north-
wards to Hayburn Wyke and Peak, the cliffs rise, till at Peak they attain a height of
600 feet, and consist of shale, sandstone, and limestone, running from 100 feet at
Cloughton (where thin veins of coal were formerly worked) to 600 at Peak, the
average height probably being about 200 feet. From Peak to Robin Hood’s Bay the
cliff consists of the lower lias, shale, sandstone, and boulder clay, principally the
latter. Here appear for the first time the large quarries of shale from which alum
was formerly abstracted. The height ranges from 350 feet near Peak to 100 feet
at the Bay, the average being about 140. From Robin Hood’s Bay to Whitby the
cliffs consist of the upper and lower lias, shales and their divisions, and sandstone.
Old jet pits are numerous in these cliffs: they are of a pretty uniform height,
averaging about 200 feet. From Whitby for about 2 miles N.W. the cliffs are of
boulder clay, with here and there a little shale and sandstone, and average about 100
feet in height.

3.—The general line from Bridlington to within 13 mile east of Whitby is north-
west and south-east ; from this point northwards it turns west by north.

4.—This depends upon the season of the year. In winter (which usually lasts six
months of the year on this coast more or less) the prevailing wind is north-easterly
and northerly; in summer it is south-east and by south, veering to south south-west
in the late afternoon and evening.

5.—A north-easterly and north-westerly sea brings the highest waves; a northerly
sea brings up the shingle, and the backsweep of the ebb with a north-easterly wind
takes it away. This will be generally correct, but the fact is there is but very
little shingle on this coast, and this only in the bays, and it would be better
described as large gravel, and would be covered three-fourths of the year by a
more or less thick layer of sand. A strong westerly wind off the land will cause a
sea that will lift this sand, and leave bare the beds of shingle or gravel; but this
again is not wholly accurate as applying to all the bays, for the bays at Whitby,
Robin Hood's Bay, and Scarborough have eddies of their own; that in Scarborough
South Bay being very strong, and due to the projecting coast line south of the town
and Filey Brigg, and deposit left in Scarborough South Bay would be caused by the
ebb, while in Whitby and Robin Hood’s Bay it would be caused by the flood. In
Filey and Bridlington Bays there are no eddies to speak of; the projecting Brigg at
the north of Filey Bay and Flamborough Head on the south make this a comparatively
still bay, while the large sandbank off Bridlington Quay, called, I think, the Smithies,
and forming a long bar about 13 mile from the shore, has the same effect here.

6.—North-west during flood and south-east during ebb, but the true current is
not reached under a mile and a half or two miles from the shore, as the contours of
the coast and the bays cause deflections from the true current.

What is the range of the tide?

(1) Vertical in feet.

Between 15 and 16 feet at spring and 11 at neap tides.

7.—This varies greatly. In Bridlington Bay I should think from 250 feet at
neap to 500 feet at spring tides. Around Flamborough Head there are places where
it never leaves the cliff face, but the average would be about 70 yards at neap to
110 at spring. In Filey Bay it would be about 300 feet at neap to 450 feet at
spring. At Filey Brigg, which is a reef of flat rocks, it would be greatest about 700
feet at neap and 900 feet at spring. A little north of Filey Brigg the water scarcely
leaves the foot of the cliffs, after which come beds of the flat rocks and shingle bays
reaching to Scarborough; these at neap will average 300 feet and 400 feet at spring.
In Scarborough South Bay it will be about 240 feet at neap to 340 feet at spring,
around the castle rock 50 feet and 70 feet. In the North Bay the average will be
350 feet at neap and 450 feet at spring; thence on to Peak the average will be
90 feet and 120 feet ; in Robin Hood's Bay 200 feet at neap and 300 feet at spring;

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 385

from Robin Hood’s Bay to Whitby the average will be 120 feet to 200 feet; in the
bay west of Whitby 200 feet at neap, 300 feet at spring.

§.—In the bay west of Whitby it is sand nearly the whole year through, but
occasionally beds of shingle and gravel are visible ; at Robin Hood's Bay it is
sand and shingle mixed. After heavy seas most gravel will appear, but in the
summer it is mostly sand ; but this applies only from the bottom of the cliff for about
40 yards seawards; beyond this it is beds of flat rocks strewn in places with large
boulders. The Scarborough North Bay is of the same character as Robin Hood’s Bay,
the South Bay is all sand, with a rim of shingle and boulders at the cliff foot 20 yards
wide ; at the south end of the bay Gristhorpe and Cayton Bays are mostly shingle
for about 30 yards from the cliff foot, and flat rocks and boulder beds beyond. Filey
Bay is all sand, stretching for about 3 miles; Bridlington Bay is all sand, excepting
about 3 miles of the north side forming the Flamborough Head projection, which is flat

“rocks and boulders. Excluding these bays, all the remaining and by far the greater

portion of this coast consists of beds of large boulders (ranging from a few hundred-
weights to several hundreds of tons) and beds of flat rock mostly strewn with
boulders, but bare in those parts where from their position the seas break over them
with violence.

9.—As already stated, there is scarcely any shingle worth calling so on this coast ;
where there is, its greatest breadth would not exceed 40 yards, while the mean
svould be between 2() and 30, and this would be in all cases at the cliff foot. The

_ high-water mark of an ordinary spring tide would about equally divide it, i.e., half

would’ be covered and half dry. In all cases it would travel south, barring the in-
fluence which the eddy and a south-east wind may have in moving it a little north;
but this rarely occurs, and is so trifling in its effect as not to be worth mentioning.
{t is sufficient to say that no wind that blows can take anything north betwixt the

' Tyne and Flamborough Head. This is proved by the fact that portions of vessels

wrecked about the Tyne’s mouth are picked up all down the coast to Flamborough
Head, but no portion of the wreckage of any vessel wrecked, say, at Flamborough Head,
Scarborough, or Whitby, has ever been found north of those points. The egg of a
goose would represent the size of the largest pebbles, and these occur at Cayton Ray.
The shingle formstone continuous slope; there is no ‘ spring full’ or ‘ neap full.’

10.—The shingle is certainly not accumulating, and onthe other hand the diminu-
tion is too small to be perceptible, and the rate cannot be ascertained. From Bridling-
ton to Whitby the foreshore, wherever accessible, is the great quarrying ground for
the wants of the immediate neighbourhood, sand, shingle, and boulders alike being
obtained as required, and this must certainly diminish the amount; but this is pro-
bably made up again by the frequent falls of cliff which occur after heavy seas and
through springs in the cliff.

12.—There are no groynes on this line of coast, with the exception of two or three
at Bridlington Quay, built for the protection of the sea-wall or promenade there.
These are built at right angles to the shore line ; their length and distance apart can
be obtained from the plans, their height ranges from about 7 feet at the shore end
to 2 feet at the other. I have no knowledge of where they were built, and there is
no shingle at this place—they are built of masonry and wood.

13.—The material is taken indiscriminately from all the foreshore between high-
and low-water mark. The shingle and boulders are mostly taken for road and path
making, the sand for building and other purposes, and large boulders are taken for
building purposes. It is mostly taken by highway and local board authorities,
and by lords of the manor, who levy a toll upon all private individuals taking it
with their consent. No half-tide reefs are known to have existed before such
removal, but it is certain that these large boulders (and at Scarborcugh even the reefs
of flat rocks are being quarried), shingle, and sand form a breakwater, which breaks
the violence of the waves, and consequently their removal cannot but affect the cliffs
in their neighbourhood.

14.—-The coast is being worn back along the whole line from Bridlington to
Whitby, but the greatest recession is between Bridlington and the Humber, where in
places it has receded as muchas 90 yards between thepresent survey ard that made forty-
three years ago, and it has been computed that 2 yards go annually along this line of
coast. Inall the bays, Filey, Robin Hood’s, Whitby, and the smaller ones (Scarborough
is in part protected by a sea-wall), where the cliffs are mostly of boulder clay, there
the recession has been most. The average width lost in these during the above period
would probably be about 20 yards, in places much more, in others less. After the
boulder clay the shale and sandstone cliffs, as between Peak and Whitby, appear to

1895, co

386 REPORT-—1895.

be least able to withstand the onslaught —the rate of recession here, taking the same
period, would average 8 or 9 yards—more or less. The height of the clay cliff would
be about 100 feet, with an average width from top to bottom of 60 yards. The
height of the shale cliff would be from 150 to 200 feet, with an average width from
top to bottom of 30 yards, although they are in many cases nearly perpendicular.
The chalk cliffs of Flamborough appear to stand the influence of the sea best; the
average recession there, I should say, would not be more than 2 or 3 yards during the
same period. When there are large beds of boulders at the foot of the cliff, and the
cliffs themselves are destitute of springs, there is scarcely any difference between the
line as now surveyed at foot of cliff and that surveyed forty years ago. I know of
no data for determining the rate except the 6-inch Ordnance Survey made about
forty years ago.

15.—The loss is not confined to areas bare of shingle; the amount taken is retrieved
by the amount made by falls of cliff. There are no groynes for the arresting of shingle.

16.—There is no area regained on this line of coast.

17.There are no dunes in this district. I have heard they exist at Redcar, but
have no personal knowledge of them.

18.—I have been unable to obtain any information in this respect. I recollect
reading at Bridlington, in a local history or newspaper, the effect of the sea on that
line of coast, and I think it probable some information might be obtained there.

19.—I have no remarks bearing on the subject that are not covered by the
foregoing replies.

To Captain W. Russell, RL.

Ordnance Survey, Whitby, June313, 1892.

Sir,—I beg to state that the attached report is made from my own memory and

knowledge, and from what I have heard. I have been unable to obtain any informa-

tion from any book, newspaper, or report beyond a geological map which I saw in —

Scarborough Museum when there Curing the week. so that I cannot verify my state-

ments, but I believe they are as nearly accurate as it is possible to get inastatement
of this sort.

(Signed) 8. CRook.

List of Differences between 6-inch Scale Maps and 5+, Scale Revised Plans, shoning

how far the Bank or Cliff has broken anay since the 6-inch Scale Survey, at the
points indicated, measured from the 6-inch Map.

6-inch Sheets Reference Letter Distance in Feet
Approximately
146 A 82
146 B 198
146 C 264
146 D 50
128 E 16
129 F 18
111 G 66
110 H 66
110 K 92
94 L 33
94 M 82
94 N 66
78 O 56
17 P 92
47 Q 100

Erosion of Coast of Lancashire since 6-inch Survey, July 28, 1892.
feport by Captain A. D. Mezrzs, 2.2.

I have to report that the greatest encroachment of the sea on the Lancashire
coast between the Duddon and Ribble estuaries has taken place :

1. On the S.W. coast of Walney Island, where in one place (54, plan 3") the coast
line has receded nearly half way across a narrow part of the island.

—

Se ha

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 387

2. At Rossall Point, where about 420 feet has been washed away since the 1844-45
Survey.

The coast at both of these places is, generally speaking, low, with sand and shingle
foreshore and no rocks.

The amount of erosion varies so much that I have been unable to arrive at a satis-
factory average for each 6-inch sheet, but in attached list are given the maximum
amounts of erosion at each place, and on accompanying 6-inch sheets (21, 27, 28, 22,
38, 37, 42, 58, 59, and 67) the present coast line is shown in red, where it differs
materially from the old, with some measurements of the extent of encroachment at
those points marked. The measurements in all cases are taken from 5, traces,
except for Sheets 58 and 67, where the coast line was not replotted,

I may add that the gain of land along this coast is, owing to the extensive
reclamation in the Ribble estuary and the construction of the Furness Railway, pro-
‘bably far greater than the loss occasioned by erosion. ‘here is alsoa slight gain at
places near Barrow, due to slag from ironworks being tipped in the sea, forming

_ embankments.
(To accompany nae! Megs s Report of ae 23, 1892.)
= Maximum
jhe Remarks Erosion in
Feet
10 No appreciable change
15 Slight changes in coast line of sandhills, but not of
importance
21 Slight erosion from Earnse Point to about 30 chains south, 59
and for a length of 30 chains at Tummershill, Rabbit
Warren . 5 3 z : : 86
27 Considerable encroachment of sea. Maximum about 600
yards north of Trough Head. Groynes now erected where
shown on 6-inch map. 720
28 Some erosion on the §.E. end of Watney Island, on the
South Coast . 158
At east extremity the coast lines are not well defined,
but there appears to have been erosion going on at
ti N.E. point, now a groyne near 8.E. point : 260
22 Some erosion from Rampside to Point of Comfort, and 165
slight amount from ; to 3 mile south of Aldingham
Church ., ° “ A c : . : : : 66
16
7
18
24
30 No erosion of importance
29
33
34
39
33 About 23 miles east of Fleetwood erosion for a length of
28 chains, and some more to the west of Fleetwood, 132
commencing at the west end of the town and extending
nearly to Rossall Point . 196
37 A considerable encroachment of the sea at Rossall Point,
gradually diminishing to the south. 422
42 Continuation of above to about 3 mile south of Rossall
School, except for a length of about 400 yards, opposite
Rossall School, where there is a substantial sea-wall and
no change in coast line
There are now groynes along this portion of the coast . 263
50 No change of importance
a A considerable encroachment extending from about 14 |
67 mile N.W. to about 1 mile 8.E. of St. Anne’s . . -| 390

388 REPORT—1895.

APPENDIX IV.

SECOND CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF WORKS ON THE COAST-CHANGES
AND SHORE-DEPOSITS OF ENGLAND AND WALES.

By W. Wuitaker, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst.C.E.

This being the final Report of the Committee, it is well that the biblio-
graphy in an earlier Report should be supplemented and continued. The
431 entries therein carried the list to the middle of 1886, and now 18 are
added, from 1815 to 1885, 6 for 1886, and 52 from 1887 on, or 76 in all,
bringing the total to 507, to which probably many additions can be made
from local sources.

1815.

Kidd, Professor J. A Geological Essay. ... chap. xxii. On the
Action of the Sea upon the Land. (Ramsey, near St. David’s, pp. 215,
216.) 8vo. Oxford.

1840.

Clarke, Rev. W. B. On the Geological Structure and Phenomena of
the County of Suffolk. . . . Causes in Action. (Coast, Bawdsey to Wal-
ton Naze) pp. 366, 367. Trans. Geol. Soc., ser. 2, vol. v. p. 359.

1854.

Oldham, James. On the Physical Features of the Humber. Rep.
Brit. Assoc., 1853, pp. 36-45, pl. 2.

1856.

Redman, J.B. Report on Sandown Castle. Together with a Letter
from the Secretary of State for War to the Mayor of Deal. S8vo. Lond.
[Printed at the War Office. |

1861.

Morton, G. H. On the Pleistocene Deposits of the District around
Liverpool. (Refers to Submarine Forest.) Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.
sess. 1, 2, p. 12.

1870.

Morton, G.H. Anniversary Address. (Refers largely to Submarine
Forests.) Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. sess. 11, p. 3.

1872.
Ricketts, Dr.C. Anniversary Address. [Refers to Coast Deposits,
&e.] Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. sess. 13, p. 3.
1874.

Reade, T. M. Tidal Action as a Geological Cause. Proc. Liverpool
Geol. Soc. sess. 15, p. 50.

1875.
Kinahan, G. H. Valleys and their Relation to Fissures, Fractures,

and Faults. (Refers to 8. Devon Coast, pp. 36, 37, 81; to Romney
_ Marsh, pp. 206-208.) 8vo. Lond.

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 389

1876.

Sawyer, F. E. The Erosion of the Sussex Coast, with special reference
to Great Storms which have visited the County. 23rd Ann. Rep. Brighton
Nat. Hist. Soc. pp. 129-138 (imperfectly entered in earlier list).

Tylor, A. Denuding Agencies and Geological Deposition under the
Flow of Ice and Water . . . and similar remarks on Marine Deposits,
illustrated by the Irish Sea and the Chesil Beach. (Greo/. Mag. dee. ii.

yo). iii. p. 90. Fuller abstract than in Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc. vol.

xxxll. Proc. p. 4.
1879.

Edwards, G. ‘The River Waveney: did it ever reach the Sea wid
Lowestoft ? 8vo. Lowestoft, pp. 20.
1880.
McDiarmid, W. R. Additional Note on the North-East Coast of
Norfolk. Zrans. Edin. Geol. Soc. vol. iii. pt. 3, pp. 292, 293.
1882.
McDiarmid, W. R. Second Additional Note on the North-East Coast
of Norfolk. Zrans. Edin. Geol. Soc. vol. iv. pt. ii. pp. 171-1738.
1883.
Grantham, R. F. Land reclaimed from the Sea (with Discussion).
Trans. Inst. Surv. vol. xv. pp. 297-324.
. 1884.

Shone, W. The Silting up of the Dee. Proc. Chester Soc. Nat. Sci.
no. 3, p. 52.

Spratt [Rear-Admiral], T. A.B. Report on the Present State of the
Navigation of the River Mersey. 8vo. Lond.

1885.

Blake, J. H. Geological Survey of England & Wales. Explanation
of Horizontal Sections, Sheet 128. [Kessingland, Pakefield, Corton.
Refers to waste of coast, &kc.] Dated 1884 on p. 1, but 1885 on p. &.
8vo. Lond. pp. 8.

1886.

Dowson, A. Groynes on Shifting Beaches (Brighton). Engineer, vol.

Ixii. pp. 346, 347.

Price, F.G. H. The Landslip in the Warren near Folkestone. (rol.
Mag. dee. iii. vol. iii. p. 240.
Reade, T. M. Notes on a Bed of Fresh-water Shells and a Chipped

_ Flint lately found at the Alt Mouth. Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. vol. v.

pt. ii. pp. 137-139.

Redman, J. B. Tidal Approaches and Deep- water Entrances. 7'rais.
Soc. Lng. pp. 143-168, pl. i.

Vernon-Harcourt, L. F. The River Seine. (Discussion. Refers to
the Ribble, Humber, Mersey, Thames, and Tees, pp. 259, 260, 263, 264,
270-272, 285, 286, 291-296, 301-304, 308-312, 323, 324, 340, 341.) Proc.
Inst. C. £. vol. Ixxxiv. p. 210.

2

390 REPORT—1895.

Memoirs of the Geological Survey, England and Wales. The Geology
of the Country around Aldborough. ... Orford. ... &e. (Coast, pp.
47-49, chiefly from J. B. Redman.) 8vo. Lond.

1887.

Alcock, Dr. T. Natural History of the Coast of Lancashire. (Notices
the shore and waste of coast at Blackpool, Southport, &c., pp. 4, 5, 8-10,
16,21.) 8vo. Manchester. Pp. 31.

Black, W. G. Brighton Beaches after Storms of October 15 and
December 8, 1886. Z'rans. Edin. Geo/. Soc. vol. v. pt. 3, p. 399.

Dickson, E, Notes on the Excavations for the Preston Docks. Proc
Liverpool Geol. Soc. vol. v. pt. iil. pp. 249-256.

George, I.E. Notes on some weathered Rocks at Hilbre. Zrans.
Liverpool Geol. Assoc. vol. vii. pp. 92-94.

Hunt, A.R. The Action of Waves on Sea Beaches and Sea Bottoms.
[Lecture to Torquay Nat. Hist. Soc. 1883.] Zorquay Directory, November.

Jukes-Browne, A.J. Memoirs of the Geological Survey. England and
Wales. The Geology of East Lincolnshire. . . . (Submerged Forest,
Blown Sand, pp. 109-112.) 8vo. Lond.

Miles, C. E. The Mersey Estuary. Zrans. Liverpool Geol. Assoc.
vol. vii. pp. 85-89.

Norman, M. W. A Popular Guide to the Geology of the Isle of
Wight. . . . 8vo. Ventnor. The Red Beach, pp. 173-176. Landslips
and loss of land, pp. 181-194.

Penney, W. Denudation of the Coast at Handfast Point, called in
Captain Sherringham’s Chart of Poole Harbour, Standfast Point. (Dorset
Field Club.) Poole and Bournemouth Herald, September 15.

Potter, C. On the Sand-dunes of the Cheshire Coast. Zrans. Liver-
ool Geol. Assoc. vol. vii. pp. 28-33.

Whitaker, W. Memoirs of the Geological Survey. England and
Wales. The Geology of Southwold, and of the Suffolk Coast from
Dunwich to Covehithe. (Coast Deposits, Waste of the Coast, pp. 45-51.)
Svo. Lond. ‘

1888.

Curtis, R.H. The Cornish Blown Sands. Natwre, vol. xxxviii. no.
968, p. 55.

Dickson, E. Geological Notes on the Preston Dock Works and Ribble
Development Scheme. Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. vol. v. pt. iv. pp. 369-
576, 2 plates.

Hunt, A. R. The Raised Beach on the Thatcher Rock : its Shells
and their Teaching. Trans. Devon. Assoc, vol. xx. pp. 225-253.

Morton, G. H. [President’s Address.] Local Historical, Post-Glacial
and Pre-Glacial Geology. Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. vol. v. pt. iv. p. 303.
[See pp. 307, 315-324. |
Stanlow, Ince, and Frodsham Marshes. Jbid. pp. 349-351.

Potter, C. Antiquities of the Meols Shore. Zrans. Hist. Soc. Lancash.
Chesh., vol. xl. p. 143.

1889.

Gill, Francis. Dungeness. The Protection of the Roadstead essen-
tial to the Navigation of the British Channel and the Defence of the
South Coast. 8vo. pp. 27.

ON THE EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 391]

Groves, T. B. The Erosion of the Coast near Weymouth by the
Action of the Sea. Proc. Dorset Field Club, vol. x. pp. 180-186.
Morton, G.H. Further Notes on the Stanlow, Ince, and Frodsham
Marshes. Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. vol. vi. pt. i. pp. 50-55.
Picton, Sir J. A. Notes on the Local Historical Changes in the Sur-
face of the Land in and about Liverpool. Jbid. pp. 31-42.
Potter, C. On some Facts in connection with the Geology of the
Mersey Basin. Journ. Liverpool Geol. Assoc. vol. vill. pp. 37-39.
’ Rye, Walter. Cromer, Past and Present, with an Appendix on the
Geology, by C. Reid. 4to. Norwich and Lond.
Shore, T. W. Beds exposed in the Southampton New Dock Exten-
sion. ep. Brit. Assoc. 1888, pp. 672, 673.
Shore, T. W., and J. W.Elwes. The New Dock Excavation at South-
ampton. Hants Field Club. Papers, no. iii. pp. 43-56, pl. 1.
_ Whitaker, W. Memoirs of the Geological Survey. England and
Wales. The Geology of London and of Part of the Thames Valley.
Vol. i. Coast-waste, pp. 476, 498. Shore-deposits, p. 478. 8vo. Lond.

1890.

Cole, E. M. Coast Erosion in Yorkshire. Research, vol. ii. p. 225.
Gattie, G. B. Memorials of the Goodwin Sands. . . . (Chaps. i. ii.)
8yo. Lond.

Grantham, R. F. The Encroachment of the Sea on some Parts of the
English Coast, and the best Means of arresting it. (Sussex.) Trans.
Inst. Surveyors, vol. xxii. pt. xii. pp. 337-366. Plate.

Tizard, T.H. The Thames Estuary. ature, vol. xli. pp. 539-544.

1891.

Anon. The Contest for the Coast. Chambers’ Journal, vol. vill. pp.
241-243.

Aytoun, R. Securing the North Cliff, Scarborough. Proc. Inst. Cw.
Eng. vol. ev. pp. 295-297, pl. 8 (sections).

Browne, R.G.M. As to certain Alterations in the Surface-level of
oa Sea off the South Coast of England. ep. Brit. Assoc. for 1891, pp.

24, 825.

Eliot, Whately. The North Sea-Wall and Royal Albert Drive, Scar-
borough. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. vol. ev. p. 289, pl. 8 (sections). (See
ipp. 289, 293.)

1892.

Cole, E. M. The erosion of the Yorkshire Coast. Matwralist,
pp. 103-107.
Holmes, T. V. Notes on the Site of Hastings. Science Gossip,
; no. 326, pp. 32-35.
Stock, T. Somersetshire Sand-Tots : Their Geological History. Ibid.
“no. 328, pp. 75-77.
° : 1893.

Blake, Rev. J. F. The Landslip at Sandgate. Nature, vol. xlvii.
pp. 467-469.

—— The Sandgate Landslip. The Surveyor, vol. iii. pp. 199-201.

Cole, E. M. Erosion of the Yorkshire Coast. Watwralist, pp. 142-144.

3892 REPORT—1895.

Hutchinson, P. 0. Landslip at Sidmouth. Trans. Devon. Assoc.
vol. xxv. pp. 174, 175.

Martin, E. A. Some Notes on the Sandgate Landslip. The Sield
Club, vol. iv. pp. 83-85.

Martin, J. M. Some Further Notes on Exmouth Warren. TZrans.
Devon. Assoc. vol. xxv. pp. 406-415.

Shone, W. The Submerged Forest at Rhyl. Chester Chronicle,
Feb. 18.

Topley, W. The Landslip at Sandgate. Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. xiii-
pt. 2, pp. 40-47.
The Sandgate Landslip. Geogr. Journ. vol. i. pp. 339-341.

1894.

Bird, C. On so-called Changes of Level [chiefly Kent]. Rochester
Naturalist (Oct., 7 pages).

Dickson, E. The Ribble Estuary. ... Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.
vol, vii. pt. 2, pp. 135-154.

Mc. Dakin, Capt. S.G. Coast Erosion. S. £. Natwralist, vol. i. pt. iv.
p- 107.

Coast Erosion, and Landslips in the Neighbourhood of Dover.
‘Ibid. pp. 132-136.
1895,
Hill, Rev. E. The Tower of Eccles-by-the-Sea. Geol. Mag. dec. iv.
vol. ii. pp. 229, 230 (also various notices in local newspapers).
Hunt, A. R. A Note on the Torbay Raised Beaches. . . . Ibid.
pp- 405-408.

Structure of a Coral Reef—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor T. G. Bonney (Chairman), Professor W. J. SoLuas
(Secretary), Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE£, Professors A. H. GREEN,
J. W. Jupp, C. Larwortu, A. C. Happon, Boyp Dawkins, G. H.
Darwin, 8. J. Hickson, and A. Stewart, Admiral W. J. L.
Wuarton, Drs. H. Hicks, J. Murray, W. T. BLanrorp,
LE Neve Foster, and H. B. Gupry, Messrs. F. Darwin, H. O.
Forses, G. C. Bourne, A. R. Brynig, J. W. GReGory, and J. C.
HawksuHaw, and Hon. P. Fawcert, appointed to consider a project
for investigating the Structure of a Coral Reef by Boring and
Sounding.

THE Committee made an application to the Royal Society for an alloca-
tion of £500 from the fund granted by the Government in aid of Scientific
Research. The Royal Society, as a preliminary to the discussion of the
application, have written to the Admiralty to inquire whether the Govern-
ment would be able to assist an expedition by putting a surveying vessel
at its disposal. A reply from the Admiralty has not yet been received.
The Committee ask to be reappointed with a renewal of the grant of £10,
which had not been drawn.

———— a

THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 393.

The Circulation of Underground Waters.—Twenty-first Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. E. Hutu (Chairman), Sir DouG.as.
GaLTon, Messrs. J. GLAISHER, PERCY KENDALL, Professor G. A.
Lezour, Messrs. E. B. Marten, G. H. Morton, Professor PREsT-
wicH, Messrs. I. Roserts, THos. 8. Srooxes, G. J. Symons,
C. TyLpEN-WrIGHT, C. WETHERED, W. WHITAKER, and C. E.
De Rance (Secretary). (Drawn up by C. E. DE Rance.)

APPENDIX. Second List of Works. By W.WHITAKER . E ‘ . page 394

Your reporter has not received any reports from the Corresponding
Societies since last year’s meeting, but he has good reason to believe that.
valuable results have been collected, and locally published. These will be
doubtless of great local value, and it is a source of satisfaction to see that
the work originated by the Committee is likely to be permanently carried
on by the local societies on the lines initiated by the British Association.
Your reporter, however, would again point out that the collection of
sections and details of water supply, by some central body, would be of
great value to engineers, contractors, and others, who have neither time
nor opportunity to seek the records of the various provincial proceedings,
and it appears desirable that it be a suggestion to the Corresponding:
Societies that they annually send up the details they have obtained to the
offices of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, 28 Jermyn Street,
London, where a section-book is now kept, and every facility daily given
to those seeking information.

Your reporter has not received any information from any member of
the Committee during the past year, and therefore thinks it unadvisable
to do more than present this formal report, without appendices of infor-
mation personally collected by himself, as has been done on several previous:
occasions,

This being the final Report, it may be, in conclusion, advisable to state
that the Committee have had the same chairman and secretary during the
whole of their twenty-two years’ labours, and they have arrived at the
following general results, some of which are self-evident, but it is necessary
to state, through simple conditions, not always universally understood.

1. The source of all water supply, whether in streams, wells, or natural
springs, is the rainfall falling on the area, or that adjacent to it.

2. The quantity of water to be obtained under all three heads is that
annually falling, less the quantity evaporated, and less natural loss through
retention after natural filtration.

3. The quantity of underground water to be obtained in sandstones.
and grits is governed by the cubic content of the interspaces between the
grains ; the larger the spaces, the greater facility for the storage and pas-
sage of water, coarse grits amounting to 12 inches of the annual rainfall.

4. In calcareous rocks, as Carboniferous and Magnesian Limestones,
oolitic caleareous rocks, and Chalk, the grains are exceedingly small, the
spaces almost microscopic, and the passage of water through the rock
exceedingly slow, but waters so passed are naturally and effectually
filtered. But in rocks of this class open spaces, following lines of joint,
faults, and other planes of weakness, constitute fissures and caverns,
through which water flows freely in defined channels, as on the surface,

394, REPORT—1895.

and, like it, is not subject to natural filtration, and, unlike it, has not
the advantage of the purifying effect of sunlight on its passage.

5. When porous rocks of different characters are separated by thin
beds of impermeable material, it is often possible to obtain several classes
of water from one well, suitable or unsuitable, as the case may be, for the
brewing of ale or stout, the dilution of spirits, or the exigencies of the
wool or the indigo dyeing trades.

6. Where wells are pumped at the same daily rate without abstracting
what the late Mr. Hawksley called ‘water of cistonage,’ the hardness is
reduced after a year’s pumping, and this remains stationary over proved
periods of forty years. If the pumps are lowered, and the apex of the
“inverted cone’ be placed still deeper beneath the mean sea-level, the
width of the base of the cone is extended, and a new concentric circle of
supply is added to the contribution ground ; the water then hardens for a
time, but after the soluble salts have been pumped out the degree of hard-
ness remains constant as before.

7. Faults in porous rocks of whatever thickness, which were originally
overlaid by porous rocks, no matter how great their throw may be, are no
obstacles to the passage of underground water.

8. Where the same are, or have been before subsequent denudation,
overlaid by impermeable material, the fissure of the fault is filled with
impermeable material, and it forms a natural puddle trench separating the
district into distinct watertight zones.

9. Where faults of the latter class exist, and the area on one side of
the fault joins the sea, and a quantity of water is annually abstracted,
exceeding the quantity absorbed by rainfall, the excess is derived from
the sea, a reversal of the underground current taking place ; and as this
goes on the rock becomes surcharged with salts, and can no longer act as
a filtering medium, and the water pumped daily approximates more and
more to the sea water from which it is derived.

10, Engineers and architects, in many cases, do not realise the danger
of placing public pumping stations where the area of supply includes
sewage farms and objectionable trade refuse. It is exceedingly desirable
that the officials of the Local Government Board should have their atten-
tion strongly drawn to this important matter.

11. This report is adopted by the Committee: they approve of the
suggestion of the reporter, that the digest of the previous reports he has
prepared be offered to the Geological Survey of England and Wales for
publication, and they recommend that, should this offer be declined by
the Survey, the digest be dealt with by its author as he may find expe-
dient, and they recommend that in either case all blocks and plates used
in the previous reports be placed at the recorder’s disposal for the purpose
of reprint.

APPENDIX.

SECOND CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF WORKS REFERRING TO UNDER-
GROUND WATER, ENGLAND AND WALES.

By W. Wuiraker, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst.C.E.

Since the publication of the list in the Thirteenth Report of the Com-
mittee, which ended with the year 1887, 87 additional titles for the years
1819 to 1887 have come to hand, of which 2 are different versions of

THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 395

previous entries. Besides these, 104 titles of works published from 1888
to 1895 carry on the list up to the time of this final Report. A few
titles have been kept back, the papers not having been seen to.

The writer will be glad to know of any omissions in the lists, in view
of the possibility of the whole being reprinted. He hopes, too, to keep
the work up to date. The number of entries is now 695.

A bibliography of Mineral Waters having been made by Mr. W. H.
Dalton, the reader is referred thereto: there is no need to enter here
titles of works therein given. See ep. Brit. Assoc. for 1888, pp. 859-
897 (1889). This list has been reprinted with a few additions.

1819.

Lunn, F. On the Strata of the Northern Division of Cambridgeshire.
(Wells and water, p. 116.) Z'’rans. Geol. Soc. vol. v. pt. i. p. 114.

1870.

Moore, C. The Mammalia and other Remains from Drift Deposits in
the Bath Basin. [2 well-sections at Bath.] roc. Bath Nat. Hist. Field
Club.

1872.

Hughes, Professor T. McK. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of
England and Wales. Explanation of Quarter Sheet 98, S.E. ; illustrating
the Geology of the Neighbourhood of Kirkby Lonsdale and Kendal.
8vo. Lond. (Springs, Swallow-holes, &e., pp. 19-21.)

1874.
’

Keeling, G. Section in sinking for a Well near Lydney Basin.
(Plate, in paper by W. ©. Lucy.) Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Club, vol. vi.

1875.

Heriot, Captain M. The Bath Waters. Proc. Bath Field Club,
vol. iii. no. 2, pp. 163-170.
The Mineral Spring at Batheaston. bid. pp. 171-177.

Topley, W. Report on the Water Supply of Hastings. Pp.18. Fol.
Hastings.

1876.

Boult, Joseph. An Inquiry into the Source of Water in the New
Red Sandstone. Part. 1. Journ. Liverpool Polytech. Soc. (April and
May.)

1877.

Boult, Joseph. An Inquiry into the Source of Water in the New
Red Sandstone. Part 2. Journ. Liverpool Polytech. Soc. (Feb.) pp.
18.-47.

1878.

Lueas, J. Hydrogeology in its Relation to Water Supply. Zrans.
Social Sci. Congr. 1878, pp. 518-520.

396 REPORT—1895.

1880.

Andrew, T. Observations on the Geology of Exeter, and the Impro-
bability of there being a Subterranean Water Supply for Economic
Purposes. Z'rans. Sanitary Inst. vol. ii. pp. 232-240.

Kinsey, W. B. Particulars of an Artesian Well at Thames Haven,
Essex. [=Anonymous Paper of 1879 in List.] Jbid. vol. i. pp. 203-208.

Lucas, J. On the Quantitative Elements in Hydrogeology. [?= fuller
version of Brit. Assoc. paper, 1879.] bid. pp. 195-202.

Perkins, F. P. On the Sanitary Condition of Wells in Exeter and
Neighbourhood. Zvrans. Sanitary Inst., vol. ii. pp. 240-245.

Stanley, W. F. Conditions of the Water Supply of Croydon, in rela-
tion to its Rainfall and Geology... . bid. vol. i. pp. 223-233.

Swete, Dr. H. Interpretation of Water Analyses for Drinking Pur-
poses. (Refers to wells, &e.) bid. pp. 70-75.

1881.

Gilford, W. The Geology of this district, especially in reference to
the question of Water Supply. Proc. Holmesdale Nat. Hist. Club. for
-1879 and 1880, pp. 17-19.

Lucas, J. Rural Water Supply ; with especial reference to the ob-
jects of the Public Health Water Act, 1878 (with Discussion). Trans.
Inst. Surv. vol. xiii. pts. v. vi. pp. 143-200.

Wells, Springs, and Rivers of Great Britain. Return of
Gaugings and other observations on . . . Subterranean Water Economy,
by various observers. Nos. 1, 2, 3. 8vo. Lond.

Timins, Rev. J. H. On the Pollution of Wells in the Lower Green-
sand [Kent]. Sanitary Record, May 15.

1882.
Mansergh, J. Lectures. Water Supply... Well-sinking and
Boring ... School of Military Engineering, Chatham. (Underground

Sources of Supply, pp. 81, &c., and plates of Well-sections.) 8vo. Chatham.

1884.
Easton, E. Hastings Corporation Waterworks. Report. Pp. 22.
Fol. (¢ Hastings).
Spencer, J. P. Alnwick and Canongate Local Board of Health. Pro-
posed additional Water Supply. Report. Pp. 7. 8vo. Alnwick.

Topley, W. Report on the Battle Water Supply (1883). Pp. 3. Fol.
Battle.

1885.

Lucas, J. Alnwick and Canongate Local Board of Health. Report
... on the Prospects of Boring for Water in Rugley Wood and at Thorn-
tree Well. Pp. 7. 8vo. Alnwick.

Sutton, F. Ona Highly Ferruginous Water from a Well at Kirby
Bedon. rans. Norfolk Nat. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 44-50.

Report of the Committee . . . on Decrease of Water Supply. Quart.
Journ. R. Met. Soc. vol. xi. pp. 216-221, pl. 5.

ii citi i i ee ee

THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 397

1886.

Eassie, W. On the Waters derived from the Bagshot Beds, considered
as Drinking Supplies. Sanitary Record, June 15; and Trans Soc. Med.
Officers Health.

French, H.H. On‘Bournes. TZ'rans. Leeds Geol. Assoc., pt. ii. pp.
51-53.

Lucas, J. On some recent Borings for Water [Cirencester, Bath,
Spotsham (Surrey)]. Prof Notes, Swrveyors’ Inst. vol. i. pt. i. pp. 14-18.

1887.

Bird, C. Underground Water. Journ. Rochester Farmers’ Club,
January. Pp. 13.

Hopkinson, John. Hydrogeology, in ‘A Sketch of the Geology and
Climate of Hertfordshire,’ in Pryor’s ‘ Flora of Hertfordshire.’ Hertford.

Jukes-Browne, A.J. Water Supply, pp. 135-137. Well Sections and
Borings, pp. 148-176, of ‘Memoirs of the Geological Survey. England
and Wales. The Geology of Part of East Lincolnshire. . .2 8vo. Lond.

Latham, B. Address (to Section ii.). (Refers to Underground
Water.) Trans. San. Inst. vol. viii. pp. 163-165.

Pitt-Rivers, Lieut.-Gen. Excavations in Cranborne Chase. . . Vol. i.
pl. v. and pp. 27, 28. Positions of Wells with the Depths... 4to. Printed
privately.

Warington, R. A Contribution to the Study of Well Waters. [The
Well Waters of Harpenden, pp. 520-552.] Journ. Chem. Soe. vol. li.
p. 500.

Whitaker, W. Memoirs of the Geological Survey. England and
Wales. The Geology of Southwold... . (Well-sections, pp. 78-80.)
8vo. Lond.

1888.

Andrew, T. Some Notes on the Well at the Exeter City Asylum.
Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. xx. pp. 123-128.

Blake, J.H. Memoirs of the Geological Survey. England and Wales.
The Geology of the Country around East Dereham. (Water and Well-
sections, pp. 51-56.) 8vo. Lond. —

Colenutt, G. W. The Proposed New Waterworks at West Cowes.
Isle of Wight County Press, December 8.

De Rance, C. E. On ‘ Notes on Lancashire Water Supply.’ Zrans.
San. Inst. vol. ix. pp. 415-422.

Fordham, H.G. A Record of Water-level in a deep Chalk Well at
Barley, Herts, 1864-1886. Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc. vol. v. pt. i.
pp. 20-22, pl. i.

Grantham, R. F. Notes on Water Supply, with Special Reference to
Villages and Country Mansions. (And Discussion.) rans. Surveyors’
Inst. vol. xx. pts. v. vii.

Ormerod, G. W. Notes on Deep Borings at the Waterworks, and in
the Trias, at Teignmouth, Devon. Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. xx. pp.
391-397.

Strahan, A. Memoirs of the Geological Survey. England and

398 REPORT—1895.

Wales. The Geology of the Country around Lincoln. 8vo. Lond.
(Wells, pp. 193-196, 201-207. Mineral Springs, pp. 208-210.)

Thompson, B. The Middle Lias of Northamptonshire. Pt.iv. The
Middle Lias considered as a Source of Water Supply. [Contin.] didi.
Nat. vol. xi. pp. 35-40, 71-76, 87-90, 143-148, 291-294.

1889.

Blake, J. H. [Report on the Reading Water Supply.] Reading
Observer, May 4.

Eaton, H. §. The President’s Address. (Refers to Underground
Water, pp. xevi.—xevii.) Proc. Croydon Micr, Nat. Hist. Club, p. xciv.

Lovett, E. Report on the New Well at Addington. Jbid. pp.
152-154,

Mansergh, J. Reading Water. Report to the Mayor and Corpora-
tion of Reading. Pp. 28. Fol. Reading. (Also Discussion at the Confer-
ence, pp. 23.)

Morton, G.H. Some Faults exposed in Shafts and Borings in the
Country around Liverpool. Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. vol. vi. pt. i. pp.
115-123.

Reid, C. and A. Strahan. Appendix III. Well Sections and Water
Supply. Pp. 300-318 of Ed. 2 of Memoirs of the Geological Survey,
England and Wales. The Geology of the Isle of Wight. 8vo. Lond.

Tate, A.N. Examination of the Water from a Spring in St. James
Cemetery, Liverpool. Jowrn. Liverpool Geol. Assoc. vol. viii. ; p. 63.

Thompson, B. The Middle Lias of Northamptonshire (see 1888).
Midl. Nat. vol. xii. pp. 41-46. The whole set of papers reprinted as a
book under the above title. Pp. ii. 150, 2 pls. 8vo. Lond.

Timmins, A. Notes on a Few Borings and the Base of the New Red
Sandstone in the Neighbourhood of Liverpool. Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.
vol. vi. pt. 1. pp. 56-68.

Whitaker, W. On the Extension of the Bath Oolite under London, as
shown by a Deep Boring at Streatham. ep. Brit. Assoc. 1888, pp. 656,
657. Also Remarks on this Boring, Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc. vol.
xlv.; Proc. p. 2.

-—— Hampshire Well-sections. Hants Field Club. Papers, no. 3,
pp. 17-36.

—— Some Essex Well-sections. Essex Nat. vol. iii. nos. 1-6, pp.
44-54,

Memoirs of the Geological Survey. England and Wales. The
Geology of London and of Part of the Thames Valley. Vol. i. Water,
pp. 503-516, 533, and table opp. Vol. ii. Well-sections, pp. 1-239, 279,
285, 290, 291, 295, 302, 304, 311, 334-337. 8vo. Lond.

1890.

Andrews, W. On the Bore-holes at Coventry. Warwicksh. Nat.
Field Club.

Blake, J. H. Appendix I. Well-sections, pp. 80-82 of Memoirs of
the Geological Survey. England and Wales. The Geology of the Country
near Yarmouth and Lowestoft. 8vo. Lond.

De Rance, C. E. Notes on Underground Water Supply and River
Floods. Proc. Yorksh. Geol. Soc. vol. xi. p. 200.

THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 399

_Fordham, H.G. A Record of Water-level in a deep Chalk Well at

‘Odsey Grange, Royston, 1878-1888. Zrans. Herts Nat. Hist, Soc. vol.

vi. pp. 31-36, pls. i. ii. Discussion, pp. xxii-xxvi. (1892.)
ill, J.C. Artesian Wells in South Lincolnshire. Proc. Inst. Civ.
Eng. vol. ci. pp. 218-221.

Grantham, R. F. Notes on Water Supply. Z'rans. San. Just. vol. x.

. 222-930.

Holmes, T. V. Chelmsford Water Supply. Zssea Natwralist, vol. iv.
pp. 82-84.

Ussher, W. A. E. (and others). Memoirs of the Geological Survey.
England and Wales. The Geology of Parts of North Lincolnshire and
South Yorkshire. Appendix II. Well-sections and Borings (pp. 210-
220). 8vo. Lond.

Whitaker, W. Some Hertfordshire Well Sections (Second Paper).
Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc. vol. vi. pt. 2, pp. 53-64.

1891.

Anon. Pure Spring Water for London. /ygiene, July, September.
See also Correspondence in the ‘ Times,’ September and October.

Crankshaw, Joseph. Water Supply at Horwich. rans. Manch. Geol.
Soc. vol. xxi. pp. 206-218.

De Rance, C. E. Subsidence at Wybunbury, near Crewe. Jbid. pp-
197-199.

—— Notes on Borings for Water and Salt in the County of York.
Proc. Yorksh. Geol. Soc. n. series, vol. xi. pt. 3, p. 424.

Harker, Professor A. On the Geology of Cirencester Town, and a
recent discovery of the Oxford Clay in a deep well boring at the
Water Works. Proc. Cotteswold Club, vol. 10, pt. 2, p. 178.

Harrison, J.T, On the Subterranean Water in the Chalk Formation

_of the Upper Thames, and its Relation to the Supply of London. [With

Diseussion.] Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. vol. ev. pp. 2-99, pts. 1, 2. (Geol.
map and sections.)

Hasler, R. [Letter on Wells at Little Dunmow.] Essex Naturalist,
vol. v. pp. 216, 217.

Hill, Rev. E. On Wells in West Suffolk Boulder-clay. Quart. Journ.

- Geol. Soc. vol. xivii. pp. 385-389.

Hodson, G. Corporation of Hastings. Report (Abridged) on the
Water Supply of Hastings. Pp. 25. Fol. St. Leonards (Hastings).

Hopkinson, J. Water and Water-supply, with Special Reference to
the Supply of London from the Chalk of Hertfordshire. Trans. Herts
Nat. Hist. Soc. vol. vi. pts. 5, 6, pp. 129-161, pl. iv. Discussion, pt. 8,
pp: xlviii.-li. (1892.)

Hunter, R.C. Porthcawl as a Health Resort. [Water-supply, from
Well, p. 14.] 8vo. Bristol.

Jukes-Browne, A. J. Ona Boring at Shillingford, near Wallingford
(on Thames). Jidi. Nat. vol. xiv. pp. 201-208.

Jukes-Browne, A. J.,and Rev. W. R. Andrews. The Lower Cretaceous
Series of the Vale of Wardour. [Well-section, Dinton.] Geol. Mag.
dec. iii. vol. iii. p. 292.

Monckton, Claud. Pure Spring Water Supply for London. Pro-

posed by George Webster, Esq. . . . Report. Privately printed, 4to.
Lond.

400 REPORT—1895.

Morton, G. H. The Geology of the Country around Liverpool... .,
Ed. 2. Water Supply, pp. 170-180. 8vo. Lond.

Pearson, H. W. Some of the Water-Bearing Strata and Wells sunk
in same. With special reference to Wells in the New Red Sandstone
Formation. Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc. vol. vi. pt. tii. pp. 327-341.

Shore, T. W. Springs and Streams of Hampshire. Papers Hants
Field Club, vol. ii. pt. i. pp. 33-58.

Thompson, Professor 8. P. On the Sources of the River Aire. ep.
Brit. Assoc. for 1890, pp. 821, 822.

Whitaker, W., F. J. Bennett, and S. B. J. Skertchly. Appendix ii.
Well Sections, pp. 110-119 of Memoirs of the Geological Survey. England
and Wales. The Geology of Parts of Cambridgeshire and Suffolk. (Ely,
Mildenhall, Thetford.) 8vo. Lond.

Whitaker, W. and A. H. Green. London County Council. London
Water Supply Enquiry. Preliminary Report on the possibility of obtaining
a Supply of Water for London within the Thames Basin. 8vo. Lond.
Pp. 20, plate (section). Privately printed.

1892.

Anon. Waterworks, Shropshire and Montgomery Counties Lunatic
Asylum. [Account of Well.] Hngineer, vol. lxxiii., p. 379.

Barclay, T. The Future Water Supply of Birmingham. (Refers to
the present supply from Wells. With remarks and sections by H. Joun-
son.) 8vo. Burmingham and London. .

De Rance, C. E. Further Notes on Triassic Borings. Trans. Manch.
Geol. Soc. vol. xxi. pp. 477-488.

—— On the Underground Waters of Lincolnshire: Proc. Yorksh. Geol.
Soc. vol. xii. pt. 1. p. 22.

Frankland, Dr. P. What is the Importance of Magnesia in Drinking
Water? Trans. 7 Internat. Congr. Hygiene, vol. v. pp. 82-87.

Grover, J. W. An Explanation of the London Water Question.
Trans. Surveyors’ Inst. vol. xxiv. p. 195.

Hopkinson, J. The River Colne and the Swallow-holes at Potterells.
Trans. Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc. vol. vi. pt. 7, pp. Xxix—xxxii.

- Hopkinson, J., and others. (Remarks on lowering of water-level, in
a Discussion.) Jbid. p. xxxix.

Latham, B. The Influence of Ground-Water upon Health. Trans.
7 Internat. Congr. Hygiene, vol. vii. pp. 145-148.

Lobley, J. L. The Supply of Water to London in the Near and
Distant Future. 8vo. Lond. Reprinted, with Additions, from the Cownty
Council Times.

Marley, John. On the Cleveland and South Durham Salt Industry.
Trans. Fed. Inst. M. Eng. [? Trans. N. Engl. Eng.], vol. xxxix. pp. 91—
124, pts. liv. lv.

Platnauer, H. M. Notes on Two Borings [Strensall, Hanby Road].
Ann. Rep. Yorksh. Phil. Soc. for 1891, pp. 77-79.

Tate, T. Notes on Recent Borings for Salt and Coal in the Tees
District. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xlviii. pp. 488-495.

Whitaker, W. Some Essex Well-sections. (Part iii.) Zssex Vatu-
ralist, vol. vi. pp. 47-60.

—— Borough of King’s Lynn. Report on the Best Source for a
Water Supply for the Town. Pp. 8. 8vo. Lynn. Reprinted, with

THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 401

Reports by J. Mansergh and E. J. Silcock, in ‘Borough of King’s Lynn.
Information respecting the Proposed New Water Scheme.’ 8vo. Lynn.
1893.

Willoughby, Dr. E. F. The Water Supply of Maritime Towns. Trans.
7 Internat. Congr. Hygiene, vol. vii. pp. 140-143.

1893.

Report of the Royal Commission appointed to inquire into the Water
Supply of the Metropolis. 4 pts. Fol. Lond.

Bothamley, C. H. The Mineral Waters of Askern in Yorkshire.
Journ. Chem. Soc. vol. lxiii. pp. 685-696.

De Rance, C. E. Results of the Salt Union Boring at Marston, near
Northwich. Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc. vol. xxii. pts. ix. x. pp. 269-302.

Evans, Sir John. Hertfordshire and its Water Supply. Herts
Illustrated Review, no. 1 (5 pages).

Goodchild, J.G. Notes on the Water Supply of Edenside. Trans.
Cumb. Assoc. no. xvii. pp. 43-51.

Hodson, G. A Consideration of some of the Conditions requisite for
obtaining Underground Water Supplies, Illustrated by a description of
the Works for supplying Long Eaton and Melbourne (Derbyshire), and
Castle Donington (Leicestershire.) Zrans. Assoc. Munic. County Eng.
vol. xix. Reprinted. 8vo. Loughborough. Pp. 39; 9 plates.

Jukes-Browne, A. J. On some Recent Borings through the Lower
Cretaceous Strata in East Lincolnshire. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol.
xlix. pp. 467-478.

Mansergh, J. Borough of Tunbridge Wells. WaterSupply. Report
(Geological Report, by W. Topley, at end). 8vo. Zunbridge Wells.

Palmer, P. H. To the Chairman and Members of the Water Com-
mittee of the Corporation of Hastings. Brede Valley Water Scheme.
Pp. 11. Fol. Hastings.

Thresh, Dr. J.C. TheShallow and Deep Well Waters of Essex. Zssex
Naturalist, vol. vii. pp. 28-40, 43-45.

Valon, W. A. M. Inaugural Address of the President. [Largely
concerned with Water from the Chalk.] Soc. Eng.

Whitaker, W. On Maps showing the Area of Chalk available for
Water Supply in the London Basin. Trans. San. Inst. vol. xiii. pp. 243-
ass i abstract in 7’rans. 7 Internat. Congr. Hygiene, vol. vii. p. 144

2).

Local Geology from a Sanitary Standpoint [Portsmouth]. Trans.
Sanitary Inst. vol. xiii. pp. 266-271.

Whitaker, W. (and others). Memoirs of the Geological Survey.
England and Wales. The Geology of South-Western Norfolk and of
Northern Cambridgeshire. 8vo. Lond. (Springs. Water, pp. 147-153.
Wells, 154-164.)

Whitaker, W., and H. B. Woodward. Notes of some Somerset Wells.

Proc. Bath Field Club, vol. vii. no. 4, pp. 340-345.

Wills, C. Notes on an Outbreak of Typhoid Fever [? near Shireoaks
Colliery. Note on water, and analysis, pp. 140, 141]. Public Health,
vol. v. no. 5, p. 139.

Winwood, Rev. H.H. On some Deep-Well Borings in Somerset and

elsewhere. Proc. Bath Field Club, vol. vii. no. 4, pp. 335-340.

Wiorth], R.N. [Note of Boring at Plymouth.] Z'rans. Devon. Assoc.
vol. xv. pp. 173, 174.
1895. DD

402 REPORT—1895.

1894.

Anon. Remarkable Overflowing Artesian Well [Bourn, Lincolnshire].
Engineer, vol. xxvii. pp. 23, 24.

Elworthy, T. The Hastings Water Supply Past and Present. Pp. 8,
map. 8vo. Hastings.

Fritton, G.W. The Waters of the Arden: a sketch of its Springs,
Wells, Rivers, Lakes, Pools, and Marshes, within the basin of the Avon.
Proc. Warwicksh. Field Club for 1893, pp. 19-36.

Hodson, G. Epsom Local Board of Health. Report ... on the
Water Supply. Pp. 29. Fol.

—— Suffolk County Lunatic Asylum. Report on the Protection of
the Water Supply . . . accompanied by Reports of Dr. E. Frankland and
Dr. G. Thresh. Pp. 29. Fol.

Hull, Prof. E. Artesian Boring at New Lodge, near Windsor Forest
(Berks). Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc. vol. 1. pp. 152-155.

Palmer, P. H. Hastings Corporation Waterworks. Brede Valley
Scheme. Pp. 23. Fol. Hastings.

Pendlebury, W. H. Chemistry of Dover Water. S. #. Naturalist,
vol. i. pt. iv. pp. 107-114.

Topley, W. Borough of Tunbridge Wells. Water Supply. Report.
Pp. 4. 8vo. Tunbridge Wells.

Whitaker, W., and A. J. Jukes-Browne. On Deep Borings at Cul-
ford and Winkfield, with Notes on those at Ware and Cheshunt. Quart.
Journ. Geol, Soc. vol. 1. pp. 488-514.

Tunbridge Wells. Temporary Association for Promoting the Utilisa-
tion of our Surplus Water Supply. Pp. 16. 8vo. Tunbridge Wells.
(Gaugings of Springs.)

Which Recommendation of Mr, Mansergh will the Burgesses Vote
for if the Town is Polled—Penbury Spring Water, or Ashdown Sur-
face Water? (Issued by the Temporary Association.) Pp. 32. 8vo.
Tunbridge Wells. (Gaugings of Springs.)

1895.

Barwise, Dr. §. The Mountain Limestone as a Source of Under-
ground Water. Public Health, vol. vii. pp. 416, 417.

Hull, Prof. E. On ‘The Water Supply of the Borough of St. Helens,
Lancashire, from Wells in the New Red Sandstone.’ Trans. San. Inst.
vol. xv. pt. iv. pp. 578-585. Discussion, pp. 596-603.

Peirce, W. G. Inaugural Address. (Refers to Water from Chalk.)
Trans. Soc. Eng.

Whitaker, W. On the Chalk of the London Basin in regard to
Water Supply. (Reprinted from Rep. R. Comm. Metrop. Water Supply,
with small additions.) Geol. Mag. dec. iv. vol. ii. pp. 360-366.

—— Some Surrey Wells. Trans. Croydon Micr. Nat. Hist. Club,

1894-95, pp. 132-150.
Underground in Suffolk and its Borders. Address to the Geo-
logical Section (British Association). Reprinted in the Hast Anglian
Daily Times, September 13. Nature and Geol. Mag. dec. iv. vol. ii. pp.
461-471.

Winwood, Rev. H. H. Well Boring at Bitton. Proc. Bath Field
Ciub (6 pages).

ee

CETIOSAURUS REMAINS. 403

Cetiosaurus Remains.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
A. H. Green (Chairman), Mr. JAMES PaRKER (Secretary), the
Earu of Duciz, Professor E. Ray LANKESTER, and Professor H. G.
SEELEY, appointed to examine the Ground from which the Remains
of the Cetiosaurus in the Oxford Museum were obtained, with a
View to determining whether other parts of the same Animal remain
in the Rock.

Tue Committee have to report that from unavoidable circumstances no
satisfactory conclusion has as yet been arrived at.

During the Easter vacation, when excavations might have been made,
their Chairman, Professor A. H. Green, was prevented by illness from
taking any active part, and therefore no orders could be given for actual
operations in the way of digging. Several visits, however, have been
made to the spot and information obtained ; and, further, full permission
has been obtained from Lord Valentia, the owner of the land, to make
such excavations as are required, and co-operation from his agent has also
been promised.

The quarry where the bones were found is in a slope facing the north,
and tothe south of the spot where it has been ascertained they lay, further
excavations would be attended with much difficulty, as the ground rises
rapidly some 20 feet and is surmounted by a wall, on the other side of
which there is a high road, and excavations might endanger its stability.
On the western side, where it was thought most advisable to excavate,
it was at the last moment discovered that some two or three years pre-
viously some excavations had been undertaken with the same object, but
without success, and then filled up again. As to reopening ahd extend-
ing these, a decision cannot be come to till further particulars as to what
was done are obtained and the men found who were employed. On the
eastern side there is perhaps more chance of success, but the ground here
also has at some time been evidently much broken up.

Meanwhile, however, the opening of a quarry about 350 yards to the
south has disclosed the circumstances that the sandy bed, which contained
the bones of the Cetiosaurus and which also contains much carbonaceous
matter, is continued in this direction. The pit where the bones were
found is on the northern edge of a promontory round which the Cherwell
river runs, and the quarry lately opened is practically on the south edge of
the same promontory. The bed is of the same thickness, namely, from 6
to 12 inches, and appears from the measurements at present taken to be
almost exactly at the same level in each spot, and in each case resting upon
some 20 feet of limestone beds belonging to the Great Oolite. Most of
these beds are very hard and more or less fossiliferous, but one or two
very soft. One soft bed, about 6 feet below this sandy parting, is crowded
with Zerebratula maxillata. This bed is found in one or two other
sections not far distant, and forms a definite datum line in the several:

Sections for comparison.

_ Above the sandy parting, in both the Cetiosaurus pit and the newly
opened pit, there is a bed of about 4 feet of shale, immediately followed
by the hard slabs and slaty beds of the Forest Marble.

This 6 to 12 inch sandy bed, with the carbonaceous matter in which’

the bones were found, may be certainly taken as the line of demarcation.
DD2

4.04 _ REPORT—1895.

between the Great Oolite and the Forest Marble ; and though there is no
trace of unconformity (the beds being all practically horizontal), the
sudden change in lithological character points to a marked change of
physical circumstances, in which the surface, if not actually becoming dry
land, must have become nearly so, to be followed again by the shales and
the marine beds of the Forest Marble.

This change may perhaps account for so many bones of one individual
animal being found together and comparatively so little worn by any
movement whatever.

Some 400 yards to the east, and about the centre of the promontory,
large quarries are open, which pass through 25 feet of the Cornbrash and
Forest Marble, apparently reaching the shales which rest on the sandy
parting referred to, as shown in the other sections. Though there is no
reason to anticipate that any of the bones of this particular animal may
have been drifted in this direction, it is thought advisable to make an
excavation or so at the place with the view of ascertaining exactly how
far the particular sandy parting is extended.

In the uncertainty as to which was the best spot where to set the
excavations going, the Chairman felt he was not justified in drawing any
money on account of the grant of 20/. ; but now that permission has been
granted and several observations and measurements made and inquiries
set on foot, the Committee would request that the grant may be renewed,
so that the inquiries and observations may be continued, and that at the
first favourable opportunity some trial holes may be made, partly with a
view of being satisfied that no further remains of that animal exist near
the spot where the others were found, partly also of determining some-
what further than has been done the circumstances under which those
remains were deposited in that spot, and the relation of the bed in which
they occur to the Great Oolite below and the Forest Marble above.

Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Siath
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor JAMES GEIKIE
Chairman), Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. TEMPpEsT ANDERSON,
the lute Dr. VALENTINE Bat, Mr. James E. BrEprorp, Professor
W. Boyp Dawkins, Mr. Epmunp J. Garwoop, Mr. J. G. Goop-
CHILD, Mr. WILLIAM Gray, Mr. Rosert Kipston, Professor T.
McKenny Huaues, Mr. A.S. Rew, Mr. J. J. H. TEAaux, Mr. R. H.
TrippEMAN, Mr. W. W. Warts, Mr. H. B. Woopwarp, and
Mr. Osmunp W. JeErrs (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

APPENDIX PAGE
I.— Schedule of the Collection of Photographs. : : - : 411
Il.—List of Photographs illustrating Geological Papers < 2 : 413

Your Committee have the honour to report that during the past year 161
photographs have been received, thus bringing up the number registered
since the commencement of their operations to a total of 1, 216. Par-
ticulars of the new additions are, as heretofore, given in this Report.
By far the greater number of these are the work of Mr. Godfrey
Bingley, of Leeds, to whom the Committee are indebted for much valuable
assistance. They desire to record their thanks to the following donors of
photographs and others who have rendered aid in various ways : Professor

:
:

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 405

Bonney, Messrs. J. E. Bedford, Godfrey Bingley, F. W. Broadhead,
Montagu Browne, F. N. Eaton, W. Gray, 8. Hey, R. Kidston, J. G.
McDakin, G. A. Piquet, T. Mellard Reade, A. 8. Reid, Aubrey Strahan,
J. J. H. Teall, Beeby Thompson, and W. W. Watts; the Geologists’
Association (of London), the Leeds Geological Association, the Belfast
Naturalists’ Field Club, the Dover Natural History and Antiquarian
Society, and the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society.

Following the usual practice, a summary of the geographical areas
represented in the collection is given below :—

New ADDITIONS (1895).

ENGLAND AND WALES:
Carnarvon,
Cornwall .
Devonshire
Kent.

Lancashire
Leicestershire .
Staffordshire
Yorkshire .

bo
oe RM OC Ot

| lod
@o
i)

CHANNEL ISLANDS . - P ‘ : 5 r 5

SCOTLAND:
Forfarshire
Stirling

—

14
IRELAND:

Avtrim ; ; - . P J js spars

Donegal . : - : 2 : - es

Microscopic SECTION . i ‘ 4 . 4 23
Total. : : 4 5 5 161

GENERAL SUMMARY.

England and Wales . - A - = : - - 14
Scotland . $ 5 5 , é : y : r oso
Treland . . - c : a 2 : ; : . 236
Channel Islands P ‘ d é F ; ‘ P - 9
Isle of Man. A P ‘ é Z - Z sieize
Microscopical sections . : 3 3 “ 3 . 85

Total . 5 ; 5 ‘ . : 5 - . 1,216

The above number comprises several duplicates, the same section or
locality having in some cases been photographed by different persons. It
was decided to record all prints received, but it will be readily understood
that in so large a number, from so many sources, a proportion of the
prints sent in has been found, on examination, to be unsuitable—either
as not coming within the scope of the collection, or, from want of defini-
tion or other causes, not being sufticiently good examples of features of
geological interest. It is further to be regretted that several prints have
been sent in without the needful explanatory details to show what the
photograph was intended to illustrate. It will be necessary, in arranging
the collection in its permanent location, for a careful inspection to be
made in order that prints which are found to be unsuitable may be
eliminated. The necessity for the use of a permanent process of printin

406 REPORT—1895.

copies from negatives is seen in the fact that some of the prints
received at an early period of the collection have faded. In many
cases, too, the earlier photographs have been replaced by better prints
of the same subject. From these and other causes, the number of
photographs which have been mounted and placed in the portfolios
provided by the Committee is somewhat less than that given in the
above summary.

The Committee have made special efforts during the year to obtain
contributions of photographs from localities not hitherto represented in
the collection, and have again issued a circular to the delegates of the
Corresponding Societies and to a large body of geologists and photographers
in the United Kingdom. All the responses which were expected have
not yet been received, owing, in great measure, to the fact that it is often
difficult (especially in those of our inland districts situated far away from
large towns) to obtain the services of a skilled photographer having
sufficient geological knowledge.

In addition to the usual recommendations for the collection of photo-
graphs, the Committee issued a précis (given below) of the letters con-
taining suggestions for suitable cameras sent by several members who
were invited to state their views on this subject, as mentioned in the last
Report. It is hoped that these hints on the selection of a suitable camera
for geological field work may be useful to many geologists who desire to
have their own photographic records of scenic features or sections of
interest.

Apparatus for Geological Photography.

The best camera to use is probably that to which the worker is himself
most accustomed. These hints are added for the guidance of those who
have not yet adopted any particular camera.

The camera should be as light as possible, but rigidity when set up is
absolutely necessary.

Double swing-back and rising and falling front are essentials, to allow
of correct perspective and the true rendering of lines and curves.

The camera should admit of long extension to permit the use of lenses
of various oct.

It is sometimes desirable to take photographs of inclined or horizontal
rock-surfaces at distances of a few feet, for the purpose of showing minor
features, such as veins, glacial markings, structures of gneissose rocks, &c.
To effect this, two boards hinged together with some arrangement for
fixing them at the desired angle are all that are required. The lower
board must, of course, be screwed to the stand and the upper one to the
camera.

A spirit level should be attached to or used with the camera.

It is well to have three lenses :—(1) A rapid rectilinear doublet of 10
to 12-inch focus (for }-plate size) ; (2) a wide-angle meniscus, focal
length about 6 to 7 inches, for interiors of quarries and craters ; and (3
a long-focus lens of focal length equal to three or four times the length of
the plate, for distant hills and inaccessible cliffs.

If only one lens is used, it should be a rapid rectilinear of about 9-inch
focal length (for $-plate size), and should be by some reputable maker. It
must be the best of its kind obtainable. Though films materially decrease
the weight to be carried, they are not recommended for general use:
plates should be used whenever possible. Good general work can be done

——_-—S—~.—

i

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 4.07

with a j-plate or five by four camera, and subsequent enlargement on
bromide paper. In this case it is essential that the lens should be of first-
rate make. For direct printing, the cold-bath platinotype method is
recommended as the most permanent ; it is now very easy to work.

It is advisable, when measurements are unattainable, that a ‘scale
object’ should be included in the photograph. (A hammer is sometimes
used, but it is not suitable.)

ARTHUR S. Rep, Ref :
AUBREY STRAHAN, ( eur Rat em
J.J. H, Teart,. ( y the Committee

Winuiam Gray. | to make the précis.)

The Council of the Association having approved of the recommendation
to deposit the collection of photographs at the Museum of Practical
Geology, Jermyn Street, London,! the work of arranging the photographs
preparatory to their reception at the Museum was commenced. It was
expected that the collection would be deposited in its permanent home
early in the present year ; but the work of mounting and arranging was
unavoidably delayed, and when this could be proceeded with, the Secretary
found himself unable, through unexpected calls upon his time, to undertake
the necessary supervision and to complete the work at the date originally
intended. These unforeseen difficulties have now, however, been over-
come, and the first portion of the collection, consisting of five portfolios
and fourteen cases, containing some 886 photographs (as given in the
Schedule, Appendix I.), has now been delivered at Jermyn Street. The
remainder will be completed and forwarded to the Museum as soon as
possible after the conclusion of the meeting at Ipswich.

The Committee desire to record their deep sense of the loss sustained
through the death of their esteemed colleague, Professor Valentine Ball,
C.B., F.R.S., whose active and valuable assistance in furthering the
objects of the Committee was most highly appreciated.

Now that the collection of geological photographs has found a
permanent home, where, in due time, it will be accessible to the public,
the Committee are desirous of pushing their work forward as rapidly as
possible. There is still, however, much to be done before the collection
can be said to be truly representative, in a pictorial sense, of the leading
outlines of British geology. Important sections are being frequently
opened, of which it is often useful to preserve photographic record, and the
large area from which no photographs have yet been sent in points to the
desirability of the continuance of systematic effort to obtain a more
complete series of geological illustrations.

It is, moreover, felt that the value and utility of the collection would
be greatly increased by the publication of a supplementary catalogue
having a geological arrangement. Should the Committee be reappointed
for another year, it is not desired to apply this year for a renewal of the
grant.

SIXTH LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.
(ro aucusT 1895.)

Nore.—This list contains the subjects of geological photographs,
copies of which have been received by the Secretary of the Committee

? See last year’s Report.

408 REPORT—1895.

since the publication of the last Report. Photographers are asked to
affix the registered numbers, as given below, to their negatives for con-
venience of future reference.

Copies of photographs desired can, in most instances, be obtained
either from the photographer direct or from the officers of the local
society under whose auspices the views were taken.

The price at which copies may be obtained depends upon the size of
the print and local circumstances, over which the Committee have no
control.

The Committee find it necessary to reiterate the fact that they do not
assume the copyright of any photographs included in this list. Inquiries
respecting them, and applications for permission to reproduce photographs,
should not be addressed to the Committee, but to the photographer direct.

[Z. signifies Enlargements. |

ENGLAND AND WALES. ’

CARNARVONSHIRE.— Photographed by G. T. Atcutson, Corndon, Sutton,
Surrey. Size 83 x63 inches. (£.)

Regd. No.
1190 Cwm Glas, Snowdon . t Glaciated Bala Rocks
1191 Black Rock, Criccieth | ‘
1192 ‘ e Pe: Caves in Tremadoc Rocks
1193 ( Junction of Tremadoc Rocks and sill of

” ”

Dolerite

CoRNWALL.—Photographed by Goprrry Binciey, Headingley, Leeds.
(Per Leeds Geological Association.) Size 6 x 4 inches.

1068, 1069 =i .
1099, ae Bude . ; : . Millstone grit

sat tae i } Boscastle, Pelly Point . Island and cliffs

1090
1073, 1074 Boscastle, Wallapark Pt. Slates, grits, and quartz veins
1075, 1076 5 Entrance to 2 3

Harbour

1091 Boscastle, Pelly Point . op Ay
1092-1096 5 “5 . View of coast
1082, ee } Tintagel, Castle Cove . General view
1083-1086 - fs . Rocky valley

1089 Pe * . View of coast, looking south-west

Drvon.— Photographed by GopFREY BinGLEy, Headingley, Leeds.
(Per Leeds Geological Association.) Size 6 x 4 inches.

bi ahh } Lynton . ¢ é . Strata at Castle Rock
1080 Ilfracombe, Hillsborough Argillaceous slate

1081, 1097 ‘s Capstone Hill rs is
1098 £ Lantern Hill

” ”

Kent.— Photographed by Captain J. G. McDaxtn, 15 Esplanade, Dover.
(Per Dover Natural History and Antiquarian Society.)
Size 8 x6 inches. (£.)

1056 Dover (12 miles eastof) Fall of Cobler Cliff, Middle Chalk

ON PEOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

409

Lancasutre.—Photographed by S. Hey, Dane Street, Rochdale.
Size 10 x 8 inches.

Regd. No.
1062 Sparth Bottom, Roch-
dale

Fossil tree in shale (upright as found)

Lricrster.—Photographed by W. F. Broapueap, Leicester.
Size 10 x8 inches.

2058, 1059 Bardon Hill .
1060 Markfield E 3 .
21061 Sheepshed

Quarry in felstone
5 syenite

” ”

SrarrorpD.— Photographed by C. C. Howartu, Holden Road, Blundellsands,

Lancashire.
1179-4182 Cannock Chase

York.—Photographed by Goprrrey Bineiry, Headingley, Leeds.

(Per T. Mellard Reade, F.G.S.) Size 6 x 4 inches.

* Pitted’ pebbles, from Bunter conglomerates

(Per

Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society. ) Size 114 x 94 inches. (E.)

1057 Filey, Carr Naze

Rain-weathering shown in cliffs of Boulder
Clay (3105)

(Per Leeds Geological Association.) Size 6 x 4 inches.

1109 Malham Cove .
1110, 1111 5 Gordale
Scar
1112 Clapham, entrance to
Ingleborough Cave
1113 Bolton Abbey, R. Wharfe
1114, 1115 Ilkley, ‘Cow and Calf’
Rocks
21116-1118 Filey “
2119_- 1 c C
aa 1128,| Filey The Brigg .
2122-1124
1125 Scarborough .
1126 Leeds, Rowley’ s Quarry,

Headingley
1127 Leeds ‘ - :
1129,1130 Flamborough, ‘Thorn-
wick Bay
2131,1132 Flamborough, Thorn-

wick Bay (north of)
1133 Flamborough, Thorn-
wick Bay (south of)

2134-1137 Flamborough, Thorn-
wick Bay
1138 Flamborough, North
Landing
1139 Flamborough, ‘The
Giant’s Leg’
1140 Flamborough, ‘ King

and Queen Rocks’
1141, 1142 Flamborough, Silex Bay
1143-1135 Bs view near
Lighthouse
1146, 1147 Clapham, Trow Gill 5
1178 Barnard Castle, Deep-
dale

Carboniferous Limestone

” ”

” ”

Anticlinal in Yoredale Shales
Millstone grit
Denuded cliffs of Boulder Clay

Coralline Oolite and Calcareous Grits capped
by Boulder Clay

Carbonaceous grits
Gannister beds

Lower Carboniferous beds
Chalk

”

Denudation of Chalk

Chalk cliffs

Denuded channel in Carboniferous Limestone
Erratic boulder of Shap Granite lying on
Yoredale rocks

410 REPORT—1895.

CHANNEL IsLaAnDs.—Photographed by G. A. Piguet, 68 New St. John’s
Road, Jersey. Size 8 x 6 inches.

Regd. No.
1063 St. Quens A . Sea-worn boulders in roof of cave near
Creux Gabourel
1064, 1065 + ‘La Pinnacle’. Denudation of granite stack
1066 St. Mary’s, Jersey . . Rocky gorge

1076 Sorel Point, St. John’s . Pool in granite

SCOTLAND.

ForrarsHIRreE.—Photographed by Goprrey Bineiey, Headingley, Leeds.
(Per Leeds Geological Association.) Size 6 x 4 inches.
1102-1108 Arbroath 5 : . Sections in Old Red Sandstone

Srirtinc.— Photographed by R. Kinsron, F'.R.S.E., 24 Victoria Place,
Stirling. Size various.

1183-1186 Cambusburran (sand pit False bedding and gravel pit in sand
on 100 ft. beach)

1187 Ballengrich quarry . . Spheroidal weathering of dolerite
1188 $ 3 : . Glacial striz on dolerite
1185 Goats’ Mount, Sandric Dolerite lying on altered shales
Crag
IRELAND.

Co. Antrim.—Photographed by Goprrry BineiEy, Headingley, Leeds.
(Per Leeds Geological Association.) Size 6 x 4 inches.

Regd. No.
1148 Portrush,‘The Wash Tub’ . . : . Basalt
1149 Cliffs from Dunluce Castle : : : . =
1150 Cliffs from White Rock . : ; 3 . Chalk
1151, 1152 Dunluce to Portrush : 5 i ; ; . Chalk and basalt
poayeat te } Portrush, Giant’s Head . : F ; : ; - ns
1154 The White Rocks, Giant’s Head 2 : : ; 5 7
1155 Giant’s Causeway, The Honeycomb F 3 . Basalt
1159, 1160 Giant’s Causeway . 4 é 4 5 : . Columnar basalt
1161-1163 Ms The Loom . : : : A ec A
1164 of Gateway . ‘ ‘ ; 3 a Pr
1165, 1166 ae Chimney Stacks. . : : be =
1167,1168 a Grand Causeway 4 F : - oF
1164-1170 ay Chimney Tops 2 . 6 >
1171, 1172 * Portnabo . . . a . Dolerite dyke
1173, 1174 a5 Benanouran Head 4 : ; | Basalt

Co. DoNnEGAL

1175, 1177 Killybegs 5 2 . General view
1176 Donegal. 5 4 zi

” ”

Microscopic Rock Srctrions.— Photographed by W. W. Warts,

28 Jermyn Street, S.W. Size 44 x 3} inches.
1194-1205 Tardree, Sandy Braes, | Perlitic cracks in the quartz and matrix
and Templepatrick \ of a rhyolite

Size 7 x5 inches.
12206-1216 Sulby Glen, &c., Isle of Man . Sections of the ‘ Crush Conglomerates ’
and associated rocks

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 411

APPENDIX I.

Schedule of the collection of Photographs of Geological Interest, as arranged by the
Committee appointed by the British Association, forwarded (in accordance with
a resolution of the Council) to the Director-General of the Geological Survey, to
be deposited in the Museum of Practical Geology, 28 Jermyn Street, London.

ARRANGEMENT OF THE COLLECTION OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.

Nore.—The Committee appointed to undertake the ‘collection, pre-
servation, and systematic registration of photographs of geological interest
in the United Kingdom’ began its operations in 1889. During the first
two years prints were received mounted on cards without restriction as to
size. Afterwards, to secure uniformity, a standard mount was adopted,
with perforated edges for binding in cases (size 155 x 12 inches). It was
not found practicable to transfer the early portion of the collection to the
standard-sized mounts in cases. The arrangement of this portion has
therefore had te be made in portfolios, boxes and cases of various sizes.
When the size is not stated it will be understood that the cases consist of
the standard-sized mounts, measuring 155 x 12 inches.

Inventory.—-The following are on irregular sized mounts, dimen-
sions of the /argest mounts being given below :—

CONTENTS.
Miscettaneous (I.) Size wp to 21 x 18 inches.
No. of
Description of Photographs
Case, &e. : in Case, &e.
Part 1. (a) Series of Mr. G. H. Morton, illustrating the Carboniferous
(Cloth Case.) limestone of Llangollen.

(b) Series of the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society.

(ce) Series of the Leicester Literary and Philosophicai Society (2).

(d) Series of Mr. Ussher, illustrating the granite structures of
Dartmoor, &c.

(e) Chalk, Co. Antrim (enlargements), by Miss M. K. Andrews * 38

NorTHUMBERLAND AND Duruam (I.) Size wp to 14x10 inches.

Part 2. Mr. E. J. Garwood’s (First) Series, illustrating Sections in Coal
(Cloth Case.) Measures, &c. . : : : 5 . 5 5 : 14

LANCASHIRE AND Cursutre. Size 14x11 inches.

Part 3. Series cf the Liverpool Geological Society and the Leeds Geo-
(Cloth Case.) logical Association, kc. . : : : 5 5 : 44

Norra Wates anpD IsLE oF Man (I.) Size 14 x12 inches.

Part 4. Series of the Liverpool Geological Society, Leeds Geological

(Portfolio.) Association, and Mr. A. O. Walker . ; - 36

TreEvanp (I.) Size 12 x10 inches

Part 5. (a) Series of Professor V. Ball, illustrating the Cambrian quartz-
(Portfolio.) ites and Boulder beds, drift on Cambrian rocks of Howth,
Carboniferous Limestone, &c.
(6) Series of Miss Andrews, illustrating Chalk at Kenbane Point, .
Antrim basalts and granite boulders, Newcastle . . 25

412 REPORT—1895.

YorKSHIRE (I.) Size 13 x10 inches.

No. of
Description of Photographs
Case, &c. in Case, &c.
Part 6. (a) Series of the Leeds Geological Association.
(Portfolio.) (0) Series of Mr. J. W. Woodall, illustrating effects of recent
floods on Chalk : 4 : 4 - : : 60

Misce,Laneous (II.)—Soutuern Counties. Size 17 x12 inches.
Part 7. (a) Series of East Kent Natural History Society, illustrating

(Portfolio.) Thanet beds and Chalk of the Elham Valley.
(b) Views and Sections in Devon, Surrey, Somerset, Berks, and
Wilts . : ; : - : : ‘ ‘ 4 24

ScorntanD (I.) Size 13 x 10 inches.

Part 8. (a) Series of Professor Heddle and J. A. Harvie Brown, illus-
(Portfolio.) trating Caithness, Island of Mull, &c.
(4) St. Kilda: Weathering of volcanic rocks
(c) Stigmarian roots at Partick . < 5 ° e . . 32

Misceittaneous (III.) Size 16 x 14 inches.

Part 9. Series of Mr. J. J. Cole, F.R.A.S., illustrating sections in Dorset,
(Box.) Devon, Cornwall, and the Snowdonian region, North
Wales : ‘ 5 ‘ ‘ - : 4 - : 18

MIscELLANEOUS (IV.) }-PLATE AND }3-PLATE PuHomos.
Size 9x 5 inches.

Part 10. (a) Microscopic Sections of Phosphatic Chalk, Taplow.
(Case.) (6) Saurian footprints from the Cheshire Trias.
(c) Sections in vicinity of the Manchester Ship Canal.
(ad) Views in Dorset.
(e) Views in Nottingham and Derbyshire . . : : 4 41

The following are all on standard-sized mounts :—

NORTHUMBERLAND AND Duruam (II.)

Part 11. (a) Mr. Garwood’s Second Series, illustrating Whin Sill, Tees-
(Case. ) dale, &c.
(0) Mr. G. Hingley’s Series, Marsden Bay, &c. . - 5 : 34

YORKSHIRE (II.)
Part 12.
(Case.) Series of the Leeds Geological Association and others 5 oe cel

Trevanp (II.)—Co. Anrrm.

Part 13. Series of Dr. Tempest Anderson, Mr. W. Gray, the Belfast
(Case.) Naturalists’ Field Club, Miss M. K. Fae le and Mr. R.
Welch A Ec - : 5 84

IRELAND (III.)

Part 14. Series of Miss Andrews, Mr. W. Gray, Belfast Naturalists’ Field
(Case.) Club, &c., illustrating counties Londonderry, Down, Done-
gal, Fermanagh, Clare,and Cork . : : 4 : 67

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 413

Scorianp (II.)

No. of
Description of Photographs
Case, &c. in Case, &c,

Part 15. Series of Messrs. Valentine, illustrating Staffa and Skye.
(Case.) Series of Mr. W. Lamont Howie, illustrating Pillars of Old Red
Conglomerate, Morayshire (and Earth Pillars of the Tyrol),
the Scottish Highlands
Series of the Perthshire Society of Natural Science.
Series of Mr. Wilbert Goodchild, arcane ip Sections in the
vicinity of Edinburgh, &c. : - 54

Nortu anp Sourn WALEs AnD IsLE or Maw (II.)
Part 16. Series of Mr. W. W. Watts, Mr. C. J. Alford, the Manchester
(Case.) Geographical aes &c., and of Mr. F. J. Eaton Cre of
Man).

CHESHIRE, DERBYSHIRE, SHROPSHIRE, AND Monmouta.
Part 17. Seriesof Mr. W. W. Watts, Manchester arent eve and
(Case.) others c - : 54
Mippiesex, Berks, Herts, Starrorp, WARWICK, AND WORCESTER.

Part 18. Illustrating various Sections at Tewkesbury, St. Albans, Nun-
(Case.) eaton, &c. . : : : A : : : ; : 26

Dorset, Kent, Hants, CoRNWALL, AND SURREY.
Part 19. Series of East Kent and Dover Natural History Society and

(Case.) others, illustrating various Sections, &c., and groups of
bone and flint implements and teeth, from Kent’s Cavern,

Torquay (Mr. A. R. Hunt) é : : e 2 - 81

Total . ‘ ° . - F . 886

APPENDIX II.

REFERENCE List oF PHOTOGRAPHS ILLUSTRATING GEOLOGICAL
Papers AND MeEmnorrs.

Geologists’ Association. ‘ Proceedings.’ Vol. XIII., Part 9. August, 1894.
Illustrating Paper on ‘The Geology of South Shropshire,’ by Professor
C. Lapworrn, LL.D., F.R.S., and W. W. Warts, M.A., F.G.S. (From
Negative by Rev. J. MacLzon, of Hope.)

Regd. No.
View of Roundtain,looking Arenig Lava. (From Negatives by W. W.
North WATTS, M.A.)
87 E. Crags, of Todleth . - Columnar Andesite
84 Quarry at Tasgar. . Upper Arenig ash-bed, with fossiliferous

shales at base
#35 Section at Hope Rectory . Contorted ash-bed in Middle Arenig shales
80 Section at Hope Dingle . Hope shales and ash-beds; Llandovery
shales
436 Road cutting, Wenlock Wenlock Limestone
Edge

Geological Magazine, Dec. 10, Vol. II., 1894. Plate XL. (From Nega-

tives by C. C. Howarth.)

1179-1182 Cannock Chase . : . ‘Pitted’ pebbles from Bunter Con-
glomerates

414 REPORT—1895.

Geological Society. ‘Quarterly Journal.’ Vol. L., 1894. Plate XVIII.
and page 371. Figs. 1-6. (From Negatives by W. W. Warts.)

1194-1205 Tardree, Sandy Braes, &c. . Perlitic cracks in Quartz

Geological Society. ‘Quarterly Journal.’ Vol. LI., 1895. Plates XX. and
XXI. (From Negatives by W. W. Warts.)

1206-1215 Sulby Glen, &c., Isle of Microscopic sections of ‘Crush Conglome-
Man rates’

Hertfordshire Natural History Society. ‘Transactions.’ Vol. VII., Part 8.
February 1894. Illustrating Report on Field Meetings of the Society,
by Jonn Hopxinsoy, F.G.S.

Photographed by Mr. Horxtnson.

733 St. Albans—Section on) ee ;
Midland Railway J Chalk, Tertiaries, and Drift

734 St. Albans : : . Section of Hertfordshire Conglomerate

‘Liverpool Geological Association. ‘Journal.’ Vol. XIV., 1893-94. Tllus-
trating Paper on ‘The Fossil Footprints of Storeton,’ by Osmunp W.
Jerrs. (From Negatives by F. N. Eaton.)

741-746 Slabs of sandstone, from the Keuper of Storeton, Cheshire, showing various
types of saurian footprints (3 plates, 6 photographs).

Stonesfield Slate——Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr.
H. B. Woopwarp (Chairman), Mr. EH. A. Watrorp (Secretary),
Professor A. H. GREEN, Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Mr. J. WINDOES,
appointed to open further sections in the neighbourhood of Stonesfield
in order to show the relationship of the Stonesfield slate to the wnder-
lying and overlying strata. (Drawn up by Mr. Epwin A. WaLForD,
Secretary.)

TuE shaft sunk by the Committee in 1894 was reported by the work-
men to be unsafe, and an unsuccessful attempt was made to find the old
sinking of 1830 at Reed Hill, near Stonesfield, reported upon by Professor
Ed. Hull. The work was ultimately continued upon the Stocky Bank
shaft to a depth of 60 feet. At that depth it had penetrated 13 feet into
one of the highest beds of the Inferior Oolite—the Clypeus-Grit (zone
Ammonites Parkinsoni). It has proved the continuance not only of the
compact barren limestones (sub-Bathonian) so well developed’ around
Chipping Norton, but also of the sandy limestone beds between them and
the Glypeus-Grit.

The section, as before stated, has been made by scarping a bank for about
30 feet, and by sinking a shaft to a depth of 60 feet on the step of the
bank. It is practically a continuous section, only 2 or 3 feet intervening,
laterally, between the ending of the one cut and the beginning of the
other.

STONESFIELD SLATE. 415

Section at Stocky Bank, Stonesfield, from the Great Oolite coral beds
to the Inferior Oolite, showing position of Stonesfield Slate series and
Chipping Norton limestones.

Ft. in.
1. Surface soil with Limestone fragments. Nerinea, Corals, Thamnastrea
Lyellit, Isastrea limitata, Cryptocenia Prattii, &c. ‘Rift Bed’.
2,3. Marls and Limestone, with Oysters and Rhynchonella concinna
4. Limestone, cream colour, shelly and compact °
5-9. Marls and Limestone, five beds with Oysters and Rhynchonella
10-13. Stonesfield Slate beds :—
Roof-shelly Limestone .
Top hard-shelly Limestone
Pendle-Sandstone
Floor-fissile Limestone

14, 15. Limestone, with thin Marl parting a top
16. Fissile Sandstone : : 2 : : ;

17,18. Fawn colour, sandy, and ‘oolitic Limestone 7 5 : 5 , ad:
19. Clay.

20. Limestone, buff colour :

21, 22. Limestone, with Marl parting atop, Mytilus Sowerby yanus, Rhy ynehonella

concinna, Ostrea Sowerbyi .

23. Black Clay, crowded with Placunopsis and with Perna, Nucula, and
Ostrea . ;

24. Shelly Limestone made up of fragments of Ostr ed, passing into a brown
Limestone, blue hearted, crowded with shells, Perna quadrata, Cy-
prina, Corbula, Macrodon, &c. F - ‘

25. Black Clay

26. Roe stone, an oolitic stone, blue hearted, made up of “whitish oolites

; in blue or brown base (like the blue oolitic slate) . . Siyto

27. ‘Callous’ Limestone—stone in fragments cemented together

28. Bastard Freestone, fine grained, oolitic, with masses of fossil wood

29. Buff and brown Marly Rubble, with carbonaceous Sener and remains
of shells, Cyprina, &c. :

_ 30. Bastard Freestone, cream coloured, without plant remains .

31. Bastard Freestone, with black dendritic markings :

32. Freestone of poor quality, splintery, more distinctly oolitic than beds

7 30 and 31
33. Sandy Limestone, fine- -grained, blue-hearted, ‘oolitic
34. Grey, blue and brown Marls, with Oysters and fossil wood in ‘lower part

35. Limestone, shelly, oolitic, cream-coloured and fine-grained, pale blue
centres, and with brown vertical markings :

36. Rubble with ochreous patches and carbonaceous markings 2

37. Clypeus-grit ; a coarsely oolitic gn Limestone with ae iain: Plotii,
pinkish in upper part . :

(About 12 feet of stone can be made out below.)

Neo
COND
NARS
woos

NOewonn

_
1 | | DROAR Ww

ob led
—
i)

orf OO He He Npwo Ll road So}

o oo ooo oow woo-

e
oo

Whether beds 16 to 26 are in their proper place is open to doubt.
They contain fossils (excepting corals) similar to those found in the
railway cutting at Ashford Bridge, barely a mile distant, and the clay
courses are alike. Many authors report the slate to underlie the carbo-
naceous clays and coral bed in the Ashford Bridge cutting. The Stocky
Bank is much faulted.

In the open section at Reed Hill, as described by Mr. H. B. Woodward,
the slate is covered by 5 feet of marls with Modiola gibbosa, Rhy iynchonella
concinna, and Ostrea Sowerbyi. In the Stocky Bank section, in the near
shafts, and in other open workings, the succession of strata is the same.

In order to consider more fully the true position of the beds 16 to 26
and to study relative sections and their fossil contents, your Committee
would defer the final report until 1896.

416 REPORT—1895.

The Fossil Phyllopoda of the Palceozoic Rocks.—Twelfth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor T. WILTSHIRE (Chairman), Dr.
H. Woopwarp, and Professor T. Rupert JONES (Secretary).
(Drawn up by Professor T. RuPERT JONES.)

1§. A sHort provisional list of the Silurian Peltate Phyllopods was appended
to our Report (the Tenth) for 1893 ; but since then a complete catalogue
of the Lower Paleozoic Phyllopoda (Phyllocarida), with their geological
horizons, their range and localities, has been made with the obliging ‘help
of Dr. C. Lapworth, F.R.S. This is now produced in four tables, as it
greatly enhances the value of our Reports on these fossils, and will be
of considerable use to paleontologists both at home and abroad.

TABLE I.—List of the Genera and Species of the Lower Paleozoic
Phyllopoda referred to by T. Rupert Jones and H. Woop-
WARD 27 their Reports tc the British Association, 1883-94.

(The figures at end of lines refer to pages in the ‘ Monogr. British Palaozoic
Phyllopoda,’ Paleont. Soc., Part II., 1892.)

Hymenocaris vermicauda, Salter . : : 3 $ 74-79
Lower Lingula-flags. — Pentre’r felin, west of Penmoria 3 z d ay (if
a: F Gareg-felen . : . : : oe RTD
5 3 Bryntwr Summerhouse ; 77
os - Moel-y-gest, hill behind Portmadoc Q Tremadoe) 7 717, 79
3 - Wern, near Penmorfa, near Tremadoc 4 77
- », (Upper part of).—Cae’n-y-coed, near ee eae) . sky
Gwern-y-barcud , ; palit hcl
Middle Lingula-flags. —Borth, Portmadoc , : : - 4 > . 78
- is Ffestiniog : 5 did,
Wern, cutting n near. en J. Williams.
Upper Lingula-flags. _— Moel-hafod- Owen, near Dolgelly . ; 5 Ss wenifAls
Upper Tremadoc-flags.—Garth Hill, near Portmadoc . : : 4 capa ir
Pont Seiont Shales.—Pont Seiont, Caernarvon Z : : : é Saf
H. lata, Salter F 5 - ; : 4 79, 80

Upper Tremadoc Group. —Garth, Portmadoc. |

Lingulocaris lingulecomes, Salter . a 5 . . ee |
Upper Tremadoc Slates.—Garth, Portmadoc. |
Upper Llandeilo Beds, near Builth.

L. siliquiformis, Jones . : : : ; “ = 182
Upper Tremadoc Series. —Garth, Portmadoc.
Bala Rocks.—Bwlch-y-gaseg, near Cynwyd, Corwen.

L. Salteriana, T. R. Jones and H. Woodward : ons, Sa8e
Lower Lingula-flags (upper part).—Cae’n-y-coed, near Maentwrog.
Lower Tremadoc Slate Series.—Tu-hwant-i ’r-bwich Quarry, Portmadoc.
1 Brathay Flags.—E. side of Long Skeddale

sp. . 5 ; ; . : : 3 : ; :
Schiste Ardoisier inférieur (Faune 2°4*),—Maine-et-Loire.

THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALZOZOIC ROCKS. 417

Saccocaris major, Salter : » 84,85
Lower Lingula—flags (upper part). Cae’ n- y-coed, near Maentwrog.
Upper Tremadoc Slates (small individual)—Tu-hwnt-i’r-bwlch,

S. minor, T. R. J. and H. W.. : ‘ ° . . + 86-88
2 Lower Lingula—flags. ‘“wern, near Portmadoc.
Upper Arenig Slates (Daear- fawr Shale).—Craig-yr-hyrddod, Arenig.

Caryocaris Wrightii, Salter . é - < 2 ‘ : ‘ ‘ . 89-91
Skiddaw Slates.— Near Keswick.
Graptolitic Shalés of the Ballantrae Rocks.—Bennane Head, Ayrshire.
Pont Seiont Shales.—Nantlle Tramway, near Pont Seiont, one mile
south-east of Caernarvon.
“Arenig Series’ of Huy and Nahnine, Belgium.

C. Marrii, Hicks . Spe te ‘ ; ‘ . ‘ » 92,93
Skiddaw Slates. *_ Near Keswick.
Pont Seiont Shales.—Nantlle Tramway, Pont Seiont, one mile S.E. of
Caernarvon.

C. Salteri (M‘Coy). (See also the Tenth Report, 1893) ° ‘ < ° « 93
Llandeilo Series.—Redesdale, Victoria.

Aptychopsis prima, Barrande . - . . 100
Etage E (obovate ‘ prima’; var. ‘longa’; oval ' Wilsoni °) Limestone. —
Bubowitz, Slawick, Wohrada, and Kozel . 3 - 100,101
Bohemia (circular ‘ secunda’) Schistose mudstone. —Borek, ‘Litohlow,
and Kozel... 2 5 : . 5 ‘ i > . - 101,104
A. Barvandeana,T.R.J.and H.W. . d 4 ‘ ’ . 161
Birkhill Shales.—Dobbs Linn, Moffat, Dumfriesshire.
Var. brevior, T. R. J. and H. W.—? Birkhill Shales,?Loc. . ‘ é . 102
A, anatina (Salter). (See the Tenth Report, 1893) . j ‘ i - 103

Lower Wenlock Beds.—Rebecca Hill, Ulverston, Lancashire.

A. lata,T. R. i andH.W. . : . 104
Gala Group.—From a stream east of Nether Stennies Water, 64 miles
N.N.W. of Langholm, Dumfriesshire.

_ A. glabra, H. Woodw. . . 104, 105

Gala Group. —Clovenford, near i (W. of) Melrose, Roxburghshire. * Col-
lection of the Museum of the Geol. Survey of Scotland.

Buckholm Beds of the Gala Series.—Meigle [hill]; Galashiels, Sel-
kirkshire.

A. Wilsonit, H. Woodward . . 105,106

Riccarton Beds.—Shankend, Slitrig Water, near Hawick, ‘Dumfriesshire;
Yads Linn, near Hawick ; Elliottsfield, near Hawick ; Longside
Burn, Shankend, Roxburghshire.

Riccarton Graptolite Shales._Stennies Water, near Langholm,
M.G.8.Sc.; Streamlet E. of Nether-Stennies Water, near Lang-
holm, Dumfriesshire, M.G.S.Sc.; Millstone Edge, Teviot Head,
Roxburghshire, mM. G.S. ae

A, port, H. Woodward . . - 106-108

Skelgill Beds, or Coniston Mudstones. —Skelgill Beck, near Ambleside,
Westntforeland. ;

Birkhill Shales,—Eldinhope, on the Eldinburn, on the Yarrow, Selkirk-
shire

1895. EE

418 : REPORT—1895.

Birkhill Shales.—Sundhope Burn, on the Yarrow, Selkirkshire.
5 Dobbs Linn, near Moffat.
Red Shale. —Moffat, Dumfriesshire.
Grieston Shales of the Gala Group.—Innerleithen, Peeblesshire, and

Selkirkshire.
A. ovata, T. R. J. and H. W.. , - 108, 109
Gala Group.—Stennies Water, 63 miles N. W. of Langholm, ‘Dumfries-
shire.
A. Salteri, H. Woodward : - > “ ° « 109

Wenlock Shale.—Pencarreg, Caermarthenshire.

A. subquadrata, T. R. J. and H. W. 5 FI = . A 5 ; - 110
Silurian Beds.—Cloncannon, Tipperary. .

A. angulata (Baily) A ° 2 * . : é . 110,111
Silurian Beds. “ Cloncannon, Tipperary.
Birkhill Shales —Streamlet, Craigdasher Hill, 4 miles W. by S. of
Dunscore, Dumfriesshire,
Brathay Flags.—Nanny Lane, Troutbeck, Windermere, Westmoreland.

A. oblata, T. R. J. and H. W. ; - 111,112
Riccarton Beds.— Balmangan Bay, west side of Kirkcudbright ‘Bay,
Kirkcudbrightshire.
Birkhill Shales.—Dobbs Linn, Moffat.
Gala Group.-—Gala Hill, Galashiels, Selkirkshire and Roxburghshire.

Peltocaris aptychoides, Salter 3 : 4 . 113,114
Birkhill Shales.—KEdinhope, on the Yarrow, Selkirkshire.
Grieston Beds, Gala Group.—Rotten Gair, Innerleithen.
Birkhill Shales.—Duffkennel, Dumfriesshire.
- » (Young specimen).—Polmoody, at the top of the Moffat
Water, about 13 miles from Moffat, on the road
to Dobbs Linn.
+ », Dobbs Linn, Moffat, Mus. Geol. Surv. Scotl.

P. Marrii, T. R. and H. W.—See the Tenth Report, 1893. F = - 114,115
Skelgill Beds.— West side of Long Sleddale.
Shales (? Birkhill Shales).—? Moffat.
Birkhill Shales.—Whitehope Burn, St. Mary’s Loch, Selkirkshire.
Birkhill Group.—Streamlet, Craigdasher Hill, 4 miles W. by S. of
Dunscore, Dumfriesshire.
Birkhill Shales.—Garple Glen, 4 miles W. of Moffat.

P. patula, T. R. J. and H. W. 3 3 5 A . : - : . 116
Birkhill Shales.—Belcraig, Annandale.
Skelgill Beds.—Skelgill Beck, near Ambleside, Westmoreland.

P. Carruthersii, T. R.J.and H.W. , - ° “ = - ‘ . 116,117
? Birkhill Shales.— ? Near Moffat.
Llandovery Beds.—Tieveshilly, near Portaferry, and Coalpit Bay, Co.
Down, N.E. Ireland.
Birkhill Shales.— Dobbs Linn, Moffat.

? P. Harknessi, Salter . ‘3 i “ . ‘ i . 117
Moffat Shales (? Birkhill). —Dunfriesshire.

Pinnocaris Lapworthi, R. Etheridge, jun. .
Balclatchie Beds.—Balclatchie, Girvan, ‘Ayrshire. -
Upper Silurian Rocks.—Kendal, Westmoreland.

THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALAHOZOIC ROCKS. 419

Discinocaris Browniana, H. Woodward 2 5 3 2 : onl 19=121
? Birkhill Shales.—Dumfriesshire.
Birkhill Shales.—Garple Linn, Moffat.
- ; Dobbs Linn, Moffat.
Argenteus-Zone, Skelgill Beds.—Lower footbridge, Skelgill Beck, near
Ambleside, Westmoreland.
Birkhill Shales.—Dobbs Linn, Moffat.
5 5 Polmoody, Moffat.

D. ovalis, T. R. J. and H. W.. F E + 21, 1223
Birkhill Beds.—Dobbs Linn, Moffat.

D. undulata, T.R.J.and H.W... Tee
Birkhill Beds.—Garple Burn, Moffat.

D. gigas, H. Woodward . : : : : : ; : 4
Argenteus-Zone, Skelgill Beds.—Skelgill Beck, Ambleside.
Birkhill Shales.—Dobbs Linn, Moffat.

. - 122,123

D. Dusliana, Novak.
itage H-e, 1.—Gross-chucle, 8. of Prague, Bohemia.—‘ Geol. Mag.,’
1892, p. 148.

Caudal Appendages : . ; : : : 5 -

Riccarton. beds, pl. xvii. f. 8—Shankend, Hawick . : : : rt

Buckholm beds of the Gala group, pl. xvii. f. 13.—Meigle Hill, Gala-
skiels.—‘ Monogr. Pal. Soc.,’ 1888, Part I. p. 45,

Mudstone of the ‘ Barren Band,’ Skelgill Beds, pl. xvii. f. 12.—Skelgill,
Westmoreland . : , : : : - : bee be é

Pont Seiont Beds, pl. xvii. f. 9-11.--Nantlle Tramway, near Seiont,
Caernarvon - . } : : - “

. 124
. 124

Note by Professor C. Lapworty, LL.D., F.R.S., F.GS.

The fossils named in the preceding list are confined to the so-called
Lower Patmozoic Rocks, constituting the original ‘Silurian System’ of
Murchison and Barrande, and variously classified by geologists at the
present day. All are agreed, however, that they contain three distinct
faunas, namely, the ‘ First, Second, and Third Faunas’ of Barrande ; but
the three distinct series of strata containing these three faunas are vari-
ously grouped by different authorities. The French geologists still retain
in principle the nomenclature of Barrande, and regard these three rock
groups as the three component divisions of the Silurian system, namely,
Silurien Inférieur or Primordial, Silurien Moyen, and Silurien Supérieur.

The plan adopted in the present notice is to regard each of these three
rock series as constituting in itself a distinct system, namely, (A) Cam-
brian, or the System of the First Fauna; (B) Ordovician, or the System
of the Second Fauna ; and (C) Silurian (or Salopian), or the System of
the Third Fauna. 1

In the following table the various schemes of nomenclature lying
between the two extreme types are given for the sake of reference and
comparison, and the several formations which have hitherto yielded fossil
Phyllopoda (Phyllocarida) are arranged in their natural positions in the
general scale of sequence.

EE2

420 REPORT—1895.

TABLE II.—Showing the Geological Distribution and Vertical Range
By Professor C. Lapwortu,

Comparative Nomenclature

C. STRATA OF THE THIRD FAUNA.
‘ Silurian’ of Sedgwick (Salopian).
(c’) Ludlow Series (Upper Salopian) . 5
(c) Upper Ludlow and Passage-Beds . c ;
(6) Aymestry Limestone . _. - : 2 ;
(a) Lower Ludlow Shales . 8 5 ; :

(c?) Wenlock Series (Middle alepiaw)
(c) Wenlock Limestone
(b) Wenlock Shales . : ;
(a) Woolhope Beds . : 5

Geological Survey.

Silurien supérieur
Half only).

Upper Silurian of Murchison and
Silurian of Sedgwick.

Upper Silurian of Lyell.

(c}) Llandovery Series (Lower geen
(ce) Tarannon Shales . :
(b) Mayhill or Upper Llandovery : 5 :
(a) Lower Llandovery 4 5 P 3 : /

Upper Silurian of Barrande (Lower

(8°) Bala or Caradoc Series (Upper Ordovician)
| (b) Upper Bala, with Dicellograptus .
| (a) Lower Bala, with Dicranograptus

Survey.

(B*) Llandeilo Series (Middle Ordovician)
(bo) Upper Llandeilo, with Canograptus gracilis
(a) Lower Llandeilo, with Didymograptus Murchisoni

Murchison).

(B!) Arenig Series (Lower Ordovician)
(6) Upper Division, with Placoparia
(a) Lower Division, with Phyllograptus

Lower Silurian of Lyell (not of
Lower Silurian of Barrande.

Upper Cambrian of Sedgwick.

| B, STRATA OF THE SECOND FAUNA.
‘ Ordovician’ of Lapworth, Se. _

Silurien moyen of the French authors.

A. STRATA OF THE First FAuNA.
‘ Cambrian’ of Lyell.
(A$) Olenidian or Upper Cambrian . :

(b) Tremadoe Beds with Dictyonema and Olenus

(@) Lingula Flags (of Belt) F
Upper or Dolgelly Beds with Spherophthalmus ;
Middle or Ffestiniog with Hymenocaris
Lower or Maentwrog with Olenellus truncatus

(A*) Paradoxidian, or Menevian Series, or Middle Cam-
brian, nith Paradoxides Davidis, Sc.

Lower Silurian of Murchison and the Geological

Cambrian of Lyell.

Silurien inférieur or primordial.
Primordial Silurian of Barrande.

Middle Cambrian of Sedgwick.

(A!) Laconian, or Olenellus Zone, or Loner Cambrian,
with Olenellus, Kutorgina, Se.

a ——

THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALAOZOIC ROCKS. 421

* the Lower Paleozoic Formations yielding Fossil Phyllopoda.

LD. F.RS., F.GS.

Horizons yielding Fursil Phyllopoda

Lake District Scotland Treland Bohemia Other Localities

nlock Shales. Ri
art
Brathay Graptolitic Cloncannon || E 1 Etage,
Flags. Shales: (Tipperary) || Bohemia. |
Bukowitz
Grieston Shales} Treveshilly and
and Gala _/Beds (County||Gross Kuchel,
Skelgill Group. Down) &e.
Beds.
Balclatchie Redesdale
Beds. (Victoria).
Skiddaw Schiste
Slates, &c. = Ardoisier
(France).
Bennane Head : z
Shales. Arenig Series
(Belgium).

1895.

REPORT

‘(Bq10jOIA) OTEpsopoy a gl | | " * + (40p,W) wonng =
‘quoIag UO ‘aqBIg Aeppryg ' al ) os OP srory aamoge i
‘(unsjoq) Anz ‘yuo1sg yuog |
‘peop oueunog. |
‘ovLzULT[e ‘“Soye[G AULPPIAS x ot gaqpeg 229y bug, suevoohun9
‘SIUILY PU So}VIQ DOpLUtIy, " % * AA EL pue pe ay oy, Scour Ht
‘OOpLUlAL], PUL SoLpT BASU] ) 2 : : ¢ * raqyeg ‘volpw s~wvo000n5
‘(OUIvIT) IOISIOpIy 4ST | | ars | fe . “ : : nae “
| |
| : | | prvMpooA, “FL
‘ssurq Avyyeag ‘sovpq vlncary ie | / re | pue sour yy ‘yy, ‘wwnragpng
‘syooy veg “spog oopeumary, | | a fr la * samp ‘sxucofimbyis H
“oTLop | | | |
-uvpy aeddg ‘oopruoazy, toddy | ‘ r pe * qoqyeg ‘sauoanpnbuy srewoojnbury |
|
|
‘souoz toddq ooprvuta.y, 5 ies 0 ; Jaqeg ‘790) Mu |
‘NOpVUlely, puv ssvpT vpusarvy | . * 1ay[eVg ‘wpnvovutaa srevoouarulizy |
0) FA@) tO i> stl al 1 cV aV ay
Te FS ee me eae
8S | 28/8] -3 | ee!] 2 | 23 | se] Se)
Ea) eres (see a) mer ee | Bal ee | ese |
B90 )/e&/ se |] Bo | Be] § | Bo | se] Bs
S 3. ae Se eee erste > en seel) aes we
7 “ bie we el ee g
SUOZIIO FT x S 3 pe || ea) ape.) (ce saroodg pus wieuay
eS eee =) a ae ee Ber ee
vuney pag y, vuney puoveg | Boney Isat
10 10 | 10
‘Cueidoysq) uvranqig ‘UBIDIAOpPIC) | ‘uBliquied

SOU SH CTT ‘wtaomavy ‘0 “Jorg hig
‘(oprimoophyg) npodoyhyg nozoang wanoy oy) fo saody puv vuauey ay) fo obumy poorbojoay ay) buimoyy— IT] Wavy,

423

THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALHZOZOIC ROCKS.

‘quoleg yuog
‘THSPAS ‘spTyserey “Yor Mey

TIESTOAS sj

| “c

“

EGS

“ATILYSOASTT, 3
iid

‘TIS EAS $
a 239) “

“moOJIBOOTY “elex) ad
‘Aeyyeag ‘Arvsoddry, ‘(pyar

-Areraddty,
*‘SoTeM Yynog ‘sar1eodeg
‘dnory vey
"HOWSOIIH “TSTEAS “WALA
‘spog M0WBOOTYT

66 “ec

‘dnory vey

“qOLIAsIC OHV “YOOTUSM,
“sores Tata
“elmoyog ‘gq eseig

.

“BUIOyog [‘e-q o8R1g |

‘jepusy ‘ayoyeporeg |

* *

eee E

* KX & *

*e

sabopuaddy yopny7

: *MBAON ‘vuvysnqy 4
: * prvapooM ‘E ‘svhib »
‘M‘H pue pe yy ‘vzpynpun 43
‘MH pur “ft uL ‘82700 s

* PIVAPOOAA “FT ‘VUunrwl0LT s.wva0UrL0suT

‘ant
‘espuoyya 'Y ‘2yz,lomdyyT siwvo0uurg

St Joq[Rg ‘wssauywopy (j) “
‘M‘H
pue "fe “YL ‘eswayznsoyg

. “M ‘H pues ‘e “iy a ‘myngod “
“AA H PUR CL Snemyy *
2 Iayeg ‘saproyohydy 1.00907).

ACE Dae AE le aie ie
: * (Ayregq) vzopnbuv sf
“MH
pue ‘pe "y ‘y ‘vzvuponbqns se
; * pIeMpooM\ “H “2.097] 06) “y
. “Mm ‘A pue ‘L “a Pay ‘27000 “ee
* prvapoon “H ‘27200udvT ye
PIVMPOOM “FL ‘220087044 .
4 * prvmpoor “A ‘v.0gn7b ‘ty
. "mM ‘H pue ‘Lf a “I; ‘090) “ce
"8 * Goaqeg) vurxzoun 4
ae a “s
PRY Cea : OT,
ene: spas ‘nud sisdoyohiay

42.4:

REPORT—1895.

TABLE IV.—G@eological Order of the Species.

(C%) Ludlow .

Local Formation

Kendal Beds of the Lake
District

Species

Third Fauna (Silurian, or Salopian).

Pinnocaris Lapworthi.

(C*) Wenlock .

Riccarton Beds of South)
Scotland

i
Wenlock Beds of South

Wales

Wenlock Beds of Rebecca
Hill, Lake District

Wenlock Beds, Brathay
Flags of the Lake Dis-
trict

Wenlock Beds of Tippe-
rary

Aptychopsis Wilsoni.
a oblata.
9 Salteri.

ns anatina.

5s angulata (?).
Lingulocaris Sa]teriana(?)

{ Aptychopsis angulata.
oh subquadrata

(C1) Llandovery, Sc.

- | Gala Group of South Scot-

land (Tarannon, &c.)

| Birkhill Shales, Moffat, &c.

(including all Llando-
very, and locally the
Tarannon)

Skelgill Beds (or Coniston
mudstones), Llandovery

Aptychopsis lata.

. glabra.

a Lapworthi.
#5 ovata.

Be oblata.

Peltocaris aptychoides.

Aptychopsis Barrandea.

” ” +
var. brevior.

on Lapworthi.

5 angulata.

oblata.
Peltocaris aptychoides.

a» Mairi

» patula.

» Carruthersii
(andat Tive-
shilly, &c.,

Treland).
Discinocaris Browniana.
5 ovalis.

“a undulata.
as gigas.

Aptychopsis anatina.

Lapworthi.
Peltocaris patula,

Discinocaris Browniana,.
gigas,

”

—— .

THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALZOZOIC ROCKS.

Taste LV.—Geological Order of Species—continued.

Local Formation |

425

Species

Second Fauna (' Ordovician’ of Lapworth, §:c.).

(B*) Bala or Caradoc

Bala Beds of Corwen

Lingulocaris
mis.

siliquifor-

(B*) Llandeilo

(B') Arenig

Balclatchie Beds, Girvan

Probably highest Llan-
deilo Beds }

Upper Llandeilo Beds |
(near Builth) J

Llandeilo (?) Beds of Aus-
tralia

Pinnocaris Lapworthi.

Lingulocaris lingulzco-
mes

Caryocaris Salteri.

Upper Arenig Beds of Caer-
narvonshire (Pont Seiont)

Hymenocaris vermicauda.
Saccocaris minor.
Caryocaris Wrightii.

nn Marrii.

Skiddaw Slates
Arenig)

Bennane Head Shales of
South Scotland

Arenig

(mainly

Caryocaris Wrightii.

First Fauna (§ Cambrian’ of Lycil).

(AS) Olenidian, or Upper
Cambrian.

Upper Tremadoc Slates

Hymenocaris vermicauda.
A lata.
Lingulocaris linguleeco-
mes.
Lingulocaris
mis.
Saccocaris major.

Siliquifor-

Lower Tremadoc Slates
Upper Lingula Flags.
Middle Lingula Flags
Lower Lingula Flags

Lingulocaris Salteriana.
Hymenocaris vermicauda.
Hymenocarisvermicauda.
Hymenocaris vermicauda.
Lingulocaris Salteriana.
Saccocaris major.

? Saccocaris minor.

2§. Latest Additions to owr Knowledge of the Lower Paleozoic Phyllopoda

(Phyllocarida).

There has not been much to notice additional in the study of
Palzozoic Phyllopoda since the last (Eleventh) Report in 1894.
1. Professor Dr. Gustav Lindstrém, paleontologist in the State

Museum of Sweden, has discovered and courteously sent to us specimens
of a new Hmmelozoe, not far removed in shape and features from
£. elliptica (M‘Coy). Several very definite individuals, with delicate,
thin, shining carapace-valves, light brown, and somewhat iridescent, occur

4.26 REPORT—1895.

in a bluish-grey marly shale from Lau in Gothland, corresponding with
the Wenlock Shale of England. They will be figured and described in
the ‘Geological Magazine’ before long as Hmmelozoe Lindstroemi.

2. In the ‘Sitzungsberichte kénig]. Bohmisch Gesellsch. Wiss., Math.-
nat. Cl.’ for 1894, article xxxvi. (separate copy dated 1894), Professor
Dr. Anton Fritsch, in a preliminary report on the Arthropoda and
Mollusca of the Permian formation in Bohemia, enumerates five species
of Lstheria, partly noticed in our Tenth Report, 1893, namely, (1) Bstheria
triangularis, Fr. (=? E#. tenella in his ‘Fauna der Gaskohle,’ vol. i,
p- 31), with remains of the animal, from the Gas-coal of Nyian ;
(2) #. cyanea, Fr., from the Black-coal of Kounova; (3) #. paleo-
niscorum, Fr., covering whole beds in the Brandschiefer (Carbonaceous
Shale) of Kostialov; some individuals show the large antenne ;
(4) £. calcarea, Fr., related to H. minuta ; rare, in the red Plattenkalk
of the Braunau district ; (5) #. ultima, Fr., in the uppermost part of
the limestone with Amblypterus Feistmanteli, near Vitouchov, not far
from Lomnitz. There are also Candona elongata, Goldenberg, from
the red limestone of KieGowic, near Rowensko (Turnau) ; and Carbonia
Salteriana, Jones and Kirkby, in the red limestone of Stradonic, near
. Peruc ; and Cythere, sp., in the red limestone of Klobuk, near Schlan.

Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland.—Twenty-second
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors EK. HuLu (Chair-
man), J. Prestwich, W. Boyp Dawkins, T. McK. Huaues,
T. G. Bonney, Messrs. C. E. DE Rance, P. F. KENDALL (Secre-
tary), R. H. TrppEmMan, J. W. Woopat., and Prof. L. C. Mian.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

[Read at Oxford, 1894.]

THE investigations of the Committee during the past year have yielded
results of more than ordinary interest, though the amount of information
to be embodied in their report is less than has been available during the
previous two or three years.

A hope was expressed in the twenty-first Report that, as the result of
an appeal made to the Corresponding Societies, information would be
forthcoming regarding the Erratic Blocks of districts from which hitherto
no returns had been sent in. This expectation has been realised ; and
the Committee, for the first time in their history, are now enabled to justify
the reference to Ireland in the terms of their appointment. In response to
the circular issued by this Committee to the Corresponding Societies, the
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club promptly organised a committee to inves-
tigate the Erratic Blocks of the north-east of Ireland ; and the first
report, drawn up by the Honorary Secretary, Miss Sydney M. Thompson,
and printed in the Proceedings of the Club (1893-94), is a valuable
record of minute painstaking and accurate investigation. The Com-
mittee have not limited their work to merely recording the erratics,
but have made a complete study of the Drift deposits, and their organic
and other contents, at several selected exposures, and have trans-
mitted to this Committee a series of twenty photographs illustrating the
features described. Lincolnshire is also added to the list of English
counties coming within the sphere of the actual operations of the Com-

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 427

mittee, and it is matter for congratulation that two observers have under-
taken the work of recording the erratics of that county Two very im-
portant pieces cf work have been undertaken by the Yorkshire Boulder
Committee, one in the western portion of the area coming within their
purview, near Barnsley, and the other, by the aid of the East Riding
Boulder Commiitee, organised under the secretaryship of Mr. J. W.
Stather, F.G.S., by the Hull Geological Society, in the country round
Hull. In the latter case an exhaustive survey has been undertaken of
all the erratics at present visible in the area selected, the one-inch map
being divided into squares, and each square allotted to a worker, who will
record every erratic above ground. The value of such a survey, in the
elucidation of the complex problems of glacial geology, can hardly be
over-estimated.

The Barnsley reports refer to a series of erratics, some of which were ob-
served many years ago, but only a few of which were recorded. Fortunately,

a local worker, Mr. W. Hemingway, preserved the information left in his

hands by Professor A. H. Green, and supplemented it largely by his own
observations. Mr. T. Tate, Secretary of the Yorkshire Boulder Committee,
and the present writer, went over much of the ground under Mr. Heming-
way’s guidance, and can thus corroborate his testimony on many important
points ; though a very large proportion of the erratics, especially such as
were of a hard nature, have disappeared under the hammer of the road-
mender. (It would be well here to remark that a like fate is rapidly
overtaking many of the most interesting and significant of the ice-borne
boulders in the country, and to reiterate the oft-repeated appeal to local
observers to take prompt measures to record—and, if possible, to preserve
—the erratics which come under their notice.) The especial interest of
the groups observed lies in the fact that they are quite detached from the
main lines of transport, and are so placed that they conceivably may
have come by either of three routes—viz : (1) with the train of erratics,
exclusively from the Lake District, which is traceable down Calderdale to
within a few miles of Royston and Barnsley ; (2) with the dispersion of
Brockram, Shap granite, and other Lake District rocks, with a few
Scottish rocks, which can be traced down Teesdale and the Vale of York ;
or (3) with the coast dispersion characterised by a similar series to that
of the Vale of York, with some Scandinavian and other crystalline rocks
superadded. The abundance of rocks from the northern part of the

_ Lake District is conclusive against (1), while the occurrence of crystalline

rocks, red and grey granites, gneissose granites, and felspar porphyries,
certainly coming from neither English nor South Scottish sources, seems
equally against (2), leaving the third the probable direction of origin.
Mr. Tate recognised a Norwegian aspect of the non-British rocks.

Another important report is that by Mr. W. Andrews, giving details
of the dispersion of boulders from six small bosses of syenite which crop
out about Sapcote, near Leicester.

CHESHIRE.

Reported by Surgeon-Major W. R. Dampriwi-Davins, per Glacialists’
Association.
Macclesfield—

2 Lake District andesites.

428 REPORT—1895.

Alderley—
1 Eskdale granite; 1 L. D. andesite.
Knutsford—
4 Eskdale granites; 2 L. D. andesites; 1 Buttermere granophyre; 1 Scottish
granite.

DERBYSHIRE.
Reported by Miss Evizapetn Dats, per Glacialists’ Association.

Buxton—
Lake District andesite and ashes, Buttermere granophyre, Silurian grit, chert
gannister, toadstone.
DuruHAmM.

Reported by Mr. P. F. KenDAtt.
Beda Hills

Carboniferous limestone, Carboniferous sandstone, clay ironstone, Lake Dis-
trict andesites and ashes, red granite, and a rock something like the
Armboth Dyke, but much decomposed. These occur in gravel forming
the Beda Hills.

Kip Hill—
Carboniferous limestone, Carboniferous sandstone, many Lake District andesites,
porphyrite. No granites were visible at this place.

Durham (City)—
Lake District andesites, and a red granite with much black mica (perhaps
Scottish).
LINCOLNSHIRE.
Reported by Rev. W. TucKWELL.
Grimsby—

2 grey granites (1 gneissose); 2 coarse red syenite, with some black mica.
These rocks are probably non-British. 2 dolerites, probably Whin Sill.

Reported by Mr. J. Lorper.
Louth—

1 dolerite; 2 sandstones (? Jurassic); 1 red granite (scratched); 1 red granite
(rudely foliated) ; 1 ? granite; red sandstone; ? blue granite.

NORTHUMBERLAND.
Reported by Mr. P. F. KENDALL.
Litile Mili—

Dolerite (? Whin Sill) ; sandstone ; Carboniferous limestone; red porphyrite ;
jasper; red sandstone. These occurred in Boulder Clay, resting upon a
surface cross-striated from three directions, viz. N., N. 4° E., and N. 40° E.

WARWICKSHIRE.
Reported by Mr. W. ANDREWS.
Coventry and Neighbourhood—

15 examples of the syenite, which crops out in 6 small bosses near Sapcote,
23 miles 8.W. of Leicester ; 1 Mount Sorrel syenite.

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 429

YORKSHIRE.!
Communicated by the Yorkshire Boulder Committee.

Reported by Mr. W. Hemineway.

Barnsley—
Shap granite. | Andesitic ash and breccia.
Gneissose granite. Rhyolitic breccia.
Grey + Diabase.
Coarse 35 Magma basalt.
Rhyolite. Olivine ,,
Quartz porphyry ?(? Armboth Dyke). | Borrowdale plumbago.
Ennerdale granophyre. Carboniferous limestone.
Felspar porphyry. Magnesian s
Porphyrite. Flints (from Yorkshire chalk).
Andesite. Lias limestone, with Gryphaaineurva

Reported by Mr. T. Tate.
Royston—

Volcanic ash ; felsites; chert; magnesian limestone; 2 quartz felsites, Threl-
keld; diabase ; basalt.

Reported by Mr. W. GREGsoN.
Baldersby—

1 Shap granite.

Kirklington—
1 basalt.

Reported by Mr. J. W. 8. Starner, Secretary of the Hull Geological
Society.
Sheet 72 of 1-inch Map—Beverley.

North Cave—
1 basalt.

Market Weighton—

Carboniferous sandstone with fossils.

Banacks—
Carboniferous sandstone with fossils,

Chalk Villa—

Garnetiferous; mica schist; granite; basalt.

Reported by Dr. F. F. Wauton.
Newbold Church—

1 red granite ; hard limestone.

South Cave—

Limestone.

‘ The detailed report of the Yorkshire Boulder Committee, drawn up by the
secretary, Mr. T. Tate, F.G.S., is published in The Naturalist (No. 231, October, 1894,
Pp. 297-303).

430 REPORT—1895/

Reported by Mr. T. THELWALL,.
Skidby and Little Weighton—

Basalt.
Reported by Mr. W. N. Crorts.
Cottingham—
4 basalts.
Reported by Mr. J, Nicuouson.
Swine—

4 basalts ; 1 Milistone Grit; 5 Carboniferous limestones.

Reported by Mr. H. Rosinson.

Sutton-on-Hull—
5 basalts; Carboniferous limestone ; Liassic limestone with Gryphea ; granite.

Reported by Mr. P. F. KENDALL.

Out Newton, near Withernsea—
Elzolite syenite (7) ; Laurvigite (augite syenite of Laurvig) ; rhomb-porphyry.

Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland.—Twenty-third Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor E. Hun (Chairman),
Professor J. Prestwich, Professor W. Boyp Dawxrys, Professor
T. McK. Huaues, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E. DE Rancg,
Mr. P. F. Kenna (Secretary), Mr. R. H. Tippeman, Mr. J. W.
WoonaLt, and Professor L. C. MiaLn. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tur Committee have again to report that the work of recording the ice-
borne erratics of Great Britain and Ireland has made satisfactory progress,
and that several districts, regarding which no information was previously
obtainable, have been reported upon.

The Yorkshire Boulder Committee, acting in conjunction with the
sub-committee appointed by the Hull Geological Society, have presented
another valuable report. Further details are furnished relating to the re-
markable series of erratics found in the Yorkshire Calder ; but the most
noteworthy contribution is a tabulated list of no less than 2,070 boulders,
comprising the whole of those visible im sitw in the cliffs or lying on the
shore ‘above ‘half-tide,’ along a length of fourteen miles of coast of
Holderness from Withernsea to Hornsea—a truly admirable piece of ob-
servation.

Several records are given of the occurrence of Scandinavian erratics at
inland stations in Holderness. Other reports received from the same
source deal with sporadic boulders in other parts of Yorkshire.

The Rev. W. Tuckwell, of Great Grimsby, has added to the list of
erratics noted in Lincolnshire, and is taking active measures to secure the
co-operation in the work of the clergy of the district.

New ground has been broken in the county of Northumberland, with

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 431

some observations upon the erratics of the upper part of the Tyne valley,
near Haltwistle.

Mr. Dwerryhouse furnishes a valuable and exhaustive series of reports
upon the boulders of a portion of the Cheshire Wirral and the previously
unrecorded district around the Wrekin in Shropshire.

For the first time since the appointment of the Committee reports
have been received from South Wales, where Mr. Storrie has done some
_ excellent work in the neighbourhood of Cardiff.

; From Ireland a second report has been received from the Belfast
Naturalists’ Field Club.

ENGLAND.
CHESHIRE.

Reported by Mr. J. Lomas, A.R.C.8S., and Captain A. R. DwerryHoussE,
per Glacialists’ Association.

. Prenton Village, near Birkenhead—
5 L.D. andesites; 1 fine L.D. Ash; 3 Yewdale breccias; 1 Eskdale granite ;
1 Buttermere granophyre ; 1 Scottish granite ; 1 Criffel granite; 2 grits of
undetermined origin.
Roman Road, near Little Storeton—
1 L.D. andesite.

Road behind Little Storeton—
2 L.D. andesites ; 1 basalt.

Railway Cutting between Barnton and Neston—
1 limestone ; 1 diorite.

Reported by Captain Dwerryuouse, per Glacialists’ Association.

Sutton Weaver—
3 L.D. andesites ; 3 Eskdale granites.

Preston Brook—
41L.D.andesites ; 2 Eskdale granites ; 1 Buttermere granophyre ; 1 Silurian grit.

Preston-on-the-Hill—
3 L.D. andesites ; 3 Eskdale granites; 1 grit (? Silurian).

Willaston and Burton, near Neston—

' 40 L.D. andesites; 10 L.D. ashes; 1 L.D. andesitic agglomerate; 6 Eskdale
granites; 3 Buttermere granophyres; 3 diorites; 3 Galloway granites ;
6 Criffel granites; 1 felsite (reddish) ; 1 grit with numerous quartz-veins ;
5 grits; 11 Silurian grits; 2 basalts; 1 limestone.

LINCOLNSHIRE.

Reported by Rev. W. TuckweELt.
Great Grimsby—

Boulders of Whin Sill are common from Grimsby to Brigg. Several Scandi-
navian rocks from the neighbourhood of Christiania were found at depths of
10 to 15 feet in the foundations of the new Union.

3
a
>

432 REPORT—1895.

NoRTHUMBERLAND.
Reported by Mr. G. SiaTER.
Haltwistle and Lambley—

Boulders averaging a foot in diameter :—

Haltwistle Lambley

Limestone ; : , . 40percent. . ; . 3 percent.
Millstone grit . . a ph ke a . ; - 20 a9
Sandstone ; : . eal b2 ae =

Whin : : ; ; eg + ‘ : 2 PG =
Silurian . : : : LO +) 5 A ; 120 53
Granite . - - ; 5 ly +: , : a ee -
Grindstone sill : : =e! “ . : . 80 i
Permian . F : — A 5 10 Ay

N.B —The percentages are not to be relied on as correctly indicating the proportions at
each place, but serve to show the contrast between the two localities in regard
to the figures printed in heavy type.

SHROPSHIRE.
Reported by Captain A. R. Dwerrynouss, per Glacialists’ Association.
Wrockwardine—
12 Arenig felsites ; 2 L.D. andesites; 1 Eskdale granite.
Between Wrockwardine and Walcot Station—
1 Arenig felsite.
Between Wrockwardine and Leaton—
1 Arenig felsite.
Leaton—
1 Arenig felsite.
Overley Hill '\—
1 Eskdale granite; 2 Galloway granites; 1 Buttermere granophyre ; 1 Triassic
sandstone (local).
Wellington '—
2 Eskdale granites; 1 L.D. andesite; 1 Arenig felsite.
The Wrekin—

In Forest Glen :—1 Eskdale granite; 1 Criffel granite; 2 Silurian grits.
Wenlock Wood :—1 Eskdale granite; 1 Arenig felsite.
Near Newhouse Farm :—1 Arenig felsite.
Steeraway—
1 Eskdale granite.
Little Wenlock—
3 Eskdale granites; i L.D. andesite; 1 Galloway granite; 1 Arenig felsite.
Huntington—
4 Eskdale granites; 1 Galloway granite; 1 Criffel granite; 1 Silurian grit;
3 Arenig felsites; 1 Coal Measures sandstone (? local); 1 spherulitic
rhyolite (Overley Hill) ; 1 basalt (? local).
Road Huntington to the Hatch—
2 Eskdale granites; 1 Arenig felsite.
Near Sapling Farm—
2 Arenig felsites.
Buildwas—
1 Eskdale granite; 1 Arenig felsite.

1} Observed by Mr. Lomas and Capt, Dwerryhouse. |

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND I. ELAND. 433

YorKSHIRE.!
Communicated by the Yorkshire Boulder Connittee.

Reported by Mr. J. Burton.

Millwood, T'ormorden—

Buttermere granophyre; granites (L.D.); grits (Millstone Grit).

The boulders here are much larger than those lower down the Calder Valley.
Mirfield—

Eskdale granites; L.D. andesites ; Mountain Limestone with Productus.
Horbury—

Granites occur in a ridge of clay.

Reported by Mr. Rosert Law.

Millwood—
1 grey quartz-felsite ; 6 Buttermere granophyres; 5 Eskdale granites; 2 L.D.
andesites; 1 eurite; 1 mica trap.

Reported by Mr. THomas SALTONSTALL.

Luddenden Foot—
1 pink rhyolite ; 1 Eskdale granite.

Sowerby—
1 pink rhyolite; 1 rhyolite; 2 Eskdale granites; 1 Buttermere granophyre ;
1 L.D. andesite; 1 quartz-felsite ; 1 porphyrite ; 1 quartzite.

Reported by Mr. W. GREGSON.

Rokeby Park—
1 Shap granite.

Reported by Mr. T. Carter MiTcHeE.t.
Baldersby—

3 Carboniferous limestones.

Reported by Mr. E. HAwKEswortu.

Saliburn—
3 Shap granites ; 1 basalt.

Reported by Mr. T. SHEPPARD.

Burstwick—

Chalk and flint; lias limestone and marlstone with Ammonites communis and
Gryphea incurva; rhyolites; Carboniferouslimestone; Brockram; Armboth
quartz-felsite ; Whin Sill; Rhomb-porphyry ; red granite (? Scandinavian) ;
gneiss.

Reported by Mr. J. W. SraTueEr.
Melton—

Laurvigite (augite-syenite of Laurvig); Rhomb-porphyry; Armboth dyke

quartz-felsite ; Brockram (Vale of Eden).

Bessingby—
Rhomb-porphyry.

1 This report will be published in eatenso in The Naturalist.

1895, FF

434

REPORT—1895.

Reported by the Hull Geological Society.

TasLE I.—Boulders noted on the Holderness Coast between Withernsea

and Hornsea, 1895.

A B Cc D E F G H I J
FA) 5 a
oe Bas mn . ay 3
gage 1S ole (E(B dre (eg
she | Mri Fis a Lar} | aa =
Ha |u| Cs |e f $3 |S |
gt) S|] ee |e /e2)/ oq} 2
Belo ‘wh | SS |] 2S 118] 3%
Stee |Fa) ee) en | ae aq |
Boulders over 1 foot in Rest |) es | oe | oe) oe 2 | oS
diameter aa | oe | 3s iuee | os ma on | oe
ge | Boe Sa 5 <q = <q fs 8 2 Had |
Bn RRO Be gies wild So |} oi.
: Blaeo;/HS!|8s |] og |] 5n |b
Oe |e ea) Act | vols, | ete | cae eta ett
PF | 85] 62) 88 Se|4 A)wuwsB | 2s
Slag) Pa | en | sa] PS | SH | ee
ae ee | ae |e | | Sey lta came
qa o SE /2 a, 5 Scteee
oS | Ung ne Dn oa Gy
=| aa] s% [a 5 eS) asia
SS a hes tia tag a = = = ec =
Sais te a 4 q
Re 3 1 iY |] Sh 4 1 2 24 _| Per
Origin Miles | Mile | Mile Miles | Mile | Mile | Miles | Miles |7°t!5) cont,
|
Carboniferous limestone - -| 38 | 103 24 25 57 | 197 36 54 534 | 25°8
Sandstones, grits, &e., chiefly Car-
boniferous . . = 5 5 12 49 19 13 17 85 33 47 275 13°3
2 Lias shale = - = 4 38 37 19 58 121 34 34 345
Sy { Chalke PY athe hl es] oe 3 8 8 3 | 11 | 80 | 46 | -28)) 487 fs
23 [Other limestones and) | 2 5 | 21 5 | 14 | 26 | 12 | 19 | -Jo4
= el sandstones
Basalts and other eruptiverocks . 16 64 31 25 74 =| 285 2S.) 438 554 | 26°9
Granite, schist, gneiss, &c. 7 7 4 5 9 30 P| ORL 71 34
Totals . . “ 3 5 82 274 144 95 240 824 186 225 2070 | 100°0
Taste II.
A B Cc D E F G
a S : °
fom) o_, £ Pn ae wr 2
Be | aot ° “| Sap Zi Og & =
ga /s2| a2 | 85 | ES | Se | ome) ss
; pam Msehned ah quate ga ie 25 5a | 82
Boulders over 1 foot in BEE $2 mE os os og & se
diameter 83} 9H Efe mE Bs me 3 38 er]
ea) se| a ea | So es | 3H
Ea | n> A 8 a | te a
Mites | Mite | 14 Mile |34 Miles} 4 Mile | 1 Mile | 2 Miles |23 Miles
Guein Per |PRer Per Per Per Per Per Per
8 cent. | cent.| cent. cent. cent. cent. cent, cent.
Carboniferous limestone, including
possibly a few other Palzozoic
sedimentary rocks . o -| 46:4] 37:6) 16°7 26°3 23°8 23°9 19°4 24
Sandstones, grits, &c., probably
all from Carboniferous or other
Palzozoic rocks . 5 A «| M6) 17°9) 182 13-7 71 10°3 177 20°9
Mesozoic rocks, Jurassic lime-
stones and sandstones, chalk,
&e. 5 ns 5 “i . ° 11 18°6 45°8 284 34:6 27°6 49°4 36
| Basaltic and other eruptive rocks | 195) 234) 21°5 26°4 30°8 34°6 12°4 16
Granite, schist, gneiss, &c. 85 2°5 2°38 52 37 3°6 11 31
100:0, 100:0; 100-0 100°0 | 100°0 | 100°0 100°0 | 100:0

oe ee

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 435

I. The above is a rough classification of 2,070 boulders (above a foot
in diameter) noted on the Holderness coast between Withernsea and
Hornsea, a distance of 14 miles, during the summer of 1895.

II. All the boulders tabulated in sections A, B, C, D, E, G, H in
the above table were in sitw in the clay, or were close to the boulder clay
cliff from which they were recently fallen. In section F, however, a
large group of boulders occurred at about ‘half-tide,’ and these are in-
cluded in the table.

III. Table I. gives the actual number of boulders noted in the different
sections of coast.

Table II. gives the percentage of the different classes of the rocks.

IV. The largest boulder seen was a block of Carboniferous limestone

: on the beach near Mappleton (85 inches x 31 inches x 30 inches +).

ee

Many others approach this size.
A block of garnetiferous schist was noted at base of cliff near Cowden,
22 inches x 30 inches x 13 inches.

SOUTH WALES.

GLAMORGANSHIRE.
Communicated by the Cardiff Society of Naturalists.

Reported by Mr. J. Storr.
Pencoed, Bridgend—

Fragments of indeterminable marine shells ; chert from Lias and Carboniferous
limestone; no chalk flints; 4 or 5 Lower Lias limestone with Gryphea
incurva ; 3 white cherty sandstone from U. Trias of St. Mary Hill; 7 or 8
Rhztic sandstones, with fossils from St. Mary Hill; 2 or 3 dolomitic
breccia; Pennant Grit ; Cockshot rock; over 100 Millstone Grit; 40 to 50
Carboniferous limestone; 35 Old Red sandstone, besides pebbles ; 1 black
micaceous flag (probably Llandeilo); 7 grits and yellow sandstones (pro-
bably Silurian) ; 1 fossiliferous Wenlock limestone ; 2 granites (specimens
mislaid) ; 3 ‘trap’; 1 brecciated ‘trap’; 3 basalts; 1 porphyritic diabase
(amygdaloidal); 1 volcanic ash; 1 rhyolite, showing macroscopic flow
structure ; 1 gabbro; 1 green rock with white chalcedony.

Some of these have been sectioned and submitted to petrologists, who note
the following facts :—

One was identified with the gabbro of St. David’s Head; a felsite bore some
resemblance to the pre-Cambrian rocks of Pembrokeshire; 2 or 3 acid
rocks, brecciated felsites, and tuffs were very like Carnarvonshire rocks,
especially those of the Lleyn promontory. None was recognised as
belonging to the volcanic rocks of the neighbourhood of Fishguard, of
Mid Wales, or of any place further north than Carnarvonshire.

From these data it is concluded that the movement of transport was from
the west or north-west.

Some were of such a general character that it was impossible to locate them.

IRELAND.

Co. Down.
Communicated by the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.

Coast road between Ballymartin and Annalong—

1 Granite from Slievh Lawagan, Mourne Mountains,
FR2

436 REPORT—1895.
Holywood—

Olivine gabbro, possibly from Slemish. The boulder was embedded in clay
containing fragments of flint, chalk, basalt, and quartzite.

Island Hill, Strangford Lough—
2 Ordovician grits.
Rough Island, Strangford Lough—

Boulder showing junction of granite and Ordovician grit with vein of eurite ;
Ailsa Craig eurite; Antrim chalk and flint ; pitchstone.

Co. ANTRIM.
St. Nicholas, Carrickfergus—

Large boulder of unidentified rock in fossiliferous Boulder Clay, containing a
fragment of eurite from Tornamoney (coast of Antrim)

St. John’s Whitehouse, on shore opposite Macedon—
1 fresh olivine dolerite, derived from one of the volcanic necks of Antrim.

Blacklion— Co. Cavan.

1 Millstone Grit.

The stone is perched on a pedestal of Carboniferous limestone. Its upper
surface is sculptured with concentric circles like those on cover-slabs of
Kist-vaens,

Some Suffolk Well-sections.

By W. Wuiraker, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst.C.E.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in full.]

Accounts of seventeen wells having come to hand since the last
Geological Survey Memoir that deals with Suffolk was issued, advantage
is taken of the meeting of the British Association at Ipswich to make
them public.

A great number of well-sections in the county have been printed in
the following Geological Survey Memoirs, to which inquirers are re-
ferred :—

1878. The Geology of the N.W. Part of Essex . . . with Parts of...
Suffolk, p. 84. ‘

1881. The Geology of the Neighbourhood of Stowmarket, pp. 18-25.

1881 (or 2). The Geology of the Country around Norwich, pp. 156
(and diagram), 157, 158, 162, 166.

1884. The Geology of the Country around Diss, Eye, Botesdale, and
Ixworth, pp. 29-41.

1885. The Geology of the Country around Ipswich, Hadleigh, and
Felixstow, pp. 111-125.

1886. The Geology of the Country around Aldborough, Framlingham,
Orford, and Woodbridge, pp. 50-57.

1886. The Geology of the Country between and south of Bury St.
Edmunds and Newmarket, pp. 20-25.

1887. The Geology of Southwold, and of the Suffolk Coast from Dun-
wich to Covehithe, pp. 78-80.

[Words in square brackets have been added by the writer.]

ON SOME SUFFOLK WELLS. 437

1887. The Geology of the Country around Halesworth and Harleston,
pp. 36-39.

1890. The Geology of the Country near Yarmouth and Lowestoft,
p. 83.

1890. The Pliocene Deposits of Britain, p. 110.

1891. The Geology of Parts of Cambridgeshire and of Suffolk, pp, 114—
119.

1893. The Geology of South-western Norfolk and of Northern
Cambridgeshire, pp. 161-164.

Cuare. Snow Hill (half a mile N. of the Church), by the roadside, 1894.
About 1765 feet above Ordnance Datum.
Made and communicated by Mr. G. INGOLD.
Water rose to 153 feet from the surface.

Thikness Depth

iu Feet in Feet
{ White clay ; 7 7

[Glacial Drift] Boulder clay Brown clay; 62 132
Red and green sand . . ‘ 11s 25
Chalk, veryrotten, { Soft brown chalk ‘ ‘ : 35 60
and with very few | Soft white chalk ; c : 42 102
flints Harder white chalk . : : 38 140

Haveruitt. Waterworks, Camps Road, 1894.
Nearly 297 feet above Ordnance Datum.
Made and communicated by Mr. G. INGOLD.

Shaft, 103 feet ; the rest bored. Water-level, 733 feet down. Yield
exceeding 150 gallons a minute.

Thickness Depth
in Feet in Feet
_ Mould . tn 3 3
, Brown sandy loam 25 z
White boulder clay ils 17
[Drift] { Blue clay 6 23
Blue and brown clay . 2 25
Chalk and clay . 3 28
Upper Chalk, with flints ie gag from 130 to 1
230 feet down) ed hl aoe
Hircuam.

Communicated by the Rev. EH. Hitt, from infcrmation from Mr. COBBOLD,
well-sinker.

The Hall. About 175 feet above Ordnance Datum. Well 60 feet deep.

“wet aso

Blue clay.
[Drift] } Brighter clay and marl.
Sand and consolidated flint-pebble-bed, from which the water comes.

The Rectory. About 235 feet above Ordnance Datum. Well 102 or
103 feet deep. At 100 feet a ‘fault’ (so-called) of hard sand, from which
- the water comes. [Drift.]
_ Squirrels Farm. Eastern end of parish. Well said to be 100 feet
deep, all in [Boulder] clay.

438 REPORT—1895.

Kerriesaston. High House Farm. About 230 feet above Ordnance
Datum.
Communicated by the Rev. E. HILu.

Well 70 feet to water.

Marker Weston. Small Farmhouse on the Bury Road, near Hopton
Greyhound, 1889.

Made and communicated by Messrs. GEDNEY (of Norwich).
Shaft 35 feet, the rest driven tube.

Thickness Depth in
in Feet. Feet
Made Soil . , ; : : ‘ 1 il
Red sand , = 15 16
Grey sand . : 14 30
: Quick sand , F 5 35
eat Gravel. 5 12 47
Sharp red sand . 16 63
Grey sand . ; 38 101

Metron. Suffolk County Asylum (at a distance from the Asylum).
From a Report by Mr. G. Hopson, 1894.

Test boring, No. 1, 1891.
Yield proved to 348,000 gallons a day. Water very hard.

Thickness Depth in
in Feet Feet
Soil A : 5 : : . ° : 3 3
: Sand and gravel. . . 42 7%
Deana Cree i { Sand Rs ik ae eta i eae 10! 18
Coloured [mottled] clay and
drift-flints : . : : 2 20
(Red. 2 22
Mottled clay | ;. ‘
[Reading Beds “| Light blue 2 225
34 feet] > « Brown sandy clay 83 31
Green sandy clay 5 5 1 32
Brown running sand . : 12 44
Blue clay . 5 : 4 4 6 50
Green sand and flints , - 2 52
[Upper Chalk] Flints and chalk : ; : , 248 300 |

Test boring, No. 2, 1891 (2). |

Yield insuttlicient at the depth of 300 feet. Continued for another 50,
in which a further supply was found. Yield proved to be 240,000 gallons
in 24 hours, the water being lowered 14 feet.

Thickness Depth in
in Feet Feet
Sekt 5. sacs Aaa ar 3 3
[Drift ?] Sand and gravel . d 5 : 14 17
Coloured [mottled] clay 5 22
Sand and clay . 2 24
F Brown clay . 8 32
pease Fe eT Running eid 12 44
eat Sand and clay : 3 AT
Dark clay . ; é - | 4 51
Green sand . 1 52
[Upper Chalk] Flints and chalk 298 350

ON SOME SUFFOLK WELLS. 439

Naveuron. Rectory. About 282 feet above Ordnance Datum.

Communicated by the Rey. E. Hrx1, from information from Mr. COBBOLD,
well-sinker.

Well in blue [Boulder] clay to the depth of 130 or 140 feet.

SraNNINGFIELD. Half a mile N. 15° E. of the church, at the spot marked
‘Well’ on the 6-in. map (in error, as there was only a pit there). 1894.

Communicated by the Rev. E. HILL, from information from the owner,
Mr. CROSSFIELD, verified by inspection.

310 feet above Ordnance Datum.

Sunk to the depth of 111 feet, when water rose to 56 feet from the
surface.

Wholly through grey chalky Boulder Clay, with chalk pebbles (some
scratched), large flints, fragments of Kimeridge Clay and of Ammonzites.
The flints and Kimeridge Clay occurred noticeably at the depth of 60 to
80 feet.

STRADISHALL. Public Well. 1893.

Made and communicated by Mr. G. INGOLD.

Shaft. Water-level 35} feet down.

| Thickness Depth in
in Feet Feet
Mould | 2 2
Loamy sand F ; Ea 2 4
White clay . | 5 9
[Boulder Drift] . } Brown clay. | 4 13
Blue clay | 47 60
Chalk . ‘ : | 9 69
Srutron. Zhe Hall. About 14 miles S. of W. from the Church.
Communicated by Mr. G. F. MANSELL.
| Thickness in Depth in
Feet Feet
Boil... ‘ 5 : : c : 3 : a 3 3
Gravel : : : é : : ; : 10 13
Mee Galonred(clay) =o) es het 4 17
eee The tae clay gabe’ 29
Sandy clay . 2 2 - 34 55 84
Mottled clay, with claystone
(3 inches) 2 feet down . : 123 96+
: ; Stone . - : ; 2 - 1 97%
| cy
Seine rene - Green clay and sand . ; oo 243 122
| Dark clay . : ; ; mal 7 129
role and a little sand. 5 sat 7+ 136}
Flint and pebbles : 137

Chalk and flint .

44.0 REPORT—1895.

THorPE Morigeux. Chinery’s Farm, 270 feet above Ordnance Datum.

Communicated by the Rey. E. H1ut, from information from Mr. COBBOLD, well-sinker.

Well 120 feet deep. ‘Mostly blue clay ; sandy gall at bottom.’

TrimLey. Felixstow and Walton Waterworks, 1893.
Communicated by Mr. H. MILLER,
Sixty feet above Ordnance Datum. Iron cylinders 83 feet, the rest

bored. Water rose to 55 feet from the surface. Supply good. Quality
excellent.

Thickness in Depth in
Feet Feet
Soiland Crag. / 8 8
[London Clay]. Clay ‘and “loam, with 7 inches of
Septaria 883 feet down . ' é : 81 89
Mottled clay t : Bich 18 107
Pees Uilaalay sts. ee 9 116
J Greenish sand. 9 125
Chalk, Thin mest of flints 144, 161, 165, and 178
feet down ; 1163 2413

WartrisHAM. Opposite the gate to the Hall.

Communicated by the Rev. E. HILL, from information from Mr. CoBBOLD, well-sinker.

Road-level about 285 feet above Ordnance Datum. Well 80 feet deep,
mostly through stiff blue [Boulder] clay.

Woopsrivce. Zhe Thoroughfare. Mr. Carter's. 1895.

Made and communicated by Mr. F. BENNETT.

Good supply. Water stands about 26 feet down.

Thickness in Depth in

Feet Feet

Well (? old), the rest bored : by pt SET ee == 28

[? Crag or Eocene] Running sand | 12 40

Mottled clay 10 50

[Green sand . 9 59
[Reading Beds, | Running sand 22 614
26 feet] Dark green sand and flints . 1 624
Mottled clay 2 645

Dark green clay . ; 13 66

Chalk, with flints nearly every foot 64 130

[Upper Chalk] Mottled clay [? a marl-bed in the |
chalk, orpipe of Reading Beds?| | 3

1302

ee ie

a
.
7

}
*

ON THE DIP OF THE UNDERGROUND PALAOZOIC ROCKS. 4A]

On the Dip of the Underground Paleozoic Rocks at Ware and Cheshunt.
By JoserH Francis, M. Jnst., C.L.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso. |

Ir has come to my knowledge that some of the geologists specially
interested in ascertaining the lie of the ancient rocks beneath the Eastern
Counties of England, are doubtful whether any value is to be attached to
statements that have been made with regard to the dip of these rocks
at certain places. I refer especially to two instances in which borings
were made into the strata underlying the Gault to the north of London,
and where much time and money were spent in obtaining the true angles
and directions of dip. It was in the year 1879 that these observations
were made, but it does not appear that any description of the methods
adopted has hitherto been published, and Mr. Whitaker has suggested
that I should give a short account of the experiments that were carried
out by me under the direction of the late Mr. James Muir, the former
engineer to the New River Company. This I now propose to do, and
hope to be able to show that the recorded results may be accepted as
perfectly reliable.

These borings were undertaken by the New River Company on the advice
of geologists who were of opinion that the Lower Green Sand extended to
the outskirts of London, and that when found, it could be relied upon to
afford a plentiful supply of pure water for the use of the metropolis. The
outcrop of the Lower Green Sand to the north of London extends from
Leighton Buzzard to Ely, over an area of 166 square miles, and con-
sequently must receive on its surface an immense quantity of rain water ;
moreover, being extremely pervious, it must be capable of transmitting
through its mass a large percentage of the rainfall. Nearly forty years
before this, a good yield had been obtained from the same formation, at a
depth of 1,800 feet, at Grenelle, near Paris, and later on at Passy,
in the same neighbourhood. A deep bore at Kentish Town, made in
the year 1855, had revealed the fact that a ridge, if nothing more, of
ancient rocks protruded upwards to the Gault, and this discovery raised
considerable doubt as to the extent of the sandy layer under ground.
There was also a great amount of uncertainty as to whether this stratum,
which is so prolific of water when tapped anywhere near its outcrop,
would yield equally well where compressed by the weight of a thousand
feet or more of superincumbent earth. On the other hand, the Royal
Commission on Water Supply, which sat in 1869, had reported that ‘so
far as this Green Sand continued, it would form a valuable and copious
water-bearing bed,’ and it was felt that the problem was one of such
extreme importance that it was of the utmost consequence it should
be solved. The water supply, which there was a chance of so gaining, was
so convenient and good as to justify some amount of speculation in
endeavouring to obtain it, whilst there was, in any case, a certainty of a
large accession of Chalk water from the upper part of the bore. J may
here remark that, although several eminent men decidedly encouraged the
venture, they can hardly be held responsible for the extravagant notions
entertained by some persons, who assumed that this experiment was about
to solve the whole question of the future supply of water to London.

44.2 REPORT—1895.

One of the borings to which I wish to call attention was made at,Ware,
and the other at Turnford, near Cheshunt, both in the county of Hertford.
These particular places were chosen because they offered suitable sites for
new Chalk wells, and because land alongside the channel of the New
River was available for pumping stations. On reaching certain depths,
the bore holes furnished conclusive evidence that it was quite hopeless to
expect a supply of water from below the Gault, and orders were about to
be given for a cessation of the work, when those geologists who had
watched the progress of the enterprise, expressed a wish that endeavours
might be made to learn the direction of the dip of the lowest stratum
reached in each case. Instructions were thereupon given for the requisite
investigation to be made, and when the inquiry was found to involve
additional boring, the construction of special apparatus, and the devotion
of much time and attention, these were liberally provided by the New
River Company. A number of men of science formed themselves into a
Committee to advise as to the best way of obtaining the desired informa-
tion. This Committee consisted of Sir William Thomson, now Lord
Kelvin, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. Etheridge, Professors T. McK. Hughes,
Maxwell, and Stokes, Mr. Mylne, and Mr. Muir.

From time to time they discussed various modes of proceeding, and
under their advice the several experiments were arranged. In carrying
out their suggestions, every possible care was exercised to ensure correct
results, and observations were repeated until there could be no reasonable
doubt of the truth of the conclusions arrived at.

Before describing in detail the appliances used, I may give a general
outline of the circumstances preceding the discovery of Silurian Rock at
the Ware boring, and of Devonian at Turnford.

Before the year 1872, a well had been sunk into the Chalk at Turnford,
and pumping engines erected. The shaft had a depth of 176 feet, with
a bore hole 34 inches in diameter, extending to a depth of 362 feet from
the surface of the ground. The bore was made of this large size in order
to admit of its being continued downwards to a great depth without
undue contraction of diameter, in case it should be afterwards decided to
search for the Lower Green Sand ; but it was not until 1874 that it was
resolved to follow up the question. Arrangements were then made for
deepening the bore and for dealing with any water that might be obtained
from the hoped-for deep source. ‘To convey the expected supply of water
to the surface, a wrought iron tube of 24 inches internal diameter, and
long enough to reach to the bottom of the hole, was provided. Its joints
were made quite watertight throughout by calking, and all access of
water from a higher level was to be shut off by sealing up an annular
space to be left around the tube where it passed through the Gault
clay. The sinking of this tube to a depth of 896 feet, was accom-
plished by the old system of breaking up the material with chisels and
bringing it to the surface by means of buckets with valves in the bottom.
In the meantime, the more rapid method of rock-boring by means of
diamonds had become a success, and, after due consideration, it was
decided to put down a hole by this means at another spot in order to
obtain an early solution of the question. A site near Ware, six miles
north of Turnford, was selected, and in the beginning of the year 1878 a
boring by the new process was commenced there. By this method, a number
of black diamonds fixed in one end of a ring or short tube of steel, techni-
cally called a ‘crown’ (fig. 1), are caused to rotate against the rock to be

aaa

a

ON THE DIP OF THE UNDERGROUND PALZOZOIC ROCKS. 443

drilled, and the diamonds, being harder than any other known substance,
eut their way through, forming an annular groove which becomes deeper
and deeper as the crown is slowly lowered. A cylindrical core of un-
detached rock is thus left standing in the middle (fig. 2), and is received in a
long tube of a somewhat greater internal diameter than the crown which
it surmounts. To the closed top of this core-tube is attached a column
of tubular rods, by which a rapid rotary motion is transmitted from
machinery above, and down which water is pumped, with the double
purpose of keeping the drill cool and of bringing up the abraded material.
To admit of the passage of the water from the inside to the outside of the
crown, grooves are formed across the cutting face, and through these the
water is forced, carrying with it the débris cut away by the diamonds.
The water then passes upward outside the core-tube to the top of the
hole, bringing with it the lighter of the particles. Above the core-tube,
and enclosing the lower end of the suspending rods (fig. 3), there is an open
topped tube of a few feet in length, into which the heavier matter falls,
and this sediment tube is emptied when the crown is raised to the surface.
Before the core can be brought up from the bottom it must be detached
from its bed. This is usually effected by friction during the revolution of

Fiq. 2.

SSS

MOMMY

Scale, 1 in. to 1 ft.

RALEAKE MAY

Y Le Z

Scale, 1 in. to 2 ft.
the crown in boring, the inner surface grasping the core with sufficient
force to break it off. The block then falls out of the perpendicular, and
when the boring-rods are drawn up, it is generally found with its lower
end resting on the internal shoulder of the crown. Most frequently, the
fracture occurs at a bed or other joint in the rock. Should the pillar
remain firmly fixed after it has attained the full height of the core-tube,
one of the various appliances known as core-extractors is lowered. This
firmly clips the core at the bottom, and on the application of adequate
lifting power to the rods, the piece is broken off and can be withdrawn.
In this way, solid columns, 30 feet in length, and 16 inches in diameter,
were obtained.

The great advantage of the system is, that substantial specimens of the
materials bored through can be obtained, and their relative positions
actually seen. No room is left for doubt as to the depths and thicknesses
of the various strata, and since the hole is put down perfectly vertical,
there is no difficulty in ascertaining the exact angle of the dip if it is
steep enough to be appreciable in the core. On the other hand, the rota-
tion of the apparatus precludes all knowledge of the direction of dip by
mere inspection, and special means have to be devised for ascertaining this
particular.

444,

REPORT—1895.

Returning now to my narrative of events. When it was decided, in
1878, to put down a test hole at Ware, it was anticipated that the Gault
there would have been passed through before the Turnford boring had pro-

| Fie. 3.

«Lorug rods

| Sedument tube

Core ltbe

+ Crown

Scale, 1 in. to 8 ft.

gressed very much beyond its then depth of 836
feet, in which case the latter could have been dis-
continued if the Ware site proved unfavourable ;
for it was obvious that if the Lower Green Sand
did not yield water at the more northerly of the
two points, it would not do so at the other, which
was so much farther from the outcrop. But delays
occurred. Soon after starting, the boring-rods broke
in consequence of a fall of gravel from above ; the
core-tube and a core-extractor were dropped to
the bottom, and the guide-pipe at the top was
carried away. This necessitated the sinking of
cast-iron cylinders, 6 feet in diameter, to a depth
of 30 feet from the surface, by means of compressed
air ; a work that occupied some time. Later on, a
rod became bent near the bottom of the hole ata
depth of 780 feet, and much time was lost in re-
covering the crown and tubing which were set fast
by this accident. Thus the work occupied much
more time than had been expected, whilst at the
Turnford boring, the contractors (Messrs. Docewra
& Son), after reaching a depth of 896 feet, adopted
the diamond drill, and in this way hastened the
completion of their work. Whereas the boring by
chisels had been proceeding through the Gault clay
at an average rate of about 2 feet in depth per
week, by the new process an advance of 18 feet or
more was made in the same time. Thus it even-
tually happened that the Gault was pierced through
at both places at about the same time.

Shortly before this, a boring made at Crossness
for the late Metropolitan Board of Works had
shown that there was no Lower Green Sand in that
locality ; whilst at Tottenham Court Road, Messrs.
Meux had bored through 64 feet of what was at the
time erroneously supposed to be Lower Green Sand,
and had found it to be a comparatively compact
stone, containing but little water. These facts were
discouraging, but they still left room for hope that
the thinning-out of the water-bearing stratum was
confined to the deepest part of the London basin.
The results of the New River Company’s borings
were, therefore, looked for with great interest, and
when, in May i879, Silurian rock was struck at a
depth of 7963 feet at Ware, and, a month later,
Devonian was found at a depth of 9803 feet at

Turnford, those who took a scientific interest in the question, naturally
tried to secure all the information obtainable under these exceptionally
favourable circumstances. Hence the demand for a special inquiry as to
the direction of the dip of these rocks.

———

ON THE DIP OF THE UNDERGROUND PALAOZOIC ROCKS. 44.5

At neither place was there any Lower Green Sand, although in each
case the occurrence of a dark-coloured sand, several inches in depth, above
the Paleozoic Rocks gave rise to the belief that the stratum was repre-
sented in an attenuated form. Recent investigation by Mr. W. Whitaker
and Mr. A. J. Jukes-Browne has, however, shown that this was merely
the basement bed of the Gault, whilst the 64 feet of rock occurring
between the Gault and the Old Red Sandstone at Messrs. Meux’s well, has
been declared by the same authorities to belong to the Jurassic system.

I will now proceed to describe the various appliances, either suggested
or used, for obtaining the desired information, and the manner in which
the experiments were conducted.

The first idea that occurred was, to make use of a magnetic needle.

Fie. 4.

Seale, 1 in. to 2 ft. Scale, 1 in. to 2 ft.

Suitably mounted,{this would be lowered on to the top of a piece of core
that was still affixed to its base, and when it had come to rest in its
natural position, it would either be secured immovably to the core, or its
impress stamped in some way upon the top. If a sufficiently long piece
of core were then broken off and brought up, the angle between the line
of dip and the magnetic meridian of the day could be directly read off
_ the specimen by means of a protractor. For fixing the needle in position
when arrived at the bottom, various devices were suggested, including,
amongst others, its enclosure in a pressure-tight box, so arranged as to be
capable of becoming firmly attached to the core when lowered over it. In

446 REPORT—1895.

this box was to be a solution of gum mastic, from which the gum could
be thrown down by the admixture of water that would be allowed to gain

Wig. 6.

Tubular boring Ber

P|

Scale, 1 in. to 8 ft.

access by the opening of a stop-
per manipulated from above.
The whole could afterwards be
lifted without altering the re-
lative positions of the parts.
Another proposal was, first, to
grind the top of the core to a
level surface (fig. 4), and then
to let down a strong needle sup-
ported on a spring centre, and
having steel points affixed under-
neath, two near its north end
and one near its south end. By
releasing a weight, or putting
on the steady downward pres-
sure of a screw, the points were
to be forced into the rock, giving
the line of meridian in the most
direct manner. A plan was also
suggested for lowering a mass of
plastic material (fig. 5), such as
wax, on to the roughly fractured
top of the fixed core, and after
an impression had been taken,
the frame carrying the wax
was, before withdrawal, to be
marked by a magnetic needle
suspended above its upper sur-
face. This was to be accom-
plished by having an annular
groove, also filled in with wax,
on the upper side of the carrier.
The needle would be balanced
on a spring point at the centre
of this circle, and would have
differently shaped points on its
under side at either end just
over the ring of wax. By press-
ing these down when they had
finally come to rest, the direc-
tion would be given upon the
carrier, ready for transference,
first to the cast of the core, and
afterwards to the core itself,
when this was brought to the
surface.

But there were difficulties in
arranging an instrument that

would be likely to work satisfactorily on these lines. The risk of disturb-
ing the needle during the descent of a weight or the inflow of a liquid was
very great ; but the principal objection was, that the tubes to which the

ON THE DIP OF THE UNDERGROUND PALAOZOIC ROCKS. 44.7

apparatus must be connected were bf steel, and would in all probability
so disturb the movements of the magnet as to lead to erroneous conclu-
sions. So also, masses of iron in the earth might cause deflection, whilst
there would be nothing to indicate that such had occurred. The idea of
attempting to trace the magnetic meridian on the rock was consequently
abandoned, and it was next considered how the core, or a cast of it, could
be marked with some other known line of direction. To do this, the
carrier of the marking apparatus, or of the plastic material, must be
placed over the centre of the hole, with a horizontal line, the bearing of
which is known, marked upon it. It must then be lowered to the bottom
and made to operate without receiving the slightest permanent twist
during any part of the movement. This maintenance of a marked
diameter always in the same azimuth was the most difficult requirement
to fulfil. The earliest proposal was, to stretch a pair of fine steel wires verti-
cally between a core tube (fig. 6), used as a marking frame, and the top of
the boring stage, at 30 feet above ground. These wires were to be on
opposite sides of the axis of the boring-rods and at equal distances there-
from, but no nearer to each other than was necessary for clearing the
sides of the bore-pipe all the way up. They were to be made fast at their
lower ends to the core tube, but at the top were to be passed over pulleys,
and attached to heavy counterbalance weights for keeping the lines tightly
strained during the descent of the marker. There would thus be about
30 feet in height of each always visible, and by placing a theodolite on
one side, in the plane of the wires, one of them could be kept under
observation, and any deviation from the vertical that might be caused by
unavoidable rotation seen, whereupon the marker would be at once
restored to its correct position by moving the rods round at top. But the
length of wire exposed would have been so small, compared with the full
depth of the hole, that it was feared a considerable amount of twist might
occur at bottom without detection by the instrument. That plan was
consequently given up, and means were contrived for observing the boring
rods themselves, and guiding them in such a manner as to prevent all
possibility of twist. The details of this arrangement I will now explain.
On the circumference of the crown or tube carrying the marker, the
ends of a diameter were indicated by differently shaped notches. At the
commencement of an experiment, the tube was suspended with these
notches opposite to two sharp :
pointers (fig. 7), which were Pia. 7.
firmly fixed at the Yevel of the
ground line on opposite sides
of the hole, and at such a dis-
tance from its axis as just to
clear the crown. The pointers
were hinged to fold back, so Z
as to leave ample space for the Scale, 1 in, to 2 ft.
core-tube to pass freely down.
I should mention that the boring-rods at Ware were made of steel

_ and were tubular, 14 inches inside and 25 inches outside diameter, and

5 feet in length, with screwed ends (fig. 8). They were coupled up by in-
ternally screwed sockets, but when being lowered or raised they were
connected or disconnected in 30 feet lengths. At about 6 feet from the
_ axis of the hole, in a convenient direction, was hung a long fine plumb-line
(fig. 9), towards which a horizontal radial arm, clamped on the boring-rods

448 REPORT—1895.

at 30 feet above the ground, was directed. On the outer end of the
radial arm was an adjustable pointer, the sharp edge of which was set to
almost touch the plumb-line. The rods were slowly lowered for 30 feet,
with every endeavour to avoid rotation, but if the radial pointer did
deviate at all from the plumb-line, this was corrected by gently twisting
the rods. A second radial arm, exactly similar to the first, was then
clamped on at 30 feet higher up, and its pointer accurately set to the
line, after which the lower one was removed. This was repeated until
the marking tool reached the core, and in returning to the surface the
cee of fixing and unfixing the radial arms was performed in reverse
order.

The form of apparatus to be used for establishing a connection between

Fig. 8.

Lorvg rod
f

Ly [ ] Socket

Scale, 1 in. to 2 ft.

the marked diameter on the crown or tube and the unbroken rock, next
claimed attention. Whatever method might be adopted, it was obvious
that it was only whilst the rock was in situ that this relation could be
determined, and consequently the greatest care would be necessary to
ensure that any core operated upon had not been broken off during the revo-
lution of the boring crown. At Ware, the first trial was made in the follow-
ingmanner. Three steel V-shaped cutters (fig. 10) were fixed on the inside
surface of a boring crown, at a distance of 15 inches from its lower end,
and with their cutting edges at such a distance from the axis of the crown
as was about } of an inch less than the radius of the core, whose diameter
was 13} inches. One of these cutters was set on the line of diameter
indicated by the notches on the outside of the crown, and the other two
cutters were placed at equal distances from the same line on the opposite

ON THE DIP OF THE UNDERGROUND PALZOZOIC ROCKS. 449

side of the circle, thus marking distinctively the one end of the diameter from
he other. Crown and cutters were carefully lowered into the bore hole
and over the core at its bottom, with every precaution to maintain the
aforesaid diameter in the same known direction. They were then brought
up with the same care, and so successfully, that the crown returned to fhe
‘surface with its marked diameter exactly in the
direction in which it began to be lowered. Fie. 9.
As a check upon what had been done, a cast was
then taken of the rough top of the stone. To do this,
a tube of a size to encircle the core (fig. 11) was pre- )
pared by fixing a diaphragm in it at a distance of 9
inches above its lower end, and filling in beneath this
diaphragm, to a depth of 6 inches, a mass of wax,
softened with spirit of turpentine, and coloured with
enetian red. A diameter was marked, as in the
preceding case, by notches at either end, and the
whole was lowered upon the core with the same care
o keep the marked diameter in the proper azimuth. “Boring rods
Just before making the imprint, water was pumped
through a pipe, 15 inches in diameter, that passed i
down the middle of both diaphragm and wax. There aes
was thus removed from ine top the sediment that PURER
would otherwise have prevented a true impression
being obtained. The weight of the core-tube, rods,
and boring head, was counterbalanced, so that a pres-
sure of only 10 lbs. per square inch came upon the
surface of the wax, but nevertheless, great difficulty
Was experienced in arriving at the proper consistency
for the plastic material. If too soft, it would not
etain its place until it reached the bottom, and if
too hard, a satisfactory print could not be obtained.
After several failures, the right admixture was hit
upon, and a cast secured. The tube, with its mould
of wax, was then brought up, without having received
the slightest twist from the time it began to descend
to the time at which it again reached the surface. The
core-extractor was afterwards sent down. to bring up
the marked core for examination. On its arrival at
the surface, the three cutter marks were seen in the
form of vertical chases more than three feet each in
length on the outside of the cylinder of rock, and the
rregularities of the top face completely corresponded
with those appearing on the wax cast. By tracing
on the upper end of the core, the diameter marked
on the wax carrier, it was found to coincide exactly
with a line passing through the single chase and mid- Scale, 1 in. to 8 ft.
way between the pair of “chases, affording a complete
} roof of the accuracy with which the proper direction had been maintained

bs ~The Committee being anxious to have full confirmation in every respect

the results thus obtained, a further test was devised. The bottom of

e hole was faced up quite ‘level by the revolution of suitable cutting

| te and a groove about 6 inches deep was formed around the circum-
, 3. GG

450 REPORT—1895.

ference to receive sediment, thus forming a core to that height. The
marked crown (fig. 12) was then prepared by fixing across it, near to the
lower edge, a stout bar, un the under side of which were three strong steel
points, arranged in a straight line on the marked diameter. One steel
point was placed on either side of the
centre, at a distance therefrom of 5 inches,
the third being at 4 inches from the
centre. This served to distinguish one
end of the bar from the other. The crown
was placed over the hole at the ground
level, with the points of the three punches
in a line between the two fixed pointers,

Seale, 1 in. to 2 i. and was lowered without rotation. The
weight of the rods was allowed to come on the points, forcing them a
short distance into the stone, after which the crown was raised, again
without twist, the proof of this being that it returned with its line of
points exactly in their starting position. The core, when broken off and

Fig. 10.

ire. 11.

i7ubular borug rod

")
Y
Y
Y
i
Y
Y
q
A

| Counterbalance of weight
H of waler pe

Core

Scale, 1 in. to 2 ft.

Scale, 1 in. to 2 ft.

brought up, exhibited distinctly the three punch marks, indicating the
line whose bearing was known. The boring was then continued 2 feet
deeper, and an attempt was made to take a wax impression of the mark-
ings, but the attempt proved only, that the smooth surface, to which the

ON THE DIP OF THE UNDERGROUND PALZOZOIC ROCKS. A451

stone had been planed off in order to its being marked with punches, pre-
vented its yielding a proper recognisable impression, owing probably to
adhesion between the two surfaces. The core was therefore detached and
drawn up. It came to the surface in several pieces, but, as the lines of
fracture extended below the bottom of the shallow groove which existed
when the punch marks were made, it was evident that no fracture had
taken place before the rock was marked.

It then remained, in the first place, to measure the angle between the
direction of dip and the diameter marked on the crown or tube;
secondly, to ascertain, by a compass placed beyond the influence of the
iron of the boring machinery, the angle between the direction of the fixed
pointers to which the marked diameters were set and the magnet meridian ;
and, thirdly, to learn from an authentic source, the angle then obtaining
between the magnetic and the true meridian. By this process it was
easily determined that the direction of the dip of the Silurian Rock at
Ware, at a depth of 828 feet below the surface, and 31 feet below the top
of the stratum, is about one degree west of true south. This is a mean
between the angles derived from the two distinct experiments, the varia-
tion between them having been 1° 12’.. The angle of dip is 41° from the
horizon, as was clearly shown by layers of fossils, along which the stone
easily fractured.

At Turnford, the general arrangement of the boring apparatus was
much the same as at Ware, the only difference of any consequence being,
that the rods were connected up in 20 feet instead of in 30 feet lengths.
The means employed in determining the direction of dip were somewhat
similar to those already described, but greater difficulty was encountered
in obtaining reliable results. The complete success that had attended the
experiments at Ware warranted the belief that there would not be the
same necessity for repetition as when the methods were first tried ; but
at the same time it was recognised that every result must in some way be
corroborated before it could be accepted as correct.

In the first instance, three cutters, for making vertical lines on the
outside of the core in the way I have already described, were used. The
precautions which had been successfully adopted to guard against the
angular motion of the marking tool in its descent and ascent were again
employed. But while the said tool was being lowered, an inconsiderate
handling of the apparatus by one of the workmen gave rise to the fear
that some slight disturbance of the true adjustment of that apparatus had
been thereby caused. The marker, on being raised to the surface, came
up, not, as had hitherto happened, in the same position as that from which
it went down, but showed a rotation of 12 of aninch at the circumference,
equal to an angle of 5° 50’. Considering the circumstances attending
the interference that had taken place during the lowering, it was con-
sidered a fair inference that the core had been marked with the tool
turned in the direction in which it came up, not in the position given to
it before it was sent down.

An endeavour was then made to obtain a cast in wax cement in much
the same manner as at Ware, but this proved a failure owing to a piece
that had broken away from the top of the core having fallen against the
side of the hole, so that the tube carrying the wax could not be got down
over it. Although no information was to be looked for in this instance,
still, as a test of the accuracy of the operation, the rods were guided as
usual during their ascent, and when they came up were found not to

G@G2

A452 REPORT—1895.

have twisted in the least. The ‘extractor’ was then lowered to break off
and draw up the core. <A length of 18 inches only was brought to the
surface, and this was in three pieces. Upon each of these pieces the
vertical marks of the cutters were found, and the lines were seen to be so
cut as to show that when they were made, the parts of the core were yet
in their relative positions. The force, moreover, which had to be applied
to break the core before it could be raised, as well as the unrubbed condi-
tion of the lowest of its pieces, sufficed to prove that all the parts were
in situ at the time at which they were marked.

A length of core still remaining fixed at bottom, the wax was sent
down again. This time, the bottom of the marking tube lodged for an
instant during its descent on the top of a lining tube some 800 feet down,
but at once swung off, giving a shock to the rods that caused the radial
arm to strike against the staging and turn slightly round on the rod to
which it was clamped. The lowering was then completed, the impression
taken, and the tube brought up again. It was found to have turned
through an angle of 3° 11’ from the direction in which it stood before
being lowered. Taking into consideration the fact that when no acci-
dental disturbance occurred no variation was observable, and that the
direction of the displacement corresponded with what would be caused by
the blow on the arm, it was clearly justifiable to assume that the angular
movement observed was entirely attributable to the shifting of the de-
scending pointer at the time of the lodgment on the side of the hole. By
taking the bearing of the marked diameter as it returned to the surface
instead of as it commenced to go down, the error due to the misfortune
was corrected. When the core was brought up there was no difficulty in
fitting the wax cast to the rock and transferring the diametrical line.

The two experiments gave identical results, and from this it was com-
puted that the direction ot the dip of the Devonian Rock at Turnford at
a depth of 994 feet below the surface, and 14 feet below the top of the
stratum, is about 17° west of true south. The angle of dip is about 25°
from the horizon, as shown by numerous layers of fossils.

It thus appears that at both places these ancient rocks dip in directions
lying between south and sou’-sou’-west, and by placing ona geological map
of the south-eastern portion of England lines to show the ascertained bear-
ings (fig. 13),it is at once seen that the greatest inclinations of the strata are,
roughly speaking, at right angles to the directions of the chief axes of the
Weald. Soon after the completion of the borings a statement seems to
have been made, without due authority, that the general direction of the dip
had been found to be towards the south-east, and, unfortunately, the mis-
take does not seem to have been publicly refuted untilnow. It is time that
this misconception were removed, for geologists who are interested in the
search for coal in the eastern counties evidently attach considerable impor-
tance to a correct knowledge of the disposition of these Paleozoic rocks.

Mathematical accuracy could not be expected in operations of this
nature, but I believe the bearings of the lines of dip at both places, as
herein given, may be looked upon as practically correct, the maximum pos-
sible error being not more than one degree east or west. Before the various
appliances were perfected there occurred numerous failures to which no
reference has been made, but the details given tend to show that no.trouble
was spared to attain satisfactory results. More than a month was entirely
devoted to this ascertainment of the direction of the dip at each place, and
in some cases several days were spent in a single operation of lowering and

453

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454: REPORT—1895

raising the rods. It will be admitted that all was done with due delibera-
tion and care, whilst the composition of the Committee was a guarantee
that the methods employed were the best adapted for the purpose.

With regard to the still more important question that the New River
Company undertook to solve, viz., that of the existence or the non-exist-
ence of the Lower Green Sand beneath the district north of London, it will
be generally felt that, although very large sums of money were spent,
there is no reason for regretting the expenditure, inasmuch as it decided
a question of the greatest importance to the Metropolis.

Tam glad to have had the opportunity of making known some of the
facts connected with this inquiry, and hope that sufficient evidence has
been brought forward to prove that, the statements now made with respect
to the lie of the Paleozoic rocks at Ware and Turnford may be accepted as
perfectly trustworthy.

Physiological Applications of the Phonograph.—Report by the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor JoHN G. McKEnprick (Chairman),
Professor G. G. Murray, Mr. Davip S. Wineate, and Mr.
Jon S. McKenprick, on the Physiological Applications of the
Phonograph, and on the True Form of the Voice-curves made by the
Instrument.

THE work of the Committee, up to the present time, has devolved almost
entirely upon Dr. McKendrick, who has embodied the results of his
researches in the paper published in the number for July 1895 of the
‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,’ of which the following is an
abstract :—

1. Increasing the Volume of Tone.—The Committee have succeeded in
accomplishing this (1) by the use of conical resonators, of great size, and
made of tin or aluminium ; and (¥%) by combining with the phonograph
Alfred Graham’s transmitter and loud-speaking telephone.

2. Study of the Marks on the Cylinder of the Phonograph.—The physi-
eal nature of the marks on the wax cylinder have been investigated in
the following three ways: (1) Taking a cast in celloidin of the surface
of the cylinder ; (2) taking micro-photographs of portions of the surface
of the cylinder ; and (5) recording the curves on a slowly moving surface.
The best results were obtained by methods (2) and (3), and these will be
found fully described and illustrated by three plates in the ‘Journal of
Anatomy and Physiology’ for July 1895, vol. xxix. (new series ; vol. ix.,
part iv.), p. 583.

The Committee desire reappointment and an additional grant of 251.
It is proposed to carry out the following work during the year 1895-6 :—

1. To continue the investigation of phonographic curves, especially
those of the voice, and to submit these to harmonic analysis.

2. To obtain phonographic records of dialects, with the view of ascer-
taining how far such records could be made available for philological
purposes. It has been suggested that such a series of records, deposited
in the British Museum, might in after times, long after dialects had
become altered or had disappeared, be of great value to philologists.

3. To endeavour to obtain phonographic records of cardiac and respi-
ratory sounds.

we

ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA, ADD

The Marine Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Trish Sea.—-Third
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. C. Happon,
Professor G. B. Howes, Mr. W. E. Hoye, Mr. Clement RE,
Mr. I. C. Tompson, Mr. A. O. WaLKER, Professor F'. E. WEISS,
and Professor W. A. HerpMan (Chairman and Reporter).

As in the previous reports, the work has this year been, of necessity,
chiefly carried out by those members of the Committee who live near the
scene of action, and have been working at the Port Erin Biological
Station. Mr. Clement Reid, however, has been able to undertake in
London some geological investigations of the deposits dredged up and sent
to the Jermyn Street Museum, and his preliminary report will be found
below. Professor Weiss has been prevented by illness from helping in
regard to the botany of the district, but hopes still to undertake the

work. Mr. Walker and Mr. Thompson have contributed special reports

on the Crustacea ; the rest of this report has been drawn up by the
Chairman of the Committee, with the help of various naturalists whose
names are mentioned in connection with their work.

The Committee have carried on their usual exploring work by means
of dredging expeditions and otherwise during the year. The specimens

- obtained have been worked up by specialists, and the most noteworthy

additions to the lists are given below. The Committee do not propose,
however, to give so detailed a report this year, as they desire, if re-
appointed, to draw up for next year’s meeting of the Association at
Liverpool a final report with complete lists, which they would appro-
priately illustrate by the exhibition at Liverpool of the collections made,
and by dredging expeditions, both from Liverpool and Port Erin, to
enable the biologists and geologists present at the meeting to judge of the
work of the Committee and examine their results.

The following, therefore, is merely a brief outline of the work under-
taken during the past year ; with a discussion—for which the chairman
is chiefly responsible—of some parts of the investigations.

DREDGING EXPEDITIONS.

The Committee have organised the following expeditions since the last
report :—

I. August 19, 1894.—Hired steam trawler ‘Lady Loch.’ Localities
dredged, around the Calf Island and to the west of Port Erin, at depths
of about 20 fathoms.

IT. August 25, 1894.-Hired steam trawler ‘Albatross.’ Localities
dredged, the open sea between Isle of Man and Ireland, at depths down
to over 50 fathoms. On this occasion some specimens of the tube-
building polynoid worm Panthalis Oerstedi were obtained, for Mr. Wat-
son’s observations on the building habits, which have since been published.*
We also on this occasion photographed various kinds of deposits and
assemblages of animals as they came up in the dredge.

III. September 30, 1894.—Hired steam trawler ‘ Lady Loch.’
Localities dredged, along the west side of the Isle of Man, at depths down
to 60 fathoms.

1 Trans. Biol. Soc., Liverpool, vol. ix. p. 169.

456 ; REPORT—1895.

IV. April 15, 1895.—Hired steam trawler ‘Lady Loch.’ Localities
dredged, to the west and north-west of Port Erin, at depths of 20 to 40
fathoms.

V. April 25, 1895.—Hired steam trawler ‘Lady Loch.’ Localities
dredged, to the west and south of Port Erin at depths of 30 to 40
fathoms.

At one spot, 6 miles 8.E. of Calf Island, 3! fathoms, bottom sand
gravel and shells, such a rich haul was obtained that the trawl-net tore
away, and only a small part of the contents was recovered. That con-
tained, however, a number of specimens of the rare shrimp Pontophilus
spinosus, Leach, along with Munida rugosa, Ebalia tumefacta and
EF. tuberosa, Xantho tuberculatus, Pandalus brevirostris, Anapagurus
Hyndmanni, Campylaspis sp., and Melphidippella macera amongst crus-
taceans, and the following Echinodermata :—Palmipes membranaceus,
Porania pulvillus, Stichaster rosea, Lluidea Savignii, Synapta inherens,
and other holothurians. There were also, of course, many mollusca,
worms, &¢., and an unfamiliar actinian, which Professor Haddon considers
to be probably his new species Paruphellia expansa, hitherto only known
from deep water off the south-west coast of Ireland.

: VI. June 1, 1895.—Hired steam trawler ‘Lady Loch.’ Localities
dredged, Calf Sound and off 8.E. of Isle of Man, at depths of 15 to 20
fathoms.

VII. June 23, 1895.—Hired steam trawler ‘Rose Ann.’ Localities
dredged, to the W. and N.W. of Peel and Ballaugh, on the ‘ North Bank,’
at depths about 20 fathoms.

VIII. August 3, 1895.—Lancashire Sea Fisheries steamer ‘John
Fell.’ Localities dredged and trawled, Red Wharf Bay and off Point
Lynas, on north coast of Anglesey, at depths of 6 to 17 fathoms.

IX. August 19, 1895.—Steamer ‘John Fell.’ Localities dredged,
Carnarvon Bay, on south coast of Anglesey ; depths 15 to 18 fathoms.

ADDITIONS TO THE FAUNA.

In addition to these ‘steamer’ expeditions there has been frequent
dredging and tow-netting from small boats, and a good deal of ‘shore
collecting.’

Amongst the more noteworthy animals collected in the district during
the year are the following :—

PORIFERA.

The sponge, Mysailla irregularis, Bowerbank, previously only known
from the Diamond Ground, Hastings, was found by Dr. Hanitsch at Port
Erin and at Fleshwick in August and September 1894.

C@LENTERATA.

Mr. Edward T. Browne has drawn up a list of thirty-four species of
Mepvus# which are found in the district, and of these the following are
specially noteworthy :—Amphicodon fritillaria (carrying young hydroids
in the umbrellar cavity), Dysmorphosa minima, Cyteandra areolata (1),
Lizzia blondina Laodice calcarata (new to European seas) and Hutima

ee ee ees

ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 457

insignis! Miss L. R. Thornely reports the addition of Perigonimus
repens to the list of hydroids. The yellow variety of Sarcodictyon
(Clavularia) catenata,of which we dredged several colonies on August 25,
off the north-west of the Calf Island, in 22 fathons, is an interesting
addition to our fauna. It has only been found before in Loch Fyne and
at two other spots on the west coast of Scotland. This is certainly the
Sarcodictyon agglomeratum of Forbes and Goodsir.

VERMES.

Mr. Beaumont reports the following additions to the list of
Nemertipa :—Amphiporus pulcher, A. dissimulans, Tetrastemma flavidum,
Prosorhochmus Claparédii, Micrura purpurea, M. fasciolata, M. candida,
and Cerebratulus fuscus.

During this summer we have dredged from a gravelly bottom, at 10
to 15 fathoms, in two localities near Port Erin, a species of Polygordius,
either P. apogon, M‘Intosh, or a new species.

Amongst Porycua#ra Mr. Sumner records Arenicola ecaudata and
Amphitrite Johnstoni ; Mr. Arnold Watson Autolytus Alexandri (with egg-
sac) and many larval Pectinaria, in membranous tube 3'; inch long.

Amongst Potyzoa Miss Thornely reports the rare Z'riticella Boeck,
found attached to the prawn Calocaris Macandree, from the deep mud off
Port Erin.

Mo..usca.

The following Opisthobranchiata may be mentioned :—Scaphander
lignarius, Pleurobranchus plumula, Oscanius membranaceus, Hlysia
viridis, Runcina Hancocki, Lamellidoris aspera, Polycera Lessonir, Cuthona
aurantiaca, Coryphella gracilis, C. lineata and C. Landsburgi, Facelina
Drummondi, Eolis arenicola, Cratena concinna and C. olivacea, Galvina
Farrani, Embletonia pulchra, Acteonia corrugata, Limapontia nigra,
Lomanotus genet, and a curious little Doris, which has been dredged
several times in the neighbourhood of Port Erin, and is still unidentified.
It may possibly be an unknown species.

CRUSTACEA.

This section is contributed by Mr. I. C. Thompson.and Mr. A. O.
Walker, Mr. Thompson taking the Copepoda and Mr. Walker the higher
forms. The following additional records of Copepoda have, however, been
supplied by Mr. Andrew Scott since Mr. Thompson’s report was drawn up,
viz. :—Sunaristes paguri, Hesse ; Stenhelia reflexa, T. Scott ; Laophonte
intermedia, T. S.; L. propinqua, T. and A. 8.; Cletodes similis, T. 8.;
Modiolicola insignis, Aur. ; and Dermatomyzon gibberum, T. and A. 8. : all
new to our fauna.

CopEPODA.

In the last report mention was made of a new copepod found by Mr.

_I. C. Thompson in dredged material taken outside Port Erin at 15 fathoms.

This has since been described by Mr. Thompson (‘Trans. Liverpool Biol.
Soc.,’ vol. ix. p. 96, plates vi. and vii.) as Psexdecyclopia stephordes.
It was by no means easy to decide into which genus to place this

1 For Mr. Browne’s observations on these and other species see vol. iv. of Fauna
of Liverpool Bay.

458 i REPORT—1895,

well-marked species, as it has strong points of resemblance in common
with the three genera, Psewdocalanus, Stephos, and Pseudocyclopia. With
Pseudocyclopia it agrees in all points excepting in the number of joints in
the anterior antennz, and the primary branch of the posterior antenne,
and as in general appearance and in the first four pairs of swimming feet
it strongly resembles Psewdocyclopia, it was decided provisionally to place
it in that genus. Its fifth pair of feet, however, are more like those of
Stephos. In the ‘Twelfth Annual Report of the Fishery Board for
Scotland’ Mr. Thomas Scott added a new species belonging to this genus
recently found by him in the Forth area. As the genus Psewdocyclopia
forms a sort of missing link between the families Calanide and Miso-
phriide, Mr. Scott has wisely constituted a new family, the Pseudo-
cyclopiide, for its reception. The species of Pseudocyclopia described
by him having respectively sixteen and seventeen joints in the anterior
antenne, he has made that number a family character. The species
here described has, however, twenty joints in the anterior antenne,
and as it otherwise agrees in all respects with the family characters of
Pseudocyclopiide, Mr. Thompson suggested that the words ‘sixteen to
seventeen jointed’ be altered to ‘sixteen to twenty jointed’ as a character
of this new family, with which Mr. Scott at once concurred.

The following species of Copepoda, viz., Diosaccus propinquus, T. and
A. Scott ; Ametra exigua, T. Scott; A. longiremis, T. Scott ; Laophonte
tnopinata, T. Scott; Pseudowestwoodia pygmea, T. and A. S.; and possibly
a new Laophonte and one or two other doubtful species were obtained
from washings from sponges collected by Dr. Hanitsch at Port Erin in
August 1894, and are new to the district.

One specimen of Modiolicola insignis, Aurivillius, also new to the
district, was found in the washings of dredged material taken some miles
off Peel in June 1895. This species is known as a messmate within the
shell of the ‘horse mussel’ (Mytilus modiolus), and has been recorded by
Canu (‘Les Copep. du Boulon.,’ p. 238, plate xxx. fig. 14-20), and more
recently by Mr. Scott from the Firth of Forth.

Mr. A. O. Walker reports as follows on the HicHer Crustacea :—

PoDOPHTHALMATA.

Munida rugosa, Fabr.—One young, April 25, 1895, station 3.

Crangon (Pontophilus) spinosus, Leach.—Several, April 25, 1895,
station 3. Colour: whitish, freckled with reddish-brown on the antennal
scales and legs; sparsely on the front and hind margins of thorax and first
three abdominal segments, and densely on the last three abdominal seg-
ments, hind margin of third and generally front margin of fourth
abdominal segments and proximal half of telson and lateral appendages
milk-white. Length, 2} in.

CUMACEA.

*Cuma pulchella, Sars.—Little Orme, 4-7 fathoms, rocks and sand,
September 14, 1894.
Cumopsis Goodsiri, Sars.—With the last species.

* Those species marked with a star are new to the British fauna.

ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 459

*Hemilamprops assimilis, Sars.—Off Galley Head, Co. Cork, Novem-
ber 24, 1894.

* Rudorella nana, Sars.—Off Port Erin, August 7, 1894, stations 1 and
2; 30-38 f. mud. ~

*Diastylis rugosoides, n. sp.—Galley head, six males. Very near D.
rugosa (Sars), from which it differs in the absence of the vertical plica on
the carapace, and in the strong dorso-lateral teeth on the first three pleon
segments.

TsopopDa.

Cirolana borealis, Lilljeborg.—Galley Head ; off Port Erin, April 25,
1895, station 2.

AMPHIPODA.

A small collection has been made by Mr. R. L. Ascroft, of Lytham,
from traw] refuse and a tow-net attached to the trawl beam when working
in the southern part of the Irish Sea off Galley Head. The most interest-
ing feature of it is that nearly all the specimens are adult males, in which
condition amphipods are less often taken than any other. This may
perhaps be attributed to their having been taken late in November, a
season at which collectors do not generally dredge.

Parathemisto oblivia, Kroyer.—Galley Head.

Callisoma crenata, Bate.—Galley Head ; off Port Erin, April 25, 1895,
station 1.

Hippomedon denticulatus, Bate-—Galley Head.

Orchomenella ciliata, Sars.—Galley Head.

Tryphosites longipes, Bate.—Galley Head.

Lepidepecreum carinatum, Bate.—Galley Head.

*Paraphoxus oculatus, Sars.—Off Port Erin, April 25, 1895, stations 1
and 2.

Harpinia levis, Sars.—Off Port Erin, July 8, 1894, 75 miles west of
Niarbyl Point, 45 f. mud.

Epimeria cornigera, Fabr.—Galley Head,

Syrrhaé fimbriuta, Stebbing and Robertson.—Off Port Erin, April 25,
1895, station 1.

Leptocheirus hirsutimanus, Bate=L. pilosus (Sars nec Zaddach).—
Two miles south-east of Kitterland, 17 f., May 27, 1894.

Photis longicaudatus, Bate-—Off Port Erin, April 25, 1895, stations
2 and 3.

* Photis pollex, n. sp.—Colwyn Bay, shore; Little Orme; Menai Straits,
5-10 f. This species is intermediate between Photis Reinhardi (Kroyer)
and P. tenwicornis (Sars). The hind margin of the propodos of the second
gnathopod in the male is distally produced into a thumb-like process which
has its origin much nearer the carpus than in P. Reinhardi.

Podocerus ocius, Bate-—Sponge débris, Port Erin, 1894.

SOME STATISTICS OF DREDGING RESULTS.

During this year’s work we have been paying some attention to the
actual numbers of individuals, species, and genera brought up in
particular hauls of the dredge or trawl. Our attention has recently been
directed to the matter by some statements in Dr. Murray’s ‘Summary’

4.60 REPORT—1895,

volumes of the ‘Challenger’ Expedition Report which seemed not to be
in accord with our experience, Dr. Murray quotes the statistics of the
Scottish Sea Fisheries Board to show that only 7-3 species of invertebrates
and 8-3 species of fishes are captured on the average by the ‘Garland’s’
beam trawl ;' and he cites as an example of a large and varied haul from
deep water one taken by the ‘Challenger’ at Station 146 in the Southern
Ocean, at a depth of 1,375 fathoms, with a 10-foot trawl dragged for at
most 2 miles during at most two hours, when 200 specimens were cap-
tured belonging to fifty-nine genera and seventy-eight species. Murray
then goes on to say: ‘In depths less than 50 fathoms, on the other hand,
I cannot find in all my experiments any record of such a variety of
organisms in any single haul, even when using much larger trawls and
dragging over much greater distances.’ He must have been singularly
unfortunate in his experiments, as our experience of dredging in the Irish
Sea is that quite ordinary hauls of the dredge or very small trawl (only
4-foot beam) contain often more specimens, species, and genera than
the special case cited from the ‘Challenger’ results. On the first of our .
expeditions after the appearance of Dr. Murray’s volumes we counted the
contents of the first haul of the trawl. The particulars are as follows :—
June 23,7 miles W. of Peel, on North Bank, bottom sand and shells,
depth 21 fathoms, trawl 4 feet beam, down for 20 minutes ; 232 specimens
were counted, but there may well have been another 100; they belonged
to at least 112 species and 103 genera, a larger number in every
respect—specimens, species, and genera—than the ‘Challenger’ haul
quoted. The list of these species is here given, and the marine zoologist
will see at a glance that it is nothing out of the way, but a fairly ordi-
nary assemblage of not uncommon animals such as is frequently met when
dredging in from 15 to 30 fathoms.

SPONGES: | Porania pulvillus

Reniera, sp. |

Halichondria, sp.
Cliona celala
Suberites domuncula
Chalina oculata
C@LENTERATA :
Dicoryne conferta
Halecium halecinum
Sertularia abietina
Coppinia arcta
Hydralimania falcata
Campanularia verticillata
Lafoéa dumosa
Antennularia ramosa
Alcyonium digitatum
Virgularia mirabilis
Sarcodictyon catenata
Sagartia, sp.
Adamsia palliata
ECHINODERMATA:
Cucumaria, sp.
Thyone fusus
Asterias rubens
Solaster papposus
Stichaster roseus

} It has been shown in the Presidential Address to Section D at Ipswich that Dr.

Palmipes placenta

Ophiocoma nigra

Ophiothrix pentaphyllum

Amphiura Chiajit

Ophioglypha ciliata

O. albida

Lehinus sphera

Spatangus purpureus

Echinocardium cordatum

Brissopsis lyrifera

Echinocyamus pusillus
VERMES:

Nemertes Neesii

Chetopterus, sp.

Spirorbis, sp.

Serpula, sp.

Sabella, sp.

Owenia filiformis

Aphrodite aculeata

Polynoe, sp.
CRUSTACEA:

Scalpellum vulgare

Balanius, sp.

Cyclopicera nigripes

Acontiophorus elongatus

Murray must have misunderstood the observations in question,

ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA.

Artotrogus magniceps
Dyspontius striatus
Zaus Goodsiri
Laophonte thoracica
Stenhelia, sp.
Lichomolgus forficula
Anonyx, sp.
Galathea intermedia
Munida bamffica
Crangon spinosus
Stenorhynchus rostratus
Inachus dorsettensis
Ayas coarctatus
Xantho tuberculatus
Portunus pusillus
Eupagurus Bernhardus
E, Prideauxii
E,. cuanensis
Eurynome aspera
Ebalia tuberosa
POLYZOA:
Pedicellina cernua
Tubulipora, sp.
Crisia cornuta

Cellepora pumicosa and three or |

four undetermined
Lepralids
Flustra securifrons
Serupocellaria reptans
Cellularia fistulosa
MOLLUSCA :
Anomia ephippium
Ostrea edulis
Pecten maximus

species of

Pecten opercularis

P. tigrinus

P. pusio

Mytilus modiolus

Nucula nucleus

Cardium echinatum

Lissocardium norvegicum

Cyprina islandica

Solen pellucidus

Venus gallina

Lyonsia norvegica

Scrobicularia prismatica

Astarte sulcata

Modiolaria marmorata

Saxicava rugosa

Chiton, sp.

Dentalium entale

Emarginula fissura

Velutina laevigata

Turritella terebra

Natica Alderi

Fusus antiquus

Aporrhais pes-pelicani

Oscanius membranaceus

Doris, sp.

Holis coronata

Tritonia plebeia
TUNICATA :

Ascidiella virginea

Styelopsis grossularia

Lugyra glutinans

Botryllus sp.

B. sp.

461

In order to get another case, on different ground, not of our own
choosing, on the first occasion after the publication of Dr. Murray’s
volumes, when the Reporter was out witnessing the trawling observa-
tions of the Lancashire Sea Fisheries steamer ‘John Fell,’ he counted,
with the help of Mr. Andrew Scott and the men on board, the results of
the first haul of the shrimp trawl. It was taken on July 23 at the mouth
of the Mersey estuary, inside the Liverpool Bar, on very unfavourable

ground: bottom muddy sand, depth 6 fathoms.

The shrimp trawl

(14-inch mesh) was down for 1 hour, and it brought up over seventeen
thousand specimens referable to the following thirty-nine species belonging

to thirty-four genera :—

Solea vulgaris
Plewronectes platessa
P. limanda

Gadus morrhua

G. eglefinus

G. merlangus

Clupea spratta

C. harengus
Trachinus vipera
Agonus cataphractus
Gobius minutus
Raia clavata

R. maculata
Mytilus edulis

Tellina tenuis
Mactra stultorwm
Fusus antiquus
Carcinus menas
Portunus, sp.
Pagurus Bernhardus
Crangon vulgaris
Sacculina, sp.
Amphipoda (undetermined)
Longipedia coronata
Ectvnosoma spinipes
Sunaristes paguri
Dactylopus rostratus
Cletodes limicola

4.62

Caligus, sp.
Flustra foliacea
Aphrodite aculeata
Pectinaria belgica

REPORT—1895.

Hydractinia echinata
Sertularia abietina
Hydralimania faleata
Aurelia aurita

Nereis, sp.
Asterias rubens

Cyanea, sp.

These numbers have been exceeded on many other hauls in the
ordinary course of work by the Fisheries steamer in Liverpool Bay. For
example, on this occasion the fish numbered 5,943, and I have records of
hauls in which the fish numbered over 20,000. The shrimps probably
number as many again, and if the starfishes and other abundant inverte-
brates are added the total must sometimes reach such enormous numbers
as from 45,000 to 50,000 specimens in a single haul of the trawl in shallow
water, not including microscopic forms. Can any of Dr. Murray’s hauls
on the deep mud beat these figures ?

On the next occasion, when on board the ‘John Fell,’ on our own
expedition of August 3, two members of this committee (A. O. Walker
and W. A. Herdman) identified the species brought up in the first haul
of the trawl (5-inch mesh), taken in Red Wharf Bay, Anglesey, at a depth
of 4-7 fathoms. They were 78 species, belonging tv 67 genera, as follows :—

Solea vulgaris

S. lutea

Pleuronectes platessa
P. limanda

P, jflesus

Gadus morrhua

G. eglefinus

G. merlangus
Callionymus lyra

Raia maculata

Fusus antiquus
Buccinum undatum
Natica Alderi
Pleurotoma,sp.
Philine, sp.

Eolis, sp.

Polycera quadrilineata
Corbula gibba

Mactra stultorum
Scrobicularia alba
Portunus depurator
Corystes cassivelaunus
Hyas coarctatus
Stenorhynchus phalangium
Eupagurus Bernhardus
Crangon vulgaris
Pseudocuma cercarea
Diastylis Rather

D. spinosa

Balanus balanoides
Paratylus Svammerdammii
Harpinia neglecta
Ampelisca levigata
Monoculodes longimanus
Amphilochus melanops
Pariambus typicus
Achelia echinata
Aphrodite aculeata
Nereis, sp.

Terebella, sp.

(7) Syllis, sp.

Serpula, sp.

Spirorbis, sp.

Cellaria sistulosa
Flustra foliacea
Eucratea chelata
Serupocellaria reptans
Bugula, sp.

Cellepora pumicosa

C. avicularis

Porella compressa
Mucronella Peachii
Membranipora membranacea
M. pilosa
Aleyonidium gelatinosum
Vesicularia spinosa
Gemellaria loricata
Lichenopora hispida
Crisia eburnea

C. cornuta

Idmonea ser pens
Asterias rubens
Amphiura squamata
Ophioglypha albida
Tealia crassicornis
Alcyonium digitatum
Clytia Johnstoni®
Lafota dumosa
Hydralimania faleata
Halecium halecinum
Antennularia ramosa
Coppinia arcta
Sertularella polyzonias
Sertularia abietina

S. argentea

Diphasia rosacea

D. tamarisca
Tubularia indivisa

2

ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 463

A point which comes out in making complete lists, such as the above,
of the contents of the net on one haul is the relatively large number of
genera represented by the species.'' In the haul, quoted above, from the
expedition of June 23 the 112 species were referred to 103 genera ; in
the haul from the Fisheries steamer on July 23 the 39 species obtained
belong to 34 genera ; and in the haul on August 3 there were 78 species
and 67 genera. Taking a few instances of particular groups—on August 25,
1894, the 12 species of Tunicata taken in one haul represented 10
genera ; and Mr. Walker reports the following numbers of species and
genera in hauls of the higher Crustacea :—March, 1893, off Rhos, shallow,
19 species in 18 genera ; May 1893, off Rhos, 2 fathoms, 24 species in 21
genera ; July 1893, off Little Orme, 5 to 10 fathoms, 31 species in 28
genera ; October 1893, off Little Orme, 4 to 10 fathoms, 41 species in 36
genera ; September 1894, off Little Orme, shallow, 39 species in 35 genera ;
and April 1895, off Port Erin, 34 fathoms, 40 species in 35 genera.

These figures are particularly interesting in their bearing on the
Darwinian principle that an animal’s most potent enemies are its own
close allies. Is it then the case, as the above cited instances suggest,
that the species of a genus rarely live together ; that if in a haul you get
half-a-dozen species of lamellibranchs, amphipods, or annelids they will
probably belong to as many genera, and if these genera contain other
British species these will probably occur in some other locality, perhaps
on a different bottom, or at another depth? It is obviously necessary to
count the total number of genera and species of the groups in the local
fauna, as known, and compare these with the numbers obtained in par-
ticular hauls. That has been done to some extent with the ‘Fauna’ of
Liverpool Bay, and the following instances may be taken as samples.
The known number of species of higher Crustacea is 90, and these fall into
60 genera. So the genera are to the species as 2 to 3, whereas in the
collections quoted from Mr. Walker above the genera are to the species
on the average about as 28 to 31, or nearly 7 to 8. Again, the total
number of species of Tunicata is 46, and these are referred to 20 genera ;
while in the case given above (August 25, 1894) the 12 species taken on
one spot represented 10 genera, or, a little over a quarter of the species
represented half the genera. These, and many other cases which we
might quote, seem to show that a disproportionately large number of
genera is represented by the assemblage of species at one spot, which
means that closely related species are, as a rule, not found together. We
know of some cases, however, of allied species occurring together, but these
do not necessarily affect the general argument. It is possible also that
sessile animals, such as hydroids and polyzoa, may form a partial excep-
tion, and may differ from wandering forms in their method of competition.
We are accumulating further statistics on these points.

THE SUBMARINE DEPOSITS.

In last year’s report the nature of the deposits forming on the floor
of the Irish Sea was discussed in a preliminary manner. During this
season’s work the bottom brought up on each occasion has been carefully
noted and a sample kept for future study in the Jermyn Street Museum.
One point which this collection of deposits from comparatively shallow

} Dr. Murray, in the ‘ Challenger’ Summary, notes this fact in the case of deep-
sea hauls, but does not seem to recognise its application to shallower waters.

4.64: REPORT—1895.

shore waters seems to bring out is that the classification of submarine
deposits into ‘terrigenous’ and ‘pelagic,’ which was one of the earliest
oceanographic results of the ‘Challenger’ Expedition, and which is still
adhered to in the latest ‘Challenger’ volumes as an accepted classification,
does not adequately represent or express fully the facts. Terrigenous
deposits are supposed to be those formed round continents from the waste
of the land, and are stated to contain on the average 68 per cent. of silica.
Pelagic deposits are those formed in the open ocean from the shells and
other remains of animals and plants living on the surface of the sea above.
Ordinary coast sands and gravels and muds are undoubted terrigenous
deposits. Globigerina and radiolarian oozes are typical pelagic deposits,
But in our dredgings in the Irish Sea, where the deposits ought all to be
purely terrigenous, we meet with several distinct varieties of bottom
which are not formed mostly from the waste of the land, and do not con-
tain anything like 68 per cent. of silica ; but, on the contrary, are formed
very largely of the remains of plants and animals, and may contain as
little as 23 per cent. of silica. Such are the nullipore bottoms, and the
shell sand and shell gravel met with in some places, and the sand formed of
_ comminuted spines and plates of echinoids which we have found off the
Calf Island. These deposits are really much more nearly allied in their
nature, and in respect of the kind of rock which they would probably
form if consolidated, to the calcareous oozes amongst pelagic deposits than
they are to terrigenous deposits, and yet they are formed on a continental
area close to land in shallow water. Moreover, although agreeing with the
pelagic deposits in being largely organic in origin, they differ in being
derived not from surface organisms, but from plants (the nullipores) and
animals which lived on the bottom. Consequently the division of deposits
into ‘terrigenous’ and ‘pelagic’ ought to be modified or replaced by the
following classification :—

1. Terrigenous (Murray’s term)—where the deposit is formed chiefly of
mineral particles derived from the waste of the land.

2. Neritic'—where the deposit is chiefly of organic origin, and is
derived from the shells and other hard parts of the
animals and plants living on the bottom.

3. Planktonic (Murray’s pelagic)—where the greater part of the
deposit is formed of the remains of free-swimming
animals and plants which lived in the sea above the
deposit.

Mr. Clement Reid, F.G.S., to whom the deposits are handed over for
detailed examination, reports as follows :—

‘The series of dredgings examined since the last report is most inter-
esting from a geological point of view. One is again struck by the common
occurrence of loose angular stones at places and depths apparently well
beyond the reach of any bottom drift—at least beyond the reach of
currents likely to move such coarse material. This stony sea-bed is in all
probability the result of submarine erosion of glacial deposits. Its occur-
rence renders comparison between recent marine deposits of these latitudes
and Tertiary deposits a task of peculiar difficulty ; for not only is the
nature of the true marine sediments masked, but the fauna also must be

1 Adopted from Haeckel’s term for the zone of shallow water marine fauna
(see Plankton-Studien, Jena, 1890; also Hickson’s Fauna of Deep Sea, 1894).

ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA, 465

greatly altered. It is evident that numerous species which need a firm
base on which to aftix themselves will be encouraged by a stony bottom ;
while in a Tertiary deposit, formed under identical conditions, except for
the absence of stones, they may be entirely missing, having nothing but
dead shells to which to attach themselves.

‘Notwithstanding this peculiarity of most of the dredgings, a few
samples may well be compared with our Older Pliocene (Coralline Crag).
I would particularly draw attention to certain localities where material
almost entirely of organic origin has been obtained. Of these perhaps the
most interesting are some samples full of Cellaria fistulosa (found to the
south-east of the Calf Sound, 20 fathoms). They are in many respects
strikingly like certain parts of the Coralline Crag. The more ordinary
type of Coralline Crag, with its extremely varied polyzoon fauna, we
cannot yet match in British seas: it was probably formed, as the mollusca
indicate, in a sea several degrees warmer than ours.

‘It was hoped that in the course of these dredgings some light might
be thrown on the Tertiary strata underlying the bed of the Irish Sea, for
in the North Sea the dredge occasionally brings up hauls of Tertiary
fossils. This expectation has not yet been realiseds but possibly, by
dredging in the channels where the submarine scour is greatest, such
deposits may yet be reached. It is very important to obtain some know-
ledge of the Tertiary bed of the Irish Sea, for Irish Pleistocene deposits
contain a considerable admixture of extinct forms, which may be derived
from Tertiary deposits below the sea-level.. The Glacial Drift of Aber-
deenshire contains Pliocene Volutes and Astartes, derived from. some
submarine deposit off the Aberdeenshire coast. The so-called ‘‘ Middle
Glacial Sands” of Norfolk are full of shells which I now believe to be
derived from some older deposit, probably beneath the sea.’

The important influence of the shore rocks upon the littoral fauna has
not been neglected, and lists and observations are accumulating, but that
subject is left over for a fuller discussion in the final report next year.

OTHER INVESTIGATIONS.

Several new lines of investigation have been started during the yeat,
and are still in progress. One of these may be called the ‘larval-attach-
ment inquiry,’ and consists in sinking in various parts of the bay an
apparatus composed of a rope weighted at one end and buoyed at the
other, and having a number of slips of glass, slate, wood, &c., attached at
equal distances along its length. These ropes are hauled up and examined
periodically, and may be expected when further observations have been
taken to give information as to the times and modes of attachment of the
larve of various species, and also as to the most suitable substances for
particular kinds of larve to settle down upon. So far glass seems the
favourite substance, and a surprisingly large number of alge compared
with the animals have appeared.

© Drirt BorrLes’ AND SURFACE CURRENTS.

In connection with the investigation of the surface life, in discussing
the appearance and disappearance of swarms of certain Copepoda and
Medusz, and in considering the possible influence of the movements of
such food matters upon the migrations of fishes, and also in connection

rae = movements of the fish ova and floating embryos, it occurred to
5, HOW

4.66 REPORT—1895.

us that it would be worth while to try to ascertain the set of the chief
currents, tidal! or otherwise, such as the movement of surface waters
caused by prevalent winds. The Prince of Monaco started a few years
ago the system of distributing over the North Atlantic large numbers of
small floating copper vessels, with the object of finding out where they
drifted to. This plan we have adopted, with slight modifications, and in
September 1894 we started the distribution of what may be called ‘ drift
bottles’ over the Irish Sea. A small, strong, buoyant bottle, measuring
7°5 cm. by 1:8 cm., which seemed well suited for the purpose, and which
costs only 7s. per gross, was selected. A notice was drawn up, as follows,?
to go in the bottles, and a large number of copies were printed and numbered
consecutively.

Anyone who finds this is earnestly requested to write the
place, and date when found, in the space (on the other side) for
the purpose, place the paper in an envelope, and post it to

Proressor HERDMAN,
University College,
LIVERPOOL.

Postage need not be prepaid.
Turn over.
[OTHER SIDE. ]
Please write distinctly, and give full particulars.
Locate, where: foulid:'! 00. west oat oan ae ee. :

Ce ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ei 2 ie

ee ee ee ee ee ee ee |

Darawhen-fonndeiwe Nites. bs. Nate alow 2 ee
Name and address of sender

eee eee eee ee ee ee ee eee ee eee ee ee ee re |

Ct ee ee er rr

A paper was then placed in each bottle, so folded that the number
could be readily seen through the glass, the cork was well pressed down,
and dipped in melted paraffin. Some hundreds of these bottles have,
since September 30, been dropped into the sea in various parts of our
area, a record being kept of the locality and time when each was set free.
Many have been let off at intervals of a quarter of an hour from the Isle
of Man steamer in crossing to Douglas and back, and from our trawler
when dredging between Port Erin and Ireland. Some dozens have been
let off from Mr. Alfred Holt’s steamers in going round to Holyhead and
in coming down from Greenock. Mr. Dawson on the Fishery steamer
‘John Fell’ has distributed a number along the coast in the northern part
of the district, and others have been set free at stated intervals during
the rise and fall of the tide from the Morecambe Bay Light Vessel, and
Lieutenant Sweny has kindly arranged to have a similar periodic distri-
bution from the Liverpool North-west Light Vessel. Altogether, nearly
33 per cent., or about one in three of the papers distributed, have been

} The tidal currents of the district are already to some extent known, and are
marked in the charts and given in books of sailing directions, as Admiral Beechy’s
Tidal Streams of the Irish Sea; but we desire to ascertain the resultant currents from
all influences which would affect the drift of small floating bodies.

* Afterwards printed stamped postcards were substituted for these papers, and a
slightly larger size of bottle was used.

ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 467

subsequently picked up on the shore and returned duly filled in and signed.
They come from various parts of the coast of the Irish Sea—Scotland,
England, Wales, Isle of Man, and Ireland. Some of the bottles have
gone quite a short distance, having evidently been taken straight ashore
by the rising tide. Others have been carried an unexpected length, e.g.,
one (No. 35), set free near the Crosby Light Vessel, oft Liverpool, at
12.30 p.m., on October 1, was picked up at Saltcoats, in Ayrshire, on
November 7, having travelled a distance of at least 180 miles! in thirty-
seven days ; another (H. 20) was set free near the Skerries, Anglesey, on
October 6, and was picked up, one mile north of Ardrossan, on November 7,
having travelled 150 miles in thirty-one days; and bottle No. 1, set free
at the Liverpool Bar on September 30, was picked up at Shiskin, Arran,
about 165 miles off, on November 12. On the other hand, a bottle
(J. F. 34) set free on November 7, at the Ribble Estuary, was picked up
on November 12 at St. Anne’s, having gone only 4 miles.

It would be premature as yet—until many more dozens or hundreds
have been distributed and returned—to draw any very definite conclusions.
It is only by the evidence of large numbers that the vitiating effect of
exceptional circumstances, such as an unusual gale, can be eliminated.
Prevailing winds, on the other hand, such as would usually atiect the
drift of surface organisms, are amongst the normally acting causes which
we are trying to ascertain. We may, however, state, for what they are
worth, the following results obtained so far :—(1) Nearly 50 per cent. of
the bottles found have been carried across to Ireland, and they are chiefly
ones that had been set free in the southern part of the district (between
Liverpool and Holyhead) and off the Isle of Man ; (2) the bottles set free
along the Lancashire coast and in Morecambe Bay seem chiefly to have
been carried to the south and west, to about Mostyn and Douglas ;
(3) it is apparently only a few that have been carried out of the district
through the North Channel, It is interesting to learn that the Fishery
Board for Scotland has also commenced a similar inquiry by the distribu-
tion of floating bottles in the Scottish territorial waters. No account of
their experiment has yet appeared, but it will be of some importance to
compare results with them, say, at the end of the first year’s work.

The Committee apply to be reappointed for one additional year, with
a grant of 50/., to enable them to carry on their investigations and draw
up a final report.

The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Fifth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor A. NewTon (Chairman), Dr.
W. T. Buanrorp, Dr. S. J. Hickson, Professor C. V. RiLEy, Mr.
O. Satvin, Dr. P. L. Scuater, Mr. E. A. Smitu, and Mr. D.
Suarp (Secretary).

Tur Committee was appointed in 1890, and has been annually re-
appointed. Acting jointly with that appointed by the Royal Society for
the same purposes, it decided, as stated in its Report made at Oxford, that
Mr. Perkins should return home from the Sandwich Islands. He accord-

if More probably, very much further, as during that time it would certainly be
carried backwards and forwards by the tide.
HH 2

468 REPORT-—1895.

ingly arrived in England last autumn, and for the next four months was
engaged in overhauling the very large collections he had previously made.
These proved to be of great importance, and the Committee has gratefully
to acknowledge the zeal and perseverance displayed by Mr. Perkins in
carrying out its wishes. As was to be expected, close examination made
it evident that much still remained to de done to complete the Commit-
tee’s work of exploration. From the information given by Mr. Perkins,
it was clear that, unless the deficiencies be made good without loss of time,
this will never be done, the extinction of many members of the still
existing Fauna being not only inevitable, but immediate. The Com-
mittee, believing that it would be a matter for serious regret if the task,
on which so much labour and money have already been expended, were
left unfinished, resolved to send Mr. Perkins out again. With this object
it applied to the Council of the Royal Society for the sum of 100/., which
was granted, in order that he might start without delay, so as to take
advantage of the most favourable season of the present year. Mr. Perkins
reached Honolulu before the end of March last, and has since been
working, chiefly in the islands of Kauai and Hawaii.
The Committee has also to report that a proposal has been received
’ from the trustees of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum in Honolulu, offering,
on certain conditions, to contribute liberally to the expenses of the investi-
gation your Committee is carrying on. Briefly stated, these terms are
that the trustees of the Museum in question are to have the third set of
the specimens collected by Mr. Perkins. Authority to treat with this
Museum was given by the Government Grant Committee of the Royal
Society, and it is hoped that the British Association will also approve of
this course.
The Joint Committee has also decided that the first set of the birds
collected by Mr. Perkins shall be placed in the British Museum, and the
second set in that of the University of Cambridge.
Since the last report attention has been directed to working out the
collections and furnishing detailed accounts thereof. A report on the
Orthoptera is daily expected from Herr Hofrath Brunner von Wattenwyl;
Lord Walsingham has commenced the examination of the Micro-Lepi-
-Aoptera, Mr. E. Meyrick that of the larger Lepidoptera. The Mollusca
whave been entrusted to Mr. E. R. Sykes, who is working at them with
the assistance of Mr. E. A. Smith. The Neuroptera have been sent to
Mr. R. McLachlan. Mr. Perkins has published a second paper on the
Birds ; he also, while he was in this country last winter, made considerable
progress in working out the Hymenoptera. The Rev. F. O. Pickard
Cambridge has looked over the Spiders hitherto received, and estimates
them at about 200 species, of which it is probable the majority may prove
to be new. The extensive series of Coleoptera is being prepared, at the
‘Cambridge University Museum, for examination.

The Committee is at present in want of funds to maintain Mr.
Perkins in the islands until it receives money on accoun’ of the proposed
.agreement with the trustees of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum. It there-
fore asks for reappointment, with power to avail itself of the assistance
yf this Museum, and for a grant of 1001.

i
.
‘

ON THE LABORATORY OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. 469

Investigations made at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Associa-
tion at Plymouth.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. C.
Bourne (Chairman), Professor E. Ray LaNKESTER (Secretary),
Professor M. Foster, and Professor S. H. Vines.

PAGE
I. On a Blood-forming Organ in the Larva of Magelona. By FLORENCE

BUCHANAN, b.Sc. . . : : . : : i . 469
II. On the Nervous System of the Embryonic Lobster. By Epaar J.

ALLEN, B.Sc. . ‘ : é ‘ : ; i : 4 . 470
Il. On the Echinoderm Fauna of Plymouth. By J.C. SUMNER . : a 47h

Tur Committee were appointed to enable Mr. Edgar J. Allen or other
zoologist to investigate the Decapod Crustacea, and Mr. J. J. Lister to.
work at the Foraminifera at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological
Association. ’

The Committee have received a report from Miss Florence Buchanan,
B.Sc., held over from last year on account of ill-health, in addition to Mr.
Edgar J. Allen’s report, and that of Mr. J. C. Sumner, who occupied the
table in January and February 1895,

I. On a Blood-forming Organ in the Larva of Magelona.
By Fuorence Bucuanay, B.Sc.

In August of 1893 the British Association kindly allowed me the use
of their table at Plymouth for the purpose of studying the development of
Magelona. I was unfortunately prevented from working out the material
collected there in time to present my report to the last meeting ; and even
now what new observations I have to record concern the development
of the vascular system only, and I must leave the development of the
other organs, or systems of organs, to be described later by myself or
some other investigator from a more extended series of stages than I at
present possess.

There is a good deal of individual variation with regard to the time
of the first appearance of the vascular system, as there is, indeed,
with regard to that of other organs also, in the larva of Magelona. I
have seen a well-developed pulsatile dorsal vesicle, the so-called ‘heart,’
in larve with only eight or nine segments, all bearing provisional chete,
whilst in other larve with a good many more segments there has been

no trace of such structure, nor of vascular sytem at all. The “heart,”

which is always the first part of the system to make its appearance, and
the dorsal and ventral vessels after it are formed, to begin with, by the
accumulation of a transparent fluid between the splanchnic layer of
mesoblast and the hypoblast, beginning anteriorly, and thereby causing
a pouching of the splanchnic mesoblast in front to form the walls of the
‘heart,’ which lies mainly in front of the hypoblastic portion of the
alimentary canal and over the pharynx, and gradually extending back-
wards. By the time that the larva has reached the stage in which the
body is divided into three regions, and sometimes before the loss of the
provisional cheetz of the middle region, there is seen in the living larva
at the posterior end of the dorsal vessel, or of what is going to become
the dorsal vessel, and in the middle region of the body, a dark reddish-
brown mass. This is seen in sections to consist of a much swollen
portion of the splanchnic mesoblast in which there are many nuclei, but
no distinct cell boundaries, and completely blocking up the space between
it and the hypoblast. In later stages, when the splanchnic mesoblast has

4.70 REPORT—1895.

closed round so as to nip off the dorsal and ventral vessels entirely from
the hypoblast, this brown body is no longer to be seen ; but floating in the
liquid of both dorsal and ventral vessels, and also in the vessels of the
tentacles, are pale pink-coloured corpuscles, which in sections are seen to
have the appearance of broken-off bits of the dark body present in the
earlier stage, and containing for the most part each more than one
nucleus. There seems to me to be very little doubt that by the further
breaking up of such multinucleate corpuscles the blood-corpuscles of the
adult (which were described by Benham at the meeting of the British
Association last year) would be formed. I was unfortunately not able to
obtain later larval stages and to observe this breaking up going on. But
I think my sections of what stages I have justify me in concluding that
the peculiar dark body of the middle region of the larva is a corpuscle-
forming organ. I do not, however, wish to maintain that all the cor-
puscles of the adult are formed from this larval organ ; on the contrary,
to judge by sections of the adult, which Dr. Bles kindly lent me to look
through whilst I was at Plymouth, I think this is at least a special blood-
forming region in the dorsal vessel of the adult ; but, without having
intermediate stages, and a complete series of sections of the adult, I
‘cannot say whether this region corresponds to that in which the larval
organ lies. I should like to point out the resemblance which this pro-
visional larval organ bears, both in structure and position, to what I have
called the ‘vascular ridge’ in part of the dorsal vessel of MHekatero-
branchus (‘Q.J.M.S.,’ xxxi. pp. 183, 184, pl. xxii. fig. 6). Like other
members of the family Spionide, Hekaterobranchus has no corpuscles
in its blood, and the presence of an organ in the dorsal vessel so closely.
resembling the one in the dorsal vessel of the larval Magelona suggests,
in the light of the facts I have stated above, either that it at one time
did have blood-corpuscles formed by a special organ, now persisting only as
a vestigial rudiment, or that an organ once having some other significance
in both animals has acquired a new significance in the one (Magelona).

II. On the Nervous System of the Embryonic Lobster.
By Evear J. Auien, B.Sc.

Whilst occupying a table at the Marine Biological Association’s
Laboratory during June and July 1894 I was enabled to continue my
observations on the nervous system of the embryonic lobster. The
observations were carried on, as before, with the aid of methylen-blue.

Additional elements connecting the various ganglia of the thorax
with the brain were observed, and their course followed. In the nine
ganglia of which the thoracic nerve-chain is really composed, such
elements have now been demonstrated in the second (with branches to
first and third), the fifth (with branches to fourth and sixth), the eighth
(with branches to seventh and ninth), and in the eleventh (with branches
to tenth and first abdominal). In this way all the eleven ganglia of the
thorax, together with the first abdominal ganglion, are put into direct
communication with the brain by means of the four elements whose cells
lie in the second, fifth, eighth, and eleventh ganglia.

Of elements belonging to new types which were observed the most
interesting were those motor elements which, taking origin in a single
cell, gave rise to two or more branches, which passed out of the central
nervous system by the nerve-roots of different ganglia. For example, a

Ses = Cl.

ON THE LABORATORY OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. 471

cell lying in the anterior portion of the lateral mass of ganglion cells in
the eighth thoracic ganglion was seen to give off a moderately fine fibre,
which divided into two branches, one branch passing immediately out of
the ganglion through the anterior nerve-root, whilst the other ran for-
wards along the ganglionic cord. The forward branch pursued a perfectly
straight course until it reached the third thoracic ganglion, where it gave
off a branch passing out through the posterior root of the ganglion, and
then continued to run forwards to the second thoracié ganglion, passing
out through its posterior root. Hence this element, the cell of which lay in
the eighth thoracic ganglion, supplied fibres to three nerve-roots belonging to
different ganglia, namely, the anterior root of Thorax VIII., the posterior
root of Thorax III., and the posterior-root of Thorax II. A number of
additional elements were also found in the abdomen. These resemble in
a general way those of the thorax, and will be described in detail in a
paper which will be published in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
Science.’

III, On the Echinoderm Fauna of Plymouth. By J. C. SuMNER.

On receiving the nomination to the British Association Table at
Plymouth, I went down in the early part of January with the intention
of working at the Echinoderm fauna of the neighbourhood. Unluckily,
during the greater part of the time the weather was too bad to permit of
any dredging or trawling being done outside the Sound. In consequence
the following list is largely compiled from specimens already in the
collections at Plymouth. One unnamed specimen in a bottle turned out
to be Amphiura Chiajii. It was taken two miles 8. of the Breakwater,
and I believe has not been recorded so far south before.

Crinoidea :
Antedon rosacea . . . - Common.
Ophiuroidea :
Ophiura ciliaris . ; - . Common.
Ophiura albida . : . . Rare. [on sand.

Ophiocnida brachiata . ‘ . Once taken two miles S. Yealm Head
Ophiocoma nigra : ; . Common.

Ophiothrix fragilis. 3 ; if

Amphiura elegans
Amphiura Chiajii

Asteroidea:

”
. One taken two miles §. Breakwater.

Astropecten irregularis
Lindia ciliaris :
Hippasterias phrygiana
Porania pulvillus
Asterina gibbosa.
Palmipes membranacea

. Rare.

IA) sc
. Not common.

”

. ”
. Very common,
. Rare.

Solaster papposus . Common,

Henricia sanguinolenta . Rare.

Asterias glacialis . Common.

Asterias rubens . 9
Echinoidea :

Echinus acutus . . Common.

Echinus miliaris .
Echinus esculentus .
Spatangus purpureus .

Echinocardium cordatum ,

Echinocyamus pusillus

”

s ”
. Fairly common,

”
. Rare.

472 REPORT—1895.

Holothuroidea :
Cucumaria Hyndmanni ; . Rare.
Cucumaria pentactes . : . Common.
Cucumaria lactea , =
Thyone fusus_. J ; . Rare.
Holothuria nigra : : . Common.

In conclusion I can only say that I hope to be able to revisit Plymouth
before long. ‘

The present state of our knowledge of the Zooloqy and Botany of
the West India Islands, and on taking steps to investigate
ascertained deficiencies in the Fuuna and Flora.—LHighth Report
of the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. ScLater (Chairman),
Mr. GeorGE Murray (Secretary), Mr. W. Carrursers, Dr.
A. C. L. G. GtntHer, Dr. D. SHarp, Mr. F. DuCane Gopmay,
and Professor A. NEWTON.

. Ta1s Committee was appointed in 1887, and it has been reappointed each
year until the present time.

The Committee have made no fresh collections during the past year,
but have continued the work of dealing with those already made ; and
the following papers have been published, or are complete and ready
for publication :—

1, Additional notes on Mr. Elliott’s Hepatic, by Antony Gepp, M.A.
(Journal of Botany).

2. On some small collections of Odonata (Dragonflies) from the West
Indies, by W. F. Kirby, F.L.S. (Annals and Magazine of Natural
History). ee

3. On the Longicorn Coleoptera of the West India Islands, by C. J.
Gahan, M.A. (Transactions Entomological Society).

. 4. Report on the Hemiptera of the families Anthocoridz and Cerato-
combidee, by Professor Uhler (Zoological Society).

5. Report on the Hemiptera Heteroptera of the island of Grenada, by
Professor Uhler (Zoological Society).

6. Report on the Hemiptera Homoptera of St. Vincent, by Professor
Uhler (Zoological Society).

The examination of the following collections has been undertaken :—

Diatomaceous earths, by Mr. E. Grove.

The Scolytide, by Mr. W. F. H. Blandford.

The Diptera of Grenada, by Professor Williston.

The Lepidoptera Heterocera, by Messrs. Butler and Hampson.
The land and fresh-water shells, by Mr. E. A. Smith.

The Elateride and Heteromera, by Mr. Champion.

The Phytophaga and Lamellicornia, by Mr. Gahan.

The Buprestidze, by Captain Kerremans.

The Committee recommend their reappointment, without a grant, to
continue the working out of the collections, the following to be mem-
bers :—Dr. Sclater (Chairman), Dr. Giinther, Dr. Sharp, Mr. Godman,
Mr. Carruthers, Mr. G. F. Hampson, and Mr. George Murray (Secretary).

(ey)

MIGRATION OF BIRDS, 47

Index Generum et Specierum Animulium.—Report of a Committee, con-
sisting of Sir W. H. FLower (Chairman), Mr. P. L. Sctarer, Dr.
H. Woopwarp, and Mr. W. L. Scuater (Secretary), appointed
for superintending the Compilation of an Index Generuin et Specierum
Animalium,

Tne Committee have received from Mr. C. Davies Sherborn the following
report of work done since the last meeting of the Association.

Report of Work done from July 1, 1894, to June 30, 1895.

Considerable progress has been made in recording during the past
year, no less than 480 books and pamphlets having been searched page by
page. The chief works dealt with were the F rench dictionaries of the
early part of the century ; and when it is mentioned that one of these
(‘ Dictionnaire des Sciences naturelles’) runs to sixty volumes of 500 pages
each, some idea of the labour expended will be arrived at.

The determination of exact date of publication has been proceeded
with, the chief results comprising—

‘Sowerby’s Recent and Fossil Shells.’
‘Shaw’s Naturalist’s Miscellany.’
‘Moore’s Lepidoptera Indica.’

Remembering the generous gift of the Association last year, the
compiler does not ask for a grant on this occasion, but merely for the
reappointment of the Committee.

A. Newton (Chairman), Mr. Joun Corpraux (Secretary), Mr.
J. A. Harviz-Brown, Mr. Wm. EaGieE Cuarke, Mr. R. M.
BaRRINGTON, and the Rey. E. Ponsonsy KNusiey, appointed to
make a Digest of the Observations on the Migration of Birds at
Lighthouses and Light-vessels.

Tur Committee have to zeport that one of their number, Mr. Wm. Eagle
Clarke, has, after very great labour, completed the tabulation, on 2,500
prepared sheets, of the schedules sent in during nine years from the
lighthouses and light-vessels on the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland,
not a single entry in the original schedules having been omitted. These
tabulated sheets have reference to the various birds observed on migration
under the separate headings of species, locality, and date.

There now remains the real and most important part of the work—
the results arrived at by the nine years’ observation—and in order to
complete this it is necessary again to consult the vast pile of original
schedules with reference to several important headings having connection
with meteorological conditions and direction of flight.

47 4 REPORT—1895.

Your Committee trust that the final report will be ready for presenta-
tion at the next meeting of the Association in 1896, and respectfully ask
for their reappointment.

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Nuples.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. Scuater, Professor E. Ray
LANKESTER, Professor J. Cossar Ewart, Professor M. Foster.
Professor S. J. Hickson, Mr. A. Sepe@wick, and Mr. Percy
SLADEN (Secretary).

APPENDIX PAGE
I—The Maturation and Fecundation of the Ova of certain Echinoderms
and Tunicates. By M. D. Hill. F : 475
Il.—-List of Naturalists who have norked at the "Zoological Station from
July 1, 1894, to June 30,1895 . 477

III.—List of Papers which were published in 1894 by Naturalists who
have occupied Tables in the Zoological Station . . . . - 478

Tue Table in the Naples Zoological Station hired by the British Asso-
ciation has been occupied during the past year, under the sanction of your
Committee, by Mr. M. D. Hill, who has continued his investigations on
the maturation and fecundation of the ova of certain Echinoderms and
Tunicates, and has arrived at several interesting and original conclusions,
which are briefly sketched out in the appended report of his work which
Mr. Hill has furnished.

Your Committee would draw attention to the concluding remarks
in Mr. Hill’s report respecting the advantages attending the occupation
of a table at Naples apart from the exceptional facilities for special and
predetermined investigations ; and your Committee consider that this
furnishes an argument which is alone more than sufficient to justify the
continuance of the grant.

Your Committee trust that the General Committee will sanction the
payment of the grant of 100/., as in previous years, for the hire of the
Table in the Zoological Station at Naples.

The efficiency of the Station in promoting research is now so universally
recognised that a recapitulation is unnecessary ; and it is an eloquent
fact that notwithstanding the rapid multiplication of biological laboratories
throughout Europe and America, the number of naturalists who avail
themselves of the Naples institution averages between fifty and sixty
annually.

Perhaps the most far-reaching move yet undertaken by the Zoological
Station consists in the establishment of a small Zoological Station on New
Britain (also known as Neu Pommern), an island adjacent to New Guinea.
Mr. Parkinson, a planter, who had lived there for some years, recently
called upon Dr. Dohrn in Naples, and expressed his willingness to erect a
small building on his estate suitable for a laboratory, if the Naples Station
would provide all the necessary apparatus. This generous offer was
accepted, and the requisite equipment was duly despatched from Germany
and Naples last September.

At the same time Mr. Arthur Willey, whose name is well known for
his work on Tunicates and Amphioxus, and who has previously occupied

AT THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 475

the British Association Table, announced his intention of going to New

Britain for the purpose of studying the anatomy and embryology of
Nautilus pompilius, and kindly offered to assist in the erection and
management of the new laboratory.

Dr. Dohrn laid great stress on the necessity of instructing native
fishermen for the service of the new Station in order to save European
naturalists as much as possible all bodily exertion connected with their
scientific pursuits, and to enable them to concentrate full energy on their
mental work. With this object in view Mr. Parkinson has sent two
young Papuans to Naples, and they are now being instructed by Signor
Salvatore Lobianco in the various and well-known arts of the Zoological
Station. From the latest accounts received from Naples this novel
experiment of transforming two Papuans into biological fishermen offers
every prospect of success.

This new Colonial Station will remain under the control of the Naples
Station, and Dr. Dohrn hopes soon to make known such regulations and
conditions as may enable competent naturalists to work there profitably
and successfully.

The progress of the various publications undertaken by the Station is
summarised as follows :—

1. Of the ‘Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel,’ the monograph
by Dr. W. Miiller on ‘Ostracoda’ (404 pp., 40 plates), has been published.
Monographs by Dr. Biirger on ‘Nemertinea’ and by Dr. Jatta on
‘Cephalopoda’ are in the press.

2. Of the ‘Mittheilungen aus der Zoologischen Station zu Neapel,’
vol. xi., parts iii. and iv., with 11 plates, have been published.

3. Of the ‘ Zoologischer Jahresbericht,’ the whole ‘ Bericht’ for 1893
has been published.

4. A new and thoroughly revised German edition of the ‘ Guide to the
Aquarium’ has been published.

The details extracted from the general report of the Zoological Station,
which have been courteously furnished by the officers, will be found at
the end of this report. They embrace lists (1) of the naturalists who
have occupied tables since the last report, and (2) of the works published
during 1894 by naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station.

The preserved specimens sent out by the station during the year
ending June 1895 comprised 180 consignments, amounting to about
14,900 fr., as against 194 consignments amounting to 17,687-70 fr. in the
preceding year.

I. Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Mr. M. D.. Hitt.

I occupied the Table of the British Association from October 1, 1894,
to February 20, 1895.

I investigated the maturation and fecundation of the ova of certain
Echinoderms and Tunicates in order to clear up, if possible, certain
debated points, more especially as regards the origin and behaviour of the
centrosome. When I began to work, Fol’s account of the ‘Quadrille des
Centres’ had been accepted unchallenged, and so gratifying were his

results from a theoretical standpoint, that several text-books had re-
produced his figures as being true representations of what actually

A476. REPORT—1895.

occurs. Since sending in an account of my work to await publication,
two memoirs ! have appeared dealing with the same subject. Theauthors
have arrived at practically the same results, and as they all agree very
closely, it is unnecessary to recapitulate mine at any length. It will be
sufficient to state that according to all three accounts there is nothing
resembling a ‘quadrille’ ; the centrosomes and astrospheres owe their
origin to the ‘body’ of the spermatozoon ; and there is no trace of an
egg-centre or egg astrosphere. In the finer details, however, our accounts
ditfer somewhat, and I venture to think that Messrs. Wilson & Matthews
have entirely, and Professor Boveri partly, overlooked the true centro-
some. The two former authors describe the astrosphere as containing
no centrosome proper, but in its place a network closely resembling an
ordinary nuclear reticulum. This condition is maintained throughout.
Boveri, on the other hand, finds a minute deeply-staining centrosome
shortly after the sperm head has penetrated into the ovum. In the later
stages this centrosome swells up into a large hollow vesicle. I agree with
Boveri in his first statement, but believe that later on he has missed the
true centrosome, and has figured and described as a vesicle the ‘heller
Hof,’ for I find at this stage a deeply-staining sharply-defined centrosome
‘in the midst of a clear ‘heller Hof.’ My attention was chiefly confined
to Sphaerechinus granularis, and it may be, though it seems highly
improbable, that a different process may take place in different species.

In the tunicates Phallusia mamillata and Ciona intestinalis I found
much the same relations as in the Echinoderms as regards the origin and
behaviour of the centrosome, and for this investigation the Ascidian ovum
proved a very favourable object to study. I have been able to trace
carefully the maturation and fertilisation in Phallusia, and have coupled
my results in one paper with those [ obtained from studying the
Echinoderms. I was also able, though with rather less certainty, to make
out the number and mode of division of the chromosomes during
maturation. The nucleus of the ovocyte I. (to use Boveri's well-known
nomenclature) contains eight chromosomes. From their subsequent
behaviour I see no reason to suppose that they form two ‘ Vierer Gruppen,’
but look upon them as of equal independent value. The eight chromo-
somes divide by transverse division into sixteen for each polar body,
eight therefore remaining in the nucleus of the ovum (female pro-nucleus).
There is therefore, here at any rate, no ‘ reducing’ or ‘equalling’ division.
Owing to the very small size and close approximation together of the
chromosomes, this part of the work was attended with considerable
difficulty.

The sperm head breaks up into eight chromosomes, and the first
segmentation spindle therefore contains sixteen, the normal number for
the species.

It would be out of place to discuss here the bearing these results may
have on points of general cytology, or on those theories of heredity which
have been based on observations of like phenomena in other forms, above
all, in Ascaris megalocephala.

Before closing this report, however, I should like to emphasise once
more the great advantages which an occupation of a Table at the Naples

' Boveri, ‘Ueber das Verhalten der Centrosomen bei der Befruchtung des Seeigel-
Kies, Verhandl. des Phys.-med. Gesell. zu Wiirzburg, Bd. xxix., 1895. Werlson and
Matthens, ‘Maturation, Fertilization, and Polarity in the Evhinoderm Egg.’ Journ.
of Morphol., vol. x., No. 1.

AT THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 477
- Station has for a student of zoology, and especially for one who like
_ myself had just finished his University course. Although original research
is doubtless the main object of most who goto Naples, still it is impossible
to over-estimate the value of the knowledge gained" by seeing and becoming
acquainted with the rich fauna of the bay. Personally speaking, to observe
alive so many forms only seen before in drawings, or at most as preserved
specimens, has been a source of keen enjoyment. Further, the intercourse
with men of other nationalities, and of other ideas and methods, cannot
but have a beneficial effect on those who stay for any length of time.
‘For these privileges my sincere thanks are due to the Committee of the
British Association.

Bat, A’ List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station from
the end of June 1894 to the end of June 1895.

Wum- State or University | Duration of Occupancy
| ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table
List was made use of Arrival Departure
804 | Prof J. Ogneff . . | Russia July 1,1894 | Aug. 19, 1894
805 | Dr. G. Mazzarelli Italy ABIL, 5 —
806 | Stud. V. Diamare . 3 ot walt eh —
807 | Prof. F. S. Monticelli a samelbaekis Nov. 17, ,,
808 | Prof. D’Abundo 3 ee ee Sept. 5, ,,
809 | Dr.N.Leén . Rumania . it det tse) Opti Zoran,
810 | Prof. Della Valle Italy cit lelercs oe 18,
811 | Mag. J. PE RSUNSEN.|- Russia : aks: As Feb. 6, 1895
812 | Dr. “Colorni Italian Navy . SP Wee Uns Oct. 1, 1894
813 | Dr. A. Sandias . Italy Sept, 8, .5, Sept.23, k.
814 | Prof. W. E. Ritter Harvard College pac aes Dec. 29, ,,
815 | Prof. E. Drechsel Switzerland yw 20s uso |p OChlS ty,
816 | Prof. B. Grassi . Italy Fie Dash tgst (NOVEM Ts,
817. | Dr. H. Driesch . Hamburg a 20 95 May 21, ,,
818 | Dr. C. Herbst Prussia peed 2 Gs 3 pte |
819 | Mr. M. D. Hill . British Association . b, 029) os |. Hebn 9, 1895
820 | Prof. J. Gardiner Davis Table Oct 2s) 5 Mari. Ti
821 | Dr. T. H. Morgan Smithsonian Institu- ES eer _
tion
822 | Prof. Herbert Osborn As Pr Dec. 15, ,, HTS
823 | Ten. A. Acton . Italian Navy ae Ue Less —
824 | Dr. H. v. Bloedau Prussia gk ss Hepiniden iso |
825 | Prof. S. Trinchese Italy Jan. 1,1895 =o |
826 | Dr. A. Russo t z 3 P ce) el eae — |
827 | Dr. G. Jatta Zoological Station . “ce ee —
828 | Cand. G. Tagliani Italy micelles = |
829 | Dr. R. Schneider Prussia btw lls, «5:08 eADE, Qel8oon
830 | Dr. S. Orlandi . Italy Ds iss —
831 | Dr. O. vom Rath Baden Br 75 pel erG;) 3
832 | Dr. W. Karawaieff Russia Os. “ess Mars 330. x0
833 | Sr. F. Massa Italy sent One) 5a —

_ 834 | Dr. A. Zohrt Russian Navy . Rebel, 55 June30, ,,
835 | Dr. L. Neumayer Bavaria eS 5) AMprs Ld ase
836 | Dr. R. Krause Prussia aan awe are ” va 99

| 837 | Sig. P. Romano Italy Mar, 1, .,, mz
838 | Dr. M. Laurie Cambridge i) - 223, ge towne OF.
839 | Dr. F. Reinke . | Prussia Sow ty ade | MTV,

840 | Dr. R. Hesse . Wiirtemberg Pe Oy ae » RLU,
841 | BaronJ. Uexkiill Strasburg i LO --

842 | Der. J. Sobotta . Prussia a lls uee —
843 | Dr. V. Haecker | Wiirtemberg ah ibe a, Ge gah

478 REPORT- —1895.

II. A LIST oF NATURALISTS—continued.

Duration of Occupancy

Num- ¥ State or University |

ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table
List was made use of | Arrival Departure
844 | Prof. E.Worschelt .| Prussia. . | Mar. 13,1895) Apr. 24, 1895
845 | Dr. H. Rabl . . | Austria . : at Oss I aoe Locus
846 | Dr. A.Spuler . . | Baden . 2 ete, 2A ee
847 | Prof. v. Lenhossék .| Hesse . é : a) eh re elOd G5
848 | Dr.O. Vander Stricht | Belgium . A «| ADE eats June &, ,,
849 | Prof. J. Reighard .| Harvard College . 50.) oss TDs)
850 | Dr. O.Seydel . . | Holland . 2 oJ osuekeaal ==
851 | Prof. J. F. Heymans. | Belgium . pvlSha a Ubviaye 2, py

852 | Dr. P. Ziegenhagen . | Prussia .
853 | Prof. G. v. Koch .| Hesse.
854 | Dr. N. Iwanzofft =| RUssiaie =.
855 | Dr. G. Valenza . . | Italy 5
856 | Prof. C. Nutting . | Harvard College .j| June 4, ,,

_ 2 © © @ *

Ee
=
Sa

III. A List of Papers which were published in the year 1894 by the
Naturalists who have occupied Tables in the Zoological Station.

H. Pollard . ° e Observations on the Development of the Head in Gobius
capito. ‘Quart. J. Micr. Sc.,’ vol. 35, 1894.

O. Maas . 5 = - Die Embryonolentwickelung u. Metamorphose der Cor-
nacuspongien. ‘Zool. Jahrb.,’ Abth. Anat. u. Ontog.,
Bd. 7, 1894.

E. Mac Bride. rc . The Organogeny of Asterina gibbosa. ‘Proc. R. Soc.,’ vol.
54, 1894.

iP siemmey y, - - Ueber die Regenerationsvorgiinge bei den Siphonaceen.
Ein Beitrag zur Erkenntniss der Mechanik der Proto-
plasmabewegungen. ‘Flora, oder Allg. bot. Zeitg.,’
Heft 1, 1894.

W. Weldon . ° - On Certain Correlated Variations in Carcinus menas.
‘Proc. R. Soc.,’ vol. 54, 1894.

A. Russo ~ 5 - Contribuzione alla genesi degli organi negli Stelleridi.
“Atti R. Accad. Sc. fis. e mat.,’ vol. 7, 1894.
> Studii anatomici sulla famiglia Ophrotrichidz del Golfo
di Napoli. ‘Ricerche Lab. Anat. norm.,’ Roma, vol. 4,
1894.
9 Sull’ apparecchio genitale del Syndesmis <«chinorim, ‘Boll.

soc. Nat. Napoli,’ vol. 8, 1894.
Ph. Knoll s ° » Ueber die Blutkérperchen bei wirbellosen Tnieren. ‘ Sitz.
Ber. Akad. Wiss. Wien,’ Math. Nat. Cl., B. 102, 1893!

T. Groom ° . . On the Early Development of Cirripedia. ‘ Phil. Trans.
Roy. Soc.,’ London, vol. 185, 1894.
J. v. Uexkiill . . . Physiologische Untersuchungen an Eledone moschata,

III. Fortpflanzungsgeschwindigkeit der Erregung in
den Nerven. ‘Zeitschr. f. Biologie,’ B. 30, 1894.
- Physiologische Untersuchungen an Eledone moschata.

IV. Zur Analyse der Functionen des Centralnerven-
systems. Jbid., B. 31, 1894.

H. C, Bumpus. . - The Median Eye of Adult Crustacea. ‘Zool. Anz.,’ Jge.
17, 1894.

W. Wheeler . ° . Protandric Hermaphroditism in Myzostoma. Jhbid.

V. Willem La structure des palnons d’Apolemia uvaria, Fsch., et Jes
phénoménes de l’absorption dans ces organes. ‘Bull.
Acad. R. Belgique,’ t. 27, 1894,

AT THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 479

W. Nagel = ; - Beobachtungen iiber den Lichtsinn augenloser Muscheln,
* Biol. Centralblatt,’ B. 14, 1894.
is Vergleichend physiologische und anatomische Unter-

suchungen tiber den Geruchs- und Geschmackssinn u.
ihre Organe. ‘ Bibl. Z.,’ Heft 18, 1894.

+ Experimentelle sinnesphysiologische Untersuchungen an
Coelenteraten. ‘ Arch. Phys. Pfliiger,’ B. 57, 1894.
is Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss des Lichtsinnes augenloser
. Thiere. ‘ Biol. Centralblatt,’ B. 14, 1894.
= ©. Lanz . : : . Zur Schilddriisenfrage. Leipzig, 1894 (partim).
J. E. 8. Moore : . On the Germinal Blastema and the Nature of the so-called

‘Reduction Division’ in the cartilaginous Fishes,
‘Anatom, Anz.,’ B. 9, 1894.

J. Gilchrist . : - Seitrige zur Kenntniss der Anordnung, Correlation und
Function der Mantelorgane der Tectibranchiata, ‘Jen,
Zeitschr. f. Naturw.,’ B. 28, 1894.

N.Iwanzoff , - - Der mikroskop. Bau des elektrischen Organs bei Torpedo,
Moskau, 1894.

G. Mazzarelli . 4 « Intorno al rene dei Tectibranchi. ‘Monitore Zoologico
Italiano,’ Anno 5, 1894.
+ Sull origine del simpatico nei Vertebrati. ‘Rendic. R.
Accad. dei Lincei,’ vol. 3, 1894.
A. Korotnefft . , . Tunicatenstudien. ‘ Mitth. Zool. Station, Neapel,’ B, 11,
1894,
W. Salensky . F . Beitrige zur Entw.-Geschichte der Synascidien. 1. Ueber

die Entwickelung von Diplosoma Listeri. bid.

8. Trinchese . . Protovo e globuli polari dell’ Amphorina caerulea, *‘ Me-
morie R. Accad. Sc. Ist. Bologna,’ t. 4, 1894.

G. W. Miiller . X - Ostracoden. 21. Monogr. ‘ Fauna u. Flora des Golfes von
Neapel.’ Berlin, 1894.

SE

P.Samassa . : . Zur Kenntniss der Furchung bei den Ascidien. ‘Arch. f.
mikrosk. Anat.,’ B. 44, 1894.

L. Murbach . : . Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Anatomie und Entwickelung
der Nesselorgane der Hydroiden. ‘Archiv f. Naturg.,’
60 Jgg. I., 1894 ( partim).

G. Gilson ° F . The Nephridial Duct of Owenia. ‘Anat. Anzeiger,’ B. 10,
1894,

Th, Beer. 2 ‘ . Die Accommodation des Fischauges. ‘ Arch. f. d. ges,
Physiologie, Pfliiger,’ B. 58, 1894.

G.Formario . i . le degenerazioni dell’ encefalo e dei muscoli negli Scyl-
lium. ‘Atti R. Accad. Med. Chir. Napoli,’ Anno 48,
1894,

M. Golenkin . . . Apologische Notizen. ‘ Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscou,’t. 8, 1894.

J. Hjort . 3 F . Beitrag zur Keimblitterlehre u. Entwickelungsmechanik

der Ascidienknospung. ‘ Anat. Anz.,’ B. 10, 1894.

B. Lwoft , * “ . Die Bildung der primaren Keimblitter u. die Entstehung
der Chorda u. des Mesoderms bei den Wirbelthieren.
‘Bulli. Soc. Nat. Moscou,’ t. 8, 1894.

2 ———— <<“ --_ = —-_—_ =

G.Tagliani . 5 . Ricerche anatomiche intorno alla midolla spinale dell’
Orthagoriscus mola. ‘Monitore Zoologico Italiano,’
Anno 5, 1894. ‘
_ ©.C.Schneider . . Mittheilungen tiber Siphonophoren. I. Nesselzellen. ‘Zool,
: Anz.,’ Jgg. 17, 1894.
_ 8. Fuchs. . - . Ueber den zeitlichen Verlauf des Erregungsvorganges in

. marklosen Nerven. ‘Sitz. Ber. Akad. Wiss. Wien,”

Math. Nat. Cl., B. 103, 1894.

; ” Einige Beobachtungen an den elektrischen Nerven von
Torpedo ocellata. ‘Centralblatt f. Physiol.,’ B. 8, 1894.

4.80 REPORT—1895.

The Climatology of Africa.—Tourth Report of «a Committee, consisting
of Mr. E. G. RavensTeIn (Chairman), Mr. BALDwin LatHam, Mr.
G. J. Symons, Mr. H. N. Dickson, and Dr. H. R. MILu (Secre-

tary). (Drawn up by the Chairman.)

Your Committee in the course of last year granted a complete set of
instruments, including a mercurial barometer presented to them by the
Meteorological Council, to the Scottish missionaries established at
Kibwezi, on the road from Mombasa to Machako’s. They also supplied
Mr. Hobley, now in Uganda, with one of Symons’s earth’ thefmometers.
“Sets of instruments have now been supplied to the following
stations :— '

Bolobo (Rev. R. Glennie).—Registers up to tie wane been regularly
received since January 1891. The abstract for thé past year has been
prepared by Mr. H. N. Dickson.

Lauderdale, Nyasaland (Mr. J. W. Moir).—An abstract of one year’s
observations has been sent home through Mr. Scott Elliott.

Zombe, Nyasaland (Mr. J. Buchanan). —Registers of the observations
made from June 1892 to March 1894 have been received. ‘The abstract
published in the Appendix has been prepared by Mr. Dickson.

Lambarene, Ogowe (Rev. C. Bonzon).—-Only one month’s observations
have been received.

Kibwezi, British Kast Africa (Scottish Mission).—The instruments
were only granted this year. One year’s rainfall observations have been
received.

Warri, Benin (Capt. Gallwey).—The registers have been received up
to the date. An abstract has been prepared by Mr. Dickson.

The sets at all these stations, with the exception of Warti, include a
mercurial barometer, four thermometers, and a rain-gauge. That at
‘Warri includes a black bulb thermometer.

Meteorological reports from thirteen stations in British East Africa
have been received. These stations lie on or near the coast, between
Wasin and the Jub, and along the road connecting Mombasa with Fort
Smith in Kikuyu, the climate of which is described as being exceptionally
well suited to European residents. These observations were, in most
instances, made by officials of the Imperial British East Afriea Company.
The abstracts have been prepared by the Chairman. (See Map, p. 491.)

Your Committee regret that the instructions laid down for the guid-
ance of observers should, in many instances, have been set aside, and that
observations should have been made at hours precluding the possibility of
deducing trustworthy means. Where circumstances do not admit of the
instruments being read thrice daily—at 7 a.m., 2 P.mM., and 9 p.m.—the
thermometers should be read at 9 a.m., or twice daily, at an interval of
twelve hours. The barometers, however, should be read at intervals of
six hours—say at 9 A.M. and at 3 P.M.

Your Committee have expended the 5/. granted. They beg to propose
that they be reappointed, and that a grant be made of 10/., which would
enable them to establish a station near Lake Ngami.

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THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFR

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486

British East Africa.

REPORT—1895.

Rainfall—Amount in Inches.

Station By Sloe | em |e) ete leer) Oe lesa) eee
Seala| So te | s |e epee | gee

Chuyu (4° 38 $, 39° | 1893 [4°51 [1-53| 6-74 | 25:30 | 10:80 |9-24 2°65 |9-9] (0-38 [0°68 | 10-94 |1-55 | 66-27

21 E.). 1894 | — |2:05| 2-12 | 2°63 | 10-87 |5-54 |4-19 |9-95 0-16 |O11 | 7°42 |4-94) —
ACO (025 2°00 fe — | — | — | eee a

Mombasa (4° 4’ S, 39° | 1875 |— |— | — | 12-20 | 74-73 |6-30 |9:22 |1-g9 [0-35 [4-60 0°35 |6s) —

42’ E,, 60 it.). 1876 |0-35 [0-18] 3°57 | 5-99 | 76-40 |3:16 |4°68 |9-79 |2-68 |1-00| 0°56 [0-60 | 41-89
1890 | — |— | — | 6-94 | 76-65 |1-59 |210 |1-36 (0-57 (015) 252 1-32) —

1891 |0-62 |0-02| 0-62 | 3:74 | 74-87 |5°63 [1-68 |.03 |2-46 [8-83 | 3°53 [2°56 | 46-56

1892 |0-11 [0-43 | 0-41 | 6-18 | 77-32 |1-43 |2-17 |]-96 |1°52 (0°35 | 1-26 (0°39 | 26°83

1893 |2-43 /1°85 | 4°68 | 12°51 | 74-29 |7-69 |2+15 [9-78 2-10 (2:27 | 10-91 0°51 | 64°17

1894 |0°16 |2:51 | 1°46 3°04 | 72°29 |4°27 |1°49 |1-33 [0:29 [0°65 | 7°59 [2:88 | 37-96

1895 |0-01 |0-34| 303 | — | — a 1 ah aid oz

Mean /1:22|0-94| 2-16 | 7-67 | 13°47 |4°63 13-72 |2-7g [2°55 (3°50 | 5ST |1-73| 49°88

© 477g, 39° | 1892 |o-82|o26| — | 1-14 | 2407 |5-21|1-53 |1-21 12-70 |0-00| 2-77 \o00| —

Tee Co pcorvers in | 1893 |1-50|0-57| 5-41 | 7-01 | 939 (7-87 l2-80|1-¢7 lorss (1-39 | 786 lores | 4066
1894 : J. Bell Smithand | 1894 |0-00 |0-00| 1-91 | 4:57 | 75:39 [5-46 [1-85 [0-49 [0-37 |0-17| 7-20 lo-¢o | 38:01
K, MacDougall. SLB 5 9 0200)) 0:08 Be 6 =) ea ica a a ia ee ae

Mean |0°58 [0°23 | 4-14 | 4-24 | 12-93 [618/206 [1-12 {1-21 |0'52| 3°92 [0-41 | 87-54

Ce o | 1891 }— |— | — | 5-85 | 12-00 |4-26 |3-68 |o-08 [1-80 |3:31| 3-48 l#o2| —
Mey, © 18S. 4° | re92 foe Jo-50| 0-49 | 5-97 | 24:90 [3°04 [i-e2 lo-zg (1-41 (orgs | 0715 lo-9 | 302
cs 1893 [0°75 0-12 | 2°38 | 18-50 | 7-83 |7°65 |2-26 |1-71 [1-05 [1-14| 5°77 |1-63 | 50-79

1894 |0-40|0°05 | 1-28 | 0-45 | 14:09 |5°21 1-76 '1-18 (0°00 0-07| 2:50 [1-96 | 28°95

L505 (10-08 0-10} a5 t4 — || = a eae of Rolie ole ae ee

Mean 0-45 [0°19] 1-25 | 7-69 | 22-08 [5-26 2-38 1-31 |L-07 |1-22| 2-97 |1-95 | 37°82

; © 10° s, 39° | 1893 [3-75 |2-24| 2-96 | o-77 | 402/362 1-14 \204l069 (009) #77/— | —
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Magarini (3° 5’ S,, 40° | 1893 {0°85 (0-37| 2-69 | 73-45 | 5:25 [5-61 2-65 |1-97 (0-72 [0-84 480 |1-00 | 40-20
fn, © > S» 40° | r894 Jo-00 |o-00| 3-38 | os | z0-32 [4-42 (1-69 = 0:07 |0-00| 756 4-48 | 33-28

AOS 10°O0 WaT B07 | — | Sn lah ee

Lamu_ (2° 16’ $, 40° | 1890 |0-21|0-00| 1-50 | 1-95 | 78-06 |2:50 2-17 1-22 |1-20 |013| 0°04 0-00 | 28-98

54’ E.). 1893 |0-41 |1-04| 2-97 | 1550 | 16:35 2-93 |0-85 0-56 0-97 |1-70| 0°35 |o-91 | 44°54
1894 |0-00 |0-00 | 0-15 | 0-25 | 75:28 |215 /0-45 [0-22 0-00 |o-10| 1-60 (0-94 | 21-14
Mean |0°20 0°35 | 154 | 5-90 | 16-56 2°53 1-16 0-66 0-72 |0-64| 0-66 0-62 / 31-05.

aes) sk ees Praeral

Kisimayu (0° 22/ §,, 42° | 1893 |— |— | — | 4-491 5-63 jo-16 /000/— | — |— | — {|— | —
33/ E.). 1894 |— |— | — | 389) S24 |1-17 0°53 0°52 0°00 /029| 0-60 7-59 | 13-73

1895 (0-00 |0-00] G00 | | — |S tes Jem eo) |) eee eee

Mbungn (3° 46’ §., 39° | 1891]— |— | — | — | 6-03 [2-25 '0-85|1-12\1-21 (0-70) 3-72 354) —
30’E.). Observer : Rey, | 1892 |1°52|1°49 | 2-37 D765), 12:69) 053 — | —— bo
aes 1893 |4-47|113| 8-65 | 584) 3-78|— (0:49 /2-13|051|1-56| 507 |— | —

1894 |— |— | — | — | 7-30 0-64 /1-70 0-75 |0-03 0-04 5-64 2-08) —
1885 }0p0}109| 4-17 | — 3 > |odes fee tl 2 |) ene oe

Nai (3° 20'S, 38° 29H, | 1894 |— |— | — | — | — | |— |_| |] 240 |se0| —
2,400 ft.). “Observer : | 1895 /110/2-22/ 501 | — | — dee | | a i
Ch. Wise.

Kibwezi (2° 25’ S,, 37° | 1893 | — |— | — | — | — |— |— |— |— |— | 1872 |7-80 Ee
55’ E., 3,000 ft.) : Ob- | 1894 [012/058 664 | 1-44 | 1-13 [0-05 [0-00 [0-00 |0-00 |0-00| 13°55 3-24 | 26-73
server : Rev. T. Watson,

Machako’s (1° 31’ §,, 37° | 1893 | — | — | — — | — |—|— |— |0:00/1°37| 6-64 |6-34) —
18’ B., 5,400 ft.). 1894 |0°75 0°16] 5-48 | 9:33 1:93 |0°58 |0°09 |0:06 |0°02 |1:27 | 18°16 |4:13 | 41-96

1895 [0-00 [3:85 | 10-13 = =o ge cag, Fs

Fort Smith, Kikuyu (1° | 1893 |— |— | 13°65 | 15-60| 854 0-28 1:01/— |263|061| 5:09 3:80) —
14’ S., 36° 44’ E., 6,400 | 1894 [112 |0-23| 5:33 | 7-23] S27 [3-46 213 [1-02 (2-22 /1-27| 668 932 | 48-12
tt.) 1895 1/0°00)/7-48 10-46} —= «| Eee) See eee ee ee

* The means for Mombasa are deduced from n
Frere Town, where 90:06 in, fell in 1877, 51°30 in. i

early eleven years’ observations, including those made at
n 1875, 45°57 in. in 1879, and 44-75 in. in 1880.

THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. 487

Heaviest Fall of Rain within 24 Hours.

Station 2 2 c & 2 E | 2 2 & 2 } a
“s= 05) we he = —

ee — kver | 003 | 150 | 258 | 143 | 180} 117 | o16 | 09 | 1-43 | 162 |
Mombasa . «-~z| 012 | 214 | o46 | 1-68 | se2 | 1-63°| 050| o40| o70| 027 | 118 | 153
‘|Takaungn . . «| — | — | rai | 197 | #55 | 1-70'| 0-75 | 015 | o19 | 017 | 038 | 033
Malindi . . .| 035 | 0-05 | 0-85 | 0-20 | 3-25 | 1:30 | 0-44 | 019 | — | 0:07 | 250 | 0-95
Jilore . 0 a -| — _ 1:12 _— _— _ _ — — el 1:20 | 2°16
Magerint =. «2. ~.| — | — | 1:78 | 0-38 | 267 | 087 | 045 | — | 040| — | se7 | 2:56
Tom. . . .| 000| 000| 015 | 025 | 30 | 075 | 030| o12 | — | o10 | 140 | 0:5
Kisimayn . . «| — | — | — | 220] 240! 070 | 035 | 0-15 | 0-00 | 029 | 040 | 13

Mbungu. .. —_ = _— —_ 168 | 022 | 0-76 | 019 | 0-03 | 0-04 | 1°57 | 0:92

| |
Kibwezi A . «| O12 | 0-33 | 2°90 | 1:04 | 067 | 005 | — _ _ _ | ood 1:18

Machako’s . .. . | 050 | 012 | 1:76 | 1:94 | 053 | 0-47 | 0:05 | 0:03 | 0°02} 0:70 | S18 | 1°25

Fort Smith . ° - 072 | 020 | 2:96 1-40 | 2:07 | 1:38 | 1:08 | 0:37 | 1:08 | 0°53 | 2-13 | 167

Number of Rainy Days.
Only Days on which at least 0°01 in. of Rain fell are counted.

" as = =| bm 2 > tb +s (Sewell
+ Yea: a 2 & 2 o a =o a 2 o XY
Station ear | I 2 S & g 2 fe 2 3 / 8 ie a ear
Sage) .|1s93| 5 |2 | 5 | 10 | 19 | 20 | 16 | 12 4 a \igp hae | Greg
eee crigns || 3 | 7 Cue Ure aieuoe ul) a 3 i Paeeoe le lok cry |: ees
eee i695) a |) vy) — Ce | eee | eee | enema ee ad SU
trac |-190a-| 7 |~s | a0 | 19 |) 24-|-16 | 1 | 22 | 18-| 10-|.a5-|-6 | 164
Eo Mitigaw | 2) 83 | 06 8 | 18 | 11 7 9 8 9 | 19 ies
* © lt FRET aM FeavTee he ey fe Pa amo SERS eta Al ee A 2 ee
Takauneu .|1893|3|1| 7 | 12 | 2 | 18 | 1] 1 4 Sy MG 102
z eibisoi c= ||| 13. perder ae oe 8 3 1 9
4 tice clu Gi stop et ca ca (Pe eet rec eT ee ee
[Malindi </1993/ 3 |1/ 5 | 22 | 18 | 14 | 12 9 fe Ite Ale bk aad Oeeuadl E IG
Bees lisse |e. 1 | s | 3) ieee |e | 10°] 1 1 Orhe=
Bes iti ggn5d] Bel (2 «| Gots) So) Sg] | ee | ee el ad
| |
Mere . .|1893|4)6)| 8 | 6 | 13°} 15 TE a i 3 [tol |) (a7) ) [97]
aed 1504 [aag) ol, Zale il — a wilres lr sep ese ober rele ees
Se EEE Ma SR fa a | eR era ae PN he ee
Magarini .|1803/ 5/1 | 4 | 21 | 22 | 24 | 18 | 17 9 2 | 21 6 | 150
Beletcceseea t= | aes tee ieee utah lien Ss: po nb Peeled Bel ee
ev iagnale oe) sien 19) ee eae em Ree Bd Dl
.|1893! 3/1] 8 | 22 | 24 gre iitea Neat 2 2 | 86
-|1894/ 0/0] 1 taal teats 7 3 | 2/0 1 2 4 | 37
yA See | Sel eee ait Nt Oni peal b= 8h ae =
likey | ee RE ry iat 1), Sea eto 1 ee eae Jae ee
ral) TRS Om 1Oele: (0-gle =— el alee = ole a (rata FN I
.| 1893] 9 | 3 | 12 LOL eee) ae 3 Fie esa A 4
Sei spel es lea lig = gh =~ [yp ie AT LO eat Nira eee es
. | 1894 | — Be fey | er) oS 8 ea en a ie
et ae angi Da ees ALE A) Sol es Sells ee Sool =
aft adeteeeall en a] peo imeaioal Gh ea tia g 1 (i, Npediioe eeiad W asCOveklomatrpagll TG) js ee
1893 | — SB Ap tee Pee |i end ped 1 Ca [eens ae bit fe 2/5 ae
-| 1894] 3 | 2] 11 | 12 8 3 3 2 1 Gy | 22, | PI =| 84
Fort Smith .| 1893) — | —| 16 | 25 | 16 2 ay i hgcts 4 a a oe tee Dee
mee, | isoa | 3 | 2 | 12 | 20°) 29 | 13 | 8 | ‘9 | 10 | 41 | peasy] ae’ } 100

488 REPORT—1895.

Bolobo (Congo). Lat. 2°10'S., Long. 16°13’ #, 1.100 feet.
Observer: Rev. Robert Glennie, Baptist Missionary Society.

Pressure of Atmosphere : Means ae: Mean Temperature (Shade)
Month | | | poe
7am. | 2pm. | 9px. | Mean | Min. | Max.|7 a... 2 p.m. /9 pt. | Max. | Min. | Mean
Bue ied 4

1894 ° ° ° ° ° ° / ° ° °
January .| 28807 28698 28°755 28°753 65-2 | 91-0 | 73:5 | 83:7 | 75:3 | 85-9 ) 706 | 77:0 | 153
February . 28°793 28°709 28°746 28°749 66°7 | 95:0 | 74:1 | 85°0 | 76:2 | 87°6 | 71:0 | 77°9 | 166
March. . 28°815 28739 =| 28771 28°775 680 | 95:7 | 74:1 | 87°0 | 76-4 | 88°5 | 717 | 785 | 168
April . .| 28820 28°739 28°780 28780 68°8 | 94:5 | 743 | 85:7 | 75:5 | 834 | 717 | 778 | 167
May. .. 28°804 28°737 28790 28°777 68°0 | 94:0 | 73°9 | 84:8 | 76-4 | 875 | 715 | 77:9 | 16:0
June .. 28°875 28:798 28°842 28°838 69°0 | 92°7 | 72°6 | 85-1 | 761 | 87:2 M3 | 175, [169
anly. “6 28-901 28°815 28°867 28°861 68:0 | 9171 | 71:9 | 85:0 756 | 86°6 | 70°6 | 77:0 | 16°0

August . = 28°782 ? 28°821 ? -- (66°0) | — 725 | 83°83 | 777 — | 703 | 77:9 _
September | (28'864)' | (28763) | (28824) | (28-817) |(68°8) (92-4) | 74:2 | 85-9 | 76:5 | 88-0 | 72:2 | 78:3 | 15°8
October . — — = — _|(67-4) |(89°2) | 73-4 | 81:8 | 73°9 | 858 | 70°9 | 75-7 | 149
November _ = — _ 67°0 | 92°1 | 73°7 | 82:4 | 74°5 | 85-4 | 706 | 76°3 | 148
December. 65°4 | 916 | 73:7 | 83:8 | 75:7 | 86-3 | 70°3 | 77-2 | 155

Year . => = = | — 65°2 = 735 | 845 | 758 —_— 711 =| 77-4 _

+ 14th to 30th only.
BoLoBo (CoNGO)—continued.

oe ane. ae amit y Cloud—Amount Rain Weather
Month 2 / 1 5 | dy
2 9 7\9 9 5 ge Hea- 2% Fe was
Ree Pat Pat, Me Pat. see pM, eae “ie PM. aN Mean} iz ia ae a a2 ge

1894 See! ee) inceg any finn P.C.| p.C.| p.c.| 9 3 B ae pis | In

January . 71:9 |76°2 72:7) -760 | -802 769 92 | 70 | 88 | 8-4 58 | 67 70 | 6°64 | 12 , 2°10 4/ 0] 2
February. 72°5 \72:73:2 776 |°828' ‘777, 92 | 69 | 86 | 7:8 6-0 61 6°6 10:59 | 11 6-44 2 I 2
March. . 724 (774 732 | 772 = |°810 Tis 92 | 63 | 85 | 82 65 6:0 6-9 3°75 | 10 | 2°38 ie | 0
April . . | 726 |76-9.726) 777 |-805|-762| 92 | 65 | 86| 7-7 | 64 | 61 | o7 | 767 | 11 i soo | 4] 0] 3
May. . .| 723 |77-1,73'5| -771 |-826|-787, 92 | 69| 86 | 78 | 68 | Go | co | @71|13) 283 | 3] 1] 2
Jie | 70°0 ss ian Gehan 698 aed 87 | 64 | 82 |-7:9 65 63 69 | 0.00 | 0 0°00 0; 0 1
July . .!| 68:4 (74:3 )71'7| °647 | °702; fo 83 | 58 | 82 | 7:2 8:2 76 T7 003 1 0°05 0 | 0 1
August . (69°5); — | — (680) | — | — (85))/ — | — | (86) | — | (68)| — | 385 7 | 1000) a] SORE
September / 70-4 |75°2|722| 692 |-729|-732, 82 | 59 | 80 | (7-1) | (6-1) | (78) | (7-0) | 2692, 52, 1282 3] 0} 0
October | 714 |74:8/71°3| -741 |°767/-732| 90 | 71 | 88 | 8-6 69 54 70 431 | 9 | O64 0.) Ose
November | 72:0 |75°3|72°1| °761 |-781|°755 92 | 71} 88} 8-2 67 75 i) 5°46 13} 1-20 2 0} 2
December. | 71:8 |76°0|73°0| -754 |-792|-775 91 | 68 | 87 | 87 | 5-4 | 52 | G4 [1103 13) 447 | 1] 2] 1
ear | 708) eT ea SON | — 18:0) — 6b i ear73410b) (6:4 lias | 5 | 15

In the hourly barometric observations considerable interruption, through illness of the observer and other causes,
was unavoidable. The observations wanting on the term days during the first four months of 1895 have been inter-
polated as far as possible by drawing the curve for each day and filling up by comparison with the curves for days
immediately preceding and following it. It must be admitted that the method is liable to considerable error, but under
the circumstances it is believed that the results may be useful.

The barometer readings have in all cases been reduced to 32° F. and corrected for gravity.

i
.

THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA.

Bolobo Hourly Barometer Observations, 1894.

489

January February
Hour =—

. Ist 11th 21st 1st 11th 21st
Midnight . | 28-802 28°897 28°878 28-808 28°S32 28°851
1 A.M. “798 S95 S76 "824 S38 835
2 5 797 S94 ‘873 “840 S44 ‘S35
See y5 ‘797 893 865 “S40 “S50 *835
ee, 795 ‘S91 ‘87 *839 S57 845
BL 4, TOL “890 $76 ‘S47 S65 S64
ee t, 836 920 881 ‘S60 872 890
ees; ‘ST7 “938 887 “S71 879 919
Psy “884 “939 901 875 886 925
9) 4, 893 “947 “912 ‘S78 ‘910 952
EOE, 883 934 “901 880 926 947
Me, 4 871 914 883 864 922 937
Noon al 821 “908 872 "834 “891 ‘906
1 P.M “805 878 *850 810 “848 858
al 55 | ‘770 *856 824 Sricell 825 830
2 att 755 849 786 “743 307 817
ok Daas “745 *858 ‘778 ‘726 ‘786 “T91
as H “+742 "855 ‘780 ‘715 ‘772 BOLTS
Oy ss 753 *855 ‘786 722 ‘776 “782
Mes; 783 “866 ‘791 ‘740 “SOL 785
ee sy 815 “880 “819 ‘763 813 813
a 831 “911 *843 ‘781 842 829
iy 3; 837 ‘913 857 821 ‘S60 “851
1 837 ‘914 866 825 S65 863.

March April
Hour

1st 11th 21st Ast 11th 21st

Midnight . 28-920 28°S90 28-764 — — _

| 1 A.M. S80 ‘S96 767 == = =

Det. ‘S58 “899 770 Aa = =

a AS | "S54 S98 778 - —— _-

a a5 | "857 898 179 = = =

(ae 889 905 785 — —_— —
Bl a: | ‘910 "921 ‘793 28°853 28852 28°866
ta 3, "925 “936 “808 *865 858 886
ory, “939 946 834 “866 *870 903
ae, ‘937 “947 856 882 886 920
OF ;, 9B5 "946 "851 872 SSS ‘917
uy, | “906 933 844 845 873 889
oon . “883 OL 817 832 844 “871
Pol P.M, 862 *886 781 ‘790 “816 *850
mar 5 “S40 “860 “749 ao “804 “810
Bas 5, 807 “860 “690 13 ‘790 TTT
eae 5, 795 “860 ‘707 726 ‘748 763
iD ,, 79 *858 725 724 740 “753
GF, SOT S59 ‘720 ‘746 766 783
ac, “816 867 ‘749 788 818 *818
ms). 5, “S31 873 ‘793 817 *830 852
aD 5s S61 “876 826 *856 826 *859
710 .,, *888 “887 834 *860 S23 *875
Ts “902 S94 S38 “860 S27 “891

1895.

REPORT

490

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‘CN VOUT HPO OTH SOU UO LAT 1840000890 “PALO AG o§ BUT “N18 oG “WT “Cupuag) punt

THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. 49]

Lambarene, Ogowe, Lat. 0°40’ S., Long. 10°18’ E£. Observer: Rev. C. Bonzon.

Result of observations made at 9 a.m. during November 1893.

Barometer at 32° i . B . 29°864 in.
Temperature : mean of maxima 5 wei? EB:
PP > minima ‘ 40°-2
Extremes . 3 . 98°0 and 66°3
Dry bulb . : delat il haa 2)
Wet bulb . F eo aSO

Rain, 13:10 in. on 23 days. Heaviest fall, 164 in, Cloud, amount, 80.

Meteorological Stations in East Africa.

The Exploration of Southern Arabia.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. H. SEEBoHM (Chairman), Mr. J. THEODORE BENT
(Secretary), Mr. E. G. Ravensrein, Dr. J. G. Garson, and Mr.
G. W. Broxam. (Drawn up by Mr. BENT.)

Tus last winter, after leaving Muscat we proceeded along the coast for a
distance of 640 miles, and applied ourselves to the exploration of a certain
district known as Dhofar, with the Gara mountains. The results of this
expedition, which lasted over several weeks, may be treated of under three
different heads :—

1. The geographical results referring to the nature of the country,
its configuration, and its productions.

2. The anthropological results, with an account of the inhabitants
and a comparison of them with those of other parts of Arabia.

3. The archeological results of the study of the various ruins
and identification of sites mentioned by ancient authors.

(1) The district of Dhofar is for Arabia a most remarkable one, It
constitutes a sort of oasis by the sea, and consists of a flat alluvial plain
about 60 miles long and 9 miles at its widest point, very fertile, and with

492, REPORT—1895.

abundance of water lying either in stagnant pools or procurable by sinking
shallow wells. It is capable of producing almost anything : cocoanut palms
grow in clusters along its whole length ; cotton, indigo, tobacco, plantains,
jowari; and in the gardens papyas, mulberries, lemons, oranges, and
chillis grow profusely. The inhabitants of the villages scattered along
the coast are for Arabia particularly prosperous ; they are governed by a
representative from the Sultan of Oman, who has of late years been
successful in establishing peace. Behind this rich plain is a range of
mountains, known as the Gara range, rising to about 3,000 feet above the
sea level. In the valleys sloping towards the Indian Ocean on the south,
and towards the desert of Nejd on the north, are found the various
frankincense districts where the frankincense tree, Boswellia Carteri, is
still found, and which constitutes an industry for the inhabitants, as it has
done for thousands of years. There are three chief districts where the
shrub grows, and the export of the gum is now about 9,000 cwt. per
annum, which is sent to Bombay in dhows. Myrrh is also found in
proximity to the frankincense tree, and in ancient days the commerce
in these odoriferous drugs gained for this district a world-wide reputation.

The Gara hills are rounded and undulating, except on the coast side,
where the approach is precipitous and rugged; they are of limestone
formation, and retain a surprising amount of moisture, which is at the
same time the cause of their fertility and the fertility of the plain of
Dhofar, which is an alluvial deposit from them. The valleys running into
these hills from the coast are of great fertility, containing a dense mass
of tropical vegetation, huge sycamores block up the valley, with cacti,
acacias, and numerous creepers; in several places lodgments of
water have formed themselves into little lakes or tarns, an altogether
unknown condition of affairs in any other part of Arabia. The mountain
sides are honeycombed with caves, in which the inhabitants dwell with
their flocks and herds. Right up to the summits of the Gara mountains
the same condition of fertility is observable—they are covered with grass
all over, and clusters of sycamores grow right up at the summit, giving to
them quite a parklike appearance ; and the flora of this district is very
extensive. Although we were there during the dry season we collected 260
different specimens of plants, as against 150 collected during a much longer
period and more extended area in the Hadramut last year. These plants
have now been deposited at Kew, and though more numerous they do not
contain so many new varieties as those from the Hadramut ; they establish
an extension westwards of the Indian and Beloochistan flora, whereas
those of the Hadramut are more African in their character, tending to
prove by their geographical distribution that the floral line of demarcation
between Asia and Africa takes place somewhere between the Hadramut
and Dhofar.

From the summit of the Gara range an interesting view over the
frankincense country is obtained. To the north the hills slope down
towards the desert of Nejd, which gradually destroys the vegetation, and
ends in a long blue horizon like the sea. To the east and west the same
characteristics are observable, and to the south the view is bounded by
the sea. The district of Dhofar owes its peculiar fertility to the water-
retaining qualities of its geological composition, and to the regularity of
its rainfalls, which occur from July to September, when the valleys are
turned into torrents, and even the Bedouins find it difficult to get about.

On proceeding up a valley to the east of the Gara range we came

ON THE EXPLORATION OF SOUTHERN ARABIA. 493

across a very curious natural phenomenon. The valley, which is here about.
a mile and a half broad, with hills on either side reaching an elevation of
about 2,000 feet, has been blocked up by a calcareous deposit, which has
collected round an isolated hill in the centre of the valley, and has formed
itself into a perfectly sheer and precipitous wall or abyss. To the east of
this hill the abyss is 550 feet high and three-quarters of a mile in
length. It is hung with white stalactites, and presents a whitish-grey
colour ; over this abyss small waterfalls precipitate themselves, and the
ground below is spongy and fertile, and all along the river bed the rocks
are white with calcareous deposit. At the top of this abyss an exceedingly
fertile flat meadow extends for several miles inland, richly wooded, and
providing rich pasturage for the cattle of the Bedouins, who own it ; and
about a mile and a half from the abyss are two lakes joined together by a
meandering stream. They are long and narrow, but in places of consider-
able depth, and it is the overflow from these lakes which falls over the
abyss. Bulrushes, water plants, and water birds abound here, and the
spot is marvellously fertile.

(2) The inhabitants of the Dhofar district may be divided into two
distinct groups, namely, the Arab inhabitants of the coast villages who
cultivate the fertile plain, and occupy themselves in fishing, and the nomad
Bedouins of the Gara tribe, who inhabit the mountains, and are purely
pastoral.

The coast Arabs are chiefly from Oman, and are of the Ibadiyeh sect,
recognising the Sultan of Oman as the head of the church. This sect of
Mohammedans is much less fanatical than the others in Arabia, probably
from the long struggle they had with the Wahabis of Nejd at the com-
mencement of this century. They offered no objection to our visiting their
mosques, and we were subjected whilst amongst them to none of that fanati-
eal hatred which caused us so much inconvenience during our sojourn in
the Hadramut last year. The mosques of the Ibadiyeh are small and with-
out minarets ; their heterodoxy consists in not accepting any of the Imams
who succeeded Mohammed, but they consider that the Imam or head of
the church is to be elected by the people as occasion requires.

Eighteen years ago the Arabs in Dhofar were in a very sorry condition,
and sent to the Sultan of Oman toask him for a governor : the blood feuds
between the tribes and the hostile attitude of the Bedouins rendering
existence almost intolerable. Sultan Tourki of Oman sent as Wali a
trusted friend of his named Suleiman, who has been there nearly ever since.
‘and by his wise rule and administrative power peace and a measure of
prosperity have been restored amongst the Gara tribe. The Arabs them-
selves never penetrate into the interior, but are content to cultivate the
fertile plain of Dhofar, and inhabit the prosperous villages by the coast.

The Bedouins of the Gara tribe, who are perhaps the wildest and most
uncivilised of any of the tribes of the South of Arabia, form a most inter-
esting study for the anthropologist. They are clearly an aboriginal race,
as distinct from the Arab as the Spaniard is from the American Indian.
They are small of stature and of limb, but exceedingly lithe and well made.
They go about naked, save for a loin cloth, and wear their long tangled
locks bound together by a leather thong. There are hardly any firearms
amongst them, but every man carries with him three indispensable
weapons—his shield made of wood or sharkskin, with a knob at one end,
which he turns round when tired, and uses as a stool ; his flat iron sword
with a wooden handle; and his throw stick, a wooden weapon pointed

494: REPORT—1895.

at both ends, which he uses with great skill both in war and in the
chase.

The Gara live chiefly, as stated above, in the deep caves of their
limestone mountains, which provide accommodation for the family and
many head of cattle. They have a large number of milch cows and
goats, and make ghee in great quantities, which is exported from here.
All their implements are of the most primitive description. The churn
is a skin hung on three sticks which a woman shakes about until butter
is formed ; to make their cows give milk freely they stretch a calf’s skin
on two sticks, and give this to the cow to lick. The calves and kids are
kept in the innermost recesses of the caves during the absence of the dams
at the pasturage. °

Camel breeding is also a great industry among the Gara Bedouins, and
the animals are remarkably fine and healthy ; they have but little use for
these camels, but they take them to great fairs and recognised rendez-
vous of the Bedouins of the interior, and sell them. The camels are curious
feeders, bone being greatly appreciated by them, also small dried fish and
sections of a cactus which grows in the mountains. Some of the richer
Bedouins own as many as seventy camels and 500 head of cattle ; they

‘are, however, devoid of luxury, seldom constructing any habitation for
themselves, and never using tents. In the wet season, when they come
down to the plain of Dhofar for the pasturage, they erect as shelter for
themselves round beehive huts of grass and reeds, but in the mountains
they never require more than their ancestral caves, which are cool in the
heat and dry in the rain, and the floors of which are springy and soft with
the deposits of many generations of cattle.

The Bedouins of the Gara mountains have many interesting customs :
their greetings are very complicated and curious to watch. For an acquaint-
ance they merely rub the palms of the hands when they meet, and then
kiss the tips of their fingers ; for an intimate friend they join hands and
kiss each other ; for a relative they join hands, then rub noses, and finally
kiss on either cheek.

The Gara are great believers in the existence of Jinnis, or spirits, in
their mountains and streams. -As we passed by a great rock one day they
all set to work to sing the words ‘ Alaik Soubera,’ which we were told
was a request to the Jin to let us pass in safety. Again, at a lake we
visited in the mountains they affirmed their belief in the existence of Jinnis,
stating that it is dangerous to wet your feet in the lake, or you will catch a
fever. The Jinnis inhabit the caves, the trees, and the streams; and at
an annual festival and gathering of the various families into which the
Gara tribe is divided, the great ceremony is the propitiating of the Jinni
of the lake by a magician who sits on a rock, and performs his incantations
whilst the people dance around.

They believe that the Jinnis when propitiated are very helpful to
mankind ; and inasmuch as they inhabit the lower heaven, they can overhear
the conversation of the angels, and if disposed communicate their valuable
secrets to man. This would seem to be aimost the only trace of religious
observance amongst the Gara Bedouin ; they may have others which we
were unable to ascertain, but one thing is certain, that though they may
conform to the dictates of Islamism when visiting the Arab villages cn
the coast, when up in the mountains they observe neither prayer nor ablu-
tion, nor any of the ceremonies inculcated by that creed. The Arabs
attribute to the Bedouins certain pagan rites, and they are probably cor-

ON THE EXPLORATION OF SOUTHERN ARABIA. 495

rect ; as in many other parts of the Mohammedan world it would seem
that certain ancient cults and ceremonies have been retained, which the
Moslem has been unable to eradicate.

The Gara tribe is divided into families, the chief of which is the Al
Kahtan family, and the head of the Al Kahtan family is recognised as the
Sheikh by all the Garas. These families have constant blood feuds
amongst each other, which they make up when war is on with their neigh-
bours, the Mahri tribe, or the Geneveh tribe. Wali Suleiman during late
years has done much to heal these feuds, and it was through his instru-
mentality that we were enabled to penetrate into the Gara mountains,
with an escort of the heads of the chief families, with comparative safety.

(3) The archeological interest in the plain of Dhofar centres chiefly in
its connection with the frankincense trade and the towns established in
ancient times along the coast by the merchants who provided the ancient
world with the odoriferous drugs.

We have several classical authorities who refer to this district, notably
Claudius Ptolemy, the author of the ‘ Periplus of the Red Sea,’ Pliny, and
a few others. From them we can gather certain definite points, that
beyond Ras Fartak and the Sachalites Sinus there stretched a fertile coast
line known as the Libaniferous coast. The capital of this district was accord-
ing to Ptolemy called the oracle of Artemis (Marretor *Apréuucoc), and the
city next in importance was called Abyssapolis, near which was the harbour,
the portus nobilis, or Moscha of the Periplus, where the merchants on their
way to and from India used to tarry during the violence of the monsoons.

Along the whole line of the plain of Dhofar there are no less than
seven spots where ruins occur, all indicating towns of considerable size ; but
on close examination of all of them there can be no manner of doubt that
at Al Balad and Robat—which are about two miles from one another and
connected by a series of ruins—the capital stood. These places are close
to the coast, and nearly in the centre of the line of plain, and consist of the
remains of many temples, tombs, and public buildings. The acropolis is
well marked with the débris of buildings ; there is also a tiny little harbour,
evidently only for small craft, across which a chain was discovered, the
_ Arabs say, a few years ago. Then there is a moat round the outer edge
of this town, in which water is still found, and bulrushes. The columns
still standing form an interesting link, which connects these ruins archi-
_ tecturally with the other ruined sites of the Sabzean world ; they are square

and fluted at each corner, and with step-like capitals. A further development
of this is evidently of later origin, when they decorated the capitals with
floral and geometric devices. The columns at Axsum in Abyssinia, at
Koloé and Adulis on the coast of the Red Sea, and at Mariaba in Yemen,
are all of the same character, and indubitably establish the Sabzean origin
of the ruins. One column at Robat we found with a capital decorated on
four sides, three sides with intricate geometric patterns, and the fourth with
the Sabzan letters ein and 7' alternately. No other ruins either in size
E architecture on the plains of Dhofar can compare with these, and we
t

can safely say that they formed the capital of the district, which Claudius

Ptolemy calls the oracle of Artemis (Marreioy *Aoréudoc), and which in
_ later times was known as Mansura, where dwelt, Yakout tells us, the
_ Prince of Dhofar, who had a monopoly over the frankincense trade, and
_ punished the infringement of it with death. In later times the Persians
_ occupied this spot, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries of our era. To
_ them we owe the fact of the disturbance of the old Saban columns, and

4.96 REPORT—1895.

the utilising of them to erect mosques, many of which are now standing
in a fair state of preservation.

We tried to find the site of the oracle of which Ptolemy speaks, but
could not come to a satisfactory spot until we visited the mountains, and
in the Wadi Nehaz, about 9 miles from the capital, just at the foot of the
mountains, we found a curious natural hole, about 150 feet deep and 50 feet
in diameter. Around this there was a wall of Saban origin which had a
massive gatepost, and in the immediate vicinity were traces of many
ruins. For several reasons I am inclined to believe that this is the site
of the oracle mentioned by Ptolemy. In the first place, the hole resembles
in character the site chosen for an oracle in the ancient world, bearing a
remarkable resemblance to the holes which existed in Cilicia, the oracles of
the Corycian and Olbian Zeus, and several other spots in Greece. Secondly,
Yakout tells us that the abode of the Adites was half a day’s journey
from Mansura, the term Adites generally being given to the adherents of
the ancient cult ; and, thirdly, because there is no other spot on the plain
of Dhofar where one can say there is a probability of an oracle existing.

Yakout further tells us that 20 parasangs from Mansura was the ex-
cellent harbour, frequented by the crafts onthe way to and from India, and
by merchants in search of frankincense. The author of the Periplus refers
to this harbour, and calls it Moscha, and Ibn Khaldun also speaks of it as
Merbat. As we journeyed along the coast we were constantly on the
look out for this harbour, and on the second day, after leaving the ruins
of the capital, we reached the village of Takha, in the vicinity of which
are traces of many ruins scattered about, but inferior in architecture to
those at Al Balad. Next morning we were conducted by the natives
round a headland, and there saw a long sheet of water stretching inland,
but silted up at the mouth by a sand belt, over which the sea flows at high
tide. This same sand belt now separates from the shore a rocky island
with traces of fortifications on it. There can be no doubt but that this is
the harbour, and the island rock guarded the double entrance to it before
the invasion of the sand. The harbour is deep, and extends inland about
a mile and a half, and there are many ruins around it. Here we have
the portus nobilis of the Periplus, the harbour to which the frankincense
merchants came, and it is, as Yakout tells us, just 20 parasangs from the
capital. The term Moscha, given to it in the Periplus, is a common term
given to bays and inlets on the Arabian coast. Merbat, the name given
it by Arabian writers, is still retained in the headland 12 miles east,
where Arab dhows find a shelter during the north-east monsoons, but
it affords no other harbourage, and Ptolemy’s name for this place is
Abyssapolis, a name which I consider to be derived from the great abyss
which I have already described as existing a few miles inland, and which
must have been a conspicuous and well-known object to all merchants
who frequented this port. Ptolemy, as it will be seen from the name
given to the capital, gave Greek names, or equivalents, to the places on
this coast, and in naming this place he evidently used the most con-
spicuous object in its vicinity. Thus we were able to reconstruct on fairly
probable lines the geographical features of this frankincense district, and
fix the position of the sites of its towns.

INSTRUMENTS USED IN ENGINEERING LABORATORIES, 4.97

Calibration of Instruments used in Engineering Laboratories.—Report
of a Committee, consisting of Professor A. B. W. Kennepy, F.R.S.
(Chairman), Professor J. A. Ewine, F.R.S., Professor D. 8S.
Carrer, Professor T. H. BEaRE, and Professor W. C. UNWIN,
ERS. (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

At the first meeting of the Committee it was decided to investigate
initially the accuracy of instruments for measuring the tension coefficient
of elasticity, or Young’s Modulus. A general letter was addressed to
various professors and others in charge of engineering laboratories inviting
co-operation. Most of those written to agreed to make a series of measure-
ments for discussion by the Committee.

It was then decided'that sets of standard test bars should be prepared,
to be subjected to tension and measurement. Figs. 1, 2 show the forms
of test bar decided upon. Two of the standard bars of each set are cylin-
drical bars, with screwed ends of about 1}-inch and }-inch diameter.
_ These have gauge points for measuring instruments, suitable for extenso-
meters of 8-inch, 10-inch, 16-inch, or 20-inch range. These bars are of
a special steel of high tenacity, rolled specially for the Committee by the
Blaenavon Company. The whole of the bars were cut from a single
rolled bar about 20 feet in length, and were very accurately turned to the
required dimensions by Mr. W. R. Munro. The third bar of each set was
a flat bar, of section about 2 inches by 4 inch, of mild steel. All these
bars were cut from a single plate, and they were prepared with gauge
points at 8 inches and 10 inches.

In order to obtain some preliminary information as to the mechanical
properties of the standard bars, one round bar and one flat bar were
tested in the testing machine at the Central Technical College. The.
following table gives the results obtained :—

Preliminary Tests of Materials used for Standard Bars.

TENSION EXPERIMENTS.

: ' Maximu m Breaking
Yield Point Tad Tena Ps
Mark Elonga-| Con- E.
er Dimensions. | Area. tion on |traction| Tons
Inches Sq. in. Tons Tons Tons 8in. |of Area per
Bar Load. ;
mane per | Tons} per |Tons} per |percent.|/percent.| sq. in.
sq. in. sq. in. sq. in.
D_ | 2:000x0°507| 1:014 |16°19 | 15°97 | 23-725) 23-40 | 19°75] 19°48 32 | 62 13,113
N 0°750 diam. | 0°4418 | 9°00 | 20°37 |15°725) 35°59 | 13:76| 3114 24:5 | 42

Bar D was exactly similar to the flat bars A, B, C.
Bar N was of the same steel as standard bars marked E, F, K, L, &c.

__ The Committee then drew up a test-sheet form to be issued with the
bars, on which measurements were to be recorded. These sheets were so-
arranged that two sets of measurements for each bar, and the mean
of these, should be recorded ; also that the extensions for short and
long ranges of stress should be recorded. It was hoped that in this
way some measure of instrumental errors would be obtained.
In January two sets of bars were sent out for measurement, to be
ae eted amongst those who had consented to co-operate with the
1 5. K K

REPORT—1895,

Marked End

498

Kasees SS eke Sak 5

ee

ca ae na a

li Whuworth Uicad

Fig. 2.

INSTRUMENTS USED IN ENGINEERING LABORATORIES. 4.99

Committee. The measurements have taken much time, and the whole
of the reports of observers have not yet been received. Some of those
already sent reached the Committee too late for discussion this year. It
appears, therefore, to the Committee that it is unavoidable that only an
interim report can be presented this year. The Committee ask for re-
appointment, in order that the results obtained may be discussed and

presented.

It may, however, be useful even at this stage, to give a very short
summary of some of the results sent in.

The following table gives a

Measurements of Dimensions of Test Bars.

summary of the measurements of the standard bars by different observers.
It will he seen that there is an appreciable difference even in the measure-
ment of the dimensions of the same bar.

was machined on the edges only.

The flat bar, it may be noted,

was Dimensions. Area.

Bar Observer Inches Sq. in.
( W. C. Unwin 1:999 x 0°509 1:0175
, |, A. B. W. Kennedy 1:998 x 0:509 1:0170
ow * | op. Hudson Beare 2-000 x 0:5095 10190
(| J. Goodman 1:999 x 0°509 1:0170
(| W. C. Unwin 1:9995 x 0:508 1:0157
Flat BarB . . ,| H.S. Hele Shaw 2-000 x 0°509 1:0180
{ J. A. Ewing 2-000 x 0°506 1:0120
W. C. Unwin 1:248 diameter 1:2230
A. B. W. Kennedy 1-248 - 1-2230
ged Hor¥ - +| t Hudson Beare 12495 1-2262
J. Goodman 1:248 oy 1:2230
W. C. Unwin 1:249 diameter 1:2252

Round Bar E : H. S. Hele Shaw 1:247 rt 1-22125
J. A. Ewing 2 1:249 = 1:2250
( W.C. Unwin. 0:7495 diameter 0:4412
A. B. W. Kennedy 0:748 a 0:-4394
Round Bar L * 1) T. Hudson Beare 0°750 0:4418
| J. Goodman = 0:748 <n 0:4390
( W. C. Unwin 0:750 diameter 0:4418

Round Bar K s H. S. Hele Shaw 0750 - 0-44179
| J. A. Ewing 0°750 - 04418

The following table gives the values of the coefficient of elasticity for
the greatest range of stress observed for each bar. The values are given
for the first and second loading of the bar, and also the mean of the two
observations. It will be seen that, even for the mean of two sets of
readings, over the greatest range of stress the elasticity of the bar permits,
there are very appreciable differences in the values obtained. It remains
to be considered in a more detailed discussion of the results whether any
evidence can be found as to the source of the discrepancies. It may be
due to error of the testing machine, to error of magnification by the
extensometer, or to error of calibration of the extensometer. It is just
possible it may be due in part to temperature or other action independent
of both testing machine and extensometer.
KK2

500 REPORT—1895.

General Values of E obtained for the greatest range of stress the bar

permitted,
Range Values of E. Tons per
ma from square inch
Bar Poi ae Observer which :
E was First Second Meal
ealesissed| Loading | Loading
————
Tons
Flat bar| P: = T. Hudson Beare 23 to 123) 13,160 | 13,260 | 13,210
= p.s. | A. B. W. Kennedy . 22 to 123; 13,100 | 13,200 | 13,150
= — | John Goodman 22 to 124) 13,110 | 13,110 | 13,110
a Gs T. Hudson Beare 22 to 20 | 13,050 | 13,150 | 13,100
c. a. T. Ifudson Beare 2a to 20 | 13,070 | 13,150 | 13,110
1} bar c. e. A. B. W. Kennedy . 25 to 20 | 13,430 | 13,4380 | 13,430
ia —- J. Goodman : . (24 to 20 | 13,250 | 13,250 | 13,250
— J. Goodman (students) . |2} to 20 | 13,250 | 13,370 | 13,310
a.c. | A.B. W. Kennedy . 24 to 20 | 13,500 | 13,500 | 13,500
a,c. T. Hudson Beare ‘14 to 63 3,260 | 13,420 | 13,340
3b ¢. id. T. Hudson Beare (1, to 6{ | 13,210 | 13,160 | 13,185
4 oi a.c. | A.B. W. Kennedy . 13 to 62 | 13,200 | 13,200 | 13,200
— J.Goodman . : . 14 to 6} | 13,244 | 13,244 | 13,244
-- J. Goodman (students) . 14 to 64 | 13,720 | 13,720 | 13,720
k.n. | W.C. Unwin (mirror) . FE to 124) 15,294 | 13,302 | 13,298
Flat bar} J. m. W. C. Unwin (lever) pes to 123) 13,260 | 13,260 | 13,260
'B l.m. | H. 8S. Hele Shaw 24 to 123) 13,180 | 13,060 | 13,120
—_— J. A. Ewing ig to 124] 13,260 | 13,310 | 13,285
|
a.c. | W.C. Unwin (mirror) 21 to 20 | 13,198 | 13,231 | 13,214 |}
13 bar c.d. | W.C. Unwin (lever) 24 to 20 | 12,912 | 12,969 | 12,940
E — H. S. Hele Shaw 24 to 20 | 13,116 | 13,160 | 13,138 |
-- J. A. Ewing 22 to 20 | 13,290 | 13,290 | 13,290
8 has — H. S. Hele Shaw . |1Z to 74 | 13,310 | 13,072 | 13,191
tk a. C. W.C. Unwin . . [ld to 74 | 13,495 | 13,385 | 13,440
— J. A. Ewing \1; to 73 | 13,380 | 18,350 | 13,365

An Ancient Kitchen Midden at Hastings, and a Barrow at the
Wildernesse.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir JOHN
Evans (Chairman), Mr. W. J. Lewis Assorr (Secretary), Pro-
fessor J. Presrwicu, Mr. CurHpert PEEK, and Mr. ARTHUR J.
Evans. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

The Hastings Kitchen Middens.

Tue cliffs at Hastings are formed of sandstones belonging to the Ash-
down Sands, which at Castle Hill rise some 180 feet in height. These
are very much fissured, and often a centre block becomes keyed above,
while it breaks away below, thus forming a veritable cave. Along both
the east and west cliffs these natural fissures have been widened out
artificially, and doubtless have served as human habitations in the past.
Upon the tops of some of these fissures, and upon the rock-ledges on
the face of the cliffs, there are large accumulations of materials of various

:
|

ANCIENT KITCHEN MIDDEN. 501

kinds, the upper part of which is a subaérial deposit, which varies in
thickness from an inch or two up to four feet. Below this is the midden
material, composed of all sorts of the waste products of life. It is usually
only a few inches in thickness, but occasionally it is eighteen inches thick.
It is much darker than the adjacent material, owing to the large quantity
of charcoal and other carbonaceous matter contained in it. Frequently
there are hearths which occur on old surfaces, where the material has been
burnt to a red-brick mass, extending downwards from half an inch to
three inches ; in wet weather this is very friable and rotten. In places
there are seams of shells: the most extensive layers consist of those of
mussels and oysters, which are in the worst state of preservation. Limpets
are almost as plentiful, but better preserved than the former. Winkles are
very abundant, and always of very large size. Buccinwm undatum is
fairly plentiful, but Zrophon is absent. Cardiwm echinatum is frequently
found, but no trace of C. edule has been observed. The occurrence of Pur-
pura lapillusis curious. Some pieces of bone have recently been discovered
stained of a purple colour, which would suggest a knowledge of the dye
furnished by this species. Pecten opercularis, Natica, and Mactra also
occurred, while in one place a heap of snail-shells of a very large size
was found : these are probably Helix aspersa, but the shells are larger and
more globose than those of the existing species, and the light-brown bands
of colour that are left make the species to resemble H. pomatia. There
is also a large quantity of fish-bones distributed through the material,
some of which bear traces of roasting : they include skate, gurnard, cod,
whiting, mackerel, sole, turbot, and plaice. Large quantities of other
bones formed part of the material ; they are always detached, and bones
are never found together in the natural position ; frequently they show
the action of fire, and all the marrow-bones are split. In two cases a
split bone was discovered with a flint wedge still 2 situ. The bones
include those of frog, ducks, some species of gull, red and black grouse,
and other species of birds not yet determined ; rabbit, pig, horse, sheep,
goat, red deer, roe, ox, badger, fox, wolf, dog.

Fragments of pottery abound occasionally ; it is possible to restore
about a third part of a vessel, from which its nature and shape can be
determined. They are all of domestic patterns (not burial), flat-bottomed,
and they usually havea deposit of soot upon them. Some appear to be very
coarse and sun-dried, but the majority are well-baked and hand-made.
They vary in colour from a discoloured dirty red to black, the latter pre-
dominating. They are, on the average, of good neolithic quality.

Large quantities of flint boulders appear to have been taken up for
implement-making. All the implements are small ; no axe or war
implement has been discovered. Many hundreds of flakes show signs of
wear, and these sometimes reach five inches in length. Round and
hollow scrapers abound, from a very large size down to needle-makers, as
do all kinds of drills. None of the arrow or lance heads are barbed, but
they are often very symmetrically worked to a lanceolate shape. The
commonest form is a nicely worked lanceolate-shaped flake, single or
double ridged, generally the latter, with a well-formed butt, with or
without secondary work on the edges. The butt ends of hundreds of
these have been found, the points excessively rarely. There is, however,
a still more interesting group of implements than any of the foregoing,
owing to their diminutive size, their peculiar outlines, and delicate work—
aimplements in every way similar to those which have been found in

502 REPORT—1895.

India, Egypt, the South of Spain, and Belgium abroad, while in this
country they have been recorded from N.E. Lancashire, Warren Hill,
Hastings, and Sevenoaks. They consist of crescents, triangles, trapezoids,
and other forms. They are sometimes only five-eighths of an inch in
length, and rarely exceed one and a half inch. The flakes removed in
their manufacture are often only an eightieth of an inch in width.

A more systematic method of working was adopted during the month
of August of this year, adding a vast amount of new material which has
yet to be examined, and more work remains to be done. In spite of the
vigilance of those in charge, visitors dig into the cliff, and so expose the
midden material to the action of the heavy rains, by which it is washed
away and lost.

The best thanks of the Committee are due to the Mayor and Corpora-
tion of Hastings for the interest they have taken in the subject, and also
for the permission given to excavate; and to the Rev. W. C. Sayer-
Milward, whose permission to excavate was also necessary.

A Remarkable Barrow at the Wildernesse, Sevenoaks, Kent.

This barrow is situated near a Neolithic settlement on the property of
Lord Hillingdon at Sevenoaks.

The bed-rock of the district belongs to the Folkestone beds, and is
usually of a deep iron-stained colour. Upon this was deposited a layer of
siliceous ironstone, which apparently served as a hearth, then a layer of
black carbonaceous unctuous material, through which are distributed frag-
ments of charcoal and small particles of burned bone. This is followed
by a layer of calcined flints, all of which appear to have been worked ; but
the heat applied was so intense that all the flints are in fragments, and
the edges are frequently fused. It is possible, however, to restore imple-
ments from fragments found close together. These layers were covered by
and enclosed in another black carbonaceous layer, in which occur fairly
large pieces of charcoal. Next comes another layer of ironstone. This is
followed bya layer of white sand : profusely distributed through these are
large quantities of flint implements, flakes, &c. Thisis a foot in thickness
near the centre, where the whole of the flints show signs of burning. The
latest excavations disclose the lateral extension of the white layer till it is
met by the overlying 4 ft. 6 in. of sand.

The barrow is round in form, about 90 feet in diameter, and 5 ft. 6 in.
high.

The implements are in every way identical with those found on the
adjoining settlement and at the Hastings Kitchen Middens. There are
more horseshoe-shaped scrapers than at Hastings, where the scrapers
are nearly all spatulate in form ; but all the curiously shaped, diminutive
crescents, triangles, trapezoids, &c., are also found at Sevenoaks ; in fact,
it is impossible to distinguish between them.

No metal was found in the barrow except a brass-covered iron bell in
the top material. The Rev. Canon Greenwell is of the opinion that this
barrow is quite unique.

The barrow has now been filled in again.

The Committee propose to spend the small balance in hand upon the
Kitchen Middens on Castle Hill. There are others on the East Hill
which would also repay working. These middens are intimately associated’
with the remarkable St. Clement’s Caves, and an investigation of them

might possibly throw a flood of light upon the unknown origin of these:
structures.

ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS IN SCHOOLS. 502

Anthropometric Measurements in Schools.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor A. MACALISTER (Chairman), Professor B.
WINDLE (Secretary), Mr. E. W. Brasrook, Professor J. CLELAND,
and Dr. J. G. GARSON.

Durine the past year it has not been deemed advisable to issue any
further circular, and the work done has been confined to forwarding copies
of the instructions printed with last year’s report and advising schocl-
masters, medical men, and others as to the taking up and carrying
on of physical measurements in the institutions with which they are
connected.

From the number of communications which have reached the Secre-
tary, it is evident that considerable interest has been awakened in the
minds of teachers by the circulars of last year. The first report of school
measurements (by Dr. Lancelot Andrewes) which have been carried out
under its instructions has recently been forwarded to the Secretary. The
Committee ask for reappointment for another year without further grant,
the balance of that for 1894-95 being expected to suftice for the ensuing
twelvemonth.

Mental and Physical Defects of Children.—Report of the Convmitee,
consisting of Sir Doucias GaLton (Chairman), Dr. FRANCIS
Warner (Secretary), Mr. E. W. Brasroox, Dr. J. G. GARSON, and
Dr, WILBERFORCE SMITH. (feport drawn up by the Secretary.)

APPENDIX PAGE

I. Defects enumerated individually and in groups as distributed amongst
the Nationalities and Social Classes, Sc.

Il. Groups of Children and their Percentage Distribution on the numbers
seen and numbers noted . . i : i 4 . 508

506

Tue Committee, acting in conjunction with a committee appointed for
the same purpose by the International Congress of Hygiene and Demo-
graphy (1891), in presenting their third report are able to give a further
account of the 50,000 children seen individually during the years
1892-94.

The methods of observation and the points observed were fully de-
scribed in our first report. Analysis of the points observed in each child
affords material for the arrangement of groups of cases, prepared by esta-
blished actuarial processes, their distribution, and their co-relations, and
enables us to give results of scientific interest and importance, and also to
give evidence on questions concerning the education of children and their
control by the State.

We proceed to give the results of research among the 8,941 cases
(boys 5,112, girls 3,829) of whom notes were taken as to the points in
which they were below the average in bodily or mental status.

As a step towards ascertaining the causation of defects, and the
most probable means of removing them, we have arranged the children

504 REPORT—1895.

in twelve groups of schools presented in Table I., which gives the
‘numbers seen’ and ‘the numbers noted’ in each group of schools respec-
tively, and the special defects they presented. It is thus possible to
ascertain the relative frequency of each defect among the boys and girls
of the nationalities and social classes, &c.

The numbers of cases presenting individual defects, when distributed
among the nationalities and social classes, &c., are comparatively small ;
for the general purposes of research it appears more satisfactory to deal
with groups of cases presenting the main classes of defects. For this
reason the Committee have bestowed much labour on preparing a general
but exact analysis of the facts in hand, dealing principally with the distri-
bution and co-relations of the main classes of defects, leaving for future
work the study of similar relations among the individual signs in such
classes.

There are four main classes or divisions into which the defective con-
ditions observed may be grouped.

A. Defects in development of the body and its parts—in size, form, or
proportioning of parts.

B. Abnormal nerve-signs: certain abnormal actions, movements, and
balances.

C. Low nutrition, as indicated by the child being thin, pale, or delicate.

D. Mental Dulness.—The teacher’s report as to mental ability was added
to the record of each child noted, and those stated to be backward or
below the average in ability for school work were entered as ‘dull.’

The relative distribution of these classes of defects is shown in Table
IT., which also gives the combinations in which they occur, and their per-
centages upon the numbers of children seen and the numbers noted. It is
by studying the distribution and the co-relations of these groups that new
information is most readily obtained.

Among the children who present some degree of defect those are pro-
bably in best condition who present only ‘one main class of defects,’ while
those with four classes of defects are often so deficient as to need special
care and training. The numbers and percentages of these groups are also
given in Table II.

A full statement of the facts observed has been prepared for early
publication by the committee with whom we are allied, which enables
us to make certain general statements upon which their report will afford
detailed evidence.

Defects in development of the body are more frequent among boys
than girls—in the proportion of 8-7 to 6°8. A marked exception to this
rule is in the cases of small cranium, which are much more frequent
among girls: this defect appears to some degree endemic in the
neighbourhoods of large buildings. It is less frequent among the
Irish children, who in other particulars present many noteworthy

oints.
: Of the cases with defect in development (A), 16-2 per cent. of the boys
and 26-4 per cent. of the girls were pale, thin, or delicate ; and 38:4 per
cent. of the boys and 45-0 per cent. of the girls were reported as dull.

These facts serve to illustrate the importance of presenting all vital
statistics separately for males and females. The greater harm that results
from defect of body among girls is shown by the fact that 65:3 per cent.
of the boys and 72:5 per cent. of the girls presented other conditions
of defectiveness. The evidence accumulated shows the importance of

SS PO ————

SS ,—( Cr”hmmtmlmmSLmCle

ON THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN. 505

looking to the four main classes of defect in each case. It has not been
possible in our examinations conducted in schools to use anthropometric
methods to any extent, but new information has been supplied upon an
extended basis of observation as to the significance of deviations from the
normal proportioning of the bodily development.

Tt has been fairly established by observation, independent of argu-
ments derived from other sources, that the ‘nerve-signs’ recorded in this
investigation correspond to disordered brain conditions, such as produce
in their mental function dull and backward children.

Of cases with ‘nerve-signs’ 41°5 per cent. of boys, 42°6 per cent. of
girls were reported as dull ; of development defect with ‘ nerve-signs,’ 45:1
per cent. of boys, 51-6 per cent. of girls, were reported as dull. Ill-pro-
portioned bodies with motor indications of disorderly or slowly acting
brains are very apt to be dull mentally. In these facts we find further
evidence of a physical basis of mental action and expression. The pro-
bability that the children reported by the teachers as dull were backward
children is indicated by the large proportion of them found to be over
age for the class or educational standard in which they had been placed
in school.

In Table I. is given a class, ‘G. Exceptional Children.’ This includes
all children whose physical or mental conditions show them to be obviously
at a permanent disadvantage therefrom in social life. This group includes
idiots, imbeciles, ‘children feebly gifted mentally’; children mentally
exceptional or deficient in moral sense; epileptics and children with
history of fits during school life ; dumb children and all children crippled,
deformed, maimed, or paralysed. All these exceptional children need to
be considered individually : they form about 1:5 per cent. of the school
population.

Reviewing the work of which we thus give a brief account, it may be
stated that the object has been to furnish a reliable statement of the
conditions observed among children seen in schools. The inquiry com-
menced in 1888, and 100,000 children in all have been examined and
reported on. The points worthy of note have been defined and
enumerated ; the children have been distributed in groups according to
the combinations of points they presented, and classified in other ways,
including special particulars as to the children with mental or other
deficiency, the numbers in each class being recorded. The methods of
reporting and preparing statistical statements have been carefully elabo-
rated and systematised.

Information has from time to time been supplied to the Government
departments and other public bodies as to the provision needed for dull
and backward children ; the classification of children in schools providing
secondary education ; children in Poor Law schools and other institutions,
and on other important questions.

It is hoped that the scientific classification of children and enumera-
tion of conditions existing among them will lead to the adoption of means
of social improvement, and we recommend the continuation of such
inquiries in other parts of the country.

The Committee desire to be reappointed, and ask a grant in aid of
the work.

506 REPORT—1895,
TaBLE I.—Showing the Numbers of the Main Classes of Defects and
noted distributed in Growps of Schools representing
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3 aS SAS 285 ane

a a3 an 4

Total Nos. Il. AH By IV.
Boys | Girls | Boys | Girls | Boys | Girls | Boys | Girls | Boys | Girls
Number of children seen . «Aas « |26,287 |23,713 | 4,800 | 4,316 | 6,113 | 5,628 | 6,242 | 5,213 | 1,368 | 1,581
Number of children noted 5 . - | 5,112] 3,829] 838 | 679 |1,159 | 944 |1,155 | 863 | 249] 223

-| A. Cases with defect in Development alone

or in combination . - « «| 2,308] 1,618} 396 | 272| 510} 385 | 548] 391] 126] 101

1 Cranium defective . a * 806} 611] 120 74| 159 | 142] 200] 173 55 48

Ce ee Taree. Wiles On HPD 13) peas 2| 19 4] 31 3 Be —=

Biv Sona Faall) Seas. Hi ioe! «220 DIG eT S el Gl |p OF baie7, || ina eta hs eh Tous

4 ~5 bossed . . = 323 47 49 5 59 10 65 6 29 10

5 Forehead defective ; - . 53 23 4 2 14 6 10 3 2 2

6 Interfrontal ridge F = 2 if 121 19 28 3 27 5 22 3 5 1

7 Craniumasymmetrical . . . 27 2 2 1 8); — 10 1) — —

8 Dolichocephalic . 4 G : 5 26 2 4) — 5] — 7 2 24|\ —

9 Hydrocephalic . - 5 2 1 cS _— — _ 1/ — _ 1
10 Other types of cranium . slp 2 2) — _— 1 6} — f 1
11 External ear defective = 364| 103 62 21 69 22 73 24 29 11
12 Hyelids with epicanthis . 3 288} 190 3 45 63 40 79 41 5 7
13 Palatedefeectivein form . é, 496} 310] 1C4 71 | 181 77 97 55 13 11
14 9) BAIIOW « » 7 = 5 5 276) 163 69 42 72 38 55 27 6 8
15 5) V-shaped . ~ c ' Tio| 110 30 24 43 29 35 22 7 3
1Civ. grenched’ sed wend 30| 22 3 Sill AB 4 4 Agi) (20)
GA. GlOEE pis xo. oie ‘ Ig]. 19 2 2 4 5 3 2.) — |=
18 Other types of defective palate A = 1) — — — = = — _— —
19 Nasal bones wide, sunken . 155| 153 16 15 42 31 37 49 9 6
20 Growth small ; stature short 271| 328 46 58 65 79 68 | 105 12 17
21 Other defects in development . 250} 212 37 42 60 38 58 40 15 20
B. Cases with Abnormal Nerve-signs alone

or in combination . . : - | 2,853] 2,015] 423 | 342] 644 | 492) 601} 437 | 132] 109
43 General balance defective . = é 90} 113 11 18 18 21 9 31 9 ail
44 Expression defective . 4 151; 191 19 32 38 40 39 57 10 11
45 Frontal muscles overacting 696} 146} 107 28 | 127 25 | 157 37 26 11
46 Corrugation ; knitting eyebrows . 38 11 4 1 9 2 8 4); — _
47 Orbicularis oculi relaxed . 3 c 371| 293 61 44 78 82 93 87 9 5
48 Eye movements defective . 4 4 348] 261 52 57 60 62 95 65 23 27
49 Head balance asymmetrical 4 = 95} 274 6 49 17 55 22 75 9 14
50 Hand balance weak . a o - | 1,234 778| 175 135 298 201 209 118 55 29
51 Hand balance nervous 5 3 253| 359 25 48 70} 104 63 85 11 26
52 Finger twitches . ‘ 5 3 145) 142 23 22 38 34 32 32 4 10
53 Lordosis C ; 36] 112 6 30 3 18 6 20 4 10 |
54 Other abnormal nerve-signs fs 468| 282 78 43} 100 58 | 121 72 35 24
C. Cases with low nutrition . 749| 770) 104} 117) 180] 199} 195] 205 36 46 |
D. Children reported us dull or back: |
ward. - 5 a . - | 2,077] 1,635| 294 233 539 | 447 511 394 134 111 |
E. Lue cases = 5 * 3 764 692 142 142 172 153 169 129 30 42
G..# Exceptional chilar en? 3 5 : 157| 147 17 21 30 37 56 34 12 14
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——

ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 509

Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom.—Third Report of
the Committee, consisting of Mr. E. W. Bragroox ( Chairman),
Mr. Francis Gatton, Dr. J. G. Garson, Professor A, C. Happon,
Dr. JosEPpH ANDERSON, Mr. J. RomitLy ALLEN, Dr. J. BEppoE,
Professor D. J. CunninGHam, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins,
Mr. ArtHur Evans, Sir H. Howorrn, Professor R. MELDOLA,
General Pirt-Rivers, Mr. E. G. Ravenstern, and Mr. E. Sipney
Hartianp (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Chairman.)

APPENDIX

PAGE

I. Circular to local Societies . - c ‘ z : ‘ 2 F Peay Ui
Il. Circular to Medical Men . : : ; ; ; , 1 ; ap OR
Ill. Haplanatory Notes, by Mr. £. 8S. Hartland : 5 : : : . 613

1. As in the two previous years, the Committee have had the advantage of
the co-operation of several gentlemen not members of the Association, but
delegates of various learned bodies who are interested in the Survey.
They have to deplore the loss, by death, of one of these gentlemen, Mr.
Granville Leveson-Gower, one of the delegates of the Society of Anti-
quaries. His place has been filled by the election by the same Society of
its Director, Mr. F. G. Hilton Price, as a delegate to this Committee.
His colleague, Mr. George Payne, and Mr. E, Clodd, Mr. G. L. Gomme,
and Mr. J. Jacobs, the representatives of the Folk Lore Society, Sir C.
M. Kennedy, K.C.M.G., representing the Royal Statistical Society,
Mr. Edward Laws, the Ven. Achdeacon Thomas, Mr. 8S. W. Williams,
and Professor John Rhys, representing the Cambrian Archeological
Association, and Dr. C. R. Browne, a representative of the Royal Trish
Academy, have continued their valuable services. Some other members
of the Committee are delegated by the Anthropological Institute.

2. In their first and second reports, the Committee presented a list of
367 villages or places which, in the opinion of competent persons con-
sulted by the Committee, appeared especially to deserve ethnographic
study, and they appended to the list observations furnished by their cor-
respondents on the special characteristics of such villages and places,
which rendered them typical. This considerable number does not exhaust
the supply of names of places, several observations having been made in
places not mentioned in the list.

3. The Committee have issued, in the shape of an octavo pamphlet of
twelve pages only, the forms of schedule which they had prepared. They
believe that it presents, in the most compendious manner possible, a bod
of instructions for observers under the five heads into which the Com-
mittee’s inquiries have been divided, viz. :—

(1) Physical types of the inhabitants ;

(2) Current traditions and beliefs ;

(3) Peculiarities of dialect ;

(4) Monuments and other remains of ancient culture ; and
(5) Historical evidence as to continuity of race.

Arrangements have been made with the printers for supplying this
pamphlet to Societies which may be desirous of circulating it among their
members or incorporating it with their Transactions, at a cost of 21s, for

510 REPORT—1895.

every 400 copies, or 16s. if printed on the Society's own paper. [See
circular in Appendix. ]

4. This offer has been accepted by several societies. One of the societies
which have availed themselves of the arrangement is the Bristol and
Gloucestershire Archeological Society, and Mr. Hartland has prepared
for insertion in its Transactions some notes explanatory of the Schedule,
a copy of which is appended to this report. The Committee propose to
arrange with the Society for a supply of copies of these notes, which may
be useful to societies and observers in other parts of the country.

5. During the year the work of observation has been proceeding in
several directions, and the sub-committees in various parts of the United
Kingdom have commenced operations. The Committee do not propose
at the present stage to present any report of the results of these observa-
tions, but only to report progress and to request their reappointment for
the purpose of continuing the work with which they have been entrusted.

6. They desire to make an exception, however, in the case of Ipswich,
which possesses local interest as being the place of meeting of the Asso-
ciation for the present year. Miss Layard has acted as secretary of a
sub-committee in Ipswich, and Dr. Hetherington has furnished twenty
measurements of individuals, a report upon which has been prepared by Dr.

Garson, ‘and will be presented in a future report. Dr. Groome, Mr.
Partridge, and Mrs. Ledger have also contributed, through Miss Layard,
collections of the local Folklore, and these will also be contained in a
future report. By the courteous invitation of Mrs. Cobbold, the Chair-
man and Secretary of the Committee attended a meeting at her house
for the purpose of explaining the views of the Committee, at which much
interest was expressed in the work of the Committee, and some valuable
information was obtained.

7. Some interesting investigations have also been made by the Com-
mittee at Barley, in the county of Hertford. Their attention was drawn
by the Rector, the Rev. J. Frome Wilkinson, to the strong historical
evidence as to continuity of race furnished by entries in the parish
registers and other local records going back to an unusually early time,
to the existence of remains of ancient culture hitherto almost unnoticed
in the county histories, and to the survival to a late period of early forms
of land cultivation in this parish. By his courtesy, Professor Haddon,
who was accompanied by the Chairman of the Committee, was able to
take measurements and photographs of inhabitants of the parish belong-
ing to different ranks of society, whose pedigrees could be traced through
the registers for a considerable period.

8. A Cambridge University sub-committee for the Ethnographical
Survey of East Anglia has been formed to discover and record the
principal types of the inhabitants of East Anglia on the lines laid down
by this Committee, under the auspices of the Royal Society. This sub-
committee consists of Professor Macalister, F.R.S., Mr. W. L. H. Duck-
worth, and Professor Haddon, under whose supervision the work will be
conducted by a number of trained men. The work of forming sub-
committees in Wales has also been proceeded with. In the Cotteswolds,
Mr. 8. S. Buckman has furnished the committee with notes introductory
to observations that are in progress.

9. The Committee have been anxious to procure observations (especi-
ally physical observations) from places where the non-existence of any
local society or other reasons may interpose difficulties in the way of the

eo oe

|

ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 51]

formation of a sub-committee. With this view, a circular has been
addressed to a selected number of medical men, whose names were obtained
from the lists of those who had contributed to the researches of the Col-
lective Investigation Committee of the British Medical Association. [See
Appendix.] As yet, however, the Committee have not been fortunate in

obtaining the favourable response to their application to these gentlemen

for which they had hoped.

10. The Committee propose, at the close of the present meeting, to
arrange for a special survey of the district of Galloway, during the latter
part of September and the month of October 1895, with the view of
ascertaining the special divergencies in dialect, the prehistoric monuments,
the old cultivation sites, the folklore, the physical types of the people,
and objects of obsolete culture in domestic and agricultural occupations.
The Committee are glad to find that the Rev. Dr. Walter Gregor, author
of ‘Notes on the Folklore of the North-east of Scotland’ and other
works, is willing to undertake this survey. The expense is estimated at
not more than 20/.

11. Should Dr. Gregor’s time allow, they hope he may be induced,
later in the year 1895-96, to undertake a similar survey in the districts
of Caithness, Morayshire, and Nairn.

12. Only 10/. has been drawn in the past year out of the 30/. voted at
the Oxford meeting, although more has been expended. The Committee
ask for a renewal of the 20/. not drawn, and for a further grant of 30/.,
making 50/. altogether.

APPENDIX I.
Circular to local Societies.

Dear Sir,—I am instructed by the Ethnographical Survey Committee
to send you herewith a copy of the schedules prepared for the purpose of
the inquiry entrusted to them into the mental and physical characteristics
of the races of the United Kingdom. The heads of inquiry, as you will
see, are very various ; and it is hoped that some at least of them will in-
terest the members of your Society. With the object of making them as
widely known as possible, the Committee have arranged with the printers
(Messrs. Spottiswoode & Co., New Street Square, London, E.C.) to
supply copies to you, upon request, at the rate of 1/. 1s. for 400 copies, or,
if your own paper be used, 16s. By this means you will be enabled to
issue them with your transactions, or report, or to take any other means
which may appear more suitable to bring the subject under the notice of
all your members.

You will observe that villages and retired places are spoken of in the
accompanying print as especially deserving of ethnographic study. The
object is to devote attention chiefly to the inhabitants of districts where
the population has long been stationary and little changed by the move-
ments of modern life. It is desired to obtain physical measurements and
photographs of individuals who appear typical in their respective districts,
individuals selected, if possible, from among those whose forefathers have
dwelt in the neighbourhood as far back as can be traced. With the phy-
sical peculiarities of the people it is desired to correlate their dialect, their
history as exhibited by archeological remains, and their manners and

512 , REPORT—1895.

customs, superstitions and other traditions comprehended under the con-
venient expression of Foikiore.

The inquiry has already been taken up with earnestness in some dis-
tricts, and valuable results have been obtained ; and the Committee think
that, when once its importance to the right understanding of the history
and characteristics of the races of these islands is fully appreciated, little
difficulty will be found in organising measures in every county for collect-
ing and collating the information. The report of a committee appointed
by a local society would not only be gratefully received by the Ethno-
graphica] Survey Committee ; but it might also be embodied in the trans-
actions of the local society, and thus form a substantial contribution ta
the history and archeology of the county.

The Committee will be pleased to arrange for the loan of a set of in-
struments, if desired, to any member of your Society who may undertake
the physical measurements. If the procuring of photographs be found ta
involve expense beyond that which your Society is prepared to meet, the
Committee will be glad to be informed, in order that, if practicable, they
may make some contribution towards it. I may observe, however, that
many local societies are now undertaking a photographic survey of their
neighbourhoods ; and where this is in progress the photographing of typical
inhabitants will not entail much additional labour or cost, while it will
add greatly to the value of the survey. I shall be obliged by your inform-
ing me what number of measurements of individuals you think your
Society may be able to obtain, so that the necessary copies of the form
may be sent.

APPEN DEX! i.
Circular to Medical Men.

Dear Sir,—I am desired by the Ethnographical Survey Committee of
the British Association to transmit to you herewith a copy of the forms
of schedules that have been prepared for the purpose of the inquiry
entrusted to them into the physical and mental characteristics of the races
of the United Kingdom, and to express the hope that you may be able to
assist them by obtaining a series of the physical measurements of indi-
viduals who appear to you to be typical of the district in which you reside.
It is suggested that those individuals should be selected whose parents
and progenitors have lived in the district as far back as can be traced.

You will observe that the desire of the Committee is to correlate the
physical racial peculiarities of the inhabitants of various districts with
their history as shown by archeological remains, and with the manners
and customs, superstitions and other traditions, comprehended under the
convenient expression of Folklore. If your opportunities of observa-
tion should enable you, in addition, to fill up any of the schedules relating
to these branches of the inquiry, or if you should be in a position to induce
friends who have devoted attention to them to furnish the requisite
information, the Committee would be much indebted to you for so doing.

The apology the Committes offer for asking assistance from so busy a
man as yourself, is that your contributions to the Collective Investigation
Committee of the British Medical Association have shown that you are
not unwilling to give valuable time to public service of this kind.

ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. ~* 518

I am to state that should you desire to make use of the instruments
adopted for these particular measurements, the Committee would be
pleased to arrange for the loan to you of a set. Probably, however, those
used by you in the ordinary course of your practice would be sufficient for
the purpose.

I may add that the Committee think it desirable that any individual
measured should also be photographed. The instructions as to photographs
have been complained of as somewhat minute ; but their object is to per-
mit of the use of the photographs by Mr. Galton’s composite method. ‘The
Committee will be quite willing, however, to make the best use that can
be made of any photographs that do not fully comply with their require-
ments. If the procuring of photographs should be a matter of expense
the Committee would be glad to be informed of it beforehand, and to
render any assistance in their power towards meeting it.

If, as the Committee venture to hope, you find yourself able to help
them, I shall be obliged by your informing me what number of individuals
you think you will be able to observe, in order that the necessary copies
of the form may be sent you.

APPENDIX III.

Notes Explanatory of the Schedules.
By E. Sipney Hartiann, /.S.A., Secretary of the Committee.

The object of the Committee is to obtain a collection of authentic
information relative to the population of the British Islands, with a view
to determine as far as possible the racial elements of which it is composed.
The high interest of the inquiry for all archeologists need not be here
insisted on. A satisfactory solution of the problems involved will mean
the re-writing of much of our early history ; and even if we can only gain
a partial insight into the real facts it will enable us to correct or to con-
firm many of the guesses in which historians have indulged upon data of
a very meagre and often delusive character.

The methods it is proposed to adopt have regard to the physical
peculiarities of the inhabitants, their mental idiosyncrasies, the material
remains of their ancient culture, and their external history. In modern
times great movements of population have taken place, the developments
of industry and commerce have brought together into large centres
natives of all parts of the country, and even foreigners, and thereby
caused the mingling of many elements previously disparate, These have
enormously complicated the difficulties of the inquiry. They have
rendered many districts unsuitable for every purpose except the record of
material remains. Scattered up and down the. country, however, there
are hamlets and retired places where the population has remained
stationary and affected but little by the currents that have obliterated
their neighbours’ landmarks. To such districts as these it is proposed to
direct attention. Where families have dwelt in the same village from
father to son as far back as their ancestry can be traced, where the modes
of life have diverged the least from those of ancient days, where pastoral
and agricultural occupations have been the mainstay of a scanty folk
from time immemorial, where custom and prejudice and superstition have
held men bound in chains which all the restlessness of the nineteenth

1895. LL

514 REPORT—18V5.

century has not yet completely severed, there we hope still to find sure
traces of the past.

The photographic survey, which has been carried out so well at
Birmingham and elsewhere, and has been initiated in our own country,
will prove a most valuable aid to the wider work of the Ethnographical
Survey. Photographs of the material remains of ancient culture are
explicitly asked for in the schedule. In addition to them, photographs of
typical inhabitants are urgently desired. Some judgment will, of course,

‘require to be exercised in the selection of types, and a considerable
amount of tact in inducing the subjects to allow themselves to be taken.
It has been found effective for this purpose, as well as for that of
measuring the people, that two persons should go out together, and
setting up the camera in the village, or wherever they find a convenient
spot, coram populo, they should then proceed gravely to measure and
photograph one another. This will be found to interest the villagers,
and some of them will gradually be persuaded to submit to the operation.
A little geniality, and sometimes a more tangible gratification of a trifling
character, will hardly ever fail in accomplishing the object. The expe-
rience of observers who have taken measurements is that it becomes
extremely fascinating work as the collection increases and the results are
compared. !

This comparison, if the subjects have been selected with judgment,
and accurately measured and photographed, should enable us to determine
in what proportions the blood of the various races which have from time
to time invaded and occupied our soil has been transmitted to the present
population of different parts of the United Kingdom. From the ancient
remains in barrows and other sepulchral monuments, and from the study
of the living peoples of Western Europe, the characteristics of the races
in question are known with more or less certainty, and every year adds
to our information concerning them. A much more complex problem,
and one wherein archeologists have a more direct interest, is how far the
culture of the races in question has descended to us, and how far it has
been affected by intruding arts, faiths, and inventions. To solve this,
appeal is made first to the historic and prehistoric monuments and other
material remains, and secondly to the traditions of many kinds that
linger among the peasantry. Here the first business, and that with
which the practical work of the survey is immediately concerned, is the
work of collection. To photograph, sketch, and accurately describe the
material remains; to note and report the descriptions and drawings
already made, and where they are preserved; to gather and put into
handy form the folklore of each country already printed ; and to collect
from the surviving depositaries of tradition that which may still be
found—namely, tales, sayings, customs, medical prescriptions, songs,
games, riddles, superstitions, and all those scraps of traditional lore stored
in rustic memories, impervious and strange to the newer lore of to-day—
these are the necessary preliminaries to the study of the civilisation of our
ancestors.

1 The Ethnographical Survey Committee has a few sets of instruments for taking
the measurements, which can be placed temporarily at the disposal of the local
committee. Perhaps I may here also express the opinion that if the personal
photographs and measurements called for expenditure beyond what could be met by
local enthusiasm, the Committee might not be indisposed to contribute by way of a
smali payment for each photograph and set of measurements.

ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 515

Archeologists have paid too exclusive attention to the material
remains. They have forgotten to inquire what light may be thrown
upon them by tradition. By the term tradition I do not mean simply
what the people say about the monuments. Antiquaries soon found out
that that was always inaccurate, and often utterly false and misleading.
Hence thay have been too much inclined to despise all traditions. But
tradition in the wide sense of the whole body of the lore of the wneducated,
their customs as well as their beliefs, their doings as well as their sayings,
has proved, when scientifically studied, of the greatest value for the
explanation of much that we must fail to understand in the material
remains of antiquity. To take a very simple instance: when we find in

| Gloucestershire barrows, cups, or bowls of rough pottery buried with the
dead, we call them food-vessels, because we know that it is the custom
among savage and barbarous nations to bury food with the dead and to
make offerings at the tomb, and that this custom rests on a persuasion
that the dead continue to need food and that they will be propitiated by
gifts ; and we further infer that the races who buried food-vessels with
their dead in this country held a similar opinion. Or, to take another
burial custom : General Pitt-Rivers reported last year to the British As-
sociation that he had found in excavations at Cranborne Chase bodies
buried without the head. If we were ignorant of the practices of other
races we should be at a loss to account for such interments. As it is, we
ask ourselves whether these bodies are those of strangers whose heads have
been sent back to their own land, or their own tribe, in order to be united
in one general cemetery with their own people; or whether the heads
were cut off and preserved by their immediate relatives and brought into
the circle at their festive gatherings to share the periodical solemnities of
the clan. Both these are savage modes of dealing with the dead, one of
which, indeed, left traces in Roman civilisation at its highest development.
The knowledge of them puts us upon inquiry as to other burials of the
prehistoric inhabitants of this country, which may help us in reconstruct-
ing their worship and their creed. I for one do not despair of recovering,
by careful comparison of the relics preserved to us in the ancient monu-
ments with the folklore of the existing peasantry and of races in other
parts of the earth, at least the outlines of the beliefs of our remote
predecessors.
Any such conclusions, however, must be founded on the essential unity
that science has, during the last thirty years, unveiled to us in human
thought and human institutions. This unity has disguised itself in forms
as diverse as the nationalities of men. And when we have succeeded in
piecing together the skeleton of our predecessors’ civilisation, material and
intellectual, we are confronted by the further inquiries: What were the
specific distinctions of their culture? and How was it influenced by those
of their neighbours or of their conquerors? This is a question only to be
determined, if at all, by the examination of the folklore of the country.
We may assume that the physical measurements, descriptions, and por-
traits of the present inhabitants will establish our relationship to some of
the peoples whose remains we find beneath our feet. And it will be
reasonable to believe that, though there has been a communication from
other peoples of their traditions, yet that the broad foundation of our folk-
lore is derived from our foreathers and predecessors in ourown land. In
_ Gloucestershire itself we have strong evidence of the persistence of tradi-

_ tion. Bisley Church is said to have been originally intended to be built
J LL2

516 REPORT—1895.

several miles off, ‘but the Devil every night removed the stones, and the
architect was obliged at last to build it where it now stands.’ This is, of
course, a common tradition. The peculiarity of the case is that at Bisley
its meaning has been discovered. The spot where, we are told, ‘the
church ought to have been built was occupied formerly by a Roman villa ;’
and when the church was restored some years ago ‘ portions of the mate-
rials of that villa were found embedded in the church walls, including the
altars of the Penates, which are now, however, removed to the British
Museum.’! Here, as Sir John Dorington said, addressing this Society
some years ago at Stroud, is a tradition which has been handed down for
fifteen or sixteen hundred years. This is in our own country, and it may
be thought hard to beat such a record. But at Mold, in Flintshire, there
is evidence of a tradition which must have been handed down from the
prehistoric iron age—that is to say, for more than two thousand years.
A cairn stood there, called the Bryn-yr-L£ilyllon, the Hill of the Fairies.
It was believed to be haunted ; a spectre clad in golden armour had been
seen to enter it. That this story was current before the mound was
opened is a fact beyond dispute. In 1832 the cairn was explored. Three
hundred cartloads of stones were removed, and beneath them was found a
skeleton ‘laid at full length, wearing a corslet of beautifully wrought
gold, which had been placed on a lining of bronze.’ The corslet in ques-
tion is of Etruscan workmanship, and is now, I believe, to be seen in the
British Museum.’

Examples like these—and they stand by no means alone—inspire con-
fidence in the permanence of what seems so fleeting and evanescent. Folk-
lore is, in fact, like pottery, the most delicate, the most fragile of human
productions : yet it is precisely these productions which prove more dur-
able than solid and substantial fabrics, and outlast the wreck of empires,
a witness to the latest posterity of the culture of earlier and ruder
times.

But if these traditions have thus been preserved for centuries and even
millenniums, they have been modified—nay, transformed—in the process.
It is not the bare fact which has been transmitted from generation to
generation, but the fact seen through the distorting medium of the popu-
lar imagination. This is a characteristic of all merely oral records of an
actual event ; and this it is which everywhere renders tradition, taken
literally, so untrustworthy, so misleading a witness to fact. The same
law, however, does not apply to every species of tradition. Some species
fall within the lines of the popular imagination ; and it is then not a dis-
torting but a conservative force. The essential identity of so many stories,
customs and superstitions throughout the world is a sufficient proof of this,
on which I have no space to dwell. But their essential identity is over-
laid with external differences due to local surroundings, racial peculiari-
ties, higher or lower planes of civilisation. There is a charming story told
in South Wales of a lady who came out of a lake at the foot of one of the
Carmarthenshire mountains and married a youth in the neighbourhood,
and who afterwards, offended with her husband, quitted his dwelling for
ever and returned to her watery abode. In the Shetland Islands the tale

1 Gloucestershire N. § Q. vol. i. p. 390 quoting an article in the Building News.
See also Sir John Dorington’s Presidential Address, Zrans. B. & G. Arch. Soc. vol. v.

p. 7.
? Boyd Dawkins, Harly Man in Britain, p. 431, citing Archeologia and Arch.
Cambrensis.

ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 317

is told of a seal which cast its skin and appeared as a woman. A man of
the Isle of Unst possessed himself of the seal-skin and thus captured and
married her. She lived with him until one day she recovered the skin,
resumed her seal-shape and plunged into the sea, never more to return.
In Croatia the damsel is a wolf whose wolf-skin a soldier steals. In the
Arabian Nights she is a jinn wearing the feather-plumage of a bird, appa-
rently assumed simply for the purpose of flight. In all these cases the
variations are produced by causes easily assigned.

The specific distinctions of a nation’s culture are not necessarily limited
to changes of traditions which it may have borrowed from its neighbours
or inherited from a common stock. It may conceivably develop traditions
peculiar to itself. This is a subject hardly yet investigated by students
of folklore. Their labours have hitherto been chiefly cont:ned to estab-
lishing the identity underlying divergent forms of tradition «nd explaining
the meaning of practices and beliefs by comparison of the folklore of dis-
tant races at different stages of evolution. But there are not wanting
those who are turning their attention to a province as yet unconquered,
and indeed almost undiscovered. Even if they only succeed in esta-
blishing a negative, if they show that all traditions supposed to be
peculiar have counterparts elsewhere, they will have rendered a signal
service to science, and produced incontrovertible testimony of the unity
of the human mind and the unintermittent force of the laws which
govern it.

Alike for the purpose of ascertaining the specific distinctions of culture
and the influences of neighbouring nations and neighbouring civilisations,
an accumulation of facts is the prime requisite. If we have reason to
believe in the persistence of tradition, we shall have confidence that relics
will be discovered in our midst of the faith and institutions of our remoter
ancestors ; and, in accordance as we venerate antiquity or desire to pre-
serve what remains of the past, we shall hasten to collect them. Nor can
we be too quick in so doing. The blood of our forefathers is a permanent
inheritance, which it would take many generations and a large interming-
ling of foreigners seriously to dilute, much less to destroy. But tradition
is rapidly dying. It is dwindling away before the influences of modern
civilisation. Formerly, when the rural districts were isolated, when news
travelled slowly and nobody thought of leaving his home save to go to the
nearest market, and that not too often, when education did not exist for
the peasantry and the landowners had scarcely more than a bowing ac-
quaintance with it, the talk by the fireside on winter evenings was of the
business of the day—the tilling, the crops, the kine. Or it was the gossip
and small scandals interesting to such a community, or reminiscences by
the elders of the past. Thence it would easily glide into tales and super-
stitions. And we know that these tales and superstitions were, in fact,
the staple of conversation among our fathers and generally throughout the
West of Europe, to go no further afield, down to a very recent period;
and they still are in many districts. In England, however, railways,
newspapers, elementary education, politics, and the industrial movements
which have developed during the present century have changed the ancient
modes of life; and the old traditions are fading out of memory. The
generation that held them is fast passing away. The younger generation
has never cared to learn them; though, of course, many of the minor
Superstitions and sayings have still a considerable measure of power, espe-
cially in the shape of folk-medicine and prescriptions for luck. We must

e

K

518 REPORT—1895.

make haste, therefore, if we desire to add to the scanty information on
record concerning English folklore.

As a starting-point for the collection of Gloucestershire folklore I put
together, a year or two ago, the folklore in Atkyns, Rudder, and the first
four volumes of Gloucestershire Notes and Queries ; and it was printed by
the Folklore Society and issued as a pamphlet.! Other works remain to
be searched ; and it is probable that a good deal more may be found already
in print, if some who are interested in the antiquities of the country will
undertake the not very arduous, but very necessary, labour of collection.
When all is gathered, however, it will only be a small part of what must
have existed at no distant date—if not of what still exists, awaiting dili-
gent inquiry among living men and women. How to set about the in-
quiry is a question that must be left very much to the individual inquirer
to answer. Valuable practical hints are given in the Handbook of Folklore,
a small volume that may be bought for half-a-crown and carried in the
pocket. Confidence between the collector and those from whom he is
seeking information is the prime necessity. Keep your notebook far in
the background, and beware of letting the peasant know the object
of your curiosity, or even of allowing him to see that you are curious.
Above all, avoid leading questions. If you are looking for tales, tell
a tale yourself. Do anything to establish a feeling of friendly sym-
pathy. Never laugh at your friend’s superstitions—not even if he laugh
at them himself ; for he will not open his heart to you if he suspect you of
despising them.

There is one other division of the schedule to which I have not yet
referred. The Dialect is perishing as rapidly as the folklore ; it is being
overwhelmed by the same foes. Peculiarities of dialect are due partly to
physical, partly to mental, causes. From either point of view they are of
interest to the investigator of antiquities. Hence their inclusion among
the subjects of the Ethnographical Survey. Nobody who has once under-
stood how much of history is often wrapped up in a single word can fail
to perceive the importance of a study of dialect, or how largely it may
contribute to the determination of the origin of a given population. The
reduction of dialect into writing requires accuracy to distinguish the nice-
ties of pronunciation, and some practice to set them down ; but a little
experience will overcome most difficulties, which, after all, are not great.
It is believed that most of the words—as distinguished from their pronun-
ciation—in use have been recorded in the publications of the English
Dialect Society or elsewhere. But it is better to record them again than
to leave them unrecorded. Nor should it be forgotten in this connection
that a word often bears a different shade of meaning in one place from what
it bears in another. In recording any words, care should therefore be taken
to seize not only the exact sound, but the exact signification, if it be desired
to make a real contribution towards the history of the country, or the
history of the language. Of the method of collection and transcription it
is needless to add to the directions in the schedule.

1 County Folklore. Printed Extracts—No.1, Gloucestershire. London: D. Nutt,
1892. Is.

— ee

el i iit a ee ttle el i ee aia

THE LAKE VILLAGE AT GLASTONBURY. 519

The Lake Village at Glastonbury.—Second Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Professor W. Boyp Dawkins,
Sir JoHn Evans, General Pirt-Rivers, and Mr. A. BULLEID
(Secretary). (Drawn up by the Chairman and the Secretary.)

I. Report. By Dr. R. Munro.

TuE site of the Lake Village at Glastonbury occupies some three or four
acres of a flat meadow, within the boundaries of what is supposed, on
good grounds, to have been formerly a lake or marsh. Before excavations
were begun all that the eye could discern on the undisturbed surface
were sixty or seventy low mounds huddled in the corner of a field. Only
about one half of these mounds has as yet been systematically explored,
but, so far, the original surmise that each mound formed the site of a hut,
resting on a substratum of beams and brushwood, is entirely confirmed.
The operations of the last two summers have been largely confined to
tracing the village border, which has now been uncovered to the extent
of about two-thirds of its circumference. A vast amount of the hetero-
geneous débris of human occupancy has been gathered on and around its
site, including five complete skulls and other bones of man. These skulls
were found outside the stockaded margin, and it has been remarked that
no other bones of the body were associated with them. One of them
shows a deep cut, as if made by a sword, and another bears evidence of
having been supported on a spearhead, which had been inserted vertically
through the first cervical vertebra and the occipital foramen. A full
account of the technique and purposes of these relics and a list of the
flora and fauna collected during the excavations are given in the previous
report and in a small guide-book lately published by the Glastonbury
Antiquarian Society. Suffice it for the present to say that the relics are
of various materials—stone, flint, bronze, iron, bone, horn, glass, pottery,
&e. Among the bronze objects are many fibule of La Téne forms, spiral
finger-rings, penanular brooches, and an elegant bowl. Of bone and horn
we have needles, pins, handles, long-handled combs used for wearing, and
many other articles. Among the objects of wood are a canoe, the frame-
work of a loom, the staves of buckets, one of which is decorated, part of
the axle of a wheel with a couple of spokes in their place. The pottery
is very abundant, and often highly ornamented with devices which
unmistakably show ‘late Celtic’ art. Many of the industrial relics
exhibit some of the special characteristics of this style of art, the
importation of which into Britain preceded, by two or three centuries,
the occupation of the island by the Romans ; nor does it appear that any
of them had been influenced by Roman art. This, indeed, is one of the
most interesting features of the Glastonbury find, and this collection of
antiquities cannot fail to shed an unexpected light on one of the obscurest
periods of British civilisation within prehistoric times. On a previous
visit to Glastonbury I observed a leaden weight, shaped like a cheese,
having the middle of the rim bulging out. It weighs 4 oz. 229 gr. This
is the only metallic article hitherto found of which there may be enter-
tained a suspicion that it had a Roman origin. I understand that Sir
Augustus W. Franks has pointed out a piece of pottery recently found
which may also have a similar origin. This shows that the village existed
as an inhabited place up to Roman times, and it is possible that it was
the intrusion of the Romans into this district which put an end to it.

520 REPORT—1895.

II. Report on the Work carried on during the Past Year.
By ArtHuR BULLEID.

The digging at the Glastonbury Lake Village was discontinued last
year in October, and resumed this season towards the end of April. Since
presenting the report of the third year’s exploration at the Oxford meet-
ing of the Association, 15 dwelling mounds have been examined, making,
-with those previously laid open, 30 in all. Besides the 15 dwelling
mounds, 500 feet of the palisading, forming the west border of the village,
has been traced, together with from 15 to 25 feet of peat adjoining and
outside it. This, with the like distance of 500 feet dug in 1893-94, com-
pletes the examination of about two-thirds of the total circumference of
the village, the remaining unexplored portions of the palisading being
situated at the north and south sides. Of the original 65 dwelling mounds
there still remain about one-half for future examination, as well as the
large spaces of ground between them. The palisading examined this
year, bordering the west side of the village, was similar to that exposed
in previous years, both with reference to the arrangement of the piles
and the irregularity of outline, but it was not so strongly made as that on
the east side. At one spot, bordering a space between two dwellings,
’ the palisading was discontinued for 60 feet, and a bank of peat substi-
tuted for it ; the peat wall was kept in place by a single line of upright
piles driven down near its centre, the upper parts of the posts being
evidently bound together with hurdle work. During the examination of
the dwelling mounds the following structural discoveries were made.
With reference to the construction of the floors it was noticed that
the clay was covered with planks of split timber, and that the method
of arranging the wood varied in different dwellings; in two floors
the planks were placed in a circular fashion round the hearth,
and parallel to the wall of the house. On another floor the boards
were lying diagonally across the dwelling in a south-east and north-
west direction. In one dwelling mound four superimposed and
complete stone hearths were found, having a layer of clay one foot deep
intervening between each. In another dwelling a good door-step was
unearthed. The timber foundations of the dwelling mounds recently
examined have been found to vary little from those previously explored,
with this exception, that one of the small mounds was found to be
covering a beam of oak fourteen feet in length, with a mortise-hole near
each end, one end lying on and at right angles to a large tree trunk, the
two pieces of timber being kept in place by a pile, the upper end of which
was found a short distance below the hearth of the dwelling. Other
mortised beams were discovered in the vicinity, but it has not been
possible as yet to make out their original arrangement, but the one just
mentioned, although in situ, was evidently not intended, in the first place,
for part of the substructure of a dwelling. A number of important
objects have been unearthed from the peat outside the village border, as
well as from the floors of the dwellings and the ground between them.
As during the seasons of 1892, 1893, and 1894, large quantities of hand-
and wheel-made pottery, clay sling pellets, and bones of animals have
been dug up. Among the things that may be specially mentioned are the
following :—

Flint.—A small saw. This was found near the arrow-head mentioned
in last year’s report.

THE LAKE VILLAGE AT GLASTONBURY. 521

Stone.—Several circular and saddle-shaped quern stones, and many
spindle whorls and whetstones.

Bronze—More than fifty pieces of bronze, of various descriptions,
including one complete mirror, three pairs of tweezers, one bracelet, ten
spiral finger and other rings, one pin, two needles, three fibulee.

Tron.—Among the objects of iron are a spear-head, bill-hook, horse-
bit, rings, knives, and a flat piece of the metal more than two feet long,
presumably an unfinished sword.

Lead.—Several rings and spindle whorls, or weights.

Bone.—The human remains have been more plentiful than in the
previous seasons, and include three complete skulls, fragments of five
others, two first cervical vertebre, one being badly fractured ; fragments
of bone of a burnt body, the complete skeleton of a very young child,
with the exception of the bones of the lower extremities and one arm.

These, with the exception of one bone, were obtained from various
parts of the peat outside the village.

The bones of animals and birds found since presenting the last report
have not yet been examined.

Worked Bone and Horn.—The objects of cut bone and horn found this
season number considerably over a hundred, among them being handles
of knives, weaving-combs, needles, haftings, gouges, and a variety of
other implements.

Wood.—Some of the more important finds made of wood have been :-—
Six spokes of a wheel, about 13} inches long. A complete ladder of four
steps, the sides being nearly 7 feet long, made of two split pieces of ash,
each side being perforated with four small square mortise-holes for
holding the steps. The lowermost step was kept in place by a wooden
pin driven through it transversely on the outside. The original top step
of wood was missing, but in its place one of plaited withs had been
substituted.

A saw-shaped implement of wood, 4 feet long, the greatest width
being 22 inches, the handle 15 inches in length ; along one edge of the
blade portion, which tapers to a point, there are a number of saw-like
notches, averaging half an inch in depth. This implement was found
lying at the side of the ladder in the peat, outside the west border of the
village.

Portions of several tubs, buckets, and cups have been dug up; the
tubs were, for the most part, stave-made and dovetailed together with
wooden pegs ; others were cut from the solid. From measurements the
fragments show the complete utensils to have ranged from 6 inches to
2 feet 6 inches in height, and from a few inches to two feet in diameter.

A door 3 feet 6 inches high and 16 inches wide, made of one piece of
oak, with projections from one edge, above and below, about 4 inches long.

The greater part of a basket, which, when complete, must have been
18 inches high.

Part of a second boat ; the fragment is 20 feet long, cut from the
solid wood, and belonged to a boat of much greater length. At some
places on the inner surface tool-marks and charring were plainly seen.

Many other pieces of wood-work have been found, such as parts of
boxes, pegs, pins, and mortised framework.

The botanical, osteological, and geological specimens, recently dis-
covered, have not yet been examined : they will be described in a subse-
quent report.

522 REPORT—1895.

The North-Western Tribes of Canada.—Tenth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. EH. B. TyLor, Dr. G. M. Dawson, Mr.
R. G. Hauipurton, and Mr. H. Hae, appointed to investigate the
Physical Characters, Languages, and Industrial and Social
Conditions of the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada.

[PLATE VIL]

ConTENTS.

PAGE

Fifth Report on the Indians of British Columbia. By Franz Boas.
I. Physical Characteristics of the Tribes of the North Pacific Coast . . 624
Il. The Tinneh Tribe of Nicola Valley . : ; é : : ; Sepp
Ill. The Tinneh Tribe of Portland Inlet, the Ts’xts’a'ut. 3 é § . 555
IV. The Nass River Indians, the Nisk-a' : a . . F - +» 569

V. Linguistics :

1. Niésk-a! c P : : : “ ; a 2 ; 2 OSB
QT nts aut ; : 5 : t ; : ; : ri ateifl

TuE Committee, as was expected last year, are now able to complete their
work for the present by sending in the final report, by Dr. Franz Boas,
on ‘ The Indians of British Columbia.’

In concluding the investigations which have since the Montreal Meet-
ing of 1884 been carried on under their direction, the Committee desire
to return thanks for the liberality with which the British Association
took up the task of preserving records of the Anthropology of the North-
Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada. With equal generosity, the
Canadian Government recognised the necessity of the work by large con-
tribution to the funds at the disposal of the Committee. Thus has been
brought together a collection of valuable physical and philological in-
formation, coupled with accounts of native culture, much of which would
probably have changed or disappeared within a few years had not this
timely enterprise been undertaken.

For convenience of reference, the principal contributions embodied in
the Committee’s series of Reports are here set down, viz. :—

Circular of Inquiry drawn up by Committee. (Report ITT.)

Report on the Blackfoot Tribes, by Mr. Horatio Hale, in correspon-
dence with Father Lacombe and Rev. John McLean. (Report I.)

Report on the Blackfoot Tribes, by Rev. Edward F. Wilson, and Notes
by Mr. Hale. (Report III.)

Notes on Indians of British Columbia, by Dr. Franz Boas. (Report
IV.)

Report on the Sarcee Indians, by Rev. Edward F. Wilson, and Notes
by Mr. Hale. (Report IV.)

Remarks on North American Ethnology, by Mr. Hale. (Report V.)

First Report on the Indians of British Columbia, by Dr. Franz Boas.
(Report V.)

Remarks on the Ethnology of British Columbia, by Mr. Hale. (Re-
port VI.)

Second Report on the Indians of British Columbia, by Dr. Franz
Boas. (Report VI.)

Introduction, by Sir Daniel Wilson. (Report VII.)

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 523

Third Report on the Indians of British Columbia, by Dr. Franz Boas.
(Report VII.)

Physical Characteristics of the Tribes of the North Pacific Coast, by
Dr. Franz Boas. (Report VII.)

Remarks on Linguistic Ethnology, by Mr. H. Hale. (Report VIII.)

Report on the Kootenay Indians, by Dr. A. F. Chamberlain. (Report
VIII.

Fourth Report on the Indians of British Columbia (Indian Tribes of
Lower Fraser River), by Dr. Franz Boas. (Report IX.)

Fifth Report on the Indians of British Columbia, by Dr. Franz Boas.

(Report X.)

Fifth Report on the Indians of British Columbia. By Franz Boas.

During the months from September to December 1894, I revisited
British Columbia under instructions of the Committee, the object of the
journey being to fill, so far as possible, gaps left in previous investigations.
i considered four points to be of particular importance : the anthropometry
of those portions of the province which were not covered by previous
work ; an investigation of a Tinneh tribe on the extreme northern part
of the coast of which I had heard reports, but which has never been de-
scribed ; a study of the customs of the Hé'iltsuq, and further inquiries in
regard to the Tinneh tribe of Nicola Valley which was first described by
Dr. G. M. Dawson (‘ Trans. Royal Soc. Canada,’ vol. ix. 1891, sec. ii. p. 23).

On account of lack of time I was unable to visit the Hé'iltsuq, and
for the same reason I delegated the work in Nicola Valley to Mr. James
Teit, of Spence’s Bridge, who is thoroughly conversant with the language
and the customs of the Ntlakya/pamug. His report will be found
embodied in the following pages.

The subject matter which I collected on my journey is presented in
the following manner :—

I. Physical Characteristics of the Tribes of the North Pacific Coast

(p. 524).

II. The Tinneh tribe of Nicola Valley, by Mr. James Teit (p. 551).
II. The Tinneh tribe of Portland Inlet, the Ts’rts’a/ut (p. 555).
IV. The Nass River Indians, the Nisk-a’ (p. 569).

V. Linguistics :

1. Nisk-a’ (p. 583).
2. Ts’Ets’a/ut (p. 587).

I have to express my obligation for valuable help extended in the
_ course of my work tothe Rev. Mr. Collison, of Kinkolith ; Mr. George Hunt,
of Fort Rupert ; Mr. C. O. Hastings, of Victoria, British Columbia ; Mr.
James Teit, of Spence’s Bridge ; and Rev. Father Le Jeune, of Kamloops.

The following alphabet has been used in this report :—

The vowels have their Continental sounds, namely : a as in father; ¢
like a in mate ; i as in machine ; 0 as in note; was in rule.

In addition the following are used : @, GasinGerman ; d=aw in law ;
é as in tell ; 7 as in hill ; 6 asin German voll ; s=e in flower (Lepsius’s e).

Among the consonants the following additional letters have been
used : g', velar g ; hk’, velar &, qg, the German ch in bach ; 4, the German
ch in ich; Q, between g and H; c=sh in shore; tl, an explosive 1, dl, a
palatal 7 (dorso-apical) ; !, increased stress of articulation; ‘, the mouth
assumes the position for the articulation of w.

Or
Lo
ee

REPORT—1895,

I. PuystcaAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRIBES OF THE NorTH
Paciric Coast.

In the Seventh Report of the Committee I pointed out that the region
around Harrison Lake is inhabited by a peculiar type of man, differing
considerably from the types found in the neighbourhood. It seemed
desirable to investigate the characteristics of the people of the surrounding
country, in order to better define the locality inhabited by this type and
to discover in what manner the transition between the distinct types of
this region takes place. For this purpose I collected anthropometric data
in the region lying between Harrison Lake and Thompson River. This
country is inhabited by the Ntlakya’pamua, a tribe speaking a Salish
language which has developed very slight dialectic differences only. The
people of this tribe live in a great many villages which are scattered along
Fraser and Thompson Rivers ; but the villages are grouped in five sub-
divisions of the tribe, which are named as follows: the Uta/’mk:t, who
live between Spuzzum and Keefers ; the NtlakyapamuQ’d’é, or real
Ntlakya’pamua, whose territory extends from a little above Keefers to a

‘point above Thompson Siding on Thompson River, and about twenty
miles up Fraser River from Lytton ; the Nkamtci/nemug, from Thompson
Siding to Ashcroft on Thompson River ; Stlaqa/yug, on the upper part of
Fraser River, between the Lillooet and the Ntlakyapamuq’0’é ; and finally,
the Cawa’gamug, of Nicola Valley. For the purpose of my investigation
I kept these divisions separate.

Furthermore, the anthropometric material given in the Seventh Report
of the Committee was very insufficient so far as the northern parts of the
coast are concerned. For the purpose of filling this gap I collected data
among the Nass River Indians and among the Kwakiutl. The technique
of the measurements was the same as that described in the Seventh Report
of the Committee. I have added to the material which I collected for the
Committee other data which were collected under my direction for the
Anthropological Department of the World’s Columbian Exposition ; but I
have refrained from the use of the head measurements which were gathered
cc that time, as these would extend the scope of the Report beyond desirable

imits.

A glance at the tables (p. 544) will show that a very material change of
type takes place somewhere between Vancouver Island and Skeena River.
For this reason it is necessary to compare the various Kwakiutl tribes
among each other before combining them, in order to see if there is any
appreciable difference between them. According to their location, I have
combined the material which I collected in the following manner : First,
tribes of the Nak’oartdk group, embracing the Goasila and Nak’oartok ;
second, tribes of the Koskimo group, embracing the extreme northern
tribes of the Nootka, the Kwakiutl tribes of the west coast of Vancouver
Island, of Cape Scott and Newettee ; third, the Kwakiutl group, em-
bracing the Kwakiutl proper and all the tribes of this group south-east of
Fort Rupert.

The following tables show the results of this comparison :—

Ye)
wD

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.

6F F-0ST I I F | P T | 6 L | 9 8 9 = T I . c * [e,0OL,
FG €-0ST = I € = I g G € F G = i > ‘ . * owrysoy
SI 6-LFL —) a = T = G € G i I = T I * ; ~ * ULES
Or 9-FS1 T = T € = G G T = = ars ra, = a 4 . YOWVO FEN
sasuy aSeroay | S91 | I9T | GST | LET | SGT | SOT | TST | GOT | LPT | QPL | EFT | THT | 6eT } Sa Ee
JO toqunyy GOT | O9T | 8ST | 9ST | FST | SSL | OST | SFI | OFT PPL GFL OFT 8EI
‘(0A0 pure sivek 0%) NA JO MOV JO HLavaug
9€ LEgt G € ¥ g g g i) g T u ‘ * [ezoy,
06 SPST I z F € F Z S z = > e Z * OWITYSOS,
6 SoS T = a T I a § G T ¢ ; . * ULB yy
L FET = T = IT Se € TI T = ‘ % : YO WVOTeN
sosep 3 6E9T 619T 66ST 61ST 6991 6E¢T 61ST 66FT 6LFT } 5 5 5 A ne
yoroquny | °P°V | —oggr | —oo9t | —osgt | —og9et | —oret | —ozert | —oogt | —osét | —09FT tai
‘(ese Jo sivak GG-)1) NHWOM JO TUALLY
OF G F G F L 9 € 8 6 : * [®IOL
61 ar 6 T T € F G g “Ez ; ¥ : * ovllysoy
€T —— T T G € T ae G G 7 ; e * urea y
8 G T od T T ! I I a r YOPVO, YVN
sasep oSe10ay 6SLT 6ELT 6ILT 669T 6L9T 699T 6E9T 619T 6691 6LST Me 5 ; . WH
JO TequInN —OPLT | —O3LT| — O0LT| —O89T | —O99T | — OF9T | —OZ9T | —O09T | —O8ST| —O9gT

‘(988 Jo steak 69-02) NA 10 TAALVIG
“BRMyony

ee

REPORT—1895.

526

LE 8-161 She te ae 9 6 T f v P v € | T Co is—elheaEse ey ‘ * [Tej0y,
Spe mc Pe per me er ae es Pam i tl Pe RU AES
03 L631 Bert. do) hale er clnket | Th eit) Select Thee See Ee ke * OUITYSOY
6 @-611 See eee ea a | lr Vee TD ate) Sat) | ae = ae ene * TFNIYRA
8 8-861 a eres | ee =| — A) ee VES SS alk 2 PN Ma | a Chg me oe ; : ; AOWVO YEN
sasep aSeroay | 681 / LET| SET | SST} TeT| 6ST} L481 | 9ST | S2z | TL | GIT LTT gtr ett TIT | GOT} LOT a o cagley ay Rempasete,
JO Toquun yy SEL | 981 | FEL] SST | O€L| 8ST | 931 | FST | SSL | OST | SIT 9TL FIL) SIL} OIL! 80L| 90T
‘(ase Jo sivok G¢-11) NUWOM HO TOV ao LHYIG
FP L631 tH a € F P 9 g 8 F I G T G i 3 “ [eT
FI i em S| |
06 F-86L <— — T I G t F F G ce a il - 1 ; * OWITYSOYy
al P-8E1 T = if T G G I G 1h = I oa G 3 : : * NEVA
6 L-TE1 G = i! G > = = G I i! a = aa ; ; : YOWVO YBN |
4 : :
sasup oSeroay | TPT | 6&1 | LEI | Get | eer | Tet | eat | zzz | get | est | tet | ett | 2TT if say tate fant
FO toq uu Ny OFT 8éI 9&T PEL GET | OSL | 8ZI | 9ST | PSL | ZZE | OSL | SIT | OTT |

‘(e8e Jo srvak g9-0Z) NAT fo TOV AO LHYIa

Iv L&?1
GG 8-ITFL
OL F-8F1
6 L-9FT
saseg
jo zaquanyy asvIloAV

|

= T
I

SST
6ST

IST
OST

T
6

6FT
8FT

N20

LET

9FT

age Reel | aa Ae pe aS a Th
fll Sol de
ee es lS cet ae) fn
Ey, ll | he
SFI | ShL | TFT | 6eI | Ler | ger | eet
| PFI | OPI | OFT | SI | 9er | FET | ser

‘(toa0 puv steed JT) NAWOM JO GOVY ao HLavaug

. . .

TeqOT,

* OUITYSOY
ULBALy
YOHBO YUN

f *““Uay

527

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.

9€ 1/—|—|—/—|-]z|-|z2/e/e|—|slele|t)e|rlrlsirlele|r] - r
06 L-€¢ } Ome Vitae sea fm FU) Ht] oY OS acd st Vee aA at Od OBI 1 eet ome —aa ‘
6 8-86 Se (od a 2 naar awed eet mame sel feed eel ME GI cate
L LTg sau acme Pesala esa sm a ag A A Hee a et jes A =
jo Feanie asvieay | 99/99/#9| 89) 29 T9 | 09) 69 | 89 | 12) 99] 99) $9 | 9} GG | TS | 09 | 6F gFLF 96 SF/FF eF ie of
‘(ase Jo sivak 69-1) NAWOM, JO ASON JO LHYIDH
S&P L-Gg oN ieee a am 6 | 6 9 |; OL | § Y & 6 te) 6 Fe “= G
02 1.99 —|—|—jaisbere trate t thelr} —}]— it
FI 8-F¢ Ss | SS ae te GAG G I I I 6 I TE a T :
6 0.18 Pie Sr She) Sf slo sel | Es Ce ae ete ee eee
sosvy aay eae SES ls 1 Heras lk ck | tO Sem ewer [pene | eee [cna A
yo xaquain asviaay | €9 | 29 | 19 | 09 | 6G | 8G | 29 | 99 | G9 | Fa | EG | oe} Tg | O89 6h 8F }
‘(ese Jo sivok 6G-0Z) NU] JO ASON AO LHDIGH
9€ 6-GE t € g G IL G S 6 1) il {
06 F-G§ & I € i 9 6 G I I = : i
6 6-6€ Ex T 7 I € am I I I I +
L 0-G¢ I ji G ay A = = a: I = 3
sasey 2 : :
Jo raquiny, joe mee eey 6& | 8€ | LE | 98 a€ ve && of Tg 0€ }
‘(a8ev jo sreok 69-11) NUWOA, JO ASON JO HiLavaug
GT €-66 T = T g g IT 9 8 8 € va F P 3
06 G68 il = = = g = i g g IT I oo | oA J
ial L-8¢ x a = § es = T I G i T t 3
8 9-0F = = et = a it T dj T a ee .
es aa | ea eee RT | eee
ee eseroay |. 9F | 9F | 3% | eh | oy | Ty | OF | Ge | 88 | 2e | 98°] 98 ie :

* [eVOI,

* owlysoy
* Upeay
* -YOVTeOTEN

* UL

* 1230
* OWLYSOY
* UTE
7O}1L07eN

: cent

* [R40],
* OWILYSOy

* UTE
* —-yoq7B0,72N

4 UY

TROL

* OUNTYSOS]
* * yMETeALy
* -¥Q}180,xUN

“UY

528 REPORT— 1895.

It appears that the three groups are quite uniform. Possibly the breadth
of face of the most northern group, the Nak’oartdk, is a little larger than
that of the others, but the number of cases is so small that it remains
doubtful if there is any real difference between the types. It will be
seen that the three tribes differ very considerably from the Nass River
Indians, their faces being much higher and narrower.

In order to prove properly the uniformity of the material collected
among the Kwakiutl, it is necessary to take into consideration their habit
of deforming the head by means of a pressure brought to bear upon the
front and sides of the head. Possibly the practice might have an effect
upon the development of the face, which differs much from the form found
among all the neighbouring tribes. In order to decide if the artificial
deformation has any influence upon the form of the face, I have divided
the material into three groups :—Heads not deformed or slightly deformed
only, moderately deformed heads, and strongly deformed heads. As will
be seen from the tables showing the measurements of individuals, I made
finer distinctions when recording the original observations, namely :—Not
deformed, slightly deformed, moderately deformed, considerably deformed,
strongly deformed, and very strongly deformed. The first two classes
embrace children and young persons only, the practice of deformation
’ being gradually abandoned. Leaving these out of consideration, we find
the following numbers of individuals in each class :—

= Meno Women Men Women
Moderately deformed F 25 9 59 % 32 %
Considerably deformed . 8 7 191% 25 %
Strongly deformed . : 9 9 22 % 82%
Very strongly deformed . —_— 3 ae 11%

This table shows that the heads of female children were much more
strongly deformed than those of male children, and that the deformation
represented in each group is stronger among women than among men.

5 Slightly Moderately Much

Deformed Deformed Deformed

Length of Head {Women! 1) 1863 tera | 1912
Bas ot ia (Me | aT | ae
Bice ees VME | MR | ~ BRR |g
Height of Face { Women’ || 1186 11947 1236

The differences exhibited in this table show clearly that a strong
deformation of the kind practised by the Kwakiutl increases the length
of head and diminishes the breadth of head ; but that moderate degrees
of deformation do not influence materially the lower portion of the skull,
in which the greatest breadth of the head is found. The table does not
reveal any influence upon the dimensions of the face, so that, so far as the
latter is concerned, we may consider all the measured individuals together,
without regard to the degree of deformation of the head.

While the preceding discussion has shown that the tribes of the

[North-Western Tribes of Canada.

1

® Son of No 41. Right ieg broken.

34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
a |
o ao o |
2 ‘s i 2 a | 4 ry
See fee |e | Be | 8
BR g S ma = < s 2 BS
& oS a BS - q = to} 5
E 3 g g B = # a
a ee CS) ret o 2 Ca hay
Ei ls =| 5 = a 42) bm
& P| Ss ~ a SG
|e |] 3 | = Oo; s | air k= a
!
| Senor ee
3
| | |
eS a ‘=|
| 3 8 re r s | 8 = s
ema frm) ee be |) ee |
7) | Oo aH
FI |
; |
40 45 55 58 60 62 65 67 | 65-70
(1,677 | 1,625 | 1,644 | 1,645 1,627 1,623 1,633,573") —™ |
| | i
1,373 | 1,328 | 1,333 | 1,332 | 1,871 | 1,342 |1,331 |1,282 |} — |
wre FAG | 7T56°| F281) 779 | TERT TIS |! - 720 |
|
1,798 | 1,730 | 1,761 | 1,740 | 1,810 | 1,735 | 1,685 | 1,647 | — |
|
911 | 904] 890! 915 | 840: 865] 900] 846] 795 |
385 | 378 | 402/| 373| 400] 418] 400] 388| 357
195 | 205 | 204! 206] 1941 197] 199| 191| 194 |
'159°5 | 158| 164} 162] 158] 163] 160] 161] 169
119 | 119 | 124] 123] 128] 125 | 120| 124] 113
158 |1525 | 159} 149| 161| 167] 155 | 156] 158
57 50 53 52 51 52 54 49 53.
41 39 46 42 47 49 43 41 41
81:8 | 77-1 | 80-4 | 786] 81:4 | 82:7 | 80-4] 843] 87-1
75°3 | 780 | 78:0 | 826} 795 | 749 | 77-4] 795 | 71:5
719 | 78:0 | 868 | 80:8 | 92:2 | 942 | 79:6 | 837] 77-4
461 | 45:7 | 46:1 | 44:1 | 47-8 | 47:0] 44-0 ie Be
1070 | 106-1 | 107-4 |105°5 | 111-1 |107°1 | 103-4 |1049 | —
542 | 55:5 | 64:3) 555 | 51:5 | 58-4 | 55-2 53-9 | a
22:9 | 23:2 | 24-5 | 226 | 245 | 258 | 24-5 | 247] —

65th Report, Brit. Assoc., 1895
p Brit. Assoc., 18: i] . [Worth- Western Tribes of Canada 1
1. Taietsalut, y

Niska’
— Males =
Y I. Males
Number 2) 5 2 AAI ; : 7 = ae =
1 2 3 1 2 4 7 7 5 q 10 1 12 ww) 16 / 16 | 17 |) 18) )) 19 20 a1 | 23) | 23 | 2 Th we) 20 10 a1 a2 a 15 A7 48 39 | 40 | 41 42 |
7A 7 ey il | | |
£ EI E g 3 A = z = |
4 Bali ) 2 \3 3g z z E 5 |
Same Se luce lle is || il lik A 5 & | = 5 | | | z =
5: 4 . | 2 e | a 3 5 r) Fe = 3 S st | x | = |
A 3 a Delle g E 8 FI | 3 DD} | 4 = E
| | 2 2 | 4 | 2| 4 2 : 3 | 3 2 g | Sa Sales |
5 | z/8 eh a = 2 |e = | 5 =|
| | s * a
| : Bs Z
El nals ey ile les , || > = e - z . =
Tribe $ Z| & = Zz steed | [ie je Pe Sin | esl es ee sinesial (earind wari, | eee : ef og |S eres
2 =i |) I 2 3 2/2)5 2/2/23) g 2 s/2\3 3 e] s/s
A 2|% % z |% | 2 la Fae | (Wee |) ¢ A Pa |ies || Pe z pe |e || z
a i} | £ =
ie i
| | t of} i a
Age % } 4 | an } 55) |} YO) } to} ay) 1s) me | as ea 1 | 16 | 16 | 17 | 17 | 20'| 20 | 20) | 97 | 2 28 80 2 | 38 5 | 85 38 | 40 sg | G0 | n2 | 6s | 67 | 65.70
| cua Sob) 1 be
aie 3 mm. | mm, | mm. | mm, | mm. | mm, | me. | mm, | me mom, | mm. | me, | mm. | mom | om, | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | om | mm. | me. | mm. | mm, | mm, | mm. | mm. | mm, | mm, | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. |/mm,
(eight, standing 1,097 1; 20 |1)421 | 1.4884 1,578" 1,545 11,630 | 1,689" 1,634 | 1,608 | 1,643 | 1,605 1,620 }1,617 | 1,671 | 1) (00 | 1,680 1,712 | 1,632" 1 98 | 1,668 7 1,624 (1,039!)
Height of shonlde 1,107 | 1,021 | 1,010 | 1,141 1,905 1,346 1,805 1,810 | 1,932 | 1,298 |1,878 | 1484 - 1,936 | 1,440 | 1,340 | 1,881 5 1,842 | 1,381
Length of aru 678 | soi] 684) cHy) 690 700 76 694 780 | 810 — | 784) 761) 784] 70} 742] b08| 7
Finger-reach + | 1691 1,834 1,500 1,468 1,047 1,694 1,680 | 1,691 593, }1,850 — | 1,841 | 1,880 | 1,827 | 1,803 | 1741 1,860 | 1,708
Height, sitting 808 401 | as 32 900 | 914 | 800 | 908 | 928 [1,615 | 880 | 954 931) 881] 878 | s9| #85 911
Width of shoulder 851) — 261 4) | s90| 384 395 | 402 | 678 | | 425) 985 | 85) 309] 408 3
Length of head wo} 191 | 183 | | 178 188) 186 | isp | 192 1a) 189 201 | 194 1926) 189 195 cos |
lp 6 5 | |
Breadth of be: 168 | 153 M4 1625 | 109 168 |1615 | 160] 155 160) 157| 164 1595 164
Height of face 110) 328 | 12 100) 110} 112 | 12, | ne} 194 133) 124] 126) 110 119 124
Breadth of face 6 46 161 1M 138 143 } 148 19 160, | 143 1675 | 167 | 160) 163 138 5 | 169
Helght ¢ 47) | 06 so] 36] 43] 40 oo} co) 6o| c4| 48) 48] 47 | 58) 49) 49) 49) or) 50] 68
Bresilth of nose a} on} 40 a5} | 38| 40) ao] a7] 41] 40] 43) 98] 35 43} 39] 37} a9] | 39| 40]
| Length-breadth index 832) 601 | 88 | sd | 804) 879 801 | 609 | 812) soo 46 | 880 | 805 | H4| S10) ase) 580 784) 809 | 85 885 | 7-1 | sou) 70) 814
Facial index P 70a)| 677 | 808) 707) 768 | rhe 747] 797 | 768 86 | 591 147) 867 sea] 790) 788 768 | 661 | 763] 780) 780) B26) 706
Nasal index | 872 820) 768) 864] B24) sy4 | 805 | 884 780 | 740) 820! 744 | 896) 72) 745 Bll) 796 | 756 510 | za1| 769) 719 | 780| 868] S08) 922
Index of arm | 424 — | 407) 490] asa | 436 416) 448) 186 | 44) 480) 456) doa aya) 448) daa] 407) a7a) 447 | 452) 455 {58 | 461 467 470 | 401) 457) 401 | 442) 178 400 | 459 |
Index of finger-reach 204 1059 | 1086 }1026 000 985 | 1084 }1040 1065 1011 | 1058 | 1015 | 1099 | 105-7 | 1057 1048 | 1044 | 107-1 |1087 | 107-0 | 1050 1054 | O84 | — |1077 1057 1058 |1075 | 105-0 1069 }1081 1070 | 1061 | 1074 Aide }1071 1034 | 1049 | —
Indox of height, sitting s2'| — | 508 308 | 656 | 664 bd1| 639 | 580 Si | 689) 6h1| 552) O47 | oH 660) 51d 40) 588) 632 5L6 598) o5%) 088) ois | 526 | G45! srg G42! B55) O48) 655 584] 552) sv) —
Tndex of width of should 219) — | 224 211] 921 | 210. 2y0 | 22a zea) 241] 299] 284) 294] 293° 204 | 248! 2n1| 225] 292! 218] x24! on4| 292! 201] 225] 2x5) 299| 200] a4 aga | 2465 258 | 5) 47) —

* Son of No. “Brother ofNo.G. ' Son of Nos 40and 74. lind In consequence of an explosion of gunpowder. Hight leg broken.

T Sou of Noa. 42nd 70. Biother of No. 49. 7 Son of No, of. Brother of Nos. 9,44, 65. * Brother of No. 18. _* Son of No, 67. Trother of Nos. 4, 44, 65: 3
" FatherofNo 10. '* Father of No. 18. Occlput rither Ral, Large exostosis on vortex. "Father of No. 1: Father of Nos, 3 aud 49, Much bent by age.

| North-Western Tribes of Canada 2

nued). 24, Nisk-a' Half-bloods.
| I. Males. II. Females.
58 75 (i ee 78 79 a ie
| ie 3
2 | = | =
< 2 ay | 2 a o 5 <
z q = oe a 8
3 4 « 5 = {ets o |
S 2 pi & S 2 & ‘
RD ra) re x S q eS 5
E ee ea
[o}
| a
i=] ~ |
g = a E> rs = | $8 a
ca =| 2 A @)2 | ¢# @
= = Ay ss ie iz A Z £
4 dia is! . ea s BA
si a ee a Li a :
=a Bit Si> =
3 aie: “ fi E 3 a @ 8 p
& Bate |), a 3 Za | 3% 4
iz a dia S wm dia = S
yi mM ipa | ale : =
é; a] gs ; Be | & i a
| i &
|
20 3 5 | 16 29 6 25 32
mm. Es mm mm. mm. mm. mm. mm.
1,571 | Lisss — | 1,579 | 1,652 || 1,146%} 1,632 | 1,603
meee | 1) ey ele sOte S52) || sss. | 1.360 1-312
679 2 | ae 726 754 465 732 723
| |
1,605 | ligg9g | — 1,630 | 1,712 1,118 | 1,686 | 1,653
862 ls |} — | 834 872 | 635 822 874
318 201 oe, || eae 374 || 248 326 328
193°5 168 176 179 18s || 175 176 181
150 141 140 | 181°5 150 145 160 155
115 90 = 111 130 95 117 110
142°5 112 117 1405] 144 119 139 146
47 34 39 | 49 55 37 52 48
|
38 26 28 38 35 32 31 33
a | |
775 83:9 79:6 84-7 798 || 82:9 909 85°6
80:9 B0-4 = 78:9 90:3 798 84:2 754
80:9 76°5 71:8 176 63°6 86°5 59°6 68:8
43-2 = = 45:9 45:7 40-4 44-9 45:2
1022 | 1601-1 — 103°2 | 103:8 97-2 | 103-4 | 1033
54:9 56°8 = 52°8 52°8 55-3 50-4 546
20°3 22:6 wee 20°6 227 || O11 20:0 20°5
- 51. kk. 23 Daughter of No. 67. Sister of Nos. 4, 9, and 44.

Nos. 4, 9, 44 No, 62. Sister of No. 76,

Nisk-a' (contin

Niska! Half-blood

= If, Female. 1. sal II, Female
‘ u 45 6 rr i | 49 0 \ 2 iy )iiss te | oo | oo | ol ( Gin mec 66 o | 6 | 7 1 73 | 7 i
e z 2
2 3 S | > z Zz z Zz zZ z Z z Zz z zZ |< z :
| | |: ale

419 | 456 | — 3 A
o17 | 1,003 | 1,050 1,65 se oe
n = 2 a | a7 ‘ 20 26 us| 526 | 9a
ri = - = |
168 | 170 | 177 wo | 116 iss | 184 1995 | 180 8 | ise5 | 1ag | 180 ; eae PETE Sci) TE |
he Mi 137 148 15 151 ig 160 | 1685 167 156 166 | 1476 rw M0 | 18 150 1s }
if 85 49 | 97 101 115 n 108 100 117 Ml r il 180 05
a 124 118 125, 194 10 “a5 148s 149 142 141 12) 171 M05) 14 no
t 2 36 40 | a0 4 — 47 4 15 7 18 48 40 45 44 a4 a0 a 5 37
28 a 29 a a 4 = ag 33 38 45 3 38 7 35 19 1 49 26 28 38 42 41 33
ith index o7 | 806 Ao 858 gro} 601 | 793 | 704 | e539 | 776 | #57 | 872 | BoM | Siz sco | sso | 793 “9 $17 829 |
Focial ind ea | 748 74 siz | — | 766 786 | aro | gon | 782 | zoe | 338 | 762 | 785 604 739 | 903 |
| |
e 3 | BLL 10.5 173 - | 881 703 | 809 8 875 | 848 | | si || tes | m3 | 776 | 36 | eos | oo | ose
ola aan (vans ri is = is7 | 492 | 44 tio | as7 | asi [aso [seo | en | vee | ten [er 199 = |
|
Tedex o i 901 a! & 1008 114 | = | = | act 1083 | 1022 | 100 1057 | 1062 | 1006 | 1080 | 1048 | osx | ova jose Wan) || =
Index of height, alttin ; re siz | 5 5 3 | sto | « res |
Ines of} ri) 00 | = ra Were ican) == ll | igen oso | 040 ‘ si7 | soo | oor | ot | cro | so | oso | =
eb width’ of ationlden 20 i a1 | ot | 3 | 204 = = 1 290 | 209 1 a 9g] sia | 258 } 289 | a4 | | a | |
" Daughter of No. 65, " Daughter of No. 07, Slator of Now ® Daughter of No, 03. Sister of No. 48. ™ Hunobback Sistor of No, Daughter of No. 08. Sister of No. 48. © Danghtor of Nos. 42 and 70. > Sisto 4 Tdlotic

Mothor of halfbreeds and 79, 2M Mother of No, 43 © Mother of 9, AA, and 65. * Mother of Nos. 8 and 49 > Mother of No, 18 ™ Son of No. 62, Consumptive

jer of Nos, 45 nnd 48,

|
he ~ {

[North-Western Tribes of Canada. 3
4. Heéiltsuk.

II. Females | Female
da) 19 |-20o/| a1 | 22 | 23 | 2 | 1
| | i
| | | 3 |
. 3 aa o ||
g| 4 8) SE al ae 0 ee
eB 3 = 3 & a 5 id
See | a te; & | bee Le
I | a | s ig ov re
2 pan ey = 4 coh) ei ] py
= Sia ge ia adie | a 3 ma
ee oe | a oe. Bg
= a | . js | 4 \ =
ee
| |
i. ee
ites | = i -s |) 4 | 28
BH =| “6s % % = | 8 =e
§ a BY | 6 8 s & 1D 3
3 & | Mz | 3 cs oS) 3 ae
| ne
28 30 50 50 60 | 60 65 58
|
.| mm.) mm.) mm. mm.| mm. mm.) mm.) mm |
1,486 |1,565'51,597 |1,522'7/1,532 1,542'9)1,5302%) 1,522
1,197 °|1,273 /1,322 1,243 [1,236 /1,250 |1,272 || 1,255
626 | 650 | 676 | 694 | 680 | 658 | 668 675
1,525 1,615 |1,645 |1,650 {1,660 (1,635 |1,570 || 1,618
‘} 853 | 841 | 842 | 840 | 863.| 810 | 835 826
345 | 342 | 370 | 367 | 358 | 338 | 342 335

1921) 1944] 190%; 1864] 200%/ 1811 1904 182'°
1601} 163¢| 1564) 1554| 159°) 171° 1524! 162'°

117 | 193 | 123 | 128 | 134 | 129 | 195 || 116
1415) 150 | 146 | 147-5) 148 | 156 148 | 150
a it te | be | ba.) 68) 59-| ot || se. |
35 | 35 | 37 | 38 | 371 37 | 36 || 38

83°3! | 84-04) 82-14 83:34| 79-53) 94°41 80°04} 891 |

83:0 | 82:0 | 84:3 | 87:1 | 90:5 | 82:7 | 84:5 Tae
74-5 |} 62:5 | 71:2 | 70-4 | 63:8 | 62-7 | 63:1 || 73-1
| | |

420 | 404 | 423 | 4b7 | 444 | 427 | 43-7 || 444 |
1024 1029 1028 1086 1085 106-2 102-0 106°5 .

| ) | |
B72 | 536 | 526 55:3 564 526 | 546 543
23-2 | 218 | 23-1 | 23:5 | 23-4 | 22-0 | 22-4 22:0

ch deformed. 7 Son of No. 12, brother of No. 2. § Son
ather of Nos. 1 and 2; son of Nos. 15 and 23; brother of No. 19.
1 Sister of No. 8. '§ Grandmother of Nos. 1 and 2, mother

65th Report, Brit. Assoc., 1895.)
8, Goasila and NaKoartok.

[North-Western Tribes of Canada, 3

Keot/iealas
HMad'tlelas
Nemo'guls

Kyili’tm

Kvo'muut
Si'with
Ta'miait

Malu'to
Kot/kulagyila
Kyvnidkyas

‘Te'umidaen uth

Gonaila
he

|. Goasila
Nakoartok
Nakoartok
Nakoartok
Nak’oartOke
Nakourt0k
¥. Goasila
cone
Nak’oartok
F. Nakoartik
‘M. Gonsila
‘Nak’oartok
Nak’onrtok :
F, Nak’oartdk
M = Awi'ky'cobx
F. Nak’oartok

P. } Goasilo, 4 Nak’oartOke

= ¥, Gonsila, 4 Nak’oartOk
5 M.

Height of eboalder

127s) [1,922

650
1015 1,615.
Ba
Es

Width of shoulders

676

B42
870

1,272
668
1,570
845
42

4. Héiltsuk.
II, Females || Female
19))|) 20) } (23))} F225] a) a
i El
i | ] 4 aig
gi 5
G)2)a\3 ail a
rial enn octet | 4
Sig leis | 3] ;
Se pial hs q |
Beil | Wer jh ase |p
i Et
| |
3 ai 22
| x S204 x s 43
S| 2 a4 Sle ae sialce kee sts
il ints Sie, 28)2)28 et]
alles Aa) See tori az
z sq) = |= | z cz
Et ‘wal Et
\ | \
30 | +50 50 | 60 65 i}
mm.) om. mm.) mm.) mom. mm.| mm, | mm.
1,666'81,697 1,542'91,630") 1,522"

1,256
675
1,018
826

4i*| 190"
103) 1068
128 | 123
160 | 146

Length-brealth index .

Index of finger-reach

* Bllghtly deformed.

62

0)

MOT 44 427

190¢
1524
125, |
18

soo) 691!
B45

767

O31 | 781

437) 4

1006
43

sy ae atid

» 44.

+8’ Father of No. 11.

[North-Western Tribes of Canada. 4
. Koskimo, Tlask’é no
| 21 2M PB} 1 42 43 44 45 46 47 | 48 49
in] ; at 2 /
f= Ss 8
nm n ag ° .
: sia FS s a} i 74
ees | = 4 | ae 3 a
&B 2 = q 9 a a or) ay 3B a
Ss | 3 b a 5 wa q A & a | 2
3 & ao =| be a rs cs s | 3
EB >) 2 ES 3 S ey = q = |
g Z ! jo A g q 3S =! | &
Cy S| a 1 a S| 4 ; &
‘4 a S =I 13 ee
| i) a Hy <q
ea}
& |
gf || | g
° ° mw | <O ° ° ° ° ° ° °
oe) Be ae moa ae he BS oh eae
a a les am | & Re a Ke Be a a
2 o “| Me | ro) 6 rS} o & S S S
etd |. mid | | ee |e | a
Se
=
50 50 55 40 40 40 42 45 50 60 60
nm. mm. mm. | mm, mm. mm, mm. mm. mm. mm, mm.
1,593?7| 1,634 | 1,620 |1 1,502 | 1,642 1,543 1,565 |1,58577) 1,530 |1,542 |1,504%°
1,324 | 1,303 |1,316 117 | 1,184 |1,250 |1,261 | 1,276 [1,266 | 1,243 | 1,240 {1,193
702 727 724 | 576 637 | 657 661 | 682 657 663 | 656
1,755 | 1,708 | 1,745 a 1,432 | 1,540 (1,645 | 1,535 1,644 | 1,568 | 1,560 {1,535
843 865 882 879 855 | 850 861 | 866 835 813 | 830
359 376 372 336 341 | 330 352 — 324 328 | 324
|
1964} 2165} 198% 2035] 1865 1855] 1955 179°) 196% 1907 1996
1564) 1435} 1518 148°} 1395 1845| 1465 142°] 139% 1447 1406
121 135 127 129 106 | 120 128 | 130 123 125 | 128
158°5 150 147 144 137 | 138 146 | 144 135 133 | 144
57 58 58 56 47 57 58 60 54 55 55
42 42 40 36 39 39 37 37 35 40 38
79°64) 66°25) 76°38 72°95) 74°75) 72:45] 74:95] 79°85 70:9 75:82] 70°46
766 | 90:0 | 86-4 89°6 | 77:4 | 87:0 | 87:7 | 90°3 | 91:1 | 94:0] 88:9
737 | 72:4 | 69:0 64:3 | 83:0 | 684 | 63°8 | 61:7 | 64:8 | 72:7 | 69-1
44:2 | 446 | 44-7 38-4 | 41:3 | 42:3 | 42°4 | 48:2 | 42°99 | 43:1 | 43-7
110°3 | 104°8 | 107°7 95°5 | 1000 |106°9 | 98:4 | 1040 | 102°5 | 101°3 | 102-4
|) 530 | 531 | 54-4 58°6 | 55:5 | 55:2 |) 55:2 | 548 | 546] 52°8 | 55-4
22:6 | 23:1 | 23:0 22:4 | 29-1 | 21:4 | 22°6 — 21-2 | 2kSi) 20-6

*2 Father of No. 12.

1895.]

Western Tribes of Canada. 4

5. Koskimo, Tlask i
: b

| : f/eslale

| 5 Z/2/|2 g
a 6 | 20 | wo | 22 | 26 | 28 2 44 | 45 1 ta | it ‘8 ) 56 8 » |) 700} oz 8 13 | a3 | o3 | 98 35 5 : = ; 10 | 40 4 40 | 40 | 42 1 0

a 17 and G4

Daughter of No. 49

# Sister of No. 38

5 Mother of N

4 Sister of N

4 Sister of N

Mothor of No. 32

1,460 1,085 1,6227)1,680, 1,650 |1,69 23 | 1,068 | 1,646 |1,69 { 3 11,690 1,642 |1,560>) 1,680 | 1,600 1488™) 1,8
1K) 9) 40 1,29: 0 | 1,863 1 1 Lal1 {1,024 994 |1,992 [i201 | 1,980 1,010 [1,171 1
‘ 4 7a1 | 702 | 709 ¢ 741 724 | 700 | 762) 746 | 705| 732 8
f 5 1,740 (1,722 {1,708 11,626 {1,680 | 1,011 |1,742 |1,025 |1,765 | 1,708 {1,745 11,690 1,777 |1,728 | 1,660 1,670 |1,265 [1,470
07 n0 88 12| on | 998) 34 8 19 | 998 | si0 5 | 883 | 694 | 8
261) 95% 412 5 | 368 ) 19 7 2) a7 | 4 i 5 ) a34 | 16] 37) — 39 | 322 | —
al i i 202") 105" ‘| 1924 1608] 109% 2005 17h 1 4165) 198% 1989| 208%) 2017| 208% 200 1 188!| 1909] 1944 1) 188¢| 1912
160!) 1485) 1592) 1624) y50'| 101% aays) 16 140-| 1564| 1434) 1613 144! 1599) 154*| 160% 153 152!) 150%) 150°) 145*| 148 1) 1464! 1452
( 1 1 ios | 1 181 lio 135 | 1 132) 121 | 186] 14 8 130 | 119 | 129 iat} 130 | 117
g)] 124 UB | 16 153 152 149 lisss | 100) 1 Iol | 15a | 158) 164 146 145 | 42 | 7 0} 140 | 185
B) 4 6 H a7 a) c5| 55 67 8| 56} 67| 61) 63 | co] 69|| »| as | at 3] 03) 63) 5a} 50
1 ) 10} 38) 98} 39| 26 | 38 y| 40) 42 ‘ 9} ar] 42] a8) 41) go) 31] sa) 36) 38 30 | 35| 35
b 1 (| aom 4404 4) 6395 78 1 2 ) 705") 7060 | goa) ' i 763" 766% B20" 7
in 7 age a4) |\ god 709 70 791 | 861 836 867 | 806] 38 | sv3| 823] sca] 5
x 6) 69 G67 | ott | 67 | 684 | ors | 5 »| ¥a6 793 | 683} 694) 7068] 620| 660 704} Gli | 795 | 160) 660] cis
It M7) #1 495) 446) 442 0 a} 41a} 404 | 401 46 478 43 ia 4a4| 492) 429 | 431 | 497 |
f floger-reach 4) 980 1083 [1071 | 986 | 998 1010/1009 | 985 }1108 | 1018 | 1107 |1050 10 1010 100-0 984 104-0 |102-5 | 1018 |1024 |
of height, sittin 568 | 558 oo | 648) nha 6o7 | 560 1] cia} ovo | 548 | 510 | 535) 5 586 5 18} 666) 528) 554 |
f width of wt ra 20 : — | ops 5 | 298 231 | 280] 18] 299} 298} 227) 238) — 5 | 218 a4 | 226] — | ava] s13| are
foformed Slightly deformed Much deformed. * Very much deformed. # Measured by Dr. G. M. West ‘Ono leg deformed. Son of No. 2 ™ Father of No. 30. » Drother of No. 44 = Father of No. 11 »

[North-Western Tribes of Canada. 5

7A. Kwakwutl Half-bloods. 8. Sishiatl.
| I. Males II. Female || I. Boy II. Girls
14 | | 1 2 3 1 BONS
3 | % | F
ral i a4 . =
oS I} a a BY n 2 =
3 ye! = % = S <
‘2 | s B a | § = I
& | 3 o i) rey | se &
8 | o | 7 = = ES
= 3 ra} ae Sh
a Ss =| oS
| A
——1 ie 2
3 =
=) Ss
© | hie] aE) °
Eg Se | 3s 28 Cs = 3
ao | 32 | Be a = 2 | &
ae q4 | oB ES 3 2 | 4
ah a5 Ras i m # A
i= A * rian Panes a)
a Fe = aS a
fe =
20 26 23 ll 5 11
mm. mm. mm, mm. mm, mm.
1716 | 1,662 1,510 1,307 || 1,066- | 1,350
1,410 | 1,390 1,201 1,035 820 | 1,102
790 760 627 573 432 580
1,968 | 1,824 1,560 1,338 || 1,050 | 1,340
895 874 858 704 576 728
400 494 358 282 239 307
183! 184} 187! 180 159 171
154" | 151! 154! 147 145 156
125 124 125 104 90 100
147 145 147 127 121 135
53 50 52 41 35 38
40 39 33 30 29 35
842: | gad} 82:4! 81°6 91-2 915
85:0 | 85:5 | 85:0 81:9 74:4 741
155 780 || 635 73:2 82:9 92-1
459 | 458 || 41:5 43-7 || 40-4 | 43-0
1144 | 1099 103°3 102'1 98-2 99-3
52:0 | 527 56'8 537 53'8 53-9
23.3 24-3 23-7 21-5 22:3 22-7

43 Sister of No. 20, * sister of No. 18

65th Report, Brit. Assoc, 1899.
7 6. Nootka

Kwakiutl, Ma'malelek-ala, Ne’mk-ic (Worth- Western Tribes of Canada. 5

: ; TA, Kicakwutl Half-bloods 8, Sishiadl
Women Males —- - = =
= : LM. | II. Female I, Males IL. Fe L Boy |) i Gins |
3 | | 2 | 3 3 4 : |
2 |: : F 'g | | . | 3 Ele |
| | S | | | 5 = | | = I e 2
| | | | | | =) | Jz
eem| z | 2 za }2.| 2, | et eal | 4 Z = ||
gz | 23 | a) 3 Zo |e | 4 | Ze | \ a |
= 34 |3 Er mer rea) | 2 el eS | a 2 | = a= i =
= | q z ey es | fe | = Z =| It 3 1 || 3s 2 =
is =| 22 | 25 | 3k 4 Be lee) || = EW Ne fa | leesual| 3 | #5 | Be ¢ | 3
Tribe Er a) es Pea 2a G | a2 S 3 4 | FI | ic us | 3 | 4
x za | 2s | #3 $ a | sf) 42 | 2= 5 q | ae | a@ | a a |e z | | 2
3 se | oo | ee Be Bet WSs Wigs ee We | 3 | a | me} cs | | z
\ean| = | my | “2 2 ea | 5= eke ig | | | | Ba | 2 |
| = a |e « 3 | os : Bi | | | | c | |
| | | | rt || | | | | | | |
= | | | ; = | | =|
Are 40 18 18 | 236 Joan | ac | a3 | as 12 42 | oo | co | oo |} a | 8 ul ia | 38 | a | | 5) || 40 26 En | en a |
Height, tanding 1,001 1,038 110 | 1,660 | ao05=) "990" 1353 | 1460"! 1,486 1,06: 1716 | 1,602 |) a,e07 |) 1,066 |
Height of shou 1317 | 4 1,000 | 1,286 1100 | 1,183 | 1,234 | 1,868 | 1,292 | 1219} aio | 4,390 1,201 |) 1038 || s20
Length of arm 630 | 705 673 | gia | - = — || cu | «sr | | | 695 | 714 | 790 | 7H 627 673 || 432 |
Finger reach 1682 | 1,650 1,950 | 1,615 | 1,782 1a 1,262 1,663 | 1,694 | 3,674 | 1,680 1,564 | 1,608 | 1,601 || 1,908 | 1,824 | || 1,888. |} 1,000 |
Height, sitting | 50 #9 7 800 eH0 | 835 | 816 686 726 | | | ga. | g37 | 833 | | soz | 764 au | || 704 670
Width of sbonlders 383 | 366 ss | — 297 aca | 93 | — 353 | 267 | 309 | ais | | Si) = i) tea] uo | 318 | gos |) 400 | 401 |) 2x9 |) 259
Length of head 188! 182!) a7) 1998 a7?) IML weit | 1807) 198") yore) — Wo" !} so6"| ama") i79") azz* | ae48) 477 | 190] 180° igi? | 179* 18st) 1Ndt 187! 1s0 || 169 | amt |
Bresdth of bead 161! | 146" 160! 458! 60" os? | 169%) 160 yoo'} 1612) 156") 163] 168 | 167° wo} 140") yaa") 147=| 160") i641 | }/ 1525) 165") 14s| 162°) 163") 145% | 154! Xi 164! |} 147 |} 45 | 166
| Height ot face | 118 tor | ue | 198 13 | as2 | i260 | air | am | in1 | 124 | 190 | 188 |] | io | as | 103 | an | | 193 | an | wo | uo | nia | us | 24) 195 wos |) 00 | 00
Breadth of face | 1465 126 40 ie | us | in | ase} 166 | a1 ) 103 | ir ue | 183 | 335) is2 | 140 | | 139 | 135 80 | 148 ) 5} 17 } 2 | 135
Height ot nose | 41 62 2} 45 | | 60 66 | 48 se | 58 66 | || ‘er | 2 |} | ss | 40 | 43 | 45 | 6 | 07 “ 46 45 | 68 60 |) | | 35 | 88
Breadth of nase u | 86 | 35 36 w | 43 | 43 sa |) 87) 87 | 13 | a1 | 43) |} 2 | 30 | 33 | as | a5 | st | as | 30 | a7 0} 39 ]
oo — E i —— |. ——|--__| |—— — - —|-—_—. ——— a
Leoitbbreadth index | 80a" a24)| eea'| agg? 08?) soa") BoUe so8*| s53*| — | g4o'|| gs7)| gvo'| saat] gaz “| 750?| soo") sci? s78*| 51 | s1' |
| Paclal Index | soa | 849 | sl4 | 005 | BIL so | ao | aoa | axe | #50 | sve | 27 | 850 | 30 yee | ain | f asa | oa | ss | are | 86 855
Namal index | 723 | woz | ara | ora | oo | 033 | oo. | 771 73 | p90 | 708 2 | 79 | 603 | ste | 763 | 750 | 767 550 | 614 | 705 svc | 667 780
=e | | | | | a) OG Th | Ye) | OSE een is pes ASST OO!
Tedex of arm | a2 | 43 |) 40s | pe) aan | vo | 44 | aco | ase | au | ace | — | 46 | 45 | ato | ave | axe | — || asa |) aco] — (ato |) sew | seul (a4 | ay | 438 450) 459 | 458
Index of fnger-reach . 1051 | 1057 || 1055 | 997 | 1074 1088 | 1100 | 1050 | 10¥6 | 1066 | 1094 | 1007 | 1082 | — | 1057 | 1004 || 985 | | 1000 | 1036 | 1057 | 1099 fauece SCN ta 1055 | 1028 | 1017 | 1027 1084 | 1144 1099
Iedex of : | 2 76 28 | sa7 | soz | ose | soo | soe 620 627
Vee t eight, sitting 625 | sod || o2 | ooo | ono | ore | cre | oid | 657 | B60 | 644 | oan ex Bese meee OH ein, bebe ee, ese | ees | eee hae | ae me | ga | stn
Index of width of shoalders } 920} are | at | = \ ox = ais | avs | 297 | 6} — | — | 28 — || 20 204 | 220 | oo | gus | — _ ou5 | 240 | 2206 | SL | 20 a 2 3

© Sister of No.

—— ~ —— = 5 = Hon OENo:IG0 7") Enthor o€ No: Wi Sister of No. © Sister of No. 20,“ sister of No.18
‘Notdotormed. + Slightly deformed. _* Moderately deformed, Mother of No, 1, Son of No 1 Father of No. 1. ister of N er of No.

F. NtlakyapamuqQ

Christine Joseph

|

M. PEla’tlq

[North-Western Tribes of Canada. 6

10. Tribes of Harrison River.

10a. Half-blood
Stsré lis.

I. Boys II. Girls Boy
4 5 6 qT 8 9 | 10 11 12
2, \ Fa
nie Parla Seg. We >| E
es eee as |) a | Ss 1s a
3 S = g g a Bs a
M [S) =| “a Db cal — oS
2 Ss = a = is = 3 I
a Fi s q s 8
5 a | a
|
fe
=
2
4 4 id vd ad =
+s A fe ae) n he & a ac
— rr) = =o a) — a re! / Az
5 a 3 a 2 a = “| = 7
S = 3 a B S 8 S| g cis
a a4 wm n 4 4 M4 . a
R Mm R mM RQ as
nic
5
geht | tall 46 9
1,200 | 1,366 | 1,197 1,468 | 1,198
958 | 1,094 | 1,213 | 1,198 | 984
517 | 609} 654 | 646 || 534
1,197 | 1,424 | 1,523 | 1,520 | 127
653 | 726] 796 | 785 || 646
253} 304] 318] 328 263
166 | 167 | 182! 162 171
143 | 146] 165] 153 | 153
94/ 105] 111] 102 95
1290) 1265) 141 |" 137 124
39 46 48 | 39 || 38
30 34 35 34 33
}
86:1 | 87:4 | 90:7 | 94-4 89°5
77-0 | 83:3 | 78:7 | 74:5 76°6
769 | 73:9 | 72:9 | 87-2 S66
431] 445 | 43-6| 43-9 44-5
99-8 | 103-9 | 101-5 | 103-4 101:4
54-4 | 526 | 53:1 | 53-4 | 53:9
21:1 | 22:2 | 21-2 | 99-3 236

Report, Brit, Assoc., 1895,] (North-Western Dribes of Canada. 6

9. Tribes of the Delta of Fraser River LOK Bar

94. Half-boods, Delta of Fraser River. Stare li
= a 1 Boys M1, Girls L Boy 11 Girls i I. Girle Toy
3 1 2 $ 4 r 6 7 8 4 10 i 12 13 MW 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 2 pt 25 26 28 30 31 33 | 31 35 46 37 38 3 40 41 | 1 ae | ea) 4 i re Ma cy ll oy 10 il 12
| 7 | 7 Saal ~|I >| | 7
{ £ S38 5 g | eee heel |
} 5 2 = 8 5 a | | 4 | | gg | 2
st 2 PI 4 z E 3 2 5 Sailieg 2 WS
3 = £ = g 3 a 2 Ss 5 ET 2 5 5 | 2 e
= $ z z= gs 4 | 3) 8 | 4 B 3s | T ) Et | |
| z a a | 3 = = = : z
£ & 6 | 4 : S | 2
° 2 | \ 2) |= |
= | a || | |
Z | |
Py “ 2 Vela acl — || R Wart Meee fe ee
; 5 3 Eta) é S35 | 2 | 23 || 3 3 |3 | Salea
z g a > a 2/é Bu | q Jz |e
3 5 3 8a |, let | g|a & |
2 2 A ae Ale He ra a | a
im | | |
: as} i se = en |e | 4 | |
7 | 9 [90] 9 | a0) } x0 [aay] a | aagase|as fm) a) (Fo | so ban) a | in | | a2 | ia | a8 | aa 6 | ae | az | an as] area | | | ao | fa | oe fae fo [to any] a2 | as | as | aa nm | 1 | 16 ry
; om. | om.|mm.| mm | mm. mm.| mm, | om. | om. | mm. | om. m mm. | mm, | om. | mm. | om, | mm, | mm, | om, mm | mm. | mm. | wm mm. om, | mm, om. | mom mm. | mm | mm. | mm. | om mm.
Ing «= 166 /1.180 | 1,286 | 1,208 |1,504 1,240 |1,870 | 1,992)] 1418 | 1426 [1.418 | 1/5034 1,978 1,501) 1,465 182 | 1404 17 1,061 | 1,198 | 1,295 |1,860 | 1,410 |1,856 | 1,898 14d | 160 |1,107 | 1468 1,108
f shoulder su | 942] 950] o44 1,123 |1,075 |1,173 | 1,164 | 1,162 1,122 | 1,107 1,108 1,176 {1,197 1,190 1,019 || 835) 925 |1,010 | 74 |1,122 |1,103 |1,120 1,188 | 1,140 | 1,004 |1,022 | 985 | 1,030 958 | 1,094 (1,218 | 1,108 98k
| 505 | 508 | cio 615 | 610} ai) 22) 031 | 587 675 | 6x6 23 | 068 618 669) 436) 473) G10 | 587 627 | 60 600 | 654) o16 634
227 1,427 |1,426 | 1,470 | 1,470 | 1,468 1446 1,868 1,488 | 1,687 1,550 1,404 |) 1,053 |1,215 | iy 430 1,516 402 1,217
sitting 602 724| 096| 747| 766) 771 73a | 740 750 | s16| 761 710 | 800) 818 $00) 1 6a) o&t| Get) o93| oss | a76} 712 677 O15
{ sboaldern 4 318 | 309 | 324 412 310 sos | 335 | 320] 44] giz) 935) sou 285 | 937| 969 | 401 248 263
wh of bend . 1705) 177 | 169 169) 174) 181 187 170 170) 471 174 | 171} 108] 180) 180) 178 | 181] 181 | 170 | 178 170 | 173 | 100 | 188 181 162) 102 71
neith of head 165 | 143| 152 156} 160} 163 | 1s0;| 148 | 364 | M48) 166 Ma) 149 11 | 152 145) Wi) 11) 18 | 360| 166] 147 | 349 | 140 150 M7 150} 162 167 165 | 168 153
At of fas + «| | 95) 100 102) 105) 96 tol || 92| 102 105 | 105 109) 103 | 12} 104} tor} 119] 12} 115] 110] 105 | 96) 97 1 110 | 103 | 7 | 103 Mt 11} 102 95
of face +} 327 | 125) 131 133) 158 136 | isi | 120} 191 | 120] 135 | 126137 | ago} 137) asi} 134 136 | | ner) evel seh | 118 129 | 134} 195| 198 | 190 | 152 36] 11 Mi} 137 4
eon - 85 | 37| 38 4o| 41| 36} 42 || 36 42 | | 44 43 is} 42] 41| 43 49| 48 | 37 43| 43| 47] 46] fo] 43 33) 49] 44 48) 39 38
pets ot nome 2) Ne) 88) | || a6| ae| 34 | as} a3] ssi) 28] at Pall 5 a | sc} s2| a1] 36 s| 3 aL 3o| 82] 80 35| sa| 39) 30) 30 at un
—— ( | oS Be ES s We : pea Le = Zs ie |_| = “s eset =
ibtraih index a2 | 08 ova | 923) 920| 845 | 931] s76| s11| 602) s40| 905] 84a | a71| ssc so4| 871) sos | ss9| so3| a9 | s91 | 86 | 882 | 850 850 | | 920 | ss | 46 | seu | 92 867) 861 | 874 | 907 Ge
Wt 10 | 772 739 | 767) 761| 706) 711) 866 | 827) 764) 107) 779] 783] 914 | 778] 830 | 861) 805 | 752] B54 | 748] S62) 759] 771) B19 sea oro 701 | 71 | 816| 805 | ses | 772| 797] B02| 706 | sro} 758 | s24| 767) 770) 833 787 | m6
al inde 3 : lbs 3 a 5 0 872 | sea
ae | 948 | 802 | 895 | 20] 900| 780) 914) s02| 675] 780 166 || 778 | 788 | ovo | 782 727) 820] 688 | 724 | 854| 760] 702 | 829] 83 ors | 720 721| sta} 724] oxo! sea cox | s00| s72| 921 | o75| 890 | 769] 750 | 872 | 0
ae 2 be ane 426 410) 425 | 424 | 453 151 | 462) 444 | 495 44 | 4a | 449 | | 4s3| 427| va) aia] ase | ava] 450 | 434 | ato | 445 | a) go7) 419} asa | 4 42 e7 | ano 4 | 491] 418 449 | 496) 431) 445 | 496) 499 FFG
tof finger-reach . ie [ra | | = : alkern 99 0 }103
gerne 1000 |1001 | 1000 |10 |104'5 }106-2 |1080 | 1085 |10 28 | 1084 ||1027 | 1010 1018 | 998 |105 3000 | 1018 | 1047 }1027 |1049 | 1088 |1001 |106-5 |1027 | 1064 1008 | 1019 | 994 |1021 100°0 104.6 | 101-4 | 105-9 1006 |100 | 1026 | 1038 |1033 | 1017 |1002 |1048 |1046 | 998 | 103-9 | 1015 | 103-4 1014
Hof belght, a | ? a ; 5 ra lire roles) 21 .
- sht sitting =.) 547 | Bit | 54-4 | 66: | 627 | o28| ce7| c26| 529 | 543] o24| ove | 655] 560) 632| o47| 638| 581 | Gi4| B31) 525 | 53:3] 553 | 560 51 || 554] 068 | 58-7) 646) 5s sos | Sie oo1) 695 | 087) 639 | ci4| 590) s21) 644 626) 631 | ood 539
ot width of shoulders, | 217 | 9 } | sare) |Nteat | 997 | 209 \ Eeraleroiltcetiits oc |) ors | 217] 2291 229! 201| 224 | 2x6) a11| 229] are] on 2a
*idth of shoulders. | 217 | 25-4} 297 230 | #32 ac: |aial| cent hmrall salle 215 | 209) 290 | 201] 29 ave | 298 | 227 3| 268) 227 | 209 237! 216! 299) 2p8 295 | a4 28 | 217 | 229] 220) 201| 24 | 206] ai1| 22a 212] 228 6
= TGrotherofNo.28, ‘Slater of No. 2 * Sister of No. 16, «Sister of No. &

[Worth- Western Tribes of Canada. é
tlakya'pamua.
24 25 26 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
- pete b v
<>)
of qd
vm 2 = A 3
A OT a On oS a
a See esp ot s | a} x Siig cea
= x SA aaa em at Zz
B
= ee re = = ——— es ee _
S ne} so rg z
Me le le je lg 12 |e lt | 12 12 13
See ee ee Baim oe | Me | Me | Oe | Ay | Oe Ab
$3 /29 1/88 | 28 | $438 / 38/38/38) 28/38) 58 | sa
S£/ 58/58 / 5a] Sessa ]Be/ 5a |] Bal Be | Be |] Be |] Be
Be 2s | ee [28 | 2849 [ae | 28 ag 28 | as | as | 28
SA | 28 | SA | Sa | false (ta | 38) | sh | ta | BS | ta
BQ les les [az lesitelfulizeleeleulezvleu/es
Ea | es aa Es a s!e & qi Ea g& as Ba Ea Bd
J ~ Soa Ss ~ ~
Pee iP Fe IP i 16 16 |6 |5 16 16 [sé
6 9 9 9 9 [85 58 | 60 | 60 | 68 | 68 |70-75| 75
mm. | mm. | mm. : mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm.
1,224 | 1,258°| 1,280 ‘ 1,555 | 1,622 | 1,566 | 1,538 | 1,620 |/1,572 | —
971 | 1,023 | 1,138 1,258 | 1,350 | 1,292 | 1,280 | 1,308 |1,313 | —
516 | 523 | 636? 682) 713 | 760) 672) ‘740 )) 7161) =
1,198 | 1,220 | 1,285 1,610 | 1,745 | 1,707 | 1,552 | — |1,672 | 1,558
644 | 633 | 698 830 | 816 | 808] 797] 843] 815} 793
246) 251 | 274 365 | 364/| 334] 354] 348] 361]! 348
168 | 1715) 176 195 | 188] 191] 182] 185] 176] 188
151 | 147 151 155 | 162] 160] 151] 154] 156] 160
101 | 101 96 130) |" 118") 124) 1217) (180 |. 130 | 17
128 | 127 128 149 | 153] 150] 148] 143] 146] 153 |
42 | 40 40 55 47 5b 51 56 62 57
35 | 31 35 40 41 43 38 40 38 43
wae |
89°9 | 86:0 | 85:8 79:5 | 86:2 | 83:8 | 83:0 | 83:2] 886} 85:1 —
789 | 79:5 | 75:0 87:3 | 77-1 | 82:7] 81:8 | 90:9 | 79:0 | 765
83:3 | 77:5 | 87-5 72-7 | 872) 782) 745 | 714] 61:3 | 75-4 |
see | a le
42:3 | 41:5 | 49:7? 44-0 | 440] 48:4 | 43-7] 45-7] 456) — |
98°2 | 96°8 | 100-4 103-9 |107:7 |108:7 |100°8 | —- |1065) -—
528 | 55:0) 545 | 53:5} 50-4 | 51:5 | 51:8 | 52:0] 51:9! —-~ '
199 | 21-4 23:5 | 22:5 | 21:3 | 23:0 | 21:5 | 230| —

13

8. ° Son of No. 10; brother bother of No. 28.
12 Father of No, 20.

10 Brother of Nu, St.

rt, Brit, Assoc. 1895

: b. Wtamkt of Spussum
a. Ulamkct of Spuzsum. and Upper Divisions mixed. c. Upper Utamkt of Boston Bar and North Bend

1. Males IL, Females | Males T, Males
1 Ha (0) [Un] [LCA PLEIN Pnccenll EDL ET Onn JSC) eG PDE YN puna ue im | 16 | 19 a1 Jeo [so Jan |) a2) say) sh) a6 7 We 2) 13. ‘5 Ls 47 | 48 | 49 | 60 |
= ae =! = kK = = | |
| = =e ia |
2 all S = |
| & | i 2 & £ | 5
}g121¢ 1 see 4 2 2) | -5))) | |eale als s
Ss 12 | 2 ¢ | = = s |p a |g | 3 | ee) 2 Pee leese act || ei
zB 2,2) 4 zy || 5 g Bin lee Ela 2 |e | 2 | Bile |/se)eig)s
ail & |< 4a B lca | 8 |} =k é 2 bP |e2) 8 | =e | 2 | a | a) = leh]
|2 |= | oe | Fe 3 | | 2 |42| 2 a|2| 2 We
=| z =} Bats E pee ay % |
Veo | | 3 a We aa
ail glue : B lz q z z | z Pal
PlelELElElilele E ESeale a \fa|# |e : 23 |2a\
Elala|el|e)2)e)s)e)é : Be 5s | 5 EAEAIEGIEE E eIEE
slelaletede ls | sl zs 23|28)22|28 28 | 22)|28 a 2g |28
Ss |S esales. ase |e ES alti | 33 S332 |/58|32 3 3a\s s =3/33
Pa es || 200 ie | 5 34/52/24 | 52) 3a | 28 =a 32/38 | = |38 | 38
eles ig = a3 ee ie 22 |a¢ & ig|is
s| 8 H |e2|ge]e2|e2 | ea aa] ea |e 5 23 |a8
BS \5 ce é | EP jl 3 sia [Rs
| )B |e 5 \5 = ii || 5 =P |=)
mm, | mm. mm. | mm.) om. | mm.| mm! mm.) mm mm, | mm.) mm.) mm, | mm, | mm. | mm. mm. | mm.) mm. | mm. | mu. rom, | om, | mm. mm | mm. om. | mm. | mm, | mm. | mm: | mm,
{1,630 | 1,601 1,611 )1,494 )1,863 1,670 1,624" 1,687 1,610 |1,507 | 1,45 | 1,654 1,492" 1,600% 1,664 | S0s* 24 1,453") 1,288 | — 1,642 1713 1,622 | 1,66 1,020 |1,672 | —
der 1 1,246 !1\860 1,274 1 — |it87)1,010 | 1,205 |1,810) — | aoa 7 }1,180 | 1,028 1,820 | i407 | 1,360 |1, 108 |1,313 | —
685) 760) 702| G78! 701 24 || cor) ci) vis} — | 27 | — 516 | ost | 608 78 740 13 | 760 | aol) —
1 1,057 1,50 | 1,645 | 022 | a,007 |1,576 {1,690 | 1,700 | 728 1) 1432 |1 1,728 (1,796 17745 |1
829) 788) 700 7aa\| 7c} 868) sa1'| 823 | 858/480 | oie | mm | 897 | 862} 905 816 | 808 sia| 815} 798
dere 308) 74) 362 _ ay2 || 369 356 | 310 r 46 | 3T7 | Boa) a4 a48| 361) 318
| 192) 181) 183 189) 181) aK2| 186 ye6 | 181) 203 | 104 180 Tei) 188)) 18) 198| 191 | 162| 185) 176) 188
145 | 158) 172 155) Wer | 469) 104) aoa) 62) a7 Yor} ini) 154 161 | 150 153] 156) 148| 168} 159] 155) 165) 165] 157) 156) 164 | 161 155] 162] 160] 151] 154] 156] 160
| 110} 126] 115 | 100] 114) us| sna] st] 104! a2 wel rv | 7 101 108 tov) 112) 116) 117] 122) 120) 181) 140) 115) 120) 121 | 120 130] 118 124] 121] 180] 190) 117)
7 7 | 148 | 143 | 148 | 146 } 1} 42 m8) 141] a6 25 130 135} 133] 186] 142) 149] 148) 148| 161 | 150 ]i1s05| 148 | 164 wig} 163} 160) 148] 148) 140] 153
52] | 52) 55) 00} 60. | 4 45 61 | 60.) (2) 43) 45) 45] 47) 62] oa] 53 48| GL) c2) co} 65) 52) ot 55 se] 02) 57
40} 30} 48] 40| 44) 38} 40) 40) 42] 35 42] 98] 36 35 | 35} a4] 35] 93| 88) go}| a7] 38) 41) 31) 96 40 40
lth index | 882] - Boo | 928) By2) HOT | KOT | BAG) M15 | 815) BiG | 790) BRK 2 8o4 all 860] 855) 890) 303) Boo ore | srs | 873] 869 | 899) #51) S68) S10 95 832 |
707 | B57 | 782) 421 | 861) 774) B41 720 | 770) 815. 2) 7A | S84] 770) 858 739 750| 815 | 793) S17 842] B53 | 824] BLO] 811) Bba) 927) 773 873 900
Bex : sa | O90 | 750 100 | 70% | 800) 772 781 | #00) 0] Bra) aaa |) 977 706 sa | 775 | 875)|/ 933,/ aL 702 | 791) 786 804 | 548 | 720 727 m4
Ja 1 12 S u I" We NS | EE ed | | oe a ee fete Pe = e
Mam, 449 | 499) 445 4648) 455 | 402 | 400) 405%) 467 | 4a | 409) — | 490 406) — || 407) — 423 497!) 418 | 424 | 402 Se ee 441 | sia | 41) 460 | doa 440 407 | a6) —
Mf oyer-reac 10s | 1608 liox0 105% 1076 |1000 |1087 07/1055 |10h0 106% | tos 10 | ne | 1004 056 /1024 | 961) — |iova| 952 | 1004 |1016 | 994 | 988 1065 | 1050 {
at beigbt, sliting GIN | o14) 540] cos | 548) o15| 526) c1G| 528) ote | 194) oai| ors | si) 522 S14 | 617 || 598 | 74) BB | 528 545 1 | 634 554 | - o6 | 629 ;
| |
tvidth of shoulders. | 222] 237 | 2r0| 230] 243 | a37 | 254 | 217 | 208) 200 Gy) —|-| 222) 205) — bay} s06 Aid|] 246 | 293 | 22-0 || 227° 4) 280 |

| ¥ather of Nos. 16, 17,and18, * Mother of half-blooda Nes. 2, 4, and 18.

* Son of No, 10; brother of Nos. 17 and 16.

+ Son of No. 10; brother of Nos. 10 and 18.

Son of No, 69; brother of No. 61.

11 Father of No, 20.

* Son of No, 10; brother of Nos. 16 and 17,

4} Father of No. 21.

* Son of Nos, 39 and 0.

* Son of No. 42, * Granilson of No. 42. * Irother of No, 28.

li ienel r
ei eee i ee Be ee ee ee

*

rat rt ne SSS See

o | site Bo
oo

se ne onnlorwrrtkownl(HAOlh + +H @ 2
Seoryrocwtwaolowmntaynnmli tool H+ ob oW
q#onNn Ey ROM lH Aa a noriwtouon
eo Loma onl

4

BSth Report, Brit. Assoc

Er)
&

[Worth Western Tribes of Canada. 8
11. Nuakya’pamua (continued).

Dlank-t and Nllakyapamua’s'é mixed. ©, Ntlakyapamun'd'é.

Fomales

©. Upper Utamkt of Boston Bar and North Bend (continued),

I. Males
ms] 09 | @ 2) 63 | 5 a 5 ] | = - —_—
a | 59 | 60 | s | 62 | 63 | ot | 65 | e6 | ez | 68 | 69 | 70 is | 7 is | 77 | 78 | 79 || 80 | su |) 82 | 83 | et | 85 | a6 | 67 | 88) | 89 | 90 | 91 | om | 93 |\ 94 |) 95 || 96 || 97 | 98 | 99) | 100 | 101 | 102 | 103 |) x08 | i
| | | i

| 107 | 108 | 109 |

0 | 11

i | : | | |
| 2 ep 2 |4 | 2 g |= E A = a ma|
Ase Neha & 2 4 | BE e || 2 + 3 | & > | | ¥ Fie, |) fl z |
eae ee: z z 2 ee Ee aie\als ale PES Ae Vale ete ele 2/24 4 2 Z|
£/s/3/e |z a | S12 /s)/Elal eyelet ga/e]/2)21 3/28 3 Eee: Se We ee el 2) Be] £|/s |e F =| 5 |
e @ | 2 \s Fe ealElale (|e) ela ea) a)8 |) 8] g PLS) e I/F lelaleia | se AL I | 2 & Pale i
| | 2 ee ys é & | 2 | 2 | | 4 8 2 a) @ | &
| | = a \ z . & is ik
i | | |
+ iF | } | | Z
Salle. | = ite lng og g| 2 | ] ] }
re ee 213.123.133.123 13 a ai 3 2| Ela i ||
22/2: | 8s y)23/4y)83|4yla5 (85 (25g |4y(83/42| 8) Sl. | &| ley] eis isisisielelels || le | sie é 2 < :
2244 =e 48 24 g4| 28 | 48 | 25 |24|a4 38 || | es |e | et] es # eelzgilzliziz\izei/3\/3|2)]2 1/3|3|3 3 S \% =
Py = e Py PT e g eltea ey = eT Be || Sar = - alll 2 2 ie i g g Z 2 z Z g z z z g 3
Ss ls 5 Ss 5 S 5 s§ es = 3)\3 32 EF Gy €
$23 23 z2 22 et ze |\z3)22|2¢|22/2¢ 2a | #4 | 24 2m 24|25/5. ia BE Bell gia) /e)a)2)2 |g | Fl | 2 2
2/58/38 |38 3a |sa/ea|sa|s8|s8/s8/s8 Sh tg |ta |b | 33 || gs [75 le leis a = }R| |e) & | & & = =
2) 23/23 a3 £3) 53) 23/23) 22 | 23) 29) 22 HERS RS CRS Re eo RS g\2\4 E| 3 ef et ete 4 2 2 2
2/42/43 42 49)92)92 ge | gs 2 qa q2 aa a| alm B\ ea) a Ble le le le 2 | s/2)2)/2 Fo = = 2
2 |3 3 2 \2 |g é a |g Soll) So | el A . a cal | ca |
= {2 |> a 5/6 |3 Bre ee ie pe lipiiiie 5 All SI wi gle | Bay |
4 5 6 | 6 | 10 1 |} W iW 19 pz) 24 | 95 | 26 || 30 | 30 52 38 40 40 42 | 65 60 5 8 9 ga | 40 | 42 || 6 6 6 | 7-8 9 9 9 10 68 | BB} GO | 60 65 | 65
= —! a }) 3) | z = = ee =| aett
mom. | mm. | mm. . | mm. | om | mm, | om. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. mm. | mm, | mm. | mm |
1080 [1,091,263 1,591" 0381103) 1,163 11,210,128") 1,805 |1,267 1,970 1,608 | 1,635 ia 11,641
BH) 853 11,013 1,313 B12 | 840 914 | 955 | 902 | 1,047 | 1,012 1,017 1812 | 1,341 | 1,273 1,826
47 | 441 | 526 683 | 444 | 472| 499 470 | co2 | 55) 478 | 462 ov) 71 701 704
1,063 1,068 [1,248 1,609 1,003 |1,103 | 1,168 |1,204 |1,160 |1,818 |1,266 | — 1,656 | 1,742 | 1,618 1713
580 | 627 | 683 861 612 | 610 G17 | 692 | 600 705 | 687) 618 B18 | 842} 813 870
246 | 140 | 268 836

| 225 | 249 | 258 | 200 | 268 | 285] 273 | 27a

165 | 364 | 168 | 169) 351) 172) 171) 164

360 | 171 | 174 | 467 | 180 | 178\|} 164 | 168] 472) a7a

y v7 187 | 191| 196 | 197] 189 | 180| 183) 190
151 | 146 | 150 | 16g) 142} 144] 155 | I56 154! 160 | 140 168 | 163} 140 | 161) 163) 145 | 149 145 | 141 | 162 | 160 | 147 | 161) 150 | 161 | 155) 168 154 160} 148) 151] 16%] 163 | 146) 150) 146
| 1 | 97 | 93| 93} 98] 106) 112 is | 116 | 110 M0 | 109) 119 | 107) 110) 104} 108 o7 | 102 | 121 | 120 | 108 | 108|| 93 | ov | 95) 97 | 102 6} 117) 125] 128) 115 | 120) 120) 125
123) 119 | 326 | 128) 124 | 1985) 181 | 141 wi) 143 | 154 437 | 144] 134 | 135] 140) 196 | 196 Ya | 198 | 198 | 147 | 141 | 189) 120 | 128 | 127) 121 | ) au aig} 144) tas) a7 | 154 | 199] 148) 145
a5) 39) 40 | 37) 40) 41\) 48) 48 47) 48 | 4 48) 44) 44) 48) 62) 46) 40 go | 40} 47 | 45) 50} 6O\) S|} 87 |) 37) yA | 87 62} 63] co) ol) 48) 59) 62) 52

w | 29) s2| 28) og) a5| ss a4] 37] 92] 33] 34 | 87) 34 | a8] a6] 40] 42 um | au} sz] gi | 40} B4|| 28) 80) BL) sy
|

se 89) 37 a7 82 88 38 a a8 40 36 39 bo) — 85 40 89 39 42 38 AL 46

“493 | 905 haamiallt ali Pil i| itr a 27 | 7901 808) a7 r

4 Ml 915) HOO 493 | 905) 941 | BIT] O06 | ROL | | 860 S11 | 829] 864] 913) 860] 607 | BOX) B14) 792) BAT | 906 | 826 | 874) Bod | 778 | B48 | 916) 958 | 893) 919) 830) 870) 786 | 873) S47 | 864 866 | 623 895 | B42] S07] BL] 797) B98) 827) THO 802 775 | 170 820 as

0 717) 748 | 705 760 | $09) 795) 123 | 816 | B44) B11| 821) 847] 809) 75-7) B88) 799) 7o4| 705 | 794 r40| x64 | s77| sv0| 200] 277] 270) 768| 748] 740] r46| 101 | soa] 791] 880) e553 | s00| 271 | see 7w2| 803 | e68| so7| s91| eso | — | 738| 705) 812] Bos shi | 862

700 | 730] 914 | 769 | 780 | 814 | 773) 178) 726 | 724 | 771 | 727| 688) 708) #41 | 779 | c8H| o9g| BoD] O18 s72| 775 | 081 | 756] 800) 680) 757) 811 | 848 | 941 | SOO |1050| 717 | 721) 740] 771) GO| 760) 64-7 792 | 691 | 690) 056] 722| 750) — | 80] OTS) 755) ooo 788 | 866
ae irr XG anal near lage ay i mara irre i era PT rc pry i atlcanhl
4 405 | 417 | 481 | 423 | 499 | 443 | 426 | 428 | 490] 473) 418) 448) 448 | 43-7 483) 445) 431) 483) — ! 405 | 40-7] 404] 493 | 480) 426) 499 | M92) 429) 434) B94 | doa | 427) 421) BO4) 434] 447 | 492) 448 | 444 45 | 459 | 435 489) 460) 441 | 438) 492) 496) 452 456) 420

94 971 | 99-0 |1011 1010/1010 |1000 | gx | 1026 | 101-2 |102%5 |101-3 }105% }10%9 1026 |1007 1021 |1027 1079 | — 1026 | — |)1000| 976 | 986 | 1019 |103B | 990 }1019 | 1000 | 100-0 | 1000) 995 | 1018 |101-0 | 1000 | — |101°6 | 1058 | 1024 |108:8 | 1058 107 |1064 | — | 1007 [1017 10841 |1056 | 1082 ites 1069 | 1008 tes ee

7 675) os2| 692 ce | 527) oes ox | O12 | 42) 651| 669] 653] 647) G41 | 529] 643| 661) Goo] o18| 624) — |) 650) G4] G50) Ga) Gai) 686) GOT) 494) G55) 637) B72) Ba1| oe) B41) 483) Gos| 632) 525) BIn| OLS sat | 495 | G24) ons| 030) ox2) B02) tT B a Buz |/oxe| 6 eae

| 28 | 20 | 218) 21a) 218] 290) 217 | 291) 219 | 214) 222] 224] 925) 199 | 293] 220] 228] 220] 21g | voo| ore] — || 201] 209] 291] 211] 227 | 216] 202)) 210} 226] 224] 216 | 287] 209) 210} 215 | sv5| 208] 285) 17 | 260 2o4| 220 | 228 | 202 220] 200] sio| 2va| Sint ara) aia | 297 | 294] 28: 1| 227

‘ Danghi ister ‘ Nos. 7 80 and 111; sister of Nos. 76 and 78 —* Daughter of No, 140,

sister of Xo. 31. ” ri 7 y ” " ” if No, 64. Sister of No. 62, © Davghter of No, 73, * Mother of Nos. 31 and 35. ® Mother of No, 67. * Daughter of Nos. 80 and 111; sister of Nos. 76 and 78. = Daughter of Nos. 3
er of Non. 60 ancl V1.1 alter of Hons 16 aod Toe AR BENE BO Oa oad 18, Cae et ReRUCTA et ot oe: To eae oe, Te und 101 (placed by mistake in this group). Son of No, 188. ™ Son ef No. 106; brother of No.2. \ +" Grandson of No. 140,» ™ Son of No. 106; brother of No. 86, ™ Father of No, 120. ™ Father of No, §3. _™ Brother of No. 108,

” Father of Nos. 82 and 180, Father of Nos. 86 nnd 92; brother of No. 102, ‘\ Father of Nos. 75, 76, and 78. © Fathor of No, 16%,

j <— 2 = —
_ sinc ——————————— ee =

ll. Wilaky

na ve

wo tad

=

1D 10

r) 2

o> o

=

a | d

3 s

Q for)

3 x

= BS

iC a

5 | 2
Sa

32 35

. mm. mm.

# |1,54855) 1,505

B |1,258 | 1,227

674 682

1,565 | 1,605

777

329

179

140

119

130

53

31

78°2

91-5

5E

45:2

106°3

522) 51-3

Inj21°8 91-8

[North-Western Tribes of Canada. 9
mua’o'é (contite’s'e and Upper Tribes mixed.
II. Females
159 160 | 161 162 | 163 | 164 | 165 166
4 4
iF ql
a0 = 3 —| Ss a. re}
ee ees | 2 |) pe 3
| < <O =! = = re y
| N | ba 2 Na 4 =a| rd
) =
|
|
Sp Ee Sp Sp
= | ee = qd 4g
AQ | 3d | Sad | as <7 da S
See eee ee | ba 2 | Sa 8
a) ieee 2b, Hota = a2 est i) Be 3
Oo) bem | om | S| by ot eS o
= ars gH gH a its as S Hs 8
- oO . “4s Tae - a - Oo a
Be | a | oe |S | & al ae = a | B
= | FI
19 29 30 33 37 37 39 40
m. mm. mm, mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. mm.
337)1,5507| 1,422 |1,534731,51074) 1,556 | 1,558 |1,54075)1,573 7
24 {1,295 | 1,190 |1,280 — | 1,292 | 1,270 |1,270 |1,281
50 | 580 663 | 650 — 665 | 658 | 683 | 689
47 |1,606 |1,558 |1,570 |1,540 | 1,620 |1,578 |1,588 (1,638
792 | 817 764 | 794 — 820 | 837 | 837 | 839
336 321 | 322 | 335 336 | 350 | 343 | 371
178 171 | 173 174 172 | 180] 181 178
46 150 146 | 148 | 148 146 | 149] 152 | 152
126 Ue 108 | 111 119 113 | 122] 114 | 110
34 | 138 133 |. 134 | 141 133 138 | 143 144
49 39 47 44 47 49 50 46 45
36 33 36 32 34 35 37 36 33
16 | 843 | 85:4 | 85°38 | 85:1 | 849 | 82:8 | 84:0] 85-4
36 | 80°5 | 81:2 | 82:9 | 844] 85:0 | 884] 79:1] 76-4
3°5 | 846 | 766 | 72°7 | 72:4 | 71:4] 740) 78:3] 73:3
25 | 46:1) 46:7 | 42:5 | — 42°6 | 42°3 | 44:3 | 43:9
1-1 | 103-6 | 109-7 | 102°6 | 102-7 | 103-8 | 101-2 | 103-1 | 104:3
18 | 527 | 53:8} 51:9} — 52°6 | 53:7 | 54:4 | 53-4
21) 21:7 | 226 | 21.1 | 22:2 | 21:5 | 22-4 | 29:3 | 23:6

o. 18 gon

DNo. 134 {ter of No. 129.
of 121.5ther of Nos. 126 and

129.

52 Grand-daughter of No. 106; sister

68 Grandmother of No. 89;

73 Mother of No. 119.

™ Mother of No. 157.

(Worth- Western Tribes of Canada, 9

f. Nilakyopamua'd'e and Upper Tribes mized.

7 S | I. Males. | II. Females
Nomber 15 | a6 | a7 | 118 | 119 | 120 | 21 124 tor | 128 | 120 | 190 ja | 132/|/183/| 194 | 136 |) 136 | 197 | asa |) a00 [Mo jaa | 42 | aaa | ane | us | ais 150 | 1a | aa) |) a8 f)t65 | 165) [as Jouss)) as) 160) aor | 1630) aca | 160] aes | 166
| | al cing 5; ala le leates ia 1 oes
| 4 | | 3 | 2 & 212 | | 4
=) || = 2 | é leet 25 g | Ey 4 S)8le “ = | z
Het || I 2 3 Slel\s Fa | We ne | © é | 2 sa, Sleie)ele¢ 3 | 8 |e] 2) 3 )
— ] 2 | Jelaie Jel fl ele |e el) a/ Bl Sia fi elsle aI \ 3} 2/3] 2| E/STE/ElEls|2 ale|f)e/2e/8/2 a!
BSCS Wet thoes || 2 gi 4 glal/F 2/2/53 /e)/8)alea)215 Ale 3s 2/3 | 2] 3/3 $/e ele) e) Ss) 8 B/2e)/e] 3 a
3 | a\/4a/|2 | Sle} Ale)e] gz) 2) 212 s z )3 al) erly | a |; je /2 1/3 | 3)512 F | 3 :
CNEL ey EE | lheallhe IS YRS Ura ter uel Wey SN cs 3 s\2\é PS ies) Wee eee 1S Sie ieales 2
_ S Zz | Be | | | S
A) | | |e e | | oa cat || | |e ip t be | | 4 F a |
| | | | | | ial | 5 | >I
| 2 ane Romer |lesu || =: ||| o> | 2 | 2 | aj) 2 i) 5.15] [le | 2 | 3 3] | } | af
S 3 | 3 | 3 $ $ S a I : E ES |
13)2 g Ble/e/e/2/2/8 |3/ 3% 3 l2]/2|¢ 2 2/3/32 3 PEPE allied Atlee clk ©
| Je | a Z e)/—a|ei|eée|é | 5 q | 8 B)/afe|ela z g |e | 8 F| | 35 |S—8| Seiise q2|23| 5 | $2) 5
= : z|3| Es e|a/ dfeleyelelelé Ea ee es ee ES ;2e}4)2)¢ 5 aa lage a5 (Be de |e | 3 |53| 3
| P| 2 BB |e ) & Bb |i B)e)b) eG) & & | Ble) & 2 ne eee §3 | 23 | \ 3 /n2| 2
| 4 2) sees a | 3 legals lose leaulisaullire 4 22 | 2 3 |#3 RS BF Fe al ental a (2
{| | 2% ea || fe | Meal tease tea jl eae: || as; ||) az \|% )4|% | a )a)z % 4 |% | % a I = i = =
| S | | | | | Bel) | eel | a [ae a ia! A | PA! |
Age 16 | 16 | 18 || 18 || 18) | 19 | ay | 28 |) 30°] go] a 40 | 40 | 45 | 52 |] 53 | 65 | 55 | 55 | 5B | GO | 6O | 60 18 | 40 | 42 | 70 | so | 40
—— oe ee al aes x cork ee eel = Esee = = = | | ae
| moo. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mu. om. | mm. | mm, ram, mo, Sel |
| standing. |1,607> 1.6485) 1,349"1,622™ 1,5 H1A90° 1.5668" 1, Lol 1,697 347 1,610 1,656 1\540")1,673"
| Height of shoulder 1,286 |1,270 {1,266 |1,105 {1,247 |1,301 | 2 |1,298 1,902 |1, 1,220 [1,168 |1,907 1,298 1,270 [1,481
Length of arm 716 | 650 | oan | 562 | 647 | cor | 682 | 718 | Gio | oGi | 653! 39) 679 | 695) 034 | c20 | a3) oaa | noe 065 683 | 689
Finger-reach : 1,670 |1,518 |1,606 1,668 /1,619 11,628 |1,604 | — [1,665 }1,605 {1,655 {1,477 11,686 1,565 1,642 1,600 |1,612 |1487 {1,490 |1488 ideo | — 1,620 hi,oss.|hoas
Height, sitting 405 | sox | 703 $10} su6| 701 | 827 | 793) siz | 777 | a6 | sos | soz | s30| 825 | sto | 761} sio| zor | 753) 736 | 798 520 saz | sso
Width of shoulders 330 | 948 350] 367 | 33 | 362 | 931/ 940) 329) a45 | 301 | sac | 938) ag0| s48 | 923] soo | saa | as| axe | ser 928 | 391) 360 | ass || 836 343 | 71
Length of head, : 172] 179] 83 | 188 | agate | iva ize | ae | 189 | 170 “Twi 18 | 181} 161| 11 | 361] feo0| 179] 186 amo | 183 | 161 | 191 | 172 1)| a7 172| 180] ist | 178
} Breadth of head 161 | 144 | 148 151} 165 | 158 | 147 | wMtads | wo} 148 | a4 | ruc | 144 162 | uz} u3| 152] 148} 142] 162) 147) 149 149 | 162 | 168 | 160 |) 147 150 | 16 6} 149} 152 | 152
Height of face 107 | 105 | 105 us} io} 110 | 117 | 17} 108 | 119) 118 | 11s | 12 | 105 | ut} 14} 112} 110 | 108] 116 | 108} tin 102 | 108) 122 | 125 | 93 ut | 108 13} 122] 14 | 110
| Breadth of feo 185 | 134 | 183 185} 1G} 188 | 184 | 137] 137 | 130| 199 | 197 195} 141) 142 | 132] 138) 140} 136/ 185 | 134] 186 136 | 153) 145 | 149 | 121 18s | 133 133) 138} 143 | 144
Height of nows a0 ja} 40 62] 46) 45] 49 46) 42 68 ol 43) 60) 47 oo} 49) 49] G1] 62 47] 63 a6 48) 49 | 68 89 go} 47 49| 60) 46 | 45
Breadth of nose 87) 36] 85] 38} IL 85] 87] 33] BH] 36] 81) 31} 85] 35 a3] 86) 38] 37] 38] 40 33 | 37 ag} 38] so} 40] aL a] 36 35| s7| 36} ax
Yevith- breadth index 403 | 898 | 817) #02) ayn | a52| B17 | 879) 867 | Go9| B88] B92) 881 | o04| BOG) S78| soG| B80) rH2| 707) HBB | 792 79 | so2| s47| 87-8 | 790) 777| S40] sox) 765 | SLT) s21| gor 32] 885 | era | ssa) o55 S43) 854 $49 | 828) 510) B54
ee Ao 74) 704] 770 | 789] 810 | 707| 709] 78a] 741] 81-7 | 703| 783 | 707] 742) 709) B37] BL5| 747] B73) 704| 788] OVG s90| 789} 778 | ao1| 762] so4| 912) sve! 794] 859] 206] seo 750| 706} s11| so9 | 750 805 | 12 850 | ss4| 791| 764
Nasal index . a | 704 z ; i “8 | 80 : 783| 73:6 | 5€ 6s | 700] 767] 720) 809] 740) 770] si6| 627) ora] soo} os 100-0 | 792) 796 | 690 | 79.5 8i6 | 766 a4) 740) 739] 739
—— : 16%) 703) ovo) 850) 756] 786] 783)| 783 | 867 | 800] 949] 833 | 701 948 | 705) ors! so4| 783) co4| 753 a} Bo i) [fe]
es eae aes | eal liata 404)| 420\|/aaj| 409 |lacailevall-asa|| as0| aea|| asl avail avai|aao\| asa) ase 492 436 | 126| 423 | 420| 438| 461| 493 | 428] 431] 402] 449] Ao 440] 442) 434) — | — | qos] dea] a67| 425|/ — | ace 443 | 459
Kader ot ger-reac . | 994 |20¢0 | 1000 50-0 | 996 |1608 | 984 | 1022 |1034 1058 | 1018 |1057 |1006 |1002 | 970 | 1004 | 1049 | 1026 1022 991 |1016 | 101-6 | 108% | 1032 | 1088 | 991 |1028 |1o11 |1027 | — |rora 1050 | 1066 | 1054 | — | 1022 |yo11 )1036 |1097 | 1026 | 1027 }1088 | 1012 |10%4 | 1043
fedex of bgbt, ating BHO) B59) 40) 616 | 653 | 598) 546] 601] 586) 4182] 512] oL0| 542) O15) 590] 580} con) 620 627 589| 64} 699] oo4| o28| coo! cio) ors) 612) B14) cL! oxo tt) 62) ooo | — | — | grs| 527) sx8| sro} — | 626 ae us 554
lex of wid x “ 9 is ‘ ra | ob a} on E r v5 | 214 4] 284 934 e y 208} 248] 240] — | 208} 921] 917} 296] 21.1] e929] O15 | 294] 299] O86
poet tot aleatien = | 788} 243] 200] 291 | 202] 209] 294] 195] 205] 208] 290] 219] 220) 212] 920] 220] 226 251 ave | 2v3| 202] 214] 219 | 922] 295] 214] 20:4] 280] 230] 224] a18| ave 2
Granddaughter of No. 1067 % = © Sister of No. 198. Grand-davghter of No. 106; sister of No. 116; twin sister of No. 127." Grand-daughter of No, 149) sisterof No.129.__! Grapd-danghter of No. 106; sister
OND AN; twine OE Neca NOG and AT, Sister of No IK. Sister of Now 117. s* Daughter of N TOUR ET SHS TONER PSN SoeIN EMRE Danghter of No. 148, ® Daoghter ofNo. 77. © Grandmother of Noa. 126 and 129. = Grandmother of No. 84;

daoghtar of © Sister of No. 122, 4 Sister of No. 126, Daughter of Nos. 103 and 190
™ Sliter ot reaae “ Mother of No. 19, ® Mother of No. 140; groatsgrandmothor of No, 51). Son of No, 166; brother of No. 160,

* Bon of ™ Son of No. 156. Father of No, 165. * Daughter of No. 162, f 1 Sister of No. 165. 1 Daughter of No. 160; sister of No, 159, » Mother of No. 119, 1 Mother of No. 157.
™ Mother of Nos, 162 and 169,

65th Report, Brit. Assoc., 1895.) [Worth- Western Tribes of Canada, 10
11. Wilakya’pamus (continued).

——- 8: Vkamtci’nsmua. h. Vkamteinemua mixed with Shuswap and Okanagan
= iB AES {Females a If, Females
Number lot | 168 | 170) a7i) |) 172)|/ 178) | 17 [faze | ato | 178) | 179 | 180 | 181 | 188) || tes), 184 | 185) || 186) 487 | 88 | 180 || 100 | 191) 192) 199i 198) | 1951] 10m] a7 )va9m |vaen. | 203 201 | ¥05 | 206 | 207
os fee zi [laze a ell Hy t || | | |
| | 4 en | | = = i} =a | | teal tim na
{ a | £ ga | 4] Beli ey | | @, || S eg Vie | le teal
eed eee i leet | el G0 eee |e eel (cer cule a) 8 4|8 2 | 3] ale | EN cll Tey lla
S|. 2S eee alee: Aalst apes = 8133/2 2 | g | # 2)e fe Is Siaien Sis )42] 4 ey i ject
re Ca neni ey eye) ) |) EP Vee PEE NE iy aie ys 2\3 ales 3/4 see einen) = Weaules ales
| S|) 3 | 8 | | 8 |e C| o. | F = E | 2s a EL |] | a | a d | | 2 | 3 5 | ce ch ety El
IS z ies ee 2 }2l)e)g|2 Bla) 98 | gis aes 2/2 eae wie 8
iS | ants 2 E | | |
| te eee | =| Pc | ae l — | (Ls 2 L | | | =
| | I | } = i | | |
| | | | | 2 2! g oF ol 2] ¢g 2
z1 2] ;Z/g]2]gle]e}2 BOW EWE Fe Mp ee A a | & z) 2) 2] 2/2] 2 leeelsg| 22 leacece| a4 | oa ezelece
g | | I Z | 28 |eesees| ga 5 EEE!
1 2/2 Wench face line EPEAT ee EEE EE EEE IE fale]ai4 a) 2] 2/2] 2] 2 ese fe) a2 eee cas| ee | ae eke de
ribe S GSE ect [cy |} ach || Eee each iece cn ewer |) Si}e |e ia s/s)/2]s]8 | 8 jeeal se) 2s joecisgs| £5 | Seals
B13 Z/S/8)ala/3] 3 Bis) e)3ig)3 i]s 0 eval B|3|8]3] 8 | S lees so | 38 [Sesaas) 5s | os lessees
| 3 z Je |e ig ania (3 \3 eye lglglalels Ene} i a Z| BEEN EE EE | 38 23 ERBEEE og |og BERIERE!
A felzj2le)2i2 2 g)dielellala S)e)2)e]2)2l2|2) 2) 2] 2 jactian 22 eoeckelaz | a2 eee ees
| ea | ena lfires || 8 |f Blalz|2a iz |) ea WW z|z2l|a2/2)2 | % IE Beg eAseeg “S/S BSG
| |
z 2l | 26 | 25 | 29 | 30 | 33 | a8 | 40 | 50 | co 65-70] 70 | 76 | 95 6 ie | 16 | 1 19 |e [35 | a7 | 40 | 48 | 52 | co | 68 | 70 || 48 63 | 65
BSphtssiailee om. | om.) mm.) mm | mm. | mm.| mm.| mm. | ma, | mm mm, | mm} mo.) mm. | mm.| mo.) mm. | mm. | mm i mm. | mm.
ight, standing 1,860" )1,674 71,716" 1,655 1,600")1,6081,645™1,600" 1,618 | 1,610 1,602 | — |1,540°| — 11,016" 1,108™ 1,605") 1,642 |1,612 pW pee
Height of shoulder 884 | 1,569 1,206 | 1,900 | 1,972 |1,048 | 1,228 | 1,350 1941) — }),246 =— 850 | 887 1,274 | 1,363 1,297 | 1,178
eee | 47) 836 TL} 707 | 749) 715) 689) 707 wor] — | 686 | — | 439 | ace | 683 578)))| (686
Ra ae 1145 | 1,855, — {1,660 | 1,708 | 1,685 | 1,601 | 1,062 1724) — jel — 1,032 (1,075 (1,565 1,875 | 1,490.
re Ht, witting -| 600) 926 23 | 833 | 842] Bed) B10! B42 B27) — 773 — 593 | 619 | #19 840 726
een ede 265 | 408 363) 374] 382] B71 | 969| 343 862] — | 341 | — || 225 | 208 | 954 833 | 321
Length r = rae Ir =
ere +] 178)) 202 186 | 190} 170) 187) 197) 181] 190| 181 | 187) 198] 186 161 | 162 | 184 | 185 M7) 178
Ree pea +| 1) 10 166) 161 158} 163) 158] 148) 130) 102 | 101] 161] 108 138) 161 | 154 | 149 152 | 150
ae te 2 90 | 145 110) 116} 120] 420) 126) 11) 198) 115 | 122] 118) 119 90 | 113 | 118 | 118 110 | 102
Sister on He 143] 144} 343) 147) 165 | 140") 8) 145 | 48} 145] 146 us | 126 | 136 | 140 M0) 143
Ree a8) 5. bo] 48] 52) oo) s2] 63| c2| 5, 19 | ot| 48) co st} 42 | 4a} 47 43) 48
oe he | 4 85] 40} ya} a5) a7] a1} 41| 36) so] a8] so] a8 ai} so} a5 | ss anil 37
Leogti-breadth lracalias ——— = — } - = | =
eon ett Index . 890) 602 | B18 | #24 | H4a 833} 795) 86:5] 818) 802] 818| 789 B40 | B07) 763) BOF 860 | O82 | 887 | 805) S61 | asa 762) 850} 809 827 793 | 797 || 802 834 || 866 | 787) 770) 855) 859] 843
PAE : 726) 694) 761 | s70| 848] 700] #00] 902] #16) 806 | s54| 8n5| 793 | se4| B14] 15 770 | 697 | 868 881 | R21] 888] 769] 868] S20] 5:0] 8x1} 852] 710] 781 709 | 764| 890 | 806) 837| sve | 713
= = 868 | 746) 74:5 O70 | 70-0) BX | 7A) O25) Te) 774) 788 | 665 BIG | 704] 750] 683] 900} 727! 78% B98 | G4 | 77:3 766 | 830) SIG) 796) 645 | 800| 800] 783 | T41| 958) 792 769 || 763 | 787) 783) 667) 814 | 771
Thies of aor) _ 3 [= = pana! s — . ad
Tacs cae s | NT) 469) 453 | ana} 407 | 445 ao4 | ana 461 | 450) 439) 457) 439 | 404] 42] 477) — | 4n5 |) — dw] grs| 498] dor 441 | 482) 45:0) 441 | 422] 455) 4093] dod]! 441 | doa | 45-0) 445] 495) 462] 497) 495 | dos
Niles chien 101-1 1008 | 1059 | 1068 |1062 | — |4064 }1095 |1015 |1o1-0 |1032 |1070 1or'8 [1091 {106 |1078| — j1ors| — 96:3) 969 | 1000 | 1082 1016 | 1057 |105.5 | 1021 |1020 | 1069 | 1020 | 1048 | 1045 | 1052 | 103-0 | 101-2 |102-7 | 105-0 | 1016 | 101-0 | 1049
Inder of rh Hitting, SH1) col) oH} cee! oa2] ora] ox] ova} o20| 548] cea} oie! oro | cox) 527) or | — 58 | — | on) soe} 525} coe so8 | sa2| seo] o13| ors] ors | 484] 518) 623| 523] 620) B60} 524] o3a| 520) 638) 514
of width of shoulders. | 295 | 49 | 2 : 2 13 | 92: E E | 214 i : &
= of ahoulders . 246 | 421) 291) 298) 2468) 297] o40) g2| ong Ad} 2H) 21 201 | 225) 229) 226) — | 222) — | 214 | oye) 227] 227] 204} 210) 222) 233) 222) 210) 226] 212] 221) 21-9]| 226) 21-9] 211 || 208) 214 | 222] 202) 418] oo9
of Nos, 179 and 207, nN ai 5 7
@ other of No, 170. __™ Son of No, 107; brothor of No. 176. © Brother of No. 1u8. " Hrother of No. 173, ” Brother of No, 172. Son of No. 198. “ Son of No 107; brother of No. 169. Father of No. 187. ™ Father of No, 167, ‘Father of No, 188.
Daughter of No. 192" ™ Daughter o€ No, 18. ™ Daughter of No. Wh." Mother of No. 186, and of balkbiood No. 6. ether of Nox 169.and 118." ™'Mowher of No. 174, Mother se-Ne er,
= SS = = — _
a 5

Ih
19 | 20
= a
S| 8
ag i=]
a |
ig A
ao >
os Dn
| <
re iy
re) om
Bia 2 | =
cc) as
qs dq Ss S35
oR] S HE
Bale os | aa
- 3a 6 =| irs}
Fs || 2 a
Alm! § | BE
a fe =
<4
a
iv)
Ih}: 12
1,5 mm. mm,
1,376 | 1,340
1,112 | 1,092
628 | 612
1,466 | 1,409
752 | 747
315 | 305
179°) 176
148° 142
109 | 106
128 | 129
46 | 45
34|- 32
82:7 | 80-7
852 | 82-2
739 | 71-1
J45°5 | 45-7
{06-2 | 105-1
]545 | 55-7
22'8 | 22:8
her of N«

“6 Daughter of

Julie Célestin

|
|

SEQua’pamugq
(Chukchukwulk)

34
84-4
88:1
77:3

42:7
103-1
5771
20°6

stern Tribes of Canada. it

13a. Half-blooa

13. Okanagan. Okanagan.

II. Females | Males
ae 2
2 I n
fe) be vey =
aie es
epee So) ef. e
ae) mS Gaye Male gs =
ee ee) a | Mg
8 aa | & | ag s
S| 4 lies: 3
xq 3 = ic3)
i RMR
hee
es
a | 8
a a F Se | Os
ap toto) op ‘aos =|
S | Ss s oot = x ; 8
= Beery os ex A ong
oS iss] | Ss | Oo Ss o)
a4 ~ i : a)
fo) jo) jo) eee Me
| = a=
=
ala
eat
}12 12 1s |, ay 1l
mm mm. mm. mm. mm
352 1,354 | 1,552 || 1,355 1,270
103 | 1,103 | 1,284 1,087 999

111 99] 110 | 97 103
134 | 131] 140] 196 123
43 41| 43]) 41 44
32 | 29 ene 30 34

53°8 86:2 | 78:2 81:9 78°1
2°8 75°6 | 84:6 77-0 83°7
4-4 70°7 | 76:7 73°2 77:3

37 45:2 | 45-8 44-1 42:7
22 {103-4 | 104-7 || 100-7 99°4
4:3 64:8 | &2:9 64:3 55°8
20 224 | 226 21:2 22°1

= S =
= = 2 = :
R British Azsoc., 1895.)
port, J , : (Worth- Western Tribes of Canada. 11
11, Nuakya'pamue (continued) 19A, Half Blooa
i. Holfilood Nuakya'pamun. 12. Shuswap. 124. Shuswap Half-bloods. 13. Okanagan. Okanagaris
7 = =e = = =
; | I. Males | IL Females . I, Males | I, Females | 1. Males | I, Females || 1 Malo | 11, Femates | Males
= T 7 7 = a } = h = Se /—_——]
is 9 | 10 fa | a2 |) ae a ws | 16 [a7 |e | 39 [20 fa | BO) ee ea toh ay ae asp ae ashe) | ar [ae] to) | 20) an fea 23 | 2 | a cn ea) <<) ca ea 10 1 2 |v]
} i | =; =| =| i } —
| a S| 4 4 | 2 a | i | | i
5 Z 5 = 2\3 Bla g).i2/4 2 | [heel z } |
|e) 3 a\2)32 cE et BE Bi|a/é 2/3 a eval al ela) ele | 2 | E 2) 2] | 2
Bs o/£/|alaie]} 5 settee ||) 2 lt capi a4 )e la ley eS) 2 la leia le | ee le Ween eel £
= ala SVE lel alaj2l|als (tle aes ha lg le le 212 lave le 4a) ee) 2 ia 2|4 le |2/2 a
Fis Vee ETAL ELEIElElElSlelalelelelaleleley ale lalaielalelelt sig ielaielaieieiaié| :
= — 3 |: = Eis 8/3 5 Zi3 |e I ch | q 2 5 | 2 gle = a i 3
4 EI | é|lg i 3 2|8 = Sie et Pe] lie} | a | 3 \ le
pau | a} ai2|7 | 2/a 2/3) 8 Gye |4flelejaya PFla alae Se z
= eae Lise [osl| | | a
= 5 | = We] al eal eae ee a ea es =a eal a Tolar =I I = } i
2| ola lz | sli s e| 2| f BO | ease | pe | css | ee Dre z|2 z g/e | 2
J 2| el¢.\2 z| Sle_| 8] siz ayeleleleielalalalil EUW saben 2 |lesllee teed lean ealecates|loz 22 i es|_ce Fi
228 <2) 22) 53) cf l48 | 25)| oa a s | 2 = E E 2 | 8 EVM se UE 1 Et REP EAIEtEN | EL ed = | a= 28 Ale go lgeelgze ag |g
£G2|22 2 jae |32| 22/28/22 |s4|22| & B)ej2)2/elalele/elaldlal2ie)aiala|ielie] 2 |ge) |S | ies gs|2 a> |e aeons 2] a | 22 | 82
5 | 33) \o— BE lERIEE fe = Be] g gigil¢gleilgieleleigielelels|2iele| es |S3|S2! 2 |£2|c/] ¢ lst iste 23| 2 39 [Esstes 2 | 2 28) 33
fg) 23 |e lad lag laa led led lec led lee & z pei ala i |) alga|/qalie)8i¢ia)é2)se|3e) 8 |28) 8 | 8 128 eee 23)" 28 >egiazg | 2] 2 |) Ss | go
acd nd (ag|ag|ad ld led |ealedled| A/G E LR ETETELGILI ELA E/ ELI Ela la HIB) G/B i |i |2L Bech EE ai casege) 2/8 | 8 | ec |
82| “5 z Se | z| 2 z| zi i £ i é ¢ é ids & | ee | £2) 8 |eais2| £)8e| 2) s Eee Bla? ln? | | hea beast
LA ie a) al SES lal SHS [is | Sareea Nissen tay [ere Ss Wailen | p )S SE | eS a ia) ieee A a ie ee Peale
eo) al 2h = i ode a) a) 8 Ble |e |e) 8) eR) 8 | 2) 8) e12)e)2) 81 2) 2] 2 | | 2) 3) 2fa = | | ai
= 4 = | He } I ojaja)ae!/a2};al/atoalelealala)a|"*ia)a/& o | 2 | A | a | a
A + 5 8 8 li | a | 12 | 12 2) 16 3 32 6 a 9 12 16 20 20 | 32 6 i 12 12 16 22 23 py 25 80 30 36 36 37 40 | 9 10 tt 12 13 ot} 16 23) 86 | 9 LU 12 13 |8or9) 10 1s 16 18 22
—— Le P| = le | ae —
eo om mo om) mm | om | mm | om.) mm | mm mm. mm, mm. |mm.|mm.| om.) mm.| mm. || mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm . | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | {mm | om | mm.| mm.) mm. | mm.) mm. | mo. | mo. | mm, | mm. | mm, | mm. | mu, | mm. | mm,
956 1018 1230 1208 )1a2 143 | 1,387 1,916 1,362 1,645 1,694 11,210 1,901 | 1,188 | 1,643 | 1,684 | 1,572 |1,601 | 11431) 1,267 | 1,801 | 1,360 | 1,396 j2 1,867 | 1,716 | 1,677 1,609% 40 | 1437 | 1481 | 1,449 | 1,582, 1,650') 1.263% 1,218 | 1,390 127 || 1,218 | 1,341 | 1468 1,466% 1,688 | 1,584
= 953 1,089 | 1,102 | 1,046 | 1,058 1,100 1,366 1,384 944 1,039 | 970 | 1,867 | 1,284 | 1,808 | 1,800 884 | 1,003 | 1,045 | 1,077 | 1,121 11,873 | 1,408 | 1,867 | 1,911 1,092 | 1,168 | 1,212 | 1,174 | 1,278 v | 1,020. 980 | 1,105 | 1,187 963 | 1,064 1,183 | 1,180 1,297 | 1,293
= 517 604| 615) 571} 656| 601| 723| 767! 476| 544) s00| 743) 714] 658] 666 |] 469) 530] 57] 603) 638 | 287) 69 | 752) 705 ei2| 615] o77| 641| cov) — || 53a 490) 590| Gor |) 522] 5} Gos | 637] 710) ost
| | I
- 1,164 41,970 | 1,440 |1,893 | 1,446 | 1,393 |1,712 1,763 4,200 | 1,800 | 1,176 1,704 | 1,648 ) 1,644 /1,696 | 1,172 |1,208 /1,206 |1,368 | 1476 1,764 |1,818 |1,791 | 1,718 409 | 1,484 |1,580 |1,512 /1,688 | 1,628 | 1,280 |1,278 | 1,448 |1,428 | 1,288 | 1,408 | 1,647 |1,498 | 1,680 | 1,643
539 672 690} 690| 683} 698 | 728| S71 | 875 | 653 | 710) 631} 847) 842) B87) B61 638} 702 | 716) 760| 765 B41 | 902) 892) 865 717 | 822) 811) 798) 837] 825 693 | 666 | 736| 788 |) 664| 727{ 778] 769) 822) 810

257 | 268) 201) 266) 2068) 311) as7 | 05 268 | 281 | 267] 348| 826| 317] 332 || 253) 284 | 223) 986 | 312 365) 891) 410) 387 |

169) 17a | 108) 178} 175) 180) YL} A72) 179) 176) 188) 180) 14} 192) 192) 103| 201) 187] 181] 183) 200) 101] 198) azz a7] 170 | 176 | 170 175) 184| 189 |
142] 148 149 | 146) 149) 148) 148 |} 148) 151) 147) 168] 161) 161 164) 166) 160] 160] 168] 162) 166] 151, 11} 166) 14a] 40) 148 112] 161] 150) 156] 156! 160 |
92) 97) 4] 112) 110) 118] 109] 99} 105} 104) 109} 105] 108) 121) 191) 128) 191} 195) 129] 11] 120) 125) 120] 99] 106) 109| 106] 11s} 107] 110) 117) 120)
424) 131 | 122) 181) 187| 199) 185 |) 125) 127] 124] 198] 188) 134) 148) M4) 149) 152) 159/ 145] 140] 150] 152) 164 || 121| 196] 128) 120| 194] 184) 143] 140] 150
36 41| a] 44] 48] 47] 47]) 42] 45] 48| 48) 48] 48] G4) 63] Gi! co! co| c7| ce) o3| s6| 48]) 41] 44] 46| 45] 44| a6| 43] 40] 05

167 178 185 173 «176/ 178| 181) 178| 190
ai} 146 a2) 146/151] 100 145| 168] 164} 160] 166
#1 87 ot! 101) 100) 100) 100) 102) 107, 108) 116
us 419) 190-48 | eT 424 120) 196 | 331) 143) 142
2, 40) 35) 40) 41 40} 43) 46) 42) 46
a7) | a) s8) as | ao} #2) 35) a5] a0

45
20

Lepib-teradth des B44 ADS ATG BO ALB 467 KDA] O18 | 8B7| B09| HIG| HOO) H3G| HO, AGG| 627) He4| BO1| G22/ Bre! B60| 873 | a0 | e968) e99| e21| B64 s13/ 631| 796| GoH| 695) a52| 770| e49| 898 || Gow! aro| 627| so7| HL4| B67| Bs | 620 | A841
406 |
698

ga} ai] az| a4] 83) 86) 31j} 33) 81) 28] Bi) a5/ 86) 41) 88) 40) 49) 69) 40} 41) 48] 48} 41} a1] 50] ga] 32) 94) 838] 31) 37) 36)

840 | 857 | 871 | 860) 869 | 861

Facial index - - + NT Fl 700) 856 767 sya | 760) #17| 741) 610 73) 787) 742) 740) 770] 866 | 808) BIB) B07) 702) B27 | B30) Boe) 761) BOG) BIB) BLO) Ben | AED! B42) B11) O15 | S00] e22| 779) BLa| sii] a52| g22] 881) 799| 769/ 90] B00) 782) 742) 752 745) 782) Ble
Saal iotez - «| HA) 0) 4a) 700 OS ro} s44| 761| #93 | 667| 702 | 875) 917, 756| o11| 773] 688| 746] 669] 788 | 660! 688) 70% | 720] 750) 750) 717) ™41| 700] 660} 702] 782| B11] 768 | 864) 756) 682] 799) m11| 779 | 717 | 721| 755] 679 829 | s20| 739) s60| 715 | 787

ieee - «| — #1 412) 431| 450| 459| aa | aga | 442 | 44a dda | eo) — | 394) a0 | 420] 45a| 452) 400/ 417] 411) 428 | 429] 439] 456] 458) 441] 450) 440) 434] 400] 499] 444] 417 | 405) 428] 495 | 622 | 455 | 457) 427) 457)| 442) 4] — | AL] 441] 406 | 483) 447) 487
Index of Seger-tesch i —_ 1000 | 90 947 1058 1072 | 969 |1020 |1024 |1044 1055 |1036 |) — | 992 |1000)| 988 | 1039 |1043 | 988 | 998 |/1028 | 1026 | 99-7 | 101-3 | 10-4 | 1076 | 106-0 | 1051 |107°6 | 1056 | 1087 | 1049 | 106:3 | 1057 | 106-6 | 106.4 |] 99-7 | 1040 | 1062 |105 | 103-1 | 1068 | L043 | 103-7 104-7 101°9 | 105:2 | 1052 | 1019 | 105-7 | 1040
Heder of hele, sitting. i 0 26 O| 23 ove! 496) 24| 5a5| ca) c18| saa) — | 560} s16| 90) 616) 683] 665] 688) coo) 657! 661 | O60) G47) 658) 629) 695) 528| G30 | O90) 627) 6o7| G24] G81) 587 || B56] G47 | oV5| 567] G71| 518| 550] G80] 531 |) 560) 698) 530 o 549) 543) 626) o10| oL7| o52
Aiter ch with cf stvresters. | 295 | v4 | 984) 214 | 208 217 | 191 | 224 | 290] 205] 284] 200] — | 32a ave | 24 | 212] 208)] 209] 208 292) 220) ars | aia) 228 | 227 22 | 295) 247] 230] 24-7] 297] 220] 227] 244 | 240|| 218 | 29-7| 228) 228 | 206) 290| 224] 230) 2097) 200) 218] 281) 318) 222) 29) aro) 236] 227) 227) 220
————___—__ 1
¥ Bon of Now. 11 and 25, ¥ Vather of No. 1. * ¥athior of half-bloods Nos, 1 and 8, * Mother of No. 1. * Son of Shuswap No. 16; brother of No. 8 “+ Daughter of Shuswap No, 16; sister of No, 1.

I

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA, 529

Kwakiutl, so far as they are represented in my measurements, belong to
one type, the tables reveal considerable differences among the subdivisions
of the Ntlakya’pamug. Besides the groups named above, I subdivided
the Uta’mk-t into two groups, that of Spuzzum and that of the villages
higher up Fraser River. Unfortunately, in the limited time at my dis-
_ posal, I was unable to obtain measurements of the Stlaga’yug of Fraser
River and of the Cawa‘gamug of Nicola Valley. A study of the last-
named group would be of interest on account of the admixture of Tinneh
blood in this region.
In the following pages the measurements and a few tables which
show the principal results obtained by their means are given.

It will be seen (pp. 530 and 531) that the statures of men and women of
the different tribes are nearly arranged in the same order, differences ap-
pearing only in cases where the number of observations is very small. I
have given the averages of the various series, not because I consider the
averages as the typical values of the tribes, but because they give a con-
venient index for purposes of comparison. The table shows a gradual
decrease in stature as we go southward along the coast from Alaska to
Fraser River. In the series for men the stature decreases from 173 cm.
among the Tlingit to 169 cm. among the Haida and Tsimshian ; while
the Nass River tribes, who live farther inland, and who are probably
mixed with Tinneh tribes of the interior, are only 167 cm. tall, the
Tinneh of the interior being in their turn only 164 cm. tall. As we
proceed southward, the stature decreases to 166 cm. among the Bilqula,
164 among the Kwakiutl, 162 in the Delta of Fraser River, and reaches
its minimum of 158 cm. on the shores of Harrison Lake. As we go
southward, the stature increases again, but its distribution becomes very
irregular. The Salish tribes of Puget Sound and the Yakonan, Tinneh,
and other tribes of Oregon have a stature of 165 cm. It seems that the
Clallam and Nanaimo represent a taller people, but I am not quite certain
of this, as some of the taller half-breeds may have been included in these
series. On Columbia River the Chinook, who extend from Dalles to the
coast, represent a taller type of a stature of 169 cm., which may be con-
sidered as a continuation of the tall Sahaptin type, which has a stature of

170 cm. South of the Oregonian Tinneh the stature increases slightly,
reaching 168 cm. among the Klamath, and sinking again to 166 among
the Hoopa. The tribes of California, who lived north of San Francisco,
and who are gathered on the Round Valley Reservation, near Cape
Mendocino, represent a very short-type of 162 em. only, which is also
distinguished by its elongated head. When we consider the stature of
the inland tribes, we may say that the stature decreases north and south
from Columbia River. The Sahaptin, a people of a stature of 170 cm.,
represent the tallest type ; northward we find the Spokane and Okanagan
168 em. tall, the Shuswap of South Thompson River of the same stature,
while those of North Thompson River measure 167 cm. only. The Chil-
cotin measure only 164 cm. Along Columbia River the tall stature
extends to the sea. . In the part of Oregon east of the Cascade Range, and
in western Nevada, we find statures of 168 em., while the Shoshone
tribes of Idaho and Utah measure 166 em. only.
I have added to these tribes the Eskimo of Alaska and those of
Labrador. It will be seen that, while the latter are exceedingly short
1895. MM

REPORT—1895,

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931

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.

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532 REPORT——1895.

the stature of those of Alaska equals that of the Bilqula, reaching 166 cm.
The measurements of the Alaskan Eskimo prove clearly that they are
mixed to a considerable extent with Tinneh blood.

I think the points of particular interest brought out by this statement
are the gradual change of stature in British Columbia and the great
irregularity of distribution in the southern: regions. There are no differ-
ences of food supply or mode of life of the people which would have the
effect that the stature should be lowest on Lower Fraser River, and in-
crease in both directions along the coast, or that the same decrease should
be found as we descend Fraser River. It seems that these phenomena
can be explained only by a slow permeation of the tall tribes of the north
and of the short tribes of Fraser River. It is curious to note that the
distribution of stature shows regular changes, while all other features are
distributed in quite a different manner, as will appear later on.

It is of some interest to compare the stature of men and women. When
we consider the tribes contained in the preceding list, we find the following
result :—

Stature of men Average stature of men Stature Pe Phi 28 bidicas |
mm. mm.
1575-1627 1605 94:2
1637-1660 1650 94-4
1661-1681 1671 93°1
1683-1697 1692 92:7

The proportionate difference between the stature of men and women
is the less the smaller the people. The same result appears from a study
of the Indians of the whole of North America, as is shown in the following
table :—

Stature of women in per cent.

Stature of men Average stature of men ot thatiomm an
mm. mm.

1660 and less 1637 93°6

1660-1699 1684 92°9

1700 and more 1712 92:7

While for the middle group the values are almost the same as those
found on the Pacific coast, the women of the short tribes of the Pacific
coast seem to be taller than those of the short tribes of other regions.

Before discussing the types found on the Pacific coast any further I
shall give tabulations showing the principal results of the measurements.
The proportions of the body are computed in such a manner that the
stature is taken at the nearest centimetre, and divided in the other
measurements. |

ar

533

OF CANADA.

TRIBES

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN

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‘wamoy, fo poapyy fo yipoang
“T90IN ‘W ‘(Sesvd 6E) 9-891 « “1901 ‘W “(seseo 18) 6-99T 1
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196 L-€ST ed eee a dl On en, tee g 8 ve g F j 2,0, onuede Aye N
81 6-891 oe | a ape ea | aaah | eS a Ns 7 G ¥ G ze SG = ze : ; 4. UT,27 0)
a 1-681 See (ede ea ee Tl a z € = I = aaa " * wanzzndg
91 G-P9T IT Goals leo aw IE, alee Nea. a: me 6 rei = = — © aye] uostaIeyy
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sose) oSvroay GLT| S21} TLT| 691} 291) G99T|E9L}T9T) 6ST | 2Z9T | SST | Sot | TST | GFL | LFT } ; ( *-UNTY
Jo coquunN PLL] SLL} OLT| 891/991; F9T|S9T)O9T|) SST | 9ST | FEL | SST | OST | BFL | OFT :

‘way Jo poazy fo yypoorg

5385

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.

6 L-STI sl | ss ep a Def =m el lame) Of el) S| Sy ta i fc a Fp) oa eeienetgy eheinetorsiay go:
fel 9-FIT =|] —| —) — | — | — | =] — T}/3/6/1)/6)¢}] t)}—i—|/—|—|—|—] —| ° dnmmoromegy
63 G-ZIT TIA ITS lat HI el 8 1 e] et) 9) 81] el] Li] ti—| —| + 200nmedetyepn
LI LSI S| a | SS | Gel S| Z {| TT) 8] Ss) tie ee 4-024)
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a €-60T —|—|—|—|— = TiS | Oe ee) S| DSi] — | | 2) 8 exam aos
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2 Ques,

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0% $931 ST | SLPS SG LSP Neh Se | LPs deg ap | et — | —- oe” aeddi ys, UurosorG
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IL ¢ SIL VICE ea a ae Se Se Se a te) SO “ee
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ira 6-LZI —|G@i[—|T]@]/ 6) 9) 8) L)e)e@)1—| bt) ¢l]—/—l—/—|—] * °) mS embag
03 G-0Z1 |e Re BL Be Bo Se sump senreean
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sasep oSvray IPI Ger Let GET/EST | TST | GSI | LOL | SSL} SS | ISL |GIL| LIL) GIL} SIt| TIT |60t]/20T;/Gor;\. . . . UyY

JO 1oquINN, OFTSEL 9ETFEL EL | OFT | SEL] 9ZL| FEL | SBT | OSL | SIT | 9IT| FIT | SIT | OLE | SOT | 90T| FOL | J ;

uagy fo aang fo sy bor

REPORT—1895.

536

RI IIODIEED IIE IEEE es

‘19049 "WW ‘(sasvo 29) F.8eT +

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(og) (9-61) a | TS SRR | an fete || Meee gr Drea mc ee a“ _ Saaatue
I9a1r)
91 9-LET Teds TEC eT hele Te Sey eST WEP (S-[OGr ease He. PR [Se lod eee LSE) Onoree cope
166 8-981 Frakpyestereelt wee) eet ser Ee eet ee Vee Br ee | Lita eee Ses er 9,9, onoedysyeyy N
61 6-681 ea care | ice oN (ene Nm mere Fi - | - i | hS | ee " 4.qU0,290,
g 9-PPL ee he | ll Wa es | | Te Sole == cael) : tanzzndg
g _0-S9T T= wis oom (eee e IT ae a A Spe Ae US eae | oe * punog yosng
al §-0FT ete | pe a a ee ee a ea ee a ee Se a enacekan
1G 2 L&Pl a I — ta G ts Sig) & 9 ¥ T a D1), emer linea | aoe 2 z TADIyVA
9 LOFT 4 se Pe mm ce | ee ce eae
16 GSP =, oe oats | I SS ae ey aS at T ise ip I |}—/|]—|=—| =| suermpuy zeanyz ssen
“ £ 8aqQuey
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29% 6-91 ICT See yeees Sey SSO thie 9 9 je ne ba if 0,0, nmedeaxrepN
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fe ¢-991 Bee: i at ie a8, eps eae aT @ le6s| >| we) S| | Baepoaenrg see
$89QULT,
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jo JoquinN 99T|F9T Z9L|O9T| 821/991] FST] SST | OST | SFI | OFT | FFI | SFI | OFT | SET | 9EI m

‘wary fo aong fo yypooug

ti =

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61 G-GF Fe amet a a ee mad eda tae LT MST ere ICSI li lb le 0,0, onmedy dary Nn
66 ¥-LT a ie enfield ae ee LY MENS eet af lc : ‘4.3700, 249
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fe) 8I G.8g see \ aac) ail ae ie haa ae lNeoell eran tere Papal: Gholi ges || he 2,0, onuedesyepN

a ra 3-89 soot (emma SN (hum cham | Usman sal ‘ath ful “ng ed SP Sel Pe ey MPa CS Sa oy

a él 6-89 SS SSS Sara ale a ee ee ee

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jo raquny

‘wapy fo asoyr fo qy bray

REPORT—1895.

538

9% reg = |—|—|—|—-|—-|-|— —lelrtititieislale|siziti— t|— fee deasngg

oF g-38 | ai] Vl eel | aml Waal Vs ie |” kal half Ne ell a ik SA * ONUIAU,1oyUIeyN

98 9-€8 —|—|T/—|—|+} 3%] ths} @) 99} often] sz/ Fi 2)o]/9]F |r )—]* 2edneededqepy

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aSvi0Ay @8|}18|08|6L\g2| 22) 92) 92 "pe as

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GI 1-98 = = & G iF T 6 T 6 =o slope cae eee * ONMUIAU/LOJUTB YN

6 L-FS ra ees T Ta 3 g g 9 3 S° alee ss 2,0, onuedudyean

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+ f 0-88 | A ate | ee | mang | Ft (Aa eel i 7 IT € A oe BR ae Ss * ONUITU, OyUMIVY NT

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1895.

REPORT

540

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62
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61

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£8OQULT

96 | §6 | 16 | 68 | 48 | 98
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ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.

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| Jo taquinN 0:84] 9-LF] 0-LF) -94| 0-9F] 9-SF| 0-94] 9-FF] O-FF] G-EF] O-SF] S-BF| 0-BF 9-13 0-1F | 9-0F| 0-0F| ¢-6¢| Taorg J d

‘vary fo wiy fo ypbuaT fo wapu,

1895.

REPORT

542

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544 REPORT—1895.

I conclude from the preceding tables that we must distinguish four
types on the coast of British Columbia : the northern type, represented
in our tables by the Nass River Indians ; the Kwakiutl type ; that of
Harrison Lake and the Salish of the interior, as represented by the Oka-
nagan, Flathead, and Shuswap. The Ntlakya’pamug appear essentially as
a mixed people.

In order to bring out the differences between these types clearly I will
give the average values of the various measurements and indices side by
side. I repeat, however, that these averages must not be considered as
the types of the various series, which are evidently exceedingly complex,
but only as indices of the general distribution.

Use = | c
28 | “Tudiaas | Kwakiutl | Harison | Shuswap
I. MEN.
Stature,inmm. . ; ; . 1670 1644 1580 1679
Index of length of arm . ; “| 45-4 44:3 45:2 44:3
Index of finger-reach . é : 106-4 105°6 105°6 106°5
Index of height, sitting . ; Fa 53:7 54:9 53-1 52:9
Length of head, in mm. : « je,’ 195 (196) 183-0 191°8
Breadth of head ,, . 2 «| 1615 (161) 1645 160°7
Height of face ape Ls ; : 120°5 129-1 115°5 123:0
Breadth of face een 2 : 156°5 150°4 151°5 149°2
Height of nose apes : 5h 50'8 55°7 52°8 556
Breadth of nose ,, . A HH 401 39°3 37°5 408
Length-breadth index! . : | 83°5 838 88:8 83°
Facial index . : ; : 77:0 86°7 76:2 83°6
Nastaiex eater <j. .— 6 (2.198 716 72-0 74:0
II. WoMEN.

Stature,inmm. . : : al 1543 1537 1509 1554
Index of length of arm . : on 44-3, 42°5 45:0 —
Index of finger-reach_. ; . |. 103-2 102'9 104°8 —
Index of height, sitting . : am 54:7 55-4 53:4 —
Length of head, in mm.. ‘ : 186°2 186°5 176°0 —
Breadth of head ,, : : > | “1536 1543 153-9 1548
Height of face __,, z =|)” elise 1218 109°3 —
Breadth of face ,, : , | 1432 143°1 140°3 143°5
Height of nose 45-2 51:8 49-4 ==
Breadth of nose _,, ‘ : c | 36:6 35-2 35:5 Et
Facial index . : : ; 786 84:8 78:4 =

| Nasalindex . ; : : , 81:8 68°6 726 —

1 Total series.

Tt will be noticed that the series of men and women agree very closely.
The types expressed by these figures may be described as follows, The
Nass River Indians are of medium stature. Their arms are relatively
long, their bodies are short. The head is very large, particularly its trans-
versal diameter. The same may be said of the face, the breadth of which
may be called enormous, as it exceeds the average breadth of face of the
North American Indian by 6mm. The height of the face is moderate ;
therefore its form appears decidedly low. The nose is very low as com-
pared with the height of the face, and at the same time broad. Its elevation

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 045

over the face is also very slight only. The bridge is generally concave,
and very flat between the eyes. The Kwakiutl are somewhat shorter,
their bodies are relatively longer, their arms and legs shorter than those
of the first group. The dimensions of the head are very nearly the same,
but the face shows a remarkably different type, which distinguishes it
fundamentally from the faces of all the other groups. The breadth of the
face exceeds only slightly the average breadth of face of the Indian, but
its height is enormous. The same may be said of the nose, which is very
high and relatively narrow. Its elevation is also very great. The nasal
bones are strongly developed, and form a steep arch, their lower end
rising high above the face. This causes a very strongly hooked nose to
be found frequently among the Kwakiutl, while that type of nose is almost
absent in all other parts of the Pacific coast. This feature is so strongly
marked that individuals of this group may be recognised with a con-
siderable degree of certainty by the form of the face and of the nose
alone. It will be noticed that in this group the facial and the nasal
indices of the women indicate that their faces are more leptoprosopic,
their noses more leptorrhinic, than those of the men, while among almost
all races the reverse is the case. This fact led me first to suspect that
the artificial deformation which is more strongly developed among women
might be the cause of the peculiar form of the face of this tribe. I have
shown, however, in the preceding pages that the observations give no
countenance to this theory. Besides this the Bilqula show the same
features and the same relation between the two sexes, although the heads
of the men are not deformed, and those of the women are deformed in a
different manner. The measurements of Bilqula women can, however,
claim no great weight, as they are too few in number.

The Harrison Lake type has a very short stature. The head is ex-
ceedingly short and broad, surpassing in this respect all other forms known
toexist in North America, The face is not very wide, but very low, thus
producing a chameprosopic form the proportions of which resemble those
of the Nass River face, while its dimensions are much smaller. In this
small face we find a nose which is absolutely higher than that of the Nass
River Indian with his huge face. It is, at the same time, rather narrow.
The lower portion of the face appears very small, as may be seen by
subtracting the height of the nose from that of the face, which gives an
approximate measure of the distance from septum to chin. The values
of this measurement for the four types are 69, 73, 62, and 67 mm.
respectively.

The Shuswap represent a type which is found all over the interior of
British Columbia, Idaho, Washington, and Oregon, so far as they are in-
habited by Salishan and Sahaptin tribes. Their stature is approximately
168 cm. The head is shorter than that of the tribes of Northern British
Columbia or of the Indians of the plains. The face has the average height
of the Indian face, being higher than that of the Nass River Indians, but
lower than that of the Kwakiutl. The nose is high and wide, and has the
characteristic Indian form, which is rare in most parts of the coast. The
facial and nasal indices are intermediate between those of the Kwakiutl
and of the Nass River tribes.

I marked together with the measurements of the Indians certain
descriptive features. I give here a tabulation of these observations,
but only those taken during the journey of 1894, as I find that it is very
difficult to compare descriptive features on account of the large personal

1895. NN

546 REPORT—1895.

equation of the observers, and even of the same observer at different times.

The type which is being described exerts a deep influence upon the form’
of description. Thus when first visiting the Indians there is a tendency

to describe the lips as thick because they are compared with those of the

whites, while later on they are called moderate because Indian lips are

compared among themselves. Descriptive features are, therefore, of no

great value, owing to the inaccuracy of the terms involved. Still, some.
striking differences will be noticed in the following tabulations of the de-

seviptive features of men from 20 to 59 years of age :—

} Bridge of Nose | Form of Nose | Point of Nose
- ao —
| Paes o)3e | 2 | eee eee
SSB) eh) Be Ceuta aele ekee | Heats
| i lee Silat Gy lomeubehe &
| Nass River Indians a 8 ae 0 VP hi Jn PS a! I< Salle
La ate P20) bP — 1) 9") 1) 2a 85) 6 ats
ta'mk't Filey AUbie 1) fo pee MMUDS [ee eG CRATE eae A
Ntlakyapamuq’o’e. : SUPABES 8 |) SO Tl) Bb) SRT YG! (S| be Ag
Nkamtci/nEmuQ 13 2) — 2 8 4 7 8 6 9
| Ear Lobe of Ear

| 2 i ? sc | Mo] | a

ts ele fzeiela le) 2 Els

3 3 2 3 Ss | eS a a

Ss _ | vo —

| ade = < | =) sa

| NassRiverIndians|12 | 6 | 2 | 14 | 6 | 13 | 6 [15 | 58

| Kewakint) Mi | i V7 5.174" 12 9 | 20 | 26 3

ta'mk: : mesh les" 2 6 6 | 10 2

| Ntlakyapamug’o’e | 5 | 11 | — 9 7 ge ie 2

| Nkamtci/nemug .| 4 8 3 7 6 oh ee 5

This tabulation makes particularly clear the difference in the form of
nose found among the various tribes.

I recorded the colour of the skin according to Radde’s standard
colours, and selected the forehead for my comparisons. I recorded the
following tints among the various tribes :—

32 33
l1mno im’ n © r
Nass River Indians 1 — — — = i 21 — 8 q i 1
Kwakiutl —- — —— 1|— Zu gakianks & fread
Uta'mk't — No tte ly Qe
NtlakyapamugQ’6’e — 3» Ze 6 2e— 2,
Nkamtci/nEmuQ —— 2 1— — —

It appears from these data that the Kwakiutl are the lightest among
the people of the North Pacific coast, while the Nass River and Thomp-
son Indians are considerably darker.

It is necessary to consider the cephalic index of the various tribes a
little more closely, because it seems that among the tribes of Fraser River
children are much more brachycephalic than adults. Investigations carried
on by means of extensive material do not show any such differences, and

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 547

it is likely that more extended investigations would cause the apparent
difference to disappear ; but it is also possible that in this region we may
find the length of head to increase more rapidly than the breadth of head,
Among the Eastern Indians, and in different parts of Europe, we find a
slight decrease of the cephalic index with increasing age, but in no
case does the difference exceed 1 per cent. We find also that the heads
of women are somewhat shorter than those of men. The following tabu-
lation shows that among the northern tribes the same relations prevail,
but that among the Ntlakya’pamug the heads of adults appear much more
elongated than those of children.

Average Cephalic Index.

a g s | ¢ | %

3 oa a 3 FI &

4 3 = 4 u A 8 =

wt. H 5 g A = q 3 = a

5 S eee 2 g a g 3

a 5 ane a P oi ae

3 1 sS i)

a jen s fa e

& A A is)
Boys .| 84:0(17) | 836 (8) | °85:5(6) | 90°8 (3) | 835 (1) | 86-3(13) 86°9(12) | 89°5 (1)) 84-0(17,
Girls . | 83°5(11) _— 82°5(5) 87-1 (5) | — 88°5(12) | 84°7(14)) 87-8 (3) 84-4(10)
Men . | 82°7(24) | 84:7(24) | 85°5(2) | 89°8(15) | 84°9(12) | 84:9(17) | 82°6(26)! 82-0(21)| 84-0(20)|
Women. 82°9(2u) — 82°9(7) | 87°5(12) | 82:3 (5) | 831(19) 82'8(33)} 81-7(17), 83-6(10)

|
i } )

Children | 83°8(28) _— 841(11) | 88:5 (8) | 83:5 (1) | 87°4(25) | 85°8(26) 88*2(4) | 84:2(27)|
Adults . | 82°8(44) | 84°7(24) | 83°5 (9) | 88:8(27) | 84-2(17) | 84°0(36) | 82°7(59) 81-9(38), 83-9(30)|
| | |
i | - | | — } | |
Total .| 83°5(73) | 84:4(32) | 83°8(21) | 88°7(35) | 84°1(18) | 85:3(61) SBC Be 5(59) 84:0(57)

It appears from this comparison that even if the greater brachy-
cephalism of the children on Fraser River should be the etfect of a pecu-
liar law of growth, the general relations of the cephalic indices of adults
would remain unchanged, so that the preceding considerations remain
unaltered when the total series or the adults alone are considered.

It is necessary to treat two groups of tribes a little more fully, namely,
the Bilqula and the Ntlakya’pamug. The tables show clearly that the
Bilqula are closely related to the Kwakiutl type, with which they have
the high face and nose in common. The differences between the divisions
of the Ntlakya’pamug have been discussed above. It remains to point out
the probable cause of these differences. It is evident that the lower divi-
sions, particularly those of Spuzzum and the Uta'mk't, are more alike to
the Harrison Lake type than the divisions farther up the river. It is
also evident that the Nkamtci’‘nEmug resemble the Shuswap more than
any other division of the Ntlakya’pamug.

A detailed comparison is given on the following table, which also in-
cludes the Oregonian Tinneh.

Jt will be seen that, on the whole, an approach between the forms of
Harrison Lake and that of the Shuswap is found. But the Ntlakyapa-
muQ’o’e occupy, in many respects, an exceptional position. Their heads
are narrow, their faces are lower and narrower than those of their neigh-
bours. They are narrower than those of any other Indians, with the ex-
ception of the Hoopa and Oregonian Tinneh, while the Shuswaps have a
face as broad as the average Indian face. These differences between the

absolute measurements of the face are also expressed in the indices. The
NN2

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F
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189

REPORT

548

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‘uayy—'syuawmainsnayy fo sabosaay

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 549

cephalic index decreases rapidly as we go up Fraser River, but it is higher
among the Shuswap than among the Nkamtci/neEmug. The facial index
increases quite regularly from Harrison Lake to the Shuswap, but we
must remember that the face of the Ntlakyapamug’d’e is much smaller
than that of the Shuswap and that of the lower divisions of the Ntlakya’-
pamug. The nasal index is so variable that we cannot draw any con-
clusions from its average values.

It seems, therefore, that there is a disturbing element among the
Ntlakyapamug’'e which conceals among them the gradual approach of
forms between the Harrison Lake type and that of the Shuswap. This
fact does not seem surprising, as it is likely that mixture has taken place
along Fraser River. The low values of the breadth of face remind us
of the Tinneh tribes of Oregon and California, and I do not consider
it unlikely that we may find here the effects of an admixture of Tinneh
blood.

However the peculiarities of the Ntlakyapamuq’d’e may be explained,
the fact remains that the Ntlakya’pamua, who represent a people speaking
one language, are physically by no means homogeneous. The upper and
lower divisions indicate clearly the effect of mixture with the neighbour-
ing tribes ; while the central group, ‘the real Ntlakya’pamua,’ present
peculiarities of their own, which may be the old characteristics of the
Nilakya’pamug, or which may be due to admixture of Tinneh blood. The
gradual change of type along Fraser River proves clearly that these tribes
must have occupied these regions for very long times, and that the
population has been very stable. The differences in type between the
divisions of this people offer an excellent example of the fact that linguis-
tic and anatomical classifications do not follow the same lines ; that people
who are the same in type, and must therefore be related in blood, may
speak different languages ; and that people who differ in type may speak
the same language.

It remains to give a review of the number of children of women of
the tribes which I investigated. The data obtained by means of this
inquiry allow us to understand the causes of the diminution in numbers
among these Indians, and suggest at the same time a possible remedy for
this sad fact. I give here the number of living and deceased children
of all the women whom I measured, arranged according to ages.

When we direct our attention to the average number of children of
women of more than forty years of age, we find the following result :—

Nass River Indians - : . 4°8 children ( 6 cases)
Kwakiutl : . nop cf 20 J 55
Uta’mk't ; 5 3 - 3 Ope cf CET
NtlakyapamuQ’d’e - § Stites, FF sre +)
Nkamtci/nEmuQq . a Z - 8 a Gots. )

Although the number of observations is small, the general result is
undoubtedly correct, and agrees with the relative number of children in
the villages of the various groups, the number being very small among the
Kwakiutl, and much larger among the other tribes. The number of chil-
dren among the Ntlakya’pamug equals that found among the tribes of
other parts of North America, while that of the Kwakiutl is much smaller.

The cause of the diminution of the tribes becomes clearest when we
consider that group of mothers who may just begin to have adult chil-
dren, that is, between the ages of thirty-five and forty-five years. At

Ages of Mother

550

REPORT—1895.

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& tp | Staqysneg J |x hl | Halal ac] ja |
a |
pe
4 suog Jan ed | | | Jrnta 4
3 sioqysneq | |e J Ja Jan | |
a
ov
3
a A stiog nr] | ala JH and |
Sh
a
to «| Stoqusneqg [ a | Ja] | | no |
S
= =
4 suog Jala | | ae a | !
3 sraqysneq Ml lal ll dea Jn |
3
o ———S
3
A suog dr | | Jana ar |
a
R
w | sxominer | oe} | | t | |e |
&
& ae Sie =
e sug lI] Jen 1]

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 551

these ages they will have children who are not yet mature, but a portion
of these children will be adults. If the population were to remain stable,
the number of children would have to be considerably more than twice
that of the mothers. The actual distribution is shown by the following
figures :—

Nass River Indians 3 mothers of 35-45 years of age have 5 living 4 dead children.

Kwakiutl , . 14 7 AK Ce, See *
Uta'mk't . . 8 3 8 OIF, aay iy
Ntlakyapamuq’d’e. 8 3 rr, R47) 20 Fe
Nkamtci/nEmuq . 3 * 53 Bie > v3 s ty

This table shows how exceedingly unfavourable the conditions are
among the Kwakiutl, as fourteen mothers have produced considerably less
than eight mature children. The figures prove also that a very slight
improvement of the sanitary conditions among the Ntlakya’pamug would
produce an increase of the population.

The cause of the extremely unfavourable conditions among the Kwa-
kiutl becomes particularly clear when the mothers are grouped in decades.
When this is done we find the following result: —

Age of mother : : . 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60 and more.
Average number of children . 2:7 21 16 5:2 4-9

That is to say, the maximum sterility is found among women who are
now from forty to fifty years old, that is, who became mature about
twenty-five or thirty years ago. This agrees closely with the time when
the Kwakiutl sent theiz women most extensively to Victoria for purposes
of prostitution. During the last decade a number of influential men
among the tribe have set their influence against this practice, and we see
at the same time a rapid increase in the number of children. The young
women who have now an average number of 2:7 children may hope to
regain the number of children which their grandmothers had. But the
only hope of preserving the life of the tribe lies in the most rigid suppres-
sion of these visits of women to Victoria, which are still continued to a
considerable extent, and in an effort to stamp out the diseases which have
been caused by these visits.

II. Tue Tirnnen Trise or Nicota VALLEY.

In his Notes on the Shuswap People of British Columbia! Dr. G. M.
Dawson first called attention to a Tinneh tribe which used to inhabit the
Nicola Valley, but which has become extinct. Some notes on the history
of this tribe were given by Dr. Dawson according to information obtained
from Mr. J. W. McKay, formerly Indian Agent at Kamloops, who hasan
extensive knowledge of the Indians of the interior. As parts of this

information conflicted with reports which I had received, and as it seemed

desirable to gather as much information as possible on this tribe, I
resolved to visit them in the course of my investigations. Owing to
pressure of time I had to give up the intended journey, and requested Mr.
James Teit, who is thoroughly familiar with the Ntlakya’pamugq, to try to
collect as much information as possible on the tribe. He visited Nicola
Valley early in March 1895, and reports the results of his work as
follows :—

1 Trans. Royal Soc. Canada, vol. ix. 1891, sect. ii. p. 23.

led)

002 RETORT-—1895.

‘T saw the three old men who are said to know the old Stiwi'Hamug
language, which was formerly spoken in Nicola Valley, and found that they
only remembered a few words of what they had heard from their fathers.
One of them could only give me five or six words, another one twelve,
and another one twenty. As many of these words were the same, I only
obtained twenty distinct words and three phrases. I also learned two
place-names used by them which I think are probably Tinneh. <A few of
the words which I obtained are not on the lists of Dr. Dawson and
Mr. McKay. One Indian, who also knows some words of the language, is
living at present in Similkameen ; therefore I was unable to see him. It
is unfortunate that the work of collecting the remains of the language
was not undertaken a few years sooner. An old woman who was half
StawiHamuQ died in Nicola only five years ago. She was the last person
who could talk the language properly. The three Indians whom I saw
are only one quarter Stiwi’Hamug blood ; each of them is old and white-
haired, and I should judge over seventy years of age. One of them said
he remembered that when he was a boy his grandfather (who was then a
very old man and hardly able to walk) pointed out to him the spot on the
Nicola a little below the lake where he (the old man) was born, and also
told him that his people had always inhabited that region. This old man
must have been born in Nicola at least 120 years ago, and it seems that
he had no knowledge of the origin of his tribe.

‘Another old man whom I saw was taken when a lad, by his father,
all over the boundaries of the tribal territory in order to impress upon.
him the different landmarks which constituted at that time the tribal
boundaries. One of the old men named his ancestors for four generations
back, saying that at that time the whole tribe lived in three camps or
subterranean lodges, and that there were not very many people in each
(probably from forty to fifty souls), and that they all wintered along
Nicola River below the lake, and in close proximity to each other. They
also had two fortified houses in which they took refuge when threatened
by war parties of other tribes. The man mentioned war parties of
Okanagan, Ntlakya’pamugq, and Shuswap, who attacked their fortifications
unsuccessfully. These events happened three or four generations before
his time.

‘Three generations ago the tribe had some admixture of Okanagan and
Ntlakya’pamug blood. Some of them had wives from among their tribes,
and the latter took wives from among them. They claim that their tribe
never went on war expeditions into the territories of other tribes, and
they say, with pride, that their country is the only one in this region where
the white men’s blood has never been shed. They have a tradition that
at one time their tribe was numerous and that their southern boundary
extended to Keremeous, on the Lower Similkameen River. They have no
tradition regarding a foreign origin, and were quite indignant when I
mentioned to them Mr. McKay’s theory of their being descended from a
war party of Chilcotin. They said that when young they had heard the
old people of the tribe telling mythological stories, but these were just the
same as those current among the Okanagan and Ntlakya’pamug. At my
request they told me some of these stories which had been told to them by
their grandfathers, and I recognised them as identical with those which
I had heard at Spence’s Bridge, and which are current in slightly dif-
ferent versions among the interior Salish. I questioned them extensively
regarding the customs of their ancestors, and found that these corresponded

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 558

exactly with those of the Ntlakya’pamug. Their weapons were also exactly
thesame. Their personal names, so far back as they can trace them, are also
Ntlakya’pamug. The oldest personal name that they could give me was
that of a man of note among them called Tsfiiqkokwa's. This is the only
name that I do not recognise as Ntlakya’pamug. They said that the pure
Stawi’Hamug whom they had seen were of about the same height as the
Ntlakya’pamug and Okanagan, but generally heavier in build. They
were also of the same complexion. Their features were slightly different,
but they could not explain wherein the difference consisted. They told
me the names by which the tribe was known among themselves, and also by
neighbouring tribes. These names have all the Salish suffix -mwe,
meaning people. These names are Szi’leqamuQ (said to mean people of
the high country) ; Smilé’kamuq and Stiwi'Hamug. The last is the name
by which they are principally known to the Ntlakya’pamug, who have
from time immemorial called the upper Nicola country Sttiiwi’n. The
Indians at Spence’s Bridge say that this is probably one of the many
forms of their word meaning “‘ creek,” such as Cawa/uq, Tcawa'q, Tctiwa'ua,
Stewaug. Si leqamug is decidedly a Ntlakya’pamug word. Smilé’ kamug
is probably connected with the place-name Smilékami’n or Smilékami‘nia,
of which Similkameen is a corruption. They say that about sixty years
ago the winter habitations of the Ntlakya’pamug extended up the Nicola
River only some seventeen miles. The country above this point was
recognised as belonging to the Stawi’Hamug. The Ntlakya’pamug called
their division which lived along the Lower Nicola River, Tcawa’gamuqQ,
but the Stfiwi’Hamug called them Nkamtci’nEmua, and looked upon them
as a part of the division extending trom Thompson Siding to Ashcroft.
The Tcawa’gamug, or Cawa’gamuQ, used in former days only to go into the
Stiwi’H country in the summer and fall of the year to hunt. (The
reason that the Cawa’gamug at that time inhabited principally the lower
part of Nicola River was no doubt on account of the superior fishing
facilities.) When the number of horses of the Cawa’gamuq and
Nkamtci’nemug began to increase, many of these people moved up to the
Stiwi/H country on account of its good grazing, and settled there about
fifteen years before the advent of the white miners in 1858. After the
country was partly settled by the whites more Cawa’gamuq and
Nkamtcinemug, many Uta'mk't, and some Ntlakyapamug’d’e and
Okanagan settled in the Stiiwi’H country, being attracted by its farming
facilities. Shortly before the arrival of the whites the Okanagan com-
menced to make permanent settlements in the neighbourhood of Douglas
Lake on account of the good grazing in that region. The Nicola Tinneh,
who were already mixed with these tribes, never offered any opposition to
their settlement. At the time of the advent of the whites (1858) the
recognised chief of the Nicola country was Newisiskin, a Cawa’gqamua,
born within seven miles of Spence’s Bridge. The Ntlakya’pamugQ soon
became the prevailing language of that district. It seems that at least
for several generations back the Stiwi’Hamuq simply acted on the
defensive. The Ntlakya’pamug and Okanagan made what use they liked
of the Stawi’ country, hunting in it and passing through it when
they desired. The Okanagan always went by that route when going to
trade with the Nkamtci/nemug. Parties of Shuswap, Okanagan, and
Ntlakya’pamug on war expeditions against each other passed through the
Stiwi'H country unmolested.

‘One of the old men whom I saw, named Teuié’ska or Sé’stiluskin, is

[=

554 REPORT—1895.

the first person of the Ntlakya’pamuq whom I have seen tattooed on the
body. He is one quarter Stiwi’HamugQ, one quarter Okanagan, and half
Nkamtci/nemug. He said that formerly the Sttiwi'namug were occa-
sionally tattooed on the body, as were also some of the Nkamtci/nEmuQ.’

So far Mr. Teit’s report. It may be mentioned in connection with
these facts that the Ntlakya’pamug, near the mouth of Nicola Valley, are
the only people who use round lodges in summer, not square lodges, such as
T described in my report on the Shuswap. This custom may be due to
contact with the Tinneh tribe, or to that of the Okanagan, who are said
to use round lodges.

From what we know about Indian life, Mr. McKay’s theory that the
Stiwi/Hamug are descendants of a Chilcotin war party, which was hemmed
in by the Ntlakya’pamug, seems very unlikely, and Mr. Teit’s data prove
beyond a doubt that the people have lived in the Similkameen and Nicola
regions for a long time. I do not doubt that they must be considered
the most northern of the isolated bands of Tinneh origin which are found
all along the Pacific coast.

The following is a list of all the words belonging to the language which

‘have been collected. The names of the collectors are indicated by initials,
M. standing for Mr. J. W. McKay, D. for Dr. George M. Dawson, and T. for
Mr. James Teit. Mr. Teit adopted the same system of spelling that I use ;
where more words than one are given under his name they were obtained
from different individuals.

T-haeh, M., man.
Tet'-hutz, D., man.
Thate, T., man.
Nootl, D., man.
Tsik-hi, M.; tsé-a-hai', D.; tsekue'’, T., woman.
Sass, M.; sus, D.; sas, T., bear (D., grizzly bear).
Si-si-aney, M., ram of mountain sheep or big horn.
Sis-ya-né', D., big deer of old; either wapiti or cariboo.
Sisié'nt, T., ewe of mountain sheep.
Sesia'ni, T., elk.
(éstaht'tz, T., elk, probably a corruption of ésteha'tz, elk in Ntlakya’pamua.
J. Teit).
7. T-pae or ti-pae, M.; tpi, T., ewe of mountain sheep or big horn.
Ti-pi, D., mountain sheep.
8. Tit-pin, T., ram of mountain sheep.
9. Sa-pie, M., trout; si-pai', D.; sipai'i, T., lake trout.
10. Hilhiltu'tii, T., a small fish called hilu'Giak by the Ntlakya’pamuq.
11. Taki'nktcin, T., a small fish called eyi'nik by the Ntlakya’pamuaq.
12. Zilke'he, 'T., ground hog.
13. sho, T., buck of deer.
14. Tlohst-ho, M., snake; klos-ho’, D.; stlosno’, T., rattlesnake.
15. Tin-ih, M.; ti’nxn, tt'nugq, T., bear-berry (Arctostaphylos).
16. Tego'ztz, T., soap-berry.
17. WNotl-ta-hat'-se, D.; notiga'tzi, T.; gtlona'zi, T., wild currant.
18. Ya-ta-ney, M.; tét-ta-d-né', D.; ta-a'ni, T., knife.
19. Sa-te-tsa-@, M.; sdtitsai'i, T., spoon made of mountain-sheep horn.
Sit-é-tshz-v', D., spoon.
20. Sha-hil-ih-hkane, M., rush mat.
21. Ke, T., bow and arrow.
22. Naltsi'tse, T., arrow-head.
23. Tlutl, tlotl, T., packing line.
24. Sa-pe, M., one.
25. Tun-ih, M., two.
26. Tlohl, M., three.
27. Na-hila-li-a, M., four.

wie

SRI ee

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 555

28. H-na-hilé, M., five.
29. Hite-na-ke, M., six.
30. Ne-shote, M., seven.
31. K-pae, M., eight.
32. Sas, M., nine.
33. i-li-tsa-in, M., give me the spoon, or bring me the spoon.
34. V-shote, M., give it to me.
Eti-tcot, T., I may give you,
35. Pin-a-lé-2l-7-ttz, D., look out ! or take care.
36. <A’we ge, T., come here, child !
37. Apin tleqi i en qiin, T'., exact meaning unknown, but used like the swearing
of the whites.
38. TastHezu'li, a place-name.
39. Tizzi’la, a place-name.

These words show that the dialect was much more closely related to
the Tinneh languages of British Columbia than to those farther south,
although it would seem to have differed from the former also considerably.
A comparison of vocabularies, which shows the relationships of these
dialects, will be found in the linguistic part of this report.

III. Toe Tinnen TRIBE oF THE PoRTLAND INLET, THE Ts’ETS’A’UT.

On my second journey to British Columbia I made an effort to find
members of a tribe that was reported as living on Portland Inlet, and as
being slaves of ‘ Chief Mountain,’ the chief of a Nisk-a’ clan. J received
reports of this tribe from Mr. Duncan, and some additional data were
learned from the Tsimshian. On my last trip I visited the village
Kinkolith, at the mouth of Nass River, whither the tribe was said to resort
at certain seasons of the year. There I found a boy nained Jonathan
and one young man named Timothy ; later on, after a prolonged search,
I found an elderly man, Levi. From these three men the follow-
ing information was obtained. Levi was the only one who spoke the
language well, while the two young men used almost exclusively the
Nisk:a’ in their conversations. All the ethnological and historical data
were given by Levi. The language proved, as I anticipated, to be a Tinneh
dialect. The tribe is called by the Nisk‘a’ and by the Tsimshian,
Ts’Ets’a/ut—those of the interior. By this name are designated all the
Tinneh tribes of the interior. It does not refer to any one tribe exclu-
sively, and corresponds to the Tlingit name Gunana’. The number of
members of the tribe is reduced at present to about twelve, and only two
of these continue to speak their own language correctly. The native
name of the tribe is forgotten, and we must therefore continue to desig-
nate them as T's’Ets’a/ut. According to the testimony of the Nisk-a’ and
of the Ts’Ets’a’ut, the latter form a tribe different from the Laq’uyi’p (= on
the prairie), who have their principal villages on the head waters of the
Stikeen River. They are called Naqkyina (on the other side) by the
Ts’Ets’a'ut. Their town is called Gunaqi’. Levi named three closely
related tribes whose languages are different though mutually intelligible :
the Tahltan (Ta’tltan), of Stikeen and Iskoot Rivers ; the Laq’uyi’p, or
Nagqkyina, of the head waters of the Stikeen ; and the Ts’Ets’a/ut. The
home of the last-named tribe extended from a little north of Tcii’naq
(Chunah) River, in the extreme north-eastern corner of Behm Channel,
eastward to Observatory Inlet, northward to the watershed of Iskoot
River. About sixty years ago this tribe numbered about five hundred
souls, but they were exterminated by continued attacks of the Sa’nak-oan,

556 REPORT—1895.

the Tlingit tribe of Boca de Quadra and of the Laq’uyi’p. The present
generation confine their wanderings to the surroundings of Portland
Inlet, north of Port Ramsden. At my request Levi drew a map of this
region, which is here reproduced. It will be seen that all the rivers of
the inlet have Tinneh names. Levi gave me also the Tinneh names of
the rivers emptying into Behm Channel and of several places in Observa-
tory Inlet.

Geographical Names in the T's’ Ets’a'ut Territory (see map).
gray y Pp

Ky’étso'ga ; Observatory Inlet.

Ky’étso’ga ; Hastings Arm. Nisk:a’ : Keuwa/n.
Maatréga ; Alice Arm.

K’aqané’ ; Larcom Island.

Atcona’ (1); Niska’: Gunskyé’ik.

Atcona’ (2); ,, Anukepé’tk.

Natlanana’ (=canoe) ; Niska’: Keii'u.
K!ayintle’; Nisk-a’ : umé/étlk.

Tssi’gya ; Nisk‘a’: Gunci’én.

TY6'aga ; Nisk‘a’: Hid'dzi.

Tsakilega’ ; Niska’: Gunaqné't.

Kana’ ; Nisk‘a’: Sk-amgo’ns.

Délaky’e’ (=dog salmon) ; Nisk-a’ : Laquk-ala’n.
Tsakanatlé’ ; Nisk-a’ : Gyidziks’a’s.
Hihik-éwutra’ ; Nisk-a’: Angulikco’otk.

Atqia’ ; Nisk-a’ : Angutlqa’k:sk.

Tlatadlaga’ (=salmon); Nisk-a’: Gyinmé’lik:st.
Abrtséga’ (=Mountain Goat Creek) ; Nisk‘a’: Anlé’k:s.
Sinega’ ; Nisk-a’ : Hma’enik’tl.

Tloagalega’ ; Niska’: Gyilu-a’mnq.

Tladéudra’; Nisk-a’ : Wia‘k:s (English : Tombstone Bay).
Qugamautsiclak’é’ga ; Nisk‘a’ : Wilduwa/ntlgyat.
Tladéutsa’; Nisk-a’: Tlgugyitlk-a’mtl.
Atlamatsét’at’a’ ; Nisk-a: Qa/dik:e.

Gwen ; Nisk:a’: Hgont.

Cadouga’ ; Nisk-a’ ; Cadouga’.

Names of Rivers emptying in Bay of Quadra, or Nekyehadja’.
Atqatqaga’.
Nugufega’.
Tsétliega’.
Tet’naq : Chunah River.

Among these names two are worth a remark : Atlamatsét’at’a’, on the
west side of Portland Inlet, is so called on account of a localised tradition.
It is said that in the beginning there were no mountain-goats. One day
aman named Atlama went up the mountains and found a cave full of
goats. He hid at the entrance of the cave and killed the goats when they
came out, one after the other. He caught two kids, tied their legs, and
carried them down to the camp. Therefore the place was called Atla-
matsét’at’a’. The second place which is worth remarking is Cadouga’,
because it has the same name in Nisk‘a’, which shows that the Tinneh
name was adopted by the intruding Nisk:a’.

65" Report Brit. Assoc., 1895. Plate Vil

MAP OF
PORTLAND INLET.

Illustrating the Tenth Report on the North-Western
Tribes of Canada.

vr *

bs

eT

3
;

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 557

When the members of the tribe were reduced in numbers the Nisk:a/
began to claim Portland Inlet as their territory, and ‘Chief Mountain’
monopolised the right of trading ,with the Ts’Ets’a’ut. Since that time
they have been called his slaves.

These reports on the former location of the tribe are corroborated by the
fact that all their legends are localised either on Tcii’naq River, which seems
to have been their principal haunt, or on Portland Inlet, and on rivers
and lakes of the peninsula between Portland Inlet and Behm Channel.

I learned the following particulars in regard to their history.

According to the statements of Levi, they lived in olden times much
more frequently on Behm Channel than on Portland Inlet. At that
‘ime they were on friendly terms with the Sa’nak-oan (Ssanghakon,
Krause) of Boca de Quadra. The chief of the latter was their friend, and
some of their number were in the habit of staying with the Sa/nak-oan.
After his death the Sa’nak-oan intended to kill the Ts’Ets’a’ut, and to en-
slave the women and children. The chief’s nephews, however, informed
them of this plan, and from that time they hunted more frequently around
Portland Inlet. They then fell in, for the first time, with the Nisk‘a’ on
Portland Inlet. The names of men whom they met there were K-aya'q,
Guna’q, and Gyitqd’n.

Three friends of the deceased chief of the Sa/nak-oan, whose names
were Walk:en, Tlaqd/ns, and Qutk:a’, resolved to pursue the Ts’zts’a’ut,
whose chief at that time was K’acguéta’, a member of the Laqski’yek
clan. Tlaqgd’ns and Qutk‘a’ were brothers, and the last-named had
married a K’utlk‘oa’n woman. This tribe lived, at that time, on Revilla
Gigedo Island, while nowadays they have joined the Sta’kink‘oan. They
are called by the Nisk:a’ Gyitqa’él. These three men followed the
Ts’Ets’a’/ut. They found that they had made friends with the Nisk:a’, and
that most of them were hunting south of Nass River, near the village op-
posite Greenville, while some had gone to Observatory Inlet. They did not
dare to follow them into the country of the Nisk-a’, and turned back.
They returned to Boca de Quadra, and went to a place which was owned
by K-asa’qs, the chief of an eagle clan of the Sa/nak‘oan. They call this
place Kva/itl, while the Ts’Ets’a’ut call the river which empties there
Atgatqaga.’ This is the most southern of three rivers emptying in
Quadra Bay. The middle one is called Nugufega’, the most northern one
Tsétliega’ in the Ts’Ets’a’ut language. In the following autumn the
Ts’gts’a’ut returned to the mouth of Atqatqaga’, and fell in with the
Sa/nak‘oan. The latter invited them to come down to the place where
their fish was stored, which they proposed to exchange for skins. There
were three Lagqski’yek men, three Laqkyebo’ women, and fourteen
children in the party. They had three guns among them. Levi’s uncle
was one of the party. It was raining, and as soon as they reached the
camp the T’s’Ets’a/ut placed their guns over the fire in order to dry them.
The Sa’nak-oan had loaded their guns outside. They had two long guns
and one short one. A Tongass woman, who was married to one of the
Sa’/nak‘oan, was friendly to the Ts’rts’a/ut, as were all the members of her
tribe, and she cried all the time in order to warn them, but they did not
understand what she meant. In order to provoke a quarrel Tlaqo’ns, who
owned the short gun, asked one of the Ts’Ets’a/ut if he thought that the
gun would killa bear. The Ts’Ets’a’ut thought it was too small. Then
Tlaqo’ns took the guns of the Ts’Ets’a/ut, which were small-bore, from the
drying frame, and, under pretence of examining them, placed them out

558 REPORT—1895.

of their reach. He said that his gun was wide-bore, and that he had only
cut off the barrel in order to make it handier. He pretended to take
offence at the deprecatory remarks of the Ts’Ets’a’ut and shot him. At
this signal his companions shot the other men. They took the bodies and
the women and children in their canoe, and threw the former into the sea.
When the Ts’Ets’a’ut heard of what had happened, they went to Nass River
in order to attack the Sa’nak‘oan when they should come to buy olachen
grease. But they did not dare to come for several years. From that
time the Ts’ets’a’ut made Portland Inlet their headquarters. These
events happened before Levi was born, 7.e., about sixty years ago. But
the attacks of the Sa’nak‘oan continued afterwards. Whenever one of
their chiefs died, they tried to kill some of the Ts’Ets’a/ut, and to obtain
slaves from among their number.

At one time an uncle of Levi had run away with a girl whose
parents refused to give her to him in marriage. At Halibut Bay
he met a Nisk-a’, whom he requested to take him across the inlet.
The Nisk‘a’, who wanted to buy marmot skins, proposed to go back to
Nass River to fetch powder and lead, and was going to return in order
to take the couple across the inlet. In return the Ts’Ets’a/ut was
to catch for him a certain number of marmots. While he was away a
canoe carrying three Nisk’a’ men (Gyitqo’n, a Laqski'yek ; Nésqba’k't, a
Gyispawaduwe'da ; and Sinatl6’6t, a K-anha’da) landed. The Ts’Ets’a’ut
owed some marmot skins to the first of these men, who demanded imme-
diate payment. The Ts’Ets’a’ut explained that he had no skins, because
he had run away with a girl, but Gyitqo’n did not listen. He got angry,
and killed the Ts’Ets’a’ut with his axe. The woman ran away, but
Nésqba’k-t shot and killed her. Then they buried them at the foot of a
tree. After a while the first Nisk-a’ returned, but did not find the couple.
When he saw their dog running about, he thought that the three men
whom he had met might have killed them. He went to Tombstone Bay,
where many Ts’Ets’a’ut were encamped, in order to catch salmon. He took
the dog along, and told them what had happened. Then all those who
were encamped at the Bay, about fifty in number, struck camp because
they became afraid of the Nisk‘a’. They were more willing to brave the
attacks of the Sa’nak-oan than those of the more numerous Nisk:a’.

One of the Sa’nak-oan had a Ts’Ets’a’ut woman for his wife. They fell in
with him, and he took them to the large island K’a’tik‘ (Tlingit name; pro-
bably Revilla Gigedo Island). After some time the K’u'tlk-oan learned of
their whereabouts and searched for them. When they had found them
they wanted to remove them to the mainland. The Ts’rts’a’ut agreed to
go, but during the night, while all were asleep, the K’u'tlk-oan produced
their guns which they had hidden, and shot all the men and women. One
of the Ts’Ets’a/ut, who had a gun, was killed while he was aiming at one
of their aggressors. They put the children into their canoe as slaves, but
as there were too many of them they threw eight of their number into
the sea. Thirty were enslaved.

Another quarrel took place about forty-five years ago. One winter,
about the month of February, Levi's father and several other men went
from Portland Inlet to Qa‘itl, which is a river near Tci’naq. They
pitched their camp near the mouth of the river. After some time one
man and his wife saw a canoe coming. When the canoe landed they saw
that several Sa’/nak-oan were in it. The latter gave them tobacco, powder,
and balls, and inquired for their camp. After they had learned where it

ON THE NORTH WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 559

was, they promised to call there on the following day. The Sa’nak-oan
camped in the entrance of a small bay. On the following morning they
went to the camp of the Ts’rts’a’ut, and after having eaten they began to
trade, the Sa/nak‘oan buying skins for tobacco, powder, lead, and shirts.
On the following morning two Sa’nak-oan brothers, K-atsé’el and Yaqté’it,
remarked that there were many crows on the beach, and took up their
guns in order to shoot them. After a short while they re-entered the hut,
one of them holding his gun under his blanket. He aimed at one of the
Ts’gts’a'ut, hiding his gun under his blanket all the time, and shot him.
At this signal his brother shot another man, and a third of the Sa’nak-oan,
whose names were K-ahoté’ and Nag«atsé’ (Fox), shot a third man. The
others drew their daggers, and killed all the Ts’rts’a’ut men. They en-
slaved the women and children, and took them to Revilla Gigedo Island,
where they stayed the rest of the winter. In the spring of the year
Levi’s mother made good her escape, taking her two children along. She
made a bark canoe, crossed Behm Channel, and after two months of hard-
ships they reached Tombstone Bay, on Portland Inlet, where they met the
Ts’Ets’a/ut who had stayed on the inlet. ‘ Eve,’ who is old now, was sold
at that time to the Skétk-oa’n, from whom she escaped.

At another time, while Levi was a boy, the Ts’Ets’a’ut had a war with
the Laq’uyi’p. At that time his sister had just married a man named
Negusts’ikatsa’. They were hunting north of the upper reaches of Nass
River. When they returned to Portland Inlet a party of Laq’uyi’p came
there accompanying a Ts’Ets’a’ut hunter. The Ts’Ets’a’ut had one gun
among them, and were about to shoot at the Laq’uyi’p when their country -
man asked them to desist, as the Lag’uyi’p had come to make peace and
to pay for those who had been killed in previous wars. The Ts’Ets’a’/ut
allowed them to approach and gave them to eat. When they were about
to go to bed they showed the Laq’uyi’p their gun. One of the latter kept
it, and in the ensuing quarrel he shot two of the Ts’Ets’a’ut. Levi added
here that in olden times his countrymen were ‘as stupid as ghosts.’

These historical data define their territory fairly well.'

' Mr. J. W. McKay on hearing indirectly of my researches at Portland Inlet
published in a journal which commands some authority in Canada (The Province,
Victoria, B.C., December 29, 1894) a correction before any of my observations were
made public. He says that these Indians ‘ belong to the Kundana, a tribe which in-
habits the lower Stikine Valley, and whose headquarters are at Tahltan, on the first
north fork of the Stikine River. About forty years ago three or four families of these
Indians were hunting in the neighbourhood of the head waters of the Skoot (Iskoot),
_a large tributary of the Stikine. Game was scarce, the prospect of a hard winter
stared them in the face; they accordingly decided to make for Chunah, on the sea-
coast, at the head of Behm Inlet. They took a wrong direction and struck the coast
-on the west shore of Portland Channel. They were then discovered by one of the
headmen of the Naas tribe. who arranged with them to protect them from molestation
provided that they sold all the product of their fur hunts to him at his price. Having
“no alternative but to accept his proposition, or be sold into slavery, they agreed to
be his vassals, and have remained as such to his heirs and assigns to this day. They
are not the remnants of a tribe; they belong to a tribe which still maintains its
normal strength in the vallev of the Stikine,’
‘ In a letter addressed to Dr. G. M. Dawson and dated Victoria, B.C., January 19,
1895, Mr. McKay makes the following additional statement :—
‘I have your letter of the 6th instant touching Dr. Boas's discovery of a remnant
of a tribe of Indians on Portland Canal. ‘he facts of the case are substantially as
stated in Zhe Province, and were made known to me incidentally during my sojourn
in Cassiar. ;
‘I was one day encamped near the Tahltan River when some Naas Indians came

560 REPORT— 1899.

Tn regard to the personal appearance of the Ts’Ets’a’ut I refer to the
measurements contained in the first part of this report. The individuals
whom I saw were short, of light colour, with broad and flat faces and low
noses. Their mouths were full. Their general appearance is very much
like that of the Nisk:a’.

They have no fixed villages, but make a camp wherever they intend to
hunt. Their staple food is porcupine, marmot, mountain-goat, and bear.
The skins of these animals supply the material for clothing. In summer
they go down the rivers of Portland Inlet to catch salmon, which they
dry for winter use

At present they wear white man’s clothing, but according to Levi's
descriptions their old style clothing corresponded to that of other Tinneh
tribes. Both sexes wore high boots (kué) made of marmot skins and
reaching to the thighs, and pants (ék!ayé ) made of curried skins. Men
wore a leather jacket (aya’n) cut like a shirt and reaching to the middle
of the thigh. In winter they wore a jacket of marmot skins with mittens
attached (agdtsqa’) and threw a robe of birdskins (tss’a) over their
shoulders. In travelling they tied the robe around their waists by means
of a belt (sé). Women wore a short coat, which was tied around the
waist (atlaé’), and a jacket (tl’a), both being made of mountain-goat skins.
The skin of the belly of the beaver was also used for the manufacture of
clothing. In recent times both sexes have adopted the use of the moccasin

into my camp and complained that Na-nok, the chief of the Tahltan Ku-na-nas,
wcull not let them proceed to Dease Lake unless they paid him something for pass-
ing through his country. I had with me at the time as servant one Jim, a Ku-ni-na
Indian, who explained the cause of Na-nok’s conduct by detailing the statement
published in Zhe Province. I made Na-nok understand that he must not make
reprisals; that his tribesmen at Portland Inlet had full liberty to return to their own
country if they wished; that his jurisdiction did not extend to levying tolls on
strangers passing through the country, in which he himself was only a sojourner, as
he had done nothing to improve it; and that he must let the Naas Indians pass,
which he accordingly did. This happened about twenty years ago.

‘As to the original inhabitants of Portland Inlet the most ancient of which we
have any account is the Tongas band of the Tlinkeet tribe. The wintering villages
of this band at one time extended as far sonth as Mah-lit-hah-l4; they were driven
northward by two (Metlakathla) hordes of Tsimsians (men of the river) who de-
scended from the interior by the valleys of the Skeena and Naas, took possession of
the Tsimpshian Peninsula, and settled thereon. The Tongas, being forced to relinquish
their rights therein, retired to the coast and islands immediately north of the entrance
to Portland Canal. If there were any inhabitants in Portland Inlet when the Tlinkeets
first reached that locality, they would have been exterminated or otherwise absorbed
by the latter race before the Tsimshian race made its appearance on the scene of action.
The Tongas would be the most likely Indians to give what information may be
obtainable respecting any race more ancient than themselves, which may have existed
in the locality under consideration. The Tlinkeets of Cape Fox might also be able
to throw some light on the subject.

‘You are aware that the Ku-na-nas of the Stikine Valley are closely allied to the
Tlinkeets of that section, i.e. the Skat-kwan. The Skat-kwan are closely allied to
the Tongas, and these facts may account for the Naas Indians’ moderate treatment
of the little band of Ku-nd-nas who unfortunately tumbled, as it were, into the lands
of the stranger, and stranger meant enemy in the days and in the country of which
I am writing. Had they reached Chunah, a+ the head of the Behm Canal, the
point for which they were making, they would have been amongst their friends the
Skat-kwan Tlinkeets’

There is no traditional evidence of the invasion of the Tsimshian tribe to which
Mr. McKay refers, although it is probable that the Tsimshian were originally an
inland people. The statements collected by me show also that Mr. McKay is mis-
taken in regard to his notions of the distribution of tribes in Southern Alaska.

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA, 561

(kécikatssé) in place of the high boot. It is made of mountain-goat hide.
The hair was tied in a knot behind the head, while the Tatltan (Tahl-tan)
shaved their heads.

They wore ear-ornaments made of the wool of the mountain goat.
These were attached to holes made in the lobe and in the helix. The
nose was also perforated, and ornaments made of haliotis shells or of
coins were suspended from the septum. The clothing was embroidered
with porcupine quills. Before the introduction of glass beads they made
beads of bone. Girls wore hats (see p. 566).

The houses of the Ts’Ets’a’ut are made of bark, and are of a very temporary

Fic. 1.—Hut of the Ts’ sts’a’ ut.

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character. They cleara space at the foot of a large tree and place a forked
pole, about seven feet long (atlanaa’, fig. 1, (1)) on each side of the tree, from
_ about six to eight feet apart. These poles support two slanting poles (éni’,
fig. 1 (2) ) about fourteen feet in length, which are connected by four cross
poles (tétlatsaa’, fig. 1 (3) ). The slanting roof and both sides are covered with
bark, while the end next to the tree remains open. Sometimes one side
next to the tree is closed; the other serves as a doorway. The fireplace
(kho da tla) is at the foot of the tree ; the smoke escapes at the open top
next to the trunk of the tree. The ground is covered with brushes, and
1895. 00

562 ; REPORT—1895.

the bed is spread at the low end of the hut, the head end being at the
side remote from the tree. The structure is lashed together.

When two families desire to inhabit one house, two of these structures
are joined together, so that they stand end to end, and one is built a little
higher than the other (fig. 2). Thus the roof of one side overlaps that of
the other and prevents the entrance of rain. This house has a door on
each vertical side. It is also built close to the butt of a tree as a protec-
tion against snow and rain, the trunk of the tree being close to one of the
vertical sides. When the tribe moves to another camp the houses are
taken apart and the poles are tied together and to a tree. When the
party returns to the same place they untie the bundle and use the same
poles.

In winter the poles are tied more strongly, and very stout supports
are selected. When the snowfall is very deep the doors are blocked up
and the exit is through the roof. It would seem very likely that this
winter house may be the primitive form out of which the subterranean

Fic. 2.—Double hut of the Ts’Bts‘a’ut.

lodge of the interior of British Columbia may have developed. The
advantage of covering the walls with dirt instead of waiting for a snow-
fall, to ensure protection against winds and cold, would become easily
apparent, and then the ground plan of the two houses would become very
much alike. The advantages of the bilateral arrangement would also
disappear when the houses were built underground instead of overground.
I would remark at this place that the supports of the subterranean lodge
are slanting outward, not vertical, as indicated on page 633 of the Sixth
Report of the Committee, and that Dr. Dawson’s figure (‘Transactions
of the Royal Society of Canada,’ 1893, ii.) renders the plan correctly.

The bed is covered with mats made of cedar-bark. Quilts or blankets
are made of the skins of goats, bear, and marmot. Baskets are used for
cooking and for carrying water, berries, and other kinds of food. They
are made of spruce roots or of bark. Spoons are made of bark or of
mountain-goat horn. Axes and adzes were made of bone or horn.

Fire was made either by means of the firedrill or with a strike-a-light.
The stone for the latter is found in Tombstone Bay, but the description
of the kind of stone was too indefinite for the purpose of identification.

‘ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 563

‘The firedrill is turned by means of a bow : the upper end is held in a piece
of bark, while the lower ends turns in a slit of a piece of wood. Dry
rotten wood is used for tinder. The sinew-backed bow was made of yew
wood. There was a stud on the inner side, which served to keep the string
from the bow. The string was made of the skin of the back of the
beaver, which was cut into strips and twisted. One end was tied to the
end of the bow, while the other had an eye which was hung over the
other end. Bows of this description are used by the Kenai and the
Tinneh of the Lower Yukon River. The arrow was made of yellow cedar
and winged with eagle feathers. Flint for arrow-heads was obtained
from a place in the mountains north of Laq’uyip’. It is said that the
people made expeditions for obtaining this material, which lasted two
years. The bowis held horizontally. The arrow is grasped by the bent first
finger and thumb of the right hand. Sometimes the bow is held vertically.

Fig. 3.—Marmot trap.

Then the arrow is grasped by the thumb and first and second fingers of the
right hand, and rests between the first and second fingers of the left. When
hunting they carry their small game in pouches. In winter they travel on
snow-shoes, the netting of which is made of beaver skin. For mountain
_ climbing they use a pole about three fathoms long (tqé). Marmots are
caught by means of traps of simple construction (fig. 3). A stick, the end
of which is carved in the shape of a blue jay, crane, or some other animal,
_ is tied to a longer stick, which is placed upright in the ground (1). A
heavy club-shaped stick (2) is laid over the place where tke two sticks are
tied together, pressing on the head of the carved stick. The lower end of
the latter is held to stick 1 by means of a loop. The lower end of
the stick 2 is loaded with heavy stones. A small flat stick or board (3)
is placed over the loop, and lies in the entrance to the marmot hole.
This board is covered with dirt and grass, and as soon as the animal
steps on it the loop slips down stick 1, the heavy stick falls down and
breaks its back. All these sticks are painted red, and are then covered
002

564. REPORT—1895

with stones and grass. They also bear property marks. Figures are
also engraved on stick 1. Some of them are reproduced here (fig. 4).
No. 1 represents the mountain-goat browsing, No. 2 the blue grouse,
No. 3 the pigeon, No. 4 is a man holding a lance in the act of killing
a bear. His nose is indicated by two spots ; the black lines in the

Fig. 4.—Figures engraved on traps.

(1) Mountain Goat, (2) Grouse.

(4) Bear-hunter.

body represent the backbone. The position of these lines shows that the
body is represented as being turned towards the bear. The two lines
near the back of the bear are also the backbone ; the lines descending
from it are the ribs. Its mouth is open.

Poreupines are hunted during the nighttime. They are not caught
in traps, but killed with lances, clubs, or arrows. It seems that they do

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 065

not use nets for catching rabbits. Levi said that the Laq’uyi’p hunted in
this manner, but that the Ts’rts’a'ut did not do so. They always hunt singly,
one man confining his operations to one valley at a time. They use canoes
to a slight extent only. The canoes were made of the bark of the yellow
cedar. They were about three fathoms long. The bark is stripped all
around the tree. Then it is stretched, sewed in the proper shape, and the
seams and holes are calked with gum. They used sails which were made
of marmot skins.

In winter they live to a great extent upon meat dried during the
summer months. The staple food is marmot meat, which is mixed with
marmot grease, boiled and preserved in marmot guts.

The tribe consisted of two clans, the Eagle and the Wolf. Only
members of the Wolf clan survive. The native names of the clans are
lost, and they are called by their Nisk‘a equivalents, Laqski’yek and
Lagkyebo’. The equivalent of the latter among the Sa’nak-oan are the
Tek-oédé. The clans are exogamic. As members of one clan only survive,
all the married Ts’Ets’a’ut of this time have married members of foreign
tribes. Each clan has separate names. I obtained names of the Laqkyebo’
only.

Men, Women,
DrEntseElé’, Atladdzé’.
Qatlo’. Cétlgwé’uk.
Gwaya’.

Tsikyatsa’.
Tsatso’.
Can.
Nadzé’.

The institutions are materna], succession being in the female line.
The child inherits from his mother’s brother. We find among the
Ts’Ets’a’ut also the institution of avoidance between mother-in-law and
son-in law (matudHa’) which is found among all the northern Tinneh
tribes. Levi explained that they were ashamed to talk to each other, and
even to see each other. The mother-in-law leaves the house before the
son-in-law enters, or, if such is impossible, she hides her face or turns the
other way while he is near her. Levi stated that the adult man must
also not look at his adult sister. This custom, he explained, is based on
a tradition according to which a man married his sister. Their brothers
were ashamed, tied them together, and deserted them ; but the man broke
the ropes. They had a child, and eventually he killed a ram, a ewe, and
a kid of the mountain-goat, put on their skins, and they assumed the
shape of goats. He had acquired the power of killing everything by a
glance of his eyes. One day his tribe came up the river for the purpose

of hunting, and he killed them, Then he travelled all over the world,

leaving signs of his presence everywhere, such as remarkable rocks. The
woman and her child went to the head waters of the Nass River, where

they still continue to live on a lake.

I also found the Tinneh custom according to which the parents of a child
change their names and adopt that of father or mother of so-and-so. In this
case at least the custom must be interpreted somewhat differently from
the way in which it is usually done. There are a limited number of
names only in the tribe, probably names belonging to the nobility. When
a child reaches a certain age, his father, uncle, mother, or aunt may give

566 REPORT—1899.

it his or her name; and since by this act the former owner has relinquished
his place, he also loses the name belonging to the place, and consequently
adopts that of the father, mother, or aunt of the owner of the place, thus
indicating that he owned the place formerly.

When a woman is about to give birth to a child a separate hut is built
for her. When the child is being born two other women hold a stick
horizontally in front of the mother. She takes hold of it, standing in a
bent position. A third woman takes hold of the child, covering its mouth
until it is born. The navel-string is tied with sinews, placed on a stick,
and then cut. The mother rests for a day, then she takes up her usual
occupation. After a boy is born the father must not cut off the legs of
any kind of male game ; after a girl is born he must not cut off those of
female game, else the private parts of the child would swell.

A girl when reaching maturity wears a neck-ring of crabapple twigs
(k-!asé'l), earrings of bone, and a piece of a rib around the neck, as amulets
to secure good luck and a long life. She also wears a large skin hat
which comes down over her face, and prevents the sun from striking
it. If she should expose her face to the sun or to the sky, it would
rain. The hat protects her face also against the fire, which must not
strike her skin. For this purpose she also wears skin mittens. She
wears the tooth of an animal] in her mouth to prevent her teeth from
getting hollow. For a whole year she must not see blood unless her face
is blackened, else she would grow blind. For two years she wears the hat
and lives in a hut by herself, although she is permitted to see others.
After that period a man takes the hat off from her head and throws it
away.

When a young man desires to marry a girl he asks her parents, to
whom he gives presents of meat at intervals during a year. Then the bride’s
parents invite him and his clan to a feast at which the marriage is cele-
brated. When aman dies and leaves a widow his brother marries her. He
provides for her during the period of her widowhood. He must not marry
her before the lapse of a certain time, as her husband’s ghost stays with
her and as the ghost would do him harm. The widow and also the
widower eat out of a stone dish. She orhe carries a pebble in the mouth,
and a straight crabapple stick is placed along the back, inside the jacket.
She sits upright day and night. The meaning of this custom is that her
back shall remain as straight as the crabapple stick even in her old age.
The deceased husband’s brother must take care that everything is quiet
in the widow’s house. Any person who crosses the hut in front of her
dies. She fasts for two or three days after the death of her husband.
After that she is allowed to eat what she pleases. When a woman dies
and her husband survives, he marries her sister.

Men must not cut their hair, else they would grow old quickly. Men
and women do not eat the heads of mountain goats, else their hair would
turn grey early.

In cases of sickness the shaman is called. He sings certain songs.
He does not use a rattle, but only a feather wand, generally an eagle’s tail.
His hands and his face are painted red. He fans and blows the patient
or blows water on to him. Then he takes the disease out of him with

‘both hands, acting as though he dipped it out, and blows it into the air.
He uses a square drum consisting of a frame over which a skin is
stretched. The four corners of the frame are connected by thongs. Here
is a shaman’s song :—

:

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 567

eo
a) Viet eee (a) ka na k 0. ok'ar ne sal a)

I add a dancing song :—

Ya ha ya hi ya hi ya ya; ya hi ya hiya hi ya ya; ya ha ya hiya hi ya ya

When a person is about to die his friends leave the house and desert
him. Everything that is in the house is left behind. They are afraid of
ghosts and avoid returning to the same place. Sometimes the body is
placed in a hollow tree and stones are piled up in front of the entrance,
or the butt of a tree is hollowed out on purpose. The knees of the body
are doubled up so that they touch the chin. The relatives of the deceased
cut their hair.

The ceremonial after the death of a chief is somewhat elaborate. The
body is burnt by the clan of which the deceased is not a member. The
chief’s clan fast for three days. On the fourth day they partake of a
little water and raw food. On the fifth day they prepare a feast in honour
of their deceased chief. During the feast some food is burnt for him.
Those who buried the body receive blankets in payment. After they
have finished eating they begin to dance. The mourners sit down around
a fire wailing. They wear mittens and cover their mouths with their
hands that the fire may not strike them. The same ceremony is repeated
three times ; the second time from the fifth to the tenth day, and the
third time from the eleventh to the fifteenth day after the death of the
chief ; then they are clean. During all this time they do not undress,
and keep their hats on. Every morning they wash in sour urine and put
fresh coal on their faces.

The following tradition illustrates the beliefs of the Ts’rts’a’ut in
regard to the abode of the soul after death. ‘A widow who was with

child was killed by a branch striking her abdomen. Before dying she
‘gave birth to two girls. Her sister adopted the children and reared them.

In the spring of the year the tribe went up Portland Inlet to catch
olachen. The woman with her two children could not travel as quickly
as the others did and lagged behind. One night she was unable to reach
the camp of the tribe, and when it grew dark she made a hut and camped
with the two girls. They had nothing to eat and the children were
crying. After some time they fell asleep. All ofa sudden the woman awoke,
and on looking around found herself in a village. It wasa beautiful village.
There were two rows of huts, one on each side of a river. She entered a
house and saw her sister and her sister’s husband. Then she knew that she
was in the village of the ghosts. She began to cry and her sister cried with
her. She told her sister that she had not been able to follow the tribe and

' that she and the children were starving. Then the ghost left the house and
re-entered carrying a bag of marmot-guts filled with marmot meat and

grease. She gave the bag and a dish to her sister to take them hoine. She

told her that the meat would last her a long time. The woman took the bag

568 REPORT—1895.

and the dish and went home. The trail led up the river through a beautiful
‘valley. Finally she came to a pass leading across the mountains. As
soon as she reached this place she fainted. When she awoke she found
herself in her hut. The two girls were asleep, and the bag and the dish
which the ghost had given her stood next to them. She gave them some
meat and told them that she had been to the village of the ghosts who
had given her provisions. The next morning they proceeded on their
journey and finally reached the tribe. The meat in the bag did not grow
less although they were using it all the time. She told the people of her
adventure and showed them the dish, which differed in shape from the
dishes of the Ts’rts’a’ut. They lived on the meat for a whole year and it
did not grow less. The girls became stout because they were always well
nourished. The aunt and the two girls married. After some time the aunt’s
husband was lost when hunting porcupine. When he did not return the
people went to look for him, but they could not find him. On returning
they told the widow to go once more to the village of the ghosts in order to
see if her husband were dead. She lay down to sleep, and when she awoke
she found herself on the pass which she had crossed before. She saw the
village down below in a beautiful valley on both sides of a river. While
it was winter on earth it was summer here. She reached the village and
entered her sister’s hut. She told her that she herself and her nieces had
married and that she had come to look for her lost husband. Then her
-sister cried and told her that her husband was in the hut next door where
he stayed with his parents. The woman said: ‘“ He took a belt and a
marmot-skin blanket away which belong to my child. I wish to take
them home.” Her sister replied : ‘‘ He had them on when I saw him.” Then
the woman went into the hut next door and found her husband lying near
the fire. She saw his parents and others of his deceased relatives. Then
she asked him for the belt and the blanket, and he gave them to her. He
also told her the place where his body was lying. It was at the foot of a
mountain where they had camped before. There was a little boy in
the hut who ran up and down in front of the woman. She grew angry
and pushed him so that he fell into the fire. He vanished, for if a ghost
is killed, he is destroyed entirely and he ceases to exist. The woman ran
out of the house and at once she awoke in her own hut. It was early in
the morning. The blanket lay next to her. The belt was on the ground,
but one half of it was still in the ground and the people were unable to
pull it out. She reported what her husband had told her, and when the
people went to look for the body of her husband they found it at the place
indicated by the ghost. The head was frozen to the ice, while the lower
part of the body was moving. They tried to free it from the ice, but they
were unable to do so. Then they cut wood and burnt the body right
where it lay.’

I did not obtain much information in regard to their games and
pastimes. Levi insisted that he had never seen a Ts’rts’a’ut gambling
and knew only a game at ball played with a ball of cedar-bark, and the
game of cat’s-cradle. Hunters, who desire to secure good luck, fast and
wash their bodies with ginger-root for three or four days and do not touch
a woman for two or three months. They drink decoctions of ‘devil’s
club’ for purposes of purification and for securing good luck.

Their traditions are remarkable on account of the slight influence of
the coast tribes upon them. The Rev. F. Maurice has pointed out that the
customs and traditions of the Tinneh of the interior of British Columbia,

—.”

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 569

namely, of the Chilcotin, Carrier, and Siccanie, have been influenced toa
considerable extent by the coast tribes.!

The mythology of the Ts’Ets’a’ut agrees closely with that of the
northern and eastern Tinneh tribes, which were studied by E. Petitot.
Without entering into details I will mention a few of the fundamental
traits of their traditions. The earth was originally level: it was hot,
there was neither water, rain, snow, fog, nor wind. The animals were
starving and tore the sky, went up and liberated rain, snow, and wind,
which were kept in bags in the house of the goose woman. Rivers originated
when a man, in order to obtain water, shot an arrow into the ground,
whereupon a spring welled up. Mountains originated when two brothers
flew from their giant wives, who pursued them. In order to obstruct
their progress they threw the contents of the stomach of a cariboo upon
the ground. These were transformed into mountains and valleys. Later
on a flood destroyed all the people : only children of two clans survived,
who were placed by their parents inside two trees. The fire was
originally in possession of the grizzly bear, who wore a strike-a-light as an
ear-ornaient. A bird stole it and brought the stones to men. Glaciers
and snow on the mountains are the remains of an immense snowfall which
covered the whole world. There are a great many traditions telling of
the marriage of men to women who were animals or other beings. A
people of cannibals of human form, but with faces of dogs, called quda’lé,
and giants called Tsufa’, are the subjects of many tales.

IV. Tue Nass River Inpians, tHe Nisk:a’.

The customs of the Nisk-a’ and those of the Tsimshian, which were
described in the Fifth Report of the Committee, are practically identical.
Therefore I will not enter into a detailed description of this tribe, but
give such data only as supplement my previous notes. The Nisk-a’ speak
one of the three main dialects of the Tsimshian language; the other dialects
are the Tsimshian and the Gyitkshan. They inhabit Nass River, except
its upper course. Nowadays they live in a great many permanent
villages, but formerly only four subdivisions were recognised by them.
Laqk’altsa’p (=at the town), Andegualé’, Gyitwunkse'tlk, and Gyit’-
laqda’miks. I mentioned in my former report that the Tsimshian are
divided into four clans : The K-anha’ da, or Raven ; the Laqkyebo’, or
Wolf; the Laqski’yek, or Eagle ; and the Gyispawaduwe’da,? or Bear.

I discovered that these clans are subdivided or specialised, there being
families of the clan at large, and subdivisions of theclan. Among the
Nisk-a'and Gyitksha’n I found the following subdivisions :—

/

1 The Rev. F. Maurice misunderstands me when he assumes that I think the coast
people have not influenced the tribes of the interior. This influence is apparent in
all the descriptions of former travellers, and has been admirably demonstrated by
Mr. Maurice. But the reverse influence exists also, and has affected to the greatest
extent the Tlingit tribes who trade with the interior, the Tsimshian, the Bilqula, and
the Salish of the interior. The flood legends which refer to the finding of the earth
by the musk rat, some of the burial customs and inventions, must have percolated
through these channels, even if the Tinneh tribes have lost some of those customs
owing to secondary changes.

? This spelling is more correct than Gyispotuwr’da, as given formerly.

570 REPORT—1895.

I. K-anha’da: Raven.

1. Gyituk’ad6’k
. Laqsé’el =on the ocean.

bo

IT. Laqkyebo : Wolf.
. Laqt’ia’k-tl.
. Gyitgyigyé nin.
. Gyitwulnaky’é'l.

Cobo

IIT. Lagski’yek : Eagle.
. Gyisk-ab’rna’q.
Laqlo’ukst.
Gyits’a’Ek:.
. Laqts’rmé’lia=on the beaver.

Po bo

IV. Gyispawaduwe’'da : Bear.
1. Gyisg’aha’st = grass people.

These totemic subdivisions are not represented in all the villages of
the tribe, but are found as follows :—

I. Laqk”altsa’p.

Raven: K-anha’da, Gyituk’add'k-. 7
Wolf : Laqkyebo’.
Eagle: Laqski'yek, Gyisk‘ab’Ena’q. :

II. Andegualé’.

Raven : Laqsé’el.
Wolf: Gyitgyigye’nin.

Til. Gyitwunksé’tlk.
Wolf: Laqt’ia’k-tl.
Eagle : Laqlé'ukst, Gyits’a’Ek.
Bear : Gyise’aha’st.

IV. Gyit’laqda’miks.

Raven : Laqsé’el.
Wolf: Gyitwulnaky’é’l. :
Eagle : Laqski’yek, Laqts’Emé'lin. ’

These are the old recognised subdivisions of the Nisk‘a’ which were
given to me by ‘Chief Mountain,’ and corroborated in part by other
members of the tribe. It is remarkable that in olden times the
Gyispawaduwer’da, who are nowadays the most numerous clan, appear
confined to a single village. It is possible that the clan beusing more
numerous owing to intermar riage with the Tsimshian.

Turning towards Skeena River we find the Gyitwuntlko'l, Be are

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 571

considered a separate tribe, and whose dialect is intermediate between the
Nisk-a’ and the Gyitkshan. They have two clans: the K-anha’da and
Laqkyebo’.

‘ Chief Mountain’ gave me the following subdivisions of the Gyikshan ;
the list is, however, incomplete :—

I. Gyitwung'a’.

Raven : K:anha/da.
Eagle : Laqski’yek.

II. Gyitsigyu’ktla.

Raven : K:anha’da,
Bear : Gyisg’’a’hast,

IIT. Gyispayé‘ke.

Raven : K-anha’da.
Wolf: Laqkyebo.’

IV. Gyit’anma’kys.

The subdivisions of a clan cannot intermarry with the main clan or
with any other of its subdivisions. The people form four exogamic
groups only : Raven, Wolf, Eagle, and Bear. Of these the Bear is con-
sidered the noblest clan, because it derives its origin from Heaven.

In all festivals the totems of the clan play an important part. Carv-
ings representing the totem are worn as masks or head-dresses ; they are
painted or carved on houses and utensils, and on memorial columns and
totem poles. In all initiations an artificial totem animal brings back the
novice. I made particular inquiries regarding the meaning of masks and
carvings, and the modes of their use. I shall next give what new informa-
tion I obtained on these points.

When the Gyituk’ad6’k: branch of the K:anha‘da have a potlach,
three masks make their appearance, one of which has a moustache and
represents a young man named Gyitgod’yim, while the other two are
called Ca’cé. They represent the following tradition. While the people
were staying at the fishing village Gulgyé’utl, the boys under the leader-
ship of a young man named Gyitgoé’yim made a small house in the
woods behind the town. They took a spring salmon along and played
with it until it was rotten. They caught small fish in the creek and
split and dried them. They made small drums and began to sing and
to dance. For four days they stayed there, dancing all the time. Then
they became supernatural beings. Gyitgod’yim’s hair had turned into
crystal and copper. The people were about to move to another camp,
and went to the place where they heard the boys singing.

(2h a © eres
© pum ds deca ke.

ia yid wu li yiléqtl k@-cmumd ka _ wa

a2 REPORT—1895.

~ oa
= = —{s =o ee
=a j J s
== Eas Se Same eee Se

wu la yi-la aaqtl ké - sel dautl nEq-nd’k-.

T.e. Where the copper hair, when the ice hair, is spread out, is the supernatural
being.

As soon as the people approached them they disappeared and were
seen at once dancing and singing at a distant place. They were unable
to reach them. Then they returned, and since that time they have used
the song and dance of these boys.

The GyispawaduweE'da have one head-dress representing an owl
(Maskutgunu'ks) surrounded by many small human heads called gyadrem
tlak:s (claw-men). This is worn in potlaches and commemorates the
following tradition. A chief at T’emlaq’a’mt had a son who was crying

all the time. His father became impatient and sent him out of the .

house saying, ‘The white owl shall fetch you.’ The boy went out,
~ accompanied by his sister. Then the owl came and carried the girl to
the top of a tree. The people heard her crying and tried to take her
down, but they were unable to climb the tree. After a while she ceased
to cry and married the ow]. They had a son. When he grew up she
told her husband that she desired to send her son home. Then his
father made a song for him. His mother told him to carve a head-dress
in the shape of an owl for use in his dance and to sing the song which
his father had made for him. She bade him good-bye and said that her
husband was about to carry her to a far-off country. The owl carried
both of them to the old chief’s house. When his wife saw the unknown
boy she was afraid, but her daughter addressed her, saying that the boy
was her grandson. Then the old woman took him into her house while
the boy’s mother and the owl disappeared. When the boy was grown
up his mother’s brother gave a potlach, and before the blankets were dis-
tributed the boy danced, wearing the owl head-dress and singing the song
which his father had made for him.

“o- F =z so ae
ape § J) A SS eh SS | A a
LEp ha ne di yu wa ha é yi ya

air | ° Pi & af Se iy. “TR
Lephare di yu wd hai 6é ¢ al

= ss

SSR tl 2 el Ae tl A ee

Lep ha lé dat kas wa gyitl mas k’uts kugu

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 573

ct ar ug - oo ot
Perak | Reel Re A Reo SR elk | - ||
i e I ya.

fe
niks i & ha 6€& a ha ji a ha

I.e. My! brother this tree is my seat.

Some of the dances are actual mimical representations of myths.
In one ceremony two men dressed like Ts’Ets’a’ut hunters appear. Sud-
denly the noise of thunder is heard, and down through the roof comes a
person dressed in eagle skins and wearing the mask of the thunder
bird. The Ts’Ets’a’ut shoot at the bird. At once there is a flash of
lightning and a clap of thunder : one of the men falls dead and the other
one escapes The fire is extinguished by means of water, which wells up
through a pipe of kelp which is laid underground and empties into the
fire. At the same time water is thrown upon the spectators through
the roof. This performance is accompanied by the song of the women,
who sit on three platforms in the rear of the house. The song relates to
the myth which is represented in the performance.

Burial.—The burial is attended to by members of the clan of the
father of the deceased, who are paid for their services. Four or five
men bend the head of the body down and his knees up. Thus he is
placed in a box. Chiefs lie in state for some days, while others are
buried without delay. They burn food and clothing for the deceased,
saying that it is intended for him. Else the ghost would trouble them.
Then they cut wood for a pyre; the box is put on top of it and it is
burnt. The body is poked with long poles in order to facilitate com-
bustion. When it bursts and gas escapes they believe they hear the
voice of the ghost. Men and women sit around the pyre and sing all
the cradle songs of the clan which are contained in their legends. The
remains are put into a small box and placed on trees. Cotton-wood trees
are often selected for this purpose. The body of the shaman is also
burnt.

Some time after the burial the son or nephew of the deceased
erects a column in his memory (pésdén). As the meaning of such
columns is not yet clear by any means, I asked ‘Chief Mountain’ to
describe to me the festivals which he gave after the death of his father,
who was a Gyispawaduwe'da. His father had a squid for his protector
(nzgno'k). After the death of his father he invited all the people to
his house. During the festival the ground opened and a huge rock
which was covered with kelp came out. This was made of wood and
bark. A cave was under the rock and a large squid came out of it.
It was made of cedar bark and its arms were set with hooks which
caught the blankets of the audience and tore them. The song of the
squid which was sung by the women sitting on three platforms in the rear
of the house is as follows :—

|: Kag-aba'gske lagha'’ haya'i: |
|: Itshakes the heaven hiyd'i: |

Ntlkakystl ka@'dihystl ni nagno'k: 6 gyigya'detl ts'a'g-atl aks
Vor the first time comes great supernatural being in ~ living inside of water
dem in lisa'yiltl am gyigya't.
to look at the people.

‘574 REPORT—1895.

After the squid and the rock had disappeared a man wearing the
sun mask appeared in the door, and when the people began to sing his
song a movable sun which was attached to the mask began to turn. The
sun “belongs to the Gyispawaduwe'da ; the squid reminds the people that
one of his father’s ancestors when hunting squids at ebb tide was cap-
tured by a huge animal. His friends tried to liberate him, but were
unable to do so. When the water began to rise they pulled a bag of
sea-lion guts over his head, hoping that “the air in it might enable him to
survive, but when they looked for him at the next tide they found him
dead.

After the festival ‘Chief Mountain’ erected the memorial column.
It represented, from below upwards, first four men called Loayd’k-s, or
the commanders. These are a crest of the Gyispawaduwe’da. Tradition
says that one night some men for some purpose dug a hole behind a
house near a grave-tree. They saw an open place in the woods, a fire in
the middle, and ghosts were dancing around it wearing head-dresses.
They were sitting there as though they were in a house, but the men
saw only a pole where the door of this house would have been. Four men
called Loayo’ks were standing at the door, and called to them nagwi't !
(To this side!) Since that time the Gyispawaduws’da have used these
figures.

On top of the four men was the sea-bear (mrdi'ek em akys) with
three fins on his back. Each fin had a human face at its base. His
father had requested him to put the killer whale on the column, but
he preferred to place the sea-bear on it because it is the highest crest
of ‘the Gyispawaduwr'da. The tradition of the sea-bear tells how four
brothers went down Skeena River and were taken to the bottom of the
sea by Hagula’k-, a sea monster, over whose house they had anchored.
His house had a number of platforms. Inside were the killer whales,
Hagulé’/k’s men. He had four kettles, called Lukewarm, Warm, Hot,
Boiling, and a hat in shape of a sea monster, with a number of rings
on top. The name of his house was Helahai'dek- (near the Haida
country). He gave the brothers the right to use all these objects, and_
with them their songs, which are sung at all great ceremonies of the
clan. The song of the house is as follows :—

ene reese ee reser

Ko mila yé @kdéskuna dé kaa mila yé dés ku na

dé hélahai deg‘i yé déyago @€ nu él_ wi hagu-lok- aya go,

I.e. My friend, walk close to the country of the Haida, the great Hagula’k-.

Hagula’k: also gave them two cradle songs, which are sung for
children of the clan and also at funerals.

Atlgwa'sem gund't, atignd'sem gund't, _atlqva'sem gunda’t.
O real strong friend, O real strong friend, O real strong friend.

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 575

Mad'otlu wilnré'thtl tlgokycamgh* tlauts alt tlguyo'hak’ald’e
Where he came from with his little black little face with his little club

ya aba't.
running down,

_ And the second one :—

Gund’ dit, quna'dct, guna'dit, quna'dét.
O friend, O friend, O friend, O friend.

Wulninnd'étlé, semtlia'n, hangsa'no, hangyd!dksqa.
They are very white, the real elks, which he won gambling, which he found when
they drifted down to him.

Marriage.—When a young man desires a girl for his wife he sends a
certain amount of property (hana‘k's) to her parents for the purchase of
the girl, If the suitor and the amount of property are acceptable, they
send word to him stating that they accept his suit. Then the young man
takes a number of slaves, who accompany him. They are called léda’mrk’s-
gut (= always close to him). They arm themselves, and the young man
embarks with them in a canoe and sails to the bride’s house. As soon as
her relatives see them coming, they arm themselves with clubs and stone
hammers and rush down to the landing-place. They break the canoe and
try to drive off the companions of the young man. They fight seriously,
and sometimes one of the lodé'mrk:sgut is killed. This foretells that the
couple will never part. After the fight is over the bridegroom and his
companions are carried into the bride’s house. Then her friends strew
eagle down, which is kept in a bag made of sea-lion’s intestines, on the
companions of the bridegroum, and the fighting ceases. Her father puts
on his head-dress and dances while her friends sing. Then a feast is given,
during which the young man pays the remainder of the purchase money.
In the evening the girl’s clan gives a considerable amount of property to
the bridegroom (/ogyina'm), which he distributes among his clan according
to the amount which they have contributed to the purchase money. Her
father and brothers give the groom a new canoe in place of the one which
was broken in the morning. Then the bride is carried down to the canoe,
and she departs with her husband to his village, where they live.

Tf the groom belongs to the same village, the couple often stay with the
girl’s parents.

The winter ceremonial.—I did not see any part of the winter ceremonial
of the Nisk-a’, but I received descriptions which, in the light of our
knowledge of these ceremonies among the Kwakiutl, bring out sufficiently
_ clearly their similarities. There are six secret societies among the Nisk:a’,

which rank in the following order: the Semhalai't, Méitla’, Lotle’m,
Olala’, Nanésta’t, Honana’tl, the last being the highest. The Semhalai’t
is really not confined to the winter ceremonial, but is obtained when
a person obtains the first guardian spirit of his clan and performs the
ceremony belonging to this event. The tradition of the origin of these
ceremonies is the same as that found among the Tsimshian, to which I
alluded in the Fifth Report of the Committee, p. 853 (see the full
legend in ‘ Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie,’ 1888). The version of the legend
_ which I obtained from the Nisk‘a’ localises the events at Bellabella, and
_ it is added that the ceremonies were obtained first by the Gyitqa’tla

(a Tsimshian tribe located on the islands south-west of Skeena River)

576 REPORT—1895.

from the Bellabella, and later on by the Nisk‘a’ from the Gyitqa’tla. This
is corroborated by linguistic evidence. All the names of these societies,
with the exception of the first, are of Kwakiutl origin. |Méitla’=teasing ;
Lotle’m, Kwakiutl No’ntlem=foolish ; Olala’, name of a Kwakiutl cere-
mony ; Nanesta’'t, Kwakiutl, Nontsista’latl, dance of No’ntsista ; Hona-
ma/tl, dance of (??). The call of the Olala’, hap, is also a Kwakiutl
word designating eating.] The original tradition mentions three societies
only—the second, third, fourth. This shows that the first is not a secret
society, properly speaking, and that the fifth and sixth are later intro-
ductions. The Nisk-a’ state that with the ceremonies came the use of large
whistles. The Kwakiutl of Fort Rupert state also that the use of large
whistles and the custom of eating slaves and corpses and of biting pieces
of flesh out of the arms of people came to them from the Hé‘iltsuk. We
must assume, therefore, that these ceremonies originated in the region of
Milbank Sound. As the legends of these societies throw a clear light
upon their practices, I will give the Nisk-a’ tradition of the origin of the
secret societies in full.

A Wutsda’ (Bellabella) named Sagaitla’ben (a Nisk-a’ name) went
hunting. He saw a bear, which he pursued. He shot it several times, but was
unable to kill it. Finally the bear reached a steep cliff which opened and
let him in. As soon as he entered he heard the voices of the Olala’
calling ‘hap,’ and he fainted. Then his soul was taken into the house.
In the rear of the house he saw a large room partitioned off. The par-
tition was hung with red cedar-bark. It was the secret room of the Olala’
(ptd'étl). To the right of the door, on entering, was a secret room for the
Méitla’, and to the left of the door one for the Lotlz’m. The chief, who
was sitting in the rear of the house, ordered a fire to be made, and spoke :
“Those here are the Méitla’ ; they did not bring you here. Those are the
Lotln’m ; they eat dogs ; they did not bring you here. But these are the
Olala’ ; they eat men ; they brought you here. You shall imitate what
they are doing.’ He had a heavy ring of red cedar-bark around his neck,
a ring of the same material on his head, and wore a bearskin. He said :
‘You must use the same ornaments when you return to your people.’ He
took a whistle out of hisown mouth and gave it to Sag-aitla’ben. He gave
him his small neck-ring of cedar-bark, which instilled into him the desire
of devouring men (therefore it is called k’dtsy rm lon, cedar-bark throat),
and he gave him large cedar-bark rings and a small bearskin, which
enabled him to fly. He told him: ‘ You shall kill men, you shall eat them,
and carry them to my house.’ Then he opened the door. The singers
sang and beat time, and Sag-aitla’ben flew away from town to town
over the whole world, crying ‘hap’ all the time. He went from the
country of the Wutsda to Skeena River and to Nass River. Sometimes
he was seen sitting on high cliffs. He killed and devoured people whom
he found in the woods.

After three years he was seen near the village of the Gyit’ama’'t.
They attempted to catch him. They killed dogs and threw them into a
hole, and a number of shamans hid under a canoe near by. Soon he was
heard to approach. He alighted on the top of a dry cedar. He lay there
on his stomach, and the point of the tree was seen to penetrate his body
and to pierce it. But it did not kill him. When he saw the dogs he flew
down, and, after having eaten, the shamans rushed up to him, caught him,
and took him up to the house. They tried to cure him, and the people

if
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 577

sang Olala’ songs, all of which have a five-part rhythm ( oF 5 . He

tried to fly again, but was unable to get out of the house. Finally he was
tamed and became a man. Then the Gyit’ama’t took him back to his
home and received in return many slaves, coppers, and canoes.

The ceremonies take place in the month Lékys em gund'gk (cold month,
or December).

The Lotln’'m dance in a two-part rhythm : their call is a sharp h, h ;
their movements sudden jerks of the forearms, first the left moving up to
the shoulder, while the right moves down, then vice versd.

The Méitla’ dance in a three-part rhythm. The last two dances
correspond to the Nontsista’latl of the Kwakiutl. When the members of
these societies are in a state of ecstasy, they throw fire around and knock
to pieces canoes, houses, and anything they can lay their hands on.

The insignia of the societies are made of cedar-bark dyed red in a
decoction of alder-bark. For each repetition of the ceremony a new ring is
added to the head ornament of the dancer. Those of the Lotln’m and
Olala’ consist therefore of rings placed one on top of the other, while the
Méitla’ receives first a red ring, the second time a white ring, and so on
alternating. His rings are twisted together.

There are only a limited number of places in the societies, and a new
member can be admitted only when he inherits the place of a deceased
member, or if a member transfers his place to him. If such a transfer is
to take place, the consent of the chiefs of the clans must first be obtained..
Then one evening the chiefs during a feast surround the youth and act as
though they had caught the spirit of the society in their hands and throw
it upon the novice. If he is to be a Lotlz’m, a noise: Adi, héi, is heard
on the roof of the house, and the youth faints. The Lotlz’m (or the:
members of the society in which he is to be initiated) are called to.
investigate why the youth fainted. They enter singing, their heads
covered with down. They place him on an elk-skin, carry him around the
fire, then they throw the youth upward and show the people that he is

lost. After some time, when the novice is expected back, the people-
_ assemble in the house, and all the members of the nobility try to bring him
back by the help of their spirits. In order to do this they dance with the.
head ornaments of their clans, their rattles, dancing blankets, aprons and
leggings, or they use the head ornament representing two bears’ ears,.
which is made of bearskin set with woman’s hair, which is dyed red ; this
ornament is used by all clans ; or they wear masks representing their
guardian spirits (nzqné'k:). As an example of these I will describe the
spirit of sleep (wég) which belongs to the Gyispawaduwe'da. The owner
of this spirit appears sleeping, his face covered with a mask, the eyes of
which are shut. Then a chief steps up and tries to awake him by hauling
the drowsiness out of him with both his hands. Then the eyes of the
mask are opened, and roll while the man who wears the mask rises. The
chief who took the drowsiness out of him asks if he shall try to put the
people to sleep, and on being asked to do so he throws his hands open.
The nzqné'k: is supposed to enter the people, and all close their eyes,
_After some time he gathers the drowsiness again, and they awake and
sing :—

| :Aiwétlréghua', aiwétlrvogha' : |
Ob! how sleepy we are. Oh! how sleepy we are,

m 1895. PP

578 REPORT—1895.

Adé gugi'tt ntl gyamk‘ atl ts’nmlagha’ ya tla gyin tqalda'utl dem wég
Whenever strikes me the heat of heaven ya! again comes (fut.) sleep
kas néheem wogq, kua!
to the husband of sleep, kua!
| : Aiwotlvoghua', aindtindgho' : |
Oh! how sleepy we are. Oh! how sleepy we are.

In this manner the spirit of sleep proves his presence and is asked to
try to bring back the novice.

One nagnd'k: after the other tries to bring him back. If the novice
does not return by midnight of the first night, ‘the ceremony is interrupted
and continued the following night. On one occasion a member of the
Lotlz’m was the last to try. He took his nzqnd’k-, a small carved human
image, held it up, and asked it to bring back the oe Then he poured
a spoonful of grease into the fire and threw the carving after it. At once
the whistles of the novice were heard on the roof. All the Lotls’m
rushed out of the house, but soon they returned, saying that they had
seen him, but lost him again. They cried, ‘eh /’ (drawn out very long).
Then all the people left the house. After the novice is lost in this manner
he is expected back on the following day. arly in the morning a killer-
whale or some other animal is seen on the river carrying the novice on
his back. He is crying md, ma, md, md! all the time, and the people go
to see him. The Lotln’m take a canoe and paddle, singing, towards the
novice. When they have almost reached him one of their number, who
stays ashore and wears a bearskin, drives all the people into the houses.
The Lotln’m take the novice into their canoe and destroy the whale float
which carries him, and which is manipulated by means of ropes. Then
he runs up and down the street like one wild, and the Olala/ follow him
and bite any of the profane who dare to leave the house. The novice
catches a dog, tears it to pieces, and eats it going from house to house.
When returning he is naked. Then they enter his house, which becomes
tabooed. A rope hung with red cedar-bark is stretched from the door of
the house to a pole erected on the beach, preventing the people from pass-
ing in front of the house and compelling them to go behind. A large ring
of cedar-bark is fastened to the pole in front of the house. These remain
on the house for a day after the return of the novice. On the following
day four men put on bearskins and place rings of red cedar-bark on
their heads. Thus attired they go from house to house inviting the
people to see the dance of the novice and to learn his songs. When the
people have assembled, the uncle of the novice throws blankets on the ground,
on which the novice dances. Then his uncle pays the chiefs who tried to
bring him back, and distributes blankets among the other people also. He
gives a feast consisting of two kinds of berries, each mixed with grease.
Chiefs are given large spoons filled with grease. Their people help them
to empty the contents, as they must not leave any of the food that they
receive. After the ceremony the novice is called tlaamgya't (a perfect
man).

The man who wants to become a member of the Olala’ must have been
a halai't (shaman) first.

The following description of the initiation of an Olala’ was given by a
man who had gone through the ceremony himself, but who is a . Christian
now. Itisa question to my mind if the ceremonies at the grave about

which he told me were actually performed, or if he reflected only the
dread in which the Olala’ were held.

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA 579

During a festival when he was to be initiated his friends pretended to
begin a quarrel. They drew knives and pretended to kill him. They let
him disappear and cut off the head of a dummy, which was skilfully intro-
duced. Then they laid the body down, covered it, and the women began
to mourn and to wail. His relatives gave a feast, distributed blankets,
slaves, canoes, and coppers, and burnt the body. In short, they held a
regular funeral.

After his disappearance he resorted to a grave. He took the body out
of the grave and wrapped a blanket about himself and the body. Thus
he lay with the corpse for a whole night. The other Olala’ watched him
from a distance. In the morning he put the body back into the grave.
He continued to do so for some time in order to acquire courage. All
this time, and for a whole year, he was not seen by any member of the
tribe except by the Olala’.

A year after his disappearance his nephew invited all the tribes to
bring him back. This was done in the same manner as described above
in the case of initiation of the Lotln’m. Finally his whistles were heard,
and he appeared on the roof of the house crying @ lalalalala! He dis-
appeared again, and in the following night after prolonged dances he was
seen on the hills dancing in a fire, which he had built in such a manner
that when he danced behind it it looked from the village as though he
was standing right in it. The following day he appeared carried by his
totem animal.

The Gyispawaduwe'da are brought back by a killer-whale, as described
above ; the Laqkyebo’ by a bear ; the Laqski’'yek appear on the back of
an eagle which rises from underground ; the K-anha‘da on the back of a
frog. Sometimes the novice appears on a point of land some distance from
the village carrying a corpse in hisarms. Then he is said to walk over
the surface of the water and to come ashore in front of the village. This
is accomplished by means of a raft which is covered with planks, and
burdened so that it floats a short distance under the surface of the water.
It is pulled by means of a rope by some of the other Olala’ while the novice
is dancing on it, so that the impression is conveyed that he has approached
on the surface of the water. When he reaches the village he eats of the
body which he is carrying, and one or other of the chiefs kills a slave
and throws the body to the Olala’, who devour it. It is said that before
eating human flesh the Olala/ always use emetics, and that afterwards
they tickle their throats with feathers to ensure vomiting.

In festivals which take place during the dancing season the Olala/
receives his share first, and nobody is allowed to eat until he has begun to
eat. Hehas his own ‘dish and spoon, which are wound round with bark.
Those who have been Olala’ formerly are his servants and bring him food.
When he hears the word /0'lzk (ghost) he gets excited and begins to bite
again. After he ceases to bite and to devour men a heavy ring of red
cedar-bark is placed around his neck, and he is led slowly round the fire.
The ceremony is called ‘making him heavy’ (sep’alyiq), and serves to
prevent his flying away and getting excited again. He must stay in his
room for a whole year after his initiation. After biting he must chew the
bark of ‘ devil’s club’ (w60 mst), which acts as a purgative.!

In olden times the appearance of the artificial totem animal, or of the
guardian spirit, which was described above, was considered a matter of

1 See also Fifth Report, p. 853.
tP2

580 REPORT—1895.

great importance, and any failure which would disclose the deception to
the uninitiated was considered a great misfortune, which was atoned only
by the death of those involved in the disclosure. One striking instance
of an event of this kind which took place among the Héiltsuk: was
reported to me. Three brothers invited all the tribes, among them the
Tsimshian, to a festival. The eldest was to return from a visit to the
bottom of the sea. When the visitors landed they had to wait on the
beach for his return. A rock was seen to emerge at some distance from
the shore. It opened and the young man stepped out and. danced,
adorned with his headdress. Then he stepped back into the rock, which
disappeared again in the waters. The rock was made of wood and
‘covered with kelp. Its movements were regulated by means of ropes
running to the woods where a number of men were hidden, who operated
them. After the rock had emerged twice the ropes became entangled, and
they were unable to make it emerge for the third time. The man who
was hidden in the rock was drowned. The family of the man who was
lost in this manner concealed their grief, and his brothers pretended that
he had stayed with the spirit residing at the bottom of the sea. They
went through the whole festival. After the guests had departed all the
“surviving members of the family tied themselves to a long rope, sang the
cradle song of their family, and precipitated themselves from a cliff into
the sea.

Shamanism.—In reply to my questions regarding the acquisition of
supernatural helpers and the powers of the shaman (halai't), ‘Chief
Mountain,’ who is nowadays a regular attendant at church, gave me the
following account of his own experience. Only a man whose father was a
shaman can become a shaman. When he himself was a youth the super-
natural beings (nzqnd’k*) were pursuing him all the time. One day a
beautiful girl appeared to him and he fainted. She taught him her song
which enabled him to make the olachen come in spring, and which is as
follows :—

Lané'tl nul hagha'gwugtt akys — atl hrigyé'wutl.
Behold where meet the waters on the beach.
Gyitwulgyigya'mk' mwulod atl kat ciky.
(People of warm place) where is heart olachen.

I.e. Behold where the tides meet at Gyitwulgyigya’mk‘ are many olachen.

She wanted to have intercourse with him. One night she took him
through a fire, and since that time he was able to handle fire with im-
punity. When she left him he saw that she had an otter tail. Her name
was Acemwa'tsq (land-otter woman).

She is a nEqnd'k of the Laqski’yek clan. When he gave a festival
he danced with the mask of this neqné'k. He was covered with otter
skins and wore claws of copper. He moved around the fire like an otter
erying ‘ whwid'. This ceremony is called the Semhalait. Later on he saw
four other supernatural beings, who had the shape of wild-looking men,
who wore bearskins and crowns made of the claws of bears. They taught
him to foresee sickness. At one time the Gyitqadé’q disbelieved his power
over fire. He asked them to build a large fire. He threw an iron hoop
into it, moistened his hands, and covered his face, hair, and hands with
eagle-down. Then he stepped barefooted over the. glowing embers, took
the redhot hoop, and carried it through the fire without burning his
hands or his feet. He added that a few years ago he repeated this

I ———E——————————— << = CC CC

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 581

experiment, but as he failed and burnt his hands and feet he gave up his
supernatural helper and became a Christian. He also added that many
who pretend to be shamans have no supernatural helpers at all. They
cannot cure or foresee disease. When he was called to cure disease the
four supernatural men appeared to him and helped him. They told him
to draw the breath of the supernatural beings out of the body of the
patient. Other shamans suck the disease out of the body. They pointed
out witches to him, and enabled him to see ghosts. A few years agoa
number of shamans were dancing in a house. When he entered he saw a
ghost dancing among them, and foretold at once the death of one of the
shamans. Indeed, after a few hours one of them died. The shaman
wears stone and bone amulets, and does not cut his hair. His appearance
is the same as that of the Tlingit shaman.

Witchcraft is practised by people called Halda'wit. They steal a
portion of a corpse, which they place in a small, long, watertight box. A
stick is placed across the middle of the box, and thin threads are tied to
this stick. The piece of corpse is placed at the bottom of the box,
and part of the clothing or hair of the person whom the Halda’wit desire
to bewitch is tied to thin strings. If it is in immediate contact with the
body the person will die soon ; if it is hung a little higher he will be sick
for a long time. If hair is put into the box he will die of headache ; if
part of a moccasin, his foot will rot; if saliva is used he will die of
consumption. - If the person is to die at once the Halddwit cuts the
string from which the object is suspended, so that it drops right on to the
corpse. This box has a cover, and is kept closely tied up. It is kept
buried under the house or in the woods. After the Halda’wit has killed
his enemy he must go around the house in which the dead one is lying,
following the course of the sun. After his enemy is buried he must lie
‘down on the grave and crawl around it, again following the course of the
sun, and attired in the skin of some animal. If they do not do this they
must die. Therefore the Nisk-a’ watch if they see anyone performing this
ceremony. Then they know that he is a Haldd’wit, and he is killed. He
is not tied and exposed on the beach at the time of low water, as is done
iby the Tlingit. When a corpse is burnt the Halda’wit tries to secure
some of the charred remains and uses them for painting his face. This is
Supposed to secure good luck. The Halda'wit sometimes assemble in the
woods, particularly when dividing a body. Then they cover their faces
‘with masks, so that a person who should happen to come near may not
know them. If anyone should happen to see them they try to catch him
and make him a Halda'wit also. If he refuses to join them he is killed.
Once a man by the name of K’amwa’skyé was caught in this manner.
He pretended to accept, and was given a mask. They made a song and
sang while he danced

Yaq:aho'dé ba'leké,

Wilwula'ns K’amm-a' shyé,
z.e. the ghosts run to the beach on account of the winds of K°’amw<a’skyé.
He emitted winds while he was dancing. He danced, hidden behind the
trees. Then he turned his mask round so that it was on his occiput, and
made good his escape. He reached his house, told what he had seen, and
the Halda'wit were killed.

The similarity between this method of witchcraft and the @’k-a of the
Kwakiutl (Sixth Report, p. 613) is striking.

As in olden times cremation was prevalent, they tried to secure

582 REPORT—1895.

bodies of persons who had died by accident before they were found by
the friends of the deceased. They sold them among the other Halda’wit.
There are, however, many tales which mention the use of bodies for
supernatural purposes as well as tree burial, such as is practised by the
southern tribes. For this reason I suppose that the custom of cremating
the body was borrowed recently from the Tlingit.

The following tale explains the ideas of the Nisk-a’ regarding the
future life.

Once upon a time the Gyispawaduwe'da killed Adinia‘ky, the chief of
the Laqkyebo.’ There was a youth living in their town who happened
to walk towards the graveyard chewing gum. There he saw a man
approaching him, who wore a robe of marten skins. When he came
nearer he saw that he was no other than the dead chief. The youth wished
to run away, but the ghost overtook him and asked him for some of the
gum he was chewing. The youth did not dare to hand it to him, and just
pushed it out of his mouth. The ghost took it and turned back. The
youth went home, and after he had told what had happened, he fell down and
lay there like one dead. He had a perforated stone for an amulet, which
. he wore suspended from his neck. It was to insure him long life. His
friends washed the body and put clean clothing upon him. Meanwhile
the ghost carried his soul away. They followed a broad trail, and came
toariver. He got tired of waiting, and yawned. Then he heard a noise
in the town. A canoe came across to fetch him. He went aboard, and
was taken to the chief’s house. He was sick, and the chief ordered him
to be laid down next to the fire, and called four shamans, who were to
heal him. They tried to take his heart out of his body, but they were
unsuccessful. They said, ‘His breast is as hard as stone.’ This was
because he wore the amulet. Finally the chief said to the shamans, ‘ Let
us give up our efforts. He is too powerful; we must send him back.’
Then he was taken back to the canoe, and sent across the river. He
returned the same way which he had come, and when he entered his house
life was restored to the body.

The conception of the world is as follows :—

The earth is carried by a man named Am/’ala’ (smoke-hole). He lies
on his back, and holds on his chest a spoon made of the horn of the
mountain goat. It is filled with grease, and in it stands a pole on which
the earth is resting. When he gets tired he lifts the pole, and the earth
shakes. The pole, with the earth on it, is turning in the bowl of the
spoon. The grease in it serves to make it turn easily. The earth is
round. Sun, moon, and stars belong to the sky, and do not turn with the
earth.

An eclipse of the sun indicates that a chief is to die. Then the whole
tribe go out of the house and sing .—

ites veatalermoasllay edpaneutte vl oN

—o—)|._—_-o-—__o —"_o—__o--@__o—
| bo |

Daq — ada daq - da daq —

The following games were described to'me :—

1. Leha’l: the guessing game, in which a bone wrapped in cedar-bark
is hidden in one hand. The player must guess in which hand the bone is
hidden.

2. Qsan : guessing game played with a number of maple sticks marked
with red or black rings, or totemic designs. Two of these sticks are

OO

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 585

trumps. It is the object of the game to guess in which of the two bundles
of sticks, which are wrapped in cedar-bark, the trump is hidden. Each
player uses one trump only.

3. Matsqa’n.—About thirty small maple sticks are divided into four or
five lots of unequal numbers. After a first glance one of the players is
blindfolded, the other changes the order of the lots, and the first player
must guess how many sticks are now in each lot. When he guesses right
in three, four, or five guesses out of ten—according to the agreement of
the players—he has won.

4, Gontl:a ball game. There are two goals, about 100 to 150 yards
apart. Each is formed by two sticks, about ten feet apart. In the
middle, between the goals, is a hole in which the ball is placed. The
players carry hooked sticks. Two of them stand at the hole, the other
players of each party, six or seven in number, a few steps behind them
towards each goal. Ata given signal both players try to strike the ball
out of the hole. Then each party tries to drive it through the goal of the
opposing party.

5. Tlét!:a ball game. Four men stand in a square : each pair, stand-
ing in opposite corners, throw the ball one to the other, striking it with
their hands. Those who continue longest have won.

6. Sménts.—A hoop is placed upright. The players throw at it with
sticks or blunt lances, and must hit inside the hoop.

7. Matlda./—A hoop, wound with cedar-bark and set with fringes, is
hurled by one man. The players stand in a row, about five feet apart,
each carrying a lance or stick. When the ring is flying past the row they
try to hit it.

8. Halha’l: spinning top, made of the top of a hemlock tree. A
cylinder, 34 in. in diameter and 3in. high, is cut; a slit is made in one side and
it is hollowed out. <A pin, 2} in. long and + in. thick, is inserted in the centre
of the top. A small board with a wide hole, through which a string of skin
or of bear-guts passes, is used for winding up the top. It is spun on the
ice of the river. The board is held in the left, and stemmed against the
foot. Then the string is pulled through the hole with the right. Several

men begin spinning at a signal. The one whose top spins the longest
wins.

V. LINGUISTICS.
T. NISK-A’.

The Nisk:a’ does not differ very much from the Tsimshian. There are certain
regular changes of sounds—which, however, are not yet sufficiently clear to me, but
some of which will become apparent by a glance at the comparative vocabulary—
slight differences in grammar and in vocabulary. For this reason I confine myself to
a very few remarks, leaving a full discussion of the collected material for a future
opportunity.

The plural of noun and verb is formed in the same manner as in Tsimshian.
Although the same words do not always follow the same rules, the classes are almost
the same. The remarks regarding adjective and verb (Fifth Report, pp. 80, 83)
hold good in Nisk:a’ also.

The system of numerals differs in so far as there is no separate class for ong
objects. :

584

REPORT—1895.

-

1 2 3 &
cS Round and Long
o Counting Flat Objects Objects, groups of Mer
forty
1 | ky’ak‘ ky’iiks ky’é’El ky’Al
2 | tEpga’t t’ppqa't ky’é’lbEl bag-adé’1
3 | gola’nt gola’nt gul’a’/1 gulan
4 | tqalpq tqalpq tqalpq tqalpqda’1
5 | k‘sténe k‘sténe k‘sténe k‘stEnsa’1
6 | k’é’elt ka’ Elt ka’ Elt k’ddzlda’1
7 | vEpqa’Elt tEpqi’ Elt tEpqa’Elt t’EpqidEdé’l
8 | k-anda’Elt yugda’Elt yugda’Elt yugdablda’l
9 | k‘stEma’c k‘sthma’c k‘stema’e k‘ctEmssa’'1
10 | ky’ap ky’ap Hpé’El Hpal
11 | ky’ap di ky’ak‘ | ky’ap diky’ak‘ Hpé’El di ky’é’El Hpal di ky’Al
12 | ky’ap du t’Epqa’t) ky’ap du t’Epqa’t| ky’é’IbEl di ky’é’El | Hpal di bag-adé’l
20 |kyé'lbEl wul gya’p| ky’iyé’tk« kyeIbEl wulgya’p |) Clast
30 | go’la wul gyap | godla wul gyap go’la wul gyap if :
5 6 7
‘4 =
a Bundles of 10
iS Canoes Fathoms Siena
1 kamii/Et ky’ilga’H gusky’ewa’
2 galbi/Eltk‘s ky’élbElga’H gyilpwa’
3 gula/altk‘s gulalaé’n —
t tqalpqk‘s tqalpqald’n =
5 k‘sténsk‘s k‘sténsEl6'n —
6 k’aEltk's k’4EldElo'n
7 t’Epqi’ Bltk‘s t’EpqaEldElé/n =
8 yugda’Eltk‘s yugda’aldel6’n —
9 k‘stema’sk‘s k‘stEmaszl0’n —
10 ky’apk‘s Hpao’ndé —
11 ky’apk‘s di k-amii/rt Hpao’ndé di ky’ii'k‘ —
12 | ky’apk‘s di g-albii eltk‘s == a
20 ky’iyé’tk‘s — “=
30 ky’iyé’tk‘s di gyapk‘s — ==
ORDINAL NUMBERS.
Animate Tnuanimate
The first Kysk-a' 6g 6t tsoqyé' elt
The second tsogyé' lp elt tsogyé' lp elt
The third tsoqula'alt
The fourth tsotqalpy
The fifth tsok‘sténs
The sixth tsok?a' elt
The seventh tsot’Epga’' elt
The eighth tsdyueda' elt
&e.

The numeral adverbs agree with the words used for counting round objects.

—— ee Te

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 585

PRONOUN.
PERSONAL PRONOUN.
I, née. me, la@’r.
thou, né’En. thee, la’ en.
he, she, it (present), net. him, her (present), /a’ét.
"5 (absent), 22’ tgyé. » 9 (absent), ésné'tqye.
we, nom. us, lé'Em.
ye, nz'cEM. ye, la'sEm.
they (present), é'det. them (present), /é'édzt.
» (absent), né'detgyé. » (absent), a’ddxtgye.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUN.

There is only one form for presence and absence, except that the latter has the
general suffix designating absence -gya. The past is formed by the perfect prefix #/-,
the future by dzm-: The house that I had, ¢2iwi'lbé; my future wife, dzmna'hysz.

my father, nequa'rdéx. our father, nzegua'edem.

thy father, negua'edren. your father, neqgua’ntsum.

his father, nzgua’ ett. their father, nrgua'rdet.
THE VERB.

INTRANSITIVE VERB.
The forms of the verb are also simpler than they are in Tsimshian.

I am sick, st'épk‘nez. we are sick, stpst'éph‘nodnm.
thou art sick, s2’épk‘nén. ye are sick, s#psi'éphk‘nésem.
he is sick, s2’éph. they are sick, st#psz’épk‘.

The perfect is formed by the temporal prefix ¢/z-, the future by dem-.

Interrogative.

am I sick? s2’épgqunéia. are we sick? stps2’épgundema.

art thou sick? st'épgenéna. are ye sick? stpst'épgunéna(?).

is he sick ? sz’épqua. are they sick? stpsz'épqua.

Negative.

I am not sick, niyi(di) st'épgué. we are not sick, ntyi(di) stipst'épqurm.
thou art not sick, m@yi(di) sz'épguén. ye are not sick, ntyi(di) sipst'éph‘sem.
he is not sick, nty?(di) st'epguét. they are not sick, ntyi(di) stpsz'éph‘tet.

TRANSITIVE VERB.

The transitive verb shows also small differences from the Tsimshian verb. I give
the forms of the verb to kill—singular dzak*‘, plural yadzi—for the imperfect, which
was not given in the description of the Tsimshian. The present tense is analogous
to that of the Tsimshian.

_ I thou he we ye | they
me _ dzak‘drEnéE dzak‘detnér — Miike eee dzak‘détnér
thee | dzak‘déné/n _— dzak‘dEtné’n | dzak‘demné'n — dzak‘détné’n
him | dzak‘dé’/E dza/k‘drn dza/k‘det dza/k‘drEm dza/k‘drsEm dzak‘dé't
us _ ya/dzinnom yadzitnom — yadzEsrEmnosm) yadzdeéetnd’Em
ve yadziné/srEm _ yadzitné/skm | yadzkmné/szkm — yadzdétné/sEm)
them | ya!dzi yadzEn(né’Ednt) | ya/dzet ya/‘dzeEm ya/dzEsEm- ya/dzdet

(né'EdEt)

The interrogative is formed by the suffix -a.

The imperative of the transitive verb is expressed by the second person of the
indicative, that of the transitive verb by the suffix -t7.

eat, wd'uegun. eat it, gyiptl.

—S 5 Ls ee SO

586

REPORT—1895.

I have obtained a considerable number of prefixes and suffixes, a list of which is

given here.

an-
agq-
agnie-
atida-
ase-

baz-
da-
dz-
dzp-
gntH-
guilt’ hys-
gun-
Gutgo-
Sutl-
gus-
gyici-
gyini-
gan-
gami-
el

gali-
gal-
hadin-
ha-
hagun-
haspa-
hagul-
his-

hi-

i-

kecr-
kerm-

kalnsi-
kani-
khexq-
qpi-

q-

qs-

-Ma

Prefixes.
abstract nouns. gp lyim-
without. qtlem-
outside. gtina-
in darkness. q-
from middle to side of qtsE-

house. laq-
uphill. ligy’é'q-
with. libelt-
to cause, leq’ Em-
down. leg’ul-
nomen actoris. le-
backward, one’s self. lo-
to cause an action. luktl-
around. losa-
about. leks-
blanket. lég:an-
down river. man-
left behind. MESEM=
state of. mMé-
for good. na- .
entirely, certainly, by noom-

necessity. pulam-
up river. Spr-
too much. SE-
along, lengthwise. sil-
instrument. sha-
near by, toward speaker. staa-
inverted. ca-
slowly. Vam-
to appear to be.
beginning of. th-al-
with reduplication, action ts'a-

done during motion. tho-
fluid. tga-
woman, tqas-
out of. ts’Em-
all over. ts’n'lem-
sideways. tekc-\
for a little while. uke- f
extreme (plural da-). ts’ En-
more, comparative. ts’Eg'Em-
in woods. nirtl-
through. mud EN-
without interruption. yag a-
only, without instrument.
partly. YEG’ ES-
accident happening. tlem-
resembling, sound of,

called.

Suffixes.
dubitative.
-an to make.

-hat

forward.

around an obstacle,

bent forward.

to eat.

across middle.

to and fro.

part of.

against.

into, from top.

for good.

on.

in.

under.

in front of.

strange.

over.

upward.

separate,

like.

to break, come to.

to desire.

to attempt.

out of water towards land.

to make something.

to accompany.

obstructive, sideways.

along.

off.

from side of house to
middle.

against.

suddenly.

around.

altogether.

long thing.

in.

into (from the side).

out of water.

left behind.

landward.

away.

away.

down to beach, out of
woods.

down.

stopping a motion.

quotative.

A comparatively full grammar of the Tsimshian has recently been published by
Count Dr. A. von der Schulenburg.

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 587

2, THE TS ETS’A’/UT,

: Unfortunately my informant Levi, the only one from whom I was able to obtain
grammatical information, was exceedingly difficult to manage, and I did not succeed
in making him understand that I desired to have Ts’Ets’4 ut sentences and accurate
translations. For this reason my material is very unsatisfactory, and does not
permit an accurate description of the structure of the language. Besides this the
Tinneh phonetics are difficult, and Levi could not be induced to speak slowly, which
circumstance made the work still more difficult. I give on the following pages a
few remarks on the grammar, Which will show what position the dialect takes among
other Tinneh dialects.

THE NOUN.

The noun has no gender. I did not find any indication of the existence of
separate forms for dual and plural, although these occur in Loucheux, Hare, and
Chippewayan. Cases do not exist.

Compound nouns are of frequent occurrence. They are formed br means of
juxtaposition. Possession is often expressed by this means,

dirt, hnutVé fa‘ (=sand-mud).
bear meat, Su tsqa. hoof of goat, abva’ aba’.
female salmon, tlzbé’ éh!o’. top of tree, ts’% tld.
NUMERALS.
1. étlie’é. 8. tqatqatlie’é.
2. tlé’id’é. 9 étlitla’Hodunéé’é, étliad’unéé’é.
3. tqaded’é. 10. tloky’ada’.
4. at’onéé’, 11. tloky’ada’ étlieé’é.
5. étl’ada’. 20. tleid’é tloky’adé’.
6. étltats’é. 30. tqadé tloky’adé’.
7. tleid’éthatle’é.

THE PRONOUN.
PERSONAL PRONOUN.

T, — sqz'né. we, daad'd.

thou, niné’. ye, daad'né.

he, ” they, ?
POSSESSIVE PRONOUN.

my, és. our, dd.

thy, né. : your, dd.

his, ma. their, ma.

Before words beginning with hk, @s becomes ze. For instance:
my house, ze kho.
THE VEBB.

: The verb is exceedingly difficult to understand, and the meagre material which I
obtained from Levi is insufficient for a clear understanding of the subject. There
are a number of classes of verbs, as will be seen by the following examples :—

to sing (Petztot, 2nd class).

I sing, ésdji’. we sing, dad'dji.
thou singest, indji’. ye sing, daadji'.
he sings, mdji’. they sing, ?

to be ashamed (Petitoé, 5th class).
I am ashamed, dca’. we are ashamed, da’dna.
thou art ashamed, dnxa’. ye are ashamed, da/ana,
he is ashamed, dxza'(ha). they areashamed, ?

to be afraid.

Lam afraid, nésdjé’. we are afraid, da'nidjé.
thou art afraid, néndjé’, ye are afraid, danadjé.

he is afraid, nédje’. they are afraid, danédjé’.

588 REPORT—1895.

to be cold.
Lam cold, sZistlu’. we two are cold, nez' itl .
thou art cold, sintlu’. we are cold, da’sitlo.
he is cold, satlo’. ye are cold, eaatia’.
they are cold, initlo’.
to speak.
I speak, ewxsda’. we speak, dagd’ida.
thou speakest, ewnda’. ye speak, daavada'.
he speaks, euada'. they speak, dagoada'.
The future is formed by the vowel @.
I skin it, déstece’. I shall skin it, dustecé’.
I eat, ¢stsqé’. I am going to eat, wstsgé
I tear it, né’stsé. I shall tear it, ni'stsé.

The interrogative is formed by the suffix -ya:
art thou cold? sindlo'ya.
has he got a wife? nts‘ayd'ya.

The negative is formed by the suffix -dxbé':
I am not sick, ésaai/debé.
I have no dog, éstlé’drbé.

There are numerous irregular verbs, particularly verbs of motion, but my notes on
this subject are very fragmentary :

to run.
I am running, dé’istl’a. we are running, tldzné'idé.
thou art running, déintl'a’. ye are running, tldind'odé.
he is running, datl’a’. they are running, ¢ldi’nadé.
to swim.
I am swimming, gyina’sbé’. we are swimming, h’a’ed.
thou art swimming, gyina’mbé. ye are swimming, gyinad.
- er a = SAENTS hana’
he is swimming, gyinabé'. they are swimmin 4 ae
89 JY y 8 gy ina'd.
I found only a few dual forms, but there no doubt that many more exist.
Tam sitting, s?sda. run up, sing. sétl’a.
we two are sitting, sikyé’. run up, dual, sé’a.
man sitting, déidz’a’. run up, plural, sé@dé.

The prefixed pronouns of the various tenses differ in the same manner as in other
dialects, but I have not been able, so far, to systematise the fragmentary material
at my disposal.

The preceding remarks show, however, that the dialect of the Ts’Ets’a’ut is more
closely affiliated to the Chippewayan and Sarcee than to the Chilcotin and Carrier
dialects. - ’

The following pages contain a comparative vocabulary of two dialects of the
Tsimshian, the Tsimshian proper and the Nisk:a’, and of three Tinneh dialects: the
Tatltan (Tahltan), Ts’Ets’a’ut, and the Tkulniyogoa'ikc. The last of these is extinct.
The tribe inhabited the Upper Willopah River, in the State of Washington, and
is, therefore, the most northern of the great number of Tinneh tribes which are
scattered along the Pacific coast. The dialect is, for this reason, particularly inter-
esting. I am indebted to Major J. W. Powell, Director of the U.S. Bureau of
Ethnology, for permission to publish the vocabulary of this tribe which was collected
by George Gibbs in February i856, and which is in the Library of the Bureau of
Ethnology in Washington, D.C. Gibbs calls the tribe erroneously O’whil-lapsh
(Quila’pc), this being the name of the Chinook tribe of the Lower Willopah River.
Their name in the Chinook language is TkulHiyogoa’ike, which agrees with Anderson’s
name Kwal-whee-o-qua: their dialect seems to be almost identical with that of the
Klatskanai. I obtained a few words on my last journey from an old Chinook
woman, which I add to Gibbs’s list. He introduces his vocabulary with the following
remarks :—

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 589

G. GIBBS, Willopah, February 1856.

From an Indian at S. G. Fords.

‘Of the Willopah tribe formerly inhabiting that river and the head waters of the
*Chihalis, there are, I believe, but two families left ; from a man belonging to them
‘I obtained the following :—

‘He called his people O’whil-lapsh, the termination of which I should, however,
‘judge to be of Chihalis origin. Their territory he called Whilip-a-hai-you. The
‘vocabulary was taken down in some haste, and, besides being incomplete, is not
‘alwaysaltogether correct. Enough, however, is given toafford evidence of its character.”

‘Mr. Anderson says : ‘“‘ The Kwal-whee-o-qua seem, from what I can learn, to have
** occupied the Willopah River and its tributaries towards the head of the Chihalis,
«and to have interlocked with the tribe who inhabited the country bordering on the
‘* Blokamin River. Their habits of life seem to have been very similar to those of the
““ Klatskanai—the chase and an interior life for part of the year—resorting to the main
*“rivers at certain periods to secure a supply of salmon.”’

The Tatltan vocabulary is reprinted from Dr. G. M. Dawson’s report on that
tribe (‘ Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada,’ 1887, p. 191, B.ff.). The
words in parenthesis in the Ts’Ets’a’ut vocabulary were obtained from Timothy, and
differed from those obtained from Levi. The latter said in explanation that
Timothy’s father had come from Laq’uyi’p (Naqkyina), and that for this reason
Timothy spoke slightly differently. The two vocabularies show clearly that Tatltan
and Ts’Ets’a’ut are closely affiliated, but that certain regular changes of sounds occur,
particularly ¢s in Tatltan becomes / in Ts’Ets’a'ut, and 7z is often replaced by ¢¢ or tr.
Other changes are not so certain, and may be based on differences in perception and
method of recording. It would seem that the TkulHiyogoa/ike resembles the
northern dialects more than those of the interior of British Columbia, but Iam not
sufficiently familiar with the latter to satisfactorily judge on this point. In both the
Tatltan and TkulHiyogoa/ike vocabularies I have retained the original spelling.

Bee ee
English | Tsimshian Nisk'a! Tatltan (Dawson) Ts'Ets'a/ut seaartes y ike
Man id/ot gyat den/-e trané’ (tri) tee-e’t-sun
Woman hana/aq hanak* e-ga-tén’ aqade’ whoo-ah-te
Bou womtlk -- | eto-né/ jnkyi/e ske-e/h .
Girl _ _— *te’-da tlaz —
Infant gyiné’es _— — dwunt’ (ddné’) —
Father nkEgua’at nkEgua’t é-te/-uh tik (my-) s-tah
Mother na’/E noq e-tli é-dl@/E, idé’, na - s’ehnah-na
Husband naks _ (my-) es-kuh-lé’-na| ts’aya/ s» skud or
s‘kuda
Wife naks — 8 es-tsi-ya -na | kadl’aé’ Pe s'aht
Son = — >» es-tshi-me ten’n au-kwa
| Daughter — —- Be es-too’/-eh tQa —
| £lder wegy — » es-tiuh Qqudé’E (my-) Sohn -a-
brother re’p
Younger tlemkté’ — » es-tshit/-le | étecé’é » Sskeh-te
brother
| Elder sister _ _ | e-ta/-ta sa —
Younger — — | (my-) es-té'juh édi E m. s'teh-tse
sister
Head tEmg‘a/us | t’Emg‘é/c 35 es-’tsI atsé’ r s‘nehn
Hair g’a/us gréc | 4 es-tsi-ga’ atséqa’ >» se'ra/ch
Face ts’al ts’al | 4 esné triine =
Forehead | wapq Opa. » es-tsé/-ga etseda/ » Ss ta/h-ke
Ear 6 muQ S es-thés/-botl | dzé/g =
Lye wul’e’l ts’al FS es-ta! ada/ (train) Ps s’nah-rhe!’
Nose dz’aq dzak = es-tshi etse/E ms s’ehts
Mouth kutl’a’q ts’Ema/k* = es-sat/-a asa! 55 s'tah
Tongue di/kla dée‘lin >» es-sa! atsu/sa By penBOH
Teeth ua/n uii/n - es-gooh’ @’Q6 i se-roh
Beard émq ié’mk* 3 es-stane’- a/Qu a stah-ra
GUH
Neck trmla‘né | t’remla’/nin » es-kos! akw6 » squus
Arm —_ t'rmk‘a/H a es-si-tluh aga’ a ska‘h-ne
Hand an’d/n an’é/n a es-sluh! a'tla pe se-la’ch
Fingers — k-atsuwé/énk's ee es-sluh’ o7 | a’tla ts’a a 2
\ : i slus-sé-guh
Thumb mas mmas slus-tsh6’ a’tla tsqa Ais
Little finger _ sk é/nint slus-tshed’-le _ ==

590

REPORT—1895.

English | Tsimshian Nisk‘a/ Tatltan (Dawson) Ts'Ets ‘aut Tkulviyogoa‘ike
(Gibbs)
Nails tlegs tlak's (my-) is-la-gun/-a a’'tla kané’, atlgo’-| (my-) s’chu’l-le
na

Body — ptlnaq +y es-hia’ é/nié =

Chest ka/yek kvetlk » es-tshan édjutrii’é (atré’ya ) —

Belly bEn ban Es es-bét ébé! ~ s’chahn

Female —_ ma/dz‘ik's ma-to’-ja ta be sehite

breast

Leg — t'rmtla’m (my-) es-tsén-a asrii/e —

Foot si sa/-i - es-kuh’ ékya’/E “5 skeh

Toes = k‘atsuwé/Enk's » es-kus-tsho’ | ékyak ts’a » skeh

Bone sa/yup = a es-tsem’ atsrb/na 5 tsu/nn

Heart k-a‘6t g°a/ot a es-tshéa’ ébvi/E af steh-ye

Blood itle’ itli/é e-ted-luh adi/la too'tl

Village kalts’a’p k-alts’a/p ke-ye’ Hidaa’ =

Chief srm’a/gyit | seEm’a/gyit tin-ti’-na ankga! ks-ke’h

Warrior _ wuldi’gyitk* e-ted’-etsha — (enemy?) wuts-
e’h-ten

Friend nésé/bansk‘| nisé’b’Ensk* es-tsin-6 = Te

House hwalp hwilp ki-mah’ kho kote

Kettle — ndzam *kotl k’u/lé cheh-he-hats-kus-
see

Bow haukta’/k* | haqda’k‘ des-an itre’ kl-toh-wa

Arrow hawa’l hawi'l *kah k’a —

Axe dahr’rrs dawi's tsi-tl dzé/ra tl’ke-rilits’tl-tse’h-
re

Knife hatlebi/ésk | hatlxbi’sk pesh be tche-ro’h (iron)

Canoe qsa mal ma-la/-te natla tse’h (generic)

Moccasins | ts’a/dqs ts’a/wik's e-tshil-e-kth’ tstk'a’/E tl-na’ts-ee-iii

Pipe aqpeya’n haqmiyii/n — k-atne’ stah-wootl

Tobacco wunda/ miyii/n ts6-a-KH ka suts-0'l-tus-see

Sky laqha’ laqha’ ya-za yad'a! hook-kwii-le’h-ne

Sun gya muk tléks tsha fa hrah-tleh

Moon gya muk tlok's — fa hrah-tleh

Star p'ia/ls pEli’st SUHM srd kah-lessie

Day sa, mesa! H zeu-€s = “as

Daylight = ~- ye-ka/ yakqa’ =

Night hd/opEl aqk* ih-klé-guh @tl’'a/E tca-a/hiite

Morning k-antla’/k* hée'tluk tshut-tshaw-tluné’ | tsétsa/6tlqu’/na ka/h-hum-ta

Evening ski/yetlak's | sé’l hih-guh’ quda/Hia teha-ahn-ta

Spring _ gua/yim | ta-né! =e ais

Summer sont sint | kli-we-guh’ tra’/né seh-nie

Autumn ksd/ot k‘sit ta-tla’ Baz =

Winter k’atl wul ma/dem | ih-ha-yéh Qi tse kwuts’e’h

Wind pisk ba/ask* | it-tsi’ ebve! tlt-se’h

Thunder kalaplé/ém | tia’etk | it-ti-i-tshi’ uné'i niii-ult-se-re/h

laqha’ |

Lightning | ts’a'mti ts’amtH kun-ta-tsél uné da! =

Rain hwas haiwi’s | tsha tsak nar-reh-i/ih

Snow ma/drm ma/dkm zus Q6 yuchs

Fire lak‘ lak‘ kon kwo kwunn

Water aks akys tsoo tQo toh, tsnah-neh

Ice dau da/u ten" tqa kwullo’h

Earth dsa/atseks | ts’ii/ts’iks nén nek ne-2'h

Sea laq man laqsé'ldé é-étla tQ6 tsqd to-a/hr-ra

River g’ala aks g’aliakys too-désa, tQd/ ga toh

Lake — taq meén mar chus-ka‘h-ne

Valley tikut’é/en | ts’Emt’e ta-gds/-ke magagaqo’ tseh

Prairie — laq’ama’k‘s *klo’-ga diaditl’amé’ tseh

Mountain sqané/ist sk'ani’st his-tsho tsr/nén sus-kut

sland lEKsd'a/ likysd’a ta-é-too-e = =

Stone, rock | lap la/Op tsé tsha sta’/h-witl

Salt man m0o/on &-étla = ==

Tron t'd/otsk t’dtsk* pes-te-zin’ — tehe-ro’h

Forest — spitk-ang‘a’/n got-é — 3

Tree kan gran tli-gé-gut’ ts’6 s’chinn

Wood — lak‘ tset-tsh-tsélsh pfo tkinn

Leaf ia‘nks ia/ns e-tane! a/trak kutt

Bark gyimst mii/bs; gyi/m’- || ed-la atlat’d’u s'kaih

(shredded)| Est (shredded)

Grass kgya/qt hap’E’sk‘ kloah a’trak kluhw

Pine — amsgyini’st ga-za tsrwiinii’ s’chunn

Flesh, meat | ca’'mic smaH e-tsét’ atsqa’ che-chunn

Dog has os ki tle klehl

Bear él él shush fo til-e-zun

Wolf kyebd’ kyibd’ tshi-y6-ne éqa’ ne-nah-ta-lie

Fox — nag‘atsé’ nus-tsé/he — —

Deer wan wan kiw-igana qa’ra yun-a/hl-yil

Beaver sts’al ts’Emé/lin tsha tsak (white - tailed

deer)
no -ne-yeeh

| English

Rabbit
Fly
Mosquito
Snake
Bird

Egg

Feathers

Wings

Goose

Duck (Mal-
lard)

Fish

Salmon

Name
White
Black
Red
Blue
Yellow

Green
Great, large
Small, little
Strong

Old

Young
Good
Bad
Dead
Alive

Cold

To-day
Yesterday
To-morrow

Yes

No
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Bight
Nine
Ten

Twenty

To eat
To drink

Torun

* Snow colour.

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES CF CANADA.

o91

Tsimshian

gyi/ek
matqala/ltq
ts’0/wots

li
k’'ak'a/i
ha/aq
mé’/Ek

luwr'lem
ts’Em aks
han

wa

maks
t’d/otsk
meEsk
kuskua/sk
metlée/itk

metléitk
wi
tlgua

wud'a'gyat

copac
am.
hada’q
ts’ak
dd’Els

kua’tk6
gya/muk
nE'rid
ne/rEn
né/EdEt
nE/rEm
nk/rreEm
né/EdEt
tqani
ha/ldg
go
a’a
ya’gua
scigya’wun
gyets’é'ip
tsegyets’é/-
ip
6

atlgE

Nisk‘a’ Tatltan (Dawson) Ts'Ets'a/ut

— guh k'aq

— tsi-méh tlatlra’
bia/sk tsi dzusdza!
lazlt — _
ts’dts tsi-méh —
tlgyima’t é-ga-zuh! —
laq | tshdsh a/qa
kak"a/H | mi-i-tsene ma’t’a
hak gan-jeh dawa/k’
nEqna/q too’-deh nEsna’q 7
luwr/lEm ts’Em-|| klew/-eh =

akyc

han | klew/-eh tlemii’
wa ' on-yeh —
ma/uks * | ta-"kad’-le dak" ali’
t’ tsk‘? ten-es-kla’-je dr‘nestl’Ena

itla/etk* *

qsgusgua/dk‘s *

qslétEg’’al-
ma’sk‘®

mEtla/tk ®

wi

tlgua

daqgyat

wud’aqgyat

qa’ema’s

nr/ckEm
né/dEt
tgon
tgost
tqané’tk‘st
held

ky’a/6ts
tatlak‘

nét

ne

See grammatical notes

ya'wiq
aks

baq

? Tron colour.
* Gall colour.

yo'dqk*
akys

baq

te-tsi-je
te-tlesh’-te

| tsim-tlet

* Blood colour.
7 Loaned from Nisk’a’.

tsim-tlet
e-tsho
ta-a-tsed’-le
na-t6-yi
es-tshan

es-ki-uh
e-ti/-uh
tsha’-ta
a-juh’
te-tshi’

hés-tli’
hos-sitl
shi-ni
nin-e

| a-yl-ge

ta-hun’-e
kla/-tse
ti-te
a-yi-ge
sé-tse
oo0-tla™
ma-dai-e
ni-sa-te
hah/-ne
tis-tsik
too’-ga
kit-so’/-kuh
tsha-tsha’

| 6h

ti-wuh

| tli-geh’

tla-kéh
ta-te’
klen-teh’
klo-dlae’
na-sliké!
na-sla-kéh’
na-stae’
na-sten-teh’
tso-sna/-ne

ten-tla-dih-teh’

etz-et-etz’
etz-oo-tan-en-e

kis-too-tshé-ane

dusdr/la
dEstsqa/wé

drstsqa’/wé
ntsqa’
utsa’E
ade’/ntsqa
sa/na*

drguanaHii’
a'tawa
tsa’‘at’é
tuza/ts’a

Qusg”a’s
Quskd/n
tsqine!
nené!
taqo’/n
taqona/

daq6'6(?)
its’a/ada
maz
itiya
wuHi/ya
aHi'ya (?)

ado’
idzagia
tsatsa’

aE

drbé’ (dd/we)
etliee’

tlé/id’é
tqadéda’é’
at’onée’
étl’aida’
étltats’é’
tléid’éthatle/é
tqatqatle’é
étliad’unée’ée
tloky’ada/

tleid’e tloky’ade!

* Blue jay colour.

tsqa!

tQo Hiné’saé
(thou-)

tl’'a

Tkulniyogoa‘ike
(Gibbs)

ke-ru/ss

na‘ht-ke (a winged
thing !)

che-reli-zie

ch/ohts-kwu

ceh-na‘ht-keh

haat-hat (=Nsk-
wali)

(spring salmon)
see-loh-kwa
tcho-se’h
kl-kwe’e-yeh
kluz-zun-ne
kl-che/h-ke
kluz-zun-ne

teh-zu'm-me

tsunn
worn)
ahr-re-yie (new)
ne-zo’-a-nie
n’tsun-ne
re‘h-to-eh
tah-ke-re/h-to-eh
(not dead)
kose-kwut-sie
k1-ko/-ne
shik
nuk

(bad or

nai/-yook
hon-ne’k

che-ka/nn
che-tu’k
a-wa’ht-hlo
klah-ne!’

tsai-in
ne-za’/ht-so-neh
che-kehn-tis-tie
tehut-seh-nie
kun-tahn
k1-ka‘hn-te

Kli-ne’h-ko (? cer-
tainly)

lak-ke

kle-e’h

na/ht-keh

tah-keh

tun-cheh

la-aht-la

ks-la/h-neh

che-te/h-heh

che’h-na-wah

kws’ta/h-heh

kwin-eh-she-a ;
Klutch-ehl-teho,

nahtklitch-e’hl-
tcho

tsah-ne

ts’nah-ne

tehl-chul

* Colour of inside of crab.

® Loaned from Tlingit.

592 REPORT—1895.
|
English | Tsimshian Nisk-a! Tatltan (Dawson) Ts’Ets'a/ut Teas
To dance hala’it hala’it | en-dlé’ — ne’h-tci’s-to
To sing li’emi limi | en-tshin ajé stah-wheh-lum
To sleep qstéq wok | nes-tétl’ s—tHé ‘ n’teh-la-to
To speak a‘lgyaq a‘lgyiq | hun-teéh Qundé’ yah’tl-st-keh
To see né gyé | Nat-sI édé'n’é nih-ta-res-to
To love seba'n — na-c3-tlook’ dinne’ —
To kill ds’ak dzak‘* tsin-hia’ dénEHé’ya noo-ne’k-la-rah
To sit da ava |) sta-tuh/ sinda/ ne’ht-sa-to
To stand ha/yitk hétk* nun-zit! nénsqgé! ne’k-luk-sto
To leave da/wult k‘stak’s un-tlh’ (0 go) niqendd’sa (in | teh-a’s-to (to go)
| canoe)
To come ka’RdEks a/drkysk‘ ' a-néh’ aquné’ neh-as-to
To walk — -- | yes-sha/-dle -- nah-ya
To work _— _— | ho-ya-estluh’ — =
To steal _— lé'‘luks en-a-1 ana/é =
To lie down) nag gyétl — nostée! =
To give gyrna/m gyina’m ] me-ga-ni-ah’ na =
To laugh sis’a’qs his’a/ys || na-is-tlook’ gyéintqd! —
To cry wiha ut wuyi'tk* | eh-tshih eta! =

Additional Words in Gibbs’s Vocabulary of the Thuluiyogoa'ike.

my son, au-kwa.

lad, sk-e'h; as when an Indian chief
talks of his young men, i.e. his un-
married followers, he terms them
See-sk-e’h, my boys or lads.

Indians, people, kwun-'a-runt.

“my eyebrow, sne'hts-eh-le.

my thigh, so-ru'rs.

calf of my leg, sku't-ta.

cedar, k\-sklo-ne-ye.

oak, tsoo-we'h.

fat, che-kuch.

buffalo, moos-e-moos-he (Chinook).

prairie rolf, sul-i-kul (sin-e-kul Chehalis).

blach-tailed deer, woon-ins-kunnie.

male elk, t’chest-hu.

Female elk, tseh-a-ka-you.

tortoise, wit-la-hoh (it-lah-wa, Chinook).

pigeon, hum-ehm (hum-o'h, Visqualli)

ninter salmon, see-ahie.

sturgeon, wuz-e-te'h-nie,

land otter, che-leh-zie.

cougar, wutche-nai-kul.

mild cat, wun-el-kiits-le.

raccoon, kwa'hlas.

fawn, till-kah.

calf of elk, chaht-la-zoo-lie.
tamanous of medicine, tee-e'nn.
tamanous of feasts, tseh-kwa'ss.

small haiqua, ret-

eh-sie.

large haiqua, te-ko-et-sie.

plank, klush-ts.
basket, hah-tsa.

gun, shwool-wool-tch-re.
Chinook canoe, kl’whee’-at.

year, tl-ne'h-ta
handsome (good),

n’zo’-an.

ugly (bad), nt-sunn.

eleven, kwin-eh-she-a choot-tle-e’h.
twelve, kwin-eh-she-a choot-na’ht-keh,
thirty, tal klitch-e’hl-tcho.

hundred,
choot.
hungry, tche'h-a.

one

kwan-ne-san-ne-tchehl-

thirsty, za-re'hl-tcha.

G— d—n you, cheh-sl-ka'hne.

thank you, che-nal-yah.

thank you very much, see-ni-chal-yaly

Words of the Tkulniyogod'ike obtained from ‘ Catherine,’ 1894.

mater, to (Gibbs: toh).

shy, ya.

salmon, ka'm0’s.

bear, tH/lsEné (Gibbs: til-e-zun).
dog, na'ttaii (Gibbs: klehl).

old woman, stsia’né,
pole for poling canoe, tck-u'lk'ule.
come! né/asto (Gibbs: neh-as-to).

give me! sqa'do.

give me water to drink ! qatc’é'tltcd to.

{

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section AA—-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor W. M. Hicks, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Tuer President delivered the following Address :—

. In making a choice of subject for my address the difficulty is not one of finding
- material but of making selection. The field covered by this Section is a wide one.
Investigation is active in every part of it, and is being rewarded with a continuous
stream of new discoveries and with the growth of that co-ordination and correla-
tion of facts which is the surest sign of real advancement in science. The ultimate
aim of pure science is to be able to explain the most complicated phenomena of
nature as flowing by the fewest possible laws from the simplest fundamental data.
A statement of a law is either a confession of ignorance or a mnemonic conyeni-
ence. It is the latter if it is deducible by logical reasoning from other laws, It
is the former when it is only discovered as a fact to be a law. While, on the one
hand, the end of scientific investigation is the discovery of laws, on the other,
science will have reached its highest goal when it shall have reduced ultimate
laws to one or two, the necessity of which lies outside the sphere of our cognition.
These ultimate laws—in the domain of physical science at lJeast—will be the
_ dynamical laws of the relations of matter to number, space, and time. The ulti-
mate data will be number, matter, space, and time themselves. When these
relations shall be known, all physical phenomena will be a branch of pure mathema~
tics. We shall have done away with the necessity of the conception of potential
energy, even if it may still be convenient to retain it; and—if it should be found
that all phenomena are manifestations of motion of one single continuous medium
—the idea of force will be banished also, and the study of dynamics replaced by
the study of the equation of continuity.

Before, however, this can be attained, we must have the working drawings of
the details of the mechanism we have to deal with. These details lie outside the
scope of our bodily senses; we cannot see, or feel, or hear them, and this, not
because they are unseeable, but because our senses are too coarse-grained to trans-
mit impressions of them to our mind. The ordinary methods of investigation here
fail us; we must proceed by a special method, and make a bridge of communica-
tion between the mechanism and our senses by means of hypotheses. By our
imagination, experience, intuition we form theories; we deduce the conse-
quences of these theories on phenomena which come within the range of
our senses, and reject or modify and try again. It is a slow and laborious pro-
cess. The wreckage of rejected theories is appalling; but a knowledge of
what actually goes on behind what we can see or feel is surely if slowly being

QQ2

596 REPORT—1895.

attained. It is the rejected theories which have been the necessary steps
towards formulating others nearer the truth. It would be an extremely interest-
ing study to consider the history of these discarded theories; to show the part
they have taken in the evolution of truer conceptions, and to trace the persistence
and modification of typical ideas from one stratum of theories to a later. I pro-
pose, however, to ask your attention for a short time to one of these special
theories—or rather to two related theories—on the constitution of matter and of
the ether. They are known as the vortex atom theory of matter, and the vortex
sponge theory of the ether. The former has been before the scientific world for
a quarter of a century, since its first suggestion by Lord Kelvin in 1867, the second
for about half that time. In what I have to say I wish to take the position not of
an advocate for or against, but simply as a prospector attempting to estimate what
return is likely to be obtained by laying down plant to develop an unknown dis-
trict. This is in fact the state of these two theories at present. Extremely little
progress has been made in their mathematical development, and until this has been
done more completely we cannot test them as to their powers of adequately ex-
plaining physical phenomena.

The theory of the rigid atom has been a very fruitful one, especially in ex-
plaining the properties of matter in the gaseous state; but it gives no explanation
of the apparent forces which hold atoms together, and in many other respects it
requires supplementing. The elastic solid ether explained much, but there are
difficulties connected with it—especially in connection with reflection and refraction
—which decide against it. The mathematical rotational ether of MacCullagh is
admirably adapted to meet these difficulties, but he could give no physical concep-
tion of its mechanism. Maxwell and Faraday proposed a special ether for
electrical and magnetic actions. Maxwell’s identification of the latter with the
luminiferous ether, his deduction of the velocity of propagation of light and of
indices of refraction in terms of known electrical and magnetic constants, will
form one of the landmarks in the history of science. This ether requires the same
mathematical treatment as that of MacCullagh. Lord Kelvin’s gyrostatic model
of an ether is also of the MacCullagh type. Lastly, we have Lord Kelvin’s labile
ether, which again avoids the objections to the elastic solid ether. In MacCuilagh’s
type of ether the energy of the medium when disturbed depends only on the twists
produced in it. This ether has recently been mathematically discussed by Dr.
Larmor, who has shown that it is adequate to explain all the various phenomena
of lirht, electricity, and magnetism. To this I hope to return later. Meanwhile,
it may be borne in mind that the vortex sponge ether belongs to MacCullagh’s
type.

Already before a forma] theory of a fluid ether had been attempted, Lord
Kelvin! had proposed his theory of vortex atoms. The permanence of a vortex
filament with its infinite flexibility, its fundamental simplicity with its potential
capacity for complexity, struck the scientific imagination as the thing which was
wanted. Unfortunately the mathematical difficulties connected with the discus-
sion of these motions, especially the reactions of one on another, have retarded the
full development of the theory, Two objections in chief have been raised against
it, viz. the difficulty of accounting for the densities of various kinds of matter, and
the fact that in a vortex ring the velocity of translation decreases as the energy
increases. There are two ways of dealing with a difficulty occurring in a general
theory—one is to give up the theory, the other is to try to see if it can be modi-
fied to get over the difficulty. Such difficulties are to be welcomed as means of
help in arriving at greater exactness in details. It is a mistake to submit too
readily to crucial experiments. The very valid crucial objection of Stokes to
MacCullagh’s ether is a case in point. It drew away attention from a theory
which, in the light of later developments, gives great hope of leading us to correct
ideas. As Larmor has pointed out, this objection vanishes when we have intrinsic
rotations in the ether itself. A special danger to guard against is the importation
into one theory of ideas which have grown out of one essentially different. This

1 Vortex Atoms,’ Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vi. 94; Phil. Mag. (4), 34.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 597

remark has reference to the apparent difficulty of decrease of velocity with in-
creased energy.

Maxwell was, I believe, the first to point out the difficulty of explaining the
masses of the elements on the vortex aggm hypothesis. To me it has always ap-
peared one of the greatest stumbling-blocls to the acceptance of the theory. We
have always been accustomed to regard the ether as of extreme tenuity, as of a
density extremely though not infinitely smaller than that of gross matter, and we
carry in our minds that Lord Kelvin has given an inferior limit of about 10-.
There are two directions in which to seek a solution. The first is to cut the knot
by supposing that the atoms of gross matter are composed of filaments whose
rotating cores are of much greater density than the ether itself. The second is to
remember that Lord Kelvin’s number was obtained on the supposition of elastic
solid ether, and does not necessarily apply to the vortex sponge. Unfortunately,
however, for the first explanation, the mathematical discussion 1 shows that a ring
cannot be stable unless the density of the fluid outside the core is equal to, or
greater than, that inside. This instability also cannot be cured by supposing an
additional circulation added outside the core. Unless, therefore, some modification
of the theory can be made to secure stability, this idea of dense fluid cores must be

iven up.

a i therefore, forced back to the conclusion that the density of the ether
must be comparable witk that of ordinary matter. The effective mass of any atom
is not composed of that of its core alone, but also of that portion of the surround-
ing ether which is carried along with it as it moves through the medium, Thus a
rigid sphere moving in a liquid behaves as if its mass were increased by half that
of the displaced liquid. In the case of a vortex filament the ratio of effective to
actual mass may be much larger. In this explanation the density of the matter
composing an atom is the same for all, whilst their masses depend on their volumes
and configurations combined. Now the configuration alters with the energy, and
this would make the mass depend to some extent at least on the temperature.
However repugnant this may be to current ideas, we are not entitled to deny its
possibility, although such an effect must be small or it would have been detected.
Such a variation, if it exists, is not to be looked for by means of the ordinary gravi-
tation balance, but by the inertia or ballistic balance. The mass of the core itself
remains, of course, constant, but the effective mass—that which we can measure
by the mechanical effects which the moving vortex produces—is a much more
complicated matter, and requires much fuller consideration than has been given
to it.

The conditions of stability allow us to assume vacuous cores or cores of less
density than the rest of the medium, If we do this then the density of the ether
itself may be greater than that of gross matter. Until, however, we meet with
phenomena whose explanation requires this assumption, it would seem preferable
to take the density everywhere the same. In this case the density of the ether
must be rather less than the apparent density of the lightest of any of the elements,
taking the apparent density to mean the effective mass of a vortex atom per its
volume. This will probably be commensurable with the density of the matter in
its most compressed state, and will lie between ‘5 and 1—comparable, that is to
say, with the density of water. Larmor,’ from a special form of hypothesis for a
magnetic field in the rotationally elastic ether, is led to assign a density of the
same order of magnitude. If the density be given it is easy to calculate the
intrinsic energy per c.c. in the medium, ‘The velocity of propagation of light in a
vortex sponge ether, as deduced by Lord Kelvin,’ is 47 times the mean square

1 An error in the expression on p. 768 of ‘ Researches in the Theory of Vortex
Rings,’ Phil. Trans., pt. ii. 1885, vitiates the conclusion there drawn. If this be
corrected the result mentioned above follows. See also Basset, Treatise on Hydro-
dynamics, § 338, and Amer. Jour. Math.

2 ¢4 Dynamical Theory of the Electric and Luminiferous Medium,’ Phil. Trans.,
1894, A. p. 779.

* ‘On the Propagation of Laminar Motion through a Turbulently Moving Inviscid
Liquid,’ Phil. Mag., October 1887.

598 REPORT—1895.

velocity of the intrinsic motion of the medium. This gives for the mean square
velocity 6:3 x 10!° cm. per second. If we follow Lord Kelvin and use for com-
parison the energy of radiation per c.c. near the sun, or say 1‘8 erg per c.c., the
resulting density will be 10-*!. The energy per c.c.in a magnetic field of
15,000 ¢.g.s. units is about 1 joule. If we take this for comparison we get a
density of 10-"*. But the intrinsic energy of the fluid must be extremely great
compared with the energy it has to transmit. If it were a million times greater
the density would still only amount to 10-*—comparable with the density of the
residual gas in our highest vacua, To account for the density of gross matter on
the supposition that it is built up out of the same material as the ether leads to a
density between ‘5 and1. This gives the enormous energy of 10" joules per c.c. In
other words, the energy contained in one cubic centimetre of the ether is sufficient
to raise a kilometre cube of lead 1 metre high against its weight. Thus the diffi-
culty in explaining the mass of ordinary matter seems to reduce itself to a difficulty
in believing that the ether possesses such an enormous store of energy. It may be
that there are special reasons against such a large density. Larmor refers to the
large forcives which would be called into play by hydrodynamical motions. Per-
haps an answer to this may be found in the remark that where all the matter is of
the same density the motions are kinematically deducible from the configuration
at the instant, and are independent of the density. It is only where other causes
act, such, e.g., as indirectly depend on the mean pressure of the fluid or where
vacuous spaces occur, that the actual value of the density may modify the measur-
able forcives.

Ever since Professor J. J. Thomson proved that a vortex atom theory of matter
is competent to serve as a basis of a kinetic theory of gases, it has been urged by
various persons as a fatal objection that the translation velocity of the atoms falls
off as the temperature rises. I must confess this objection has never appealed to
me. Why should not the velocity fall off? The velocity of gaseous molecules has
never been directly observed, nor has it been experimentally proved that it in-
creases with rise of temperature. We have no right to import ideas based on the
kinetic theory of hard discrete atoms into the totally distinct theory of mobile
atoms in continuity with the medium surrounding them. Doubtless the molecules
of a gas effuse through a small orifice more quickly as the temperature rises, but it
is natural to suppose that a vortex ring would do the same as its energy increases.
To make the objection valid, it is necessary to show that a vortex ring passing
through a small tube, comparable with its own diameter, would pass through more
slowly the greater its energy. It is not, however, necessarily the case that in every
vortex aggregate the velocity decreases as the energy increases. The mathematical
treatment of thin vortex filaments is comparatively easy, and little attention has
been paid to other cases. Let us attempt to trace the life history as to translation
velocity and energy of a vortex ring. We start with the energy large; the ring
now has a very large aperture, and has a very thin filament. As the energy de-
creases the aperture becomes smaller, the filament thicker, and the velocity of
translation greater. We can trace quantitatively the whole of this part of its
history until the thickness of the ring has increased to about four times the diameter
of the aperture, or perhaps a little further. Then the mathematical treatment em-
ployed fails us or becomes very laborious to apply. Till eighteen months ago, this
was the only portion of its history we could trace. Then Professor M. J. M. Hill?
published his beautiful discovery of the existence of a spherical vortex. This con-
sists of a spherical mass of fluid in vortical motion and moving bodily through the
surrounding fluid, precisely as if it were a rigid sphere. This enables us to catch a
momentary glimpse as it were of our vortex ring some little time after it has passed
out of our ken. The aperture has gone on contracting, the ring thickening, and
altering the shape of its cross section in a manner whose exact details have not yet
been calculated. At last we just catch sight of it again as the aperture closes up.
We find the ring has changed into a spherical ball, with still further diminished
energy and increased velocity. We then lose sight of it again, but it now lengthens

1 ©On a Spherical Vortex,’ Phil. Trans., 1894.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 599

out, and towards the end of its course approximates to the form of a rod moving

arallel to its length through the fluid with energy and velocity which again can
‘be approximately determined. In this part of its life the velocity of translation
decreases with decrease of energy. I believe it will be found, when the theory is
completely worked out, that the spherical atom is the stage where this reversal of
property takes place.

Even in the ring state, however, the change of velocity with energy is very
small; much smaller, I think, than is generally recognised. When the energy
is Increased to twenty times that of the spherical vortex, the velocity is only
diminished to two-thirds its previous value. If at ordinary temperatures, say 27° C.,
the vortex was in the spherical shape, then at 3,000° C. its velocity of translation
would only have been reduced to four-fifths its value at the lower temperature,
whilst the aperture of the ring would have a radius about 1°4 time that of the
sphere. At 2,000° C. the velocity would not differ by much more than one-
twentieth from its original value. In fact, near the spherical state the alteration
in velocity of translation is very slow. It is therefore possible, that if the atoms
of matter be vortex aggregates, the state in which we can experimentally test our
theory is just that in which the mathematical discussion fails us. Other modifica-
tions tend to diminish this change of velocity. I will refer here to three only. The
first is that of hollow vortices. We must not, however, postulate vacuous atoms
without any rotational core at all; for in this case we should probably lose the
essential property of permanence. The question has-not been fully investigated,
but there can be little doubt but that by diminishing the energy of a completely
hollow vortex we can cause it todisappear. We can certainly create one in a per-
fect fluid. Secondly, J. J. Thomson has shown that if a molecule be composed of
linked filaments, the energy increases as the components move further apart. In
such a case an extra supply of energy goes to expanding the molecule, and less, if
any, to increasing the aperture. Lastly, a modification of the atomic motion to
which I shall refer later, and which seems called for to explain the magnetic rota-
tion of the plane of polarisation of light, will also tend to lessen the change of size,
and therefore change of velocity with change of energy, even if it does not reverse
the property.

If we pass on to consider how a vortex atom theory lends itself to the explana-
tion of physical and chemical properties of matter independently of what may be
called ether relations, we find that we owe almost all our knowledge on this point
to the work of Professor J. J. Thomson,! which obtained the Adams’ Prize in
1882. This, however, is confined to the treatment of thin vortex rings, still leaving
a wide field for future investigation in connection with thick rings and with vortex
aggregates which produce no cyclosis in the surrounding medium. His work is an
extremely suggestive one. He shows that such a theory is capable not only of
explaining the gaseous laws of a so-called perfect gas, but possibly also the slight
deviations therefrom. Quite as striking is his explanation of chemical combina-
tion—an explanation which flows quite naturally from the theory. A vortex fila-
ment can be linked on itself: two or more can be linked together, like helices
drawn on an anchor ring; or, lastly, several can be arranged together like parallel
rings successively threading one another. In the latter case, for such an arrange-
ment to be permanent, the strengths of each ring must be the same, and further,
not more than six can thus be combined together. The linked vortices will be in
permanent combination on account of their linkedness ; the other arrangement may
be permanent if subject to no external actions. If, however, they are disturbed by
the presence of other vortices they may break up. When atoms are thus combined
to form a compound, a certain number of molecules will always be dissociated ;
the compound will be permanent when the ratio of the average paired time to the
unpaired time of any atom is large. Thomson considers every filament to be of the
same strength. Then an atom consisting of two links will behave like a ring of
twice the strength, one of three links, of three times the strength, and soon. On
this theory chemical compounds are to be regarded as systems of rings, not linked

1 «A Treatise on the Motion of Vortex Rings.’ Macmillan, 1883.

600 REPORT—1895.

into one another but close together, and all engaged in the operation of threading
each other. The conditions for permanence are: (1st) the strength of each ring must
be the same, (2nd) the number must be less than 6. Now apply this. Hand Cl have
equal linkings, therefore equal strength. Consequently we can have molecules of
HCl, or any combinations up to 6 atoms per molecule, although the simpler one is
the most likely. O has twice the linking, therefore the strength double. Hence one
of H and one of O cannot revolve in permanent connection. We require first to
arrange two of H together to form one system. This system has the same strength as
O, they can therefore revolve in permanent connection, and we get the water mole-
cule. Or we may take two of the O atoms and one of the double H molecule, and
they can form a triple system of three rings threading one another in permanent
connection, and we get the molecule H,O,. This short example will be sufficient
to indicate how the theory gives a complete account of valency.

The energy of rings thus combined is less than when free; consequently they
are stable, and the act of combination sets free energy. Further, Thomson points
out that for two rings to combine their sizes must be about the same when they
come into proximity ; consequently combination can only occur between two limits
of temperature corresponding to the energies within which the radii of both kinds
of rings are near an equality.

We can easily extend Thomson’s reasoning to explain the combination of two
elements by the presence of a third neutral substance. Call the two elements
which are to combine A and B, and the neutral substance C. The radii of A and
Bare to be supposed too unequal to allow them to come close enough together to
combine. If now at the given temperature the C atom has a radius intermediate
to those of A and B, it is more nearly equal to each than they are to one another ;
C picks up one of A, and after a short time drops it; A will leave C with its
radius brought up (say) to closer equality with it. The same thing happens with
the B atoms, and they leave C with their radii brought down to closer equality
with it. The result is that A and Bare brought into closer equality with one
another, and if this is of sufficient amount, they can combine and do so, while C
remains as before and apparently inert.

Thomson’s theory of chemical combination applies only to thin rings. Some-
thing analogous may hold also for thick rings, but it is clearly inapplicable to
vortex aggregates similar to that of Hill’s. We are not confined, however, to this -
particular kind of association of vortex atoms ina molecule. For instance, [ have
recently found! that one of Hill’s vortices can swallow up another and retain it
inside in relative equilibrium. The matter requires fuller discussion, but it seems
to open up another mode of chemical combination.

A most important matter which has not yet been discussed at all is the relation
between the mean energy of the vortex cores, and the energy of the medium itself
when the atoms are close enough to affect each other’s motions (as ina gas), The
fundamental ideas are quite different from those underlying the well-known
kinetic theory of gases of hard atoms. Nevertheless, many of the results must be
very similar, based as both are on dynamical ideas. Whether it will avoid certam
difficulties of the latter, especially those connected with the ratio of the specifi¢
heats, remains to be seen. The first desideratum is the determination of the
equilibrium of energy between vortices and medium, and before this is done it is
useless to speculate further in this region.

A vortex atom theory of matter carries with it the necessity of a fluid ether.
If such a fluid is to transmit transversal radiations, some kind of quasi-elasticity
must be produced init. This can be done by supposing it to possess energetic
rotational motions whose mean velocity is zero, within a volume whose linear
dimension is small compared with the wave length of light, but whose velocity of
mean square is considerable. That an ether thus constituted is capable of trans-
mitting transverse vibrations I showed before this Section at the Aberdeen meeting
of the Association,” by considering a medium composed of closely packed discrete

1 Not yet published.
2 «On the Constitution of the Luminiferous Ether on the Vortex Atom Theory,”
Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1885, p. 930.

it

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 601

small yortex rings. Lord Kelvin' at the Manchester meeting discussed the
question much more thoroughly and satisfactorily, and deduced that the velocity
of propagation was ,/2/3 times the velocity of mean square of the turbulent
motion. We can make little further progress until we know something of the
arrangement of the small motions which confer the quasi-rigidity. This may be
completely irregular and unsteady, or arranged in some definite order of steady
motions. I am inclined to the view that the latter is nearer the truth. In this
case we should expect a regular structure of small cells in which the motions are
allsimilar. By the word cell I do not mean a small vessel bounded by walls, but a
portion of the fluid in which the motion is a complete system in itself. Such a
theory might be called a cell theory of the ether. The simplest type perhaps is to
suppose the medium spaced into rectangular boxes, in each of which the motion
may be specified as follows. Holding the box with one set of faces horizontal
the fluid streams up in the centre of the box, then turns round, flows down the
sides and up the centre again. In fact it behaves like a Hill’s vortex squeezed
from a spherical into a box form. Each box has thus rotational circulation
complete in itself. The six adjoining compartments have their motion the same in
kind but in the reverse direction, and so on. In this way we get continuous and
energetic small motions throughout the medium, and the state isa stable one. If
there is a shear, so that each cell becomes slightly rhomboidal, the rotational
motions inside tend to prevent it, and thus propagate the disturbance, but the cells
produce no effect on the general irrotational motion of the fluid, at least when the
irrotational velocities are small compared with those of the propagation of light.
In this case the rate at which the cells adjust themselves to an equilibrium position
is far quicker than the rate at which this equilibrium distribution is disturbed by
the gross motions. The linear dimensions of the cells must be small compared
with the wave lengths of light. They must probably be small also compared with
the atoms of gross matter, which are themselves small compared with the same
standard.

We may regard each cell as a dynamical system by itself, into which we pour
or take away energy. This added energy will depend only on the shape into
which the box is deformed. We may then, for our convenience in considering the
gross motions of the medium as a whole, z.e. our secondary medium, regard these
as interlocked systems, neglect the direct consideration of the motions inside them,
but regard the energy which they absorb as a potential function for the general
motion. This potential function will contain terms of two kinds, one involving the
shear of the cells, and this shear will be the same as that of the rotational deforma-
tion in the secondary medium. The second will depend on alterations in the ratios
of the edges of the cells.? The former will give rise to waves of transversal displace-
ments. ‘The second cannot be transmitted as waves, but may produce local effects.
If a continuous solid be placed in such a medium, the cells will rearrange
themselves so as to keep the continuity of their motions, The cells will become
distorted (but without resultant shear), and astatic stress will be set up. We have
then to deal with the primary stuff itself, whose rotation gives a structure to the
ether, and the structural ether itself. The former we may call the primary medium.
The ether which can transmit transversal disturbances, and which is built up out of
the first, we may call the secondary medium. Whether an atom of matter is to
be considered as a vortical mass of the primary or of the secondary medium
is a matter to be left open in the present state of the theory.

At the Bath meeting of this Association, I sketched out atheory of the electrical
action of a fluid ether in which electrical lines of force were vortex filaments
combined with an equivalent number of hollow vortices of the same vortical
strength.’ An electric charge on a body depended on the number of ends of fila-
ments abutting on it, the sign being determined by the direction of rotation of
the filament lcoked at from the body. ‘This theory gave a complete account of

' «On the Vortex Theory of the Luminiferous Ether,’ Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1887,
p. 486, also Phil. Mag., October 1887, p. 342.

? Including other changes of form involving no rotations.

* A Vortex Analogue of Static Electricity, Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1888, p. 577.

602 REPORT—1895.

electrostatic actions, both quantitatively and qualitatively, and a more speculative
one as to currents and magnetism. I could only succeed in proving at that time
that if the filaments were distributed according to the same laws as electric lines
of force, the distribution would be one of equilibrium. Larmor! has recently
proved that this is also the necessary distribution for any type of a rotationally
elastic ether, and consequently also for this particular case. Currents along a
wire were supposed to consist of the ends of filaments running along it, with dis-
appearance of the hollow companions, the filaments producing at the same time a
circulation round the wire. A magnetic field was thus to be regarded as a flow
of the ether, but probably with the necessary accompaniment of rotational elements
in if.

This latter, however, was clearly wrong, because each kind of filament would
produce a circulation in opposite directions. The correct deduction would have
been to lay stress on the fact that the field is due to the motion through the
stationary ether of the vortex filaments, the field being perpendicular to the fila-
ment and to its direction of motion. This motion would doubtless produce
stresses in the cell-ether due to deformations of the cells, and be the proximate
cause of the mechanical forces in the field. In any case, it is not difficult to
show that a magnetic field cannot be due to an irrotational flow of the ether alone.2
Such electrostatic and magnetic fields produce states of motion in the medium, but
no bodily flew in it; consequently we ought not to expect an effect to be produced
on the velocity of transmission of light through it.

The fundamental postulate underlying this explanation of electric action is
that when two different kinds of matter are brought into contact a distribution of
vortex filaments in the neighbourhood takes place, so that a larger number stretch
from one to the other than in the opposite direction—the distinction between
positive and negative ends being that already indicated. To see how such a
distribution may be caused, let us consider each vortex atom to be composed of a
vortical mass of our secondary medium or cell-structure ether, The atom is much
larger than a cell, and contains practically an infinite number of them. It is a
dynamical system of these cells with equilibrium of energy throughout its volume.
The second atom is a dynamical system with a different equilibrium of energy.
Where they come into contact there will be a certain surface rearrangement,
which will show itself as a surface distribution of energy in a similar manner to
that which exists between a molar collection of one kind of molecules in contact
with one of another, and which shows itself in the phenomenon which we call
surface tension. In the present case the effect may take place at the interface
of two atomic systems in actual contact, or be a difference effect between the two
interfaces of the ether and each atom when the latter are sufficiently close. The
surface effect we are now considering shows itself as contact electricity.

Such a distribution of small vortex filaments, stretching from one atom to
another, will tend to hold them together. We therefore get an additional cause
for aggregation of atoms. This does not exclude the others already referred to.
They may all act concurrently, some producing one effect, some another—one
combining, perhaps, unknown primitive atoms into elements, one elements into
chemical compounds, and another producing the cohesion of matter into masses.

On this theory the difference between a conductor and a dielectric is that in
a dielectric the ends of the filaments cannot pass from atom to atom, possibly

1 «A Dynamical Theory of the Electric and Luminiferous Medium,’ Phil. Trans.,
1894, p. 748.

* To prove this, consider a straight conductor moving parallel to itself and per-
pendicular to a uniform magnetic field. There exists a permanent potential difference
between its ends. If, however, the field consists of a flow of ether, the effect is the
same as if the conductor is at rest, and the direction of the magnetic field shifted
through an angle. But this is the case of a conductor at rest in a field, and there
is therefore no potential difference between the ends. Hence a magnetic field must
consist of some structure across which the conductor cuts. A field may possibly
demand a flow of the ether, but, if so, it must carry in it some structure definitely
oriented at each point to the direction of flow.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 603

because the latter never come into actual contact. In a conductor, however, we
are to suppose that the atomic elements can do so. When a current is flowing, a
filament and its equivalent hollow stretch between two neighbouring atoms, they
are pulled into contact, or their motions bring them into contact, the hollow dis-
appears, and the rotational filament joins its two ends and sails away as a small
neutral vortex ring into the surrounding medium, or returns to its function as an ether
cell. The atoms being free arenow pulled back to perform a similar operation for other
filaments. The result is that the atoms are set into violent vibrations, causing the
heating of the conductor. When, however, the metal is at absolute zero of tem-
perature, there is no motion, the atoms are already in contact, and there is no resist-
ance, as the observation of Dewar and Fleming tends to show. Further, as the
resistance depends on the communication of motion from molecule to molecule, we
should expect the electrical conductivity of a substance to march with its thermal
conductivity. Again, on this theory the resistance clearly increases with increase of
distance between atoms—.e., with increase of temperature. On the contrary, in
electrolytic conduction the same junction of filament ends is brought about, not by
oscillations of molecule to molecule, but by disruption of the molecule and passage
of atom to atom. In this case conduction is easier the more easily a molecule is split
up, and thus resistance decreases with increase of temperature. To explain the laws
of electrolysisit is only necessary to assume that the strengths of all filaments are the
same. A similar hypothesis, as we have seen, lies at the basis of J. J. Thomson’s
explanation of chemical combination, although it is not necessarily the case that
we are dealing with the same kind of filaments. It is evident that the theory
easily lends itself to his views as to the mechanism of the electric discharge
through gases. The modus operandi of the production of the mechanical forcive
_on a conductor carrying a current in a magnetic field and of electrodynamic
induction is not clear. Probably the full explanation is to be found in the
stresses produced in the ether owing to the deformation of the cells by the passage
of the filaments through them. The fluid moves according to the equation of con-
tinuity without slip, and subject to the surface conditions at the conductors. This
motion, however, distorts the cells, and stresses are called into play. Any theory
which can explain the mechanical forcives and also Olm’s law, must, on the
principles of the conservation of energy, also explain the induction of currents,

The magnetic rotation of the plane of polarisation of light does not depend on
the structure of the ether, or on the magnetic field itself, but is a result of the
atomic configuration of the matter in the field modified by the magnetism. It is
generally recognised as caused by something in the field rotating round the direc-
tion of the magnetic lines of force. Now the vortex atom, as usually pictured, is

incapable of exhibiting this property. It is, however, an interesting fact, and one
which I hope to demonstrate to this Section during the meeting, that a vortex ring
can have two simultaneous and independent cyclic motions—one the ordinary one,
and another which is capable of producing just the action on light which shows
itself as a rotation of the plane of polarisation. The motion is rather a compli-
cated one to describe without a diagram, but an idea of its nature may be obtained
by considering the case of a straight cylindrical vortex. The ordinary straight
vortex consists, as every one knows, of a cylinder of fluid revolving like a solid, and
surrounded by a fluid in irrotational motion. In the core the velocity increases
from zero at the axis to a maximum at its surface. Thence it continuously
decreases in the outer fluid as the distance increases. Everywhere the motion is
in a plane perpendicular to the axis. Let us now consider a quite different kind
of vortical motion. Suppose the fluid is flowing along the core like a viscous fluid
through a pipe; the velocity is zero at the surface and a maximum at the axis.
Everywhere it is parallel to the axis, the vortex lines are circles in planes perpen-
dicular to the axis, and concentric with it. Since the velocity at the surface of the
core is zero, the surrounding fluid is also at rest. Now superpose this motion on
the previous one, and it will be found to be steady. If a short length of this
vortex be supposed cut off, bent into the shape of a circle and the ends joined, we
shall have a yery rough idea of the compound vortex ring of which I speak. I

604 REPORT—1895.

say a very rough idea, because the actual state of motion in a ring vortex or a
Hill’s vortex is not quite so simple as the analogy might lead one to think.

Now a compound vortex atom of this kind is just what we want to produee
rotation of the plane of polarisation of light. The light passing through such a
vortex has the direction of vibration twisted in the wave front. In ordinary
matter no such rotation is produced, because the various atoms are indifferently
directed, and they neutralise each other’s effects. Let, however, a magnetic field be
produced, and they will range themselves so that, on the average, the primary *
circulations through the apertures will point in the direction of the field. Conse-
quently the average direction of the secondary spin will be in planes perpendicular
to this, aud will rotate the plane of polarisation of any light whose wave front
passes them. The rotation is produced only on the light which is transmitted through
the vortex. The rotation observed is a resultant effect. In fact it is clear that in
the case of refraction the optical media belong to the type in which every portion
transmits the light, and not to the type in which refraction is produced by opaque
bodies embedded in the ether. The atoms are only opaque if they contain vacuous
cores, The question of the grip of the particles on the ether does not enter, but
difference of quality—showing itself in refraction and dispersion—is due to difference
in average rotational quasi-elasticity produced by the atomic circulations, and
‘possibly absorption is due to precessional and nutational motion set up by the
secondary spins. These, however, are perhaps rather vague speculations.

Instead of attempting to invent ethers, to deduce their properties from their
specifications, and then seeing whether they fit in with experience, we may begin
half way. We may assume different forms for the function giving the energy of
the medium when disturbed, apply general dynamical methods, and distinguish
between those which are capable of explaining the phenomena we are investigating
and those which are not. Invention is then called upon to devise a medium for
which the desired energy-function is appropriate. This was the method applied by
MacCullagh to the luminiferous ether. He obtained an algebraical form of the
energy function which completely satisfied the conditions for a luminiferous ether ;
its essential property being that the energy depended only on the rotational dis-
placements of its small parts. He was unable, however, to picture a stable material
medium which would possess this property. We recognise now that such a
medium is possible if the rotational rigidity is produced by intrinsic motions in the
small parts of the medium of a gyrostatic nature. Ina most masterly manner
Larmor * has recently investigated by general dynamical methods the possibility of
explaining electric and magnetic phenomena by means of the same energy function.
Electric lines of force are rotational filaments in the ether,’ similar in fact to those
I suggested at Bath, whilst a magnetic field consists of a flow of the ether. The
same difficulty in accounting for electro-dynamic induction arises, but the general
form of the equations for the electro-dynamic and magnetic fields are the same as
those generally received.

Towards the end of this paper he is led to postulate a theory of electrons whose
convection through the ether constitutes an electric current. ‘Two rotating round
each other are supposed to produce the same effect as a vortex ring. The mass of
ordinary matter is attributed to the electric inertia of these electrons. The electron
itself is a centre or nucleus of rotational strain. If I express a doubt as to the
possibility of the existence of these nuclei as specified, I do so with great diffidence.*

1 «Primary’ refers to the motion as usually understood; ‘secondary,’ to the super-
posed, as explained above.

2 “A Dynamical Theory of the Electricand Luminiferous Medium,’ Phil. Trans.,1894.

$ The necessity that the tilaments shall be in pairs does not seem to be recognised.
This is, however, essential. Moreover, if thecomplementary circulations of the filaments
between (say) a plate condenser be placed otherwhere than in the same region, the
filaments between the plates must rotate as a whole; that is, an electric field would
always be combined with a magnetic one.

4 It would appear that the same results would flow if two particles oppositely
electrified—i.e. joined by two complementary filaments, as already described—were to
rotate round each other.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 605

Whether they can or cannot exist, however, the general results of the investigation
are not affected.

Since this paper was published Larmor has read a second one on the same
subject before the Royal Society, developing further his theory of the electron.
The publication of this will be awaited with interest. It is impossible in an
address such as this to go servatim into the numerous points which he takes up and
illuminates, because the mathematical treatment of the general question does not
lend itself easily to oral exposition even to an audience composed of professed
mathematicians. There is no doubt but that this paper has put the theory of a
rotationally elastic ether—and with it that of a fluid vortex ether—on a sounder
basis, and will lead to its discussion and elucidation by a wider circle of investi-

ators.

. One further class of physical phenomena yet remains, viz., those of gravitation.
The ether must be capable of transmitting gravitational forces as well as electric
and optical effects. Does the rotational ether give any promise of doing this ? No
satisfactory explanation of gravitation on any theory has yet been offered. Perhaps
the least unsatisfactory is that depending on the vortex atom theory of matter,
which attributes it to pulsations of hollow vortex atoms. But this necessitates
that they should all pulsate with the same period and in the same phase. It is
very difficult to conceive how this can happen, unless, as Larmor suggests, all
matter is built up of constant elements like his electrons, whose periods are neces-
sarily all alike. It is possible that the vortex cell theory of the ether, of which I
have already spoken, may suffice to explain gravitation also. The cells, besides
their rotational rigidity, have, in addition, as we saw, a peculiar elasticity of form.
To get an idea of how this theory may account for weight, let us suppose the
simplest case where all the cells are exactly alike, and the medium is in equilibrium.
Now suppose one of the cells begins to grow. It forces the medium away on all
sides; the cells will be distorted in some definite way, and a strain set up. Further,
this strain will be transmitted from the centre, so that the total amount across any
concentric sphere will be the same. Stresses will therefore be set up in the whole
medium. Ifa second cell begins to grow at another place it will produce also a
state of strain, the total strain depending on the presence of both. The stresses
called into play in the medium will produce a stress between the bodies, but it
is questionable whether it would be inversely as the square of the distance.
Whether it would be an attraction or repulsion can only be determined by mathe-
matical investigation. The problem is quite determinate, though probably a very
difficult one, and would be of mathematical interest quite apart from its physical
importance. Since apparently the phenomena of gravitation haye no direct inter-
action with those of light and electricity, whilst the mind rejects the possibility of
two different media occupying the same space, we seem driven to look for it in an
independent structure of the same medium. Such a structure is already to our
hands, with its effects waiting to be determined. It may well be that it may
prove to be the cause we are seeking,

The rapid survey I have attempted to make is no doubt a medley of suppositions
and inferences combined with some sound deductions. This is the necessary conse-
quence of a prospecting survey in a region whose surface has been merely scratched
by pioneers. My object has been to show that this theory of an ether, based on a
primitive perfect fluid, is one which shows very promising signs of being able to
explain the various physical phenomena of our material universe. Probably, nay
certainly, the explanations suggested are not all the true ones. Some will have to
be given up, others modified with further knowledge. We cannot proceed to
particularise in our secondary hypotheses until we know more about the properties
of such media as we have been considering. Every special problem solved in
vortex motion puts usin a position to form clearer ideas of what can and what
cannot happen. The whole question of vortex aggregates and their interactions is

1 *On the Problem of Two Pulsating Spheres in a Fluid,’ Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc., iii. p. 283,

606 REPORT—1895.

practically untouched, and a rich field is open for mathematical investigation in

this portion only of the subject. In all cases, whether a fluid ether is an actual

fact or not, the results obtained will be of special interest as types of fluid motion.

It is at present a subject in which the mathematicians must lead the attack. I

shall have attained my object in choosing this subject for my address, if by it I

a ae some of our younger mathematicians to take it up, and work out its
etails.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. On the Reichsanstalt, Charlottenburg, Berlin.
By Sir Doveias Gatton, K.C.B.

The original idea of this establishment emanated from von Helmholtz and
Werner von Siemens. The site at Charlottenburg, about 11 acres, was given by
Dr. Werner yon Siemens, and he contributed 250,000 marks (12,000/.) in aid of
the building. Thereupon the German Government undertook the construction of
the building and its endowment.

The design of the buildings and the working arrangements were planned by
von Helmholtz, who was appointed its first director. One portion of the establish-
ment is complete and in operation. The buildings for the other portion are still
in course of erection.

The scientific work of the second portion is meanwhile being partially carried
on in the Royal Technical High School, situated at Charlottenburg.

As the establishment is thus still far from complete, the cost of the building
and equipment, and of the annual expenditure for maintenance, cannot be given. <

The object of the establishment may be defined to be ‘the development of
pure scientific research, and the promotion of new applications of science for
industrial purposes.’

The establishment consists of two divisions. The first is charged with pure
research, and is at the present time engaged in various thermal, optical, and
electrical and other physical investigations.

The reports on many branches of work which have been done in this estab-
lishment are appended to the paper.

The second branch is employed in delicate operations of standardising and
testing to assist the wants of outside research students, and to facilitate applica-
tions of science to industries. As, for instance, comparison with standards of the
dilatation of metals, of electrical resistances, of electric and other forms of light,
of lenses, of pressure gauges, of recording instruments, thermometers, pyrometers,
and tuning-forks, experiments on the qualities of glass, examination of oil-testing
apparatus, viscosity of glycerine, Xe.

The plans exhibited give a general idea of the size of the establishment,
which stands in its own grounds, of which the space not covered by buildings is
laid out in gardens.

The principal building is occupied by the first division; it faces the north-
west, and stands at some distance back from the road. This building is about
100 feet long and 85 feet deep. It has three floors of laboratories, and a basement
which stands on a mass of cement concrete 2 metres thick, so as to protect
the apparatus from vibration; but notwithstanding every precaution, the
passing of heavy waggons in the road occasions some movement. An electric
tramway is talked of. If this be constructed, serious injury will result to the
institution.

In this building there are thirty separate apartments devoted to laboratories,
in addition to the several official rooms required for the director and staff, and
there is also in the building a large and excellent library of works on pure and
applied science.

To the south of this, and parallel to it, is the building for the second division.
This building is nearly 200 feet long, and there are two wings, each of which

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 607

projects to the south to a distance.of nearly 95 feet. This building also is three
storeys in height.
In the second division there are about forty-one or forty-two apartments

devoted to laboratories, in addition to a considerable number of rooms required

for the director, the clerks, and the staff, and for a small library.

Towards the front on the eastern side, but nearer the road, is the director’s
house. On the western side is a house which affords apartments for two of the
assistants, and a meeting room for the Board of Management and subsidiary clerks’
offices. Behind the latter building, on the west side, are placed the engine house,
and rooms for dynamos and storage batteries, as well as laboratories for operations
in which the use of cold air is required. These are in course of construction.

These buildings are equally convenient for the supply of power to both
divisions,

Two important questions for a department of pure research are: first, the
management and the arrangements for regulating the subjects of research ; secondly,
the methods of taking stock of the work done in the establishment.

In the Reichsanstalt the President is supreme over the staff. The successor to
yv. Helmholtz is Dr. Kohlrausch. He takes charge of the first division, viz., that of
pure research.

The Director, Professor Hagen, under him, takes charge of the second division.

Each main division is subdivided into separate departments for each branch of
research ; these are in charge of permanent professors. Each of these has under
him the necessary assistants selected for limited periods, and for previous good
work in one or other of the universities or scientific schools of Germany.

The general supervision is under a Council, consisting of a President of the
Council, who is a Privy Councillor, and twenty-four members, including the Pre-
sident and the Director of the Reichsanstalt; of the other members, about ten are
professors, or heads of physical or astronomical observatories connected with the
principal universities in Germany. ‘Three are selected from leading firms in Ger-
many, representing mechanical, optical, and electric science, and the remainder are
principal scientific officials connected with the Departments of War and Marine,
from the Royal Observatory at Potsdam, and from the Royal Commission for
Weichts and Measures.

This Council is summoned to meet when required, but it generally meets in
the winter, for such time as may be necessary, for examining the research work
done in the first division during the previous year, and for laying down the scheme
for research for the ensuing year, as well as for suggesting any requisite improve-
ments in the second division.

It will be seen that the safeguard for ensuring good research work on subjects
of general interest and importance lies first in the judicious selection of the Presi-
dent, Director, and Professors of the Reichsanstalt, and after them in a careful
selection of the members of the Board of Management, because they not only
arrange the subjects for research, but they also hold an annual stock-taking of work
done in the department.

Members of the Board of Management, who are appointed from the various
scientific establishments all over Germany, are carefully selected, and are remu-
nerated for their services,

In this country, whilst the more enlightened of the County Councils are form-
ing polytechnic institutions intended to approximate to the higher grade polytech-
nics in Germany, we have no Government Department which approximates to the
Reichsanstalt.

The Standards Department was attached to the Board of Trade in 1878, with
the duty of making standards of length, weight, and capacity, and in 1889 it was
further empowered to make such new standards for the measurements of electricity,
temperature, and gravities as appeared to be of use for trade. This department
possesses, moreover, under the Gas Acts, powers as to a standard of licht.

The object of this department is to meet the requirements of trade. Neither
the Nation nor the Government appear to have realised the enormous saving of
time and labour which would result from systematic standards for eyery branch of

608 REPORT—1895.

scientific research, coupled with arrangements for comparison easily accessible to
students. There would seem to be some difficulty in altering the functions of the
Standards Department so as to combine research with its present duties, nor is it
established in a situation where delicate observations could be carried on.

The Incorporated Kew Observatory, which is administered by a Committee
under the Royal Society, is situated in an almost ideal locality for observations.
it already conducts, on a small scale, some experimental work, and it appears to
afford a nucleus which might be gradually extended into an establishment analo-
gous to the Reichsanstalt, provided the Government would countenance its exten-
sion on its present site, and aid the scheme with a grant of money. Under these
circumstances, I would suggest that the Committee of Section A upon National
Laboratories—which appears not to have been re-appointed at Oxford—be now
renewed with members added from Section B and Section G, and that it be re-
quested to report :—

(a) Upon the functions which an establishment of this nature should fulfil.
(6) Upon the system which should be adopted for its control and manage-
ment.

The Association would then be in a position to approach the Government with
a definite proposal, either for the utilisation of the Incorporated Kew Observatory
for the purpose, or for some other plan.

2. On the Teaching of Geometrical Drawing in Schools.
By O. Henrico, LL.

The teaching of geometrical drawing in schools is in many respects unsatisfac-
tory. It is at present chiefly regulated by the examinations of the Science and
Art Department and those for the entrance into the army. At some schools there
are also special classes for those boys who intend to become engineers. The re-

uirements for these are at present quite different. It seems desirable, and not at
all difficult, to assimilate the teaching by laying down one rational course, so that
all pupils at schools can receive the same instruction, at least in the earlier stages.
This should be done first of all without any regard to examinations, the only ob-
ject being the teaching of the ‘art’ of geometrical drawing. The syllabus for any
examination should then be drawn up in conformity with such a course.

To bring this about a committee of the British Association seems to be the
most appropriate means. It would be the duty of such a committee to lay down
the outlines of the course, and therefore it would be premature to say much about
it at present. A few points, however, may here be touched upon.

First of all it seems necessary to free the subject, at least at the beginning,
from all connection with Euclid and his constructions ; in fact, geometrical drawing
should be begun long before Euclid is tackled. Euclid only knows two drawing
instruments, the straight-edge and the pair of compasses for drawing straight lines
and circles. To these should be added at once the set-squares and sooner or later
the T-square.

The drawing of parallels and perpendiculars should be done by their aid;
bisection of lines by their aid and by trial. The first object should be to draw
accurately.

A great many figures can be drawn, first without circles, where the pupil can
judge for himself whether his drawing is accurate.

Rules for transforming figures by stretching or by shear may follow, leading to
equal and to-similar figures.

Such a course will be the very best introduction to Euclid, and will form a
natural connection between the Kindergarten, which is steadily gaining in import-
ance, and the systematic geometry of Kuclid.

Solutions of problems which require a knowledge of Euclid should be attempted
only when good progress has been made in this art of drawing. :

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 609

3. Interim Report on Cosmic Dust.

: 4. Report on Undergrownd Temperature.—See Reports, p. 75.
5. Report on the Sizes of the Pages of Periodicals.—See Reports, p. 77.

6. Report on the Comparison and Reduction of Magnetic Observation.
See Reports, p. 209.

7. Interim Report on the Comparison of Magnetic Standards.
See Reports, p. 79.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
A joint Meeting with Section B.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Refraction and Viscosity of Argon and Helium.
By Lord Rayxerieu, Sec. RS,

As compared with dry air, the refraction (u—1) of argon is 0961, and that of
helium (prepared by Professor Ramsay) is as low as 0°146.

Dry air being again taken as the standard, the viscosity of argon is 1-21, and
that of helium is 0:96,

2. On Specific Refraction and the Periodic Law, with reference to Argon
and other Elements. By Dr. J. H. Guapstone, /.R.S.

In 1869, 1877, and 1883 the author had shown that the specific refractive

energies of the metallic elements are usually in the inverse order of their combining
proportions, and that the specific refractive energies of the elements in general are
to a certain extent a periodic function of their atomic weights,

The present communication refers to some developments of these old obser-
vations.

(1) Argon. The specific refractive energy of argon gas, as reckoned from Lord
Rayleigh’s data, is 0°159. Deeley had suggested that this property might throw
light upon the question whether the atomic weight is about 20 or double that
figure. The following are the specific refractive energies of the elements with
atomic weights between 12 and 23, with the insertion of argon. Carbon, 0-417;

nitrogen, 0:236; oxygen, 0:194; fluorine, 0:03 (?); argon, 0°159; sodium, 0-209,
Argon appears to be here in place on the rise which follows the great descent from
carbon to fluorine. It does not equally well fit the neighbourhood of calcium, 0-250.
If the atomic weight be 19:94, the molecular refraction will be 3:15, which is
almost the same number as that for oxygen gas, 3:10, or nitrogen gas, 3°30.

(2) The fact that the specific refractive energies of the univyalent metals are
generally inversely as the square roots of their atomic weights is confirmed by
further research, the product of the two being about 1:3. The same observation is
now extended to the earthy metals ia the second column of Mendeléeff’s table, the »
products in that case being fully 1-4. The rule does not apply to the halogens in

column 7. As to column 8, iron, palladium, platinum, and gold all give products

1895. RR

610 : REPORT—1895.

which are far higher. This confirms the belief that gold is not rightly placed in
column 1. P

(3) It is known that the refraction of a salt when dissolved in water is often
slightly modified by the proportional amount of the solvent. The author and Mr.
Hibbert have recently found that salts of the metallic elements in columns 1 and 2
of Mendeléeff’s table show an increased refraction on dilution, those of metals in
column 8 a diminished refraction.

8. A Discussion ‘On the Evidence to be Gathered as to the Simple or Com-
pound character of a Gas, from the Constitution of its Spectrum,! was opened
by Professor A. Schuster and Lord Rayleigh, and the following Papers were
read :—

4, The Constituents of Cleveite Gas. By C. Runcre and F. PAscuen.

As the spectrum of the gas contains two sets of lines, each consisting of three
‘series, and no other lines, we may, according to the analogy of other spectra,
draw the conclusion that it consists of two, and not more than two, elements.
The yellow line D, belongs to the heavier of the two elements, which therefore
should alone be called helium.

We have separated the two elements to a certain extent hy a method of
diffusion, the lighter constituent streaming more easily through a plug of asbestos.
It was shown that the lines in the visible and in the ultra-red part of the
spectrum ascribed to the heavier constituent are less intense relatively to the other
lines the earlier the stream of the gas is cut off.

The same conclusion that the gas consists of two elements may also be drawn,
first from the spectrum of the sun’s limb, where the stronger lines of the heavier
constituent are always present, while the stronger lines of the lighter constituent
are only seen once in every four times. On the other hand in the spectrum of
Nova Aurigz at its first appearance we have the opposite case, the lines of the
lighter constituent being far more prominent.

On Motions competent to produce Groups of Lines which have been
observed in Actual Spectra. By G. JounsTtone Stoney, JLA., D.Sc.,
pal eee

In most of the spectra that consist of lines very remarkable groups present
themselves, in which the lines are seen to be associated into definite series. In such
cases, except under special circumstances, we may safely presume that all the lines
of a group arise from the motion of a single electron in every molecule of the gas.

Very striking examples of such groups are present in the absorption spectrum
of oxygen and in the bright line spectrum of carbon. The oxygen of the earth’s
atmosphere produces the great A group of double lines in the solar spectrum, as
well as the very similar great B group, and the a group. It also produces a group
more refrangible than D, about which we know less. This group is much fainter
than the others, and it is only under exceptional circumstances that itcan be seen at
all in the solar spectrum. Each of the other three groups can be distinguished into
two sub-groups, which from their appearance have been called a head and a train.
The general features of these three groups are the same, and Mr. Higgs has made
a careful geometrical analysis of one of them, the great B group.! From his
analysis we may infer that the head and the train are due to motions in the mole-
cules which are distinct, although related to one another. This conclusion receives
further support from the circumstance that in the double lines of ‘the head’ it is
the violet component of each pair which is the stronger, while in the train it is the
red component of each pair which is the stronger.

In a paper in the ‘Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society’ for
1891, p. 663, the present author pointed out that, if we proceed on the probable

» Proc. Roy. Soc., 1893, p, 930.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 611

supposition that the motion of each electron is an orbit of some kind going on
within the molecules, it can be shown that the partials of the motion of the electron
which causes the lines are elliptic partials, and that where anelliptic partial suffers
an apsidal perturbation, it divides into two circular sub-partials, giving rise to the
two constituents of a double line. We may infer from this that the sub-partials
corresponding to the red constituents of the fourteen or more double lines of the
train of B are circular motions revolving one way, and that all the violet consti-
tuents of these double lines result from circular motions revolving the other way.

In order to advance beyond this point it is necessary to make two further
hypotheses which probably are both true. Two hypotheses must here be ventured
upon because observations with the spectroscope give us no information as to the
phases of the elliptic partials or the planes in which they lie. One hypothesis that
recommends itself is that the circular sub-partials belonging to a connected series
of double lines, e.g., to the train of the great B group, lie in one plane. Another
hypothesis which we may venture to make, as a preliminary working hypothesis, is
that the amplitude of the motion of the electron has its maximum value at starting,
t.e., when that event has occurred at the close of a struggle between two molecules
which has set up the motion of the electron, which continues during the compara-
tive repose of the quiet, undisturbed journey in which the molecule is indulged
after its encounter.

With these assumptions it is possible to synthesise all the motions causing the
red constituents of the double lines into one motion, which is, however, not circular,
but a slowly contracting spiral; and a similar resultant spiral motion turning the
opposite way is furnished by the sub-partials forming the violet constituents.
While these spirals are being traversed the radii or semi-amplitudes of the circular
motions of which they are composed, and which correspond to the individual lines
in the spectrum, may become shorter or longer owing to the escape of energy to
the ether, or absorption of energy from it ; so that the actual orbits are spirals which
may be somewhat inside or somewhat outside those which result from the assump
tion that the radii retain their length. These two spiral motions combine at each
instant into a single elliptic motion so elongated that it is nearly # linear vibration;
and this elliptic motion continues to represent what occurs, if subjected to the five
following perturbations :—

1. A decrease of amplitude.

2. A diminution of periodic time.

3. Aslow apsidal motion in a direction opposite to that in which the revolution
of the electron in the orbit takes place.

4. A slight fluttering motion which may be represented by a very shallow wave
running rapidly round the ellipse.

5, A further slight modification of the form of the ellipse which takes the form
of a secular perturbation.

Accordingly we arrive at the conclusion that an elliptic motion undergoing these

_ perturbations is such a motion of an electron as would produce the entire series of

lines in the train of B. A similar motion would produce the train of A, of a, and
of each of the other similar groups, if such exist in the spectrum of oxygen, These
elliptic motions undergoing perturbations may be appropriately called mega-partials
in their relation to the actual orbit described in oxygen by the electron that
produces all these trains of lines, since that orbit is the resultant which we should
get by superposing the motions in these few mega-partials.

A similar treatment applied to ‘the head’ of any of the oxygen groups shows
that it, too, arises from an elliptic motion subject to perturbations, the chief
differences being in the law connecting the falling-off of amplitude and the
periodic time ; that the quick, fluttering perturbation is absent ; and that the apsidal
motion takes place in the opposite direction. In oxygen the strength of the lines
of each sub-group fades out towards the red, "When the fading is in this direction,
the periodic time decreases as the amplitude falls off. Whereas when, as in the
carbon spectrum, the lines fade out towards the violet, the periodic time becomes

longer ag the amplitude decreases. And, finally, if the lines present themselves,

RR 2

612 REPORT—1895.

when plotted on a map of oscillation frequencies, as disposed symmetrically on
either side of a common centre, this indicates that the periodic time continues
unchanged during the shortening of the amplitude.

This suggests the cause of the width of spectral lines in general, so far as their
width is not merely apparent, z.e., due to the Doppler effect of the translational
motions of the molecules, or to the breadth of the slit of the spectroscope. The
rest of the width of the line, as seen, is its true physical width, and seems to be
due to the interchange of energy between the molecule and the ether. This
leads to diminished amplitude ; and this reduction of the amplitude may be accom-
panied by either a reduction, or an increase, or a persistence unaltered of the
periodic time, according to the way in which the motion of the electron is
dynamically associated with the rest of the events which go on within the
molecule. If the periodic time decreases, this gives rise to a ruling fading out
towards the red ; if there be an increase of the periodic time, the shading is towards
the violet ; while if the line fades out both ways symmetrically, there is no change
in the periodictime. The relative intensities and the spacings of the lines of the
ruling depend on the law which connects the escape of energy and the shorten-
ing of the semi-amplitude, and in its turn this law depends on the dynamical
relations in which the parts of the molecule stand to one another. The excessively
fine rulings of which the widths of individual lines consist cen probably not be
seen otherwise than as a shading, unless perhaps in some very few exceptional
instances, owing to their being blurred together by the Doppler effect.

We have attributed these very fine rulings to the interchange of energy with
the ether. On the other hand, the more conspicuous rulings, such as those we
have been studying in oxygen and carbon, seem to be associated with the trans-
ference of energy from one motion within the molecule to another. This may be
briefly described by saying that the widths of the individual lines and their being
in various ways shaded off are due to radiation, while that they are arranged in
series is due to conduction.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The Section was divided into two Departments.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

Department 1. Marnemarics.

1. On the Translational and Vibrational Energies of Vibrators after
Impacts on fixed Walls. By Lord Kexvin, Pres. B.S.

2. On Bicyclic Vortex Aggregates. By Professor W. M. Hicks, /.R.S.

The author showed that in any case of a vortex aggregate in which the motion
takes place in planes through an axis, and symmetrical about this axis, another
state of motion was possible with the same current and vortex sheets, but in which
the motion was in circles round the axis, and in which the fluid external to the
aggregate remained at rest. These two motions can be superposed with a result-
ing steady motion, and the two cyclic constants independent of each other.

3. On Hill’s Spherical Vortex. By Professor W. M. Hicks, F.R.S.

The author showed that it is possible to build up a compound spherical vortex,
consisting of shells in which the rotation is oppositely directed in successive shells,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 613

The vorticity and size of each shell must satisfy definite relations. When the
vorticity of the fluid is everywhere of the same magnitude the ratio of the (n+ 1)th
radius to the nth satisfies an algebraical relation of the form

4nry (an? + Un + 1) So" Gy + 1),

where \, =1—A,_, (lL—2*n_,).
The ratio of the volumes of the shells for the first three are 1, 1-318, 1:341,

4. On a Dynamical Top... By G. T. Waker, IA.

The author exhibited a top in the shape of a flattened ellipsoid with a central
circular portion movable, and arranged so as to be clamped with the lines of
curvature inclined to the axes of dynamical symmetry. In this condition a rota-
tion communicated to the top when placed on a sheet of plate glass sets up
oscillations which reverse the direction of motion: these reversals may, under
favourable conditions, be as many in number as fifteen. A vertical tap administered
at the end of an axis of symmetry gives rise to angular velocity, of which the sign
depends on the difference between the periods of longitudinal and transverse
vibrations, as well as on the angular deviation of the movable portion.

5. Suggestions as to Matter and Gravitation in Professor Hicks’s
Cellular Vortex Theory. By C. V. Burron, D.Sc.

6. On the Graphical Representation of the Partition of Numbers.
By Major P. A. Macmanon, /. 2.8.

7. Ona New Canon Arithmeticus.
By Lt.-Col. Atuan Cunnineuam, &.Z., Hon. Fell. King’s Coll. Lond.

This is a series of tables, drawn up precisely like Jacobi’s ‘Canon Arithmeti-
cus, giving the solution of the congruence 2°=R (mod. p and mod. m) for all
prime moduli (p) <1,000, and also for all moduli m <1,000, where m is a power
ofa prime. There are two tables to each modulus, p or m. The left table shows
the remainders (R) to a given index (w); the right table shows the index (2°) to
a given remainder (R).

Uses of Tables.

1, To find remainder R after dividing 2* by p or m (x, p, m being given).

2. To find index x such that 2*~p or m may leave remainder R (R, p, m being
given).

3. To find whether a given number N is exactly divisible by a given prime p,
or power of prime mm; and, if not, what remainder (R) is left.

4. To find whether a given number N is exactly divisible, or leaves a given
remainder (R) after division, by any prime or power of a prime <1,000.

5. To find all the primitive roots of a given prime (), and all the roots which
are residues of a given order e of a given prime p, when 2 is a primitive
root of p; and to find all the roots which are residues of a given order e
of a given prime p when 2 is a residue of order not >e.

Jacobi’s Canon gives the solution of g*=R (mod. p and mod m) as above, ex-
cept that y is a certain primitive root of p. His table is better for case 5 above

_whenever 2 is not a primitive root of »; but the new canon to base 2 is much more

convenient for the more practical uses 2 and 3 above. His canon is well described
in Cayley’s Report on Mathematical Tables in the British Association Report of
1876; the description applies, with slight obvious modification, to the new canon,

? The paper will be published in the Quarterly Journal of Mathematics.

614 REPORT—1 895.

8. On Mersenne’s Numbers.
By Lt.-Col. Atuan Cunnineuan, &.#., Hon. Feil. King’s Coll. Lond.

A Mersenne’s number is one of form N =(21—1), where g is a prime. Divisors
of these are difficult to discover. Their prime divisor (p), when N is composite,
must be of form p=2eq+1, and also of one of forms p=8¢+1, and 2 must be a
residue of order e.

Simple rules (due to Legendre, Gauss,! and Jacobi,) are given for finding directly
divisors (p)—when such exist—for the cases of 2e=2, 6, 8, 16, 24. An zndirect
method (due to Mr. C. E. Bickmore) is also given for the case when p= 2ee’.q+1,
where 2e has any of the above values, and e’=an odd number >3. ;

A table of divisors (p)—the greater part of which is believed to be original—
is given: this is believed to be complete for all primes p<15,000 for the simple
cases of 2e=2, 6, 8, 16, 24. The following thirteen new mstances were discovered
by the indirect method quoted, and are the outcome of much labour.

p q Qe" || p qd 2e’ | Pp | qd 2ee!
5,471 547 | 10 || 1,085,687 77,549 14 | 9,511 317 30
14,831 1,483 | 10)| 650,359 36,131 18 || 28,111 937 30
33,191 3,319 | 10 || 4,438,919 | 201,769 | 22 || T,A87 197 38
1,320,191 | 132,019 | 10 214,007 8,231 | 26)| 18,199 337 54
| 172,681 1,459 120

One of these, viz. (21°7 — 1), is among those stated by Mersenne in 1,664, but with-
out proof, to be composite; proof of this is now supplied in the discovery of a
divisor (p = 7,487).

Nineteen of the Mersenne’s numbers stated by Mersenne to be composite (viz.,
when g=71, 89, 101, 108, 107, 109, 137, 139, 149, 157, 163, 167, 173, 181, 193,
199, 227, 229, 241), and three of those stated by him to be prime (viz., when g =67,
127,257), remain still unverified. The author has tried all prime numbers < 50,000
without finding a divisor for any of them.

There are only ten p?me Mersenne’s numbers known, viz., when g= 1, 2, 3, 5,
7,18, 17, 19, 81, 61; the establishment of any more is very difficult. It is worth
noting that these ten values of g, as also three more (¢ = 67, 127, 257) conjectured by
Mersenne to yield prime values of N, all fall under one of the fow forms g=2* +1,
or 2°+3) but it is not true that such values of g necessarily make N prime.

9. Recent Developments of the Lunar Theory. By P. H. Cowstt, JA.

Kepler discovered that the motion of planets about the sun and the moon
about the earth took place approximately in ellipses, and Newton showed that
motion in an ellipse according to Kepler’s well-known laws was the consequence
of the law of gravitation.

For nearly two centuries after Newton, the lunar theorists based their investi-
gations of the moon’s motion upon Newton’s discovery. Their reason for doing this
was that the elliptic inequality is by far the largest of all the lunar inequalities.
The other inequalities were then calculated as disturbances due to the sun. One
modification had, however, to be made. In order to agree with observations,
displacements increasing with the time had to be assigned to the apse and node.
The orbit thus modified no longer satisfied the undisturbed equations of motion,
and the velocities of the node and apse, as well as the remaining inequalities, had
to be found—in most theories—by continued approximation.

In performing the algebraical calculations, however, it appeared that the terms
constituting the equality known as the variation had first to be calculated, and

! The author is indebted to Mr, C. E. Bickmore. for the communication of these
tules,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 615

that subsequently the terms containing powers and products of the eccentricities,
inclination, and ratio of the parallaxes could be calculated in turn, the lower orders
being taken first. This point must have presented itself to Laplace and Pontécoulant
in their respective theories ; but it is brought out more clearly in those treatises
where the object is not to cbtain a complete analytical development, but to exhibit
the method of procedure. In Delaunay’s theory this point does not present itself,
but by modifying Delaunay’s theory so as to reduce the number of variables from
six to two the variational terms might be calculated independently, whereas by no
process could the other terms be calculated before the variational terms.

These considerations point to the curve indicated by the variational terms being
treated as the intermediary orbit in preference to the ellipse; but it was not till
the year 1877 ihat this idea was developed. Dr. G. W. Hill then published three
papers in the first volume of the ‘American Journal,’ papers which Poincaré
describes as containing the germ of the greater part of the progress that astronomy
has since made.

Relatively to the sun’s mean place the variation terms define a closed curve
which the moon under suitable initial conditions could describe, if the sun’s
parallax and eccentricity were zero. The curve issymmetrical in all four quadrants,
and remains symmetrical about the line of syzygies, when the sun’s parallax is taken
into account. Dr. Hill has drawn the variation curve for different ratios of the
month tothe year. Thecurve for small values of this ratio does not differ much from
a circle, but is slightly elongated in quadrature. This elongation increases with the
length of the month, and when there are only 1°78265 months to the year the curve
has cusps on the line of quadratures. Such an orbit must certainly be unstable, and
by a discussion of Jacobi’s equation of relative energy Dr. Hill makes it appear
probable that instability sets in for a much smaller value of the ratio.. No numerical
limit has, however, been obtained for stability. M. Poincaré has succeeded in
obtaining the general shape of these curves when continued beyond the cusped
curve. The orbit first crosses the line of quadratures obliquely, and then recrosses
at a greater distance at right angles, then returns to the first intersection, thus
forming a loop, and ultimately forms a closed curve with two loops, six intersec-
tions with the line of quadratures and two with that of syzygies. Dr. Hill has
also calculated algebraically and numerically and with extreme accuracy the
coefficients of the different periodic terms that define the variation curve.

In the older lunar theories the physical meaning of the quantity that in
undisturbed motion denoted the eccentricity disappeared upon the introduction of
the disturbance with the ellipse upou which it depended for its definition. At the
conclusion of the theories it was defined analytically by equating a given function
of it to the coefficient of one of the periodic terms. Such a definition is merely
analytical, and has no physical interpretation. The quantity, in fact, is a mere
constant of integration. It is not even correct to say that it reduces to the
eccentricity when the sun’s mean motion is put zero. The eccentricity of the
ellipse obtained by putting the sun’s mean motion zero is a function of the constants
of integration and of the position of the sun’s apse, and of the sun’s parallax. By

Dr. Hill’s investigations, however, a physical meaning is restored. It isa parameter

defining the amplitude of the oscillation that takes place about that state of steady
motion relatively to the sun that Dr. Hill has shown can take place, provided only
the sun’s eccentricity be negligible. With the notion of eccentricity, the notion of
the apse of the older theories becomes indistinct. The so-called apse is certainly
not a point where the moon is moving at right angles to its radius vector. Ac-
cording to Dr. Hill’s theory, the period of revolution with respect to the apse now
becomes the period of the oscillation about steady motion. In like manner the
inclination of the orbit may be considered as another oscillation about steady motion,

the inclination constant of integration defines its amplitude, and the period of

revolution with respect to the node, which is not accurately the point of intersection
with the ecliptic, is now the period of this second oscillation. In accordance with
the general theory of small oscillations, the two modes of oscillation can co-exist in
complete independence so long as the squares of the amplitudes are negligible. The
two periods in such a case depend only on the circumstances of steady motion, in

616 REPORT—1895.

this case on the ratio of the month to the year. The periods in the actual case,
however, must be corrected by terms depending on squares and higher powers of
the sun’s eccentricity and the two parameters defining the amplitudes.

In a paper in the ‘ Acta Mathematica,’ vol. viii., Dr. Hill finds the period of a
small oscillation of the first of the two kinds mentioned. His method involves
the consideration of an infinite determinant. He states that there can hardly be a
doubt that the determinant is convergent, but M. Poincaré has submitted the
question to a rigid investigation.! He concludes that an infinite determinant,
when the constituents of the leading diagonal are all unity, converges absolutely
and uniformly if the sum of all the other elements is finite. Any determinant can
be reduced so that the elements of the leading diagonal are all unity, provided that
the product of these elements is finite. Dr. Hill's determinant satisfies these
conditions when the length of the month is sufficiently small. To complete the
proof it is necessary to notice that M. Poincaré, in his ‘ Mécanique Céleste,’ proves
that the series defining Dr. Hill's variation curve converge for sutliciently small
values of the length of the month.

At the conclusion of his paper, Dr. Hill solved his infinite determinantal equation,
and obtained the principal part of the motion of the apse with great arithmetical
accuracy. The value he obtains differs in the fourth significant figure from that
calculated from Delaunay’s series; it also agrees well with the observed value,
thus verifying a prediction of Delaunay’s, as far as the apse is concerned, that the
remainder of his series would bring calculation into agreement with observation.
Dr. Hill has lately calculated an algebraic value to eleven terms for the principal
part of the motion of the perigee. He concludes by replacing the ratio of the
month to the year by another parameter, empirically determined so as to increase
the convergence of the last terms calculated. This last step, however, does not
appear to be in any degree useful, as the convergency of the series near its tenth
term threws no light on the convergency of the remainder.

The question of convergency of the series obtained in the lunar theory had
hardly been investigated before Poincaré and Lindstedt. Formal solutions to the
seventh order and arithmetical solutions have been obtained, but it cannot be
assumed from the close agreement of the two that the coefficients can be repre-
sented hy the algebraic series. Poincaré has shown, however, that in certain cases
periodic solutions must exist, and as a special case the series for the coefficients of
the variational terms must converge for sufficiently small values of the ratio of the
month to the year. The motionof the node, so far as it depends on the ratio of the
mean motions only, had heen investigated by Adams before Dr. Hill’s work on
the perigee was published. Adams also obtained an infinite determinant. In the
arithmetical work, however, he used a different value of the ratio of the mean
motions to that used by Delaunay and by Dr. Hill. It is an illustration of the
almost unnecessary accuracy of the numerical work that it should have been
carried to fifteen decimal places, whereas the ratio of the mean motions, certainly
by far the easiest quantity to determine by observation, can only be depended upon
to seven places. I have recomputed the principal part of the motion of the node
using Dr. Hill’s numbers. It may be noticed that the arithmetical value in this
case does not, as in the case of the perigee, justify Delaunay’s prediction that the
remainder of his series would account for the discrepancy between theory and
observation.

Dr. Hill’s method of procedure is to use rectangular co-ordinates, the axes of
reference rotating round the ecliptic with a velocity equal to the sun’s mean motion.
The calculation of the variation terms by this method is perhaps not so short as it
would be by some other method—possibly the best way to obtain them would he
by Delaunay’s methods, the variables being reduced to two—but undoubtedly no:
theory is so simple for the calculation of the higher inequalities. For each new set
of coefficients the problem can be quickly reduced to the solution of a system of
linear simultaneous equations. The principal parts of the motions of the perigee
and node are given by infinite determinants: the further approximations appear as

1 Bulletin de la Société Mathématique de France, xiv. pp. 77-90.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 617

additional unknown quantities to be determined by the simultaneous linear equa-
tions. The solution has to proceed by continued approximation, and is exceedingly
laborious. In an admirable paper in the current number of the American Journal,
Prof. E. W. Brown has shown how the new part of the motion of the perigee and
node can in all cases be evolved from the terms previously calculated. This con-
sideration not only shortens very considerably the labour of the continued approxi-
mations, but it enables us to regard one of the simultaneous equations as an equation
of verification. Professor Brown’s paper—undoubtedly the most valuable of all
the papers that are based upon Dr. Hill’s researches—concludes with some exten-
sions of Adams’s theorems connecting the mean value of the parallax with the
motions of the node and perigee, These extensions possess an analytical interest,
but as applied to the development of a solution of the problem of three bodies in
series, they only provide some equations of verification of a value far inferior to
those investigated in the earlier part of his paper.

The following advances have been made towards a complete development of
the problem of three bodies. Dr. Hill calculated the variation terms ; Professor
Brown the terms depending on the ratio of the parallaxes, the terms depending on
the first, and subsequently the second and third powers of the moon’s eccentricity ;
also the terms depending on the first power of the sun’s eccentricity, and also the
product terms containing the first powers of both the eccentricities. These latter
are the only product terms hitherto calculated by Dr. Hill’s methods. The con-
vergence of the series Delaunay obtains in his literal development is exceedingly
slow, and the arithmetical values show a residue in some of Delaunay’s series of
over one second. I have calculated terms depending on the first three powers of
the inclination, Besides this, Dr. Hill has obtained the prineipal part of the motion
of the perigee, and Adams the principal part of the motion of the node. Professor
Brown has calculated the correction to the motion of the perigee depending on the
square of the eccentricity, and I have calculated the correction to the motion of the
node depending on the square of the inclination.

At the beginning cf his last paper, referred to above, Professor Brown has
collected the bibliography of the subject.

10. The Relation between the Morphological Symmetry and the Optical
Symmetry of Crystals. By WiLL1AM Bartow.

Starting from the well-known facts of the influence of the presence of
molecular matter generally on the velocity of light, and of the directional optical
properties of crystals, the author reaches the conclusion that ether-movements
which take place in the same crystal in different directions experience different
degrees of resistance and retardation, so that a state of things prevails roughly
comparable to what would happen if a space occupied by a crowd of people were
studded with posts arranged on parallel lines and evenly distributed ; the move-
ments of the crowd as it surged to and fro would be less impeded in some direc-
tions than in others, especially if the posts were not round, but of similar section
sameways orientated. In the case of both the ether and the crowd what are
compared are the collective resistances in each direction, differences in the retarda-
tion experienced by different particles or persons moving side by side in the same
direction not being discriminated.

Even if the crystal employed belongs to the cubic system, and is therefore
isotropic, the ether-movements must, as in the case of less symmetrical crystals,
experience different retardation in different directions; and the necessary deduc-
tion from this is that if the influence of a homogeneous molecular structure on
light depends on the arrangement of the molecular matter, 7¢ ts an average effect,.
the velocity of a ray in any given direction depending, not merely on the resistance:
to ether-movement experienced iz some single direction definitely related to the
direction of polarisation of the ray, but on that experienced in a number of different
directions inclined to one another. The writer cites in support of this conclusion

. _ the fact that in crystals belonging to the less symmetrical crystal systems, in

618 REPORT—1895,

which a change of velocity accompanies any continuous change of direction, this
change of velocity is always a very smooth one, and not abrupt.

After remarking that if the velocity of a ray in any given direction were
dependent equally on the resistances offered to ether-movement in every direction,
this velocity would in all cases be entirely independent of any particular direction
or directions in the structure, which would in all cases be isotropic, he says that
the experimental facts show that the truth lies between the two extremes indi-
cated ; that the velocity of a ray depends neither on all the resistances to ether-
movement experienced in all directions taken equally, nor on the resistance
experienced in a single solitary direction, but depends equadly, or almost equally,
on the resistances afforded tn all the directions included within some wide limits of
angular inclination, this being the only kind of relation which would be in
harmony with the great smoothness of the change of velocity presented when a
continuous change of direction is made.

He then suggests that the simplest sort of relation which the velocity can be
conceived to bear to the resistances offered by the structure to ether-movement is
for the resistance whose direction is that of the polarisation of the ray—ze., the
direction in which the algebraically deduced wave-vibration takes place—to exert
a maximum influence, and the effect of the resistances in directions inclined to
this to diminish as the inclination increases, the decrement of influence for direc-
tions near the direction which furnishes the maximum eflect being, however, very
small indeed.

He points out that if this simple kind of relation obtains, the velocity figure—
2.e., the figure whose radii express the different velocities proper to different direc-
tions of polarisation for rays traversing a crystal—must exhibit a smoothed cur-
vature derived indeed, but having a very different aspect, from that of the
corrugated surface whose radii would express the relative facility of ether-
movement taking place in different directions in the same crystal; and that the
simplest conceivable result of such a smoothing or averaging will be for the
velocity-figure to approximate as closely as we please to the result obtained by
treating the velocity appropriate to any direction of polarisation whatever as the
resultant of three components acting in some particular three widely separated
directions, each component, in harmony with the averaging referred to above,
being greater or less as the direction of the resultant which is being resolved lies
nearer to or further from its direction, and being zero when the resultant lies in
the plane of the remaining two components. ‘The relative lie of the three direc-
tions will, of course, depend on the nature of the crystal structure. The reason
for taking three directions is that this is the least number which can be employed
consistently with generality.

He proceeds to show that the simplest figure thus obtainable is an ellipsoid, of
which the three axes are conjugate diameters, and calls attention to the fact that
the number of the sets of three axes which will fulfil the requisite conditions in
any given case is unlimited.

From the fact that the velocity-figure is in all crystals found to be an ellipsoid
(specialised, indeed, in some of the crystal systems), he finally argues that. the
velocity of a ray is an average effect of the different resistances to ether-movement
offered in different directions of the nature above explained ; and that the combi-
nation or averaging by which so simple a figure as the ellipsoid is reached mast
not only extend over a wide range of resistances for each velocity, but also that it
must be so nearly uniform in its application throughout some considerable portion of
this range as to preclude entirely all merely local effects of the structural features
of the crystal on the contour of the velocity-figure.

In closing, the writer remarks that the directions which give maximum or
minimum velocity—7e., those of the principal axes of the ellipsoid—will not
necessarily be directions of maximum or minimum facility of ether-movement, the
indents and protuberances of the corrugated figure whose radii express the relative
facility of ether-movement in different directions not being traceable as such on
the velocity-figure.

Also that tue directions of the principal axes of the velocity-ellipsoid will not

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 619

be ascertainable from the morphological constants unless the degrees of resistance
presented in different directions are known; except, however, the cases of the
more symmetrical systems in which the positions of these axes are fixed by
symmetrical considerations.

A similar observation applies to the absorption-figure for monochromatic light,
which is also an ellipsoid.

The fact that the elasticity-figwre of crystals is a surface of a higher order than
an ellipsoid is due to its being the outcome of a compounding and averaging’ whose
scope is more limited and not so uniform as that above referred to.

11. On a Species of Tetrahedron the Volume of any member of which can
be determined without employing the proof of the proposition that
Tetrahedra on equal bases and having equal altitudes are equal,
which depends on the Method of Limits. By M. J. M. Hin, I.A.,
D.Sc., L.RS., Professor of Mathematics at University College, London.

The object of this communication is to prove the existence of the species of
the tetrahedron mentioned in the title.

Art. 1. A proof is first given of the nown proposition, that if the edges B A,
CA, DA of the tetrahedron A BC D be produced through A to E, F, G respec-
tively, so that BA=AE, CA=AF, DA=AG, then the tetrahedra ABC D,
A EF G are of equal volume.

Art. 2, From the above proposition it is deduced that if the edge DA of the
tetrahedron A BC D be perpendicular to the plane A B C, and if D A be produced
to E,so that DA=A, then the tetrahedra ABCD, ABCE are of equal
volume.

Art. 3. Now let A BC D be a tetrahedron, and let DH, CK be drawn equal
and parallel to B A.

Jon HA, AK, KH, HC.

Then if B H be perpendicular to the plane A C D, it follows, by applying Art. 2
twice over, that the tetrahedra A BC D, ADC H are of equal volume,

Tn like manner if DK be perpendicular to the plane A C H, it follows that the
tetrahedra A DCH, A H CK are of equal volume.

Hence the tetrahedron A BC D is one third of the prism, having the same base
and altitude.
The two conditions—

(1) That B H is perpendicular to the plane AC D, and (2) that D K is perpen

620 ' REPORT—1895.

dicular to the plane A C H—result in the expression of the lengths of the six edges
of the tetrahedron in terms of two positive quantities a, & as follows :—

AC=aV/9-3)*;
AD=BC=2a; ienad
AB=BD=DC=av1+k.

Henceo<gk< 4/3.

The faces BD A, BD C are equal isosceles triangles.

The faces A C B, AC D are equal scalene triangles.

The planes BC A, BCD are perpendicular to each other, and so are the planes
ADB, ADC.

The planes AC B, AC D are inclined at an angle of 60°,

The planes ABC, ABD are inclined at the acute angle whose cosine is
3 4/3-—k’, and so are the planes CD A, CDB.

The planes BD A, BDC are inclined at the angle whose cosine is } (k?—1),
which is obtuse if o</<1, but acute if 1<k< 4/3.

The volume of the tetrahedron is 3. a°k?./3—k*.

12. On Absolute and Relative Motion. By Prof. J. D. Everert, F.R.S.

Though there is no test by which we can distinguish between absolute rest and -
uniform velocity of translation, D’Alembert’s principle furnishes a test by which
deviation from such uniformity can be detected. Lvery deviation produces the
same effects which would be produced by bodily forces opposite to the actual
changes of velocity. The intensity of the apparent bodily force is equal in each
case to the absolute acceleration.

What is called centrifugal force is an apparent bodily force directed outwards
from the centre of curvature of the body’s path, and having an intensity equal to
the distance from this centre, multiplied by the square of the absolute angular
velocity. Angular velocity, unlike velocity of translation, involves acceleration ;
and by comparing the accelerations of different points of a rigid body we can
measure the absolute angular velocity of the body. The slope of a conical pen-
dulum and the concavity of the surface of the liquid in a revolving vessel are
phenomena which depend on absolute velocity of horizontal rotation; and another
measure of horizontal angular velocity is furnished by differences of pressure at
different points in a horizontal tube full of liquid.

13. On the Magnetic Field due to a Current in a Solenoid.
by W. H. Everert, B.A.

The case of a solenoid of circular section is the only one hitherto investigated,
and this has been done by considerations derived from magnetic shells. In this
paper the problem is approached by a more direct method, and general solutions
are obtained in a form which can be readily worked out to numerical values.
Special application is made to the case of a rectangular (or polygonal) solenoid, the
component forces being expressed in finite terms. For a very long solenoid of
any form of section the longitudinal force in either of the end sections is shown to
be exactly the same at all points, and in any solenoid the longitudinal force is
shown to be more uniform in the end sections than in the medial section. Asa
particular case the method gives the component forces due to a plane circuit at
any point in its field ; and a simple expression is found for the force, at any interior
point, due to a circular current.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 621

14. On the Law of Error in the Case of Correlated Variations.
Sy 8. H. Bursury, £.B.S.

If we have a great number, N, of independent magnitudes, each liable to
variation according to any law of its own, but remaining always finite, the chance
that their sum, each divided by »/N, shalllie between x and 2 + dx is proportional
to e~’*dxz, where h is a constant. The proof of that proposition is originally due
to Poisson. The first application of it was to errors of observation, each of the
‘magnitudes’ aforesaid being such an error, and the N observations being supposed
independent.

Modern writers, among others Mr. F. Galton and Mr. F. Y. Edgeworth, have
substituted for the single magnitude given by each: independent ‘observation a
group of mutually dependent or ‘correlated’ magnitudes, and for the single square
forming the index in e~”* a quadratic function, z.e., sums of square and products
of the correlated magnitudes. If, for instance, they be denoted by x and y, the
expression corresponding to «dx will be e—“*++e%dvdy. The coefticient
4 expresses the fact of ‘correlation’ between 2 and y.

The object of the following paper is (1) to extend the purely mathematical
investigation hitherto applied to the case of single magnitudes to the case of groups
of magnitudes, the members of each group, although ‘correlated’ with one
another, being still supposed independent of any other group—in this I only
follow the lines of the known proof; and (2) to. show how in certain cases the
method may be extended to groups which do not possess this property of mutual
independence.

Part I.—Anrrticres 1-15.

1. Let f,(a, ... ap), or f., be a continuous function of the variables a, . . . an.
Let f,(6, ... dn), or f, be the same or a different function of the variables, . . . bn,
and so on to f,(q, . . - %), there being N fuactions. Denote by Pa the integral

| Ailtin9 FAC COMM LL

and by P, {| ain Or) ais QOny Ol

—co

2. Assume the ’s to be independent of the a’s, so that the variables a are not
contained explicitly or implicitly in f, . . . or f,, the variables 4 are not contained
in fa, Orin f, ... f;,and soon. Then

PaPe ee Peel es Safi oo fills «+ «A

3. Of the N, variables, a, . . . 7, form now n linear functions whose type is

Aja, +Ab, + 22
Te

where the coefficients are numerical and of the order of magnitude <i . Let it

be required to find the value of
[f= Jar es Pade «+ dam

y

subject to the condition that the linear functions lie respectively between limits

8+ 2... 8 +d8,, &e.

622 REPORT—1895.

4, To de that, substitute s, . .. s, fora, ... @ by the linear equations, and
then perform the integration according to 6c, &c. That reduces the integral to
p(s, . - + &)ds, .. . dsn, where denotes some function.

Now let

X.=|| va a frcratmater Ada. daty

x={]. oo SeOarshituabatat--IV—-l dh. . dbn, &e.
That gives
XaX» OP x,={{ one p(s, eee Bn )e $19: +826 + ed v-l ds, oe Sn.
5. It is now proved (Prop. I.) that

+00 =
Coe n=|| sat GOs «0 © gad ¢ vig Kae ee cere
multiplied by a constant independent of 7, . .. Tn.

6, Proposition II, is next proved, that if

| a [a woo S (Uy oo» Un) COS (Ou, + O,%, +... )=pcCosr,
and
{a [es ooo S(u,.. + %) sin (6,4, +6,u,+ ... )=psina.

And if at the same time

far (2 oo f(t, + Ms) =,

ThenstGi—6,——-. . —0,—O0,p—1.. It any,67-0,p <1,

From this it follows that unless every 6 =0,each of the quantities X,,X)... X,is
less than unity.

7. Now let a, ... a» be any set of correlated variables, and let f,(@, . . . an)
da, ... da, be the chance that they shall simultaneously lie between the limits
a,...@,+da,,&c. Let f,(b,...5,) have the corresponding meaning for another
set of correlated variables independent of the a’s, and so on for f;, &c.

Then, if we form the linear functions

A, a, +A,b, + Ke.
Pit + Had, + &e.,

the chance that they shall lie between the limits 7, and 7,+dr, &c. is, by
Proposition I.,

—co

co CO
(2, eae [aenxx, pie Xe Mat soe +P) /-1

multiplied by a constant independent of r, . . . 7p.

8. In this expansion substitute for X, &c. their values, and expand the
exponential factor. a?

If any 6 differs from zero, each of the factors X is, by Prop. II., less than unity,
and therefore (since we are dealing not with the product of integrals, but with
the integral of the product X,... X,) we may neglect in that expansion all powers
of 6 above the second. The expansion is then reduced to the form

\| see «Fd 6, eee db,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 623

in which ree
R=A,6,7+B,.6,0,+ &. —(7,0,+ 666 +7'nbn)/—],
in which A, B,,, &c., are known.
And performing the integrations according to 6, . . . 0,, we obtain as result the

expression
e-Gn—ny? +0, 9(7,—7,)(%2—-72) + &e.,

in which the coefficients are known quantities when the functions fi, fi, &c., and
the i’s, p’s, &c., are known.
It thus appears that the chance of the linear functions
AQ, tAgdg+ 2...
fyb, + pydgt . 2.

lying respectively within the limits
Teme Qatar,
En) Daca e len cdshe

is a quadratic function of (r;—7,), (r,—7,), &c. The exponential form always
occurs in the result, whatever be the forms of the functions f,, 7, &c. Only the
coefficients of the quadratic function are determined by the forms of these func-
tions.

Part II.

9. Up to this point we have assumed that any one of our sets of correlated
variables, e.g. @, . . . @n, Or, as We may call it, any one ‘ association,’ is independent
of the variables in any other.

It is now proposed to treat the several associationsa@, . . . dn, b, . . . dy, &e., a8
representing the state of the same material system, defined by 7 variables, at succes-
sive points of time. That is, if v7, . .. 2 be the variables defining the system,
S.da, . . . dan is the chance that when ¢=0 they shall lie within the limits

=a, and v,=a,+da,, &e.
2, =a, and %, =a, + da,, &e.

Similarly fidd, . . . db, is the chance that when ¢=r they shall lie within the
limit v,=6, and 2,=,+db,, &c.,and soon. Then generally the variables 6, .. . 4,
are not independent of a, . . . an, because given that when ¢=0, x, =a,, &c., that
affects the chance that when ¢=r, 2, shall =0,, &c.

We cannot therefore at once apply our investigation of Part I. to the series of
functions fy, fr, &e.

10, It is now shown that in cases where the condition of complete independ-
ence is not satisfied, another condition, called the modified condition of independence,
may be satisfied. That is, namely, that although the 6’s are not independent of
the a’s for such values of the time 7, yet it may be the case that when r= or >T,

where T is a definite time, the d’s are independent of the a’s, or = vanishes. It is
a

shown that if that modified condition be satisfied for every pair of associations, or
states of the system, separated by an interval of time not less than T, we ma
_ legitimately apply the method of Part I. to the whole series of associations, N? in
number, at intervals of time 6¢ or i, exactly as if they were mutually inde-
pendent. If, that is, we form ~ linear functions of the type
Aa, +A,(a,+6a,)+ 2...
[Ag t po(G,t+da,)+ 2.

and find the chance that they shall respectively lie within the limits 7, .. . r,+dr,,
&c., by the method of Part I. we obtain correct results’ so far as the exponential
form is concerned. The result is of the form e-¥dr, . . . drn, with R a quadratic

function of (7,—7,), (72-72), &e.

624 REPORT—1895.

11, We may now make our variables 7, ... tp», the time differentials of another
set &,... &n, that is,
dé, _db,
ae v= &e.

And f(a, ... a)da,... da, is now the chance that when ¢=0

d
Sea, o 2. a+da,,

dé.
eS a w+ + Ay +day, &e.,

and we now use for our linear functions
Aya, +A,(@,+6a,)+ 2.2. = as,

the summation including all the successive values of = at the successive times
t=0, t=d¢, t=26t, &c. Similarly, for the second linear function we take
ot dE and so on.

dt

12. Then we may make 6¢ infinitely small and N infinitely great, while Ndé = T
and our linear functions become

“dé, dé, a
[se | apt Be

or £,—X,, &.—Xo, &e., if X,, X,, &e., now denote the initial values of &,, &, &c.
And our proposition now assumes the form that the chance of €,... & lying
within assigned limits varies as

Tf (a(6,-X+bn(G.-ME—%), &e) },

where the index is a quadratic function of (€,—X,), (§,—X,), &e.

We thus get the exponential form, or ‘law of error,’ in all cases for which the
modified condition of independence is satisfied. In order that it may be satisfied
the time variation of €&, . . . &, must depend not only on the valuesof &,... & for
the time being, but also, in some appreciable degree, on external fortuitous causes.
And the greater the comparative importance of these fortuitous causes, the shorter
is the time T which, as the interval between two successive states of the system,
makes the variables in one of those states independent of those in the other.

Department II. Merrorooey.

1. Probable Projection Lightning Flashes.
By Eric Sruart Bruce, M.A. Oxon., FR. Met.Soc.

he classification of lightning flashes is already beset with difficulties. The
object of this paper is to suggest the possibility of Projection Lightning Flashes,
the existence of which would increase the difficulties of classification.

Sheet lightning reflected on clouds is made up of numerous images of the
lightning flash superimposed one upon the other. If there is a cloud with a suffi-
ciently small opening in it between the lightning discharge and a reflecting surface
of clouds, the latter being in an adequate position, on the clouds that otherwise
would have been merely illuminated with sheet lightning will appear the optical
projection of a lightning flash.. If the surface of clouds upon which the image
falls is level, the image will be a perfect reproduction of the lightning flash, save

:

;
,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 625

that it is inverted, and to some extent dulled in brilliancy. If, however, the sur-
face of the clouds is irregular, such as those of the cumulus type, the image of the
flash will take the shape of the irregular surface. In this way a zig-zagged flash
with long angles could be formed very like the lightning flashes depicted by
artists,

If there happen to be more openings than one in the clouds between the flash
and receiving surface, there will be a corresponding reduplication of the flashes,
which may perhaps explain some of the multiple effects observed.

If projection flashes occur in nature it becomes a question whether the photo-
graphic plate can register them.

2. Report on Solar Radiation.—See Reports, p. 81.

3. Report on Earth Tremors.—See Reports, p. 184
4, Reports on Earthquakes in Japan.—See Reports, pp. 81, 113.

5. On some Experiments made with Lord Kelvin’s Portable Electrometer.
By AntHuR Scuuster, £.2R.S.

Experiments made during a recent trip to Switzerland have demonstrated the
great convenience of Lord Kelvin’s portable instrument for the observation of
atmospheric electricity. The electrometer can easily be carried in a knapsack to
almost any place the mountaineer can reach, and the observations are readily per-
formed in a short space of time. The object of the experiments was to learn, if
possible, whether the electric force at great heights is sensibly different from that
at the sea-level. But owing to the difficulty of comparing together observations
made in valleys with those made on mountain peaks, the measurements made
during the past year were entirely of a tentative character, more for the purpose
of testing the working of the instrument than of obtaining any definite results,
The numbers given are only relative, and are referred to an arbitrary unit.

Numerous experiments made in fine weather in the centre of a small meadow
in front of the hotel at Pontresina gave for the electric force, on the average, about
30, while the number obtained on September 13, in Ipswich, in a place rather more
sheltered by surrounding houses, was between 80 and 100.'

On the so-called ‘ Diavolezza Pass’ the force was as high as 147; on the Isola
Pers, a rocky island, projecting well out of the surrounding glaciers, the number
found was 116. The instrument was taken on August 19 to the top of the Gli-
scheint (12,000 feet), which consists of a ridge of rocks just wide enough for one
man to stand upon. The electric force reached the number 816, while on the snow-
field a few hundred feet below the top, the force was only 170. The top of the
Schafberg gave 357.

On the Morteratsch glacier the numbers were, as a rule, very low, except on one
occasion, when a strong downward wind was blowing ; even then the force was only
42, Half a mile below the foot of the glacier, the numbers were very irregular,
and seemed to depend a good deal on the direction of the wind. On one occasion,
when that direction was frequently changing, a negative electrification was ob-
served whenever the current of air was away from the glacier. This may have
been due to the negative electrification caused by the glacier stream in a way
similar to that in which a similar electrification is produced by a waterfall.

The diurnal variation was observed on one day by taking measurements every
half-hour during the morning and every hour during the afternoon till seven
o'clock. A maximum of 36 was observed at 11 a.m. The numbers then fell

1 In Manchester, during the.fine weather in the last fortnight of September, the

- numbers went up to 250.

1895, ss

626 REPORT—1895.

irregularly till four o'clock, when the record was only 14. After that a rise took
place (81 at 5 p.m. and 29 at 6 p.m.). At 7 P.M. no sensible force could be measured
at all. The wind, which had been blowing up the valley all day, changed in direc-
tion between six and seven o'clock, and was blowing down the valley when the
observations had to be discontinued, owing to want of light.

The author does not draw any conclusions from these observations, but does
not believe that a mere difference in the configuration of the ground is sufficient to
account for the great differences in the electric force observed.

6. On Indian Thunderstorms. By C. Micure Srrn.

Observation shows that the ordinary hot-weather displays of sheet lightning
take place in the region between the sea aud land breezes where there are well-
marked ascending currents, as shown by the great masses of pillared cumulus
cloud. These clouds are usually in pairs, and much of the sheet lightning consists
of discharges taking place between the two clouds forming such a pair. The land
and sea breezes differ from each other in dryness and in dustiness, and many
observations seem to show that thunderstorms are originated only where dry,
dusty, and moist, and comparatively dustless air-currents meet. This explains
why electrical phenomena are observed only in that part of a cyclone in which
the air from the sea meets the air from the land, and why ‘nor’-westers’ are
accompanied by such brilliant electrical displays. Dry, dusty air is usually nega-
tively electrified relatively to the earth, while the sea breeze is usually positively
electrified. The electrical displays take place in clouds that are rapidly sinking,
and such clouds are often surrounded by an iridescent fringe (the colours of which
are due probably to dust and moisture, as explained by Aitken, composed of the
smaller particles left behind by the sinking cloud).

7. On the Zodiacal Light considered as an Atmospheric Phenomenon.
Ly W. H. Woop.

8. On the Local Origin of the Aurora Borealis. By W. H. Woop.

9. Report on the Application of Photography to Meteorology.
See Reports, p. 80.

10. Report on the Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.
See Reports, p. 186.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

1. A discussion ‘on the Objective Character of Combination Tones’ was intro-
duced by the following Paper :—

Notes on the Objective Existence of Combination Tones.}
By A. W. Ricxer, I0A4., FR.

It might at first sight appear that the question of the objective existence of
combination tones would depend upon two others—viz, Are such notes heard? Do
they exist as pulses in the air ?

' In the following notes the references to statements of Von Helmholtz are for
convenience made to the second English edition of the Sensations of Tone, translated
by Ellis. The references to Kénig’s views are to Quelques Expéricnces d’ Acoustique.
Paris, 1882.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 627

The matter, however, is not so simple. All agree that notes corresponding to
the difference tone are heard under some circumstances, but many deny that they
are produced as Von Helmholtz supposed, and would therefore deny that they are
combination tones. Again, Von Helmholtz, who was the most prominent sup-
porter of the objective reality of these notes, was also the author of the theory
which explains their production within the ear itself.

It is therefore better to begin with the second question. Do notes correspond-
ing in frequency with the combination tones accompany the two fundamental
notes as air-waves under any circumstances ?

The physical evidente for and against an affirmative answer is as following :—

Von Helmholtz stated that he had set membranes in motion by combination
tones produced by the siren, and air resonators in motion by combination tones
produced by the harmonium (Ellis, p. 157). Iam not aware that the experiment
with membranes has been repeated in the same form, but O. Lummer (‘ Verh.
Phys. Gesell.,’ Berlin, 1886, No. 9, p. 66) claimed to have detected the tones by
means of the microphone. On the other hand, Konig (p. 180) denies that com-
bination tones are reinforced by resonators ; and Bosanquet satisfied himself that
the ordinary first difference tone is incapable of exciting a resonator,

More recently, the writer and Mr. Edser, using as a resonator a tuning-fork
of frequency 64, the motions of which were detected by attaching to one of the
prongs a mirror which formed one of a system by which Michelson’s interference
bands were produced, have obtained evidence of the objective character of the sum-
mation and difference tones produced by a siren. They have confirmed these
results in the case of the summation tone by a Rayleigh vane-resonator as modi-
fied by Boys (‘ Phil. Mag., April 1895, p. 341).

The only objection which, as far as the writer knows, has been brought against
these experiments is that the tones detected must be of very small intensity ; and
Mr. Bosanquet has stated (in a letter) that he does not wish to be understood as
denying the existence of very feeble combination tones.

It is unnecessary to quote experiments made by various observers with tuning-
forks, as the use of these instruments is in general opposed to the directions and
theories of Helmholtz. (Ellis, pp. 157, 158.)

On the whole, then, the evidence appears to be in favour of the view that
objective notes of the same frequency as the combination tones do exist, at all
events in special cases. Their relative intensity to the fundamental notes has not
been determined, and is probably small.

Turning next to questions of theory, three explanations have been given of
objective combination tones—viz., that they are due (1) to beats, (2) to finite dis-
placements of the vibrating particles, and (8) to intermittence.

Among other objections to the first theory, Helmholtz pointed out that it
would not explain the summation tone. (Ellis, p. 156).
Hence Konig suggested that the summation tone might be due to the beats of
partials (Konig, p. 126). This explanation requires that, if p and q are the fre-
quencies of the fundamentals, p + ¢ = (p—g) where n is an integer. The writer and
Mr. Edser have, however, obtained evidence of the objective existence of the summa-
tion tone when p/¢=16/9, so that n=25/7 (Joc. cit. p. 352). (See Ellis, p. 580.)
Appunn and Preyer have suggested that the summation tone is the beat tone
between the first partial of the higher note and the difference tone, for
2p—(p—q)=p+gq. Konig (p. 127) strongly opposes the adequacy of this explana~
tion, which is contrary to his own observations on beats, and which fails to explain
why the difference tone should not produce equally permanent effects by beating
with the first partial of the lower note, thus giving 2¢ ~ (p—9)=3q—p or p— 39.
The theory of finite displacements is due to Helmholtz, who has shown (Ellis,
_p. 412) that if the elastic forces are not symmetrical about the position of equili-
_brium, the fundamental tones will be accompanied by the second partials and the

_ difference and summation tones,

He has, however, also proved (Ellis, p. 420) that if in an instrument such as
the siren the opening of one hole affects the pressure under which the air is simul-

ss2

628 REPORT—1895.

taneously escaping out of the other, the quantity of air escaping may be repre-
sented in the simplest case by such a formula as

Q=C (1-sin 27 mt) (1 —sin 27 nt)
=C [1-sin 27 mt—sin 27 nt + {cos 2x (m—n) t—cos 2x (m+n) t}],

thus giving rise to the first difference and summation tones.

A somewhat similar theory has since been elaborated by Terquem. (‘ Annales
d’Ecole Normale,’ 1870, p. 356).

At present it must be considered to be open to question whether the objective
combination tones given by the siren are due to finite displacement or to inter-
mittence, or to both causes combined.

2. A Discussion ‘on a New Practical Heat Standard.” Introduced by a Paper
by E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S.

3. On the Thermal Conductivities of Mixtures of Liquids.
By Cuartes H. Lezs, D.Sc.

The author has carried out a number of determinations of the thermal conduc-
tivities of mixtures of liquids by a method analogous to that of Christiansen, but
-with the heat supplied electrically and the temperature measured by means of
thermo-junctions. For the mixtures of water, glycerine and alcohols experimented
-on, the conductivities are found to be less than the values calculated from the
-amounts and thermal conductivities of the constituents, and the author believes
that this will be found to be a general law. A possible explanation may be found
in the inability of one of the molecules of a mixture to take up and transmit the
particular kind of vibration executed by the other.

For solutions of salts and gases in water the author finds conductivities less
than that of water, in agreement with the results obtained by Jiiger.

4, A Method of Comparing the Heats of Evaporation of Different Liquids
at their Boiling Points. By Professor W. Ramsay, PA.D., F.R.S.,
University College, London, and Miss Dororny Marsuatt, £.Sce.,
University College, London.

This method consists in making the liquid boil by passing an electric current
through a wire immersed in it.

The liquid is put into a glass bulb enclosed in an outer jacket filled with
~vapour of the same liquid. An open tube is attached to the top of the bulb, so
‘that there is free communication between the interior and the vapour jacket, and
mo loss of material. Inside the bulb isa spiral of fine platinum wire, attached to
stout platinum terminals which are sealed into the glass, These terminals rest in
mercury cups, by means of which connection is made. The temperature of the
liquid in the bulb is raised to the boiling-point by the vapour jacket; thus when a
current is sent through the wire the whole of the heat developed is spent in
converting a portion of the liquid into vapour.

If two such bulbs containing different liquids are connected in series, the ratio
of their losses of weight is the inverse ratio of the heats of evaporation of the
liquids.

: A correction must be made for the inequality in resistance of the spirals.
The ratio of the differences of potential between the ends of each spiral while the
current is passing is determined in each experiment by Poggendorff’s method,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

629

TABLE I.
Ratio to L L cal-
ig Benzene} found | culated Other Observers
Toluene 0:920 86°8 —_ 83°6 Schiff.
Metaxylene. 0:877 82°8 = 78:3 Schiff.
Alcohol 2°293 216°5 — 2024 Andrews.
227:0 Brix.
208:0 Despretz.
208'°9 FavreandSilbermann.
206'4 Schall.
205:0 Wirtz.
201:4 Longuinine.
Acetic Acid F 1-028 97:0 92:7 | 120°8 Berthelot.
84:9 Berthelot and Ogier.
101'°9 Favreand Silbermann.
Methyl Formate . 1-167 110°1 1191 | 1171 Andrews.
115'2 Berthelot.
Ethyl Formate 1:000 94-4 93-4 | 105°3 Andrews.
100-4 Berthelot.
92:2 Schiff.
113°25 Jahn.
Methyl Acetate . 1-028 97:0 96°8 | 110:2 Andrews.
94:0 Schiff.
113-86 Jahn.
Propyl Formate . 0:956 90:2 87:3 85°3 Schiff.
Ethyl Acetate 0:899 84:9 84:3 92:7 Andrews.
83:1 Schiff.
84:3 Wirtz.
102°14 Jahn.
Methyl Propionate 0:942 89:0 87:7 84:2 Schiff.
Propyl Acetate 0-881 83:2 — 773 +
Ethyl Propionate 0°867 81:8 — (ita! ”
Methyl Butyrate. 0°844 EY — 773 of
Methyl Isobutyrate 0-794 75:0 — 755 yy
TABLE DE;
Ratio to ML
i Benzene L t MM aa
Benzene 1-000 94-4 80:2 77-40 | 20°65
Toluene 0-920 86°8 1108 91°30 20°61
Metaxylene . 0'877 82°8 138°5 105°20 21:03
Alcohol : 2-293 216'5 78°2 45°66 28°09
Acetic Acid . 1:028 97:0 118°5 59°52 14:72
Water . ‘ B 0176 537-0 100:0 17°86 25°64
Methyl Formate . 1167 110-1 318 59°52 21:45
Ethyl Formate 1:000 94:4 54:3 73°42 21:13
Methyl Acetate 1:028 97:0 57-1 73°42 21°53
Propyl Formate 0:956 90:2 80:9 87°32 22°38
Ethyl Acetate 0:899 84:9 77-15 87:32 22°13
Methyl Propionate 0943 89:0 797 87°32 2199
Propyl Acetate 0881 83:2 10125 101-22 2445
Ethyl Propionate. 0:867 81:8 99:0 101°22 Py S|
Methyl Butyrate . 07844 1977 102°7 101°22 21:43
Methyl Isobutyrate 0°794 75:0 92°3 101:22 20°74

630 REPORT—1895.

In Table II.—
L is the heat of evaporation ;
t the temperature of the boiling-point ;

M the molecular weight ;

ae the quotient of the molecular heat of evaporation by the absolute

temperature: according to Tronton’s Law this should be constant.

Jf the heat of vaporisation of any one liquid be known, the absolute value of
the heat of vaporisation for any other liqud can be calculated from the ratio.
‘Water was originally selected as the standard liquid, but it proved to be quite
unsuitable: experiments in which one of the liquids was water never gave
concordant results. It appears impossible by any ordinary means to get water so
pure that conduction across it and the consequent polarisation may be disregarded.
The liquid finally adopted as the standard is benzene, for which L=94"4 at 80°2.1

The heat of evaporation may also be calculated from the thermodynamic
a : i when the necessary data can be found.

The value of J adopted in these calculations is that given by Griffiths? and
used in working out the experiments on benzene. Even if not correct, it is still
the right value to use here, because it was determined by means of the same
standards as those by which the quantity of heat developed in the benzene experi-
ments was determined, so that any errors would eliminate.

The other data were experimental.

The agreement between the found and calculated values of L is fairly close in
most of the cases examined. The work is still in progress.

equation, L = (s’ —s)

5. On a Harmonic Anatyser. By G. U. Yue.

The author exhibited the instrument, which is fully described in the ‘ Philo-
sophical Magazine’ for April 1895.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER ii.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. On the Electrification and Diselectrification of Air and other Gases.
Sy Lord Ketyviy, Magnus Maciean, and ALEXANDER GALT.

§ 1. Experiments were made for the purpose of finding an approximation to
the amount of electrification communicated to air by one or more electrified
needle points. The apparatus consisted of a metallic can 48 cm, high and
21 cm. in diameter, supported by paraffine blocks, and connected to one pair of
quadrants of a quadrant electrometer. It hada hole at the top to admit the
electrifying wire, which was 5°31 metres long, hanging vertically within a metallic
guard tube. This guard tube was always metallically connected to the other pair
of quadrants of the electrometer and to its case, and to a metallic screen surround-
ing it. This prevented any external influences from sensibly affecting the electro-
meter, such as the working of the electric machine which stood on a shelf 5 metres
above it.

§ 2. The experiment is conducted as follows:—One terminal of an electric
machine is connected with the guard tube and the other with the electrifying wire
which is let down so that the needle is in the centre of the can. The can is
temporarily connected to the case of the electrometer. The electric machine is

? Griffiths and Marshall. 2 Phil. Trans., 184 A (1893).

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 631

then worked for some minutes, so as to electrify the air in the can. As soon as
the machine is stopped the electrifyinz wire is lifted clear out of the can. The
can and the qnadrants in metallic connection with it are disconnected from the
case of the electrometer, and the electrified air is very rapidly drawn away from
the can by a blowpipe bellows arranged to exhaust. This releases the opposite kind
of electricity from the inside of the can, and allows it to place itself in equilibrium
on the outside of the can and on the insulated quadrants of the electrometer in
metallic connection with it.

§ 3. We tried different lengths of time of electrification, and different numbers
of needles and tinsel, but we found that one needle and four minutes of electrifica-
tion gave nearly maximum effect. The greatest deflection observed was 936 scale
divisions. To find, from this reading, the electric density of the air in the can, we
took a metallic disc, of 2 cm. radius, attached to a long varnished glass rod, and
placed it at a distance of 1:45 cm. from another and larger metallic disc. This
small air condenser was charged from the electric light conductors in the labora-
tory to a difference of potential amounting to 100 volts. The insulated disc thus
charged was removed and laid upon the roof of the large insulated can. This
addition to the metal in connection with it does not sensibly influence its electro-
static capacity. The deflection observed was 122 scale divisions. The capacity

- 2? il : eae
i mimietel ya ee
of the condenser is approximately Es4 ae TTS The quantity of electricity
with which it was charged was = x paee = electrostatic unit. Hence the
quantity to give 936 scale divisions was _ x pe = 1:7637.
30 «122

The bellows was worked vigorously for two and a half minutes, and in that
time all the electrified air would be exhausted. The capacity of the can was
16,632 cubic nee ae which gives, for the quantity of electricity per cubic

1-763
** 16682
positive: it was about as great as the greatest we got, whether positive or
negative, in common air when we electrified it by discharge from needle points.
This is about four times the electric density which we roughly estimated as about
the greatest given to the air in the inside of a large metal vat, electrified by a
needle point and then left to itself, and tested by the potential of a water-dropper
with its nozzle in the centre of the vat, in experiments made two years ago, and
described in a communication to the Royal Society of date May 1894.1

§ 4. In subsequent experiments electrifying common air in a large gas-holder
over water by an insulated gas flame burning within it with a wire in the interior
of the flame kept electrified by an electric machine to about 6,000 volts, whether
positively or negatively, we found as much as 15 x 10~‘ for the electric density
of the air. Electrifying carbonic acid in the same gas-holder, whether positively or
negatively, by needle points, we obtained an electric density of 2:2 x 10-*,

§ 5. We found about the same electric density (2:2 x 10-*) of negative
electricity in carbonic acid gas drawn from an iron cylinder lying horizontally, and
allowed to pass by a U-tube into the gas-holder without bubbling through the
water. This electrification was due probably not to carbonic acid gas rushing
through the stopcock of the cylinder, but to bubbling from the liquid carbonic acid
in its interior, or to the formation of carbonic acid snow in the passages and its
subsequent evaporation. When carbonic acid gas was drawn slowly from the
liquid carbonic acid in the iron cylinder placed upright, and allowed to pass,
without bubbling, through the U-tube into the gas-holder over water, no electrifi-
cation was found in the gas unless electricity was communicated to it from needle

oints.
§ 6. The electrifications of air and carbonic acid described in Sections -t and 5
were tested, and their electric densities measured, by drawing by an air pump

centimet = 1:06 x'10-4. The electrification of the air in this case was

1 On the Electrification of Air. By Lord Kelvin and Magnus Maclean.

632. REPORT—1895.

a measured quantity of the gas! from the gas-holder through an indiarubber tube
to a receiver of known efficiency and of known capacity in connection with the
electrometer. We have not yet measured how much electricity was lost in the
passage through the indiarnbber tube. It was not probably nothing; and the
electric density of the gas before leaving the gas-holder was no doubt greater,
though perhaps not much greater, than what it had when it reached the electric
receiver.

§ 7. The efficiency of the electric receivers used was approximately determined
by putting two of them in series, with a paraffine tunnel between them, and mea-
suring by means of two quadrant electrometers the quantity of electricity which
each took from a measured quantity of air drawn through them, By performing
this experiment several times, with the order of the two receivers alternately
reversed, we had data for calculating the proportion of the electricity taken by
each receiver from the air entering it,on the assumption that the proportion taken
by each receiver was the same in each case. This assumption was approximately
justified by the results. ;

§ 8. Thus we found for the efficiencies of two different receivers respectively
0:77 and 0°31 with air electrified positively or negatively by needle points; and
0:82 and 042 with carbonic acid gas electrified negatively by being drawn from an
iron cylinder placed on its side. Each of these receivers consisted of block tin
pipe 4cm. long and 1 cm. diameter, with five plugs of cotton wool kept in position
by six discs of fine wire gauze. The great difference in their efficiency was, no
doubt, due to the quantities of cotton wool being different, ur differently compressed
in the two.

§ 9. We have commenced, and we hope to continue, an investigation of the
efficiency of electric receivers of various kinds, such as block tin, brass, and
platinum tubes from 2 to 4cm. long and from ] mm. to 1 cm, internal diameter,
all of smooth bore and without any cottun wool or wire gauze filters in them; also
a polished metal solid insulated within a parafline tunnel. This investigation,
made with various quautities of air drawn through per second have already given
us some interesting and surprising results, which we hope to describe after we
have learned more by further experimenting.

§ 10. In addition to our experiments on electric filters we have made many
other experiments to find other means for the diselectrification of air. It might
be supposed that drawing air in bubbles through water should be very effective for
this purpose, but we find that this is far from being the case. We had previously
found that non-electrified air drawn in bubbles through pure water becomes nega-
tively electrified, and through salt water positiyely. We now find that positively
electrified air drawn through pure water, and negatively electrified air through
salt water, has its electrification diminished but not annulled if the primitive elec-
trification is sufficiently strong. Negatively electrified air drawn in bubbles through
pure water, and positively electrified air drawn through salt water, has its electri-
fication augmented.

§ 11. To test the effects of heat we drew air through combustion tubes of
German glass about 180 cm. long and 24 or 14 cm. bore, the heat being applied
externally to about 120 cm. of the length. We found that when the temperature
was raised to nearly a dull red heat, air, whether positively or negatively electrified,
lost little or nothing of its electritication by being drawn through the tube. When
the temperature was raised to a dull red heat, and to a bright red, high enough to
soften the glass, losses up to as much as four-fifths of the whole electrification were
sometimes observed, but never complete diselectrification. The results, however,
were very irregular. Non-electrified air never became sensibly electrified by being
drawn through the hot glass tubes in our experiments ; but it gained strong posi-

1 The gas-holder was 38 cm. high and 81 cm. in circumference. Ten strokes
of the pump raised the water inside to a height of 8-1 cm., so that the volume of
air drawn through the receivers in the experiments was 428 cubic cm. per stroke
of the pump. This agrees with the measured effective volume of the two cylinders
of the pump.

EEE

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 633

tive electrification when pieces of copper foil, and negative electrification when
pieces of carbon, were placed in the tube, and when the temperature was sufficient
to powerfully oxidise the copper or to burn away the charcoal.

§ 12. Through the kindness of Mr. E. Matthey, we have been able to experi-
ment with a platinum tube 1 metre long and 1 mm. bore. It was heated either
by a gas flame or an electric current. When the tube was cold, and non-electri-
fied air drawn through it, we found no signs of electrification by our receiver and
electrometer. But when the tube was made red or white hot, either by gas
burners applied externally or by an electric current through the metal of the tube,
the previously non-electrified air drawn through it was found to be electrified
strongly positive. To get complete command of the temperature we passed a
measured electric current through 20 em. of the platinum tube. On increasing the
current vill the tube began to be at a scarcely visible dull red heat we found but
little electrification of the air. When the tube was a little warmer, so as to be
quite visibly red hot, large electrification became manifest. Thus 60 strokes of the
air-pump gave 45 scale divisions on the electrometer when the tube was dull red,
and 395 scale divisions (7 volts) when it was a bright red (produced by a current
of 36 ampéres). With stronger currents, raising the tube to white-hot tempera-
ture, the electrification seemed to be considerably less.

2. Do Vertical (Harth-Air) Electric Currents Exist in the United
Kingdom? By A. W. RicKer, F.R.S.

In a paper by Dr. Adolph Schmidt read before Section A of the British
Association at Oxford,’ the author stated that he had expanded the components of
the earth’s magnetic force in series, and had deduced expressions, two of which
give the magnetic potential un the surface of the earth in so far as it depends on
(1) internal and (2) external forces. ‘The third series represents that part of the
magnetic forces which cannot be expressed in terms of a potential, but must be
due to electric currents traversing the earth’s surface.” The author concludes that
such currents amount ‘ on the average to about 0:1 ampere per square kilometre.’

It appeared, therefore, desirable that this conclusion, drawn from the magnetic
state of the earth as a whole, should be tested by means of those portions which
have been most fully studied.

The test to be applied is whether the line integral of the magnetic force taken
round a re-entrant circuit is or is not a vanishing quantity.

The irregular form of the United Kingdom makes the application of this test
more difficult than it would otherwise be, but as two detailed surveys of Great
Britain and Ireland have been carried out by Dr. Thorpe and myself for the
epochs 1886 and 1891 respectively, the data at our disposal are so numerous that
I thought it worth while to undertake the inquiry. The actual work of calcula-
tion has been carried out almost entirely by two of my students, Messrs. Kay and
Whalley. My best thanks are due to them for the care and skill they have
displayed.

Two circuits called the a and 8 circuits respectively were selected, bounded by
the following lines :—

(a) Long. 2° W., Lat. 58° N.; Long. 7° W., Lat. 52° N.
(8) Long. 1° W., Lat. 55° N.; Long. 9° W., Lat. 52° N,

The work done by a unit magnetic pole on traversing these circuits was calculated
for the epoch 1886:0 by means of the terrestrial lines found for that date, and also
for the epoch 1891:0 by means (1) of the same lines when due allowance was
made for the secular change, and (2) of the independent set of lines found by aid
of the later survey.

The magnitudes of the hypothetical currents deduced from these calculations

1 Rey. Brit. Assoc., 1894, p. 570.

634 REPORT—1895.

were very small, and those for the later epoch were of opposite signs, according as
they were calculated from the earlier or the later survey.

The same calculation was made for two other circuits, one (7) in Great Britain
and one (6) in Ireland ; but instead of using the calculated terrestrial lines, the
true values of the forces and declinations were employed, as deduced from the
nearest stations. The great local disturbances in Antrim interfered with the value
of the Ivish circuit. The following table gives the results in amperes per square
kilometre obtained from circuits a and #8 by the terrestrial lines for 1886-0, and
also by the mean terrestrial lines for 1891-0, which occupy the mean position

between those given by the two independent surveys, and lastly the results for
circuit (y).

Circuit.
| a | B ) y
1886-0 —0:026 | —0-004 | 23
1891-0 + 0-001 — 0-005 / cz
1891-0 i6 = | — 0-008

From these we may conclude that there is not in the United Kingdom a
vertical current amounting on the average to 0-1 ampere per square kilometre.
There may possibly be a current of about a tenth or a twentieth of that amount,
and if so the signs show that it probably flows from air to earth, but on account
both of the smallness of the results and of the discrepancy between the values
obtained for 1891 by two independent calculations, we cannot assert that such a
current actually exists,

The calculations do not disprove Dr. Schmidt’s hypothesis, as we cannot argue
from the condition of a small portion of the earth’s surface to that of the whole.
The most that can be said is that no evidence in favour of the existence of vertical
currents can be drawn from one district which has been very minutely surveyed.

3. On the Equation Connecting the Potential Difference, Current,
and Length of the Electric Arc. By Mrs. Ayrton.

4. On the back E.M.F. and True Resistance of the Electric Are.
By Professor W. E. Ayrton, /.2.S., and T. Maruer.

5. Note on the Llectrolysis of Iron Salts.
By W.M. Hicks, /.2.S., and L. T. O’'Suna.

To prepare iron free from sulphur and carbon by electrolysis we used a solution
of the double ferrous ammonium chloride. Large masses of metal can only be
obtained by paying particular attention to the following points.

1. The strict neutrality of the solution: its strength must be regulated so
as to offer suitable resistance for the regulation of the potential difference
between the terminals and of the current density. We used a five per cent.
solution of ferrous chloride to which sufficient ammonium chloride was added to
form the double salt. This strength must be maintained, for if the amount of iron
salt falls too low the ammonium chloride is decomposed and ferrous hydroxide is
precipitated.

The solution should be free from ferric salt, as this causes the formation of
ferric hydroxide, which settles on the cathode plate. The solution can be freed

from ferric salts by shaking with reduced iron and filtering just before being
used.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 635

2. The current density. For electrolytic analysis Classen gives a current
density of 0:05 to 1:0 ampére per 100 sq. cm., and 8S. P. Thompson 0:08 to 0:25
ampére per 100 sq. cm. for steel facing. We find that it is advisable to strike
the deposit with a density of 0°2 ampére per 100 sq. cm., then reduce to 0:15 to
0:18 ampére per 100 sq. cm., and that this should not be exceeded, though
densities as low as 0:08 can be used.

The potential difference between the terminals we used was 0°7 volt, and this
was obtained by placing a single storage cell, voltage 2, in series with a dilute
sulphuric acid cell with lead electrodes and a small external resistance,

3. The electrodes. The cathode must present a perfectly clean surface. We
used thin copper sheet and found the best method of cleaning was to flush it with
nitric acid and then scrub it with excess of a strong solution of potassium cyanide.

All parts of the cathode except that on which the deposit is to form must be
insulated from the solution. This may be done by coating the necessary parts
with Brunswick black, on which, if perfectly dry, the solution has no action.

The anode was a sheet of rolled Swedish iron, and to prevent the impurities it
contained from mixing with the electrolyte it was enclosed in a porous cell. The
accumulation of sulphuric acid in the electrolyte was prevented as much as possible
by changing the solution in this cell twice daily. The solution used contained
one per cent. ferrous chloride. The surface of the cathode is covered with small
conical cavities, due to the formation of microscopic gas bubbles ; in the early stages
of the deposition great care must be taken to remove these by periodically exposing
the surface to the air and in addition rubbing the surface. By taking these pre-
cautions the process can be carried on without interruption, and a firm, coherent
deposit obtained of great purity.

6. On a Magnetic Field Tester.
By Professor W. E. Ayrton, /.2.S., and T. Marumr.

7. On ine Velocity of Light in Rarefied Gases through which an Electrical
Discharge is passing. By Epwin Epser, 4.&.C.S., and Sypngy G.
Staring, A.2.C.S. ,

Lord Rayleigh has published the result of a research relative to the velocity of
light in an electrolyte through which an electric current is passing. Dilute
sulphuric acid was used, and the conclusion reached was that the velocity was
unaffected by the passage of the current.

It seemed to us worth while to perform a similar experiment to the above, sub-
stituting a rarefied gas for the electrolyte. The conditions are somewhat different,
for though it has been shown by Professor J, J. Thomson that the ordinary stratified
discharge can be assimilated to a current passing through an electrolyte by con-
sidering each stratification to correspond to a Grotthus chain, yet there is left still
outstanding the phenomenon known as the kathode rays. Professor J. J. Thomson
considers these rays to consist of a number of atoms, each carrying its tubes of
force, and moving with a velocity comparable with 2x 10° cm. per second. If
these tubes of force consist of or comprise a number of vortex filaments of the
ether, we might reasonably hope to detect some difference in the velocity of the
light, according as it moves with or against this ether current.

The method used by us is essentially that employed by Professor Michelson in
re-performing Fizeau’s experiment, two vacuum tubes with plane glass ends being
substituted for the tubes through which in his experiment water was caused to
flow. A discharge was produced in these tubes by a Ruhmkorff coil, and the
interference bands were carefully observed. No alteration could be detected on
the discharge being reversed. The experiment was repeated at various pressures
(determined by the McLeod gauge) with the same result.

A valid objection which might be raised to the above experiments is, that on
account of the extremely short duration of these discharges, which succeeded each

636 REPORT—1895.

other only a few times a second, any shift of the bands would not be capable of
detection by the observer. The most satisfactory results could be obtained by
using a constant current from a battery of a large number of cells; but as these
were not at our command, we attempted to obtain a prolonged discharge from a
battery of ten one gallon Leyden jars, a piece of wet string being included in the
circuit. The jars were charged by means of the above-mentioned Ruhmkorff coil,
suitable arrangements being made for the purpose ; and the discharges occasionally
succeeded each other so quickly that for some seconds the phenomena were ap-
parently continuous. The duration of each discharge was determined by means of
Mr. Boys’s wheel of lenses, and was found to exceed 34, second. Not the slightest
flicker of the bands could, however, be detected.

A check experiment was then performed by dropping a piece of plate glass,
which would produce a shift of the bands when placcd in the path of the light,
from such a height that its effect would last 4; second and 4, second respectively.
Tn each of these cases a flicker was observed.

» From this we conclude that the kathode rays and the positive column, either
alone or conjointly, do not affect the velocity of light passing along their path.

8. On the Hysteresis of Iron in an Alternating Magnetic Field.
By Francis G. Batty, IA.

The law connecting hysteresis and induction when the latter reaches a high
value has not until now been ascertained. It has hitherto been assumed that the
hysteresis would increase continuously with the induction without limit. It is,
however, probabie that in a slowly performed cycle of change of magnetisation a
maximum value of the hysteresis will be reached when the iron is saturated, and
that further increase of the number of lines of force induced will produce no fur-
ther increase in the hysteresis. When a rapidly alternating field is considered the
conditions are somewhat different. As the magnetising current is increased the
iron reaches its saturation value at an earlier point in each peviod, thus increasing
the rate of change of magnetisation. But it has been shown by different experi-
menters that the value of the hysteresis per cycle is practically unchanged through
wide variations in speed, and hence it may be expected that the hysteresis of iron
under all conditions will arrive at a definite maximum.

To verify this experimentally, the hysteresis in a small sample of iron was
measured, when it was placed between the poles of a powerful electromagnet ex-
cited by an alternating current. Both magnet and sample were laminated, the
subdivision of the latter being especially fine, in order to eliminate as far as pos-
sible errors due to eddy currents. The sheets consisted of soft charcoal-iron of
thickness ‘0085 cm., and between each was a layer of tissue paper. The maxi-
mum value of the eddy currents was less than 2 per cent. of the hysteresis. The
hysteresis was measured by the rise in temperature of the iron after 90 seconds,
the speed of alternation being constant at 103 cycles per second. The sides of the
sample were coated with layers of sheet cork, the radiation being very small. At
the end sufficient protection could not be allowed owing to the small size of the
air-gap, and hence transference of heat was prevented by maintaining equality of
temperature between the pole pieces and the sample by means of streams of hot
or cold paraffin oil over the pole pieces. All temperatures were measured by
thermoelectric couples of german silver and copper.

The experiments show that the curve when plotted with the induction as abscissa,
and the hysteresis as ordinate, exhibits a flexure at an induction of about 16,000,
and becomes practically horizontal at 23,000. This corresponds to a value of in-
tensity of magnetisation of 1,640, which is just the saturation value.

The same characteristics are observed when the intensity of magnetisation is
taken as the abscissa, the curve bending over until it is almost horizontal at the
point of saturation.

The experiments prove that the hysteresis of iron is a function, not of induc-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 637

tion, but of intensity of magnetisation, since both values become constant together,
and that the relation between them is not a logarithmic curve, but is a curve
showing one flexure, and clearly indicating in its upper portion the condition of
the iron represented by Professor Ewing’s third stage of magnetisation.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. On the Change of Molecular Refraction in Salts or Acids dissolved in
Water. By Dr. J. H. Guapstonn, £.2.S., and WattTeR Hippert, FL.

The authors had recently undertaken a research on the questions—Does the
specific refractive energy of a salt or acid when deduced from its solution in water
differ from that of the solid compound? and Does the specific refractive energy
vary according to the amount of water? The outcome of the experiments of the
authors and others is that the water does bring about in many cases a small altera-
tion, especially in passing from the solid or liquid to the dissolved condition ;
that this alteration is sometimes an increase, at other times a decrease; and that
it depends upon the chemical nature of the compound. Some points of physical
interest were, however, noted, and were being more fully examined. One of these
is the analogy of this refraction change in several instances with the change in the
power to rotate the plane of polarised light as determined by Dr. Perkin. As this
small change of refraction evidently indicates some rearrangement of the consti-
tuents of the salt or acid in the water, it may throw light upon present theories
of solution. The experiments, even those of Kohlrausch and Hallwachs on ex-
tremely dilute solutions, do not support the view that the binary compound when
greatly diffused tends to exhibit the properties of a gas. There is an evident
relation between this change of refraction and the electric conductivity of the
solution. Thus, in the acids the order of the two phenomena is the same, the
hydrochloric acid showing the greatest effect, rapidly followed by hydrobromic
and hydriodic acids; then nitric acid, afterwards sulphuric acid; and at a great
distance acetic and other organic acids. In the case of nitric and sulphuric acids
the general form of the curves representing the change of electric conductivity and
of refraction is similar; in the case of the latter there is a special depression during
the rise of the conductivity curve which makes its appearance as a slackening of
the rise in the curve representing change of refraction. This connection of the two
phenomena is being further carefully examined at present.

2. Report on Electrical Standards.—See Reports, p. 195.

3. On the Choice of Magnetic Units.
By Professor Sinvanus P. Tuomeson, 7.2.8,

Professor Silvanus Thompson pointed out that the giving of names was a
detail, and that agreement was wanted upon the units themselves in which mag-
netic quantities were to be expressed. He agreed with the Standards Committee
that the two most important units to be defined were those of magnetic flux and of
magnetic potential, and urged that no other units should be defined until these
had been tried. But he differed from the suggestion to take the weber as 10°
C.G.S. lines as being a unit of too great an order of magnitude to suit practical
needs. He preferred simply to take the dine, with its natural multiples the Azloline,
and the megaline as the unit of flux. If the name weber were given to the line
itself the Committee’s recommendation would then be identical, so far as this unit

638 REPORT—1895.

is concerned, with that of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. He
agreed with the propositions to adopt the name gauss for the O.G.S. unit of mag-

netic potential.

4. On some New Methods and Apparatus for the Delineation of Alternate
Current Wave Forms. By J. M. Barr, W. B. Burniz, and CHARLES

RopGERS.

5. On Alternating Wave Tracers.
By Professor W. E. Ayrton, /.2.S., and T. Marunr.

6. On the Relation between Speed and Voltage in Electric Motors.
By Professor W. E. Ayrton, F.B2.S., and T. Matuer.

7. On some recent Improvements in Measurements of High Temperatures.
Illustrated by Apparatus recently acquired by the Kew Observatory
Committee. By HE. H. Grirritus, 7.2.8.

639

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SectTion.—Professor R. Mrtpora, F.R.S., For.Sec.0.8,

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The President delivered the following Address :—

THE StatTE oF CHEMICAL Scorence In 1851.

In order to estimate the progress of chemical science since the year 1851,
when the British Association last met in this town, it will be of interest for us
to endeavour to place ourselves in the position of those who took part in the
proceedings of Section B on that occasion. Perhaps the best way of performing
this retrograde feat will be to confront the fundamental doctrines of modern
chemistry with the state of chemical theory at that period, because at any point
in the history of a science the theoretical conceptions in vogue—whether these
conceptions have survived to the present time or not—may be taken as the
abstract summation of the facts, z.c., of the real and tangible knowledge existing
at the period chosen as the standard of reference,

Without going too far back in time I may remind you that in 1811 the
atomic theory of the chemists was grafted on to the kindred science of physics
through the enunciation of the law associated with the name of Avogadro di
Quaregna. The rationalising of this law had been accomplished in 1845, but the
kinetic theory of gases, which had been foreshadowed by D. Bernoulli in 1738, and
in later times by Herapath, Joule, and Krénig, lay buried in the archives of the
Royal Society until recently unearthed by Lord Rayleigh and given to the world
in 1892 under the authorship of Waterston, the legitimate discoverer. The later
developments of this theory did not take place till after the last Ipswich meeting,
viz., in 1857-1862, by Clausius, and by Clerk Maxwell in 1860-1867, Thus the
kinetic theory of gases of the physicists had not in 1851 acquired the full signi-
ficance for chemists which it now possesses: the hypothesis of Avogadro was
available, analogous conceptions had been advanced by Davy in 1812, and by
Ampére in 1814; but no substantial chemical reasons for its adoption were
adduced until the year 1846, when Laurent published his work on the law of
even numpers ot atoms und the nature of the elements in the free state.!

The so-called ‘New Chemistry’ with which students of the present time are
familiar was, in fact, being evolved about the period when the British Association
last assembled at Ipswich; but it was not till some years later, and then chiefly
through the writings of Laurent and Gerhardt, that’ the modern views became
accepted. It is of interest to note in passing that the nomenclature of organic
compounds formed the subject of a report by Dr. Daubeny at that meeting in
which he says:—‘It has struck me as a matter of surprise that none of the
British treatises on Chemistry with which I am acquainted should contain any
tules-to guide us, either in affixing names to substances newly discovered or

1 Ann. Chim. Phys. [3]. 18, 266.

640 REPORT—1895.

in divining the nature and relations of bodies from the appellations attached to
them. Nor do I find this deficiency supplied in a manner which to me appears
satisfactory when I turn to the writings of Continental chemists.’ In a
subsequent portion of the report Dr. Daubeny adds:—‘ No name ought, for the
sake of convenience, to exceed in length six or seven syllables.’ I am afraid the
requirements of modern organic chemistry have not enabled us to comply with
this condition.

Among other physical discoveries which have exerted an important influence
on chemical theory the law of Dulong and Petit, indicating the relationship
between specific heat and atomic weight, had been announced in 1819, had been
subsequently extended to compounds by Neumann, and still later had been placed
upon a sure basis by the classical researches of Regnault in 1839. But here,
again, it was not till after 1851 that Cannizzaro (1858) gave this law the im-
portance which it now possesses in connection with the determination of atomic
weights. Thermo-chemistry as a distinct branch of our science may also be
considered to have arisen since 1851, although the foundations were laid before
this period by the work of Favre and Silbermann, Andrews, Graham, and
especially Hess, whose important generalisation was announced in 1840, and
whose claim to just recognition in the history of physical chemistry has been
ably advocated in recent times by Ostwald. But the elaboration of thermo-
chemical facts and views in the light of the dynamical theory of heat was first
commenced in 1853 by Julius Thomsen, and has since been carried on con-
currently with the work of Berthelot in the same field which the latter inyesti-
gator entered in 1865. Electro-chemistry in 1851 was in an equally rudimentary
condition. Davy had published his electro-chemical theory in 1807, and in 1812
Berzelius had put forward those views on electric affinity which became the basis
of his dualistic system of formulation. In 1833 Faraday announced his famous
law of electro-chemical equivalence, which gave a fatal blow to the conception of
Berzelius, and which later (1839-1840) was made use of by Daniell in order to
show the untenability of the dualistic system. By 1851 the views of Berzelius
had been abandoned, and, so far as chemical theory is concerned, the whole
subject may be considered to have been in abeyance at that time. It is of
interest to note, however, that in that year Williamson advanced on quite distinct
grounds his now well-known theory of atomic interchange between molecules,
which theory in a more extended form was developed independently from the
physical side and applied to electrolytes by Clausius in 1857. The modern theory
of electrolysis associated with the names of Arrhenius, van ’t Hoff, and Ostwald
is of comparatively recent growth. It appears that Hittorf in 1878 was the first
to point out the relationship between electrolytic conductivity and chemical
activity, this same author as far back as 1856 having combated the prevailing
view that the electric current during electrolysis does the work of overcoming
the affinities of the ions. Arrhenius formulated his theory of electrolytic disso-
ciation in 1887, Planck having almost simultaneously arrived at similar views on
other grounds.

Closely connected with electrolysis is the question of the constitution of solu-
tions, and here again a convergence of work from several distinct fields has led
to the creation of a new branch of physical chemistry which may be considered
a modern growth. The relationship between the strength of a solution and its
freezing point had been discovered by Blagden towards the end of the last
century, but in 1851 chemists had no notion that this observation would* have any
influence on the future development of their science. Another decade elapsed
before the law was rediscovered by Riidorff (1861(. and ten years later was
further elaborated by de Coppet. Racult published his first. worsx on the freezing
point of solutions in 1882, and two years later the relationship between osmotic
pressure and the lowering of freezing point was established by H. de Vries, who
first approached the subject as a physiologist, through observations on the cell
contents of living plants. As the work done in connection with osmotic pressure
has had such an important influence on the ‘dissociation’ theory of solutions, it
wil! be of interest to note that at the last Ipswich meeting Thomas Graham made

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 641

a communication on liquid diffusion, in which he ‘gave a view of some of the
unpublished results, to ascertain whether solutions of saline bodies had a power
of diffusion among liquids, especially water.’ In 1877 Pfeffer, who, like de Vries,
entered the field from the botanical physiological side, succeeded in effecting the
measurement of osmotic pressure. Ten years later van ’t Hoff formulated the
modern dissociation theory of solution by applying to dissolved substances the
laws of Boyle, Gay-Lussac, and Avogadro, the law of osmotic pressure, and
Raoult’s law connecting the depression of freezing point with molecular weight,
thus laying the foundation of a doctrine which, whether destined to survive in
its present form or not, has certainly exerted a great influence on contemporary
chemical thought.

Consider, further, the state of knowledge in 1851 concerning such leading prin-
ciples as dissociation or thermolysis, mass action, and chemical equilibrium.
Abnormal vapour densities had been observed by Avogadro in 1811, and by
Ampére in 1814, Grove had dissociated water vapour by heat in 1847, but the
first great advance was made ten years later by Sainte-Claire Deville, from whose
work has emanated our existing knowledge of this subject. I may add that the
application of this principle to explain the cases of abnormal vapour density was
made in 1858 by Kopp, Kekulé, and Cannizzaro almost simultaneously; but,
strangely enough, this explanation was not accepted by Deville himself. The
subsequent stages are subjects of modern history. The current views on mass
action were foreshadowed, as is well known, by Berthollet in his ‘ Statique
Chimique,’ published in 1803, but no great advance had been made when the
British Association last met here. The subject first began to assume a quanti-
tative aspect through the researches of Bunsen and Debus in 1853, and was
much advanced by Gladstone in 1865, and by Harcourt and Esson a year later.
Guldberg and Waage published their classical work on this subject in 1867.

Equally striking will appear the advances made since 1851 if we consider
that the whole subject of spectrum analysis, which brings our science into rela-
tionship with astronomy, has been called into existence since that date. The cele-
brated work of Bunsen and Kirchhoff was not published till 1859. Neither can
I refrain from reminding you that the coal-tar colour industry, with which I
have been to a small extent connected, was started into activity by Perkin’s dis-
covery of mauve in 1856; the reaction of this industry on the development of
organic chemistry is now too well known to require further mention. In that
direction also which brings chemistry into relationship with biology the progress
has been so great that it is not going beyond the fact to state that a new science
has been created. Pasteur began his studies on fermentation in 1857, and out
of that work has arisen the science of bacteriology, with its multifarious and far-
reaching consequences. As this chapter of chemical history forms the subject
of one of the evening discourses at the present meeting, it is unnecessary to dwell
further upon it now. One other generalisation may be chronicled among the
great developments achieved since 1851. I refer to the periodic law connecting
the atomic weights of the chemical elements with their physical and chemical
properties. Attempts to establish numerical relationships in the case of isolated
groups of elements had been made by Dobereiner in 1817, by Gmelin in 1826,
and again by Débereiner in 1829. The triad system of grouping was further
developed by Dumas in 1851. I am informed by Dr. Gladstone that at the last
Ipswich meeting Dumas’ speculations in this direction excited much interest.
All the later steps of importance have, however, been made since that time, viz.,
by de Chancourtois in 1862, the ‘law of octaves’ by Newlands in 1864, the
periodic law by Mendeléeff, and almost contemporaneously by Lothar Meyer in
1869.

I have been tempted into giving this necessarily fragmentary and possibly
tedious historical sketch because it is approaching half a century since the British
Association visited this town, and the opportunity seemed favourable for going
through that process which in commercial affairs is called ‘taking stock.’ The
result speaks for itself. Our students of the present time who are nourished
intellectually by these doctrines should be made to realise how rapid has been

1895. r 7

642 REPORT—1895.

their development. The pioneers of our science on whose shoulders we stand—
and many of whom are happily still among us—will derive satisfaction from the
retrospect, and will admit that their labours have borne goodly fruit. It is not,
however, simply for the purpose of recording this enormous progress that I have
ventured to assume the office of stock-taker. ‘lhe year 1851 may be regarded as
occurring towards the close of one epoch and the dawn of a new era in chemical
history. Consider broadly the state of organic chemistry at that time. There is
no occasion for going into detail, even if time admitted, because our literature has
recently been enriched by the concise and excellent historical works of Schor-
Jemmer and of Ernst von Meyer. It will suffice to mention that the work and
writings of Liebig, Berzelius, Wéhler, Dumas, Gay-Lussac, Bunsen, and others
had given us the leading ideas of isomerism, substitution, compound radicles, and
types. Wurtz and Hofmann had just discovered the organic ammonias ; William-
son that same year made known his celebrated work on the ethers; and Gerhardt
discovered the acid anhydrides a year later. The newer theory of types was
undergoing development by Gerhardt and his followers; the mature results were
published in the fourth volume of the ‘ Traité de Chimie’ in 1856. In this country
the theory was much advanced by the writings of Odling and Williamson.

SUBSEQUENT DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMISTRY ALONG Two Lins.

The new era which was dawning upon us in 1851 was that of structural or
constitutional chemistry, based on the doctrine of the valency of the atoms. It is
well known that this conception was broached by Frankland in 1852, as the result
of his investigations on the organo-metallic compounds. But it was not till 1858
that Kekulé, who had previously done much to develop the theory of types, and
Couper, almost simultaneously, recognised the quadrivalent character of carbon.
To attempt to give anything approaching an adequate notion of the subsequent
influence of this idea on the progress of organic chemistry would be tantamount to
reviewing the present condition of that subject. I imagine that no conception
more prolific of results has ever been introduced into any department of science. If
we glance back along the stream it will be seen that shortly after the last meeting
here the course of discovery began to concentrate itself into two channels. In one
we now find the results of the confluent labours of those who have regarded our
science from its physical side. In the other channel is flowing the tide of discovery
arising from the valency doctrine and its extension to the structure of chemical
molecules. The two channels are at present fairly parallel and not far apart; an
occasional explorer endeavours now and again to make a cross-cut so as to put the
streams into communication, The currents in both are running very rapidly, and
the worker who has embarked on one or the other finds himself hurried along at
such a pace that -there is hardly breathing time to step ashore and see what his
neighbours are doing. It speaks well for the fertility of the conception of valency
that the current in this channel is flowing with unabated vigour, although its
catchment area—to pursue the metaphor—is by no means so extensive as that of
the neighbouring stream.

The modern tendency to specialisation, which is a necessity arising from the
large number of workers and the rapid multiplication of results, is apparently in
the two directions indicated. We have one class of workers dealing with the
physics of matter in relation to general chemical properties, and another class of
investigators concerning themselves with the special properties of individual com-
pounds and classes of compounds—with atomic idiosyncrasies. The workers of
one class are differentiating while their colleagues are integrating. It would be
nothing less than unscientific to institute a comparison between the relative merits
of the two methods; both are necessary for the development of our science. All
methods of attacking the unknown are equally welcomed. In some cases physical
methods are available, in other cases purely chemical methods haye alone been found
of use. There is no antagonism, but co-operation. If the results of the two methods
are sometimes at variance it is simply because we have not known how to interpret
them. The physical chemist has adopted the results of the application of chemical

—__—e

wang

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 643

methods of determining ‘constitution, and is endeavouring to furnish us with new

weapons for attacking this same problem. The chemist who is seeking to unravel
the architecture of molecules is dependent at the outset upon physical methods of
determining the relative weights of his molecules. The worker who is bringing
about new atomic groupings is furnishing material for the further development of
generalisations from which new methods applicable to the problem of chemical
structure may again be evolved. The physical chemist sometimes from the broad-
ness of his view is apt to overlook or to minimise the importance of chemical
individuality. On the other hand the chemist who is studying the numberless
potentialities of combination resident in the atoms, and who has grasped to the full

extent their marvellous individualities, is equally liable to forget that there are

connecting relationships as well as specific differences in the properties of elements
and compounds. These are but the mental traits—the unconscious bias engendered
by the necessary specialisation of work to which I have referred, and which is
observable in every department of scientific labour.

THE PRESENT State oF SrRUCTURAL CHEMISTRY.

The success attending the application of the doctrine of valency to the com-
pounds of carbon has helped its extension to all compounds formed by other
elements, and the student of the present day is taught to use structural formule as
the A B C of his science. It is, I think, generally recognised among chemists that
this doctrine in its present state is empirical, but it does not appear to me that this

oint is sufficiently insisted upon in chemical teaching. I do not mean to assert
that for the last thirty years chemists have been pursuing a phantom; neither do
I think that we should be justified in applying to this doctrine the words applied
to its forerunner, the ‘types’ of Gerhardt, by Lothar Meyer, who says that these
“have rendered great service in the development of the science, but they can only
be regarded as a part of the scaffolding which was removed when the erection of
the system cf organic chemistry had made sufficient progress to be able to dispense
with it.’! It appears to me, on the contrary, that there is a physical reality under-
lying the conception of valency, if for no other reason because of the conform-
ability of this property of the atoms to the periodic law. But the doctrine as it
stands is empirical in so far that it is only representative and not explanatory.
Frankland and Kekulé have given us a great truth, but its very success is now
making it more and more obvious that it is a truth which is pressing for further
development from the physical side. If we are asked why CO exists, and why
CH, and CCl, do not, together with innumerable similar questions which the in-
quisitive mind will raise, we get no light from this doctrine. If any over-sanguine
disciple goes so far as to assert that all the possible compounds of the elements indi-
cated by their valency are capable of existence, and will sooner or later be prepared,
he will, I imagine, find himself rapidly travelling away from the region of fact.

There is something to be reckoned with besides valency. The one great desi-
deratum of modern chemistry is unquestionably a physical or mechanical interpre-
tation of the combining capacities of the atoms. Attempts at the construction of
such theories have been made, but thus far only in a tentative way, and these

views cannot be said to have yet come within the domain of practical chemical

politics. I have in mind, among other suggestions, the dynamical theory of van
*t Hoff published in 1881,” the theory of electric charges on the atoms broached
by Johnstone Stoney in 1874, and so ably advocated by the late Professor v.
Helmholtz in his Faraday lecture in 1881, and the electric polar theory of Victor
Meyer and Riecke, published in 1888.°

Pending the rationalisation of the doctrine of valency its promulgation must
continue in its present form, Its services in the construction of rational formule,

1 Modern Theories of Chemistry, p. 194.

2 Ansichten iiber die organische Chemie.

3 «Kinige Bemerkungen tiber den Kohlenstoffatom und die Valenz,’ Ber,, 21,
pp. 946, 1620

i He

644 : REPORT—1895.

especially within the limits of isomerism, have been incalculable. It is the ladder
by which we have climbed to the present brilliant achievements in chemical
synthesis, and we are not in a position to perform the ungracious task of kicking it
away. In recalling attention to its weaknesses I am only putting myself in the
position of the physician who diagnoses his patient’s case with the ulterior object
of getting him strengthened. There can be no doubt that renewed vitality has
been given to the doctrine by the conceptions of tautomerism and desmotropy,
formulated by Conrad Laar in 1885, and by Paul Jacobson in 1887. The import-
ance of these ideas is becoming more evident with the advancement of chemical
discovery. Any attempt to break down the rigidly statical conception of our
structural formule appears to me to be a step in the right direction. Then, again,
I will remind you of the prolific development of the doctrine in the hands of Le Bel
and van ’t Hott by the introduction of the stereochemical hypothesis in 1874—un-
questionably the greatest advance in structural chemistry since the recognition of the
quadrivalent character of the carbon atom. If evidence be required that there is
a physical reality underlying the conception of valency, we need only point to the
close accordance of this notion of the asymmetric carbon atom with the facts of
so-called ‘physical isomerism’ and the splendid results that have followed from its
introduction into our science, especially in the field of the carbohydrates through
the investigations of Emil Fischer and his pupils. In other directions the stereo-
chemical hypothesis has proved to be a most suggestive guide. It was applied by
Professor v. Baeyer in 1885! to explain the conditions of stability or instability of
certain atomic groupings, such as the explosiveness of polyacetylene compounds
and the stability of penta- and hexa-cyclic systems. Again, in 1888 this eminent
chemist showed its fertility in a series of brilliant researches upon benzene deriva-
tives.? Nor can I omit to mention the great impetus given in this field by the
classical work of Wislicenus, who in 1887 applied the hypothesis to unsaturated
compounds and to cyclic systems with remarkable success. Quite recently Victor
Meyer and J. Sudborough have shown that the ability of certain derivatives of
benzoic and naphthoic acids to form ethers is governed by stereochemical consider-
ations.* But I must avoid the temptation to enlarge upon this theme because the
whole subject has been recently brought together by C. A. Bischoff in his ‘ Hand-
buch der Stereochemie’ (Frankfurt, 1893-94), a work to which all who are
interested in the subject will naturally turn for reference.

While the present advanced state of structural chemistry may thus be looked
upon as the outcome of the conceptions of Frankland and Kekulé, it may be well
to bear in mind that the idea of structure is not necessarily bound up with the
hypothesis of valency in its present form. Indeed, some advance had been made
in representing ‘constitution,’ especially by Kolbe, before the formal introduction
of this hypothesis. The two ideas have grown up together, but the experimental
evidence that in any molecule the atoms are grouped together in a particular way
is really independent of any theory of valency. It is only after this evidence has
been acquired, either by analysis or synthesis, that we proceed to apply the hypo-
thesis in building up the structural formula. It is of course legitimate to assume
the truth of the hypothesis, and to endeavour by its use to convert an empirical
into a rational formula; but this method generally gives us a choice of formule
from which the true one can only be selected by further experimental investigation.
Even within the narrower limits of isomerism it is by no means certain that all the
modifications of a compound indicated by hypothesis are actually capable of exist-
ence. There is, for example, evidence that some of the ‘ position isomerides’ among
the derivatives of mono- and polycyclic compounds are too unstable to exist; a fact
which in itself is sufficient to indicate the necessity for a revision and extension of
our notions of valency. Thus, by way of illustration, there is nothing in the
hypothesis to indicate why orthoquinones of the benzene series should not be
capable of existence ; yet it is a fact that in spite of all efforts such compounds

1 Ber., 18, 2277. ? Ann., 187, 158, and subsequent papers.
* Ueber die riiumliche Anordnung der Atome in organischen Molekiilen, &c.
* Ber., 27, 510, 1580, 3146, and 28, 182, 1254.»

i Y.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 645

have never been obtained. The conditions essential for the existence of these com-
pounds appear to be that the hydrogen of the benzene ring should be replaced by
acid substituents such as oxygen, hydroxyl, chlorine, or bromine. Under these cir-
cumstances, as Zincke has shown,! tetrachlor and tetrabrom-orthobenzoquinone are
stable compounds. So also the interesting researches of Nietzki have proved that
in such a compound as rhodizonic acid? orthoquinone oxygen atoms are present.
But there is nothing in the doctrine of valency which leads us to suspect that these
orthoquinone derivatives can exist while their parent compound resists all
attempts at isolation. I am aware that it is dangerous to argue from negative
evidence, and it would be rash to assert that these orthoquinones will never be
obtained. But even in the present state of knowledge it may be distinctly affirmed
that the methods which readily furnish an orthoquinone of naphthalene completely
fail in the case of benzene, and it is just on such points as this that the inadequacy
of the hypothesis becomes apparent. In other words, the doctrine fails in the fun-
damental requirement of a scientific theory; in its present form it gives us no
power of prevision—it hints at possibilities of atomic groupings, but it does not tell
us @ priori which of these groupings are likely to be stable and which unstable, I
am not without hope that the next great advance in the required direction may
yet come from the stereochemical extension of the hypothesis, although the
attempts which have hitherto been made to supply its deficiencies cannot but be
regarded as more or less tentative.

Tar New Turory oF AsstRact TYPEs.

I will venture, in the next place, to direct attention to a modern development
of structural chemistry which will help to illustrate still further some of the points
raised. For many years we have been in the habit of abstracting from our struc-
tural formule certain ideal complexes of atoms which we consider to represent the
nucleus or type from which the compound of known constitution is derived, In
other words the hypothesis of valency which was developed originally from Ger-
hardt’s types is now leading us back to another theory of types based upon a more
intimate knowledge of atomic grouping within the molecule. In some cases these
types have been shown to be capable of existence ; in others they are still ideal.
Used in this way the doctrine of valency is most suggestive, but at the same time
its lack of prevision is constantly forcing itself upon the attention of chemical
investigators. The parent compound has sometimes been known before its deriva-
tives, as in the case of ammonia, which was known long before the organic amines
and amides. In other instances the derivatives were obtained before the type was
isolated, as in the case of the hydrazines, which were characterised by Emil
Fischer in 1875, and the hydrazo-compounds, which have been known since 1863,
while hydrazine itself was first obtained by Curtius in 1887. Phenylazimide was
discovered by Griess in 1864, and many representatives of this group have been
since prepared ; but the parent compound, hydrazoic acid, was only isolated by
Curtius in 1890. Derivatives of triazole and tetrazole were obtained by Bladin in
1885 ; the types were isolated by this chemist and by Andreocci in 1892. Pyr-
azole derivatives were prepared by Knorr in 1888; pyrazole itself was not isolated
till 1889, by Buchner, Alkyl nitramides were discovered by Franchimont and
Klobbie many years before the typical compound, nitramide, NO,.NH,, which
was isolated last year by Thiele and Lachman.’ Examples might be multiplied
to a formidable extent, but enough have been given to illustrate the principle
of the erection of types, which were at first imaginary, but which have since
become real. The utility of the hypothesis is undeniable in these cases, and
we are justified in pushing it to its extreme limits. But no chemist, even if
endowed with prophetic instinct, could have certainly foretold six years ago that
the type of Griess’ ‘triazobenzene’ would be capable of free existence, and still
Jess that when obtained it would prove to be a strong acid. The fact, established

1 Ber., 20, 1776. 2 Tbid., 19, 308, and 28, 3136. 3° Tbid., 27, 1909.

646 REPORT—1895.

N
by Curtius, that the group nou functions in chemical molecules like the atom

ot chlorine is certainly among the most striking of recent discoveries. Only last
year the list of nitrogen compounds was enriched by the addition of CO(N,),, the
nitrogen analogue of phosgene.}

These illustrations, drawn from the compounds of nitrogen, will serve to bring
out the wonderful development which our knowledge of the chemistry of this
element has undergone within the last few years. I might be tempted here into a
digression on the general bearing of the very striking fact that an element com-
paratively inactive in the free state should be so remarkably active in combination,
but I must keep to the main topic, as by means of these compounds it is possible
to illustrate still further both the strength and the weakness of our modern con-
ceptions of chemical structure. Consider some of the undiscovered compounds
which are foreshadowed by the process of ideal abstraction of types. The azoxy-

; ce Neer a roan
compounds contain the complex Ne J 6 . The types would be
HN-NH HN=NH
ats if SanT 3 . The first of these formule represents the unknown

dihydro-nitrous oxide, The azo-compounds are derivatives of the hypothetical
diimide HN:NH. An attempt to prepare this compound from azodicarbonic
acid? resulted in the formation of hydrazine. The diethyl-derivative may
have been obtained by Harries,’ but this is doubtful. It is at present inex-
plicable why compounds in which the group -N:N.- is in combination with
aromatic radicles should be so remarkably stable, while the parent compound
appears to be incapable of existence. The addition of two atoms of hydrogen
converts this type again into a stable compound. There is nothing in the
structural formule to indicate these facts. The amidines are stable compounds,
and the so-called ‘anhydro-bases, or imidazoles, are remarkably stable; the

parent compound, moc te , has not been obtained, while its amido-derivative,
HN.CCNE ,is the well-known substance guanidine. ‘The isodiazo-compounds
recently discovered by Schraube and Schmidt and by Bamberger* are pos-
sibly derivatives of the hypothetical substance O:N.NH,, which might be

named nitrosamide. Why this compound should not exist as well as nitramide
is another question raised by the principle of abstract types. The carbi-

zines were formerly regarded as derivatives of the compounds coc

S<aH © Although this structure has now been disproved the possible existence
2

and

of the types has been suggested. Carbizine and thiocarbizine differ from urea and
thiocarbamide only by two atoms of hydrogen. These types have not been isvlated ;
if they are incapable of existence the current views of molecular structure give no
suggestion of a reason. The diazoamides are derivatives of the hypothetical
H,.N.NH.NH, or HN:N.NH.,, compounds which Curtius speaks of as the propane
and propylene of the nitrogen series. The latter complex was at one time thought
to exist in diazohippuramide,’ and a biacidyl derivative of the former type has also
been obtained.” Both these types await isolation if they are capable of existence.
I may add that several attempts to convert diazoamides into dihydro-derivatives
by mild alkaline reduction have led me to doubt whether this nitrogen chain. can

1 Curtius, Ber., 27, 2684. 2 Thiele, Ann., 271, 130. 3 Ber., 27, 2276.

4 Thid., 27, 514, 679, &e.

5 Fischer, Ann., 212, 326; Freund and Goldsmith, Ber., 21, 2456.

5 Ber, 24, 3342. This has since been shown to be hippurazide, i.e., a derivative of
N,H (Ber., 27, 779). . 7 Tbid., 3344.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 647

exist in combination with hydrocarbon radicles. The bisdiazoamides of H. v. Pech-
mann and Frobenius ! are derivatives of the 5-atom chain H,N.NH.NH.NH.NH, or
HN:N.NH.N:NH, a type which hardly seems likely to be of sufficient stability to
exist. The tetrazones of Emil Fischer have for their type the 4-atom chain
H,N.N:N.NH, or H,N.NH.NH.NH,, of which the free existence is equally pro-
blematical, although a derivative containing the chain -N:N.NH.NH— has been
obtained by Curtius.* Hydrazoic acid may be regarded as a derivative of triimide,

NH
HNC but this type appears to be also incapable of isolation. The hydra-

zidines or formazyls of Pinner * and of H. v. Pechmann,® have for their parent
compound the hypothetical substance H,N.N:CH.N:NH. In 1888 Limpricht
described certain azo-compounds® which, if possessing the structure assigned by
that author, must be regarded as derivatives of diamidotetrimide:

HN—NH H.N.N-N

ity “| tse Fah
HN-NH H,N.N—N

Both these types are at present imaginary; whether it is possible for cyclic
nitrogen systems to exist we have no means of knowing—all that can be said is
that they have never yet been obtained. It is possible, as I pointed out in 1890
at the Leeds meeting of the British Association, that mixed diazoamides may be
derivatives of such a 4-atom ring.

Any chemist who has followed the later developments of the chemistry of
nitrogen could supply numerous other instances of undiscovered types. A chapter
on the unknown compounds of this element would furnish quite an exciting addi-
tion to many of those books which are turned out at the present time in such
profusion to meet the requirements of this or that examining body. I have
selected my examples from these compounds simply because I can claim some of
them as personal acquaintances. It would be easy to make use of carbon com-
pounds for the same purpose, but it is unnecessary to multiply details. It has
frequently happened in the history of science that a well-considered statement of
the shortcomings of a theory has led to its much-desired extension. This is my
hope in venturing to point out one of the chief deficiencies in the structural
chemistry of the present time. J am afraid that I have handled the case badly,
but Iam bound to confess that I am influenced by the same feelings as those
which prevent us from judging an old and well-tried friend too severely,

The theory of types to which we have reverted as the outcome of the study of
molecular structure is capable of almost indefinite extension if, as there is good
reason for doing, we replace atoms or groups by their valency analogues in the
_ way of other atoms or groups of atoms. The facts that in cyclic systems N can

- replace CH (benzene and pyridine), that 0, S, and NH are analogues in furfurane,
thiophene, and pyrrole, are among the most familiar examples. The remarkable
iodo- and iodoso-compounds recently discovered by Victor Meyer and his colleagues
are the first known instances in which the trivalent atom of iodine has been shown
to be the valency analogue of nitrogen in organic combination. Pushing this
fore to the extreme we get further suggestions for new groupings, but, as

efore, no certainty gf prevision. Thus, if nitrogen formed the oxide N,O, the
series might be written:

N . -
> of No ge NEO ofN-0 or oN: 0g,
N bbs Jal N:0 ) :

Of course these formule are more or less conjectural, being based on valency
only. But since nitrous oxide is the analogue of hydrazoic acid, they hint at the

1 Ber., 27, 898. 2 Tbid., 26, 1265 3 Curtius, Ber., 26, 407.
* Ber, 17, 182. & Tbid., 25, 3175. 6 Thid., 21, 3422.

648 REPORT—1895.

possibility of such compounds as HNCR NE, &e. If a student produced a set
1

of formulze corresponding to the above, in which NH had been substituted for O,
and asked whether they did not indicate the existence of a whole series of unknown
hydrogen compounds of nitrogen, we should probably tell him that his notions of
chemical structure had run wild. At the same time I am bound to admit that it
would be very difficult, if not impossible, to furnish him with satisfactory reasons
for believing that such groupings are improbable. Compare again the series:

NH N
ae JAN Ey” eon a MO:
O:KCNG OCC] O:CK BOF OLN GE
He 2 (6). BCC aay hae (7) HCO N28)
NE: * \NH NN al Seale

The first is urea; the second, third, fourth, fifth (methylene diamine), and sixth
are unknown; the seventh is the remarkably interesting diazomethane discovered
last year by H. v. Pechmann.!' The last compound, dinitromethane, is known
in the form of its salts, but appears to be incapable of existence in the free
state. There is nothing expressed or implied in the existing theory cf chemical
structure to explain why dinitromethane is unstable while trinitromethane is
stable, and mono- and tetranitromethane so stable as to admit of being distilled
without decomposition. Chemists will form their own views as to the possibility
or impossibility of such a series as this being completed. "Whether there would be
a concordance of opinion I will not venture to say ; but any chemist who expressed
either belief or disbelief with regard to any special member would, I imagine, have
great difficulty in giving a scientific reason for the faith which isin him. At the
most, he would have only the very unsafe guide of analogy to fall back upon.
Perhaps by the time the British Association holds its next meeting at Ipswich it
will have become possible to prove that one particular configuration of certain
atoms is possible and another configuration impossible. Then will have been
achieved that great advance for which we are waiting—the reunion of the two
streams into which our science began to diverge shortly after the last Ipswich
meeting.

The present position of structural chemistry may be summed up in the state-
ment that we have gained an enormous insight into the anatomy of molecules,
while our knowledge of their physiology is as yet in a rudimentary condition. In
the course of the foregoing remarks I have endeavoured to indicate the direction
in which our theoretical conceptions are most urgently pressing for extension. It
is, perhaps, as yet premature to pronounce an opinion as to whether the next de-
velopment is to be looked for from the stereochemical side ; but it is not going too
far to express once again the hope that the geometrical representation of valency
will give us a deeper insight into the conditions which determine the stability of -
atomic configurations. The speculations of A. vy. Baeyer, Wislicenus, Victor
Meyer, Wunderlich, Bischoff, and others have certainly turned the attention of
chemists towards a quarter from which a new light may eventually dawn.

Tub Progress oF SyNTHETICAL CHEMISTRY.

If, in my earnest desire to see the foundations of structural chemistry made
more secuie, I may have unwittingly given rise to the impression that 1 am de-
preciating its services as a scientific weapon, let me at once hasten to make amends
by directing attention to the greatest of its triumphs, the synthesis of natural pro-
ducts, z.e., of compounds which are known to be produced by the vital processes of
animals and plants.

Having been unable to find any recent list of the natural compounds which
haye been synthesised, I have compiled a set of tables which will, I hope, see the

1 Ber., 27, 1888.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 649;

light at no very distant period. According to this census we have now realised
about 180 such syntheses. The products of Bacteria have been included in the
list because these compounds are the results of vital activity in the same sense that
alevhol is a product of the vital activity of the yeast plant. On the other hand
the various uro-compounds resulting from the transformation in the animal
economy of detinite chemical substances administered for experimental purposes
have been excluded, because I am confining my attention to natural products. Of
course the importance of tracing the action of the living organism on compounds
of known constitution from the physiological point of view cannot be overesti-
mated. Such experiments will, without doubt, in time shed much light on the
working of the vital laboratory.

The history of chemical synthesis has been so thoroughly dealt with from time
to time that I should not have ventured to obtrude any further notice of this sub-
ject upon your patience were it not for a certain point which appeared to me of
sufficient interest to merit reconsideration. It is generally stated that the forma-
tion of urea from ammonium cyanate by Wohler in 1828 was the first synthesis of
an organic compound. There can be no doubt that this discovery, which attracted
much attention at the time, gave a serious blow to the current conceptions of
organic chemistry, because urea was so obviously a product of the liying animal.
It will be found, however, that about the same time Henry Hennell, of Apothe-
aries’ Hall, had really effected the synthesis of aleohol—that is to say, had
synthesised this compound in the same sense that Wdébler had synthesised urea.
The history is soon told. In 1826 Hennell (through Brande) communicated a
paper to the Royal Society which appears in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for
that year.' In studying the compounds produced by the action of sulphuric
acid on alcohol, and known as ‘oil of wine,’ he obtained sulphovinic acid,
which had long been known, and gave fairly good analyses of this acid and of
some of its salts, while expressing in the same paper very clear notions as to its
chemical nature. Having satisfied himself that sulphovinic acid is a product of
the action in question, he then proceeded to examine some sulphuric acid which
had absorbed eighty times its volume of olefiant gas, and which had been placed
at his disposal for this purpose by Michael Faraday. From this he also isolated
sulphovinic acid. In another paper, communicated to the Royal Society in 1828,”
he proves quantitatively that when sulphovinic acid is distilled with sulphuric acid
and water the whole of the alcohol and sulphuric acid which united to form the
sulphovinic acid are recovered. In the same paper he shows that he had very
clear views as to the process of etherification. Hennell’s work appears to have
been somewhat dimmed by the brilliancy of his contemporaries who were labour-
ing in the same field; but it is not too much to claim for him, after the lapse of
nearly seventy years, the position of one of the pioneers of chemical synthesis. Of
course in his time the synthesis was not complete, because he did not start from
inorganic materials. The olefiant gas used by Faraday had been obtained from
coal-gas or oil-gas. Moreover, in 1826-1828 alcohol was not generally regarded
as a product of vital activity, and this is, no doubt, the reason why the discovery
failed to produce the same excitement as the formation of urea. But the synthesis
of alcoho] from ethylene had, nevertheless, been accomplished, and this hydrocarbon
occupied at that time precisely the same position as ammonium cyanate. The
latter salt had not then been synthesised from inorganic materials, and the forma-
tion of urea, as Schorlemmer points out,’ was also not a complete synthesis. The
reputation of Wohler, the illustrious friend and colleague of the more illustrious
Liebig, will lose not a fraction of its brilliancy by the raising of this historical
question. Science recognises no distinction of nationality, and the future historian
of synthetical chemistry will not begrudge the small niche in the temple of Fame
to which Hennell is entitled.

* «On the Mutual Action of Sulphuric Acid and Alcohol, with Observations on the
Composition and Properties of the resulting Compound,’ Phil. Trans., 1826, p. 240.

* *On the Mutual Action of Sulphuric Acid and Alcohol, and on the Nature of the
Process by which Ether is formed,’ Phil. Trans., 1828, p. 365.

° The Rise and Development of Organic Chemistry, p. 195.

650 REPORT—1895.

Like many other great discoveries in science, the artificial formation of natural
products began, as in the case of alcohol and urea, with observations arising from
experiments not primarily directed to this end. It was not till the theory of
chemical structure had risen to the rank of a scientific guide that the more com-
plicated syntheses were rendered possible by more exact methods. We justly
credit structural chemistry with these triumphant achievements. In arriving at
such results any defects in the theory of structure are put out of consideration
because—and this point must never be lost sight of—all doubt as to the possibility
of this or that atomic grouping being stable is set aside at the outset by the actual
occurrence of the compound in nature. The investigator starts with the best of
all assurances. From the time of Wohler and Hennell the course of discovery in
this field has gone steadily on. The announcement of a new synthesis has ceased
to produce that excitement which it did in the early days when the so-called
‘organic’ compounds were regarded as products of a special vital force. The in-
terest among the uninitiated now rises in proportion to the technical value of the
compound, ‘The present list of 180 odd synthetical products comprises, among the
latest discoveries, gentisin, the colouring-matter of the gentian root (Gentiana
lutea), which has been prepared by Kostanecki and Tambor, and caffeine, synthe-
sised by Emil Fischer and Lorenz Ach, starting from dimethylurea and malonic
acid.

I have allowed myself no time for those prophetic flights of the imagination
which writers on this subject generally indulge in. When we know more about
the structure of highly complex molecules, such as starch and albumin, we shall
probably be able to synthesise these compounds. It seems to me more important
just at present to come to an understanding as to what is meant by an organic
synthesis. There appears to be an impression among many chemists that a syn-
thesis is only effected when a compound is built up from simpler molecules. If
the simpler molecules can be formed directly from their elements, then the syn-
thesis is considered to be complete. Thus urea is a complete synthetical product,
because we can make hydrogen cyanide from its elements: from this we can
prepare a cyanate, and finally urea. In dictionaries and text-books we find syn-
thetical processes generally separated from modes of formation, and the latter in
their turn kept distinct from methods of preparation. The distinction between
formation and preparation is obviously a good one, because the latter has a
practical significance for the investigator. But the experience gained in drawing
up the tables of synthesised compounds, to which I have referred, has resulted in
the conclusion that the terms ‘synthesis’ and ‘mode of formation’ have been
either unnecessarily confused or kept distinct without sufficient reason, and that it
is impossible now to draw a hard-and-fast line between them. Some recent
writers, such, for example, as Dr. Karl Elbs, in his admirable work on this subject,?
have expanded the meaning of the word synthesis so as to comprise generally the
building up of organic molecules by the combination of carbon with carbon, with-
out reference to the circumstance whether the compound occurs as a natural pro-
duct or not. But although this definition is sufficiently wide to cover the whole
field of the production of carbon compounds from less complex molecules, it is in
some respects too restricted, because it excludes such well-known cases as the for-
mation of hydrogen cyanide from its elements, or of urea from ammonium cyanate.
1 should not consider the discussion of a mere question of terminology of sufficient
importance to occupy the attention of this Section were it not for a matter of
principle, and that a principle of the very greatest importance, which I believe to be
associated with a clear conception of chemical synthesis. The great interest of all
work in this field arises from our being able, by laboratory processes, to obtain
compounds which are also manufactured in nature's laboratory—the living
organism. It is in this direction that our science encroaches upon biology through
physiology. Now, if we confine the notion of synthesis to the building up of
molecules from simpler molecules or from atoms, we exclude one of nature’s

ag } Die synthetischen Darstellungsmethoden der Kohlenstoffverbindungen. Leipzig,
89.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 651

methods of producing many of these very compounds which we claim to have
synthesised. There can be no manner of doubt that a large proportion, if not a
majority, of the natural products which have been prepared artificially are not
synthesised by the animal or plant in the sense of building up at all. They are
the results of the breaking down—of the degradation—of complex molecules into
simpler ones. I urge, therefore, that if in the laboratory we can arrive at one of
these products by decomposing a more complex molecule by means of suitable
reagents, we have a perfect right to call this a synthesis, provided always that the
more complex molecule, which gives us our compound, can be in its turn synthe-
sised, by no matter how many steps, from its constituent atoms. Thus oxalic acid
has been directly synthesised from carbon dioxide by Kolbe and Drechsel by pass-
ing this gas over potassium or sodium amalgam heated to 360°, Whether the -
plant makes oxalic acid directly out of carbon dioxide we cannot at present state ;
if it does it certainly does not employ Kolbe and Dreschel’s process. On the other
hand this acid may, for all that is known, exist in the plant as a product of degra-
dation, Many more complex acids, such as citric and tartaric, break down into
oxalic acid when fused with potash. Both citric and tartaric acids can now be
completely synthesised; therefore the formation of oxalic acid from these by potash
fusion is a true synthesis.

The illustration given will make clear the point which I am urging. The dis-
tinction between a synthesis and a mode of formation vanishes when we can obtain
a compound by the breaking down of a more complex molecule in all those cases
where the latter can be completely built up. If we do not expand the meaning of
synthesis so as to comprise such cases we are simply shutting the door in Nature’s
face. It niust be borne in mind that the actual yield of the compound furnished
by the laboratory process does not come into consideration, because it may be
generally asserted that in most cases the artificial processes are not the same as
those which go on in the animal or plant. The information of real value to the
physiologist which these syntheses give is the suggestion that such or such a
compound may possibly result from the degradation of this or that antecedent
compound, and not from a process of building up from simpler molecules.

Tur BEARING oF CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS ON VITAL CHEMISTRY.

With these views—the outcome of structural chemistry—the chemist and
physiologist may join hands and move fearlessly onwards towards the great
mystery of vital chemistry. In considering the results of organic synthesis two
questions always arise as it. were spontaneously: How does nature produce these
complicated molecules without the use of strong reagents and at ordinary temper-
atures? What bearing have our laboratory achievements on the mechanism of
vitality ? The light shed upon these questions by experimental investigation has
as yet flickered only in fitful gleams. We are but dwellers in the outer gates,
waiting for the guide who is to show us the bearing of modern research on the
great problem which confronts alike the physicist, the chemist, and the biologist.
The chemical processes that go on in the living organism are complex to an extent
that is difficult to realise. Of the various compounds of animal or vegetable origin
that have been produced synthetically some are of the nature of waste products,
resulting from metabolic degradation ; others are the result of zymolytic action
within the organism; and others, again, are secondary products arising from the
action of associated Bacteria, the relationship between the Bacteria and their host
being as yet imperfectly understood. The answer to the question how nature
produces complicated organic molecules will be much facilitated when the
physiologist, by experiment and observation, shall have made possible a sound
classification of these synthetical products based on their mode of origination in
the organism.

_ The enlargement of the definition of organic synthesis which I have advocated
has been rendered necessary by the consideration of, certain questions which have
arisen in connection with the present condition of chemical discovery in this field.
What evidence is there that any one of the 180 compounds which have been pre-

652 REPORT—1895.

pared artificially is produced in the organism by a direct process of building up ?
Is not the opposite view quite as probable? May they not, from the simplest to
the most complex, be products of the degradation of still more complex molecules ?
I venture to suggest—not without some temerity lest our colleagues of Sections I
and K should treat me as an intruder—that this view should be given a fair trial.
1 am aware that the opposite view, especially as regards plant assimilation, has
long been held, and especially since 1870, when vy. Baeyer advanced his celebrated
theory of the formic aldehyde origin of carbohydrates. It is but natural to con-
sider that the formation of a complex molecule is the result of a building-up
process. It must be remembered, however, that in the living organism there is
always present a compound or mixture, or whatever we like to call it, of a highly
complex proteid nature, which, although at present indefinite from the purely
chemical point of view, is the essence of the vitality. Of course I refer to what
biologists have called protoplasm. Moreover, it is perhaps necessary to state what
is really nothing more than a truism, viz., that protoplasm is present in and forms a
part of the organism from the very beginning of its existence—from the germ to
the adult, and onwards to the end of life. Any special chemical properties per-
taining to protoplasm are inseparable from the animal or plant until that period
arrives which Kekulé has hinted at when we shall be able to ‘build up the forma-
tive elements of living organisms’ in the laboratory.1_ But here I am afraid I am
allowing the imagination to take a flight which I told you a few minutes ago that
time would not admit of.

The view that requires pushing forward into a more prominent position than it
has hitherto occupied is that all the chemical transformations in the organism—at
any rate all the primary changes—are made possible only by the antecedent com-
bination of the substances concerned with living protoplasmic materials. The
carbon dioxide, water, &c., which the plant absorbs must have formed a compound
or compounds with the protoplasmic material of the chloroplasts before starch, or
sugar, or cellulose can be prepared. There is, on this view, no such process as the
direct combination of dead molecules to build up a complex substance. Everything
must pass through the vital mill. The protoplasmic molecule is vastly more
complex than any of the compounds which we have hitherto succeeded in
synthesising. It might take up and form new and unstable compounds with
carbon dioxide or formic aldehyde, or sugar, or anything else, and our present
methods of investigation would fail to reveal the process. If this previous com-
bination and, so to speak, vitalisation of dead matter actually occurs, the appear-
ance of starch as the first visible product of assimilation, as taught by Sachs, or
the formation of a 12-carbon-atom sugar as the first carbohydrate, as shown by
the recent researches of Horace Brown and G. H. Morris, 1s no longer matter for
wonderment. The chemical equations given in physiological works are too purely
chemical ; the physiologists have, 1 am afraid, credited the chemists with too much
knowledge—it would appear as though their intimate familiarity with vital pro-
cesses had led them to undervalue the importance of their prime agent. In giving
expression to these thoughts I cannot but feel that I am treating you to the strange
spectacle of a chemist pleading from the physiologists for a little more vitality in
the chemical functions of living organisms. The future development of vital
‘chemistry rests, however, with the chemist and physiologist conjointly ; the isola-
tion, identification, and analysis of the products of vital activity, which has
hitherto been the task of the chemist, is only the preliminary work of physiological
chemistry leading up to chemical physiology.

ProtopLasmic THEoRY oF ViTAL SyNnTHESsIS,

The supposition that chemical synthesis in the organism is the result of the
combination of highly complex molecules with simpler molecules, and that the
unstable compounds thus formed then undergo decomposition with the formation
of new products, may be provisionally called the protoplasmic theory of vital
‘synthesis. From this standpoint many of the prevailing doctrines will have to

1 Nature, vol. xviii. p. 212.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 653

be inverted, and the formation of the more complex molecules will be considered to
precede the synthesis of the less complex. It may be urged that this view simply
throws back the process of vital synthesis one stage and leaves the question of the
origin of the most complex molecules still unexplained. I grant this at once; but
in doing so I am simply acknowledging that we have not yet solved the enigma of
life. We are in precisely the same position as is the biologist with respect to
abiogenesis, or the so-called ‘spontaneous generation.’ To avoid possible mis-
conception let me here state that the protoplasmic theory in no way necessitates
the assumption of a special ‘ vital force.’ All that is claimed is a peculiar, and at
present to us mysterious, power of forming high-grade chemical combinations
with appropriate molecules. It is not altogether absurd to suppose that this
power is a special property of nitrogen in certain forms of combination. The
theory is but an extension of the views of Kihne, Hoppe-Seyler, and others
respecting the mode of action of enzymes. Neither is the view of the degrada-
tional origin of synthetical products in any way new.! I merely have thought it
desirable to push it to its extreme limit in order that chemists may realise that
there is a special chemistry of protoplasmic action, while the physiologists may
exercise more caution in representing vital chemical transformations by equations
which are in many cases purely hypothetical, or are based on laboratory experi-
ments which do not run parallel with the natural process. The chemical trans-
formations which go on in the living organism are thus referred back to a
peculiarity of protoplasmic matter, the explanation of which is bound up with the
inner mechanism of the process of assimilation. If, as the protoplasmic theory
implies, there must be combination of living protoplasm with appropriate com-
pounds before synthesis is possible, then the problem resolves itself -into a
determination of the conditions which render such combination possible—.e., the
conditions of assimilation. It may be that here also light will come from the
stereochemical hypothesis. The first step was taken when Pasteur found that
organised ferments had the power of discriminating between physical isomerides ;
a similar selective power has been shown to reside in enzymes by the researches
of Emil Fischer and his coadjutors. Fischer has quite recently expressed the view
that the synthesis of sugars in the plant is preceded by the formation of a com-
pound of carbon dioxide, or of formic aldehyde, with the protoplasmic material of
the chloroplast, and similar views have been enunciated by Stohmann. The
question has further been raised by van ’t Hoff, as well as by Fischer, whether a
stereochemical relationship between the living and dead compounds entering into
combination is not an absolutely essential condition of all assimilation. The
settlement of this question cannot but lead us onwards one stage towards the
solution of the mystery that still surrounds the chemistry of the living
organism,

Rucent Discovertes or Gasrous ELEMENTS.

The past year has been such an eventful one in the way of startling discoveries
that I must ask indulgence for trespassing a little further upon the time of the
Section. It was only last year at the Oxford meeting of the British Association
that Lord Rayleigh and Prof. Ramsay announced the discovery of a gaseous con-
stituent of the atmosphere which had up to that time escaped detection. The com-
plete justification of that announcement is now before the world in the paper
recently published in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ of the Royal Society. The
history of this brilliant piece of work is too recent to require much recapitulation.

I need only remind you how, as the result of many years’ patient determinations of

the density of the gases oxygen and nitrogen, Lord Rayleigh established the fact
that atmospheric nitrogen was heavier than nitrogen from chemical sources, and

1 See, e.g., Vines’ Lectures on the Physiology of Plants, pp. 145, 218, 227, 233, and
234. Practically all the great classes of synthetical products are regarded as the
results of the destructive metabolism of protoplasm. A special plea for protoplasmic
action has also been urged, from the biological side, by W. T. Thiselton- Dyer, Journ.
Chem. Soc., 1893; Trans., pp. 680-681.

654 / REPORT—1895.

was then led to suspect the existence of a heavier gas in the atmosphere. He set
to work to isolate this substance, and succeeded in doing so by the method of
Cavendish. In the meantime Prof. Ramsay, quite independently, isolated the gas
by removing the nitrogen by means of red-hot magnesium, and the two investi-
gators then combining their labours, followed up the subject, and have given us a
memoir which will go down to posterity among the greatest achievements of an age
renowned for its scientific activity.

The case in favour of argon being an element seems’ to be now settled by the
discovery that the molecule of the gas is monatomic, as well as by the distinctness
of its electric spark spectrum, The suggestion put forward soon after the discovery
was announced, that the gas was an oxide of nitrogen, must have been made in
complete ignorance of the methods by which it was prepared. The possibility of
its being N, has been considered by the discoverers and rejected on very good
grounds. Moreover, Peratoner and Oddo have been recently making some experi-
ments in the laboratory of the University of Palermo with the object of examining
the products of the electrolysis of hydrazoic acid and its salts. They obtained
only ordinary nitrogen, not argon, and have come to the conclusion that the anhy-
dride N,.N, is incapable of existence, and that no allotropic form of nitrogen is
given off. It has been urged that the physical evidence in support of the mon-
atomic nature of the argon molecule, viz., the ratio of the specific heats, is capable
of another interpretation—that argon is in fact an element of such extraordinary
energy that its atoms cannot be separated, but are bound together as a rigid system
which transmits the vibrational energy of a sound-wave as motion of translation
only. If this be the state of affairs we must look to the physicists for more light.
So far as chemistry is concerned, this conception introduces an entirely new set of
ideas, and raises the question of the monatomic character of the mereury molecule
which is in the same category with respect to the physical evidence. It seems
unreasonable to invoke a special power of atomic linkage to explain the monatomic
character of argon, and to refuse such a power in the case of other monatomic
molecules, like mercury or cadmium. The chemical inertness of argon has been
referred also to this same power of self-combination of its atoms. If this explana-
tion be adopted it carries with it the admission that those elements of which the
atoms composing the molecule are the more easily dissociated should be the more
chemically active. The reverse appears to be the case if we bear in mind Victor
Meyer’s researches on the dissociation of the halogens, which prove that under the
influence of heat the least active element, iodine, is the most easily dissociated.
On the whole, the attempts to make out that argon is polyatomic by such forced
hypotheses cannot at present be considered to have been successful, and the con-
tention of the discoverers that its molecule is monatomic must be accepted as
established.

In searching for a natural source of combined argon Professor Ramsay was led
to examine the gases contained in certain uranium and other minerals, and by steps
which are now well known he has been able to isolate helium, a gas which was
discovered by means of the spectroscope in the solar chromosphere by Professor
Norman Lockyer in 1868. In his address to the British Association in 18721 the
late Dr. W. B. Carpenter said :—

‘But when Frankland and Lockyer, seeing in the spectrum of the yellow solar
prominences a certain bright line not identifiable with that of any known terrestrial
flame, attribute this to a hypothetical new substance which they propose to call
helium, it is obvious that their assumption rests on a far less secure foundation,
until it shall have received that verification which, in the case of Mr. Crookes’ re-
searches on thallium, was afforded by the actual discovery of the new metal, whose
presence had been indicated to him by a line in the spectrum not attributable to
any substance then known.’

It must be as gratifying to Professor Lockyer as it is to the chemical world
at large to know that helium may now be removed from the category of solar
myths and enrolled among the elements of terrestrial matter. The sources, mode

1 Reports, 1872, p. lxxiv.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 655

of isolation, and properties of this gas have been described in the papers recently
ublished by Professor Ramsay and his colleagues. Not the least interesting fact
is the occurrence of helium and argon in meteoric iron from Virginia, as announced

by Professor Ramsay inJuly.t Like argon, helium is monatomic and chemically

inert so far as the present evidence goes. The conditions under which this element
exists in cleveite, uraninite, and the other minerals have yet to be determined.

Taking a general survey of the results thus far obtained, it seems that two
representatives of a new group of monatomic elements characterised by chemical
inertness have been brought to light. Their inertness obviously interposes great
difficulties in the way of their further study from the chemical side; the future
development of our knowledge of these elements may be looked for from the
physicist and spectroscopist. Professor Ramsay has not yet succeeded in effecting
a combination between argon or helium and any of the other chemical elements.
M. Moissan finds that fluorine is without action on argon. M. Berthelot claims
to have brought about a combination of argon with carbon disulphide and mercury,
and with ‘the elements of benzene, . . . with the help of mercury,’ under the
influence of the silent electric discharge. Some experiments which I made last
spring with Mr. R. J. Strutt with argon and moist acetylene submitted to the electric
discharge, both silent and disruptive, gave very little hope of a combination between
argon and carbon being possible by this means. The coincidence of the helium
yellow line with the D, line of the solar chromosphere has been challenged, but the
recent accurate measurements of the wave-length of the chromospheric line by Prof.
G. E. Hale, and of the line of terrestrial helium by Profs. Runge and Paschen, leave
no doubt as to their identity. Both the solar and terrestrial lines have now been
shown to be double. The isolation of helium has not only furnished another link
proving community of matter, and, by inference, of origin between the earth and sun,
but an extension of the work by Professor Norman Lockyer, M. Deslandres, and
Mr. Crookes, has resulted in the most interesting discovery that a Jarge number of
the lines in the chromospheric spectrum, as well as in certain stellar spectra, which
had up to the present time found no counterparts in the spectra of terrestrial elements
ean now be accounted for by the spectra of gases contained with helium in these
rare minerals. The question now confronts us, Are these gases members of the same
monatomic inert group as argon and helium ? Whether, and by what mechanism, a
monatomic gas can give a complicated spectrum is a physical question of supreme
interest to chemists, and I hope that a discussion of this subject with our colleagues
of Section A will be held during the present meeting. That mercury is capable under
different conditions of giving a series of highly complex spectra can be seen from
the memoir by J. M. Eder and E. Valenta, presented to the Imperial Academy of
Sciences of Vienna in July 1894. With respect to the position of argon and
helium in the periodic system of chemical elements, it is, as Professor Ramsay
points out, premature to speculate until we are quite sure that these gases are homo-
geneous. It is possible that they may be mixtures of monatomic gases, and in fact
the spectroscope has already given an indication that they contain some constituent
incommon. ‘The question whether these gases are mixtures or not presses for an
immediate answer. I will venture to suggest that an attack should be made by
the method of diffusion. If argon or helium were allowed to diffuse fractionally
through a long porous plug into an exhausted vessel there might be some separation
into gases of different densities, and showing modifications in their spectra, on the
assumption that we are dealing with mixtures composed of molecules of different
weights.”

1 Nature, vol. lii. p. 224.

? The above was written before the interesting work of Profs. Runge and Paschen
had become known in this country, These authors communicated papers to the
Prussian Academy of Sciences on June 20 and July 11, in which they showed by the
method advocated that helium from cleveite consists of two different gases (Sitzungs-
berichte d. k. Preuss. Akad. d. Wissensch. z. Berlin, 1895, xxx. and xxxiv.; also
Nature, vol. lii. p. 520). The results were also made known by Prof. Runge at the
joint meeting of Sections A and B on September 13.

656 REPORT—1895.

‘The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. A New View of the Genesis of Dalton’s Atomic Theory, derived from
Original Manuscripts. By Sir H. E. Roscozr, /.£.8., and ARTHUR

HARDEN,

A number of previously unknown manuscript volumes in Dalton’s writing have
been found in the library of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.
These consist of laboratory note-books containing the record of Dalton’s practical
work from the year 1802 onwards, and the notes used by him for some of the
lectures delivered at the Royal Institution, London, in 1810.

The examination of these volumes has cast an unexpected light on the genesis
of the atomic theory, and the relation in which that theory stands to the law of
combination in multiple proportions. Neither in Dalton’s published papers, nor in
the ‘New System,’ was any satisfactory account to be found of the genesis of his
theories, and hence the question as to whether the atomic theory was founded on
an experimental knowledge of the law of combination, or whether Dalton arrived
at this law as a necessary consequence of the atomic theory of matter, was not
to be gathered from his own writings. The balance of evidence derived from
these newly discovered documents is strongly in favour of the statement made in
London by Dalton himself, in 1810, that he was led to adopt the atomic theory of
chemistry in the first instance by purely physical considerations, in opposition to the
view, hitherto held by chemists, that the discovery by Dalton of the fact of com-
bination in multiple proportions led him to devise the atomic theory as an

explanation.

2. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.
See Reports, p. 228.

3. The Action of Nitric Oxide on some Metallic Salts.
By H. A. Aupen, B.Sc., and G. J. Fowier, J.Sc.

The experiments here recorded are part of a systematic investigation into the
conditions of stability of the oxides of nitrogen. They are by no means complete,
but the results so far obtained appear to be of sufficient interest to warrant a
preliminary notice.

The reactions of nitric oxide have so far alone been studied. The gas was
prepared by Emich’s method—viz., the interaction of sodium nitrite, strong
sulphuric acid, and mercury. The mixture was kept in continual agitation by a
specially contrived stirrer, worked by a turbine. In this way a regular stream of
gas is obtained, which analysis showed to be of a high state of purity.

In order to study the action of nitric oxide upon the salts selected a weighed
amount of the salt was placed in a boat contained in a Lothar Meyer constant
temperature furnace. By means of a thermostat, also devised by Lothar Meyer,
the temperature can be kept constant to within one degree. Temperatures above
the range of an ordinary instrument were measured by means of a high tempera-
ture thermometer, constructed by Max Kaehler and Martini, of Berlin, which
would give accurate readings to over 400°.

The salt was heated gradually in a stream of nitric oxide, and the phenomena
noted as the temperature rose. The salt was weighed at different intervals of
temperature and time. Thus it was possible to tell at what temperature reaction
began, and at what point it attained a maximum velocity.

So far oxy-salts have been chiefly studied. It was thought that by comparing
their behaviour under the above conditions some light might be thrown on their
stability, and thence on their constitution.

One or two oxides were first examined, the results agreeing with those of
Sabatier and Senderens; e.g., PbO, forms a basic nitrate of lead: when heated in

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 657

nitric oxide the action begins at 15°, but does not attain its maximum till over
130°.

MnO, behaves similarly, but the change is not so rapid. It attains a maximum
at 216°. In neither case is any but a trace of a nitrite formed.

Silver oxide, if containing traces of moisture, yields a mixture of almost
equivalent parts of silver nitrite and metallic silver at the ordinary temperature.
At higher temperatures, with the dry oxide, nitrate and metallic silver are formed
almost entirely.

Silver permanganate behaves, when treated with nitric oxide, very much as a
compound of oxide of silver and a higher oxide of manganese might be supposed
to do. It begins to be attached at the ordinary temperature, and at 80° the
alteration is very rapid. The residue was found to consist of metallic silver, silver
oxide, silver nitrate, and manganese dioxide. Very little, if any, manganese
nitrate was formed.

Potassium permanganate is much more stable than the silver salt. It is not
appreciably attacked till a temperature of over 100° is reached, and the increase
in weight becomes rapid at 190°.

The residue on moistening was not alkaline, and no manganese could be dis-
solved out. The potassium is converted into nitrate, and the manganese into
oxide.

Interesting differences were noted in the behaviour of other silver and potassium
salts, notably, the chlorate and iodate.

Potassium chlorate is attacked by nitric oxide at the ordinary temperature,
chlorine being evolved in considerable quantity, and nitric peroxide being formed.
The gaseous product was condensed in a tube immersed in a freezing mixture, and
the percentage of chlorine in the brown liquid obtained was determined. It was
found to be much in defect of that required to form nitrosyl or nitroxyl chloride.
So that the reaction does not consist simply in the formation of an oxychloride of
nitrogen. On analysis of the residue in the boat, no chloride of potassium was
found to be present. Nitrate was formed, and also a trace of perchlorate. This
seems to be direct proof that in potassium chlorate the potassium and chlorine are
separated,

With barium chlorate a similar reaction takes places.

With silver chlorate (prepared according to Stas’s method from silver oxide)
chlorine was given off, but a considerable amount of silver chloride was also
formed, nearly one-third of the silver present being found as chloride. This may
‘be due to a difference in constitution between the chlorates of silver and of
‘potassium, or to a difference in the stability of the salts and the products of
reaction.

That some difference of constitution exists between the silver and potassium
salts appears to derive confirmation from the behaviour of their iodates when
treated with nitric oxide.

Potassium iodate heated to 80° in nitric oxide begins to give off iodine, and

the reaction becomes rapid at 110°, crystals of iodine condensing on the cool
portion of the tube; no trace of iodide, however, is formed, as is shown by there
being no liberation of iodine on acidifying a solution of the residue after adding
some potassium iodate. The residue is not alkaline, the potassium being converted
into nitrate, recognised by the evolution of ammonia when the residue is warmed
with zinc dust and caustic soda.

Silver iodate, on the other hand, is stable up to a rather higher temperature
than the potassium salt, and when heated above this temperature, about 110°,

_no trace of iodine is given off, but all the silver is converted into iodide, none being
| dissolved out by water, and the yellow residue being insoluble in dilute nitric
acid.

The perchlorates and periodates which have been examined show themselves

more stable than the corresponding chlorates and iodates.

Of the salts so far examined the chromates have shown themselves the most
stable, being analogous in this respect to the sulphates.

_ Lead chromate was unaltered at temperatures exceeding 4C0°.

1895. UU

658 REPORT—1895.

Silver chromate did not suffer appreciable change till above 300°. Metallic
silver was found to be present in the residue as well as silver nitrate. The
chromium was all converted into the sesquioxide. Some amount of nitrite of
silver was also formed.

Silver sulphate is only attacked at the highest temperature of the furnace.

It was found in certain cases—e.g., with lead nitrate—that the intermixture of
a decomposable oxide—e.g., PbO, or MnO,—with the salt, caused the latter to be
attacked at a temperature below that at which action begins with either the salt
or oxide taken separately.

Experiments have also been in progress on tke interaction-of nitric oxide and
various gases, but the results are not yet quite complete enough for publication.

4. On the Respirability of Air in which a Candle Flame has burnt until 2
is extinguished. By Frank Crowes, D.Sc.

At the last meeting of the British Association the author stated the composi-
tion of artificial mixtures of nitrogen and carbon dioxide with air, which were
just able to extinguish various flames. It was found that the flames of ordinary
candles and lamps were extinguished by mixtures which contained on the average
about 16:5 per cent. of oxygen and 83°5 per cent. of the extinctive gases. A flame
of coal-gas, however, required for its extinction a mixture still poorer in oxygen,
and containing 11-3 per cent. of oxygen and 88:7 per cent. of the extinctive gases.
These results have since been confirmed by a different method. The method con-
sisted in allowing the flames to burn in air enclosed over mercury until they were
extinguished ; the remaining extinctive atmosphere was then subjected to analysis,
and its composition was found to be practically identical with that previously
obtained from the artificial mixtures. An analysis of air expired from the lungs
proved that it was also of the same composition as that which extinguished the
flame of an ordinary candle or lamp.

The average percentage composition of expired air and of air which extin-
guishes a candle flame is as follows:—oxygen 16:4, nitrogen 80°5, carbon
dioxide, 3:1.

Now an atmosphere of this composition is undoubtedly respirable. Physio-
logists state that air may be breathed until its oxygen is reduced to 10 per cent.
The maximum amount of carbon dioxide which may be present is open to question,
but it is undoubtedly considerably higher than 3 per cent. Dr. Haldane maintains
that the above atmosphere is not only respirable, but would be breathed by a
healthy person without inconvenience of any kind; he further states that no per-
manent injury would result from breathing such an atmosphere for some time.

The conclusion to be drawn from these facts is that an atmosphere must not be
considered to be dangerous and irrespirable because the flame of an ordinary candle
or oil lamp is extinguished by it. The view is very generally advanced that a man
must, on no account, venture into air which extinguishes the flame of a candle or
of a bundle of shavings. It will be seen that this precaution may deter one from
entering an atmosphere which is perfectly safe and respirable, and from doing duty
of a humane or necessary character. An atmosphere which extinguishes a coal-
gas flame, however, appears to approach closely to the limit of respirability, as far
as the proportion of oxygen which it contains is concerned. Hence the coal-gas
flame appears to be a more trustworthy indicator of respirability than the flame of
a candle oroil-lamp. Undoubtedly the candle and lamp flames should be discarded
as tests of respirability of air. :

5. The Action of Light upon the Soluble Metallic Iodides in presence of
Cellulose. By Douglas J. P. Berripar, B.A., Malvern College.

It was shown by Cook, in 1894, that whilst potassium iodide, purified by
ordinary methods, is decomposed by light, the salt is not thus affected if purified
by either fusion with charcoal or crystallisation from absolute alcohol. Although

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 659

this is so, the iodide is readily decomposed, even when perfectly pure, when
exposed to light in the presence of cellulose, the most suitable form of this
material being filter-paper, which has been extracted by hydrochloric and hydro-
fluoric acids. If a solution of the ordinary pure salt is sealed in a bulb and
exposed to light, whilst in another bulb is placed an equal quantity of the same
solution, together with pure cellulose, it is found that considerably more iodine is
liberated in the latter than in the former: this difference in many cases amounting
to 800 per cent. The solution not containing cellulose gives an alkaline reaction
with phenolphthalein, whilst one sealed with sufficient cellulose is quite neutral :
the action of the cellulose is therefore probably due to its combination with any
potassium hydrate produced by the oxidation of the iodide in presence of light and
moisture.

If a sheet of note-paper containing starch is saturated with a solution of
potassium iodide, and exposed to light in a printing frame under a negative, it
will become printed in a period varying from ten minutes to four hours, the colour
of the exposed paper being pink or chocolate; this changes, however, to blue when
placed in water, the alteration being doubtless due to the formation of the so-called
starch iodide, for the production of which the presence of an excess of water is
necessary. It was found impossible to imitate this chocolate colour by any solu-
tion of iodine: if the solution was aqueous, a blue stain was produced, whilst, if
anhydrous, a brown stain resulted. At last, however, the colour of the exposed
paper was obtained by the action of a very concentrated solution of potassium
iodide upon paper previously coloured blue by starch iodide. This appears to show
that the colour is due to the formation of potassium triiodide, or some similar
compound.

The prints obtained in this manner were fixed by rapid washirg in water,
followed by treatment with a dilute solution of lead acetate ; if subsequently sized
and varnished, they appear to be quite stable.

The iodides of sodium, calcium, strontium, barium, iron, and zinc, all behave
like the potassium salt; the two latter, however, yield prints difficult to see, owing
the decomposition of the salt upon the portions of the paper unexposed to the
ight.

: Cadmium iodide differs from the other soluble metallic iodides in yielding a
print which is blue, and not chocolate coloured; from which it appears that this
element is alone unable to form a higher iodide.

6. Second Report on Quantitative Analysis by means of Electrolysis.
See Reports, p. 235.

7. Report on Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements.
See Reports, p. 273.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
Joint Meeting with Section A.—See p. 609.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The Section did not meet.

uUU2

660 REPORT—1895.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

A discussion! was held in conjunction with Section K (Botany) on the Relation
of Agriculture to Science. The discussion was opened by the following Papers :—

How shall Agriculture best obtain Help from Science ?
By Prof. R. Warineton, /.2.S.

Ordered to be printed in extenso.—See Reports, p. 341.

Agriculture and Science. By 'T, HENDRICE.

The Application of Science to Agriculiure. By M. R. J. Dunstan.

The following Paper and Reports were read :—

1. Work at the Agricultural Experimental Stations in Suffolk and Norfolk.
: By T. B. Woop.

Two stations were started in West Suffolk in 1893, one on the chalk at Higham,
the other on a good deep loam at Lavenham—both typical soils in the county.
Crops are grown at each station in rotation with various manures, and an annual
report is printed and circulated among farmers of the county. Demonstrations
are given on the plots on the action of manures, the methods and effects of potato
spraying, &c. Expenses are borne by West Suffolk Technical Instruction Com-
mittee, and the management is under the Cambridge and Counties Agricultural
Education Scheme.

In Norfolk the arrangements are different. The experiments, started in 1886,
are conducted by the Chamber of Agriculture; since ]888 they have received an
annual grant from the Board of Agriculture, and since 1892 one from the Techni-
cal Education Committee of the Norfolk County Council. The experiments have
included manurial experimerts on all the ordinary crops in the usual course of
farming ; the comparison of many well-known varieties of wheat and barley; the
value of residues of manures, and various sheep-feeding experiments to test the
value of oil in cakes very rich in oil; the comparison of the values of many popular
diets; the determination of the most economical rations, &e.

Besides these experiments in the field a considerable amount of laboratory work
has been done at both the county stations.

2. Report on the Preparation of Haloids from Pure Materials.
See Reports, p. 341.

3. Interim Report of the Committee on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy.
See Reports, p. 263.

LTESDAY, SEPTEMBER 1i.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. Some Remarks on Orthochromatic Photography. By Dr. H. W. VoaEt.

My first researches on orthochromatic photography were published twenty-three
years ago. These investigations were confirmed by Becquerel and were first
brought under the notice of the English public by Meldola in 1874.

1 An account of the discussion is published, and is sold at the Office, price 3d.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 661

In India, in 1875, at my suggestion Colonel Waterhouse used bromide of silver
collodion plates dyed with eosin. The success of his experiments demonstrates
that eosin was the best optical sensitiser for collodion plates. Later Ducos de
Hauron employed orthochromatic plates in his photochrome or three-colour
printing process. Attout-Tailfer next introduced isochromatic gelatine dry
plates dyed with eosin or its derivatives, in conjunction with an alkali. I used
azaline—a mixture of quinoline blue and quinoline red—for the same purpose ;
whilst Eder, of Vienna, recommended erythrosin (tetra-iodo-fluorescein) as the
best optical sensitiser for dry plates. In 1885 Obernetter and I showed that by
the use of eoside of silver plates it was possible to dispense with a yellow screen
for ordinary landscape photography. I find that the best results are obtained with
a film containing 1,000 parts of collodion (containing seventeen of cotton) to
three parts aurantia. The exposure required in this case is four times as long
as when no yellow screen is employed. Tor landscapes only two parts of aurantia
are necessary, and the exposure required is only two and a half times longer than
without a screen. Another important factor in regard to orthochromatic plates is
the action of the developer. My own results show that the impressions of the
blue rays develop before those of the red and yellow, and, therefore, when using
eosin dyed plates they should be developed until all the yellow parts of the picture
are visible in the negative. It is usually stated that the relative value of colours
in a landscape approximates more closely at sunrise and at sunset thanat noon,
and, therefore, that in the former case a yellow screen is unnecessary when using
orthochromatic plates. This would be true were direct sunlight the only agent,
but since diffused licht also comes into play it is not the case, for Crova has shown
that the proportion of blue rays in diffused light increases as the sun goes down,
whilst the reverse holds for direct sunlight. With orthochromatic plates the
results depend on (1) the colour sensitiveness of the plate; (2) the proportion
of the different coloured rays in the diffused light : and this proportion, I find, varies
from day to day.

I gather from Captain Abney’s paper in the ‘ Photographic Journal’ that the
sensitiveness of the plates he employed for yellow rays was only #ths of that
for blue. To this fact I attribute the unsatisfactory results he obtained. In
Germany we use eosin dyed plates, the sensitiveness of which is five times
greater for yellow rays than for blue rays. Such plates can be used for landscapes
without a yellow screen. The prints exhibited to the Section show the com-
parative results obtained with ordinary plates and plates of this kind. The
Pictures were taken at 3 P.M.

2. On the Sensitising Action of Dyes on Gelatino-bromide Plates.
By C. H. BorwaMtey.

Although large numbers of dyes have been examined since Dr. H. W. Vogel’s
discovery in 1873, very few exert any marked effect in making gelatino-bromide
plates sensitive to the less refrangible rays of the spectrum. Only cyanin and the
dyes of the eosin group (including the rhodamines), with perhaps malachite green,
chrysoidine, and alizarin blue, can be said to exert any useful effect.

The main points established by previous observers may be summarised as follows:
(1) The dyes that act as sensitisers are readily affected by light when they are in con-
tact with fabrics, paper, c.; (2) in order that a dye may act as a sensitiser it must
have the power of entering into intimate union with silver bromide, forming a
kind of ‘lake’; (3) and it must show a strong absorption band for the particular
rays for which it is to sensitise. Although these statements hold good for all the
dyes that are known to act as sensitisers, it is important to observe that the con-
verse is not necessarily true. Several dyes having all these properties show no
appreciable sensitising action.

Experiments by Dr. E. Vogel on the rate of fading and the sensitising action of
the eosin dyes, led him to the conclusion that the order of sensitising effect coin-
cides with the order of fading when the dyes are exposed to light. The order in
which Vogel places the dyes does not, however, correspond with the order of fading

662 REPORT—-1895.

as observed in dyed fabrics, and the experimental method that he used is open to
criticism.

The author’s observations on the fading of the various sensitisers, when exposed
to light in contact with gelatin, lead him to the conclusion that, although all the
sensitisers are readily atfected by light, the order of sensitising effect does not
necessarily correspond with the order of fading, whether the dyes belong to the
same chemical group or not.

There are two chief hypotheses as to the mode in which the dyes act, namely :
(1) the view held by Abney that the dye itself is oxidised by the action of light,
the oxidation product remaining in contact with the silver bromide; and when the
plate is treated with the developer, the latter and the oxidation product acting
simultaneously on the silver bromide bring about its reduction; and (2) the view
first definitely formulated by Eder, and endorsed by Vogel, namely, that the energy
absorbed by the dyed silver bromide is partially used up in bringing about the
chemical decomposition of the silver bromide, instead of being almost entirely con-
verted into heat, as when absorbed by the dye alone.

The author has found that the less refrangible rays will produce a photographic
image on the sensitised gelatino-bromide plates, when they are immersed in
- powerfully reducing solutions, such as a mixture of sodium sulphite and pyro-

gallol. ‘his holds good for cyanin, the eosin dyes, the rhodamines, and quinoline
red, whether the sensitiser has been added to the emulsion or has been applied to
the prepared plate in the form of a bath. It is, therefore, impossible to attribute
the sensitising effect to any intermediate oxidation of the dye.

Experiments with various reagents such as potassium bromide, potassium dichro-
mate, mercuric chloride, and dilute hydrogen peroxide seem to show that the
chemical nature of the latent image produced by the less refrangible rays on the
specially sensitised. plates is precisely the same as that of the latent image produced
by the more refrangible rays in the ordinary way.

Further proof in the same direction is afforded by the fact that the effect of the
senettieere extends to the production of a visible effect by the prolonged action of

ight.

The balance of evidence is therefore greatly in favour cf the view that the dye
absorbs the particular group of rays, and, in some way which is not at all clear,
hands on the energy to the silver bromide, with which it is intimately associated,
and which is thereby decomposed.

For the present, for want of a better word, the phenomenon might be distin-
guished as photo-catalysis, and the sensitiser might be described as a photo-catalytic
agent. As yet no connection can be traced between the chemical constitution and
the general physical properties of a dye, and its sensitising action.

3. Report of the Committee on the Action of Light on Dyed Colours.
See Reports, p. 263.

4. On some Stilbene Derivatives.
Ly J. J. Supporovenu, D.Se., Pr.D., FIC.

The author has prepared monochloro-, methyl-chloro-, and ethyl-chlero-
stilbene by the action of phosphorus pentachloride on deoxybenzoin and on its
methyl and ethyl derivatives. The monochloro-stilbene differs from that described
by Zinin (‘ Annalen,’ 149, 375), as it is a solid, which crystallises from alcohol in
large colourless plates. It melts at 53°-54°, and yields additive compounds with
bromine, with chlorine and with ‘nitrous acid.’ These, together with the corre-
sponding compounds obtained from methyl- and from ethyl-chloro-stilbene, are
described. An oily monochloro-stilbene, corresponding to that of Zinin, has also
been prepared, and is being subjected to further examination in order to determine

whether it is merely an impure form of the crystalline compound or a true stereo-
isomeride.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 663

5. Note on the Constitution of Camphoric Acid.
By J. J. SupBoroveu, D.Se., Ph.D., PLC.

The author draws attention to the fact that, as regards its etherification,
camphoric acid shows a marked resemblance to some of the polycarboxylic acids
investigated by Victor Meyer and Sudborough (‘Ber., 27, 3146), and to hemi-
pinic acid (Wegscheider, ‘ Monatsheft,’ 16, 75). It is thought that this resem-
blance may throw some light on the constitution of camphoric acid, and that at
any rate it can be used as an argument for or against any formula which is brought
forward. The author then considers several of the more important formule
already suggested, and regards those of Armstrong and of Bredt as best agreeing
with the behaviour of camphoric acid.

6. Experimental Proof of van’t Hoff’s Constant, Dalton’s Law, ke., for
very Dilute Solutions. By Dr. M. W1LDERMANN.

7. The Formaivon and Properties of a New Organic Acid.
By Henry J. Horstman Fenton, JA.

When tartaric acid is oxidised under certain conditions in presence of a ferrous
galt a substance is produced which acts as a powerful reducing agent, and which
gives a beautiful violet colour with ferric salts in presence of alkali. This sub-
stance has after considerable difficulty been isolated, and proves to be a dibasic
acid having the formula C,H,0,.2H,0.

The constitution of this acid is now under investiyzation.

Heated with hydrogen iodide it gives succinic acid, raceniic acid being an inter-
mediate product. Bromine in presence of water oxidises it quantitatively to dioxy-
tartaric acid. Heated with water it is resolved into carbon dioxide and glycollic
aldehyde.

This aldehyde has been obtained as a viscid liquid, pure except for a trace of
ether ; and, on removing the latter by heating in a vacuum, the aldehyde under-
goes polymerisation, a sweet-tasting solid gum being the result. Analysis and
molecular weight determination show that this gummy substance has the formula
C,H,.0,.

Further observations have recently been made as to the conditions under which
this new acid may he obtained from tartaric acid. The presence of a ferrous salt
is essential. Ferric, manganous, and various other salts have Deen tried with
negative results.

If moist ferrous tartrate be exposed to the air for a short time a certain quantity
of the new acid is produced, and may be indicated by the characteristic violet
colour given when caustic alkali is added. The effect is much more intense if the
exposure be made out of doors, and the increased result was at first attributed to
some constituent of the fresh air (eg., hydrogen dioxide; ozone seems to be
inoperative). But later experiments show conclusively that light is the cause.
Air which has been puritied by passing through potassium iodide and caustic potash
solutions gives an effect about equal in intensity to that produced by fresh external
air, if the exposure to light be the same in both cases. That oxygen (or some
oxidising agent) is essential is shown by the fact that exposure in a vacuum, even
to bright sunlight, gives a negative result.

8. On the Velocity of Reaction before Perfect Equilibrium takes place.
By Meyer Witpermann, Ph.D.

The solidification and the crystallisation of over-cooled liquids, as well as the
melting of frozen and solidified liquids, belong to processes which occur most
generally in nature; therefore it is of importance to know the velocity with

664 REPORT—1895.

which these processes take place, and to find the common equation for all of
them.

1. On the Velocity of Solidification of Over-cooled Liquids, of Solutions, and of
Liquid Miztures.—F rom the experiments of Moore, made in Ostwald’s laboratory,'

the author shows that the equation = =c(t,—1%) is to be applied for the velocity

of solidification, where ¢ is the actually existing temperature of the over-cooled
liquid, ¢, the temperature, where the solid and liquid solution are in equilibrium,
since beginning with the greater differences (instead of as has been done by Moore,

with the smaller) ¢,—¢, it is easy to show that Ht EE! :
i (da: dz)t,,

Ome ty,

2. On the Velocity of Crystallisation of Over-cooled Liquids and Solutions.—

The same equation o c(¢,—¢) is found to be applied for the velocity of crystal-
dz

lisation. Now, since the separation of the solid solvent is accompanied by evolu-
tion of heat (latent heat of melting), and the increase of the temperature of the
liquid is directly proportional to the quantity of separated ice, we can, instead of

_the above equation, put 2 =c’(t,—t), where c’ is directly proportional to the latent

heat of melting, and inversely proportional to the specific heat of the liquid. Very
careful measurements have been carried out. The liquid was at first over-cooled
to below its freezing-point ; the distance from the freezing-point was then measured
on the -01° thermometer, and the time noted by wy assistant to # second.

3. On the Velocity of Melting of Solid Solvents in the Warmer Liquids and

Solutions.—For the process of melting, Newton’s equation z =c(t,—t) for conduc-
P fo) q dz 0

tion is to be used ; the convergence temperature is here that at which ice and liquid
are in equilibrium, z.e., the freezing-point ; the ice plays here the part of the cooling
medium, abstracting heat from the liquid. Since now the velocity of reaction
takes place through the ice-surface, tle velocity of reaction at a given time 2 will
be also directly proportional to the surface of the ice present in the liquid at the

time z. Our equation can therefore get the form =H —t)O, where O is in
, az

proportion to the surface of the ice. The liquid or solution to be investigated is
at first over-cooled 1° or 1°°2 below its freezing-temperature; the ice is then
crystallised. After the separation of the ice we allow the ice to rise in the beaker
to the upper part of the liquid, warm the liquid to about 0°°3 or 0°-4 above the
freezing-point ; the liquid is then stirred, the temperature rises at first, and after
reaching its maximum falls, The time is measured to ? second.

We have therefore investigated two classes of reactions before perfect equili-
brium takes place. Zhe first is where the temperature of both parts of the hetero-
yeneous system is below or above the temperature of equilibrium (solidification,

crystallisation). For this class we have to apply the equation ot = e(f- 2) or

= ce’ (t)—t), which in its form, but not in its purport, is identical with Newton’s
equation for conduction. The second class is where one of the parts of the hetero-
geneous system is at the temperature of equilibrium and the other is above or
below that of equilibrium (melting process in liquids). The velocity of these pro-
cesses is regulated by Newton’s law for conduction.

As we know, we have two kinds of equilibrium, perfect and imperfect equili-
brium. While in the case of perfect equilibrium (for example, ice and water) at
a constant pressure, the smallest change of temperature is sufficient to cause one
of the parts of the heterogeneous system to disappear, in the case of imperfect
equilibrium (for example, acid + alcohol, ether + water) a small change of tempera-
ture produces only a small change in the state of equilibrium, while the relation

1 Zeitschr. phys. Chem., vol. xii. p. 545.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 665

of the quantities of the acting parts changes in one or the other direction. The
velocity of reaction, before imperfect equilibrium takes place, formed the subject
of investigation of many scientists ; Vernon-Harcourt and Hsson, van ’t Hoff, Guld-
berg, and Waage, should be specially mentioned. The author finds in the case of

dt_, :
n= (é,—?) is

to be applied, but would express the common equation as = =f(t)—?), since the

solidification and crystallisation that the equation a =c(¢,—2), or

velocity of the reaction can often be complicated by other phenomena.

Let us now bring into connection the equations for the two kinds of velocity of
reactions with the two kinds of equilibrium.

In the case of dmperfect equilibrium we have, before the state of equilibrium is
arrived at, two reactions:

=c(A—.2) (B—2) (alcohol + acid)

3) Sti (ether + water),
and equilibrium is arrived at when c(A—.2’) (B—a’)=c’a”, @.e., both reactions
take place simultaneously and the equilibrium is a dynamic one. In the case of
perfect equilibrium we have before the equilibrium is arrived at

dx
a. (4,0

and equilibrium is arrived at when ¢,—¢=0 (t.e., at the freezing temperature) ;
dx

— therefore at the point of equilibrium equals 0, that is to say, no further reaction

takes place, and the equilibrium ts a static one.

9. Chemical History of Barley Plants. By C. F. Cross and C. Smiru.

Work has been carried out over a period of two years (1894 and 1895) upon
crops grown on the experimental plotsat Woburn. Maximum plot6 and minimum
plot 1 were investigated with regard to the furfural and permanent tissue which
they contain.

A table of results is appended to the paper.

From the table we draw the following conclusions : —

1. The conditions of soil nutrition have very little influence upon the composi-
tion of the plant.

2. The feeding value of straws grown in wet seasons is high, and conversely
the paper-making value of such straws is low.

3. The furfuroids are continuously assimilated to permanent tissue in a normal
season, but in a dry season, on the other hand, the permanent tissue is put under
contribution for nutrient material, which is ordinarily drawn from the cell contents.

666 ; REPORT—1895.

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcrion.—W. Wuitaker, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The PresrpeEnt delivered the following Address :—

UNDERGROUND IN SUFFOLK AND Irs BoRDERS.

W3EN the British Association revisits a town it is not unusual for the Sectional
Presidents to refer to the addresses of their local predecessors, and to allude to the
advance of their science since the former meeting. I have at all events tried to
follow this course, with the sad result of haying to chronicle a falling back rather
than an advance in our methods of procedure; for at the meeting of 1851 all the
Sectional’Presidents had the wisdom not to give an address, and of all the inven-
tions of later years I look upon the presidential address as perhaps the worst.
‘Had I the courage of my opinion I should not now trouble you; but an
official life of over thirty-eight years has led me to do what I am told to do, and to
suppress my own ideas of what is right. After all it is the fault of the Sections
themselves that they should suffer the evil of addresses. They could disestablish
the institution without difliculty.

On these occasions it is not usual to allude to the personal losses our science
has had in the past year; but there are times when the lack of a familiar presence
can hardly be passed over, and since we last met we have lost one of our most
constant friends, who had served us long and well, and had been our Secretary for
a far longer time than any other holder of that office. When we were at Oxford
last summer none of us could have thought that it was our last meeting with
William Topley.

I do not now mean to say anything on the origin or on the classification of the
various divisions of the Crag and of the Drift that occur so plentifully around us,
and form the staple interest of East Anglian geology. These subjects, which are
the more interesting from being controversial, I leave to my brother-hammerers,
and without claiming the credit of magnanimity in so doing, having said what I
had to say on them in sundry Geological Survey Memoirs. The object of this address
is to carry you below the surface, and to point out how much our knowledge
of the geology of the county in which we meet has been advanced by workers in
another field, by engineers and others in their search for water. As tar as possible
allusion will be made only to work in Suffolk; but we must occasionally invade
the neighbouring counties.

This kind of evidence has chiefly accumulated since the meeting of the Associa-
tion at Ipswich in 1851; for of the 476 Suffolk wells of which an account, with

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 667

some geologic information, has been published, only 68 were noticed before that
year, all but two of these being in a single paper. The notes on all these wells
are now to be found in twelve Geolovical Survey Memoirs that refer to the county.
Number alone, however, is not the only point, and many of the later records are
marked by a precision and a detail rarely approached in the older ones. It should
be stated that in the above and in the following numbers strict accuracy is not
professed, nor is it material. A slight error in the number of the wells, one way
or the other, would make practically no difference to the general conclusions.

Now let us see how these records affect our knowledge of the various geologic
formations, beginning with the newest and working downward.

The Drift.

Under this head, as a matter of convenience for the present purpose, we will
include everything above the Chillesford Clay. There is no need for retinement of
classification, and the thin beds that come in between that clay and the Drift in
some parts do not affect the evidence we have to deal with.

As a matter of fact it is only from wells that we can tell the thickness of the
Drift over most of the great plateau that this formation chiefly forms; open sections
through a great thickness of Drift, to its base, are rare, except on the coast.

There is often some doubt in classifying the beds, the division between Drift
and Crag being sometimes hard to make in sections of wells and borings; but from
an examination of the records of these Suffolk sections that pass through any part
of the Drift Series (as defined above) we find that no less than 173 show a thick-
ness of 50 feet and upward, whilst of these 34 prove no less than 100 feet of Drift,
many reaching to much more. Of the two that are said to show a thickness of
over 200 feet and the one other said to be more than 300 feet deep in Drilt, we can
hardly feel certain ; but such amounts have been recorded with certainty as occur-
ring in the neighbouring county of Essex.

These great thicknesses (chiefly consisting of Boulder Clay) show the importance
of the Drift, and the impossibility of mapping the formations beneath with any
approach to accuracy, on the supposition that the Drift is stripped off, as is the
case in the ordinary geologic map. The records also show the varying thickness
of the Drift, and how difficult it often is therefore to estimate the thickness at a
given spot. Sometimes the sections seem to point to the existence of channels
filled with Drift, such as are found also in Essex and in Norfolk; and it may be
noted that in the northern inland part of the former county, one of these channels
has been traced, though of course not continuously, for some 11 miles along the
valley of the Cam, and at one place to the depth of 340 feet (or nearly 140 below
sea-level), the bottom of the Drift moreover not having been reached even then. A
channel of this sort seems to occur close 10 us, in the midst of the town of Ipswich,
where, by St. Peter's, one boring has pierced 70 feet of Drift, and another 127,
in ground but little above the sea-level.

As the Drift sands and gravels, that in many places occur below the Boulder
Clay, often yield a fair amount of water, the proof of their occurrence and of the
thickness of the overlying clay is of some practical good.

The Crag.

On this geologic division we have a less amount of information, as would be
expected from the fact that it is not nearly so widespread as the Drift, and this
information is confined to the Upper, or Red, Crag, the Lower, or Coralline, Crag
occurring only oyer a very small area, and no evidence of its underground exten-
sion being given by wells.

What we Jearn of the Red Crag, however, is of interest, several wells having
proved that it is far thicker underground than would have been supposed from
what is seen where its base crops out. One characteristic, indeed, of this sandy
deposit, in the many parts where it can be seen from top to bottom, is its thinness,

668 REPORT—1895,
as in such places it rarely reaches a thickness of 40 feet. But, on the other hand,
wells at Hoxne seem to prove more than 60 feet of Crag, whilst at Saxmundham
the formation is 100 feet thick, and at Leiston and Southwold over 140. Further
north, just within the border of Suffolk, there is, at Beccles, a thickness of 80 feet
of sand, or, with the overlying Chillesford Clay, a total of 95. Our underground
information has, then, trebled the known thickness of the Upper Crag of Suttolk.
It has also shown that at some depth underground the colour-name is a mis-
nomer, the shelly sands being light-coloured and not red. This is the case too
with some other deposits, which owe their reddish-brown colour at the surface to
peroxide of iron. Presumably the iron-salt is in a lower state of oxidation until it
comes within reach of surface-actions. This seems to point to the risk of taking
colour as the mark of a geologic formation.

Eocene Tertiaries.

Below the Crag there is a great gap in the geologic series, and we come to
some of the lower of the Tertiary formations, about which little had been
published, as regards Suffolk, before the work of the Geological Survey in the
‘county. It seems as if the special interest in the more local Crag had led
observers to neglect these beds, which had been amply noticed in other parts.

We have records of more than forty wells in Sutfolk that are partly in these
deposits, and of these thirty-six reach down to the Chalk, twenty giving good
sections from the London Clay to the Chalk. The thickness of the Lower London
Tertiaries (between those formations) thus proved varies from 30 to 794 feet, the
higher figure being much greater than anything shown at the outcrop. The
greatest recorded thickness is at Leiston, where, moreover, the top 26 feet of the
793} may belong to the uppermost and most local of the three divisions of the
Series, the Oldhaven Beds, of very rare occurrence in the county. The next
greatest thickness is at Southwold, where the whole has been classed as Reading
Beds (the persistent division), though here and elsewhere it is possible that the
underlying Thanet Beds are thinly represented. It is noteworthy that at both
these places, where the Lower London Tertiaries are thick, they are also at a
great depth, beginning at 2524} and 218 feet respectively, which looks as if, like
the Crag, they thickened in their underground course away from the outcrop.

The important evidence given by these wells, however, is not as regards thick-
ness; it is to show the underground extent of the older Tertiary beds, beneath the
great sheet of Crag and Drift that prevents them from coming to the surface
north-eastward from the neighbourhood of Woodbridge. It is clear that over this
large tract we can know nothing of the beds beneath the Crag otherwise than from
wells and borings; and, until these were made, our older geologic maps cut off the
older Tertiary beds far south of the parts to which we now know that they reach,
though hidden from our sight. No one, for instance, would have imagined many
years ago that at Southwold the Chalk would not be touched till a boring had
reached the depth of 323 feet, or some 280 below sea-level, or that at Leiston
those figures would be about 297 and 240,

It is from calculations based on the levels of the junction of the Chalk and the
Tertiary beds in many wells that the line engraved on the Geological Survey map
as the probable boundary of the latter beds under the Crag and Drift has been
drawn. From what has gone before, however, as to the great irregularity in the
thickness of the Drift, it is clear that this line must be taken only as approximate,
and open to correction as further evidence is got ; albeit the junction of the Chalk
and the Tertiary beds is found to be here, as elsewhere, fairly even, along an
inclined plane that sinks toward the coast.

Cretaceous Beds.

Though the Chalk is reached by very many wells, yet we get less information
about it, by reason of its great thickness. Moreover, the great amount of overlying
beds in many eases is a bar to deep exploration.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 669

Of our Suffolk wells there are forty which go through 100 feet or more of
Chalk. Of these twenty go through 200 feet or more, half of these to 800 or
more, and again half of the ten to 400 or more, a very exact piece of geometric
progression, or morv strictly, retrogression. Although two wells pass through
the great thickness of more than 800 feet of chalk, yet neither of them gives us
the full thickness of the formation; for the 816 feet. at Landguard Fort do not
reach to the base, whilst the 843 (or 817) feet at Combs, near Stowmarket, do not
begin at the top.

As in no case yet recorded has the Chalk been pierced from top to bottom in
Suffolk (a defect that will be supplied during this meeting by the description of
the Stutton boring), that is to say, no boring has gone from the overlying older
Tertiary beds to the underlying Gault, we must now, therefore, cross the border
of the county to get full information as to the thickness of the Chalk; and we
have not far to go, for the well-known Harwich boring passes through the whole
of the Chalk, proving 2 thickness of 890 feet. It is almost certain, indeed, that this
should be given as a few feet more, for the 22 feet next beneath, which have been
described as Gault mixed with Greensand, is probably in part the green clayey
glauconitic base of the Chalk Marl. We may fairly add for this another 5 feet
(as also in the case of the Combs boring), and may say that, in round numbers, the
Chalk reaches a thickness of about 900 feet in the south-eastern part of Suffoll.
Toward the northern border of the county it is probably more, as the deep boring
at Norwich passes through nearly 1,160 feet of Chalk, and that without beginning
at the top of the formation.

Of our recorded Suffolk wells only three reach the hase of the Chalk, at
Mildenhall, Culford and Combs; consequently we have little knowledge of the
divisions of the Chalk. These divisions, indeed, are of comparatively late inven-
tion, having been evolved since the publication of many of the deep sections that
have been referred to. ; ;

If the Upper Chalk at Harwich goes as far down as the flints, then we must
allow it to be 690 feet thick, leaving little more than 200 for the Middle and
Lower Chalk together. At Landguard Fort, from the same point of view, the
Upper Chalk would certainly be 500 feet thick, and one cau’t say how much
more. A
At Combs, on the other hand, flints have been recorded as present only in the
top 27 feet of the Chalk; but whilst this may have been owing in part to the
boring having passed between fairly scattered nodules, and in part perhaps to
insufficient care in observation, at Harwich it is possible that some flints may have
been carried down in the process of boring. It should be remembered, too, that
there are flints in part of the Middle Chalk, so that their presence is not an
unfailing guide.

What evidence we have tends to show, however, that the Upper Chalk forms
a good deal more than half, and perhaps about two-thirds, of the formation, the
Middle and Lower Chalk being rather thin. This agrees with what is found in
other parts where the Chalk is thick, extra thickness being chiefly due to the
highest division, The glauconitic marly bed at the base seems to be well
developed and to be underlain by the Gault clay; so that we have no good
evidence of the occurrence of Upper Greensand. This division may be thinly
represented at Mildenhall, but it is difficult to classify some of the beds passed
through in the old boring there.

As far as the Gault is concerned little of course is known; but that little
points to this formation being unusually thin, presumably only 73 feet from top to
hottom at Culford, and probably not more than between 50 and 60 at and near
Harwich. In the north-western part of the neighbouring county of Norfolk it is
well known to be still less, the clay thinning out northward along the outcrop,
until at last there is nothing but a few feet of Red Chalk between the carstone of
the Lower Greensand and the Chalk. The Gault being of much greater thickness
around and under other parts of the London Basin, this thinning in Norfolk and
Suffolk is noteworthy. The absence of the more inconstant Upper Greensand is to
be expected in most places, and calls for no remark; it may, however, be noted

670 REPORT—1895.

that geologists are coming to the conclusion that these two divisions are really
parts of one formation, and one result of this geologic wedding is for the in-
constancy of one partner to be greatly compensated by the constancy of the
other.

The Lower Greensand has been found in one deep boring only, at Culford, in
the western part of the county, where it is represented by 52} feet of somewhat
exceptional beds. This slight thickness prepares us for underground thinning, and
in the far east of the county the formation is presumably absent, there being no
trace of it at Harwich or at Stutton.

With the Cretaceous beds we pass from the regular orderly succession of geo-
logic formations ; indeed it may be said that when we reach the base of the Gault
we pass out of the region of facts into the realm of speculation.

We have come then to perhaps the most interesting problem in the geology of
the Eastern Counties, to the consideration of the question, What rocks underlie the
Cretaceous beds at great depths? In dealing with this I must ask your patience

_ for frequent excursions outside our special district, and sometimes indeed far

away from it.

Beyond the outcrop of the lower beds of the Cretaceous Series in Cambridge-
shire and Norfolk, we find of course a powerful development of the great Jurassic
Series; but the only two recorded deep borings in and near Suffolk that have
pierced through the Cretaceous base, at Culford on the north-west and at Harwich
on the south-east, show not a trace of anything Jurassic: they pass suddenly from
Cretaceous into far older rocks. And here a paper that is to be brought before
you must be anticipated, to a slight extent, by adding that the trial-boring at
Stutton shows just the same thing, the Gault resting directly on a much older
rock, which cannot be classed as of Secondary age.

There is no need now to discuss the literature of the old rocks underground in
South-Eastern England, that has often been done. We may take the knowledge
of what has been shown by the various deep borings as common property, and may
use it freely, without troubling to state the source of each piece of information,
and I will not therefore burden this address with references. I had indeed thought
of supplementing a former account by noticing the later literature of the subject;
but decided to spare you from the infliction, and myself from the trouble of inflict-
ing; though it may be convenient to add, in the form of an Appendix, a list of the
chief papers on the subject that have been published since the question was dis-
cussed at length in 1889, in an official memoir on the geology of London, and to
supply some omissions in that work. Nor do I propose to make any special criti-
cism of papers on the subject that have appeared of late years; this is hardly the
occasion for controversy, which may well be put off to a more convenient season.
Some general remarks, however, I shall have to make after putting the facts
before you. ;

There are 10 deep borings reaching to old rocks in the London Basin, of which
accounts have been published. We find that in 4 of these (Meux’s, Streatham,
Richmond, and Dover) Jurassic beds separate those rocks from the Cretaceous beds;
so that there are 6 in which these last rest direct on old rocks (Ware, Cheshunt,
Kentish Town, Crossness, Culford, and Harwich). Stutton of course makes a
seventh. The Jurassic rocks occur only in the southern borings, either in London
or still further southward, and in one case only (Dover) is there any considerable
thickness of these: in the other 3 they are from 38} to 874 feet thick. As far
as regards Suffolk and its borders we may therefore disregard them, except in the
far west, near their outcrop, and we may pass on to consider the older rocks that
have been found.

So far the occurrence, next beneath the Cretaceous or Jurassic beds, of Silurian,
Devonian, and Carboniferous rocks has been proved, whilst in some cases we are
still doubtful as to the age of the old rocks found. In 5 cases distinctive fossils
have been found (Ware, Cheshunt, Meux’s, Dover, and Harwich), but in 5 others

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 671

they have not (Kentish Town, Crossness, Richmond, Streatham, and Culford), and
it isin the latter group too that the character of the beds leaves their age in doubt.
So far another must be added to these, as no fossil has yet been found in the old
rocks at Stutton.

Of the above 10 deep borings in the London Basin (using that term in the
widest sense, as including the Chalk tract that everywhere surrounds the Tertiary
beds) we owe 9 to endeavours to get water from deep-seated rocks, and in addition
to these 9 we have several other deep borings, which though not carried through
to the base of the Secondary rocks, yet give us much information concerning those
beds (at Holkham, Norwich, Combs, Winkfield, London, Loughton, Chatham, and
Dover). In one case only, that of Dover, has the work been done for the purpose
of exploration, but now, after a few years’ interval, a second trial has been made at
Stutton.

Now both of these borings were started for a much more definite object than
merely to prove the depth to older rocks, or the thickness of the Cretaceous and
Jurassic Series. There is one particular division of those older rocks that has a
distinct fascination for others than geologists. We, happily, are content to find
anything and to increase our knowledge in any direction, but naturally those who
2re not geologists, as well as many who are, like to find something of immediate
practical value. As already shown, we owe much knowledge of the underground
extension of formations to explorations for water; it has now become the turn of
geologists to help those who would like to find that much less general, though
nearly as needful and certainly more valuable thing, coal.

The first place to suggest itself to those geologists who had worked at this
question, as a good site for trial, was the neighbourhood of Dover, and for various
good reasons. The trial has been made, and successfully, several hundred feet
of Coal Measures having been found, without reaching their base, but with several
beds of workable coal.

Beyond that neighbourhood, however, geologists are not in such accord, and
generally speaking, fairly good reasons can be given both for and against the
selection of many tracts for trial, except in and near London, where no geologists
would recommend it, from the evidence in our hands.

Let us then shortly review the evidence that we have on the underground
extension of the older rocks in South-Eastern England, with a view of considering
the question of the possibility of finding Coal Measures in any of the folds into
which those rocks have probably, nay almost certainly, been thrown.

The area within which the borings that reach older rocks in the London Basin
is enclosed is an irregular pentagon, from near Dover, on the south-east, to
Richmond on the west, thence to Ware, thence to Culford on the north, thence to
Harwich, and thence southward to Dover, the greatest distance between any
borings being from Dover to Culford, about eighty-six miles. It is therefore over
a large tract, extending of course beyond the boundaries sketched above, that
we have good reason to infer that older rocks are within reasonable distance
of the surface, rarely as much as 1,600 feet, and mostly a good deal less.

We must now consider some evidence outside the tract hitherto dealt with.
Southward of the central and eastern-parts of the London Basin we have evidence
that the Lower Cretaceous beds thicken greatly, from what is seen over their
broad outcrop hetween the North and South Downs. We know also, from the
Dover and Chatham borings, that the Upper and Middle Jurassic beds come in to
the south-east, whilst the Sub-Wealden Exploration, near Battle, proves that those
divisions thicken greatly southward, the latter not having been bottomed at the
depth of over 1,900 feet, at that trial-boring.

Westward, however, near Burford in Oxfordshire, and some miles northward
of the nearest part of the London Basin, Carboniferous rocks have been found at
the depth of about 1,180 feet, these being separated from the thick Jurassic beds
(including therein the Liassic and Rhetic) by perhaps 420 of Trias. They consist
of Coal Measures, which were pierced to the depth of about 230 feet.

In and near Northampton, north-eastward of the last site, and still further
from the northern edge of the London Basin, the like occurs; but the beds found

672 REPORT—1895.

are older than the Coal Measures, and the Trias is thin, not reaching indeed to
90 feet in thickness, and being absent in one case. At one place, too, the
Carboniferous beds have been pierced through, with a thickness of only 222 feet,
when Old Red Sandstone was found, and in another place still older rock seems to
have been found next beneath the Trias. The depth to the rocks older than the
Trias, where they were reached, was 677, 738, and 790 feet, or respectively
395, 460, and 816 below sea-level. Some of these figures must be taken as
somewhat approximate, though they are near enough to the truth for practical
purposes.

A boring at Bletchley, to the south, reached granitic rocks at the depths of
3784 and 401 feet; but these rocks seem to be only boulders in a Jurassic clay:
their occurrence, however, is suggestive of the presence of older rocks at the
surface no great way off, in Middle Jurassic times,

Much further northward, at Scarle, south-west of Lincoln, the older rocks
have been reached at the depth of about 1,500 feet, all but 141 of which are Trias,
and they begin with the Permian {which crops out some eighteen miles west-
ward), the Carboniferous cecurring after another 400 feet, and having been pierced
to 130.

We have then evidence that over a large part of South-Eastern England,

yeaching northward and westward of the London Basin, though the older rocks

are hidden by a thick mantle of Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary beds, yet
they seem to be rarely at a depth that would be called very great by the coal-
miner. They are distinctly within workable depths wherever they ‘have been
reached. j

There is no area of old rocks at the surface in our island, south of the Forth,
in which Coal Measures are not a constituent formation. Truly, further north, in the
great tract of Central and Northern Scotland there are no Carboniferous rocks ;
but we can hardly say that none ever occurred, at all events in the more southern
parts. We know, though, that on the west and north Jurassic and Triassic beds
rest on formations older than the Carboniferous.

It is not, however, to this more northern and distant tract that we should look
for analogy to our underground plain of old rocks; rather should we look to more
southern parts, to Wales and to Central and Northern England, where Coal
Measures are of frequent occurrence. On the principle of reasoning from the
known to the unknown, I cannot see why we should expect anything but a like
occurrence of Coal Measures, in detached basins, in our vast underground tract of
old rocks.

What, then, is the evident conclusion from what we know and from what we
may reasonably infer? Surely that trials should be made to see if such hidden
coal-basins can be found.

One trial has been made, and it has succeeded; the Dover boving has proved
the presence of coal underground in Eastern Kent, along the line between the
coal-fields of South Wales and of Bristol on the west, and those of Northern
France and of Belgium on the east.

The long gap between the distant outcrops of the Coal Measures near Bristol
and Calais has been lessened very slightly by the working of coal under the
Triassic and Jurassic beds near the former place, but much more by our bretbren
across the narrow sea, the extent of the Coal Measures beneath the Jurassic and
Cretaceous beds, having not only been proved by the French and the Belgians
along their borders, but the coal having been largely worked. At last, we too
have still further decreased the gap, by the Dover boring, a work that I trust is to
be followed by other work along the same line.

But is this the only line along which we are to search? Are we to conclude
that the only coal-fields under our great tract of Cretaceous beds (where these are
either at the surface or covered by Tertiary beds) are in Kent, Surrey, and other
counties to the west? Have we no coal-fields but those of Bristol and of South
Wales? The bounds of our midland and northern coal-fields have been extended
by exploration beneath the New Red Series; are we to stop here and to assume
that there can be no further underground extension of the Coal Measures south-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 673

eastward? This seems hardly a wise course, and is certainly a very unenter~
prising one. It seems to me rather that the right thing to be done is to try to
find out the real state of things, by means of borings.

There are of course objectors in this as in other matters. Some may say that
it is silly to try in Suffolk, and that Essex gives a better chance of success.
Others again may prefer Norfolk. And yet others may argue that there is no
chance of finding Coal Measures in any of those three counties. But I must
confess my inability to understand this line of reasoning; the fact is that the data
we have are few and far between, and that we want more. It is really of little
use to bandy words, and I do not now mean to take up the matter in detail. We
cannot get at the truth except by actual work; justification by faith will not hold
in this case, still less justification by unfaith.

Let us hark back a little and call to mind what has happened in the past.
I remember the time when certain geologists disbelieved in the possibility of the
occurrence of Coal Measures anywhere in South-Eastern England, it being argued
that the formation thinned out before it could get so far eastward. Then this
view was somewhat varied, and it was inferred, from certain observed facts, that
even if Coal Measures did reach underground into these benighted parts, they
would be without workable coal, and so practically useless.

Now for some years nothing occurred to upset the prophets of evil, that is to
say, no fact came to light. There were not wanting inferences to the contrary,
but it remained practically a matter of opinion. One day, however, the needful
fact came, and the first boring made specially to test the question (at Dover)
disproved both the above negative theories by finding Coal Measures with
workable coal. Let us hope that a like result may happen in East Anglia, and
that the pessimists may again be in the wrong.

We should not, however, fall into the opposite error, that of optimism. We
must not expect an immediate success like that at Dover. We are here much
further from any known coal-field. Advertisements of various wares sometimes
tell us that ‘one trial will suffice,’ but it is not so in this case. We should not be
content until many borings have been made, and we should not be despondent if,
after sites have been selected to the best of our judgment, we begin with a set of
borings that are unsuccessful in finding coal.

At the time of writing I cannot say that the Stutton boring is a success or a
failure as far as coal is concerned, but I am quite ready to accept the latter
without being discouraged. Whatever it is you may know during our meeting ;
it is certainly a success in the matter of reaching the old rocks at a depth of less
than 1000 feet. We should remember that every boring is almost certain to give
us some knowledge that may help in future work.

There is a further point, however, to be taken into account. A boring that
may at first seem to he a failure, from striking beds older than the Coal Measures,
may some day turn out otherwise. The coal-field along the borders of France
and Belgium is sometimes affected by powerful and peculiar disturbances, by
faults of comparatively gentle inclination (far removed from the usual more or less
vertical displacements) which have thrown Coal Measures beneath older beds in
large tracts. This is no mere theory, though advanced as such at first by some
Continental geologists, who have had the great satisfaction of seeing their theory
adopted by practical men, and proved to be true, much coal being worked below
8 older beds that have been pushed above the Coal Measures by the overthrust
aults.

Our trial-work, of course, does not yet lead us to consider such disturbances as
those alluded to. We have at first to assume a normal succession of formations,
and not to carry on explorations in beds that can be proved to be older than the
Coal Measures; but the time may come when it will be otherwise.

Another matter to which attention has been drawn by our foreign friends is
an apparent general persistence of disturbances along certain lines, or in other
words, the recurrence of disturbances in newer beds in those parts where earlier
movements had affected older beds; so that, reasoning backward, where
we see marked signs of disturbance for long distances in beds at or near the

1895. xx

674 REPORT—1895.

surface, there we may expect to find pre-existing disturbances of the older beds
beneath. This, however, is a somewhat controversial question, and much remains
to be done on it; but should it be proved as a general rule it may have much effect
on our underground coal.

Finally, the question of the possibility of finding and of working coal in
various parts of South-Eastern England is not merely of local interest ; it is of
national importance. The time must come when the coal-fields that we have
worked for years will be more or less exhausted, and we ought certainly to look
out ahead for others, so as to be ready for the lessening yield of those that have
served us so well. It is on our coal that our national prosperity largely, one may
say chiefly, depends, and, as far as we can see, will depend. Let us not neglect
any of the bounteous gifts of nature, but let us show rather that we are ready to
search for the treasures that may be hidden under our feet, and the finding of
which will result in the continued welfare of our native land.

APPENDIX.

List of the Chief Papers on the Old Rocks Underground in South-Eastern
England since 1889, when the literature of the subject was treated of
in the Memoir on the Geology of London, ke.

Bertrand, Professor M. Sur le Raccordement des Bassins houillers du Nord de
la France et du Sud de lAngleterre. Annales des Mines and Trans. Fed. Inst. Min.
Eng., vol. v. (1893).

Brady, F. Dover Coal Boring. Observations on the Correlation of the Franco-
Belgian, Dover and Somerset Coal Fields, Svo. 1892. Second Issue, with Additions,
1893. Notice by E. Lorieux in Annales des Mines, 1892.

Dawkins, Professor W. B. The Discovery of Coal near Dover, Nature, vol. 41,
pp. 418, 419; Zvon and Coal Trades Gazette; Contemporary Review, vol. lyii., pp.
470-478. The Search for Coal in the South of England, Proc. Roy. Inst. (nine
pages); Vatwre, vol. 42, pp. 319-322. The Discovery of Coal Measures near
Dover, Vrans. Manchester Geol. Soc., vol. Xx., pp. 502-517 (1890).

The Further Discovery of Coal at Dover and its Bearing on the Coal Question.
Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc., vol. xxi., pp. 456-474 (1892).

On the South-Eastern Coalfield at Dover, Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc., vol.
Xxil., pp. 458-510; The Probable Range of the Coal-Measures in Southern England,
Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. vii., 13 pages and plate (1894).

Harrison, W.J. On the Search for Coal in the South-East of England; with
Special Reference to the Probability of the Existence of a Coal-field beneath Essex,
28 pages and plate. 8vo. Birmingham (1894).

Irving, Rev. Dr. A. The Question of Workable Coal Measures beneath Essex.
Aerts and Essex Observer, July 14, 1894.

Martin, Z. A. On the Underground Geology of London. Svience Gossip, no.
335, pp. 251-254; no. 337, pp. 11-15 (1892, 1893).

Ricker, Professor A. W., and Professor T. E. Thorpe. Magnetic Survey of the
British Isles, Phil Trans., vol. 181, see pp. 280 &c., and plate 14 (1891); A
popular account by Professor Ricker under the title Underground Mountains,
Good Words, January to March 1890.

Topley, W. Coalin Kent. Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. i., pp. 376-387

1892).

‘ Whitaker, W. Coal in the South Hast of England, Journ. Soc. Arts., vol.
XXXVlii., pp. 543-557; Suggestions on Sites for Coal-search in the South-Hast of
England, Geol. Mag., dec. iii., vol. vii., pp. 514-516 (1890).

Whitaker, W., and A. J. Jukes-Browne. On Deep Borings at Culford and
Winkfield, with Notes on those at Ware and Cheshunt. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
vol. 1., pp. 488-514 (1894).

The Eastern Counties’ Coal Boring and Development Syndicate . . . Geological
Reports by T. V. Holmes, J. E. Taylor and W. Whitaker, 15 pages, 8vo. Ipswich
(1893). Partly reprinted in Zssex Naturalist.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 675

Omitted from Notice in 1889.

Drew, F. Is there Coal under London? Science for All, vol. v. pp. 324-328.

Firket, A. Sur )’Extension en Angleterre du Bassin houiller Franco-Belge.
Ann. Soc. Géol. Belg., t. x. Bulletin, pp. xcii-xciv (1883).

Taylor, W. Onthe Probability of Finding Coal in the South-East of England,
pp. ii., 22, 8vo. Reigate (1886).

Topley, W. On the Correspondence between some Areas of Apparent Upheaval
and the Thickening of Subjacent Beds. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXX. see pp.
186, 190-195 (1874). See also Memoir ‘The Geology of the Weald,’ pp. 241, 242,
pl. vi. (1875).

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Southern Character of the Molluscan Fauna of the Coralline Crag

tested by an analysis of its characteristic and abundant species. By
F. W. Harmer, £.G.S.

Out of 436 species of Mollusca from the Coralline Crag, excluding varieties
given in Mr. Searles Wood's monograph, nearly 90 are represented by unique
specimens only, and more than 100 others are very rare. Some of these rarer
forms may be only locally so, although, with few exceptions, all the species which
are common in the Belgian Pliocene beds, of similar age to the Coralline Crag,
are common also in that deposit. An analysis of all the shells in any horizon of
the Crag in which the same value is attached to forms which are exceedingly rare,
and to those which occur in countless profusion, is apt to be, to some extent, mis-
leading. The Southern character of the fauna of the Coralline Crag, and its close
resemblance to that of the Mediterranean, is much more strongly evidenced when
we confine our enquiry to the more abundant shells of this deposit.

Omitting the rare species. we have 240 which may be regarded as characteristic
forms. Of these 89, or about 37 per cent., are regarded by Mr. Wood as extinct,
and eight others may be, for our present purpose, taken as such, as they have
ceased to exist in European seas, and are only found in parts of the world more or
less distant. Of the 143 species remaining, there is only one, Buccinum (Buccin-
opsis) Dalei, which is not now found living, either in the Mediterranean or the
West European area, which Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys said cannot be regarded as zoolo-
gically distinct from it. This shell cannot, however, be looked on as a boreal
species, as it is given by M. Dollfus as occurring in the Miocene beds of Touraine.
Thirty-three of the extinct shells of the Coralline Crag are also found in the Medi-
terranean Pliocene, either at Monte Mario, or Biot, near Antibes. Altogether 170
species out of 3896 found at Monte Mario are common to that deposit and to the
Coralline Crag, a larger proportion than is the case with the Diestien beds of Bel-
gium. ‘The practical identity thus shown between the Molluscan fauna of the
Coralline Crag, and that of the Mediterranean and West European province, and
the close resemblance between both of them and some of the Italian Pliocenes,
point to a more direct and open communication between the Mediterranean and
the seas of Great Britain at some period subsequent to the coming into existence
of the present fauna than exists at present.

The distinctly Southern character of the Mollusca of the Coralline Crag is evi-
denced by the comparatively small proportion of the species which range north-
wards into British waters, and this also comes out more strongly when we confine
ourselves to its more abundant forms. While there is only one which is British,
and not Southern, there are 42, or 29 per cent., of the European species which
are Southern and not British. There are, however, nine shells which are charac-
teristic Mediterranean species, and are only included in lists of the British Mol-
lusca because of the occasional discovery of some rare specimen on our coasts. If
we regard these nine species as Mediterranean, it raises the proportion of exclu-
sively Southern forms to 36 per cent. The abundant shells are practically all
Southern, and if it were possible to count shells, and not species, we should meet

D. op. ay

676 REPORT—1895.

with some thousands of specimens of Southern Mollusca for every boreal shell we
could discover. Among the extinct genera, a study of the more abundant forms
also shows an equal preponderance of Southern types. Only one specimen of a
truly Arctic shell, viz., Cerithiopsis lactea, has heen met with in the Coralline Crag,
but as to its correct identification Mr. Wood had considerable doubt.

Professor Prestwich, on the contrary, believes that ice action had come into
existence even at the commencement of the Coralline Crag era, resting his opinion
on the occurrence of a block of porphyry in the basement bed at Sutton, which,
however, was neither angular nor striated, but which he thinks could only have
been transported either from Scandinavia or the Ardennes by floating ice. No
ice, however, reaches our sbores at the present day either from Belgium or Norway,
and the winter climate of Northern Europe would have to fall considerably before
this could take place. At present there is a difference of not less than 10° Fahr.
between the temperature, both of the sea and the atmosphere, in the British and
Mediterranean areas.

Summary of the abundant and characteristic species of Mollusca
occurring in the Coralline Crag.

Not known as living (37 percent.) . < 4 89
Living in distant seas :— i
Pacific 4
Atlantic . 1
West Indian 1
South African 1
North American Saal:
== 8
Living in the Mediterranean. , ; . 183
5 not in the Mediterranean but in the
West European area . : : te]
— 142
Not known to range to the South of British seas. 7 oo eL
240

Species of European Mollusca occurring abundantly in the
Coralline Crag.

Southern and not British (28 per cent.) . : ‘ ; . 42
British (rare) and Southern. : é 9
(35 per cent.) . ; . 51

British (characteristic) and Southern X : ; : 5° Ol
British and not Southern . : ce : A é d Pabeed
143

2. On the Derivative Shells of the Red Crag... By F. W. Harmer, F.G.S.

It has been generally held by geologists, among whom mey be mentioned
Mr. Searles V. Wood, Professor Prestwich, Sir Charles Lyell, and Mr. Charles-
worth, that a considerable number of the Mollusca found in the Red Crag are
extraneous. Mr. Wood, in the supplement to his well-known Monograph,
expresses the opinion that 118 species have been derived from older deposits,
principally from the Coralline Crag. Professor Prestwich thinks that only 46
species are derivative, but his list contains 13 which Mr. Wood, on the contrary,
believes are Red Crag forms.

There seems much, @ priori, to support the {derivative theory. The great
denudation to which the Coralline Crag has been exposed by the Red Crag sea;

1 This and the previous paper will be published in the Geol. Mag

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 677

the existence over a great part of the area of the Nodule bed, which is full of
derivative fossils ; and the fact that many of the shells supposed to be extraneous—
as, for example, Cassidaria bicatenata, Trophon alveolatus, Cassis Saburon, T'rochus
Adansoni, Ringiculu buccinea, Cardita chameformis, C. orbicularis, C. scalaris,
Astarte Basterotii, A. Burtinii, A. Omalit, Cyprina rustica, Gastrana laminosa,
Panopea Faujasii, and others, are characteristic Coralline Crag species, and either
southern or extinct forms, which seem out of place in a fauna as boreal as that of
the Red Crag.

On the other hand, M. E. van den Broeck, of Brussels, published in 1893 lists of
fossils recently discovered in the Scaldisien and Poederlien beds of Antwerp
(Zones ‘i Trophon antiguum, and ‘a Corbula striata’), trom which it appears
that the species ju-t named, and a number of other forms suppo- | to be derivative
in the Red Crag, lived on to a period considerably later than that of the Coralline
Crag, in the eastern part of the Anglo-Belgian basin. The fauna of the Scaldisien
beds closely resembles that of the Walton Crag, while the Poederlien strata seem
to be more nearly related to the Sutton zone of the Red Crag. Neither of these
Belgian horizons contains the purely Arctie shells, Cardiwm grenlandicum, Leda
lanceolata, and Tellina lata, or the Arctic and boreal species, Scalaria grenlandica,
Natica grenlandica, and Natica clausa, which give its peculiarly northern character
to the Butley Crag, so that it would seem that they are somewhat older than that
deposit. Fifty out of Mr. Wood's list of 118 species, and 23 out of 46 regarded by
Professor Prestwich as extraneous, occur in these horizons of the Belgian Crag. If
these shells were living during the deposition of the Sutton bed, it seems more
probable that a few individuals may have survived until the period of the Butley
Cra than that they are derivative at tbat horizon.

Some of the Red Crag shells, however, are no doubt extraneous. Five are
Eocene forms, which are not found in the Coralline Crag ; and there are 31 others
which have been discovered only at Waldringfield or in the Nodule bed at Sutton,
and neither in the Belgian nor the Coralline Crag, many of them being new to
science, and most of them represented by unique specimens only.

Although a great number of fossils, such as sharks’ teeth, from Eocene strata
are found in the Red Crag, very few specimens of Eocene Mollusca occur in it ;
and it seems still less likely that shells from the Coralline Crag, which are very
much more fragile, could have been preserved, except as rare exceptions, during
the denudation of that deposit by the Red Crag sea.

3. On the Stratigraphy of the Crag, with especial reference to the Distri-
bution of the Foraminifera. By H. W. Burrows.

Materials collected by the author during the past eight years, and some supplied
by Professor Prestwich, have been examined by Messrs. H. W. Burrows, R.
Holland, and I. Chapman; and contributions by Mr. F. W. Millett have also
aided in the completion of Part II. of the ‘ Monograph of the Foraminifera of the
Crag’ (Paleeontographical Society). I. From the Newer Pliocene Formation—or
Upper Crag—including the Norwich Crag and associated beds of Southwold,
Thorpe, Bramerton, and Chillestord: there are altogether 29 species of common
North Atlantic Foraminifera. II. In the Red Crag 20 species are known. III.
The St. Erth beds of Cornwall, formerly noted by S. V. Wood, Jun, and R. G.
Bell, and more recently by P. F. Kendall and C .Reid, are regarded as equivalent to
a part of the Older Pliocene (Lower or Coralline Crag). ‘Che Foraminifera have
been worked out by I’. W. Millett, and amount to 168, of which 76 are met with ir
the Coralline Crag. IV. Professor Prestwich (1871) and Messrs. S. V. Wood,
Jun., and I. W. Harmer (1872) divided the Coralline Crag into two main
divisions. ‘These were subdivided by Prestwich into eight zones (‘ 2’ to‘ a’), about
83 feet altogether; and by Wood and Harmer into three groups, with an estimated
thickness of 60 feet.

The author then gave notes on several of the localities where exposures of
these beds have been, or can still be seen; namely, beginning with the lowest

678 REPORT— 1895.

zones :—1, Sutton and Ramshvlt ; 2, Broom Hill; 3, Sudbourne; 4, Tattingstons; .
5, Sutton; 6,Gedgrave; at High House, Low Farm, and Ferry Barn; 7, Aldborough;
§, Sudbourne, north-east of the church.

The characters and thicknesses of the strata representing the several zones at
these places were carefully detailed, and their most characteristic Foraminifera
were enumerated and compared. V. The ‘ nodule-bed’ at the base of the Crag, at
Foxhall, was alluded to in its place. VI. The Lenham Beds of Kent were noticed
as being equivalent to the Lower Crag and of Diestian age, as stated by Prestwich
and confirmed by C. Reid.

Some Foraminifera found by 8. V. Wood in the Coralline Crag at Sutton and
elsewhere were derived from much older Tertiary beds, namely, Orbitolites,
Orbiculina, Alveolina, Peneroplis, Amphistegina, Nummulites, and Orbitoides,

The most characteristic Foraminifer in the Coralline Crag is Polymonphina frondi-
formis, and it seems to be limited to England. The conclusions. arrived at point
to the constancy and determinability of the zones established by Prestwich. In
the author’s opinion the Mollusca also confirm the same zonal arrangement. Some
remarks on the zonal and local distribution of several genera and species of Mollusca
concluded this paper.

4. Note on a section at the North Cliff, Southwold. By Horace B.
Woopwarp, £.G.S., of the Geological Survey of England and Wales.

The recent damage done to the cliff at the north end of Southwold by the
‘moderate gale’ of last May is described below by Mr. J. Spiller. One result of
the storm was the exposure of an interestiug section along the lower portion of the
cliff. The strata now seen comprise pebbly sands and shingle with a shell-bed,
grouped by the author with the Norwich Crag; several masses of Chalky Boulder
Clay, which formerly extended in one mass along the face of the cliff; a
Freshwater Bed, consisting of greenish grey loam with freshwater shells and layers
of gravel cemented into ‘iron-pan,’ overlaid by laminated peaty earth (age at
present uncertain) ; and a Recent beach-deposit in which a human skeleton was
found this year. This beach-deposit, which now forms part of the iow cliff, con-
sists of reassorted Boulder Clay, together with sand and shingle. The Freshwater
Bed presents a synclinal structure, supported on either side by Boulder Clay.

5. On Recent Coast Erosion at Southwold and Covehithe.
By Joun SpruueEr, F.C.S.

Owing to the prevalence of northerly winds, culminating in a moderate gale on
May 16 last, the tide rose to an unusual height all along the east coast, and attacked
the soft sandy clitts between Iunwich and Covebithe, creating a new cove at the
northern extremity of Southwold and sweeping away the roudway at the back of
the beach to the extent of half an acre at this particular spot. The cliffsat Easton
Bavents and Ccvehithe likewise suffered considerably, and this loss being reported
to Mr. W. Whitaker induced that gentleman to lend his maps with certain
measurements noted thereon for the purpose of exact comparison. Thus provided
the author walked over the ground and took fresh measurements at the several
points along the route, which resulted in the determination of the amount of cliff-
waste since 1882 and 188, and this stated briefly was as follows :—

Feet
Easton Bavents, loss in six years. : - c : . 20
Easton High Cliff, loss in thirteen years . H : 3 . 22
Covehithe Cliff, loss in six years : 4 : C : . 84

The accuracy of these observations was checked by Mr. Horace B. Woodward,
and other indications observed conjointly proved that the general loss at Covehithe
amounted to about 50 yards since the present Ordnance map was constructed.
The lines of hivh and low water mark had manifestly altered. so that a fresh

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 679

survey was necessary. Further details were given as to the nature of the rock
sections laid bare and the transportation of the shingle; and the main facts were
illustrated by photographs and a water-colour sketch of the new inlet formed at
Southwold.

[The author’s communication was printed in full in the Supplement to the
‘East Anglian Daily Times’ of September 13, 1895. ]

6. Observations on East Anglian Boulder Clay.
By Rev. E. Hitt, MA., F.GS.

Some personal observations are described, and inferences from them suggested.

The present effect of frost on clay shows that the grinding actions of land-ice
need not be invoked.

The comparative distributions of Kimmeridge clay and chalk, and also the
intimate mixture of chalk-fragments with clay-matrix, are opposed to land-ice
theories.

A partially scratched fragment from the heart of the clay suggests flotation.

The contour line of 300 feet includes little Chalk but much Boulder Clay, which
is said to reach altitudes in the Midlands higher than any Chalk. This points to
alteration in relative as well as absolute levels.

A resemblance to some artificial clays suggests that the Boulder Clay may have
been deposited rather rapidly. If so, the abseuce of life is no difficulty ; neither is
the alleged absence of stratification.

These inferences would all agree with deposition in water, and with a tilt of
the earth-surface.

7. Indications of Ice-raft Action through Glacial Times.
By Rev. E. Hitz, MA., F.GLS.

Over post-Glacial gravels lie sheets of Boulder Clay. In the Boulder Clay
scratched stones, contorted sands at Sudbury, gravel and chalk at Claydon, the
Roslyn Hill chalk at Ely, are best explained by transportation and dropping. In
mid-Glacial sands, between Gorleston and Lowestoft, portions of Boulder Clay
occur in the midst of the sands, as if dropped by ice-rafts. A majority of writers
on the Cromer cliffs attribute the chalk masses in the Contorted Drift to ice-
rafts.

Thus through Glacial times are indications of ice-raft action.

8. On Traces of an Ancient Watercourse.
By Rev. E. Hitt, JfA., £.G.S.

A peculiar gravel occurring along a line of seven miles indicates an ancient
brook. Though its hollow is in Boulder Clay, yet patches of like clay overlie the
gravel, and probably have been carried down on to it in a frozen state. The
nature of the gravel agrees with its having been formed on land little elevated.

9. Further Notes on the Arctic and Paleolithic Deposits at Hoxne.
By Cirment Reip, £.L.S., F£.G.S., and H. N. Rivtey, A4., FLS.

The exact relations of the deposit with Arctic plants discovered in 1888 (see
British Association Report, p. 674) to the Paleolithic deposits and to the Boulder
Clay in the same pit being still uncertain, the authors returned last spring, intending
to pump out the water and examine the beds in place. This they were unable to
do owing to the water being required for the brickyard; but by means of borings

680 REPORT—1895

and an examination of tae deposits above the water level they ascertained that the
succession was probably as follows:

Feet
Gravelly surface soil : : : 5 2 . about 2
Brickearth: towards the base Valvata piscinalis,
cyprids, bones of ox, horse, elephant (?), and
Paleolithic implements. : 3 : 4 hte ae
Sandy gravel, sometimes carbonaceous, with flint
flakes ‘ ‘ ; ; ; - : ne
Peaty clay, with leaves of Arctic plants (?) “ ah agg eee
Lignite, with wood of yew, oak (?), white birch, and
seeds of cornel, &c. . é : : ; seals 5 trae
Green calcareous clay, with fisb, Valvata jiscinalis,
Bythinia tentaculata, cyprids, Ranunculus repens,
Carex 7 : - * 2 ae Pe!

Boulder clay.

The authors suggest the appointment of a committee to continue this work, as
-Hoxne is apparently the best locality in the Nastern Counties for ascertaining the
relation of Paleolithic man to the Glacial epoch. The seeming occurrence of a
temperate flora between the morainic deposits and the clays with Arctic plants
should also be investigated and decided beyond question.

10. Some Suffolk Well-sections. By W. Wuitaker, F.R.S.
Ordered to be printed in eatenso.—See Reports, p. 436.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. On Pitch Glaciers or Poissiers. By Professor W. J. Souuas, D.Se., RS.

Pitch and the ice of glaciers strikingly resemble each other in behaving as
solids and liquids, according to their manner of treatment. On the sudden appli-
cation of force they break like brittle material, but yield like fluids when subjected
to gradual pull or pressure. Hence it is possible to employ pitch in the construction
of working models of glaciers in order to obtain an insight into those internal
movements of actual glaciers which are beyond the reach of direct observation.
The study of glacial deposits has shown that many erratic boulders were transported
during the Glacial period upwards from lower to higher levels, and left stranded on
the flanks of mountains some hundreds of feet above their source. This standing
difficulty in the way of physical thecries of glacier movement has been explained
by the study of pitch models, which show that the lower layers of material on
approaching an obstacle are carried upwards in an ascending current. The
inference, which is confirmed by other kinds of observation, is that similar mbve-
ments take place in actual glaciers. Further, a glacier sometimes overrides its
terminal moraine without disturbing it; and in one experiment this was exempli-
fied, for pitch flowed for several months over a ridge of loose material without
removing a particle of it. A remark made by Professor Fitzgerald, to the effect
that viscosity seemed merely to retard, and not to alter, the nature of the move-
ment in the cases described led the author to experiment with less viscous material,
such as Canada balsam and glycerine, and with concordant results. A trough
containing Canada balsam flowing upwards over an obstacle under its own head of
pressure was shown by the lantern projected on the screen.

A raised model of Ireland has been constructed, and the directions of ice-
movement, as determined by the Rev. Maxwell Close, indicated upon it by

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 681

arrows. On allowing water streaked with colouring matter to flow over it from
two areas, supposed to represent the great gathering grounds of snow of tke Glacial
period, the water had taken paths, as shown by coloured streaks, corresponding to
those taken by the ice, as shown by the arrows.

2. Notes on the Cromer Excursion. By Ciement Rep, L.G.S.

3 On the Tertiary Lacustrine Formations of North America.
By W. B. Scorr.

The early French explorers in the western parts of North America discovered
certain large areas of extraordinarily broken and difficult country which they
called ‘mauvaises terres 4 traverser’—a term which has been translated and
shortened into the modern phrase ‘bad lands.’ Geological examination soon
showed that these areas were covered with fresh-water deposits of Tertiary age, and
that they represented a series of great lakes in which were entombed a vast
number of representatives of the vertebrate faunas which successively occupied the
country.

I. (1) The most ancient of these formations is the Puerco, which overlies with
apparent conformity the Cretaceous. ‘his rather small lake occupies parts of
Southern Colorado and North-western New Mexico. (2) The Wasatch succeeds
after an interval and was much larger: it extends from New Mexico into Northern
Wyoming. At least two contemporaneous lakes represent this horizon, and at the
south its strata lie upon the Puerco. (3) The Bridger is indicated by a much
smaller series of lakes, in Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado, which seem to have been
successive rather than contemporaneous, and has been divided into three stages:
(a) Wind River, (0) Bridger, (c) Washakie. The Wasatch beds pass under the
Bridger at very many points. (4) Extensive orographic movements followed the
Bridger stage and led to the formation of a new lake basin in Northern Utah,
overlying the Bridger—the Uinta. Osborn has shown that two distinctly marked
horizons occur within the limits of the Uinta. (5) The Uinta was the last of the
great bodies of fresh water in the region to the west of the main chain of the
Rocky Mountains. The movements now affected the Great Plains region, and an
‘enormous lake was developed which extended along the eastern front of the
mountains from Nebraska into North Dakota, together with a second basin in
Canada. This is the White River formation, which is plainly subdivisible into
three horizons-—the Titanotherium, Oreodon, and Protoceras beds. (6) This was
followed by the John Day, which is mostly confined to Oregon, but a second
very small basin occurs also in Central Montana. (7) A considerable hiatus
separates the John Day from the overlying Loup Fork, which is by far the most
extensive of all the Tertiary lakes, and covers nearly all the Plains region, from
South Dakota far into Mexico. It is not yet certain whether this was one vast
body of water or a connected series of lakes. Independent basins occur in Montana,
Nevada, and Oregon. In these the Loup Fork overlies the John Day unconform-
ably, as farther east it overlies the White River. The Loup Fork falls naturally
into three horizons, separated both by their faunas and more or less marked uncon-
formities: (a) Deep River, only in Montana; (b) Nebraska, the principal area of
the Plains region; (c) Palo Duro, known in Kansas, but principally developed in
Texas. (8) In the Indian territory and Texas, in places overlying the Palo Duro,
occurs the Blanco, the boundaries of which have not been traced as yet. (9)
Occupying the surface of most of the Great Plains region are the uncompacted and
obscurely stratified Equus beds, which rest unconformably upon all other forma-
tions of the region, from the Cretaceous to the Pliocene.

II. The Lacustrine beds have for the most part retained their horizontal
position, only rarely being tilted. They are composed of felspathic muds, clays,
sands, and conglomerates, generally cemented by some calcareous compound, and

682 REPORT—1895.

their hardness is, speaking broadly, proportionate to their antiquity. The removal
of the soluble cement by rain-water causes the rock to crumble, and the bad lands
are examples of atmospheric erosion on a very grand scale. This erosion is
extremely slow, the soil shedding the rain almost completely, but land-slips and
snow avalanches in the spring frequently expose fresh surfaces of rock. The John
Day beds are largely composed of the glassy particles of volcanic ash and the whole
is overlaid by late basaltic flows.

In the Jake basins the old shore lines and deltas may frequently be traced, and
their fossil contents sometimes afford interesting hints as to the habitat of the land
animals,

Climatic changes are registered in the alteration of the floras, as in the gradual
disappearance of the palms from the central latitudes and in the diminution in the
abundance and variety of the reptiles. For example, large crocodiles are exceed-
ingly common in all the Eocene formations, including the Uinta, but in the
succeeding White River only a few dwarf forms have been found.

ILI. The correlation of formations in different continents is a difficult matter,
but least so, perhaps, in the case of lacustrine beds in connected areas. The Old
and New Worlds were certainly so connected during much, if not all, of Tertiary
~ time, and there is always a certain proportion of land mammals common to the
two continents. The natural and sharply marked lines of division are, however,
not the same, and were the American formations arranged without reference to
those of any other continent, a system very different from the European would re-
sult. Thus the Puerco would form one group; the Wasatch a second; the
Bridger, White River, and John Day a third; the Loup Fork and Blanco a fourth ;
and the Equus beds a fifth.

The European system is, however, the standard, and must be employed, and
even in this way some very close correspondences may be noted. Thus, the
Puerco is somewhat older than the Ceruaysian, while the Wasatch is the exact
equivalent of the Suessonian. The Bridger is Middle Eocene (Parisian or Lute-
tian), and the Uinta in a general way corresponds to the Paris gypsum. The
White River is Oligocene (Ronzon), and much misunderstanding has come from
calling it Miocene. The John Day may be placed in the Lower Miocene, though it
is somewhat older than the beds at St. Gérand-le-Puy, and follows the White
River epoch with hardly a break.

None of the American lacustrines is referable to the Middle Miocene. The
Loup Fork is Upper Miocene, the Deep River division corresponding almost exactly
to the beds of Sausan and Steinheim, while the Palo Duro division is perhaps
already basal Pliocene. The fauna of the Blanco series is not yet sufliciently well
known for exact correlation, though there can be no doubt that it is Pliocene.

The Equus beds are distinctly Pleistocene, though it still remains to trace their
relations to the Drift and to determine whether they are pre-Glacial or Glacial.

4. The Glacial Age in Tropical America. By R. Buake WHITE.

The deposits described by the author cover almost the whole of the Republic
of Colombia, extending from 12° N, lat. nearly to the Equator, and from the
summits and plateaux of the Andes at 10,000 and 12,000 feet down to the plains,
valleys, and littorals of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The Glacial age corre-
sponded, in his opinion, with that of greatest volcanic activity. He speaks of
moraines from 2,000 to 3,000 feet thick, accumulation of boulders, erratics of
enormous size, and a peculiar loess on the high lands, the last containing bi-
pyramidal crystals of quartz supposed to have been formed in situ. Great
denudation followed the melting of the ice, and the auriferous deposits of the
country belong to this or to the Glacial age. The author considers that a decrease
in temperature enouzh to bring the snow line from 2,000 to 3,000 feet lower than
it is at present would account for the phenomena which he describes. This might
be brought about by a diminution of the amount of carbonic acid in the atmosphere,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 683

producing rarefaction. He concludes by urging geologists to investigate a country
which offers such a promisiny field, and does not present to the traveller any
difficulties of importance.

5. On pre-Glacial Valleys in Northamptonshire. By Bresy THOMPSON,
F.OS., F.GS.

The paper refers to the pretty general belief that the larger physiographical
features of this country were developed before the Glacial period, and that many
of the present river valleys are of pre-Glacial age; and remarks that, if so, they
were more or less completely choked with boulder clay during the Glacial

eriod.

; Where a valley got completely filled up it would, perhaps, in many cases be
easier for the ordinary drainage to cut out a new valley than to remove the in-
filling of an old one, where the initiative fora new valley had been given by
superficial streams due to melting ice. So at the close of the Glacial period,
although the main drainage of a district must take approximately the same direc-
tion that it did before it, the tributary streams would seldom accurately follow
their old lines on having, as it were, a fresh start under somewhat different cir-
cumstances. Compromises would, no doubt, frequently result.

Bearing these matters in mind, we should be prepared to find—

1. New valleys without drift, and filled-up old ones near at hand.

2. Valleys with one side drift and the other the normal rocks of the
district.

3. Valleys still containing much drift, with the streams running over or
«through it.

4, Valleys in which only the coarser material of the drift is left in the
form of river gravel.

Illustrations of each of the four cases enumerated are given, all from Northamp-
tonshire.

The author suggests that his explanation of some isolated patches of boulder
clay near to Northampton may prove to be of more general application than pre-
viously suspected.

6. Votes on some Tarns near Snowdon. By W. W. Warts, I.A., F.GS.

During a recent visit to Snowdon, the writer has taken the opportunity of
examining a few of the tarns in its immediate vicinity. These include the two
small lakes in Cwm Glas, Glaslyn, and Llyn Llydaw.

In the hollow of Cwm Glas there are two tiny tarns named Ffynnon Frech
and Ffynnon Felen; both lakes drain over a barrier of rock, but in a rainy season
the upper one appears to find a second outlet over the long, low col to the Kast,
so that, in this state, it has the two outlets depicted in the 6-inch map. There
can be little doubt that this upper lake is a portion of a bending valley dammed at
both ends by scree- and stream-débris, and thus compelled to tind an escape over
the rocky side. ‘The lower lake is certainly contined in a rock basin, as rock occurs
at its actual outlet and at every point where any former outlet might have been
possible. The lake is, however, so shallow that its occurrence in a basin of rock is
perhaps of little consequence.

The neighbouring hollow of Cwm Dyli, as is well known, contains three lakes,
' the highest being Glaslyn, the next Llyn Llydaw, and the lowest Llyn Teyrn.
Glaslyn is bounded on all sides by live rock except at and near its outlet. This
exit is over moraine, which, however, is evidently not very deep, for rock makes
its appearance just below, and in such a way as to almost compel belief in a com-
plete rock bar. Beside the present course of the effluent stream is a parallel strip

684 REPORT—1895.

of moraine running down towards Llyn Llydaw, but living rock soon makes its
appearance in this in such a way as to show that if there is any old channel in this
direction it must be exceedingly narrow and tortuous. Thus, if this lake is not
contained in a true rock basin, it must be very shallow or else must have found
exit by a gorge quite as narrow as those found at the end of some of the Swiss
laciers.

Immense quantities of moraine material occur on the south-east side of Llyn
Llydaw, but a careful examination of the map and the ground shows that only
two possible outlets exist—that now used for this purpose, and a second which is
occupied by bog resting on moraine, and gives rise to a small stream which is joined
lower down by the outlet of Llyn Teyrn. The moraine is, however, only a thin
skin on the surface of rock. The present outlet shows live rock forty or fifty feet
below the level of the lake, and the second possible exit at a rather less distance
below the same level. If the moraine were stripped off, there is little doubt that
this lake, like Glaslyn, would show a basin of rock which would hold water, unless
it is very much shallower than is generally supposed to be the case.

7. Interim Report on the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits of Clava, &e.

8. Interim Report on the Calf Hole Cave Exploration.

9. Report on the High-level Flint Drift of the Chatk.
See Reports, p. 349.

10. Report on the Rate of Erosion of Sea Coasts.
See Reports, p. 352.

11. Final Report on Underground Waters.—See Reports, p. 393.

12. On Modern Glacial Strice.
By Percy F. Kenpatz, 7.G.S., and J. Lomas, A.R.C.Se.

The authors have spent several weeks during the present summer among the
glaciers of the Nicolaithal and the Val Tournanche, and have paid especial
attention to the form and distribution of glacial striae. The present communication
deais with four principal sets of phenomena.

1. The Crossing of Two or more Sets of Strie.—In the discussion of the
glacial geology of Britain and other countries writers have ascribed the formation
of two superposed sets of striz on one surface either to the action of floating ice
or to a different period of glaciation. The authors have found that the phenomenon
is of quite general occurrence, especially on theesteeply inclined ‘ weather ’-sides
of roches moutonnées. ‘They have observed an angular divergence of 89°.

2. The Forms of Strie as a Means of determining the Direction of Ice-
movement.—lIt is often impossible to decide @ prior? whether a particular scratch
or set of scratches was produced by ice moving, say, from south to north, or from
north to south. The late Professor Carvill Lewis thought that strie having a
broad and a narrow end would furnish reliable criteria, but the authors, after
careful examination of a large number, are unable to regard such characters as
possessing the required degree of constancy.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 685

3. The Phenomena known to American Gilacialists as ‘ Semilunar Markings,’
‘ Pluck-marks, and * Chattered Striz.’—The authors found many examples of these
features of glacial abrasion upon roches moutonnées. The ‘pluck-marks’ were
found to be shallowest at their ‘downstream’ ends. ‘Chattered striz,’ z.e., ragged
strie presenting somewhat the appearance of a succession of bruises, were very
common. They were probably produced by boulders that were only partially
embedded in the ice, and were thus dragged along with a jerking motion.

It is satisfactory that these minor details of the glacial phenomena of the United
States can be paralleled in the Alps.

4, The Occurrence of ‘Screwed’ or Curved Strie.—Authors have ascribed the
formation of sharply curved or screwed striz to the swinging of floating ice when
partly aground. The present writers have observed and recorded by heel-ball
‘rubbings’ and by photography many examples occurring on the roches moutonnées
of the Gorner Glacier.

13. Notes on the Ancient Physiography of South Essex.
By T. V. Hoimes.

The author refers to his paper, read before the Geological Society last year, en-
titled, ‘ Further Notes on some Sections on the New Railway from Romford to Up-
minster, and on the Relations of the Thames Valley Beds to the Boulder Clay’ In
that paper he mentioned the discovery, in a railway cutting at Romford, of part of
an ancient silted- up stream course of considerable size, covered by gravel belonging
to the highest, and presumably oldest, terrace of the Thames Valley system. 2 In
this communication he considers more fully the evidence bearing upon his view
that the course taken by this ancient stream was between the high ground of
Warley, Billericay, and Maldon, and that of Laindon, Rayleigh, and Althorne
into the Blackwater, the basins of the Mardyke and Crouch having originated at a
much later period. He also notes evidence tending to confirm Mr. Whitaker's view
that the gravel and loam at and near Canewdon, Southminster, and Bradwell were
deposited on the western flank of the old Thames Valley when there was a con-
siderable breadth of land east of those places, which has been since removed by
marine denudation.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Restorations of some European Dinosaurs, with Suggestions as to their
Place among the Reptilia. By Professor O. C. Marsu.

For several years I have been engaged in investigating the Dinosaurs of North
America, where these extinct reptiles were very abundant during the whole of
Mesozoic time. The results of my study have been published from time to time,
and I have already had the honour of presenting scme of these to the British
Association. In carrying out this investigation so as to include the whole group
of Dinosaurs, wherever found, and bringing all under one system of classification,
it has been necessary for me to study the remains discovered in Europe, and I
have made several visits to this country for that purpose.

In comparing the forms known from the two continents, certain important
differences as well as some marked resemblances between the two have been
observed and placed on record. In concluding my investigations of the North

686 REPORT—1895.

American forms, I have fortunately been able to make restorations of the skeletons
of quite a number of very complete type specimens, and this has proved a most
instructive means of comparing those from different horizons, and of different
groups, among the known Dinosauria of America.

The success of this plan rendered it very desirable to extend it, if possible, to
the best-known forms of European Dinosaurs. This I have been enabled to do in
a few instances, and the main object of the present paper is to lay these latest
results before you.

RESTORATIONS OF EUROPEAN DINOSAURS.

The restorations of Dinosaurs which I have to present are four in number,
and represent some of the best-known European forms, types of the genera
Compsognathus, Scelidosaurus, Hypsilophodon, and Iyuanodon. These outline
restorations have been prepared by me mainly for comparison with the correspond-
ing American forms, but in part to insure, so far as the present opportunity will
allow, a more comprehensive review of the whole group. The specimens restored
are all of great interest in themselves, and of special importance when compared
with their nearest American allies.

Compsognathus.

The first restoration, that of Compsognathus longipes, Wagner, 1861, shown
natural size in the diagram, is believed to represent fairly well the general form
and natural position, when alive, of this diminutive carnivorous Dinosaur, that
lived during the Jurassic period. The basis for this restoration is (1) a careful
study of the type specimen itself, made by me in Munich in 1881; (2) an accurate
cast of this specimen, sent to me by Prof. von Zittel; and (3) a careful drawing of
the original made by Krapf in 1887. The original description and figure of
Wagner (Bavarian Academy of Sciences, 1861) and those of later authors have
also been used for some of the details. No restoration of the skeleton of this
unique Dinosaur has hitherto been attempted."

Compsognathus has been studied by so many anatomists of repute since its
discovery that any attempt to restore the skeleton to a natural position will be
scrutinised from various points of view. My interest in this unique specimen led
me long ago to examine it with care, and I have since made a minute study of it,
as related elsewhere, not merely to ascertain all I could about its anatomy, but
also to learn, if possible, what its relations were to another diminutive form,
Hallopus, from a lower horizon in America, which has been asserted to be a near
ally. Both are carnivorous Dinosaurs, probably, but certainly on quite different
lines of descent.

The only previous attempt to restore this remarkable Dinosaur was by Huxley,
when in America in 1876. He made a rapid sketch from the Wagner figure, and
I had this enlarged for his New York lecture. This sketch, reproduced on the
diagram exhibited, represents the animal sitting down, a position which such
Dinosaurs occasionally assumed, as shown by the footprints in the Connecticut
Valley, which Huxley examined in place at several localities with great interest.

The great majority of Dinosaurian footprints preserved were evidently made
during ordinary locomotion, although some series show evidence of more rapid
movement. All those referred to carnivorous Dinosaurs are bipedal, and this is
true of the footprints of many herbivorous forms.

In the present restoration of Compsognathus, I have tried to represent the
animal as walking, in a characteristic lifelike position.

1 The remains of the embryo within the skeleton of Compsognathus, first detected
by me in 1881, while examining the type specimen, are not represented in the present
restoration. This unique fossil affords the only known evidence that Dinosaurs were
viviparous.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 687

Scelidosaurus.

The second of these restorations is that of Scelidosaurus Harrisonii, of Owen,
shown natural size in the diagram. This reptile was an herbivorous Dinosaur of
moderate size, related to Stegosawrus, and was its predecessor from a lower geologi-
cal horizon in England. This restoration is essentially based upon the original
description and figures of Owen (Paleontographical Society, 1861). These have
been supplemented by my own notes and sketches, made during examinations of
the type specimen, now in the British Museum.

Scelidosaurus is a near relative, as it were, of one of our American forms,
Stegosaurus, now represented by so many specimens that we know the skull,
skeleton, and dermal armour, with much certainty. The English form known as
Omosaurus is still more nearly allied to Stegosaurus, perhaps identical.

A restoration of the skeleton of Scelidosaurus, by Dr. Henry Woodward, will
be found in the British Museum Guide to Geology and Paleontology, 1890, p. 19.
The missing parts are restored from Iguanodon, and the animal is represented as
bipedal, as in that genus.

In the present outline restoration of Scelidosawrus, I have endeavoured merely
to place on record my idea of the form and position of the skeleton, when the
animal was alive, based on the remains I haye myself examined. In case of doubt,
as, for example, in regard to the front of the skull, which is wanting in the type
specimen, I have used a dotted outline, based on the nearest allied form. Of the
dermal armour, only the row of plates best known isindicated. The position chosen
in this figure is one that would be assumed by the animal in walking on all four
feet, and this I believe to have been its natural mode of progression.

Hypsilophodon.

The third of these restorations, that of Hypstlophodon Fovii, Huxley, 1870,
given in outline, natural size, in the diagram, has been made with much care,
partly from the type specimen, and in part from other material mostly now in the
British Museum. The figures and description by the late Mr, Hulke! were of
special value, although my own conclusions as to the natural position of the animal
when alive do not coincide with those of my honoured friend, who did so much to
make this genus of Dinosaurs, and others, Inown to science. The restoration by
Mr. Hulke is shown in another diagram.

In the case of Hypsilophodon, a number of specimens are available instead of
only ove. This makes the problem of restoration in itself a simpler matter than in
Scelidosaurus. Moreover, we have in America a closely allied form, Laosaurus, of
which seyeral species are known. A study of the genus Laosaurus, and the
restoration of one species given on the diagram exhibited will clear up several points
long in doubt.

Huxley and Hulke both shed much light on this interesting genus, Hypsilo-
phodon, indeed, on many of the Dinosawria. The mystery of the Dinosaurian
pelvis, which baffled Cuvier, Mantell, and Owen, was mainly solved by them, the
lium and ischium by Huxley, and the pubis by Hulke. The more perfect
American specimens have demonstrated the correctness of nearly all their eon-
clusions.

Iguanodon.

The fourth restoration exhibited, that of Iguwanodon Bernissartensis, Boulenger,
1881, one-fifth natural size, has been made in outline for comparison with American
forms. It is based mainly on photographs of the well-known Belgian specimens,
the originals of which I have studied with considerable care during several visits
to Brussels. The descriptions and figures of Dollo? have also been used in the
preparation of this restoration. A few changes only have been introduced, based
mainly upon a study of the original specimens.

1 Philosophical Transactions, 1882.
2 Bulletin Royal Museum of Belgiwm, 1882-88.

688 REPORT—1895.

Beside the four genera here represented, no other European Dinosaurs at pre-
sent known are sufficiently well preserved to admit of accurate restorations of the
skeleton. This is true, moreover, of the Dinosaurian remains from other parts of
the world outside of North America.

To present a comprehensive view of the Dinosaurs, so far as now known, I have
prepared the plate exhibited, which gives restorations of the twelve best-known
types, as I have thus far been able to reconstruct them. Of these twelve forms, eight
are from America: Anchisaurus, a small carnivorous type from the Trias; Bronto-
saurus, Camptosaurus, Laosaurus, and Stegosaurus, all herbivorous, and the carni-
vorous Ceratosaurus, from the Jurassic; with Claosawrus and Triceratops, her-
bivores from the Cretaceous. These American forms, with the four from Europe
already shown to you, complete the series represented on the chart exhibited.
They form an instructive group of the remarkable reptiles known as Dinosauria.

The geological positions of Compsognathus and of Scelidosaurus are fully deter-
mined, but that of Hypstlophodon and Iguanodon is not so clear. The latter are
found in the so-called Wealden, but just what the Wealden is I have not been able
to determine from the authorities I have consulted. The Cretaceous age of these
deposits appears to be taken for granted here, but the evidence as it now stands
seems to me to point rather to the upper Jurassic as their true position. If I
should find the vertebrate fossils now known from your Wealden in the Rocky
Mountains, where I have collected many corresponding forms, I should certainly
cal] them Jurassic, and have good reason for so doing. Moreover, after visiting
typical Wealden localities here and on the Continent, [ can still see no reason for
doing otherwise so far as the vertebrate fossils are concerned, and in such fresh-
water deposits their evidence should be conclusive. I have already called attention
to this question of the age of the Wealden, and do so again, as I believe it worthy
of « careful reconsideration by English geologists.

2. Report on the Investigation of the Locality where the Cetiosaurus
Remains in the Oxford Museum were found.—See Reports, p. 403.

3. Preliminary Notice of an Exposure of Rhetic Beds, near East Leake,
Nottinghamshire. By Montacu Browne, £.G.S., F.Z.S. (Fourth
Contribution to Rhatic Geology.)

On the confines of Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire, near East Leake ix he
latter county, the extension of the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway
has lately exposed an interesting section by the tunnel, which cuts through the
White Hills, under the high road, and is bounded on the west by the coppice
called the ‘ Devil’s Garden,’ which is near the end of a westerly extension or pro-
montory of the Liassic with Rheetic beds.

The ordinary appearance of Midland exposures is here exhibited, and many of
the beds are homotaxial, both by lithology and contained fossils, with those of
exposures so remote as Wigston in Leicestershire, Westbury-on-Severn, Pylle Hill
at Bristol, and Watchet in Somersetshire. As in these exposures, there is no
actual or massive bone-bed as at Aust, &c., although, most curiously, one piece—
and one only, identical with the Aust breccia~-was picked up at the ‘tip.’ The
usual minerals are present in the shales and stone, viz., selenite, iron pyrites,
oxides and peroxides of iron, and galena sparingly. The fossils are interesting, not
only as supplementing those previously alluded to by the writer in former contri-
butions,? but as exhibiting some rare forms not previously recorded for Britain,
as given in the following list :—

1 This ancient and singular appellation is suggested by the writer as probably due
to the exposure of the black shales here in digging, the surroundings being a wide
area of Keuper red marls.

2 British Association Reports, 1891-2-4.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 689

Secrion or Trrasstc Bups, East Leake Tunnet, Norts.

K—Marls, grey, sandy, weathering light Apparently vnfos-
grey, and breaking with a somewhat siliferous.
conchoidal fracture, not unlike the

Upper ‘tea-green’ marls of the Upper Ft. in.
Rheetic. Keuper . : Variable, 7 ft.to 12 0

J—Limestone, hard, white, septariform,
calciferous, and breaking with a
cuboidal fracture. . 3in. to 0 6

I—Shale, laminated, dark grey, nearly

y|
black : 12770
H—Shales, rusty black, not so thinly Tami- Upper portion

to
o

nated as HE “ 0 : crowded with
Tsodonta Enaldi,
Myaphoria in-

Lower Jlata, ke.
peue G— Sandstone, pyritous, similar in character
to C, and fairly persistent 4in.to O 1
Bist F—Shales, black, with several rusty bands . 1° 38
contorta | K—Shale, dark, standing out as a hard band, Nearly unfossili-
zone, and cutting out into large squares, ferous.
but weathering into the thinnest
paper shales . . Variable, about 1 0
ae Shale, thickly laminated ; ; 5 0
—Sandstone, pyritous, with a little
galena : : : pee ans evs) 0 2
B—Shale, black . : 5 1 2. Fish scales, &c.
U —Marls, indurated, ereean (: a Nearly unfossili-
pper : rT iL f 2
Keuper. green’ marls), becoming harder anc erous.
greyer in parts - ; * 3 eel 6

The fossils are

PLANTX.
Pierophylium (? brevipenne), Heer.

INVERTEBRATA,

Pecten valoniensis, Defrance.
Avicula contorta, Portlock.
Myaphoria inflata, Emmerich.
Cardium philippianum, Dunker.
Tsodonta ewaldi, Bornemann.
Anatina precursor, Quenstedt.
Acteonina (? valleti), Stoppani.
Several others not yet determined.

VERTEBRATA.

Hybodus minor, Agassiz—teeth.

Acrodus minimus, Agassiz—teeth.

Nemacanthus monilifer, Agassiz—spines.

Gyrolepis albertii, Agassiz—scales.

Labyrinthodon, sp.—parts of jaws and tecth, and some other portions not yet
determined.

? Dinosaurian limb-bones.

‘ Rysosteus oveni,’ Woodward and Sherborne.

Several other specimens not yet determined.

1895. =i

690 REPORT—1895.

Lower Lis.

To the south of the tunnel, several minor and one major fault have let down
the Rhzetic and Lower Lias—which is here exposed as part of the great Hoton
and Buckminster fault—with an inverted downthrow. The beds of the Planorbdis
zone, as usually exhibited in Leicestershire, are here present, resting on disturbed
Upper Rheetic grey, sandy marls, with the usual septariform nodules.

The writer defers, however, the full consideration of this portion until certain
sections, now in progress, are united to give the proper sequence.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Probable Extension of the Seas during Upper Tertiary Times
in Western Europe. By G. F. Douirus.

Taking into consideration the position and nature of all the outliers of
Upper Tertiary age, the author is led to the following conclusions as to the exten-
sicn of the Neogenic seas in Western Europe. During Miocene times England
was united to France, and we have proof of the existence of two seas in the western
part of Europe ; one on the east extended over part of Belgium (Bolderian system),
Holland, and north of Germany—probably this sea was not very far off the eastern
coast of England; the other sea, the Western, or old Atlautic Sea, was off Ireland,
penetrating in various gulfs into France, as in some part of Cotentin, Brittany, in
the Loire valley, in the gulf of the Gironde, but there was no way of communica-
tion with the Mediterranean basin crossing France. In North Spain there are no
Miocene deposits, in Portugal Miocene beds are purely littoral.

The communication with the Mediterranean Sea was certainly by the valley
of the Guadalqnivir. The Gibraltar Strait had not exactly its present place.
The fauna of these Miocene coasts was warm and very similar to the existing
fauna of Senegal and Guinea.

We can divide Pliocene time into three periods, but the situations of the seas
were not very different. England was always in direct continental communication
with France, the English Channel was not open at all. Al the Pliocene deposits of
Belgium, North France, or England, even the Lenham beds, are on the side of the
North-Eastern Sea; we find all these patches on the northern side of the great
anticlinal line of the Artois, Boulonnais, and Weald. The fauna is different from
the Miocene, and colder—it even turns more and more cold during the progress of
Pliocene time. On the western or Atlantic side we have little gulfs leading the
sea into the land, but not so frequently and not so far as during Miocene times.
The Cornwall deposits, Cétentin beds, and the Brittany patches are very limited ;
the basin of the Gironde contains no trace of Pliocene beds, and we have no trace
of recent marine beds at the foot of the Pyrenees. In the north of Spain there is
also no trace of Pliocene beds. The continent seems to have been higher, and the
Atlantic tolerably distant. All the Portuguese sands recently discovered are
littoral, and only on the Algarve coast and south of Spain do we find proof of the
probable communication with the Mediterranean. The Gibraltar Strait was not
always in the same place during Pliocene time; in the beginning probably the
Guadalquivir valley to Murcia continued to be the strait, but later the roek of
Gibraltar was separated from Africa and a new road was open; this way was cer-
tainly deeper than the former one, and as deep as the existing strait. By this
depression the cold fauna of the depths of the Atlantic penetrated into the Medi-
terranean Sea as far as Sicily and Italy with Cyprina Islandica.

The geology of Morocco is unknown, but we have plenty of information on

PP ceria We have there great Miocene deposits raised along the Atlas Chain up to

Ee
'

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 691

a great altitude, and a little lower a good and very long band of Pliocene beds of
marine and continental origin. Quaternary deposits, similarly continental and
littoral, occur lying along the actual coast, poimting out the south side of the
Mediterranean connection.

In a few words, the [nglish Channel has been opened very recently, and no sea
occupied its place before. No sea has crossed France or central Spain, and we are
obliged to seek for an outlet for the Eastern Sea during Miocene time by way of
Germany, Galicia, and South Russia, or by the north of Scotland.

During the existence of the Pliocene seas there was no other communication
for the Crag seas than the northern one, for the western, the south, and eastern
sides were undoubtedly shut in by land.

2. On the Present State of owr Knowledge of the Upper Tertiary Strata of
Belgium. By E. VAN DEN BRoEK.

3. On the Discovery of Fossil Elephant Remains at Tilloun (Charente).
By Marce.uin Boute.

4. On Earth Movements observed in Japan. By J. Mitne, F.R.S.

5. Reports on the Volcanic and Seismological Phenomena of Japan.
See Reports, pp. 81, 113.

6. Final Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius.
See Reports, p. 351.

7. Report on Earth Tremors.—See Reports, p. 184.

8. Interim Report on the Investigation of a Coral Reef.
See Reports, p. 392.

9. Report on Geological Photographs.—See Reports, p. 404.

10. The Auriferous Conglomerates of the Witwatersrand, Transvaal.
By Freperick H. Harcu, Ph.D., L.GS.

The general geological features of these now famous deposits are more or
less familiar to most readers. The beds of the ‘Main Reef Series’ have been
closely studied from one end of the Rand to the other, and are now being worked
in an almost continuous series of prosperous gold-mining companies, the whole
distance covered by mines in active operation amounting to forty-six miles, The
beds have the usual characteristics of conglomerates, being composed of pebbles

YY2

6$2 REPORT—1895.

which present every sign of having been water-rolled and worn smooth by attrition.
The pebbles consist of white or smoky quartz, and lie imbedded in a sandy or
quartzitic matrix. The older rocks, from the waste of which these conglomerates
are derived, were probably members of the Primary Formation, on which the Wit-
watersrand beds lie. That these older rocks were largely veined with quartz is
evident from the nature of the pebbles, and that they were not the source of the
gold is evident from the fact that the quartz pebbles do not carry gold, the metallic
contents being confined to the matrix.

There is little doubt that the gold was introduced subsequently to the deposition
of the beds by means of mineralising solutions, which ascended the planes of dis-
ruption and fissuring which resulted from the disturbance of the beds during their
upheaval. A considerable amount of basic igneous matter was also introduced,
and now appears in the beds in the form of dykes and intrusive sheets.

The angle of dip of the auriferous beds at their outcrop is generally high
(50°-80°), but the lowest workings of the mines evidence a considerable flattening
of the deposits, the average dip in the lowest levels being at present not more than
30°. It is probable that the flattening will continue, and that the dip in the deep
level workings will be found to be not more than 25°. As these deep levels will
probably be worked toa vertical depth of 4,000 to 5,000 feet, the zone of workable
auriferous deposit must be at least 14 mile wide.

11. Report on the ‘ Stonesfield Slate.—See Reports, p. 414.

12. On the Strata of the Shaft sunk at Stonesfield, Oxon, in 1895.
By Epwin A. Watrorp, £.G.S.

Since 1860 no continuous section of the upper beds of the Inferior Oolite, and
of the limestones intervening between them and the Stonesfield Slate, has been
exposed in Oxfordshire. In 1860 but brief record seems to have been made of the
character of the beds pierced.

The lower part of the section made by the aid of the British Association in
1894-95 resolves itself readily into three divisions :—

1. Compact buff-coloured limestones,

2. Sandstone and sandy limestones with vertical markings and borings.

3. Rubbly coarse-grained oolitic limestone (Clypeus Grit) zone Ammonites
Parkinsoni,

Series 1 extends to the north-west as far as Long Compton, in Warwickshire,
and on the north to Sibford in Oxfordshire. Around Chipping Norton it is best
developed, but its vertical boundaries are hardly determinable. I take it to repre-
sent the Fullonian clays and limestones of the South and South-west of England.
Just as at Port-en-Bessin and Caen, in Normandy, we see at one place the argil-
laceous and argillaceo-calcareous series, and at the other the calcareous and siliceo-
calcareous series, so also from west to east in Englard the deposits change from
argillaceous to calcareous, and with a poorer fauna.

Series 2, generally underlying the limestones, may be traced as far as Banbury,
and has a wide range over Northamptonshire. A bed of Trigonia (7. signata) marks
is found around Hook Norton, Chipping Norton, and Long Compton, the lower
part of the sandy series, with Ammonites Parkinsoni and remains of marsh plants.
The higher sandy limestones are recognised by the presence of long annulated
stems of Algze (?), extending also through the Northamptonshire deposits, and
characterising the higher beds there. The blue and white sandy limestone of
Stonesfield is full of vertical markings of plants—markings whick are prominent
in every section of the ‘ Estuarine’ sands of Northamptonshire. The succession
of these to the bed with Trigonta signata may be seen in a quarry at Sharpshill,
between Brailes and Hook Norton, where a well-marked band of siliceous limestone

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION. C, 693

with 7'rigonia signata, Ag., T. Lycetti, Walf, is covered with two feet of shattered
siliceous stone pierced with vertical markings. These are the Oxfordshire repre-
sentatives of the Northamptonshire Estuarine Sands.

So far, then, the Stonesfield section enables us to get a better understanding of
the relationships of the Oxfordshire and Northamptonshire Inferior Oolite.

Though the zones of the Northamptonshire Inferior Oolite appear at present to
be ill-detined, we may hope in Sharpe’s Series D to recognise the representative of
the well-known Clypeus grit of West Oxfordshire and the Cotteswolds.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER li.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. The Trial-boring at Stutton. By W. Wuiraker, F.R.S.

This, the first attempt of the Eastern Counties Coal-boring Association, is in
the low ground southward of Crepping Hall, and has been successful in reaching
the base of the Cretaceous beds at the depth of 994 feet, and in proving that these
are at once underlain by a much older rock. The Tertiary and Cretaceous beds
passed through are as follows :—

Feet
Drift (River Gravel) . : = : : ‘ ; ‘ 7. eG
London Clay and Reading Beds . : ; 5 ; : - of
Upper and Middle Chalk f . : - : : - 720
Lower Chalk, with very glauconitic marl at the base (almost a
greensand) : ; : ‘ é é : : : . 1543
Gault . : é é : : - 4 : : . 493

Beneath this is Palzeozoic rock, with a high dip, which has been pierced to the
depth of over 200 feet. au at

The thickness of both Chalk and Gault is slightly less th Harwich, and
there is also a little less of the Tertiary beds.

A full account will be brought betore the Geological Society.

2. The Dip of the Underground Paleozoic Rocks at Ware and at Cheshunt.
By Josery Francis, MInst.C.£.
Ordered to be printed in eatenso.—See Reports, p. 441.

3. On the Importance of extending the Work of the Geological Survey of
Great Britain to the Deep-seated Rocks by means of Boring. By F. W.
Harmer, £.G.S.

The systematic exploration of the subterranean geology of these islands is equally
important from a scientific and a practical point of view. At present our know-
ledge of the structure of the rocks which torm the foundation of our island home
is due either to isolated and occasional borings, such as that of the Ipswich Syndi-
cate in search of coal, or to deep wells sunk by mercantile firms, but the latter do
not reach further than is necessary to obtain a supply of water, and the work is
generally suspended just where it becomes geologically most interesting. Butsuch
a Survey is important practically, because unsuspected sources of wealth may be
hidden under our very feet.

It is a mistake to suppose that a discovery such as that of a new coal-field
would enrich only the landowners of the district, because whenever any apprecia-
tion of real property takes place, the State at once claims its share of the increased

694 REPORT—1895.

value, both for imperial and local purposes. The average for the whole country of
the rates raised by local taxation alone was, for 1891, 3s. 8d. in the £, to which
must be added imperial taxes and the tithe. It may he stated roughly, that for
every 100/. of yearly ‘unearned increment’ the State is benefited in one way or
another by 25/., or one-fourth of the amount. The discovery of a new coal-field
would cause increased prosperity in the district in which it occurred, and from this
the State, through taxation, would derive great though indirect advantage.

The growing difficulty of finding employment for the ever-increasing popula-
tion of these islands is a strong reason why this Survey should be undertaken.

Part of the cost might be borne by the landowners under whose property any
minerals were discovered. Certain districts should be selected with the consent of
the Local Authorities, and Parliamentary power taken to charge a royalty on any
minerals obtained below a certain depth. Landowners would probably welcome
proposals to make borings on their estates on such conditions. In the first instance,
however, the Survey should map out accurately the subterranean limits of existing
coal-fields, or mineral-bearing rocks, but trial borings should be put down in dif-
ferent localities, and each new boring would help to show more plainly the direc-
tion in which further investigations should be made. Much light would be thrown
by such a Survey on the circulation of underground waters, a matter of great
practical importance.

The expense of boring would be much reduced if undertaken on a large scale,
as machinery and apparatus would be available again and again. The Survey
would employ its own workmen, who would become increasingly efficient and
economical. ;

4. The Cladodonts of the Upper Devonian of Ohio.
By Professor E. W. Ciaypoir, D.Sc. (Lond.)

Numerous specimens of the Cladodonts of the Cleveland Shale in Ohio have
been found by Dr. William Clark. They for the first time reveal to us the general
form of the fishes to which belonged the teeth that have alone so long represented
the genus Cladodus. The fossils are in very fair preservation, but their state of
pyritisation has obscured many of the details of their structure. So far as regards
their form, however, we now know that they were long, slender fishes, resembling
in their character the sharks of the present day; that they possessed well-deve-
loped and powerful pectoral and caudal, with weak ventral, fins, the dorsals being
unknown; that they were for the most part, or altogether, spineless; that at least
one species possessed cladadont teeth of more than one pattern ; and that they had
near the hind end of the body a peculiar flat expansion or membrane of rudely
semicircular form, which gave to the caudal extremity when seen from above the
outline of a sharp-pointed shovel.

The largest whole specimen yet found shows a fish of about 6 feet in length,
but detached teeth and other fragments indicate others of double this size, and
supply abundant proof that in late Devonian times, and in the North American
area, the elasmobranch fishes had attained very great proportions and a high
stage of development.

Hitherto the Cladodonts have been regarded as, in the main, characterising the
Lower Carboniferous rocks, but we now find them abounding in the earlier Devonian
strata, and, as shown by the contents of their stomachs, preying—in some cases at
least—on the smaller placoderms of the same area.

From the evidence of the new specimens it appears most likely that the
species already defined from single and isolated teeth can no longer be main-
tained.

For details see the author's papers in the ‘ American Geologist’ for 1893-4-5.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 695

5. The Great Devonian Placoderms of Ohio, with Specimens.
By Professor E. W. Cuaypo.e, D.Sc. (Lond.)

The Upper Devonian Shales of Ohio have recently afforded a remarkable series
of fossil fishes rivalling in size and interest those found many years ago in the Old
Red Sandstones of similar age in Scotland, and described by Agassiz and Hugh
Miller. The earliest of these, Dinichthys, was closely studied, and its structure
was well explained by the late Dr. Newberry. It was an immense armour-clad
fish whose head measured from 2 to 3 feet in length. Titanichthys, the second of
the group, though less massive, was of yet larger size. Gorgonichthys, the third,
was described by the present writer in 1893, and, so far as is yet known, was
the most formidable of all, possessing jaws of enormous size and thickness, above
24 inches long, ending in teeth or points from 6 to 9 inches in length. The last
of the four, Brontichthys, of which a description was also published by the writer
in the ‘ American Geologist’ for 1894, is equally heavy and of equal size, but
differs from all the rest in possessing very massive symphysial portions in the
mandibles with sockets apparently for the reception of teeth, as in Titanichthys.

Of the two last-named genera only the jaws are yet known with exactness.
Other portions have been found of Gorgonichthys, but are still embedded in the
matrix. So far as can at present be determined, all the four are closely allied to
Coccosteus, and belong to the same family.

The set of casts exhibited in illustration of the fossils have been prepared by
their discoverer, Dr. William Clark, and faithfully represent the originals, of many
of which only single specimens are yet known. The labour of extricating them
from the pyritous shale has proved very heavy, and much yet remains to be done
in this direction.

6. Notes on the Phylogeny of the Graptolites. By Prof. H. A. NicHotson,
M.D., D.Sc. F.GS., and J. E. Marr, IA., F.RS., Sec. GS.

‘The authors note that the number of stipes possessed by graptolites has been
looked upon as a character of prime importance, many genera being based on the
possession of a certain number. Again, the ‘ angle of divergence’ has been looked
upon as an important factor in the diagnosis of families. They are, however, led to
believe that a character of essential importance in dealing with the classification of
the graptolites, and one which, in all probability, indicates the true line of descent,
is found in the shape and structure of the hydrothece, the point of next import-
ance as indicating genetic relationship being the ‘angle of divergence.’

These views are illustrated by reference to forms belonging to the ‘genera’
Bryograptus, Dichograptus, Tetragraptus, and Didymograptus, which appear in
turn in this sequence.

Out of nine Tetragrapti (and the authors know of no other forms referred to
this genus which are represented by well-preserved examples), eight are closely
represented by forms of Didymograptus, which are closely comparable with them
as regards characters of hydrothecze and amount of ‘angle of divergence,’ whilst
the ninth is comparable with a Didymograptus as regards ‘angle of divergence’
only. Moreover, four of the Tetrayrapti are comparable as regards the two
above-named important characters with forms of Dichograptus and Bryograptus
with eight or more branches, and the authors confidently predict the discovery of
forms belonging to these or closely allied many-branched ‘ genera,’ agreeing with
the remaining Tetragrapti in what they regard as essential characters.

They give details showing the points of agreement of each group of the various
series, including a two-branched, a four-branched, and a many-branched form, and
point out how difficult it is to understand how the extraordinary resemblances
between the various species of Tetragraptus and Didymograptus (to take one
example) have arisen, if, as usually supposed, all the species of the genera have
descended from a common ancestral form for each genus, in the one case four-
branched, and in the other case two-branched. On the other hand, it is compara-
tively easy to explain the more or less simultaneous existence of forms possessing

696 REPORT—1895.

the same number of stipes, but otherwise only distantly related, if they are
imagined to be the result of the variation of a number of different ancestral types
along similar lines. They allude to similar phenomena which have been shown to
exist amongst other organisms; thus Mojsisovics has described analogous cases
amongst the Ammonites, and Buckman (under the name of heterogenetic homceo-
morphy) amongst the brachiopods, though in this instance the cases of ‘ species’
and not of ‘genera’ are considered.

Following the above inferences to their legitimate conclusion, the authors point
out how ‘genera’ like Diplograptus and Monograptus may contain representatives
of more than one ‘family’ of graptolites, according to the classification now in
vogue, which would account for the great diversity in the characters of the mono-
graptid hydrothece. ’

In conclusion, the authors offer a few theoretical observations upon a possible
reason for the changes which they have discussed in the paper.

7. Zonal Divisions of the Carboniferous System.
By E. J. Garwoop, J.A., F.GS., and J. E. Marr, IA., FBS.

The authors cal] attention to previous attempts which have been made to
divide the Carboniferous rocks into zones, noting the zonal divisions of the Lower
Carboniferous rocks of North England, established by De Koninck and Lohest, and
the view expressed by Waagen that fuller work will enable geologists to define a
series of zones in the Carboniferous as in older and newer strata.

The detailed work of one of the authors (Mr. Garwood) leads them to suppose
that the following zones occur in the Lower Carboniferous beds of the northern
part of the Pennine Chain and adjoining regions :—— |

Zone of Productus ef. edelburgensis.
» JL. latissimus.
» P. giganteus.
» Chonetes papilionacea.
», Spirifera octoplicata.

Mr. Garwood has traced the zone of Productus latissimus, occupying the same
relative position to that of P. giganteus, from Settle, in Yorkshire, 1o the North-
umbrian coast, near Howick Burn.

The authors believe that brachiopods and goniatites will furnish good results,
if a detailed study of their distribution is made; and they suggest that a Committee
be appointed to inquire into the possibility of dividing the Carboniferous rocks into
zones, to cali the attention of local observers to the desirability of collecting fossils.
with this view, and, if possible, to retain the services of eminent specialists, to
whom these fossils may be submitted.

8. Twelfth Report on Paleozoic Phyllopoda.—See Reports, p. 416.

9. Interim Report on the Eurypterid-bearing Deposits of the Pentland
Hills.

10. On some Decapod Crustacea from the Cretaceous Formation of
Vancouver's Island, &c. By Henry Woopwarp, £.2.S.

Through the kindness of Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, F.G.S., Palecontologist to the
Geological Survey of Canada, I have lately received a series of Crustacea from
Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte Island, and as they offer a close affinity
with forms from our Gault and Greensand, they seem deserving of special notice.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 697

The existence of Cretaceous beds in Canada has long been known, and the
coalfields of Nanaimo and Comox, on Vancouver Island, have been correlated with
the Cretaceous series, as well as those of Queen Charlotte Island, and that of
Alberta eastward of the Rocky Mountains.

The fossils were described by F. B. Meek in 1857, by Dr. B, F. Shumard in
1858, by Professor H. Y. Hind in 1859, Dr. Hector in 1861, Mr. W. Gabb in
1864. ‘These are all descriptions of characteristic Cretaceous mollusca. Only two
Crustacea are mentioned, namely, a decapod crustacean, provisionally named
Hoploparia Dulmenensis, from the Niobara-Beaton group of Manitoba, and a long-
tailed decapod from the Pierre-Fox Hills, or Montana formation. These have not
been seen by the present writer.

The species now recorded comprise—

1. Several evamples of a small burrowing form of decapod-macrouran crusta-
cean, belonging to the Callianasside, and common in the chalk of Maastricht and
Faxoe, and the Greensand of Colin Glen, Belfast.

The Vancouver Island form is named Cudlianassa Whiteavesit.

2. The second is a form of brachyuran decapod, belonging to the family
Corystide, and is represented by two imperfect carapaces, one of which shows the
frontal portion well preserved, and is evidently closely related to the genera
Eucorystes and Paleocorystes from the Greensand and Gault of England, and
especially with Paleocorystes Broderipi, from the Gault of Folkestone. I propose
to name this after the discoverer as Paleocorystes Harveyt. The specimens were
obtained from the Cretaceous beds of Comox River, Vancouver Island.

3. This form is the most abundant of the crabs met with, and is nearly allied
to Plagiophthalmus, but its exact position is somewhat doubtful.

Mr. Harvey writes that he has found this small crab everywhere in the district
of Vancouver's Island, where there are marine Cretaceous beds and fossils. I have
named it (provisionally) Plagiophthalmus (?) vancouverensis.

4, The fourth specimen is a crab allied to the genus Homola, and is from
Queen Charlotte Island, Skidegate Channel, west of Alliford Bay, and was
obtained by Mr. J. Richardson. It may be compared with the genus Prosopon
(von Meyer), from the Jurassic, with several forms from the Chalk of Faxoe, and
with Homolopsis Edwardsii, from the Gault.of Folkestone. I have named it (pro-
visionally) Homolopsis (?) Richardsont, after the discoverer.

These crabs occur in concretionary nodules in the Cretaceous beds of Vancouver,
and in black coarse nodules on the beach at Queen Charlotte Island, but they
have not been removed far from the parent rock.

It is interesting to notice the close approximation between these North-West
American Cretaceous forms of Crustacea and those from the same horizon in Europe,
and it seems to indicate that even so late as Cretaceous times the same marine
fauna existed over a far wider area than it at present covers. ‘This is true, also,
of the abundant molluscan fauna occurring in the same series of beds over very
widely separated areas of the North American continent, from Manitoba in the
east to Vancouver in the west, many of the genera (and perhaps the species also)
being found in our own Cretaceous beds.

[Diagrams of the new forms were exhibited. ]

11. Interim Report on the Registration of Type Specimens.

12. Twenty-third Report on Erratic Blocks.—See Reports, p. 430.

698 REPORT—18935.

Section D.—ZOOLOGY (INCLUDING ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY).

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—WILLIAM A. Herpan, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in University College, Liverpool.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

The President delivered the following Address :—

Tuts year, for the first time in the history of the British Association, Section D
meets without including in the range of its subject-matter the Science of Botany.
Zoology now remains as the sole occupant of Section D—that ‘ Fourth Committee
of Sciences,’ as it was at first called, more than sixty years ago, when our subject
was one of that group of biological sciences, the others being Botany, Physiology,
and Anatomy. ‘These allied sciences have successively lett us. Like a prolific
mother our Section has given rise one after another to the now independent Sections
of Anthropology, Physiology, and Botany. Our subject-matter has been greatly
restricted in scope, but it is still very wide—this year, when Section I devoted to
the more special physiology of the medical physiologist does not meet, perhaps a
little wider than it may be in other years, since we are on this occasion credited
with the subject ‘Animal Physiology ’—surely always an integral part of Zoology!
It is to be hoped that this section will always retain that general and comparative
physiology which is inseparable from the study of animal form and structure. The
late Waynflete Professor of Physiology at Oxtord, in his Newcastle Address to this
Section, said ‘that every appreciable difference in structure corresponds to a differ-
ence of function,’ ! and his successor, the present Wayntlete Professor, has shown
us ‘how pointless is structure apart from function, and how baseless and unstable
is function apart from structure’ *—the ‘argument for the simultaneous exami-
nation of both’ in that science of Zoology which we profess is, to my mind,
irresistible.

We include also in our subject-matter, besides the adult structure and the
embryonic development of animals, their distribution both in space and time, the
history and structure of extinct forms, speciography and classification, the study of
the habits of animals and all that mass of lore and philosophy which has gathered
around inquiries into instinct, breeding, and heredity. I trust that the discussion
of matters connected with Evolution will always, to a large extent, remain with
this Section D, which has witnessed in the past the addresses, papers, discussions,
and triumphs of Darwin, Huxley, and Wallace.

When the British Association last met in Ipswich, in 1851, Section D, under
the Presidency of Professor Henslow, still included Zoology, Botany, and Phy sio-
logy, and a glance through the volumes of reports for that and neighbouring ye ars

1 Burdon-Sanderson—British Association Report for 1889.
2 Gotch—Presidential Address to Liverpool Biological Society, vol. ix, 1894.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 699

recalls to us that our subject has undergone great and striking developments in the
forty-four years that have elapsed. Zoology was still pre-Darwinian (though
Charles Darwin was then in the thick of his epoch-making work—both what he
calls his ‘plain barnacle work’ and his ‘theoretic species work’).'_ Although the
cell-theory had been launched a decade before, zoologists were not yet greatly
concerned with those minute structural details which have since built up the
science of Histology. The heroes of our science were then chiefly those glorious
field naturalists, observers, and systematists who founded and established on a firm
basis British Marine Zoology. Edward Forbes, Joshua Alder, Albany Hancock
were then in active work. George Johnston was at his zoophytes, Bowerbank at
sponges, Busk at polyzoa. Forbes’ short brilliant career was nearly run. He
probably did more than any of his contemporaries to advance marine zoology. In
the previous year, at the Edinburgh meeting of the Association, he and his friend
McAndrew, had read their classic reports,” ‘On the Investigation of British
Marine Zoology by meansof the Dredge,’ and ‘On South European Marine Inverte-
brata,’ which mark the high water level reached at that date, and for some time
afterwards, in the exploration of our coasts and the explanation of the distribution
of our marine animals. At the Belfast meeting, which followed Ipswich, Forbes
exhibited his great map of the distribution of marine life in ‘ Homoiozoic Belts.’ In
November, 1854, he was dead, six months after his appointment to the goal of his
ambition, the professorship at Edinburgh, where, had he lived, there can be no
doubt he would, with his brilliant ability and unique personality, have founded a
great school of Marine Zoology.

To return to the early fifties, Huxley—whose recent loss to science, to philosophy,
to culture, we, in common with the civilised world, now deplore—at that time just
returned from the memorable voyage of the ‘ Rattlesnake,’ was opening out his
newly acquired treasures of comparative anatomy with papers on Siphonophora
and on Sagitta, and one on the structure of Ascidians, in which he urged—fourteen
years before Kowalevsky established it on embryological evidence in 1866—that
their relations were with Amphioxus, as we now believe, rather than with the
Polyzoa or the Lamellibranchiata, as had formerly been supposed. Bates was then
on the Amazons, Wallace was just going out to the Malay Archipelago, Wyville
Thomson, Hincks, and Carpenter, the successors of Forbes, Johnston, and Alder,
were beginning their life-work. Abroad that great teacher and investigator,
Johannes Miiller, was training amongst his pupils the most eminent zoologists,
anatomists, and physiologists of the succeeding quarter century. In this country,
as we have seen, Huxley was just beginning to publish that splendid series of
researches into the structure of nearly all groups in the animal kingdom, to which
comparative anatomy owes so much.

In fact, the few years before and after the last Ipswich meeting witnessed the
activity of some of the greatest-of our British zoologists—the time was pregnant
with work which has since advanced, and in some respects revolutionised our
subject. It was then still usual for the naturalist to have a competent knowledge
of the whole range of the natural sciences. Edward Forbes, for example, was a
botanist and a geologist, as well as a zoologist. He occupied the chair of Botany
at King’s College, London, and the presidential chair of the Geological Section of
the British Association at Liverpool in 1854, That excessive specialisation, from
which most of us suffer in the present day, had not yet arisen; and in the compre-
hensive, but perhaps not very detailed, survey of his subject taken by one of the
field naturalists of that time, we find the beginnings of different lines of work,
which have since developed into some half-dozen distinct departments of zoology,
are now often studied independently, and are in some real danger of losing touch
with one another (see diagram).

The splendid anatomical and ‘ morphological’ researches of Huxley and
Johannes Miiller have been continued by the more minute histological or cellular
work rendered possible by improvements of the microtome and the microscope,

1 See Life ana Letters, vol. i. p. 380.
* British Asseciation Report for 1850, p. 192—et seq.

700. REPORT—1895.

until at last in these latter years we investigate not merely the cellular anatomy
of the body, but the anatomy of the cell—it indeed we are permitted to talk of
‘cell’ at all, and are not rather constrained to express our results in terms of
‘eytomicrosomes,’ ‘somacules,’ or ‘idiosomes, and to regard our morphological
unit, the cell, as a symbiotic community containing two colonies of totally dis-
similar organisms.' To such cytological investigations may well be applied Lord
Macaulay’s aphorism, ‘A point which yesterday was invisible is its goal to-day,
and will be its starting point to-morrow.’

Somewhat similar advances in methods have led us from the life-histories
studied of old to the new and fascinating science of embryology. The elder Milne-
Edwards and Van Beneden knew that in their life-histories Ascidians produced
tadpole-like young. MKowalevsky (1866) showed that in their embryonic stages
these Ascidian tadpoles have the beginnings of their chief systems of organs
formed in essentially the same manner and from the same embryonic layers as in
the case of the frog’s tadpole or any other typical young vertebrate ; and now we
are not content with less than tracing what is called the ‘cell-lineage’ of such
Ascidian embryos, so as to show the ancestry and descendants, the traditions
peculiarities of, and influences at work upon each of the embryonic cells—or areas
. of protoplasm——throuzhout many complicated stages. And there is now opening

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up from this a great new field of experimental and ‘mechanical’ embryology, in
which we seek the clue to the explanation of particular processes and changes by
determining under what conditions they take place, and how they are affected by
altered conditions. We are brought face to face with such curious problems as,
Why does a frog’s egg, in the two-celled stage, of which one half has been
destroyed, develop into half an embryo when it is kept with one (the black) surface
uppermost, and into—not half an embryo, but—a whole embryo of half the usual
size if kept with the other (the white) surface upwards. Apparently, according to
the conditions of the experiment, we may get half embryos or whole embryos of
half size from one of the first two cells of the frog’s ege.?

One of the most characteristic studies of the older field naturalists, the obser-
vation of habits, has now become, under the influence of Darwinism, the ‘ Biono-

} See Watasé in Wood's Holl Biologicai Lectures, 1893.
2 See Morgan, Anat. Anzeig., 1895, x. Bd. p. 623, and recent papers by Roux,
Hertwig, Born, and O. Schultze.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 701

mics’ of the present day, the study of the relations between habit and structure
and environment—a most fascinating and promising field of investigation, which
may be confidently expected to tell us much in the future in regard to the compe-
tition between species, and the useful or indifferent nature of specific characters.

Other distinct lines of zoological investigation, upon which I shall not dwell,
are geographical distribution and paleontology—subjects in which the zoologist
comes into contact with, and may be of some service to his fellow-workers in geology.
And there still remains the central avenue of the wide zoological domain—that of
speciography and systematic zoology—which has been cultivated by the great classi-
fiers and monographers from Linnzus to Haeckel, and has culminated in our times in
the magnificent series of fifty quarto volumes, setting forth the scientific results of
the ‘Challenger’ Expedition ; a voyage of discovery comparable only in its important
and wide-reaching results with the voyages of Columbus, Gama, and Magellan at
the end of the fifteenth century. It is now so long since the ‘ Challenger’ investi-
gations commenced that few I suppose outside the range of professional zoologists
are aware that, although the expedition took place in 1872 to 1876, the work
resulting therefrom has been going on actively until now—for nearly a quarter of
a century in all—and in a sense, and a very real one, will never cease, for the
‘Challenger’ has left an indelible mark upon science, and will remain through the
. ages exercising its powerful, guiding influence, like the work of Aristotle, Newton,
and Darwin.

Most of the authors of the special memoirs on the sea and its various kinds of
inhabitants, have interpreted in a liberal spirit the instructions they received to
examine and describe the collections entrusted to them, and have given us very
valuable summaries of the condition of our knowledge of the animals in question,
while some of the reports are little less than complete monographs of the groups.
I desire to pay a tribute of respect to my former teacher and scientific chief, Sir
Wyville Thomson, to whose initiative, along with Dr. W. B. Carpenter, we owe
the first inception of our now celebrated deep-sea dredging expeditions, and to
whose scientific enthusiasm, combined with administrative skill, is due in great part
the successful accomplishment of the ‘ Lightning,’ the ‘ Porcupine,’ and the
“Challenger’ Expeditions. Wyville Thomson lived long enough to superintend
the first examination of the collections brought home, their division into groups,
and the allotment of these to specialists for description. He enlisted the services
of his many scientific friends at home and abroad, he arranged the general plan of
the work, decided upon the form of publication, and died in 1882 after seeing the
first ten or twelve zoological reports through the press.

Within the last few months have been issued the two concluding volumes of
this noble series, dealing with a summary of the results, conceived and written in
a masterly manner by the eminent editor of the reports, Dr. John Murray. An
event of such first-rate importance in zoology as the completion of this great work
ought not to pass unnoticed at this zoological gathering. I desire to express my
appreciation and admiration of Dr. Murray’s work, and I do not doubt that the
Section will permit me to convey to Dr. Murray the congratulations of the
zoologists present, and their thanks for his splendid services to science. Murray, in
these ‘Summary’ volumes, has given definiteness of scope and purpose, and a
tremendous impulse, to that branch of science—mainly zoological—which is coming
tobe called *

OcEANOGRAPHY,

Oceanography is the meeting ground of most of the sciences. It deals with
botany and zoology, ‘ including animal physiology’ ; chemistry, physics, mechanics,
meteorology, and geology all contribute, and the subject is of course intimately
connected with geography, and has an incalculable influence upon mankind, his
distribution, characteristics, commerce, and economics. Thus oceanography, one of
the latest developments of marine zoology, extends into the domain of, and ought
to find a place in, every one of the sections of the British Association.

Along with the intense specialisation of certain lines of zoology in the last
quarter of the nineteenth century, it is important to notice that there are also Jines

702 REPORT—1895.

of investigation which require an extended knowledge of, or at least make use of the
results obtained from, various distinct subjects. One of these is oceanography,
another is bionomics, which I have referred to above, a third is the philosophy of
zoology, or all those studies which bear upon the theory of evolution, and a fourth
is the investigation of practical fishery problems—which is chiefly an application
of marine zoology. Of these four subjects—which while analytic enough in the
detailed investigation of any particular problem, are synthetic in drawing together
and making use of the various divergent branches of zoology and the neighbouring
sciences—oceanography, bionomics, and the fisheries’ investigation, are most closely
related, and I desire to devote the remainder of this Address to the consideration
of some points in connection with their present position.

Dr. Murray, in a few only too brief paragraphs at the end of his detailed sum-
mary of the results of the ‘Challenger’ Expedition, which I have alluded to above,
states some of the views, highly suggestive and original, at which he has himself
arrived from his unique experience. Some of his conclusions are very valuable
contributions to knowledge, which will no doubt be adopted by marine zoologists.
Others, I venture to think, are less sound and well founded, and will scarcely stand
the test of time and further experience. But for all such statements, or even sug-
gestions, we should be thankful. They do much to stimulate further research ;
they serve, if they can neither be refuted nor established, as working hypotheses ;
and even if they have to be eventually abandoned, we should bear in mind what
Darwin has said as to the difference in their influence on science between erroneous
facts and erroneous theories, ‘ False facts are highly injurious to the progress of
science, for they often endure long; but false views, if supported by some evidence,
do little harm, for everyone takes a salutary pleasure in proving their falseness ; and
when this is done, one path towards error is closed, and the road to truth is often
at the same time opened.’ ?

With all respect for Murray’s work, and fully conscious of my own temerity in
venturing to differ from one who has had such an extended experience of the sea
and its problems, I am constrained to express my disagreement with some of his
conclusions. And J am encouraged to do so by the belief that Murray will rightly
feel that the best compliment which zoologists can pay to his work is to give it
careful, detailed consideration, and discuss it critically. He will, I am sure, join
me in the hope that, whether his views or mine prove the false ones, we may be
able, by their discussion, to close a ‘path towards error,’ and possibly open ‘ the
road to truth.’

One of the points upon which Murray lays considerable stress, and to the
elaboration of which he deyctes a prominent position in his ‘General Observations
on the Distribution of Marine Organisms,’ is the presence of what he has called a
‘mud-line’ around coasts at a depth of about one hundred fathoms. It is the
point ‘at which minute particles of organic and detrital matters in the form of
mud begin to settle on the bottom of the ocean.’ He regards it as the great
feeding ground, and a place where the fauna is most abundant, and from which
there have hived off, so to speak, the successive swarms or migrations which have
peopled other regions—the deep waters, the open sea, the shallow waters and the
estuaries, fresh waters, and land. Murray thus gives to his mud-line both a
present and an historic importance which can scarcely be surpassed in the economy
of life on this globe. I take it that the historic and the present importance stand
or fall together—that the evidence as to the origin of faunas in the past is derived
from their distribution at the present day, and Iam inclined to think that Murray’s
opinion as to the distribution of animals in regard to the mud-line is not entirely
in accord with the experience of specialists, and is not based upon reliable statistics.
Murray’s own statement is*:—‘ A depth is reached along the Continental shores
facing the great oceans immediately below which the conditions become nearly
uniform in all parts of the world, and where the fauna likewise presents a great
uniformity. This depth is usually not far above nor far below tke 100-fathom

1 Darwin, Tie Descent of Man, 2nd edit., 1882, p. 606.

2 Challenger Expedition Summary, vol. ii. p, 1433.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 703

line, and is marked out by what I have elsewhere designated as the Mud-line. . . 2
‘Here is situated the great feeding ground in the ocean . . .’ and he then goes on
(page 1434) to enumerate the Crustaceans, such as species of Calanus, Eucheta,
Pasiphea, Crangon, Calocaris, Pandalus, Hippolyte, many amphipods, isopods,
and immense numbers of schizopods, which swarm, with fishes and cephalopods,
immediately over this mud deposit. Now I venture to think that the experience of
some of those who have studied the marine zoology of our own coasts does not bear out
this statement. In the first place, our experience in the Irish Sea is that mud may
be found at almost any depth, but is very varied in its nature and in its source.
There may even be mud laid down between tide marks in an estuary where a very
considerable current runs. A deposit of mud may be due to the presence of an eddy
or a sheltered corner in which the finer particles suspended in the water are able to
sink, or it may be due to the wearing away of a limestone beach, or to quantities
of alluvium brought down by a stream from the land, or to the presence of a sub-
merged bed of boulder clay, or even, in some places, to the sewage and refuse from
coast towns. Finally, there is the deep water mud, a very stiff blue-grey substance
which sets, when dried, into a firm clay, and this is, I take it, the mud of which
Dr. Murray writes. But in none of these cases, and certainly not in the last men-
tioned, is there in my experience or in that of several other naturalists I have
consulted, any rich fauna associated with the mud. In fact, I would regard mud
as supporting a comparatively poor fauna as compared with other shallow water
deposits.

Aer practical purposes, round our own British coasts, it is still convenient to
make use of the zones of depth marked out by Forbes. The first of these is the
‘ Littoral zone,’ the space between tide marks, characterised by the abundance of sea-
weeds, belonging to the genera Lichinu, Fucus, Enteromorpha, Polysiphonia, and
others, and by large numbers of individuals belonging to common species of
Balanus, Mytilus, Littorina, Purpura, and Patella amongst animals. The second
zone is the ‘ Laminarian,’ which extends from low water mark to a depth of a few
fathoms, characterised by the abundant growth of large sea-weeds belonging to
the genera Laminaria, Alaria, and Himanthalia, and by the presence of the
beautiful red sea-weeds (Floridew). There is abundance of vegetable food, and
animals of all groups swarm in this zone, the numbers both of species and of
individuals being very great. The genera Helcion, Trochus, and Lacuna are
characteristic molluscan forms in our seas. Next comes Forbes’ ‘ Coralline’ zone,
badly so named, extending from about ten to forty or fifty fathoms or so. Here
‘we are beyond the range of the ordinary sea-weeds, but the calcareous, coral-like
Nullipores are present in places in such abundance as io make up deposits covering
the floor of the sea for miles. Hydroid zoophytes and polyzoa are also abundant,
and it is in this zone that we find the shell-beds lying off our coasts, produced by
great accumulations of species of Pecten, Ostrea, Pectunculus, Fusus and Buecinum,
and forming rich feeding grounds for many of our larger fishes. All groups of
marine animals are well represented in this zone, and Antedon, Ophiothrix, Ophio-
glypha, Ebalia, Inachus,and Eurynome, may be mentioned as characteristic genera.
Lastly, there is what may be appropriately called the zone of deep mud (although
Forbes did not call it so), extending from some fifty fathoms down to (in our seas)

‘one hundred or so, The upper limit of this zone is Murray’s mud-line. Wecome
upon it in the deep fjord-like sea-lochs on the west of Scotland, and in the Irish
Sea to the west of the Isle of Man.

Now of these four zones, my experience is that the last—that of the deep mud
—has by far the poorest fauna both in species and in individuals. The mud has a
peculiar fauna and one of great interest to the zoologist, but it is not a rich fauna.
Jt contains some rare and remarkable animals not found elsewhere, such as Calo-
caris macandree, Panthalis oerstedi, Lipobranchius jeffreysi, BLrissopsis lyrifera,
Amphiura chiajit, Isocardia cor, and Sagartia herdmant; and a few striking novel-
ties have been described from it of late years, but we have no reason to believe
that the number of these is great compared with the number of animals obtained
from shallower waters.

Dr. Murray not only insists upon the abundance of animals on the mud, and its

704 REPORT—1895

importance as the great feeding ground and place of origin of life in the ocean,
but he also (p. 1482) draws conclusions as to the relative numbers of animals taken
by a single haul of the trawl in deep and shallow waters which can scarcely be
received, I think, by marine zoologists without a protest. His statement runs
(p. 1432): ‘It is interesting to compare single hauls made in the deep sea and in
shallow water with respect to the number of diflerent species obtained. For in-
stance, at station 146 in the Southern Ocean, at a depth of 1,375 fathoms the 200
specimens captured belonged to 59 genera and 78 species.’ That was with a 10-foot
trawl dragged for at most two miles during at most two hours. Murray then goes
on to say: ‘In depths less than 50 fathoms, on the other hand, I cannot find in
all my experiments any record of such a variety of organisms in any single haul
even when using much larger trawls and dragging over much greater distances.’
He quotes the statistics of the Scottish Fishery Board’s trawlings in the North
Sea, with a 25 ft. trawl, to show that the average catch is 7°5 species of inverte-
brata and 8°3 species of fish, the greatest number of both together recorded in one
haul being 29 species. Murray’s own trawlings in the West of Scotland gave a
much greater number of species, sometimes as many as 50, ‘still not such a great
variety of animals as was procured in many instances by the ‘‘ Challenger’s” small
trawl in great depths.’

Now, in the first place, it is curious that Murray’s own table on p. 1437, in
which he shows that the ‘ terrigenous’ deposits lying along the shore-lines yield
many more animals, both specimens and species, per haul, than do the ‘ pelagic ’
deposits! at greater depths, such as red clays and globigerina oozes, seems directly
opposed to the conclusion quoted above. In the second place, I am afraid that Dr.
Murray has misunderstood the statistics of the Scottish Fishery Board when he
quotes them as showing that only 7°3 or so species of invertebrates are brought
up, on the average, in the trawl net. I happen to know from Mr. Thomas Scott,
F.L.S., the naturalist who has compiled the statistics in question, and also from
my own observations when on board the ‘ Garland’ on one of her ordinary trawling
expeditions, that the invertebrata noted down on the station sheet are merely a
few of the more conspicuous or in other ways noteworthy animals. No attempt is
made—nor could possibly be made in the time—by the one naturalist who has to
attend to tow-nets, water bottle, the kinds, condition, food, &c., of the fish caught
and other matters—to give anything like a complete or even approximate list of
the species, still less the number of individuals, brought up in the trawl. I submit,
therefore, that it is entirely misleading to compare those Scottish Fishery Board
statistics, which were not meant for such a purpose but only to give a rough idea
of the fauna associated with the fish upon certain grounds, with the carefully
elaborated results, worked out at leisure by many specialists in their laboratories,
of a haul of the‘ Challenger’s’ trawl. Of Dr. Murray’s own trawlings in the West
of Scotland I cannot, of course, speak so positively, but I shall be surprised to
learn that the results of each haul were as carefully preserved and as fully worked
out by specialists as were the ‘ Challenger’ collections.

Lastly, on the next L.M.B.C.? dredging expedition in the Irish Sea after the
appearance of Dr. Murray’s volumes, I set myself to determine the species taken
in a haul of the trawl for comparison with the ‘Challenger’ numbers. The haul was
taken on June 23, at 7 miles west from Peel, on the north bank, bottom sand and
shells, depth 21 fathoms, with a trawl of only 4 ft. beam, less than half the size

1 One of the earliest of the ‘ Challenger’ oceanographic results, the classification
of the submarine deposits into ‘terrigenous’ and ‘pelagic,’ seems inadequate to
represent fully the facts in regard to sea-bottoms, so I am proposing elsewhere (Report
of Irish Sea Committee) the following amended classification :—(1) Terrigenous
(Murray), where the deposit is formed chiefly of mineral particles derived from the
waste of the land; (2) Neritic, where tbe deposit is chiefly of organic origin, and is
derived from the shells and other hard parts of the animals and plants living on
the bottom; (3) Planktonic (Murray’s ‘pelagic’), where the greater part of the
deposit is formed of the remains of free-swimming animals and plants which lived
in the sea over the deposit.

2 Liverpool Marine Biology Committee.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 705

of the ‘Challenger ’ one, and it was not down for more than twenty minutes. I noted
down the species observed, and I filled two bottles with undetermined stuff which
my assistant, Mr. Andrew Scott, and I examined the following day in the labora-
tory. Our list comes to at least 112 species, helonging to at least 103 genera.! I
counted 120 duplicate specimens which, added to 112, gives 232 individuals, but
there may well have been 100 more. This experience, then, is very different from
Murray’s, and gives far larger numbers in every respect—specimens, species, and
genera—than even the ‘Challenger’ deep-water haul quoted. I append my list of
species,” and practised marine zoologists will, I think, see at a glance that it is
nothing out of the way, that it is a fairly ordinary assemblage of not uncommon
animals such as is frequently met with when dredging in the ‘coralline’ zone. I
am sure that I have taken better netfuls than this both in the Irish Sea and on the
West of Scotland.

In order to get another case on different ground, not of my own choosing, on
the first occasion after the publication of Dr Murray’s volumes when I was out
witnessing the trawling observations of the Lancashire Sea Fisheries steamer ‘ John
Fell,’ I counted, with the help of my assistant, Mr. Andrew Scott, and the men on
board, the results of the first haul of the shrimp trawl. It was taken at the
mouth of the Mersey estuary, inside the Liverpool bar, on what the naturalist would
consider very unfavourable ground, with a bottom of muddy sand, at a depth of
6 fathoms. The shrimp trawl (13 in. mesh) was down for one hour, and it brought
up over seventeen thousand specimens referable to at least 39 species,’ belonging to
34 genera. These numbers have been exceeded on many other bauls taken in the
ordinary course of work by the Fisheries steamer in Liverpool Bay—for example,
on this occasion the fish numbered 5,948, and I have records of hauls on which
the fish numbered over 20,000, and the total catch of individual animals must
have been nearly 50,000. Can any of Dr. Murray’s hauls on the deep mud beat
these figures ?

The conclusion, then, at which I arrive in regard to the distribution of animals
in deep water and in water shallower than 50 fathoms, from my own experience
and an examination of the ‘Challenger’ results, is in some respects the reverse of
Murray’s. I consider that there are more species and more individuals in the
shallower waters, that the deep mud as dredged has a poor fauna, that the
‘ Coralline ’ zone has a much richer one, and that the ‘ Laminarian’ zone, where
there is vegetable as well as animal food, has probably the richest of all.

In order to come to as correct a conclusion as possible on the matter I have
consulted several other naturalists in regard to the smaller groups of more or less
free-swimming Crustacea, such as Copepoda and Ostracoda, which I thought might
possibly be in considerable numbers over the mud. I have asked three well-known
specialists on such Crustaceans—viz., Professor G. S. Brady, F.R.S., Mr. Thomas

' It is interesting, in connection with Darwin’s opinion that an animal’s most
formidable competitors in the struggle for existence are those of its own kind or
closely allied forms, to notice the large proportion of genera to species in such hauls.
I have noticed this in many lists, and it certainly suggests that closely related forms
are comparatively rarely taken together.

2 See Appendiz, p. 713.

Mytilus edulis

Tellina tenuis

Mactra stultorum
Fusus antiquus
Carcinus menas
Portunus, sp.
ELupagurus bernhardus
Crangon vulgaris
Sacculina, sp.

Some Amphipoda

3 Solea vulgaris
Pleuronectes platessa
P. limanda
Gadus morrhua
G. aglefinus
G. merlangus
Clupea spratta
C. harenqus
Lrachinus vipera
Agonus cataphractus
Gobius minutus

Dactylopus rostratus
Cletodes limicola
Caligus, sp.

Flustra foliacea
Aphrodite aculeata
Peetinaria belgica
Nereis, sp.

Asterias rubens
HHydractinia echinata
Sertularia abietina

Raia clavata
R. maculata

1895,

Longipedia coronata
Ectinosoma spinipes
Sunaristes paquri

Hydralimania falcata
Aurelia aurita
Cyanea, sp.

ZZ

706 REPORT—1895.

Scott, F.L.S., and Mr. I. C. Thompson, F.L.S.—and they all agree in stating that,
although interesting and peculiar, the Copepoda and Ostracoda from the deep mud
are not abundant either in species or in individuals. In answer to the question
which of the three regions (1) the littoral zone, (2) from low water to 20 fathoms,
and (3) from 20 fathoms onwards, is richest in small free-swimming, but bottom-
haunting, Crustacea, they all replied the middle region from 0 to 20 fathoms, which
is the Laminarian zone and the upper edge of the Coralline. Professor Brady
assures me that nearly every other kind of bottom and locality is better than mud
for obtaining Ostracoda. Mr. T. Scott considers that Ostracoda are most abundant
in shallow water, from 5 to 20 fathoms. He tells me that as the result of his
experience in Loch Fyne, where a great part of the loch is deep, the richest fauna
is always where banks occur, coming up to about 20 fathoms, and having the
bottom formed of sand, gravel, and shells. The fauna on and over such banks,
which are in the Coralline zone, is much richer than on the deeper mud around
them. On an ordinary shelving shore on the west coast of Scotland Mr. Scott,
who has had great experience in collecting, considers that the richest fauna is
usually at about 20 fathoms. My own experience in dredging in Norway is the
same. In the centre of the fjords in deep water on the mud there are rare forms,
but very few of them, while in shallower water at the sides, above the mud, on
gravel, shells, rock, and other bottoms, there is a very abundant fauna.

Probably no group of animals in the sea is of so much importance from the
point of view of food as the Copepoda. They form a great part of the food of
whales, and of herrings and many other useful fish, both in the adult and in the
larval state, as well as of innumerable other animals, large and small. Con-
sequently, I have inquired somewhat carefully into their distribution in the sea,
with the assistance of Professor Brady, Mr. Scott, and Mr. Thompson. These
experienced collectors all agree that Copepoda are most abundant, both as to species
and individuals, close round the shore, amongst seaweeds, or in shallow water in
the Laminarian zone over a weedy bottom. Individuals are sometimes extremely
abundant on the surface of the sea amongst the plankton, or in shore pools
near high water, where, amongst Enteromorpha, the Harpacticidee swarm in im-
mense profusion ; but, for a gathering rich in individuals, species, and genera, the
experienced collector goes to the shallow waters of the Laminarian zone. In
regard to the remaining, higher, groups of the Crustacea my friend, Mr. Alfred
O. Walker, tells me that he considers them most abundant at depths of 0 to 20
fathoms.

I hope no one will think that these are detailed matters interesting only to
the collector, and having no particular bearing upon the great problems of biology.
The sea is admittedly the starting-point of life on this earth, and the conclusions
we come to as to the distribution of life in the different zones must form and
modify our views as to the origin of the faunas—as to the peopling of the deep
sea, the shallow waters, and the land. Murray supposes that life started in
Pre-Cambrian times on the mud, and from there spread upwards into shallower
waters, outwards on to the surface, and, a good deal later, downwards to the
abysses by means of the cold Polar waters. The late Professor Moseley considered
the pelagic or surface life of the ocean to be the primitive life from which all
the others have been derived. Professor W. K. Brooks! considers that there was
a primitive pelagic fauna, consisting of the simplest microscopic plants and
animals, and ‘that pelagic life was abundant for a long period during which the
bottom was uninhabited.’

I, on the other hand, for the reasons given fully above, consider that the
Laminarian zone close to low-water mark is at present the richest in life, that it
probably has been so in the past, and that if one has to express a more definite
opinion as to where, in Pre-Cambrian times, life in its simplest forms first appeared,
I see no reason why any other zone should be considered as having a better claim
than what is now the Laminarian to this distinction. It is there, at present at
any rate, in the upper edge of the Laminarian zone, at the point of junction of sea,

2 The genus Salpa, 1893, p. 156, &c.

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 707

land, and air, where there is a profusion of food, where the materials brought down
by streams or worn away from the land are first deposited, where the animals are
able to receive the greatest amount of light and heat, oxygen and food, without
being exposed periodically to the air, rain, frost, sun, and other adverse conditions
of the littoral zone, it is there that life—it seems to me—ismost abundant, growth
most active, competition most severe. It is there, probably, that the surrounding
conditions are most favourable to animal life; and, therefore, it seems likely that
it is from this region that, as the result of overcrowding, migrations have taken
place downwards to the abysses, outwards on the surface, and upwards on to the
shore. Finally, it is in this Laminarian zone, probably, that under the stress of
competition between individuals and between allied species evolution of new forms
by means of natural selection has been most active. Here, at any rate, we find,
along with some of the most primitive of animals, some of the most remarkably
modified forms, and some of the most curious cases of minute adaptation to
enyironment. ‘This brings us to the subject of

Bronomics,

which deals with the habits and variations of animals, their modifications, and the
relations of these modifications to the surrounding conditions of existence.

It is remarkable that the great impetus given by Darwin’s work to biological
investigation has been chiefly directed to problems of structure and development,
and not so much to bionomics until lately. Variation amongst animals in a state
of nature is, however, at last bezinning to receive the attention it deserves. Bateson
has collected together, and classified in a most useful book of reference, the
numerous scattered observations on variation made by many investigators, and has
drawn from some of these cases a conclusion in regard to the discontinuity of
variation which many field zoologists find it hard to accept.

Weldon and Karl Pearson have recently applied the methods of statistics and

“mathematics to the study of individual variation, This method of investigation,

in Professor Weldon’s hands, may be expected to yield results of great interest in
regard to the influence of variations in the young animal upon the chance of sur-
vival, and so upon the adult characteristics of the species. But while acknow-
ledeing the value of these methods, and admiring the skill and care with which
they have been devised and applied, I must emphatically protest against the idea
which has been suggested, that only by such mathematical and statistical methods
of study can we successfully determine the influence of the environment on species,
gauge the utility of specific characters, and throw further light upon the origin of
species. For my part, I believe we shall gain a truer insight into those mysteries
which still involve variations and species by a study of the characteristic features
of individuals, varieties, and species in a living state in relation to their environ-
ment and habits. The mode of work of the old field naturalists, supplemented by
the apparatus and methods of the modern laboratory, is, I believe, not only one of
the most fascinating, but also one of the most profitable, fields of investigation for
the philosophical zoologist. Such studies must be made in that modern outcome
of the growing needs of our science, the Zoological Station, where marine animals

can be kept in captivity under natural conditions, so that their habits may be

closely observed, and where we can follow out the old precept—first, Observation
and Reflection ; then Experiment.
The biological stations of the present day represent, then, a happy union of

the field work of the older naturalists with the laboratory work of the comparative

anatomist, histologist, and embryologist. They are the culmination of the
“ Aquarium’ studies of Kingsley and Gosse, and of the feeling in both scientific
men and amateurs, which was expressed by Herbert Spencer when he said: ‘ Who~

ever at the seaside has not had a microscope and an aquarium has yet to learn what

the highest pleasures of the seaside are.’ Moreover, I feel that the biological
station has come to the rescue, at a critical moment, of our laboratory worker
who, without its healthy, refreshing influence, is often in these latter days in peril

ZZ 2

708 REPORT—1895

of losing his intellectual life in the weary maze of microtome methods and tran-
scendental cytology. The old Greek myth of the Libyan giant, Antzus, who
wrestled with Hercules and regained his strength each time he touched his mother
earth, is true at least of the zoologist. I am sure he derives fresh vigour from
every direct contact with living nature.

In our tanks and artificial pools we can reproduce the Littoral and the Lami-
narian zones; we can see the methods of feeding and breeding—the two most
powerful factors in influencing an animal. We can study mimicry, and test
theories of protective and warning colouration.

The explanations given by these theories of the varied forms and colours of
animals were first applied by such leaders in our science as Bates, Wallace, and
Darwin, chiefly to insects and birds, but have lately been extended, by the investi-
gations of Giard, Garstang, Clubb, and others, to the case of marine animals, I
may mention very briefly one or two examples. Amongst the Nudibranchiate
Mollusca—familiar animals around most parts of our British coasts—we meet
with various forms which are edible, and, so far as we know, unprotected by any
defensive or offensive apparatus. Such forms are usually shaped or coloured so as
to resemble more or less their surroundings, and so become inconspicuous in their
natural haunts. Dendvonotus arborescens, one of the largest and most handsome
of our British Nudibranchs, is such a case. The large, branched processes on its
back, and its rich purple-brown and yellow markings, tone in so well with the
masses of brown and yellow zoophytes and purplish-red seaweeds, amongst which
we usually find Dendronotus, that it becomes very completely protected from
observation ; and, as I know from my own experience, the practised eye of the
naturalist may fail to detect it lying before him in the tangled forests of a shore-

ool.

Other Nudibranchs, however, belonging to the genus ZLolis, for example, are
coloured in such a brilliant and seemingly crude manner, that they do not tone in
with any natural surroundings, and so are always conspicuous. ‘They are active in
their habits, and seem rather to court observation than to shun it. When we
remember that such species of Eolis are protected by the numerous stinging cells
in the cnidophorous sacs placed on the tips of all the dorsal processes, and that
they do not seem to be eaten by other animals, we have at once an explanation of
their fearless habits and of their conspicuous appearance. The brilliant colours are
in this case of a warning nature for the purpose of rendering the animal provided
with the stinging cells noticeable and recognisable. But it must be remembered
that in a museum jar, or in a laboratory dish, or as an illustration in a book or on
the wall, Dendronotus is quite as conspicuous and striking an animal as Zolis. In
order to interpret correctly the effect of their forms and colours, we must see them
alive and at home, and we must experiment upon their edibility or otherwise in the
tanks of our biological stations.'

Let me give you one more example of a scmewhat different kind. The soft,
unprotected mollusc, Lamellaria perspicua, is not uncommonly feund associated (as
Giard first pointed out) with colonies of the compound Ascidian Leptochinwm
maculatum, and in these cases the Lamellaria is found to be eating the Leptoclinum,
and lies in a slight cavity which it has excavated in the Ascidian colony, so as to
be about flush with the general surface. The integument of the mollusc is,
both in general tint and also in surface markings, very like the Ascidian
colony with its scattered ascidiozooids. This is clearly a good case of pro-
tective colouring. Presumably the Zamedlaria escapes the observation of its
enemies through being mistaken for a part of the Leptoclinum colony; and the
Leptoclinum, being crowded like a sponge with minute sharp-pointed spicules, is, I
suppose, avoided as inedible by carnivorous animals, which might devour such
things as the soft unprotected mollusc. But the presence of the spicules evidently
does not protect the Leptoclinum from Lamellaria, 30 that we have, if the above
interpretation is correct, the curious result that the Lamellaria profits by a protec-
tive characteristic of the Leptoclinum, for which it has itself no respect, or, to put

1 See my exveriments on Fishes with Nudibranchs in Zvans. Biol. Soc., Liverpool,
vol. iv. p. 150; and Nature for June 26, 1890.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 709

it another way, the Leptuclinum is protected against enemies to some extent for the
benefit of the Lamellaria which preys upon its vitals.

It is, to my mind, no sufficient objection to theories of protective and warning
colouration that careful investigation may from time to time reveal cases where a
disguise is penetrated, a protection frustrated, an offensive device supposed to
confer inedibility apparently ignored. We must bear in mind that the enemies,
as well as their prey, are exposed to competition, are subject to natural selection,
are undergoing evolution; that the pursuers and the pursued, the eaters and the
eaten, have been evolved together; and that it may be of preat advantage to be
protected from some, even if not from all enemies. Just as on land some animals
can browse upon thistles whose ‘nemo me impune lacessit’ spines are supposed to
confer immunity from attack, so it is quite in accord with our ideas of evolution
by means of natural selection to suppose that some marine animals have evolved
an indifference to the noxious sponge or to the bristling Ascidian, which are able
by their defensive characteristics, like the thistle, to repel the majority of
invaders.

ithough we can keep and study the Littoral and Laminarian animals at ease
in our zoological stations, it may perhaps be questioned how far we can reproduce
in our experimental and observational tanks the conditions of the ‘Coralline’ and
the ‘ Deep-mud’ zones. One might suppose that the pressure—which we have no
means as yet for supplying ‘—and which at 30 fathoms amounts to nearly 100 Ibs.
on the square inch, and at 80 fathoms to about 240 lb., or over 2 cwt. on the
square inch, would be an essential factor in the life conditions of the inhabitants
of such depths, and yet we have kept half a dozen specimens of Calocaris
macandree, dredged from 70 to 80 fathoms, alive at the Port Erin Biological
Station for several weeks; we have had both the red and the yellow forms of
Sarcodictyon catenata, dredged from 30 to 40 fathoms, in a healthy condition with
the polypes freely expanded for an indefinite period; and Mr. Arnold Watson
has kept the Polynoid worm, Panthalis oerstedi, from the deep mud at over
50 fathoms, alive, healthy, and building its tube under observation, first for a
week at the Port Erin Station, and then for many months at Sheffield in a
comparatively small tank with no depth of water. Consequently it seems clear
that, with ordinary care, almost any marine animals from such depths as are
found within the British area may be kept under observation and submitted to
experiment in healthy and fairly natural conditions. The Biological Station, with
its tanks, is in fact an arrangement whereby we bring a portion of the sea with its
rocks and bottom deposits and seaweeds, with its inhabitants and their associates,
their food and their enemies, and place it for continuous study on our laboratory
table. It enables us to carry on the bionomical investigations to which we look
for information as to the methods and progress of evolution; in it lie centred our
hopes of a comparative physiology of the invertebrates—a physiology not wholly
medical—and finally to the Biological Station we confidently look for help in
connection with our coast fisheries. This brings me to the last subject which I
shall touch upon, a subject closely related both to Oceanography and Bionomics,
and one which depends much for its future advance upon our Biological Stations—
that is the subject of

AQUICULTURE,

or industrial Ichthyology, the scientific treatment of fishery investigations, a
subject to which Professor M‘Intosh has first in this country directed the
attention of zoologists, and in which he has been guiding us for the last decade by
his admirable researches. What chemistry is to the aniline, the alkali, and some
other manufactures, marine zoology is to our fishing industries,

1 Following up M. Regnard’s experiments, some mechanical arrangement
whereby water could be kept circulating and aérated under pressure in closed tanks
might be devised, and ought to be tried at some zoological station. I learn from
the Director at the Plymouth Station that some of the animals from deep water,
such as Polyzoa, do not expand in their tanks.

710 REPORT—1895.

Although zoology has never appealed to popular estimation as a directly useful
science having industrial applications in the same way that Chemistry and Physics
have done, and consequently has never had its claims as a subject of technical
education sufficiently recognised ; still, as we in this Section are well aware, our
subject has many technical applications to the arts and industries. Biological
principles dominate medicine and surgery. Bacteriology, brewing, and many
allied subjects are based upon the study of microscopic organisms. Economic
entomology is making its value felt in agriculture. Along all these and other
lines there is a great future opening up before biology, a future of extended use-
fulness, of popular appreciation, and of value to the nation—and not the least
important of these technical applications will, I am convinced, be that of zoology
to our fishing industries. When we consider their enormous annual yalue—about
eight millions sterling at first hand to the fisherman, and a great deal more than
that by the time the products reach the British public, when we remember the
very large proportion of our population who make their living directly or
indirectly (as boatbuilders, net-makers, &c.) from the fisheries, and the still larger
proportion who depend for an important element in their food supply upon these
industries; when we think of what we pay other countries—France, Holland,
Norway—for oysters, mussels, lobsters, &c., which we could rear in this country
if our sea-shores and our sea-bottom were properly cultivated ; and when we
remember that fishery cultivation or aquiculture is applied zoology, we can readily
realise the enormous value to the nation which this direct application of our
science will one day have—perhaps I ought rather to say, we can scarcely realise
the extent to which zoology may be made the guiding science of a great national
industry. The flourishing shell-fish industries of France, the oyster culture at
Arcachon and Marennes, and the mussel culture by bouchots in the Bay of
Aiguillon, show what can be done as the result of encouragement and wise assist-
ance from Government, with constant industry on the part of the people, directed
by scientific knowledge. In another direction the successful hatching of large
numbers (hundreds of millions) of cod and plaice by Captain Dannevig in Norway,
and by the Scottish Fishery Board at Dunbar, opens up possibilities of immense
practical value in the way of restocking our exhausted bays and fishing banks—
depleted by the over-trawling of the last few decades.

The demand for the produce of our seas is yery great, and would probably pay
well for an increased supply. Our choicer fish and shellfish are becoming rarer,
and the market prices are rising. The great majority of our oysters are imported
from France, Holland, and America. Even in mussels we are far from being able
to meet the demand. In Scotland alone the long line fishermen use nearly a
hundred millions of mussels to bait their hooks every time all the lines are set,
and they have to import annually many tons of these mussels at a cost of
from 38/. to 3/. 10s. a ton, If ‘squid’ (cuttlefish) could be obtained in sufficient
quantity, it would probably be even more valuable than mussels as bait, but its
price is usually prohibitive. I happen to know that a fishing firm in Aberdeen
paid during this last winter over 200/. for squid bait for a single boat’s lines for
the three months October to December, and there are fifty to sixty of such boats
north of the Tyne. Here is a nice little industry ready for anyone who can
capture or cultivate the common squid in quantity.

Whether the wholesale introduction of the French method of mussel culture,
by means of bouchots, on to our shores would be a financial success is doubtful.
Material and labour are dearer here, and beds, scars, or scalps seem, on the whole,
better fitted to our local conditions; but as innumerable young mussels all round
our coasts perish miserably every year for want of suitable objects to attach to,
there can be no reasonable doubt that the judicious erection of simple stakes or
plain bouchots would serve a useful purpose, at any rate in the collection of seed,
even if the further rearing be carried on by means of the bed system.

All such aquicultural processes require, however, in addition to the scientific
knowledge, sufficient capital. They cannot be successfully carried out on a small
scale. When the zoologist has once shown as a laboratory experiment, in the zoo-
logical station, that a particular thing can be done—that this fish can be hatched or

j

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 711

that shellfish can be reared under certain conditions which promise to be an industrial’
success, then the matter should be carried out by the Government ! or by capitalists
on a sufficiently large scale to remove the risk of results being vitiated by tem-
porary accident or local variation in the conditions. It is contrary, however, to
our English traditions for Government to help in such a matter, and if our local
Sea-Fisheries Committees have not the necessary powers nor the available funds,
there remains asplendid opportunity for opulent landowners to erect sea-fish hatch-
eries on the shores of their estates, and for the rich merchants of our great cities to
establish aquiculture in their neighbouring estuaries, and by so doing instruct the
fishing populations, resuscitate the declining industries, and cultivate the barren
shores—in all reasonable probability to their own ultimate profit.

In addition tc the farming of our shores there is a great deal to be done in
promotiug the fishing industries on the inshore and offshore grounds along our
coast, and in connection with such work the first necessity is a thorough scientific
exploration of our British seas by means of a completely equipped dredging and
trawling expedition. Such exploration can only be done in little bits, spasmodi-
cally, by private enterprise. From the time of Edward Forbes it has been the
delight of British marine zoologists to explore, by means of dredging from yachts or
hired vessels during their holidays, whatever areas of the neighbouring seas were
open to them. Some of the greatest names in the roll of our zoologists, and some
of the most creditable work in British zoology, will always be associated with
dredging expeditions. Forbes, Wyville Thomson, Carpenter, Gwyn Jeflreys,
M‘Intosh, and Norman—one can scarcely think of them without recalling —

‘Hurrah for the dredge, with its iron edge,
And its mystical triangle,
And its hided net, with meshes set,
Oda fishes to entangle !’?

Much good pioneer work in exploration has been done in the past by these and
other naturalists, and much is now being done locally by committees or associa-
tions—by the Dublin Royal Society on the West of Ireland, by the Marine Biolo-
gical Association at Plymouth, by the Fishery Board in Scotland, and by the
Liverpool Marine Biology Committee in the Irish Sea; but few zoologists or
zoological committees have the means, the opportunity, the time to devote—along
with their professional duties—to that detailed systematic survey of our whole
British sea-area which is really required. Those who have not had experience of
it can scarcely realise how much time, energy, and money it requires to keep up a
series of dredging expeditions, how many delays, disappointments, expensive acci-
dents and real hardships there are, and how often the naturalist is tempted to leave
unprofitable ground, which ought to be carefully worked over, for some more
favoured spot where he knows he can count upon good spoil. And yet it is
very necessary that the whole ground—good or bad though it may be from the
zoological point of view—should be thoroughly surveyed, physically and biologi-
cally, in order that we may know the conditions of existence which environ our
fishes, on their feeding grounds, their spawning grounds, their ‘ nurseries,’ or
wherever they may be.

The British Government has done a noble piece of work which will redound to its
everlasting credit in providing for, and carrying out, the ‘Challenger’ expedition.
Now that that great enterprise is completed, and that the whole scientific world is
‘united in appreciation of the results obtained, it would be a glorious consequence,
and surely a very wise action in the interests of the national fisheries, for the
Government to fit out an expedition, in charge of two or three zoologists and fish-

1 We require in England a Central Board or Government Department of Fisheries,
composed in part of scientific experts, and that not merely for the purpose of
imposing and enforcing regulations, but still more, in order that research into Fish-
eries problems may be instituted and aquicultural experiments carried out.

2 The dredging song (see Memoir of Edvard Forbes, p. 247).

712 REPORT—1895.,

eries experts, to spend a couple of years in exploring more systematically than has
yet been done, or can otherwise be done, our British coasts from the Laminarian zone
down to the deep mud. No one could be better fitted to organise and direct such
an expedition than Dr. John Murray.

Such a detailed survey of the bottom and of the surface waters, of their condi-
tion and their contents, at all times of the year for a couple of years, would give
us the kind of information we require for the solution of some of the more difficult
fishery problems—such as, the extent and causes of the wanderings of our fishes,
which ‘nurseries’ are supplied by particular spawning grounds, the reason of the
sudden peat scr of a fish such as the haddock from a locality, and in general
the history of our food fishes throughout the year. It is creditable to our Govern-
ment to have done the pioneer work in exploring the great oceans, but surely it
would be at least equally creditable to them—and perhaps more directly and im-
mediately profitable, if they look for some such return from scientific work—to
explore our own seas and our own sea-fisheries.

There is still another subject connected with the fisheries which the biologist
can do much to elucidate—I mean the diseases of edible animals and the effect

upon man of the various diseased conditions. It is well known that the consump-
‘ tion of mussels taken from stagnant or impure water is sometimes followed by
severe symptoms of irritant poisoning which may result in rapid death. This
‘musselling’ is due to the presence of an organic alkaloid or ptomaine, in the liver
of the mollusc, formed doubtless by a micro-organism in the impure water. It is
clearly of the greatest importance to determine accurately under what conditions
the mussel can become infected by the micro-organism, in what stage it is injurious
to man, and whether, as is supposed, steeping in pure water with or without the
addition of carbonate of soda will render poisonous mussels fit for food.

During this last year there has been an outcry, almost amounting to a scare,
and seriously affecting the market,' as to the supposed connection between oysters
taken from contaminated water and typhoid fever. This, like the musselling, is
clearly a case for scientific investigation, and, with my colleague Professor Boyce,
I have commenced a series of experiments and observations, partly at the Port
Erin Biological Station, where we have oysters laid down on different parts of the
sbore under very different conditions, as well as in dishes and tanks, and partly at
University College, Liverpool.

Our object is to determine the effect of various conditions of water and bottom
upon the life and health of the oyster, the effect of the addition of various im-
purities to the water, the conditions under which the oyster becomes infected with
the typhoid Bacillus, and the resulting effect upon the oyster, the period during
which the oyster remains infectious, ‘and lastly, whether any simple practicable
measures can be taken (1) to determine whether an oyster is infected with typhoid,
and (2) to render such an oyster innocuous to man. As Professor Boyce and I
propose to lay a paper upon this subject before the Section, I shall not occupy
further time now by a statement of our methods and results.

I have probably already sufficiently indicated to you the extent and importance
of the applications of our science to practical questions connected with our fishing
industries. But if the zoologist has great opportunities for usefulness, he ought
always to bear in mind that he has also grave responsibilities in connection with
Fisheries investigations. Much depends upon the results of his work. Private
enterprise, public opinion, local regulations, and even imperial legislation may all
be affected by his decisions. He ought not lightly to come to conclusions upon
weighty matters. I am convinced that of all the varied lines of research in modern
zoology, none contains problems more interesting and intricate than those of Bio-
nomics, Oceanography, and the Fisheries, and of these three series the problems
connected with our Fisheries are certainly not the least interesting, not the least
intricate, and not the least important in their bearing upon the welfare of man-
kind.

‘Tam told that between December and March the oyster trade decreased 75
per cent.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. vile:

APPENDIX.
List of Species taken in one haul, on June 23, 1895 (see p. 705).

SPONGES:
Reniera, sp.
Halichondria, sp.
Cliona celata
Suberites domuncula
Chalina oculata
COELENTERATA :
Dicoryne conferta
Halecium halecinum
Sertularia abietina
Coppinia arcta
Hydrallmania faleata
Campanularia verticillata
Lafoia dumosa
Antennularia ramosa
Aleyonium digitatum
Virgularia mirabilis
Sarcodictyon catenata’
Sagartia, sp.
Adamsia palliata
ECHINODERMATA :
Cucumara, sp.
Thyone fusus
Asterias rubens
Solaster papposus
Stichaster roseus
Porania pulvillus
Palmipes placenta
Ophiocoma nigra
Ophiothrix fragilis
Amphiura chiajii
Ophioglypha ciliata
O. albida
Echinus sphara
Spatangus purpureus
Echinocardium cordatum
Brissopsis lyrifera
Echinocyamus pusillus
VERMES:
Nemertes neesii
Chetopterus, sp.
Spirorbis, sp.
Serpula, sp.
Sabella, sp.
Owenia filiformis
Aphrodite aculeata
Polynoé, sp.
CRUSTACEA :
Scalpellum vulgare
Balanis, sp.
Cyclopiceru nigripes
Acontiophorus clongatus
Artotrogus magniceps
Dyspontius striatus
Larus qgoodsiri
Laophonte thoracica
Stenhelia reflera
Lichomoigus forficula
Anonyz, sp.

Galathea intermedia
Munida bamffica
Crangon spinosus
Stenorhynchus rostratus
Inachus dorsettensis
Hyas coarctatus
Xantho tuberculatus
Portunus pusillus
Kupaqurus bernhardus
E. prideauxit
LE. cuanensis
Euryneme aspera
Ebalia tuherosa
POLYZOA:
Pedicellina cernua
Tubulipora, sp.
Crisia cornuta

Cellepora pumicosa, and three or four
undetermined species of Lepralids

Flustra securifrons

Serupocellaria reptans

Cellularia fistulosa
MOLLUSCA :

Anomia ephippium

Ostrea edulis

Pecten maximus

P. opercularis

P. tigrinus

P. pusio

Mytilus modiolus

Nucula nucleus

Cardium echinatum

Lissocardium norvegicum

Cyprina islandica

Solen pellucidus

Venus gallina

Lyonsia norvegica,

Scrobicularia prismatica

Astarte sulcata

Modiolaria marmorata

Saxicara rugosa

Chiton, sp.

Dentalium entale

Emarginula fissura

Velutina levigata

Turritella terebra

Natica alderi

Fusus antiquus

Aporrhais pespelicani

Oscanius membranaceus

Doris, sp.

Folis coronata

Tritonia plebeia
TUNICATA:

Ascidiella virginea

Styelopsis grossularia

Bugyra glutinans

Botryllus, sp.

B., sp.

714 : REPORT—1895.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Third Report on the Marine Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Irish
Sea.—See Reports, p. 455.

2. Interim Report on the Migration of Birds.—See Reports, p. 473.

3. Lifth Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.
See Reports, p. 467,

4, Report on the Occupation of w Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.
See Reports, p. 474.

5. Report on Investigations made at the Laboratory of the Marine
Biological Association at Plymouth.—See Reports, p. 469.

6. Report on the Investigation of the Zoology and Botany of the West
India Islands.—See Reports, p. 472.

7. Report on the Compilation of an Index Generum et Specierwm
Animalium.—See Reports, p. 473.

8. Report on Physiological Applications of the Phonograph.
See Reports, p. 454,

9. Some Remarks on the Stereornithes, a Group of extinct Birds from
South America. By C, W. ANDREWS.

A brief history of the discovery of these remarkable birds is given, together
with a short account of the more important opinions that have been expressed
concerning their affinities.

The structure of the skeleton of Phororhacos, recently described by Ameghino,
is considered, and, after comparison with certain other birds, some suggestions are
made as to the probable affinities of the genus. Phororhacos is regarded as a true
carinate bird, in which, as in the dodo, aphanapteryx, and many others, the wings
have undergone reduction through disuse. It seems to have been a highly
specialised form, and probably has left no direct descendants: its nearest relatives
may perhaps be found among the Gruiformes, especially in the Psophiide and
Dicholophi, and it possibly represents a specialised offshoot from the generalised
stock which gave rise to these forms. No special affinities with the living Ratita
are found, and it appears very doubtful whether Gastornis is any way related.

The other genera described by Ameghino are much less completely known ;
some of them, however, differ so,considerably from Phororhacos, and in several cases
from one another, that they should probably be referred to several distinct families,
as, indeed, has already been done by Morenoand Mercerat. The Stereornithes, there-
fore, appear to include asomewhat heterogeneous group of birds, whose chief points
of resemblance seem to lie in their large size and more or less reduced power
of flight. The unfortunate absence of specimens of these interesting fossils from

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 715

the European museums renders any detailed comparison with existing forms im-
possible, so that the opinions expressed in the present naper must be regarded as
provisional only.

10. Some acts and Reflections drawn from a Study of Budding in
Compound Ascidians. By Professor W. E. Rirrer (University of
California).

Numerous recent writers have doubted the genetic unity of the compound
ascidians ; z.e., they have doubted whether their property of budding, the cha-
racter which all agree to be the final test of whether an ascidian is simple or com-
pound, has not been acquired more than once. Of these authors I may mention
Lacaze-Duthiers, E. van Beneden, Herdman, Seeliger, Lahille, and Sluiter.

In discussing the subject van Beneden has made the apt remark that no zoolo-
gist would think of uniting all bud-producing actinians in one group and _ placing
them over against all others that do not reproduce in this manner. In his well-
lmown report on the compound ascidians of the ‘ Challenger’ Expedition, Professor
Herdman not only reached the conclusion that the group is polyphyletic in origin,
but he also marshalled his broad knowledge to show that they probably originated
at three distinct points from the simple ascidians, and to show also what genera
trace their origin back to each of these three starting-points. The author regarded
this as one of the most important generalisations reached by his study of the great
‘ Challenger’ collection.

Quite recently M. Lahille has proposed an entirely new classification of the
Tunicata, in which he ignores budding as a diagnostic character of at most greater
than generic importance. That, however, this writer has treated the matter too
lightly, whether regarded from a morphological or a physiological point of view,
will, I apprehend, be allowed by most students of the group.

It is not my purpose to discuss here a classification of the compound ascidians
based on the hypothesis of their polyphyletie origin, but rather to show, first,
that they have had such an origin, and, secondly, to consider certain developmental
probabilities that are involved in, or, rather, are the necessary results of, such an
hypothesis.

In the interest of brevity and clearness my discussion will aim almost entirely
at showing that two genera of compound ascidians are, structurally considered,
considerably more unlike each other than each is unlike a genus of simple ascidians
which, in turn, are widely separated from each other.

The genera to which I refer are Perophora and Goodsiria as representatives of
the compound ascidians, and Ascidia and Polycarpa as representing the simple
ascidians.

Definitely stated the proposition to be established is this: Perophora and Good-
stria are less closely related to each other than on the one hand Perophora is to
Ascidia, and on the other Goodsiria is to Polycarpa.

We will first compare the several genera anatomically, and afterwards the
budding in Perophora and Goodsiria; and we may begin with Polycarpa and
Goodsiria. Polycarpa is closely related to Cynthia, and still more closely to
Styela, The genus is, however, distinctly separated from Cynthia, particularly by
its possessing simple tentacles and sexual organs in the form of so-called polycarps.

Goodsiria helongs to the Polystyelide, a small family of compound ascidians,
founded by Professor Herdman for the reception of several genera that are, as our
knowledge now stands, closely related to one another, and well separated from all
other compound ascidians, although they certainly have rather close affinities with
the Botryllide.

The close similarity in structure between Polycarpa and the Polystyelide has
been recognised by nearly all investigators who have studied them, and my own
work has, I think, shown their kinship to be even closer than has heretofore been
supposed. In fact, the resemblance is so close between an undescribed species of

716 REPORT—1895.

Polycarpa which I have found on our Californian coast and Goodstria dura from
the same locality that Iam sure no zoologist would ever think of recognising
more than a specific difference between them, did not the one reproduce by budding
while the other does not. Two points, however, must be briefly dwelt upon—one
of resemblance, the other of difference.

It is well known that the hypophyseal duct in ascidians is usually situated on
the ventral side of the ganglion; but it is also well known that Botryllus forms an
exception to this rule, for in this species the duct is dorsal to the ganglion. 1 find
that Goodsiria agrees with Botryllus in this peculiarity. I also find that the only
species of Polycarpa which I have examined with reference to the point, viz.,
Polycarpa pomaria, possesses the same unusual character. In some cases, at least,
it is well nigh, if not wholly, impossible to ascertain the relation of the duct to
the ganglion without the aid of sections. It appears to me, consequently, that the
occurrence of this very exceptional condition in both Polycarpa and Goodsiria,
when considered together with their many other close resemblances, adds consider-
able weight to the belief in their close kinship.

The difference to which I refer is the presence usually of well-marked folds in
the branchial sac of Pulycarpa and the rudimentary condition or entire absence

of these folds in Goodstria. In the sac of Goodsirza dura there is no trace of folds
proper, but two of the five internal longitudinal vessels on each side of the sac are
distinctly nearer together than are the others. A similar approximation of these
vessels where no true folds exist occurs in numerous species of ascidians, and
Herdman has given good reasons for regarding it as evidence of folds that have
been lost. The vessels are usually crowded ou the folds more than elsewhere ;
the folds in some cases disappear, but the crowded vessels, being a deeper
morphological character, persist though ona plain surface. Now it can be shown
that in genera where these folds are present as a rule, but where they may be
rudimentary or absent, it is, in a general way, in the larger species that they are
best developed, and in the smaller ones that they are rudimentary or absent.
From this fact and others I am disposed to look upon Goodsiria as a pigmy
Polycarpa.

Next, concerning the structural likenesses between Ascidia and Perophora,
they are close in most points and not remote in any. Derhaps the most important
difference is found in the branchial sacs, but this difference is interesting. Ascidia
has internal longitudinal vessels which are papillated, while Perophora has no
internal longitudinal vessels; but it does have long interserial papille, each of
which is provided with two processes of variable length, one directed anteriorly,
the other posteriorly. Now if these prccesses on one series of the papilla were to
reach across and unite with the corresponding ones of an adjacent series of papillze,
internal papillated longitudinal vessels would be produced entirely similar to those
existing in Ascidia. Suggestively enough, individuals of at least two species of
Perophora have been observed in which just such a union does exist. From this
it would appear that the lateral processes of the papillee in Perophora are remnants
of internal longitudinal vessels; and this fact, taken in connection with others,
inclines me to regard Perophora as a pigmy Ascidia, just as we have seen that
Goodsiria may be regarded as a piymy Polycarpa.

In comparing Goodsiria and Perophora on the one hand and Polycarpa and
Ascidia on the other, we find a marked contrast in each case in nearly every organ
of the body.

Turning to reproduction by gemmation, the buds of Perophora are produced
by a proliferous stolon, while those of Goodsiria are formed directly from the body
ot the parent zooids, the inner layer of the bud being an evagination of the parietal
wall of the peribranchial sac. Are these two methods of origin of buds reducible
to acommon type? I may say at once that a conclusive answer to this query is
not yet possible, for the reason that we do not know how the first bud, z.e., the bud
from the embryozoord, arises in either genus.

I cannot leave this part of the subject without saying a single word about the
epicardium, a structure that is certainly of much importance in connection with
the,»budding of many compound ascidians. The only structures in Goodsiria that

i i tt a ht i ie

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 717

could possibly be called by this name are two broad, shallow pouches at the
posterior end of the peribranchial sacs, one for each side. They certainly
have nothing whatever to do with the budding, since the buds arise about as
far away from them as the size of the ascidiozooids will permit. Furthermore,
they do not have the same relations as the epicardium otf Clavelina and other
ascidians, In Goodsiria and Botryllus, I may add, they are merely parts of
the peribranchial sacs; while in other cases they arise in a definite way from the
branchial sac.

In my opinion it is an unjustifiable and purposeless forcing of things to attempt
to see anything in either Goodsiria or Botryllus that is homologous with the
epicardium of Clavelina and other budding ascidians.

Relying chiefly on the evidence from adult structure, we are, then, as it seems
to me, obliged to conclude that the compound ascidians have arisen from the
simple ones by at least two distinct groups of these latter having independently
acquired the property of reproduction by budding. Now, since the processes of
evolution are of quite as much scientific interest to us as are its products, we can
hardly avoid an attempt to gain some insight into the developmental processes
that have been in operation in this instance.

One question we are impelled to ask is whether some cause for the origin of
budding in these animals may not be detected here, where it, whatever it is, has
been so potent as to produce its effect twice. A possible cause does suggest itself,
and I venture to present it to you very briefly. I confess, however, that the
venture is made not without some trepidation.

It will be remembered that we have given reasons for regarding Groodsiia and
Perophora as simplified or pigmy Polycarpse and Ascidix respectively. It seems
to me possible that budding might have arisen in these genera of simple ascidians
as a result of the diminution in size and simplification in structure of some of the
species; and I am disposed to regard the diminution in size as the most important
factor. It appears to me that the smallest species of Polycarpa, for example, have
a much poorer chance of survival than do the larger and largest ones, owing to
the simple circumstance that they cannot produce anything like so large a number
of embryos as do the larger species. The smallest species that I know of this
genus is only 3 or 4 millimetres in length, while most of the species reach some
centimetres at least in length; and it is a matter of common observation that in
the ascidians the size of the ovary and the uumber of the ova are in direct propor-
tion to the size of the parent individuals. It is certain that the total volume of
the sexual products of a large Polycarpa would be many times greater than the
entire animal of the small species to which I have just referred; and the ova in the
one case are not much, if at all, larger in the one than in the other. The suggestion
is that in these cases budding has in some way arisen as a compensation for the
diminished power of sexual reproduction.

A developmental question of wider moment than the one just disposed of, and
one which I discuss with much greater confidence, is this. If blastogenesis has
had two or more wholly independent origins among ascidians, how is the close
similarity in the development of the blastozooids of the whole group to be
explained? The interest of this question is greatly increased by the fact that not
only is the development of the blastozooids much alike in all the species, but also
that this development is quite unique as compared with the development of the
embryozooid.

In contrasting the development from an embryo and from a bud it is seen that
in embryonic development the ectoderm produces the matrix of the test, the peri-
branchial sacs, and the central nervous system and hypophysial duct, while in the
bud we see these four parts of the animal produced by the inner or so-called endo-
dermic vesicle.

Concerning the endodermic, or rather inner vesicle origin of the ganglion and
hypophysial duct, I speak with perfect confidence as regards Goodsiria and
Perophora, for this confidence rests on my own observations. The case for the
Goodsiria bud in particular is as clear as anyone could wish a developmental
fact to be.

718 REPORT—1895.

Enough of the facts are now before us to enable us to state the problem clearly.
If the property of budding has been independently acquired by two quite widely
separated groups of simple ascidians, how has it come about that the development
of the blastozooids agrees so closely, and in such remarkable peculiarities, as the
origin of the nervous system, and the peribranchial sac from the outer layer of the
embryo and from the inner layer of the bud ?

I believe the answer to be that we have before us an excellent case of develop-
mental opportunism. ‘The inner layer of the bud gives origin to nearly all the
organs of the blastozooid because physiological influences working to such a course
of development have been stronger than the hereditary influences tending to make
the development follow the embryonic method.

The case is particularly interesting because, as I believe, we are able to put our
finger on the physiological cause that has been so potent in modifying the dzrection,
not the final result of the mighty force of heredity.

You will remember that the outer layer of the embryo produces the matrix of
the test, the nervous system, and the peribranchial sacs. Now observe. The pro-
duction of the two last-mentioned structures is a purely developmental matter. It
concerns the embryonic period only. The organs become separated, or practically
so, from their source during this period, and the outer layer has nothing more to

do with them, at least functionally. Not so with the production of the test. This
is not merely an embryonic matter; it is an enduring physiological matter.
The test must be constantly renewed throughout the life of the individual. The
outer layer is consequently an active secretory organ from an early embryonal
period to the end of the animal’s life; and since the outer layer of the bud is
merely a portion of the outer layer of the parent or of the stolon, as the case may
be, it is at no time an embryonic layer; it is, from the very beginning, a differ-
entiated organ. It has to grow, to be sure; but in addition it has a well-
established and important physiological function to perform. Very different is it
with the inner layer. Its cells are strictly undifferentiated—embryonic, if you
will. They do not even have to digest their own food, for they are constantly
bathed in the maternal blood. The layer does not come in contact with the
external world at any time or at any point. It has nothing to do but to develop.
Why should it not relieve the outer layer from producing some of the parts that
it produces in the embryo? And it does.

J must hasten to say that this physiological explanation of the peculiarities of
ascidian bud development was suggested by Seeliger, though he did not make as
much of it as I believe it deserves.

There are several other instances among budding animals where I am inclined
to think that assignable functional influences have more or less radically changed
the method of development, but time prevents reference to more than one of
these. Chun has very recently shown that in Rathkea octopunctata, one of the
Medusz, the inner layer of the parent takes no part whatever in the formation of
the bud, The buds are produced on the wall of the stomach, and it appears to
me highly probable that the ectoderm alone shares in the process, because the
endoderm is so completely given over to the digestive function, while the ectoderm
cells haye much more largely retained their undifferentiated condition owing to
their being in great measure protected from the external world by the ‘sub-
umbrella.

11. Outlines of a new Classification of the Tunicata.
By Waurer Garstane, I.A., 7.Z.S., Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford.

Professor Herdman’s classification of the Tunicata is based very largely upon
modifications of external form connected with gemmation and the formation of
colonies. It involves, as Professor Herdman himself admits, an unnatural separa-
tion of forms admittedly allied, e.g., Pyrosoma and Doliolum, Clavelina and the
Distomide, Diazona and Ctona, as well as to an unnatural approximation of forms
whose structure is altogether dissimilar, e.g., Pyrosoma and Celocormus, Perophora
and Clavelina. :

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 719

Lahille has promulgated a system based upon modifications of the structure of
the pharynx. His arrangement of the fixed ascidians seems to me admirable, but
his treatment of the pelagic forms is most unsatisfactory. He follows Herdman in
placing Pyrosoma near Celocormus and the Didemnide, though upon different and
purely speculative grounds, Salpais divorced from Doliolum through an erroneous
interpretation of the ciliated pits on the gill of Salpa.

The subjoined scheme is based upon anatomical and embryological facts. The
pelagic caducichordate types possess a single row of undivided branchial slits
{protostigmata), This condition is recapitulated, as I have elsewhere shown, in
the ontogeny of various fixed ascidians, but the protostigmata of the young post-
larval form are subsequently subdivided into rows of minute secondary stigmata.
The structure of Pyrosoma and its allies is thus more primitive than that of any
of the fixed ascidians,

The two groups, Thaliacea and Ascidiacea, are distinguished in my scheme
upon this basis. My subdivision of the Thaliacea explains itself; that of the
Ascidiacea I have adopted, with some modifications, from Lahille.

TUNICATA.
PrERENNICHORDATA.
1. Endostylophora.—Pharynx provided with an endostyle. E.g., Orko-
pleura, Fritillaria.
Il. Polystylophora.—Kndostyle absent; pharynx provided with numerous
finger-like processes arranged in rows. E.¢., Kowalevshia.

CaDUCICHORDATA.
T. Thahacea.—Protostigmata undivided ; cloaca posterior. Pelagic.

i. Myosomata.—Musculature in bands; pharynx without internal
longitudinal bars ; axis of row of protostigmata oblique or trans-
verse; lateral atria small. E.g., Doliolum, Salpa, Anchinia.

ii, Pyrosomata.—Musculature diffuse ; pharynx with internal longi-
tudinal bars ; axis of row of protostigmata longitudinal ; lateral
atria coextensive with pharynx. E.g., Pyrosoma.

II, Ascidiacea.—Protostigmata subdivided into rows of secondary stigmata ;
cloaca dorsal. Fixed.
i. Stolidobranchia.—Pharynx with internal longitudinal bars; bars
solid and ribbon-shaped. E.g., Botryllus, Cynthia, Goodsirea.
ii. Phlebobranchia.—Pharynx with internal longitudinal bars; bars
tubular and vascular. E.g., Perophora, Ascidia, Diazona.
ii. Aplousobranchia.—Pharynx without internal longitudinal bars ;
horizontal membranes present. E.g., Clavelina, Distaplia, Ama-
recium, Didemnum.

12. On the Presence of Skeletal Elements between the Mandibular and
Hyoid Arches of Hexacanthus and Lemargus. By Dr. Puinie Wurre.

13. On the Presence of a Sternum in Hexanchus griseus.
Sy Dr. Pune Waite.

14, On the Creodonta. By Professor W. B. Scort.

Our knowledge of this remarkable group of extinct flesh eaters has been of
slow growth, and only lately has sufficiently perfect material been recovered to
give us an accurate insight into the structure and relationships of several of the
more important genera,

The creodonts are almost exclusively Eocene forms, and especially characterise

720 REPORT—1895.

the Lower Eocene, the Wasatch being probably their time of culmination, while
only one genus (/Zyenodon) is known to pass into the Miocene. The appearance
of five distinctly differentiated families in the Puerco indicates that their origin is
to be looked for in the Cretaceous formation. North America was eminently the
home of the group, having many more genera and families than Europe has yet
yielded. So far, none are known from the southern hemisphere.

Though including several divergent lines of differentiation, the group is
characterised by a fairly uniform structure. The incisors and canines are of the
carnivorous type, and rarely are reduced in number; the sectorials are either absent
or present in more than one pair (except in the Miacide); the molars generally
retain the tritubercular plan more or less distinctly. The milk dentition is of the
same character as in the true carnivora. The brain is small and the hemispheres
usually little convoluted. The skull has a very long slender cranial part, with
deep postorbital constriction, very prominent sagittal and occipital crests, and a
short facial region. The vertebrie are remarkable for the complex zygapophyses
on the lumbars and posterior thoracics. The limbs are relatively short and light,
the humerus retaining the epicondylar foramen, and the femur the third trochanter.
The feet are weak and almost invariably plantigrade and pentadactyl, and with
only one known exception, the scaphoid, lunar, and central remain separate. The
ungual phalanges are very generally cleft at the tip, as in the insectivora.

The creodonts fall quite naturally into two sections, one with more or less
blunt and tuberculated teeth, and the other with trenchant teeth. The first section,
which includes three families, the Arctocyonide, Triisodontide and Mesonychide,
is most abundant in the Puerco, and has but a single representative in the Middle
and Upper Eocene. No existing forms appear to have been derived from the
creodonts with tuberculate teeth.

The second section includes five families, the Proviverride, Oxyzenide, Hyzeno-
dontidz, Palonictide, and Miacide, the last of which is very sharply dis-
tinguished from all other creodonts, and forms the connecting link with the true
carnivora. The creodonts with trenchant teeth are most important and highly
developed in the Wasatch and Bridger, after which they decline, their place being
gradually taken by the carnivores.

Most of the fissipede carnivora would seem to be clearly derivable from the
Miacide, except the cats, the origin of which is still obscure, and which are
remarkable for the extremely rapid specialisation which they attain at a very early
period. The Pinnipedia, on the other hand, would seem to have been derived
from some other creodont family. Wortman has suggested, with considerable
probability, that the O.y@nide were the ancestors of the Pinnipedes, but the gap
between the two is yet so great as to render this uncertain.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On some Results of Scientific Investigation as applied to Fisheries.
By Professor W. C. M‘Intosu, /.2.S.

My remarks are based’ on experience mainly, but not altogether, gained in
Scotland, but are applicable to the empire, or indeed to European fisheries. The
ereater responsibility has been felt, since England possesses no public department
precisely corresponding to the Fishery Board for Scotland. It may be pointed
out that such investigations in regard to the fisheries are of so recent a date that
perhaps it is too early to estimate comprehensively the results ; but since there are
hostile critics it may be well to take a general survey of the results—often gained
under considerable difficulty, especially in regard to sea-going ships, for only a
small steam vessel has been at the service of the Fishery Board, instead of a
powerful vessel capable of going to distant grounds in rough weather. Previous

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 721

to 1883 no statistics of a reliable kind, other than those of herrings and salted
fishes, were available to guide the Legislature as to whether marine fisheries were
diminishing, stationary, or increasing. This anomalous state of things permitted
indulgence in exaggerated statements as to the scarcity of fishes, and the decline,
or, as it was said, impending ruin of the fisheries. While thus a very great im-
provement had been made, the returns were far from being complete. They give
the greater part of the fishes caught, but left many unreported. If anything is
national property it is the sea, and it ought to be comparatively an easy task
to give an account of its stewardship.

In the scientific report to the Royal Commission of 1884 the closing of certain
bays against beam and otter trawling was indicated thus:—‘The experiment of
allowing a bay having a definite boundary and suitable for observation to remain
unfished for several years either by line, trawl, or stake-net would perhaps be
more satisfactory’ (than a close time). ‘Its fish fauna would be carefully
examined at closure, and frequently during the period, and the general increase
in size, emigration, and immigration of the fishes noted. Advantage might be
taken at the same time to increase the number of its valuable food-fishes, e.g.,
turbot and soles, by artificial means. Such an experiment would give a valuable
basis for future legislation, tend to increase our knowledge of the food-fishes in a
remarkable degree, and would be worthy of the interests which this country has
in the department of sea fisheries.’ It was afterwards arranged to leave out the
line fishermen, since many of the older men with small boats would have suftered
hardship ; and, after some years’ observations, the Fishery Board decided to close
all the water within the three-mile limit, besides certain larger areas. These
closures were made, rightly or wrongly, on the faith of the scientific experiments
made by the Board. ‘The investigations also showed from 1884 onwards that the
three-mile limit was insufficient to protect the spawning fishes, which, as a rule,
were beyond that area. Investigation has also cleared up the migrations of fishes.
In shallow bays ripe plaice are seldom found, almost all occurring in the deeper
water beyond the three-mile limit. Yet the number of young plaice in such areas
is prodigious, the eggs and young being wafted into the shallower water. There
they grow till they reach a size of 10 to 15 inches, when they seek the outer
waters, in which to attain maturity and to grow to full size. This explains
the occurrence of the enormous number of these fishes in so limited an area, as, for
instance, in St. Andrews Bay, and their survival after the use of the most exten-
sive and persistent means of capture. Similarly, while the cod spawns are in
the off-shore waters, the very young forms, ranging from ? in. to an inch, appear
in the in-shore grounds in June, haunt the borders of the tidal rocks for some
time, and again return to breed in deep water. On the other hand, the very young
haddock is an off-shore fish; and so is the very young ling, the latter, when
from three to seven inches, migrating shorewards and returning to deep water for
adult life. Scientific investigation has shown the enormous fecundity of food-
fishes, as well as the provision by which only a portion of the roe ripens at a
given time. With wise regulations, therefore, our waters might always be relied
on for supplies. We have largely increased our knowledge of the sizes of the respec-
tive sexes of marine fishes at maturity, and the development of the eggs in the
roe, and their numerical proportion to each other. In this work no one had done
more valuable service than Dr. Fulton, the Scientific Superintendent of the Fishery
Board for Scotland, and the subject has been further elucidated by Mr. J. T. Cun-
ningham, Mr. Calderwood, and Mr. Holt. Such knowledge in regard to Scotland
made itclear that the legislative proposal of a size-limit of 10 or 12 inches—below
which fishes were to be unsaleable—would be no protection, for instance, to a ripe
plaice, though it might tend to preserve the species till it reached somewhat deeper
waters. No feature, again, has been more prominently brought out by scientific
investigation than the fact that the eggs of almost all our food-fishes float, or are
pelagic. Their wide distribution is thus provided for, and they are beyond the
pe opity of injury by net or trawl. In 1884 both the eggs and the young of food-

shes were, as a rule, wrapt in mystery. Now the eggs and larval stages of most
haye been described and figured, notably by Professor E. Prince, Mr. Cunningham,

1895. 3A

722 REPORT—1895.

and Mr. Holt, and the growth in many cases followed to the adult condition.
This experience, especially at St. Andrews, has demonstrated the comparative
ease with which immense numbers of the eggs of valuable food-fishes can be
artificially hatched and then placed in the sea, The Fishery Board’s Marine
Hatchery at Dunbar has done this on a large scale. ‘Last year it was shown at
Oxford that about twenty-seven millions of larval plaice, besides cod and flounders,
were placed in the sea. This year about 38,615,000 larval plaice, 3,800,000 larval
turbot, 2,760,000 larval cod, 2,500,000 larval lemon-dabs (often sold as soles),
besides 600,000 larval dabs and flounders, and 450,000 larval haddock and
whiting were ‘ planted,’ making a total for the year of 48,725,000 fishes. The
total for the two years is thus 75,285,000 fry placed in the sea, while the
mortality was very small. Comparing this result with the totals and the expendi-
ture on the other side of the Atlantic, it has been found that in two seasons the
economically managed Scotch establishment pressed closely on the grand totals of —
twelve or thirteen years’ work. The Americans, moreover, chiefly deal with the
cod, a fish more easily manipulated, and which produces a far greater number of
eges than the plaice; and the same might be said of the Norwegians. The turbot
and lemon-dab, again, are valuable fishes for the first time artificially hatched on
a large scale. Dr. Fulton and the staff under him have thus made great progress.
English soles have been successfully transferred to Scottish waters, many having
been carried long distances, as from the Lancashire coast, where they were
obtained through tbe courtesy of Professor Herdman. The distribution of the food-
fishes has been carefully investigated at various stages, as well as their capture by
the different instruments used in fishing, especially in connection with the variously
sized meshes and hooks. Experiments on the vitality of the fishes after capture
by trawl or by hook have also been made. Our knowledge with regard to the food
of fishes has been largely increased and grouped under two heads: (1) food which
is the product of the locality, and for the most part developed on the bottom ;
and (2) focd which is floating or pelagic, and which might be brought consider-
able distances by currents. The food of fishes to a large extent primarily depended
on plant-life, a wonderful cycle passing from diatom or algoid through the lower
animal forms to fishes. Much information has also been ascertained on the subject
of close times, as applied both to the herring and white fishes, and is available
for legislative purposes. The majority of the mussel beds of Scotland, and some of
those in England, have been surveyed and reported on, and the whole question put
on a new footing—founded on an accurate knowledge of the reproductions of the
mussel, for which we are mainly indebted to Dr. J. Hardie Wilson. A series of
observations have likewise been made on oysters with a view to resuscitate
exhausted beds, eg., those of the Forth, where careless administration has
reduced an income of 15,0002. or more a year to 148/., and this witbin less than a
generation. Various cockle and clam beds have been similarly surveyed, and
suggestions made for their conservation and improvement. Experiments in regard
to the hatchings of lobsters have been made at Brodick, in Arran, and at Dunbar,
and their development is being studied by Dr. Fullerton. Other experiments
have been made on the preservation of bait after it was placed on the hooks, and
also on the preservation of herrings and white fishes. An important series of
physical observations has been carried out in the North Sea as to temperatures,
currents, and other features of the water, the relations of these to the fishing
grounds and the migrations of fishes. Lastly, a commencement has been made in
determining the proportional number of the sexes of salmon entering the rivers at
various periods, and their external differences, the determination of when and
to what extent the muscles undergo changes during the growth of the roe and
milt, so as to clear up the subject of the deterioration of the fish as food. The
structure of the alimentary canal of the fish in connection with its cessation to
feed and other points are also being studied. These complex investigations
are in the hands of Mr. T. Tosh at Berwick-on-Tweed, Dr. Noel Paton, and the
staff of the College of Physicians’ Laboratory, Edinburgh, and in those of Dr.
Alex. Brown, Aberdeen. Some persons think that the Universities, and not
the Government, shoul dearry out such investigations ; but it need scarcely be said

La

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 723

that the Universities have neither the means, the ships, nor the experienced staff
distributed along the coast line and in constant touch with the subject, for
efficiently dealing with it. A public department alone is capable of undertaking
it with success, as the practice of other nations from America to Japan abun-
dantly testifies.

2. On the Royal Dublin Society's Fishery Survey.
By Professor A. C. Hannon.

3. On the Fishery School at Ringsend, near Dublin.
By Professor A. C. Happon.

4. Oyster Cultural Methods, Experiments and New Proposals.
By BasurorpD Dean, Assistant U.S. Fishery Commission.

The author spoke of the difficulties in spat collecting, and of some recent sug-
gestions as to their obviation; of the lack of definite knowledge as to the most
favourable physical conditions of the oyster’s set ; of questions of aération, density,
temperature, and silt deposit of the water during the spawning season. He referred
to the difficulty in retaining the embryos in bassins and in determining the duration
of the motile stage. The suggestiveness of the mare piccolo and of the closed
lake of Brénéguy ; the experiments in spat collecting of Rice, Saint-Sauveur, and
more recent culturists, and the possible defects of the cultural methods lately
patented in the United States were also discussed.

5. On Oysters and Typhoid : an experimental Inquiry into the effect upon
the Oyster of various external conditions, includiny Pathogenic Organ-
isms. By Rupert W. Boyce, M.B., U.R.C.S., Professor of Pathology
in University College, Liverpool ; and W. A. HerpMan, DiSe5 PSRGS..
Professor of Zoology in University College, Liverpool.

Our motives in undertaking this investigation have been—

1. Purely scientifie—the elucidation of the life conditions of the oyster, both
under normal and abnormal environment.

2, Economic or technological—to trace the causes and effects of diseased con-
ditions, with the view of determining what basis exists for the recent ‘ Oyster and
typhoid ’ scare, (a) in the interests of the oyster fisheries, and (5) in the interests of
the general public.

A. The objects, in detail, we had in view in entering on the investigation were
as follows :—

1. To determine the conditions of life and health and growth of the oyster by
keeping samples in sea waters of different composition—e.g. it is a matter of dis-
cussion amongst ‘practical ostreiculturists as to what specific gravity or salinity of
water, and what amount of lime are best for the due proportionate growth of both
shell and body.

2. To determine the effect of feeding oysters on various substances—both
natural food such as Diatoms, and artificial food such as oatmeal. Here, again,
there is a want of agreement at present as to the benefit or otherwise of feeding
oysters in captivity.

3 To determine the effect of adding various impurities to the water in which
the oysters are grown, and especially the effect of sewage in various quantities. It
is notorious that oysters are sometimes grown or laid down for fattening purposes

3 A 2

724 REPORT—1895.

in water which is more or less contaminated by sewage, but it is still an open
question as to the resulting effect upon the oyster.

4, To determine whether oysters not infected with a pathogenic organism, but
grown under insanitary conditions, have a deleterious effect when used as food by
animals.

5. To determine the effect upon the oyster of infection with typhoid, both
naturally—+.e. by feeding with sewage water containing typhoid stools, and artifi-
cially—z.e. by feeding on a culture in broth of the typhoid organism.

6. To determine the fate of the typhoid bacillus in the oyster—whether it is
confined to the alimentary canal, and whether it increases in any special part or
gives rise to any diseased conditions ; how long it remains in the alimentary canal ;
whether it remains and grows in the pallial cavity, on the surface of the mantle
and branchial folds; and whether it produces any altered condition of these parts
that can be recognised by the eye on opening the oyster.

7. To determine whether an oyster can free its alimentary canal and pallial
cavity from the typhoid organism when placed in a stream of clean sea water; and,
if so, how long would be required, under average conditions, to render infected
oysters practically harmless.

B. The methods which we employed in attaining these objects were as
follows :—

1. Observations upon oysters laid down in the sea, at Port Erin—

(a) Sunk in 5 fathoms in the bay, in pure water.

(6) Deposited in shore pool, but in clean water.

(c) Laid down in three different spots in more or less close proximity to
the main drain pipe, opening into the sea below low-water mark.

These were to ascertain differences of fattening, condition, mortality, and
the acquisition of deleterious properties as the result of sewage con-
tamination.

2. Observations upon oysters subjected to various abnormal conditions in the
laboratory.

(a) A series of oysters placed in sea water and allowed to stagnate, in
order to determine effect of non-aération.

(6) Similar series in water kept periodically aérated.

(c) A series placed in sea water to which a given quantity of fresh (tap)
water was added daily, to determine effect of reduction of salinity.

(d) A series of oysters weighed approximately, and fed upon the follow-
ing substances, viz, :—

(1) Oatmeal.

(2) Flour.

(8) Sugar.

(4) Broth.

(5) Living Protophyta (Diatoms, Desmids, Algz).
(6) Living Protozoa (Infusoria, &c.).

(7) Earth.

In this series of experiments the oysters were fed every morning and the
water aérated, but not changed (evaporation was compensated for
by the addition of a little tap water as required). The oysters were
weighed from time to time, and observations made upon the ap-
parently harmful or beneticial effects of the above methods of
treatment.

1 The oysters were kept in basins in cool rooms of constant temperature, shaded
from the sun, both at the Port Erin Biological Station and also in the Pathological
and Zoological Laboratories at University College, Liverpool.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 720)

(e) A series of oysters placed in sea water to which was added daily—-

(1) Healthy feecal matter.
(2) Typhoid feecal matter.
(8) Pure cultivations of the typhoid bacillus.

The oysters were carefully examined to determine their condition, with
special reference to condition of branchive, alimentary canal, adductor
muscle, and viscera generally. The contents of the rectum, as well as
the water in the pallial cavity, were subjected to bacteriological
analysis to determine the number of micro-organisms present, as well
as the identity of the typhoid or other pathogenic organisms.

C. The following is a summary of the results obtained so far :—

We consider that these results are based upon tentative experiments, and serve
only to indicate further and definite lines of research. They must not be regarded
as conclusive. We feel strongly that all the experiments must be repeated and
extended in several directions.

Our experiments demonstrate :—

I, The beneficial effects of aération—
(a) By the addition of air only ;
(0) By change of water ;

pointing to the conclusion that the laying down of oysters in localities where there
is a good change of water, by tidal current or otherwise, should be beneficial.

II. The diverse results obtained by feeding upon various substances, amongst
which the following may be noted. The exceedingly harmful action of sugar,
which caused the oysters to decrease in weight and die ; whilst the other substances
detailed above enabled them to maintain their weight or increase. The oysters
thrive best upon the living Protophyta and Protozoa. Those fed upon oatmeal and
flour after a time sickened and eventually died.

III. The deleterious effects of stagnation, owing to the collection of excretory
products, growth of micro-organisms, and formation of scums upon the surface of
the water.

IV. The toleration of sewage, etc. It was found that oysters could, up to a
certain point, render clear sewage-contaminated water, and that they could live for
a prolonged period in water rendered completely opaque by the addition of feecal
matter ; that the facal matter obtained from cases uf typhoid was more inimical
than that obtained from healthy subjects; and that there was considerable tolera-
tion to peptonised broth.

V. The infection of the oyster by the micro-organisms. The results of the
bacteriological examination of the water of the pallial cavity of the oyster, and of
the contents of the rectum, showed that in the cases of those laid down in the open
water of the bay the colonies present were especially small in number, whilst in
those laid down in proximity to the drain pipe the number was enormous (eg.
17,000 as against 10 in the former case). It was found that more organisms were
present in the pallial cavity than in the rectum. In the case of the oysters grown
in water infected with the Bacillus typhosus, it was found that there was no ap-
parent increase of the organisms, but that they could be identified in cultures taken
from the water of the pallial cavity and rectum fourteen days after infection.

It is found that the typhoid bacillus will not flourish in clean sea water, and
our experiments seem to show so far that it decreases in numbers in its passage
along the alimentary canal of the oyster. It would seem possible, therefore, that
by methods similar to those employed in the ‘ Bassins de dégorgement’ of the
French ostreiculturist, where the oysters are carefully subjected to a natural pro-
cess of cleaning, oysters previously contaminated with sewage could be freed of
eed organisms or their products without spoiling the oyster for the
market.

It need scarcely be pointed out that if it becomes possible thus to cleanse

726 REPORT—1895.

infected or suspected oysters by a simple mode of treatment which will render
them innocuous, a great boon will have been conferred upon both the oyster trade
and the oyster-consuming public.

We desire to acknowledge the kind help of Mr. W. I. Beaumont in making
some of the observations at Port Erin, and of Mr. Andrew Scott at Liverpool.

6. On the Oyster Culture in the Colne District.
By Dr. H. C. Sorsy, /.R.S.

7. On Fish and Fishing Grounds in the North Sea.
Ly J. T. Cuxnincuan, B.A.

8. The Organisation of Zoological Bibliography.
By Hersert Haviranp Fievp, Ph.D.

Arrangements are now almost completed for the establishment of an inter-
national bibliographical bureau for zoology. This bureau, the organisation of which
was begun some three years ago, will be located at Ziirich, Switzerland. It will
publish a series of bibliographical journals, as follows: 1, a fortnightly bulletin ;
2, an edition of the bulletin printed on thin paper, and only on’ one side of the
sheet, so that it may be cut up and used for other bibliographical elaboration ;
and 3, a complete card-catalogue of all zoological literature published after
1895. In addition, the ‘Zoologischer Jahresbericht’ will be federated with the
undertaking, so as to afford an annual list of titles, arranged alphabetically by
authors.

In the pamphlet edition the titles will be classified under a series of headings,
corresponding to the systematic groups of animals. The cards will be of the
standard library size, and will be essentially ‘authors’ cards,’ They will, how-
ever, bear a set of simple symbols, which will permit them to be classified in one
of several different ways, according to the special needs of each individual sub-
scriber, viz. 1, alphabetically by authors; 2, systematically by groups of animals;
3, morphologically by organ systems; or 4, faunistically by zoogeographical
regions. The system of symbols is so simple that the cards could be arranged
by any laboratory boy or library assistant, no knowledge of the science being
involved.

All the above classifications will be based upon a study of the text itself; and
incidental observations, though not mentioned in the title, will be brought out
and used as cross-references. Each chapter will then be cumplete in itself, for it
will contain, as far as possible, all observations published on the subject, whether
published as whole papers, or a3 accessory notes in a paper, whose major part is of
a very different nature. In a word, the unit for the classification will be the
individual observation paragraph, not the paper as a whole.

In various parts of the world the bureau will be aided by, 1, national com-
mittees; 2, correspondents; and 3, sub-bureaux. The national committees of
several countries are already organised. They are to use their influence in
securing for the bureau such publications as cannot be consulted in any library
to which we have access—the Swiss libraries, that of the Zoological Station at
Naples, and those of Leipzig. In case the journals themselves cannot be
obtained they are to be reported by correspondents. It is, however, so mani-
festly in the interest of each author and of every publishing firm or scientific
society to make its publications known that co-operation is assured. The matter
has already been studied by the French and American committees in considerable
detail, and they have found that it is perfectly possible to obtain the journals in
the way indicated. There is no reason to suppose that England will show her-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 727

self less ready to co-operate than these two nations. It seems certain that com-
petent correspondents can be found. Several have indeed already offered to
assume this burden. The sub-bureaux are being organised merely in those
countries where the language presents exceptional difficulties—Bohemia, Hungary,
Poland, and Russia. They will be maintained at the expense of the particular
country involved, and are in large measure already realised.

The financial support of the bureau will come from several sources. The
initial cost of organising the service will be borne by those who have undertaken
this task. The current expenses must, however, be in part covered by subsidies
from learned societies, &c. Thus the Naples Zoological Station has offered an
annual grant toward the support of the bureau, In Switzerland a considerable
annual subsidy is also offered to the bureau. In France a subscription has been
opened under the auspices of the Société Zoologique de France, and has been
subscribed to by several other societies. In the United States a similar course has
been adopted, and the full sum asked for is already assured. In Russia the
co-operation takes the form of a national sub-bureau; I mention it here merely
because it was there that the first committee was nominated.

In England the following is needed: 1, a national committee to aid the
bureau in all such emergencies as require direct local action; 2, a service of
correspondents; and 3, a grant towards the support of the bureau. Itis with a
view to inducing English zoologists to meet these requirements that I take the
liberty of bringing this matter to the attention of the British Association. It is
reasonably certain that the enterprise will succeed, if we can only secure one
half the support that has been secured in the United States or in Switzer-and.

9. The ‘ Date of Publication’ of Zoological Memoirs.
By Hersert Havitanp Frexp, Ph.D.

The accepted rules of zoological nomenclature are based upon the so-called
‘law of priority.’ It is therefore of the greatest importance that what is meant
by the ‘date of publication’ should be defined precisely. The rules adopted
by the international congresses are more explicit on this point than most of the
previous ones, and the precedent is set for adopting for convenience certain
arbitrary rulings, Thus, neither the date at which a paper is presented before
a learned society, nor the date of sending it to press is accepted. On the other
hand, the rule does not specify whether the date of printing or that of zssue is
to be taken. In certain legal cases (patents, &c.) the decision seems to have
been the former. This is, however, a date which it is impossible to verify in
practice, and the latter seems, moreover, the more equitable ruling. I know cases
in which the difference between the two dates amounts to nearly one year. It is
therefore important to regulate this point in order to avoid future contestations.

I should like, then, to make the following propositions to the Committee
of the Zoological Section :

(1) That the Committee recommend the date of distribution as the proper
criterion.

(2) That the Committee recommend that zoological publications he recorded
as well as published.

If the Committee decide to take this step, the new Bibliographical Bureau
could readily undertake to record and publish with each paper the date at which
it was sent—not received—and thus open the way for the ideal solution. This
would be to make recording the basis of our nomenclature, rather than the mere
publication. Such a ruling would, however, obviously only be possible after the
practice had become general. We can to-day do nothing more than work
towards that solution.

728 REPORT—1895.

10. On Economy of Labour in Zoology.
by Tuomas R. R. Stespine, IZA.

Founding his case upon the presumed admission that the knowledge of natural
history has increased, is increasing, and ought not to be diminished, the author
argues that measures are now urgently required for facilitating the survey of this
extensive and ever-extending body of information. He gives examples of the
onerous conditions of study resulting from the existing state of scientitic literature.
He proposes that an effort should be made to gather into a succinct form all the
most indispensable knowledge in each branch of zoology, instead of leaving each
student to gather it as best he may from an unwieldy mass of miscellaneous
writings,

The proposals now current for a new system of recording in zoology are
cordially endorsed. As the uniformity, simplicity, and completeness aimed at by
those proposals will, if successfully attained, give workers in general a clue through
the maze of future discoveries, it is urged that at this parting of the ways the
opportunity should be seized for dealing with past acquisitions. ‘They need to be
presented with the utmost conciseness to which skill and method can reduce
materials so vast and various, and sometimes so vague and so redundant.

The point is insisted on that, however lowly may be the place in science of
systematic zoology, it is after all a department which must exist. Although the
service indicated is needed for all the other departments, systematic zoology is the
one to which it is most necessary and can most easily be rendered. At the same
time the undertaking is not of a character to promise an immediate return of
commercial profit. But just as great public works are carried out by Government
at the expense of the nation, so this scientific work appeals to the fostering care of
those societies which are by their eminence entitled and by their financial position
enabled to act for the commonwealth of science.

11. On the Septal Organs of Owenia fusiformis. Py Professor G. Giison.

The object of this communication is to call attention to certain peculiarities
presented by the septa of Owenia fusiformis, and to obtain information from the
anatomists who may have observed similar features in other tubicolous annelids.

These septa, with the exception of the first, or cephalic, and the most remote
ones in the tail, are all perforated. Each of them presents two pores, through
which the adjoining seements communicate.

These pores are provided with a muscular apparatus, very powerful in certain
of the septa, and sometimes rather complicating their structure.

‘The second septum, for instance, which is the most muscular of all, contains, on
each side of the ventral median line, an enormous ovoid mass of muscles, the fibres
of which run in various directions. Through these muscles passes a tiny canal.
This septal canal is very sinuous in its course through the muscular organ, and its
existence is far from being easily recognised, owing to the state of violent contrac-
tion in which the muscles are always found in sections, There is no doubt, how-
ever, that the septal canals may open widely enough to allow the eggs to pass and
to reach the fifth segment of the body, which is the only one that communicates
with the exterior, through the modified nephridia described in the author’s paper
last year at Oxford.

Besides the canals and their muscles, the fifth septum contains a semicircular
muscle which seems to be intended to constrict the intestine, which, just where it
pierces the septum, becomes suddenly very narrow and acquires a very thick
muscular coat.

All the septa present similar structures, more or less complicated, until in the
posterior ones the septal pores are reduced to a short perforation, surrounded by a
thin muscular ring.

But in the fifth and sixth septa a new feature appears : the muscular, sphincter-
like mass on each side is joined by a tubular ingrowth of the epiderm. ‘This tube —

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 729

protrudes into the septal tissue until it meets a cavity which communicates with
the septal canal and with the anterior segment.

Up to the present the author has not been able to detect any aperture at the
extremity of this epidermic tube; but he is almost certain that such an aperture
really exists, and may open under the action of certain muscular fibres.

The septal canals, as stated above, are the way through which the eggs
reach the fifth segment ; but the fact that they exist in the second septum, whilst
the segment in front of this has no gonad, shows obviously enough that they must
have another function.

The author ventures to offer the following explanation as to the function of all
these well-guarded septal pores, and of the epidermic tubes of the fifth and sixth
septa.

Pit is a fact easily observed that the worm swells or dilates its body when it
wants to adhere to the sheath in which it lives. And in this way it opposes such
a powerful resistance, that it is quite impossible to pull it out of its tube without
breaking its body in pieces; and when a part of the body has been cut off, the
remaining segments do not relax at all, but remain as turgid and resisting as
before. ‘This shows that the various segments of the body may swell or relax
quite separately.

The septal organs are the valves which allow the coelomic fluid to flow in or
out when they are open, but impose an insuperable resistance to its exit when the
worm wants to dilate one or two segments separately.

The paired tubes of the fifth and sixth septa are very likely intended to take in
a small quantity of water from the outside, to be mixed with the coelomic fluid,
when a larger quantity of it happens to be required.

To sum up, although these researches and experiments are not finished, we have
sufficient reason to consider the curious septal organs of Owenia as valves intended
to regulate the pressure in the separate chambers of the perivisceral cavity, and to
eventually divide entirely from one another those which at a given moment the
animal desires to dilate under the contraction of the muscular coat of the skin.

If this view is correct, we must regard the body of Owenta as a very elaborate
hydraulic mechanism.

12. On a simple and efficient Collecting Reservoir for the Surface Tow-net.
By W. GaArsTAana.

13. On the Statistics of Wasps. By Professor F. Y. EpGEworTH.

The number of wasps in a nest may be inferred from the number issuing per
minute: if (1) we know the average time occupied by a wasp in the cycle of
operations between two successive exits, (2) we assume that the whole population
is occupied in keeping up the trafic.

(1) The author has collected some statistics bearing on the first datum. The
average time occupied by the wasps which he has observed in loading is six
minutes—varying from two minutes, when the load consists of liquid sweets (of
Sir J. Lubbock’s observations), to ten minutes, when dried marmalade has to be
hewed. The average interval between the departure of a laden wasp and the
return of the same wasp for another load is—with much less variation—nine
minutes. Accordingly the mean periodic time for a wasp employed in collecting
sweets may be assumed to be about fifteen minutes. This result is verified and
corrected by other methods applicable to all kinds of employment—e.g., stopping the
entrance of a small nest and noting the times of arrivals. The corrected figure is 20.

If the number of wasps issuing per minute is X, the total number would be
20 x X, if assumption (2) held. But how inadequate it is is shown from the fact
that the same nest within a short period shows very different rates of trattic.
Thus a nest which at the beginning of a week had a traffic (entrances + exits) of
twenty per minute, had, after three days, a traffic of sixty per minute; and, after
two more days, a traffic of only twelve per minute, we can at best infer that the

730 REPORT—1895.

marimum observed rate of exit per minute, multiplied by 20, gives a minimum
lower than the total number in the nest.

In some cases examined by the author the minimum was found to be very
much below the actual number. Thus a nest for which the observed maaimum
average rate of issue was eleven per minute, was found—when the whole popula-
tion was killed and counted—to have contained, in round numbers, 600. A nest
of which the maximum observed rate of issue was thirty per minute, was found to
have contained 1,600.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On Insect Transformations. By Professor L. C. Miaun, F.R.S.

2. On Mounting Marine Animals as Transparent Lantern Slides.
By H. C. Sorsy, ZL.D., F.R.S.

For some years past the author has devoted much time to this subject, when
on board the yacht Glimpse. The methods which give good results vary much in
the case of different animals. Some must be arranged on the glass and dried
quickly soon after having been caught, whereas others {like Medusze) must be
treated over and over again with moderately strong alcohol to dissolve out all the
salts. In some cases various staining materials must be used to bring out the
structure, and some should be decalcified.

Usually the animals are killed by keeping them for a short time in diluted
alcohoi, and are then arranged on the glass ; and, after as much of the alcohol as
will drain out is lost, they are dried in a current of air. The edges dry first, and
so adhere to the glass that, on further drying, the animals become thin without
any material change in form. In some cases they must be thoroughly soaked with
clear gum before becoming quite dry. Finally, when quite dry, they are mounted
in Canada balsam, and the edges of the cover glass very completely bound round
so as to prevent the balsam running out when heated in the lantern.

3. Description of Methods for Collecting and Estimating the number of
Small Animals in Sea Water. By H. C. Sorsy, LL.D., F.R.S.

The author described the methods he employs to collect moderately small
animals by means of a brown holland bag, at the bottom of which is an arrange-
meut so that brass wire sieves with meshes of various sizes can be fixed by a sort
of bayonet joint. Through these the water flows readily, and the animals are
easily washed off into a small bulk of water.

Another method is to collect water in a special bottle at various depths from
the surface to bottom, and to pour 23 gallous through a sieve having openings
about z45 of an inch in diameter. From this the animals are washed off into a
few ounces of water. The numbers of the various kinds are afterwards counted in
a small deep narrow trough filled over and over again until the whole quantity
has been examined. The number of each kind per gallon can then be easily
calculated.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 731

4. On the Conditions affecting Bacterial Life in River Water.
By E. FRankiann, D.C.L., FBS.

‘In a series of monthly observations, the author found that the microbes in the
water of the Thames and Lea are, as a rule, much more numerous in winter than
in summer. There are three conditions, to any one of which this difference might
be attributed, namely, temperature, sunshine, and rainfall. By a series of graphic
representations these three conditions are disentangled from each other by placing
the results of the microbe determinations in juxtaposition with (1) the temperature
of the water at the time the samples were taken; (2) the number of hours of sun-
shine on the day and up to the hour when the sample was drawn, and on the two
preceding days; and (8) the flow of the Thames over Teddington Weir on the
same day expressed in millions of gallons per twenty-four hours. Although the
graphic representations were confined to the Thames, the conditions affecting bac-
terial life in this river are doubtless equally potent in other rivers and streams.

These graphic representations afford definite evidence as to which of the three
conditions just named has the predominant influence upon bacterial life in river
water. They show that whilst coincidences between a high number of microbes
and a low temperature and absence of sunshine are not wanting, some other condi-
tion entirely masks the effect, if any, of temperature and sunshine. This condition
is the amount of rainfall higher up the river, or, in other words, the volume of
water flowing along the river-bed.

The interesting observations of Dr. Marshall Ward leave no doubt that sun-
light is a powerful germicide; but it is obvious that its potency in this respect
must be greatly diminished, if not entirely annulled, when the solar rays have
passed through a stratum of water of even comparatively small thickness before
they reach the living organisms ; and the author shows, by a series of experiments
upon the effect of sunlight upon the river water at various depths from the surface,
that the germicidal effect of sunlight on Thames microbes is nil at depths of one
foot and upwards from the surface of the water, even when the river is in a com-
paratively clear condition. It cannot, therefore, excite surprise that the effect of
sunshine upon bacterial life in the great mass of Thames water should be nearly,
if not quite, imperceptible.

The author also calls attention to the powerful effect of storage reservoirs in
the diminution of the number of microbes in river water, and to the very important
bearing which this fact has upon the storage of flood water in the Thames Valley,
for it leaves no doubt that storage for a month or two of the flood waters would
effect such a bacterial improvement as would render the water of good quality
for domestic use. By the construction of such storage works, the capacity of
the Thames basin for the supply of good potable water to London would be enor-
mously increased.

5. On the Exploration of the Islands of the Pacific.
By Prof. A. C. Happon.

6. On the Coccide of Ceylon. By EH. E. Gruen.

Since the publication of his papers on Lecaniwm viride and Chionaspis biclavis,
the author has devoted three years to continuous work upon the Coccide of Ceylon.
He has recorded 150 species, of which fully two-thirds were new, and found it
necessary to create two or three new genera for the reception of strikingly aberrant
forms. He referred to newly discovered organs in the encapsulated male, and
remarked that he had in preparation a monograph, to be illustrated by 120 or more
plates, giving figures of adults and larvie drawn from life. On his return to
Ceylon he contemplates continuing the investigation in both its scientific and
economic aspects.

732 REPORT—1895.

7. Criticisms on some points in the Summary of the Results of the
‘Challenger’ Expedition. By Dr. H. O. Forzgs.

8. Observations on the Marine Fauna of Houtman’s Abrolhos Islands,
Western Australia. By W. Savitis-Kent, £.L.8., F.Z.S8.

Mr. Savyille-Kent’s investigations of the marine fauna of Houtman’s Abrolhos
Islands were associated with a visit he paid them in his capacity of Commissioner
of Fisheries to the Western Australian Government, and were conducted with the
particular object of advising that Government as to the conditions and prospects
the adjacent waters presented for the establishment therein of profitable oyster
or mother-of-pearl shell fisheries.

Houtman’s Rocks, or Houtman’s Abrolhos, as they are variously charted, are
so named after one of the early Dutch explorers in contradistinction to a coral
group, also known as the Abrolhos, lying off the coast of Brazil. The island
group discussed in this paper is a small archipelago, chiefly of coral origin,
situated between the latitudes of 29° and 30° S., about thirty miles west of Cham-
pion Bay and the important Western Australian port of Geraldton.

As a result of his investigations Mr. Saville-Kent found that the ordinary
‘ Australian rock oyster, Ostrea glomerata, occurred there in tolerable abundance and
under conditions that would justify its being made the subject of systematic cultiva-
tion. The smaller West Australian variety mother-of-pearl shell allied to or identical
with Meleagrina imbricata occurs very sparingly on the Abrolhos Reefs, but in the
Commissioner of Fisheries’ opinion was not worthy of serious attention in face of
the unexpectedly favourable conditions he discovered to obtain there for the
introduction and acclimatisation of the larger and more valuable species, Meleagrina
margarityfera. This decision was arrived at as the outcome of an investigation of
the associated marine fauna, and which was found to present features of high
interest from both a utilitarian and a biological standpoint.

The existing pearl and mother-of-pearl shell fisheries of Western Australia, as
associated with the larger species, have not hitherto extended further south than
Exmouth Gulf, in about lat. 22°8., and are consequently limited to the Tropics.
The fishery for the smaller species, Meleagrina imbricata, is confined chiefly to
Shark’s Bay, three to four degrees south of Exmouth Gulf, and has in consequence
of the wasteful depletion of the banks in former years been reduced to a compara-
tively low state of productiveness. Among other operations initiated by Mr.
Saville-Kent, with the object of resuscitating the Shark’s Bay fishery, has been the
experimental transportation to it and cultivation of the large tropical pearl shell
Meleagrina margaritifera. These acclimatisation experiments, although initiated
only on a small scale, have been attended with complete success. The large
mother-of-pearl shell has not only shown its capability of thriving in the colder
waters of Shark’s Bay, but has within a year of its transportation to this extra-
tropical area commenced to freely propagate.

The site selected for the foregoing experiments in Shark’s Bay was the neigh-
bourhood of extensive banks of coral growths pertaining to the genus Turbinaria,
and from which reefs Mr. Saville-Kent obtained the remarkably large specimens of
this Madrepore that are now on view in the exhibition galleries of the Natural
History Museum, South Kensington. It has been determined by Mr. Saville-Kent
in the course of his Australian explorations that the genus Turbinaria represents
the group of Madrepores which in Australian waters enters most extensively into
the composition of coral reefs in the colder or extra-tropical limit of their distribu-
tion. This predominance of Turbinarians had been found by him to obtain at
Wide Bay, on the southern outskirts of the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland ; in
the colder though more northern waters at the head of the Gulf of Carpentaria ;
and, finally, in the Shark’s Bay district of Western Australia,

The conditions which permitted the successful acclimatisation of Medeagrina
margaritifera in Shark’s Bay were found by Mr. Saville-Kent to be still more
favourably fulfilled around Houtman’s Abrolhos. In and among this island group,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 733

notwithstanding the fact that it lay some two degrees south of Shark’s Bay, the
character and composition of the coral reefs proved to be entirely distinct. In
place of the extra-tropical Turbinariz the corals of the Abrolhos Reefs comprise,
as in essentially tropical districts, numerous varieties of branching Madvepore,
or so-called Stag’s-horn corals, commingled with many species of Porites, Monti-
pora, Pocillopora, Seriatopora, Ceeloria, Mussa, and other intra-tropical reef-build-
ing species.

A yet more remarkable phenomenon, however, is recorded by Mr. Saville-Kent
in connection with the marine fauna of Houtman’s Abrolhos. ‘This is the cireum-

stance that he discovered on its reefs three of the most valuable economic species
of Holothuride or Béche-de-mer, identical with types that are systematically
collected in Torres Straits, and throughout the northern moiety of the Queensland
Great Barrier Reef, but which are unknown to the coastal reefs of Western
Australia further north, and where their place is taken bya distinct and much less
valuable commercial species.

The fish fauna of Houtman’s Abrolhos, while corresponding to a large extent
with that of the temperate Australian seaboard, as instanced by such genera as
Pagrus, Aulopus, and Seriola, is also associated with many essentially tropical
species, including, notably, a large assemblage of brilliantly coloured Labridz, or
Parrot-fishes. Certain of these Labridx, while not obtained by Mr. Saville-Kent
in collections made among the mainland xeefs of Western Australia, were familiar
to him, as in the case of the Holothuride, as denizens of Torres Straits and the
northern region of the Great Barrier Reef.

The anomalous character of the marine fauna of Houtman’s Abrolhos as
herein defined can only be accounted for by the assumption that an ocean
current setting in from the equatorial area of the Indian Ocean penetrates as far
south as this island group, and has borne with it the floating embryos of the
Holothuride and Ccelenterates, &c., that so characteristically distinguish it. A
reference to the Admiralty charts, dealing with the ocean currents of this region,
supports this interpretation to a considerable extent; indicating, as a matter of
fact, a prevailing northerly set along the western coast of Australia, but at the
same time a distinct southerly intrusion of the waters of the Indian Ocean at some
distance off shore down towards and closely approaching Houtman’s Abrolhos.
In further support of this interpretation Mr. Saville-Kent also determined by
synchronous readings of the thermometer at the coldest season of the year, July,
that as great a difference as from ten to fourteen degrees Fahrenheit distinguished
the surface temperature of the sea at respectively the Abrolhos Islands and in
Champion Bay. Mr. Saville-Kent remarks, in conclusion, that much scope is yet
left for further investigation in this direction; while with respect to the anomalous
character of the marine fauna it would be greatly to the advantage of marine
biological science if a thoroughly exhaustive investigation thereof could be
carried out.

9. On Hereditary Polydactylism. By Dr. Greae Wi1son.

10. On the Reproduction of the Common Crab. By Dr. Greaa Wi1son.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Observations on Instinct in Young Birds.
By Professor Luoyp Morean, F.G.S., Assoc. RSM.

This paper dealt with observations on young moorhens, chicks, martins, and
swallows with a view to determine how far the activities inyolyed in locomotion

734 REPORT—1895.

(swimming, diving, running, flying), in feeding, bathing, c., are instinctive or
congenital in their definiteness ; and how far the definiteness of these and other |
activities is a matter of individual acquisition. Observations were also made on
congenital and acquired timidity. While the performance of these activities has a
congenital basis they are perfected by individual acquisition. There is no instinc-
tive and congenital avoidance of insects with warning colours; that appears to be
entirely the result of individual experience. There seems to be little or nothing in
the observations to afford any material support to the view that the instinctive
activities result from the inheritance of what is individually acquired.

9. Notes on the Early Development of the Ganoids, Lepidosteus, Acipenser,
and Amia. By Basurorp Dean, Instructor in Biology, Columbia
College, New York.

A. Segmentation of the Egg.—The earlier cleavages conform to the usual plan
of Teleost and Amphibian :—Lepidosteus and Amia meroblastic, Acipenser super-
ficially holoblastic. Questions as to the kinships with the yolk type of the Elas-
mobranch on the one hand, and with that of the Teleost on the other, were discussed.

B. Blastula, Gastrula.—The relations of the different forms of Ganoidean blas-
tula were shown in diagrams. The blastula of Lepidosteus and Shark, of Amia
and Teleost are similar. Comparison of Ganoidean gastrule: the diagrams show
structures diverging from the type of Lepidosteus towards that of Teleost.

C. General Mode of the Formation of the Embryo.—Shark-like characters of
Lepidosteus, flattened growth of Acipenser, and Teleostean features of Amia.

D. Conclusions.—Developmental nearnesses of Lepidosteus to the Elasmobranch
and of Amia to the Teleost, and the evidence on the side of embryology for con-
necting the line of the Teleosts with that of the Ganoids, as well as for drawing
more closely together the Elasmobranchian and Ganoidean phyla.

3. On some questions relating to the Morphology and Distribution
of Meduse. By Dr. Orro Maas.

Dr. Otto Maas exhibited some plates from his monograph of the ‘Albatross’
Meduse, and discussed some questions arising from the study of these Pacific forms.
The collection, though not very rich, is of interest in various points :

1. Morphological. 2. Zoogeographical. 3. Bionomical.

]. Amongst 18 species 9 are new, several of them peculiar forms, for
instance, a representative of the aberrant genus Homotoneme, established 1892 for
some forms of the ‘ Plankton’ Expedition, Amongst the Acraspeda we find the
genera Periphylla, Atolla, and others which are of importance for the morphology
of the whole group, and which have induced Claus and Vanhdéffen to a reformation
of Hiickel’s system. The previous authors could not study the genital and sense
organs; a detailed study of these shows that we can trace a line of relationship
from the primitive Lucernarid through forms like Pertphylla and Nauphanta to
the higher Discophora, forms like Atolla lying a little to the side of the line, whilst
Charybdea is totally away from it. The study of the canal system of the Peri-
phyllid and their relations shows some primitive features in correspondence with
the embryology of the higher forms, 7.e., the interruption of the continuous ento-
dermic cavity at four interradial points by the invagination of the ‘ Trichterhéhlen,’

2. The Medusze have been caught in an oceanic basin hitherto scarcely ex-
plored. In a map of the distribution of the Cathammata given by Vanhdffen the
part of the Pacific navigated by the ‘ Albatross’ is an empty gap which is now
filled up.

The list of Acraspeda species shows a striking resemblance to that of the
‘Challenger’ Expedition, The so-called ‘deep sea Medusze’ seem to have a very

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 735

wide geographical distribution ; they have been brought home by the ‘Challenger,’
the ‘ Vettor Pisani,’ the ‘ National,’ and the ‘ Albatross,’ but it is to be noticed
that they have been caught only in those really oceanic explorations, so, if they are,
not deep-sea Medusz, they are certainly not forms of the shallow water.

Amongst the Polypomedusz we find a very close relationship between Atlantic
and Pacific species. The different species of one genus are in general much more
difficult to distinguish than amongst the Trachomedusze. This perhaps may be
explained by the effective power of passive dispersal.

3. For the first time a great number of sketches of living material of the
Periphyllide, &c., had been obtained on board, All these show the dark purple
colour, generally attributed to deep sea animals. The explanation for other forms
is, that in the green phosphorescent light of the abysses, purple is the comple-
mentary colour, which makes the animal invisible, and acts as a protective colour.
It would be dangerous to conclude from this that Periphylla, &c., are deep-sea
forms. They have been brought up in an open trawl from a great depth, but the
closed part of the net contained no Medusze, If a haul from a great depth con-
tains forms which did not occur in surface hauls, these forms do not necessarily
come from the abyss, for they might have been caught on the way to the sur-
face. Our knowledge of the pelagic life of the surface is still so incomplete
that every expedition brings us new species, as has been shown in the Copepoda,
Medusz, and other groups of the ‘ Albatross ’ Expedition.

4. On the Spermatogenesis in Birds. By J. E. 8S. Moors.

The observations were made to ascertain whether the course of the spermatogenesis
in birds was essentially similar to that of other vertebrates recently examined.
It was found that in two points of chief importance, namely, the manner of nu-
merical] reduction of the chromosomes and the alternation of the homo- and hetero-
type divisions, the spermatogenesis of birds is closely similar to that of the remaining
vertebrate forms.

During the first heterotype division, which corresponds to the division of the
growing cells in Mammals and of the great spermatocytes in Elasmobranchs and
Amphibia, the spermatic elements of pigeons show a marked tendency towards
the formation of multinucleate masses. One of the most interesting features apper-
taining to these bodies is that the spindle-figure during the division of their nuclei
appears to originate entirely within the nucleus, since the nuclear wall can be
distinctly seen after the spindle-figure has been fully formed. The stages in. the
division may be diagrammatically represented thus :—

Multinucleate Spermatocyte of Pigeon,
(a) Nucleus in synaptic phase. (6 and c) Spindle-figures, (wn) Nuclear wall.

The advent of the great heterotype mitosis is always preceded during the
spermatogenesis by the peculiar convoluted and lop-sided figure (a\ which is

736 REPORT—1895.

here, as elsewhere, characteristic of what I have previously termed the ‘synaptic
hase.’

i The whole course of the spermatogenesis appears to correspond more closely
with that of Elasmobranchs than of Mammals, since there appear to be two
generations and one division after the synapsis before the spermatozoa are
complete.

As in Elasmobranchs and Mammals, the number of the chromosomes appears to
be reduced during the synapsis, and to be then determined for succeeding divi-
sions, just as in the case of plants.

The spermatogenesis of birds supports in every way the conclusion first put
forward by Strassburger, which is at present gaining ground, namely, that the
process of numerical reduction in the chromosomes is not brought about by any
division at all, and is similar for both animals and plants.

5. On the Development of the Teeth in Certain Insectivora.
By M. F. Woopwarp, Demonstrator of Zoology, R.C.Sci. Lond.

In the hedgehog the author describes vestigial calcified milk predecessors to
the third upper incisor, the lower canine, and the first pre-molar of both upper
and lower jaws, and an uncalcified vestige of the milk predecessor of the second
lower incisor, thus extending Leche’s observations and confirming his later con-
clusion that the adult incisors, canines, and pre-molars all belong to the third or
replacing tooth series. In addition, a vestigial anterior lower incisor and a third
lower pre-molar were observed. Indications of three dentitions are described for
the molar series, the molars being referred to the third or replacing dentition.

The teeth of Gymnura, Sorex, Talpa, Centetes, and Hriculus are also dealt
with, and the following points more especially noted :—

1. The presence in Gymnura of five pre-molars in both upper and lower jaws,
represented in both dentitions.

2. The absence of the alleged milk predecessor to the first pre-molar of Talpa
described by Spence Bate, that tooth being shown to be itself a milk tooth.

3. The development, in all cases, of the successor to the fourth pre-molar
between the ‘deciduous pre-molars 3 and 4.’ The facts associated with this
appear to indicate that the so-called ‘deciduous pre-molar 4’ is a precociously
developed molar, and that the tooth which replaces it is a much retarded pre-
molar of the milk series.

Two sets of calcified teeth are shown to be for the greater part developed
among Insectivores, and it is characteristic of them that there is a tendency
towards reduction of the milk set with early development of the replacing denti-

tion.

6. On the Mammalian Hyoid.! By Professor G. B. Howes.

The author proved from the study of Naswa that the small bone attached to
the paroccipital process in Lepus and Procavia (Hyrax), independently described
by Krause and Brandt, is in reality the styloid, and showed that the discovery
enables us to recognise two distinct culminating types of modification of the hyoid
of mammals, viz. (i.), the protero-stylic, known only in man and the marmosets,
and (ii.) the opzstho-stylic, known only in the rodents mentioned. Reviewing the
subject more generally, he called attention to the presence of a considerable tym-
pano-hyal, occupying a novel position, in Cholepus, and he exhibited the hyoid
of a young rabbit, the body of which was subdivided by a transverse suture,
probably indicative of the original demarcation-line between its two component
‘copule.’ A classification of the types of mammalian hyoid was submitted.

1 Paper will be published in Jour. Anat. and Phys., Jan., 1896.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 737

7. On the Poison Apparatus of Certain Snakes.
By G.S. West, A.R.C.Scz. Lond.

The author describes, in thirteen genera of Opisthoglypha, a gland, which, there
is every reason to believe, is homologous with the poison gland of the Viperine
and Proteroglyphous types. The course of the poison duct and its detailed
relationships to the teeth are dealt with, the latter being established through the
mediation of a cavity enclosed within muscular folds, and so effected that loss of
the tooth does not in any way result in injury to the duct. The distal portion of
the duct is shown to be secretory and mucus-forming.

In the marine snakes (Hydrophiine) the poison gland is shown to be more or
less free from the supra-labial, and to consist of longitudinally disposed tubules
converging anteriorly towards a central duct. The latter is shown to become
enlarged anteriorly, enclosing a cavity in front of the bases of the grooved teeth
having muscular walls and specialised for purpose of communication with the

rooves.
z Certain vascular folds of the buccal mucous membrane are described, which
occupy the interstices between the teeth, and are probably analogous to the
villous processes occurring in the mouths of certain soft-shelled Chelonians,

8. On the Value of Myology as an Aid in the Classification of Animals.
By F. G. Parsons, /.2.C.S., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Thomas’s Hospital.

The paper contains a short notice of the reasons which induce Systematists to
place little reliance on the study of muscles. It then reviews some of the muscles
in the great order of Rodents, and points out how closely they correspond in
animals which are nearly related, and how little the different modes of life of their
possessors affect them. The ease with which different sub-orders and families of
Rodents can be distinguished by a study of their muscles is next noticed, and
finally the test of myology is applied to the family of Dipodidz, the position of
which is still unsettled.

9. On Ultimate Vital Units. By Miss Nina Layarp.

1895. 3B

738 REPORT—1895.

Section E..—GEOGRAPHY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SecTIoN—H. J. Mackinper, M.A., F.R.G.S,

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The PresipENT delivered the following Address :—

THIs isa memorable year for English students of geography. We have enter-
tained in London for the first time a great gathering of our foreign colleagues, and
have presented to the British public the unfamiliar spectacle of a geographical
meeting, in which scholars and professors were as prominent as explorers. Asa
nation we may justly claim that for several generations we have been fore-
most in the work of the pioneer ; nor need we view with dissatisfaction our contri-
butions to precise survey, to hydrography, to climatology, and to biogeography.
It is rather on the synthetic and philosophical, and therefore on the educational,
side of our subject that we fall so markedly below the foreign and especially the
German standard, and it is for this reason that we may regard the Sixth Inter-
national Congress as a noteworthy object lesson for English geographers and
teachers. ‘The time seems, moreover, to have been ripe for some such stimulating
influence. To indicate a few signs only of rising courage among our geographers,
and of sympathy on the part of the public, I would draw your attention to the
institution of afternoon meetings in Savile Row for the discussion of technical
questions, to the success of the new Geographical Journal, notwithstanding its
geographical as opposed to merely ‘adventuring’ flavour, to the recent formation
of a geographical association of Public Schoolmasters, and to the demand for
addresses on the teaching of geography on the part of the local branches of the
Teachers’ Guild. Facts are reminding us once more that the lapse of a certain
time is essential to the rooting of a new idea, and we may thank the geographical
veterans of 1869 for sowing seed the fruit of which we are now harvesting. That
I am not alone in my interpretation of present tendencies is clear from the
emphatic opinion of the President of the Royal Geographical Society expressed
in his last annual address, that ‘the time is approaching for a reconsideration
of the educational policy of the Society.’ It would almost seem that we are
nearing a development of geographical education not unlike that which nine years
ago followed on the publication of Mr. Keltie’s valuable Report. At that time
two of my predecessors in this chair, Sir Frederick Goldsmid and Sir Charles
Warren, thought it not unfit to make education the chief theme of their addresses,
and encouraged by their example I venture, under present circumstances, to call
your attention once more to that subject. Since 1886 and 1887, however, much
has happened, and we no longer need to discuss the more elementary teaching
of geography. I propose, therefore, to treat of comparative and philosophical
geosraphy in relation especially to secondary and university education, and it
ae to me that an historical rather than an a priori discussion gives best promise
of result.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 739

The middle of the 18th century marks an important epoch in the history of
geography. In ancient times Ptolemy and Strabo grasped the system and
possibilities of our science, but they failed to build high from lack of a broad
foundation of precisely recorded facts. Subsequently, geography had its Dark
Ages and its Renascence in harmony with the general trend of human aflairs. By
the end of the 16th century Mercator and Ortelius had somewhat more than
recovered the Greek position, but still, for another century and a half, reographers
wrestled with essentially the same problems as had presented themselves to the
ancients. The observers ascertained latitudes and longitudes with ever-increasing
precision, the cartographers projected the observed positions on their maps with
growing happiness of compromise, and the scholars sought, with the prodigious
industry characteristic of the age, to identify the sites mentioned by the ancient
authorities. Three names—Harrison, D’Anville, and Varenius—in the several
fields of observation, cartography, and scholarship, may be taken as completing
this stage of development, although, as is always the case, the new and the old
overlapped. In 1761 the chronometer was added by Harrison to the magnetic
compass, the log-line, the sextant, and the theodolite, and thus was completed the
observer’s equipment. In the same year D’Anville published his Atlas Moderne,
in which (besides a fidelity of outline greater than that of his predecessors Delisle
and Homann) he brought to bear a mechanical finish and a criticism of data that
were new to cartography. Only a few years earlier, in 1755, there appeared in
Paris a French translation of the Geographia Generalis.of Varenius, first published
at Amsterdam in 1650, edited for Cambridge in 1681 by Sir Isaac Newton, and
reprinted again and again for three generations as the masterpiece of the ‘ scholarly’
geographers. Thus when George III. was still young, the horizontal outlines of
the map of the world had taken their now familiar form, and school geography
consisted of ‘the use of the globes’ with some small attention to classical topo-

raphy.
AV hat made the 18th century a transition age of such importance to geography
was the realisation of new problems, which both Antiquity and the Renascence had
either neglected or utterly failed to solve. These problems allow of most general
expression by the use of three convenient terms, two of them lately imported from
Germany—lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere—the first implying the rock
globe whose surface is both land and sea-bed, the other two denoting the external
envelopes. The geographer is concerned with the atmosphere, the hydrosphere
and the surface of the lithosphere. His first business is to define the form, or relief,
of the surface of the solid sphere, and the movements, or circulation, within the two
fluid spheres. The land-relief conditions the circulation, and this in turn gradually
changes the land-relief. The circulation modifies climates, and these, together
with the relief, constitute the environments of plants, animals, and men, Shorn of
complexities, this is the main line of the geographical argument. In the language
of Richthofen, the earth’s surface and man are the terminal links.’ It is clear
that all depends on the accuracy of the first premises—the form of the lithosphere
and the movements within the hydrosphere and atmosphere. Before last century
geographers ascertained the horizontal elements in form, but neglected the vertical.
In the matter of outline, the maps of D’Anyille are an immense improvement on
those of Ortelius, but they exhibit essentially the same almost child-like methods for
the depiction of relief which had been employed by Buckinck in the 1478 edition
of Ptolemy. Until this was remedied the whole superstructure of comparative
and philosophical geography lacked any real basis.

_ Like the letters of the alphabet, conventional hill-shading was evolved from
eee rather than invented. The great atlas of Germany, published at Nurem-

erg in 1753 by the successors of Homann, consisting as it does of maps engraved
in various years extending from 1718 to 1753, shows admirably almost every stage
in the evolution. Other striking evidence may be seen in the chart of New
Zealand drawn from Captain Cook’s surveys, and reproduced by Admiral Wharton
in his edition of Cook’s Journal. Side by side on the same chart, we have
the‘ ant-hills’ of Buckinck and Ortelius, and the ‘ caterpillars’ of modern maps; but
_ the latter, like degenerate animals with rudimentary organs, still retain clear marks

3B2

74.0 REPORT—1895.

of their origin. The ‘ ant-hills,’ elsewhere sown evenly over the land-surface, are
in certain parts drawn into chains and foreshortened, or in modern railway parlance
‘telescoped.’ One step more—the confusion cf the lines of slope-shading with those
of hill-outline—and the pictures would be conventionalised, all signs of origin
would be lost, and students who had never seen a great mountain-range would be
led to think of it as a wall-like ridge. Even ‘ant-hills’ are preferable to the
‘ caterpillar’ in its crudest form.

An indication of the importance attached to the new problem of relief is to be
seen in the fact that, before the method of hill-shading or hatching had been perfected,
the method of horizontal contouring had already been invented. In 1737 Philip
Buache, a French geographer of remarkably original mind, produced a contoured
chart of the English Channel. Contour lines represent what would be coast lines
were the sea to rise or fall to the level indicated, and it was natural that this device
should first be applied to the mapping of the sea-bed rather than the land. In
1791 Dupain Triel drew a contoured map of France. But already in 1788, as Mr.
Ravenstein pointed out in his address at the Cardiff meeting, Lehmann had com-
bined the two systems, and, by superimposing hachures upon contours, and making
the depth of shading proportional to the closeness of the contours, had produced
a map which, while yielding to the popular requirements, rested on a scientific
basis. Contoured maps, in which names are few or absent, can now, however, be
made to rival in pictorial suggestiveness those which are shaded, and such maps
are the more valuable in that they are not only structurally correct, but that they
can be read also with accuracy and ease. Some of the sheets of the American
Geographical Survey may be cited as excellent examples of graphic eflect produced
by contours only.

Ptolemy's knowledge of the theory and methods of cartography far outran the
positive materials at his command for the mapping of the known world. In the
same way the methods of depicting relief, though so recently developed, already at
the end of last century more than sufficed for the presentment of the recorded data.
As was seen in the case of Ptolemy, there are peculiar dangers in the possession of
an engine more powerful than is needed for the workin hand. In 1783 Frnace
was the only country in the world with a completed map based on systematic and
detailed surveys. A relief-map like that of Dupain Triel was possible only in
such a country. But in 1756 Philip Buache had already launched a general theory
of relief resting on the conception of river basins, and had enriched geography
with the terms ‘ water-parting’ and ‘ plateau.’ In the absence of positive know-
ledge, what more natural than that cartographers should make illegitimate use
of the theory of Buache, and should assume that in the coherent system of water-
partings they had tke orographical skeleton of the world? Having drawn the
courses of the rivers, they had only to run caterpillar-shading along the water-
partings to produce a map, in parts accidentally true, which represented the land
as uniformly composed of a series of flat pans. Such a method of map-drawing
was advocated by Friedrich Schultz, in a paper published at Weimar as late as
1803, and is not rare in popular maps of much later date.

It is to Alexander von Humboldt that we owe the method still in use for giving
a general, yet real, idea of the relief of a little known country. Following, as he
himself tells us, the precedent of the canal engineers, he constructed vertical sec-
tions along his routes through Spain and Mexico. It is worth noting in this
connection that our knowledge of the relief of the sea-bed is mainly due to the
requirements of another set of engineers—those engaged in laying telegraphic
cables. Humboldt’s sections were rendered possible by the daily use of the baro-
meter and chronometer, and by Ramond’s improvement of the formula for the
reduction of barometric data. Before Humboldt, the barometer had been used
for the determination of isolated heights, but not for the traversing of a whole
country.

matin now to the other basis of scientific geography—a knowledge of the
fluid circulation in the outer envelopes of the earth—we may regard the corner-
stone of climatology as laid by George Hadley in 1735, in his well-known paper
before the Royal Society, ‘Concerning the Cause of the General Trade Winds’ ;

4

~

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 741

All that was done before his time was mere digging for the foundations; yet with
rare thoroughness he enunciated, at one eflort, the final theory, detecting the cause
both of the movement equatorwards and of the westward swerving. We can

oint to no such crucial utterance in the sister field of oceanography, though it is
said that, about the time of the American Nevolution, Benjamin Franklin suggested
that wind-pressure was the cause of the surface-currents of the sea, His idea was
contained in a memoir on the Gulf Stream, which was suppressed by him lest it
should fall into the hands of the English, and be of use to their ships in crossing
the Atlantic. Major Rennell also, who, by his map of India and his Herodotean
identifications, presents a likeness to the best of the old school of geographers,
showed his participation in the new by compiling an Atlantic current-chart. But
Humboldt’s invention of isotherms in 1817 first gave to climatology cartographic
resources, and rendered easy and precise the correlation of climate with relief.
The idea was soon applied in other departments of geograp’ y—to the expression
of atmospheric pressure, of the temperature of the sea-s face, of density of
population, and indeed to any similar masses of data, capabie, so far as time is
concerned, of reduction to averages, but varying locally. The last edition of
Berghaus’s Physical Atlas is, in this matter, a monument to the memory of
Humboldt; yet it is strange that a method first suggested, in the seventeenth
century, by the magnetic lines of the Englishman Halley, should have been left to
fructify in the mind of a German of the nineteenth century.

The facts of geography are obviously capable of two kinds of treatment. The
chapter-headings may be such as ‘ Rivers,’ ‘ Mountains,’ ‘ Cities,’ or such as
*Treland,’ ‘ Italy,’ ‘ Australia.’ In other words, we may consider the phenomena
of a given type in all parts of the globe, or we may discuss in a given part of the
globe the phenomena of all types. In the former case, our book should as a whole
observe the order of what has been called the geographical argument ; in the
latter case each chapter, the discussion of each country, should exhibit that order
complete. For historical reasons, which will be referred to later, we English have
fallen into a bad habit of describing the former treatment as ‘ physical geography,’
and the latter as ‘geography.’ The Germans are more reasonable when they con-
trast Allgemeine Erdkunde with Landerkunde, but Chorography, our nearest English
equivalent to Ldnderkunde, is a clumsy expression. An alternative would be to
speak of ‘special geography,’ thereby implying a correlative to ‘ general geography,’
which is a precise rendering of -Al/gemeine Erdhunde. By whatever name we call it,
however, it is clear that the treatment by regions is a more thorough test of the
logic of the geographical argument than is the treatment by types of phenomena,
Hence Humboldt’s Essai politique sur la Nouvelle-Espagne, published in 1809,
must take high rank among the efforts of the new geography as the first complete
description of a land with the aid of the modern methods. Tere, for the first time,
we have an exhaustive attempt to relate causally relief, climate, vegetation, fauna,
and the various human activities.

The services of Humboldt to our science were so great that le almost merits
the title of a new founder, and yet, of late, it has been the custom to decry him.
It is probable that his memory has suffered a little from the less original work of
his old age, for the Humboldt who devised cross-sections and isotherms, and wrote
the Essai politique, was divided by the distance of a whole generation from him
who was responsible for the Asien and the Kosmos.

We come now to the central event in the historyof modern geography. It
was in the year 1820 that IXarl Ritter was called to Berlin to act in the double
capacity of Professor in the Military School and Professor Extraordinary in the
University. Born in 1779, ten years alter Humboldt, Ritter’s early training
and circumstances were such as admirably to fit him for the great position
he was to occupy during the last thirty-nine years of his life. His schooling
was at Schnepfenthal, under Salzmann, a well-known educational experimenter
of the following of Rousseau. Later in life Ritter learnt to know and to love the
classics, but Salzmann’s hostility to them as an educational implement secured for
his pupil freedom from the current intellectual moulding. The peculiar opportuni-
ties of his subsequent position as tutor in the Hollweg family almost amounted to

742 REPORT—1895.

an endowment for research, and it was then that he accumulated that vast miscel-
laneous knowledge so valuable to the intellectual pioneer. It is not unimportant in
connection with Ritter’s later theories to observe that, at this time, Cuvier and Franz ©
Bopp were applying the comparative method to anatomy and philology. Nor did
he fail to cultivate that half-artistic perception of land-forms, the early exercise
of which seems to be to the geographer what youthful training in pronunciation is
to the linguist. While travelling with the young Hollwegs, he caused astonish-
ment in Switzerland by the accuracy of his delineation of a mountain range. Add
that fortune brought Humboldt and Pestalozzi across his path, and we understand
the influences which shaped Karl Ritter into the greatest modern professor of geo-
raphy.
g Ritter produced both books and men. He had the personal charm of the born
teacher, and the Prussian officers of 1866 and 1870 were as truly his intellectual
offspring as was the Lrdkunde, of which Schlegel said that it was the Bible of
Geography. Nor did his classes fail to bring forth professed geographers, such as
Guthe, and historians with the geographical eye, such as Curtius. But Ritter did
not stand alone. He was one of a group of four men, who together made the
geography of the nineteenth century as distinctively a German science as that of
the eighteenth century had been French. One is almost tempted to draw a com-
parison, man for man, between Humboldt, Ritter, Berghaus, and Perthes, and that
great group of later Germans—Bismarck, Moltke, von Roon, and William I. The
coincidence is not quite so fortuitous as might at first sight appear; for Berghaus,
the cartographer, and Perthes, the capitalist employer of cartographers, were as
necessary to the earlier combination as, to the later, were von Roon, the organiser,
and William, the kingly employer of statesmen and generals.

In 1827 Humboldt, who, on his mother’s side, was French by descent, left Paris,
which had heen his home for nearly twenty years, to join the Prussian Court at
Berlin. In the winter of 1827-28 he gave a course of brilliant lectures before the
University, in which was contained the nucleus of the subsequent Kosmos. In 1829,
at the invitation of the Russian Government, he spent twenty-five weels on a rapid
journey to the mines of the Ural and Altai, and received the impressions which
led to the Asien. Thence onward Humboldt and Ritter lived at Berlin, mutually
appreciative, and complementing each other in mental characteristics. They died
in the same year, 1859, just before those great political events which changed the
whole aspect of German life.

The influence of the new school was early felt beyond Germany. Petermann,
the pupil of Berghaus, came to our islands to help Keith Johnston with the
English edition of Berghaus’s great Physical Atlas, whilst Arnold Guyot, the Swiss
disciple of Ritter, after teaching for a time at Neuchatel, crossed the Atlantic to
lecture at Harvard, and afterwards to accept a chair at Princeton.

No sooner, however, were the two great masters at Berlin dead, than German
geography passed into a new phase, a phase of which the typical representative was
Oscar Peschel, the critic of both Humboldt and Ritter. The facts of Peschel’s life
are soon told. He began as a journalist, he became a geographical writer, and
died a professor of geography. From 1849 to 1854 he was assistant editor of the
Augsburg Allgemeine Zettung. Then until 1870 he was sole editor of the weekly
Ausland. From 1871 until his death in 1875 he occupied a chair in Leipzig
University. The titles of his books may serve as an index to his mind. The
‘Age of the Discoveries’ appeared in 1858, and the ‘ History of Geography ’
in 1865. He then turned his attention to physical questions, and produced in 1870
his striking ‘ New Problems for Comparative Geography.’ Finally, in 1874, came
the Vélkerkunde, a title not easily translatable into English. After his death
his pupils, acting apparently under the inspiration of Professor Kirchhoff of Halle, _
collected his essays and lectures, which were published in a series of volumes edited _
with varying degrees of merit.

Peschel’s criticism of Humboldt was of the rarest kind. He appreciated the
good, detected the errors, and, above all, suggested the remedies. Humboldt’s
later works, the Asten and the Kosmos, both exhibit striking excellences, and
fora time enjoyed great vogue, yet both, like Newton’s Optics, helped to delay the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 743

advance of science. How this happened will be manifest if we reflect that general
or physical geography is the basis, not only of special geography, but also of geology ;
and that just when Humboldt was vitiating his description of Asia with Elie de
Beaumont’s speculations on the origin of mountains, and was conveying the
impression that general geography was equivalent to the entirety of natural science,
Lyell was shaping physical geography to the ends of the geologist, and making it a
key to unlock the past. The result, so far as geography is concerned, may be seen
at the present day in the time-table of many an English girls’ school. Separate
hours are set apart for ‘ physical geography ’ and for‘ geography.’ The one is studied
with a text-book written from the geological standpoint, the other in a manual
of mere names lit up occasionally with a few ideas drawn from Ritter or Strabo.
Thus it was that geography was divorced from physical geography to be unequally
yoked with history. Peschel restored physical geography to the geographer, and
made it the implement of analysis in the field of Landerkunde.

But while the geographers had gone astray in the wake of Humboldt, the
geologists neglected that great chapter of their subject which they hold to-day
in common with the geographers. Stratigraphy, paleontology, and mineralogy
claimed their first attention, and it was only after a time that Ramsay and Geikie
among the English geologists, and Dana among the Americans, began to study
what we now call geomorphology—the causal description of the earth’s present
relief. It was Peschel who asserted the claim of geography to include geomorpho-
logy, and so rendered possible a genetic, as opposed to a merely conventional classi-
fication of the features of relief. Though common to both studies, it plays a
different part in each. The geologist looks at the present that he may interpret
the past ; the geographer looks at the past that he may interpret the present. The
geographer’s argument begins, as we have said, with the surface of the earth, but
to his almost artistic perception of land-forms he must add a causal analysis; pre-
cisely as the artist learns anatomy the better to grasp the human outlines.

Peschel’s criticism of Ritter is less happy than that which he gave to Hum-
boldt. He complains of Ritter’s use of the expression ‘ Comparative Geography,’ and
substitutes another of his own. As a matter of fact, all geography which is not
merely descriptive must be comparative, and the various uses of the term made by
different writers are but particular cases of one of the most general ideas in scien-
tific method. Varenius called all geography comparative that was not mathe-.
matical or astronomical. Ritter compared peoples with the lands they inhabited,
in order to establish the influence of environment. Peschel compared one physical
feature with another, with the object of discovering their origin. Markham uses ~
' comparative geography to imply a comparison of historical records, with a view
to showing the changing aspects of the same locality at different times. Peschel’s
difference with Ritter is, in this matter, a merely verbal quibble. Nor can we say
much more with reference to his obvious dislike of Ritter’s teleological views,
which, though they colour every statement he makes, yet do not affect the essence ;
it is easy to re-state each proposition in the most modern evolutionary terms.
Where, however, Peschel questions the adequacy of particular correlations of peoples
and environments, it must be admitted that he usually strikes between the joints,
and this is still more evident when he has to deal with Ritter’s daring follower,
Buckle. The truth of the matter is that Ritter and Buckle had taken for their
field the highest and most difficult chapter in geography, and that they underrated
the complexity of the problems with which they had to deal. We are all familiar
with the saying that it required the Greeks in Greece to develop the Athenian
civilisation, and that neither the Greeks elsewhere, nor any other race in Greece,
would have been equal to the achievement. It would be easy for a Peschel to
demonstrate the falsity of an assertion that the Greeks owed all to Greece, but,
on the other hand, the Ritters and Buckles were in error in attempting so simple
an explanation. What seems to have been constantly omitted from these specu-
lations is the fact that communities can move from one environment to another ;
that even a given environment alters from generation to generation; and that an
existing community is often the product of two or more communities in past
generations, each of them subject to a different environment. Now, the influences

744 REPORT—1895.

affecting a community at a given time may be resolved into dynamic and genetic.
Among the dynamic influences, geographical environment is admittedly important.
But the genetic influences are the momentum from the past, and the genetic in-
fluences acting on this generation may be resolved into the dynamic and genetic of
the last. If this process be repeated through many generations, it is clear that the
sum total of geographical influence is always accumulating. The Normans, for
instance, were exposed to successive environments in Norway and in Normandy,
and much that was out of place in Normandy was due to the earlier action of Norway.
The American, again, has characteristics and institutions which could hardly have
been cradled in the Mississippi plain, but are explainable by a reference to the
peninsulas and islands of Europe. A very striking instance of the errors involved
both in Ritter’s methods and Peschel’s criticismis to be found in the case of China.
Peschel assumes that the Chinese civilisation grew up in China, and asserts that a
land of so massive an outline was not fitted to stimulate such a growth. But the
most modern research tends to show that the Chinese were not thus isolated in
early times, and that Chinese civilisation was of Western, not home origin. Ritter
erred in thinking the action simple and uniform, Peschel in underestimating its
cumulative influence.

Since the war of 1870, geographical chairs have been multiplied through-
out Europe, and especially in Germany, and at the present time German-
speaking geographers form a little public of themselves. Some of the Professors,
as yon Richthofen of Berlin and Penck of Vienna, have worked mainly at
geomorphology ; others, such as Kriimmel of Kiel, at oceanography ; others, again,
such as Ratzel of Leipzig, at anthropogeography; while Wagner of Gottingen
has been conspicuous in cartography, and Kirchhoff of Halle and Lehmann
of Minster in questions of method. Davis of Harvard and Woeikof of St. Peters-
burg may count as foreign adherents of the German school. There can be no doubt
that it is especially in geomorphology that the advance has been most rapid, and
here we may trace Peschel’s impulse still unexhausted. In 1887 Gerland of
Strasburg went so far as wholly to exclude the human element from geography,
and to make it a purely physical science. He probably represents the extreme
swing of the pendulum. There is evidence now of a reaction towards Ritter, and
as Wagner has pointed out, we owe to Gerland himself the admirable series of
maps in the new edition of Berghaus’s Atlas, which deals with man, and brings
out with startling clearness the interdependence of relief, climate, and population.

Let us now sum up the problems and methods of modern geography as they
have resulted from the last five generations of work and criticism. Merely verbal
definitions may be left to the dialectician, but there are two different modes of
giving practical definition to a department of knowledge. It may be considered
either as a discipline, or as a field of research. As a discipline, a subject
requires rough definition for the purposes of organisation. It should exhibit a
central idea or a consistent chain of argument. On the other hand, no theo-
retical considerations can hold the investigator within set bounds, though he is
none the less practically limited by the nature of the arts of investigation to
which he has served his apprenticeship. The chemist should manipulate the blow-
pipe, the physicist should be an expert mathematician, the historian should
be skilful as a paleeographer, and familiar with medieval Latin. That subject
is most legitimate which admits of either definition, which exhibits both a con-
sistent argument and also characteristic arts. The researcher will then be the
writer of the text-book, and while research is fertilised by suggestions born of
teaching, teaching will be illuminated by the certainty within uncertainty which
comes of first hand touch with facts. Geography satisfies both requirements ; it
has arts and an argument.

There are three correlated arts (all concerned chiefly with maps) which may he
said to characterise geography—observation, cartography, and teaching. The observer
obtains the material for the maps, which are constructed by the cartographer
and interpreted by the teacher. It is almost needless to say that the map is here
thought of as a subtle instrument of expression applicable to many orders of facts,
and not the mere depository of names which still does duty in some of the most costly

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 745

English atlases. Speaking generally, and apart from exceptions, we have had in
England good observers, poor cartographers, and teachers perhaps a shade worse
than cartographers. As a result, no small part of the raw material of geography is
English, while the expression and interpretation are German.

The geographical argument has already been sketched. The first chapter deals
with geomorphology—the half artistic, half genetic consideration of the form of
thé lithosphere. The second chapter might be entitled geophysiology; it postu-
lates a knowledge of geomorphology, and may be divided into two sections—oceano-
graphy and climatology. At the head of the third and last chapter, is the word
‘biogeography,’ the geography of organic communities and their environments.
It has three sections—phytogeography, or the geography of plants; zoogeography,
or the geography of animals; and anthropogeography, or the geography of men.
This chapter postulates all that has preceded, and within the chapter itself each
later section presupposes whatever has gone before. To each later section and
chapter there is an appendix, dealing with the reaction of the newly-introduced
element on the elements which have been considered earlier. Finally, there is a
supplement to the whole volume, devoted to the history of geography, or the develop-
ment of geographical concepts and nomenclature.

The anthropogeographer is in some sense the most typical and complete of
geographers. His special department requires a knowledge of all the other
departments. He must study geomorphology without hecoming a geologist,
geophysiology without becoming a physicist, biogeography without becoming a
biologist. It has been recognised ever since the time of Strabo that geography cul-
minates in the human element, but the difficulties in the way of precise thought in
this branch of the subject are such that, while its claims have been constantly
reasserted, the other branches have hitherto made greater progress. At all times
each race exhibits a great variety of initiative, the product, in the main, of its
past history. In each age certain elements of this initiative are selected for
success, chiefly by geographical conditions. Sometimes human genius seems to
set geographical limitations at defiance, and to introduce an incalculable element
into every problem of anthropogeography. Yet, as we extend our survey over
wider periods, the significance even of the most vigorous initiative is seen to
diminish. Temporary effects contrary to Nature may be within human possi-
bilities, but in the long run Nature reasserts her supremacy. Celt, Roman, and
Teuton successively neglected the Alpine and the Pyrenean frontiers, but modern
history has vindicated their power. Probably, when it is fully recognised that
the methods of anthropogeography are essentially the same as those of physical
geography, advance will become more rapid. The facts of human geography, like
those of all other geography, are the resultant for the moment of the conflict of
two elements, the dynamic and the genetic. Geographical advantages of past times
permitted a distribution and a movement of men which, by inertia, still tend to
maintain themselves even in the face of new geographical disadvantages. Economic
or commercial geography should probably be regarded as the basal division of the
treatment. The streams of commodities over the face of the earth, considered as
an element in human environments, present many analogies to the currents of the
ocean or the winds of the air. Strategical opportunities, also, have a constant action
on communities, in the shape of tempting or threatening possibilities. Political
geography becomes reasonable when the facts are regarded as the resultant in large
measure, of genetic or historical elements, and of such dynamic elements as the
economic and strategic.

This being our conception of geography, it seems not without interest to sketch
our ideal geographer. He is a man of trained imagination, more especially with
the power of visualising forms and movements in space of three dimensions—a
power difficult of attainment, if we are to judge by the frequent use of telluria and
models. He has an artistic appreciation of land forms, obtained, most probably, by
pencil study in the field; he is able to depict such forms on the map, and to read
them when depicted by others, as a musician can hear music when his eyes read
a silent score; he can visualise the play and the conflict of the fluids over and
around the solid forms; he can analyse an environment, the local resultant of

746 REPORT—1895.

world-wide systems; he can picture the movements of communities driven by
their past history, stopped and diverted by the solid forms, conditioned in a thousand
ways by the fluid circulations, acting and reacting on the communities around ; he
can even visualise the movement of ideas and of words as they are carried along
the lines of least resistance. In his cartographic art he possesses an instrument of
thought of no mean power. It may or may not be that we can think without words,
but certain it is that maps can save the mind an infinitude of words. A map
may convey at one glance a whole series of generalisations, and the comparison
of two or more maps of the same region, showing severally rainfall, soil, relief,
density of population, and other such data, will not only bring out causal relations,
but also reveal errors of record; for maps may be both suggestive and critical.
With his visualising imagination and his facile hand, our ideal geographer is well
equipped, whether he devote himself to a branch of geography or to other fields of
energy. As a cartographer he would produce scholarly and graphic maps; as
a teacher he would make maps speak; as an historian or biologist he would insist
on the independent study of environment instead of accepting the mere obiter dicta
of the introductory chapters of histories and text-books ; aud as a merchant, soldier,
or politician he would exhibit trained grasp and initiative when dealing with
practical space-problems on the earth’s surface. There are many Englishmen who
possess naturally these or compensating powers, but England would be richer if
more of such men, and others besides, had a real geographical training.

Let us consider for a moment the methods of organisation by which the German
results have been produced. There are two systems of examination important to
geography—the philosophical doctorate of the Universities, and the facultas docendi
of the State, Candidates for the doctorate present three subjects, one major and
two minor, selected according to the taste or requirements of the student. Young
geographers usually present themselves in geography as major, and in history and
geology as minor subjects. The State examination for the facultas docendi is of
greater severity and of more general effect, in that every secondary teacher must
hold the Government qualification in the subjects he teaches. As long ago as the
time of Mr, Keltie’s report, a single professor, Wagner of Gottingen, had
examined in geography 200 candidates for the facultas docendi, It is a conse-
quence of this system that at the last meeting of the Deutsche Geographentag
there was an attendance of 500 members, mostly specialist teachers of geography ;
and, as a further consequence, there is a market for good maps in the German-
speaking lands, whereas in England, reformers are constantly daunted by the fact
that the public actually prefers the bad to the good. English specialists are almost
invariably compelled to use German maps. -

In most German Universities there is now a Geographical Institute, possessed
of lecture-rooms and work-rooms, with appliances and collections; and the
teaching combines lecture, seminar, cartographical exercise, written thesis, and
field practice. At Vienna, for instance, there are two professors of geography
in joint charge of an institute founded in 1885. ‘he institute has a yearly sub-
vention from the State, and in ]891 had a library of 2,400 volumes, the necessary
globes and telluria, and an equipment of instruments for observation and carto-
graphy, besides 131 wall maps, 27 relief models, 135 diagrams, 370 typical views
( Characterbilder), 1,200 photographs, 148 bound atlases, and about 5,000 separate
maps. There were also a collection of rock-specimens, used more especially to
convey the necessary geological ideas to the Histortker (who form a majority of
the students), and a series of typical school-books and school atlases for the
benefit of teachers. Professor Penck remarks that the neighbourhood of Vienna
is in itself an admirable laboratory for every department of geography. It should
be carefully noted that the University Institutes compete neither with geographice)
societies nor with public libraries, in that books and specimens of rare or unique
character are excluded from the collections, which are solely for the use of the
students of the institute.

In England geography has no appreciable position in degree-examinations ;
there are no examinations at all for the post of secondary teacher, nor
is there anywhere in the land anything really comparable to the German

. a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 74.7

Geographical Institute. Since 1869 the Royal Geographical Society has made
repeated efforts to alter the situation, and it would be an error not to recognise that
we are on the upward gradient. The Society’s policy has been embodied chiefly in
four measures—the offer of medals to the great public schools; the appointment of
an inspector to report on foreign geographical teaching; the foundation of lecturer-
ships in the universities, and the institution of a system of training for explorers.
After sixteen years of trial the medals were discontinued on the ground that they
affected only a few schools, and even in those schools only a few pupils. Out of a
total of 62 medals awarded, no fewer than 30 fell to two schools ; a noteworthy fact,
as indicating at once the power and the rarity of skilled and enthusiastic geo-
graphical teaching. The most significant result of Mr. Keltie’s report, and of the
exhibition of specimens collected by him and now deposited with the Teachers’
Guild in Gower Street, has been a general improvement in school text~books and
maps, as seen particularly in some of the better elementary schools and training
colleges. The university lecturerships have been effective only at Oxford for a suf
ficient time to judge of results. There, a considerable class of historical students
attend lectures in geography twice a week, but are not likely to give the time
necessary for more thorough study without the stimulus of examination. None
the Jess, students who have heard lectures are gradually spreading geographical
ideas, and the mere existence of the lecturerships is a valuable admission that the
study is oneof University rank. The classes for explorers have been conspicuously
successlul, and are probably the best of their kindin the world. But here we are
dealing with those arts of observation in which, as already remarked, Englishmen
excel.

With the example of Germany before us, with partial success to encourage
us, with the interest aroused by the recent Geographical Congress to aid us, and
with the reorganisation of secondary teaching impending, is not this the ripe oppor-
tunity for another, and it may be final effort, to make geography effective in
English education? Ido not deny that there may be several good roads to success,
but I cannot help feeling that our most immediate need is a certain amount of
centralisation. This is so for two reasons. First, because we English geographers
require, above all things, a tradition. We vary so widely in our views, and our
examiners examine so differently, that teachers are at a loss whether to keep to
the old methods or venture on the new. The old classical education still main-
tains its supremacy, mainly because through strong tradition it is workable without
artificial syllabus; it is an organism rather than a machine. German geography,
despite its modern growth, has a tradition, for Germans are all sons in geography
of the ancestral group—Humboldt, Ritter, Berhaus, and Perthes. Secondly, we
need a worthy object lesson, which is attainable under existing circumstances only
by the concentration of funds, and by the co-operation of several leaders,
For no single lecturer, such as the Universities at present maintain, can deal
adequately with all aspects of geography. An historical or classical student listens
to a dozen different teachers at Oxford or Cambridge. Berlin and Vienna have
each of them two professors of geography, besides Docenten. Moreover, a German
student may pass from university to university, and thus correct the limitations
of his teachers, Yet nothing short of a considerable object lesson in England
will bring gencral conviction as to the value and possibilities of geography. Nor
need we fear that when centralisation has done its work, independent and local
initiative will not vary the general tradition. Furthermore, the centralisation should
not be complete. The work in progress at the Universities must not be abandoned.
It will ‘steadily gain importance in proportion as the central body does the work
for which it is designed.

Clearly, if the policy of centralisation be agreed to, there is only one site for the
central school. It must be in London, under the immediate inspiration of that
Royal Geographical Society, whose past services to the cause would be a guarantee
of support during the early efforts. But geographers must associate with
themselves experts in education, if they are to avoid certain rocks which have
knocked many a hole into the geographical projects of the past, and if public
bodies and private individuals are to be moved to financial generosity. The beginning

748 REPORT—1895.

might be on a relatively small scale, but must not be too small for completeness.
Theory, both on the scientific and historical sides, must be represented, and each of
the three geographical arts. As regards observation nothing better could be asked
than association with the admirable classes already existing. Cartography would
be needed not only to supply the English map trade with an occasional Petermann,
but especially that all serious students of the school might learn the ways of
the geographical workshop. Teaching would naturally be associated with the various
secondary and elementary training colleges. A certain number of university men
might be tempted by the offer of a diploma to interpose a geographical year between
the university and the master’s desk; for head masters would probably be only
too glad to give the teaching of geography into the hands of specialists, provided
these were men of university culture, able to be of general service in school-work,
and provided also there was adequate guarantee that they were experts. There
would, in addition, be a system of evening classes for teachers and clerks, and thus,

while the school would render obvious and direct service to six millions of people, —

the staff would gain strength from the sense of a generally diffused trust in them.
The school would in no way duplicate the Geographical Society, while its staff
would contribute an element of trained experts to the newly established afternoon
meetings.

I launch this scheme, not with any fixed idea on the subject, for I would willingly
abandon it in favour of another shown to be better, but because I am convinced
that now is a great opportunity, and that a definite plan, even if it should prove
unworkable, is more likely to provoke discussion and to produce result than mere
negative criticism, which has often been anticipated. As effects of any adequate
scheme, I should hope that, in a few years’ time, geographical examinations would
consistently test not merely memory for small detail, but clearness of apprehension,
breadth of view, and power of statement, whether in word or map; that teachers
would have the knowledge needed for Socratic rather than dogmatic teaching, and
that students of geography would exercise the powers of analysis and composition,
and not merely observe and remember, Geography would then be a subject rather
for the higher than the lower parts of schools, and with the aid of a shelf of the
classics of travel, sixth-form boys would write geographical essays with rapid but
accurate map illustration. Then, the Universities would receive freshmen who,
whether candidates for historical or scientific honours, could express themselves
resourcefully in map and diagram, as well as in language and writing. I speak
from experience when I say that not one undergraduate in thirty has the necessary
equipment for accurate appreciation of space-relations in history, as well as time-
relations. In an age of inevitable but unfortunate specialisation the organising
of another correlating study should not be unwelcome.

Once more, let us emphasise the fact that geography is not the science of all
things. It has been the aim of this address to bring out the specific character of
geography and of the geographer. Nor is it the only important subject in educa-
tion. Its devotees frequently do it harm by excessive claims. Moreover, let us
admit that as geography is now too often taught, and even as it is conceived of in
some circles which pass for geographical, it merits no greater mercy than it re-
ceives at the hands of educationalists. Nor let it be denied that some facts that we
would see taught as geographical are already dealt with in other, and as we think,
less advantageous connections, Lastly, let us beware of extolling the German
example, which happens to be good in geography, to the degree of imputing in-
feriority to the whole system of English education. Let us do full justice to the
position of our opponents, let us humbly benefit by their criticism, and then claim
soberly, but with persistence, that a worthy geography is no pariah among intellec-
tual disciplines. Amid the changes of organisation which are imminent, let us
steadily maintain that the geographical is a distinct standpoint from which to
view, to analyse, and to group the facts of existence, and as such entitled to rank
with the theological or philosophical, the linguistic, the mathematical, the physical,
and the historical standpoints. No intellectual education is complete which does
not offer some real insight from each of these positions.

hn

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 749

The following Papers were read :—

1. On a Journey in Tarhuna and Gharian in Tripoli.
By H. Swainson Cowper, /.S.A.

This short excursion was made with the express purpose of investigating a series
of megalithic ruins, which were known to exist, but of which nothing has been
hitherto known, except brief notices on one or two sites mentioned in the writings
of the travellers Barth and Von Bary. The author travelled first south-west, and
entered the Tarhuna district by the Wadi Doga, which appears never to have been
entered previously by an English traveller. ‘The Wadi Doga is a fine valley about
800 feet above sea-level, surrounded by hills about 800 feet higher, and contains
numerous ancient sites of megalithic temples, some in a fair state of preservation.
Thence the author passed by Kasr Doga, a magnificent Roman monument described
by Barth, on to the Tarhuna plateau, a grassy and partly cultivated plain, twenty-
five miles from east to west and of unascertained width. Here the remains were
even more numerous than in Wadi Doga, there being hardly a hillock on the sum-
mit of which the remains of one of these megalithic temples could not be found.
Mr. Cowper camped on this plain with the family of his guide, and was throughout
treated with hospitality by the Tarhuni Arabs. These people are pastoral Arabs
of pure race, rigid Mussulmans, but apparently not fanatically inclined towards
Christians. They live in rows of tents during the winter, and in wattle huts
among their crops during summer. Some of them inhabit underground chambers
dug in the soil below the level of the ground.

Leaving the Tarhuna plateau, the author rode north-east, and crossing the
Wadi Daun (which with two smaller Wadis which join it are full of Roman ruins
and crossed at frequent intervals by Roman dams) he reached the foot of Jebel
Msid, lying at the east end of a wide and beautiful valley called Kseia. Having
examined the ancient sites here, he retraced his steps to the Tarhuna plateau, which
he crossed to the south-west, and entered a country of more mountainous character.
These hills are partly in Tarhuna and partly in Gharian, and his route was crossed
at frequent intervals by important watercourses running north towards the coast.
The country, like the Tarhuna plateau, is nearly treeless, and in March very
poorly supplied with water. A fewcrumbling ruins, probably of Roman date, cap
the hills, but the megalithic sites are comparatively rare. Houses in Gharian are,
as in Tarhuna, unknown, except at the Kasr, where there are Turkish troops.

Throughout the district game of any sort is most rare, nothing being seen
except quails, partridges, a few hares, and a wild cat. After crossing the Wadis
Bir el War and Gethathet Dum, the author arrived at Wadi el Ghan, a southern
prolongation of the important Wadi Haera, which leads straight to Tripoli. The
scenery down this Wadi is very fine, as it runs between grand cliffs of limestone
and sandstone, and at one place there is a fine hill of ferruginous clay.

Emerging from the mountains, the author passed a curious isolated group ot
hills lying on the plain like islands, and from this point a two days’ journey across
the plain brought him to Tripoli.

2. On Rockall. By Miter Curisty.

3. On Western Siberia and the Siberian Railway. By Dr. A. Marxkorr.

750 REPORT—1895.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

The following Papers were read :—

1. A Voyage to the Antarctic Sea. By C. EK. BORCHGREVINK.

More than half a century ago Sir James Clark Ross discovered the South
Victoria Continent.

Nobody had visited those southern shores until last year, when the whaler
‘ Antarctic’ forced her way through the ice-fields and ran into that large ice-free
bay which stretches from Cape Adare down to the voleanoes Hrebus and Terror.
It seems strange that fifty-four years should have elapsed without any attempt
having been made to finish that work which was so bravely commenced by an
illustrious Briton. The more strange does this fact seem as the journals of the
Erebus and the Terror tell about vast new and promising fields for science and
commerce.

The recent antarctic expedition was a commercial one, and it was com-
mercially a failure because we did not find the black or ‘right’ whale, so valuable
for its whalebone.

The ‘ Antarctic’ was fitted out for the hunt of that particular kind of whale,
but I have nevertheless no doubt that the commercial result of the recent expedi-
tion would have been much better had we worked under more favourable
auspices.

I by no means consider the fact of our not having met with ‘right’ whales in
those seas as a proof of their not existing in the bay at South Victoria Land. It
would seem to be incredible that Sir James Clark Ross made a mistake as to the
existence of this valuable whale in southern latitudes.

Of great commercial importance are the guano beds which we discovered, and
which ought to be well worth the attention of enterprising men of business.

From the analysis of specimens of rocks which I brought back from the main-
land, the presence of valuable minerals on the continent is proved, although the
lava flows and volcanic aspect of the coast-line do not speak favourably for the
presence of heavy metals near the surface. The discovery of a brownish grey
mica schist, evidently a very ancient sedimentary rock converted by heat and
pressure operating through a long period of time into its present schistose and
crystalline condition, together with the presence of ‘ granolite,’ indicates the possi-
bility of finding ore deposits, and is strongly in favour of a probable continuity
of land from Victoria Land across the south pole to Graham Land. Somewhat
similar schistose rocks are known to occur in the South Shetlands, south-east
from Cape Horn.

The specimens from Possession Island are entirely composed of volcanic rocks.
They are chiefly fragments of what seems to be a basaltic rock apparently
belonging to flows of two different ages. The fragments belonging to the older
flow show evidence of the lava having been much frothed up by steam escaping
from its pores. It is of a reddish to pinkish brown tint. The newer lava is more
dense and is of a blackish grey colour. It is, however, impossible to describe
these rocks in detail until microscopic sections of them are completed.

An investigation of the origin and consequences of the north-east current
which we experienced in the Victoria Bay is of great interest. When we look
upon the phenomena which cause and accompany the great currents of the ocean
in the northern hemisphere, we are justified in anticipating that also in the
southern hemisphere similar phenomena occur.

The meteorology of the antarctic circle might throw a valuable light on the
origin of oceanic currents ; and it is not improbable that the warm current in the
bay at Victoria Land plays a similar, if even an inferior, part in the southern
hemisphere to that of the Gulf Stream in the northern.

The constant light pressure of the air within both the arctic and the antarctic
circles seems remarkable. There is probably a similar movement from and towards

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 751

the pole in the air as there is in the water, so that there is constantly a rush of
cold air from the pole towards the equator, and this, combined with the slow
movements of the globe, with its air so near the axis of rotation, would form the
chief cause of this low pressure.

AJl through our voyage the westerly winds were predominant, but gradually
decreased in strength as we drew south of the Roaring Forties. In noting the
strength of winds, Sir James Ross’s scale 0 to 12 was used. The strongest winds
were noticed before we entered the antarctic circle, and not before we returned to
the Forties again was wind of force 12 observed. We experienced then a very
furious gale of distinctly cyclonic character, turning spirally from north-west to
south, and reaching its maximum strength from the south. We had to use oil to
protect the ship from the furious breakers, All the time spent in the bay at
Victoria Land we experienced light southerly to south-easterly winds, and not once
a wind of strength above 5. From the formation of the snow peaks I should
think that the westerly winds prevail on the plateaux, and, should this be the case,
a land expedition would be greatly assisted in returning from the south magnetic
pole towards the bay by the use of sails on the sledges. Our heaviest snowfall
was experienced just before we entered the icefields on our return. On the night
of January 25, in latitude 69°, when the air was one dense white mass of snow,
the wind being once up to 10 in strength, and surrounded by icebergs, our position
was far from safe. Although the thermometer did not fall below 380° F., it was a
cold and anxious watch in the crow’s nest.

We always observed the reflection of the icefields in the air, and we were thus
warned from far off, even of the presence of a narrow stream of ice or of an ice-
berg; this ice blink and the presence of the Procellaria nivea never deceived us.
When the swell is heavy in the icepack, it is often very difficult to ascertain
from which side the swell comes, and as difficult as this is, so is it important, for
the safety of the ship depends upon a right judgment in these emergencies. When
the huge ice masses begin to move and screw and press on the sides of the vessel,
which rises and falls in the heavy swell, there is but one escape—namely, to work
the vessel into the fields away from the side from which the gale blows.

Birds of the snipe family were discovered at the Campbell Island. Nests of
the black-bellied storm-petrel were found on the rocks of Victoria Land, which is,
therefore, the home of this hardy petrel. The white petrel, the Procedlaria nivea,
seemed also to nest at Cape Adare, where it lived in peace with the penguins.
The penguins on Possession Island, and on the mainland, were all distinctly dif-
ferent from those seen at the Campbell Island.

The northern penguins, rock-hopper penguin (Eudyptes saltator), were all
crested, that is to say, they had over each eye a tuft of long yellow feathers, which
gives them an appearance of Mephistopheles in miniature, and their hoarse scream
just suits their peculiar look.

The penguins which we met in the pack on Possession Island, and on the
mainland, were the short-bellied penguin (Eudyptes adelie), Four specimens of
Aptenodytes Forstert, the large, lonely penguin, were secured. They had several
pounds of pebbles in their stomachs.

It was noticed that the plumage of birds gradually changed into lighter colours
as we drew southwards.

Four kinds of seals were seen—the white seal; the sea-leopard ; the earless
seal; and the common grey seal.

The difference in the formation of arctic and antarctic ice is known to be very
great. While the northern bergs mostly consist of a large ice mass running up in
numberless towers and arches resembling the very mountain peaks which sur-
rounded the glaciers which gave rise to them, the antarctic bergs are solid masses
of floating ice with perpendicular walls, and an unbroken plateau on the top.

All the bergs showed distinctly whether they were broken from the large
southerly barrier, or were discharged from the glaciers of South Victoria Continent.
All the barrier bergs had very distinct blue lines across their walls, indicating
their annual growth by snowfall; these lines were, of course, not to be found on
the glacier ice, which showed more likeness to the northern ice than did the

752 REPORT—1895.

former. The peaks and towers of the arctic icebergs are supposed to have been
formed by the influence of ocean-currents wearing away the softer part of the ice
mass under water until the natural action of gravitation causes them to upset. But
why have the antarctic icebergs a different form, for there are great currents in
the antarctic waters? And icebergs which have reached as far north as the south
of New Zealand maintain this antarctic character. I can see no other reason for
this dissimilarity between the bergs of the north and those of the south, but that
the arctic icebergs as a rule must pass through climates which in temperature
rapidly change from one extreme to another, and that they take much longer time
in floating southwards than the antarctic icebergs do in moving northwards.

2. The Oceanography of the North Sea. By H. N. Dickson, F.R.S.E.

This paper gives some account of recent physical work in the North Atlantic,
the North Sea and the Baltic, in which the Swedish, German, Danish, Norwegian
and British Governments have co-operated. ‘The surface phenomena at different
seasons are discussed, a special report on that section of the joint work having been
drawn up by the author.

The importance of further research, especially in the interests of our fishing
industries, is pointed out, and an international scheme, due to Professor Pettersson
of Stockholm, described.

3. Oceanic Circulation. By Dr. Joun Murray, F.R.S.£.

4. The Maps used by Herodotus. By J. L. Myrus, WA.

The geographical digressions in the History of Herodotus are intended to
supply the place of an atlas, and can be partially reinterpreted into pictorial form.
That such pictorial maps were used, even before Herodotus’s time, is clear from
v. 49. Herodotus’s descriptions are intentionally diagrammatic, and only give
skeleton-outlines, on which the details are understood to be filled in. The general
proportions are indicated, not by formal latitude and longitude (ascribed to
Eratosthenes), but (1) by lists of places which are in the same straight line (ii. 34,
iv. 181 ff.), and by columns of names which run up and down or across the map
(iv. 87, v. 49), which is thus subdivided into rectangular areas (iv. 37, 99), or parallel
strips (iv. 181); (2) by the presumption that a general symmetry is maintained in
the distribution of land and water N. and S. of a natural ‘ equator’ (ii. 26, 33;
iii. 115; iv. 36, 37).

This ‘equator’ is indicated in two different real-latitudes in the different
digressions, and these two ‘equators’ are associated with different principal
N. and 8. meridians.

Hence we may infer that Herodotus used two distinct maps based upon inde-
pendent traditions and explorations, each best adapted to illustrate a different
section—namely, the Greek and the Persian ‘halves’ of the known world—but
not consistent with one another in the parts where they overlap.

A. The Ionian navigating-chart of the Mediterranean and Euxine: an early
edition is used by Aristagoras of Miletos in v.49, Its principal meridian lies
through the mouth of the Nile, the Cilician Gates, Sinope, and the mouth of
the Danube ; its ‘equator’ is the line of the Royal Road, extended from Miletos
on the Meander to the ford of the Euphrates, produced westwards through the
Pillars of Herakles, and eastwards (a) by Aristagoras, down the Choaspes con-
ceived as flowing east, past Susa into the Eastern Ocean; (6) by Herodotus him-
self superimposed on the Pactyas equator of Map B.

B. The chart founded on Pheenician and other Oriental sources, and completed
by Skylax of Karyanda, as a survey for Darius of the Persian empire. Principal
meridian: a line of nationalities from the mouth of the Choaspes to the mouth of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, Gis

the Phasis (iv. 87) taken as parallel with the Euphrates-Tigris basin, and perhaps
representing the meridian either of Susa or of Ecbatana. Irom this project west-
ward two promontories—Asia Minor and Arabia—washed respectively on their
outward sides by the Euxine and the ‘ Red Sea.’ Arabia ‘in theoretical geography
leaves off’ at the Isthmus of Suez, as Asia Minor does at the Dardanelles, but is
‘ practically found to be continuous’ with Libya (iv.39). Between the Peninsulze
lies the ‘ Mediterranean’ Sea, with Cyprus in its axis (cf. v. 49); the Equator
bisects the Mediterranean from the Pillars of Herakles, through Cyprus, to the
Pheenician coast; thence (probably through Ecbatana) down the Pactyas river
(perhaps the Ganges) into the Eastern Ocean. The southern coast line of Asia is
determined by the voyage of Skylax (iv. 44); the northern is inferred thence by
symmetry, and accommodated to the known Caspian (iv. 40).

The current controversy as to the frontiers of the continents refers also to these
same maps (iv. 36, 39, 41, 45, 197), and to the map of Hecataeus (iv. 45), and is
explained, together with the distortion of the eastern half of the known world, by
the difficulty of apportioning a circular world among three traditionally equal
continents, one of which, Libya, has since been determined to occupy only one
quadrant of the circle, and to be bounded by the 8S. half meridian and the W.
half equator, while the opposite quadrant remains still practically unknown.

5. On the Sixth International Geographical Congress, London, 1895.
By Masor Leonarp Darwin, Sec. 2.GS.

A short historical account of the Congress may be usefully included in the
proceedings of the Section, so as to make them a complete record of the scientific
ear.
- Five international geographical congresses have been held in various European
centres during the last twenty-five years, but this is the first time that this inter-
national gathering has assembled in England. The Royal Geographical Society
took the initiative in the matter of organisation, and the President of the Royal
Geographical Society, Mr. Clements Markham, was, according to precedent,
nominated President of the Congress, Mr. J. S. Keltie and Dr. H. R. Mill being
appointed Secretaries. An exhibition was arranged in connection with the Con-
gress which, whilst it entailed much labour on Mr. Ravenstein, Mr. Coles, and
Mr. Thomson, who organised it, proved an attractive feature of the meeting.

The Congress was formally opened on the evening of Friday, July 26, by H.R.H.
the Duke of York, one of the honorary presidents. On the following day the
President delivered his opening address, in which he reviewed the present position
of geographical science. In the afternoon two sections met. The question of
surveying by photography was dealt with in one section, whilst in the other a
very interesting discussion on education took place. Professor EK. Levasseur dis-
cussed the French educational system, and pointed out the desirability of making
geography less a matter of memory, which could only be done by making it em-
brace a wider area of thought. Dr. Lehmann and Mr. Herbertson advocated higher
training for geographical teachers, the latter pointing out that instruction in
geography in England in secondary schools was even in a worse position than in
primary schools. Mr, H. J. Mackinder, in opening the discussion, showed that in
England we are far behind both France and Germany in University and in secon-
dary geographical training, and suggested the establishment of a geographical
institute in London. Mr. H. Yule Oldham spoke in favour of the development of
geography at Oxford and Cambridge. A small committee drafted the following
resolution, which was afterwards adopted by the Congress : ‘The attention of this
International Congress having been drawn by the British members to the educa-
tional efforts being made by the British Geographical Societies, the Congress de-
sires to express its hearty sympathy with such efforts, and to place on record its
opinion that in every country provision should be made for higher education in

geography, either in the Universities or otherwise.’

Monday, July 30, was devoted in great part to the polar regions, Dr. G,
1895. 30

754: REPORT—1895.

Neumayer dwelt on the great scientific advantages of antarctic research, especi-
ally with regard to terrestrial magnetism. He urged international co-operation as
the only means for securing adequate results. In the discussion which followed, '
he was supported by the great weight of the authority of Sir Joseph Hooker and
Dr. John Murray, and a resolution advocating the necessity of antarctic explora-
tion by an expedition before the close of the present century was unanimously
passed by the Congress. Arctic travel was discussed, the first two papers being by
Admiral A. H. Markham and General Greely. Herr S. A. Andrée’s bold pro-
posal to reach the north pole by means of a balloon attracted most attention. His
scheme consists in filling a balloon at some convenient spot within the arctic circle,
and then waiting fora favourable wind before setting forth. Experiments made by
him have proved that, by the aid of drag ropes and sails, balloons can be made to
deviate from the direction of the wind as much as 27° on an average, and he
pointed out that the arctic regions were especially favourable for such operations
because of the equable temperature, the absence of gales, and the nature of the
surface of the ground.

The sections which met in the afternoon were concerned with physical geo-
graphy and geodesy. Papers were read on the Modification of the Normandy
Coasts, by M. 8. Lennier, and on the Periodic Variations of French Glaciers, by
Prince Roland Bonaparte. In the geodesy section, M. Charles Lallemand gave some
account of the work of the French surveys, and papers were read by General J. T.
Walker, Colonel Holdich, Mr. de Smidt, and Dr. Gill, on the geodetic work of the
Indian and Cape of Good Hope Survey Departments.

On Tuesday the general meeting of the Congress was devoted to receiving
reports on matters referred from the last Congress. The most important subject
was Professor Penck’s proposed map of the world. The report of the Commission”
was unanimously adopted by the Congress. It stated that the production of a map
of the earth is exceedingly desirable ; that a scale of 1 : 1,000,000 is especially
suited for that purpose; and that the meridian of Greenwich and the metre be
accepted for this map. The last statement is of peculiar importance in having the
warm support of the French members of the Commission.

Professor Briickner presented a Report on a Scheme for an International Bibli-
ography of Geography, and a resolution was passed, remitting to the Bureau of
the Congress the study of this question. Mr, Frank Campbell read a paper, in
which he proposed that each Government should annually issue a proper register
of the literature of that country issued during the year in a form suitable to the
requirements of bibliography; and a resolution dealing with this subject was
passed—‘ That this Congress expresses its approval of the principle of State Printed
Registration of Literature as the true foundation of National and International
Bibliography, and approves the appointment of an International Committee to
further the said object; the constitution of the committee to rest with the Bureau
of the International Geographical Congress.’

The sectional meetings were devoted to oceanography and geographical ortho-
graphy and definitions; and a resolution was passed—‘ That an International Com-
niittee be appointed to determine how far agreement can be arrived at as to the
mode of writing foreign names.’

On Wednesday the question as to ‘ How far is tropical Africa suitable for de-
velopment by white races ?’ was raised and produced a most interesting debate.
Sir John Kirk commenced by reading a paper in which he distinguished between
areas where true colonisation might be possible, and areas where white men might
reside temporarily to superintend the labour of natives. After discussing fully the.
conditions necessary to render colonisation possible, he expressed the belief that
there existed in tropical Africa considerable areas where the climate was such as to
enable Europeans to become indigenous, and where the conditions as to health were
probably not prohibitive, though on this latter point information was scanty. He
believed that the experiment would be first tried in British South-East Africa,
and also suggested Nyasaland as a possible field. A keen debate followed, in which
Count Pfeil, Mr. Hl. M. Stanley, Mr. Ravenstein, Mr. Silva White, M. Lionel
Decle, Major Baker, Captain Hinde, M. J. Vincent, Dr. Bassaria, Captain Amaral,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 7995

Dr. Sambon, Dr. Murie and Mr. Louis took part. Slatin Pasha also gave an
interesting account of his escape from the Sudan. Later in the day General Chap-
man read a paper on the Mapping of Africa, and a committee having been ap-
esi to consider the question, the following resolutions were carried unanimously
y the Congress at a later meeting :
‘That it is desirable to bring to the notice of the Geographical Societies
interested in Africa the advantages to be gained :—

(1) By the execution of accurate topographical surveys based on a sufficient
triangulation of the districts in Africa suitable for colonisation by
Europeans.

(2) By encouraging travellers to sketch areas rather than mere routes.

(3) By the formation and publication of a list of all the places in unsurveyed
Africa, which have been accurately determined by astronomical obser-
vations, with explanations of the methods employed.

(4) By the accurate determination of the position of many of the most important
places in unsurveyed Africa, for which operation the lines of telegraph
already erected, or in course of erection, afford great facilities.’

Only one section met in the afternoon, at which Professor Pettersson’s scheme
for further international work in the North Sea was considered. A resolution to
the following effect was passed by the Congress on its last day of meeting:

‘That the Congress recognises the scientific and economic importance of the
results of recent research in the Baltic, the North Sea, and the North Atlantic,
especially with regard to fishing interests, and records its opinion that the survey
of these areas should be continued and extended by the co-operation of the different
nationalities concerned, on the lines of the scheme presented to the Congress by
Professor Pettersson,’

On Thursday, Mr. C. E. Borchgrevink read an interesting paper, in which he
described his antarctic voyage. Professor Kan then read a paper on New Guinea,
and Mr. Lindsay discussed future exploration in Australia. One of the sectional
meetings was devoted to cartography ; Professor Elisée Reclus reading a paper on
a proposed terrestrial globe on the scale of 1: 100,000. In the other section, Dr.
Naumann compared the fundamental lines of Anatolia and Central Asia, and Mr.
Henry G. Bryant gave an account of observations on the most northern Eskimo,
chiefly made during the Peary Relief Expedition.

Friday’s papers were of interest mainly to specialists. The general session dealt
chiefly with ancient maps, a paper by Baron Nordenskiéld being presented by the
President, and a very valuable discussion of the origin of the sea-mile, given by
Professor H. Wagner. The sections had papers on speleology and mountain
structure, and on the geographical nomenclature and the morphology of the earth,
by Professor Penck.

On Saturday only one paper was read, by General Annenkoff, on the importance
of geography in the present agricultural and economical crisis. A series of resolu-
tions, drawn up by the various committees or submitted by private individuals,
were put to the meeting. The President then delivered a short concluding address,
and dissolved the Congress.

Experience had shown that if the Congress were divided intoa large number of
sections, papers would be brought forward dealing with points of detail, and larger
questions, which alone ought to be considered on such an occasion, would not
receive a proper amount of attention. The plan was therefore adopted of having
a morning meeting of the whole Congress, and in the afternoon having only two
sectional meetings. During the time when the Congress.was being organised a
limited number of subjects were especially selected as being suitable for treatment
at great international gatherings, and a number of gentlemen were approached to
ascertain whether they would be willing to read papers thereon. ‘I'hese special
papers formed the basis of the work of the meeting.

A consultative body was appointed at the Congress consisting of all the
acting Vice-Presidents, gentlemen nominated as representing all countries and as
especially qualified to consider every geographical subject. This consultative

3¢2

756 REPORT—1895.

body reported to the Congress its opinion with regard to every question about to
be submitted to it, and this opinion carried so much weight that the views of the
Vice-Presidents were in every case accepted by the Congress as a whole.

Another useful innovation is the resolution that the officers of each Inter-
national Geographical Congress are to retain their duties until the meeting of the
next Congress. The Congress only meets once in three or four years, and in the
interval there has been no authority charged with the duty of seeing that the
resolutions passed are carried out. Continuity of action is now secured.

The total number attending the Congress was about 1,500, of whom about 600
were foreigners, including most of the professors of geography in the world. The
bringing together of so many workers in one science was, in all probability, one of
the most beneficial effects of the Congress, and plenty of independent evidence
could be brought forward to show how much our foreign guests appreciated our
efforts to entertain them.

The Congress has never met in Germany, and it was decide that the next
meeting should be held in Berlin in the year 1899.

6. On the Cosmosphere: an instrument combining the Terrestrial and
Celestial Globes for the purpose of demonstrating Astronomical-Geogra-
phical Phenomena and Navigational Problems. By W. B. BuarKte.

The cosmosphere is a form of globe in which the celestial sphere is a trans-
parent film mounted with an independent motion outside the terrestrial sphere and
concentric with it. The two spheres are connected with a floating horizon auto-
matically adjusting itself to any latitude to be examined, thereby showing the
student the actual apparent motions of the heavenly bodies from the standpoint of
the observer; it also enables him, by measuring from the zenith and the horizon,
to see and practise the problems in geodesy and navigation which have to be
solyed by travellers and navigators.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. An Eapedition to Ruwenzort. By G. F. Scorr Exnior, J/.A.

The journey of which this is an account was undertaken with funds partly sup-
plied by the Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society, and partly by
myself.

( The general route which I adopted was as follows :—

I left Mombasa in November 1893, and travelled up to Kampala, Uganda, by
the ordinary route. I was unable to visit Elgon, and obliged to remain a month
in Kampala on account of the war with Kabbarega which was then in progress.
During this time Captain Gibb, Acting Administrator, entertained me with the
very greatest kindness. After a month’s delay, there seemed to be no chance of
definite news from Unyoro, so I passed down through Buddu to the Kagera, which
I was anxious to visit. JI crossed this river at Kitangule and followed its course
for six or seven days westwards. I then struck across Ankole to Ruwenzori.

After four months spent on the mountain, I turned southwards again, reaching
the Kagera river at Latoma. I followed it as nearly as I could manage across
Karagwe and then turned across Urundi and Bugufu towards Tanganyika, which

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. To?

I reached in September. I came down Tanganyika in an Arab dhow, and after-
wards crossed the Stevenson Road and arrived in the Shiré Highlands, eventually
emerging from the continent at Chinde, the mouth of the Zambesi.

The earlier part of the journey was over very well known ground, and I shall
therefore begin by trying to point out the relative position of Ruwenzori, which
was the objective point of the expedition.

It rises in a very isolated fashion out of an area which is depressed relatively
to the Victoria region plateau. The levels of the Albert Edward Nyanza and
Semiliki Valley are both lower than that of the Victoria Nyanza, which is the
lowest portion of the granite plateau usually called Uganda.

Ruwenzori is 16,500 feet in height. Dr. Gregory, in a paper to be published
in the Journal of the Geological Society, has pointed out grounds for supposing
that it is a ‘scholl’mountain. The central core, of which I brought home a speci-
men, has been, in a sense, forced through the schists, which I found to dip away
from it in all directions.

It is allowable to suppose that this process resulted in lines of crack or weakness.
I found along what may be supposed to be lines of weakness of this kind a series
of relatively recent volcanic craters and crater lakes. The most important is that
which has produced the division of the Albert Edward into the Nyanza proper and
Lake Ruisamba. The Salt Lake and four other craters belong to this line, which
is approximately south-east. There is another running south-west, and along the
eastern side one finds at least two others; one, at Vijongo, is in a north-easterly
direction, whilst the other is nearly due east from Kyatwa and Butanuka.

These have all had the most important effect on the geography of the country
round the mountain, but this cannot be clearly shown without a large-scale map.
The recent volcanic area also extends across the Albert Edward and occupies a
stretch of its eastern shore.

It seems strange that the mountain escaped notice so long, but it is obviously
the ‘ Blue Mountains’ of Sir S. Baker and the ‘mountains of Usongora’ which recur
frequently in Emin Pasha’s letters.

The reason is probably the way in which it is frequently covered with clouds.
At about 10 .m. thick clouds usually hang at an average level of 7,000 feet to
11,009 feet, though they are much lower in the narrower valleys. As the morning
advances, they gradually ascend, and may vanish altogether at about 5.30 p.w. In
fact, before 6.30 P.m., or occasionally just about sunrise, it is most unusual to see
the summit except from a very great distance.

The vegetation follows the average movement of this cloud belt. From 5,000
to 7,000 feet the surface is covered by shrubs and cultivation. The true mountain
forest begins at 7,000 feet, and extends to 8,600 feet. From 8,600 to 10,000 or
11,000 feet is a bamboo jungle; and from the latter level to 15,000 feet is a
heather zone.

The forest is very dense, full of creepers, and with occasionally very fine timber.
Sometimes it contains tree ferns, and is extremely similar to the wet forests of
the Congo.

Mammal and birds are scarce. Bush buck may be seen occasionally, and there
are Cercopithecus n. sp., Colobus, probably a new species, various squirrels, Galago,
ete., but all are unusual. Butterflies also are particularly scarce.

The bamboo region is always extremely cold and wet, and climbing i is exces-
sively difficult and uncomfortable.

The ground in the heather region is mainly a wet and soft peatmoss. Amongst
this are masses of Viola Abyssinica (which | saw visited by a new species of Ar-
gynnis, A. Llhoti Butler), Cerastium Africanum, Epilobium sp., Cardamine sp.,
and Hypericum. There are extremely large-fruited kinds of Rubus, and, in the
more sheltered ravines, enormous trees of Lricinella Johnstone?, as well as arbores-
cent Senecios, Hypericacee, and the extraordinary tree Lobelia.

The mountain is in reality a meeting-place of floras.

The higher altitude plants are probably of Abyssinian origin, and have a very
strong Mediterranean affinity. Those in many of the more humid and wet valleys
at from 6,600 to 7,600 feet are of a distinctly Western type, while in the drier

708 REPORT—1895.

valleys below 5,000 feet one finds species of the Victoria regions, and above that
level plants of Abyssinian affinity or belonging to the Ankole-Karagwe hills.

Besides all these sources, there are on this mountain many endemic forms.

The different races of mankind show a curious analogy to the flora.

The Wahima, which form the nobility of all the eastern side, are a very late
immigration from Abyssinia.

On the western side the Wawamba are certainly very closely related to the
Wanyuema tribes of the Upper Congo; while the Wakondja, in the centre of the
mountain, which are part of the Bantu group (at least, so far as I could tell; I am
not at all sure that they are not different), correspond to the plants of the Ankole
and Karagwe hills.

The Wahima (e.g. such high chiefs as Kasagama and Makwenda, and the much
less mixed villages at Kakaruka and Buhimba) are very distinct from the others,
They have broad, prominent foreheads, small lips, and quite small and occasionally
retreating chins. They are tall and slender in build, and amongst them may be
seen occasionally individuals who have a very Semitic appearance. This race,
coming from Abyssinia, seems to have overcome, and now furnishes the nobility of,
all those tribes which border the Victoria. In the course of my journey I first
met them in Kavirondo, and reached their westward limit on the borders of the
Wawamba. Makowalli’s people and all the tribes south of Latoma on the western
side of the Kagera are not, I think, Wahima, and I do not fancy they ever crossed
the Kagera below that point. In a southward direction I think they stop at
Buhimba and Kakaruka; but beyond these places I did not go and cannot speak
from personal experience. They are easily distinguished from the Bantu races by
their extreme intelligence and disposition. They are treacherous, rather sulky,
and also extremely licentious.

The Wakondja, who haye been conquered by them, are greatly oppressed. I

found them a simple, good-natured and industrious people of the regular negro
type.
The Wawamba in manner, language, and custom, show distinct Wanyuema
affinities. They are different physically from both the preceding races, but I found
them so timid and suspicious that I was quite unable to obtain any exact measure-
ments or learn the language. Unless the Wakondja contain amongst themselves
remnants of a far more primitive race (and I should not be surprised to learn that
this was the case), I do not believe there is an aboriginal people on Ruwenzori.
The distinction I have drawn of three races on the mountain will, however, be
found very marked.

During the four months which I spent on Ruwenzori I suffered greatly from
fever ; but I was able nevertheless to visit pretty thoroughly the Msonje, Yeria,
Wimi, Mubuku, Sebwe and Nyamwamba valleys on the east, and the Butagu on
the west. There are two important rivers on the south whose valleys I had not
time to visit, and on the east the Muhokia and Hima were not investigated. I
constantly attempted to reach the snow, but I never ascended higher than over
15,000 feet, which was in the Nyamwamba. [also nearly reached 13,000 feet on the
Butagu. I did reach the summit of the range near the sources of the Yeria river
on two occasions, but it was only about 11,000 feet at these places.

On my return journey I crossed to Kwa Kaihura and thence through Mpororo,
Karagwe, Bugufu, Urundi to Tanganyika.

2. Report on the Climate of Tropical Africa.—See Reports, p. 480.

3. Three Years’ Travelling and War in the Congo Free State.
By Captain 8. L. Hinve,

In 1891 Captain 8. L. Hinde landed at Boma, and went up the caravan road io
Stanley Pool. After four months’ residence in the neighbourhood of the Pool, part
of which was spent in exploring, he went up to the district of the Lualaba, and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 759

arriving there was immediately ordered to join an exploring expedition to Katanga.
The force consisted of 350 regular soldiers, a Krupp gun, and porters. While on
the road to Katanga they were attacked by Tippo Tib’s slave raiders, under the
command of his son Sefu. After the defeat of Sefu, a general rising of the
Mahometans and the federation of all the branches of Arab slave traders of the
Upper Congo and its tributaries occurred. The war which ensued resulted in
the complete overthrow of the Arab slave trade in equatorial Africa west of Tan-
ganyika. After the war Captain Hinde surveyed the unexplored parts of the
Lualaba and Lukunga, between Kasongo and M’Bulli, connecting the surveys of
Joseph Thomson with those of Stanley and his successors. In these regions the
extreme fertility of the soil is noticeable. Owing to the intense heat, great
moisture, and alluvial soil, all forms of vegetable life grow with an incredible
rapidity. This vast tract of country is intersected by water ways navigable by
steamers for some thousands of miles, and, as can be realised, might easily be
exploited by Europeans. — ;

As a result of the Arab overthrow, the traffic which formerly went down to
Zanzibar from Nyangué and the Lualaba now follows the Congo to Stanley Pool
and the Atlantic. ‘he whole Congo basin must be specially adapted for coffee
growing, as in every part of the forest wild cotfee, of excellent quality, is abundant.
While waiting for the coffee plantations to yield, rubber—which is found every-
where, and which only requires collecting—would be an important source of
wealth.

4. The Progress of the Jackson-Harmsworth North Polar Expedition.
By Artuur Montertiorse, /.G.S., LA.GS.

After dealing with the objects and methods of the expedition, Mr. Montefiore
summarised the advantages of Franz Josef Land as the selected base under the
following heads :—(1) Accessibility in any ordinary year; (2) northward prolonga-
tion of the land; (8) abundance of animal food; (4) the great importance of
having a base on land; (5) the desirability of advancing into the unknown as far
as possible by land ; (6) the opportunity afforded by Franz Josef Land of erecting
depots until the 83rd parallel, at least, had been reached.

The second portion of the paper dealt with the progress of the expedition.
Sailing from London on July 11, 1894, on board the ‘ Windward,’ which had been
purchased by Mr. Harmsworth for arctic work, the expedition arrived at Arkhangel,
where it took on board extra supplies in the way of furs, provender, and Russian
ponies, and whence it sailed on August 5. The ship next called at Habayova, on
Yugorski Schar, for the Siberian dogs to be employed in sledging. Fyom this
point all definite information had, until a few days previously, ceased. But well
credited tidings came from the walrus hunters in Barents Nea, stating that the
* Windward’ had been sighted in the ice about the middle of August, and again
towards the end of that month, steaming up an open lead.

The third portion of the paper described the events of the year which had come
and gone since any news had been received. The arrival of the steam yacht
‘Windward’ at Vardo on September 10, 1895, had enabled the author to give the
members of the British Association a short réswmé of the doings of the expedition.

It appeared, then, that the ‘ Windward’ safely made the south coast of Franz
Josef Land on September 7 ; that on the 10th the heavy labour of discharging the
cargo was begun; and that on the 12th the ship was frozen in for the winter.
This, however, did not prevent the successful landing of the immense quantity of
stores and general equipment, nor the erection of Russian loghouses, folding sheds,
observatory, stables, kennels, &c.

During the winter, throughout which scientific observations were regularly
made, Mr. Jackson and his colleagues shot no fewer than sixty polar bears for the
sustenance of the party. Fresh meat was considered essential to their well-being
‘and as a preventive of scurvy.

The sun returned February 23, 1895, and on March 10 Mr. Jackson began his

760 REPORT—1895.

northward journey. He made two double marches with sledges well laden and
established a depét 81° 20’ N. Returning to his base for more provisions, he found
that the crew, who had wintered on the ship, had been attacked with scurvy. He
did everything that could be done and got the ship under weigh on her homeward
journey by July 3. When the ship left, Mr. Jackson was about to make a third
march inland, and on this occasion he intended to utilise his boats.

The return journey of the ‘ Windward’ was a marvellous instance of arctic
navigation. For sixty-five days she battled with the heavy floe-ice, and, having
consumed nearly all her coals, anything combustible on board was resorted to. The
constant labour and exposure told heavily on the crew, whose behaviour was
above praise. At ]ast—with the loss of three men—she broke out of the ice on
September 6, and safely made the port of Vardo on the 10th.

Thus it will be seen that all the expectations aroused on behalf of the expedi-
tion had, up to date, been fulfilled. Franz Josef Land had been successfully made ;
fresh food had been plentiful ; the base was secure ; advance northward had been
easy and depots were already in existence as far as 81° 20’; and, finally, the ex-
ploring party, with Mr. Jackson at their head, were in sound health and the best
spirits.

5. The Struggle for Existence under Arctic Conditions.
By A. Trevor Bartye.

6. The Port of the Upper Nile in relation to the Highways of Foreign
Trade. By James TURNBULL PLAYFAIR HEATLEY.

To introduce his paper and indicate its aim, Mr. Heatley cites the views of
Sir Charles Wilson from his address at Bath in 1888 on the higher aims of the
Science of Commercial Geography.

He proposes the introduction of the term ‘nodality’ for a commercial centre
on a through line of trade, in accordance with a suggestion of Mr. Mackinder’s in
1889.

He then discusses the relative merits of Alexandria, Sawakin (with Sheikh
Barud), Massawa, Mombasa, Tanga, and Chinde, as ports with their respective
trade routes, and states the case for Akik.

He shows that the Port of Akik is on the best bay of the Red Sea, and
that a line of railway from Alik to Khartum by way of Goz Rejeb is the best
route to bring Khartum and the Upper Nile into commercial relations with
the maritime highways of trade. As the merits of different routes are decided
by the importance of the nodalities which feed the highway of trade, he
points out that the trade of the Habab and the Hagar districts will come to
Akik. The important district of Tokar has been described as the granary of the
Eastern Sudan, and is recognised as its key strategically. Jere will also come
the trade of the Beni Amr tribes from the valleys of the Anseba and the Baraka.
At Filik there is the fertile district of the Gash. From Filik a line of some 50
miles to Kasala will tap the provinces of Taka, Gadarif, Galabat, and Senaar.

He points out that as soon as the line is made to Goz Rejeb, the Port of Akik
is in direct communication with the Upper Nile from June to September, during
which time the Atbara and the Nile at the Sixth Cataract are navigable.

From Akik to Goz Rejeb the distance is from 260 to 280 miles; the highest
part of it is 1,650 feet, with easy grading and no difficulties. To Goz Rejeb as a
nodality, where routes meet from all parts, the trade of the Upper Nile, of
Darfur and Dongola, can come by ship and caravan. But the importance com-
mercially and strategically of Khartum demands the line from Goz Rejeb, a
distance of some 180 miles.

From Khartum the Nile, with some of its tributaries, is navigable for some
1,500 to 1,700 miles. The Blue Nile is navigable for 350 miles; the Sobat for
150 to 300 miles; the Bahr el Ghazal for 400 miles; the Bahr el Arab for 500

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 761

miles. The Nile itself—the Bahr el Abyad and the Bahrel Jebel—is navigable
from Khartum to Kiri, a distance of 1,068 miles.

From Kiri, which is a fine district, and its Nile port, an important nodality, a
line of some 50 miles to the mouth of the Unyama will bring the trade by ship
from the lands in the basin of the Bahr el Jebel, the Victoria Nile, the Albert
Lake, and the Albert Nile.

From the mouth of the Unyama a line will be made up the valley for some
50 miles to Fatiko, which is a fine district, and from Fatiko to Fauvera, some 70
to 80 miles, whence the Victoria Nile is navigable to Urondogani, some 160 to 180
miles.

Thus there is a feasible highway of trade from Usoga, Unyoro, and Uganda,
and most of Kitara to Akik, as the Port of the Upper Nile.

—_—s-
7. Exploration in the Japanese Alps, 1891-94. By the Rev. WALTER
Weston, IZA., F.B.GS.

The two chief mountain systems of Japan, running north-east and south-west
respectively, meet in the centre of Hondo (the main island). Here, where the
country attains its greatest width, the peaks rise to the loftiest heights, and
exhibit the grandest characteristics in the range of the ‘Japanese Alps.’ The
distant view resembles that of the Sierra Nevada of Spain, to which these
mountains correspond in latitude and elevation. The range rises from the Sea
of Japan, about 37° N. latitude, and extends nearly 100 miles southwards,
throwing off spurs east and west. Some of the highest peaks are volcanic,
others are granite; or, as in the case of Yarigatake, the highest (10,500 feet),
hard brecciated porphyry.

Owing to its position, the chain forms a barrier to the Siberian winds after
their passage over the moist atmosphere of the Japan Sea, and causes an extra-
- ordinary snowfall in the winter, sometimes capable of burying whole villages, on
the west side, whilst the east at the same time is comparatively free from snow.

No traces of glacial action have been found, but snow lies in summer as low
as 7,000 feet in various places.

Remarkable solfataras are found on some of the volcanic peaks, notably on
Tateyama, in the north.

At the foot of other mountains mineral springs (usually sulphur or chalybeate)
attract the peasantry by their medicinal properties. In some of these baths people
are said to stay for a month at a time, sitting with a heavy stone on the lap to
prevent them from floating in their sleep.

Several remarkable silver and copper mines have been found on the west side
of the range. Near Hirayu, at a height of 7,000 feet, work is carried on all the
year round, the annual output of copper being said to reach 140,000 lb., and that
of silver 2,500 Ib.

The flora is remarkable both for variety and extent.

Alpine plants are found near the summits, whilst lower down the flanks of
the chain show many English wild flowers side by side with our favourite orna-
mental plants, in addition to others which are quite strangers to us.

Magnificent lilies (awratum, tigrinum, &e.), Lychnis grandiflora, Hydrangeas,
Tris, &c., give gorgeous colouring to the lower slopes. Stately cypress forests
abound, and on the west side the Japanese yew, celebrated for the beauty of its
red-grained timber, is found, usually, however, as a scattered shrib. The
mulberry tree is extensively grown on the east and west sides, the silkworm
culture being a very widespread industry.

The fauna includes black bears, boars, chamois, badgers, hares (which turn white
in winter), flying squirrels, &c.

The writer has also met with the golden eagle, ptarmigan, black-and-white
crow, and a nightingale with a very sweet full note.

The giant salamander has occasionally been found, especially in the south-
west of the range.

The clear mountain streams abound in trout.

762 REPORT—1895.

Although travel in these wild regions is very rough, still the people dwelling
on the outskirts of the main chain are kind, polite, and hospitable to a decree.
Many of their customs and superstitions are very curious. They hold a strong
belief in the power of foxes, badgers, wasps, &c., to ‘ possess’ human beings, of
which the writer has had odd personal experiences.

In times of drought strange ceremonies, sometimes accompanied by sacrifices,
are performed on some of the mountain tops with the object of obtaining rain.

Ontake, an extinct volcano to the south of the range, 10,000 feet high, is, next
to Fujisan, the loftiest sacred mountain in Japan. Pilgrims visit it every summer
to practise a sort of hypnotic trance called Aami-oroshi, or * bringing down the
gods.’ Through the intervention of a skilled ‘ medium’ communication is said to
be held with the spirits of departed heroes, &c. Oracular replies are given to
questions dealing with the prospects of future health, business, weather, &c. It is
a fast dying-out survival of a curious lar Eastern presentment of the Delphic
Oracle.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on Explorations in South Arabia. See Reports, p. 491.

2. Formosa. By Joun Dopp.

This paper gives an account of observations and explorations in the island of
Formosa made by the author during his residence there from 1864 to 1890. After
referring to the work of British naval officers, consular officers, commissioners of
Ckinese customs, and others, and giving a general geographical description of the
island and its commerce, the paper goes on to discuss the probable origin of the
aboriginal tribes occupying the highest mountain districts. The mode of life of
the savage inhabitants is described—their dress, weapons, methods of hunting, mar-
riage customs, &c,—and special reference is made to the practice of head-hunting,
whether indulged in from motives of revenge or as a pastime merely. The paper
next deals with the Pepawhano, or descendants of the savages of the plains, their
spoliation by Chinese immigrants, and the work of the Dutch missionaries amongst
them. In the concluding section the author refers to the colonisation of parts of
Formosa by immigrants from Fokien, and to the Haka invasion of the hill dis-
tricts. Some account is given of the opening up of foreign trade, especially in
eamphor, coal, and tea, and an estimate is formed of the commercial resources of
Formosa and of the prospects of their development.

3. Russian Possessions in Central Asia. By Dr. A. Markorr.

A comprehensive survey of Russia’s Central Asian possessions is a task of great
difficulty for anyone who is not a Russian, on account of the Russian language.
An attempt is here made to give reliable data for a geographical description of this
part of the world, where the three largest empires meet.

The Russian possessions are: (1) The Transcaspian district, parcelled up into
the provinces of Manghishlak, Krasnovodsk, Askhabad, Tejen, Merv ; (2) Turkes-
tan with Samarkand, Syr Darya, and Fergana; (3) the Khanat of Khiva; and
(4) Bokhara.

The author described the different districts and their boundaries ; the population,
Russian, Persian, Tartar, Armenian, and others; industries, such as fishing, agri-
culture, gardening, the cultivation of silk, cotton, and grapes; stock-breeding,
mining, and commerce.

The soil and climatic conditions of Turkestan were described. Turkestan is
gradually losing its vegetation and drying up. Great changes in Russian commerce

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 763

have taken place under the Minister of Finance, de Witte. Railways being
acquired by the State, all freights and traffic rates generally reduced. Means of
communication are increased and improved. Prospects for English trade in Central
Asia and Russia were discussed. English-made goods enjoy a reputation in Russia
of being superior to those of French and German manufacturers. English commerce
has not hitherto had a fair share of the plums in Russia’s commercial pie. No
reason to be seen why English houses should not share in the markets where
French and German commerce finds such ready outlets.

4. The Towns of Northern Mongolia. By Dr. A. Markorr.

Mongolia, and especially its inner life, have hitherto not been properly studied.
Travellers mostly confine themselves to noting only that which strikes the eye.

I. Urga and its monasteries, divided into three parts, are described ; (1) the
monastery, (2) Gandan (temples and residence of Buddhist students), aud (3)
Maimachen (merchants town). Bogdo Ula, the ‘holy mountain,’ stands to the
south of Urga. The author described the Mongol veneration for the ‘ holy moun-
tain’; no capital punishment is allowed to take place within sight of it; it is the
reputed birthplace of Chinghiz Khan, to whom yearly sacrifice is made at the foot
of the mountain. The author mentioned the piety of the Mongols and their belief
that gifts to monasteries secure reward in after life. Richness of monasteries is a
consequence of this belief. Description of temples: (1) The Duchin golobyin
Sume; its gold cupola hung with innumerable silver bells, which are always ring-
ing. It is inaccessible to non-Buddhists. (2) The Barun érgé (chapel of Abalai
Khan), less a temple than a museum, with its ancient relics, including an old throne
with figures thereon representing former Mongol heroes. (3) The Maidari temple,
largest of all, which, besides its great idol, contains idols of 10,000 Buddhas made
in 1799. Description of Urga mariet-place and its trade ; the insanitary condition
of the streets, the insupportable dust in summer, the ineffectual canal system for
watering the streets; the Chinese quarters, their houses, occupations, and the
immorality of the inhabitants.

IL. Ulejasutai, second largest town in North Mongolia and seat of Government-
General. Soldiers main population; tradesmen all Chinese. Labourev’s hire 7/.
per annum, including food but not clothing. Very picturesque neighbourhood.

Ill. Kobdo. Description of prison; cruel treatment of prisoners; minor
offenders allowed to walk into town occasionally, when they have a board affixed
to them to show they are prisoners. Town remarkable for cleanliness, Trade is
in the hands of Chinese.

5. Notes on the Topography of Caria. By W. R. Paton and J. L. Myrzs.

A series of short journeys in the neighbourhood of Mylasa, Keramos and
Halikarnassos result in a number of corrections of the physical features : especially
a considerable extension N.W. of the basin of the Kartal déré, which issues at
Keramos; it has a common watershed with the China Chai, which joins the
Meander near Aidin.

The geology of the district determines its physical feature; the limestone
plateau is drained partly by swallow-holes from enclosed basins, partly by deep
ravines; beneath the limestone crystalline rocks are upheaved in two parallel
N.W.-S.E. anticlinals, one forming the range of Latmos, the other extending from
the root of the peninsula of Knidos, through that of Myndos, and as far as Patmos.
About Myndos and in Kos was a volcanic area, active both before and after the
deposition of the cretaceous limestones.

Remains of ancient Carian and Lelegian civilisation have been examined, and
the following ancient sites have been identified and verified :—Pedasa, one at
Karajahissar, one near Bités (Ghiuk Chalar); Kindya at Utch-bounar; Telmessos,
two towns and the oracular temple on the Kara Dagh; Karyanda at Ghidl;
Termile at Tremil; Pelea at Borghaz; Taramptos at Taranda.

‘

764 REPORT—1895.

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—L, L. Price, M.A., F.S.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Art the Oxford meeting of the British Association a report was presented on the
‘ Methods of Heonomic Training in this and other Countries,’! the general conclu-
sion of which pointed to a deficiency in this country in the organisation of
instruction and the recognition given by the examinations of the Universities,
of the public service, and the legal profession. In the spring of the present
year Mr. Goschen, presiding at a dinner of the Economic Association, commented *
on the inopportune contempt of the practical man for economic reasoning at a time
when many of the questions engaging public attention were economic in character.
The phenomena thus noted may be connected, and a disregard of economic
reasoning explained by a lack of systematic economic instruction. At any rate,
the members of this Section will scarcely feel more certain of the fact that the
questions of the day are largely economic in character than of the illumination
obtained by an acquaintance with Economic Science and Statistics. They may not
succeed in winning the attention of the practical man, but they are not unlikely
to find solace in the flattering conviction that the loss is on his side, and not on
their own. The proceedings of the Section in this and in previous years will
prove beyond dispute that, whether or not the practical man troubles himself to
ascertain or to follow the opinion of the professors, the professors are not seldom
busy in the consideration of the practical questions of the day.

I make this assertion with the more boldness because it requires no extra-
ordinary keenness of vision to detect signs in the practical man of a disposition
hardly consistent with the scorn he is prone to bestow. I believe that, in spite of
what we may regard as his worse impulses, he manifests a growing inclination to
seek counsel—and even imperatively to demand guidance—on social and political
problems from economic professors. I do not know how otherwise to explain
the fact that a well-known firm of London publishers has issued, and, I imagine,
found it profitable to issue, a series of books on social subjects which now numbers
upwards of eighty volumes. Many of these books may not be scientific in
character, but so large an issue, taken in conjunction with other significant cir-
cumstances, such as the recent revival of a desire for economic lectures on the
part of the clients of University Extension, does afford some presumption in
favour of a fresh growth of popular interest. Indeed, I have heard more than
one practical man complain, not that it was unreasonable to look for guidance in
economic matters from economic experts, but that, with every disposition to
hear the advice of professors, it was impossible to obtain it. This complaint
may or may not be founded on reality; but the professors may be pardoned

1 See Report of the British Association for 1894.
* See Heonomie Journal for June 1895, vol. v. No. 18, p. 301.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 765

if they regard it as a sign of a more wholesome condition of mind. The com-
plaint may be due to the fact that the guidance sought is not such as the
professors can offer, and that the advice, which they are able and ready to give, is
considered inadequate or superfluous.

I am going to address myself to the audacious task of endeavouring to indicate
by actual example the guidance which the economic professor may furnish to the
practical man on the questions of the day; and I have prefaced my attempt with
these observations to show that I am aware of the hazard and difficulty attendant.
Were I to seek for an appropriate metaphor to describe my venture, I might find
it by saying that I was about to disturb a hornets’ nest; and, if I am fortunate
enough to escape with the scornful neglect of the practical man, I am afraid that
the professor may be Jess compassionate, and that his sting may prove as venomous.
I may, perhaps, plead in excuse that it is at once the traditional privilege and the
inherited duty of occupants of presidential chairs to devote their observations
especially to that part of their science with which they have been most closely
connected. I have certainly endeavoured on the one hand to hestow a consider-
able portion of my time on the scientific study of economics as expounded in
systematic treatises, and, on the other, my occupation as College Treasurer has
forced me into intimate contact with the hard facts of at least one department of
practical life. I would not for one moment claim that this dual experience gives
me any title to speak with authority on the relations of economic science to
practical affairs; but it has determined the grooves in which my thoughts have
mainly run, and, so far as I may presume to a special acquaintance with any
department of economic speculation, it is with that which concerns the bearing of
theory on practice. Without unbecoming arrogance, J may, perhaps, think that I
possess in not very disproportionate measure the failings of the practical man and
the academic professor; and in this capacity I undertake the task before me.

Before considering some particular questions of the day we may determine the
general character of the guidance offered by economics in matters of practice. I
believe that in this connection economists must disclaim a pretension to strict
neutrality. Much, no doubt, may be urged in support of the claim, and consider-
able advantages might follow from its successful establishment. The cool
examination of heated questions in the dry light of science might seem the
appropriate occupation of the academic professor. From the serene heights of
tranquil speculation he might complacently look down on the heat and turmoil of
affairs, and, standing apart from the conflict himself, refuse to assist any combatant.
But the strict maintenance of this attitude is a ‘counsel of perfection’ and a
practical impossibility. The student must be more or less than human who,
dealing with a department of knowledge so intimately related to the welfare of
humanity, can avoid, as the result of his scientific inquiry, forming a favourable
view of one course of conduct and an adverse opinion of another, and endeavouring
to promote the former, and to hinder the latter, both by advice and by act. He
cannot be content to observe the connection of cause and effect without trying to
set in motion the cause or to restrain its action. He cannot acquiesce in the
speculative solution of a problem without being impelled to embody his theory in
practice. Ie cannot contemplate the misery due to bad economic arrangements
without seeking to devise and apply a remedy ; and, viewing the matter histori-
cally, the practical object of benefiting their fellow-creatures has been at least as
powerful a motive with great economic thinkers as the speculative aim of
enlarging the boundaries of knowledge. They have been reproached for hardness
of heart and dulness of imagination, and the popular account is prone to regard
them as dry and unfeeling ; but the description is a travesty of the facts, and their
errors have probably been due as often to excess as to lack of enthusiasm. The
recurring contrast of wealth and poverty, of careless ease and careworn want, of
lavish indulgence and narrow penury, has awakened as responsive a chord in their
hearts as in that of the most ardent and generous socialist; and it is impossible to
run over the conspicuous names on the roll of economic worthies without being
impressed by the warmth of their zeal for social reform, and the intensity and
persistence of their anxiety to remove or mitigate human suffering. The ‘economic

766 REPORT—1895.

man’ of popular description, whether or not he occupy a place in economic theory, *
is no portrait of the economist of actual historical fact. The name of ‘ dismal
science, so often misapplied, was suggested not so much by the suppression of
human interest as by the apparent destruction of cherished hopes. ‘The science
was ‘dismal,’ not, as popular usage interprets the phrase, because it was dry and
uninteresting, but because it seemed to counsel despair; and even then the title
partook of caricature.

Nor do I think that in this connection an attitude of strict neutrality is desirable,
if it be possible. The besetting sin of the academic temper is indecision, and
few errors are more mischievous in practical affairs. An obstinate regard for
neutrality may easily beget indecision, and from that moment the economist
becomes ineffectual for practice. I must confess to the belief that the practical
man has a right to demand an opinion on economic points from the academic
professor, and that the professor has a claim to take part in the guidance of
economic affairs which is derived from his scientific study. He is an expert, and
it is no less his duty than his privilege to discharge an expert’s functions. He
cannot, as it seems to me, properly evade the one or abnegate the other. He may
be careful in forming his judgment. He may conscientiously endeavour to assign
its due weight to every circumstance. He may remember and insist that in many
practical problems other aspects besides the economic must be considered. But the
economic is often of great, and sometimes of paramount, importance ; and on this
he cannot disown the responsibility of making up his mind without, as it seems to
me, forfeiting his own self-respect and his usefulness to others. From that
moment his neutrality vanishes, He may, and probably will, incur an opprobrium
which he might have avoided by a refusal to adopt a decisive opimion. He may
sacrifice a quiet and ease which he might have retained. But, whether our aim be
the correct conduct of affairs or the due recognition of economic science, I cannot
doubt that he has chosen the better part. To insist on a strict neutrality for
economists in matters of practice seems to me idle and misleading. It is idle,
because the economist is human, and economics is concerned with some of the
most important interests of human welfare. It is misleading, because it is the duty
of the economic expert to offer guidance on economic points, and there are at all
times few practical questions which do not present an economic side, Certainly
at the present juncture, when the pressing problems of the hour are in many cases
distinctly and admittedly economic in character, to attempt a divorce between
theory and practice is especially inopportune. It is an impossible endeavour to
saw a man into separate quantities; and I would claim for the appropriate
description of every great economist the epitaph on the tomb of the German
socialist, ‘ Ferdinand Lassalle, thinker and fighter.’ We need not abandon the
thought, but it should stimulate, and not paralyse, the aetion; for the one is not
fully complete until it is realised in the other. Economics is indeed a science, and
on that ground claims a recognised place in the programme of this Association ;
but it is essentially, as I think, an applied, and not a pure, science, and the
economist has only fulfilled part of his mission when he has solved a speculative
problem. Iam aware that this contention may not be admitted by many academic
professors and practical men, but I believe that it is in accord with historical
tradition, and admits of logical justification.

Yet, if an attitude of strict neutrality be impossible and ineffective, the opposite
extreme of dogmatic assertion is as undesirable as it is dangerous. The older
economists have been often charged with an error of this nature; and it cannot be
denied that the accusation rests on a basis of truth, though it has sometimes been
couched in exaggerated form. Certainly the modern economist is inclined to state
his opinion with less assurance; and for that very reason he has lost some of his
influence on practical affairs. For the practical man has a sneaking affection, and
even respect, for dogmatic assertion. At any rate, he desires a plain, direct, and
concise answer to his questions, and itis not easy to distinguish between an avoid-
ance of dogmatism and an appearance of indecision. Nor can it be denied that, as
a discipline of the mind, a study of the more abstract reasonings of some of the
older writers, which generally presented the semblance, and sometimes offered the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 767

reality, of a precise, defined, consistent whole, is both wholesome and stimulating.
Legal authorities now pronounce inadequate Austin’s ‘ Jiectures on Jurisprudence,’
but I must confess that I look back to my first acquaintance with them as an epoch
in my mental history. I believe that they acted as a tonic and purgative, clearing
away obscurity and stimulating intellectual effort. If I may say so, the effect of
reading such an author as James Mill is not unlikely to be similar in the case of
the young economic student ; and for that reason, were there no other, I should
personally regret the exclusion from a systematic economic course of the study of
some of the more rigidly abstract reasonings of some of the more strict of the older
economists. Such study may be regarded as a propedeutic, through which the
student should pass; and he will lose, and not gain, by its omission. The regimen
may be somewhat severe, and the diet, so far as the moment is concerned, not very
nutritious; but the system is braced and the digestion strengthened.

The fact, however, is that the more famous of the older economists were them-
selves less abstract and precise than they are represented in common opinion,
They took a keen and constant interest in the practical questions of their time.
Their speculative opinions were largely influenced by the prominent facts of their
day. The acumen of later, and even contemporary, criticism has discovered gapsin
some of their reasonings and inconsistencies—which perhaps do them honour—in
some of their arguments. Recent economic analysis certainly endeavours to bring
within its range a larger number of facts, to be more explicit in stating and repeat-
ing the assumptions on which it proceeds, and to be more cautious in establishing
conclusions and definite in limiting their application. But the change is largely
due to the increasing complexity of the facts; and the difference in the mode of
approaching and method of handling a question is one of degree rather than kind.
The particular problems which contronted the older writers admitted more often
of a plain dogmatic answer; and, if the deliberations of the later economist be
more comprehensive and protracted, his conclusions need not on that account be
indecisive. Indeed, with the lapse of time, the necessity and advantage of expert
advice have grown more obvious and urgent.

What, then, is the general character of that advice? The answer may seem a
truism, but it is surely this. As in other departments of study, the mission of the
scientific economist is to discern, and to assist others to recognise, the unseen,
He is not content with a superficial view. He endeavours to penetrate below the
surface of affairs and discover the invisible forces. He employs telescope and
microscope to bring within the range of vision what is distant or unnoticed. He
compels the practical man to pay attention to something more than the obvious
and immediate consequences of the policy he is pursuing; and the chief advantage
of economics as part of a scheme of general education seems to consist in inducing a
habit of mind which will not be satisfied with superficial explanation. And it
induces this habit in matters with which men and women are brought into close and
necessary contact in the ordinary routine of everyday life. They may flatter them-
selyes that common-sense alone is needed to deal with such matters, and that no
scientific training or aid is required. Economics dispels this subtle and danger-
ous illusion, and furnishes an instrument which at once controls and strengthens
common-sense. Nor is this claim for economics as a discipline of the mind and as
a guide in matters of practical conduct by any means novel. It was put forward
with prominence by Bastiat, whose writing is sometimes regarded as an illustrative
example of the application of orthodox economics to the treatment of an important
practical question. It has been recently adduced by the Duke of Argyll, who,
dissatisfied with what he considers orthodox economics, attempts to supply its ,
defects by disclosing the ‘ Unseen Foundations of Society.’ The arguments and
conclusions of Bastiat may not be accepted, the criticisms of the Duke may be
refuted, by contemporary economists, who may claim the title of orthodox, if
they desire an epithet which seems to bring as much opprobrium as honour; but
they would certainly agree with the earlier exponent and the later critic, who,
curiously enough, have not a little else in common, in regarding the mission
of economics as an endeavour to see, and to reveal to others, the unseen.

That such a description is no barren truism, that economics thus conceived

768 REPORT—1895.

may shed illumination on dark or obscured problems, that it may prove, in Bacon's
language, not merely lucifera, but aiso fructifera, may, I think, be shown by a brief
consideration of some typical questions of the day.

I. Few are more prominent than that of industrial strife. We deplore its occur-
rence, and are ready to welcome any promising means suggested for mitigation or
prevention. Nor does popular opinion refuse to economics a voice in the matter ;
but, on the contrary, its authority is continually invoked. What, then, in accord-
ance with the principles we have sought to establish, is the guidance which it can
offer? Are there any common beliefs which it may show to be superficially
founded? Few assertions certainly are more frequent than that the interests of
employers and employed are harmonious, and that disputes involve a disturbance
of this fundamental harmony. On the other hand, few facts are more obvious than
that employer and employed regard their interests as essentially antagonistic, and
from this antagonism the disputes have arisen. Economics is able to show that
either view expresses a portion, and only a portion, of the truth; and, by the
systematic mould in which its reasoning is cast, it brings into clear relief the rela-
tion of the complementary truths.

In the production of wealth the interests of the parties harmonise, for, with
the modern organisation of industry they require the services of one another,
and, the more efficient they respectively are, the larger is likely to be the wealth
produced. It is the interest of the employer that the wages earned by the men
should be adequate to maintain, and, if possible, to increase, their efficiency ; and it
is the interest of the employed that the profits of the entrepreneur should encour-
age enterprise and induce a sufficient supply of capital. For production—and this
is a pot which economics, and economics alone, can duly emphasise—is the ulti-
mate source of the wealth distributed. The larger the amount produced, the larger,
ceteris paribus, is likely to be the share of either party in distribution ; and in any
event it is certain that a decreased production must issue in effects on distribution,
the burden of which will fall, though in varying measure, on either party. The
influence thus exerted on distribution by production is one which workmen seem
especially likely to forget, and many of the common arguments in favour of ‘making
work,’ or providing ‘employment for the unemployed,’ proceed from ignorance or
neglect of this consideration.

On the other hand, it may be urged that employers are not very keen to recog-
nise the influence, whether for advantage or drawback, of distribution on pro-
duction. No doubt the division of economics into separate departments tends to
make even the student forget their mutual connection. We do not remember
constantly that production and distribution are simultaneous, and are only dis-
tinguished for purposes of convenient analysis, Yet one of the most important
advances of recent economics consists in the emphasis given to the influence of
distribution on production; and we see more clearly than our predecessors how
the poverty of the poor, by begetting inefficiency, may cause their poverty, and
high wages may imply, not a high, but a low, cost of production. Hither of these
truths may be pushed to excess; but they are certainly fraught with important
consequences, and have an intimate hearing on the question before us. But, like
the influence of production on distribution, the telescope of the economist is needed
to bring and retain them within the range of ordinary vision.

The full and constant recognition of these truths conduces to a more compre-
hensive conception of the possible results of industrial disputes. We can see, on
the one hand, that a victory for the moment may not prevent defeat in the long
run, and that loss, which is obvious at the time, may issue in ultimate gain. When
we remember that to discern these distant results the naked eye of the plain ob-
server seems incompetent without the aid of the economic organon, we are as ready
to recognise the likelihood of industrial conflict as we are anxious to devise the
means of preventing it. For in the distribution of wealth the apparent interests of
the two parties are antagonistic, and, given the amount produced, the larger
the share of the one, the less will be that of the other. The frank recognition of
this possible antagonism is the first step towards the prevention of its natural
consequences. ‘The imminence of the possibility supplies the strongest motive for

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 769

removing unnecessary hindrance, ani furnishing likely assistance, to a pacific
agreement. And, whatever the final consequences of a dispute to the interests otf
either party, the existence of friction and irritation is beyond question an injury
and hindrance to production. The loss thus occasioned is immediate as well as
distant, and may be considerable; but, if the telescope of the economist is gene-
rally needed to bring sufficiently close the ultimate effects of industrial disputes,
his microscope is sometimes required to magnify the results of friction to dimen-
sions which will attract and retain the attention of the ordinary observer. By
discovering these deeper considerations beneath the superticial appearance of
affairs economics may furnish useful guidance in the prevention and adjustment
of industrial disputes.

For to what conclusion do these considerations lead? To the discovery of
some machinery which may prove not unacceptable, and yet, by imposing delay on
the outbreak of strife, may allow the two parties to hear what either has to urge,
and t) consider the possible consequences of the action they are proposing to take.
Such a machinery may be discovered in boards of conciliation and courts of arbi-
tration. The fact that both sides should be organised on a sufficiently responsible
basis to send accredited representatives: the fact that, thus meeting one another,
they are compelled to seek and adduce reasons for their own position and to
listen to the arguments in support of their opponents; the fact that delay and
deliberation are recognised preliminaries to the commencement of war—these facts
may not appear important in themselves, but they offer a chance of pacific adjust-
ment, and afford opportunity for the consideration of ulterior issues. They prevent
the apparent interests of the moment from winning an undisputed victory over the
less obvious interests of the future; and they do not allow an advantage in distri-
bution to be secured without thought of the effects on production. On the other
hand, the antagonism of interests incident to the distribution of wealth, when the
production is regarded as a given quantity, suggests that the machinery may on
occasions break down, and that the arrangements should properly consist of different
stages and provide supplementary resources; for arbitration may succeed in ad-
justing a dispute to'which conciliation has proved incompetent, and conciliation
may conceivably be useful where arbitration has been ineffectually tried. Such
antagonism also suggests that voluntary adhesion is likely to be more abiding than
compulsion, and more conducive to the permanent interests of peace, and that to.
prevent the occurrence, or reduce the likelihood, of industrial conflict a traditional
standard of settlement, changed in grave emergencies or serious vicissitudes alone,
should be established in the trade and recognised as fair.

For economics, as it seems to me, can do little more than point out those
ultimate and obscure consequences which are concealed by immediate superficial
appearances ; and it is not in possession of a precise principle or rule, which can be:
definitely applied to the determination of industrial disputes. Could it, indeed,.
furnish such a rule, the argument in favour of the legal bestowal of compulsory
powers on courts of arbitration and boards of conciliation would gain considerable
strength ; for it must be remembered that the questions before them are not the
interpretation of past contracts, such as are habitually submitted to the Continental
Conseils de Prud’hommes, but the establishment of agreements for the future, and
it is difficult to force parties to agree when you do not supply a principle of agree-
ment, nor does it on the whole seem likely to conduce to conciliatory relations to
declare that, while you will not compel masters and men to agree, you will
compel them to abide at all hazards by the agreement to which they may come.
For these reasons, tempting asit undoubtedly is to invoke legal compulsion, I believe
that the State can do little more than supply facilities for voluntary agreement
and, exercising, perhaps, some gentle persuasion, leave the pressure of public opinion.
to induce recourse to machinery thus provided. Such I take to be the drift of
competent experienced opinion and the probable scope of effective legislation ; and
such, as it seems to me, is the kind of guidance which economics can offer on this
practical question.

II. In a town like Ipswich we are forcibly reminded of another question of the
day—I mean agricultural depression, From the Reports of the Assistant-Com-

1895. 3D

770 REPORT—1895.

missioners to the Royal Commission it would appear that the county of Suffolk
shares with its neighbour, Essex, an unenvied pre-eminence among districts which
have suffered, and that the present condition of this important industry borders
here on despair. In the actual words of Mr. Wilson Fox, the Assistant-Com- -
missioner, agriculture in Suffolk ‘is well-nigh strangled.’’ Can economics throw
any light on this lamentable situation? If there is one theory which is sup-
posed to be more remote from fact than another, it is the theory of rent. It
is the fashion, even with professed economists, to regard it as unduly abstract ;
and, in a recent address” to a learned society connected with this Section by no
distant ties, the President selected the theory as a conspicuous example of older
formulz laid aside. The account of the theory given in that address is open to
question, but the ground of rejection is worthy of note. Lord Farrer, it would
seem, condemns the theory because it is a ‘formula useless for practical purposes.’
This criticism raises the question we are now considering; for we are trying to
ascertain the guidance which economic science can furnish in practical affairs.
That it has an important, and, indeed, a necessary, relation to practice we have
asserted in positive terms; but the relation is not, as we think, that which Lord
Farrer apparently assumes. For economics does not furnish precepts or formulz
immediately applicable to practice; but it supplies systematised knowledge, the
possession and employment of which will afford assistance in the direction of
practical affairs. The theory of rent is not, then, a maxim of conduct but a
rational explanation of fact. Conceived thus, in my own experience as College
Treasurer, I have been struck by its pertinence, not its inadequacy. It has
certainly seemed to me that, on a broad view, the tenant considers the rent to be
properly that which is left when, on an average of years, he has reaped a fair profit
and paid his labourers the wages they command. The landlord, so far as I have
been able to discover, occupies in his eyes the position—to use language differently
applied * by General Walker—of a ‘residual claimant’; and such, also, as I read
the theory, is the place which he fills therein.

Nor is it difficult to interpret part of the present depression in conformity with
the theory of rent. I must take leave to dissent from Lord Farrer when he asserts
that the formula, even in its older shape, paid no regard to situation or to means
of transport; and I am disposed to affirm that the emended statement of recent
text-boolks, in which these considerations, with others mentioned by Lord Farrer,
receive explicit recognition, is nct so much a departure from the older form as a
development and extension of it. But, taking the two points of fertility and
situation alone, it is the agreement, and not the conflict, of what has happened with
what the theory might have led us to expect that is likely to impress. It can
hardly be doubted that one of the most remarkable changes of recent years has
been the development of the means and reduction of the cost of transportation.
This change implies a loss of the advantage derived from proximity to the market in
the case of commodities which admit of conveyance from adistance. Interpreted in
the language of the theory of rent, English land, as respects certain products, has
forfeited part of the natural protection afforded by its situation near to the market.
With the partial loss of this advantage has also disappeared part of another, for
the diminution in the cost of transportation has opened European markets to the
virgin soils of America and other countries ; and, with regard to products which
admit of conveyance from a distance, the fertility of English land, whether it be
due to the skill of generations of comparatively high farming or to natural qualities
of soil, has lost part of its advantage. In the language ot the theory of rent, the
forfeiture of these two advantages involves depression in the sense of a decrease
of rental; and, as it seems to me, the adequacy rather than deficiency of the
theory is evident as a rational explanation of fact.

Nor is it useless for practical guidance. The fact which it establishes is a

1 Cf. Report, p. 82.

_ 2 Cf. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, vol. lvii. Part IV., December 1894,
pp 595, &c.
3 Le., to the wage-earner. Cf. Political Economy, by ¥. A. Walker, Part IV.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 771

connection between cause and effect, and not a maxim of conduct; for the laws of
economics, like the laws of every science, are, as it has been aptly expressed,
statements in the indicative and not the imperative mood. But the possession
of the scientific knowledge of the causal connection is more likely than its absence
to conduce to prudent practice. In the instance before us the conclusion seems
inevitable that, so far as the depression is due to foreign competition, and the
virginity of competing soils, and facility of transportation, continued attention to
products, which must be conveyed to their market quickly, is likely to be more
qeaable in an old country like England than the continued production of commo-

ities, which can be raised to greater advantage on newer soils, and be easily
transported from considerable distances. I am aware that this is a hard saying,
that necessary conditions of cultivation, sometimes neglected, must be taken into
account, and that such a change as is often contemplated in such discussions may
mean a painful and difficult departure from traditional habit, and an apparent
sacrifice of inherited or acquired skill. It is easy to talk glibly of the English
farmer abandoning the cultivation of cereals, at any rate as a staple product, and
turning his attention to vegetable and dairy produce, to fruit-raising and poultry-
rearing and bee-keeping, and the various otber modes of making a fortune which
are put forward for his edification. But the lesson of economic theory is plain so
far as the depression is due to foreign competition and the maintenance of a Free
Trade policy is assumed.

I do not discuss the latter question, because it is far too large to be adequately
treated in a paragraph or two, and is excluded from practical politics by the leaders
of political parties; but it is certainly a question on which economics may reveal the
unseen. Among those invisible facts may perhaps be placed a circumstance often
neglected in popular discussion. In many arguments on agricultural depression
the landed interest is treated as strictly separable from the rest of the community,
and a fall in rent is regarded as the loss to a particular class of an advantage
enjoyed apart from exertion.

If I may say so in passing, some of the abundant popular use made in recent
years of the conception of rent as an unearned increment seems to me to afford
an example of the misapplication of theory to practice. For in not afew instances
what has happened is this: A theory resting on nice distinctions has been crudely
applied to practice, and the distinctions employed to prescribe a definite policy
without regard to their nicety. In other words, the theory has been used as a
precise maxim, which could be straightway embodied in practice, and not as a
scientific conception, the knowledge of which might protect the practical man from
hidden pitfalls.

In England, at least so far as agricultural land is concerned, the landlord is
usually a partner with the tenant, and, whether or not the system be better than
that of occupying-ownership, it is certain that part of the rent is a return for ex-
penditure, and not a payment for natural qualities of soil or situation; and to this
extent a fall in rent is likely to operate as a discouragement or preventive of the
fresh and continuous expenditure needed to maintain the land and the buildings in
a state of efficiency. I cannot doubt, in view of evidence given before the Commis-
sion on Agriculture, and of other signs, that the depression must have already
produced deterioration in this respect, and thus have injuriously affected the
economic position of the general community.

Nor is the landed interest strictly and entirely distinct. In an old country
different classes are connected with one another by ties hard to disentangle, and
impossible to sever without injury or danger. The educational endowments of the
country, as a melancholy personal experience has taught me,! cannot regard agri-
cultural depression with the complacency of disinterested observers. The effect on
certain public institutions, like some of the London hospitals, is notorious; and it
can scarcely be doubted that, though the prudent management by which they are
characterised may have led many of the great insurance companies to write down

1 Gf. papers read by the present author to the Royal Statistical Society in Feb-
ruary, 1892, and January, 1895.

3D 2

772 REPORT—1895.

their landed investments and withdraw from them as they are able, yet they have
been, and are, largely interested in the fortunes of landed property, and perhaps
especially in the rentals of landlords, on the security of which they have made
advances. With the stability of the insurance companies is linked the preserva-
tion of perhaps the bulk of the savings of the professional classes. In short, in an
old country a strict separation between the interests of different classes is only true
with large deductions.

ILI. But economics also raises and solves the doubt whether depression in agri-
culture can be attributed to foreign competition alone. It is a significant fact that,
according to authoritative accounts, many of the competitors of the English farmer
have not escaped the distress from which he has suffered; and in England the
depression, in spite of constant reductions and abatements, has exerted an influence
on profits scarcely less grievous than that on rents, These circumstances certainly
lend weight to the contention that the fall of prices, which is not peculiar, though
perhaps especially discouraging, to agriculture, is partly due, to state the matter
in the least controversial shape, to a change in the general relation between the
supplies of gold and the monetary work that it is required to perform. To the
discovery of a cause like this, hidden from superficial view, and to the indication
of the manner in which it may affect the position of agriculture and other indus-
tries, economics, by virtue of its mission to discern the unseen, is peculiarly com-
petent. Ido not propose to enter now at any length on the vexed question of the
currency, but it is certainly a prominent practical question of the day. It isa
question on which the economist may claim to speak with authority, and the
practical man may demand, as he may be expected to follow, the definitive guidance
of expert opinion. On this question, perhaps, in particular, the unassisted vision of
the naked eye may form erroneous conclusions, and derive no little profit from the
use of the optical instruments provided by the economist.

I cannot preface what I propose to say more appropriately than by a quotation
from Jeyons. In that pamphlet on ‘ A Serious Fall in the Value of Gold’! which
has attained the rare dignity of an economic classic, commenting on the alarmist
anticipations of Chevalier and Cobden, he remarks that the alteration in the value
of gold consequent on the discoveries in California and Australia would probably
be ‘most gradual and gentle.’ ‘Far from taking place with sudden and painful
starts, flinging the rich headlong to a lower station, and shaking the groundwork
of society, nothing is more insidious, slow, and imperceptible. It is insidious
because we are accustomed to use the standard as invariable, and to measure the
changes of other things by it; anda rise in the price of any article, when observed,
is naturally attributed to a hundred other causes than the true one. It is slow
because the total accumulations of gold in use are but little increased by the
additions of any one or of several years. It is imperceptible because the slow rise
of prices due to gold depreciation is disturbed by much more sudden and con-
siderable, but temporary, fluctuations which are due to commercial causes, and are
by no means a novelty.’ I propose to apply briefly these remarks of Jevons to
some aspects of the controversy which has arisen on the cause of the fall of prices
of the last twenty years.

It is, for example, sometimes asserted that the influence of credit on prices is so
considerable as to reduce to unimportance a decrease in the available supplies of
gold. It may at once be admitted that the modern extensive development of
credit obscures the relation between the metal and prices; but it does not destroy
it, and, according to the view we have been trying to emphasise, the mission of
economics is to remove this veil of obscurity. In this instance it may show that
the relation is not unreal because it is indirect; that credit, expanding and con-
tracting of itself owing to increasing or diminishing speculative activity, is yet
limited and controlled in its movements by the changing dimensions in the basis
of cash on which it rests; and that, through the bank reserves meeting or restricting
the demands for petty cash and permitting an expansion or causing a curtailment
of credit, the supplies of the standard metal exert an important influence on prices.*

1 Cf Investigations in Currency and Finance, pp. 78, 79.
2 C&. Giffen’s Lssays in Finance. Second Series, II.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 773

Economics may thus furnish a rational account of the modus operandi, and statis-
ties supply corroborative evidence. This evidence, indeed, may be said to amount
to ocular demonstration, for no one who has studied with moderate attention the
course of a curve of general prices over a period of time, drawn in accordance with
the graphic method of statistics, can have failed to distinguish the different
character of the fluctuations thereby shown—to have separated the more obvious
and pronounced fluctuations of credit, marking the flow and ebb of confidence,
from the minor passing changes due to some temporary accident of demand and
supply on the one hand, and, on the other, from the general trend of the curve
indicating a growing abundance or scarcity in the available supplies of the standard
metal. ‘This is a broad influence, the operation of which is only discernible on a
comprehensive view; but the graphic method of statistics brings it within the
range of ordinary vision, and the reasoning of economics discloses the connection
of the phenomena. The influence of credit is apparent on the surface, but the
deeper influence can be detected beneath; and, if the general level of one credit
cycle be higher or lower than another, the change points to the presence and action
of some less obvious cause. In a modern commercial society, with its development
of banking and credit, we are able to observe and to measure cause and effect. At
the one end of the process we possess statistics of the production of gold, and can
frame estimates of the amount and character of extraordinary demands.' At the
other end we can employ, in the form of index-numbers, as they are called,” a
means of measuring changes in general prices, which is certainly adequate to show
the direction of the change, if it is not competent to indicate its precise amount.
For the connection between cause and effect we look to economic reasoning, which
here, as elsewhere, enables us to discern the unseen.

A similar test may be applied to the adequacy of some other causes. It is
sometimes said that a complete explanation of changes in general prices can be
discovered in the particular circumstances of individual commodities, without any
reference to a common cause. The answer is evident on the principles we have been
endeavouring to establish. Those particular circumstances he on the surface, and
the common cause is only apparent if we penetrate beneath. Here, again, econo-
mics is aided by statistics. Economics can recognise and explain the operation of
a common cause in enhancing or diminishing the effect of particular circumstances,
and statistics can offer corroborative evidence of the presence of such a cause,
For the very meaning and intention of a statistical average is to eliminate the
influence of particular causes, and therefore the testimony of those index-numbers,
in which an attempt is made to exhibit the average change in prices, is adequate to
establish the influence of some common cause, if the basis on which they are con-
structed be sufficiently comprehensive and typical. It can scarcely be doubted that
this criterion is satisfied in the case of some of the best-known varieties. The
presence of that common cause, it must be remembered, does not imply the absence
of other contributory or counteracting causes ; and the inquirer in the region of the
moral and political sciences is always beset by difficulties arising from the plurality
of causes. But, if he can establish the presence of a common cause competent to
produce the effect, and can point to the effect which has been produced, the argu-
ment for the connection between the two attains that high degree of probability
which is all that we can expect to reach. In the instance before us statistics may
show the presence of this common cause and the occurrence of the effect, and
economics may indicate the competence of the cause to produce the effect. We
know that until recently the production of gold had declined from the level reached
in the middle of the century, and we are aware that a series of extraordinary
demands * had coincided, while various index-numbers are in general agreement in

1 To some extent also this is true of the changes in the ordinary demands, but
the stress of the argument may be laid on the extraordinary demands.

2 Cf. those compiled by the Hconomist, Mr. Palgrave, Mr. Sauerbeck, Dr. Soetbeer,
and Sir Robert Giffen.

3 #g.,on the part of Germany, the United States, the Austro-Hungarian Empire,
and Russia.

774 REPORT—1895.

exhibiting a fall in prices, though the degree of the fall shown in each case may
yary.1. The economic theory of supply and demand may, then, be used to establish
the connection between cause and effect; for, if the supply of a commodity declines
while the demand for it increases, a rise in its value, and a fall in the value of
articles compared with it, become inevitable. Such has been the position of gold
during the last twenty years.

It may be noticed that the possibility of a plurality of causes increases the
likelihood of the action of some common cause ; for, under the conditions, we can-
not expect the apparent effects of this cause to be immediate or universal. The
presence of counteracting or modifying circumstance, of opposing or contributory
causes, will delay in some cases a process accelerated in others, will minimise here
an effect which is accentuated there. The apparent change due to the cause is
only likely to be general and not universal, to be gradual and not immediate, The
assertion that a fall in prices, if due to an alteration in the available supplies of
the standard metal, should be immediate and universal cannot be sustained when
economics, penetrating beneath superficial appearance, reveals the interaction of
different causes; and, if the testimony of index-numbers points toa general change,
it is no sufficient answer to affirm that it is not universal. On grounds of eco-
nomic reasoning we should expect a slower movement of retail than of wholesale
prices, of the prices of articles of minor than of those of more general consumption,
of wages than of prices generally.

The mention of wages suggests another point neglected in some current discus-
sions, but brought by economic reasoning from obscurity into prominence. It is
sometimes asserted that the fact that wages have not fallen is a proof that mone-
tary causes have not produced the fall of prices. But, apart from the known tend-
ency of wages to move more slowly than prices, such an assertion overlooks the
possibility of a simultaneous change in distribution. Economic reasoning points
to the probability of such a change in favour of the wage-earner, and to the effect
that it would produce; and statistical evidence corroborates that reasoning.? If
such a change be proceeding, we should expect wages to rise, and the fact that they
are stationary tends to prove, not to disprove, the existence of a monetary cause of
the fall of prices. A failure to give explicit recognition to this possibility is due
to neglect of the plurality of causes, and is akin to another argument sometimes
advanced. This maintains that, if it can be shown that the country has pro-
eressed, or not receded, in wealth, in the development of trade and manufacture,
in the prosperity of the mass of the community, it is thereby proved that the fall
of prices has wrought no injury. But it may be answered that the progress might
have been greater in the absence of the fall, and other forces may have prevented
the cause in question from producing its full effect. Here, again, economic reason
ing may aid in discerning what is invisible to the unassisted eye.

Few truths, indeed, are slower to receive, and more likely to lose, popular
recognition than those which lay stress on the mutual action of different causes.
We are told, for instance, that the fall of prices is due to circumstances connected
with improvements in the production and transportation of commodities; and it
must be admitted that such a common cause is not, like particular causes affecting
individual commodities, eliminated in the general average of the index-numbers.
But the one common cause—that of improvements in production—does not exclude
the operation of the other—that of a change in the available supplies of gold.
Taking a broad view of the whole century, it would certainly seem that the move-
ment of improvement has set steadily in one direction, but that the movement of

prices has first declined, and then advanced, and then declined again. It is pos- —

sible that the movement of improvement may have been accelerated and retarded
at different times; but the change in the movement of prices, which requires ex-

1 An index-number may be briefly described as a mode of showing the average
change in prices by comprising in one grand total the percentages of rise or fall
shown in the recorded prices of certain selected typical commodities.

* Gf. the investigations of Sir Robert Giffen in England, of M. Leroy-Beaulieu m
France, and of other inquirers in other countries.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 775

tion, is not a variation of degree, but a reversal of direction. And this re-
versal coincides with similar changes in the available supplies of the standard
metal. If the disturbances in America at the beginning of the century, with
the known diminution in production, were followed by a fall, if the Califor-
nian and Australian discoveries of the middle of the century were accompanied by
a rise, and if the notoricus extraordinary demands since 1873, statistically com-
puted by Sir Robert Giffen,’ coming on a supply which until the past few years was
diminishing, coincided with a fall again, it seems impossible to doubt that, although
improvements in production and transportation may have been contributory causes,
an important influence has been exerted by the monetary supplies. With the aid
of the economic telescope and microscope forces too remote or obscure to be de-
tected by the naked eye are thus brought within the range of ordinary vision; and
the action of the standard metal on prices is one of those forces, for, in Jevons’s
language, it is ‘insidious, slow and imperceptible.’

Such is the guidance which, as it seems to me, economics is able to offer; and
in this question of the currency, as in the others of which we have treated, it is
surely not destitute of practical import, for the detection of a monetary cause of
the fall in prices is so far an argument for the adoption of a monetary remedy.
Such guidance also, I believe, economics can furnish on many other questions
coming to the front; and, in offering tiis, it cannot be accused of an excessive or
defective estimate of its claims to popular recognition. Iam conyinced that, as
the years elapse, its aid will be sought with increasing urgency, and that it will
discharge, with a fuller consciousness of its high prerogative, its important but
difficult mission of seeing for itself, and disclosing to others, the unseen.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Comparison of the Rate of Increase of Wages in the United States and
in Great Britain, 1860-1891. By A. L. Bowzey, JL A.

The basis of the calculation is the Senate Report on Wholesale Prices, Wages,
and ‘Transportation, 1893, with which is compared the author's estimate of the
change of average wages in the United Kingdom, published in the Journal of the
Royal Statistical Society, June 1895.

On examination it is found that the final wage tables of the Senate Report do
not rest on sufficient data, that no account is taken of the relative importance of
different occupations or of the different levels of wages, and that the figures for
many of the industries included are based on very slender information. The
industries for which the data appear on analysis to be sufficient are selected, and
the average wages in these industries reworked for certain years directly from the
original table of wages. By this means the relative wages for these selected
trades are found, on a method more correct than in the Report, for the years 1860,
1871-3, 1879-80, 1883, 1886, and 1891.

These relative wages are compared individually and collectively with the
corresponding figures already found for the United Kingdom; and it is seen that
money wages have followed very much the same course in both countries, rising
to a maximum in 1873, falling till 1880, and then rising till in 1891 the level of
1873 is again reached. Wages in the wool-trade follow a different course, and
do not make much progress in England, whereas in the States they increase
rapidly after 1873.

To estimate the relative change in real wages, it is necessary to find index-
numbers formed on the same plan for both countries. This is done in three ways:
Sauerbeck’s numbers are first compared with similar numbers for the States;
secondly, they are grouped and weighted, and compared with weighted numbers
given in the Senate Report; while a third series is found from certain wholesale
prices compiled and grouped in the same Report. After discussion, the second of

1 In evidence given before the Gold and Silyer Commission, and, more recently,
before the Commission on Agriculture.

776 REPORT—1895.

these series is chosen; the relative money wages are corrected by these index-
numbers, and results are deduced from the relative real wages so computed. It
is now found that, in the limited area of industry considered, real wages have
increased continuously in the United Kingdom, till they stand more than seventy
per cent, higher in 1891 than they did in 1860; while in the States real wages
rose with the same rapidity till 1875, were checked, and finally fell in 1880, and
then rose rapidly till in 1891 they were nearly sixty per cent. higher than in 1860.

These conclusions must not be taken to represent industry in the States or
in England as a whole, since it has not been possible to include agricultural

wages.

2. Bimetallism with a Climbing Ratio. By Hunry Hiaces, LL.B.

PRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

The following Papers were read :—
1. The Normal Course of Prices. By Witu1amM Smart, JLA., LL.D.

What course may prices be expected to take in a period of normal industrial
activity? Practical men, seeing that, in one or two well-known trades, reduced
material and freights, improved machinery, centralisation, and gigantic production
sum up a lower cost of production, generalise this, and assume that a steadily
falling devel of price is inevitable as the expression of reduced cost.

But, on looking through money price to exchange values, it becomes obvious
that reduced cost takes effect in increase of supply, and that prices come down
only in default of corresponding increase of demand. What is usually forgotten
is that every change in supply means a change in demand, the two being different
aspects and names for the same goods.

(1) Every increase of supply (reduction of price) of any article calls out a
new demand for it, and prevents the fall in price being proportional to the fall in
cost. The present congestion of capital and labour conceals this ; because manu-
facturers can just now get both at low rates, we unconsciously assume that there
could be indefinite production of any article without increase of cost. (2) Every
increase in the total product of industry is a new demand for goods generally, just
as truly as would be a chance discovery of sovereigns in an old drawer,

Suppose A products and B products represented the national output. So longas
A and B increased simultaneously and harmoniously, there would be indefinite
increase of both supplies without fall of exchange values. If now the same capital
and iabour doubled A product, while B product remained constant, the exchange
value of every A would, in terms of B, fall to one half. If subsequently B pro-
ducts experienced the same increase, every A would again rise in terms of B.
Recognising that no two articles have equal elasticity of demand, and that this
subsequent rise of price and its extent cannot be foreseen, the essential fact remains
that every particular increase of supply is‘increase of general demand. This being
so, reduction of cost, which is the real characteristic of prosperity, will find expres-
sion now in falling price, now in rising price; the falling price being due to in-
creased supply of the particular article, the rising price being expression of the
increased supply of other articles.

Conclusion: that, so far as the late fall in prices is general, it cannot be due to
causes inside the production process; and this seems to point to a contraction of
the universal commodity in which all goods (and all costs) are named.

Corollary : that if manufacture—that is, the employment of the masses—is to
remain subject to steadily falling prices, the manufacturer will require to find some
new means of paying himself for his work. Otherwise he will find it in specula-
tion or in combination to sustain price artificially.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 777

2. A Proposal for a System of International Money. By W. A. Suaw.

3. The Gold Standard. By Hon. Grorce PEEL.

4 The Menace to English Industry from the Competition of Silver-using
Countries. By R. 8. Gunpry.

Although England has had a single gold standard since 1816, all other countries
continued to use either silver alone or both metals linked together, as full legal tender
money, till 18783. Down to that year, therefore, gold and silver served equally as
international money. The demonetisation of silver, which began with Germany’s
adoption of a gold standard, has entailed a gradually increasing divergence in the
relative value of the two metals. ‘The value of gold necessarily rose in response to
increased demand, and the price of all commodities (as measured in gold) fell.
The price of silver fell with the rest, and is now 30d. an ounce, instead of 60d., at
which it stood so long as the French mints were open to coin it at the ratio of
153 to 1.

et though silver may appear in Europe to have shared the general fall. the
position is different if we turn to the East. The standard there 2s silver, and its
purchasing power over commodities has remained approximately stable. To an
Indian, or a Chinaman, or a Japanese, his silver money represents the same value
that it did twenty years ago. The English farmer who wants a sovereign has to
give two sacks of wheat where one used to suflice; but the Indian ryot who wants
a rupee has to give no more of his produce than before, and his rupee will buy in
turn as many of the necessaries of life as it would a generation ago.

The effect has been to encourage the importation of foreign produce into
England, and to render increasingly difficult the exportation of English industrial
products to the East.

It is an error to suppose that the great fall in wheat, for instance, has been
caused by competition in the United States. The American farmer, on the con-
trary, is suffering nearly as we do ourselves. The root of the evil lies in differ-
ences of currency. Asa sovereign, which used to be worth only ten rupees, will
now buy eighteen, and each rupee retains its purchasing power, it follows that a
sovereign will buy nearly twice as much Indian wheat, and the price of English
corn had to fall accordingly. The close of the Indian mints disadvantaged India
a on by lifting her currency above the silver level, and she is being undersold

ussia.

: The Lancashire manufacturer who wishes to sell his goods in Asia is confronted
by the converse difficulty. As the Chinaman’s dollar represents, to him, unchanged
value, he is not disposed to give more silver for his yarn or cloth than before.
But whereas the dollar used to be worth 4s., it is now worth only 2s. ld.;
so that the English manufacturer who used to get, say, (24=) 10s., now
gets 5s. 35d. The effect has naturally been to check trade. The pro-
portion of total exports of British and Irish produce taken by silver-using
countries since 1876—when the currency- changes had had time to take effeet—
has been stationary. It was 20°67 per cent. in 1877 and 20°85 per cent. in 1894,
having never been above 21°90 in the interval. The export of cotton yarn from
England to China and Japan is less now than it was in 1876, while the export
from India has enormously increased; though there has been a falling off in her
ease also since the close of her mints (in.1893) disturbed—by imparting a fictitious
value to the rupee—the silver level on which the trade had grown up. The addi-
tional blows dealt to silver and the increasing strain thrown on gold by that
measure and the repeal of the Sherman Act disabled the English manufacturer still
further. The gold price of silver fell another i0d. He was obliged to raise the
price of his goods in order to ensure an adequate gold return, and the Chinaman
restricted his demand. The import of cotton goods into China in 1894 was less by
4,000,000 pieces than in 1892.

778 REPORT—1895.

Nor does the harm end here. The conditions which handicap. English labour
advantage the Asiatic and encourage him to manufacture for himself.

As the local value of the Japanese yen, for instance, has not changed, whereas
it has come to represent 2s. only, instead of 4s., to the English manufacturer, the
latter is obviously at an enormous disadvantage in the competition. The result
is that not only is Japan now manufacturing many things which it used to buy from
us but, having satisfied its own requirements, is beginning to export. It is begin-
ning to export cotton goods to China and the Straits at prices with which we can-
notcompete. It already supplies Singapore with half the coal used at its wharves,
to the detriment of Wales and Australia. It supplies, not only to China, but to
the Straits, and even to India, numerous minor articles which we used to send when
the dollar represented 4s.. but which we cannot supply for 2s. And what has
been going on in Japan is beginning in China, where cotton mills are being erected
in turn. This competition is only in its infancy; and we have here the obverse of
the picture of cheap prices upon which advocates of the gold standard love to
dwell. They may be pleasant for the consumer, but how about the producer ?P
They may be good for the creditor, but how about the debtor who has to produce
two hundred sacks of wheat to repay the 100/. which he borrowed when it repre-
sented one hundred sacks? The advantage, to the hypothetical labourer, of being
able to buy a loaf for 24d. instead of 4d. is obvious, if he retains his former wage;
but how about the man whose wages have been reduced, or whose occupation has
been lost through the change of arable land to pasture or by the close of a Lan-
cashire mill or a Cornish mine? If low prices be a supreme good, to be pursued
at the cost of transferring English industries to the East, we have only to per-
severe in the boycott of silver which is ruining agriculture and saddling Lancashire
with a handicap too heavy to be borne. But it is well to realise that all this means
loss of work; and to the workman who has less wages or no work cheap prices may
seem a questionable boon. The close of the mints against silver has practically
divided the world into two halves—one of which is prospering on a stable and
abundant silver currency, while the West is suffering from financial stress and
from hindrance to its commerce with the Kast. An agreement to join other
nations in resuming the free coinage of both metals at a fixed ratio would relieve
us from these disabilities by re-establishing parity of exchange, and replace our
farmers and manufacturers on even terms with the rest of the world.

5. On the Preservation of the National Parochial Registers.
By H. Paton, IA.

The early parochial registers of births, marriages and deaths in England and
‘Wales and in Ireland are still located in the several parishes to which they relate.
This exposes them to the many risks contingent to the numerous and varied
forms and places in which they are kept; often to the mercy of careless or in-
competent custodians; and, on account of their being so widely scattered, renders
them practically inaccessible for either statistical or general or special historical
purposes. The valuable information they contain is accordingly almost entirely lost
to the country. This could easily be remedied hy the adoption of the method which
has been followed in Scotland. There, by an Act of Parliament, in 1854, the cus-
todians of such parish registers were required to send them to the General Register
House at Edinburgh, where, under the care of the Registrar-General, they have
been carefully gone over, strongly bound, and are now preserved in uniform order
in fire-proof and damp-proof chambers. They are open daily for inspection to
those interested on the payment of certain fees, and when for purely literary work,
gratis. The passing of a similar Act of Parliament for England and Wales and
for Ireland, by which the present custodians of parish registers in these countries
shall be required to send all such registers (in the case of England and Wales) to
the Record Office or to Somerset House in London, and (in the case of Ireland) to
Dublin Castle, or other safe repository in Dublin, would secure the same benefits
to the rest of the British Isles as Scotland now enjoys. Besides, the registers

TRANSACTIONS. OF SECTION F. 779

themselves would enjoy the greatest possible security from the further inroads of
fire, of damp, and of other destructive agents, which have already made havoc
with so many of our early national records; and a most valuable source of his-
torical and. statistical information would be available for the student at readily
accessible centres. When desired by any parish, as has been done in Scotland, a
certified copy of the registers of such parish could be made at the public expense,
and this copy left in lieu of the original.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Agriculture in Suffolk. By Captain E. G. Pretyman, JP.

2. Agriculture of Suffolk from a Tenant's Point of View.
By Herman Bipvexx, Playford, [pswich.

Souls of the County.—Short description.

Cultivation as hitherto adopted.—Corn growing ; sheep rearing.

Dairying —Milk trade ; butter making ; butter factories ; cheese making,

Grazing as a substitute for corn growing.—Bacon factories.

Proposed substitutes for corn growing.—Sugar beet ; flax ; vegetables ; market
gardening ; fruit culture.

Suggestions for relief of present distress by adjustment of railway rates and of
local taxation.

Imperial attention to sale of foreign for home-grown meat.

Increased price of produce, &e.

3. Co-operative Rural Banks. By Haroip E. Moors, F.8.J.

At the present time much attention is rightly given to the extension of allot-
ments and small holdings, either as a useful auxiliary, or as a sole means of
livelihood. It is too often forgotten, however, that both skill and the assistance
of adequate capital are necessary if such areas of land are to be made as useful as
possible. Thus, a man may want additional funds before he can purchase a cow,
or other live stock, or plant fruit trees. Even if an individual possesses half the
amount necessary for these purposes, without co-operation he has no means of
‘obtaining the other half. This difficulty can now be overcome by adopting the
aes of co-operation in any parish in which this additional capital for pro-

uctive purposes is wanted. This co-operation should be applied by the founda-
tion of a society or co-operative bank which would lend to the individual
members, under proper conditions, the sums they require. These conditions would
provide that no loan should be lent except to members of the society, and that in
each case it must be for some specified productive purpose approved by the com-
mittee, and for which securities or sureties approved by them are obtainable.
The funds required by the co-operative bank would be provided from an ordinary
bank, the latter holding the charges given by the individual borrowers, and
haying an additional security in the unlimited liability of the members of the

780 REPORT- —1895.

society. Such banks had been most successful on the Continent, as would be
shown in the succeeding paper by Mr. Wolff, but in consequence of legislative
difficulties, had only lately been introduced into England. ‘These, however, had
been removed by the action of the Agricultural Banks Association, founded in
1893. Any interested in starting a co-operative bank in the district with which
they are concerned should apply to the Secretary of that Association, Palace
Chambers, Westminster, 8.W., for a copy of the rules as approved by the
Registrar appointed under the Friendly Societies Act, 1875.

4. Co-operation in the Service of Agriculture. By H. W. Wourr.

Co-operation seems marked out as one of the methods by which help may be
brought to agriculture. The method proposed is not what is usually understood as
* Co-operative Agriculture,’ that is, the joint tenure and exploitation of a holding
by a number of men, which does not generally seem to answer, and which promises
no relief to farmers in the ordinary sense of the term; but co-operation in the
purchase of farmers’ requisites; in turning farm produce to better account—for
instance, milk by means of co-operative dairies ; in practising combined selling,
insurance, the disposal of meat in co-operative butcheries, in common work of
certain kinds, and in the securing of credit by means of co-operative banks.
Instances quoted from home and foreign experience. It was really we who began
co-operative agricultural supply. It did not spread as it should have done,
apparently from want of money. Now the foreigners have outstripped us. The
French agricultural syndicates, started in 1883, have now increased to about 1,500.
They have ‘democratised’ the use of feeding stuffs and artificial manures. They
have achieved success on other ground. The Italian syndicates and co-operation
in Germany and Switzerland were then described. The most effective co-
operative method thus far applied has been co-operative credit, which is now
placing millions at the command of cultivators, large and small, in Germany,
Austria, and in Italy, which is spreading and generally answering very well. The
problem to be solved stated. Credit must be granted for long terms and on security,
which is not now recognised. It must also be made available alike for large
farmers and for small cultivators. The credit must be personal. Hxamples quoted
from abroad. Different systems. That of Schulze Delitzsch, of Luzzatti, of
Raiffeisen, and their further adaptations. Applicability of the same principle to
England. Village banks for small cultivators, allotment holders, &e. Agricul-
tural banks of a different type for larger farmers. Our difficulties and our
advantages. On the whole there seems room for this fourm of co-operation, as there
certainly is for the other forms touched upon. There is a want of money among
farmers. The new allotment holders certainly will want such help if they are to
prosper. The legal difficulties have practically been overcome. Our beginnings
seem to warrant expectations of further success.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
The following Papers were read :—

The Probability of a Cessation of the Growth of Population in Eng-
land and Wales before 1951. By Epwtn CANNAN.

Hiveryone knows that the population of a country increases when births and
immiyrants exceed deaths and emigrants, and decreases when deaths and emi-
erants exceed births and immigrants, and most people knew that though emigra-
tion and immigration fluctuate greatly, the effects of migration on the population
of England, as a whole, are small compared with the effects of births and deaths.
But the ordinary citizen does not usually realise the extent to which the deaths of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 781

each decade are dependent on the variations of the number of births in the preced-
ing half-century. Yet this dependence is so well understood that in the Census
Report of 1861 it was predicted that the population over twenty years of age in
1881 would be 14,167,745, and the Census of 1881 enumerated 13,958, 616, so ) that
the error was only 1 5 per thousand. Again, in the Census Report of 1871 it was pre-
dicted that the population over ten years of age in 1881 would be 19,365,188, and
when the time came 19,306,179 were enumerated, Ifthe same method had ‘been
used in 1881, the population over ten in 1891 would have been estimated at
22,129,736, and the number enumerated was 22,053,857. In both these last cases
the error is between 3 and 33 per thousand.

The diagram exhibited shows the basis of these estimates and continues the
series to 1951. The population at each age living at every moment between 185]
and 1891 is indicated by lines sloping downwards, and the gradual progress of
each generation from the birth of its first member on the Census morning to its
final extinction by the death of its last survivor more than a hundred years after-
wards, is shown by lines sloping upwards from left to right. From the form of
the figure it will be seen at once that while an immediate cessation of the growth
of population is, in the absence of some great convulsion, altogether out of the
question, a gradual diminution and eventual cessation before the middle of next
century is quite compatible with all reasonable continuity.

2. On the Correlation of the Rate of General Pauperism with the Propor-
tion of Out-Relief given. By G. U. Yuu.

The author had formed two correlation tables for the years 1871-1891, showing
the number of unions in each year, combining given rates of pauperism with given
proportions of out-relief. The result showed that the rate of pauperism was
indubitably correlated with the proportion of out-relief given, high values in the
former corresponding to high values in the latter (on the average). As this was
in flat contradiction to a conclusion of My. Charles Booth’s,! an investigation and.
critique of his methods were also given.

3. The State and Workers on the Land. By Rev. J. FromE WILKINSON.

4. The National Value of Organised Labour and Co-operation among
Women. By Mrs. Beprorp Fenwick.

Aged Poor, p. 423.

782 REPORT—1895.

Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Professor L. F. Vernon Harcourt,
M.A., M.Inst.C.E.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The President delivered the following Address :—

The Relation of Engineering to Science.

Tue selection of a subject for an inaugural address, necessitated by the honour
conferred upon me of presiding over this Section, has been rendered peculiarly
difficult, both on account of the numerous able addresses delivered in past years by
my eminent predecessors in this office, and also by the circumstance that the
branches of engineering to which most of my professional life has been devoted
have not as intimate a connection with mechanical science as some others.
Moreover, whilst former Presidents of Section G have frequently dealt, in their
addresses, with the progress of those special branches of engineering in which
they have had most practical experience, such a course, in the present instance,
would have exposed me to the danger of merely repeating information and
reiterating opinions already recorded in the ‘ Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers,’ and in other publications, with reference to maritime and hydraulic
engineering. It has, accordingly, appeared to me that the exceptional occasion of
addressing a gathering of scientific persons, and of engineers who testify their
interest in science by attending these meetings, would be best utilised by con-
sidering the relation that engineering in general, and maritime and hydraulic
engineering in particular, bear to pure science, and the means by which progress
in engineering science might be best promoted, and its scope and utility in-
creased.

In addition to the oft-quoted definition of civil engineering as ‘the art of
directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man,’
Thomas Tredgold also defined it, in 1828, as ‘that practical application of the
most important principles of natural philosophy which has, in a considerable
degree, realised the anticipations of Bacon and changed the aspect and state of
affairs in the whole world.’ If the influence of engineering could be thus de-
scribed in 1828, when railways and steamships were in their infancy, and the
electric telegraph and the various modern applications of electricity and magnetism
had not come into existence, how far more true is it at the present day, when the
various branches of engineering have attained such a marvellous development !
Tredgold also realised, at that early date, that the resources of the engineer must
be further directed so as to cope with the injurious forces of nature, such as floods,
storms, and unsanitary conditions, and thus protect men from harm as well as
promote their well-being. Moreover, he foresaw the great capabilities of develop-
ment possessed by engineering, and its dependence on science; for he stated that
‘the real extent to which civil engineering may be applied, is limited only by the
progress of science; its scope and utility will be increased with every discovery in
philosophy, and its resources with every invention in mechanical or chemical art,

‘

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 783

since its bounds are unlimited, and equally so must be the researches of its pro~
fessors.’ If the full significance of these statements may be accepted as correct,
engineers might fairly claim to have a right to say, ‘ As engineers we are neces-
sarily men of science, and no branch of science is outside our province.’ It might,
however, be said that no engineer, with his absorbing professional avocations, would
have the time to acquire even the rudiments of the principal branches of science,
with their ever-increasing developments, to the study of each of which the life-
work of many earnest searchers into the secrets of nature is wholly devoted.
Nevertheless, a few branches of science, such as physiology, biology, and botany,
appear to be beyond the scope of practical engineering; whilst a moderate
acquaintance with some others might suffice for the needs of the engineer, except
in certain special branches, supplemented as it can readily be by the advice of a
specialist in complicated cases.

Among the branches of science necessary for the engineer, two may be regarded
as of the highest importance, namely, mathematics and physics, upon which the
science of engineering mainly depends; and without an adequate knowledge of
these no person should be able at the present day to enter the profession of a civil
engineer. Other sciences of considerable, though of comparatively minor, import-
ance to engineers in general, are chemistry, geology, and meteorology ; but each
of these assumes an enhanced value in special branches of engineering.

Mathematics in Relation to Engineering.—The pre-eminent importance of
mathematics in relation to engineering may be accepted as fully established ; and a
President of the Institution of Civil Engineers would not now tell a pupil, at their
first interview, that he had done very well without mathematics, a remark made
to me by a justly celebrated engineer over thirty years ago.

Surveying, which is the handmaid of civil engineering, depends upon the
principles of geometry for its accuracy ; and ordinary triangulation, geodesy, and
the rapid method of surveying and taking levels in rough country, known as
tacheometry, are based on trigonometry and aided by logarithms. Tacheometry,
indeed, though carried out by means of a specially constructed theodolite, may be
regarded as the practical application of the familiar problem in trigonometry of
finding the height and distance of an inaccessible tower. A proposition of Euclid
forms the basis of the simplest and speediest method of setting out circular curves
for railways; whilst astronomy has been resorted to for facilitating surveying in
unexplored regions. The laws of statics are involved in the design of bridges,
especially those of large span, and also of masonry dams, roofs, floors, columns,
and other structures; whilst torsion, internal ballistics, the trajectory of a pro-
jectile, the forces of impact, and the stoppage of a railway train are dynamical
problems. Hydrostatics and hydrodynamics provide the foundation of hydraulic
engineering ; though, owing to the complicated nature of the flow of water, obser-
vations and experiments have been necessary for obtaining correct formule of
discharge. Geometrical optics has been employed for determining the forms of
the lenses for giving a parallel direction to the rays proceeding from the lamps of
a lighthouse, in accordance with the principles laid down by Fresnel. The theory
of the tides, the tide tables giving the predicted tidal rise at the principal ports,
and wave motion—questions of considerable importance to the harbour engineer—
depend upon mathematical and astronomical calculations ; whilst the stability and
rolling of ships, the lines for a vessel of least resistance in passing through water,
and the dimensions and form of screw-propellers, to obtain the greatest speed with
@ given expenditure of power, have been determined by mathematical considera-
tions aided by experiment. Electrical engineering depends very largely upon
mathematical and physical problems, guided by the results of practical experience ;
and the possibility of the commercial success of the first Atlantic cable, depending
upon the rate of transmission of the signals and the loss of electrical intensity in
that long journey, has been shown by Dr. John Hopkinson, in his ‘ James Forrest’
lecture, to have been determined by Lord Kelvin by the solution of a partial
differential equation.'

All branches of applied mathematics have, accordingly, been utilised by

} Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. 118, p. 339.

784. REPORT—1895.

engineers, or, as in the case of several general principles and tidal calculations,
by mathematicians to their benefit; but graphic statics will probably gradually
supersede analytical methods for the calculation of stresses, as more rapid in
operation, and less subject to errors, which are also more easily detected in graphic
diagrams. Pure mathematics, in its higher branches, appears to have a less direct
connection with engineering; but applied mathematics is so largely dependent
upon pure mathematics, that the latter, including the calculus and differential
equations, cannot be safely neglected by the engineer, though certain branches, as,
for instance, probabilities, the theory of numbers, the tracing of curves, and some
of the more abstruse portions of the subject, may be dispensed with.

Physics in Relation to Engincering.—Physics has been placed after mathematics,
as many physical problems are determined by mathematics ; but in several respects
physics, with its very wide scope in its relation to the various properties of matter,
is of equal importance to engineers, for there are few problems in engineering in
which no part is borne by physical considerations.

The surveyor avails himself of physics when heights are measured by the
barometer, or by the temperature at which water boils; and the spirit-level is a
physical instrument adapted by the surveyor for levelling across land. Evapora-
tion, condensation, and latent heat are of great importance in regard to the
efficiency of steam-engines: and the expansive force of the gases generated or
exploded, the diminution of friction, and the retention of the heat developed are
essential elements in the economical working of heat-engines. Allowance for
expansion by heat and contraction by cold has to be made in all large structures ;
and deflections due to changes in temperature have to be talen into account. The
temperature, also, which decreases with the elevation above the sea-level, and the
distance from the equator, limits the height to which railways can be carried
without danger of blocking by snow ; whilst the temperature, by increasing about
1° Fahr. with every sixty feet below the surface of the earth, limits the depth at
which tunnels can be driven under high mountain ranges. Congelation of the soil
is employed, as will be explained by Monsieur Gobert, in excavations through
water-bearing strata.

Compressed air is used by engineers for excluding the water from sub-
aqueous foundations, so that excavations can be made and foundations laid, at
considerable depths below the water-level, with the same certainty as on dry land.
The compression of air, and its subsequent absorption of heat on being liberated
and expanding in a chamber, are employed for refrigerating the chambers in which
meat and other perishable supplies are preserved. Compressed air is employed for
working the boring machinery in driving long tunnels through rock, and provides,
at the same time, means of ventilation; and it also serves to convey parcels along
pneumatic underground tubes. Moreover, the compressed-air and vacuum brakes
are the most efficient systems of automatic continuous brakes, which have done so
much to promote safety in railway travelling, and in reducing the loss of time in
the pulling up of frequently stopping trains. The production of a more perfect
vacuum than can be produced by the ordinary air-pump, might have been
supposed to be merely an interesting physical result ;* but, in fact, the preservation
of the heated filament of carbon in the incandescent electric light; has been
rendered possible only by the far more perfect vacuum obtained by the Sprengel
vacuum-pump, by which the air is exhausted down to so low a pressure as one-
two hundred millionth of an atmosphere.

The illuminating power of different sources of light is of great importance in
determining the distance at which the concentrated rays from a lighthouse ean be
rendered visible, as well as in relation to the lighting of streets and houses; and
the refrangibility of the rays emitted, or the nature of their spectrum, should not.
be disregarded, as upon this depends the power of a light to penetrate mist and
fog, which cut off the rays at the violet end of the spectrum, and have compara-
tively little influence on the least refrangible red rays.’ The effect also of the

1 Journal of the Chemical Society, June 1864,
2 Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. 57, pp. 145-148,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 785

colouring of lights on their visibility is of interest in determining the shades of
colour to be used for signals and ship-lights, and also the relative power of the
lights required for different colours to secure equal illuminating power. Distinc-
tions of colour are essential in these cases; but for distinguishing lighthouses the
use of coloured glasses has been abandoned, on account of their impairing the light
emitted ; and the desired indication has been effected by varying the number and
duration of the flashes and eclipses in each lighthouse. The detection of colour-
blindness is of interest to engineers, as this physical infirmity incapacitates men
from acting as engine-driyers, signalmen, or navigating seamen. The use of com-
pressed oil-gas enables buoys and beacons to give a warning or guiding light for
about three months without requiring attention; and the electric light has
accelerated the passage through the Suez Canal from 304 hours to 20 hours, and
has greatly increased the capacity of the Canal for traffic by enabling navigation to
be carried on at night. The electric light also affords an excellent, safe, and cool
light in the confined cabins on board ship, in the headings of long tunnels, and in
the working-chambers filled with compressed air used for sinking subaqueous
foundations.

Acoustics might seem to have little relation to engineering ; but the soundness
of the wheels of a train are tested by the noise they give when struck with a
hammer; warning notes are emitted by railway and steamship whistles, the fog-
horn on board ship, and the whistling and bell buoys employed for marking shoals
or the navigable channel; whilst the striking of bells, the blast of steam sirens,
and the explosion of compressed gun-cutton cartridges and rockets indicate the
position of lighthouses in fogey weather. The most powerful sounds that can be
produced by the help of steam appear to have a very limited range as compared
with light; for, under ordinary conditions, the most powerful siren ceases to be
audible at a distance of six or seven miles; whilst the transmission of sound is
very much affected by the wind and the condition of the atmosphere. It seems
possible that loud detonations at short intervals may be more readily heard than
the continuous blast of a steam trumpet.

Electrical engimeering is very intimately connected with physics, for it really
is the application of electricity to industrial purposes. The very close relation
between electricity and magnetism, discovered by Oersted in 1820, and further
established by the remarkable researches of Faraday, has led to the present system
of generating electricity by the relative movement of coiled conductors and
electro-magnets, in dynamo-electric machines worked by a steam-engine or other
motive power. The electrical current thus generated can be transmitted to a
distance with little loss of energy ; and it can either be used directly for lighting
by are or incandescent lamps, or be reconverted into mechanical power by the
intervention of another dynamo. Electricity is also employed for the simultaneous
firing of a series of mines, at a safe distance from the site of the explosion.

The convertibility of heat and energy, indicated by Mayer, forms the basis of
thermodynamics ; and the mechanical equivalent of heat, a physical problem of the
highest interest, determined by Joule in 1843, furnishes a measure of the amount
of work that can be possibly obtained by a given expenditure of heat in heat-
engines.

The above summary indicates how the discoveries of physics are applied to
many branches of engineering ; and a knowledge of the laws of physics, and of the
results of physical researches, appears, therefore, essential for the successful prose-
cution of engineering works. The very intimate relation of mechanical science to
mathematics and physics, and the indebtedness of engineers to men of science
outside the ranks of their profession, are, indeed, evidenced by the roll of the
Presidents of Section G, containing the names of Dr. Robinson, Mr. Babbage, Pro-
fessor Willis, Professor Walker, and Lord Rosse,

Chemistry in Relation to Engineering—Gas-making is in reality a chemical
operation on a large scale, consisting in the destructive distillation of coal, the
purification and collection of the resulting carburetted hydrogen, and the separa-
tion and utilisation of the residual products. Chemistry, accordingly, holds a very
important place in the requirements of the gas engineer,

1895 3E

786 REPORT—1895.

The manufacture of iron, steel, and other metals, and the formation of alloys,
are essentially chemical operations; and the Bessemer and Gilchrist processes, by
which steel is produced in large quantities directly from cast iron, by eliminating
a portion of the carbon contained in it, and also the injurious impurities, silicon
and phosphorus, in place of the former costly and circuitous method of removing
the carbon from cast iron to form wrought iron, and then combining a smaller
proportion of carbon with the wrought iron to form steel, are based on definite
chemical changes, and necessitated chemical knowledge for their development.

Chemical analysis is needed for determining the purity of a supply of water, or
the nature and extent of its contamination; and Dr. Clarke’s process for softening
hard water, by the addition of lime water, depends upon a chemical reaction. The
methods also of purifying water by filtration, shaking up with scrap iron, and
aération, are chemical operations on an extensive scale; and their efficiency has to
be ascertained by chemical tests.

Cements and mortars depend for their strength and tenacity, when mixed with
water, upon their chemical composition and the chemical changes which occur.
The value of Portland cement requires to be tested quite as much by a chemical
analysis of its component parts, as by the direct tensile strength of its briquettes ;
for an apparently strong cement may contain the elements of its own disruption, in
a moderate proportion of magnesia or in an excess of lime. The chemical change
which has been found to occur in the Portland cement of very porous concrete
exposed to the percolation of sea-water under considerable pressure, by the substi-
tution of the magnesia in sea-water for the lime in the cement, if proved to
take place even slowly under ordinary circumstances, would render the duration
of the numerous sea works constructed with Portland cement very precarious,
and necessitate the abandonment of this very convenient material by the maritime
engineer.

Explosives, which have rendered such important services to engineers in the
construction of works through rock and the blasting of reefs under water, as well
as for purposes of attack and defence, form an important branch of chemical
research. The uses of gun-cotton as an explosive agent, though not for guns, have
been greatly extended by the investigations of Sir Frederick Abel, and by the
discovery that it can be detonated, when wet and unconfined, by fulminate of
mercury; whilst smokeless powder, a more recent chemical discovery, seems
likely, by its application to firearms, to produce important modifications in the
conditions of warfare. The progress achieved by chemists in other forms of
explosives has been marked by their successive introduction for blasting in large
engineering works. Thus the removal of the rock in driving the Mont Cenis
tunnel, in 1857-71, was effected by ordinary blasting powder ; whilst the excava-
tion of the longer St. Gothard tunnel, in 1872-82, was accomplished by the more
efficient explosive dynamite.’ Moreover, the first great blast for removing the
portion of Hallett’s Reef which obstructed the approach to New York Harbour,
was effected mainly by dynamite, together with vulecan powder and rendrock, in
1876; whereas the far larger Flood Rock, in mid-channel, was shattered in 1885
by rackarock, a mixture of potassium chlorate and nitrobenzol, and a much
cheaper and a more efficient explosive under water than dynamite.? Rackarock is
one of the series of safety explosives first investigated by Dr. Sprengel in 1870,
which, consisting of a solid and a liquid, is safely and easily mixed for use; and
these materials, being harmless previously to their admixture, can be stored in large
quantities without risk. The cost also of this large blast was greatly reduced by
the sympathetic explosion of the bulk of the cartridges by the detonation of a
series of primary exploders, placed at intervals along the galleries and fired simul-
taneously by electricity from the shore.

The utilisation of sewage belongs to agricultural chemistry ; and the deodorisa-
tion of sewage, and its conversion into a coimmercial manure, are chemical processes,

! Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. 95, p. 266,
2 Tbid., vol. 85, pp. 267, 270.
3 Journal of the Chemical Society, August 1873.

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 787

The disposal of sewage by irrigation is a branch of agriculture ; and the innocuous
character of the effluent fluid, discharged into the nearest stream or river, has to be
ascertained by chemical analysis. Chemists have the opportunity of benefiting
the community, and at the same time acquiring a fortune, by discovering an
economical and efficient process for converting sewage on a large scale into a
profitable saleable manure, so that inland towns may not have to dispose of their
sewage at a loss, and that towns situated on tidal estuaries or the sea-coast may
no longer discharge their sewage into the sea, but distribute it productively on the
land.

The purifying of the atmosphere from smoke, rendered increasingly expedient
by the growth of population, and the prevention of the dense fogs caused by it, by
some practical method for more thoroughly consuming the solid particles of the
fuel, still await the combined efforts of chemists and engineers.

Geology in Relation to Engineering.—A. knowledge of the superficial strata of
the earth is important for all underground works, and essential for the success of
mining operations. Geology is indispensable in directing the search for coal, iron
ore, and the various metals; and the existence of faults or other disturbances may
greatly modify the conditions. The value of geology to the engineer is not, how-
eyer, confined to the extraction of minerals, for it extends, more or less, to all
works going below the surface. :

The water-supply of a district, in the absence of a suitable river or stream, is
dependent on the configuration and geology of the district; and the spread of
London before the extension of waterworks, as pointed out by Professor Prestwich,
had to be confined to the limits of the gravel subsoil, in which shallow wells gave
access to the water arrested by the stratum of underlying London clay. The
sinking also of deep wells for a supply of water, and the depth to which they
should be carried, are determined by the nature of the formation, the position of
faults, and the situation of the outcrop of the water-bearing stratum. A geological
examination, moreover, of a site proposed for a reservoir, to be formed by a
reservoir dam across a valley, has to be made to ascertain the absence of fissures
and the soundness of the foundation for the dam.

In the driving of long tunnels, the nature and hardness of the strata and their
dip, the prospects of slips, and the possibility of the influx of large volumes of
water, are geological considerations which affect the designs and the estimates of
cost. The excavations also of large railway cuttings and ship-canals are con-
siderably affected, both as regards their side slopes and cost, by the nature and
condition of the strata traversed.

Meteorology in Relation to Engineering.—The maximum pressure that may be
exerted by the wind has to be allowed for in calculating the strains which roofs,
bridges, and other structures are liable to have to bear in exposed situations; and
continuous records of anenometers for long periods are required for determining
this pressure. The force of the wind also, and the direction, duration, and period
of occurrence of severe gales, are important to the maritime engineer for estimating
the effects of the waves in any special locality, for determining the quarter from
which shelter is needed, and for ascertaining the seasons most suitable for the execu-
tion of harbour works, the repair of damages, and the carrying out of foundations of
lighthouses and beacons on exposed rocks. The harbour engineer must, indeed, of
necessity be somewhat of a meteorologist, for the changes in the wind and weather,
the oscillations of the barometer, and the signs of an approaching storm are indi-
cations to him of approaching danger to his works, which he has to guard against;
for the sea is an insidious enemy which soon discovers any weak spot, and may in
a few hours destroy the work of months.

Continuous records of rainfall, as collected regularly by Mr. Symons from nume-
rous stations in the United Kingdom, are extremely valuable to engineers for calcu-
lating the probable average yield of water from a given catchment area, the greatest
and least discharges of a river or stream, the size of drainage channel needed to
secure a low-lying area from floods, and the amount of water available for storage
or irrigation in a hot, arid district. The loss of water by evaporation at different
periods of the year, and under different conditions of soil and climate, the effect of

3 E2

788 REPORT—1895.

percolation in reducing evaporation, and the influence of forests and vegetation in
mcreasing the available rainfall, while equalising the flow of streams, are subjects
of equal interest to hydraulic engineers and meteorologists.

Countries periodically visited by hurricanes, cyclones, or earthquakes, necessitate
special precautions, and special designs for structures; and every additional in-
formation as to the force and extent of these visitations of nature is of value in
enabling engineers to provide more effectually against their ravages.

Benefits conferred by Engineering upon Pure Science.—Engineering is generally
concerned in the application of the researches of science for the benefit of mankind,
and not in the extension of the domain of pure science, which necessitates greater
concentration of attention and study than the engineer in practice is able to devote
to it. Engineers, however, though never able to repay the ever-increasing debt of
gratitude which they owe to past and present investigators of science, except in
rendering these abstract researches of practical utility, have, nevertheless, been
able incidentally to promote the progress of science. Thus mechanical science, by
the construction of calculating machines, the planimeter, integrating machines, the
tide-predictor and tidal harmonic analyser of Lord Kelvin, the self-rezistering tide-
gauge, and various other instruments, has lightened the labours of mathematicians ;
whilst excavations for works, and borings have assisted the investigations of geo-
logists. ‘The mechanical genius of Lord Rosse led mainly to the success of his
gigantic telescope, which has revealed so many secrets of the heavens; and the
rapidity of locomotion, due to the labours of engineers, has greatly facilitated
astronomical observations and physical discoveries, besides promoting the concourse
of scientific men and the diffusion of knowledge. Electrical engineering, more-
over, is so closely allied to electrical physics that the development of the one
necessarily promotes the progress of the other. The observations also conducted
by hydraulic and maritime engineers in the course of their practice aid in extend-
ing the statistics upon which the science of meteorology is based.

Engineering as an Experimental Science.—Engineering, so far as it is based on
mathematics, is an exact science, and the strains due to given loads on a structure
can be accurately determined; but the strength of the materials employed has to
be ascertained before any structure can be properly designed. Accordingly, the
resistance of materials to tension, compression, and flexure, has to be tested, and
their limit of elasticity and breaking weight determined. Thus, previously to the
construction, by Robert Stephenson, of the Britannia Tubular Bridge, the first
wrought-iron girder bridge of large span erected, numerous experiments on various
forms of wrought iron were carried out by that eminent mathematician and ~
mechanician Eaton Hodgkinson, who had previously indicated the proper theore-
tical form for cast-iron girders, and to whom the success of the bridge across the
Menai Straits was in great measure due.! Besides the numerous tests always now
made of the materials employed during the progress of any large engineering work,
railway bridges are also subjected to severe test loads before being opened for publie
traffic, by which the safety of the structures and their rigidity, as measured by
the amount of deflection, are ascertained, serving as a guide for subsequent
designs.

Numberless experiments have been made on the flow of water in open channels,
over weirs, through orifices, and along pipes; and the influences of the nature of
the bed, the slope, depth, and size of channel, have been investigated by various
hydraulicians. Mr, Thomas Stevenson measured the force of waves at some places
on the Scotch coast; * Professor Osborne Reynolds has examined the laws of tidal
flow in a model of the inner estuary of the Mersey, and in specially shaped experi-
mental models;* and I have found it possible, in small working models oi the
Mersey and Seine, not merely to reproduce the configuration of the bed of the
estuary out to sea, but also to observe the effects of different forms of training
works in modifying sandy estuaries. Mr. William Froude, after his retirement

1 The Britannia and Connay Tubular Bridges, Edwin Clark, vol. 1, p. 83.

? The Design and Construction oj Harbours, Thomas Stevenson, 3rd ed. pp. 52-56.
° British Association Reports for 1889, 1890, and 1891.

* Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. 45, pp. 501-524, and plates 2-4; vol. 47.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 789

from active practice, devoted his abilities to experiments on the motion and resist-
ance of ships in water, which have proved of inestimable value to the naval
architect, and which formed the subject of his presidential address to this Section
in 1875.

Electrical engineering is specially adapted for experimental investigation ; and,
in this branch, theory and practice are so closely allied that some of the most eminent
exponents of the theory of the subject, such as Lord Kelvin and Dr. Hopkinson,
have developed their theories into practical results, In most other branches, the
investigator is generally distinct from the engineer in large practice; but it may
he safely said that an able investigator and generaliser in engineering science, as,
for instance, the late Professor Rankine, accomplishes work of more value to the
profession at large than the practical engineer, who, in the world’s estimation,
appears the more successful man.

Every branch of engineering science is more or less capable of being advanced by
experimental investigations ; and when it is borne in mind that the force of waves,
the ebb and flow of tides in rivers, the influences of training works in estuaries,
and the motion of ships at sea have been subjected to experimental research, it ap-
pears impossible to assign a limit to the range of experiments as a means of extending
engineering knowledge. Problems of considerable interest, which can only be
solved by experiments or by comprehensive generalisations from a number of
examples, must frequently present themselves to engineers in the course of their
practice, as they have to myself; and engineers would render a great service to
the profession if they would follow up the lines of investigation thus suggested to
them, in the true spirit of scientific inquiry.

Failures of Works due to Neglect of Scientific Considerations.—Before the
amount and distribution of the stresses in structures were thoroughly understood,
a disposition was naturally evinced to err on the side of excessive strength; and
the materials in the various parts of the structure were not suitably proportioned
to the load to be borne, resulting in a waste of materials and too great an expen-
diture on the works. Thus some of the early high masonry reservoir dams in
Spain exhibit an excessive thickness towards the top, imposing an unnecessary load
on the foundations ; and in many of the earlier iron girder bridges more material
was employed than was required for stability, and it was not properly distributed.
Boldness engendered by increased experience, and dictated by motives of economy,
has tended to make the engineers of the present day pursue an opposite course ;
and, under these circumstances, the correct calculation of the strains, the exact
strength of the materials, and a strict appreciation of the physical laws affecting the
designs become of the utmost importance.

The failures of many bridges may be explained by errors in design, defects in
construction, or by economy carried beyond the limits of safety in pushing forward
railways in undeveloped countries; but other failures are attributable to a dis-
regard or underestimation of the influence of physical causes. Thus the Tay Bridge
disaster, in 1879, was due to underestimating the amount and effect of the wind-
pressure in an exposed situation, where it acted with a considerable leverage, owing
to the height of the bridge, and was inadequately provided against by the small trans-
verse width of the piers in proportion to their height, which were further weakened
by bad workmanship in the bracing of their columns. The bursting of the Bouzy
masonry dam in France this year must be attributed to an inadequate thickness
at part of the cross-section, producing a tensional strain on the inner face with the
reservoir full, aided by the instability resulting from a fissured foundation. The
overthrow of the outer arms of the Madras breakwaters, during a cyclone in 1881,
may be traced to an inadequate estimate of the force of the waves in a storm, in deep
water, and with a great fetch across the Indian Ocean, beating against the portions
of the breakwaters directly facing their course; for these outer portions, running
nearly parallel to the coast-line, were nct made any stronger than the inner portions

p. 142; and Amélioration de la Partie Maritime des Fleuves, y compris leurs Em-

bouchures, L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Paris Inland Navigation Congress, 1892, pp. 27-29
and 32, 33, and plate 3.

790 REPORT—1895.

placed at right angles to the shore and the direction of the waves, and situated for
the most part in shallower water. The erosion of the bed of the Ganges Canal on
the first admission of the water, necessitating the erection of weirs at iniervals to
check the current, resulted from an error in the calculated discharge of the channel
with the given inclination, and the consequent undue velocity of the stream, pro-
ducing scour. The failure of the jetty works at the outlet of the Rhéne to effect any
permanent deepening of the channel over the bar, was due to the unsuitable direc-
tion given to the outlet channel in view of the physical conditions of the site, and
the concentration of all the discharge, and consequently all the alluvium carried
down, into a single mouth, whereby the rate of deposit in front of this outlet has
‘been considerably increased. The excessive cost, and consequent stoppage, of the
Panama Canal works, though due to a variety of causes, must be partly attributed
to want of due consideration of the strata to be excavated; for a cutting of 300
feet in depth, which may he possible in rock, becomes impracticable when a con-
siderable portion has to be executed in very treacherous clay.

Occasionally failures of works may be attributed to exceptional causes or pecu-
liarly unfavourable conditions; but in most cases, as in the instances given above,
they are the result of errors or deficiencies in design, which might have been
avoided by a more correct appreciation of the physical conditions involved.

Scientific Training of Engineers.—In most professions, preliminary training in
those branches of knowledge calculated to fit a student for the exercise of his pro-
fession is considered indispensably necessary ; and examinations to test the pro-
- ficiency of candidates have to be passed as a necessary qualification for admission
into the Army, Navy, Church, Civil Service, and both branches of the law. Special
care is taken in securing an adequate preliminary training in the case of persons to
whom the health of individuals is to be entrusted, not merely by experience in
hospitals, but also by examinations in those branches of science and practice relating
to medicine and surgery, before the medical student can become a qualified practi-
tioner. If so much caution is exercised in protecting individuals from being
attended by doctors possessing insufficient knowledge of the rudiments of their
profession, how much more necessary should it be to ensure that engineers are
similarly qualified, to whom the safety and well-being of the community, as well
as large responsibilities in regard to expenditure, are liable to be entrusted! The
duty of the engineer is to apply the resources of nature and science to the material
benefit and progress of mankind; and it, therefore, seems irrational that no
guarantee should be provided that persons, before becoming engineers, should acquire
some knowledge of natural laws, and of the principles of those sciences which form
the basis of engineering. The Institution of Civil Engineers has, indeed, of recent
years required some evidence of young men having received a good education before
their admission into the student class; but some of the examinations accepted as suffi-
cient for studentship, such as a degree in any British university, afford no certainty
in themselves that the persons who have passed them possess any of the qualifications
requisite for an engineer; and it is quite unnecessary to become a student of the
Institution in order to become an engineer. The Council of the Institution has no
doubt been hitherto deterred from proposing the establishment of an examination
in mathematics and natural science, as a necessary preliminary to becoming an
engineer, by the remembrance that some of the most distinguished engineers of early
days in this country were self-taught men; but since those days engineering and
the sciences upon which it is based have made marvellous advances; and in view
of these developments, and the excellent theoretical training given to foreign
engineers, it is essential that British engineers, if they desire to retain their present
position in the world, should arrange that the recruits to their profession may be
amply qualified at their entrance in theoretical knowledge, in order to preserve the
standard attained, and to be in a position to achieve further progress. No amount
of preliminary training will, indeed, necessarily secure the success of an engineer,
any more than the greatest proficiency would be certain to lead the medical student
to renown as a physician or surgeon ; but other conditions being equal, it will greatly
promote his prospects of advancement in his profession, and his utility to his
colleagues and the public. The engineers of the past achieved great results in the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 791

then early dawn of engineering knowledge, by sound common sense, a ready grasp
of first principles and of the essential points of a question, capacity for acquiring
knowledge, power of managing men and impressing them with confidence, and
shrewdness in selecting competent assistants. These same qualities are still needed.
for success in the present day, coupled with an opportunity of exhibiting them ;
but far more knowledge of mathematics and other sciences is required now, owing
to the enormous advances effected, if the progress of engineering science is to be
maintained. Even though in some branches engineers in large practice may not
have the time, or retain the requisite facility, for solving intricate mathematical
problems, they should be able readily to comprehend the full bearing of the prin-
ciples presented, and to understand the nature of the solutions put before them,
which nothing but the scientific faculty implanted by early training in mathema-
tics and physics can adequately secure.

A qualifying examination for engineers would usefully stop persons at the out-
set from entering the profession, who failed to evince the possession of the requisite
preliminary knowledge: it would indicate, by the subjects selected, the kind of
training best calculated to fit a person to become a useful engineer ; and it would
protect the public, as far as practicable, from the injuries or waste of money that
might result from the mistakes of ill-qualified engineers.

Specialising in Engineering.—Some branches of engineering have for a long
time been kept distinct from others, such as the construction of steam-engines,
locomotives, and marine engines, ship-building, heavy ordnance, hydraulic
machinery, and other purely mechanical works, one or more of which have been
treated as specialities by certain firms, and also gas lighting, and, more recently,
electric lighting. In the department, however, of civil engineering in its narrower
signification, as distinguished from mechanical engineering, engineers of former
times were regarded as equally qualified to undertake any of the branches of public
works; and the same engineer might be entrusted with the execution of roads,
railways, canals, harbours, docks, sewerage works, and waterworks; while even
steamships were not excluded from the category in Brunel’s practice. The engineer
of to-day, indeed, would be lacking that important factor for success, common
sense, if he declined to execute any class of works which he might be asked to
undertake ; and a variety of works is very useful to the engineer in enlarging his
views and experience, as well as in extending the range of his practice. The
tendency, however, now in engineering, as in medicine, is for the engineer's practice
to be confined to the special branch in which he had had most experience; a result
which cannot fail to be beneficial to the public, and calculated to promote the
progress of each branch. The powers of the human mind are too limited, and life
is too short, for engineers to be able to acquire, in the present day, equal proficiency
jn the theory and practice of the several branches of engineering science, with their
ever-widening scope and development ; and, as in the domain of abstract science,
general progress will be best achieved in engineering science by the concentration
of the energies of engineers in the advancement of their special line of practice.

Value of Congresses on Special Branches of Engineering.—The scope of engi-
neering science is extending so fast that it is impossible for the Institution of Civil
Engineers, which, as the parent society, embraces every branch within its range of
subjects, to give more than a very limited time for the consideration and discussion
of papers relating to the non-mechanical branches of the profession comprised in
public works. Mechanical, electrical, and gas engineers have special societies of their
own for advancing their knowledge and publishing their views and experience,
while sharing equally with the other branches in the benefits of the older Institu-
tion. Congresses accordingly afford a valuable opportunity for railway, hydraulic,
‘and sanitary engineers of expressing their views, and enlarging their experience by
consultation and discussion with engineers of various countries. My experience of
the six maritime, inland navigation, and waterworks international congresses I have
attended in England and abroad, has convinced me of the very great value of such
‘meetings in collecting information, comparing views, and obtaining some knowledge
of foreign works and methods; whilst the acquaintances formed with some of the
most celebrated foreign engineers, afford opportunities of gaining further infor-

792 REPORT—1895,

mation about works abroad, and deriving experience from their progress and
results.

Engineering Literature.—Lawyers have been defined as persons who do not
possess a knowledge of law, but who know where to find the law which they may
require. It may be hoped that a similar definition is not applicable to engineers ; but
with the rapid increase of engineering literature, it is most desirable that engineers
should be able readily to refer to the information on any special subject, or descrip-
tions of any executed works, which may have been published. Much valuable
matter, however, is buried in the proceedings of engineering and scientific societies,
and in various publications ; and often a considerable amount of time is expended in
fruitless search. This great waste of time and energy, and the loss of available
information involved, led me a few years ago to suggest that a catalogue of engi-
neering literature ought to be made, arranging the lists of publications relating to
the several branches under separate headings. There is a possibility that this
arduous and costly task may be partially accomplished in separate volumes; and,
at any rate, the first step has been effected by the publication, under the auspices
of the Paris Inland Navigation Congress of 1892, of a catalogue of the publications
on inland navigation. A start has also been made in France, Italy, and England,
towards the preparation of a similar catalogue on maritime works, which it may
be hoped means will one day be found to publish on the meeting of some future
congress. Engineers who have searched, even in the best libraries, for the pub-
lished information on any special subject, will appreciate what a great boon an
engineering subject catalogue would be to the profession, and indirectly to the
public at large,

The occasional publication of comprehensive books on special branches of engi-
neering, and concise papers on special subjects, by competent authorities, are
extremely valuable in advancing and systematising engineering knowledge; but
the time and trouble involved in the preparation of such publications must, like
the organising of congresses, be regarded as a duty performed in the interests of
the profession and science, and not as affording a prospect of any pecuniary
benefit.

Concluding Remarks.—In this address, I have endeavoured, though very imper-
fectly, to indicate how engineering consists in the application of natural laws and
the researches of science for the benefit and advancement of mankind, and to point
out that increased knowledge will be constantly needed to keep pace with, and to
carry on, the progress that has been made. The great advantages provided by
engineering works in facilitating communications and intercourse, and consequently
the diffusion of knowledge, in increasing trade, in extending civilisation to remote
regions, in multiplying the comforts of life, and affording enlarged possibilities of
enjoyment and change of scene, may be regarded as amply acknowledged ; but the
more gradual and less obvious, though not less important, benefits effected by
engineering works are not so fully realised.

A comparison of engineering with the other chief branch of applied science,
medicine, exhibits some similarities and differences. In both professions, the dis-
coveries of science are utilised on behalf of mankind; but whilst physicians devote
themselves mainly to individuals, engineers are concerned in promoting the well-
being of the community at large. Persons reluctantly consuit doctors when they
are attacked by disease, or incapacitated by an accident; but they eagerly resort
for enjoyment to railways, steamships, mountain tramways, piers, great wheels,
and Eiffel towers ; and they frequently avail themselves of the means of cheap and
easy locomotion to complete their restoration to health by change of air and climate.
Physicians try to cure people when they are ill; whereas engineers endeavour, by
good water-supply and efficient drainage, to maintain them in health; and in this
respect, the evident results of medical skill are far more readily realised than the
invisible, though more widespread, preventive benefits of engineering works.
Statistics alone can reveal the silent operations of sanitary works ; and probably no
better evidence could be given of the inestimable value of good water and proper
drainage on the health of the population of large towns, when aided by the progress
of medical science, than the case of London, where, towards the close of the last

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 793

century, the death-rate exceeded the birth-rate, and the numbers were only kept
up by constant immigrations; whereas now, in spite of the vast increase of the
population and the progressive absorption of the adjacent country into the ever-
widening circle of houses, the number of births exceed the deaths by nearly nine
hundred a week.

In engineering, as in pure science, it is impossibie to stand still; and engineers
require to be ever learning, ever seeking, to appreciate more fully the laws of nature
and the revelations of science, ever endeavouring to perfect their methods by the
light of fresh discoveries, and ever striving to make past experience and a wider
Imowledge stepping-stones to greater achievements. Engineers have a noble
vocation, and should aim at attaining a lofty ideal; and, in the spirit of the cele-
brated scientific discoverers of the past, such as Galileo, Newton, La Place,
Cavendish, Lyell, and Faraday, should regard their profession, not so much as an
opportunity of gaining a pecuniary reward, as a means of advancing knowledge,
health, and prosperity.

The remarkable triumphs of engineering have been due to the patient and long-
continued researches of successive generations of mathematicians, physicists, and
other scientific investigators; and it is by the utilisation of these stores of know-
ledge and experience that engineers have acquired renown. A higher tribute of
gratitude should perhaps be paid to the noble band of scientific investigators who,
in pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, have rendered possible the achievements
of engineering, than to those who have made use of their discoveries for the
attainment of practical benefits; but they must both be regarded as co-workers in
the promotion of the welfare of mankind. The advancement of science develops
the intellectual faculties of nations, and enlarges their range ; whilst the resulting
progress in engineering increases their material comforts and prosperity. If men
of science, by closer intercourse with engineers, could realise more fully the
practical capabilities of their researches, and engineers, by a more complete scientific
training, could gain a clearer insight into the scientific aspect of their profession,
both might be able to co-operate more thoroughly in developing the resources of
nature, and in furthering the intellectual and material progress of the human race.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Light Railways as an Assistance to Agriculture.
By Masor-Generat WesBER, C.B., R.L., MInst.C.L.

The great impetus given to a possible extension of light railways in the United
Kingdom through the assembly of representatives of various interests connected
with the subject by the Board of Trade in December last has not borne any
fruit.

To this committee Lieut.-Colonel Addison, R.E., and Mr. Stovin Warburton,
our Consul at Rochelle, both made admirable reports on the subject of light rail-
ways, the one dealing with Belgium, the other with Western France.

The so-called hight railways of Ireland, constructed under Government and
baronial guarantees, haye no analogy either in their engineering or working with
the lines with which the author seeks to familiarise the Section.

One of the most useful lessons to be learnt from the examples described, both
home and foreign, is the ease and safety with which light railways can be worked
alongside and on public roads, both in the country and through the towns, even
when they are crowded as Ipswich is on a busy day.

The author’s object in bringing the question before what it is hoped may be a
Suffolk audience fully acquainted with agriculture is to get up discussion on how
far what is practicable will really be remunerative on the capital to be expended,
and. will lessen the cost of transport between producer and consumer.

It has been assumed that in a county such as Suffolk there is use for 200 miles
of such light railway, with the suggestion that this length would be distributed in
twenty directions, each line having an average length of 10 miles.

794 REPORT—1895.

The gauge throughout to be 24 inches, and the lines to be provided with a
turnout alongside of each holding of a certain size, and at each place where an
agricultural industry such as dairying is established. Stations, means of ware-
housing, and workshops to be provided only in the proportion of one to each line,
all stopping places to require but trifling expenditure.

The rolling stock in proportion to each line to be—

2 steam locomotives ;
2 composite carriages ;
2 break vans ;
2 timber waggons ;
5 covered waggons ;
20 goods waggons, of sorts.

The total capital cost, if undertaken on such a moderate scale, would be
287,105/., or 1,436. per mile. '

The estimate of total takings, allowing one mixed train each

way per diem only, or one all-round journey, and also allow-
ing that one-fourth the capacity for goods is only used, is . £10,300

For passengers, one-fourth the capacity of the first-class, and
one-half of the third-class accommodation being used . . 8,214

Total . : : : ; : : £18,514

With 247,200 train lines per annum this gives ls. 6d. a mile.
There are many examples to show that the running cost, pro--
viding for upkeep and renewals, can be kept within ls, a

mile, leaving a nett profit of . : . . ‘ £6,180

The nett receipts for mails, parcel, excursions, and advertising
work out at : i ; ¢ : ot}: 782
Total nett revenue . ‘ A . £7,962

or about 2/, 18s. per cent.

Extra nett revenue would be derived with extra mileage run, and it might be
expected that two all-round journeys would before long be necessary on several
lines.

The author omits the question of the purchase of land. Parliament proposes
that the public inquiries preliminary to these light railways shall be essentially
local. The views as regards compensation and the necessity of buying land will
be governed by considerations which will be local in every respect; and if it
is in the interests of the locality generally that their expenditure be kept at a mini-
mum, they need not at most exceed 100/. a mile, or 20,000/. altogether.

The burthen of the guarantee of this fund I propose shall be the only one to
be taken by the County Council, and when that is realised, I think individual
interests will receive no unfair share of consideration.

At 4 percent., including a sinking fund, this may at first throw 800/. a year on
the rates, but it will soon be earned. In return, the local authority to have a
deferred charge on the earnings, and powers to become sole proprietors at the end
of a term of years, and in the meantime to be represented on the board of direc-
tion.

2. The Gobert Freezing Process for Shaft-sinking and Tunnelling under
Rwers. By A. Gozsrrt, Ingénieur Civil of Brussels,

The process consists in freezing water-bearing strata and running sands by
means of liquid ammonia poured straight into the freezing-pipes, which are sunk
vertically into the ground which is to be frozen. The liquid ammonia, in passing
into gas in the freezing-pipes, produces a more intense cold than that obtained by
unfreezable liquids, which are themselves rendered cold by the evaporation of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. , 795

ammonia. By adopting direct evaporation, the danger is avoided of rendering the
ground unfreezable in the event of the escape of the unfreezable liquid; the cost of
the installation is reduced by dispensing with the unfreezable liquid, and with the
apparatus used for rendering it cold; and the power of the refrigerating machine
is much better utilised. The process possesses the advantage of being able to freeze
the bottom without freezing the upper layers. Thus, when it is necessary to
deepen the lined shaft of a mine which has been flooded, the freezing-pipes can be
placed inside the lining, without any risk of bursting the lining by the freezing of
the water which is inside it. In the case of tunnelling under a river, as the evapora~
tion of the ammonia takes place below the water-level, hardly any of the cold is
lost in the contact of the pipes with the water; whereas a great quantity would be
lost in employing an unfreezable liquid.

3. East Anglian Coal Exploration, Description of Machinery Employed.
By J. VIvian.

4. The Effect of Wind, and Atmospheric Pressure on the Tides.
By W. H. Wueeter, MInst.C.£.

In this paper it is shown that while a general rule, founded on observations made
by Sir J. W. Lubbock, as to the effect of atmospheric pressure in raising or depress-
ing the height of the tides has been formulated, no attempt has yet been made to
deduce any law as to the more important effect of gales of wind; and shows that
the subject is one of considerable importance to navigation, especially to pilots and
captains of coasting vessels, who frequently have to cross over bars and shoals in
navigable channels with a very narrow margin of water under the keel, while tides
are frequently raised or depressed to the extent of several feet by gales.

In the author’s opinion the use of the barometer cannot be made of service in
predicting the condition of the tide, as the pressure varies on different parts of the
coast, and in order to calculate its effect on the tide the direction of the gradient
of pressure and the locality of high and low pressure must first be known. This
can only be ascertained by consulting the weather charts issued from the meteoro-
logical office. This source of information is not available on board ship or at many
of the smaller ports. A rapid alteration in the pressure of the atmosphere is
almost always accompanied by wind, which affords a more ready and reliable
guide for the immediate purposes of navigation.

From an analysis of two years’ tides at the Port of Boston, and excluding
occasions when the element of wind would affect the case, the author found that
out of 152 observations, 61 gave an opposite result to that which would have been
expected; a high barometer frequently being accompanied by a high tide, and a
‘low barometer by a low tide.

On the other hand, with few exceptions, it is found by experience that when
the wind blows with any force along a coast in the same direction as the main
stream of the flood tide, the tides at all the ports along that coast will be higher
than the calculated height given in the tide tables; and when the wind blows
against the flood tide, high water will be lower than calculated.

The author gives numerous instances of the effect of gales in raising and lower-
ing the natural height of the tides, and tables showing the effect of the gales of
November 1893 and 1894 on the tides at the principal ports round the coast of
Great Britain. These figures show that the variation is on some occasions as
much as from 5 to 6 feet, and the difference in the height between two succeeding
tides as much as 8 feet.

From an analysis of the register of tides at Boston Dock on the East coast
over two years, the author found that 24 per cent. of the whole tides recorded
were sufficiently affected by the wind as to vary 6 inches from the calculated
height ; thirty varied by 2 feet, seven by 3 feet, six by 3} feet, three by 4 feet, two
by 43 feet, one by over 5 feet, and one by 6 feet 3 inches.

796 REPORT—1895.

From these tides, checked by comparison with those at other parts of the
coast, the author has formulated a table showing the amount to be added to or
deducted from the height of tne tide of the day as given in the tide tables, accord-
ing to the strength and direction of the wind :—

Approximately it may be taken that with a given force of wind of 8 on the
Beaufort scale a tide will be raised or depressed by half an inch for every foot of
range ; with a force of from 4 to 6 the variation may be expected to be 1 inch
for every foot ; with a gale of from 7 to 8, 13 inch; and if the gale increases to 10,
then 2 inches. For example, supposing the rise of a Spring tide at any particular
port to be 16 feet above low water, and the wind to be blowing with a force of 5,
then 16 multiplied by one inch would make that tide 16 inches higher, or 17 feet
4 inches.

It is not intended that any absolute reliance can be placed on the formula, but
that it may be taken as a sufficiently approximate guide by which pilots or cap-
tains of coasting vessels may be able to form some estimate as to the extent to
which the tide will be affected, and consequently the depth of water available
over bars or shoals.

PRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Notes on Autumn Floods of 1894.
By G. J. Symons, PRS.

2. On Weirs in Rivers.

By R. C. Napiger, and F. G. M. Stoney.

3. An Exneriment in Organ-blowing.
By W. Anverson, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.

An organ of sixty-one stops and four manuals at the Goldsmiths’ Technical
and Recreation Institute, New Cross, London, was found defective in its blowing
apparatus. Sir Frederick Bramwell, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., and the author, governors
of the Institute, were requested to look into the matter, and finding that the
maximum pressure required was only 10 inches of water, determined to adopt an
ordinary smiths’ fan, driven by an electric motor specially wound and coupled
direct to the fan spindle. Some preliminary experiments showed that a fan with
a 10-inch outlet and a six bladed 25-inch impeller, driven at about 1,900 revolu-
tions per minute, was amply competent to give the pressure and volume of wind
required, Some apprehension was felt lest the pulses due to the fan might
interfere with the lower notes of the organ, but exhaustive trials have shown that
no such interference takes place.

4, The Growth of the Port of Harwich. By W. Brrr.

5. The new Outlet of the River Maas at the Hook of Holland, and the
Improvement of the Scheur Branch up to Rotterdam. By LL. F. VuRNonx
Harcourt, I.A., MInst.0.£.

The gradual shoaling of the mouths of the Maas, coupled with the increasing
draught given to sea-going vessels, rendered the access to Rotterdam inadequate in
the first half of this century. An attempt was made to obtain a deeper entrance

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 797

than existed at the mouth of the new Maas by the construction of the Vonne
Canal in 1827-29, enabling vessels to enter by a somewhat deeper mouth to the
south ; but the available depth over the bar of this mouth was often only 12 feet,
and under the most favourable conditions vessels drawing more than 174 feet
could not go up to Rotterdam, and even then the route was very circuitous, and the
journey occupied at least eighteen hours. In 1858 Mr.Caland proposed cutting a
new direct outlet for the Scneur branch of the Maas across the Hook of Holland,
continued across the foreshore into deep water by fascine-work jetties, and this
scheme was approved and commenced in 1863, The north jetty was carried out
in 1863-74 to a leneth of 2,187 yards, and the south jetty in 1364-76 for 2,515
yards; the channel across the Hook was excavated, 164 feet wide and 10 feet deep,
in 1868-71; and the old outlet to the south of the Hook was closed by a dam in
1872. The new channel was first used by fishing vessels in 1871 and by steamers
in 1872. The yiver was alsoregulated by training works, in a gradually widening
channel, from Rotterdam to the Hook. The scour, which had been relied upon for
widening the cut and deepening the channel across the foreshore between the
jetties, proved inadequate to accomplish this, and accordingly in 1882 the widen-
ing of the narrow cut by excavation and the deepening of the jetty channel by
dredging, and its narrowing 656 feet by a low training bend to the south, were
commenced. The river above has also been further regulated and deepened by
training and dredging, and the escape of the ebb tide into the old Maas has beer
prevented by the contraction of the entrance to the junction channel. By these
works the river has been made to widen out uniformly from 330 yards at Rotter-
dam to 765 yards at the ends of the jetties; and not only has the navigable
channel been widened and deepened, but the flow has-been rendered uniform and
the tidal scour has been increased.

The minimum depth at low tide between the jetties and in front has gradually
been increased from 10 feet in 1882 up to 261 feet in 1893, and the rise of tide
adds about 53 feet. The maximum draught of the vessels navigating the new
channel has increased from 192 feet in 1882 up te 25 feet in 1893; and the
number of vessels drawing 23 feet and over has risen from 16 in 1886 up to 150 in
1893. Vessels can now reach Rotterdam from the sea in two hours; and the total
number of vessels using this new channel has increased from 6,946 in 1879, with a
capacity of 8,314,000 cubic metres, up to 9,628 in 1893, with a capacity of
20,432,000 cubic metres,

Before the construction of the Moerdyk bridge, about twenty years ago, and
the extension of the railway to Rotterdam, passengers from England to Rotterdam
and Amsterdam had to go by Ostend and Antwerp, and by steamer from Moerdyk
to Rotterdam; and even after the completion of the railway the journey was a
long and circuitous one. Rotterdam also, thirty years ago, was a small town and
a somewhat insignificant port. The new deepened outlet and the extension of the
railway from Schiedam to the Hook, together with the improved acecmmodation
provided at Harwich, has opened a short cheap route to North Holland, and also
to the Continent beyond. The improvement, moreover, of the river has trans-
formed Rotterdam into a large port; large basins surrounded by quays have been
found opening into the river, in addition to quays along the river; and consider-
able extension works are in progress for providing further accommodation for
vessels and the rapidly growing trade of the port. Having travelled to Rotterdam
in 1865 and 1867 by the old route, by railway from Antwerp in 1880, and down
the river from Rotterdam to the outlet, and last year from Harwich to the Hook,
and also both up and down the river and through the port, I have myself had an
opportunity of witnessing the marvellous development of Rotterdam and the
changes which the works since 1882 have made in the river between Rotterdam
and the sea.

The total cost of the river works, up to their completion this year, has
amounted to about 2,950,000/.

798 REPORT—1895.

6. The Snowdon Mountain Tramroad.
By ¥. Oswex1, Assoc.M.Inst,C.£.

The idea of a railway up Snowdon was first suggested as long ago as 1871
when the late Sir Richard Moon, at the opening of the Llanberis-Carnarvon Rail-
way, referred to the possibility of such an undertaking. Several attempts made
since that time to set it on foot have failed, but in November last year the neces-
sary arrangements were made with the landowner, and the works were begun in
the middle of December.

The line is set out with a special regard to the tenants’ interests, at the same
time to secure, wherever possible, the finest views for the passengers consistent
with easy gradients and light earthworks.

Leaving the Llanberis Station, which stands on the main road, midway between
the L. & N.W. Station and the Victoria Hotel, the line follows the stream as far
as Cae Esgob, where it crosses it in front of the old King’s House, passes near the
Methodist Chapel (Hebron) on the left, and at two miles reaches and crosses the
bridle path by a bridge. The first half-way house is passed 60 feet, and the second
180 feet below, the tramroad at this point arriving on the watershed which it
follows for half a mile, and crossing the bridle path again at 3} miles, 2,550 feet above
the sea, remains below it (at one point as much as 200 feet below) until 4} miles,
when path and tramroad run nearly side by side to the summit, terminating at the
site of the hotel that is to be built here, 3,500 feet above the sea, and 50 feet below
the plateau where the present huts stand. Here a fine view is obtained over the
Bwlch Main Watershed towards Beddgelert, as well as in other directions.

The length of the line is 43 miles, the total rise 3,140 feet, the steepest gradient
1 : 5°5; the average gradient 1] : 7°85. Two miles of the entire length are in curves, of
which there are thirty-four in all, with radii of 4,5, 10, 12, and 20 chains. There
are to be terminal stations at the top and bottom, three intermediate equidistant
passing places, and an additional station at the waterfall (Cenwant Mawr).

The works consist chiefly of a viaduct 500 feet long, near the beginning of the
line, composed of fourteen brick arches 30 feet span carried on masonry pier a
second viaduct of four similar arches crossing the side of the waterfall ravine, an
arched bridge of 50 feet span over the stream, and five smaller bridges,

The permanent way is all of steel, the rails being of the Indian State Railways
pattern, 411 Ib. to the yard, 9 metres long, carried on rolled steel sleepers, to
which they are attached by clips and bolts. The sleepers are spaced throughout
0-90 metre apart, and the fish plates are 3 ft. 6 in. long, wich slots in the ends
to admit the clip of adjacent sleepers, each pair carrying six fish bolts.

The rack is of the ‘Abt’ pattern and laid double throughout, the bars being
1:80 metre long, spanning two sleepers and breaking joint with each other. They
are # inch thick on grades of 1:10 or flatter, and 1 inch thick on all steeper
grades. They are carried on rolled and milled steel chairs, which are attached by
heavy bolts to the sleepers.

The locomotives have been built at Winterthur in Switzerland with the object
of saving delay, and they contain all the latest improvements known for this class
of engine. They carry two double differentiating pinion wheels on the axles of
the ‘driving’ wheels, which latter run free on the axles, so that the engine cannot
travel on adhesion rails alone.

There are two cylinders 12 in. diameter by 24 in. stroke; the rigid wheel
base is 4 ft. 5 in. There is a third axle carrying trailing wheels under
the cab.

There are eight break blocks, four to each pinion, These breaks may be
worked by hand, but are applied automatically by steam power if a certain fixed
vate of speed is exceeded.

There is also an air-break, worked in conjunction with the hand-break in
descending, which retards or arrests the motion by forcing air into the backs of the
cylinders after steam has been cut off.

All the permanent way material has been made by English firms. The

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 799

engineers to the undertaking are Messrs. Sir Douglas Fox & Francis Fox, London,
The contractors are Messrs. Holme & King, Liverpool. The author is the Resi-
dent Engineer.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. First Report on Standardising.—See Reports, p. 497.

2. Report on Coast Erosion.—See Reports, p. 352.

3. Dredging Operations on the Mersey Bar.
By Antuony Georee Lyster, J [nst.C.£.

The paper commences with a short account of the physical and geographical
features of the river Mersey, tracing its course from the junction of the Goyt with
the Etherow, near Stockport, to the mouth of the river.

A more detailed description is given of the course of the river where it enters
Liverpool Bay, and the form and character of the main channel are explained.

The bar is next considered, its former condition described, and the positions of
the main channel and of the bar at the outlet of the main channel are shown to be
by no means permanent, but to have both altered considerably within quite recent
times.

The great inconvenience of the bar as a cause of delay to modern navigation is
discussed and the urgent necessity for amelioration is shown.

Dredgings operations which have been undertaken at New York and at the
mouth of the Mississippi are then touched upon, and a comparison is made between
the work done at these places and that in progress at the Mersey Bar.

After describing the position of the dredged cut, which is also shown by
diagrams, an account is given of two steam hopper barges which were first fitted
up with sand pumps and used for the purpose of dredging a deep cut across the
Mersey Bar, their capacities, rates of loading, suction tubes, hoppers, and general
characteristics are fully described, as is also the variable nature of the material
which they are engaged in removing.

An account of the quantity of material removed by these dredgers is then
given and a description of the new and more powerful dredger, the ‘ Brancker,
which was built in consequence of the successful results achieved by the smaller
ones, is entered upon.

With regard to the ‘Brancker’ the form and dimensions, fittings, contract
conditions, work done, and the proportion of the whole time available for working
are fully dealt with.

The fitting up of the steam tender the ‘ Alarm’ as an ‘eroder,’ with the object
of dealing exclusively with the fine mud on the outer face of the bar on ebb tides,
is next described.

The material found on the bar is then analysed. Sections taken across the bar
in 1890, 1893, and 1895 are compared, and an account is given of observations of
the rate of flow of neap and spring tides both previous to and during the present
operations, while the paper closes with an expression of the author’s views on the
general theory of the formation of river bars, and the advisability of further
increase of the dredging plant.

4. On Carbonic Anhydride hefrigerating Machinery. By E. Heskern, :

800 REPORT—1895.

5. On the Deodorising of Sewage by the Hermite Process. .
By J. Navtzr, F.C.S., Public Analyst for County of Suffolk.

This process consists of passing an electric current obtained from a dynamo
through sea water or a solution containing magnesium and sodium chlorides,
whereby a portion of the chlorides is converted into hypochlorite, a substance
which disinfects, deodorises, and bleaches similarly to the active ingredient of
bleaching powder, viz., calcium hypochlorite. This solution is called the
electrolised or ‘hermite’ solution, and may contain from half to one gramme of
active chlorine per litre.

The author gives a brief history of the sewering of Ipswich during the last
twenty years, showing the present system, particularly the position of the main
sewer as it passes through the town to the outfall.

The deodorising effects of the electrolised (hermite) solution on sewage, espe-
cially upon that in the main sewer of Ipswich, are dealt with, and the results of
trials made in August and September 1894 and in June, July, and August of this
year are given.

The installation was at full work during the meeting of the Association. Those
interested in the electrolysis of sea water and its effects on sewage were invited to
visit the works.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

The following Papers were read :-—

1 Zhe Modern Application of Electricity to Traction Purposes.
By Pure Dawson.

Introductory.—Sketch of progress made during the past decade; introduction
of the under-running trolley and earth return ; adoption of electrical motive power
by the West End Street Railway of Boston, U.S.A., in 1888; in 1890, 2,523 miles
of electric tramways in America; rapid increase in mileage and equipment in the
United States; statistics and financial statement ; first prominently successful line
in Europe at Halle, Germany, in 1891; statement of present European instailations
and of electrical tramway construction now under contract.

General and Descriptive—The especial adaptability of electric traction to
tramways and light railways; but three methods of electrical power transmission
practically employed: (1) by elevated conductors with trolley contact; (2) by sub-
surface conduit—contained conductors—and (3) by surface or third rail conductors ;
the former by far the most efficient and successful and in most extensive use; ob-
jections to the overhead wire and compensating advantages.

Parts of an Electric Tramway Installation.—Latest machinery apparatus and
methods of construction.

(a) Power, Plant.—Approved engines, dynamos, and accessories; general use
of compound-wound machines ; direct coupled generators for large units; impor-
tance of automatic circuit breakers; power required; reserve; utilisation of
accumulators.

(6) Motors and Gearing.—Specific requirements for exacting service; general
design ; results of tests.

(c) Regulation and Control.—Construction and operation of the series parallel
controller ; its economy as contrasted with former methods; speed regulation.

(d) Motor Trucks.—Essential points of construction ; four-wheel, bogie, and
radial trucks; safety appliances; brakes, fenders, sand-boxes, lightning ar-
resters, &c.

(e) Trolleys.—For cars with and without roof seats, and for varying methods
of trolley-wire suspension ; wheel and scraping contacts; modern pivotal trolleys.

(f) Overhead Line.—Description of material employed; poles, trolley-wire,

}

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 801

insulators, span-wire, lightning arresters, &c.; methods of suspension adopted on
British and Continental lines ; feeders; double-conductor construction,

(9) Return Circuit.—Its importance; supplementary return feeders; bonds and
method of bonding; electric welding.

Notable Installations—European and American; three-phase at Dublin,
Sacramento, and Portland; three-wire system; water-power; ‘light railway,’
mining, and other services.

Application to Railway Service—City and South London Railway ; Liverpool
overhead ; Chicago and New York Elevated Railways; branch lines and suburban
service in connection with steam lines; Baltimore and Ohio Railway Company’s
95-ton locomotives.

Conelusion.—Economic results already attained; probable extension and
development.

2. An Improved Portable Photometer.'
By W. H. Preece, C.B., F.R.S., and A. P. Trotter, B.A., A.UWLC.E.

The authors begin by defining what is meant by illumination. When light
falls upon a surface that surface is said to be illuminated. The illumination
depends simply upon the light falling on the surface, and has nothing to do with

the reflecting power of the surface, just as rainfall is independent of the nature of
the soil. It depends also on the cosine of the angle of incidence. The lighting of

‘streets and of buildings may be specified by the maximum and minimum illumi-

nation. The primary purpose of an illumination photometer is to measure the
resulting illumination produced by any arrangements of lamps irrespective of their
number, their height, or their candle-power.

The authors allude to the illumination photometers of Weber? and Mascart,$
Preece’s first photometer,* the authors’ modification,’ and Trotter’s further modi-
fication,® which was used for measurements and photometrical surveys of streets
and public buildings in London, 1892. The new instrument (see figure above) is
a box, on the upper surface of which is a diaphragm of white card painted with a
whitewash of magnesia and isinglass. It has one or more star-shaped perforations.

1 Published in full in the Llectrician, September 20, 1895.

* Elec. Zeit. 1884, p. 166. * Bull. de la Soc. Inst. des Elec. 1888, p. 103.
* Proc. Roy. Soc. xxxv. p. 39, 1883. § Proc. Inst. 3, 8, cx. p- 101.

® Proc. Inst. C.E. ex. p. 105.

1895, 3F

802 REPORT—1895.

Immediately below it, within the box, is a white screen capable of adjustment at
different angles and two small electric lamps of different candle-power, either or
both of which can be used. A portable secondary battery is used to supply them
with current. The illumination of the hinged screen inside the box, varies
approximately as the cosine of the angle of incidence of the light from the electric
lamps upon it. A handle with a pointer moving over a graduated scale is
connected to the screen with a system of levers, and the inclination is so adjusted
that the illumination of the screen is equal to that of the perforated diaphragm,
the perforations seeming to disappear when this balance is affected. The illumi-
nation can then be read off on the scale in units of the illumination due to one
standard candle at one foot distance. The object of the levers is to give an open
and convenient scale. ‘The scale is graduated by experiment, and does not depend
upon the cosine law. The colour difficulty, where are light or daylight is to be
measured, is reduced by the use of « yellow-tinted diaphragm and a blue-tinted
screen, the tints being selected so that the readings are the same as the mean of a
large number of measurements made with white screens. By means of a
graduated quadrant and a gnomon the angle and the cosine of the angle of
incidence of the light from a lamp may be measured, and rules are given for
deducing the height of the lamp and the slant height, and hence the candle-power
of the lamp.

3. On Storage Batteries. By H. A. Earue.

The author traced the history of storage batteries from the time when Gautherot,
in 1801, obtained secondary currents from silver and platinum plates which had
been used in a voltameter to decompose a saline solution. Miitter, in 1803, was the
first to make a secondary battery, in which he employed plates of gold separated
by cloth or paper, moistened with a saline solution; and though he employed
various metals, including lead, the secondary currents he obtained were only of
short duration, and the batteries of only scientific interest. It would naturally be
presumed that he would have noticed increased effects when using lead, but we
find that he used salt water and not an acid solution, and on this account chloride
of Jead was formed, which is scarcely soluble and is a bad conductor.

De la Rive in 1826 obtained secondary currents from platinum plates in a
voltameter filled with water, and he closely approached the elements of our present
storage cells when, among his many experiments, he used in a primary battery a
platinum plate covered with a film of peroxide of lead, and a zine plate immersed
in an acid solution.

The first powerful storage battery was introduced by Planté in 1860, but the
method employed for its formation was too long and costly for practical purposes.
Faure, in 1881, reduced this long process of formation by applying lead oxide in
the form of a paste to the surfaces of the plates, but the adhesion was insufficient,
and the life of the cells was too short to give them commercial value, Swan
realised that the active material required a better mechanical support, and introduced
a plate of grid form, the interstices serving to retain the material; and this frame,
combined with the Faure pasting, was the origin of the plates largely used in this
country and elsewhere.

The monopoly that existed for the manufacture of this plate caused other
makers to turn their thoughts to the plain lead plates, and such great advances
have been made both in their manufacture and method of formation, that it is
rapidly replacing the pasted form,

A type that differs greatly from the solid lead plate, but which is not pasted,
is the chloride plate, in which the material to become active is a mixture of
chloride of lead and chloride of zine cast into small tablets, which are framed by
casting antimonious lead around them under high pressure. The suktequent
elimination of the chloride and zinc leaves a porous structure of pure lead of a
crystalline nature, of good conductivity, and with a large surface exposed to the
Slee ii the result being a large capacity for a given weight, and for the space
occupied.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 803

Omitting the question of cost, the chief points to be considered in connection
with accumulators are—the chemical action, the mechanical construction, and the
proper treatment of the cells when made.

The theoretical value of lead peroxide is 4:44 grammes per ampere hour, or,
roughly, one pound is the equivalent of 100 ampere hours. Presumine that the
positive and negative plates were identical, the value would be approximately 50
ampere hours for one pound of peroxide and spongy lead. As a matter of fact, the
highest capacity plates yield only about seven ampere hours per pound of positive
and negative plates, or sixteen ampere hours per pound of peroxide and spongy
lead, due to the facts that a conducting frame of considerable weight has to be
employed, and to the impossibility mm practical working of reducing the whole of
the peroxide. To obtain the best results for a given weight the frame must be
reduced to a minimum consistent with the necessary strength and conductivity,
and the distribution of the peroxide must be such as to admit of the perfect circu-
lation of the electrolyte, and its penetration throughout the mass.

The behaviour of cells under various conditions is most interesting, and from
the curves that can be plotted we can readily study the effects due to different
rates of charge and discharge, to the penetration and strength of the electrolyte,
and to the ratio of the weights of the positive and negative plates.

There is a given rate of charge which is most suitable to each type of cell,
mainly due to the disposition of the active material, to its thickness, and to the
method of its production, namely, whether it has been mechanically applied or
electrolytically produced. Most of the effects of varying rates of charge can be
ascertained from the resultant discharges, but discharge curves have nevertheless
characteristics of their own, which are to a great extent unconnected with the
conditions of charges.

A series of curves was exhibited to the Section which gave the capacities of
seven types of plates at present in use; the yield was given in ampere hours per
pound of positive and negative plates, the weight of one positive and one negative
being taken in each instance; the variation in capacity for hich and low rates of
discharge was also shown.

The striking point in these curves is the great variation existing in the various
types of plates now in use, but this can be explained to a great extent, for the
heavy solid plates, the active material of which is formed out of the plates them~
selves, must have a large reserve of weight to give them life, while pasted plates,
or plates with a large area, fall higher on the curve. One plate greatly exceeds all
the others in capacity, and this is due to the nature of the active material, which
permits the penetration of the electrolyte throughout the mass.

Regarding the voltage of a discharging cell, this varies greatly, and is dependent
upon the rate of discharge, the strength of the electrolyte, and other causes. In
considering this question, it will not be out of place to draw attention to conditions
frequently met with in specifications for storage batteries.

Tn some instances a given percentage in fall of voltage is allowed; in others
the voltage per cell is fixed to a hundredth of a volt, aboye which limit it must
give the specified capacity. This type of specification is, as a rule, most unsatis-
factory, for at what point does our initial voltage start? On open circuit ?
Immediately on closing the circuit, or five minutes afterwards? Further, may
the cells stand for half a day after charging before the discharge is taken? The
best way to meet this latter case is to take the first reading of voltage after the cell
has commenced discharging, and when 3 per cent. of the specified discharge
period has elapsed.

The most satisfactory specification to all concerned is for the amperes to be
specified, and the time for which the discharge is to be maintained, the voltage of
the complete battery at the end of the discharge being also given, the number
of cells being omitted; this would require for a low voltage discharge per cell an
increased number of cells, but a decreased number of plates, or wice versd; and
the author finds that this would not admit of the individual cells being worked to
too low a voltage, and that the purchaser would obtain exactly what he requires
at the lowest price.

ain 2

804 REPORT—1895.

When tests are made to check the efficiency and capacity of a battery, we can
place no reliance on the figures obtained from a single charge and discharge; as a
rule no two consecutive discharges are identical, even when discharged with the
same current and down to the same voltage. In tables given in the paper the
first ten charges and discharges from a new cell are recorded. These give a good
idea of the very various nature of results obtainable with slight differences of
charge. The figures show that the higher the voltage to which the cell is raised
on charge, the lower the efficiency, and also that a change of condition of charge
may increase or decrease the efficiency and output to an extraordinary extent.

The strength of the acid solution used has a great effect upon the behaviour of
a cell, also upon its life and voltage; moreover, a weak solution has a high
resistance, which diminishes as acid is added, till a specific gravity of about 1:250
is reached, when any addition of acid rapidly increases the resistance ; the resist-
ance also rapidly increases as the temperature falls. Each type of cell works best
with a given strength of acid, but there are other most important points to be
considered, namely, that different strengths of the electrolyte have great effect
both on the capacity of the cell aud upon its voltage.

Acid solutions of specific gravity from 1-1 to 1:3 will vary the voltage as much
as 10 per cent., and the highest capacities for various types of plates are obtained
with acid from specific gravity 1:2 to 1:3, and beyond these limits only a small
percentage of the maximum capacity can be obtained, and the curves of mean
voltage for different strengths of acid bear a most interesting relation to the
various curves of capacity under the same conditions.

The action upon plates when first erected and immersed in the electrolyte can,
to a great extent, be investigated by the fali and rise of its specific gravity,
various results being obtained from plates in different states, and according to
whether they are left standing or immediately charged. The conclusions drawn
from many tests of this nature is, that fully formed positives with clean negatives
are but little affected by standing, while partially formed positives and oxidised
negatives sulphate rapidly.

Regarding the treatment of cells and their life the chief causes of destruction
are impure acid solution, too prolonged or excessive rates of discharge, insufficient
charging, overcharging, long periods of rest on open circuit without charging, and
allowing cells to remain a/ter complete discharge for many hours before recharging.

We find, therefore, that many causes influence the working and life of storage
batteries, and that many of these can be varied at will; the problem, therefore, is
to so combine all useful effects, that the best possible article is produced with due
consideration to cost.

In a secondary battery we have lead, sulphuric acid solution, and the resultant
compounds, and nothing else. The ideal cell is one that is indestructible, and this
being given, the first cost and weight, if kept within reasonable limits, are of
little moment.

At the present moment the life of a cell is its value, and its death is brought
about by the disintegration of the active material. Now this disintegration is
what we have to stop, the material is as good as ever, for nothing is wasted, and
provided it were held in perpetual, firm, and good electrical contact with the
frame in such a manner that the free circulation and penetration of the acid were
not hindered, and the internal resistance not unduly increased, we should have
produced an ideal and indestructible cell.

The author has discussed only a few of the many interesting features in
connection with secondary batteries, being results obtained in practice.

4. The Development of the Telephone Service in Agricultural Districts.
By Major-General Weszer, C.B., R.L., MInst.C.£.

On April 20, 1895, the ‘Times’ published a letter from the author on the
subject in which public attention was drawn to the probability that the telephone,
as well as light railways, might be beneficial to rural districts.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 805

On May 14, 1895, in examination before the parliamentary committee which
inquired into the development of the telephone service in the United Kingdom,
the author also gave evidence on this subject.

He brings the subject before this Section in hopes that it may elicit discussion
by practical telephone engineers. It need hardly be said that his selection of the
county of Suffolk as an example of what can be done is especially appropriate to
this meeting of the Association.

The map shown to illustrate the paper was the Ordnance survey, on a scale of
linch to 1 mile. Every town, village, or hamlet where a post office is situated
is marked with a blue disc, and at each of these a telephone call-office would be
established. When this is also a telegraph office a red flag is added, and at the
twenty-nine towns where it is proposed that telephone exchanges should be esta-
blished the blue disc is surrounded by a ring in red.

The total number of call-offices is 29,

The lines of railway on which there are postal telegraph wires are shown in
red, those on the roads in blue, and the proposed extensions for telephones to the
proposed call-offices in green.

Probable connections to private subscrivers are not shown. These will be, in
most cases, by means of twin wires on the same poles. In the case of all the 351
eall-offices the communication will be by single conductors and earth-returns, the
connections between the exchanges themselves being by twin wires.

It is thought probable that, whether the Post Office erects such a system
in the country or not, there will be no difficulty in using the spare space on
the existing Post Office poles, for which, if the work is not undertaken by the
Post Office, a way leave to that department would be earned for the public
revenue,

In most cases the railways have been avoided owing to the excessive charges
for way leave and maintenance.

It is not proposed that these lines should be constructed with so costly mate-
rial as that used by the Post Office.

If carried out by the County Council the whole of the work could be ten-
dered for, and the poles supplied locally, and very little special labour would be
required,

The poles, insulators, brackets, and wire will be of the same size as is used
everywhere for light, permanent, military telegraph lines, and quite as efficient
and lasting as the heavier material. The conditions are: 25 poles to the mile;
small single shed porcelain insulators; screw brackets having a bent shank; the
conductors to be of No. 16 bronze, aud to be stretched within 9 inches vertically
of one another. —

The exchange offices will be placed either in county buildings or in private
houses ; the call-offices in private houses, where a small payment of 97. per annum,
with a percentage on the receipts above an average of 2s.a day gross, will suffice
for rent, and for attendance, which could be given by a child over ten or twelve.

A revenue from the subscriptions of private subscribers may be anticipated,
the subscriptions to vary between 6/. and iO. a year, according to circumstances,
situation, and services given.

The official use of the system by the county authorities is a value which the
chief constables, surveyors, and clerks to the councils could probably estimate better
than the author can.

The being able to converse with salesmen, markets, other farms, outlying
bailiffs, and workmen is an assistance to agriculture which is apparently obvious.

Small tradesmen will be able by it to keep trade in local hands.

Regulations of transport and carriage of all kinds will be assisted.

Economies will be effected in distribution of perishable agricultural produce of
all kinds.

Farm labour, male and female, would have improved means of obtaining
information as to demand and supply.

The proposed charge for a ‘ talk’ would be 2d. within one exchange area. 3d,
beyond and inside the county.

806 REPORT—1895.

How far this would affect the Post Office revenue in its various branches—
telegraph, postal, and parcels—it is not easy to estimate. The author believes that
compensation for losses in one direction will always be found in another.

5. Some Lessons in Telephony. By A. R. Bennerr, WInst.£.L.

It has recently been demonstrated that the development of telephonic com-
munication in the United Kingdom is inferior to that which has been attained in
many foreign countries.

Why this is so may best be discovered by ascertaining by what means,
technical or economical, those nations which have most conspicuously outstripped
us have acquired their superiority. For the purposes of this paper the countries of
Europe have been divided into three groups: (1) well telephoned ; (2) indifferently
telephoned ; (8) badly telephoned.

A country may most properly be said to be well telephoned when its smaller
towns and villages enjoy facilities; for the existence of a few large exchanges in
the capital and chief towns does not entitle it to that distinction. France, Russia
and Portugal all possess good exchanges in their capitals, but are nevertheless
badly telephoned, since their smaller towns and villages are excluded from partici-
pating in the service. On the other hand we find that Norway, Sweden, Switzer-
land, Luxemburg, Denmark and Finland are in the first rank as well-telephoned
countries, since not only their capitals and chief towns, but their villages and even
hamlets, are provided with communication. With them the telephone is no longer
a luxury, but an adjunct of everyday life, within reach of even the poorest.

Of these six countries, which compose Group I., four owe their development
to companies and co-operative societies, and two—Switzerland and Luxemburg—
to their Governments.

A considerable gap exists between the worst country of Group I. and the best
of Group II. This is the German Empire, exclusive of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg,
which possess their own systems independently. Thereafter the countries follow in
the order indicated in the Table, which shows that Norway is the best and Russia
the worst telephoned country of Europe.

The questions naturally arise, ‘To what causes are such vast differences in
development to be ascribed?’ and ‘ Why is the United Kingdom, with its prepon-
derating commercial importance and unparalleled spirit of enterprise, only tenth on
the list, instead of first ?’

A study of the table supplies the answer. It shows that telephonic develop-
ment is proportional to the prevalence of the following features :—

(1) Low rates; (2) Local management of exchanges; (8) Facilities for rural
intercourse ; (4) Competition.

At least three of these are characteristic of each of the six countries which
compose Group I.

On the other hand, they are almost compietely absent from Groups II. and IIL,
the leading characteristics of which are :—

(1) High rates; (2) Centralised management; (3) Neglect of small towns and
rural districts ; (4) Absence of competition.

On inquiring in what manner circumstances differ so greatly in the United
Kingdom as to preclude the possibility of small towns and rural communities
sharing in telephonic communication, it appears that the inelasticity of the
prevalent system of tariffs, which was originally invented for towns, is chiefly to
blame. In towns distances are short, and subscribers, if the switch-rooms are
properly distributed, have seldom to pay more than the unit charge; but in
country districts distances of several miles must often intervene between the sub-
scriber and switch-room, and as the annual rental exacted increases rapidly with
the distance, the charges become piled up by the extra mileage entirely beyond the
means of the vast majority of the people. What is wanted is the application of
the Austrian (which, with some modifications, has also been adopted in Luxem-
burg) system of tariffs, and under which all subscribers, whatever their distance

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 807

\ A = RA ——_

|
| Number | Number
Order | of of Persons
of Country | Population Exchange| to each Characteristics of Management
Merit Tele- Exchange
phones | Telephone
Group LI.

1 Norway . | 2,000,917 13,943 144 Very low rates; local management of ex-
changes; good rural intercourse; no com-
petition.

2 Sweden «| 4,784,981 32,602 147 | Very low rates; local management of ex- r
| changes ; good rural intercourse ; competi-
| tion.

3 Luxemburg. 211,088 1,515 160 | Very low rates ; central management, but with
delegated control, in some cases, to local
authorities ; good rural intercourse ; no com-
petition.

4 Switzerland. | 3,000,000 17,422 172 Very low rates ; central management, but with
delegated control, in some cases, to local

| authorities ; good rural intercourse ; no com-
petition.

5 Denmark .j} 2,185,335 10,325 211 Very low rates; local management of ex-
changes; good rural intercourse ; no compe-
tition.

6 Finland .| 2,412,135 7,351 328 Very low rates; local management of ex-
changes ; good rural intercourse; competi-
tion.

Grove Il.
Zz Imperial Ger- | 41,796,966 | 93,131 449 Fair rates for urban subscribers in large towns ;
man Post high rates in small towns ; highly centralised
Office ter- | management ; bad rural intercourse ; no com-
ritory | petition.

8 Bavaria . | 5,594,982 | 12,400 451 Ditto.

9 Wiirtemberg | 2,036,522 | 4,430 459 Low rates for urban subscribers, but with
regulations tending to restrict suburban and
rural intercourse ; central management ; no
competition.

10 United 37,880,764 | *58,367 636 High rates, with regulations unfavourable to
Kingdom 71,202 development outside towns; partly local
59,569 management ; practically no competition,

11 Holland . | 4,669,576 | 7,263 643 High rates in three chief towns, low rates else-
| where ; management chiefly centralised ; bad

rural intercourse ; no competition.
12 Belgium .| 6,136,444 8,757 700 High rates in large towns, low rates of recent
| origin in small towns; central management ;

no competition.

Grovp III.

13 France. - { 38,343,192 26,772 1,432 | High rates; subscribers pay also capital cost
of their installations except in Paris and
Lyons; central management; bad rural
intercourse ; no competition.

14 Spain . . | 17,800,000 10,984 1,618 High rates in large towns, recently intro-
| duced reduced tariff for small towns; local
management chiefly ; bad rural intercourse ;
no competition.

15 Austria . | 28,895,413 14,574 1,640 Fair rates, but subscribers pay capital cost of
their installations; central management ;
bad rural intercourse ; no competition.

16 Italy . « | 30,535,848 12,067 2,530 High rates in large towns, except in Rome,
where competition exists ; low rates in small
towns ; local management, but under strict
Government supervision; bad rural inter-
course ; no competition, except in Rome,

17 Hungary . | 17,463,473 5,563 3,139 High rates in towns ; very low rates for village
intercourse, but combined with regulations
which tend to restrict communication be-
\ tween the towns, suburbs and villages ;
partly local management ; no competition.
18 Portugal .| 5,000,000 1,483 3,371 Exchanges in Lisbon and Oporto only; fair
rates ; no rural intercourse ; no competition.
19 Russia . - | 97,151,789 7,415 13,102 Highest rates in Europe in chief towns; high
rates in small towns; partly local manage-
ment, under Government rules; bad rural
intercourse ; no competition.

* Company. Tf Post Office.

808 REPORT—1895.

may be from the switch-room, are put on an equality as regards annual subscrip-
tion, the only difference being in the first payment made, which varies with the
length of line required, the object being to reimburse the owners of the exchange
system once for all for the additional cost of the extra mileage. In Austria the
annual subscription is the same for any distance up to 15 kilometres (9 miles),
the difference being paid by the subscriber on joining the exchange. In Luxem-
burg the same system prevails, provided a subscriber is located not more than
1} kilometres from an existing route. The annual subscription is only 3l. 4s.,
including all charges, and the right to communicate at will over the whole of the
‘Grand Duchy, which measures about 44 x 30 miles. Compensation for increased
distance is made in the form of a first payment (which may, if desired, be spread
over five years) at the rate of 4/. per kilometre of the line which intervenes
between the free radius which surrounds every switch-room and the subscriber’s
place. The effect of this tariff has been to cover the Grand Duchy with telephone
lines. At the end of 1894 there were 59 switch-rooms (all in communication
with each other by trunk lines) and 1,315 exchange lines. Dorsetshire has exactly
the area (998 square miles) of Luxemburg, and practically the same population
(211,000), yet it contains only three exchanges— Weymouth, Dorchester, and Poole
—and about 70 subscribers. In Luxemburg there is an exchange telephone to every
160 inhabitants; in Dorsetshire one to 2,779. And many counties are worse off
than Dorset. Such is the consequence of the ditferent modes of management.

It cannot be said that such rates as are applied in Luxemburg do not pay.
Accounts and balance-sheets have recently been published! which prove that even
lower charges are made remunerative by local companies and municipalities in
Holland, Denmark, and Norway.

The islands of Jersey and Guernsey are instanced as localities in which tele-
phonic communication would be of great value could it be had on the Luxemburg
plan. At present they are entirely deprived of its benefits owing to the inadapt-
ability of the British system of tariffs to their local requirements—that is, to the
needs of a scattered community. Particulars are furnished also of the Drammens
Upland Telephone Company, which supplies a large and thinly populated district
of Norway with an extensive telephonic exchange system at very low, but still
remunerative, rates. As a contrast to the Channel Islands, the Aland Islands in
the Baltic, belonging to the Grand Duchy of Finland, where there is an exchange
telephone to every thirteen inhabitants, are mentioned.

The technical features of the Continental systems are, as a rule, best where the
tariffs are lowest and the extension of communication greatest. The conditions
laid down by the author in his paper on ‘The Telephoning of Great Cities,’
read at the Cardiff meeting of the Association in 1891, as being necessary to a
well-ordered exchange, are fulfilled more nearly in Sweden than elsewhere,
especially by the General Telephone Company of Stockholm. Metallic circuits
are universal; special attention is given to prompt switching, and Stockholm is
divided into eight nearly equal divisions, each containing a switch-room, whereby
the prompt and economical addition of new subscribers is rendered easy. The
speed attained in switching is that stated in the paper to be practicable and proper
in a good exchange, viz., 10 seconds when two switch-rooms are brought into
requisition, and 5 seconds when only one is required to complete a connection. The
countries of Groups II. and III. are, with some exceptions, technically behind
those of Group I.

1 The Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe. By A. R. Bennett. London,
Longmans, Green & Co.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 809

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Field Telegraph in the Chitral Campaign.
By P. V. Luxn, Deputy Director-General of Indian Telegraphs.

The field telegraph required for the army in India, for the many small expedi-
tions in which it is so often engaged, is furnished by the Civil Telegraph Depart-
ment. The department must be ready therefore at all times to meet any demands
made upon it. A suitable equipment has been designed, and a stock is kept at
convenient depéts at various points on the frontier; this enables an immediate
start to be made with the construction of the field telegraph in any operations,
while for prolonged operations the whole resource of the Civil Telegraph Depart-
ment can be made available.

All the equipment is arranged for ‘ pack’ carriage; the maximum weight of
any one package is fixed at 80 lbs. (one half the load a mule will carry). After
every campaign a full report is sent in of the working, and any defects brought to
light are dealt with at once.

The receiving instrument used is a sounder similar to the one used throughout
India, only reduced in size. It is fitted on a base-board with a small Siemens relay
and a key, with conneciions so arranged that it can either be worked ‘ direct’ or as
a ‘local.’ A perfect portable battery has still to be designed; at present the so-
called ‘dry’ pattern is used.

The unit of office equipment, or total needed for one field office, which includes
tents, &c., comprises seven mule loads, but it can be compressed to four loads if
necessary for an emergency and for temporary work. ‘l'elephone apparatus is
always included. The line wire employed is iron wire weighing 300 and 150 lbs.
per mile, and stranded hard copper wire weighing 80 lbs. per mile; light field
cable is used for certain purposes. For poles, where possible, the resources of the
country passed through are utilised; but for bare country, iron poles are carried.
They are tubular sheet iron in three pieces, fitting telescopically ; the total height
is 18 feet, and weight 40 lbs., the packages being 5 feet long. At twenty to the
mile they will carry three wires, one in a cap, the other two on insulators.

The rate of construction depends on the transport, labour, and character of
country. In the Waziristan campaign a single wire line was put up at rate of
nine miles a day for five consecutive days.

Special arrangements for rapid repair are always made; for this purpose it is
necessary to have a telegraph office at every ten miles, with a trained line staff.
For the signalling staff, trained British soldiers are mainly used; these men are
employed at other times at different telegraph offices throughout the country,
usually where their regiments are quartered.

The Field Telegraph forms a distinct department in the field, under a civilian
telegraph officer appointed by the Director-General of Telegraphs, and taking his
orders from the chief of the staff.

Information of the siege of Chitral came from Gilgit over the line which was
only completed in 1894. This line is carried over two passes, one 11,600 feet, the
other 13,500 feet above sea level, where the snow lies from 10 to 18 feet, yet it
worked well all through the winter. The staff at the observation stations close
to these passes are entirely cut off from the rest of the world except by wire for
seven months in the year. The place selected as the base of operations was Holi
Mardan ; best material for a two-wire 200-mile line with twenty offices was at
once collected, together with the necessary staff for constructing and working.
From this point the wire was pushed on as fast as possible, and a field office was
opened on the Malakand Pass a few hours after the battle. At first it was a
single-wire line, but it was afterwards made a three-wire line as far as the Swat
Valley, then a two-wire to Dir, and finally one-wire to Chitral Fort.

Great difficulties with transport occurred at Lowari Pass, owing to the pass

810 REPORT—1895.

not being passable for camels ; but for this the wire would have been into Chitral
by May 12—as it was it did not reach there till midnight of the 17th.

On account of the scarcity of timber it was necessary to use iron poles very
extensively ; at the Lowari Pass, however, there is a fine pine forest ; wooden poles
were afterwards used.

After May, cutting the wood became very frequent, and even very difficult
to stop.

‘After the start the traffic, which was exceedingly heavy, was dealt with, with
but little delay; in April 24,370 and in May 58,955 messages were dealt with,
and their length was much above the average. Shortly after the Malakand fight,
by clearing the line right through to Simla, the Commander-in-Chief was enabled
to talk direct to General Low, and in spite of heavy rains at the time the com-
munication was excellent.

To give some notion of what was accomplished, it may be stated that a telegram
dated Chitral Fort, May 19, was published in the London papers of the same date.

The Telegraph Department also assists in defending camps by running wires
round the camp, so arranged that an alarm is at once given by the ringing of a
bell in the Quarter Guard should a night surprise be attempted, and in many other
ways much aids and assists the military authorities.

Medals and decorations are given to the staff at the conclusion of the campaign.

2. A Movement Designed to attain Astronomical Accuracy in the Motion
of Siderostats. Dy G. Jounstone Stoney, RS.

3. On Modern Flour Milling Machinery. By ¥. W. Turner.

4. On the Production of Letterpress Printing Surfaces without the use
of Types. By Joun SouTHwaRD.

The author describes a recent invention, known as the ‘ Linotype ’ Composing
Machine, which enables certain kinds of letterpress printing—namely, the plain text
of books and newspapers—to be done without the use of types. The invention
constitutes a remarkable improvement upon the present methods of typography,
which, in all essential particulars, have remained unchanged during the last four
and a half centuries.

Hitherto, letterpress printing surfaces of the kind referred to, or those repre-
senting alphabetical characters, have been formed by combining together, or
‘composing ’—to use the technical term—movable interchangeable types, having
cast upon them in relzef the characters they are to represent. In the Linotype
system, instead of such types being composed, matrices, corresponding to them to
the extent of having characters engraved upon them, but in ztaglio, are set up.
When a sufficient number of matrices to form a line of given length are assembled,
they are cast from, and a bar of metal formed, which has a surface in relief,
precisely equivalent, for printing purposes, to one consisting of separate types. A
large number of newspapers in this cottntry, and especially in the United States,
have within the last year or two adopted this system, and entirely dispensed with
types for the whole of their contents, with the exception of what are called ‘dis-
played’ or ornamental advertisements. Many books have lately been printed in
the same manner.

The Linotype machine comprises mechanism for—first, composing the matrices;
second, casting from them when they complete a line of reading matter; third,
distributing them back again to their proper magazines in order that they may
again and again be used to form succeeding lines. These three operations are
carried on concurrently ; that is to say, while the matrices for one line are being
composed, those of the previous line are being cast from, and at the same time the
matrices for the line before that again are being distributed. The result is that

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 811

lines of, as it were, stereotyped matter are produced much more rapidly than the
most expert compositor could put together the types or letters of which they
consist.

The matrices are stored in the upper part of the machine in an inclined
magazine with compartments in which the matrices are assorted in a somewhat
similar manner to that in which the types are contained in the boxes of an ordinary
“compositor’s case.’ The matrices tend to slide downward by gravity out of this
magazine.

In the lower part of the machine there is a keyboard and connected mechanism,
whereby, each time a key is depressed by the finger of the operator, a single
matrix, bearing the character corresponding to the key, is permitted to fall out of
the mouth of the magazine through vertical channels. The matrix then comes
in contact with an inclined travelling belt, which carries it and succeeding
matrices downward, one after another, into the ‘assembling block,’ where they are
composed, or set up side by side in a row.

After the line is thus composed it is transferred to the casting mechanism, by
which the metal is injected into the incised lines or letters of the matrices. The
casting box or mould provides for a bar being cast similar in height and body to a
line of types. It is finished by knives, which shave off the feet and trim or plane
the sides. One after another the line bars are sent into a receiver or galley, where
they are made up like lines of type matter; but, of course, with much greater
facility than types, being all in one piece.

Before referring to the third operation, distributing, it is necessary to describe
the matrix. This is a piece of brass 14 inch long, by ? inch wide. Its thickness is
that of the letter or point to which it corresponds. The character it is to produce
is punched on to the side, where there is a cavity, in which the letter is engraved
in intaglio, so that the casting made from it will be in cameo—that is, in relief.
At the upper end of each matrix are teeth, arranged in a peculiar order or number,
according to the character. That is, a matrix bearing any particular letter differs
as to the arrangement of its teeth from a matrix of any other letter.

These teeth are relied on as the means for effecting the distribution or re-
assembling of the matrices. Above the open upper ends of the magazine channels
is fixed a bar which has longitudinal ribs on its lower edge. These ribs are adapted
to engage the teeth of the matrices, and to hold them in suspension. The ribs of
the distributing bar vary in conformation at different points in its length, there
being a special arrangement over the mouth of each channel of the magazine.

The matrices to be distributed are simply pushed forward horizontally upon the
bar, so as to hang from it. Each matrix is thus suspended until it arrives over its
proper channel, and on reaching this point the arrangement of the bar and the
teeth permit the matrix to become disengaged, when it falls directly into the
channel. Other matrices are meanwhile continuing their course along the bar to
their proper points of disengagement. Thus the distribution is done entirely
mechanically and automatically.

One of the advantages of thus using matrices instead of type can, perhaps, only
be fully appreciated by those who are practically acquainted with the operation of
type-setting. The lines of a column or a page must all, except those which begin
and end paragraphs, be of a uniform length—not of irregular lengths like the lines
of a page of type-writing. When the compositor finds that a line is short, and he
cannot break a word because the recognised rules bearing on the division of words
do not permit it, he has to insert extra or additional space between the words, in
order to spread out the matter to the prescribed length. It is impossible before-
hand to calculate the space that will be occupied in any line by a certain number
of words, because the letters of which they are formed vary so much in width.
Spacing out the matter to form a full line is called justifying, and the necessity for
doing it greatly retards the hand compositor. In the Linotype machine ‘space
bars’ are used, which consist of two steel wedges, which slide upon each other, the
planes of the outer edges being always parallel. These are inserted between the
matrices of each word as set up, and when pushed up spread out the words, making
the line of the required measure.

812 REPORT—-1895.

The Linotype machine produces letterpress printing surfaces much more expedi-
tiously and economically than they can be produced by hand composition, or even
by type-setting machines. Ordinary operators attain a speed of 8,000 to 10,000
letters per hour, whereas the hand compositor averages about 1,500 per hour.
This increased product is attributable, first, to the greater speed at which matrices,
as compared with types, can be operated on; and, secondly, to the possibility of
performing automatically in one machine the two subsidiary operations of justify-
ing and distributing which tegether amount to at least 33 per cent. of the work of
the compositor, The machine also effects a great saving upon the cost of a printing
office, as type, cases, and other appurtenances are unnecessary.

5. Memorandum on the British Association Screw Gauge for small Screws.

By BR. E. Crompton, I.1nst.C.£., Pres. Inst. EE.

As a result of the two reports presented by the committee appointed by the
British Association to design a standard screw gauge for small screws, a large
number of users, including H.M. Post Office, have adopted them. In 1890 the
London Chamber of Commerce appointed a committee to forward the question of
making the British Association screw gauge universal among electrical manufac-
turers, and a circular was sent round to the entire electrical manufacturing trade,
with the result that with hardly any exceptions the whole trade promised to adopt
the screws, and thus ensure the extremely desirable result of making all the small
screws used in electrical apparatus interchangeable. It is, however, much to be
regretted that a considerable number of users of small screws (the principal
offenders haying their works in Birmingham) are still using other gauges, and thus
complete uniformity has not been obtaimed up to the present time. One great
difficulty in thie matter has been that of obtaining standard gauges which could be
referred to in specifications or orders for such screws. Wherever it is desired that
the screws should be thoroughly interchangeable it is necessary in such specifica-
tions to have a paragraph somewhat as follows :—

‘Testing. Each box of screws will be tested as follows: A handful of one
dozen screws will be selected at random from each box; these will be tested both
as to the screw portion and the plain portion of the shank by being respectively
screwed or pressed through the corresponding maximum and minimum gauge holes
in the standard plates supplied on loan with the order, and which must be returned
with the finished screws. Any screw which cannot be screwed or pressed by hand
into the maximum female gauge, or which can be screwed or pressed by hand
without forcing into the minimum gauge, will be rejected. If more than one screw
in each dozen thus tested is so rejected the whole box will be returned to the
contractors.’

Four years ago I found it necessary to have standard plates made for the
purpose of ordering screws to the above specification, I had a number of such
plates prepared, but found the very greatest difficulty in getting them made so that
they would fulfil their required duty, the makers giving as an excuse that
there was no standard B.A. gauge then existing to which they could refer.
This difficulty can only be removed by a complete set of standards being
made and deposited either with the Board of Trade or.at the Society of Arts,
or with a similar central institution; and it is highly desirable that the British
Association should either call together the surviving members of the original
committee or form a new committee to consider the question of making up these
standard gauges and deciding on the place where they are to be deposited.

One question for the committee would be the requisite allowance of clearance
between the absolute diameters of the various sizes as laid down in the report of
the committee and the sizes of the maximum and minimum gauge holes in the
gauge plates.

Another point of importance in order to make this standard screw gauge
universal would be the issue of a short descriptive report, with illustrations, giving

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 813

the sizes, clearances in gauge plates, best method of reproduction on English lathes
of these screws, together with a few sectional drawings showing the shape of thread,
rounding off, &c.

6. A Uniform Factor of Safety for Boilers and Machinery of Steamships
By Joun Key.

The subject of this paper has arisen out of the fact that no uniform code of
international regulations has yet been adopted by the various maritime countries
and States for the general safety of machinery on board steamships, especially
regarding the construction and strength of marine boilers and their connections.

A uniform factor or margin of safety might be devised on broad and intelli-
gible grounds, without making any violent change, on the basis, not of the breaking
strength, but of the elastic limit of the material—ascertained carefully by a
uniform method of conducting tests—that would be accepted by all civilised
countries, in order that any steamship passed at one port for a properly certified
working pressure might not, when new, be altered or reduced at another, similar
in principle to the British system of measurements for ascertaining gross tonnage,
and the regulations for preventing collisions at sea.

The following tabulated statement shows at a glance the working pressures for
cylindrical shells of steel boilers allowed by the rules of the various authorities :—

7) al py =

232 3 S| aR 43 ae eee

edeee Ss cos oO a 5 ss

Steel shells eS = 5s a = : ee

oO a on aS eh o

nH s c AQ & os ~Q

ge a aa) 4 & = >
diam. thickness lbs. per | Ibs. per | lbs. per lbs. per | lbs. per | lbs. per
ft. in. sq. in. sq-in. | sq. in. sq. in. sq-in. | sq. in.

5 Ox in. 70 133°8 116-06 863 102:08 109°4 113°3
5 Ox4 in. 70 178-4 | 1547 129°4 142°9 146°3 152°8
#2) Ox = in. 80 127-47 | 117-7 111-1 1146 111:2 112-4
12 Oxl in. 80 169°96 | 157-0 155°5 156:2 148°3 1520
12 Ox1j in. 80 21245 | 196-2 200-0 197:9 185-4 191°6
16 Ox1} in. 82 196-0 181:04 | 187-9 184-2 170°9 Ly

The water-pressure test allowed by the British Admiralty shall not exceed four-
ninths of the ultimate streneth of the shell, and the working pressure is fixed at
90 lbs. below the test-pressure, which is called their ‘constant margin’ of safety
for all pressures.

The Board of Trade allow a factor of safety 4:5, with additions according to the
circumstances of each case.

Lloyd’s Committee add } inch, and the

_ British Corporation add 4; inch to all thicknesses for wear, and their constants
vary according to the form of riveted joint.

Hamburg rules allow a factor of safety 5-0, reduced to 4°7 when the longi-
tudinal seams are drilled and double riveted.

Bureau Veritas allow a factor of safety of 4:4 after the plates have been corroded
away by 0:04 of an inch.

These authorities all differ in their respective rules for diameter of shafts, thick-
ness of plates forming flat surfaces, stress on stays, thickness of plain or corrugated
furnace tubes, steam-pipes, and area of safety valves.

As an example of how unnecessarily we are hampered by want of uniformitr
even in boiler fittings and connections in the case of water-gauges, the English
Board of Trade insist on having cocks or valves next the shell of the boiler,
whereas the German Boord of Trade will not have such a fitting; with the conse-
quence that ships running to Hamburg are fitted with two standpipes, one with

814, REPORT—1895.

cocks and one without, to which our English Board of Trade has to shut its eyes,
as the German standpipe, from their point of view, is unsafe and ought not to be
allowed.

7. Experiments on the Transfer of Heat through Plates with Variously
Arranged Surfaces. By WituiAM GrorGE WALKER, J1.Jnst.I.E.,
A.M Inst.C_E.

The object of these experiments is to compare the effects on the transfer of heat
of variously arranged surfaces projecting from the primary surface of a plate in
contact with steam, air or water.

Two cylindrical smooth vessels were constructed of exactly similar dimensions,
cut from the same brass tube, 63 inches in length and 2,1; inches in diameter, fitted
with water-tight lids, through which thermometers were inserted. When filled
with water no difference was found to exist between their respective powers to
absorb or discharge heat. One of the cylindrical vessels was then fitted with
copper ribs 54 inches long, } inch wide, ‘012 inch thick, soldered on longitudinally.
The ribs were spaced equally round the cylinder and tried as follows :—

1. Hight external ribs.
2. Sixteen ribs, eight external and eight internal.
3. Eight internal ribs.

The heating of the two cylinders was performed by suspending them in steam
from boiling water. The two cylinders to be compared were filled with water, and
placed in steam when their temperatures were 65° Fahr,

The reading of the thermometers, together with the time, was noted simul-
taneously at every 10 degrees. ‘The time was taken in seconds by a ship’s chrono-=
meter. When the thermometers became stationary at 210° Fahr. the cylinders
were suspended either in air or water and allowed to cool down, the temperatures
being noted every 10° Fahr. and the time in seconds.

The difference between the temperatures of the corresponding plain and ribbed
cylinders increased from zero and reached a maximum, after a certain time after
which they again closed to equal degrees.

The ribbed surfaces increased to a considerable extent the rapidity of transfer
of heat either when absorbing heat from steam or discharging it into the air. The
effect was not so great when cooled in water. In the externally ribbed cylinder
the greatest advance in temperature over the corresponding plain one was 18° Fahr.,
33° Fahr., 8° Fahr., when in contact with steam, air, and water respectively. The
addition of the internal ribs to the external ones did not produce much effect.
With the internal ribs alone, the rapidity of transfer of heat was increased when
cooled in water, but practically no effect was perceived when in steam or air.

‘The external ribs were more effectual in discharging heat to the atmosphere
than in absorbing it from steam. This difference may be due to the condensed
layer of water which was deposited on the surface.

Coiling wire round was also tried. The temperature of the coiled cylinder fell
faster than the corresponding plain one in air, but rose slower in steam—due
probably to the condensed layer of water deposited between the wire coils. No
difference was noticed when cooled in water. The comparison of rough and
smooth surfaces when absorbing heat from steam or discharging it into air or water
was also tried.

8. A New Principle of Aérial Navigation. By Lieut. B. BADEN-PoweELu.

It has been the constant desire of inventors to devise some means by which we
may be able to navigate the atmosphere. Wings, vertical screws, aéroplanes,
have all had their advocates, and great hopes were aroused in the balloon, Many
proposals were made for steering this aérial buoy, and sails and rudders were ap-
plied to the apparatus, until scientists pointed out that these could be of no ayail

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 815

on any apparatus which floated in, and with, one medium, Yet it is this very
principle which I wish to advocate, and to state broadly a method by which I
believe we might sail through the air, which depends upon three well-established
facts. First, a kite retained by a string will ascend when a wind is pressing on its
under surface, and will raise a considerable weight. Secondly, in the absence of
wind, the same effect may be produced by drawing along the kite through still
air, I have myself been lifted bya large kite under such circumstances. ‘Thirdly,
by balloon ascents, observations on clouds, mountain records, and especially obser-
vations on high places as the Eiffel Tower, it has been found that the wind almost
invariably increases in velocity the higher we get, so that the currents of air 1,000
feet up move about three times as fast as those below. It follows from these prin-
ciples, that if two kites connected by a long string, so arranged that one floats in a
current of air blowing at a different rate (or different direction) from that in which
the other floats, there will be a reciprocal action, the kite in the lower medium
being supported by being drawn along by the kite in the higher stratum, which in
its turn is kept aloft by being retarded by the other.

A kite of 1,000 square feet area is capable of supporting a man ina breeze of 10
miles an hour, or when being towed at that rate through calm air. If the wind
near the surface of the earth be blowing at this rate (rather below the average), it
will usually be travelling at 30 miles per hour at an elevation of 1,000 feet.

With two such kites connected together by a long rope, with a car attached to
the rope near the lower kite, if the lower one be drawn along 10 miles an hour
faster than the wind, it will support a man, and travel at a rate of 20 miles an
hour. But if the upper kite travel at this rate it will be retarded to an extent of
10 miles an hour, and hence the whole apparatus will float along with the wind.
In this way we might make a light apparatus for navigating the air. The extent
to which it might be steered out of the wind’s course, practice alone can determine,
but even if this be not much, we still should have an air-ship possessing very many
advantages over a balloon, and to which propelling agents could be much more
easily applied.

9. Receiver and Condenser Drop. By Professor A. E, Exxiorr.

816 REPORT—1895.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE Section.—Professor W. M. Furypers Perris, D.C.L., L.L.D.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The PresipEent delivered the following Address :—

In a subject as yet so unmapped as anthropology there is more room for
considering different points of view than in a thoroughly organised and limited
science. The future structure of this science depends largely on the apprehension
of the many different modes of treating it. The time has not yet come when it
can be handled as a whole, and therefore at present we may frankly consider
various questions from an individual standpoint, without in the least implying that
other considerations should not be taken into account. It is only by the free
statement, however onesided, of the various separate views of the many subjects
involved in such a science, that any comprehensive scheme of its organisation can
ever be built up. In remarking, therefore, on some branches at present I shall
not attempt a judicial impersonality, but rather try to express some views which
have not yet been brought into ordinary currency.

Elaborate definitions of anthropology have been formulated, but such are only
too liable to require constant revision as fresh fields of research are added to the
domain. In any new country it is far safer to define its limits than to describe all
that it includes; and all that can yet be safely done in anthropology is to lay
down the ‘sphere of influence,’ and having secured the boundaries, then develop
the resources at leisure. The principal bordering subjects are zoology, meta-
physics, economics, literature, and history. So far as these refer to other species,
as well as to man, or to individuals rather than to the whole race, they stand
apart as subjects; but their relation to the human species as such is essentially a
part of anthropology. We must be prepared, therefore, to take anthropology
more as the study of man in relation to various and often independent subjects,
than as an organic and self-contained science. Human nature is greater than all
formule; and we may as soon hope to compact its study into a logical structure
as to construct an algebraical equation for predicting its course of thought. :

Two of the commonest and most delightfully elastic words in the subject may
be looked at once more—‘ race’ and ‘civilisation.’ ‘he definition of the nature of
race is the most requisite element for any clear ideas about man. Our present
conception of the word has been modified recently more than may be supposed by
our realising the antiquity of the species. When only a few thousand years had
to be dealt with nothing seemed easier or more satisfactory than to map out races
on the assumption that so many million people were descended from one ancestor
and so many from another. Mixed races were glibly separated from pure races,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 817

and all humanity was partitioned off into well-defined divisions. But when the
long ages of man’s history and the incessant mixtures that have taken place during
the brief end of it that is recorded come to be realised, the meaning of ‘race’
must be wholly revised. And this revision has not yet taken effect on the modes
of thought, though it may have demanded the assent of the judgment. The only
meaning that a ‘race’can have is a group of persons whose type has become
unified by their rate of assimilation and affection by their conditions exceeding
the rate of change produced by foreign elements. If the rate of mixture exceeds
that of assimilation, then the people are a mixed race, or a mere agglomeration,
like the population of the United States. The greatest problems awaiting
solution are the conditions and rate of assimilation of races—namely, what period
and kind of life is needed for climatic and other causes to have effect on the
constitution and structure, what are the causes of permanence of type, and what
relative powers of absorption one race has over another. Until these problems are
reduced to something that can be reasonably estimated we shall only grope in the
dark as to all racial questions.

How, then, can these essential problems be attacked? Not by any study of
the lower races, but rather by means of those whose history is best recorded. The
great mode of isolation on which we can work is religious difference, and
oppressed religious minorities are the finest anthropological material. The first
question is—given a mixture of various races in approximately known pro-
portions, isolated, and kept under uniform conditions, how soon does uniformity of
type prevail ? or what proportions of diversity will be found after a given number
of generations? A perfect case of this awaits study in the Copts, who have by
monogamy and the fanaticism of a hostile majority been rigorously isolated during
1,200 years from any appreciable admixture, and who before this settling time
were compounded of eight or ten different races, whose nature and extent of
combination can be tolerably appraised. A thorough study of the present people
and their forefathers, whose tombs of every age provide abundant material for
examination, promises to clear up one of the greatest questions—the effect of
climate and conditions on assimilating mixed peoples. The other great problem
is, How far can a type resist changes of conditions; provided it be not mixed in.
blood, so as to disturb its equilibrium of constitution? This is to be answered by
the Jews and the Parsis. As with the Copts, an oppressed religious minority has:
no chance of mixture, as all mixed marriages are abhorrent to its exclusiveness,
and are at once swept into the hostile majority. The study is, however, far more
difficult owing to the absence of such good conditions of the preservation of
material. But nothing could throw so much light on this as an excavation of
some Jewish cemeteries of a thousand years or so ago in various European
countries, and comparison of the skeletons with the proportions of the Jews now
living. The countries least affected by the various proscriptions and emigrations
of the race would be the proper ground for inquiry. When these studies have
been made we shall begin to understand what the constants of a race really are.

We will now look at another word which is incessantly used— civilisation.’
Many definitions of this have been made, from that of the Turk drinking
champagne, who remarked about it that ‘after all, civilisation is very nice,’ up to
the most elaborate combinations of art and science. It is no doubt very comfort-
able to have a word which only implies a tendency, and to which everyone can
assign his own value; but the day of reckoning comes, when it is brought into
arguments as a term. Civilisation really means simply the art of living in a
community, or the checks and counterchecks, the division of labour, and the
conveniences that arise from common action when a group of men live in close
relation to each other. This will perhaps be objected to as including all—or
nearly all—mankind in its scope. Quite true; all civilisation is relative and not
absolute.

We shall avoid much confusion if we distinguish high and low types of civili-
sation, and also perfect and imperfect civilisation. Like organisms we may have
a low type of civilisation very perfect in its structure, capable of endless continu-
ance, and of great shocks without much injury. Such are some of the civilisations

1895, 3G

818 REPORT—1895.

of the African races who have great orderliness and cleanliness of arrangements,
and are capable of active recuperation after warfare, without any internal elements
of instability. Again, some low types are very imperfect, and can exist only by
destruction of others, while any severe shock destroys their polity ; the governments
which only exist by raids and plunder, such as that of the Zulus, illustrate this.
Turning to high types of civilisation we may see them perfect or imperfect.
Countries of financial stability, not undergoing any rapid organic changes, are: the
more perfect in type; while those deeply in debt and in continual revolution have
but imperfect civilisation, of however high a type it may be. With these
distinctions before us,—that all civilisation is a question of degree,—that there are
types of all variety, from the highest complexity to the lowest simplicity, and of
all degrees of perfection, or stability and completion, in any given level of
complexity—with these distinctions some of the vagueness of verbal usage may
perhaps be avoided.

Turning now from words to things, we may perhaps see some ground for
further consideration in even one of the best elaborated departments.

In the much-vexed question of skull measurements, the paucity of clearly
defined racial characteristics may make us look more closely as to whether we are
working on an analytic or an empirical method. In any physical problem the first
consideration is the disentangling of variables, and isolation of each factor for
separate study. In skulls, however, the main measures are the length, which is
compounded of half a dozen elements of growth, and the breadth and height, each
the resultant of at least three elements. Two skulls may differ altogether in their
proportions and forms, and yet yield identical measures in length, breadth, and
height. How can any but empirical results be evolved from such a system of
measurement alone?

A departure from this mechanical method has appeared in Italy last year by
Professor Sergi. He proposes to classify skulls by their forms,—ellipsoid, penta~
gonoid, rhomboid, ovoid, &c. This, at least, takes account of the obvious differences
which the numerous measurements wholly ignore. And if skulls were crystals,
divisible into homogeneous classes, such a system would work; only, like all
organic objects, they vary by infinite gradation.

What then lies behind this variety of form? The variety of action in the
separate elements of growth. Sergi’s ellipsoid type means slight curvatures, with
plenty of frontal growth. His pentagonoid means sharper curvatures. His
rhomboid means sharp curvatures with small frontal growth. And so in each
class, we have not to deal with a geometrical figure, but with varying curvatures
of the centre of each plate of the skull, and varying extent of growth from the
centres.

The organic definition of a skull must depend on the statement of the energy
and direction of each of the separate elements out of which it is built. The
protuberances or eminences are the first point to notice. They record in their
curves the size of the head when it attained rigidity in the centres of growth.
Every person bears the fixed outline of parts of his infant skull. Little, if any,
modification is made in the sharpness of the curves between infancy and full
growth ; perhaps the only change is made in course of the thickening of the skull.
Hence the minimum radius of curvature of each plate of the skull is a most radical
measurement, as implying early or late final ossification. In higher races
finely rounded skulls with slight curvatures are more often found; and this agrees
with the deferred fixation of the skull pointed out by the greater frequency of
visible sutures remaining, both effects being probably due to the need of accommo-
dating a more continued growth of the brain. The length of growth of each plate
from its centre in different directions regulates the entire form of the skull. The
maximum breadth being far back implies that the parietals grow mostly toward
the frontal or vce versd. The top being ridged means that the parietals grow
conical and not spherically curved, and hence meet at an angle.

It seems, therefore, that looking at the question as a physical problem, we are
far more likely to detect racial peculiarities in the separate data of the period
of fixation of the skull, and of the amount of growth in different directions, than

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 819

by any treatment of gross quantities which are compounded out of a number of
variables. The practical development of such a view is the work of the embryolo-
gist: here we only notice a principle of treatment of a most complex question,
which seems to have too often been dealt with as if it were as simple as the
definition of a crystal.

When we next turn to look at the works of man, it seems that the artistic side
of anthropology has hardly been enough appreciated. In the first place, the theory
of art has been grounded more assuredly by anthropological research than by all
the speculations that have been spun. The ever-recurring question ‘ What is art 2’
whether in form or in literature, has been answered clearly and decidedly. When
we contrast a row of uninteresting individualities with the ideal beauty and expres-
sion of a composite portrait compounded from these very elements, we are on the
surest ground for knowing how such a beautiful result is obtained. In place of
the photographic verity of the person we have the artistic expression of a character.
Whatever is essential remains, and is strengthened ; whatever is transient and
unimportant has faded away. No one can look, for instance, at the composite
heads of Jewish boys and their individual components, published some years ago
in the ‘ Anthropological Journal,’ without feeling the artistic beauty of the com-
posite and the unbalanced characters of the individuals. What the camera does
mechanically by mere superposition, the artist does intelligently by selection. The
unimportant, unmeaning phases of the person, the vacuities of expression, the less
worthy turns of the mind are eliminated, whether in form or in words, and the
essence of the character is brought out and expressed. Such is the theory of
artistic expression which anthropology has established on a sure basis of experi-
ment, and which is thus proved to be neither fanciful nor arbitrary, but to be a truly
scientific process.

And as anthropology has thus aided art, the converse is also true—art is one
of the most important records of a race. Each group of mankind has its own
style and favourite manner, more particularly in the decorative arts. A stray
fragment of carving without date or locality can be surely fixed in its place
if there is any sufficient knowledge of the art from which it springs. This study
of the art of a people is one of the highest branches of anthropology and one
of the most important, owing to its persistent connection with each race. No
physical characteristics have been more persistent than the style of decoration.
‘When we see on the Celtic work of the period of La Téne, or on Irish carvings,
the same forms as on medieval ironwork, and on the flamboyant architecture of
France, we realise how innate is the love of style, and how similar expressions will
blossom out again from the same people. Even later we see the hideous C-curves,
which are neither foliage nor geometry, to be identical on late Celtic bronze, ‘on
Louis XV. carvings, and even descending by imitation into modern furniture.
Such long descent of one style through great changes of history is not only charac-
teristic of Celtic art, but is seen equally in Italy. The heavy, stiff, strairht-haired,
staring faces of the Constantine age are generally looked on as being a mere degra-
dation of the imported Greek art; but they are really a native revival, returning
to old Italian ideals, so soonas Greek influence waned. Inthe Vatican is an infant
Hercules of thorough Constantinian type, yet bearing an Etruscan inscription, proving
the early date of such work. Further east the long-persistent styles of Egypt, of '
Babylonia, of India, of China, which outlived all changes of government and
history, show the same vitality of art. We must recognise, therefore, a principle
of ‘racial taste,’ which belongs to each people as much as their language, which
may be borrowed like language from one race by another, but which survives
changes and long eclipses even more than language. Such a means of research
deserves more systematic study than it has yet received.

But if we are to make any wide comparisons and generalisations a free study
of material is essential, and the means of amassing and comparing work of every
age is the first requisite. This first requisite is unhappily not to be found in
England. The conception of collecting material for the study of man’s history has
as yet little root, and struggles to find a footing between the rival conceptions of
the history of art and the life of modern man. The primary difficulty is the

8a2

820 REPORT—-1895.

character of the museum accommodation at present provided. This is all of an
elaborate and expensive nature, in palatial buildings and on highly valuable sites.
To house the great mass of objects of either ancient or modern peoples in such a
costly manner is impracticable, and hence at present nothing is preserved but what
is beautiful, strange, or rare. In short, our only subjects of study are the excep—
tional and not the usual products of races. The evil traditions of a ‘ collection
of curiosities’ still brood over our materials ; and until we face the fact that for
study the common things are generally more important than the rare ones, anthro-
pology must remain much as chemistry would if it were restricted to the study of
pretty colours and sweet scents.

Until we have an anthropological storehouse on a great scale we cannot hope:
to preserve the materials which are now continually being lost to study for lack of
reasonable accommodation. Such a storehouse should be on the cheapest ground
near London, built in the simplest weather-tight fashion, and capable of indefinite:
expansion, without rearrangement or alteration of existing parts. It should con-
tain no baits for burglars, all valuable objects being locked up in the security of
the British Museum, to which such a storehouse would form a succursal, greatly
relieving the present overcrowded state of many departments. To such a store-
house for students all that does not serve for public education, or that is not port-.
able or of much saleable value, should be consigned. There the piles of archi-
tectural fragments which are essential for study, but are useless to show the public,
should be all stacked in classified order. There the heaps of pottery of ancient.
and modern races should all be arranged to illustrate every variety of form and
style. There the series of entire tombs of other races and of our own should be
set out in their original arrangement, as in the Bologna Museum. There whole
huts, boats, &c., could be placed in their proper order and sequence, while photo-
graphs of the showy educational specimens and valuables in the public museums
could fill their places in the arrangement. That such a storehouse is needed may
be illustrated by a collection gleaned in a few months’ work this year. It repre-
sents the small products of a little village and a cemetery of a new race in Egypt.
But there is no possibility of keeping such a collection together in any Londom
museum ; and but for the new Ashmolean Museum at Oxford having been lately
built with a wide view to its increase, it is doubtful if in any place in England such
a collection could be kept together. What happens to one excavator this year may
happen to a dozen excavators per annum in a generation or two hence ; and so long
as space is not available to preserve such collections when they are obtained,
invaluable material is being irrevocably wasted and destroyed.

Besides the theoretical and scientific side of anthropology there is also a very
practical side to it which has not received any sufficient development as yet..
Anthropology should in our nation be studied first and foremost as the art of deal-
ing with other races. I cannot do better than quote a remark from the address of
our previous President, General Pitt Rivers, a remark which has been waiting
twenty-three years for further notice. He said, ‘Nor is it unimportant to re-
member that anthropology has its practical and humanitarian aspect ; and that as
our race is more often brought into contact with savages than any other, a know-
ledge of their habits and modes of thought may be of the utmost value to us im
utilising their labour, as well as in checking those inhuman practices from which
they have but too often suffered at our hands.’

The foremost principle which should be always in view is that the civilisation
of any race is not a system which can be changed at will. Every civilisation is the
growing product of a very complex set of conditions, depending on race and char-
acter, on climate, on trade, and every minutia of the circumstances. To attempt
to alter such a system apart from its conditions is impossible. For instance, when-
ever a total change is made in government, it breaks down altogether, and a resort
to the despotism of one man is the result. When the English Constitution was.
swept away, Cromwell or anarchy was the alternative: when the French Consti-
tution was swept away, Napoleon was the only salvation from anarchy. And if
this is the case when the externals of government alone are altered, how much
more is it the case if we attempt to uproot the whole of a civilisation and social

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 821

life? We may despotically force a bald and senseless imitation of our ways on
another people, but we shall only destroy their life without implanting any vitality
in its place. No change is legitimate or beneficial to the real character of a people
except what flows from conviction and the natural growth of the mind. And if
the imposition of a foreign system is injurious, how miserable is the forcing of a
‘system such as ours, which is the most complex, unnatural, and artificial that has
‘been known ; a system developed in a cold country, amid one of the hardest, least
sympathetic, and most self-denying and calculating of all peoples of the world.
Such a system, the product of such extreme conditions, we attempt to force on the
Teast developed races, and expect from them an implicit subservience to our illogical
law and our inconsistent morality. The result is death; we make a dead-house
and call it civilisation. Scarcely a single race can bear the contact and the burden.
And then we talk complacently about the mysterious decay of savages before white
men.

Yet some people believe that a handful of men who have been mutilated into
conformity with civilised ideals are better worth having than a race of sturdy inde-
pendent beings. Let us hear what becomes of the unhappy products of our notions,
‘On the Andaman Islands an orphanage, or training school, was started and more
than forty children were reclaimed from savagery, or torn from a healthy and
vigorous life. These were the results. ‘Of all the girls two only have continued
‘in the Settlement, the other survivors having long since resumed the customs of
their jungle homes. . . . Physically speaking, training has a deteriorating effect,
for of all the children who have passed through the orphanage, probably not more
than ten are alive at the present time, while of those that have been married, two
or three only have become parents, and of their children not one has been reared.’ !
‘Such is the result of our attempts on a race of low but perfect civilisation, whom
-we eradicate in trying to improve them.

Let us turn now to our attempts ona higher race, the degenerated and Arabised
‘descendants of a great people, the Egyptians. Here there is much ability to work
on, and also a good standard of comfort and morality, conformable to our notions.
Yet the planting of another civilisation is scarcely to be borne by them. The
uropeanised Egyptian is in most cases the mere blotting paper of civilisation,
absorbing what is most superficial and undesirable. The overlaying of a French
or English layer on a native mind produces only a hybrid intellect, from which
no natural growth or fertility can be expected. Far the more promising intellects
are those trained by intelligent native teachers, where as much as can be safely
assimilated has grown naturally as a development of the native mind.

Yet some will say why not plant all we can? what can be the harm of raising
the intellect in some cases if we cannot do it in all? The harm is that you manu-
facture idiots. Some of the peasantry are taught to read and write, and the result
of this burden which their fathers bore not is that they become fools. I cannot
‘say this too plainly: an Egyptian who has had reading and writing thrust on him
is, in every case that I have met with, half-witted, silly, or incapable of taking care
of himself. His intellect and his health have been undermined and crippled by the
forcing of education. With the Copt this is quite different: his fathers have been
scribes for thousands of years, and his capacity is far greater, so that he can receive
mmuch more without deterioration. Observation of these people leads to the view that
the average man cannot receive much more knowledge than his immediate ancestors.
‘Perhaps a quarter or a tenth more of ideas can be safely put into each generation
without deterioration of mind or body ; but, at the best, growth of the mind can in
‘the average man be but by fractional increments in each generation, and any large
increase will surely be deleterious to the average mind, always remembering that
‘there are exceptions both higher and lower. Such a result is only what is to be
expected when we consider that the brain is the part of man which develops and
changes as races reach a higher level, while the body remains practically constant
through ages. To expect the brain to make sudden changes of ability would be as
reascnable as to expect a cart-horse to breed racers, or a greyhound to tend sheep,

1 KE. H. Man, ‘ On the Andaman Islands,’ Anthrop. Jour., xiv. 265.

822 REPORT—1895.

Man mainly develops by internal differences in his brain structure, as other animals.
develop by external differences in bones and muscles.

What, then, it may be asked, can be done to elevate other races? How can we:
benefit them? Mest certainly not by Europeanising them. By real education,
leading out the mind to a natural and solid growth, much can be done; but not
by enforcing a mass of accomplishments and artificialities of life. The general
impression in England is that reading, writing, and arithmetic are the elements of
education. They might be so to us, ‘in the foremost files of time,’ but they
assuredly are not so to other races. The complex ideas of connecting forms and
sounds is far too great a step for many brains; and when we succeed, to our
delight, in turning out finished readers, Nature comes in with the stern reply, ‘Of
their children not one has been reared.’ Our bigoted belief in reading and
writing is not in the least justified when we look at the mass of mankind. The
exquisite art and noble architecture of Mykene, the undying song of Homer,
the extensive trade of the Bronze Age, all belonged to people who never read or
wrote. At this day some of my best friends—in Egypt—are happily ignorant of
such accomplishments, and assuredly I never encourage them to any such useless
waste of their brains. The great essentials of a valuable character——moderation,
justice, sympathy, politeness and consideration, quick observation, shrewdness,
ability to plan and pre-arrange, a keen sense of the uses and properties of things—
all these are the qualities on which I value my Egyptian friends, and such qualities.
are what should be evolved by any education worth the name. No brain, however
humble, will be the worse for such education which is hourly in use ; while in the
practical life of a simple community the accomplishments of reading and writing
are not needed for perhaps a week or a month at a time. The keenest interest is
taken by some races, and probably by all, in geography, modes of government, and
social systems ; and in most countries elements of hygiene and improvements in
the dwellings and arts of life may be taught with the best results. There is there-
fore a very wide field for the education of even the lowest races, without throwing
any great strain on the mental powers. And it must always be remembered that
memory is far more perfect where a less burden of learning is thrown on the mind,
and ideas and facts can be remembered and brought into use more readily by
minds unstrained by artificial instruction.

The greatest educational influence, however, is example. This is obvious when
we see how rapidly the curses of our civilisation spread among those unhappily
subjected to it. The contact of Europeans with lower races is almost always a
detriment, and it is the severest reflection on ourselves that such should be the
case. It is a subject which has given much room for thought in my own dealings
with the Egyptian peasant to consider how this deleterious effect is produced, and
how it is to be avoided. Firstly, it is due to carelessness in leaving temptations.
open to natives, which may be no temptations to ourselves. To be careless about
sixpences is as demoralising to them as a man who tossed sovereigns about the
street would be to us. Examples of carelessness in this point are among the worst
of influences. Another injury is the inducement to natives to imitate the ways
and customs of Europeans without reason. Every imitation, as mere imitation, is
a direct injury to character; it teaches a man to trust to some one else instead of
thinking for himself ; it induces a belief in externals constituting our superiority,
while foresight and self-restraint are the real roots of it; and it destroys all chance:
of any real and solid growth of character which can flourish independently. A
native should always be discouraged from any imitation, unless he attempts it as
an intelligent improvement on his own habits. Another sadly common evil is the
abuse of power, which lowers that sense of self-respect, of honour, and of honesty
which can be found in most races. If a man or a government defrauds, it is but
natural to the sufferer to try to recompense himself by any means available; and
thus an interminable system of reprisals is set up. Such is the chronic state of the
East at present among the more civilised races. The Egyptians are notorious for
their avarice, and are usually credited with being inveterate money-grabbers; yet
no sooner do they find that this system of reprisals is abandoned and strict justice
maintained, than they at once respond to it; and I may say that when confidence

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 823

has once been gained it is almost as common to find a man dispute an account
against his own interest as for himself, and scarcely ever is any attempt made at
false statements or impositions. Such is the healthy response to straightforward
dealing with them.

It is therefore in encouraging a healthy growth of all that is worthy and good
in the existing systems of lower civilisation, in repressing all mere imitations and
senseless copying, and in proceeding on a rigorously just yet genial course of con-
duct, that the safe and true line lies for intercourse with inferior or different
civilisations,

And, lastly, the question comes home to us, In what way is this practical]
anthropology to be fostered? It is so essentially important to us as a race that
we should take good care that it is understood. Whether it be a question of
interference with the customs of higher races, as the Hindu, or of lower savages,
as the Australian, momentous questions may often depend on public opinion
amongst a mass of people in England who have no conception at present of the
race with whom they are dealing. And still more needful is it for those who take
part abroad in the governing of other races to have a wide view of the character
of various civilisations. Until the present generation there have been two great
educative influences on the view of life taken by Englishmen, the Old Testament
and the Classics. So long as a boy had his ideas formed in contact with Oriental
polygamy and Greek polytheism, he was not in danger of undue narrowness in
dealing with the Muslim or the Hindu; but with the pressure of modern require-
ments both of these excellent views of other civilisations are being crowded out,
and we meet men now to whom the world’s history began when they were born.
There is great danger in such ignorance. All the painful and laborious experi-
ments in social and political problems during past ages are ignored, rash trials are
made on lines which have been repeatedly proved to be impossible, and real
advance in any direction is thwarted by useless repetitions of the well-known
failures of the past.

It is the business of anthropology to step in, and make a knowledge of other
civilisations a part of all decent education. In this direction our science has a
most important field before it, at least as valuable as geography or history, and
far more practical in developing ideas than many of the smatterings now taught.
To present a view of another civilisation, we require to give an insight into the
way of looking at the world, the modes of thought, the aims in life, the checks
and counter-checks on the weaknesses of man, and the construction of society and
of government, in each case. The origin and utility of the various customs and
habits need to be pointed out, and in what way they are reasonable and needful
to the well-being of the community. And above all, we ought to impress on every
boy that this civilisation in which he grows is only one of innumerable experi-
ments in life that have been tried ; that it is by no means the only successful one,
or perhaps not the most successful, that there has been ; that there are many other
solutions of the problems of community and culture which are as good as our own,
and that no one solution will fit a different race, climate, or set of conditions.

How such a sense of proportion in the world is to be attained, and what course
of instruction will eradicate political fanaticism, and plant a reasonable tolerance
of other forms of civilisation, is the problem before us as practical anthropologists.
The highest form of this perception of other existence is reached in the best history—
writing or fiction, which enables the reader to strip himself for the time of his
prejudices and views of life, and reclothe the naked soul with an entirely different
personality and environment. Very few writers, and those only in rare instances,
can reach this level ; it needs consummate knowledge, skill, sympathy, and abandon
in the writer, and if without these, it is neither accurate nor inspiring. The safer
course is to carefully select from the best literature of a civilisation, and explain
and illustrate this so as to leave no feature of it outside of the reason and feelings
of the reader. Here we run against the special bigotry of the purely classical
scholar, who looks on ancient literature as a peculiar preserve solely belonging to
those who will labour to read it in its original dress. No one limits an acquaint-
ance with Hebrew, Egyptian, or Arabic authors to those who can deal with those

824 REPORT—1895.

tongues; and Greek and Latin authors ought to be as familiar to the English
reader as Milton or Macaulay. To say that because it is impossible in a business
education to give several years to a working knowledge of ancient languages, that
therefore all thought written in those languages shall be a sealed book, is pedantry
run mad, A few months, or even weeks, on translations will at least open the
mind, and give an intelligent sense of the variety and the standpoint of the intel-
lect of the past. And such a course is certainly better than the total ignorance
which now prevails on such lines where the classics are not taught.

What seems to be the most practical course would be the recognition of civili-
sation or social life as a branch of general reading to be stimulated in schools, and
encouraged by subsequent inquiry as to the extent to which it is followed and
understood, without making it an additional fang of the examination demon.

The books required for such reading should cover the life of Greece, Rome,
Babylon, Egypt, and Mexico in ancient times; and China, India, Persia, Russia,
Spain, and one or two low civilisations, such as the Andamans and the Zulus, in
modern times. Neither histories nor travels are wanted for this purpose; but a
selection of the literature which shall most illustrate the social life and frame of
the community, with full explanation and illustrations. We need not to excite
wonder, astonishment, or disgust; but rather to enable the reader to realise the
daily life, and to live in the very minds of the people. Where no literature is
available, a vivid study of the nature of the practical working of their civilisation
should take its place.

Such is the practical scope of anthropology in our daily life, where it needs
as much consideration and will exercise as great an influence as any of the other
subjects dealt with by this Association.

The following Papers were tken read :—

1. On a Recent Discovery of the Remains of the Aboriginal Inhabitants of
Jamaica. By Sir W. H. Frower, A.C.B., FBS.

2. On Skulls of Neolithic Invaders of Egypt.
By Professor W. M. Fuinpers Perrin, D.C.L., LL.D.

oo 3. On Neolithic Invaders of Egypt.
By Professor W. M. Fuinxpers Perrin, D.C.L., LL.D.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—'
1. Stone Implements in Somaliland. By H. W. Srton-Karr,

My first discovery of flint chipped spear-heads, knives, and scrapers was in the
winter of 1893-4, on my return to the coast from lion-hunting in the interior. A.
few of those I then picked up are now in the British Museum; a few I gave to the
Karl of Ducie’s collection, and the remainder I retained for myself. This winter,
1894-5, on my return from lion-hunting I again traversed, without halting, the
district to which they appear to me to be confined, and obtained several thousands
by diligently searching for them in those places where my previous experience sug-
gested to me that they would probably be found. Of this large number, however,
only about one hundred are really symmetrically chipped as spear-heads. 1 also

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 825

gathered a number of cores, chips and flakes, knives, and scrapers. The places
where they abound in the district alluded to were invariably of one character. In
the first place the district was distinguished by the presence of flint nodules upon
the surface, so that these ancient peoples, with whom this place was apparently a
manufactory, had the materials ready to their hands.

I observed next that they were more numerous as one approached a well or
the river beds in which the wells are dug.

Also [inferred that the people who made them seemed to be timid, or in a state
of constant warfare with the surrounding tribes (as the Somalis are to this day),
because the spots which seem to have been chosen as factories for the noisy opera-
tion of breaking up the flint nodules and shaping them, were usually retired places
surrounded by low hills, which would prevent the sound from travelling far.
There was also generally a watercourse with steep sides, along which persons
could escape unseen if surprised by people coming suddenly over the surrounding
ridges,

"The implements were most numerous in the vicinity of this central watercourse.
The ground had alwiys a very gentle fall, so that the heavy showers which con~
stitute the rainfal! in Somaliland would wash away the sandy soil, and yet keep
the stones lying free and clean upon the surface, in which position they were
always found.

Also there were generally no other stones upon the surface besides these worked
flints.

There is another point which I cannot explain, though the reason may be
simple ; it is that there was never any vegetation upon the spot upon which I found
these implements scattered, excepting a few scraggy mimosa bushes.

This was not owing to my not having searched the surface where it was partly
covered with plants, for I was always on the alert to detect the presence of worked
flints while in pursuit of game. I trained some of my men to discover these spots,
which were not hard to find, being, as I said, bare of vegetation, and the shining
surfaces of these flints reflecting the sunlight and covering the ground, sometimes
for the space of half an acre. I also trained them to pick up and bring me worked
flints. Still, I often found fine specimens on ground which they had already
searched,

It is my intention to return once more to this district this winter, which will
make my seventh expedition into equatorial oriental Africa.

Finally, out of all my specimens, I think there is not one absolutely perfect ;
all seem either damaged or unfinished.

Sometimes I found an unfinished spear-head on the ground, surrounded by a
mass of flakes and chips, as though the people had dropped their work, and, carry-
ing with them all their perfect weapons and belongings, had fled, never to return.

2. On Flint and Metal Working in Egypt.
By Professor W. M. Fuinpers Perris, D.C.L., LL.D.

3. On Flint Implements with Glacial Markings from the North of Ireland.
By W.J. Kyow es, MRA.

The author referred to his having exhibited and described a large pear-shaped
flint implement with glacial markings at the Southport meeting in 1883. The
flake-marks did not show evidence of bulbs, and the artificial character of the
implement was questioned. The author believed that the bulb-marks may have
been removed by dressing, but he now produced specimens which were similarly
scratched, and showed undoubted marks of bulbs and other evidence of being
artificial productions. They were found at Kilroot, Larne, and Island Magee, on
the shores of Antrim, and though probably lastly derived from the raised-beach
gravels found at those places, he believed they had originally come from a glacial
formation which had been removed by denudation.

826 REPORT—1895.
4. Report on the Plateaw Flints of North Kent.—See Reports, p. 349.

5. On Graving Tools from the Terrace-Gravels of the Thames Valley.
By H. Stopes.

The author exhibited and described sixty-four stones ‘worked and used by
Paleolithic man. These were selected from many more of similar types. They
have all been found in the gravels resting on the Chalk, on the Kentish side of the
Thames, at levels ranging from 70 feet to 105 feet above O.D. from the various
pits occurring between Higham and Dartford.

The series consists of seven distinct forms or groups :—

1. Ordinary flakes with used and worked ends ranging from 3 inch to 8 inches
long.

2. Fragments or large flakes worked all round but brought to a spur or point,
chiefly left-handed, and varying much in shape and size. ‘The points are straight
or curved, pointed and duck-billed.

3. Cores similar to 2, but with carefully-formed points, indicating much wear
and use, chiefly left-handed.

4. Split flints or wide flakes made nearly square, with one, two, or more points
at the corners. Wear on sides indicates use as spokeshaves.

5. Ovate, well-formed tools, or large tlakes with strong sharp spur or point at
sides or end. These run in size up to 5 inches in width by 7 inches in length.

6, Well-worked tools of the ordinary axe (or hache) shape, with well-defined
point at sharp or thin edge. In many this point could not be accidental. In
others a broken axe has had a point rechipped in such a position that it would not
be able to be readily or conveniently used as an axe.

7. Nodules of flint very slightly worked at one end, chiefly with broad points
of the duck-bill type. These stones suggest extensive use of ivory, bone, wood,
shell, leather, and all such materials, together with a higher degree of civilisation
and refinement than is commonly accorded as yet to Paleolithic men.

6. On Paleolithic Projectiles. By H. Sropss.

Ninety specimens were exhibited of stones, chiefly flint, found in the recognised
Palzolithic gravels in Kent, Bedford, and Suffolk. These ranged from 8 in. in
diameter to less than | in., and from 3 in. in thickness to 2 in., and in weight from
over 3 lbs. to half an ounce.

The suggested use was throwing by hand, from a cleft-stick, or with a
sling ; preferably the latter, as some could not be held in a cleft stick. Many are
very rough stones resembling cores, but are carefully fashioned to shape, and some
have obviously been used. The author compared them with some found in the
vicinity of Neolithic settlements, chiefly at a distance of from 70 to 150 yards out-
side the camp.

The majority of the stones are circular and flat, the thickness equalling from
one-third to one-half the diameter. Some are carefully worked all over. :

One series, called gyrators, are very carefully shaped to a thin oval form that
possesses a half-spiral twist. The author suggested that they may have beenslung,
and in flight they might describe an ellipse, after the fashion of a boomerang. Some
of these were too thick at the edges to permit of use as flaying-knives.

Over 20 per cent. of the projectiles yet found by the author consist of broken
tools. The larger stones are frequently the butt-ends of axes, and the smaller have
often apparently been tips. Three shown were broken eoliths from the upper
plateau-gravels in Kent, that had been reworked and chipped by men prior to
deposition at 105 feet above O.D. in the Swanscombe gravels. One of these is
heavily patinated and waterworn on its older faces. When being struck into its
present form a fine bulb of percussion was made, which is not waterworn.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 827

7. The Senams, or Megalithic Temples of Tarhuna, Tripoli.
By H. Swainson Cowper, S.A.

This remarkable series of sites, which hitherto has been practically unknown,
formed the sole object of the author's short journey in March. In all, nearly sixty
sites were visited, and photographs of them taken. The largest number were
found on a green plateau in the Tarhuna hills, but others exist in the surrounding
wadis. In some places, indeed, they are so numerous that there are few hill-tops
which do not bear traces of one of these temples, so that the author had to content
himself with an examination of those which seemed most important. In most
cases were found large rectangular enclosures of excellent masonry, though
generally very ruinous, and often subdivided by lines of short square columns,
occasionally surmounted by rudely designed but excellently worked capitals.
Within the enclosure walls, or in line with them, were always to be found large
Megalithic structures resembling the Stonehenge trilithons, but the jambs of which
are often formed of two or three stones instead of one. These (the Senams proper)
are caretully dressed on the side facing the enclosure, and in the jambs are singular
square perforations and angle-cut holes, which appear to have been formed to sup-
port wooden structures.

The Senams rest on footing stones, and vary in height from 6 to 15 feet; but
the average width between the jambs is only 163 inches. In front of some
were found massive stone altars, carefully grooved, and flush with the ground. A
few sculptures, the subjects of which are Phallic and show Roman influence, were
also noticed, in one case a Senam itself being thus ornamented. There is, indeed,
much evidence to show that the Romans occupied and utilised these sites without
knocking down the Senams or destroying the form of worship. Roman work is
mixed up in nearly every case with the work of the Senam builders.

A feature worth notice is the existence of carpentry forms, which would point
to the district having at one time been densely timbered; and to the destruction
of these woods (probably by the Arabs) is no doubt due the waterless and poverty-
stricken condition of the country at this day. It is to be noticed, that if we
except the Stonehenge trilithons, there appear to be no other Megalithic remains,
even in Mediterranean countries, with which we can compare the Tripoli series or
which show an equal mastery in the art of masonry.

In most cases the Senams appear to have stood free in their enclosures, and
were no doubt symbolical and connected with rites of some sort. It is remarkable
that many Babylonian seals show a figure exactly like a Senam placed in the rear
of an altar before, which stands an adoring priest. It seems possible indeed that in
the Senams we have symbolic effigies akin to the ‘ Asherah’ so often alluded to in
the Old Testament, and which was worshipped in connection with Molech and
Baal.

Asherah, the symbol of the goddess of fertility, would probably take some
such form, and from such a worship sprang no doubt the widely spread customs of
squeezing between columns and stones to cure diseases. Further evidence in
favour of these being temples of a form of Baal worship may be found in their
situations, always on hill-tops, essentially ‘high places,’ and possibly also in the
character of the carvings.

8. Report on the Kitchen Midden at Hastings.—See Reports, p. 500

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada.—See Reports, p. 522.

828 REPORT—1895.

2. The Samoyads of the Arctic Tundras.
By Artuur Monteriore, £.G.S., /R.GS.

Distribution of the Samoyads.—This primitive group of the Ural-Altaic family
may be found within an area of great extent and very various nature. Samoyads
may still be observed on the northern slopes of the Altai range; they still dwell
in the afforested valleys of the Yenisei and the Ob, and they continue to thrive on
the frozen treeless plains of Siberia and Arctic Russia. From the ultimate sources
of the Yenisei in the heart of Asia, they spread northward until their advance is
stayed by the waters of the Arctic Ocean. From the Khatanga river in the far
east they reach westward into Europe, even to the shores of the White Sea. And
we have the authority of Mr. F. G. Jackson (The Great Frozen Land, cap. vi.)
for saying that they are still migrating westward—a small group having recently
settled in Russian Lapland, and already contributed to the modification of Lapp
habits and fashions,

The Arctic Samoyad.—The Samoyad of the Arctic Tundras is the least changed,
and perhaps the most interesting of the whole family. Until recently less has
been known of his ways and means, of his ideas and morality, of the country in
which he lives, and the adaptation of himself to his environment, than of the other
ranches of the same group. The very impoverishment of his resources has calcu-
lated to make him more characteristic and distinct.

Ethnology.—Undoubtedly the term Ural-Altaic is conveniently applied to the
four great Mongoloid groups—the Tungus, the true Mongols, the Turks, and the
Finns; and the Finnic group may also be properly regarded as made up of
the Ugrian races, the Permian, the Bulgarian, the true Finns, and the Samoyads.
From another point of view, however, it would be well to include the Samoyads in
the Finnic subdivision. For the Samoyads are more nearly allied to the Finns than
Ugrians, Permians, and Bulgarians; their speech is Finn, their customs related :
and the true Finns, as well as the quasi-Finns, possess in numerous instances
survivals and traces of what is to this date in full development among the
Samoyads.,

Name of Samoyad.—This can be shown to be not of Russian but of Permian
and even Finnic origin, and to mean not ‘eaters of themselves,’ or ‘ cannibals,’ but
‘swamp-dwellers.’ The old Russian word for them, then, does not suggest canni-
balistic custom, but may be translated ‘eaters of raw flesh,’ which they are to this
day.

Deeley allied to the Finnic tongue, the Samoyad speech shows,
of all the Ural-Altaic languages, the highest development in agglutination. This
is carried so far that it almost reaches inflection.’ Samoyad, indeed, may be
regarded as a nexus between the inflexional Indo-Germanic and the agglutinative
Mongolian.

Religious Ideas Although professing Christianity and the Greek Church
{owing to the zeal with which every Russian promotes the cause of his Church], the
Samoyads have not relinquished faith in their old gods, and still cherish a erypto-
paganism. The impersonal Num, creator of the universe, dwells in the heavens ;
the rain and snow, heat and cold, thunder and lightning, are expressions of his
care for the men he created, as well as of his moods. The sun is his highest form
of manifestation ; the wide arch of the sky bears witness to the immensity of his
being ; the countless stars to his far-seeing and intimate knowledge. More mate-
rial, however, is the idea that the coloured bands of the rainbow form the border
of his robe.1 Veneration of the supernatural is also shown in the cult of the
natural: curiously shaped trees, large stones, somewhat resembling the human
form, and even roughly shaped stakes of wood, are locally revered. This venera-
‘tion is also extended to rude models of these stakes, which are made sufficiently
small to carry about, and are called Chaddi.

Morality.—As a rule, and, of course, wherever they are professed Christians,
the Samoyads are husbands of one wife. In Yalmal and other remote places

‘ Multi-coloured bands of cloth are inserted in the panitsa of the Samoyad.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 829

two wives are not uncommon. The offence of adultery is rare, and fornication is
not approved. The temperament of the Samoyad is amiable; he is hospitable,
cheery, and even-tempered. Sentiment is hardly known to him, and he has no
good reason, or hope of future reward for the honest or benevolent acts he performs.
Idleness is often necessitated by circumstances, but the naturally active man is dis-
cernible even then. The Samoyad is capable of politeness and of sobriety, though
the Russian traders do their best to destroy the latter virtue. The Samoyad is
neighbourly ; the young are obedient and respectful; and the old are tenderly cared
for. Inexpressibly filthy in their customs, the Samoyads exhibit as a race social
virtues of a high order.

Physical Appearance.—The average stature of the men is 5 ft. 12in., and of
the women 4 ft. 98 ins. The head is wide and low; the face broad and short; the
forehead usually receding ; the eyebrows pencilled and arched; the nose is flat,
but straight; the prominence of the mouth is not marked, but the lips are thick.
The eyes are wide apart and oblique; their colour is black and their size small ;
the lids are full. The colour of the skin is yellowish-brown, while the cheeks of
young people are frequently ruddy. The hair, which is cylindrical and coarse, is
jet black. The moustache is always slight, and there usually depends from the chin
a weak thin beard.

The highest English authority on the Samoyads is Mr. F, G. Jackson, and in
his work on the subject (The Great Frozen Land) he tells us that the physique of
the Samoyad is sturdy: the shoulders being broad, the legs stout, though short, and
the arms highly developed. The head is out of proportion to the body in its large-
ness, and the neck is short and thick. The sense of hearing isextremely acute, and
the sight remarkably keen; the power of grasp is considerable. The Samoyads run
well, and are capable of enduring great fatigue, and sustaining arduous exercise for
a long period.

Occupations.—These are chiefly hunting and fishing. To enable them to do the
former, they break and train the reindeer until these animals have reached a high
stage of excellence as draught beasts. The sledge, too, is perfectly adapted to the
physical difficulties presented by the Tundra. The reindeer is the ‘ staff of life on
the Tundra. Its skin makes the tent or ‘choom’ which fends the wild weather
from his master; it also forms the chief fabric of his clothing. Its body constitutes
the main food of the Samoyad, and its hide and sinews his harness, cordage, and
thread. It is the only animal which is fitted to draw burdens across the Tundra, a
quaking bog in summer, a howling frozen plain in winter. In the latter season,
the Samoyad hunts, attacks, and snares the white bear, brown bear, sable, fox,
lynx, and other fur-bearing animals; in summer, he catches enormous numbers of
birds—geese, swans, duck, &c. He brings his furs to the market before the melt-
ing of the snow makes it impossible for him to take heavy loads across the Tundra;
but a contingent is usually left behind to complete the season’s harvest. These the
Samoyad rejoins before the rivers burst free from the ice, and the whole country
becomes an impassable swamp.

Notes on Marriage Customs, Social Usages, Funerals, Folk-lore, Weapons and
Instruments, and Costume, were also included in the paper.

3. On Cannibalism. By Captain 8. L. Hinpe.

Captain Hinde, who has been travelling and fighting for some years in the Congo
basin, and has therefore had many almost unprecedented opportunities of obsery-
ing the natives, gave the following information with regard to cannibalism :—

Almost all the races in the Congo basin practise cannibalism, and though in
some parts it is prevented by the presence of white civilisation, in others it seems
to be on the increase. An extensive traffic in human flesh prevails in many dis-
tricts, slaves being kept and sold as an article of food.

The different tribes have various and horrible methods of preparing the flesk
for eating ; in some instances, before the death of the victim, certain tribes of the
Bangala race themselves acknowledge that they break the arms and legs of the

830 REPORT—1895.

victim, and place the body, thus mutilated and still living, in water for two or
three days, on the supposition that this pre-mortem treatment renders the flesh
more palatable. There are also distinct tribal preferences for various parts of the
body, and it is remarkable that, contrary to an ignorant yet very generally
accepted theory, the negro man-eater never eats flesh raw, and certainly takes
human flesh as food purely and simply, and not from any religious or superstitious
reasons,

4. Report on the Physical and Mental Defects of Children.
See Reports, p. 503.

5. Report on Anthropometric Measurements in Schools,
See Reports, p. 503.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Horns of Honour and Dishonowr and Safety. By ¥. T. E.wortry.

2. On the Origin of the Dance. By Mrs. Litty Grove, F.R.G.S.

The study of the history of the dance throws a light on manners and customs
of various races, on connection between nations geographically remote, and especi-
ally on primitive religion.

After a long study of the subject, the conclusion arrived at is that most dances
were once a form of worship, or at least a form of magic. Many myths relate that
the deities not only delighted in seeing the dance, but also enjoyed performing in
it. Promises of a heayen in which there will be much dancing and many dancers
are held out by several religions, even by monotheist ones, and even by some
Christian Fathers, All ritual dances are grave, reverent, and symbolical of joy,
or gratitude, or sorrow. The object of this Paper is to point out that most dances
have a sacred origin, and to show what survivals we have of these dances. Three
forms are chosen in support of the theory—the weapon dances, the ritual dances,
and the funeral and death dances.

Weapons were once worshipped and held sacred, hence numerous sword dances
in all parts of the globe—in the Himalayas, in the Andes of Bolivia, in Scotland,
in Spain, in Scandinavia, generally in mountain districts.

Ritual dances are so numerous that a choice has to be made, and only those of
Christian worship will be considered; among those the Los Seises dance of the
Seville Cathedral and the dancing procession of Echternach, which latter probably
arose from a penitential vow. Medicine dances belong generally to the ritual, for
the mystery or medicine man is usually also the priest.

Funeral dances are world-wide among pagans and Christians; they origi-
nate in what the author of ‘ The Golden Bough’ calls sympathetic magic, they are
often a form of exorcism, or of propitiation of death, or arise from fear of the soul
of the departed. The dance being a form of worship of the Deity, eventually also
becomes a form of reverence towards the departed.

Pagans mostly honour aged men, chiefs, and priests by such a funeral dance,
while Christians perform funeral dances to rejoice over the death and consequent
delivery from evil of a young person who has died in a state of innocence. Parallels
have been made between the ‘ Lemuric’ dances of the Roman Empire and the
dance macatre, but the parallel is not complete; in England the latter was called
the ‘ Doleful Dance,’ also the ‘ Shaking of the Sheets.’ Churchyards used to be the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H, 831

most favourite places for the dance, and the Welsh danced in their graveyards
after the conclusion of the sermon until quite recently. At one time of the world’s
history the dance must have been exclusively an act of homage towards the Deity,
or the ministers and earthly representatives of the Deity.

As nations grow out of infancy and become more artificial and affected, the
dance loses in significance.

3. Report of the Ethnographical Survey Committee.—See Reports, p. 509.

4. On Ethnographical Observations in East Aberdeenshire.'
By J. Gray, B.Se.

In August last, observations were made by the Buchan Field Club on the
people at the Mintlaw Gathering, in the centre of north-east Aberdeenshire. At
the entrance, the colour of hair and eyes, and shape of nose of 2,309 males and
649 females were noted. In a tent in the grounds measurements were made of the
height (standing and sitting), and length and breadth of head, of 169 adult native
males. The people belonged to the agricultural class. The gate observations gave
the following gross percentages :—Hair—fair 9:7, red 5:7, brown 64:4, dark 20-2;
eyes—dark 26:2, medium 49-0, light 24-8 ; noses—straight 56-4, concave 19:9, high
bridge or Roman 14’8, sinuous or wavy 6:7, and aquiline or Jew 2-2.

In the gate observations, it was found that in the majority of cases light eyes
were associated with fair hair, and dark eyes with dark hair. The ratio of light
to dark eyes changed gradually from fair hair, through red and brown hair, to dark
hair. On analysing the combinations of hair colour with the different types of
noses, it was found that the sum of the fair and red hair associated with each type
of nose was, in each case, almost the same, but the number of cases with dark hair
was least with concave noses and greatest with aquiline noses. This appears to
indicate that one of the primitive race-types had fair hair, light eyes, and a con-
cave nose. This agrees with the Germanic or Canstadt type. The extreme
cephalic indexes obtained in the tent measurements were 86 and 70; but the most
usual indexes were 77 and 79. The diagrams of head breadths and lengths,
heights, and cephalic indexes all show two principal maxima near the centre, with
at least two smaller maxima at the sides. The prevailing type in the district has
brown hair, medium eyes, and a straight nose; but this appears to be a mixed
type, sprung from the mixture of a dolichocephalic fair race with two dark races,
one dolichocephalic and tall, and the other brachycephalic and short.

5. On the Suffolk Dialect. By OC. G. pp Brtnam.

6. General Conclusions on Folk-lore. By Epwarp Cropp.

7. Illustrations of Folk Lore. By Professor A. C. Happon.

1 A full account will be published in the 7ransactions of the Buchan Field Club,

832 REPORT—1895.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

A Discussion on interference with the civilisation of other races was opened by
the reading of the following Paper : ’—

1. Protest against the Unnecessary Uprooting of Ancient Civilization im
Asia and Africa. By Rosert N. Cust, LL.D.

The tendency on the part of Europeans, and English and French especially,
to denationalise the customs of populations which come under their influence, is
to be deplored, so long as those customs are not contrary to the moral laws of
the human race. It is not in any way evident that the customs of European
nations are in themselves better than those of the Asiatic and North African; as
regards the barbarous races of Africa south of the Sahara, Oceania, and North
America the argument is not pressed, but is restricted to those regions where the
inhabitants have an ancient civilization of their own, such as Persia, India, China,
and Japan.

Any forcible change of dress, language, social practice, and municipal law,
is to be deplored: the progress of education, civilization, and contact with nations
in a superior state of culture will do its own work insensibly without wound-
ing the self-respect of ancient naticns: the argument applies particularly to
British India. Nothing can be more prudent and rational than the action of the
British Government, but associations of irresponsible persons are found in Great.
Britain interfering with the prejudices of a great nation of nearly three hundred
millions, which may eventuate in very serious consequences. ‘The study of the
gradual development of an Asiatic society by voluntary adoption of European
influence will be most interesting to the student of anthropology.

The following Papers were read :—

2. The Light thrown on Primitive Warfare by the Languages and Usages
of Historic Times. By Rev. G. Hartwewu Jones, JA.

The institution of war dates from the highest antiquity; nor was it an unmiti-
gated evil. It deeply influenced civilisation. Larly Greece and Italy may be
taken as types of other ‘ Aryan’ countries, and the evidence they afford can be
supplemented by evidence from other quarters,

The sources of evidence are (1) the dead languages, especially Greek and Latin ;
(2) survivals among civilised races and the customs of backward savages to-day ; all
of which point to the evolution of civilisation in Greece and Italy from a primitive
barbarism.

The influence of war was far-reaching. It left a deep impression upon (1)
language, as is seen in the words common to different branches of the ‘ Aryan”
stock; (2) society: for example, marriage and social distinctions; (3) religion.
Religious feuds were often the occasion of war; the gods intervened in these
struggles, as is seen from the prominent place occupied by war-gods in the
mythologies of ‘ Aryan’ races.

The history of primitive warfare exhibits three stages of growth. It is impos-
sible to differentiate them clearly, but we may distinguish war (1) in the hunting
stage. Here the methods would be of the crudest kind—stones, charred stakes,
horns, and a rude bow and arrows were employed; battles were marked by cruelty
and treachery. (2) The pastoral stage. Here the ox figured frequently; it was:
often the cause of hostilities, as witness some names for battle. (8) With the rise
of agriculture war assumed a fiercer aspect, greater issues being at stake.

1 An account of the discussion has been published at the office of the Last
Anglian Daily Times, Ipswich.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 833

Within the limits of one country there was sometimes a variety of usage,
according to the different influences, mainly geographical and racial, to which its
parts were subjected. Language reflects this diversity. Primitive warfare was
religious in its character, war-gods interposing, each with champions and totems,
The early Latin god Janus is a good instance of the survival of animism down to
a late time.

The causes of primitive warfare were diverse. At first it was carried on chiefly
for (1) self-defence, for protection of food supplies, shelter, and wives. Animals
and pastures were frequently grounds of contention, In this respect Sanskrit is
very instructive. (2) Wars of aggression do not fall much within the scope of our
inquiry.

‘ The earliest wars were characterised by cruelty. Those who were incapacitated
from fighting by age were put to death, sometimes voluntarily.

Even as late as the time of Homer physical force, rather than skill, distinguished
the warrior and decided battles. Bodily strength, therefore, marked out men for
leadership, and a nobility gradually grew up from the warrior class.

Battles were preceded by sacrifices, and it is significant that these were per-
formed by the chieftain, who combined in his person functions afterwards separated.

The nature of the country dictated the tactics, according as the ground was
swampy, rocky, or wild. At first only foot-soldiers were employed; chariot-
driving followed ; horse-soldiers were a more recent development. Although there
are indications even in the Vedic hymns of riding being known, yet as late as
Homer's time it was rather a special art than a common practice.

Relationship was the basis of arrangement on the battle-field.

The usages after the conclusion of hostilities are instructive. (1.) Reverence
towards the gods. They were invited to desert, and their attendants were pro-
tected from violence. (2.) Males were ruthlessly put to the sword; women and
children were treated barbarously. Indignities were heaped upon the conquered,
and bodies were sometimes mutilated. It is impossible to resist the conclusion
that human sacrifice was practised.

An examination of the material on this subject establishes several interesting
points—the religious character of early civilisation, the divergence of the branches
of the * Aryan’ family of races, and their development in different directions,

3. On a Paleolithic Skeleton from the Thames Valley.
By Dr. J. G. Garson.

4. On the Skulls of the New Race in Egypt. By Dr. J. G. Garson.

5. On the Andamanese. By Maurice Portman.

6. On the Eskimo. By F. Linkuater and J. A. Fowier.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Lhe Neolithic Station of Butmir. By Dr. R. Munro.

The author, as member of the Congress of Archeologists and Anthropologists
held at Sarajevo in August of last year, had an opportunity of inspecting the
remarkable Neolithic station of Butmir, which forms the subject of this communi-

1895. 3H

834 REPORT—1895.

cation. It is situated in the plain of Ilidze, some eight miles to the west of Sara-
jevo, the capital of Bosnia. This plain, which extends for about seven miles in
length and four or five in breadth, is composed of alluvial materials brought down
from the surrounding mountains by rain and a number of streams which here
meet, and it is therefore highly probable that in former times it was partially a
lake-basin. In 1898, while workmen were engaged in excavating the foundations
of a farm dairy in a cultivated field, it was observed that the soil turned up con-
tained fragments of pottery, flint implements, stone axes, and other remains of a
primitive people. These discoveries led to an investigation of the locality by the
Government, under the supervision of the celebrated archeologist, Mr. Radimsky.
A perpendicular section, 6 to 8 feet in depth, showed first a superficial layer
of ordinary soil, 12 to 15 inches thick, then a series of thin beds, more or less
stratified, of clay, charcoal, ashes, mould, &c., containing the above-named relics
of human industry. This relic-bed, which attained a thickness of 4 or 5 feet, and
a superficial area of about 5 acres, lay immediately above a bed of fine adhesive
clay in situ—z.e. deposited by natural causes prior to the founding of the prebistoric
settlement. By observing that on the surface of this clay there were, occasionally,
irregularly shaped hollows of variable extent, Mr. Radimsky was led to formulate
the opinion that they were the foundations of the huts of the first inbabitants—an
opinion which gave rise to an animated controversy among the members of Con-
gress. The deposits containing the relics formed a low mound, rising in the middle
to about a couple of yards above the surrounding land. Near their surface, but
below the superficial layer of soil, some burnt clay-castings of the timbers of which
the huts were constructed were met with in several localities. The relics con-
sisted, chiefly, of stone implements and fragments of pottery, all of which were
interspersed uniformly throughout the débris.

These remains were so abundant as to suggest the idea that the inhabitants of
Butmir carried on special industries for their manufacture. Stone implements—
knives, arrow-heads, scrapers, polished axes (with the exception of perforated ones),
and tools—were in all stages of manufacture. In regard to the perforated axe-
heads, it was curiously noted that, out of twenty-five collected, only two were
whole, and not a single core had hitherto been found. The material out of which
they were made was not found in the neighbourhood, and hence it was supposed
that the perforated axes had been imported, thus indicating a knowledge of the
division of labour among these early settlers. The pottery had been ornamented
with a great variety of designs, among which a few specimens with a spiral orna-
mentation excited much interest among the members of Congress. A special
feature of this discovery is the existence of a number of small clay images, or
figurines, rudely representing the human form—among them being one, a head of
terra-cotta, disclosing art of a superior kind. In conclusion he observed that those
who had not the opportunity of studying the original report would find a notice of
the settlement and of the controversies to which it has given rise in his forthcom-
ing work, ‘ Rambles and Studies in Bosnia-Herzegovina.’

2. On Primitive European ‘ Idols’ in the Light of New Discoveries.
By Antuur J. Evans, I.A., £.S.A.

Schliemann’s discoveries at Troy first called general attention to a class of
primitive images of clay, marble, and other materials. Others, of which some new
and remarkable examples were exhibited, had since been found in the Augean
Islands and the mainland of Greece. In their more developed forms they appeared
as nude female figures, more rarely male. JLenormant and others had sought their
prototype in a nude female figure seen on some Chaldzean cylinders which, as
Nikolsky has now shown, represented the Underworld Goddess Sala, an equivalent
of Istar. More recently M. Salomon Reinach has boldly attempted to turn the
tables and’derive the Eastern type from the European side. Mr. Evans combated
both these theories, That the Istar type had influenced some of the later Aigean
figures was probable. But the two classes were originally independent. The Greek

7

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 835

and Trojan figures fitted on to a primitive European family, the evolution of which
could be traced from the rudest beginnings. Thracian and Danubian examples
carried this diffusion to the Carpathians. Beyond this, again, a curiously parallel
group—of amber, bone and stone—characterised a vast northern Neolithic province
including the Polish caves and the Baltic amber coast and extending to the shores
of Lake Ladoga. Attention was next called to certain recent and partly unpub-
lished discoveries of primitive painted images in Sicily and the Ligurian caves, and
after bringing them into relation with others from Bosnia and Carniola, the author
showed that they had here the nearest prototypes to the Mycenzan. He exhibited
a curiously rude squatting figure of Pentelic marble found near Athens—the
earliest example of Attic art—and after adducing parallel examples from Thrace
and the Peloponnese, claimed a cousinship for them in the so-called ‘ Cabiri’ of
what had been hitherto known as the ‘Phoenician Temple’ of Hagiar Kim in
Malta. This primitive building was really a West Mediterranean example of a
class illustrated by the primitive architecture of Sardinia, the Balearic Islands, and
even our own chambered barrows. Its Libyan affinities had been noticed by
Fergusson, and the so-called Cabiri, with Ngean connections on the one hand,
seemed to stand in a direct relationship with the rude squatting figures of Mr,
Petrie’s ‘ New Race.’ Turning to Spain, Mr. Evans called attention to a class of
stone figures singularly resembling the Trojan discovered in Neolithic and early
Bronze Age deposits by the brothers Siret, and to which their most recent excava-
tions had added rich materials. Finally, as the north-westernmost example of this
whole primitive class, he referred to the discovery of 1 whalebone ‘idol’ amongst
Neolithic relics at Skara, in Orkney. The sepulchral relation in which these so-
called ‘idols’ were usually discovered pointed to the conclusion that they had here
an illustration of the widespread practice among primitive peoples of placing small
figures in the grave as substitutes for human victims.

3. Interim Report on Prehistoric and Ancient Remains in Glamorganshires
4. Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury.—See Reports, p. 519.

5. The People of Southern Arabia. By J. THEopore Bent.

The two classes of natives discussed in this paper are resident in the Hadramut
and Dhofar districts of South-eastern Arabia. First, those of the Hadramut are
described. Their fanaticism and complex tribal system present great difficulties
to the anthropologist. Descriptions are given of the three divisions of the inhabit-
ants—namely, the Bedouins, the Arabs proper, and the Sayyids, or hierarchical
nobility. But the Bedouins and their manners and customs, as being a distinctly
aboriginal race, are described with greater minuteness. Their religion is discussed,
and the secret manner in which they maintain their cult is suggested as a parallel
to other secret cults in other parts of the Mohammedan world.

Secondly, the district of Dhofar, the country from which the ancients obtained
frankincense, is next described, and the Bedouins of the Gara tribe compared with
those of the Hadramut: their manners and customs, and the general conditions
under which they live, are described.

3 Ho 2

836 REPORT—1895.

Section K.—BOTANY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SucTION.—W. T. TuiseLTon-DyeR, M.A., F.R.S., C.M.G.,
C.1.E., Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The PrestpEnt delivered the following Address :—

Tue establishment of a new Section of the British Association, devoted to Botany,
cannot but be regarded by the botanists of this country as an event of the greatest
importance. For it is practically the first time that they have possessed an inde-
pendent organisation of their own. It is true that for some years past we have
generally been strong enough to form a separate department of the old Biological
Section D, on the platform of which so many of us in the past have acted in some
eapacity or other, and on which indeed many of us may be said to have made our
first appearance. We shall not start then on our new career without the remem-
brance of filial affection for our parent, and the earnest hope that our work may
be worthy of its great traditions.

The first meeting of the Section, or, as it was then called, Committee, at Oxford
was held in 1832. And though there has been from time to time some difference
in the grouping of the several biological sciences, the two great branches of biology
have only now for the first time formally severed the partnership into which they
entered on that occasion. That this severance, if inevitable from force of circum-
stances, is in some respects a matter of regret, I do not deny. Specialisation is
inseparable from scientific progress ; but it will defeat its own end in biology if the
specialist does not constantly keep in touch with those fundamental principles which
are common to all organic nature. We shall have to take care that we do not
drift into a position of isolation. Section D undoubtedly afforded a convenient
opportunity for discussing many questions on which it was of great advantage that
workers in the two different fields should compare their results and views. But
Y hope that by means of occasional conferences we shall still, in some measure, be
able to preserve this advantage.

RETROSPECT,

I confess I found it a great temptation to review, however imperfectly, the
history and fortunes of our subject while it belonged to Section D. But to have
done so would have been practically to have written the history of botany in this
country since the first third of the century. Yet I cannot pass over some few
striking events.

I think that the earliest of these must undoubtedly be regarded as the most
epoch-making. I mean the formal publication by the Linnean Society, in 1833,
of the first description of ‘the nucleus of the cell,’ by Robert Brown.' It seems

1 Misc. Bot. Works, i. 512.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 837

difficult to realise that this may be within the recollection of some who are now
living amongst us. It is, however, of peculiar interest to me that the first person
who actually distinguished this all-important body, and indicated it in a figure,
was Francis Bauer, thirty years earlier, in 1802. This remarkable man, whose
skill in applying the resources of art to the illustration of plant anatomy has never,
I suppose, been surpassed, was ‘resident draughtsman for fifty years to the Royal
Botanic Garden at Kew.’ And it was at Kew, and in a tropical orchid, Phaius
grandifolius, no doubt grown there, that the discovery was made.

It was, [ confess, with no little admiration that, on refreshing my memory by a
reference to Robert Brown’s paper, I read again the vivid account which he gives
in a footnote of the phenomena, so painfully familiar to many of us who have been
teachers, exhibited in the staminal hair of Tradescantia. Sir Joseph Hooker ! has
well remarked that ‘the supreme importance of this observation, . . . leading to
undreamt-of conceptions of the fundamental phenomena of organic life, is acknow-
ledged by all investigators.’ It is singular that so profound an observer as Robert
Brown should have himself missed the significance of what he saw. The world
had to wait for the discovery of protoplasm by Von Mohl till 1846, and till 1850
for its identification with the sarcode of zoologists by Cohn, who is still, I am
happy to say, living and at work, and to whom last year the Linnean Society did
itself the honour of presenting its medal.

The Edinburgh meeting of the Association, in 1834, was the occasion of the
announcement of another memorable discovery of Robert Brown’s. I will content
myself with quoting Hofmeister’s* account of it. ‘Robert Brown was the dis-
coverer of the polyembrony of the Conifere. In a later treatise he pointed out the
origin of the pro-embryo in large cells of the endosperm, to which he gave the
name of corpuscula.’ The period of the forties, just half a century ago, looks in the
retrospect as one of almost dazzling discovery. To say nothing of the formal ap-
pearance of protoplasm on the scene, the foundations were being laid in all direc-
tions of our modern botanical morphology. Yet its contemporaries viewed it with
a very philosophical calm. Thwaites, who regarded Carpenter as his master,
described at the Oxford meeting in 1847 the conjugation of the Diatomacee, and
‘distinctly indicated,’ as Carpenter * says, ‘ that conjugation is the primitive phase
of sexual reproduction.’ Berkeley informed me that the announcement fell per-
fectly flat. A year or two later Suminski came to London with his splendid
discovery (1848) of the archegonia of the fern, the antheridia having been
tirst seen by Nageli in 1844. Carpenter * gave me, many years after, a curious
account of its reception. ‘At the Council of the Ray Society, at which,’
he said, ‘I advocated the reproduction of Suminski’s book on the “Ferns,” I
was assured that the close resemblance of the antherozoids to spermatozoa
was quite sufficient proof that they could have nothing to do with vegetable
reproduction. ‘I do not think,’ he added—and the complaint is pathetic—‘that
the men of the present generation, who have been brought up in the light, quite
apprehend (in this as in other matters) the utter darkness in which we were then
groping, or fully recognise the deserts of those who helped them to what they now
enjoy. This was in 1875, and I suppose is not likely to be less true now.

The Oxford Meeting in 1860 was the scene of the memorable debate on the
origin of species, at which it is interesting to remember that Henslow presided.
On that occasion Section D reached its meridian. The battle was Homeric. How-
ever little to the taste of its author, the launching of his great theory was, at any
rate, dignified with a not inconsiderable explosion. It may be that it is not given
to the men of our day to ruffle the dull level of public placidity with disturbing
and far-reaching ideas. But if it were, 1 doubt whether we have, or need now,
the fierce energy which inspired then either the attack or the defence. When we
met again in Oxford last year the champion of the old conflict stood in the place of
honour, acclaimed of all men, a beautiful and venerable figure. We did not know
then that that was to be his farewell.

The battle was not in vain. Six years afterwards, at Nottingham, Sir Joseph

! Proc. Linn. Soc., 1887-88, 65. 2 Higher Cryptogamia, 432.
3 Memorial Sketch, 140. 4 Loe. cit., 141.

838 REPORT—1895,

Hooker delivered his classical lecture on Insular Floras. It implicitly accepted
the new doctrine, and applied it with admirable effect to a field which had long
waited for an illuminating principle. The lecture itself has since remained one of
the corner-stones of that rational theory of the geographical distribution of plants
which may, I think, be claimed fairly as of purely English origin.

HeEnstow.

Addressing you as I do at Ipswich, there is one name written in the annals of
our old Section which I cannot pass over—that of Henslow. He was the Secretary
of the Biological Section at its first meeting in 1882, and its President at Bristol in
1836. I suppose there are few men of this century who have indirectly more
influenced the current of human thought. For in great measure I think it will not
be contested that we owe Darwin to him. As Romanes has told us:? ‘ His letters
written to Professor Henslow during his voyage round the world overflow with
feelings of affection, veneration, and obligation to his accomplished master and
dearest friend—feelings which throughout his life he retained with no diminished
intensity. As he used himself to say, before he knew Professor Henslow the only
objects he cared for were foxes and partridges.’ I do not wish to overstate the
facts. The possession of ‘the collector’s instinct, strong in Darwin from his
childhood, as is usually the case in great naturalists, to use Huxley’s* words,
would have borne its usual fruit in after life,in some shape or other, even if
Darwin had not fallen into Henslow’s hands. But then the particular train of
events which culminated in the great work of his life would never have been
started. It appeared to me, then, that it would not be an altogether uninteresting
investigation to ascertain something about Henslow himself. The result has been
to provide me with several texts, which I think it may be not unprofitable to
dwell upon on the present occasion,

In the first place, what was the secret of his influence over Darwin? ‘My
dear old master in Natural History’ (‘ Life,’ ii. 317) he calls him ; and to have stood
in this relation to Darwin * is no small matter. Again, he speaks of his friendship
with him as ‘a circumstance which influenced my whole career more than any
other’ (i. 52). The singular beauty of Henslow’s character, to which Darwin
himself bore noble testimony, would count for something, but it would not in
itself be a sufficient explanation. Nor was it that intellectual fascination which
often binds pupils to the master’s feet; for, as Darwin tells us, ‘I do not suppose
that anyone would say that he possessed much original genius’ (i. 52), The real
attraction seems to me to be found in Henslow’s possession, in an extraordinary
degree, of what may be called the Natural History spirit. This resolves itself
into keen observation and a lively interest in the facts observed. ‘ His strongest
taste was to draw conclusions from long-continued minute observations’ (i. 52),
The old Natural History method, of which it seems to me that Henslow was
so striking an embodiment, is now, and I think unhappily, almost a thing of the
past. The modern university student of botany puts his elders to blush by his
minute knowledge of some small point in vegetable histology. But he can tell
you little of the contents of a country hedgerow; and if you put an unfamiliar
plant in his hands he is pretty much at a loss how to set about recognising its
affinities. Disdaining the field of nature spread at his feet in his own country, he
either seeks salvation in a German laboratory or hurries off to the Tropics, con-
vinced that he will at once immortalise himself. But ‘ celuwm non animum mutat’ ;
he puts into ‘pickle’ the same objects as his predecessors, never to be looked at
again; or perhaps writes a paper on some obvious phenomena which he could
have studied with Jess fatigue in the Palm House at Kew.

The secret of the right use of travel is the possession of the Natural History
instinct, and to those who contemplate it I can only recommend a careful study of
Darwin's ‘ Naturalist’s Voyage.’ Nothing that came in his way seems to have

1 Memorial Notices, 13. 2 Proc. B.S8., xliv. vi.
3 As I shall have frequent occasion to quote the Life and Letters, I shall insert
the references in the text.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 839

evaded him or to have seemed too inconsiderable for attention. No doubt some
respectable travellers have lost themselves in a maze of observations that have led
to nothing. But the example of Darwin, and I might add of Wallace, of Huxley,
and of Moseley, show that that result is the fault of the man and not of the
method. The right moment comes when the fruitful opportunity arrives to him
who can seize it. The first strain of the prelude with which the ‘ Origin’ com-
mences are these words: ‘ When on board H.M.S. “ Beagle” as naturalist, I was
much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the organic beings inhabiting
South America.’ But this sort of vein is not struck at hazard or by him who has
not served a tolerably long apprenticeship to the work.

When one reads and re-reads the ‘ Voyage,’ it is simply amazing to see how much
could be achieved with a previous training which we now should think ludicrously
inadequate. Before Henslow’s time the state of the natural sciences at Cambridge
was incredible. In fact, Leonard Jenyns,! his biographer, speaks of the ‘ utter
disregard paid to Natural History in the University previous to his taking up his
residence there.’ The Professor of Botany had delivered no lectures for thirty
years, and though Sir James Smith, the founder of the Linnean Society, had
offered his services, they were declined on the ground of his being a Noncon-
formist.*

As to Henslow’s own scientific work, I can but rely on the judgment of those
who could appreciate it in relation to its time. According to Berkeley,® ‘he was
certainly one of the first, if not the very first, to see that two forms of fruit might
exist in the same fungus.’ And this, as we now know, was a fundamental
advance in this branch of morphology. Sir Joseph Hooker tells me that his papers
were all distinctly in advance of his day. Before occupying the chair of botany,
he held for some years that of mineralogy. Probably he owed this to his paper
on the Isle of Anglesey, published when he was only twenty-six. I learn from
the same authority that this to some extent anticipated, but at any rate strongly
influenced, Sedgwick’s subsequent work in the same region.

Boranican TEACHING,

Henslow’s method of teaching deserves study. Darwin says of his lectures
“that he liked them much for their extreme clearness.’ ‘ But,’ he adds, ‘I did
not study botany’ (1.48). Yet we must not take this too seriously. Darwin,*
when at the Galapagos, ‘indiscriminately collected everything in flower on the
different islands, and fortunately kept my collections separate.’ Fortunately
indeed ; for it was the results extracted from these collections, when worked up
subsequently by Sir Joseph Hooker, which determined the main work of his life.
“Tt was such cases as that of the Galapagos Archipelago which chiefly led me to
study the origin of species’ (iii. 159).

Henslow’s actual method of teaching went some way to anticipate the practical
methods of which we are all so proud. ‘He was the first to introduce into the
botanical examination for degrees in London the system of practical examination.’ >
But there was a direct simplicity about his class arrangements characteristic of the
man. ‘A large number of specimens... were placed in baskets on a side-table
in the lecture-room, with a number of wooden plates and other requisites for
dissecting them after a rough fashion, each student providing himself with what
he wanted before taking his seat.’° I do not doubt that the results were, in their
way, as efficient as we obtain now in more stately laboratories.

The most interesting feature about his teaching was not, however, its academic
aspect, but the use he made of botany as a general educational instrument. ‘He
always held that a man of zo powers of observation was quite an exception.’7 He
thought (and I think he proved) that botany might be used ‘ for strengthening the
observant faculties and expanding the reasoning powers of children in all classes °
of society.’* The difficulty with which those who undertake now to teach our
subject have to deal is that most people ask the question, What is the use of

» Memoir, 175. 2 Thid., 37. 3 Dbid., 56. * Voyage, 421.
* Memoir, 161. 5 Tbid., 39. 7 Thid., 163. 8 Tbid., 99.

840 REPORT— 1895.

learning botany unless one means to be a botanist? It might indeed be replied
that as the vast majority of people never learn anything effectively, they might as
well try botany as anything else. But Henslow looked only to the mental disci-
pline ; and it was characteristic of the man and of his belief in his methods that
when he was summoned to Court to lecture to the Royal family, his lectures.
‘were, in all respects, identical with those he was in the habit of giving to his
little Hitcham scholars’;! and it must be added that they were not less successful.

This success naturally attracted attention. Botanical teaching in schools was.
taken up by the Government, and continues to receive support to the present day.
But the primitive spirit has, I am afraid,evaporated. The measurement of results.
by means of examination has been fatal to its survival. The teacher has to keep
steadily before his eyes the necessity of earning his grant. The educational pro-
blem retires into the background. ‘The strengthening of the observant faculties,’
and the rest of the Henslowian programme must give way to the imperious neces-
sity of presenting to the examiner candidates equipped with at least the minimum
of text-book formulas reproducible on paper. Ido not speak in this matter with--
out painful experience. The most astute examiner is defeated by the still more
astute crammer. The objective basis of the study on which its whole usefulness.
is built up is promptly thrown aside. If you supply the apple blossom for actual
‘description, you are as likely as not to be furnished with a detailed account of a
buttercup. The training of observation has gone by the board, and the exercise of
mere memory has taken its place. Buta table of logarithms or a Hebrew gram-
mar would serve this purpose equally well. Yet Ido not despair of Henslow’s
work still bearing fruit, The examination system will collapse from the sheer im-
possibility of carrying it on beyond a certain point. Freed from its trammels, the
teacher will have greater scope for individuality, and the result of his labours will
be rewarded after some intelligent system of inspection. And here I may claim
support from an unexpected quarter. Mr. Gladstone has recently written to a.
correspondent :—‘I think that the neglect of natural history, in all its multitude
of branches, was the grossest defect of our old system of training for the young ;
and, further, that little or nothing has been done by way of remedy for that
defect in the attempts made to alter or reform that system.’ I am sure that the
importance and weight of this testimony, coming as it does from one whose training
and sympathies have always been literary, cannot be denied. That there is already
some revival of Henslow’s methods, I judge from the fact that I have received ap-
plications from Board schools, amounting to some hundreds, for surplus specimens:
from the Kew museums, Without a special machinery for the purpose I cannot do
much, and perhaps it is well. But my staff have willingly done what was possible,
and from the letters I have received I gather that the labour has not been wholly
misspent.

Musrum ARRANGEMENT.

This leads me to the last branch of Henslow’s scientific work on which I am
able to touch, that of the arrangement of museums, especially those which
being local have little meaning unless their purpose is strictly educational. I
think it is now generally admitted that, both in the larger and narrower aspects of
the question, his ideas, which were shared in some measure by Edward Forbes,
were not merely far in advance of his time, but were essentially sound. And here
I cannot help remarking that the zoologists have perhaps profited more by his:
teaching than the botanists. I do not know how far Sir William Flower and Pro-
fessor Lankester would admit the influence of Henslow’s ideas. But, so far as my
knowledge goes, I am not aware that, at any rate in Europe, there is anything to:
be seen in public museums comparable to the educational work accomplished by
the one at the College of Surgeons and the Natural History Museum, and by the:
other at Oxford.

I have often thought it singular that in botany we have not kept pace in this.
matter with our brother naturalists. I do not doubt that vegetable morphology
and a vast number of important facts in evolution, as illustrated from the

1 Memoir, 149.

>

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 84.7

vegetable kingdom, might be presented to the eye in a fascinating way in @
carefully arranged museum. The most successful and, indeed, almost the only
attempt which has been made in this direction is that at Cambridge, which, I
believe, is due to Mr. Gardiner. But our technical methods for preserving speci--
meus still leave much to desire. Something more satisfactory will, it may be
hoped, some day be devised, and the whole subject is one which is well worth the
careful consideration of our Section. Henslow at least effected a vast improve--
ment in the mode of displaying botanical objects ; and a collection prepared by his
own hands, which was exhibited at one of the Paris exhibitions, excited the warm
admiration of the French botanists, who always appreciate the clear illustration of
morphological facts,

Otp Scuoort or Natrurat Hisrory.

If the old school of natural history of which Henslow in his day was a living:
spirit is at present, as seems to be the case, continually losing its hold upon us,.
this has certainly not been due to its want of value as an educational discipline, or-
to its sterility in contributing new ideas to human knowledge. Darwin’s ‘Origin
of Species’ may certainly be regarded as its offspring, and of this Huxley! says
with justice: ‘It is doubtful if any single book, except the “ Principia,” ever
worked so great and rapid a revolution in science, or made so deep an impression
on the general mind.’ Yet Darwin's biographer, in thatadmirable Life which ranks.
with the few really great biographies in our language, remarks (i. 155): ‘ In reading
his books one is reminded of the older naturalists rather than of the modern school
of writers. He was a naturalist in the old sense of the word, that is, a man who
works at many branches of science, not merely a specialist in one.’ This is no
doubt true, but does not exactly hit off the distinction between the kind of study
which has gone out of fashion and that which has come in. The older workers.
in biology were occupied mainly with the external or, at any rate, grosser features
of organisms and their relation to surrounding conditions; the modern, on the
other hand, are engaged on the study of internal and intimate structure. Work in
the laboratory, with its necessary limitations, takes the place of research in the
field. One may almost, in fact, say that the use of the compound microscope divides-
the two classes. Asa Gray has compared Robert Brown with Darwin as the ‘two
British naturalists’ who have, ‘more than any others, impressed their influence-
upon science in the nineteenth century.’* Now it is noteworthy that Robert
Brown did all his work with a simple microscope. And Francis Darwin writes of
his father: ‘It strikes us nowadays as extraordinary that he should have had no
compound microscope when he went his “Beagle” voyage; but in this he followed.
the advice of Robert Brown, who was an authority on such matters’ (i. 145). One
often meets with persons, and sometimes of no small eminence, who speak as if there.
were some necessary antagonism between the old and the new studies. Thus I
have heard a distinguished systematist describe the microscope as a curse, and a
no less distinguished morphologist speak of a herbarium having its proper place on a
bonfire. To me I confess this anathematisation of the instruments of research proper
to any branch of our subject is not easily intelligible. Yet in the case of Darwin
himself it is certain that if his earlier work may be said to rest solely on the older
methods, his later researches take their place with the work of the new school.
At our last meeting Pfeffer vindicated one of his latest and most important
observations.

The case of Robert Brown is even more striking. He is equally great whether
we class him with the older or the modern school. In fact, so far as botany in
this country is concerned, he may be regarded as the founder of the latter. It is.
to him that we owe the establishment of the structure of the ovule and its develop-
ment into the seed. Even more important were the discoveries to which I have.
already referred, which ultimately led to the establishment of the group of Gymno--
sperms. ‘No more important discovery,’ says Sachs,? ‘was ever made in the.
domain of comparative morphology and systematic botany. The first steps towards.
this result, which was clearly brought out by Hofmeister twenty-five years later,

1 Proc, R.S., xliv. xvii. 2 Nature, x. 89. &§ Mistory, 142.

842, REPORT—1895,

were secured by Robert Brown’s researches, and he was incidentally led to these
researches by some difficulties in the construction of the seed of an Australian genus.’
Yet it may be remembered that he began his career as naturalist to Flinders’s
expedition for the exploration of Australia, He returned to England with 4,000
‘for the wost part new species of plants.’ And these have formed the foundation
of our knowledge of the flora of that continent. Brown’s chief work was done
between 1820 and 1840, and, as Sachs! tells us, ‘was better appreciated during
that time in Germany than in any other country.’

MopErn ScHoot.

The real founder of the modern teaching in this country in both branches of
biology I cannot doubt was Carpenter. The first edition of his admirable ‘ Prin-
ciples of Comparative Physiology’ was published in 1838, the last in 1854. All
who owe, as I do, a deep debt of gratitude to that book will agree with Huxley ”
in regarding it as ‘by far the best general survey of the whole field of life and of
the broad principles of biology which had been produced up to the time of its pub-
lication. Indeed,’ he adds, ‘although the fourth edition is now in many respects
out of date, I do not know its equal for breadth of view, sobriety of speculation,
and accuracy of detail.’

, The charm of a wide and philosophic survey of the different forms under which
life presents itself could not but attract the attention of teachers. Rolleston elabo-
rated a course of instruction in zoology at Oxford in which the structures described in
the lecture-room were subsequently worked out in the laboratory. In 1872 Huxley
organised the memorable course in elementary biology at South Kensington which
has since, in its essential features, been adopted throughout the country. In the
following year, during Huxley’s absence abroad through ill-health, I arranged, at
his request, a course of instruction on the same lines for the Vegetable Kingdom.

That the development of the new teaching was inevitable can hardly be doubted,
and I for my part am not disposed to regret the share I took in it. But it was
not obvious, and certainly it was not expected, that it would to so large an extent
cut the ground from under the feet of the old Natural History studies. The conse-
quences are rather serious, and I think it is worth while pointing them out.

In a vast empire Jike our own there is a good deal of work to be done and a
good many posts to be filled, for which the old Natural History training was not
merely a useful but even a necessary preparation. But at the present time the univer-
sities almoat entirely fail to supply men suited to the work. They neither care to
collect, nor have they the skilled aptitude for observation. Then, though this
country is possessed at home of incomparable stores of accumulated material, the
class of competent amateurs who were mostly trained at our universities and
who did such good service in working that material out is fast disappearing. It
may not be easy indeed in the future to fill important posts even in this country with
men possessing the necessary qualifications. But there was still another source of
naturalists, even more useful, which has practically dried up. It is an interesting
fact that the large majority of men of the last generation who have won dis-
tinction in this field have begun their career with the study of medicine. That the
kind of training that Natural History studies give is of advantage to students of
medicine which, rightly regarded, is itself a Natural History study, can hardly
be denied. But the exigencies of the medical curriculum have crowded them out,
and this, I am afraid, must be accepted as irremediable. I cannot refrain from
reading you, on this point, an extract from a letter which I have received from a
distinguished official lately entrusted with an important foreign mission. I should
add that he had himself been trained in the old way.

‘I have had my time, and must leave to younger men the delight of working
these interesting fields. Such chances never will occur again, for roads are now
being made and ways cut in the jungle and forest, and you have at hand all sorts of
trees level on the ground ready for study. These bring down with them orchids, ferns,
and climbers of many kinds, including rattan palms, &c. But, excellent as are the
officers who devote their energy to thus opening up this country, there is not one

1 Toe. cit., 139, 140. 2 Memorial Sketch, 67.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 843

man who knows a palm from a dragon-tree, so the chance is lost. Strange to say,
the medical men of the Government service know less and care less for Natural
History than the military men, who at least regret they have no training or study
to enable them to take an intelligent interest in what they see around them. A
doctor nowadays cares for no living thing larger or more complicated than a
bacterium or a bacillus.’

But there are other and even more serious grounds why the present dominance
of one aspect of our subject is a matter for regret. In the concluding chapter of
the ‘ Origin,’ Darwin wrote : ‘I look with confidence to the future—to young and
rising naturalists.’ But I observe that most of the new writers on the Darwinian
theory, and, oddly enough, especially when they have been trained at Cambridge,
generally begin by more or less rejecting it as a theory of the origin of species,
and then proceed unhesitatingly to reconstruct it. The attempt rarely seems to
me successful, perhaps because the limits of the laboratory are unfavourable to
the accumulation of the class of observations which are suitable for the
purpose. The laboratory, in fact, has not contributed much to the Darwinian
theory, except the ‘Law of Recapitulation,’ and that, I am told, is going out of
fashion.

The Darwinian theory, being, as I have attempted to show, the outcome of the
Natural History method, rested at every point on a copious basis of fact and
observation. This more modern speculation lacks. The result is a revival of
transcendentalism. Of this we have had a copious crop in this country, but it is
quite put in the shade by that with which we have been supplied from America.
Perhaps the most remarkable feature is the persistent vitality of Lamarckism. As
Darwin remarks: ‘Lamarck’s one suggestion as to the cause of the gradual modifica-
tion of species—eflort excited by change of conditions—was, on the face of it,
inapplicable to the whole vegetable world’ (ii. 189). And if we fall back on
the inherited direct effect of change of conditions, though Darwin admits that
‘physical conditions have a more direct effect on plants than on animals’ (11. 319),
I have never been able to convince myself that that effect is inherited. I will
give one illustration. The difference in habit of even the same species of plant
when grown under mountain and lowland conditions is a matter of general obser-
vation. It would be difficult to imagine a case of ‘ acquired characters’ more
likely to be ‘ inherited.’ But this does not seem to bethe case. The recent careful
research of Gaston Bonnier only confirms the experience of cultivators. ‘The
modifications acquired by the plant when transported for a definite time from the
plains to the Alps, or vice versd, disappear at the end of the same period when the
plant is restored tu its original conditions.’ ?

Darwin, in an eloquent passage, which is too long for me to quote,” has shown
how enormously the interest of Natural History is enhanced ‘when we regard
every production of Nature as one which has had a long history,’ and ‘ when we
contemplate every complex structure... as the summing up of many con-
trivances.’ But this can only be done, or atany rate begun, in the field and not in
the laboratory.

A more serious peril is the dying out amongst us of two branches of botanical
study in which we have hitherto occupied a position of no small distinction.
Apart from the staffs of our official institutions, there seems to be no one who
either takes any interest in, or appreciates in the smallest degree, the importance of
‘systematic and descriptive botany. And geographical distribution is almost in a
worse plight, yet Darwin calls it, ‘that grand subject, that almost keystone of the
laws of creation’ (i. 356).

I am aware that it is far easier to point out an evil than to remedy it. The
teaching of botany at the present day has reached a pitch of excellence and
earnestness which it has never reached before. That it is somewhat one-sided
cannot probably be remedied without a subdivision of the subject and an increase’
in the number of teachers. If it hasa positive fault, it is that it is sometimes
inclined to be too dogmatic and deductive. Like Darwin, at any rate in a
biological matter, ‘I never feel convinced by deduction, even in the case of

‘ Ann. d. Se. nat., T° sér. xx, 355. 2 Origin, 426.

844: ‘ REPORT—1895.

H. Spencer’s writings’ (iii. 168), The intellectual indolence of the student
inclines him only too gladly to explain phenomena by referring them to ‘isms,’
instead of making them tell their own story.

ORGANISATION OF SECTION.

I am afraid I have detained you too long over these matters, on which I must
admit I have spoken with some frankness. But I take it that one of the objects
of our Section is to deliver our minds of any perilous stuff that is fermenting in it.
But now, having taken leave of the past, let us turn to the future.

We start at least with a clean slate. We cannot bind our successors, it is true,
at other meetings. But I cannot doubt that it will be in our power to materially
shape our future, notwithstanding. When we were only a department I think we
all felt the advantage of these annual meetings, of the profitable discussion for-
mal and informal, and of the privilege of meeting so many of our foreign brethren
who have so generously supported us by their presence and sympathy.

I am anxious, then, to suggest that we should conduct our proceedings on as
broad lines as possible. I do not think we should be too ready to encourage papers
which may well be communicated to societies, either local or central.

The field is large; the labourers as they advance in life can hardly expect to
‘ keep pace with all that is going on in it. We must look to individual members
of our number to help us by informing and stimulating addresses on subjects they
have made peculiarly their own, or on important researches on which they have
been especially engaged.

NoMENCLATURE.

There is one subject upon which, from my official position elsewhere, I desire
to take the opportunity of saying a few words. It is that of Nomenclature. It
is not on its technical side, I am afraid, of sufficient general interest to justify my
devoting to it the space which its importance would otherwise deserve. But I
hope to be able to enlist your support for the broad common-sense principles on
which our practice should rest.

As I suppose, everyone knows we owe our present method of nomenclature in
natural history to Linneus. He devised the binominal, or, as it is often absurdly
called, the binomial system. That we must have a technical system of nomencla-
ture I suppose no one here will dispute. It is not, however, always admitted by
popular writers who have not appreciated the difficulty of the matter, and who
think all names should be in the vernacular. There is the obvious difticulty that
the vast majority of plants do not possess any names at all, and the attempts to
manufacture them in a popular shape have met with but little success. Then,
from lack of discriminating power on the part of those who use them, vernacular
names are often ambiguous; thus Bullrush is applied equally to Typha and to
Scirpus, plants extremely different. Vernacular names, again, are only of local
utility, while the Linneau system is intelligible throughout the world.

A technical name, then, for a plant or animal is a necessity, as without it we
cannot fix the object of our investigations into its affinity, structure, or properties.t
‘ Nomina si nescis perit et cognitio rerum,’

In order to get clear ideas on the matter let us look at the logical principles on
which such names are based. It is fortunate for us that these are stated by Mill,
who, besides being an authority on logic, was also an accomplished botanist. He
tells us:* ‘A naturalist, for purposes connected with his particular science, sees
reason to distribute the animal or vegetable creation into certain groups rather
than into any others, and he requires a name to bind, as it were, each of his groups
together.’ He further explains that such names, whether of species, genera, or
orders, are what logicians call connotative: they denote the members of each group,
and connote the distinctive characters by which it is defined. A species, then, con-
notes the common characters of the individuals belonging to it; a genus, those of
the species; an order, those of the genera.

1 Linn. Phil., 210. 2 System of Logie, i. 132.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 845

But these are the logical principles, which are applicable to names generally.
A name such as Ranunculus repens does not differ in any particular from a name
such as John Smith, except that one denotes a species, the other an individual.

This being the case, and technical names being a necessity, they continually
pass into general use in connection with horticulture, commerce, medicine, and the
arts, It seems obvious that, if science is to keep in touch with human affairs,
stability in nomenclature is a thing not merely to aim at but to respect. Changes
become necessary, but should never be insisted on without grave and solid reason.
In some cases they are inevitable unless the taxonomic side of botany is to remain at a
standstill, From time to time the revision of a large group has to be undertaken from
a uniform and comparative point of view. It then often occurs that new genera
are seen to have been too hastily founded on insufficient grounds, and must therefore
be merged in others, This may involve the creation of a large number of new
names, the old ones becoming henceforth a burden to literature as synonyms. It
js usual in such cases to retain the specific portion of the original name, if possible.
If it is, however, already preoccupied in the genus to which the transference is
made, a new one must be devised. Many modern systematists have, however, set
up the doctrine that a specific epithet once given 1s indelible, and whatever the
taxonomic wanderings of the organism to which it was once assigned, it must
always accompany it. This, however, would not have met with much sympathy
from Linnzeus, who attached no importance to the specific epithet at all: ‘ Nomen
specificum sine generico est quasi pistillum sine campana.’? Linneeus always had a
solid reason for everything he did or said, and it is worth while considering in this
case what it was.

Before his time the practice of associating plants in genera had made some
aa in the hands of Tournefort and others, but specific names were still cum-

rous and practically unusable. Genera were often distinguished by a single word ;

and it was the great reform accomplished by Linneus to adopt the binominal principle
for species. But there is this difference. Generic names are unique, and must not
be applied to more than one distinct group. Specific names might have been con-
stituted on the same basis; the specific name in that case would then have never
been used to designate more than one plant, and would have been sutticient to
indicate it. We should have lost, it is true, the useful information which we get
from our present practice in learning the genus to which the species belongs; but
theoretically a nomenclature could have been established on the one-name principle.
The thing, however, is impossible now, even ifit were desirable. A specific epithet
like vulyaris may belong to hundreds of different species belonging to as many
different genera, and taken alone is meaningless. A Linnean name, then, though it
consists of two parts, must be treated as a-whole. ‘Nomen omne plantarum con-
stabit nomine generico et specifico.’* A fragment can have no vitality of its own.
Consequently, if superseded, it may be replaced by another which may be perfectly
independent.®

It constantly happens that the same species is named and described by more
than one writer, or different views are taken of specific differences by various
writers ; the species of one are therefore ‘lumped’ by another. In such cases,
where there is a choice of names, it is customary to select the earliest published.
{ agree, however, with the late Sereno Watson ‘ that ‘there is nothing whatever
of an ethical character inherent in a name, through any priority of publication or
position, which should render it morally obligatory upon anyone to accept one name
rather than another.’ And in point of fact Linnzeus and the early systematists
attached little importance to priority. The rigid application of the principle
involves the assumption that all persons who describe or attempt to describe plants

1 Phil. 21 2 Phil., 212.

8 As Alphonse de Candolle points out in a letter published in the Bull. de la Soc.
tot. de France (xxxix.), ‘the real merit of Linnzus has been to combine, for all
plants, the generic name with the specific epithet.’ It is important to remember
that in a logical sense the ‘name’ of a species consists, as Linnzus himself insisted,
in the combination, not in the specific epithet, which is a mere fragment of the name,
and meaningless when taken by itself. 4 Nature, xivii. 54.

846 REPORT—1895.

are equally competent to the task. But this is so far from being the case that it is
sometimes all but impossible even to guess what could possibly have been meant.

In 1872 Sir Joseph Hooker? wrote : ‘ The number of species described by authors
who cannot determine their affinities increases annually, and I regard the naturalist
who puts a described plant into its proper position in regard to its allies as render-
ing a greater service to science than its describer when he either puts it into
a wrong place or throws it into any of those chaotic heaps, miscalled genera, with
which systematic works still abound.’ This has always seemed to me not merely
sound sense, but a scientific way of treating the matter. What we want in
nomenclature is the maximum amount of stability and the minimum amount of
change compatible with progress in perfecting our taxonomic system. Nomencla-
ture is a means, not an end. There are perhaps 150,000 species of flowering plants
in existence. What we want to do is to push on the task of getting them named
and described in an intelligible manner, and their affinities determined as correctly
as possible. We shall then have material for dealing with the larger problems
which the vegetation of our globe will present when treated as a whole. To me
the botanists who waste their time over priority are like boys who, when sent on
an errand, spend their time in playing by the roadside. By such men even
Linneus is not to be allowed to decide his own names. To one of the most
- splendid ornaments of our gardens he gave the name of Magnolia grandiflora :
this is now to be known as Magnolia fetida. The reformer himself is constrained
to admit, ‘The change is a most unfortunate one in every way.’* It is diffi-
cult to see what is gained by making it, except to render systematic botany
ridiculous. The genus Aspidium, known to every fern-cultivator, was founded by
Swartz. It now contains some 400 species, of which the vast majority were of
course unknown to him at the time; yet the names of all these are to be changed
because Adanson founded a genus, Dryopteris, which seems to be the same thing
as Aspidium. What, it may be asked, is gained by the change? ‘To science
it is certainly nothing. On the other hand, we lumber our books with a mass
of synonyms, and perplex everyone who takes an interest in ferns. It appears that
the name of the well-known Australian genus Banksra really belongs to Pimelea ;
the species are therefore to be renamed, and Banksia is to be rechristened
Strmuellera, after Sir Ferdinand von Mueller ; a proposal which, I need hardly say,
did not emanate from an Englishman.

I will not multiply instances. But the worst of it is that those who have
carefully studied the subject know that, from various causes which I cannot
afford the time to discuss, when once it is attempted to disturb accepted nomen-
clature, it is almost impossible to reach finality. Many genera only exist by virtue
of their redefinition in modern times; in the form in which they were originally
promulgated they have hardly any intelligible meaning at all.

It can hardly be doubted that one cause of the want of attention which
systematic botany now receives is the repulsive labour of the bibliographical work
with which it has been overlaid. What an enormous bulk nomenclature has
already attained may be judged from the Index Kewensis, which was prepared at
Kew, and which we owe to the munificence of Mr. Darwin. In hisown studies he
constantly came on the track of names which he was unable to run down to their
source. This the Index enables to be done. It is based, in fact, on a manuscript
index which we compiled for our own use at Kew. But it is a mistake to suppose
that it is anything more than the name signifies, or that it expresses any opinion
as to the validity of the names themselves. That those who use the book must
judge of for themselves. We have indexed existing names, but we have not added
to the burden by making any new ones for species already described.

What synonymy has now come to may be judged by an example supplied me
by my friend Mr. C. B. Clarke. For a single species of Fimbristylis he finds 135

1 Darwin, who always seems to me, almost instinctively, to take the right view in
matters relating to natural history, is (Life, vol. i. p. 364) dead against the new
‘practice of naturalists appending for perpetuity the name of the jirst describer to
species. He is equally against the priority craze:—‘I cannot yet bring myself to
reject very well-known names’ (ibid., p. 369).

2 Flora of British India, i. vii. 3 Garden and Forest, ii, 615,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 847

‘published names under six genera. If we go on in this way we shall have to
‘invent a new Linnzeus, wipe out the past, and begin all over again.

Although I have brought the matter before the Section, it is not one in which
this, or indeed any collective assembly of botanists, can do very much. While I
hope I shall carry your assent with the general principles I have laid down, it must
be admitted that the technical details can only be appreciated by experienced
specialists. All that can be hoped is a general agreement amongst the staffs of the
principal institutions in different countries where systematic botany is worked at ;
the free-lances must be left to do as they like.

PUBLICATIONS.

I have dwelt at such length on certain aspects of my subject that perhaps,
without great injustice, you may retort on me the complaint of one-sidedness.
But when I survey the larger field of botany in this country, the prospect
seems to me so vast that I should despair even if I had my whole address
at my disposal of doing it justice. Ithink that its extent is measured by the way in
which the publications belonging to our subject are maintained. First of all,
we have access to the Royal Society, a privilege of which I hope we shall
always continue to take advantage for communications which either treat of
fandamental subjects, or at least are of general interest to biologists. Next to
this we have our ancient Linnean Society, with a branch of its publications hand-
somely and efficiently devoted to systematic work. Then we have the ‘ Annals of
Botany,’ which has now, I think, established its position, and which brings together
the chief morphological and physiological work accomplished in the country. Lastly,
we have the ‘Journal of Botany,’ a less ambitious but useful periodical, which is
mainly devoted to the labours of British botanists. I remember there was a time
when I thought that this, at any rate, was an exhausted field. But it is not so;
knowledge in its most limited aspects is inexhaustible if the labourer have the
necessary insight. The discoveries of Mr. Arthur Bennett amongst the potamogetons
of the Eastern Counties is a striking and brilliant instance.

Besides the publication of the ‘ Annals’ we owe to the Oxford Press a splendid
series of the best foreign text-books issued in our own language. If the thought
has sometimes occurred to one’s mind that we were borrowers too freely from our
indefatigable neighbours, I, at least, remember that the late Professor Eichler
paid us the compliment of saying that he preferred to read one of these monumental
books in the English translation rather than in the original. I believe it is no
secret that botany owes the aid that Oxford has rendered it in these and
other matters in great measure to my old friend the Master of Pembroke College,
than whom I believe science has no more devoted supporter.

PALZXOBOTANY.

Ihave said much of recent botany; I must not pass over that of past ages.
Two notable workers in this field have passed away since our last meeting.
Saporta was with us at Manchester, and we shall not: readily forget his personal
charm. If some of his work has about it a too imaginative character, the
patience and entire sincerity with which he traced the origin of the existing forms
of vegetation in Southern Europe to their ancestors in the not distant geological
past will always deserve attentive study. But in the venerable, yet always youth-
ful, Williamson we lose a figure whose memory we shall long preserve. With
rare instinct he accumulated a wealth of material illustrative of the vegetation of
the Carboniferous epoch, which, I suppose, is unique in the world. And this was
prepared for examination with incomparable patience either by his own hands or
under his own eyes. He illustrated it with absolute fidelity. And if he did not
in describing it always use language with which we could agree, nothing could
ruffle either his imperturbable good nature or the noble simplicity of his character.
Truth to tell, we were often in friendly warfare with him. But I rejoice to think
that before his peaceful end came he had patiently reconsidered and abandoned all
that we regarded as his heresies, but which were, in truth, only the old manner of

848 REPORT—1895.

looking at things. And J think that if anything could have contributed to make his
departure happy, it was the conviction that the completion of his work and his
scientific reputation would remain perfectly secure in the hands of Dr. Scott.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

Turning again to the present, the difficulty is to limit the choice of topics
on which I would willingly dwell. In an address which I delivered at the Bath
meeting in 1888 I ventured to point out the important part which the action of
‘enzymes would be found to play in plant metabolism. My expectations have
been more than realised by the admirable work of Professor Green on the one
hand, and of Mr. Horace Brown on the other. The wildest imagination could not
have foreseen the developments which in the hands of animal physiologists would
‘spring from the study of the fermentative changes produced by yeast and bacteria.
These, it seems to me, bid fair to revolutionise our whole conceptions of disease.
The reciprocal action of ferments, developed in so admirable a manner by Marshall
Ward in the case of the ginger-beer plant, is destined, I am convinced, to an expan-
sion scarcely less important.

But, perhaps, the most noteworthy feature in recent work is the disposition to
reopen in every direction fundamental questions. And here, I think, we may take
a useful lesson from the practice of the older Sections, and adopt the plan of entrust-
ing the investigation of special problems to small committees, or to individuals who
are willing to undertake the labour of reporting upon special questions which they
have made peculiarly their own. These reports would be printed zm eatenso, and
are capable of rendering invaluable service by making accessible acquired know-
ledge which could not be got at in any other way.

We owe to Mr. Blackman a masterly demonstration of the fact, long believed,
but never, perhaps, properly proved, that the surface of plants is ordinarily imper-
meable to gases. Mr. Dixon has brought forward some new views about water-
movement in plants, which I confess I found less instructive than many of my
brother botanists. They are expressed in language of extreme technicality; but,
as far as I understand them, they amount to this, The water moving in the plant
is contained in capillary channels; as it evaporates at the surface of the leaves a
tensile strain is set up, as long as the columns are not broken, to restore the original
level. I can understand that in this way the ‘transpiration current’ may be
maintained. But what I want to know is how this explains the phenomena in the
sugar maple, a single tree of which will yield, I believe, 20-30 gallons of fluid
before a single leaf is expanded.

We owe to Messrs. Darwin and Acton the supply of a ‘ Manual of Practical
Vegetable Physiology,’ the want of which has long been keenly felt. Like the
father of one of the authors, ‘I love to exalt plants’ (i. 98). I have long been
satisfied that the facts of vegetable physiology are capable of being widely taught,
and are not less significant and infinitely more convenient than most of those
which can be easily demonstrated on the animal side. How little any accurate
knowledge of the subject has extended was conspicuously demonstrated in a recent
discussion at the Royal Society, when two of our foremost chemists roundly denied
the existence of a function of respiration in plants, because it was unknown to
Liebig !

ASSIMILATION.

The greatest and most fundamental problem of all is that of assimilation. The
‘very existence of life upon the earth ultimately depends upon it. The veil is
‘slowly, but I think surely, being lifted from its secrets. We now know that
starch, if its first visible product, is not its first result. We are pretty well agreed
that this is what I have called a ‘proto-carbohydrate.’ How is the synthesis of
this effected? Mr. Acton, whose untimely end we cannot but deeply deplore,
made some remarkable researches, which were communicated to the Royal Society
‘in 1889, on the extent to which plants could take advantage of organic compounds
made, so to speak, ready to their hand. Loew, in a remarkable paper, which will
perhaps attract less attention than it deserves from being published in Japan,’ has,

1 Bull. College of Agric. Imp. Univ. Tokio, vol. ii.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 849

from the study of the nutrition of bacteria, arrived at some general conclusions in
the same direction. Bokorny appears recently to have similarly experimented on
alge. Neither writer, however, seems to have been acquainted with Acton’s work.
The general conclusion which I draw from Loew is to strengthen the belief that
form-aldehyde is actually one of the first steps of organic synthesis, as long ago
suggested by Adolph Baeyer. Plants, then, will avail themselves of ready-made
organic compounds which will yield them this body. That a sugar can be con-
structed from it has long been known, and Bokorny has shown that this can be
utilised by plants in the production of starch.

The precise mode of the formation of form-aldehyde in the process of assimi-
lation is a matter of dispute. But it is quite clear that either the carbon dioxide
or the water, which are the materials from which it is formed, must suffer dissocia-
tion. And this requires a supply of energy to accomplish it. Warington has
drawn attention to the striking fact that in the case of the nitrifying bacterium,
assimilation may go on without the intervention of chlorophyll, the energy being
supplied by the oxidation of ammonia. This brings us down to the fact, which has
long been suspected, that protoplasm is at the bottom of the whole business, and
that chlorophyll only plays some subsidiary and indirect part, perhaps, as Adolph
Baeyer long ago suggested, of temporarily fixing carbon oxide like hemoglobin, and
so facilitating the dissociation.

Chlorophyll itself is still the subject of the careful study by Dr. Schunck,
originally commenced by him some years ago at Kew. This will, I hope, give us
eventually an accurate insight into the chemical constitution of this important
substance.

The steps in plant metabolism which follow the synthesis of the proto-carbo-
hydrate are still obscure. Brown and Morris have arrived at the unexpected con-
clusion that ‘cane-sugar is the first sugar to be synthesised by the assimilatory
processes. I made some remarks upon this at the time,! which I may be
permitted to reproduce here.

‘The point of view arrived at by botanists was briefly stated by Sachs in the
case of the sugar-beet, starch in the leaf, glucose in the petiole, cane-sugar in the
root. The facts in the sugar-cane seem to be strictly comparable.? Cane-sugar
the botanist looks on, therefore, as a “reserve material.” We may call “e¢lucose ”
the sugar “ currency” of the plant, cane-sugar its “ banking reserve.”

‘The immediate result of the diastatic transformation of starch is not glucose,
but maltose. But Mr. Horace Brown has shown in his remarkable experiments
on feeding barley embryos that, while they can readily convert maltose into cane-
sugar, they altogether fail to do this with glucose. We may conclude, therefore,
that glucose is, from the point of view of vegetable nutrition, a somewhat inert
body. On the other hand, evidence is apparently wanting that maltose plays the
part in vegetable metabolism that might be expected of it. Its conversion into
glucose may be perhaps accounted for by the constant presence in plant tissues of
vegetable acids. But, so far, the change would seem to be positively disadvan-
tageous. Perhaps glucose, in the botanical sense, will prove to have a not very
exact chemical connotation.

‘That the connection between cane-sugar and starch is intimate is a conclusion
to which both the chemical and the botanical evidence seems to point. And on
botanical grounds this would seem to be equally true of its connection with
cellulose.

‘It must be confessed that the conclusion that “ cane-sugar” is the first sugar to
be synthesised by the assimilatory processes seems hard to reconcile with its
probable high chemical complexity, and with the fact that, botanically, it seems
to stand at the end and not at the beginning of the series of metabolic change.’

PROTOPLASMIC CHEMISTRY.

The synthesis of proteids is the problem which is second only in importance to
that of carbohydrates. Loew’s views of this deserve attentive study. Asparagin,
as has long been suspected, plays an important part. It has, he says, two sources

' Journ. Chem. Soc., 1893, 673. ? Kew Bulletin, 1891, 35-41.
1895, 31

850 REPORT—1895.

in the plant. ‘It may either be formed directly from glucose, ammonia (or nitrates)
and sulphates, or it may bea transitory product between protein-decomposition and
reconstruction from the fragments.’ *

In the remarks I made to the Chemical Society I ventured to express my con-
viction that the chemical processes which took place under the influence of proto-
plasm were probably of adifferent kind from those with which the chemist is ordinarily
occupied. ‘The plant produces a profusion of substances, apparently with great
facility, which the chemist can only build up in the most circuitous way. As
Victor Meyer” has remarked: ‘In order to isolate an organic substance we are
generally confined to the purely accidental properties of crystallisation and volatili-
sation.’ In other words, the chemist only deals with bodies of great molecular
stability ; while it cannot be doubted that those which play a part in the processes
of life are the very opposite in every respect. I am convinced that if the chemist
is to help in the field of protoplasmic activity, he will have to transcend his
present limitations, and be prepared to admit that as there may be more than one
algebra, there may be more than one chemistry. I am glad to see that a somewhat
similar idea has been suggested by other fields of inquiry. Professor Meldola*
thinks that the investigation of photochemical processes ‘ may lead to the recog-
nition of a new order of chemical attraction, or of the old chemical attraction in
a different degree.’ I am delighted to see that the ideas which were floating,
I confess, in a very nebulous form in my brain are being clothed with greater
precision by Loew.

In the paper which I have already quoted, he says of proteids:* ‘They are
eaceedingly labil compounds that can be easily converted into relatively stable ones.
A great lability is the indispensable and necessary foundation for the production
of the various actions of the living protoplasm, for the mode of motions that move
the life-machinery. There is a source of motion in the labil position of atoms in
molecules, a source that has hitherto not been taken into consideration either by
chemists or by physicists.’

But I must say no more. The problems to which I might invite attention on
an occasion like this are endless. I have not even attempted to do justice to the
work that has been accomplished amongst ourselves, full of interest and novelty
as it is. But I will venture to say this, that if capacity and earnestness afford an
augury of success, the prospects of the future of our Section possess every element
of promise.

The following Papers were read :—
1. On a False Bacterium. By Professor MarsHatt Warp, J.2.8.

The author has isolated from the Thames a form which gives all the ordinary
reactions of a bacterium in plate-cultures and tube-cultures in gelatine, agar, potato,
broth, milk, &c.

It is a rod-like form, 1 » thick, and up to 2-4 » long, stains like a bacillus,
and cannot be distinguished from a true Schizomycete by the methods in common
use.

On cultivating it under high powers—one-twelfth and one-twentieth oil im-
mersions—from the single cell, however, it is found to form small, shortly branched
mycelia the growth and segmentation of which areacropetal. This turns out to be
a minute oidial form of a true fungus.

Its true nature can only be ascertained by the isolation and culture through all
stages from the single cell, according to the original methods of gelatine cultures
of Klebs, Brefeld, and De Bary which preceded and suggested the methods em-
ployed by bacteriologists; and the facts discovered raise interesting questions as to
the character of alleged ‘branching’ bacteria on the one hand, and the multiple
derivation of the heterogeneous group of micro-organisms, termed bacteria in general
on the other.

1 Loe. cit., 64, ? Pharm. Jown., 1890, 773.
Nature, xiii, 250 . Loc. cit., 13,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 851

2. On the Archesporiwm. By Professor F. O. Bower, 7.B.S.

Professor Bower pointed out that the recognition of the archesporium as con-
sistently of hypodermal origin cannot be upheld, and quoted as exceptions
Equisetum, Isoetes, Ophioglossum, and especially the leptosporangiate ferns. He
laid down the general principle that the sporangia, as regards their development,
should be studied in the light of a knowledge of the apical meristems of the plants
in question, Where the apical meristems are stratified, the archesporium is hypo-
dermal in the usual sense; where initial cells occur, the archesporium is derived by
periclinal divisions of superficial cells. Intermediate types of meristem show an
intermediate type of origin of the archesporium! He cited as an illustrative case
that of Ophioglossum, admitting that the hypodermal band of potential arche-
sporium, which he had previously described, does not occur always or in all
species. But so far from thus giving up the case for a comparison with Lyco-
podium, he holds that as Ophioglossum has a single initial cell in stem and root, it
would be contrary to experience to expect or demand a hypodermal archesporium,

3. Wote on the Occurrence in New Zealand of two forms of Peltoid) Trente-

pohliacee, and their relation to the Lichen Strigula. By A. VaucHan
Jennines, F.L.S., F.G.S8.

The Trentepohliaceze which form epiphyllous cell-plates are at present known
only from the tropics (with the exception of two imperfectly developed forms in
the northern temperate zone). ‘They have been recorded from S. America (Bornet),
India and Ceylon (the Mycoidea parasitica of Cunningham and Marshall
Ward), and the East Indies (Karsten), but not up to the present time from New
Zealand.

The present paper gives a summary of previous literature, and describes two
forms found by the writer in New Zealand.

(1) Phycopeltis expansa (new species).—This species forms wide-spreading
yellow cell-plates on the leaves of Nesodaphne in the North Island (Rotorua), and
in the South Island (near Picton). Sporangia of two kinds: (a) enlarged cells of
the disc ; (6) borne singly on a hooked pedicel supported on a single basal cell.
The plant is often associated with brown fungus hyphz growing between the cell-
rows, but not affecting the growth of the alga. On the other hand, when attacked
by different hyphe, the result is the formation of the lichen Strigula, which in
coe was shown by Ward to have for its algal element the Mycovdea parasitica,

unn.

(2) Phycopeltis nigra (new species).—The second form is found also on leaves
of Nesodaphne with the Phycopeltis above described, and alone on fronds of
Asplenium falcatum. Sporangia in the disc are present, but no trace of sporangia
on pedicels is observed.

The plant always forms narrow, radiating, and branching bands, never circular
discs: the margins often irregular and tending to break into filaments.

There are two distinct varieties :—(a) a comparatively large-celled form with
barren hairs well developed ; (5) a small-celled type entirely devoid of hairs.

The most remarkable feature, however, is the colour. On the leaf the plant
appears perfectly black, and by transmitted light has the olive-green colour cha-
racteristic of many fungi, quite different from any of the ordinary Trentepoblias.
The plant is never attacked by fungus hyphe, and never takes any part in lichen
formation, even when on the same leaf with Phycopeltis evpansa and the
associated Strigula.

? Term used for those which form cell-plates (type Phycopeltis), as distinguished
from cell-filaments (Trentepoblia).

852 REPORT—1895.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Experimental Studies in the Variation of Yeast Cells.
By Dr. Emit Cur. Hansen, Copenhagen.

The author gave an account of his earlier and more recent investigations.
Among the latter he especially dwelt on those in which, by one treatment, varieties.
were produced that gave more, and by another treatment less, alcohol than their
parent cells. He pointed out that the observed variations could be grouped under
certain rules. From his researches on the agencies and causes to which variation
is due, he found that temperature was the most influential external factor."

2. Ona New Form of Fructification in Sphenophyllum.
By Graf Soums-Lavusacu, Strassburg.

Graf Solms gave a brief sketch of the history of our knowledge of the fructifi-
cation of the Carboniferous genus Sphenophyllum. He described the type of
strobilus originally named by Williamson Volkmannia Dawsoni, and subsequently
placed by Weiss in the genus Bowmanites; this fructification has recently been
shown by Williamson and Zeiller to belong to Sphenophyllum. The author pro-
ceeded to give an account of a new form of strobilus recently obtained from rocks
of Culm age in Silesia; this shows certain important deviations from the fructifi-
cations previously examined. In the Sphenophylium strobili from the Coal-
measures the axis bears successive verticils of coherent bracts, the sporangia are
borne singly at the end of long pedicils twice as numerous as the bracts, and
arising from the upper surface of the coherent disc near the axil. In the Culm
species, Sphenophyllum Romeri, sp. nov., the bracts of successive whorls are super-
posed and not alternate, as described by other writers, in the Coal-measure species ;
a more important feature of the new form is the occurrence of two sporangia
instead of one in each sporangiophore or pedicil.

Graf Solms referred to the unique collection of microscopic preparations of
fossil plants left by Professor Williamson ; he emphasised in the strongest terms
the immense importance of the collection, and pointed out how every worker in
the field of Paleozoic botany must constantly consult the invaluable type specimens:
in the Williamson cabinets.

3. The Chief Results of Williamson’s Work on the Carboniferous Plants.
By Dr. D. H. Scorr, F.2B.8.

The origin and history of the late Professor Williamson’s researches on the
Carboniferous flora were briefly traced. His great work, chiefly, though not
entirely, contained in his long series of memoirs in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’
of the Royal Society, consisted in thoroughly elucidating the structure of British
fossil plants of the coal period, and thus determining, on a sound basis, the main
lines of their affinities.

Four of the principal types investigated by Williamson were selected for illus-
tration—the Calamariee, the Sphenophyllee, the Lyginodendree, and the Lycopo-
diacee.

(1) The Calamariee.—Williamson’s great aim, which he kept in view all
through, was to demonstrate the essential unity of type of the British Calamites,
Ze. that they are all Cryptogams, of equisetaceous affinities (though sometimes
heterosporous), both possessing precisely the same mode of growth in thickness by
means of a cambium, which is now characteristic of Dicotyledons and Gymnosperms.

1 For a fuller account of Dr. Hansen’s work, see the Annals of Botany, 1895.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 853

His researches have given us a fairly complete knowledge of the organisation of
these arborescent Horse-tails.

(2) The Sphenophyllee, « remarkable group of vascular Cryptogams, unrepre-
sented among living plants, but having certain characters in common both with
Lycopodiacee and Equisetacee, are now very thoroughly known, owing, in a great
degree, to Williamson's investigations. The discovery of the structure of the
fructification, absolutely unique among Cryptogams, was in the first instance
entirely his own. :

(8) The Lyginodendree.—The existence of this family, which consists of plants
with the foliage of ferns, but with stems and roots which recall those of Cycads,
was revealed by Williamson. This appears to be the most striking case of an
intermediate group yet found among fossil plants.

(4) The Lycopodiacee.—Williamson added enormously to our knowledge of
this great family, and proved conclusively that Sigillaria and Lepidodendron are
essentially similar in structure, both genera, as well as their allies, being true
Lycopodiaceous Cryptogams, but with secondary growth in almost all cases. He

«demonstrated the relation between the vegetative organs and the fructification in
many of these plants, and by his researches on Stigmaria, made known the
structure of their subterranean parts. The different types of Lepzdodendron, of
which he investigated the structure, were so numerous as to place our knowledge
of these plants on a broad and secure foundation. The paper was illustrated by
lJantern-slides, partly from Williamson’s figures, and partly original.

4. The Localisation, the Transport, and Réle of Hydrocyanic Acid in
Pangium edule, Reinw. By Dr. T. M. Trevus, Burtenzorg, Java.

Five years ago Dr. Greshoff made the remarkable discovery that the poisonous
substance contained in great quantities in all the parts of Pangiwm edule, was
nothing else than hydrocyanic acid. This interesting chemical discovery was the
starting-point of Dr. Treub’s physiological investigations. In microchemical re-
searches hydrocyanic acid presents a great advantage, as compared with the great
majority of substances to be detected in tissues by reagents; namely, that the
Prussian blue reaction, easily applicable in microchemical research, gives completely
trustworthy results. The appearance of Prussian blue in a cell may be accepted as
‘certain proof of the previous occurrence in the cell of hydrocyanic acid, no other
substance producing the same reaction. The leaves prove to be the chief factories
of hydrocyanic acid in Pangiwm, though there are other much smaller local factories
of this substance in the tissues of other organs. The hydrocyanic acid formed in
the leaves is conducted through the leaf-stalks to the stem, and distributed to the
‘spots where plastic material is wanted. The acid travels in the phloem of the
fibro-vascular bundles. Dr. Treub regards the hydrocyanic acid in Pangium edule
as one of the first plastic materials for building up proteids; he thinks it is, in this
plant, the first detectable, and perhaps the first formed product of the assimilation
of inorganic nitrogen. In accordance with this hypothesis, the formation of hydro-
cyanic acid in Pangium depends, on the one hand, on the presence of carbo-hydrates
or analogous products of he carbon-assimilation, and, on the other hand, on the
pea of nitrates. These two points were proved, or at least rendered probable,

y a great number of experiments made by Dr. Treub in the Buitenzorg Gardens.
(The details of this investigation will be found in a paper published in the ‘ Annales
de jardin botanique de Buitenzorg’).

5. Exhibition of Models illustrating Karyokinesis.
By Professor J. BReTLAND FARMER.

Professor Farmer described a set of wax models illustrating the typical forms
passed through, and the chief variations exhibited by, the chromosomes during the

©

854: REPORT—1895.

division of the nucleus in the spore-mother cells of plants. The wax employed is
made of a mixture of one part of white wax, with five parts of paraflin, the melt-
ing point of which is about 50° C.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER, 14.
The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

A joint discussion with Section B was held on the Relation of Agriculture to
Science. See p. 660.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Destruction of a Cedar Tree at Kew by Lightning.
By W. T. Tuiserton-Dyer, 7.2.8.

The President of the Section exhibited photographs and specimens of a large
cedar (Cedrus Deodara, Loud.) from Kew, which had been struck and completely
shattered by lightning on August 10. It was pointed out that the main stem had
been in part blown into matchwood by the violence of the shock, and branches
were torn off with large portions of the trunk adhering to their base. The explo-
sion seemed to have been centrifugal, the stem having been disrupted from the
centre, and not merely stripped superficially. -

2. On the Formation of Bacterial Colonies.
By Professor MarsHatt Warp, /.2.S.

The author has examined the details of development of the colony in numerous
species from a single spore by employing microscopic plate-cultures, which can be
kept under observation with a one-twelfth and even a one-twentieth oil-immer-
sion lens, or by making pure Alatschprdparate on cover-slips covered with a thin
film of gelatine.

He finds many factors of impcrtance affecting the form, extent, rapidity of
growth, and other characters of colonies ; the elasticity of the gelatine, the presence
of moist films on the surface of the gelatine, the rate of (slight) liquefaction, &c.,
all being of importance in explaining the shapes, &c., of submerged colonies—‘ whet-
stone shaped,’ moruloid, spherical, or lobed colonies—the mode of emergence and
spreading over the surface of the gelatine, the formation of radiating fringes, irides-
cent plates, &c.

Exposure to light during the development of liquefying colonies may pro-
foundly affect their shape and other properties, a phenomenon closely connected
with the retardation of liquefaction and growth. Pigment bacteria may give rise
to perfectly colourless races when cultivated under certain conditions, and the colour
restored by again changing the conditions; a fact which the author has not only
confirmed with red forms, but which he shows to be true of a violet bacillus.
Species commonly described as non-motile show active movements under certain
conditions, and the sizes of bacteria are not constant in different regions of one
and the same colony. Details have been worked out for series of types the ex-
tremes of which differ considerably in liquefying power, and essential difference
ee appearance of a colony may depend on the amount of liquefying power

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 855:

Some curious cases of travelling films, the lobes and contorted tresses of which
move like amcebe over the surface of the gelatine, were also examined.

The facts point to (1) differences in colonies even of one species may depend on
much more subtle differences in cultures than are usually recognised ; (2) varietal
differences may occur in two bacilli of the same species (isolated from a river),'due
to the different vicissitudes the two individuals have been subjected to during their
sojourn in the water; (3) the difficulties met with in diagnosing ‘ species’ of
bacteria with the aid of works of known authority are partly due to varieties of
the same species being recorded by different observers under different names, and
the author thinks some more consistent prearranged plan of working out the
characters of such forms should be developed by bacteriologists than at present
exists.

3. On a Supposed Case of Symbiosis in Tetraplodon.
By Professor F, E. WEtss.

The author exhibited specimens of TZetraplodon from the Cuchullin Hills in
Skye, where it was found plentifully on animal excreta. In September he found
many of the patches mixed with an orange-coloured Peziza, which did not appear
to have in any way injured the moss plants. The rhizoids of the moss, however,
contained in many cases fungal hyphe closely resembling those of the Peziza, and
though present in the cells of the moss these latter did not seem to be injured by
them. He suggested that this might be a case of symbiosis; the moss, as in the
case of other green plants, making use of the fungal hyphe to obtain its nutriment
from the organic material. The ultimate proof of such a case of symbiosis would,
however, necessarily depend upon culture experiments, which he understood were
now being made by another observer.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On Amber. By Dr. Conwentz, Danzig.

The author of this paper gave an account of the Baltic and English amber, and
their vegetable contents. After describing the different forms of Tertiary amber,
he referred to the occurrence of succinite on the coasts of Essex, Suffolk, and Nor-
folk ; the specimens are usually found with seaweed, thrown up by the tides.
Occasionally pieces have been met with weighing over two pounds. Dr. Conwentz
described the method of examining the plant fragments enclosed in amber, and
compared the manner of preservation with that of recent plant sections mounted in
Canada balsam. The amber was originally poured out from the roots, stems, and
branches of injured or broken trees, in the form of resin, which on evaporation be-
came thickened, and finally assumed the form of succinite or some similar sub-
stance. For the most part the fossil resin was derived from the stems and roots of
coniferous trees of the genus Pinus. In addition to the exceptionally well-preserved
tissues of coniferous trees, the Baltic amber has yielded remarkable specimens of
monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous flowers. Some of the most striking examples
were illustrated by means of the excellent coloured plates from Dr. Conwentz’s
monograph on the Baltic amber."

1 Monographie der baltischen Berneteinbéume. Danzig, 1890

856 REPORT—1895'

2. The Wealden Flora of England. By A. C. Szwarp.

Mr. A. C. Seward, after referring to the various species described by Mantell,
Carruthers, Starkie Gardner, and others, from the Wealden strata of England,
briefly described a large number of plants from the British Museum collection.
During the last few years Mr. Rufford, of Hastings, has obtained an extremely
valuable and rich collection of plants from Ecclesbourne, Fairlight, and other
localities; and these have now become the property of the nation. The following
species are at present known from the Wealden of England; some of these have
already been figured in the first volume of the catalogue of the Wealden flora, and
the remainder are dealt with in the forthcoming second volume:—Algites valdensis,
sp. nov., A. catenelloides, sp. nov., Chara Knowltont, sp. nov., Marchantites Zeilleri,
sp. nov., Lquisetites Lyelh, Mant., L. Burchardti, Dunk., E. Yokoyama, sp. nov.,
Onychiopsis Mantelli (Brong.), O. elongata (Geyl.), Acrostichopteris Ruffordt, sp.
nov., Matonidium Gépperti (Ett.), Protopteris Witteana, Schenk., Ruffordia
Gépperti (Dunk.), Cladophlebis longipennis, sp. nov., C. Albertsit (Dunk.), C. Brow-
niana (Dunk.), C. Dunkes? (Schimp.), Sphenopteris Fontaine?, sp. nov., S. Fitton,
sp. noy., Werchselia Mante:li (Brong.), Teniopteris Beyrichii (Schenk.), T. Dawsont,
sp. noy., Sagenopterts Mantelli (Dunk.), S. acuttfolia, sp. nov., Microdictyon Dunkeri,
Schenk., Dictyophyllum Rémeri, Schenk., Leckenbya valdensis, gen. et sp. nov.,
Tempskya Schimperi, Cord., Cycadites Rémeri, Schenk., C. Saporte, sp. nov.,
Dionites Dunkerianus (Gopp.), D. Brongniarti (Mant.), Nilssonia Schaumburgensis
(Dunk.), Otozamites Klipsteinet (Dunk.), O. Géppertianus (Dunk.), Zamites Buchi-
anus (Ett.), Zamites Carruthersi, sp. nov., Anomozamites Lyellianus (Dunk.), Cy-
cadolepis, Carpolithes, Androstrobus Nathorsti, sp. nov., Conites elegans (Carr.),
C. armatus, sp. nov., Bucklandia anomala (Stokes and Webb), Fittoma Ruffordi,
sp. nov., Bennettites Sarbyanus (Brown), B. Gibsonianus, Carr., B. (Williamsonia)
Carrutherst, sp. nov., Yatesia Morrisi, Carr., Withamia Saporte, gen. et sp. noy.,
Beckleria anomaila, gen. et sp. nov., Dichopteris, sp., Sphenolepidium Kurrianum
(Schenk.), S. Sternberyianum (Dunk.), Pagiophyllum crassifolium, Schenk., Brachy-
phyllum obesum (Heer), B. spinoswm, sp. nov., Pinites Solmst, sp. nov., P. Dunkert
(Carr.), P. Mantelli (Carr.), P. patens (Carr.), P. Carruthersi (Gard.), &c.

3. On the Diwrnal Variation in the Amownt of Diastase in Foliage
Leaves. By Professor J. ReyNotps GREEN, /.R.S.

The diastase which is present in foliage leaves varies in amount during the day,
being greatest in the early morning, and least after sunset. The variation has
been ascertained to be chiefly, if not entirely, due to the action of the sunlight.
The author showed last year, at the Oxford meeting, that diastatic extracts exposed
to sunlight or electric light, without the interposition of any form of screen, had
their activity largely impaired, the damage amounting sometimes to 70 per cent.
ixperiments made upon the living leat of a scarlet-runner showed a similar
destructive action of the light, the amount of destruction only amounting, how-
ever, to about 10 to 20 percent. The author attributes the difference to the
screening action of the proteids in the cells of the leaf.

4. On the Structure of Bacterial Cells. By Harotp WaGER.

In this paper an account was given of the present state of our knowledge of the
cells of bacteria. Reference was made to the observations of Schottelius, Migula,
De Bary, Biitschli, and others. The author showed that it is possible to demon-
strate in the majority of bacterial cells the presence of two substances, one of which
may be regarded as protoplasmic in nature, and a second which stains deeply
when acted upon by fuchsin and kindred staining substances, and which may be
regarded as nuclear. It was pointed out that this nuclear substance does not
possess the structure of nuclei in the cells of higher plants.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 857

5. On the Prothallus and Embryo of Danza. By G. BREBNER.

Mr. Brebner gave an account of the prothallus and sexual organs of Danza
simplicifolia, Rudge, as the result of investigations made on some material from
the Botanic Gardens in British Guiana. He pointed out that there is a close
similarity between Danza and the other two genera of the Marattiacee, An-
geopteris and Marattia,of which the prothallus has been previously described.
An interesting fact was noted as regards the prothallus rhizoids, which possess a
distinctly septate structure, and so far resemble a moss protonema. Possibly
umilar septate rhizoids may be found in the other marattiaceous genera. The
development of the antheridia of Danza agrees in the main with that in Marattia
and Angiopteris: the material did not allow of any developmental study of the
archegonia. The concentric bundle of the primary embryonic stem shows an
endodermal layer. On the whole the author found in Danea a complete agree-
ment, in all essential features, with Angiopteris and Marattia, as regards prothallus,
reproductive organs, and embryo development.

6. On Cross and Self Fertilisation, with special reference to
Pollen Prepotency. By J. C. Wiis.

The time has passed for regarding self-fertilisation as being always necessarily
harmful in itself, and it is now recognised as a regular feature in the life-history of
many plants. There exist many cases of plants in which both self and cross polli-
nation occur nearly, or quite, simultaneously, and it is very desirable to know what
happens in these cases. Darwin's experiments render it probable that prepotency
of foreign pollen is usual. The author’s experiments have been devoted to a study
of the relative chemical attraction of ‘own’ and ‘foreign’ pollen by the same
stigma (chiefly in gelatine and agar cultures), and have given negative results. It
seems probable, putting together all the various known facts, that prepotency,
where it occurs, is due to actions set up after the pollen tubes have entered the
stigma, these actions tending to favour the growth of the ‘foreign’ pollen-tubes,
and to check that of the ‘own’ pollen.

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END Bik.

References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italics.
An Asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given.
The mark + indicates the same, but a reference is given to the Journal or Newspaper

mhere the paper is published in extenso.

BJECTS and rules of the Association,
XXVIl.

List of Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and
Local Secretaries, 1831-1895, xxxvili.
List of Trustees and General Officers,

1831-1895, 1.
List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of Sections, li.
List of evening lectures from 1842, lxix.
Lectures to the Operative Classes, lxxii.
Officers of Sections present at Ipswich,
lxxiii.
Officers and Council for 1895-96, Ixxv.
Treasurer’s account, Ixxvi.

Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, Ixxvii.
Report of the Council to the General

Committee at Ipswich, lxxx.
Resolutions passed by the
Committee at Ipswich :

(1) Committees receiving grants of
money, |xxxiv.

(2) Committees not receiving grants
of money, Ixxxix.

(3) Papers ordered to be printed iz
eaxtenso, XCciii.

(4) Regulations regarding grants of
money, XCiv.

(5) Resolutions referred to the Coun-
cil for consideration, and ac-
tion if desirable, xciv.

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes, Xcv.

Places of meeting in 1896 and 1897, xevi.

General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, xcvii.

General meetings, exii.

Address by the President, Sir Douglas
Galton, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., 3.

ABBOTT (W. J. Lewis) on an ancient
hitchen midden at Hastings, and a
barrow at the Wildernesse, 500.

General

ABERCROMBY (Hon. R.) on meteoroloyical
observations on Ben Nevis, 186.

Aberdeenshire, East, Ethnographical
observations in, J. Gray on, 831.

ABNEY (Capt. W. de W.) on the best
methods of recording the direct inten-
sity of solar radiation, 81.

on the action of light upon dyed

colours, 263.

on mave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 275.

*Aboriginal inhabitants of Jamaica, a
recent discovery of, Sir W. H. Flower
on, 824.

ApAms (Prof. W. G.) on the earthquake
a volcanic phenomena of Japan, 81,
113.

on practical electrical standards,
195.

—— on the comparison and reduction of
magnetic observations, 209.

Aérial navigation, a new principle of,
Lieut. B. Baden-Powell on, 814.

Africa, the climatology of, fourth re-
port on, 480.

Agricultural districts, the telephone ser-
vice in, Maj.-Gen. Webber on the
deyelopment of, 804.

, Experimental, Stations in Suffolk
and Norfolk, T. B. Wood on, 660.

Agriculture, co-operation in the service
of, H. W. Wolff on, 780.

+——., discussion on the relation of, to
science, 660.

Hon shall agriculture best obtain
help from science? by Prof. R.
Warington, 341.

*Acriculture and science, by T.
Hendrick, 660.

*On the application of science to
agriculture, by M. J. Dunstan, 660.

——, light railways as an assistance to,
Maj.-Gen. Webber on, 793.

860

*Acriculture in Suffolk, Capt. E. G.
Pretyman on, 779.

— of Suffolk, from a tenant’s point of
view, Herman Biddell on, 779.

Air and other gases, the electrification
and diselectrification of, Lord Kelvin,
Magnus Maclean, and Alex. Galt on,
630.

—,, the respirability of, in which a
candle-flame has burnt until it is ex-
tinguished, Frank Clowes on, 658.

ALLEN (Edgar J.) on the nervous system
of the embryonic lobster, 470.

(J. Romilly) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 509.

Amber, Dr. Conwentz on, 855.

America, North, the Tertiary lacustrine
formations of, W. B. Scott on, 681.

—., tropical, the Glacial age in, R.
Blake White on, 682.

Analysis of the results from the Kew
declination and horizontal force mag-
netographs during the selected ‘quiet’
days of the five years 1890-94, 209.

Ancient watercourse, traces of an, Rev. E.
Hill on, 679.

*Andamanese, Maurice Portman on the,
833.

ANDERSON (Dr. Joseph) on an ethnogra-
phical survey of the United Kingdom,
509.

— — (Dr. Tempest) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest
in the United Kingdom, 404.

(Dr. W.) on an experiment in organ-
blowing, 796.

ANDREWS (C. W.) on the stereornithes,
a group of extinct birds from South
America, 714.

Animals in sea water, methods of col-
lecting and estimating the number of
small, H. C. Sorby on, 730.

Antarctic Sea, a voyage to the, C. E.
Borchgrevink on, 750.

Anthropology, Address by Professor
W. M. Flinders Petrie to the Section
of, 816.

Anthropometric measurements in schools,
report on, 503.

Arabia, Southern, report on the explora-
tion of, 491.

, the people of Southern, J. Theodore
Bent on the, 835.

Archesporium, Professor F. O. Bower on
the, 851.

“Arctic conditions, the struggle for
existence under, A. Trevor Battye on,
760.

—— and Paleolithic deposits at Hoxne,
H. N. Ridley and Clement Reid on, 679.

Tundras, the Samoyads of, Arthur
Montefiore on, 828.

Argon and helium, Lord Rayleigh on
the viscosity and refraction of, 609.

REPORT—1895.

Argon and other elements, Dr. J. H. Glad-
stone on specific refraction and the
periodic law with reference to, 609.

ARMSTRONG (Prof. H. E.) on the teaching
of science in elementary schools, 228.

on the investigation of isomeric

naphthalene derivatives, 272.

on the production of haloids from
pure materials, 341.

Ascidians, compound, some facts and
reflections drawn from a study of
budding in, Professor W. E. Ritter on,
Fpl

Asia, Central, Dr. A. Markoff on Russian
possessions in, 762.

Atomic theory, Dalton’s, a new view of
the genesis of, derived from original
manuscripts, Sir H. E. Roscoe and
Arthur Harden on, 656.

AUDEN (H. H.) and G. J. FOWLER on
the action of nitric oxide on some
metallic salts, 656.

Auriferous conglomerates of the Wit-
watersrand, Transvaal, F. H. Hatch on
the, 691.

*Aurora Borealis, the local origin of the,
W. H. Wood on, 626.

*AYRTON (Mrs.) on the equation con-
necting the potential difference,
current, and length of the electric arc,
634.

(Prof. W. E.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 195.

* and T. MATHER on the back
E.M.F. and true resistance of the
electric arc, 634.

*____ on a magnetic field tester, 635.
*_____ on alternating wave tracers, 638.
*_____ on the relation between speed and

voltage in electric motors, 638,

Bacterial cells, the structure of, Harold
Wager on, 856.

colonies, the formation of, Prof.

Marshall Ward on, 854.

life in river water, the conditions
affecting, Dr. E. Frankland on, 731.

Bacterium, a false, Prof. Marshall Ward
on, 850.

BADEN-POWELL (Lieut. B.) on a new
principle of aérial navigation, 814.

BAILY (Francis G.) on the hysteresis of
iron in an alternating magnetic field,
636.

BALL (the late Dr. Valentine) on the
collection of photographs of geological
interest in the United Kingdom, 404.

Banks, co-operative rural, Harold H.
Moore on, 779.

Barley plants, the chemical history of,
C. F. Cross and C. Smith on, 665. :

BARLOW (W.) on the relation between
the morphological symmetry and the
optical symmetry of crystals, 617.

INDEX.

*BARR (J. M.), W. B. BURNIE, and
Charles RODGERS on some new methods
and apparatus for the delineation of
alternate wave forms, 638.

BARRINGTON (R. M.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 473.

Barrow at the Wildernesse, Sevenoaks,
report on a remarkable, 502.

*BATTYE (A. Trevor) on the struggle for
existence under Arctic conditions,
760.

BAUERMAN (H.) on the volcanic pheno-
mena of Vesuvius and its neighbour-
hood, 351.

BEARE (Prof. T. H.) on the calibration
of instruments used in engineering
laboratories, 497.

BEDDOE (Dr. John) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 509.

BEDFORD (J. EH.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 404.

Ben Nevis, meteorological observations on,
report on, 186.

BENNETT (A. R.) on some lessons in
telephony, 806.

BENT (J. Theodore) on the exploration
of Southern Arabia, 491.

— on the people of Southern Arabia
(Hadramout and Dhofar), 835.

BERRIDGE (Douglas J. P.) on the action
of light upon the soluble metallic
iodides in presence of cellulose, 658.

*BETHAM (C. G. de) on the Suffolk
dialect, $31.

Bibliography. Second list of works on
the coast-changes and shore-deposits of
England and Wales, by W. Whitaker,
388.

—. Second list of works on under-
ground water, by W. Whitaker, 394.
—. List of the chief papers on the old
rocks underground in South-Eastern
England since 1889, by W. Whitaker,

- 674.

—— of spectroscopy, seventh (interim)
report on the, 263.

——, the organisation of zoological, H.
Haviland Field on, 726.

BIDDELL (Herman) on agriculture in
Suffolk from a tenant’s point of view,
779.

*Bimetallism with a climbing ratio,
Henry Higgs on, 776.

BINNIE (A. R.) on the structure of a coral
reef, 392.

Biological Association at Plymouth, the
Marine, report on investigationsmad e
at the laboratory of, 469.

Appendia :
I. On a blood-forming organ in the
larva of Magelona, by Florence
Buchanan, 469,

861

II. On the nervous system of the embry-
onic lobster, by EL. J. Allen, 470.

Il. On the echinoderm fauna of Ply-
mouth, by J. C. Sumner, 471.

Birds, the migration of, interim report of
the Committee for making a digest of
the observations on the, 473.

, instinct in young, Prof.

Morgan on, 733.

, the spermatogenesis in, J. HE. S.
Moore on, 735.

*BirT (W.) on the growth of the Port of
Harwich, 796.

BLAIKIE (W. B.) on the Cosmosphere,
756.

BLANFORD (Dr. W. T.) on the structure
of w coral reef, 392.

on the zoology of the Sandwich
Islands, 467.

Blood-forming organ of the larva of
Magelona, Florence Buchanan on a,
469.

BLoxAM (G. W.) on the exploration of
Southern Arabia, 491.

Boaz (Dr. Franz) on the Indians of
British Columbia, 523.

Boilers and machinery of steamships, a.
uniform factor of safety for, John Key
on, 813.

Bonney (Prof. T. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 39.

—— on the structure of a coral recf, 392.

on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 404.

—— on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 426, 430.

BORCHGREVINK (C. E.) on a voyage to:
the Antarctic Sea, 750.

Botany, Address by W. T. Thiselton-Dyer
to the Section of, 836.

—., geology, and zoology of the Irish Sea,
report on the, 455.

—— and zoology of the West India
Islands, eighth report on the present
state of our knowledge of the, 472. -

BOTHAMLEY (C. H.) on the production of
haloids from pure materials, 341.

—— on the sensitising action of dyes on
gelatino-bromide plates, 661.

BorroMuLEy (J. T.).on the earthquake
and volcanic phenomena of Japan, 81,
113.

— on practical electrical standards,
195.

Boulder Clay, East Anglian, Rey. E.
Hill on, 679.

BouRNE (G. C.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 392.

on investigations made at the
Marine Biological Association labora-
tory at Plymouth, 469.

Bownr (Prof. F. 0.) on the arche
sporium, 851.

Lloyd

862

Bow ey (A. L.) comparison of the rate
of increase of wages in the United
States and in Great Britain, 1860-
1891, 775.

Boyce (Prof. Rubert W.) and Prof. W. A.
HERDMAN on oysters and typhoid, 723.

BRABROOK (HE. W.) on anthropometric
measurements in schools, 503.

on the physical and mental defects

of children in schools, 503.

on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 509.

BRAMWELL (Sir F. J.) on earth tremors,
184.

BREBNER (G.) on the prothallus and
embryo of Danea, 857.

*BROEK (E. van den) on the present state
of our knowledge of the Upper Tertiary
strata of Belgium, 691.

Brown (Prof. A. Crum) on metecoro-
logical observations on Ben Nevis, 186.

(M. Walton) on earth tremors, 184.

BROWNE (Montagu) on Rhetic beds near
East Leake, Nottinghamshire, 688.

BRUvUCE (Eric 8.) on probable projection
lightning flashes, 624.

BRYAN (G. H.) on the wniformity of size
of pages of Scientific Societies’ publica-
tions, 77.

BucHAN (Dr. A.) on meteorological ebser-
vations on Ben Nevis, 186.

BUCHANAN (Florence) on a@ blood-form-
ing organ in the larva of Magelona,469.

BULLEID (A.) on the lake village at
Glastonbury, 519, 520.

Bureury (S. H.) on the law of error in
the case of correlated variations, 621.

*BuRNIE (W. B.), J. M. BARR, and
Charles RODGERS on some new
methods and apparatus for the delinea-
tion of alternate wave forms, 638.

Burrows (H. W.) on the stratigraphy of
the Crag, with especial reference to
the distribution of the foraminifera,
677.

BuRTON (Dr. C. V.) on the uniformity of
size of pages of Scientifie Societies’
publications, 77.

, Suggestions as to matter and
gravitation in Prof. Hicks’s cellular
vortex theory, 613.

Butmir (Bosnia), the Neolithic station of,
Dr. R. Munro on, 833.

*Calf Hole Cave exploration, interim
report on, 684.
Camphoric acid, the constitution of, J. J.
Sadborough on, 663.
Canada, North-Western tribes of the Do-
minion of, tenth report on the, 522.
Fifth report on the Indians of
British Columbia, by Dr. Franz
Boas, 523.

REPORT—1895.

| CANNAN (Edwin) on the probability of
a cessation of the growth of popula-
tion in England and Wales before 1951,
780.

Cannibalism, Capt. 8. L. Hinde on, 829.

Canon arithmeticus, a new, Lt.-Col. Allan
Cunningham on, 613.

CAPPER (Prof. D. 8.) on the calibration
of imstruments used in engineering
laboratories, 497.

*Carbonic anhydride refrigerating ma-
chinery, E. Hesketh on, 799.

Carboniferous plants, Williamson’s work
on the, Dr. D. H. Scott on the chief
results of, 852.

system, zonal divisions of the, E. J.
Garwood and J. E. Marr on, 696.

Caria, the topography of, J. L. Myres and
W. R. Paton on, 763.

CARRUTHERS (W.) on the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 472.

Cetiosaurus remains in the Oxford
Museum, report on the examination of
the ground from which the, were ob-
tained, mith a view to determining
whether other parts of the same animal
remain in the rock, 403.

Ceylon, the Coccidz of, E. E. Green on,
731.

** Challenger’ expedition, criticisms by
Dr. H.O. Forbes on some points in the
summary of results of the, 732.

Chemistry, Address by Prof. R. Meldola
to the Section of, 639.

Children in schools, the physical and
mental defects of, report on, 503.

Appendix :
1. Defects enumerated individually and

in groups as distribuied amongst the
nationalities, social classes, Sc., 506.

Il. Groups of children and their per-
centage distribution on the numbers
seen and numbers noted, 508.

Chitral campaign, the field telegraph in
the, P. V. Luke on, 809.

CHREE (C.) on the best methods of re-
cording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 81.

—- on the comparison and reduction of

magnetic observations ; analysis of the
results from the Kew declination and
Force magnetographs during the selected
‘quiet’ days of the five years, 1890-94,
209

CHRISTIE (W. H. M.) on the comparison
and reduction of magnetic observations,
209.

*CHRISTY (Miller) on Rockall, 749.

CHRYSTAL (Prof. G.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 195,

—— on the comparison and reduction of
magnetic observations, 209.

}Civilisation of other races, discussion on

| interference with the, 832.

INDEX.

Civilisation in Asia and Africa, protest
against the unnecessary uprooting of,
by Robert N. Cust, 832.

Cladodonts of the Upper Devonian of
Ohio, Prof. E. W. Claypole on the, 694.

CLARKE (Maj.-Gen. Sir A.) on the rate of
erosion of the sea-coasts of England and
Wales, 352.

(W. Eagle) on making a digest of
the observations on the migration of
birds, 473.

Classification of animals, the value of
myology as an aid in the, F. G. Parsons
on, 737.

*Clava, §c., the high-level shell-bearing
deposits of, interim report on, 684.

CLAYDEN (A. W.) on the application of
photography to the elucidation of
meteorological phenomena, 80.

CLAYPOLE (Prof. E. W.) on the clado-
donts of the Upper Devonian of Ohio,
694.

on the great Upper Devonian
placoderms of Ohio, 694.

CLELAND (Prof. J.) on anthropometric
measurements in schools, 503.

Cleveite gas, the constituents of, C. Runge
and F. Pachen on, 610.

Climatology of Africa, fourth report on
the, 480.

*CLODD (Edward), general conclusions
on folk-lore, 831.
CLOWES (Prof. F.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 235.
on the respirability of air in which
a candle-flame has burnt until it is
extinguished, 658.

Coal Boring Association, the trial-boring
at Stutton by the, W. Whitaker on, 693.

*___ Exploration, East Anglian, J,
Vivian on the machinery employed in
the, 795.

Coccidz of Ceylon, E. E. Green on the,
731.
COLEMAN (J. B.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 235.
Collecting and estimating the number of
small animals in sea water, H. C,
Sorby on methods of, 7380.

Combination tones, A. W. Riicker on the
objective existence of, 626.

Congo Free State, three years’ travelling
and war in, Capt. S. L. Hinde on, 758.

CoNWENTZ (Dr.) on Amber, 855.

Co-operation in the service of agriculture,
H. W. Wolff on, 780.

Co-operative rural banks,
Moore on, 779.

COPELAND (Prof. R.) on earth tremors,
184.

— onmeteorological observations on Ben
Nevis, 186.

Coral reef, interim report on the inves-
tigation of the structure of a, 392.

Harold E.

863

CORDEAUX(J.)on making a digest of the ob-
servations on the migration of birds, 473

Corresponding Societies Committee :
Report, 39.

Conference at Ipswich, 40.
List of Corresponding Societies, 52.
Papers published by local societies, 55. .

* Cosmic dust, interim report on, 609.

Cosmosphere, W. B. Blaikie on the, 756.

CowELL (P. H.) on recent developments
of the lunar theory, 614.

CowPER (H. Swainson) on a journey in
Tarhuna and Gharian, in Tripoli, 749.

——on the Senams, or Megalithic
temples of Tarhuna, Tripoli, 827.

*Crab, the common, Dr. Gregg Wilson on
the reproduction of, 733. ;

Crag, Coralline, F. W. Harmer on the
southern character of the mollusca of
the, 675.

, Red. F. W. Harmer on the deriva-

tive shells of the, 676.

, the stratigraphy of the, H. W.
Burrows on, with especial reference to
the distribution of the foraminifera,677.

CREAK (Capt. H.W.) onthe comparison and
reduction of magnetic observations, 209.

Creodonta, Prof. W. B. Scott on the, 719.

*Cromer excursion, notes on the, by
Clement Reid, 681.

CroMPTON (R. E.) on the British Asso-
ciation gauge for small screws, 812.
Cross (C. F.) and C. SmirH on the

chemical history of barley plants, 665.

Crustacea from the Cretaceous formation
of Vancouver's Island, Henry Wood-
ward on some decapod, 696.

Crystals, the relation between the mor-
phological symmetry and the optical
symmetry of, W. Barlow on, 617.

CUNNINGHAM (Lieut.-Col. Allan) on
a new canon arithmeticus, 613.

—— on Mersenne’s numbers, 614.

— (Prof. D. J.) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 509.

*____ (J. T.) on fish and fishing grounds
in the North Sea, 726.

Cust (Robert N.), protest against the
unnecessary uprooting of ancient civil-
isation in Asia and Africa, 832.

Danea, the prothallus and embryo of,
G. Brebner on, 857.

Dalton’s atomic theory, a new view of
the genesis of, derived from original
manuscripts, Sir H. E. Roscoe and
Arthur Harden on, 656.

* law, experimental proofs of, for
very dilute solutions, Meyer Wilder-
mann on, 663.

Dance, the origin of the, Mrs. Lilly
Grove on, 830.

DARWIN (F.) on the structure of a coral
reef, 392,

864

Darwin(Prof.G. H.)onearth tremors,184.

on the structure of a coral reef,
392.

—— (Horace) on earth tremors, 184.

on the comparison and reduction of

' magnetic observations, 209.

(Major Leonard) on the sixth In-
ternational Geographical Congress,
London, 1895, 753.

DAVISON (C.) on earth tremors, 184.

——Note on the history of the horizontal
and bifilar pendulum, 184.

DAWKINS (Prof. Boyd) on the structure
of a coral reef, 392.

on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 404.

— on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 426, 430.

— on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 509.

on the lake village at Glastonbury,
519.

DAwson (Dr.G.M.) on the North- Western
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 522.

—— (Philip) on the modern application
of electricity to traction purposes, 800.

DEACON (G. F.) on underground tempera-
ture, 75.

DEAN (Bashford) on oyster cultural
methods, experiments, and new pro-
posals, 723.

on the early development of the
Ganoids, Lepidosteus, Acipenser, and
Amia, 734.

DE RANCE (C. E.) on the rate of erosion
of the sea-coasts of England and Wales,
352.

on the circulation of underground
waters, 393.

—— on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 426, 430.

Development of the Ganoids, Lepidosteus,
Acipenser, and Amia, the early, Bash-
ford Dean on, 734.

Devonian of Ohio, the Upper, Prof. E.
W. Claypole on the cladodonts of the,
694.

—— , Prof. E. W. Claypole on the great
placoderms of the, 695.

DEWAR (Prof. J.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 273.

Diastase in foliage leaves, the diurnal
variation in the amount of, Prof. J.
Reynolds Green on, 856.

DICKINSON (J.) on underground tempera-
ture, 75.

Dickson (H. N.) on the oceanography
of the North Sea, 752.

Dinosaurs, European, restorations by
Prof. O, C. Marsh of some, with sug
gestions as to their place among the
reptilia, 685.

REPORT—1895.

Discussion :

*On the evidence to be gathered as to
the simple or compound character of

a gas, from the constitution of its.

spectrum, 610.

*On the objective character of com-

bination tones, 626.

The objective existence of combina-

tion tones, by Prof. A.W. Riicker, 626.

*Ona new practical heat standard pro-

posed by E. H. Griffiths, 628.

{The relation of agriculture to science,

660:

Hon shall agriculture hest obtain
help from science? by Prof. R-
Warington, 341.

*Acriculture and science, by T. Hen-
drick, 660.

*The application of science to agri-
culture, by M. R. J. Dunstan, 660.

*On interference with the civilisation of

other races, 832.

Dopp (John) on Formosa, 762.

DOLLFuS (G. F.) on the probable exten-
sion of the seas during Upper Tertiary
timesin Western Europe, 690.

DuctE (Karl of) on the search for the
missing remains of the Cetiosaurus in
the Oxford Museum, 403.

DUNSTAN (Prof. W. R.) on the teaching
of science in elementary schools, 228.
on the production of haloids from

pure materials, 341.

(M. R. J.) on the application of
science to agriculture, 660.

Dyed colours, the action of light upon,
report on, 263.

Dyes, the sensitising action of, on
gelatino-bromide plates, C. H. Botham-
ley on, 661.

Dynamical top, G. T. Walker on a, 613.

*

EARLE (H. A.) on storage batteries, 802.

*Earth movements observed in Japan,
J. Milne on, 691.

tremors, fifth report on, 184.
Appendix on the history of the
horizontal and bifilar pendulum,
by C. Davison, 184.

Earthquake and volcanic phenomena of
Japan, the fourteenth report on the,

_ 81; the fifteenth report on the, 113.

EAston (Edward) on the rate of
erosion of the sea-coasts of England
and Wales, 352.

Echinoderm fauna of Plymouth, J. C.
Sumner on the, 471.

Echinoderms and tunicates, the matura-
tion and fecundation of the ova of
certain, by M. D. Hill, 475.

Economic Science and Statistics, Ad-
dress to the Section of, by L. L. Price,
764.

INDEX.

EpGewortH (Prof. F. Y.) on the
statistics of wasps, 729.

Epspr (Edwin) and Sydney G. Srar-
LING on the velocity of light in
rarefied gases through which an
electrical discharge is passing, 635.

*Eeypt, flint and metal working in, Prof.
W. M. Flinders Petrie on, 825.

Mg , Neolithic invaders of, skulls of,
Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie on, 824.

* , Neolithic invaders of, Prof. W. M.
Flinders Petrie on, 824.

*____. skulls of the new race in, Dr. J. G.
Garson on the, 833.

*Plectric arc, the back E.M.F. and true
resistance of, Prof. W. E. Ayrton and
T. Mather on, 634.

*—— arc, the equation connecting
the potential difference, current, and
length of the, Mrs. Ayrton on, 634

currents, vertical (earth-air), Prof.

A. W. Riicker on the existence of, in

the United Kingdom, 633.

motors, the relation between speed
and voltage in, Prof. W. E. Ayrton
and T. Mather on, 638.

Electrical discharge, the influence of an,
on the velocity of light in rarefied
gases, Edwin Edser and Sydney G.
Starling on, 635.

—— measurements, experiments for im-
proving the construction of practical
standards for, report on, 195.

Appendix:
On magnetic units, by Dr. O. J.
Lodge, 197; with remarks by Prof.
Everett, Prof. G. Carey Foster, and
Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney, 207.

——— standards, Prof. S. P. Thompson on
the choice of magnetic units, 637.

storage batteries, H. A. Earle on,
802.

Electricity, atmospheric. Arthur Schus-
ter or some experiments made with
Lord Kelvin’s portable electrometer,
625.

——,, the modern application of, to
traction, Philip Dawson on, 800.

Electrification and diselectrification of
air and other gases, Lord Kelvin,
Magnus Maclean, and Alex. Galt on
the, 630.

Electrolysis of iron salts, Prof. W. M.
Hicks and L. T. O’Shea on, 634.

Electrolytic methods of quantitative ana-
lysis, report on the, 235.

Electrometer, Lord Kelvin’s portable,
Arthur Schuster on some experiments
made with, 625.

*ELLIOTT (Prof. A. E.) on receiver and
condenser drop, 815.

ELLIs (William) on the comparison and
reduction af magnetic observations,
209.

*

865

*KLWORTHY (F. T.) on horns of honour
and dishonour and safety, 830.

*Hnergies of vibrators after impacts on
fixed walls, the translational and
vibrational, Lord Kelvin on, 612.

Engineering laboratories, calibration of
instruments used in, report on, 497.

England and Wales, the probability of a
cessation of the growth of population
in, before 1951, Edwin Cannan on,780.

English industry, the menace to, from
the competition of silver-using coun-
tries, R. S. Gundry on, 777.

Erosion of the sea-coasts af England and
Wales, the rate of, and the influence of
the artificial abstraction of shingle or
other material in that action, fourth
report on, 352.

Appendix :
I. Summary of previous reports, 354.
Il. Information received and collected
since 1888, 359.
Ill. Various scheduled returns, 372.
IV. Second chronological list of
works on the coast-changes and
shore-deposits of England and Wales,
by W. Whitaker, 3388.
——, recent coast, at Southwold and
Covehithe, John Spiller on, 678.
Erratic blocks of England, Wales, and
Ireland, twenty-second report on the
[read at Oxford, 1894], 426.
, trenty-third report on the, 430.
Error, the law of, in the case of corre-
lated variation, 8. H. Burbury on,
621. P
*Eskimo, F. Linklater and J. A. Fowler
on the, 833.
Essex, South, the ancient physiography
of, T. V. Holmes on, 685.
Ethnographical observations in East
Aberdeenshire, J. Gray on, 831.
survey of the United Kingdom, third
report on an, 509.
Appendix :

I. Circular to local societies, 511.

Il. Circular to medical men, 512.

Ill. Lxplanatory notes, by B.S. Hart-
land, 513.

* Burypterid-bearing deposits of the Pent-
land Hills, interim report on the,
696.

EVANS (Arthur J.) on an ancient hitchen
midden at Hastings, and a barrow at
the Wildernesse, 500.

on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 509.

—— on primitive European ‘idols’ in
the light of new discoveries, 834.

—— (Sir John) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 39.

—— on earth tremors, 184.

— on the high-level jlint-dvift of the
Chalk, 349. ;

3K

866

EvANs (Sir John) on an ancient kitchen
midden at Hastings, and a barrow at
the Wildernesse, 500.

—— on the lake village at Glastonbury,
519.

Evaporation of different liquids at their
boiling points, a method of comparing
the heats of, Prof. W. Ramsay and
Miss Dorothy Marshall on, 628.

Everett (Prof. J. D.) on underground
temperature, 75.

=-— on practical electrical standards,
195; on magnetic units, 207.

on absolute and relative motion,

620

(W. H.) on the magnetic field due
to a current in a solenoid, 620.

Ewart (Prof. J. Cossar) on the occupa-
tion of a table at the zoological station
at Napies, 474.

Ewine (Prof. J. A.) on earth tremors,
184.

— on the calibration of instrwments
used in engineering laboratories, 497.

Factor of safety, a uniform, for boilers
and machinery of steamships, John
Key on, 813.

FARMER (Prof. J. Bretland), exhibition
of models illustrating karyokinesis, by,
853.

FAWCETT (Hon. P.) on the structure of a
coral recf, 392.

*FENWICK (Mrs. Bedford) on the
national value of organised labour and
co-operation among women, 781.

Fertilisation, cross- and self-, with special
reference to pollen prepotency, J. C.
Willis on, 857.

FIELD (H. Haviland) on the organisation
of zoological bibliography, 726.

—— on the date of publication of zoo-
logical memoirs, 727.

*Fish and fishing grounds in the North
Sea, J. T. Cunningham on, 726.

Fisheries, scientific investigation applied
to, Prof. W. C. M‘Intosh on some
results of, 720.

*Wishery survey of the Royal Dublin
Society, Prof. A. C. Haddon on the,

723.
#

school at Ringsend, near Dublin,
Prof. A. C. Haddon on the, 723.

FITZGERALD (Prof. G. F.) on practical
electrical standards, 195.

FITZPATRICK (Rev. T. C.) on practical
electrical standards, 195.

FLEMING (Dr. J. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 195.

FLETCHER (A. E.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 235.
*Flint and metal working in Egypt, Prof.

W. M. Flinders Petrie on, 825.

REPORT—1895.

Flint implements with glacial markings
from the North of Ireland, W. J.
Knowles on, 825.

*Floods of 1894, autumn, G. J. Symons
on, 796.

*Flour milling machinery, modern, F. W.
Turner on, 810.

FLOWER (Sir W. H.) on the compilation
of an index generum et specierum ani-
malium, 473.

* on a recent discovery of the remains
of the aboriginal inhabitants of
Jamaica, 824.

*Folk-lore, general conclusions on, by
Edward Clodd, 831.

*____ illustrations of, Prof. A. C. Haddon
on, 831.

Foraminifera, the distribution of the,
in the Crag, H. W. Burrows on, 677.
ForBES (G.) on practical electrical

standards, 195.

(H. O.) on the structure of a coral
reef, 392.

ps criticisms on some points in the
summary of the results of the ‘ Chal-
lenger’ expedition, 732.

Formosa, John Dodd on, 762.

Foster (Dr. C. Le Neve) on underground
temperature, 75.

on the structure of a coral reef, 392.

—— (Prof. G. C.) on practical electricat
standards, 195, 208.

—— (Prof. M.) on the occupation of «
table at the zoological station at Naples,
474,

on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Association laboratory at
Plymouth, 469.

Fow.Ler (G. J.) and H. A. AUDEN on
the action of nitric oxide on some
metallic salts, 656.

* (J. A.) and F. LINKLATER on the
Eskimo, 833.

FRANCIS (Joseph) on the dip of the
underground Paleozoic Rocks at Ware
and Cheshunt, 441.

FRANKLAND (Dr. E.) on the conditions
affecting bacterial life in river water,
731.

—— (Prof. Percy) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 235.

Freezing process for shaft-sinking and
tunnelling under rivers, A. Gobert on
the Gobert, 794.

Fructification, a new form of, in Spheno-
phyllum, Graf Solms-Laubach on, 852.

GALLOWAY (W.) on underground tem-
perature, 75.

GALT (Alex.), Lord KuLyIn, and Magnus
MACLEAN on the electrification and
diselectrification of air and other
gases, 630.

INDEX.

GALTON (Sir Douglas), Presidential
Address at Ipswich, 3.

— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 39.

— on the circulation of underground
waters, 393.

—— on the physical and mental defects
of children in schools, 503.

— onthe Reichsanstalt, Charlottenburg,
Berlin, 606.

—— (francis) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 39.

—— on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 509.

Ganoids, Lepidosteus, Acipenser, and
Amia, the early development of the,
Bashford Dean on, 734.

GARSON (Dr. J. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 39.

on the exploration of Southern

Arabia, 491.

on anthropometric measurements in

schools, 503.

on the physical and mental defects
of children in schools, 503.

—— on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 509.

* ___ on the skulls of the new race in
Egypt, 833.
*____ on a Paleolithic skeleton from the

Thames valley, 833.

GARSTANG (Walter), outlines of a new
classification of the Tunicata, 718.

*___ on a simple and efficient collecting
reservoir for the surface tow-net, 729.

GARWwooD (E. J.) on the collection, of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 404.

and J. E. MARR on zonal divisions
of the Carboniferous system, 696.

*Gas, the simple or compound character
of a, discussion as to, from the con-
stitution of its spectrum, 610.

Gauge for small screws, the British
Association, R. E. Crompton on, 812.
GEIKIE (Sir Archibald) on underground

temperature, 75.

on the structure of a coral reef, 392.

(Prof. J.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 404.

Geographical congress, the sixth inter-
national, London, 1895, Major Leonard
Darwin on, 753.

Geography, Address by H. J. Mackinder
to the Section of, 738.

Geological survey of Great Britain, the
importance of extending the work of
the, to the deep-seated rocks by means
of boring, F. W. Harmer on, 693.

Geology, Address by W. Whitaker to the
Section of, 666.

—, botany, and zoology of the Irish Sea,
report on the, 455.

867

Geometrical drawing in schools, Prof. O.
Henrici on the teaching of, 608.

GIBBS (Prof. Wolcott) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 273.

GILSON (Prof. G.) on the septal organs
of Owenia fusiformis, 728.

Glacialagein tropicalAmerica (Colombia),
R. Blake White on, 682.

— markings on flint implements from
the North of Ireland, W. J. Knowles
on, 825.

—— strie, modern, Percy F. Kendall
and .J. Lomas on, 684.

—— times, indications of ice-raft action
through, Rev. E. Hill on, 679.

Glaciers, pitch, Prof. W. J. Sollas on,
680.

GLADSTONE (G.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 228.

(Dr. J. H.) on the teaching of science

in elementary schools, 228.

on specific refraction and the
periodic law with reference to argon
and other elements, 609.

—— and Walter HIBBERT on the change
of molecular refraction in salts or
acids dissolved in water, 637.

GLAISHER (J.) on underground tempera-
ture, 75.

on earth tremors, 184.

on the circulation of underground
waters, 393.

Glastonbury, the lake village at, report
on, 519.

GLAZEBROOK (RK. T.) on the uniformity
of size of pages of Scientific Societies’
publications, 77.

a practical electrical standards,

0.

GOBERT (A.) on the Gobert freezing
process for shaft-sinking and tunnel-
ling under rivers, 794.

GODMAN (F. Du C.) on the present state
of our knowledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 472.

*Gold standard, Hon. George Peel on
the, 777.

GOODCHILD (J. G.) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 404.

Graptolites, the phylogeny of the, Prof.
H. A. Nicholson and J. E. Marr on,
695.

Gray (J.) on ethnographical observa-
tions in East Aberdeenshire, 831.

—— (Thomas) on earth tremors, 184.

—— (W.) on the collection of photographs
of geological interest in the United
Kingdom, 404.

GREEN (Prof. A. H.) on the earthquake
and volcanic phenomena of Japan, 81,
113. idle,

—— on the structure of a coral reef,392,

3K 2

868

GREEN (Prof. A. H.) on the search for the
missing remains of the Cetiosaurus in
the Oxford Museum, 403.

on the Stonesfield slate, 414.

—— (HE. E.) on the Coccidz of Ceylon,
731.

---— (Prof. J. Reynolds) on the diurnal
variation in the amount of diastase in
foliage leaves, 856.

GREGORY (J. W.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 392.

GRIFFITHS (E. H.) on practical electrical
standards, 195.

rs on a new practical heat standard,
628.

= on some recent improvements in
measurements of high temperatures,
illustrated by apparatus recently ac-
quired by the Kew Observatory Com-
mittee, 638.

GROVE (Mrs. Lilly) on the origin of the
dance, 830.

GuNDRY (R. 8.) on the menace to Eng-
lish industry from the competition of
silver-using countries, 777.

GUNTHER (Dr. A. C. L. G.) on the zoology
and botany of the West India Islands,
472.

Guppy (H. B.) on the structure of a coral
reef, 392.

HADDON (Prof. A C.) on the structure
of a coral reef, 392.

—— on the marine zoology, botany, and
geology of the Trish Sea, 455.

on an ethnographical survey of the

United Kingdom, 509.

*___ on the Royal Dublin Society’s
Fishery Survey, 723.

* on the Fishery School at Rings-
end, near Dublin, 723.

*____ on the exploration of the islands
of the Pacific, 731.

*____ on illustrations of folk-lore, 831.

HALE (H.) onthe North-Western tribes
of the Dominion of Canada, 522.

HALIBURTON (R. G.) on the North-
Western tribes of the Dominion of
Canada, 522.

Haloids, the production of, from pure
materials, interim report on, 341.

HANSEN (Dr. Emil Chr.) on experimental
studies in the variation of yeast cells,
852.

Harcourt (Prof. L. F. Vernon) on the
rate of erosion of the sea-coasts of Eng-
land and Wales, 352.

—— Address to the Section of Mechani-
cal Science by, 782.

—— on the new outlet of the river Maas
at the Hook of Holland, and the im-
provement of the Scheur branch up to
Rotterdam, 796.

REPORT—1895.

HARDEN (Arthur) and Sir H. E. Roscor
on a new view of the genesis of
Dalton’s atomic theory, derived from
original manuscripts, 656.

HARMER (F. W.) on the southern
character of the mollusca of the
Coralline Crag, 675.

on the derivative shells of the Red

Crag, 676.

on the importance of extending the
work of the Geological Survey of Great
Britain to the deep-seated rocks by
means of boring, 693.

| Harmonic analyser, G. U. Yule on a, 630.

HARRISON (B.) on the high-level flint-
drift of the Chath, 349.

HARTLAND (EH. Sidney) on an ethno-
graphical survey of the United Kingdom,
509, 513.

HARTLEY (Prof. W. N) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 273.

HARVIE-BRoWN (J. A.) on making a@
digest of the observations on the migra-
tion of birds, 473.

*Harwich, the growth of the Port of, W.
Birt on, 796.

Hastings, an ancient kitchen midden at,
report on, 500.

HATCH (Frederick H.) on the auriferous
conglomerates of the Witwatersrand,
Transvaal, 691.

HAWKSHAW (J. C.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 392.

*Heat standard, discussion on a new
practical, proposed by E. H. Griffiths,
628.

the transfer of, through plates
with variously arranged surfaces, W.
G. Walker on, 814.

HEATLEY (J.T. P.) on the port of the
Upper Nile in relation to the highways
of foreign trade, 760.

Heats of evaporation of different liquids
at their boiling points, Prof. W.
Ramsay and Miss Dorothy Marshall on
a method of comparing the, 628.

Helium. C. Runge and F. Paschen on the
constituents of cleveite gas, 610.

—— and argon, Lord Rayleigh on the
viscosity and refraction of, 609.

*HENDRICK (T.) on agriculture and
science, 660.

HeEnRIcI (Prof. O.) on the teaching of
geometrical drawing in schools, 608.
HERDMAN (Prof. W. A.) on the marine
zoology, botany, and geology of the Irish

Sea, 455.

—— Address to the Section of Zoology
by, 698.

and Prof. Rubert W. BoycE on
oysters and typhoid, 723.

*Hereditary polydactylism, Dr. Gregg
Wilson on, 733.

INDEX,

Hermite process, the deodorising of
sewage by the, J. Napier on, 800.

Herodotus, the maps used by, J. L.
Myres on the, 752.

HeRScHEL (Prof. A. 8.) on underground
temperature, 75.

*HESKETH (E.) on carbonic anhydride
refrigerating machinery, 799.

HIBBERT (Walter) and Dr. J. H. GLAD-
STONE on the change of molecular re-
fraction in salts or acids dissolved in
water, 637.

Hicks (Dr. H.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 392.

(Prof. W. M.) address to the Section
of Mathematical and Physical Science,
595.
612.

—— on Hill’s spherical vortex, 612.

and L. T. O'SHEA on the electro-
lysis of iron salts, 634.

*Hicks’s cellular vortex theory, sugges-
tions as to matter and gravitation in,
by C. V. Burton, 613.

Hickson (Prof. 8. J.) on the structure
of a coral reef, 392.

on the present state of our know-
ledge of the zoology of the Sandmich
Islands, 467.

*H1Ges (Henry) on bimetallism with a
climbing ratio, 776.

TTigh-levei flint-drift of the Chatk, report
on the, 349.

HILL (Rey. E.) on East Anglian Boulder
Clay, 679.

—-— on indications of ice-raft action
through Glacial times, 679.

on traces of an ancient watercourse,
679.

—— (M. D.) on the maturation and fe-
cundation of the ova of certain echino-
derms and tunicates, 475.

(Prof. M. J. M.) on a species of
tetrahedron the volume of any member
of which can be determined without
employing the proof of a proposition
which depends on the method of
limits, 619.

Hill’s spherical vortex, Prof. W. M. Hicks
on, 612.

HINDE (Capt. 8. L.) on three years’
travelling and war in the Congo Free
State, 758.

— on cannibalism, 829.

Houtmes (T. V.) on the mork of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
39.

—— on the ancient physiography of
South Essex, 685.

HOPKINSON (Dr. J.) on practical electri-
cal standards, 195.

HOPKINSON (J.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 39.

on bicyclic vortex aggregates,

869

HOPKINSON (J.) on the application
of photography to the elucidation of
meteorological phenomena, 80.

*Horns of honour and dishonour and
safety, F. 'T. Elworthy on, 830.

Houtman’s Abrolhos Islands, the marine
fauna of, W. Saville-Kent on, 732.

Howes (Prof. G. B.) on the marine zvo-
logy, botany, and geology of the Irish
Sea, 495.

——— on the mammalian hyoid, 736.

HowortuH (Sir Henry) on an ethno-
graphical survey of the United Kingdom,
509.

Hoxne, the Arctic and Paleolithic
deposits at, H. N. Ridley and Clement
Reid on, 679.

HOYLE (W. E.) on the marine zoology,
botany, and geology of the Irish Sea, 455.

Hueues(Prof.T. McK. onthe erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland,426,430.

HULL (Prof. E.) on undergrownd tempera -
ture, 75.

on earth tremors, 184.

—— on the. circulation of underground
waters, 393.

—— on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 426, 430.

HuMMEL (Prof. J. J.) on the action of
light upon dyed colours, 263.

Hydrocyanic acid in Pangium edule,
Reinw., the localisation, the transport,
and role of, Dr. T. M. Treub on, 853.

Hyoid, mammalian, Prof. G. B. Howes
on the, 736.

Hysteresis of iron in an alternating
magnetic field, Francis G. Baily on the,
636.

‘Idols,’ primitive European, in the light
of new discoveries, Arthur G. Evans
on, 834.

Index generum et specierum animaliun,
report on the conpilation by C. Davies
Sherborn of an, 473.

Indian thunderstorms, C. Michie Smith
on, 626.

*Insect transformations,
Miall on, 730.

Insectivora, the development of the teeth
in certain, M. F. Woodward on, 736.

Instinct in young birds, observations by
Prof. Lloyd Morgan on, 733.

Todides, the action of light upon the
soluble metallic, in presence of cellu-
lose, Douglas J. P. Berridge on, 658.

Trish Sea, the marine zovlogy, botany, and
geology of the, third report on, 455.

Iron, the hysteresis of, in an alternating
magnetic field, Francis G. Baily on,
636.

—— salts, the electrolysis of, Prof. W. M.
Hicks and L. T, O’Shea on, 634.

IPTGnie las

870

Tsomeric naphthalene derivatives, ninth
report on the investigation of, 272.

Jackson-Harmsworth North Polar Expe-
dition, Arthur Montefiore on the pro-
gress of the, 759.

*Jamaica, the aboriginal inhabitants of,
Sir W. H. Flower on a recent discovery
of, 824.

Japan, the earthquake and voleanic
phenomena, of, the fourteenth.report on
the, 81; the fifteenth report on the, 113.

Japanese Alps, exploration in the, 1891-
94, Rev. Walter Weston on, 761.

JEFFS (O. W.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 404.

JENNINGS (A. Vaughan) on the occur-
rence in New Zealand of two forms of
peltoid ‘T'rentepohliaceze and their
relation to the lichen Stvigula, 851.

JOHNSTON-LAVIS (H. J.) on the volcanic
phenomena of Vesuvius and its neigh-
bourhood, 351.

JONES (Rey. G. Hartwell) on the light
thrown on primitive warfare by the
languages and usages of historic times,
832.

——- (Prof. J. Viriamu) on practical elec-
trical standards, 195.

(Prof. T. Rupert) on the Phyllopoda
of the Paleozoic Rocks, 419.

JUDD (Prof. J. W.) on earth tremors, 184.

on the structure of a coral reef, 392.

Karyokinesis, exhibition of models illus-
trating, by J. Bretland Farmer, 853.
KELVIN (Lord) on underground tem-

perature, 75.

— on the earthquake and volcanic
phenomena of Japan, 81, 113.

—— on practical electrical standards,
195.

on the comparison and reduction of
magnetic observations, 209.

“es on the translational and vibrational
energies of vibrators after impacts on
fixed walls, 612.

——, Magnus MACLEAN and Alex. GALT,
on the electrification and diselectrifi-
cation of air and other gases, 630.

KENDALL (P. F.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 393.

on the erratic blocks of England,

Wales, and Treland, 426, 430.

,and J. Lomas on modern glacial
striz, 684.

Kenyepy (Prof. A. B. W.) on the cali-
bration of instruments used in engineer-
ing laboratories, 497.

Kew declination and force magnetographs,
analysis of the results from the, during
the selected ‘quiet’ days of the five
years 1890-94, by C. Chree, 209.

REPORT—1895.

Kew, the destruction of a cedar tree at,
by lightning, W. T. Thiselton-Dyer on,
854.

Key (John) on a uniform factor of safety
for boilers and machinery of steam-
ships, 813.

Kipston (R.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 404.

Kitchen midden at Hastings, an ancient,
and a barrow at Wildernesse, report
on, 500.

Kwnotr (Prof. C. G.) on the earthquake
and volcanic phenomena of Japan, 81,
113.

on earth tremors, 184.

KNOWLES (W. J.) on flint implements
with glacial markings from the North
of Ireland, 825.

KNUBLEY (Rev. E. P.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 473.

KoHN (Dr. C. A.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 235.

*Labour and co-operation among women,
the national value of organised, Mrs.
Bedford Fenwick on, 781.

Lake village at Glastonbwry, report on
the, 519.

*Land, the State and workers on the,
Rey. J. Frome Wilkinson on, 781.

LANKESTER (Prof. E. Ray) on the search
Sor the missing remains of the Cetio-
saurus in the Oxford Museum, 403.

on the occupation of a table at the

Zoological Station at Naples, 474.

on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Laboratory at Plymouth,
469,

Lantern slides, H. C. Sorby on mounting
marine animals as transparent, 730.
LAPWORTH (Prof. C.) on the structure of

a coral reef, 392.

LATHAM (Baldwin) on the climatology of
Africa, 480.

*LAYARD (Miss Nina) on ultimate vital
units, 737.

Leaves, the diurnal variation in the
amount of diastase in foliage, Prof. J.
Reynolds Green on, 856.

LEBOUR (Prof. G. A.) on underground
temperature, 75.

—— on earth tremors, 184.

on the circulation of underground
waters, 293.

LEES (Charles H.) on the thermal con-
ductivities of mixtures of liquids, 628.

Light, the action of, upon dyed colours,
report on, 263.

the action of, upon the soluble

metallic iodides in presence of cellu-

lose, Douglas J. P. Berridge on, 658.

INDEX.

Light, the velocity of, in rarefied gases
through which an electrical discharge
is passing, Edwin Edser and Sydney G.
Starling on, 635.

Lightning, the destruction of a cedar
tree at Kew by, W. T. Thiselton-Dyer
on, 854.

——- flashes, Eric 8. Bruce on probable
projection, 624.

*LINKLATER (F.) and J. A. FOWLER on
the Eskimo, 833.

Linotype composing machine,
Southward on the, 810.

Liquids, the thermal conductivities of
mixtures of, Charles H. Lees on, 628.

LivHIne (Prof. G. D.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 273.

Lobster, the embryonic, the nervous system
of, Edgar J. Allen on, 470.

LockyeR (J. N.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 273.

LODGE (Dr. Oliver J.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 195, 197.

Lomas (J.) and Percy F. KENDALL on
modern glacial striz, 684.

LUBBOCK (Sir John) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 228.

_ LUKE (P. V.), the field telegraph in the
Chitral campaign, 809.

Lunar theory, recent developments of
the, P. H. Cowell on, 614.

ILysSTER (Anthony G.) on dredging opera-
tions on the Mersey Bar, 799.

John

MAAS (Dr. Otto) on some questions re-
lating to'the morphology and distribu-
tion of meduse, 734.

Maas, the new outlet of the river, and
the improvement of the Scheur branch
up to Rotterdam, Prof. L. F. Vernon
Harcourt on, 796.

MACALISTER (Prof. A.) on anthropo-
metric measurements in schools, 503.
M‘IntTosuH (Prof. W. C.) on some results
of scientific investigation applied to

fisheries, 720.

McKernprick (Prof. J. G.) on physio-
logical applications of the phonograph,
454,

(J. 8.) on physiological applications
of the phonograph, 454.

MACKINDER (4. J.), Address to the Sec-
tion of Geography by, 738.

McLAREN (Lord) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 185.

MACLEAN (Magnus), Lord KELVIN, and
Alex. GALT on the electrification and
diselectritication of air and other gases,
630.

McLurop (Prof. H.) on the best methods

. of recording the direct intensity of
solar radiativn, 81.

871

McLEoD (Prof. H.) on the bibliography
of spectroscopy, 263.

*MACMAHON (Maj. P. A.) on the graphi-
cal representation of the partition of
numbers, 613.

MADAN (H. G.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 263.

Magelona, a blood-forming organ in the
larva of, Florence Buchanan on, 469.

Magnetic field, alternating, the hysteresis
of iron in an, Francis G. Baily on, 636.

-—— field due to a current in a solenoid,
W. H. Everett on, 620.

* ____ field tester, Prof. W. E. Ayrton and
T. Mather on a, 635.

—- instruments, interim report on the
comparison of, 79.

observations, report on the compari-

son and reduction of, by C. Chree, 209.

units, the choice of, Prof. Silvanus
P, Thompson on, 637.

Magnetism, terrestrial. Prof. A. W.
Riicker on the existence of vertical
(earth-air) electric currents in the
United Kingdom, 633.

MAGNUS (Sir P.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 228.

Mammalian hyoid, Prof. G. B. Howes on
the, 736.

Maps used by Herodotus, J. L. Myres on
the, 752.

Marine fauna of Houtman’s Abrolhos
Islands, W. Saville-Kent on, 732.

zoology, botany, and geology of the
Trish Sea, third report on the, 455.

*MARKOFF (Dr. A.) on Western Siberia
and the Siberian Railway, 749.

on Russian possessions in Central

Asia, 762.

on the towns of Northern Mongolia,
763.

MARR (J. E.) and E. J. GARWOOD on
zonal divisions of the Carboniferous
system, 696.

and Prof. H. A. NICHOLSON on the
phylogeny of the graptolites, 695.

Marsu (Prof. O. C.) restorations of some
European dinosaurs, with suggestions
as to their place among the reptilia,
685.

MARSHALL (Miss Dorothy) and Prof. W.
RAMSAY on a method of comparing
the heats of evaporation of different
liquids at their boiling points, 628.

— (Dr. Hugh) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 235.

MARTEN (E. B.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 393.

Mathematical and Physical Science,
Address by Prof. W. M. Hicks to the
Section of, 595. j

*MATHER (T.) and Prof. W. E. AYRTON
onthe back E.M.}F. and true resistance
cf the electric are, 634.

872

*\ ATHER (T.) on a magnetic field tester
635.

*—— _- on the relation between speed and
voltage in electric motors, 638.
* on alternating wave tracers, 638.

Mechanical Science, Address by Prof.
L. F. Vernon Harcourt to the Section
of, 782.

Medusz, some questions relating to the
morphology and distribution of, Dr.
Otto Maas on, 734.

Megalithic temples of Tarhuna, Tripoli,
H. Swainson Cowper on, 827.

MELDOLA (Prof. R.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
39.

— on the application of photography to
the elucidation of meteorological phe-
nomena, 80.

— on earth tremors, 184.

—.- on the action of light upon dyed
colours, 263.

on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 509.

-—— Address to the Section of Chemistry
by, 639.

Melting of solids in warmer liquids, the
velocity of, Meyer Wildermann on
the, 663.

Mental and physical defects of children
in schools, report on the, 503.

Mersenne’s numbers, Lt.-Col. Allan Cun-
ningham on, 614.

Mersey Bar, dredging operations on the,
G. Anthony on, 799.

Meteorological observations on Ben Nevis,
report on, 186.

phenomena, the application of photo-
graphy to the elucidation of, fifth
report on, 80.

*MIALL (Prof. L. C.) on insect transfor-
mation, 730.

—— on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Treland, 426, 430.

Migration of birds, interim report of the
Committee for making a digest of the
observations on the, 473.

Mitty (Dr. H. BR.) on the climatology of
Africa, 480.

MILNE (Prof. John) on the earthquake
and volcanic phenomena of Japan, 81,
113.

*____ on earth movements observed in
Japan, 691.

Molecular motions competent to produce
groups of lines observed in spectra, G.
Johnstone Stoney on, 610.

Mollusca of the Coralline Crag, F. W.
Harmer on the southern character of
the, 675.

*Money, international, a proposal for a
system of, W. A. Shaw on, 777.

Mongolia, Northern, Dr. H. Markoff on
the towns of, 763.

REPORT—1895.

MonTEFI0RE (Arthur) on the progress of
the Jackson-Harmsworth North Polar
expedition, 759.

on the Samoyads of the Arctic
Tundras, 828.

Moore (Harold E.) on co-operative
rural banks, 779.

(J. E.S.) on the spermatogenesis
in birds, 735.

MoreGaAn (Prof. Lloyd). Observations on
instinct in young birds, 733.

Morphology and distribution of meduse,
some questions relating to the, Dr.
Otto Maas on, 735.

Morton (G. H.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 393.

Motion, absolute and relative, Prof. J. D.
Everett on, 620.

Mounting marine animals as transparent
lantern slides, H. C. Sorby on, 730.

MUIRHEAD (Dr. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 195.

Munro (Dr. Robert) on the lake village
at Glastonbury, 519.

—— on the Neolithic station of Butmir
(Bosnia), 833.

Murray (George) on the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 472.

(Prof. G. G.) on physiological appli-

cations of the phonograph, 454.

(Dr. John) on meteorological obser-

vations on Ben Nevis, 186.

on the structure of a coral reef, 392.

*______ on oceanic circulation, 752.

Myology, the value of, as an aid in the
classification of animals, F. G. Parsons
on, 737.

Myrzes (J. L.) on the maps used by
Herodotus, 752.

and W. R. PATON on the topogra-

phy of Caria, 763.

NAGEL (D. H.) on the electrolytie
methods of quantitative analysis, 235.
on the bibliography of spectroscopy,

263.

Naphthalene derivatives, ninth report on
the investigation of isomeric, 272.

NAPIER (J.) on the deodorising of
sewage hy the Hermite process, 800.

* (R. C.) and F. G. M. STONEY on
weirs in rivers, 796.

NARES (Adm. Sir G.) on the rate of
erosion of the sea-coasts of England
and Wales, 352.

National laboratories, Sir Douglas Galton
on, 606.

*Neolithic invaders of Egypt, skulls of,
Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie on, 824.

+3 invaders of, Prof. W. M. Flinders
Petrie on, 824.

Station of Butmir (Bosnia), Dr. R.

Munro on the, $33.

INDEX.

Nervous system of the embryonic lobster,
Edgar J. Allen on the, 470.

New Zealand, the occurrence of two
forms of peltoid Trentepohliacez, and
their relation to the lichen Strigula,
A. Vaughan Jennings on, 851.

NEWTON (Prof. A.) on the present state
of our knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 467.

—— on our hnonledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 472.

— on making a digest of the observa-
tions on the migration of birds,
473.

NICHOLSON (Prof. H. A.) and J. E. MARR
on the phylogeny of the graptolites,
695.

Nile, the Upper, J. T. P. Heatley on the
port of, in relation to the highways of
foreign trade, 760.

Nitric oxide, the action of, on some
metallic salts, H. A. Auden and G. J.
Fowler on, 656.

North Polar expedition, Jackson-Harms-
worth, Arthur Montefiore, on the pro-
gress of the, 759.

—— Sea, the oceanography of the, H. N.
Dickson on, 752.

North-Western Tribes of the Dominion
of Canada, ninth report on the, 522.

Fifth report on the Indians of British
Columbia, by Dr. F. Boas, 523.

Northamptonshire, pre-Glacial valleys in,
Beeby Thompson on, 683.

Numbers, Mersenne’s, Lieut.-Col. Allen
Cunningham on, 612.

*Oceanic circulation, Dr. John Murray
on, 752.

Oceanography of the North Sea, H. N.
Dickson on the, 752.

OmMann»y (Adm. Sir E.) on the rate of

, erosion of the sea-coasts of England and
Wales, 352.

Organ-blowing, an experiment in, Dr. W.
Anderson on, 796.

Orthochromatic photography, Dr. H. W.
Vogel on, 660.

O’SHEA (L. T.) and Prof. W. M. Hicks
on the electrolysis of iron salts,
634.

OSWELL (F.) on the Snowdon mountain
tramroad, 798.

Ova of certain echinoderms and tunicates,
the maturation and feewndation of the,
M. D. Hill on, 475.

Onenia fusiformis, the septal organs of,
Prof. G. Gilson on, 728.

Oyster cultural methods, experiments,
and new proposals, Bashford Dean on,
723.

*___ culture in the Colne district, Dr.
H. C. Sorby on the, 726.

873

Oysters and typhoid, Prof. Rubert W.
Boyce and Prof. W. A. Herdman on,
723.

*Pacific, the exploration of the islands of
the, Prof. A. C. Haddon on, 731.

Pages of Scientific Societies’ publications,,
report on the uniformity of size of, 77.
*Paleolithic skeleton from the Thames
valley, Dr. J. G. Garson on a, 833.

stone implements from the terrace-
gravels of the Thames valley, H. Stopes
on, 826.

—— projectiles, H. Stopes on, 826.

—— and Arctic deposits at Hoxne, H.N.
Ridley and Clement Reid on, 679.

Paleozoic rocks, the dip of the wnder-
ground, at Ware and Cheshunt, Joseph
Francis on, 441.

Pangium edule, Reinw., the localisation,
the transport, and role of hydrocyanic
acid in, Dr. T. M. Treub on, 853.

PARKER (James) on the search for the
missing remains af the Cetiosaurus in
the Oxford Museum, 403.

Parochial registers, the preservation of
the national, H. Paton on, 778.

PARSONS (F.G.) on the value of myology
as anaidinthe classification of animals,
737.

—— (Capt. J.) on the rate of erosion of
the sea-coasts of England and Wales,
352.

*Partition of numbers, the graphical re-
presentation of, Major P. A. Macmahon
on, 613.

| PASCHEN (F.) and C. RUNGE on the con-

stituents of cleveite gas, 610.

PATON (H.) on the preservation of the
national parochial registers, 778.

—— (W. R.) and J. L. MyRzs on the
topography of Caria, 763.

Pauperism, the correlation of the rate of
general, with the proportion of out-
relief given, G. U. Yule on, 781.

| PEEK (Cuthbert E.) on the work of

the Corresponding Societies Committee,

—— on an ancient kitchen midden at
Hastings, and a barrow at the Wilder
nesseé, 500.

*PEEL (Hon. George) on the gold stand-
ard, 777.

*Pentland Hills, the ewrypterid-bearing
deposits of the, interim report on, 696.
Periodic law and specific refraction, with
reference to argon and other elements,

Dr. J. H. Gladstone on the, 609.

PERKIN (Dr. W. H.) on the action of light
upon dyed colours, 263.

PERRY (Prof. John) on practical electrical
standards, 195. ;

PETRIE (Prof. Flinders), Address to the
Section of Anthropology by, 816.

874

*PETRIE (Prof. Flinders) on skulls of
Neolithic invaders of Egypt, 824.
*___ on Neolithic invaders of Egypt, 824.

*. on flint and metal working in
Egypt, 825.
Phonograph, report on physiological

applications of the, 454.

Photographs of geological interest in the
Umited Kingdom, siwth report on the
collection, preservation, and systematic
registration of, 404.

Photography, the application of, to the
elucidation of meteorological pheno-
mend, fifth report on, 80.

C. H. Bothamley on the sensitising

action of dyes of gelatino-bromide

plates, 661.

orthochromatic, Dr. H. W. Vogel
on, 660.

Photometer, an improved portable, W. H.
Preece and A. P. Trotter on, 801.

Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic rocks, twelfth
report on the, 416.

Physiography of South Essex, the ancient,
T. V. Holmes on, 685.

Pitch glaciers or poissiers, Prof. W. J.
Sollas on, 680.

PITT-RIVERS (Gen.), on an ethnogra-
phical survey of the United Kingdom,
509.

on the lake village at Glastonbury,
519.

Placoderms of the Upper Devonian of
Ohio, the great, Prof. E. W. Claypole
on, 694.

Poison apparatus of certain snakes, G. 8.
West on, 737.

Pollen prepotency, J. C. Willis on cross-
and self-fertilisation, with special
reference to, 857,

Population in England and Wales, the
probability of a cessation of the
growth of, before 1951, Edwin Cannan
on, 780.

*PORTMAN (Maurice) on the Anda-
manese, 833.

PouutTon (Prof. E. B.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
39.

PoyntTInG (Prof. J. H.) on earth tremors,
184.

PREECE (W. H.) on practical electrical
standards, 195.

and A. P. TROTTER on an improved
portable photometer, 801.

Pre-Glacial valleys in Northamptonshire,
Beeby Thompson on, 683.

Presidential Address at Ipswich by Sir
Douglas Galton, 3.

PRESTWICH (Prof. J.) on underground
temperature, 75.

on earth tremors, 184.

on the high-level flint-drift of the

Chalk, 349,

REPORT—1895,

PRESTWICH (Prof. J.) on the rate of
erosion of the sea-coasts of England and
Wales, 352.

on the circulation of underground
waters, 393.

-—— on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 426, 430.

on an ancient kitchen midden at
Hastings, and a barrow at the Wilder-
nesse, 500.

*PRETYMAN (Capt. E. G.) on agriculture
in Suffolk, 779.

PRICE (L. L.), Address to the Section of
Economic Science and Statistics, 764.

Prices, the normal course of, William
Smart on, 776.

Printing surfaces, the production of
letterpress, without the use of types,
John Southward on, 810.

Prothallus and embryo of Danea, G.
Brebner on the, 857.

Publication of zoological memoirs, the
date of, H. Haviland Field on, 727.

Publications, Scientific Societies’, report
on the uniformity of size of pages of, 77.

Quantitative analysis, the electrolytic
methods of, report on, 235.

Railways, light, as an assistance to agri-
culture, Maj.-Gen. Webber on, 793.

RAmsAy (Prof. W.) and Miss DoroTHy
MARSHALL on a method of comparing
the heats of evaporation of different
liquids at their boiling points, 628.

RAVENSTEIN (KH. G.) on the climatology of
Africa, 480.

—— on the exploration of Southern
Arabia, 491.

on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 509.

RAWSON (Sir Rawson) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 39.

RAYLEIGH (Lord) on practical electrical
standards, 195.

on the refraction and viscosity of
argon and helium, 609.

*Receiver and condenser drop, Prof. A. E.
Elliott on, 815.

REDMAN (J. B.) on the rate of erosion of
the sea-coasts of England and Wales,
352.

Refraction, the change of molecular, in
salts or acids dissolved in water, Dr.
J. H. Gladstone and Walter Hibbert
on, 637.

specific, and the periodic law, with

reference to argon and other elements,

Dr. J. H. Gladstone on, 609.

and viscosity of argon and helium,
Lord Rayleigh on the, 609.

*Refrigerating machinery, carbonic
anhydride, KE. Hesketh on, 799.

INDEX.

Reichsanstalt, Charlottenburg,
Sir Douglas Galton on the, 606.

REID (A. 8.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 404.

—— (Clement) on the marine zoology,
botany, and geology of the Irish Sea,
455.

*____ Notes on the Cromer excursion,
681.

—— and H. N. Ripuey on the Arctic
and Paleolithic deposits at Hoxne, 679.

RENNIE (J.) on practical electrical
standards, 195.

Respirability of air in which a candle
flame has burnt until it is extinguished,
Frank Clowes on the, 658.

REYNOLDS (Prof. J. Emerson) on the
electrolytic methods of quantitative
analysis, 235.

Rheetic beds near East Leake, Notting-
hamshire, Montagu Browne on, 688.
RipuEy (H. N.) and Clement REID on
the Arctic and Paleolithic deposits at

Hoxne, 679.

Ritey (Prof. C. V.) on the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 467.

RitTER (Prof. W. E.), some facts and
reflections drawn from a study of
budding in compound ascidians, 715.

Ropurts (Dr. 1.) on earth tremors, 184.

on the circulation of underground
waters, 393.

ROBERTS-AUSTEN (Prof. W. C.) on the
bibliography of spectroscopy, 263.

*Rockall, Miller Christy on, 749.

*RODGERS (Charles), J. W. BARR, and

Berlin,

W. B. BURNIE on some new methods |;

and apparatus for the delineation of
alternate wave forms, 638.

Roscok (Sir H. E.) on the best methods
of recording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 81.

on wave-length tables of the spectra

of the elements and compounds, 273.

on the teaching of science in ele-
mentary schools, 228.

—— and Arthur HARDEN on a new view
of the genesis of Dalton’s atomic theory,
derived from original manuscripts,
656.

RUcKER (Prof. A. W.) on the comparison
of magnetic instruments, 79.

on the comparison and reduction of

magnetic observations, 209.

on the objective existence of com-

bination tones, 626.

on the existence of vertical (earth-
air) electric currents in the United
Kingdom, 633.

RUDLER (F. W.) on the volcanic phe-
nomena of Vesuvius, 351.

RuNGE(C.) and F. PASCHEN on the con-
stituents of cleveite gas, 610.

875

RUSSELL (Dr. W. J.) on the action of
light upon dyed colours, 263.

Russian possessions in Central Asia, Dr.
A. Markoff on, 762.

Ruwenzori, an expedition to, G. F. Scott
Elliot on, 756.

SALVIN (0.) on the zoology of the Sand-
mich Islands, 467.

Samoyads of the Arctic Tundras, Arthur
Montefiore on, 828.

Sandwich Islands, the zoology of the,
Fourth report on the, 467.

SAVILLE-KENT (W.) on the marine
fauna of Houtman’s Abrolhos Islands,
Western Australia, 732.

Schools, anthropometric measurements in,
report on, 503.

——.,, the physical and mental defects of
children in, report on, 503.

Appendix :

J. Defects enumerated individually and
in groups as distributed amongst the
nationalities, social classes, §¢., 506.

Il. Groups of children and their per-
centage distribution on the numbers
seen and numbers noted, 508.

——.,, the teaching of geometrical draw-
ing in, Prof. O. Henrici on, 608.

ScHUSTER (Prof. A.) on the comparison
of magnetic instruments, 79.

on the best methods of recording the

direct intensity of solar radiation, 81.

on practical electrical standards,

195.

on the comparison and reduction of
magnetic observations, 209.

— on wave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 273.

—— on some experiments made with
Lord Kelvin’s portable electrometer,
625.

Science, the teaching of, in elementary
schools, report on, 228.

ScLATER (Dr. P. L.) on the present state
of our knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 467.

—— onthe zoology and botany of the West
India Islands, 472.

on the compilation of an index

generum et specierum animalium, 473.

on the occupation of a table at the

zoological station at Naples, 474.

(W. L.) on the compilation of an
index generum et specierum animalium,
473.

Scorr (Dr. D. H.) on the chief results-of
Williamson’s work on the Carboni-
ferous plants, 852.

(Prof. W. B.) on the Tertiary lacus-
trine formations of North America,
681.

—— on the creodonta, 719.

876

ScoTtT-ELLioT (G. F.) on an expedition
to Ruwenzori, 756.

Screws, small, the British Association
gauge for, R. E. Crompton on, 812.

Sea-coasts of England and Wales, fourth
report on the rate of erosion of the, 352.

Seas, the probable extension of the,
during Upper Tertiary times inWestern
Europe, G. F. Dollfus on, 690.

SEDGWICK (A.) onthe occupation of atable
at the zoological station at Naples, 474.

SEEBOHM (H.) on the exploration of
Southern Arabia, 491.

SEELEY (Prof. H. G.) on the high-level
Hint-drift of the Chaik, 349.

on the search for the missing re-
mains of the Cetiosaurus in the Oxford
Museum, 403.

Senams, or Megalithic temples of
Tarhuna, Tripoli, H. Swainson Cowper
on, 827.

SETON-KARR (H. W.) on stone imple-
ments in Somaliland, 829.

Sewage, the deodorising of, by the Her-
mite process, J. Napier on, 800.

SEWARD (A. C.) on the Wealden flora of
England, 856.

SHARP (D.) on the zoology of the Sand-
mich Islands, 467.

on the zoology and botany of the
West India Tslands, 472.

*SHAw (W. A.) on a proposal for a
system of international money, 777.
(W. N.) on practical electrical

standards, 195.

Shells, the derivative, of the Red Crag,
F. W. Harmer on the, 676.

SHENSTONE (W. A.) on the production of
haloids from pure materials, 341.

*Siberia, Western, and the Siberian Rail-
way, Dr. A. Markoff on, 749.

*Siderostats, a movement designed to
attain astronomical accuracy in the
motion of, G. Johnstone Stoney on, 810.

Silver-using countries, the menace to
English industry from the competition
of, R. S. Gundry on, 777.

*Skeletal elements, the presence of,
between the mandibular and hyoid
arches of Hexacanthus and Lemargus,
Dr. Philip White on, 719.

*Skeleton, Paleolithic, from the Thames
valley, Dr. J. G. Garson on a, 833.

*Skulls of Neolithic invaders of Egypt,
Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie on, 824.

* of the new race in Egypt, Dr. J. G.
Garson on, 833

SLADEN (Percy) on the occupation of a
table at the Zoological Station at Naples,
474,

SMART (William) on the normal course
of prices, 776.

SMITH (C. Michie) on underground tem-
perature, 75.

REPORT—1895.

SMITH (C. Michie) on Indian thunder
storms, 626.

(KE. A.) on the present state of our

knowledge of the zoology of the Sandwich

Islands, 467.

(Dr. Wilberforce) on the physical
and mental defects of children in schools,
503.

Snakes, the poison apparatus of certain,
G. 8. West on, 737.

Snowdon mountain tramroad, F. Oswell
on the, 798.

tarns near, W.W.Watts on some, 683.

Solar radiation, eleventh report on the
best methods of recording the direct
intensity of, 81.

Solenoid, magnetic field due to a current
ina, W. H. Everett on the, 620.

Solidification and crystallisation, the
velocity of, Meyer Wildermann on, 663.

SOLLAS (Prof. W. J.) on the structure of
a coral reef, 392.

on pitch glaciers or poissiers, 680.

So_ms-LAUBACH (Graf) on a new form
of fructification in Sphenophyllum,
852.

Somaliland, stone implements in, H. W.
Seton-Karr on, 824.

*SorBy (Dr. H. C.) on the oyster culture
in the Colne district, 726.

on mounting marine animals as
transparent lantern slides, 730.

—— on methods for collecting and
estimating the number of small
animals in sea water, 730.

SOUTHWARD (John) on the production
of letterpress printing surfaces with-
out the use of types, 810.

Southwold, a section at the north cliff,
Horace B. Woodward on, 678.

—— and Covehithe, recent coast erosion
at, John Spiller on, 678.

Spectra of the elements and compounds,
wave-length tables of the, report on, 273.

motions competent to produce
groups of lines which have been
observed in actual, G. Johnstone
Stoney on, 610.

Spectroscopy, the bibliography of, seventh
(interim) report on, 263.

*Spectrum, discussion on the evidence
to be gathered as to the simple or
compound character of a gas from
the constitution of its spectrum, 610.

Spermatogenesis in birds, J. E. 8. Moore
on, 735.

Sphenophyllum, a new form of fructifica-
tion in, Graf Solms-Laubach on, 852.
SPILLER (John) on recent coast erosion

at Southwold and Covehithe, 678.

STARLING (Sydney G.) and Edwin
EDSER on the velocity of light in
rarefied gases through which an elec-
tric discharge is passing, 635.

INDEX.

Statistics and Economic Science, Ad-
dress to the Section of, by L. L. Price,
764.

—— of wasps, Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth on
the, 729.

STEBBING (T. R. R.) on economy of
labour in zoology, 728.

Stereornithes, a group of extinct birds
from South America, C. W. Andrews
on, 714.

*Sternum in Hewxacanthus griseus, the
presence of a, Dr. Philip White on, 719.

STEWART (Prof. A.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 392.

Stilbene derivatives, J. J. Sudborough
on some, 662.

STOKES (Sir G. G.) on the best methods
of recording the direct intensity of
solar radiation, 81.

Stone implements in Somaliland, H. W.
Seton-Karr on, 824.

Stonesfield slate, second report on opening
further sections of the, 414.

—— the strata of the shaft sunk in
1895 at, Edwin A. Walford on, 692.
*SToNEY (F. G. M.) and R. C. NAPIER

on weirs in rivers, 796.

(Dr. G. Johnstone) on the wni-

formity of size of pages of Scientific

Societies’ publications, 77.

on the best methods of recording the

direct intensity of solar radiation, 81.

on practical electrical standards,

195.

on motions competent to produce
groups of lines which have been ob-
served in actual spectra, 610.

* on a movement designed to attain
astronomical accuracy in the motion
of siderostats, 810.

STOOKE (T. 8.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 393.

Srores (H.) on graving tools from the
terrace-gravels of the Thames valley,
826.

on Paleolithic projectiles, 826.

Storage batteries, H. A. Earle on, 802.

STRAHAN (A.) on underground tempera-
ture, 75.

SrRroup (Prof. W.) on the action of light
upon dyed colours, 263.

Stutton, the trial boring at, W. Whitaker
on, 693.

SupBoroucH (J. J.) on some stilbene
derivatives, 662.

—— on the constitution of camphoric
acid, 663.

*Suffolk dialect, C.G.de Betham on the,
831.

— well-sections, W. Whitaker on some,
436.

— and Norfolk, agricultural experi-
mental stations in, T. B. Wood on,
660.

877

SUMNER (J. C.) on the echinoderm fauna
of Plymouth, 471.

Surface, the influence of the, on the
transfer of heat through plates, W. G.
Walker on, 814.

SWINBURNE (J.) on the uniformity of size
of pages of Scientific Societies’ publica-
tions, 77.

Symbiosis in Tetraplodon, a supposed
case of, Prof. F. E. Weiss on, 855.

SyMons (G. J.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 39.

on underground temperature, 75.

on the application of photography

to the elucidation of meteorological

phenomena, 80.

on the best methods of recording the

direct intensity of solar radiation, 81.

on earth tremors, 184.

on the circulation of underground

waters, 393.

on theclimatology of Africa, 480.

* on autumn floods of 1894, 796.

Tables, mathematical, Lieut.-Col. Allan
Cunningham on a new canon arith-
meticus, 613.

Tarns near Snowdon, W. W. Watts on
some, 683.

TAYLOR (H.) on practical electrical
standards, 195.

——- on the voleanie phenomena of Vesu-
vius and its neighbourhood, 351.

THALL (J. J. H.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 404.

Teeth in certain insectivora, the develop-
ment of the, M. F. Woodward on, 736.

Telegraph in the Chitral campaign, the
field, P. V. Luke on, 809.

Telephoneservice in agricultural districts,
Maj.-Gen. Webber on the development
of the, 804.

Telephony, the development of, in
Europe, A. R. Bennett on, 806.

Temperatures, underground, report on, 75.

*_____ some recent improvements in
measurements of high, E. H. Griffiths
on, 638.

Tertiary lacustrine formations of North
America, Prof. W.B. Scott on the, 681.

*___ strata of Belgium, the Upper,
E. van den Broek on the present state
of our knowledge of, 691.

—— times, probable extension of the
seas during Upper, in Western Europe,
G. F. Dollfus on, 690.

Tetrahedron, a species of, the volume of
any member of which can be de-
termined without employing the proof
of a proposition which depends on the
method of limits, Prof. M. J. M. Hill
on, 619.

878

Tetraplodon, a sapposed case of symbiosis
in, Prof. F. E. Weiss on, 855.

Thames valley, graving tools from the
terrace gravels of the, H. Stopes on, 826.

Thermal conductivities of mixtures of
liquids, Charles H. Lees on the, 628.

THISELTON-DYER (W. T.), Address to
the Section of Botany, 836.

on the destruction of a cedar tree
at Kew by lightning, 854.

THOMPSON (Beeby) on _ pre-Glacial
valleys in Northamptonshire, 683.

—— (1. C.) on the marine zoology, botany,
and geology of the Irish Sea, 455.

(Prof. Silvanus P.) on the uniformity
of size of pages of Scientific Societies’
publications, 77.

—— on practicalelectrical standards, 195.

on the teaching of science in element-

ary schools, 228.

on the choice of magnetic units, 637.

THOMSON (Prof. J. J.) on practical
electrical standards, 195.

THORPE (Dr. T. E.) on the action of
light upon dyed colours, 263.

Thunderstorms, Indian, C. Michie Smith
on, 626.

TIDDEMAN (R. H.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 404.

on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 426, 430.

Tides, the effect of wind and atmospheric
pressure on the, W. H. Wheeler on,
795.

TILDEN (Prof. W. A.) on the investiga-
tion of isomeric naphthalene deriva-
tives, 272.

Tones, combination, A. W. Riicker on
the objective existence of, 626.

Top, a dynamical, G. T. Walker on, 613.

TOPLEY (the late W.) on the rate of
erosion of the sea-coasts of England and
Wales, 352.

*Tow-net, the surface, a simple and
efficient collecting reservoir for, W.
Garstang on, 729.

Traction, the modern application of elec-
tricity to, Philip Dawson on, 800.

Trade, foreign, the port of the Upper
Nile in relation to the highways of,
J. T. P. Heatley on, 760.

Tramroad, the Snowdon mountain, F.
Oswell on, 798.

Trentepohliacez, the occurrence in New
Zealand of two forms of peltoid, and
their relation to the lichen Strigula, A.
Vaughan Jennings on, 851.

TREUB (Dr. T. M.) on the localisation,
the transport, and réle of hydrocyanic
acid in Pangiwm edule, Reinw., 853.

Tripoli, a journey in Tarhuna and
Gharian in, H. Swainson Cowper on,
749.

REPOR!T—1895.

Tripoli, the Megalithic temples of Ter-
huna in, H. Swainson Cowper on, 827.

TRISTRAM (Rev. Canon H. B.) on the work
of the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee, 39.

TROTTER (A. P.) and W. H. PREECE on
an improved portable photometer, 801.

Tunicata, a new classification of, Walter
Garstang on outlines of, 718.

Tunicates and echinoderms, the matura-
tion and fecundation of the ova of
certain, M. D. Hill on, 475.

Tunnelling under rivers and shaft-sink-
ing, the Gobert freezing process for, A.
Gobert on, 794.

*TURNER (F. W.) on modern flour milling
machinery, 810.

(Prof. H. H.) on the comparison of

magnetic instruments, 79.

(T.) on the electrolytic methods of

quantitative analysis, 235.

TYLDEN-WRIGHT (C.) on the circulation
of underground waters, 393.

TyLor (Dr. E. B.) on the North- Western
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 522.

*Type specimens, geological, interim re-
port on the registration of, 697.

Typhoid and oysters, Prof. Rubert W.
Boyce and Prof, W. A. Herdman on,723.

Underground temperature, the rate of
increase of, donnwards in various lo-
calities of dry land and under water,
twenty-first report on, 751.

waters in the permeable formations
of England and Wales, final report on,
393.

Appendix :
Second list of works, by W. Whitaker,
394,

Units, magnetic, Prof. Silvanus P.
Thompson on the choice of, 637.

Unwin (Prof. W. C.) on the calibration
of instruments used in engineering
laboratories, 497.

VALENTINE (J. 8.) on the rate of erosion
of the sea-coasts of England and Wales,
352.

Vancouver's Island, decapod Crustacea
from the Cretaceous formation of,
Henry Woodward on some, 696.

*Van’t Hoff’s constant, experimental
proofs of, for very dilute solutions,
Meyer Wildermann on, 663.

Variations, the law of error in the case
of correlated, 8. H. Burbury on, 621.

Vesuvius and its neighbourhood, the vol-
canie phenomena of, final report on, 351.

VINES (Prof. S. H.) on investigations
made at the Marine Biological Asso-
ciation laboratory at Plymouth, 469.

INDEX.

Viscosity and refraction of argon and
helium, Lord Rayleigh on, 609.

*Vital units, ultimate, Miss Nina Layard
on, 737.

*VIVIAN (J.) on the machinery employed
in the East Anglian coal exploration,
795.

Voce. (Dr. H. W.) on orthochromatic
photography, 660.

Volcanic phenomena of Vesuvius and its
neighbourhood, final report on the, 351.

— and earthquake phenomena of
Japan, the fourteenth report on the,
81; the fifteenth report on the, 113.

Vortex aggregates, Prof. W. M. Hicks on
bicyclic, 612.

—, Hill’s spherical, Prof. W. M. Hicks
on, 612.

we theory, Prof. Hicks’s cellular, sug-
gestions as to matter and gravitation
in, by C. V. Burton, 613.

WAGER (Harold) on the structure of
bacterial cells, 856.

Wages, comparison of the rate of increase
of, in the United States and in Great
Britain, 1860-1891, A. L. Bowley on,
775.

WALFORD (Edwin A.) on the Stonesfield
slate, 414.

— on the strata of the shaft sunk at
Stonesfield in 1895, 692.

WALKER (A. 0.) on the marine zoology,
botany, and geology of the Irish Sea,
455.

—— (G. T.) on adynamical top, 613.

—— (W. G.) on the transfer of heat
through plates with variously arranged
surfaces, 814.

Ward (Prof. Marshall) on a false Bac-
terium, 850.

on the formation of bacterial
colonies, 854.

Ware and Cheshunt, the dip of the under-
ground Paleozoic rocks at, Joseph
Francis on, 441.

Warfare, the light thrown on primitive,
by the languages and usages of his-
toric times, Rev. G. Hartwell Jones on,
832.

WARINGTON (Prof. R.), How shall agri-
culture best obtain help from science ?
341.

WARNER (Dr. Francis) on the physical
and mental defects of children in schools,
503.

Wasps, the statistics of, Prof. F. Y.
Edgeworth on, 729.

Water, bacterial life in river, Dr. E.
Frankland on the conditions affecting,
731.

WATSON (W.) on the comparison of mag-
netic instruments, 79.

879

Watts (Dr. Marshall) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 273.

(W. W.) on the collection of photo-

graphs of geological interest in the

United Kingdom, 404.

on some tarns

near Snowdon,

683.
*Wave forms, alternate, some new
methods and apparatus for the

delineation of, J. M. Barr, W. B.
Burnie, and Charles Rodgers on, 638.
Wave-length tables of the spectra of the
elements and compounds, report on,

273.

*. tracers, Prof. W. E. Ayrton and T.
Mather on alternating, 638.

Wealden flora of England, A. C. Seward
on the, 856.

WEBBER (Maj.-Gen.) on light railways
as an assistance to agriculture, 793.

on the development of the telephone
service in agricultural districts, 804.

*Weirs in rivers, kK. C. Napier and F. G. M.
Stoney on, 796.

WEIss (Prof. F. E.) on the marine zoology,
botany, and geology of the Irish Sea,
455.

-—_— on a supposed case of symbiosis in
Tetraplodon, 855.

Well-sections, some Suffolk, W. Whitaker
on, 436.

WEST (G. 8.) on the poison apparatus of
certain snakes, 737.

West India Islands, eighth report on the
zoology and botany of the, 472.

WESTON (Rev. Walter) on exploration in
the Japanese Alps, 1891-94, 761.

WETHERED (E.) on underground tem-
perature, 75.

WHARTON (Adm. W. J. L.) on the rate
of erosion of the sea-coasts of England
and Wales, 352.

on the structure of a coral reef,
392.

WHEELER (W. H.) on the effect of wind
and atmospheric pressure on the tides,
795.

WHITAKER (W.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 39.

on the rate of erosion of the sea-
coasts of England and Wales, 352.

— second chronological list of works
on the coast-changes and shore-deposits
of England and Wales, 388.

-—— on the circulation of wnderground
naters, 393.

second list of works referring to
underground water, England and
Wales, 394.

—— on some Suffolk well-sections, 436.

—— Address to the Section of Geology,
666.

—— on the trial-boring at Stutton, 693.

880

*WHITE (Dr. Philip) on the presence of
skeletal elements between the mandi-
bular and hyoid arches of Hexacanthus
and Lemargus, 719.

*____ on the presence of a sternum in
Hexacanthus griseus, 719.

— (R. Blake) on the Glacial age in
tropical America, 682.

*WILDERMANN (Meyer) on experimental
proofs of van’t Hofi’sconstant, Dalton’s
law, &c., for very dilute solutions, 663.

on the velocity of reaction before
perfect equilibrum takes place, 663.

Wildernesse, Sevenoaks, report on a
barrow at the, 502.

*WILKINSON (Rev. J. Frome) on the
State and workers on the land, 781.
Williamson’s work on the Carboniferous
plants, Dr. D. H. Scott on the chief

results of, 852.

Wiis (J. C.) on cross- and self-fertilisa-
tion, with special reference to pollen
prepotency, 857.

*“WiLson (Dr. Gregg) on hereditary
polydactylism, 733.

*___ on the reproduction of the common
crab, 733.

(W. E.) on the best methods of
recording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 81.

WILTSHIRE (Prof. T.) on the fossil
Phyllopoda of the Palaozoie rocks,
416.

Wind and atmospheric pressure, the
effect of, on the tides, W. A. Wheeler
on, 795.

WINDLE (Prof. Bertram) on anthropome-
tric measurements in schools, 503.

WinpDoES (J.) on the Stonesfield slate,
414.

WINGATE (David 8.) on physiological
applications of the phonograph, 454.
Witwatersrand, Transvaal, the auriferous
conglomerates of the, Ff. H. Hatch on,

691.

‘WourF (H. W.) on co-operation in the
service of agriculture, 780.

*Women, labour and co-operation among,
the national value of organised, Mrs.
Bedford Fenwick on, 781.

Woop (T. B.) on agricultural experi-
mental stations in Suffolk and Norfolk,
660.

* ___ (W. H.) on the zodiacal light con-
sideredasan atmospheric phenomenon,
626.

*__._ on the local origin of the Aurora
Borealis, 626.

WoopDALL (J. W.) on the rate of erosion
of the sea-coasts of England and Wales,
352.

REPORT—1895.

WooDALu (J. W.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Treland, 426, 430.

WoopwaRrD (Dr. H.) on the fossil Phylilo-
poda of the Pala@ozoie rocks, 416.

on the Stonesfield slate, 414.

on the compilation of an index

generum et specierum animalium, 473.

on some decapeod Crustacea from the
Cretaceous formation of Vancouver's
Island, 696.

—-- (H. B.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest in the
Onited Kingdom, 404.

on the Stonesfield slate, 414.

—— on a section at the north cliff,
Southwold, 678.

(M. F.) on the development of the
teeth in certain Insectivora, 736.

WYNNE (A. B.) on wndergrownd tempera-
ture, 75.

Yeast-cells, experimental studies in the
variation of, Dr. Emil Chr. Hansen on,
852.

+YULE (G. U.) on a harmonic analyser,
630.

—— on the correlation of the rate of
general pauperism with the proportion
of out-relief given, 781.

*Zodiacal light considered as an atmo-
spheric phenomenon, W. H. Wood on
the, 626.

Zoological bibliography, the organisation
of, H. Haviland Field on, 726.

—— memoirs, the ‘ date of publication’
of, H. Haviland Field on, 727.

—- Station at Naples, report on the
occupation of a table at the, 474.

Appendix :

I. On the maturation and fecundation
of the ova of certain echinoderms and
tunicates, by M. D. Hill, 475.

Il. List of naturalists who have worked
at the station from July 1, 1894, to
June 30, 1895, 477.

Ill. List of papers published in 1894
by naturalists who have occupied
tables at the station, 478.

Zoology, Address by Prof. W. A. Herd-
man to the Section of, 698.

—— and botany of the West India
Islands, eighth report on the present
state of our knowledge of the, 472.

, marine, of the Irish Sea, third
report on the, 455.

-— of the Sandwich Islands, fifth
report on the present state of our
knowledge of the, 467.

——, economy of labour in, T. R. R.
Stebbing on, 728.

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Contents :—Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee ;—Report on
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REPORT or tHe SIXTY-THIRD MEETING, at Nottingham,
September 1893, Published at £1 4s.

ConTENTS :—Address by the President, Professor Burdon Sanderson ;—Report
of the Corresponding Societies Committee ;—Report on the Tables connected with
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S

883

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884

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VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Right Hon. the Lorp Mayor or LIVERPOOL. Sir Henry E. Roscor, D.O.L., F.R.S.
The Right Hon. the Ear or SEFTON, K.G., Lord- THE PRINCIPAL of University Oollege, Liverpool.
Lieutenant of Lancashire. W. RATHBONE, Esq., LL.D,
The Right Hon. the Eart or Drrsy, G.0.B. W. Ornooxks, Esq. F.B.S.
Sir W. B. Forwoop.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
A. G. VERNON Harcourt, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres.C.S., Cowley Grange, Oxford.
Professor E. A. SCHAFER, F.R.S., University College, London, W.C.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., College Road, Harrow, Middlesex.

GENERAL TREASURER,
Professor ARTHUR W. Ricker, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT LIVERPOOL.
Professor W. A. HERDMAN, F.R.S. | Isaac C. THOMPSON, Esq., F.L.S. | W. E. Witting, Esq.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT LIVERPOOL.
REGINALD BUSHELL, Esq.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ANDERSON, Dr. W., F.R.S. PouLton, Professor E. B., F.R.S.
AYRTON, Professor W. E., F.R.S. Ramsay, Professor W., F.R.S.

BAKER, Sir B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. REYNOLDS, Professor J. EMERSON, M.D.,
Boys, Professor C. VeRNON, F.R.S. F.R.S.

EDGEWORTH, Professor F. Y., M.A. SHaAw, W.N., Esq., F.R.S.

EVANS, Sir J., K.C.B., F.R.S. Symons, G. J., Esq., F.R.S.

FOXWELL, Professor H. S., M.A. TEALL, J. J. H., Esq., F.R.S.

HARcourT, Professor L. F. VERNON, M.A, THISELTON-DYER, W. T. Esq., C.M.G., F.RS.
HERDMAN, Professor W. A., F.R.S. THOMSON, Professor J. M., F.R.S.E.
HORsLey, Professor Victor, F.R.S. UNWIN, Professor W. C., F.R.S.

LonpGE, Professor OLIVER J., F.R.S. VINES, Professor S. H., F.R.S.
MARKHAM, CLEMENTS R., Esq., O.B., F.R.S. WARD, Professor MARSHALL, F.R.S.
MELDOLA, Professor R., F.R.S. WHITAKER, W., Esq., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Sir Joun Luppock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
The Right Hon. Lord RayLEIGH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.R.S., F.R.A.S.
The Right Hon. Lord Puayrarr, K.C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.

The Duke of Argyll, K.G.,K.T. | Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S. | Sir Frederick Abel, Bart., F.R.S

The Rt.Hon.SirW. R, Grove,F.R.S. | Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., Sec.R.S. | Dr. Wm. Huggins, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.I. Lord Playfair, K.C.B., F.R.S. SirArchibald Geikie, LL.D.,F.R.S.
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S. Sir Wm. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S. | Prof. J.S.Burdon Sanderson,F.R.S.
Lord Kelvin, LL.D., Pres.R.S. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G.,
Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S. Sir F, J, Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S. F.R.S.

GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.

F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. G. Griffith, Esq., M.A. Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S.
Prof. Michael Foster, Sec.R.S, P. L. Sclater, Esq.,Ph.D., F.R.S. | Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Sir Douglas Galton, K.O.B., F.R.S.
AUDITORS,
Dr. T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S. | Ludwig Mond, Esq., F.R.S. | Jeremiah Head, Esq., M.Inst.0.E.
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LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

1895.

* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report.
§§ indicates Annual Subscribers who will be entitled to the Annual
Report if their Subscriptions are paid by December 31, 1895.
+ indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members, elected
before 1845, not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.

Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant
General Secretary, G. Griffith, Bsq.

Year of
‘Election.

1887. *Abbe, Professor Cleveland. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
: culture, Washington, U.S.A.

1881. *Abbott, R. T. G. Whitley House, Malton.

1887, tAbbott,T. C. Eastleigh, Queen’s-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1863. *Anet, Sir Freperick Aveusrus, Bart., K.O.B., D.C.L., D.Sc.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S., President of the Government Committee on
Explosives. The Imperial Institute, Imperial Institute-road,
and 2 Whitehall-court, London, S.W.

1886. tAbercromby, The Hon, Ralph, F.R.Met.Soc. 21 Chapel-Street,
Belgrave-square, London, S.W.

1885. *ABERDEEN, The Right Hon. the Earl of, G.C.M.G., LL.D. 37 Gros-
venor-square, London, W.

1885. tAberdeen, The Countess of. 387 Grosyenor-square, London, W.

1885. tAbernethy, David W. Ferryhill Cottage, Aberdeen.

1863. *ABERNETHY, JAMES, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 4 Delahay-street, West-
minster, S. W.

1885. tAbernethy, James W. 2 Rubislaw-place, Aberdeen.

6 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1873. *Anney, Captain W. pr W., R.E., C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.C.S. Willeslie House, Wetherby-road, South Kensington,
London, 8S. W.

1886. {Abraham, Harry. 147 High-street, Southampton.

1877. tAce, Rey. Daniel, D.D., F.R.A.S. Laughton, near Gainsborough,
Lincolnshire.

1884, f{Acheson, George. Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Canada.

1873. {Ackroyd, Samuel. Greaves-street, Little Horton, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1882. *Acland, Alfred Dyke. 388 Pont-street, Chelsea, London, S.W.

1869. tAcland, Charles T. D. Sprydoncote, Exeter.

1877. *Acland, Captain Francis E. Dyke, R.A. Woodmansterne Rectory,
Banstead, Surrey.

1873. *Acland, Rey. H. D., M.A. Luccombe Rectory, Taunton.

1894, *Acland, Henry Dyke, F.G.S. The Old Bank, Great Malvern.

1873. *Actanp, Sir Henry W. D., Bart., K.C.B., M.A., M.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Radcliffe Librarian in the University of
Oxford. Broad-street, Oxford.

1877, *Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.A. 74 Brook-street, London, W.

1860. {ActAnD, Sir THomas Dyx#, Bart., M.A., D.C.L. Killerton, Exeter ;
and Athengzeum Club, London, 8. W.

1887. f{Apamt, J. G., B.A. New Museums, Cambridge.

1892. {Adams, David. Rockville, North Queensferry.

1884, {Adams, Frank Donovan. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

1876. {Adams, James. 9 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.

1871. §Adams, John R. 2 Nutley-terrace, Hampstead, London, N.W.

1879. *Apams, Rey. THomas, M.A., D.C.L., Principal of Bishop’s College,
Lennoxville, Canada.

1877. tAdams, William. 3 Sussex-terrace, Plymouth.

1869. *Apams, Witt1am Grrtts, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S., Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King’s College,
London. 43 Campden Hill-square, London, W.

1879. tAdamson, Robert, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logic in the Uni-
versity of Glasgow.

1890. {Addyman, James Wilson, B.A. Belmont, Starbeck, Harrogate.

1890. {ApEnny, W. E., F.C.S. Royal University of Ireland, Earlsford-
terrace, Dublin.

1865. *Adkins, Henry. Northfield, near Birmingham.

1883. tAdshead, Samuel. School of Science, Macclesfield.

1884. {Agnew, Cornelius R. 266 Maddison-avenue, New York, U.S.A.

1887. tAgnew, William. Summer Hill, Pendleton, Manchester.

1884, tAikins, Dr. W.T. Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

1864, *Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

1871. *Ainsworth, John Stirling. Harecroft, Cumberland.

1871. tAinsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

1895. *Airy, Hubert, M.D. Stoke House, Woodbridge, Suffolk.

1891. *Aisbitt, M. W. Mountstuart-square, Cardiff.

1871. §ArrKEN, Jonn, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Darroch, Falkirk, N.B.

1884. *Alabaster, H. Hazeldene, Wood-vale, Honor Oak, London, S.E.

1886. *Albright,G.S. The Elms, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1862. {Axcock, Sir Rurnerrorp, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. The Athe-
nzeum Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.

1894,§§Alexander, A. W. Blackwall Lodge, Halifax.

1891. tAlexander, D. T. Dynas Powis, Cardiff. _

1883. {Alexander, George. Kildare-street Club, Dublin.

1888. *Alexander, Patrick Y. 47 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

1873. leper co Reginald, M.D. 18 Hallfield-road, Bradford, York-
shire,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 7

Year of
Election.

1891.
1883.

1883.
1883.

1867.
1885.
1871.
1871.
1879.
1887.
1887.
1888.
1884.
1891.

1887.
1878.
1861.
1887.
1891.
1889.
1863.
1889.

1886.
1887.

1878.

1891.

1885.
1883.

1884,

1885.

1850.
1885.
1885.
1874.
1892.
1888.
1887.
1889.

1880.
1886.

1880.
1885.
1895.

1891.

*Alford, Charles J., F.G.8. Coolivin, Hawkwood-road, Boscombe,
Hants.

fAlger, Miss Ethel. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.

tAlger, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.

tAlger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.

tAlison, George L. C. Dundee.

tAllan, David. West Cults, near Aberdeen.

tAllan, G., M.Inst.C.E. 10 Austin Friars, London, E.C.

tAcen, ALFrepD H., F.C.S. Sydenham Cottage, Park-lane, Sheffield.

*Allen, Rev. A. J.C. The Librarian, Peterhouse, Cambridge.

*Allen, Arthur Ackland. Overbrook, Kersal, Manchester.

*Allen, Charles Peter. Overbrook, Kersal, Manchester.

§Allen, F. J. Mason College, Birmingham.

tAllen, Rev. George. Shaw Vicarage, Oldham.

tAllen, Henry A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W.

tAllen, John. Kilgrimol School, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, via Preston.

tAllen, John Romilly. 28 Great Ormond-street, London, W.C.

fAllen, Richard. Didsbury, near Manchester.

*Allen, Russell. 2 Parkwood, Victoria Park, Manchester.

tAllen, W. H. 24 Glenroy-street, Roath, Cardiff.

tAllhusen, Alfred. Low Fell, Gateshead.

tAUhusen, C. Elswick Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Allhusen, Frank E, Charterhouse, Godalming.

*ALLMAN, GrorcE J., M.D., LL.D.,F.R.S.,F.R.S.E., M.R.LA., F.L.S.,
Emeritus Professor of Natural History in the University of
Edinburgh. Ardmore, Parkstone, Dorset.

tAllport, Samuel, F.G.S. 50 Whittall-street, Birmingham.

tAlward, G. L. 11 Hamilton-street, Grimsby, Yorkshire.

tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tAmbrose, D. R. Care of Messrs. J. Evans & Co., Bute Docks,
Cardiff.

§Amery, John Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

§Amery, Peter Fabyan Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

tAmi, Henry, F.G.S. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

tAnderson, Charles Clinton. 4 Knaresborough-place, Cromwell-
road, London, S.W.

t{Anderson, Charles Wiliam. Belvedere, Harrogate.

tAnderson, Miss Constance. 17 Stonegate, York.

*Anderson, Hugh Kerr. Caius College, Cambridge.

tAnderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast.

tAnderson, Joseph, LL.D. 8 Great King-street, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, R. Bruce. 354 Great George-street, London, S.W.

tAnderson, Professor R. J.. M.D. Queen’s College, Galway.

tAnderson, Robert Simpson. Elswick Collieries, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

+Re renee: Trempzst, M.D., B.Sc., F.G.S. 17 Stonegate, York.

*AnpEeRSON, Wixz1AM, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Director-
General of Royal Ordnance Factories. Lesney House, Erith,
Kent.

tAndrew, Mrs. 126 Jamaica-street, Stepney, London, E.

tAndrew, Thomas, F.G.S. 18 Southernhay, Exeter.

§ Andrews, Charles W. British Museum (Natural History), London,
S.W

{ Andrews, Thomas. 163 Newport-road, Cardiff.

8

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1880.
1886,
1883.
1877.

1886.
1886.
1878.
1890.
1874.
1894,
1884.

13651.
1883.
1883.
1887,
1867.
1857.
1879.

1886.

1873.

1876.

1889.

1884,

1889,

*Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.E. Cefn Eithen, Swansea.

§Andrews, William, F.G.S. Steeple Croft, Coventry.

tAnelay, Miss M. Mabel. Girton College, Cambridge.

§ANGELL, JoHn, F.C.S. 5 Beacons-tield, Derby-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.

tAnnan, John, J.P. Whitmore Reans, Wolverhampton.

tAnsell, Joseph. 88 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

tAnson, Frederick H. 15 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S.W.

§Antrobus, J. Coutts. Eaton Hall, Congleton.

tArcuer, W., F.R.S., M.R.LA. 11 South Frederick-street, Dublin.

§Archibald, A, Bank House, Ventnor.

*Archibald, E. Douglas. Care of Mr. F. Tate, 28 Market-street,
Melbourne.

tArReyLt, His Grace the Duke of, K.G.,K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
F.G.S8. Argyll Lodge, Kensington, London, W. ; and Inyerary,
Argyllshire.

§Armistead, Richard. 33 Chambres-road, Southport.

*Armistead, William. 15 Rupert-street, Compton-road, Wolver-
hampton.

tArmitage, Benjamin. Chomlea, Pendleton, Manchester.

*Armitstead, George. Errol Park, Errol, N.B.

*ArmsTRoNG, The Right Hon. Lord, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Cragside, Rothbury.

*A RMSTRONG, Sir ALEXANDER, K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
The Albany, London, W.

tARMsTRONG, GEORGE FRpppRICK, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.8., Regius
Professor of Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. The
University, Edinburgh.

*ArmstronG, Henry E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemis-
try in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Central
Institution, Exhibition-road, London, 8.W. 55 Granville
Park, Lewisham, 8.E.

{Armstrong, James. Bay Ridge, Long Island, New York, U.S.A.

tArmstrong, John A. 382 Eldon-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tArmstrong, Robert B. Junior Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London,
8.W.
Armstrong, Thomas. Higher Broughton, Manchester.

tArmstrong, Thomas John, 14 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-upon-

yne.

1893.§§ Arnold-Bemrose, H., M.A., F.G.S8. 56 Friar-gate, Derby.

1870.

1853.
1886.

1870.
1874.
1889.

1887.
1866,

1887.

1888.

1890,

tArnott, Thomas Reid. Bramshill, Harlesden Green, London,
N.W.

*Arthur, Rev. William, M.A. Clapham Common, London, S. W.

tAscough, Jesse. Patent Borax Company, Newmarket-street, Bir-
mingham.

*Ash, Dr. T Linnington. Holsworthy, North Devon.

tAshe, Isaac, M.B. Dundrum, Co. Dublin.

§Ashley, Howard M. Airedale, Ferrybridge, Yorkshire.

Asuton, THomas, J.P. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester.
tAshton, Thomas Gair, M.A. 386 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
tAshwell, Henry. Woodthorpe, Nottingham.

*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors,
tAshworth, Mrs. Harriet. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, near Stock-
ort.

Agno , Henry. Turton, near Bolton.

*Ashworth, J.J. 39 Spring-gardens, Manchester.
tAshworth, J. Reginald. 20 King-street, Rochdale.

Year of
Election,

1887.

1887.
1875.
1861.
1861.
1887.

1865.

1884.
1894,
1894,
1861.
1881.
1881.
1894,
1863.

1884,
1886.
1860.
1881.
1888.

1877.

1884.

1863.
1883.
1887.

1887.
1881.

1877.
1883.
1892.
1883.

1893.
1870.
1887.
1865.

1855.

1887.
1866,
1894.
1878.
1885.
1873.
1885.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 9

tAshworth, John Wallwork, F.G.S. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor,
near Stockport.

tAspland, Arthur P. Werneth Lodge, Gee Cross, near Manchester.

*Aspland, W. Gaskell. Birchwood-grove, Burgess Hill, Sussex.

§Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.

tAston, Theodore. 11 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.

§Atkinson, Rey. C. Chetwynd, M.A. Fairfield House, Ashton-on-
Mersey.

*Arkrnson, Epmunp, Ph.D., F.C.S. Portesbery Hill, Camberley,
Surrey.

tAtkinson, Edward, Ph.D., LL.D. Brookline, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

§Atkinson, George M. 28 St. Oswald’s-road, London, 8. W.

*Atkinson, Harold W. Erwood, Beckenham, Kent.

tAtkinson, Rev. J. A. The Vicarage, Bolton.

tAtkinson, J. T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.

tArKinson, Ropert WILiAM, F.C.S. 44 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.

§Atkinson, William. Erwood, Beckenham, Kent.

*ATTFIELD, Professor J.,.M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Bloomsbury-
square, London, W.C. y

tAuchincloss, W.S. 209 Church-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

tAulton, A. D., M.D. Walsall.

*Austin-Gourlay, Rev. William E. C., M.A. Kincraig, Winchester.

tAaon, W. E. A. Fern Bank, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

tAyre, Rev. J. W., M.A. 30 Green-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.

*Ayrton, W. E., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Physics in the City
and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-
road, London, 8S. W.

tBaby, The Hon. G. Montreal, Canada.
Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.
{Backhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.
*Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s Wolsingham, near Darlington.
*Bacon, Thomas Walter. 4 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, London,
W

N.W.

{Baddeley, John. 1 Charlotte-street, Manchester.

{tBaden-Powell, Sir George S., K.C.M.G., M.A., M.P., F.R.AAS.,
F.S.S. 114 Eaton-square, London, S.W.

tBadock, W. F. Badminton House, Clifton Park, Bristol.

tBaildon, Dr. 65 Manchester-road, Southport.

§Baildon, H. Bellyse. Duncliffe, Murrayfield, Edinburgh.

*Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Ashfield, College-road, Whalley Range,
Manchester.

§Bailey, Colonel F., Sec. R.Scot.G.8., F.R.G.S. Edinburgh.

tBailey, Dr. Francis J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool.

*Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Owens College, Manchester.

tBailey, Samuel, F.G.S. Ashley House, Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

{Bailey, William. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolver-
hampton.

TBailey, W. H. Summerfield, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.

tBaillon, Andrew. British Consulate, Brest.

*Baily, Francis Gibson, M.A. University College, Liverpool.

tBaily, Walter. 4 Roslyn-hill, London, N.W.

tBarn, AvexanpER, M.A., LL.D. Ferryhill Lodge, Aberdeen.

{Bain, Sir James, M.P. 3 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

{Bain, William N. Collingwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

10 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1882. *Baxer, Sir Benyamin, K.C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
2 Queen Square-place, Westminster, S.W.

1891. {Baker, J. W. 50 Stacey-road, Cardiff.

1881. {Baker, Robert, M.D. The Retreat, York.

1875. {Baxer, W. Proctor. Brislington, Bristol.

1881. {Baldwin, Rev. G. W. de Courey, M.A. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York.

1884, {Balete, Professor E. Polytechnic School, Montreal, Canada.

1871. {Balfour,G. W.,M.P. Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, Scotland.

1894.§§ Balfour, Henry, M.A. 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

1875. {Batroovr, Isaac Bartey, M.A.,D.Sc.,M.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S.E., F.L.S.,
Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Inverleith
House, Edinburgh.

1883. {Balfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

1878. *Ball, Charles Bent, M.D. 24 Merrion-square, Dublin.

1866. *Batt, Sir Roperr Stawett, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of
the Observatory and Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridge. The Observatory,
Cambridge.

1883. *Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A, Trinity College, Cambridge.

1886. {Ballantyne, J. W., M.B. 24 Melville-street, Edinburgh.

1869. {Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, S.W.

1890.§§Bamford, Professor Harry, B.Sc. McGill University, Montreal,
Canada.

1882. tBance, Colonel Edward, J.P. Limewood, The Avenue, Southampton.

1884. {Barbeau, E. J. Montreal, Canada.

1866. {Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.

1884. {Barber, Rev. S. F. West Raynham Rectory, Swaffham, Norfolk.

1890. *Barber-Starkey, W.J.S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.

1861. *Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.

1855. {Barclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland.

1894. §Barclay, Arthur. 3 Castle-street East, Oxford-street, London, W.

1871. {Barclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.

1852. *Barclay, J. Gurney. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.

1860. *Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.

1876. *Barclay, Robert. 21 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

1887. *Barclay, Robert. Springfield, Kersal, Manchester.

1886. {Barclay, Thomas. 17 Bull-street, Birmingham.

1881. {Barfoot, William, J.P. Whelford-place, Leicester.

1882. {Barford, J. D. Above Bar, Southampton.

1886, {Barham, F. F. Bank of England, Birmingham.

1890. {Barker, Alfred, M.A., B.Sc. Aske’s Hatcham School, New Cross,
London, 8.E.

1860. *Barker, Rey. Arthur Alcock, B.D. East Bridgford Rectory,
Nottingham.

1879. {Barker, Elliott. 2 High-street, Sheffield.

1882. *Barker, Miss J. M. Hexham House, Hexham.

1879. *Barker, Rey. Philip C., M.A., LL.B. Boroughbridge Vicarage,
Bridgwater, and Athelnay Station, Somerset.

1865, {Barker, Stephen. 30 Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1870. {Barxty, Sir Henry, G.O.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 1 Bina-
gardens, South Kensington, London, 8. W.

1886. {Barling, Gilbert. 85 Edmund-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1873. {Barlow, Crawford, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 2 Old Palace-yard, West-
minster, 8. W.

1889. §Barlow, H. W. L. Holly Bank, Croftsbank-road, Urmston, near
Manchester. ‘

LIST OF MEMBERS. ll

Year of
Election.

1883. {Barlow, J. J. 37 Park-street, Southport.

1878. {Barlow, John, M.D., Professor of Physiology in Anderson’s Col-
lege, Glasgow.

1883. {Barlow, John R. Greenthorne, near Bolton.

Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice (14th Regt. of Foot). 5 Great George-

street, Dublin.

1885. *BaRLow, WILLIAM, F.G.S. Hillfield, Muswell Hill, London, N.

1873. {Bartow, Writi1am Heyry, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 2 Old Palace-
yard, Westminster, S. W.

1861. *Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Cheltenham.

1881. {Barnard, William, LL.B. 3 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, London,
W.C.

1889. {Barnes, J. W. Bank, Durham.

1868. §Barnes, Richard H. Heatherlands, Parkstone, Dorset.

1884. {Barnett, J. D. Port Hope, Ontario, Canada.

1881. {Barr, ArcHrBatp, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. The University, Glasgow.

1890. {Barr, Frederick H. 4 South-parade, Leeds.

1895, §Barr, James Mark. Central Technical College, London. E.C.

1859. {Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, Hast Grinstead, Sussex.

1891.§§Barrell, Frank R., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Bristol.

1883. {Barrett, John Chalk. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.

1883. {Barrett, Mrs. J.C. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.

1860. {Barrett, T. B. 20 Victoria-terrace, Welshpool, Montgomery.

1872, *Barrerr, W. F., F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A., Professor of Physics in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.

1883. {Barrett, William Scott. Abbotsgate, Huyton, near Liverpool.

1887. {Barrington, Miss Amy. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow.

1874, *Barrineton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.

1874, *Barrington-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester.

1885. *Barron, Frederick Cadogan, M.Inst.C.E. Nervion, Beckenham-
grove, Shortlands, Kent.

1881. {Barron, G. B., M.D. Summerseat, Southport.

1866. {Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries. Borrowash, Derby.

1893. {Barrow, George, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28 Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W.

1886. {Barrow, George William. Baldraud, Lancaster.

1886. {Barrow, Richard Bradbury. Lawn House, 13 Ampton-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham.

1886. {Barrows, Joseph. The Poplars, Yardley, near Birmingham.

1886. {Barrows, Joseph, jun. Ferndale, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

1858. {Barry, Right Rev. Atrrep, D.D., D.C.L. The Cloisters, Windsor.

1862. *Barry, Cuartes. 1 Victoria-street, London, S.W.

1883. {Barry, Charles E. 1 Victoria-street, London, 8. W.

1875. {Barry, John Wolfe, C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 23 Delahay-street,
Westminster, 8. W.

1881. {Barry, J. W. Duncombe-place, York.

1884, *Barstow, Miss Frances. Garrow Hill, near York.

1890. *Barstow, J. J. Jackson. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

1890. *Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

1892. {Bartholomew, John George, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 12 Blacket-place,
Edinburgh.

1858. *Bartholomew, William Hamond, Ridgeway House,Cumberland-road,
Headingley, Leeds.

12 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1884. {Bartlett, James Herbert. 148 Mansfield-street, Montreal, Canada.
1873. {Bartley, George C. T., M.P. St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-street,
London, 8. W.
1892. {Barton, Miss. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.
1893, {Barton, Edwin H., B.Sc. University College, Nottingham.
1884. {Barton, H. M. Foster-place, Dublin.
1852. {Barton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk.
1892. {Barton, William. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.
1887. {Bartrum, John 8. 13 Gay-street, Bath.
*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.
1876. {Bassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, London, W.
1876. {Bassano, Clement. Jesus College, Cambridge.
1888. *Basset, A. B., M.A., F.R.S. Fledborough Hall, Holyport, Berkshire.
1891. {Bassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff.
1866. *BassErr, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, London, N.
1889. {BastaBLE, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.S. 6 Trevelyan-terrace,
Rathgar, Co, Dublin.
1869. {Bastard, S.S. Summerland-place, Exeter.
1871. {Bastran, H. Cuariron, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University College,
London, 84 Manchester-square, London, W.
1889, {Batalha-Reis, J. Portugyese Consulate, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1883. {Bateman, A. E., C.M.G. Board of Trade, London, S.W.
1868, {Bateman, Sir F., M.D., LL.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
Bateman, James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Home House,
Worthing.
1889. {Bates,C. J. Heddon, Wylam, Northumberland.
1884, {Barnson, WituiAM, M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1881. *Bather, Francis Arthur, M.A., F.G.S. 207 Harrow-road, London, W.
1836. {Batten, Edmund Chisholm. Thorn Falcon, near Taunton, Somerset.
1863. §BavERMAN, H., F.G.S. 14 Cavendish-road, Balham, London, 8S. W.
1867. {Baxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.
1892.§§ Bayly, F. W. Royal Mint, London, E.
Bayly, John. Seven Trees, Plymouth.
1875. *Bayly, Robert. Torr-grove, near Plymouth.
1876. *Baynes, Ropert K., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
1887. *Baynes, Mrs. R. E. 2 Norham-gardens, Oxford.
1887. {Baynton, Alfred. 28 Gilda Brook Park, Eccles, Manchester.
1883. *Bazley, Gardner. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire.
Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Hatherop Castle,
Fairford, Gloucestershire.
1886. {Beale, C. Calle Progress No. 83, Rosario de Santa Fé, Argentine
Republic.
1886. {Beale, Charles G. Maple Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
1860, *Bratz, Lionet S., M.B., F.R.S., Professor of the Principles and
Practice of Medicine in King’s College, London. 61 Grosyenor-
street, London, W.
1882. §Beamish, Lieut.-Colonel A. W., R.E. 27 Philbeach-gardens, Lon-
don, 8. W.
1884. {Beamish,G. H. M. Prison, Liverpool.
1872. {Beanes, Edward, F.C.S. Moatlands, Paddock Wood, Brenchley,
Kent.
1883. {Beard, Mrs. Oxford.
1889. §Beare, Protease T. Hudson, F.R.S.E. University College, London,
WwW

1387. {Beaton, J ohn, M.A. 219 Upper Brook-street, Chorlton-on-Medlock,
Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 18

Year of
Election.

1842.
1889.
1855.

1886.
1861.
1887.
1885,

1871.

1887.
1885.

1870.
1858.
1890,
1891.
1878.

1884.
1873.

1874.
1891.

1892.
1873.
1871.
1884.
1894,

1860,
1862.

1875.

1891.
1871.

1883.
1864.
1876.
1867.
1888.
1842.
1882.

1895,
1884,

*Beatson, William. Ash Mount, Rotherham.

tBeattie, John. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.MLS., F.S.S. 18 Picca-
dilly, London, W.

{tBeaugrand,M.H. Montreal.

*Beaumont, Rey. Thomas George. Oakley Lodge, Leamington.

*Beaumont, W. J. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

§Bravmont, W. W., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Melford, Palace-road,
Tulse Hill, London, 8.W.

“Beazley, Lieut.-Colonel George G. 74 Redcliffe-square, London,
S.W.

*Becxert, Joun Hamppen. Corbar Hill House, Buxton, Derbyshire.

§BEppDARD, Frank E., M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Prosector to the Zoo-
logical Society of London. Society’s Gardens, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.

§Beppor, Jonny, M.D., F.R.S. The Chantry, Bradford-on-Avon.

§Bedford, James. Woodhouse Cliff, near Leeds.

{Bedford, James E., F.G.S. Shireoak-road, Leeds.

§Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare.

{Bepson, P. Puitures, D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Beers, W.G., M.D. 34 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.

{Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York-
shire.

{Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.

*Belinfante, L. L., B.Sc., Assist.-Sec. G.S. Geological Society,
Burlington House, London, W.

TBell, A. Beatson. 145 Princes-street, Edinburgh.

tBell, Asahel P. 32 St. Anne’s-street, Manchester.

{Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.

{Bell, Charles Napier. Winnipeg, Canada.

§Brx1, F. Jerrrey, M.A.,F.Z.S. 35 Cambridge-street, Hyde Park,
London, W.

Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.

{Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.

*BE LL, Sir Isaac Lowruran, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S8., M.Inst.0.E.
Rounton Grange, Northallerton,

{Burtt, James, C.B., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Howell Hill
Lodge, Ewell, Surrey.

tBell, James. Bangor Villa, Clive-road, Cardiff.

*Bent, J. Carter, F.C.S. Bankfield, The Cliff, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.

*Bell, John Henry. Dalton Lees, Huddersfield.

{Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.

tBell, R. Bruce, M.Inst.C.E. 203 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

{Bell, Thomas. Belmont, Dundee.

*Bell, Walter George, M.A. Trinity Hall, Cambridge.

Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Eagle Foundry, Manchester,

{ Bellingham, William. 15 Kilheser-avenue, Telford Park, Streatham
Fill, London, S.W.

{Bzetrrr, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.M. Kingston, Nottinghamshire.

TBemrose, Joseph. 15 Plateau-street, Montreal, Canada.

1886.§§Benger, Frederick Baden, F.I.C., F.C.S. The Grange, Knutsford,

1885.
1891.

Cheshire.
{Benuam, WittiaAm Braxtann, D.Sc. The Museum, Oxford.
§Bennett, Alfred Rosling. 22 St. Alban’s-road, Harlesden, London,
N.W.

14

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1870.

1836,
1887,

1881.
1883.
1881.

1870.
1887.
1889.
1848.
1887.

1863.
1885.
1884.
1894.

1865.
1886.
1894,
1870.
1862.

1865.
1882.
1890.
1885.

1880.

1884.
1885.
1890.
1865.

1870.
1888.
1885.

1882.

1891.
1886.
1887.
1884.

1881.

1873.
1880.
1888.
1887.
1871.

1892

{Bennert, ALFRED W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Park Village East,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

tBennett, Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.

tBennett, James M. St. Mungo Chemical Company, Ruckhill,
Glasgow.

§Bennett, John R. 16 West Park, Clifton, Bristol.

*Bennett, Laurence Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.

tBennett, Rev. S. H., M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Bishopshill Junior,
York.

*Bennett, William. Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liverpool.

{Bennion, James A., M.A. 1 St. James’-square, Manchester.

{Benson, John G. 12 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Benson, Starling. Gloucester-place, Swansea,

*Benson, Mrs. W. J. Care of Standard Bank of South Africa, Stel-
lenbosch, S. Africa.

{Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Bent, J. TweopoRE. 13 Great Cumberland-place, London, W.

tBentham, William. 724 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada,

§Berkeley, The Right Hon. the Earl of. The Heath, Boarshill, near
Abingdon.

tBerkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.

tBernard, W. Leigh. Calgary, Canada.

§Berridge, Douglas. The Laboratory, The College, Malvern.

{Berwick George, M.D. 36 Fawcett-street, Sunderland.

{Besant, Witt1am Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

*BrsseMER, Sir Henry, F.R.S. Denmark Hill, London, 8.E.

*Bessemer, Henry, jun. Town Hill Park, West End, Southampton.

{Best, William Woodham. 381 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.

t Bettany, Mrs. 33 Oakhurst-grove, East Dulwich-road, London,
S.E.

*Bevan, Rey. James Oliver, M.A., F.G.S. 55 Gunterstone-road,
London, W.

*Beverley, Michael, M.D. 54 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.

tReveridge, R. Beath Villa, Ferryhill, Aberdeen.

§Bevington, Miss Mary E. Merle Wood, Sevenoaks, Kent.

tBewick, Thomas John, F.G.S. Suffolk House, Laurence Pountney
Hill, London, E.C.

tBickerton, A.W., F.C.S. Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand.

*Bidder, George Parker. The Zoological Station, Naples.

*BioweEcLL, SHELFORD, M.A., LL.B., F.R.S. Riverstone Lodge,
Southfields, Wandsworth, Surrey, S.W.

§Biggs, O. H. W., F.C.S. Glebe Lodge, Champion Hill, London,
S.E

{Billups, J. E. 29 The Parade, Cardiff.

{Bindloss, G.F. Carnforth, Brondesbury Park, London, N.W.

*Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Eccles, Manchester.

*Bingham, Lieut.-Colonel John E., J.P. West Lea, Ranmoor,
Sheffield.

{Binnie, Alexander R., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. London County Council,
Spring-gardens, London, 8.W.

{Binns, J. Arthur. Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.

{Bird, Henry, F.C.S. South Down, near Devonport.

*Birley, Miss Caroline. Seedley-terrace, Pendleton, Manchester.

*Birley, H. K. 13 Hyde-road, Ardwick, Manchester.

*Biscnor, Gustav. 4 Hart-street, Bloomsbury, London, W.C,

. {Bishop, Arthur W., Ph.D. Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 15

Election.

1883.
1894.
1885.
1886,
1889.
1889.
1881.

1869.
1834.
1876.
1884,
1877.
1876.
1855.
1884,
1883,
1896.
1888.
1888.
1892.
1892.
1863.

1886.
1849.

1883.
1846,
1891.

1886.

{Bishop, John le Marchant. 100 Mosley-street, Manchester.

§Bisset, James. 5 East India-avenue, London, E.C.

tBissett, J. P. Wyndem, Banchory, N.B.

*Bixby, Captain W. H. War Department, Washington, U.S.A.

{Black, W. 1 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Black, William. 12 Romulus-terrace, Gateshead.

tBlack, Surgeon-Major William Galt, F.R.C.S.E. Caledonian United
Service Club, Edinburgh.

tBlackall, Thomas. 13 Southernhay, Exeter. °

Blackburn, Bewicke. Calverley Park, Tunbridge Wells.

{Blackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshvyen, Fort William, N.B.

tBlackburn, Robert. New Edinburgh, Ontario, Canada.

tBlackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.

{Blackie, Robert. 7 Great Western-terrace, Glasgow.

*Brackig, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S._ 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.

{Blacklock, Frederick W. 25 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.

TBlacklock, Mrs. Sea View, Lord-street, Southport.

§Blaikie, W. B. 6 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh.

tBlaine, R.S., J.P. Summerhill Park, Bath.

{Blair, Mrs. Oakshaw, Paisley.

{Blair, Alexander. 35 Moray-place, Edinburgh,

TBlair, John. 9 Ettrick-road, Edinburgh.

tBlake, C. Carter, D.Sc. 6 St. Edmund’s-terrace, St. John’s Wood,
London, N.W.

{Blake, Dr. James. San Francisco, California.

*Braxe, Henry Wottasron, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 8 Devonshire-
place, Portland-place, London, W.

*Braxg, Rev. J. F., M.A., F.G.S. 43 Clifton Hill, London, N.W.

*Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset.

{Blakesley, Thomas H., M.A., M.Inst.0.E. Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, London, S.E.

{Blakie, John. The Bridge House, Newcastle, Staffordshire.

1894.§§Blakiston, Rev. C. D. LExwick Vicarage, Exeter.

1887.
1881.
1895.
1884.
1869.

1887.
1887.
1887.
1884.
1880.
1888.

1870.

1859.
1885.

_ 1883.
1867.
1887.
1870.
1887.

{Blamires, George. Cleckheaton.

§Blamires, Thomas H. Close Hill, Lockwood, near Huddersfield.

§Blamires, William. Oak House, Taylor Hill, Huddersfield.

*Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading.

{BranForp, W. T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 72 Bedford-
gardens, Campden Hili, London, W.

*Bles, A. J.S. Cambridge.

*Bles, Edward J. 12 King’s-parade, Cambridge.

tBles, Marcus 8. The Beeches, Broughton Park, Manchester.

*Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.

{Bloxam, G. W., M.A. 11 Presburg-street, Clapton, London, N.E.

§Bloxsom, Martin, B.A., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Hazelwood, Crumpsall
Green, Manchester. ’

}Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan-
cashire.

tBlunt, Captain Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey.

{Bryra, James, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Anderson’s College, Glasgow.

Blyth, B. Hall. 185 George-street, Edinburgh.

{Blyth, Miss Phoebe. 27 Mansion House-road, Edinburgh.

*Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.

{Blythe, William S. 65 Mosley-street, Manchester.

tBoardman, Edward. Oak House, Eaton, Norwich.

*Boddington, Henry Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester.

16

Year of

Election.

1889.
1884,
1887.
1881.
1876.
1894,
1883.
1883.
1871.

1866,
1888.
1893.
1890,

1883.
1883.
1876,

1883.
1876.
1882.

1876.

1881.

1887.
1872.
1868.
1887.

1871.

1884.
1892.
1876,
1890.
1883.
1883,

1893.
1889.
1866.
1890.
1884.

1888.
1881.

1856.
1886.
1884.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

{Bodmer, G. R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 30 Walbrook, London, E.O.

{Body, Rev. C. W. E.,M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.

*Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Tesselschade-straat, Amsterdam.

tBojanowski, Dr. Victor de. 27 Finsbury-circus, London, EC,

tBolton, J.C. Carbrook, Stirling.

§Bolton, John. Clifton-road, Crouch End, London, N.

§Bonney, Frederic, F.R.G.S. Colton House, Rugeley, Staffordshire.

§Bonney, Miss S. 28 Denning-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.

*BonneEy, Rev. THomas Gezorce, D.Sc., LL.D., F.RS., F.S.A.,
F.G.S., Professor of Geology in University College, London.
23 Denning-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.

t{Booker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham.

tBoon, William. Coventry.

§Boot, Jesse. Carlyle House, 18 Burns-street, Nottingham.

*Booth, Charles, F.8.S. 2 Talbot-court, Gracechurch-street, London,
E.C

§Booth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton.

{Booth, Richard, 4 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.

{Booth, alg William H. Mount Nod-road, Streatham, London,
S.W.

{Boothroyd, Benjamin. Solihull, Birmingham.

*Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glasgow.

ener Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S. 19 Alexandra-road, Wimbledon,

uirey.

*Bosanaunt, R. H. M., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. New Univer-
sity Club, St. James’s-street, London, 8. W.

*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.

§BoTrHaMLey, Cuartes H., F.LC., F.C.S., Director of Technical
Instruction, Somerset County Education Committee. Went-
worth, Weston-super-Mare.

tBott, Dr. Owens College, Manchester.

tBottle, Alexander. Dover.

{Bottle, J. T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.

{Bottomley, James, D.Sc., B.A. 220 Lower Broughton-rcad, Man-
chester.

*BorromiEy, JAMES THomsoy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. The
University, Glasgow.

*Bottomley, Mrs. The University, Glasgow.

{Bottomley, W. B. Ferncliffe, Morecambe.

{ Bottomley, William, jun. 6 Rokeley-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

§Boulnois, Henry Percy, M.Inst.C.E. Municipal Offices, Liverpool.

{Bourdas, Isaiah. Dunoon House, Clapham Common. London, 8.W.

{Bourns, A. G., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the
Presidency College, Madras.

§Bourng, G.C., M.A., F.L.S. New College, Oxford.

tBourne, R. H. Fox. 41 Priory-road, Bedford Park, Chiswick.

§ Bourne, STEPHEN, F.S.S. 5 Lansdown-road, Lee, 8.E.

{Bousfield, ©. E. 55 Clarendon-road, Leeds.

{Bovey, Henry T., M.A., Professor of Civil Engineering and
Applied Mechanics in McGill University, Montreal. Ontario-
avenue, Montreal, Canada.

{Bowden, Rev. G. New Kingswood School, Lansdown, Bath.

*Bower, F. O., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of Botany in

the University of Glasgow.

*Bowlby, Miss F. E. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.

tBowlby, Rev. Canon. 101 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

t Bowley, Edwin. Burnt Ash Hill, Lee, Kent.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS, 17

Election.

1880.
1887.
1865.

1887.
1895.
1884.
1871.
1865.

1884,

{Bowly, Christopher. Cirencester.

{Bowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester.

§Bowman, F. H., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.LS. Mayfield, Knutsford,
Cheshire.

§Box, Alfred M. 68 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

“Boyce, Rubert. University College, Liverpool.

*Boyd, M. A., M.D, 30 Merrion-square, Dublin.

tBoyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh,

{Boytz, The Very Rev. G. D., M.A., Dean of Salisbury. The
Deanery, Salisbury.

*Boyle, R. Vicars, O.S.I. Care of Messrs, Grindlay & Co., 55
Parliament-street, London, S.W.

1892.§§Boys, Cartes Vernon, F.R.S., Assistant Professor of Physics in

1872.
1869.

1894,
1893.
1892.
1857,
1863.

1880.
1864,

1870.
1888.
1879.
1865.

1872.
1867.
1861.
1885.
1890.
1868.
1877.
1882.
1881.
1866.
1875.

the Royal College of Science, London, S.W.

*Brasroox, KE. W., F.S.A. 178 Bedford-hill, Balham, London, 8.W.

*Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.O.8. Bushey Lodge, Teddington,
Middlesex.

“Braby, Ivon. Bushey Lodge, Teddington, Middlesex.

§Bradley, F. L. Bel Air, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

§Bradshaw, W. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.

“Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A. Trinity Vicarage, West Bromwich.

{Brapy, Grorer S., M.D., LL.D., F.B.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural
History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland.

*Brady, Rev. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham,Romford, Essex,

{Brawam, Purr, F.0.S. 3 Cobden-mansions, Stockwell-road,
London, S.E.

{Braidwood, Dr. 35 Park-road South, Birkenhead.

§Braikenridge, W. J., J.P. 16 Royal-crescent, Bath.

{Bramley, Herbert. 6 Paradise-square, Shetfield.

§BRaAMWELL, Sir Freperick J., Bart., D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S. :
M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, London, 8.W.

{Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton.

{Brand, William, Milnefield, Dundee.

*Brandreth, Rey. Henry. The Rectory, Dickleburgh,

*Bratby, William, J.P. Oakfield Hale, Altrincham, Cheshire.

*Bray, George. Belmont, Headingley, Leeds.

{Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.

tBrent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth,

*Bretherton, CO. E. Goldsmith-buildings, Temple, London, F.C.

*Brett, Alfred Thomas, M.D. Watford House, Watford.

{Brettell, Thomas (Mine Agent). Dudley.

{Briant, T. Hampton Wick, Kingston-on-Thames.

1886.§§Bridge, T. W., M.A., Professor of Zoology in the Mason Science

1870.
1887.
1870,
1886,
1879.
1870.
1890.
18938,
1868.

College, Birmingham.
*Bridson, Joseph R. Sawrey, Windermere.
tBrierley, John, J.P. The Clough, Whitefield, Manchester.
tBrierley, Joseph. New Market-street, Blackburn.
TBrierley, Leonard. Somerset-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Brierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth.
“Briee, Joun. Broomfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.
{tBrigg, W. A. Kildwick Hall, near Keighley, Yorkshire.
{Bright, Joseph. Western-terrace, The Park, Nottingham.
{Brine, Admiral Lindesay, F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall,
London, S.W.

1893.§§Briscoe, Albert E., A.R.C.Se., B.Se. University College, Not-

tingham,

1895, B

18 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1884. {Brisette, M. H. 424 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada.

1879. { Brittain, Frederick. _Taptonville-crescent, Sheffield.

1879. *Brirrarn, W. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Storth Oaks, Ranmoor, Sheffield.

1878. {Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum,
London, 8. W.

1884. *Brittle, John R., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. Farad Villa, Vanbrugh Hill,
Blackheath, London, S.E.

1859. *BropHurst, BERNARD Epwarp, F.R.C.S. 20 Grosvenor-street,
Grosvenor-square, London, W.

1883. *Brodie, David, M.D. 12 Patten-road, Wandsworth Common, 8.W.

1865. {Bropre, Rev. Prrer BetrinceER, M.A., F.G.8. Rowington Vicar-
age, near Warwick.

1884, {Brodie, Se M.D. 64 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan,
U.S.A

1883. *Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. The Gore, Eastbourne.

1881. §Brook, Robert G. Raven-street, St. Helens, Lancashire.

1855. {Brooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.

1864, *Brooke, Ven. Archdeacon J. Ingham, The Vicarage, Halifax.

1855. {Brooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.

1888. een eA Canon R. E., M.A. 14 Marlborough-buildings,

ath.

1887. §Brooks, James Howard. Elm Hirst, Wilmslow, near Manchester.

1863. tBrooks, John Crosse. 14 Lovaine-place, Neweastle-on-Tyne.

1887. {Brooks, S. H. Slade House, Leyenshulme, Manchester.

1887. *Bros, W. Law. Sidcup, Kent.

1883.§§Brotherton, E. A. Fern Cliffe, Ilkley, Yorkshire.

1883. cae Mrs. Charles S. Rosendale Hall, West Dulwich, London,
S

1886. §Brough, Professor Joseph, LL.M., Professor of Logic and Philosophy
in University College, Aberystwith.

1885. *Browett, Alfred. 14 Dean-street, Birmingham.

1863. *Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Bel-
grave-crescent, Edinburgh.

1892. {Brown, Andrew, M.Inst.C.E. Messrs, Wm. Simons & Co., Renfrew,
near Glasgow.

1867. TER Ba Gage, M.D., C.M.G. 88 Sloane-street, London,

1855. {Brown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.
1871. {Brown, David. Willowbrae House, Midlothian.
1863. *Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.
1883. +Brown, Mrs. Ellen F. Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1881. {Brown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.
1883. {Brown, George Dransfield, Henley Villa, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
1884, {Brown, Gerald Culmer. Lachute, Quebec, Canada.
1883. {Brown, Mrs. H. Bienz. 26 Ferryhill-place, Aberdeen.
1883. {Brown, Mrs. Helen. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace, Edinburgh.
1870. §Brown, Horace T., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S. 52 Nevern-square,
London, 8.W.
Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire,
1883. {Brown, Miss Isabella Spring. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace,

Edinburgh.

1895. §Brown, J. Auten, J.P., F.R.G.S., F.G.S. 7 Kent-gardens, Ealing,
London, W.

1870. *Brown, Professor J. Campsett, D.Sc., F.C.S. University College,
Liverpool.

1876. §Brown, John. Edenderry House, Newtownbreda, Belfast.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 19

Year of
Hection.

1881. *Brown, John, M.D. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.
1882. *Brown, John. 7 Second-avenue, Sherwood Rise, N ottingham,

1895.

*Brown, John Charles. 7 Second-avenue, Nottingham.

1859. {Brown, Rev. John Crombie, LL.D. Haddington, N,B.
1894.§§Brown, J. H. 6 Cambridge-road, Brighton.

1882.
1886,
1863,
1871.

1891.

1865.
1885.
1884.
1863.

1892.
1895.
1879.

1891.
1862.

1872.
1887.
1865.
1883.
1855.
1892.
1893.
1863.
1863.
1875.
1868.

1891.
1878.
1886.
1894.
1884.
1894.
1890.
1871.

1867.
1885.
1881.

1871.

1884,
1883.

1886.
1864.
1865.
1886.

“Brown, Mrs. Mary. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.

§Brown, R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Pérth,

{Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Brown, Roserr, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Fersley, Rydal-
road, Streatham, London, S.W.

§Brown, T. Forster, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Guildhall Chambers,
Cardiff.

{Brown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham,

tBrown, W. A. The Court House, Aberdeen.

{Brown, William George. Ivy, Albemarle Co., Virginia, U.S.A.

{Browne, Sir Benjamin Chapman, M.Inst.C.E. Westacres, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

{Browne, Harold Crichton. Crindon, Dumfries.

*Browne, Henry Taylor. 10 Hyde Park-terrace, London, W.

{Browne, Sir J. Cricuron, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S.E. 61 Carlisle-
street-mansions, Victoria-street, London, 8.W.

§Browne#, Montacu, F.G.S. Town Museum, Leicester,

“Browne, Robert Clayton, M.A. Sandbrook, Tullow, Co. Carlow,
Ireland.

{Browne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Redcot, Bradbourne, Sevenoaks, Kent,

{Brownell, T. W. 6 St. James’s-square, Manchester.

{Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 63 Strand, London, W.C.

{Browning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.

{Brownlee, James, jun, 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.

{Bruce, James. 10 Hill-street, Edinburgh.

§Bruce, William S._ University Hall, Riddle’s-court, Edinburgh.

*Brunel, H. M., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.

{Brunel, J. 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.

{Brunlees, John. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

{Brunron, T. Lauper, M.D., D.Sc. F.R.S. 10 Stratford-place,
Oxford-street, London, W.

tBruton, Edward Henry. 181 Richmond-road, Cardiff.

§Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil.

*BryaN, G. H., F.R.S. Thornlea, Trumpington-road, Cambridge.

§Bryan, Mrs. R. P. Thornlea, Trumpington-road, Cambridge.

{Bryce, Rev. Professor George. The College, Manitoba, Canada.

§Brydone, R. M. Petworth, Sussex.

§Bubb, Henry. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.

§Bucnan, ALExanpDER, M.A., LL.D., F.R. S.E., See. Scottish
Meteorological Society. 42 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

{Buchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.

*Buchan, William Paton. Fairyknowe, Cambuslang, N.B.

*Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk.

fBucwanan, Jon Younes, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., E.R.G.S., F.C.S,
10 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

{Buchanan, W. Frederick. Winnipeg, Canada.

{Buckland, Miss A. W. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington,
London, W.

*Buckle, Edmund W. 23 Bedford-row, London, W.C,.

{BucktE, Rev. Groner, M.A. Wells, Somerset.

*Buckley, Henry. 8 St. Mary’s-road, Leamington.

§Buckley, Samuel. Merlewood, Beaver Park, Didsbury.

BY

20 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1884, *Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. 16 Heathfield-road,
Mill Hill Park, London, W.

1880. {Buckney, Thomas, F.R.A.S. 53 Gower-street, London, W.C.

1869, {BucKNILt, Sir J.C., M.D., F.R.S. East Cliff House, Bournemouth.

1851. *Buckton, Grorer Bownter, F.R.S., F.L.8., F.C.S. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey.

1887. {Budenberg, C. F., B.Sc. Buckau Villa, Demesne-road, Whalley
Range, Manchester.

1875. {Budgett, Samuel. Kirton, Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.

1883, {Buick, Rev. George R., M.A. Cullybackey, Co. Antrim, Ireland.

1898. §BuLLEID, ARTHUR. Glastonbury.

1871. {Bulloch, Matthew. 48 Prince’s-gate, London, S.W.

1881. {Bulmer, T. P. Mount-villas, York.

18838. {Bulpit, Rev. F. W. Crossens Rectory, Southport.

1865. {Bunce, John Thackray. ‘ Journal’ Office, New-street, Birmingham.

1895. §Bunte, Dr. Hans. Karlsruhe, Baden.

Shade ate 8. H., M.A., F.R.S. 1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London,
W E

1842.
1875.

1869.

1881.

1891.
1894.
1884.

1888.
1883.

1876.
1885.
1877.

1884.

1883,
1887.
1883.
1860,

*Burd, John. Glen Lodge, Knocknerea, Sligo.

t{Burder, John, M.D. 7 South-parade, Bristol.

{Burdett-Coutts, Baroness. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.

{Burdett-Coutts, W. L. A. B., M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly,
London, W.

tBurge, Very Rev. T. A. Ampleforth Cottage, near York.

§Burke, John. 77 Pembroke-road, Dublin.

ee = Jeffrey H. 287 University-street, Montreal,

anada.

{Burne, H. Holland. 28 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.

*Burne, Major-General Sir Owen Tudor, K.C.8.1, C.I.E., F.R.G.S.
132 Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, London, W.

{Burnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

*Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. 11 Belmont-street, Aberdeen.

{Burns, David. Alston, Carlisle.

{Burns, Professor James Austin. Southern Medical College, Atlanta,
Georgia, U.S.A.

{Burr, Percy J. 20 Little Britain, London, EC.

{Burroughs, Eggleston, M.D. Snow Hill-buildings, London, E.C.

*Burrows, Abraham. Russell House, Rhyl, North Wales.

tBurrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford.

1894.§§Burstall, H. F. W. 76 King’s-road, Camden-road, London, N. W.

1891.
1888.
1888.
1894,
1866.
1889,
1892.

1887.
1895.
1878.

1884.
1884.
1888.
1884.

1872.

1885.

tBurt, J. J. 103 Roath-road, Cardiff.

{Bourt, John Mowlem. 38 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, London, W.

{Burt, Mrs. 38 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, London, W.

§Burton, Charles V. 24 Wimpole-street, London, W.

*Burron, Freperick M., F.LS., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough.

tBurton, Rev. R. Lingen. Little Aston, Sutton Coldfield.

{Burton-Brown, Colonel Alexander, R.A., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. St.
George’s Club, Hanover-square, London, W.

*Bury, Henry. Trinity College, Cambridge.

§Bushe, Colonel C. K. Bramhope, Old Charlton, Kent.

{Burcumr, J. G., M.A. 22 Coilingham-place, London, 8.W.

*Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Clydesdale, Windsor.

{Butler, Matthew I. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.

{Buttanshaw, Rev. John. 22 St. James’s-square, Bath.

*Butterworth, W. Greenhill, Church-lane, Harpurhey, Manchester.

tBuxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.

{Buxton, Miss F. M. Newnham College, Cambridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 21

Year of
Election.

1887.
1868.
1881.
1872,

1854,
1885.
1852.
1883.

1889.
1892.
1863.

*Buxton, J. H. Clumber Cottage, Montague-road, Felixstowe.

{Buxton, S. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.

{Buxton, Sydney. 15 Eaton-place, London, S.W.

{Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S. Warlies,
Waltham Abbey, Essex. ;

{Byertey, Isaac, F.L.S. 22 Dingle-lane, Toxteth-park, Liverpool.

{Byres, David. 63 North Bradford, Aberdeen.

{Byrne, Very Rey. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh.

{Byrom, John R. Mere Bank, Fairfield, near Manchester.

{Cackett, James Thoburn. 60 Larkspur-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tCadell, Henry M., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Grange, Bo'ness, N.B.
{Cail, Richard. Beaconsfield, Gateshead.

1894.§§Caillard, Miss EK. M. Wingfield House, near Trowbridge, Wilts.

1863.
1861.

1875.
1886.
1868.
1857.

1887.
1892.

1884.
1876.

1857.
1884.
1870.
1884,
1883.

1876.

1862.
1882.
1890.
1888.

1894.

1880.
1883.
1887.
1873.

1877.
1867.
1876.
1884.

1884.

1854.
1889.
1893.

tCaird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.

*Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, Dundee.

{Caldicott, Rev. J. W., D.D. The Rectory, Shipston-on-Stour.
*Caldwell, William Hay. Cambridge.

tCaley, A. J. Norwich.

Callan, Rev. N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth

College.

fCattaway Cuartes, M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. Sandon, Wellington,
Shropshire.

tCalvert, A. F., F.R.G.S. The Mount, Oseney-crescent, Camden-road,
London, N.

{tCameron, Aineas. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.

{Cameron, Sir Charles, Bart., M.D., LL.D., M.P. 1 Huntly-gardens,
Glasgow.

{Oameron, Sir Cuartzs A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.

{Cameron, James C., M.D. 41 Belmont-park, Montreal, Canada.

{Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

{Campbell, Archibald H. Toronto, Canada.

{ Campbell, H. J. 81 Kirkstall-road, Talfourd Park, Streatham Hill,
London, S.W.

{Campbell, James A., LL.D., M.P. Stracathro House, Brechin.

Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh.

*Campion, Rey. Witt1AM M., D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

{Candy, F. H. 71 High-street, Southampton.

{Cannan, Edwin, M.A., F.S.S. 24 St. Giles’s, Oxford.

{Cappel, Sir Albert J. L., K.0.1.E. 27 Kensington Court-gardens,
London, W.

§Capper, D. S., M.A., Professor of Mechanical Engineering in King’s
College, London, W.C.

{Capper, Robert. 18 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.

{Capper, Mrs. R. 18 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.

{Capstick, John Walton. University College, Dundee.

*Oarsort, Sir Epwarp Hamer, Bart., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Hyde Park-
gardens, London, W.

tCarkeet, John. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.

tCarmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.

{ Carmichael, Neil, M.D. 22 South Cumberland-street, Giasgow.

{Carnegie, John. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.

{Carpenter, Louis G. Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado,
U.S.A

tCarpenter, Rey. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport.
{Carr, Cuthbert Ellison. Hedgeley, Alnwick.
{Carr, J. Wesley, M.A., F.G.S, 128 Mansfield-road, Nottingham.

22

Year of
Election

1889.
1867.

1886.
1883.
1861.

1868.
1866.
1855.
1870.
1885.
1883.
1878.

1870.

1862.
1884.

1884.
1883.
1887.
1866.
1871.
1873.
1888.
1874.
1859.
1886,

1871.
1888.
1859.
1888.
1859,
1883.

1884.
1883.
1883.
1883.

1881.
1865.
1865.
1886.
1865.
1888.
1861.

1889.
1884,
1877.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

{Carr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

}CarrurHers, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. British Museum,
London, 8. W.

{Cars~axe, J. BarHaM. 30 Westfield-road, Birmingham.

tCarson, John, 51 Royal Avenue, Belfast.

*Carson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., M.R.LA. 18 Fitzwilliam-place,
Dublin.

jCarteighe, Michael, F.C.S. 172 New Bond-street, London, W.

{Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.

tCarter, Richard, F.G.S. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.

tCarter, Dr. William. 78 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

tCarter, W. C. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.

{Carter, Mrs. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.

*Cartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.D. i Courtfield-gardens, London,
S.W

§Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.I., Borough and Water
Engineer. Bury, Lancashire.

{Carulla, F. J. R. 84 Argyll-terrace, Derby.

*Carver, Rey. Canon Alfred J., D.D.,F.R.G.S. Lynnhurst, Streatham
Common, London, S.W.

{Carver, Mrs. Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, London, 8.W.

{t Carver, James. Garfield House, Elm-avenue, Nottingham.

{Casartelli, Rev. L. C., M.A., Ph.D. St. Bede’s College, Manchester.

{Casella, L. P., F.R.A.S. The Lawns, Highgate, London, N.

{Cash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry.

*Cash, William, F.G.S. 388 Elmfield-terrace, Savile Park, Halifax.

{Cater, R. B. Avondale, Henrietta Park, Bath.

{Caton, Richard, M.D, Lea Hall, Gateacre, Liverpool.

tCatto, Robert. 44 King-street, Aberdeen.

*Cave-Moyles, Mrs. Isabella, Repton Lodge, Harborne, Birming-
ham.

Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire.

*Cecil, Lord Sackville. Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent.

tChadwick, James Perey. 51 Alexandra-road, Southport.

tChadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester.

tChalk, William. 24 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Chalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.

{Chamberlain, George, J.P. Helensholme, Birkdale Park, South-

port.

{Chamberlain, Montague. St. John, New Brunswick, Canada.

tCHAMBERS, CHARLES, F.R.S. Colaba Observatory, Bombay.

tChambers, Mrs. Colaba Observatory, Bombay.

{Chambers, Charles, jun., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Colaba Observatory,
Bombay.

*Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York.

*Champney, John E. Woodlands, Halifax.

tChance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Chance, James T, 1 Grand Avenue, Brighton.

*Chance, John Horner. 40 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tChandler, 8S. Whitty, B.A. Sherborne, Dorset.

esi Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. Hill End, Mottram, Man-
chester.

{Chapman, L. H. 147 Park-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Chapman, Professor. University College, Toronto, Canada.

{Chapman, T. Algernon, M.D. Firbank, Hereford.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 23

Year of
Election.

1874.

1874.
1866.

1886.
1883.
1884.

1886.
1867.

1884.
1883.
1864.

1887.
1887.
1874.

1884.
1879.
1865.
1883.
1884.
1889.

1894
1842

1863.

1882.
1887.
1893.

- 1861.
1884,
1875.

1876.

1870.

1860.

1857.
1857.

1876.
1890.
1877.

1876.
1892.
1892.
1876.

tCharles, J. J., M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in
Queen’s College, Cork. Newmarket, Co. Cork.

{Charley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmwrry, Ireland.

tCHarnock, RicHarp SrepHen, Ph.D., F.S.A. Crichton Club,
Adelphi-terrace, London, W.C.

tChate, Robert W. Southfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Chater, Rev. John. Part-street, Southport.

*Chatterton, George, M.A., M.Inst.0.E. 46 Queen Anne’s-gate, Lon-
don, 8.W.

§Chattock, A.P. University College, Bristol.

*Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S. High Lawn, Broad Oak Park,
Worsley, Manchester.

tCHauvEav, The Hon. Dr. Montreal, Canada.

{Chawner, W., M.A. Emmanuel Collece, Cambridge.

tCuuaviz, W.B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hyde Park-place, Cum-
berland-gate, London, S.W.

{Cheetham, F. W. Limefield House, Hyde.

{tCheetham, John. Limefield House, Hyde.

*Chermside, Lieut.-Colonel H. C., R.E., O.B. Care of Messrs. Cox &
Co., Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, London, 8. W.

t{Cherriman, Professor J. B. Ottawa, Canada.

*Chesterman, W. Belmayne, Sheffield.

*Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Holywell Lodge, Oxford,

{Chinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington.

{tChipman, W. W. L. 6 Place d’Armes, Ontario, Canada.

{Chirney, J. W. Morpeth.

.§§Chisholm, G. C., M.A., B.Sc. 26 Dornton-road, Balham, London, S. W.

. *Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-grove, Plymouth-grove, Manchester.

tCholmeley, Rev. C. H. The Rectory, Beaconsfield R.S.O., Bucking-
hamshire.

tChorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.

tChorlton, J. Clayton. New Holme, Withington, Manchester.

*CHREE, CHARLES, D.Sc. Superintendent of the Kew Observatory,
Richmond, Surrey.

{ Christie, Professor R. C., M.A. 7 St. James’s-square, Manchester.

*Christie, William. Duke-street, Toronto, Canada.

*Christopher, George, F.C.S. 6 Barrow-road, Streatham Common,
London, 8. W.

*CurystaL, Groner, M.A., LL.D., F'.R.S.E., Professor of Mathe-
matics in the University of Edinburgh. 5 Belgrave-crescent,
Edinburgh.

§Cuurcu, A. H.,M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry to the
Royal Academy of Arts, London. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road,
Kew, Surrey.

See William Selby, M.A. St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London,

{Churchill, F..M.D. Ardtrea Rectory, Stewartstown, Oo, Tyrone.
ie Frederick Villiers. 1 Belvidere-place, Mountjoy-square,
ublin.
} Clark, David R., M.A. 81 Waterloo-street, Glasgow.
Clark, BE. K. 81 Caledonian-road, Leeds.
*Clark, F. J., J.P., F.L.S. Street, Somerset.
Olark, George T. 44 Berkeley-square, London, W.
tClark, George W. 31 Waterloo-street, Glasgow.
§Clark, James, M.A., Ph.D. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
tClark, James. Chapel House, Paisley.
tClark, Dr. John. 138 Bath-street, Glasgow.

24

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1881.

1861.

1855.
1883.
1887.
1875.
1886,
1886.
1875.
1861.

1877.

1883.
1884.
1889.
1866.
1890.
1850.

1859.
1875.
1861.
1886,
1861.

1893.

1878.
1873.
1892.
1883.

1863.

1881.
1885.
1868.
1891.

1884,
1895.

1889.
1889.
1892.
1883.
1861.
1881.

1865.
1884,
1887.
1887.
1894,
1895.

{Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Se., F.G.S. 12 Feversham-terrace, York.

{CrarK, Latimer, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.Inst.C.E. 11 Victoria-street,
London, 8. W.

tClark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.

{Clarke, Rev. Canon, D.D. 59 Hoghton-street, Southport.

§Clarke, C. Goddard. Ingleside, Elm-grove, Peckham, 8.E.

{Clarke, Charles S. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

{Clarke, David. Langley-road, Small Heath, Birmingham.

§Clarke, Rey. H. J. Great Barr Vicarage, Birmingham.

tCrarxe, Joun Henry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

*Clarke, John Hope. 62 Nelson-street, Chorlton-on-Medlock, Man-
chester.

tClarke, Professor John W. University of Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.

Clarke, Thomas, M.A. Knedlington Manor, Howden, Yorkshire.

{Clarke, W. P., J.P. 15 Hesketh-street, Southport.

tClaxton, T. James. 461 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada.

§Crayprn, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s, Polsloe-road, Exeter.

{Clayden, P. W. 13 Tavistock-square, London, W.C.

*Clayton, William Wikely. Gipton Lodge, Leeds.

{CrecHorn, Huen, M.D., F.L.S. Stravithie, St. Andrews, Scot-
land.

tCleghorn, John. Wick.

tClegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire.

§CLELAND, Jonn, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Glasgow. 2 The University, Glasgow.

{Clifford, Arthur. Beechcroft, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Oxirron, R. Bettany, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 3 Bardwell-
road, Banbury-road, Oxford.

{Clofford, William. 36 Mansfield-road, Nottingham.

Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.

§Close,Rev. Maxwell H., F.G.S. 40 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.

{Clough, John. Bracken Bank, Keichley, Yorkshire.

{Clouston, T. 8., M.D. Tipperlinn House, Edinburgh.

*Ctowss, Frank, D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in Univer-
sity College, Nottingham. 99 Waterloo-crescent, Nottingham.

*Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington.

*Clutton, William James. The Mount, York.

{Clyne James. Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen.

{Coaks, J. B. Thorpe, Norwich.

*Coates, Henry. Pitcullen House, Perth.

Cobb, Edward. Falkland House, St. Ann’s, Lewes.

§Cobb, John. Summerhill, Apperley Bridge, Leeds.

*CosBoxp, Fenix T., M.A. The Lodge, Felixstowe, Suffolk.

{Cochrane, Cecil A. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tCochrane, William. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Cockburn, John. Glencorse House. Milton Bridge, Edinburgh.

tCockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.

*Coe, Rey. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Fairfield, Heaton, Bolton.

*CorFiIn, Water Harris, F.C.S. 94 Cornwall-gardens, South
Kensington, London, 8. W.

tCoghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme.

*Cohen, B. L., M.P. 30 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.

tCohen, Julius B. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

{Cohen, Sigismund. 111 Portland-street, Manchester.

*Colby, Miss E. L. Carreg-wen, Aberystwith.

*Colby, James George Ernest, M.A., F.R.C.S. Malton, Yorkshire.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 25

Year of
Hiection.

1895. *Colby, William Henry. Carreg-wen, Aberystwith.

1853. {Colchester, William, F.G.S. Burwell, Cambridge.

1868. {Colchester, W. P. Bassingbourn, Royston.

1893. tCole, Grenville A. J., F.G.S. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

1879. {Cole, Skelton. 887 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

1894.§§Colefax, H. Arthur, Ph.D., F.C.S. 14 Chester-terrace, Chester-
square, London, 8. W.

1893. {Coleman, J. B., F.C.S., A.R.C.S. University College, Nottingham.

1878. {Coles, John, Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S. 1 Savile-row,
London, W.

1854. *Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.

1892. §Collet, Miss Clara E. 7 Coleridge-road, London, N.

1892. §Collie, Alexander. Harlaw House, Inverurie.

1887. {Collie, J. Norman, Ph.D., F.C.S. University College, Gower-street,
London, W.C.

1887. {Collier, Thomas. Ashfield, Alderley Edge, Manchester.

1869. {Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.

1893. §Collinge, Walter E. Mason College, Birmingham.

1854. {Cottinewoop, Curuznri, M.A., M.B., F.L.8. 69 Great Russell-
street, London, W.C.

1861. *Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 96 Great Portland-street,
London, W.

1865. *Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1876. {Cottins, J. H., F.G.S. 60 Heber-road, Dulwich Rise, London, 8.E.

1892. {Colman, H.G. Mason College, Birmingham.

1868. *Corman, J. J. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon-street,
London, E.C.

1882. {Colmer, Joseph G.,C.M.G. Office of the High Commissioner for
Canada, 9 Victoria-chambers, London, 8S. W.

1884. {Colomb, Sir J. C. R., F.R.G.S. Dromquinna, Kenmare, Kerry,
Treland; and Junior United Service Club, London, 8. W.

1888. {Commans, R. D. Macaulay-buildings, Bath.

1884. {Common, A. A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 63 Eaton-rise, Ealing,
Middlesex, W.

1891. {Common, J. F. F. 21 Park-place, Cardiff.

1892. §Comyns, Frank, M.A., F.C.S. The Grammar School, Durham.

1884. {Conklin, Dr. William A. Central Park, New York, U.S.A.

1890. {Connon, J. W. Park-row, Leeds.

1871. *Connor, Charles C. Notting Hill House, Belfast.

1881. {Conroy, Sir Joun, Bart., M.A., F.R.S. Balliol College, Oxford.

1893. {Conway, Sir W. M., M.A., F.R.G.S. 21 Clanricarde-gardens,
London, W.

1876. {Cook, James. 162 North-street, Glasgow.

1895. §Cooke, Miss Janette E. Holmwood Thorpe, Norwich.

1882. {Cooxn, Major-General A. C., R.E., C.B., F.R.G.S. Palace-chambers,
Ryder-street, London, 8S. W.

1876. *Cooxr, Conran W. 28 Victoria-street, London, S.W.

1881. {Cooke, F. Bishopshill, York.

1868. {Cooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.

1868. ee TEL M.A. 2 Grosvenor-yillas, Upper Holloway, Lon-

on, N.

1884, {Cooke, R. P. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

1878. {Cooke, Samuel, M.A., F.G.S. Poona, Bombay.

1881. tCooke, Thomas. Bishopshill, York.

1883. {Cooke-Taylor, R. Whateley. Frenchwood House, Preston.

1883. {Cooke-Taylor, Mrs. Frenchwood House, Preston.

1865. {Cooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.

26

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Hlection.

1888.
1884.

1895.

1893.
1883.
1838.
1868.
1889.
1884.
1878.
1871.

1885.
1881.
1842.
1891.
1887.
1894,

tCooley, George Parkin. Cavendish Hill, Sherwood, Nottingham.
tCoon, John 8. 604 Main-street, Cambridge Pt., Massachusetts,
U.S.A

§Cooper, Charles F riend, M.I.K.E. 68 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S. W.

tCooper, F. W. 14 Hamilton-road, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
{Cooper, George B. 67 Great Russell-street, London, W.C.
Cooper, James. 58 Pembridge-villas, Bayswater, London, W.
Cooper, W. J. New Maldon, Surrey.
tCoote, Arthur. The Minories, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Cope, EK. D. Philadelphia, U.S.A.
tCope, Rev. 8S. W. Bramley, Leeds.
tCopELanp, Ratpu, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland
and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh.
tCopland, W., M.A. Tortorston, Peterhead, N.B.
{Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holgate-lane, York.
Corbett, Edward. Grange-avenue, Levenshulme, Manchester,
§Corbett, E,W. M. Y Fron, Pwllypant, Cardiff.
*Corcoran, Bryan. 31 Mark-lane, London, E.C.
§Corcoran, Miss Jessie R. The Chestnuts, Sutton, Surrey.

1881.§§Cordeaux, John. Great Cotes House, R.S.O., Lincoln.

1883.
1870.

1893.
1889.
1884.
1885.
1888.
1891.
1891.

1883.
1891.

1857.
1874.

1864.

1869.
1879.
1876.
1876.
1889.

1890.

*Core, Professor Thomas H., M.A. Fallowfield, Manchester.

*CorFIELD, W. H., M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiene
and Public Health in University College. 19 Savile-row,
London, W.

*Oorner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. 95 Forest-road West, Nottingham.

{Cornish, Vaughan. Ivy Cottage, Newcastle, Staffordshire.

*Cornwallis, F. 8. W. Linton Park, Maidstone.

{Corry, John. Rosenheim, Parkhill-road, Croydon.

{Corser, Rev. Richard K. 12 Beaufort-buildings East, Bath.

tCory, John, J.P. Vaindre Hall, near Cardiff.

{Cory, Alderman Richard, J.P. Oscar House, Newport-road,
Cardiff.

tCostelloe, B. F. C., M.A., B.Sc. 33 Chancery-lane, London, W.C.

*Cotsworth, Haldane Gwilt. G.W.R. Laboratory, Swindon, Wilts.

Cottam, George. 2 Winsley-street, London, W.

{Cottam, Samuel. King-street, Manchester.

*CorTreritt, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechanics.
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E.

{Corron, General FrepErick C., R.E., C.S.I. 13 Longridge-road,
Earl’s Court-road, London, 8. W.

{Corron, Witt1am. Pennsylvania, Exeter.

{Cottrill, Gilbert I. Shepton Mallet, Somerset.

tCouper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

{Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

{Courtney, F. 8. 77 Redcliffe-square, South Kensington, London,
S.W

{Cousins, John James. Allerton Park, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.

- }Cowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.
. {Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.
. *Cowan, Thomas William, F.L.S., F.G.8. 81 Belsize Park-gardens,

London, N.W.

. {Cowen, Mrs. G. R. 9 The Ropewalk, Nottingham.

Cowie, The Very Rey. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., D.D., Dean of
Exeter. The Deanery, Exeter.

- *CowELL, Pitre H. Trinity College, Cambridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 27

Year of
Election.

1871. {Cowper, C. E. 6 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W.

1867. *Cox, Edward. Curdean, Meigle, N.B.

1867. *Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.

1892. ¢Cox, Robert. 34 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

1882. {Cox, Thomas A., District Engineer of the 8., P., and D. Railway.
Lahore, Punjab. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-
street, London, 8. W.

1888. {Cox, Thomas W. B. The Chestnuts, Lansdowne, Bath.

1867. {Cox, William. Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee.

1883. §Crabtree, William, M.Inst.C.E. 126 Manchester-road, Southport.

1890. {Oradock, George. Wakefield.

1892. *Craig, George A. 66 Edge-lane, Liverpool.

1884.§§Craiciz, Major P. G., F.S.S8. 6 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead,
London, N.W.

1876. {Cramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B.

1858. {Cranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire.

1884, {Crathern, James. Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

1887.§§Craven, John. Smedley Lodge, Cheetham, Manchester.

1887. *Craven, Thomas, J.P. Woodheyes Park, Ashton-upon-Mersey,
Cheshire.

1871. *Orawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Slate-
ford, Edinburgh.

1871. *CRawForD anD Batcarres, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Dun Echt, Aberdeen.

1846, *Crawshaw, The Right Hon. Lord. Whatton, Loughborough,
Leicestershire.

1890. §Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury.

1883. *Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S. 265 Tollington-park, London, N.

1870. *Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Cathedine, Bwlch, Breconshire.

1885. §Creax, Captain E. W., R.N., F.R.S. 36 Kidbrooke Park-road,
Blackheath, London, 8.E.

1879. {Creswick, Nathaniel. Chantry Grange, near Sheffield.

1876. *Crewdson, Rev. George. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Windermere.

1887. *Crewdson, Theodore. Norcliffe Hall, Handforth, Manchester.

1880. *Crisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.L.S., F.G.S. 65 Lansdowne-road,
Notting Hill, London, W.

1890. *Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire.

1878. {Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A. University College, Stephen’s Green,
Dublin.

1857. {Crolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.

1885. {Crombie, Charles W. 41 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

1885. {Crombie, John, jun. Daveston, Aberdeen.

1885. {Cromsin, J. W.,M.A., M.P. Balgownie Lodge, Aberdeen.

1885. {Crombie, Theodore. 18 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

1887. {Crompton, A. 1 St. James’s-square, Manchester.

1886. {Crompton, Dickinson W. 40 Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.

1887. §Croox, Henry T. 9 Albert-square, Manchester.

1865, §Crooxes, Wit11AM, F.R.S., F.C.S.. 7 Kensington Park-gardens,
London, W. ‘

1879. {Crookes, Mrs. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, London, W.

1870. {Crosfield, C. J. Gledhill, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

1894. *Crosfield, Miss Margaret C, Undercroft, Reigate.

1870. *Crosfield, William, M.P. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.

1890. {Cross, E. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent,

" Scarborough.
1887. §Cross, John. Beaucliffe, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

28

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1861. {Cross, Rev. John Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Halecote, Grange-over-
Sands.

1886. {Crosskey, Cecil. 117 Gough-road, Birmingham.

1853. {Crosskill, William. Beverley, Yorkshire.

1870.
1871.
1887.
1894.

1894,
1883.
1882,
1890.
1883.
18638.
1885,
1888.

1873.
1883.

1883.
1878.
1883.
1874.
1861.

1861.
1882.

1887.
1877.

1891.
1852.
1892.
1885.
1869.

1883.

1892.
1850.
1892,
1885.
1892.
1884,
1878.
1884.
1883.
1881.

1889.
1854,

*Crossley, Edward, F.R.A.S. Bemerside, Halifax.

tCrossley, Herbert. Ferney Green, Bowness, Ambleside.

*Crossley, William J. Glenfield, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Crosweller, William Thomas, F.Z.S., F.I.Inst. Kent Lodge, Sidcup,
Kent.

§Crow, C. F. Home Lea, Woodstock-road, Oxford.

{Crowder, Robert. Stanwix, Carlisle.

§Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire.

*Crowley, Ralph Henry. Bramley Oaks, Croydon.

tCrowther, Elon. Cambridge-road, Huddersfield.

TCruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tCruickshank, Alexander, LL.D. 20 Rose-street, Aberdeen.

{Crummack, William J. London and Brazilian Bank, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.

tCrust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding.

*Cryer, Major J. H. The Grove, Manchester-road, Southport.

Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.

*Culverwell, Edward P. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.

tCulverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin.

tCulverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.

tCumming, Professor. 33 Wellington-place, Belfast.

*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Man-
chester.

*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester.

*OCunnineHam, Lieut.-Colonel Attan, R.E., A.LC.E. 20 Essex-
villas, Kensington, London, W.

tCunningham, David, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., F.S.S. Harbour-
chambers, Dundee.

*CunnineHam, D. J., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Anatomy in Trinity College, Dublin.

{Cunningham, J. H. 4 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.

{Cunningham, Very Rev. John. St. Bernard’s College, Edinburgh.

{Cunnineuam, J. T., B.A. Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.

tCunnineHam, Ropert O., M.D., F.LS., F.G.8., Professor of
Natural History in Queen’s College, Belfast.

*CunnincHaM, Rey. Witt1am, D.D., D.Sc. Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.

tCunningham, William. 14 Inverleith-gardens, Edinburgh.

{Cunningham, Rey. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland.

§Cunningham-Craig, E. H. Clare College, Cambridge.

{Curphey, William S. 15 Bute-mansions, Hill Head, Cardiff.

*Currie, James, jun. Larkfield, Golden Acre, Edinburgh.

tCurrier, John McNab. Newport, Vermont, U.S.A.

tCurtis, William. Oaramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.

tCushing, Frank Hamilton. Washington, U.S.A.

{Cushing, Mrs. M. Croydon, Surrey.

§Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depét, Belvedere-road,
Lambeth, London, S.W.

Dagger, John H., F.1.C., F.C.S. Endon, Staffordshire.
{Daglish, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 29

Year of
Election.

1883. {Dahne, F. W., Consul of the German Empire. 18 Somerset-place,
Swansea.

1889. *Dale, Miss Elizabeth. Westbourne, Buxton, Derbyshire.

1887. {Dale, Henry F., F.R.MS., F.ZS. Royal London Yacht Club, 2
Savile-row, London, W.

1863. {Dale, J. B. South Shields.

1867. {Dalgleish, W. Dundee.

Ee es palgleish, oe Scott, M.A., LL.D. 25 Mayfield-terrace, Edin-

ur

eh.

1870. {Datttnerr, Rev. W. H., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Ingleside, New-
stead-road, Lee, London, S.E.

Dalton, Edward, LL.D. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.

1862. {Dansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. The Crouch, Seaford, Sussex.

1876. {Dansken, John. 4 Eldon-terrace, Partickhill, Glasgow.

1849. *Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada.

1894.§§Darbishire, B. V., M.A., F.R.G.S. _1 Savile-row, London, W.

1861. *DarsisHIRE, RopERT DUKINFIELD, B.A.,F.G.S. 26 George-street,
Manchester.

1876. {Darling, G. Erskine. 247 West George-street, Glasgow.

1882. {Darwin, Francis, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wychfield, Hun-
tingdon-road, Cambridge.

1881. *Darwin, Grorer Howarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian
Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.

1878. *Darwin, Horace. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

1894. §Darwin, Major Leonard, Sec. R.G.S. 18 Wetherby-place, South
Kensington, London, 8. W.

1882. {Darwin, W. E., B.A., F.G.S. Bassett, Southampton.

1888. t{Daubeny, William M. 1 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.

1872. {Davenport, John T, 64 Marine-parade, Brighton.

1880. *Davey, Henry, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 3 Prince’s-street, West-
minster, S.W.

1884, ere, oe B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, Lon-

on, E.C.

1870. {Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.

1885. t{Davidson, Charles B. Roundhay, Fonthill-road, Aberdeen,

1891. {Davies, Andrew, M.D. Cefn Parc, Newport, Monmouthshire.

1890. {Davies, Arthur, East Brow Cottage, near Whitby.

1875, {Davies, David. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol.

1887. §Davies, David. 55 Berkley-street, Liverpool.

1870. {Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.

1887. *Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales.

18938. oe Rey. T. Witton, B.A. Midland Baptist College, Notting-

am.
1842. Davies-Colley, Dr. Thomas. Newton, near Chester.
1887. {Davies-Colley, T. C. Hopedene, Kersal, Manchester.
1873. *Dayis, Alfred. 13 St. Ermin’s-mansions, London, 8.W.
1870. *Davis, A. S. St. George’s School, Roundhay, near Leeds.
1864, {Davis, Cuartus E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.
1842. Davis, Rev. David, B.A. Almswood, Evesham.
1882. {Davis, Henry C. Berry Pomeroy, Springfield-road, Brighton.
1883. {Davis, Robert Frederick, M.A. Larlsfield, Wandsworth Common,
London, S.W.
1885. *Davis, Rudolf. Almswood, Evesham.
1891. {Davis, W. 48 Richmond-road, Cardiff.
1886, {Davis, W. H. Hazeldean, Pershore-road, Birmingham.
1886, {Davison, Cuartzs, M.A. 373 Gillott-road, Birmingham,

30

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1864,
1857.

1869,
1869,
1860.
1864.

1886.
1891.
1885,
1884,
1855.

1859.

1892.
1870.
1861.
1887.
1861.
1884.
1866,

1884.
1893.
1878.
1879.
1884.
1889.
1873.
1884.
1889,

1874.

1874,

1878.
1868.

1894.
1868,

1881.
1885,

1884.
1872.

1887.

*Davison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire.

tDavy, Epmunp W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, near
Dublin.

{Daw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.

tDaw, R. R. M. Bedtord-circus, Exeter.

*Dawes, John T., F.G.8. Cefn Mawr Hall, Mold, North Wales.

{Dawxins, W. Boyp, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., Professor of
Geology and Paleontology in the Victoria University, Owens
Collece, Manchester. Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Manchester.

{Dawson, Bernard. The Laurels, Malvern Link.

{Dawson, Edward. 2 Windsor-place, Cardiff.

*Dawson, Lieut.-Colonel H. P., R.A. East Holt, Alverstoke, Gosport.

{Dawson, Samuel. 258 University-street, Montreal, Canada.

§Dawson, Sir Writittam, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
293 University-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Dawson, Captain William G. The Links, Plumstead Common,
Kent.

{Day, J. C., F.C.S. 36 Hillside-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Dracon, G. F., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Warwick-square, London, S.W.

tDeacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington.

{Deakin, H. T. Egremont House, Belmont, near Bolton.

{Dean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.

*Debenham, Frank, F.S.S. 1 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, London, N.W.

{Desvus, Herricu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 1 Obere Sophienstrasse,
Cassel, Hessen.

{Deck, Arthur, F.C.S. 9 King’s-parade, Cambridge.

§Deeley, R. M. 10 Charnwood-street, Derby.

{Delany, Rev. William, St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore.

{De la Sala, Colonel. Sevilla House, Navarino-road, London, N.E.

*De Laune, C. De L. F. Sharsted Court, Sittingbourne.

{Dendy, Frederick Walter. 3 Mardale-parade, Gateshead.

{Denham, Thomas, J.P. Huddersfield.

tDenman, Thomas W. Lamb’s-buildings, Temple, London, E.C.

§Drnny, ALFRED, F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the Firth College,
Sheffield.

Dent, William Yerbury. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.

§De Rance, Cuartes E., F.G.S. 55 Stoke-road, Shelton, Stoke-
upon-Trent.

*Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. 63 Queensborough-terrace,
London, W.

{De Rinzy, James Harward. Khelat Survey, Sukkur, India.

}Dessé, Etheldred, M.B., F.R.C.S. 43 Kensington Gardens-square,
Bayswater, London, W.

*Deverell, F. H. 18 Lawn-terrace, Blackheath, London, S.E.

}Dewar, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Fullerian
Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and
Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy
= ie University of Cambridge. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cam-

ridge.

tDewar, Mrs. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.

{Dewar, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.E, Drylaw House, Davidson’s Mains,
Midlothian, N.B.

*Dewar, William, M.A. Rugby School, Rugby.

tDewick, Rey. E. S., M.A., F.G.S. 26 Oxford-square, Lon-
don, W.

}Dz Wrnron, Colonel Sir F., G.C.M.G.,.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 31

Year of
Election.

1884, {De Wolf, 0. 0.,M.D. Chicago, U.S.A.

1873. *Dew-Smirn, A. G., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1889. {Dickinson, A. H. The Wood, Maybury, Surrey.

1863. {Dickinson, G. T. Lily-avenue, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1887. {Dickinson, Joseph, F.G.S. South Bank, Pendleton.

1884. {Dickson, Charles R., M.D. Wolfe Island, Ontario, Canada.

1881. {Dickson, Edmund. West Cliff-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1887. §Dickson, H. N. 125 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

1885. {Dickson, Patrick. Laurencekirk, Aberdeen.

1883. {Dickson, T. A. West Cliff, Preston.

1862. *Diixn, The Right Hon. Sir Cuartes WentwortH, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.G.S. 76 Sloane-street, London, 8.W.

1877. {Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 36 Dawson-street, Dublin.

1869. {Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock.

1876. {Ditchfield, Arthur. 12 Taviton-street, Gordon-square, London,
W.C.

1884. {Dix, John William H. Bristol.

1874, *Drxon, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork,
Mentone Villa, Sunday’s Well, Cork.

1883. {Dixon, Miss EK. 2 Cliff-terrace, Kendal.

1888. §Dixon, Edward T. Messrs. Lloyds, Barnetts, & Bosanquets’ Bank,
54 St. James’s-street, London, 8.W.

1886. {Dixon, George. 42 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1879. *Drxon, Harotp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in
the Owens College, Manchester. Birch Hall, Rusholme, Man-
chester.

1885. {Dixon, John Henry. Inveran, Poolewe, Ross-shire, N.B.

1887. {Dixon, Thomas. Buttershaw, near Bradford, Yorkshire.

1885. {Doak, Rev. A. 15 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.

1890. {Dobbie, James J., D.Sc. University College, Bangor, North Wales.

1885. §Dobbin, Leonard. The University, Edinburgh.

1860. *Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. 34 Westbourne-park, Lon-
don, W.

1892. {Dobie, W. Fraser. 47 Grange-road, Edinburgh.

1891. {Dobson, G. Alkali and Ammonia Works, Cardiff.

1878. *Doxson, G. E., M.A., M.B.,F.R.S.,F.L.S. Adrigole, Spring Grove,
Isleworth.

1893.§§Dobson, W. E., J.P. Lenton-road, The Park, Nottingham.

1864. *Dobson, William. Oakwood, Bathwick Hill, Bath.

1894.§§Dockar-Drysdale, Mrs. 39 Belsize-park, London, N.W.

1875. *Docwra, George, jun. 108 London-road, Gloucester.

1870. *Dodd, John. Nunthorpe-avenue, York.

1876. {Dodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.

1889. {Dodson, George, B.A. Downing College, Cambridge.

1893. {Donald, Charles W. Kinsgarth, Braid-road, Edinburgh.

1885. {Donaldson, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Senior Principal of
the University of St. Andrews, N.B.

1882. {Donaldson, John. Tower House, Chiswick, Middlesex.

1869. {Donisthorpe,G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter.

1877. *Donkin, Bryan, M.Inst.C.E. The Mount, Wray Park, Reigate.

1889. {Donkin, R.8., M.P. Campville, North Shields.

1861. {Donnelly, Major-General Sir J. F. D., R.E., K.C.B. South Ken-
sington Museum, London, S.W.

1887. banc Elias, M.Inst.0.E., F.G.S. 41 John Dalton-street, Man-
chester.

1881. {Dorrington, John Edward. Lypiatt Park, Stroud.

1867. {Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.

32

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1868.
1876.
1877.

1884.

1890.
1883.
1884.
1884.

1876

*Doughty, Charles Montagu. Henwick, Newbury.

*Douglas, Rev. G. C. M., D.D. 18 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.

*Doverass, Sir James N., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Stella House, Dul-
wich, London, 8.E.

tDouglass, William Alexander. Freehold Loan and Savings Com-
pany, Church-street, Toronto, Canada.

t{Dovaston, John. West Felton, Oswestry.

{Dove, Arthur. Crown Cottage, York.

tDove, Miss Frances. St. Leonard’s, St. Andrews, N.B.

{Dowe, John Melnotte. 69 Seventh-avenue, New York, U.S.A.

Dowie, Mrs. Muir. Golland, by Kinross, N.B.

1894.§§Dowie, Robert Chambers. 138 Carter-street, Higher Broughton,

1884.
1857.
1865.
1881.

1887.
1894,
1883.
1892.
1868.
1890.
1892.

1887.
1893.
1889.
1892.
1889,

1856.

1870.
1895,
1867.

1852.

1877.
1875.
1890.
1884,
1885.
1892.
1866.
1891.
1880.
1881.
1895.
1892.

1881.
1865.

Manchester.

*Dowling, D. J. Bromley, Kent.

tDownine, 8., LL.D. 4 The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

*Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk.

*Dowson, Joseph Emerson, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Great Queen-street, Lon-
don, 8. W.

tDoxey, R. A. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.

§Doyne, R. W., F.R.0.S. 28 Beaumont-street, Oxford.

t{Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York.

*Dreghorn, David, J.P. Greenwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

{DressErR, Henry E., F.Z.S. 110 Cannon-street, London, E.C.

{tDrew, John. 12 Harringay-park, Crouch End, Middlesex, N.

{Dreyer, John L. E., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.A.S. The Observatory,
Armagh.

tDreyfus, Dr. Daisy Mount, Victoria Park, Manchester.

§Drucr, G. Crariner, M.A., F.L.S. 118 High-street, Oxford.

tDrummond, Dr. 6 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Du Bois, Dr. H. Mittelstrasse, 39, Berlin.

{Du Chaillu, Paul B. Care of John Murray, Esq., 504 Albemarle-
street, London, W.

*Duciz, The Right. Hon. Henry Jon Reynotps Moreton, Earl
of, F.R.S.,F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, London, W.; and Tort-
worth Court, Wotton-under-Edge.

t{Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. Christchurch Vicarage, Chester.

*Duddell, William. Kensington Infirmary, Marloes-road, London, W.

*Dourr, The Right Hon. Sir Mountstvuarr ELpHinstone GRANT-,
G.C.8.L, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. York House, Twickenham.

tDourrerry anp Ava, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.P., G.C.B.,
G.O.M.G., G.C.S.1., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Clande-
boye, near Belfast, Ireland.

{Duffey, George F., M.D. 30 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.

tDuffin, W. E. L’Estrange. Waterford.

t{Dufton, 8. F. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Dugdale, James H. 9 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.

§Duke, Frederic. Conservative Club, Hastings.

tDulier, Colonel E., C.B. 27 Sloane-gardens, London, S.W.

*Duncan, James. 9 Mincing-lane, London, E.C.

*Duncan, John, J.P. ‘South Wales Daily News’ Office, Cardiff.

{¢Duncan, William 8S. 143 Queen’s-road, Bayswater, London, W.

{tDuncombe, The Hon. Cecil, F.G.S. Nawton Grange, York.

*Dunell, George Robert. 9 Grove Park-terrace, Chiswick, London, W.

{Dunham, Miss Helen Bliss. Messrs. Morton, Rose, & Co., Bartholo-
mew House, London, E.C.

{Dunhill, Charles H. Gray’s-court, York.

{Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.

LISI! OF MEMBERS. 33

Year of
Election.

1882,

fDunn, J. T., M.Sc, F.C.S. High School for Boys, Gateshead-on-
Tyne

yne.
1883. {Dunn, Mrs. Denton Grange, Gateshead-on-Tyne.
1876. {Dunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

1878.

{Dunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Logie in the Catholic Uni-
versity of Ireland. 4 Clanwilliam-place, Dublin.

1884.§§Dunnington, F. P. University Station, Charlottesville, Virginia,
U.S.A.

1859.
1893.
1885.

1869.
1895.

1887.
1884,
1885.
1869,
1895,

1868.
1895.
1877.
1888,
1874.
1871.

1863.
1876.
1883.
1893.

1887.
1884.
1861.
1870.

1887.
1884.
1887.
1870.
1883.
1888.
1884,
1883.

1867.
4855.

{Duns, Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.

“Dunstan, M. J. R. 9 Hamilton-drive, Nottingham.

*Dunstan, Wynnum R., M.A.,F.R.S., Sec.0.S., Lecturer on Chemis-
try at St. Thomas’s Hospital and Professor of Chemistry to the
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, 17 Bloomsbury-
square, London, W.C.

{D’Urban, W. 8. M., F.L.S._ Moorlands, Exmouth, Devon.

“Dwerryhouse, Arthur R. 8 Livingston-avenue, Sefton Park, Liver-
pool.

{Dyason, John Sanford, F.R.G.S. Boscobel-gardens, N. W.

{Dyck, Professor Walter. The University, Munich.

*Dyer, Henry, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

“Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Bletchley.

§Dymond, Thomas §., F.C.8. County Technical Laboratory, Chelms-
ford.

{Eade, Sir Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

§Earle, Hardman H. 29 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S.W.

{Earle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon.

tEarson, H. W.P. 11 Alexandra-road, Clifton, Bristol.

{Eason, Charles. 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.

*Easton, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 16 Great College-street,
Westminster, 8S. W.

tEaston, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.

{Easton, John. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helensburgh, N.B.

{Eastwood, Miss. Littleover Grange, Derby.

§Ebbs, Alfred B, Northumberland-alley, Fenchurch-street, London,
E.C

*Eccles, Mrs. S. White Coppice, Chorley, Lancashire.

{Eckersley, W. T. Standish Hall, Wigan, Lancashire.

{Ecroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.

*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. 6 Park-square, Leeds.

*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.

tEde, Francis J., F.G.S. Silchar, Cachar, India.

Eden, Thomas. Talbot-road, Oxton.

*Edgell, Rev. R. Arnold, M.A., F.C.S. The College House,
Leamington.

§Epcnwortn, F. Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.8., Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Oxford. All Souls College,
Oxford.

*Edmonds, F, B. 6 Furnival’s Inn, London. F.C.

{Edmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Honiton, Devon.

*Edmunds, Henry. Antron, 71 Upper Tulse-hill, London, 8S. W.

*Edmunds, James, M.D. 29 Dover-street, Piccadilly, London, W.

{Edmunds, Lewis, D.Sc., LL.B., F.G.S. 1 Garden-court, Temple,
London, E.C.

*Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee.

*Epwarps, Professor J. BAKER, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Oanada.

1895. 0

34 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1884. {Edwards, W.F. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.

1887. *Egerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Lord. Tatton Park, Knutsford,
1876, {Elder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

1890. §Elford, Percy. St. John’s College, Oxtord.

1885

. *Elgar, Francis, LL.D., M.Inst.C.I., F.R.S.E. 113 Cannon-street,
London, E.C.

1868. {Elger, Thomas Gwyn Empy, F.R.A.S. Manor Cottage, Kempston,

1885.
18838,

1891.

Bedford.

tEllingham, Frank. Thorpe St. Andrew, Norwich.

{Ellington, Edward Bayzand, M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers, Bridge-
street, Westminster, S.W.

tElliott, A. C.,D.Sc., Professor of Engineering in University College,
Cardiff. 2 Plasturton-avenue, Cardiff,

1864. {Elliott, E. B. Washington, U.S.A.

1888.

1879.
1886.

1877.
1875.
1883.
1880.
1891.
1884,
1869.

1887,
1862.

1883.
1887.
1870.

1868.
1891.
1891.
1884.
1863,
1858.
1890.

*Exiiotr, Epwin Batrry, M.A., F.RS., F.R.A.S., Waynflete
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Oxford.
4 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

Elliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham.

{Elliott, Joseph W. Post Office, Bury, Lancashire,

tElliott, Thomas Henry, F.S.S. Board of Agriculture, 4 Whitehall-
place, London, S.W.

tEllis, Arthur Devonshire. Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire.

*Ellis, H. D. 6 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W.

{Ellis John. 17 Church-street, Southport.

*ELLIs, JouN HENRY. Woodland House, Plymouth.

§Ellis, Miss M. A. 2 Southwick-place, London, W.

tEllis, W. Hodgson. Toronto, Canada.

}Etris, Wrt~1am Horton. Hartwell House, Exeter.

Ellman, Rev. E. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.

tElmy, Ben. Congleton, Cheshire.

tElphinstone, Sir H. W., Bart., M.A., F.L.S. 2 Stone-buildings,
Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.

tElwes, Captain George Robert. Bossington, Bournemouth.

§Etwortuy, Freperick T. Foxdown, Wellington, Somerset.

*Exy, The Right Rev. Lord Atwynr Compton, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. The Palace, Ely, Cambridgeshire.

t{Embleton, Dennis, M.D. 19 Claremont-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Emerton, Wolseley. Banwell Castle, Somerset.

{Emerton, Mrs. Wolseley. Banwell Castle, Somerset.

tEmery, Albert H, Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.

tEmery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire.

tEmpson, Christopher. Bramhope Hall, Leeds.

{Emsley, Alderman W. Richmond House, Richmond-road, Head-
ingley, Leeds.

1894.§§Emtage, W.T. A. University College, Nottingham.

1866. {Enfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.

1884. {England, Luther M. Knowlton, Quebec, Canada.

1853. {English, Edgar Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate,

Hull.

1869. t{English, J. T. Wayfield House, Stratford-on-Avon.

1883. {Entwistle, James P. Beachfield, 2 Westclyffe-road, Southport.
1869. *Enys, John Davis. Enys, Pearyn, Cornwall.

1844, {ERicusen, Sir Joun Eric, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Presi-

dent of, and Emeritus Professor of Surgery in, University
College, London. 6 Cavendish-place, London, W.

1894. §Erskine-Murray, James R. 40 Montgomerie-drive, Glasgow.
1864, *Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins-hey, Liverpool.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 35

Hlection.

1862. *Esson, Wrii11M, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.R.A.S. Merton College,
and 13 Bradmore-road, Oxford.

1878. {Estcourt, Charles, F.0.S. 8 St. James’s-square, John Dalton-street,
Manchester.

1887. *Estcourt, Charles. Vyrniew House, Talbot-road, Old Trafford,
Manchester.

1887. *Estcourt, P. A., F.C.S., F.I.C. 20 Albert-square, Manchester.

1869, {Ernermper, Rosert, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 14 Carlyle-square,
London, S.W.

1888. {Etheridge, Mrs. 14 Carlyle-square, London, 8.W.

1883. §Eunson, Henry J., F.G.S., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Vizianagram, Madras.

1891. {Evan-Thomas, C., J.P. The Gnoll, Neath, Glamorganshire,

1881. {Evans, Alfred, M.A., M.B. Pontypridd.

1889. *Evans, A. H. Care of R. H. Porter, 18 Prince’s-street, W.

1887. *Evans, Mrs. Alfred W. A. Spring Villa, New Mills, near Stockport,
Derbyshire.

1870, *Evans, ARTHUR Joun, F.S.A. 33 Holywell, Oxford.

1865, *Evans, Rey. Cuartes, M.A. 41 Lancaster-gate, London, W.

1891. {Evans, Franklen. Llwynarthen, Castleton, Cardiff.

1889, {vans, Henry Jones. Greenhill, Whitchurch, Cardiff.

1884, {Evans, Horace L. 6 Albert-buildings, ‘Weston-super-Mare.

1883. *Evans, JamesC. Morannedd, Eastbourne-road West, Birkdale Park,
Southport.

1883. *Evans, Mrs. JamesC. Morannedd, Eastbourne-road West, Birkdale
Park, Southport.

1861. *Evans, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., Treas.R.S8., F.8.A.,
F.LS., F.G.S. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.

1881. {Evans, Lewis. Llanfyrnach R.S.O., Pembrokeshire.

1885. *Evans, Percy Bagnall. The Spring, Kenilworth.

1875. {Evans, Sparke. 3 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1865, *Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.

1891. {Evans, William Llewellin. (Guildhall-chambers, Cardiff.

1886. {Eve, A.S. Marlborough College, Wilts.

1871. {Eve, H. Weston, M.A. University College, London, W.C.

1868, *Evzrert, J. D., MA., D.C.L, F.BS., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in Queen’s College, Belfast. Derryvolgie,
Belfast.

1895. §Everett, W. H., B.A. Belfast.

1863. *Everitt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire.

1886. {Everitt, William E. Finstall Park, Bromsgrove.

1883. {Eves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge.

1881. {Ewarr, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in
the University of Edinburgh. ~

1874, {Ewart, Sir W. Quartus, Bart. Glenmachan, Belfast.

1876, *Ewine, Jamus Atrrup, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., MInst.
C.E., Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mathematics in
the University of Cambridge.

1883. tEwing, James L. 52 North Bridge, Edinburgh.

1871. *Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol.

1884, *Eyerman, John, F.Z.S. Oakhurst, Easton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

1882, {Eyre, G. E. Briscoe. Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants,

Eyton, Charles, Hendred House, Abingdon.
1890, {Faser, Epmunp Becker. Straylea, Harrogate.
ee *Farriey, THomas, F.R.S.E., F.0.S, 8 Newton-grove, Leeds.
886.

{Fairley, William. Beau Desert, Rugeley, Staffordshire.
Cc 2

36

Year of
Election

1864.
1883.
1877.

1891.
1892.

1886.
1879.
1882.
1883.
1885.
1886.
1859.
1885.
1866.

1883.
1857.
1869.
1883.
1887.
1890.
1886.

1864.

1852.
1883.
1890.
1876.
1883.
1871.

1867.

1867.
1883.
1883.
1862.

1873.

1892.

1882.
1887.
1875.
1868.
1886.
1869.

1882.
1885,

1878.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

{Falkner, F. H. Lyncombe, Bath.

tFallon, Rev. W.S 9 St. James’s-square, Cheltenham.

§Farapay, I. J., F.L.S., F.S.8. College-chambers, 17 Brazenose-
street, Manchester.

{Fards, G. Penarth.

*Farmer, J. Bretland, M.A., F.L.S. Royal College of Science,
London, 8.W.

{Farncombe, Joseph, J.P. Lewes.

*Farnworth, Ernest. Rosslyn, Goldthorn Hill, Wolverhampton.

{Farnworth, Walter. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

{Farnworth, William. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

tFarquhar, Admiral. Curlogie, Aberdeen.

{Farquharson, Colonel J., R.E. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.

{Farquharson, Robert F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen.

tFarquharson, Mrs. R. F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen.

*Farrar, The Very Rey. Frepertc Wittiam, D.D., F.R.S. The
Deanery, Canterbury.

{Farrell, John Arthur. Moynalty, Kells, North Ireland.

{Farrelly, Rev. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth.

*Faulding, Joseph. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.

{Faulding, Mrs. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.

§Faulkner, John. 13 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Manchester.

*Fawcett, F. B. University College, Bristol.

§Felkin, Robert W., M.D., F.R.G.S. 8 Alva-street, Edinburgh.

Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverstone, Lancashire.

*Fettows, Frank P., K.S.J.J., F.S.A., F.S.S. 8 The Green, Hamp-
stead, London, N.W.

{Fenton,S.Greame. Keswick, near Belfast.

{Fenwick, KE, H. 29 Harley-street, London, W.

tFenwick, T. Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

{Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.

{Ferguson, Mrs. A. A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.

*Fpreuson, Joun, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A., F.C.S., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.

tFerguson, Robert M., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Learmouth-terrace,
Edinburgh.

* Fergusson, H. B. 13 Airlie-place, Dundee.

}Fernald, H. P. Alma House, Cheltenham.

*Fernie, John. Box No.2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A.

tFerrers, Rey. Norman Macrxop, D.D., F.R.S. Caius College
Lodge, Cambridge.

{Frrrimer, Davin, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Neuro-
Pathology in King’s College, London, 34 Cavendish-square,
London, W.

tFerrier, Robert M., B.Sc. College of Science, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

§Fewings James, B.A., B.Sc. The Grammar School, Southampton.

{Fiddes, Thomas, M.D. Penwood, Urmston, near Manchester.

tFiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.

tField, Edward. Norwich.

tField, H.C. 4 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Fretp, Rogers, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 4 Westminster-chambers, West-
minster, 8. W.

{Filliter, Freeland. St. Martin’s House, Wareham, Dorset.

*Finch, Gerard B., M.A. 1 St. Peter’s-terrace, Cambridge.

Finch, John, Bridge Work, Chepstow.

*Findlater, William. 22 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 37

Year of
Election.

1892.
1884.
1887.
1881.

1895.
1891.
1884,
1869.

1873.
1875.
1858.
1887,

1885.
1871.

1871.

1883.
1878.
1878.

1885.
1894,

1857.
1888.
1865.
1881.

1876.
1876.
1867.
1870.
1890.

}Findlay, J. R., B.A. 38 Rothesay-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Finlay, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.

{Finnemore, Rev. J., M.A., Ph.D., F.G.S. 12 College-road, Brighton.

{ Firth, Colonel Sir Charles. Heckmondwike.

Firth, Thomas. Northwich.

§Fish, Frederick J. Park-road, Ipswich.

tFisher, Major H.O. The Highlands, Llandough, near Cardiff.

*Fisher, L. C. Galveston, Texas, U.S.A.

}Fisuer, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, near
Cambridge.

{Fisher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.

*Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.

tFishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.

*Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. 14 Dean-road, Willesden Green, London,
N.W

tFison, E. Herbert. Stoke House, Ipswich.

*Fison, Freperick W., M.A., F.C.S. Greenholme, Burley-in-
Wharfedale, near Leeds.

fFircn, J. G., M.A., LL.D. 5 Lancaster-terrace, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.

{Fitch, Rev. J. J. Ivyholme, Southport.

tFitzgerald, C. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.

§FirzGERaLp, Grorce Francis, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of
Naturaland Experimental Philosophy in Trinity College, Dublin.

*Fitzgerald, Professor Maurice, B.A. 69 Botanic-avenue, Belfast,

§Fitzmaurice, M., M.Inst.C.E. Blackwall Tunnel Office, East
Greenwich, London, 8.E.

tFitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 31 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.

*FITzPATRICK, Rey. THomas C. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

tFleetwood, D. J. 45 George-street, St. Paul’s, Birmingham.

}Fleming, Rev. Canon J., B.D. St. Michael’s Vicarage, Ebury-
square, London, 8S. W.

{Fleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, near Glasgow.

{Fleming, Sandford, C.M.G., F.G.S. Ottawa, Canada.

§FrercHer, ALFRED E., F.C.S. Delmore, Caterham, Surrey.

{Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.

tFletcher, B. Morley. 12 Trevor-square, London, 8. W.

1892.§§Fletcher, George, F.G.S. 60 Connaught-avenue, Plymouth.

1869.
1888.

1862.

1889.
1877.
1890.
1887.
1883,
1891.
1879.
1880.

1873.

}Frercner, Lavineton E., M.Inst.C.E. Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

*FLETCHER, Lazarus, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S., Keeper of
Minerals, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road,
London, S.W. 36 Woodville-road, Ealing, London, W.

§FLower, Sir Wini1AM Henry, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., D.Sc., F.R.S.,
FE.LS., F.G.S., F.R.C.S., Director of the Natural History De-
partments, British Museum, South Kensington, London. 26
Stanhope-gardens, London, 8. W.

{Flower, Lady. 26 Stanhope-gardens, London, S.W.

*Floyer, Ernest A., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Downton, Salisbury.

*Flux, A. W., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.

tFoale, William. 38 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth,

tFoale, Mrs. William, 3 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.

§Foldvary, William. Museum Ring, 10, Buda Pesth.

{Foote, Charles Newth, M.D. 3 Albion-place, Sunderland.

tFoote, R. Bruce, F.G.8. Care of Messrs. H. S. King & Co., 65
Cornhill, London, E.C.

*Forpes, Grorer, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 34 Great
George-street, London, S. W.

38

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1883.

1885.
1890.
1875.
1883.
1894,
1887.

1867.
1883,

1884.
1877.
1882.
1870.
1875.
1865.
1865,

1883.
1857.

1877.
1859.

1863.

1866.
1868.
1888.
1892.

1876.
1882.

1884.
18835.
1883.

1885.
1847.
1888.
1886.
1881.
1889.

1884.

1845.

{Forsgs, Henry O., F.Z.S., Director of Museums for the Corpora-
tion of Liverpool. The Museum, Liverpool.

{Forbes, The Right Hon. Lord. Castle Forbes, Aberdeenshire,

{Forp, J. Rawiinson. Quarry Dene, Weetwood-lane, Leeds.

*ForpHam, H. Grorer, F.G.S. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts.

§Formby, R. Kirklake Bank, Formby, near Liverpool.

§Forrest, Frederick. Castledown, Castle Hill, Hastings.

{Forrest, Sir Jonny, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S., F.G.S. Perth, Western
Australia.

tForster, Anthony. Finlay House, St. Leonards-on-Sea.

{Forsyru, A. R., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Sadlerian Professor of Pure
Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Trinity College,
Cambridge.

{Fort,George H. Lakefield, Ontario, Canada.

{Forrescuz, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon.

{Forward, Henry. 10 Marine-avenue, Southend.

{Forwoop, Sir Writ1Am B. Ramleh, Blundellsands, Liverpool.

tFoster, A. Le Neve. 51 Cadogan-square, London, S.W.

tFoster, Sir B. Walter, M.D., M.P. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham.

*Fostrer, CLEMENT Lr Neve, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor
of Mining in the Royal College of Science, London. Llan-
dudno.

{Foster, Mrs. C. Le Neve. Llandudno.

*Foster, GrorcE Carey, B.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Physics in University College, London. 18 Daleham-gardens,
Hampstead, London, N.W.

§Foster, Joseph B. 6 James-street, Plymouth.

*Foster, Micnart, M.A., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L., Sec.R.S., F.LS.,
F.C.S., Professor of Physiology in the University of Cambridge.
Shelford, Cambridge.

TFoster, Robert. The Quarries, Grainger Park-road, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.

tFowler, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham.

{Fowler, G.G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.

§Fowler, Gilbert J. Dalton Hall, Manchester.

§Fowler, Miss Jessie A. 4 & 5 Imperial-buildings, Ludgate-cireus,
London, F.C.

*Fowler, John. 16 Kerrsland-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.

{Fowter, Sir Jomy, Bart., K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 Queen
Square-place, Westminster, 5. W.

{Fox, Miss A.M. Penjerrick, Falmouth.

*Fox, Charles. 104 Ritherdon-road, Upper Tooting, London, 8.W.

§Fox, Sir Cuartes Doveras, M.Inst.C.E. 28 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W.

{Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Falmouth.

*Fox, Joseph Hoyland. The Cleve, Wellington, Somerset.

{Fox, Thomas. Court, Wellington, Somerset.

{Foxwell, Arthur, M.A., M.B. 17 Temple-row, Birmingham.

*FoxwEt., Herperr §., M.A., F.8.S., Professor of Political Economy
in University College, London. St. John’s College, Cambridge

{Frain, Joseph, M.D. Grosyenor-place, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-

e.

+ Wiand § James B. Lowell, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Francis, WILLIAM, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, E.C. ; and Manor House, Richmond, Surrey.
tFRANKLAND, Epwarp, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

The Yews, Reigate Hill, Surrey.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 39

Year of
Election.

1887.

1889.
1894.
1882.
1885.
1865.
1871.

1859.
1871.
1884.

1884,

1877.
1884,

1869.
1886.

1887.
1887.

1892.
1882.
1883.
1887.
1875.
1875.
1884.
1895.

1872.
1859.
1869.

1884.
1891.

1881.
1887.
1836.
1857.
1863.
1876.
1850.

1876.
1863.
1885.
1888.
1888.
1861.
1889.

*FRANKLAND, Percy F., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry
and Metallurgy in the Mason College, Birmingham. :

{Franklin, Rev. Canon. Clayton-street West, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Franklin, Mrs. E. L. 9 Pembridge-gardens, London, W.

fFraser, Alexander, M.B. Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin.

{Fraser, Anevs, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. 232 Union-street, Aberdeen.

*Fraser, Joun, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.

{Fraser, THomas R., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Materia
Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

*Frazer, Daniel. 127 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.

{Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.

*Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Sc. (Univ. de France). Room 1042,
Drexel Building, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

*Fream, W., LL.D., BSc, F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.S. The Vinery,
Downton, Salisbury.

§Freeman, Francis Ford. Abbotsfield, Tavistock, South Devon.

*FReMANTLE, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. 10 Sloane-gardens,
London, 8. W.

{Frere, Rev. William Edward. The Rectory, Bitton, near Bristol.

}¥Freshfield, Douglas W., F.R.G.S. 1 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill,
London, W.

{Fries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.

{Froehlich, The Chevalier. Grosvenor-terrace, Withington, Man-
chester.

*Frost, Edmund. The Elms, Lasswade, Midlothian.

§Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire,

{Frost, Major H., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.

*Frost, Robert, B.Sc. 53 Victoria-road, London, W.

tFry, F. J. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

*Fry, Joseph Storrs. 13 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.

§Fryer, Joseph, J.P. Smelt House, Howden-le-Wear, Co. Durham.

§Fullarton, Dr. J. H. Fishery Board for Scotland, George-street,
Edinburgh.

*Fuller, Rev. A. 7 Sydenham-hill, Sydenham, London, 8.E.

{Furter, Freperick, M.A. 9 Palace-road, Surbiton.

{Furrer, GuorcE, M.Inst.C.E. 71 Lexham-gardens, Kensington,
London, W.

§Fuller, William, M.B. Oswestry.

fFulton, Andrew. 23 Park-place, Cardiff.

tGabb, Rey. James, M.A. Bulmer Rectory, Welburn, Yorkshire,

tGaddum, G. H. Adria House, Toy-lane, Withington, Manchester.

*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey.

{Gacus, ArpHonsr, M.R.I.A. Museum of Irich Industry, Dublin,

*Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hall, Spilsby.

tGairdner, Charles. Broom, Newton Mearns, Renfrewshire.

tGarrpver, W. T., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Medicine in the
University of Glasgow. The University, Glasgow.

tGale, James M, 25 Miller-street, Giasgow.

tGale, Samuel, F.C.S. 225 Oxford-street, London, W.

*Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B.

tGallenga, Mrs. Anna. The Falls, Chepstow.

fGallenga, Mrs, A.A. R. The Falls, Chepstow.

tGalloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.

tGalloway, Walter. Eighton Banks, Gateshead.

40 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Yenr of
Election.

1875. {GatLtoway, W. Cardiff.

1887, *Galloway, W. The Cottage, Seymour-grove,Old Trafford, Manchester.

1860. *Gatton, Sir Doveras, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS., F.LS.,
F.G.S., F.R.G.S. (Prestpent.) 12 Chester-street, Grosvenor-
place, London, 8. W.

1860, *Gatron, Francis, M.A., D.C.L., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
42 Rutland-gate, Knightsbridge, London, 8. W.

1869, {Ganron, Jonn C., M.A., F.L.S. New University Club, St.
James’s-street, London, S.W.

1870. §Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel D.,C.B. St. Helens, Lancashire.

1889.§§Gamble, David, jun. St. Helens, Lancashire.

1870. tGamble, J. C. St. Helens, Lancashire.

1888. *Gamble, J. Sykes, M.A., F.L.S. Dehra Din, North-West Provinces,
India.

1877. t{Gamble, William. St. Helens, Lancashire.

1868. {GamecEn, ArtHUR, M.D., F.R.S. Davos, Switzerland.

1889. {Gamgee, John. 6 Lingfield-road, Wimbledon, Surrey.

1883. {Gant, Major John Castle. St. Leonards.

1887. {GarpinuR, WALTER, M.A.,F.R.S.,F.LS, 45 Hills-road, Cambridge.

1882. *Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. Fairmead, 46 The Goffs, Eastbourne.

1894.§§Gardner, J. Addyman. 65 Bath-place, Oxford.

1882. {GaRpDNER, JoHN STaRKIE, F.G.S. 29 Albert Embankment, Lon-
don, S.E.

1884. {Garman, Samuel. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

1888.§§Garnett, Frederick Brooksbank, C.B., F.S.S. 4 Argyll-road, Kensing-
ton, London, W

1887. *Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, near Bolton, Lancashire.

1882. {Garnett, William, D.C.L. London County Council, Spring-gardens,

London, 8. W.
1873. {Garnham, John. Hazelwood, Crescent-road, St. John’s, Brockley,
Kent, 8.E.

1888. §Garson,J.G.,M.D. 82 Duke-street, St. James's, London, 8. W.

1894. §Garstang, Walter, M.A., F Z.S. Lincoln College, Oxford.

1874. *Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B., M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

1882. tGarton, William. Woolston, Southampton.

1892. §Garvie, James. Devanha House, Bowes-road, New Southgate,
London, N.

1889. {Garwood, #. J., B.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1870. {Gaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.

1870. *Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Clayton Lodge, Aigburth, Liverpool.

1862. *Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., F.G.S. Fel-
bridge Place, East Grinstead, Sussex.

1890. {Gaunt, Sir Edwin. Carlton Lodge, Leeds.

1875. tGavey, J. Hollydale, Hampton Wick, Middlesex.

1875. {Gaye, Henry S., M.D. Newton Abbot, Devon.

1892, tGeddes, George H. 8 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh.

1871. {tGeddes, John, 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

1883, ¢Geddes, John. 33 Portland-street, Southport.

1885, {Geddes, Professor Patrick. Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.

1887. {Gee, W. W. Haldane. Owens College, Manchester.

1867. {Gxerxin, Sir Arcurpatp, LL.D., D.Sc., F-R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,
Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United King-
dom. 10 Chester-terrace, Regent’s-park, London, N.W.

1871. {Gerxte, Jamus, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Murchison
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of
Edinburgh. 31 Merchiston-avenue, Edinburgh.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 41

Year of
Election.

1882. *Grnusz, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University Col-
lege, Aberystwith.

1875. *George, Rev. Hereford B., M.A., F.R.G.S. New College, Oxford.

1885. {Gerard, Robert. Blair-Devenick, Cults, Aberdeen.

1884, *Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. Worcester College, Oxford.

1884, {Gibb, Charles. Abbotsford, Quebec, Canada.

1865. {Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham.

1874. {Gibson, The Right Hon. Edward, Q.C. 23 Fitzwilliam-square,

Dublin. ‘

1892.§§Gibson, Francis Maitland. Care of Mrs. Main, 15 Leven-terrace,
Edinburgh.

1876. *Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Secretary to the
Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. 17 Alva-street,
Edinburgh.

1892. {Gibson, James. 10 North Mansion House-road, Edinburgh.

1884. tGibson, Rev. James J. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

1885. {Gzhson, John, Ph.D. 165 Hartington-gardens, Edinburgh.

1889. *Gibson, T.G. 2 Eslington-read, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1893. {Gibson, Walcot, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.

1887. {Grrren, Sir Ropert, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.S.S. 44 Pembroke-
road, London, 8. W.

1888. *Gifford, H. J. Lyston Court, Tram Inn, Hereford.

1884, {Gilbert, E. EH. 245 St. Antoine-street, Montreal, Canada.

1842, Guibert, Sir JosrrpH Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Har-

enden, near St. Albans.

1883.§§Gilbert, Lady. Harpenden, near St. Albans,

1857. tGilbert, J. T., M.R.I.A. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin.

1884. *Gilbert, Philip H. 24 Fort-street, Montreal, Canada.

1895. §Gilchrist, J. D. F. Carvenon, Anstruther, Scotland.

Gilderdale, Rev. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex.
1878. {Giles, Oliver. Crescent Villas, Bromserove.
Giles, Rev. William. Netherleigh House, near Chester.

1871. *Gii1t, Davin, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal Observatory, Cape
Town.

1888. §Gill, John Frederick. Douglas, Isle of Man.

1868. tGill, Joseph. Palermo, Sicily. (Care of W. H. Gill, Esq., General
Post Office, St. Martin’s-le-Grand, E.C.)

1887. {Gillett, Charles Edwin. Wood Green, Banbury, Oxford.

1888, {Gilliland, E. T. 259 West Seventy-fourth-street, New York,
U.S.A.

1884. {Gillman, Henry. 180 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.

1892. §Gilmour, Matthew A. B. Saffronhall House, Windmill-road,
Hamilton, N.B.

1867. {Gilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.

1898. *Gimingham, Edward. Stamford House, Northumberland Park,
Tottenham, London.

1867. {GinspurRe, Rev. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Holmlea, Virginia Water
Station, Chertsey.

1884, {Girdwood, Dr. G. P. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.

1874, *Girdwood, James Kennedy. Old Park, Belfast.

1886. *Gisborne, Hartley. Qu’Appelle Station, Assa, N.-W.T., Canada.

1883. *Gladstone, Miss. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.

1883. *Gladstone, Miss EK. A. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.

1850. *Gladstone, George, F.C.S., F.R.G.8. 384 Denmark-villas, Hove,
Brighton.

1849. *Guapstonr, Joun Hatt, Ph.D., D.Se., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Pem-
bridge-square, London, W.

42

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS,
of

Election.

1890

. *Gladstone, Miss Margaret E. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.

1861. *GuaisHeR, James, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Shola, Heathfield-road,

1871.

1883.
1881.
1881.

South Croydon. :
*GLAISHER, J. W.L., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Trinity College,
Cambridge.
tGlasson, L. T. 2 Roper-street, Penrith.
*GLAZEBROOK, R. T., M.A., F.R.S. 7 Harvey-road, Cambridge.
*Gleadow, Frederic. 84 Kensington Park-road, London, W.

1859. {Glennie, J. S. Stuart,M.A. Verandah Cottage, Haslemere, Surrey.

1867

. {Gloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh.
Glover, George. Ranelagh-road, Pimlico, London, S.W.

1874. {Glover, George T. 30 Donegall-place, Belfast.

Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.

1870. {Glynn, Thomas R., M.D. 62 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

1889
1872

. {Goddard, F. R. 19 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
. {Gopparp, Ricwarp. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1886, {Godlee, Arthur. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.

1887
1878
1880

. tGodlee, Francis. 8 Minshall-street, Manchester.

. *Godlee, J. Lister. Whip’s Cross, Walthamstow.

. {Gopman, F. Du Cans, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 10 Chandos-street,
Cavendish-square, London, W.

1883. {Godson, Dr. Alfred. Cheadle, Cheshire.
1852, {Godwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.

1879

. §Gopwrn-Avsren, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.GS.,
F.Z.8. Shalford House, Guildford.

1876. {Goff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.

1881
1886

. {GoLpscumipt, Epwarp, J.P. Nottingham.
. {Gotpsmip, Major-General Sir F. J.. OB. K.O.S.1, F.R.GS.
Godfrey House, Hollingbourne.

1873. {Goldthorp, Miss R. F. C. Cleckheaton, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1890

. *GonneR, E. C. K., M.A., Professor of Political Heonomy in Univer-
sity College, Liverpool.

1884. {Good,Charles KE. 102 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.

1852
1878

. [Goodbody, Jonathan. Olare, King’s County, Ireland.
. [Goodbody, Jonathan, jun, 50 Dame-street, Dublin.

1884. {Goodbody, Robert. J airy Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

1886
1885

. [Goodman, F. B. 46 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. {Goopman, J. D., J.P. Peachfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1884. *Goodridge, Richard E. W. 1030 The Rookery Building, Chicago,

Illinois, U.S.A.

1884, {Goodwin, Professor W.L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,

Canada.

1883. {Goouch, B., B.A. 2 Oxford-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1885. {Gordon, General the Hon. Sir Alexander Hamilton. 50 Queen’s

Gate-gardens, London, 8. W.

1885. {Gordon, Rev. Cosmo, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Chetwynd Rectory,

Newport, Salop.

1871. *Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions, West-

minster, 8. W.

1884, *Gordon, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. 8 St. Mary-street, St.

Andrews, N.B.

1857. {Gordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin.
1885. {Gordon, Rey.-William. Braemar, N.B.

1887

1865.

. tGordon, William John. 3 Lavender-gardens, London, S.W.
{Gorz, Gzorex, LL.D., F.R.S. 67 Broad-street, Birmingham.

1875. *Gotcon, Francis, B.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in

the University of Oxford.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 43

Year of
Election.

1873. {Gott, Charles, M.Inst.C.E. Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

1849. {Gough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.

1881. t{Gough, Thomas, B.Sc., F.C.S. Elmfield College, York.

1894.§§Gould, G. M. 119 South 17th-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

1888. {Gouraud, Colonel. Little Menlo, Norwood, Surrey.

1873. {Gourlay, J. McMillan. 21 St. Andrew’s-place, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1867. tGourley, Henry (Engineer), Dundee.

1876. {Gow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

1883. §Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

1873. §Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

1886. {Grabham, Michael C., M.D. Madeira.

1875. {GrawamMeE, JaAmuEs. 12 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

1892. §Grange, C. Ernest. Royal Grammar School, Lancaster.

1893. {Granger, F. S., M.A., D.Litt. 2 Cranmer-street, Nottingham.

1892.§§Grant, W. B. 10 Ann-street, Edinburgh.

1864. {Grantham, Richard F., F.G.S. Northumberland-chambers, Northum-
berland-avenue, London, W.C.

1881. {Gray, Alan, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

1890. {Gray, Professor Andrew, M.A., F.R.S.E. University College,
Bangor.

1864. *Gray, Rev. Canon Charles. The Vicarage, Blyth, Rotherham.

1865. {Gray, Charles. Swan Bank, Bilston.

1876. {Gray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasgow.

1881. {Gray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

1893.§§Gray, J. C., General Secretary of the Co-operative Union, Limited,
Long Millzate, Manchester.

1892. *Gray, James H., M.A., B.Sc. The University, Glascow.

1892. §Gray, John. 351 Clarewood-terrace, Brixton, London, S.W.

1887.§§Gray, Joseph W., F.G.S. Cleveland Villa, Shurdington Road,
Cheltenham.

1887. {Gray, M. H., I’.G.S. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

1886. *Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

1881. {Gray, Thomas, Professor of Engineering in the Rane Technical In-
stitute, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.

1873. {Gray, William, M.R.I.A. 8 Mount Charles, Belfast.

*Gray, Colonel WirtrAM. Farley Hall, near Reading.

1883. {Gray, William Lewis. 986 Gutter-lane, London, E.C.

1883. {Gray, Mrs. W. L. 36 Gutter-lane, London, E.C.

1886. {Greaney, Rev. William. Bishop’s House, Bath-street, Bir-

mingham.

1883. {Greathead, J. H., M.Inst.C.H. 15 Victoria-street, London, S.W.

1866. §Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby.

1893. *Greaves, Mrs. Elizabeth. Station-street, Nottingham.

1869. {Greaves, William. Station-street, Nottingham.

1872. {Greaves, William. 33 Marlborough-place, London, N.W.

1872. *Grece, Clair J., LL.D. Redhill, Surrey.

1889. {Green, A. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
University of Oxford. 137 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

1888. §GREEN, JosEPH R., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany
to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 17 Blooms-
bury-square, London, W.C.

1887. {Greene, Friese. 162 Sloane-street, London, S.W.

1887. sie ll Richard. 1 Temple-gardens, The Temple, London,
E

1858. "Greenhalgh, Thomas. Thornydikes, Sharples, near Bolton-le-Moors.

44 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1882, {GREENHILL, A. G., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
Royal Artillery College, Woolwich. 10 New Inn, London,
W.C

1881. §Greenhough, Edward. Matlock Bath, Derbyshire.

1884. ihe ee F.C.8. 20 New-street, Dorset-square, London,
iN. .

1884. {Greenshields, E.R. Montreal, Canada.

1884. {Greenshields, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.

1887. {Greenwell, G. C., jun. Driffield, near Derby.

1863. tGreenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire.

1889. {Greenwell, T. G. Woodside, Sunderland.

1890. {Greenwood, Arthur. Cavendish-road, Leeds.

1877. t{Greenwood, Holmes. 78 King-street, Accrington.

1849. {Greenwood, William. Stones, Todmorden.

1887.§§Greenwood, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Adderley Park Rolling Mills,
Birmingham.

1887. *Greg, Arthur. Eagley, near Bolton, Lancashire.

1861. *Grec, Ropert Purtirs, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts.

1860. {GREcor, Rey. Watrer, M.A. Pitsligo, Rosehearty, Aberdeen-

shire.

1868. {Gregory, Sir Charles Hutton, K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. 2 Delahay-
street, Westminster, S. W.

1894.§§Gregory, J. Walter, D.Sc., F.G.S. British Museum, Cromwell-
road, London, 8.W.

1883. {Gregson, G. E. Ribble View, Preston.

1881. {Gregson, William, F.G.S. Baldersby, S.0., Yorkshire.

1859. {Grrerson, Toomas Bortz, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.

1870. {Grieve, John, M.D. Care of W. L. Buchanan, Esq., 212 St. Vin-
cent-street, Glascow.

1878. {Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.

Gritin, 8. F. Albion Tin Works, York-road, London, N.

1894, *Griffith, C.L.'T. College-road, Harrow, Middlesex.

1894, *Griffith, Miss F. H. College-road, Harrow, Middlesex.

1859. *GrirritrH, Grorer, M.A. (AssIstANt GENERAL SECRETARY.)
College-road, Harrow, Middlesex.

1870. {Griffith, Rev. Henry. Brooklands, Isleworth, Middlesex.

1884. {Grirrirus, E. H., F.R.S. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.

1884. tGriffiths, Mrs. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.

1891. {Griffiths, P. Rhys, B.Sc., M.B. 71 Newport-road, Cardiff.

-1847, {Griffiths, Thomas. The Elms, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

1870. {Grimsdale, T. F.,M.D. Hoylake, Liverpool.

1888. *Grimshaw, James Walter. Australian Club, Sydney, New South
Wales.

1884, {Grinnell, Frederick. Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A.

1881. {Gripper, Edward. Mansfield-road, Nottingham.

1894.§§Groom, P., M.A., F.L.S. 38 Regent-street, Oxford.

1894.§SGroom, T, T. The Poplars, Hereford.

1892. {Grove, Mrs. Lilly, F.R.G.S. Mason College, Birmingham.

Grove, The Right Hon. Sir Wittr1am Rozert, Knt., M.A., D.C.L.,

LL.D., F.R.S. 115 Harley-street, London, W.

1891. {Grover, Henry Llewellin. Clydach Court, Pontypridd.

1863. *Grovrs, THomas B., F.C.S. 80 St. Mary-street, Weymouth.

1869. {Gruss, Sir Howarp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 51 Kenilworth-square,
Rathgar, Dublin.

1886, {Grundy, John. 17 Private-road, Mapperley, Nottingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 45

Year of
Election.

1891. {Grylls, W. London and Provincial Bank, Cardiff.
1887. {GurctemaRD, F.H. H. Eltham, Kent.
Guinness, Henry. 17 College-green, Dublin.

1842. Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-creen, Dublin.

1885. {Gunn, John. 4 Parkside-terrace, Edinburgh.

1891. ¢{Gunn, John. Llandaff House, Llandaff.

1877. {Gunn, William, F.G.S. Office of the Geological Survey of Scot-
land, Sheriff's Court House, Edinburgh.

1866. {GUnrHer, AtberT ©. L. G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.Z.S.
23 Litchfield-road, Kew, Surrey.

1894.§§Giinther, R. T. Magdalen College, Oxford.

1880. §Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea.

1876. {Guthrie, Francis. Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.

1883. {Guthrie, Malcolm. Prince’s-road, Liverpool.

1857. {Gwynne, Rey. John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland.

1876. {Gwyruer, R. F., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.

1884, tHaanel, E., Ph.D. Cobourg, Ontario, Canada.

1887. {Hackett, Henry Eugene. Hyde-road, Gorton, Manchester.

1865. { Hackney, Wilkam. 9 Victoria-chambers, Victoria-street, London, 8. W.

1884, {Hadden, Captain C. F., R.A. Woolwich.

1881. *Happon, Atrrep Cort, B.A.,F.Z.S. Inisfail, Hills-road, Cambridge.

1842. Hadfield, George. Victoria-park, Manchester,

1888. *Hadfield, R. A. The Grove, Sheffield.

1892.§§Haigh, K., M.A. Longton, Staffordshire.

1870. tHaigh, George. 27 Highfield South, Rock Ferry, Cheshire.

1879. {Haxz, H. Wuison, Ph.D., F.C.S. Queenwood College, Hants,

1887. {Hale, The Hon. E. J. 9 Mount-street, Manchester.

1879. *Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.

1883. *Hall, Miss Emily. Burlington House, Spring Grove, Isleworth,
Middlesex.

1881. {Hall, yoda Thomas, F.R.A.S. 15 Gray’s Inn-square, London,
W.C.

1854. (eis Frreie, F.G.8. Staverton House, Woodstock-road,
xford.

1887. {Hall, John. Springbank, Leftwich, Northwich.

1872. *Hall, Captain Marshall, F.G.S. Easterton Lodge, Parkstone R.S.O.,
Dorset.

1885. §Hall, Samuel. 19 Aberdeen Park, Highbury, London, N.

1884, {Hall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto, Canada.

1866. *Hatt, TownsHEnD M.,F.G.S. Orchard House, Pilton, Barnstaple.

1891. *Hallett, George. Cranford, Victoria-road, Penarth, Glamorganshire.

1891. §Hallett, J. H., M.Inst.C.E. Maindy Lodge, Cardiff.

1878, *Hattert, T.G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.

1888. §Hatiieurton, W. D., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
King’s College, London. 9 Ridgmount-gardens, Gower-street,
London, W.C.

Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.

1886. { Hambleton, G. W. 23 Bryanston-street, Portman-square, London, W.

1858. *Hambly, iiptike Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S. Holmeside, Hazelwood,
Derby.

1883. *Hamel, Egbert D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.

1885. {Hamilton, David James. 14 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

1869, {Hamilton, Rowland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W.

1851. { Hammond, C. C. Lower Brook-street, Ipswich.

1881. *Hammond, Robert. 18 Dickinson-road, Crouch End, London, N,

46

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.
of

Election.

1892
1878
1875
1861

1890
1882
1884

1894.
1859.
1886.
1859.

1890.
1886.
1892.
1865.
1869.

1877.
1869.

1894
1894
1894

. {Hanbury, Thomas, F.L.S. La Mortola, Ventimiglia, Italy.

. {Hance, Edward M., LL.B. Municipal Buildings, Liverpool.

. {Hancock, C. F., M.A. 125 Queen’s-gate, London, S.W.

. THancock, ie 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, Lon-

don, E.C.

. {Hankin, Ernest Hanbury. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

. {Hankinson, R.C. Bassett, Southampton.

.§§Hannaford, E. P. 2573 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada.

§Hannah, Robert, F.G.S. 82 Addison-road, London, W.

{Hannay, John. Montcoffer House, Aberdeen.

§Hansford, Charles. 3 Alexandra-terrace, Dorchester. ;

*Harcourr, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres.C.8,

(GENERAL SecRETARY.) Cowley Grange, Oxford.

*Harcovrt, L. F, Vernon, M.A., M.Inst.C.E, 6 Queen Anne’s-gate,
London, 8. W.

*Hardcastle, Basil W., F.S.S. 12 Gainsborough-gardens, Hampstead,
London, N.W.

*Harden, Arthur, Ph.D., M.Sc. Ashville, Upper Chorlton-road, Man-
chester.

tHarding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham.

{Harding, Joseph. Millbrook House, Exeter.

tHarding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.

tHarding, William D. Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk,

.§§Hardman, 8. C. 225 Lord-street, Southport.

-§§Hare, A. T., M.A. Neston Lodge, Hast Twickenham, Middlesex,

-§§Hare, Mrs. Neston Lodge, East Twickenham, Middlesex.

1838. *Harn, Cuartes Jonn, M.D. Berkeley House, 15 Manchester-

1858.
1883.
1883.
1890.
1881.
1890.
1887.
1878.

1871.
1875.

1877.
1883.

1862.

1883.
1862.

1868.
1881.
1882.
1872.
1884.

1872.

square, London, W.

tHargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds.

tHargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

{Hargreaves, Thomas. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

tHargrove, Rev. Charles. 10 De Grey-terrace, Leeds.

{Hargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.

§Harker, ALFRED, M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

t{Harker, T. H. Brook House, Fallowfield, Manchester.

*Harkness, H. W., M.D. California Academy of Sciences, San
Francisco, California, U.S.A.

tHarkness, William, F.C.S. Laboratory, Somerset House, London,
W.C

*Harland, Rey. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.8., F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.
*Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton, Sussex.
*Harley, Miss Clara. The Quintic, Savile Park, Halifax, York-
shire.
*HarigEy, Grorer, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 25 Harley-street, Lon-
don, W.
*Harley, Harold. 14 Chapel-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C.
*Hartey, Rev. Ropert, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Quintic,
Savile Park, Halifax, Yorkshire,
*THarmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.
*HarMer, Sipney F., M.A., B.Sc. Kine’s College, Cambridge.
tHarper, G. T. Bryn Hyfrydd, Portswood, Southampton.
tHarpley, Rey. William, M.A. Clayhanger Rectory, Tiverton.
{Harrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy in McGill University, Montreal. Wallbrac-place,
Montreal, Canada.
*Harris, Alfred, Lunefield, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 47

Year of

Election.
1888.
1842.
1889.

1884,

1888.
1860.
1864.
1874.
1858.

1892.
1889.
1870.

1853.
1892.
1895.
1886.

1885.
1876.
1875.
1893.

1871.

1890

1886.

{Harris, C.T. 4 Kilburn Priory, London, N.W.

*Harris, G. W., M.Inst.C.E. Moray-place, Dunedin, New Zealand.

§Harris, H. Granam, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, West-

minster, S.W.
{Harris, Miss Katherine E, 73 Albert Hall-mansions, Kensington-
gore, London, 8. W.

{Harrison, Charles. 20 Lennox-gardens, London, S.W.

tHarrison, Rey. Francis, M.A. North Wraxall, Chippenham.

tHarrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.

tHarrison, G. D. B. 3 Beaufort-road, Clifton, Bristol.

*Harrison, James Park, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park,

London, W.

tHarrison, Jon. Rockville, Napier-road, Edinburgh.

§Harrison, J.C. Oxford House, Castle-road, Scarborough.

tHarrison, Rectnap, F.R.C.S. 6 Lower Berkeley-street, Port-

man-square, London, W.

tHarrison, Robert. 386 George-street, Hull.

tHarrison, Rey. 8. N. Ramsay, Isle of Man.

§Harrison, Thomas. 48 High-street, Ipswich.

fHarrison, W. Jerome, F.G.S. Board School, Icknield-street, Bir-

mingham.

tHart, Charles J. 10 Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn.

tHart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.

*Hartland, E. Sidney, F.S.A. Highgarth, Gloucester,

Hartley, James. Sunderland.

{Harrtey, Watrer Noet, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. 36 Water-
loo-road, Dublin.

*Hartnell, Wilson. 8 Blenheim-terrace, Leeds.

*Hartoe, Professor M. M., D.Se. Queen’s College, Cork.

1887.§§Hartog, P. J., B.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.
1885.§§ Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.

1862.
1884.
1882,
1893.
1875.
1889.
1893.
1857.

1887.
1872.

1864.

1884.
1889,
1887.
1887.
1886.
1890.
1877.
1861.

*Harwood, John. Woodside Mills, Bolton-ie-Moors.

}Haslam, Rev. George, M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.

tHaslam, George James, M.D. Owens College, Manchester.

§Haslam, Lewis. Ravenswood, near Bolton, Lancashire.

*Hastines, G. W. 23 Kensington-square, London, W.

tHatch, F. H., Ph.D., F.G.8. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.

{Hatton, John L.S. People’s Palace, Mile End-road, London, E.

tHaventon, Rey. Samust, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA., F.G.S., Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin.
Trinity College, Dublin.

*Hawkins, William. Earlston House, Broughton Park, Manchester.

Pai Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, London,

*HAwksHAw, JoHN OrarxKE, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 Down-
street, W., and 33 Great George-street, London, 8.W.

*Haworth, Abraham. MHilston House, Altrincham.

{tHaworth, George C. Ordsal, Salford.

*Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.

tHaworth, 8. E. Warsley-road, Swinton, Manchester.

tHaworth, Rev. T. J. Albert Cottage, Saltley, Birmingham.

{Hawtin, J.N. Sturdie House, Roundhay-road, Leeds.

tHay, Arthur J. Lerwick, Shetland.

*Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Jonw C. D., Bart., K.C.B.,
D.C.L., F.R.S, 108 St. George’s-square, London, 8. W.

48

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.
of

Election.

1885. *Haycraft, John Berry, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. University College,

1891
1894
1878
1858

1888.
1851.

1883.
1883.
1883.
1871.
1885.
1861.
1883.
1883.
1882.
1877.
1877.
1883.
1866.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1865.
1892.

1889.
1884.

1833.
1888.
1888.

1855.

1867.
1882,
1887.

1863.
1881.

1887.
1867.
1873.
1883,
1891.

1892.
1880.

1885,

Cardiff.
. tHayde, Rev. J. St. Peter’s, Cardiff.
.§§Hayes, Edward Harold. 5 Rawlinson-road, Oxford.
. *Hayes, Rev. William A., M.A. Dromore, Co. Down, Ireland.
. *Haywarp, Rosert Batpwiy, M.A., F.R.S. Ashcombe, Shanklin,
Isle of Wight.
{ Hazard, Rowland R. Little Mulgrave House, Hurlingham.
§Heap, Jeremran, M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. 47 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W.
tHeadley, Frederick Halcombe. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
tHeadley, Mrs. Marian. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
§Headley, Rev. Tanfield George. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
§Healey, George. Brantfield, Bowness, Windermere.
*Heap, Ralph, jun. 1 Brick-court, Temple, London, E.C.
*Heape, Benjamin, Northwood, Prestwich, Manchester.
tHeape, Charles. Tovrak, Oxton, Cheshire.
{Heape, Joseph R. 96 Tweedale-street, Rochdale.
*Heape, Walter, M.A. St. Mary’s, Trumpington, Cambridge.
tHearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth.
{Hearder, William Keep, F.S.A. 195 Union-street, Plymouth.
tHeath, Dr. 46 Hoghton-street, Southport.
tHeath, Rev. D. J. Esher, Surrey.
tHeath, Thomas, B.A. Royal Observatory, Edinburgh.
tHeaton, Charles. Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.
tHeaton, Miss Ellen. Woodhouse-square, Leeds.
tHeaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, Birmingham.
*Heaton, Witiiam H., M.A., Professor of Physics in University
College, Nottingham.
*Heaviside, Arthur West. 7 Grafton-road, Whitley, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
§Heaviside, Rev. George, B.A., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. 7 Grosvenor-
street, Coventry.
tHxavisrpz, Rev. Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich.
*Heawood, Edward, B.A. Skelwith Bridge, Ambleside.
*Heawood, Perey Y., Lecturer in Mathematics at Durham University.
41 Old Elvet, Durham.
t{Hecror, Sir Jamus, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the
Geological Survey of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand.
{Heddle, M. Forster, M.D., F.R.S.E. St. Andrews, N.B.
{ Hedger, Philip. Cumberland-place, Southampton.
*Hupees, KintinewortH, M.Inst.C.K, 92 Victoria-street, London,
S.W.

{ Hedley, Thomas. Cox Lodge, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Her-Suaw, H. 8., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in Uni-
versity College, Liverpool. 20 Waverley-road, Liverpool.
§Hembry, Frederick William, I’.R.M.S. Sussex Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.

tHenderson, Alexander. Dundee.

*Henderson, A. L. 277 Lewisham High-road, London, 8.E.

{Henderson, Mrs. A. L. 277 Lewisham High-road, London, S.E.

*Henperson, G.G., D.Sc., M.A., F.C.8., F.L.C., Professor of Chemistry
in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. 204
George-street, Glaszow.

tHenderson, John. 3 St. Catherine-place, Grange, Edinburgh.

*Henderson, Captain W. H., R.N. 21 Albert Hall-mansions,
London, 8S. W.

tHenderson, Sir William. Devanha House, Aberdeen.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 49

Yeur of
Election.

1892.
1856,

1873.

1884,
1892,
1855.
1855.
1890.
1890.
1892,
1887.

1893.
1891.
1871.

1874.
1895.

1894,
1890.

1884,

§Henigan, Richard. Alma-road, The Avenue, Southampton.

tHennessy, Henry G., F.R.S., M.R.LA. 81 Marlborough-road,
Dublin.

*Henricr, Oraus M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics
and Mathematics in the City and Guilds of London Institute.
Central Institution, Exhibition-road, London, S.W. 34
Clarendon-road, Notting Hill, W.

Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester.

Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.

Henry, Mitchell. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, W.
tHenshaw, George H. 43 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.
tHepburn, David, M.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Edinburgh.

*Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Oakfield Cottage, Dartford, Kent.

tHepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W.

tHepper, J. 43 Cardigan-road, Headingley, Leeds.

tHepworth, Joseph. 25 Wellington-street, Leeds.

*Herbertson, Andrew J. University Hall, Edinburgh.

*“Herpman, Witt A.,D.Se., F.BS., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Locan
SrcreraRry), Professor of Natural History in University College,
Liverpool.

*Herdman, Mrs. 32 Bentley-road, Liverpool.

tHern, S. South Cliff, Marine Parade, Penarth.

*HERSCHEL, ALEXANDER S., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Honorary
Professor of Physics and Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Observatory House, Slough, Bucks.

§Herscuet, Colonel Jouyn, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Observatory
House, Slough, Bucks.

§Hesketh, James. Scarisbrick Avenue-buildings, 107 Lord-street,
Southport.

§Hewerson, G. H. 39 Henley-road, Ipswich.

tHewetson, H. Bendelack, M.R.C.S., F.L.S, 11 Hanover-square,
Leeds.

§Hewett, George Edwin. Cotswold House, St. John’s Wood Park,
London, N.W.

1894.§§Hewins, W.A.S., M.A., F.S.S. 26 Cheyne-row, Chelsea, London,S. W.
1893.§§Hewitt, Thomas P. Eccleston Park, Prescot, Lancashire.

1883.

1881.
1882.
1883.

1866.
1879.
1861.
1886.
1833.

1887.
1888.
1881.
1875.
1877.

1895,

{tHewson, Thomas. Care of J. C. C. Payne, Esq., Botanic-avenue,
The Plains, Belfast.

tHey, Rey. William Croser, M.A. Clifton, York.

tHeycock, Charles T., B.A., F.R.S. King’s College, Cambridge.

tHeyes, Rev. John Frederick, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.G.S. Crowell,
Tetsworth, Oxford.

*Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.

tHeywood, A. Percival. Duftield Bank, Derby.

*Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere.

§Huywoop, Henry, J.P., F.C.S. Witla Court, near Cardiff.

*Heywoop, Janus, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.S., F.S.8. 26 Ken-
sington Palace-gardens, London, W.

tHeywood, Robert. Mayfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.

Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester.

tHichens, James Harvey, M.A., F.G.S._ The College, Cheltenham.

§Hicx, Toomas, B.A., B.Se. Brighton Grove, Rusholme, Manchester.

tHicxs, Henry, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Hendon Grove, Hendon,
Middlesex, N.W.

§Hicxs, Professor W. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of Firth

College, Sheffield. Firth College, Shettield.

D

5U

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1886.
1884.

1887.

1864.
1875.

lbs yale
1891.
1894,
1885.
1872.
1881.

1887.
1884.

tHicks, Mrs. W. M. Dunheved, Findcliffe-crescent, Sheffield.

tHickson, Joseph. 272 Mountain-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Hicxson, Sypnuy J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in
Owens Colleze, Manchester.

*Himrn, W. P., M.A. Castle House, Barnstaple.

tHiggins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., F.R.S.E. Alfred
House, Birkenhead.

t{Hieers, Crement, B.A., F.C.S. 5 Trebovir-road, Earl’s Court,
London, 8. W.

§Higes, Henry, LL.B., F.S.S. 164 Brixton Hill, London, S.W.

Hildyard, Rev. James, B.D., F.C.P.S. Ingoldsby, near Grantham,

Lincolnshire.

§Hill, Rev. A. Du Boulay. The Vicarage, Downton, Wilts.

*Hill, Alexander, M.A., M.D. Downing College, Cambridge.

§Hill, Charles, F.S.A. Rockhurst, West Hoathly, East Grinstead.

*Hill, Rev. Canon Edward, M.A.,F.G.S. Sheering Rectory, Harlow.

*Hitt, Rev. Epwin, M.A., F.G.8. The Rectory, Cockfield, R.S.0.,
Suffolk,

tHill, G. H., F.G.S. Albert-chambers, Albert-square, Manchester.

tHill, Rev. James Edgar, M.A., B.D. 2488 St. Catherine-street,
Montreal, Canada.

. tHrr1, M. J. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics

in University College, London.

. tHill, Pearson. 50 Belsize Park, London, N.W.

. *Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.

. {Hill, William. Hitchin, Herts.

. THill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.

. *HitiHovse, WritttAM, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Mason

Science College, Birmingham. 95 Harborne-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham,

. §Hillier, Rev. E. J. Cardington Vicarage, Bedford.

. THills, F.C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, 8.E.

. tHilton, Edwin. Oak Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.

. tHincks, Rev. Tomas, B.A., F.R.S. Stokeleigh, Leigh Woods,

Clifton, Bristol.

. {Hiog, G. J., Ph.D., F.G.S. Avondale-road, Croydon, Surrey.

. *Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.

. *Hindmarsh, William Thomas, F.L.S. Alnbank, Alnwick.

. {Hingley, Sir Benjamin, Bart. Hatherton Lodge, Cradley, Wor-

cestershire.

. ¢{Hingston, J.T. Clifton, York.
. {Hineston, Witt1am Hates, M.D., D.C.L. 37 Union-ayenue,

Montreal, Canada.

. tHirschfilder, C. A. Toronto, Canada.

. *Hirst, James Andus. Adel Tower, Leeds.

. Hirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.

. tHoadrey, John Chipman. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W.

. §Hobbes, Robert George, M.R.I. Livingstone House, 874 Wands-

worth-road, London, 8. W.

. tHobkirk, Charles P., F.L.S. West Riding Union Bank, Dewsbury.
. *Hobson, Bernard, B.Se., F.G.S. Tapton Elms, Sheffield.
. tHobson, Mrs. Carey. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington,

London, W.

. tHobson, Rey. E. W. 55 Albert-road, Southport.
. tHockin, Edward. Poughill, Stratton, Cornwall.
. tHocking, Rey. Silas K. 21 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.

LIST OF MEMBERS. &1

Year of
Election.

1877. tHodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth.

1876. tHodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast.

1852. tHodges, John F., M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s
College, Belfast.

1863. *Hopexr1n,THomas, B.A.,D.C.L. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1887. *Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Laryngology at
Owens College, Manchester. 18 St. John-street, Manchester,

1880.§§Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of
Chemistry and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich.
8 Park-villas, Blackheath, London, S.E.

1873. *Hodgson, George. Thornton-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1884. {Hodgson, Jonathan. Montreal, Canada.

1863. {Hodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.

1863. tHodgson, R. W. 7 Sandhill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1894.§§Hoge, A. F. 134 Birchanger-road, South Norwood, London, S.E.

1894. §Holah, Ernest. 5 Crown-court, Cheapside, London, E.C.

1854. *Holcroft, George. Tyddyngwladis, Ganllwyd, near Dolgelly, North
Wales.

1883. tHolden, Edward. Laurel Mount, Shipley, Yorkshire.

1873. *Holden, Sir Isaac, Bart. Oakworth House, near Keighley, York-
shire.

1883. {Holden, James. 12 Park-avenue, Southport.

1883. {Holden, John J. 23 Duke-street, Southport.

1884. tHolden, Mrs. Mary E. Dunham Ladies’ College, Quebec, Canada,

1887. *Holdsworth, C.J. Hill Top, near Kendal, Westmoreland.

1891.§§Holgate, Benjamin, F.G.S. Cardigan Villa, Grove-lane, Head-
ingley, Leeds.

1879. {Holland, Calvert Bernard. Hazel Villa, Thicket-road, Anerley,
London, 8.E.

*Holland, Philip H. 3 Heath-rise, Willow-road, Hampstead, Lon-

don, N. W.

1889. §Hollander, Bernard. King’s College, Strand, London, W.C.

1886. {Holliday, J. R. 101 Harborne-road, Birmingham.

1865. {Holliday, William. New-street, Birmingham.

1883, {Hollingsworth, Dr. T. 8. Elford Lodge, Spring Grove, Isleworth,
Middlesex.

1883. *Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 5 Freeland-road, Ealing, Middlesex, W.

1866. *Holmes, Charles. St. Helen’s, Dennington Park-road, West Hamp-
stead, London, N.W.

1892. tHolmes, Matthew. Netherby, Lenzie, Scotland.

1889. {Holmes, Ralph, B.A. Hulme Grammar School, Manchester.

1882. *Hotmus, THomas Vincent, F.G.S. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich, S.E,

1891. *Hood, Archibald, M.Inst.C.E. 42 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1875. *Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester.

1847, {Hooxrer, Sir Joserx Darron, K.C.8.L, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. The Camp, Sunningdale.

1892.§§Hooker, Reginald H., B.A. Royal Statistical Society, 9 Adelphi-
terrace, London, W.C.

1865. *Hooper, John P. Coventry Park, Streatham, London, S.W.

1877. *Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. The Vicarage, Blackheath Hill,
Greenwich, S.E.

1856. {Hooton, Jonathan. 116 Great Ducie-street, Mauchester,

1842. Hope,Thomas Arthur. 14 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, London, W,

1884, *Hopkins, Edward M. Orchard Dene, Henley-on-Thames.

1865. tHopkins, J.S. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1884, *Hopxinson, CHartes. The Limes, Didsbury, near Manchester,

1882. *Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Oakleigh, Timperley, Cheshire.

D2

52

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1870.
1871.

1858.
1891.

1886.
1885.

1875.

1884.
1887.
1892.
1893.

1884.
1868.
1859.
1886.

1887.
1884.
1883,

1893.
1885,
1886,
1887.
1882.

1886.
1876.
1885.
1889.

1857.

1868.
1891.

1886,

1884.
1884.
1865.

1863.

g
1883.
1883.
1887.
1888,

*Hopxrnson, Jonn, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Holmwood, Wimbledon,
Surrey.

*Hopxinson, Jonny, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. 34 Margaret-
street, Cavendish-square, London, W.; and The Grange, St.
Albans.

tHopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.

{Horder, T. Garrett. 10 Windsor-place, Cardiff.

Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.

{ Horne, Edward H. Innisfail, Beulah Hill, Norwood, S.E.

{Horne, Joun, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff
Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

*Horniman, F. J., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Surrey Mount, Forest Hill,
London, S.E.

*Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax.

tHorsfall, T. C. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield.

{ Horsley, Reginald E., M.B. 46 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

*Horstny, Vicror A. H., BSc, F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Professor of
Pathology in University College, London, 25 Cavendish-
square, London, W.

*Hotblack, G.S. 52 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.

}Hotson, W. C. Upper King-street, Norwich.

tHough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. © Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton.

tHoughton, F. T.S., M.A., F.G.S. 188 Hagley-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

t{Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart., M.P. Norbury Booths, Knutsford.

{Houston, William. Legislative Library, Toronto, Canada,

*Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.S., F.G.S. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road,
West Dulwich, Surrey, 8.E.

Hovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath.

§Howard, F. T., B.A., F.G.S. University College, Cardiff.

tHoward, James Fielden, M.D., M.R.C.S._ Sandyeroft, Shaw.

*Howarp, James L., D.Sc. 86 St. John’s-road, Waterloo, near Liverpool.

*Howard, 8.8. 58 Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.

tHoward, William Frederick, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 183 Cavendish-
street, Chesterfield, Derbyshire.

tHowatt, David. 3 Birmingham-road, Dudley.

tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.

tHowden, James C., M.D. Sunnyside, Montrose, N.B.

§Howden, Robert, M.B. University of Durham College of Medicine,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tHowell, Henry H., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of
Great Britain. Geological Survey Office, Edinburgh.

tHowett, Rey. Canon Hinps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich.

§ Howell, Rev. William Charles, M.A., Vicar of Holy Trinity, High
Cross, Tottenham, Middlesex.

§Howes, Professor G. B., F.L.5. Royal College of Science, South
Kensington, London, 8. W.

tHowland, Edward P.,M.D. 211 41}-street, Washington, U.S.A.

tHowland, Oliver Aiken. Toronto, Canada.

see Rey. Freperick, F.R.A.S. East Tisted Rectory, Alton,

ants.

tHoworrn, Sir H. H., K.0.LE., M.P., D.C.L, F.RS., F.S.A,
Bentcliffe, Eecles, Manchester.

tHoworth, John, J.P. Springbank, Burnley, Lancashire.

tHoyle, James. Blackburn.

§Hoyiz, Witrttam E., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.

tHudd, Alfred E., F.S.A. . 94 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 53

Year of
Election.

1888. tHvnson, C. T., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. 2 Barton-crescent, Dawlish.

1894. §Hudson, John E. 125 Milk-street, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

1867. *Hupson, Winr1am H. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in King’s
College, London. 15 Altenberg-gardens, Clapham Common,
London, 8. W.

1858. *Hvecrns, Wri11AM, D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
90 Upper Tulse Hill, Brixton, London, S.W.

1892. { Hughes, Alfred W. Woodside, Musselburgh.

1887. {Hughes, E.G. 4 Roman-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

1883. tHughes, Miss E. P. Newnham College, Cambridge.

1871. *Hughes, George Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
berland.

1887. {Hughes, John Taylor. Thorleymoor, Ashley-road, Altrincham,

1870. *Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-chambers, Liverpool.

1891.§§Hughes, Thomas, F.C.S. 31 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.

1876. *Hughes, Rev. Thomas Edward. Wallfield House, Reigate.

1868.§§HuenHes, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor
of Geology in the University of Cambridge.

1891. {Hughes, Rev. W. Hawker. Jesus College, Oxford.

1865. {Hughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham,
Birmingham.

1867. §Hut1, Epwarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8. 20 Arundel-gardens,
Notting Hill, London, W.

*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. 47 Portland-place, London, W. ;

and Breamore House, Salisbury.

1887. *Hummet, Professor J. J. 152 Woolsley-road, Leeds.

1890. {Humphrey, Frank W. 65 Prince’s-gate, London, S.W.

1884, *Humphreys, A. W. 50 Broadway, New York, U.S.A.

1878. {Humphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon.

1880. {Humphreys, Noel A., F.S.S. Rayenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on-
Thames.

1862. *Humpury, Sir Groree Murray, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Surgery
in the University of Cambridge. Grove Lodge, Cambridge.

1877. *Hunt, Artuur Roops, M.A., F.G.S. Southwood, Torquay.

1891. *Hunt, Cecil Arthur. Southwood, Torquay.

1886. {Hunt, Charles. The Gas Works, Windsor-street, Birmingham.

1891. Hunt, D. de Vere, M.D. Westhbourne-crescent, Sophia-gardens,
Cardiff.

1865. {Hunt, J. P. Gospel Oak Works, Tipton.

1864. {Hunt, W. Folkestone.

1875. *Hunt, William. Northcote, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.

1881. tHunter, F. W. Newhbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

1889. t{Hunter, Mrs. F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

1881. {Hunter, Rev. John. University-gardens, Glasgow.

1884. *Hunter, Michael. Greystones, Sheffield.

1869. *Hunter, Rev. Robert. LL.D., F.G.S. Forest Retreat, Staples-road,
Loughton, Essex.

1879. {Huntineton, A. K., F.C.S., Professor of Metallurgy in King’s College,
London. King’s College, London, W.C.

1885. tHuntly, The Most Hon. the Marquess of. Aboyne Castle, Aber-
deenshire.

1863. {Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.

1883. *Hurst, CHartes Hursert, Ph.D. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

1869, {Hurst, George. Bedford.

1882. tHurst, Walter, B.Sc. West Lodge, Todmorden.

1861. *Hurst, William John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn,
Treland.

54 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1870. {Hurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Appleton, Widnes, near Warrington.
1887. {Husband, W. E. 56 Bury New-road, Manchester.
1882. tHussey, Major E. R., R.E. 24 Waterloo-place, Southampton.
1894. *Hutchinson, A. Pembroke College, Cambridge.
1876. {Hutchinson, John. 22 Hamilton Park-terrace, Glasgow.
Hutton, Crompton. Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
1864, *Hutton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
NAY
1857. { Hutton, Henry D. 17 Palmerston-road, Dublin.
1887. *Hutton, J. Arthur. The Meadows, Alderley Edge.
1861. *Hurron, T. Maxwett. Summerhill, Dublin.
Hyde, Edward. Dukinfield, near Manchester.
1883. Hyde, George H. 23 Arbour-street, Southport.
1871. *Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

1882. *I’Anson, James, F.G.S. Fairfield House, Darlington.
1883. {Idris, T. H. W. 58 Lady Margaret-road, London, N.W.
Ihne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.

1884. *Iles, George. 5 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada.

1885. tim-Thurn, Everard F., C.M.G., M.A. British Guiana.

1888. *Ince, Surgeon-Lieut.-Col. John, M.D. Montague House, Swanley,
Kent.

1858. tIngham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.

1893.§§Ingle, Herbert. Pool, Leeds.

1876. {Inglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

1891. {Ingram, Lieut.-Colonel C. W. Bradford-place, Penarth.

1852. tiveram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.IA., Senior Lecturer in the Univer-
sity of Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.

1885. {Ingram, William, M.A. Gamrie, Banff.

1886. {Innes, John. The Limes, Alcester-road, Moseley, Birmingham.

1892. {Ireland, D. W. 10 South Gray-street, Edinburgh.

1892. {Irvine, James. Devonshire-road, Birkenhead.

1892. tIrvine, Robert, F.R.S.E. Royston, Granton, Edinburgh.

1882. §Irvine, Rey. A., B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Hockerill, Bishop Stortford,
Herts.

1888, *Isaac, J. F. V.,B.A. 114 Marine-parade, Brighton.

1883. {Isherwood, James. 18 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1881. tIshiguro, Isoji. Care of the Japanese Legation, 9 Cavendish-square,.
London, W.

1891. *Ismay, Thomas H. 10 Water-street, Liverpool.

1886. {Izod, William. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1859. {Jack, John,M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.

1884, {Jack, Peter. People’s Bank, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1876. *Jack, William, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Glasgow. 10 The College, Glasgow.

1883. *Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc., F.C.S. 358 Collins-street, Mel-

, bourne, Australia.

1879. {Jackson, Arthur, F.R.C.S. Wilkinson-street, Sheffield.

1883. {Jackson, Frank. 11 Park-crescent, Southport.

1883. *Jackson, F. J. 1 Morley-road, Southport.

1883. {Jackson, Mrs. F. J. 1 Morley-road, Southport.

1874. *Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Belmont, Lyme Regis, Dorset.

1887. *Jackson, George. 53 Elizabeth-street, Cheetham, Manchester.

1885, {Jackson, Henry. 19 Golden-square, Aberdeen,

1866. {Jackson, H. W., F.R.A.S. . 67 Upgate, Louth, Lincolnshire.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 55
Year of
Election.
1869. §Jackson, Moses, J.P. Lansdowne House, Tonbridge.

1887.

1874.
1865.
1891.
1891.
1891.

1872.
1860.
1886.
1891.
1891.
1891.

1891.
1858.
1884.
1881.

§Jacobson, Nathaniel. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Man-
chester.

*Jaffe, John. 388 Promenade des Anglais, Nice, France.

*Jaffray, Sir John, Bart. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{James, Arthur P, Grove House, Park-grove, Cardiff.

*James, Charles Henry. 8 Courtland-terrace, Merthyr Tydfil.

*James, Charles Russell. 6 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, London,
W.C.

tJames, Christopher. 8 Laurence Pountney-hill, London, E.C.

tJames, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.

tJames, Frank. Portland House, Aldridge, near Walsall.

{James, Ivor. University College, Cardiff.

tJames, John, 24 The Parade, Carditf.

{James, John Herbert. Howard House, Avundel-street, Strand,
London, W.C.

tJames, J. R., L.R.C.P. 158 Cowbridge-road, Canton, Cardiff.

tJames, William C. Woodside, Plymouth.

tJameson, W.C. 48 Baker-street, Portman-square, London, W.

tJamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Arts,
Glasgow.

1887.§§J amieson, G. Auldjo. 37 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

1885.
1885.
1859.
1889,

1870.
1891.

1891.
1855.
1867.
1885.
1887.
1864.
1891.

1873.

1880.
1852.
1893.
1878.

1889.
1884,

1891.
1884,
1884,

1883.
1883.
1871.

{Jamieson, Patrick. Peterhead, N.B.

{Jamieson, Thomas. 173 Union-street, Aberdeen.

*Jamieson, Thomas F., LL.D., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.

*Japp, F. R., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Aberdeen.

tJarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.

{Jasper, Henry. Holmedale, New Park-road, Clapham Park,
London, S.W.

Jefferies, Henry. Plas Newydd, Park-road, Penarth.

*Jeffray, John. 9 Winton-drive, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

tJeffreys, Howel, M.A. 61 Bedford-gardens, Kensington, London, W.

{Jefireys, Dr. Richard Parker. Eastwood House, Chesterfield.

§JErFs, OsmMunD W. 92 Westbourne-street, Liverpool.

{Jelly, Dr. W. Aveleanas, 11, Valencia, Spain.

tJenkins, Henry C., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. 17 St. Julian’s-road,
Kilburn, London, N.W.

§J see, Major-General J. J. 16 St. James’s-square, London,

Wis

*JENKINS, Sir Jonn Jonzs. The Grange, Swansea.

tJennings, Francis M., F.G.S8.,M.R.LA. Brown-street, Cork.

§Jennings, G. E. Ash Leigh-road, Leicester.

{Jephson, Henry L. Chief Secretary's Office, The Castle, Dublin.

Jessop, William, jun. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chestertield.
tJevons, F. B., M.A. The Castle, Durham.

tJewell, Lieutenant Theo. F. Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.

{John, E. Cowbridge, Cardiff.

tJohns, Thomas W. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.

§Jonnson, ALpxanpER, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in
McGill University, Montreal. 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Mont-
real, Canada.

tJohnson, Miss Alice. Llandaff House, Cambridge.

tJohnson, Ben. Micklegate, York. ©

*Johnson, Dayid, F.C.8., F.G.S8. 11 Thurlow-terrace, Larkhall Rise,
Clapham, London, 8S. W.

56

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1883.
1865.
1888.
1875.

1872

1870.
18653.
1881.
1890.

1887.
1883.
1883.
1861.

1883.
1859.
1864.

1884.

1883

1884,
1884,
1885.

1886.
1864,
1864.
1871.

1888.
1888.
1881.
1849.
1887.

1891.
1890.
1891,
1887.

1891.
1883.
1895.
1884,

1877.

1893.
1881.

1873.
1880.
1860.

1883.
1891.

{Johnson, Edmund Litler. 73 Albert-road, Southport.

*Johnson, G. J. 386 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

tJohnson, J. G. Southwood Court, Highgate, London, N.

tJohnson, James Henry, F.G.S. 73 Albert-road, Southport.

tJohnson, J.T. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.

tJohnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. 46 Jermyn-street, Liverpool.

{Johnson, R. S. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.

tJohnson, Sir Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham.

*Johnson, Thomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.

tJohnson, W. H. Woodleigh, Altrincham, Cheshire.

tJohnson, W. H. F. Llandaff House, Cambridge.

{Johnson, William. Harewood, Roe-lane, Southport.

fJohnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham,
Cheshire.

tJohnston, H. H. Tudor House, Champion Hill, London, S.E.

tJohnston, James. Newmill, Elgin, N.B.

tJohnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, London,
N.W

tJohnston, John L. 27 St. Peter-street, Montreal, Canada.

tJohnston, Thomas. Broomsleigh, Seal, Sevenoaks.

{Johnston, Walter R. Fort Qu’Appelle, N.W. Territory, Canada,

*Johnston, W. H. County Offices, Preston, Lancashire.

{Jonnston-Lavis, H. J., M.D., F.G.S. Beaulieu, Alpes Maritimes,
France.

tJohnstone, G. H. Northampton-street, Birmingham.

*Johnstone, James. Alva House, Alva, by Stirling, N.B.

tJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.

fJotty, Wiriram, F.RS.E., F.G.S., H.M. Inspector of Schools.
St. Andrew’s-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

tJolly, W.C. Home Lea, Lansdowne, Bath.

{Jory, Joun, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. 389 Waterloo-road, Dublin.

tJones, Alfred Orlando, M.D. Cardigan Villa, Harrogate.

tJones, Baynham. Walmer House, Cheltenham.

fJones, D. E., B.Sc., H.M. Inspector of Schools. 7 Marine-terrace,
Aberystwith.

tJones, D. Edgar, M.D. Spring Bank, Queen-street, Cardiff.

§Jones, Rey. Edward, F.G.S. Fairfax-road, Prestwich, Lancashire.

{Jones, Dr. Evan, Aberdare.

tJones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.0.S. Beaufort House, Alexandra Park,
Manchester.

*Jonzs, Rev. G. Hartwett, M.A. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, Surrey.

*Jones, George Oliver, M.A. 5 Cook-street, Liverpool.

§Jones, Harry. Engineer’s Office, Great Eastern Railway, Ipswich.

fJones, Rev. Harry, M.A. 8 York-gate, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W

tJones, Henry C., F.C.S. Royal College of Science, South Kensing-
ton, London, 8.W.

tJones, Professor J. E., B.Se.

*Jonzs, J. Virtamu, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of the University
College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff.

tJones, Theodore B, 1 Finsbury-cireus, London, E.C.

tJones, Thomas. 15 Gower-street, Swansea.

jJonzs, THomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S. 17 Parson’s-Green, Ful-

ham, London, 8S. W.
tJones, William. Elsinore, Birkdale, Southport.
tJones, William Lester. 22 Newport-road, Cardiff.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 57

Year of
Election.

1875.
1884,
1891.
1891.
1875.
1879.
1890.
1872.

1848.
1883,
1886.
1891.

1848.
1870.

1883.

1868.
1888,

1887.
1859.

1883.
1884,
1875.
1886.
1894.

1894,
1892.

1887,
1884,
1864.
1885.
1847,

1877.
1887.
1884,
1890.
1891.
1875,

1884,

1876,
1884,

*Jose, J. KE. 49 Whitechapel, Liverpool.

tJoseph, J. H. 738 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada,

tJotham, F. H. Penarth.

{Jotham, T. W. Penylan, Cardiff.

*Joule, Benjamin St. John B., J.P. Rothesay, N.B.

tJowitt, A. Scotia Works, Sheffield.

tJowitt, Benson R. Elmhurst, Newton-road, Leeds.

fJoy, Algernon. Junior United Service Club, St. James’s, London,
S.W.

*Joy, Rev. Charles Ashfield. West Hanney, Wantage, Berkshire.

tJoyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester,

tJoyce, The Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.

tJoynes, John J. Great Western Colliery, near Coleford, Gloucester-
shire.

*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax.

tJupp, Joun Wes ey, C.B., F.R.S.,F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
Royal College of Science, London. 16 Cumberland-road, Kew.

tJustice, Philip M. 14 Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane,
London, W.C.

*Kaines, Joseph, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Osborne-road, Stroud Green-road,
London, N.

{Kapp, Gisbert, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.H.E. 3 Lindenallee, Westend,
Berlin.

{Kay, Miss. Hamerlaund, Broughton Park, Manchester.

{Kay, David, F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington,
London, W. -

{Kearne, John H. Westcliffe-road Birkdale, Southport.

tKeefer, Samuel. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

}Keeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.

{Keen, Arthur, J.P. Sandyford, Augustus-road, Birmingham.

§Keene, Captain C. T. P., F.LS., F.ZS., F.S.8. 11 Queen’s-gate,
London, S.W

§Keightley, Rev. G. W. Great Stambridge Rectory, Rochford,
Essex.

{Keiller, Alexander, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 54 Northumberland-
street, Edinburgh.

{Kellas-Johnstone, J. F. 35 Orescent, Salford.

{Kellogg, J. H.,M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.

*Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset.

§Keltie, J. Scott, Assist.Sec.R.G.8., F.S.8._ 1 Savile-row, London, W.

*Ketvin, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., Pres.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
University of Glasgow. The University, Glasgow.

*Kelvin, Lady. The University, Glasgow.

tKemp, Harry. 254 Stretford-road, Manchester.

{Kemper, Andrew U., A.M., M.D. 101 Bfoadway, Cincinnati, U.S.A.

§Kempson, Augustus. Kildare, Arundel-road, Eastbourne.

§KenpaLt, Percy F,, F.G.S. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

{Kennepy, ALExanpER B. W., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Emeritus
Professor of Engineering in University College, London. 2
Gloucester-place, Portman-square, London, W.

{Kennedy, George L., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Geology in King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada.

{Kennedy, Hugh. 20 Mirkland-street, Glasgow.

{Kennedy, John. 113 University-street, Montreal, Canada.

58

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1884.
1886,

1893.
1886.

1857.
1876.
1881.
1892,
1884,
1887.
1885,

1889,
1887.
1869,
1869.

1883.
1876.
1886,
1885.
1890,
1878.

1860.

1875.
1888.
1888.
1883.
1875.
1871.
1855.
1883.
1870.

1883.
1860.
1875.
1870.
1889,
1869,
1875,
1867.
1892.
1870.
1875.
1883.
1870.
1890.
1886.
1869.
1886.

{Kennedy, William. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.

tKenrick, George Hamilton. Whetstone, Somerset-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

§Kent, A. F. Stanley, F.G.S. St. Thomas’s Hospital, London, S.E,

Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester.

§Kenwarp, JAmzs, F.S.A., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 280 Hagley-road,
Birmingham.

*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.

{Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.

{Kermode, Philip M. C. Ramsay, Isle of Man.

§Kerr, J. Graham. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

{Kerr, James, M.D. Winnipeg, Canada.

{Kerr, James. Dunkenhalgh, Accrington.

{Kaurr, Rey. Jonny, LL.D, F.R.S, Free Church Training College,
Glasgow.

tKerry, W. H. R. Wheatlands, Windermere.

{Kershaw, James. Holly House, Bury New-road, Manchester.

*Kesselmeyer, Charles A. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

*Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

{Kidston, J. B. 50 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

§Kipston, Ropert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 24 Victoria-place, Stirling.

*Kilgour, Alexander. Joirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.

{Kimmins, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Downing College, Cambridge.

{Kinahan, Sir Edward Hudson, Bart. 11 Merrion-square North,
Dublin.

{Kinanan, G. Henry, M.R.I.A. Geological Survey of Ireland, 14
Hume-street, Dublin. :

*Kincu, Epwarp, F.C.S. Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.

{King, Austin J. Winsley Hill, Limpley Stoke, Bath,

*King, E, Powell. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants,

*King, Francis. Alabama, Penrith.

*King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.

*King, Rey. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath.

{King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.

*King, John Godwin. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants.

{King, John Thomson. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.

King, Joseph. Welford House, Greenhill, Hampstead, London,
N.W.

*King, Joseph, jun. Lower Birtley, Witley, Godalming.

*King, Mervyn Kersteman. 3 Clifton-park, Clifton, Bristol.
*King, Perey L. 2 Worcester-avenue, Clifton, Bristol.

{King, William. 5 Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.

§King, Sir William. Stratford Lodge, Southsea,

{Kingdon, K. Taddiford, Exeter.

§Kryezerr, Onartzs T., F.C.S. Elmstead Knoll, Chislehurst, Kent.
{Kinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.

{Kinnear, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E. Blair Castle, Culross, N.B.
tKinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool.
{Kirsop, John. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.

{Kirsop, Mrs. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.

{Kitchener, Frank E. Newcastle, Staffordshire.

*Kirson, Sir James, Bart., M.P. Gledhow Hall, Leeds.

{Klein, Rey. L. Martial. University College, Dublin.
{Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter.
{Knight, J. M., F.G.S. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 59

Year of
Election,

1888.

1887.
1887.
1887.
1878.
1874.
1885.

tKnott, Professor Cargill G., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 42 Upper Gray-street,
Edinburgh.

*Knott, Herbert. Wharf Street Mills, Ashton-under-Lyne.

*Knott, John F. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.

tKnott, Mrs. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.

*Knowles, George. Moorhead, Shipley, Yorkshire.

tKnowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co. Antrim.

{Knowlys, Rev. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.

1883. {Knowlys, Mrs. C, Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
1876. {Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 24 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.

1875.
1883.
1892.

1890.

1888.
1881.

1870.
1865.

1858.

1884,

1885.
1870.
1877.
1859.
1889.
1887.

1887.
1883.
1883.
1893.
1884.

1898.

1890.
1884,
1871.
1886.
1877.

1883.
1859.

1886,

1870.
1865.

1880

*Knox, George James. 27 Portland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W

*Knubley, Rey. E. P., M.A. Staveley Rectory, Leeds.

tKnubley, Mrs. Staveley Rectory, Leeds.

{Kohn, Dr. Charles A. University College, Liverpool.

*Krauss, John Samuel, B.A. Wilmslow, Cheshire.

*Kunz,G. F. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 11 Union-square, New
York City, U.S.A.

{Kurobe, Hiroo. Legation of Japan, 9 Cavendish-square, Lon-
don, W.

{Kynaston, Josiah W., F.C.S. Kensington, Liverpool.

tKynnersley, J. C. S. The Leveretts, Handsworth, Birmingham.

tLace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds.

tLaflamme, Rey. Professor J. C. K. Laval University, Quebec,
Canada.

*Laing, J. Gerard. 111 Church-street, Chelsea, S.W.

§Laird, John. Grosyenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead.

tLake, W.C., M.D., F.R.G.S. Teignmouth.

tLalor, John Joseph, M.R.I.A. City Hall, Cork Hill, Dublin.

*Lamb, Edmund, M.A. Old Lodge, Salisbury.

{Lams, Horace, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the
Owens College, Manchester. Burton-road, Didsbury, Manchester.

tLamb, James. Kenwood, Bowdon, Cheshire,

tLamb, W. J. 11 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Lampert, Rey. Brooxn, LL.B. The Vicarage, Greenwich, S.E.

tLambert, J. W., J.P. Lenton Firs, Nottingham.

{Lamborn, Robert H. Montreal, Canada.

§Lamplugh, G. W.,F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street,
London, S.W.

{tLamport, Edward Parke. Greenfield Well, Lancaster.

tLancaster, Alfred. Fern Bank, Burnley, Lancashire.

tLancaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.

tLancaster, W. J., F.G.S. Colmore-row, Birmingham.

tLandon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.A.S. 59 Tresillian-road, St.
John’s, London, S.E.

tLang, Rev. Gavin. Inverness.

tLang, Rev. John Marshall, D.D. Barony, Glasgow.

*Lanetey, J, N., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

tLangton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.

{Lanxester, E. Ray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Linacre Professor of
Human and Comparative Anatomy in the University of Oxford.
2 Bradmore-road, Oxford.

. *“LANSDELL, Rev. Henry, D.D., F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S. Morden College,

Blackheath, London, S.E.

60

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1884.

1878.
1885.

1887.
1881.
1883.
1870.

1870.

1891.
1888.
1892.
1883.
1870.
1878.
1862.
1884.

1870.
1881.
1889.

1875.

1885.
1868.
1853.
1888.
1856.
1883.
1875.

1870.
1894.

1884.
1884.
1847,
1863.
1884,

§Lanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston,

tLapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.

{Lapworra, Cuartzs, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
and Physiography in the Mason Science College, Birmingham.
13 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

fLarmor, Alexander. Olare College, Cambridge.

{Larmor, Joseru, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

§Lascelles, B. P., M.A. The Moat, Harrow.

*LaTHAM, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 7 Westminster-chambers,
Westminster, 5. W.

tLaughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.G.S. Catesby House, Manor-
road, Barnet, Herts.

tLaurie, A. P. 49 Beaumont-square, London, E.

tLaurie, Colonel R. P., C.B. 79 Farringdon-street, London, E.C.

§Laurie, Malcolm, B.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. King’s College, Cambridge.

{Laurie, Major-General. Oakfield, Nova Scotia.

*Law, Channell. Isham Dene, Torquay.

tLaw, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-chambers, London, S.W.

tLaw, Rey. James Edmund, M.A. Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire.

§Law, Robert, F.G.8. Fennyroyd Hall, Hipperholme, near Halifax,
Yorkshire,

tLawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.

tLawrence, Rey. F., B.A. The Vicarage, Westow, York.

§Laws, W. G., M.Inst.C.E. 5 Winchester-terrace, Newcastle-upon«

Tyne.

{Lawson, George, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Botany.
Halifax, Nova Scotia.

{Lawson, James, 8 Church-street, Huntly, N.B.

*Lawson, M. Alexander, M.A., F.L.S. Ootécamund, Bombay.

tLawton, William. 5 Victoria-terrace, Derringham, Hull.

§Layard, Miss Nina F. 2 Park-place, Fonnereau-road, Ipswich.

tLea, Henry. 88 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

*Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland.

teach, Colonel Sir G., K.C.B., R.E. 6 Wetherby-gardens, London,
S. W

*Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. 6 Sussex-place, Regent’s
Park, London, N.W.

*Leahy, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Firth College,
Sheffield.

*Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland.

tLearmont, Joseph B. 120 Mackay-street, Montreal, Canada.

*LEATHAM, Epwarp AtpaM. 46 Eaton-square, London, 8.W.

tLeavers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham.

*Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.

. {Lezour, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Col-

lege of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

. {Leckie, R. G. Springhill, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia.

. §Ledger, Rev. Edmund. Barham Rectory, Ipswich.

. tLee, Henry. Sedgeley Park, Manchester.

. §Lee, Mark. The Cedars, Llandati-road, Cardiff.

. *Leech, Sir Bosdin T. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.

. {Leech, D. J., M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the Owens

College, Manchester. Elm House, Whalley Range, Manchester.

. *Lres, CoartEs H., M.Se. 6 Heald-road, Rusholme, Manchester.
. “Lees, Lawrence W. Claregate, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 61

Year of
Election.

1882. tLees, R. W. Moira-place, Southampton.

1859. tLees, William, M.A. 12 Morningside-place, Edinburgh,

1883. *Leese, Miss H. K. 3 Lord-street West, Southport.

*Leese, Joseph. 3 Lord-street West, Southport.

1889. *Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., O.M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Clifden House,
Twickenham, Middlesex. é

1881. {Lz Frvvrr, J. E. Southampton.

1872. {Lurrvre, The Right Hon, G.SHaw, F.R.G.S. 18 Bryanston-square,
London, W.

1869. {Le Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.

1892.§§Lehfeldt, Robert A. Firth College, Sheffield.

1868. {Lercrester, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G. Holkham, Norfolk.

1856. {Leien, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L. 387 Portman-square,
London, W.; and Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth,

1890. {Leigh, Marshall. 22 Goldsmid-road, Brighton.

1891. {Leigh, W. W. Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire.

1867. {Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.

1859. {Leith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.

1882. §Lemon, James, M.Inst.0.E., F.G.S. Lansdowne House, Southampton.

1867. tLeng, Sir John, M.P. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.

1878. {Lennon, Rev. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland.

1887. *Leon, John T. 38 Portland-place, London, W.

1874. tLepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast.

1884, t{Lesage, Louis. City Hall, Montreal, Canada.

1890, *Lester, Joseph Henry. 51 Arcade-chambers, St. Mary’s Gate,
Manchester.

1883.§§Lester, Thomas. Fir Bank, Penrith.

1880. {LercuEr, R. J. Lansdowne-terrace, Walters-road, Swansea,

1894.§§ Leudesdorf, Charles. Pembroke College, Oxford.

1887. *Levinstein, Ivan. Manchester.

1890, {Levy, J. H. Florence, 12 Abbeville-road South, Clapham Park,
London, 8. W.

1893. *Lewes, Vivian B., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Naval
College, Greenwich, S.E. ;

1879. tLewin, Colonel, F.R.G.S. Garden Corner House, Chelsea Embank-
ment, London, 8. W.

1870. {Lewis, Atrrep Lionet. 54 Highbury-hill, London, N.

1891. tLewis, D., J.P. 44 Park-place, Cardiff.

1891. §Lewis, D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwith.

1891. tLewis, W. Lyncombe Villa, Cowbridge-road, Cardiff.

1891. tLewis, W. 22 Duke-street, Cardiff.

1891. tlewis, W. Henry. Bryn Rhos, Llanishen, Cardiff.

1884, *Lewis, Sir W.T. The Mardy, Aberdare.

1860. tLippett, The Very Rev. H. G., D.D. Ascot, Berkshire.

1887. tLiebermann, L. 54 Portland-street, Manchester.

1876, tLietke, J.O. 380 Gordon-street, Glascow.

1887. *Lightbown, Henry. Weaste Hall, Pendleton, Manchester.

1862. {Litrorp, The Right Hon, Lord, F.L.S. Lilford Hall, Oundle, North-
amptonshire.

*Luverick, The Right Rev. CHarLEes Graves, Lord Bishop of, D.D.,

F.R.S., M.R.LA. The Palace, Henry-street, Limerick.

1887. {Limpach, Dr. Crumpsall Vale Chemical Works, Manchester.

1878. t{Lincolne, William. Ely, Cambrideeshire.

1881. *Lindley, William, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 74 Shooters Hill-road, Black-
heath, London, S.E.

1871. {Lindsay, Rev. T. M., M.A., D.D. Free Church College, Glasgow.

1883. {Lipscomb, Mrs. Lancelot C. dA. 95 Elgin-crescent, London, W.

62 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1888. {Lisle, H. Claud. Nantwich.

1895.§§ Lister, Sir Josep, Bart., D.C.L., For.Sec.R.S, (PREsIDENT Exxcr),
12 Park-crescent, Portland-place, W.

1882. *Lister, Rev. Henry, M.A. Hawridge Rectory, Berkhampstead.

1888. tLister, J. J. Leytonstone, Essex, E.

1861, *Lrvzrne, G. D., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge.

1876. *Livprsiper, AncHrBaLp, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.8., F.G.S., F.R.GS.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, N.S.W.
Care of Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., Charing
Cross-road, London, W.C.

1864.§§Livesay, J.G. Cromartie House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight.

1880, {Liewe yy, Sir Joun T. D., Bart. Penllegare, Swansea.

Lloyd, Rey. A. R. Hengold, near Oswestry.

1889. {Lloyd, Rev. Canon. The Vicarage, Rye Hill, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

1842. Tics Edward. King-street, Manchester.

1865. {Lloyd, G. B., J.P. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham.

1865. tLloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham.

1886. {Lloyd, John Henry, Ferndale, Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmine-

ham.
1891, *Lloyd, R. J., M.A., D.Litt. 4 Halkyn-avenue, Sefton Park,
Liverpool.

1886. {Lloyd, Samuel, Farm, Sparkbrook, Birmingham.

1865. *Lloyd, Wilson, M.P., F.R.G.S. Myvod House, Wednesbury.

1854, *Losiey, JAmEs Locan, F.G.S. City of London College, Moorgate-
street, E.C., 1 Carrington Street, W.

1892, §Loch, C.8., B.A. 154 Buckingham-street, London, W.C.

1867. *Locke, John. 251 Clarence-road, Kentish Town, London, N.W.

1892. {Lockhart, Robert Arthur. 10 Polwarth-terrace, Edinburgh.

1863. {LockyER, J. Norman, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal College of
Science, South Kensington, London, 8. W.

1886. *Loper, ALFRED, M.A., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the Royal
Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, Staines.

1875. *Lopex, OxtvErR J., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physies in
University College, Liverpool. 2 Grove-park, Liverpool.

1894, *Lodge, Oliver W. F. 2 Grove-park, Liverpool.

1889. tLogan, William. Langley Park, Durham.

1876. tLong, H. A. Charlotte-street, Glasgow.

1883. *Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

1883. {Long, Mrs. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

1883. tLong, Miss. Thelwall Heys,near Warrington.

1866. {Longdon, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.

1883. {Longe, Francis D. Coddenham Lodge, Cheltenham.

1883. {Longmaid, William Henry. 4 Rawlinson-road, Southport.

1875. *Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.S.8. Highlands,
Putney Heath, 8. W.

1872. *Longstaff, Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon,
Surrey.

1881, *Longstaff, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey.

1883, *Longton, E. J..M.D. The Priory, Southport.

1861, *Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden.

1894.§§Lord, Edwin C. E., Ph.D. 247 Washington-street, Brooklyn, New
York, U.S.A.

1889. fLord, Riley. 75 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1888. *Louis, D, A., F.C.S. 77 Shirland-gardens, London, W.

1887. *Lovn, A. E. H., M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 63

Election.

1886

1883.
1875.
1892.
1889.
1867.
1885.
1891.
1885.
1892.
1861.

1884.
1886.
18650.

1876,

*Love, E. F. J.. M.A. The University, Melbourne, Australia.

“Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. 11 Campden Hill-square,
London, W.

{Love, James Allen. 8 Eastbourne-road West, Southport.

“Lovett, W. Jesse, F.C. 29 Park-crescent, Monkgate, York.

§Lovibond, J. W. Salisbury, Wiltshire.

{Low, Charles W. 84 Westbourne-terrace, London, W.

*Low, James F, Monifieth, by Dundee.

§Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex,

§Lowdon, John. St. Hilda’s, Barry, Cardiff.

*Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.

tLowe, D. T. Heriot’s Hospital, Edinburgh.

*Lowez, Epwarp Josuru, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.MS.
Shirenewton Hall, near Chepstow.

tLowe, F. J. Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C.

*Lowe, John Landor, M.Inst.C.E. The Birches, Burton-road, Derby.

{Lowe, William Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin-
burgh.

1894.§§Lowenthal, Miss Nellie. 60 New North-road, Huddersfield.

1881.
1853.

1881.
1870.
1889.
1878.
1889.
1891.
1875.
1881.
1866.
1873.
1850.
1892.

1853.
1883.

1874,
1864.
1871.

1884,
1884,
1874.
1885.
1862.

1852,
1854,

1876.
1368,

{Lubbock, Arthur Rolfe. High Elms, Farnborough, R.S.0., Kent.

*Luspock, The Right Hon. Sir Jonny, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D.,
E.RS., F.LS., F.G.S. High Elms, Farnborough, R.S.O., Kent.

{Lubbock, John B. 14 Berkeley-street, London, W.

{Lubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, London, W.

{Lucas, John. 1 Carlton-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead,

tLucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, London, S.W.

tLuckley, George. The Grove, Jesmond, Neweastle-upon-Tyne,

*Lucovich, Count A. The Rise, Llandaff.

{Lucy, W. C., F.G.S. The Winstones, Brookthorpe, Gloucester.

tLuden, C.M. 4 Bootham-terrace, York.

*Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

tLund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

*Lundie, Cornelius. 32 Newport-road, Cardiff.

tLunn, Robert. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court House,
Edinburgh,

{Lunn, William Joseph, M.D, 23 Charlotte-street, Hull.

*Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., Professor of Coal Mining in
Yorkshire College. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds.

*Lupron, Sypney, M.A. Grove Cottage, Roundhay, near Leeds,

*Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.

tLyell, Sir Leonard, Bart., M.P., F.G.S. 48 Eaton-place, London,
S.W.

fLyman, A. Clarence. 84 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.
fLyman, H.H. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada.

tLynam, James. Ballinasloe, Ireland.

§Lyon, Alexander, jun. 52 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

“Lyre, F. Maxwett, F.0.S. 60 Finborough-road, London, 8S, W.

{McAdam, Robert. 18 College-square East, Belfast.

*MacapaM, Stevenson, Ph.D, F.R.S.E., F.O.S., Lecturer on
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh ; and Brighton House,
Portobello, by Edinburgh.

*Macapam, Wittram Ivison., F.R.S.E., F.1.0., F.C.S, Surgeons’
Hall, Edinburgh.

fMacatisrer, ALEXANDER, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge.

64

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election,

1878.

1879.
1883.
1883.
1866.
1884.
1834.
1840.
1884.

1886.
1887.
1884.
1884.
1891.

1876,
1868.

1878.
1892,
1892.
1885.
1886.
1884.
1884,
1884.

1883.

1878.
1884.

1884,
1881.

1871,
1885.

1879.
1884.
1867.

1888.

1884.
1884.

1873.

1885.
1884.

1885.
1876,

tMacAristER, Donatp, M.A.,M.D., B.Sc. St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge. :
§MacAndrew, James J., F.L.S. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.
§MacAndrew, Mrs. J. J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.
§MacAndrew, William. Westwood House, near Colchester.
*M‘Arthur, Alexander, F.R.G.S. 79 Holland Park, London, W.
tMacarthur, D. Winnipeg, Canada.

Macauvtay, James, A.M.,M.D. 25 Carlton-vale, London, N. W.
*MacBrayne, Robert. 65 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

tMcCabe, T., Chief Examiner of Patents. Patent Office, Ottawa,
Canada.

t{MacCarthy, Rev. E. F. M., M.A. 98 Hagley-road, Birmingham.
*McCarthy, James. Bangkok, Siam.

*McCarthy, J. J.. M.D. 83 Wellington-road, Dublin.

tMcCausland, Orr. Belfast.

*McClean, Frank, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.S. Rusthall House, Tunbridge
Wells.

*M‘Crettann, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glascow.
t{M‘Crintock, Admiral Sir Francis L., R.N., K.C.B., F.BS.,
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8S. W.

*M‘Comas, Henry. Homestead, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.

*McCowan, John, M.A., D.Sc. University College, Dundee.

t{McCrae, George. 3 Dick-place, Edinburgh.

tMcCrossan, James. 92 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.

tMcDonald, John Allen. Hillsboro’ House, Derby.

tMacDonald, Kenneth. Town Hall, Inverness.

*McDonald, W. C. 891 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

tMacDonnell, Mrs. F. H. 1483 St. Catherine-street, Montreal,

Canada.

MacDonnell, Hercules H.G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.

t{MacDonnell, Rey. Canon J.C., D.D. Misterton Rectory, Lutter-
worth.

tMcDonnell, James. 32 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin,

t{Macdougall, Alan, M.Inst.C.E. 82 Adelaide-street East, Toronto,
Canada.

tMcDougall, John. 85 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Macfarlane, Alexander, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physics in the
University of Texas. Austin, Texas, U.S.A.

{M‘Farlane, Donald. The College Laboratory, Glasgow.

tMacfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the
University of Pennsylvania, Lansdowne, Delaware Oo., Penn-
sylvania, US.A.

tMacfarlane, Walter, jun. 12 Lynedoch-crescent, Glasgow.

tMacfie, K. N., B.A., B.C.L. Winnipeg, Canada.

*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.

tMacGeorge, James. 67 Marloes-road, Kensington, London, W.

{MaeGillivray, James. 42 Cathcart-street, Montreal, Canada.

{MacGoun, Archibald, jun., B.A., B.C.L. 19 Place d’Armes, Mont-
real, Canada.

{McGowen, William Thomas. Oak-avyenue, Oak Mount, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

tMacgregor, Alexander, M.D. 256 Union-street, Aberdeen.

*MacGrecgor, JAMES Gorpon, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physics in Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

{M‘Gregor-Robertson, J., M.A., M.B. 26 Buchanan-street, Hillhead,
Glasgow.

tM‘Grigor, Alexander B., LL.D. 19 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 65

Year of
Election.

1867. *M‘Inrosu, W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor
3 of Natural History in the University of St. Andrews. 2 Abbots-
ford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.
1884, {McIntyre, John, M.D. Odiham, Hants.
1888. tMack, Isaac A. Trinity-road, Bootle.
1884, tMackay, Alexander Howard, B.A., B.Sc. The Academy, Pictou,
Nova Scotia, Canada.
1885.§§Macxay, Joun Yutr, M.D. The University, Glasgow.
1873. {McKznoprick, Jonn G., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor
_ of Physiolory in the University of Glascow. 2 Florentine-
gardens, Glasgow.
1883. {McKendrick, Mrs. 2 Florentine Gardens, Glasgow.
1880. *Mackenze, Colin. Junior Atheneum Club, Piccadilly, London, W.
1884, {McKenzie, Stephen, M.D. 26 Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.
1884. {McKenzie, Thomas, B.A. School of Science, Toronto, Canada.
1883. tMackeson, Henry. Hythe, Kent.
1872. *Mackey, J. A. 175 Grange-road, London, S.E.
1867. {Mackiz, Samvet JosrrH. 17 Howley-place, London, W.
1884. {McKilligan, John B. 887 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada.
1887. {Mackinper, H. J., M.A., F.R.G.S. Christ Church, Oxford.
1867. *Mackinlay, David. 6 Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1889. {McKinley, Rev. D. 33 Milton-street, West Hartlepool.
1891. {Mackintosh, A. C. Temple Chambers, Cardiff.
1850. {Macknight, Alexander. 20 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
1867. {Mackson, H. G. 26 Cliff-road, Woodhouse, Leeds.
1872. *McLacutan, Roser, F.R.S., F.L.S. West View, Clarendon-road,
Lewisham, 8.E.
1892.§§Mactacan, Sir Doveras, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh. 28
Heriot-row, Edinburgh.
1892. {Maclagan, Philip K. D. 14 Belgrave-place, Edinburgh.
1892. {Maclagan, R. Craig, M.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Coates-crescent Edinburgh.
1873. {McLandsborough, John, F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
1885. *M‘Laren, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. 46 Moray-place,
: Edinburgh.
1860. {Maclaren, Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire.
1878. t{MacLaren, Walter S. B. Newington House, Edinburgh.
1882. {Maclean, Inspector-General,C.B. 1 Rockstone-terrace, Southampton.
1892. *Maclean, Magnus, M.A., F.R.S.E. The University, Glasgow,
1884. {McLennan, Frank. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
1884. {McLennan, Hugh. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
1884, {McLennan, John. Lancaster, Ontario, Canada.
1868. §McLrop, Hurpert, F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Staines.
1892. {Macleod, Reginald. Woodhall, Midlothian.
1892. {Macleod, W. Bowman. 16 George-square, Edinburgh.
1861. *Maclure, John William, M.P., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. Whalley Range,
Manchester.
1883. *McManon, Lieut.-General C. A., F.G.S. 20 Nevern-square, South
Kensington, London, 8. W. -
1883. {MacManon, Major P. A., R.A., F.R.S., Professor of Electricity in
the Artillery College, Woolwich. 52 Shaftesbury-avenue,
London, W.C.
1878. *M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Rathmines, Ireland.
1862. {Macmillan, Alexander. 21 Portland-place, London, W.
1888. {McMillan, Robert. Australia,
1895, x

686

Year of

Election.

1874.
1884.
1867.

- 1883.

1878.
1887.

1883,

1883.
1887.
1883.
1883,
1868.
1875.

1878.
1869.
1887.
1885.
1883.

1881.
1874.
1889.
1857.

1887.

1870.
1885.
1888.
1894.
1878.
1864.
1888.

1891.
1889,
1887.
1870.
1887.
1883.
1887.
1864,

1894.
1863.
1888,
1888.
1881.

1887.
1887.
1884.
1892,
1883.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

{MacMordie, Hans, M.A. 8 Donegall-street, Belfast.

t{McMurrick, J. Playfair. Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.

{M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.

{MeNicoll, Dr. E.D, 15 Manchester-road, Southport.

{Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.

eae ee White. Care of Messrs. Maconochie Bros.,
owestoft.

{Macpherson, J. 44 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.

*Macrory, Epmunp, M.A. 19 Pembridge-square, London, W.

{Mc Whirter, William. 170 Kent-road, Glasgow. :

{Macy, Jesse. Grinnell, Iowa, U.S.A.

{Madden, W.H. Marlborough College, Wilts.

tMages, Thomas Charles, F.G.S._ 56 Clarendon-villas, West Brighton.

{Magnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich.

a need ae B.Se. 48 Gloucester-place, Portman-square,
ondon, W.

{Mahony, W. A. 34 College-green, Dublin.

fMain, Robert. The Admiralty, Whitehall, London, 8. W.

{Mainprice, W.S. Longcroft, Altrincham, Cheshire.

*Maitland, Sir James R. G., Bart., F.G.S. Stirling, N.B.

{Maitland, P.C. 136 Great Portland-street, London, W.

*Malcolm, Frederick. Morden College, Blackheath, London, 8.E.

{Malcolm, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. 72 Nunthorpe-road, York.

{Malcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.

{Maling, C. T. 14 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Matrer, Joun Witr1aM, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.CS., Professor of

Chemistry in the University of Virginia, Albemarle Co., U.S.A.

{Mancuuster, The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of, D.D. Bishop’s

Court, Manchester.

{Manifold, W. H., M.D. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

{Mann, George. 72 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen.

{Mann, W. J. Rodney House, Trowbridge.

§Manning, Percy. Watford, Herts.

§Manning, Robert. 4 Upper Ely-place, Dublin.

{Mansel-Pleydell, J. C., F.G.S. Whatcombe, Blandford.

puree James, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 5 Victoria-street, London,

{Manvel, James. 175 Newport-road, Cardiff.

{Manville, E. 3 Prince’s-mansions, Victoria-street, London, S.W.

*March, Henry Colley, M.D., F.S.A. 2 West-street, Rochdale.

{Marcoartu, His Excellency Don Arturo de. Madrid.

{Margetson, J. Charles. The Rocks, Limpley, Stoke.

{Marginson, James Fleetwood. The Mount, Fleetwood, Lancashire,

§Markham, Christopher A., F.R.Met.Soc. Spratton, Northampton.

{Marxnam, Crements R., C.B., F.R.S., F.LS., Pres.R.G.S., F.S.A,
21 Eccleston-square, London, 8. W.

§Markoff, Dr. Anatolius. 44 Museum-street, London, W.C.

tMarley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.

{Marling, W. J. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

{Marling, Lady. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

*Marr, Joun Epward, M.A., F.R.S., Sec.G.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

{Marsden, Benjamin. ‘Westleigh, Heaton Mersey, Manchester.

{Marsden, Joseph. Ardenlea, Heaton, near Bolton.

*Marsden, Samuel. St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A.

*Marsden-Smedley, J. B. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire.

*Marsh, Henry. Hurstwood, Roundhay, Leeds.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 67

Year of
Election.

1887. {Marsh, J. E.,M.A. The Museum, Oxford.

1864. {Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 37 Grosvenor-place, Bath.

1889. *MarsHatt, AtrreD, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Political Economy
in the University of Cambridge. Balliol Croft, Madingley-road,
Cambridge.

1889. {Marshall, Frank, B.A. 31 Grosvenor-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1892. ee Hugh, D.Se., F.R.S.E. Druim Shellach, Liberton, Mid-
othian.

1881. *Marshall, John, F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Church Institute, Leeds.

1890. {Marshall, John. Derwent Island, Keswick.

1881. {Marshall, John Ingham Fearby. 28 St. Saviourgate, York.

1858. { Marshall, Reginald Dykes. Adel, near Leeds.

1886, *MarsHatt, Wittiam Baytey, M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edebas-
ton, Birmingham.

1849, *MarsHatt, WittiAm P., M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbaston,

Birmingham.

1865. §Marren, Epwarp Brnpon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge.

1883. {Marten, Henry John. 4 Storey’s-gate, London, 8. W.

1887. *Martin, Rev. H. A. Laxton Vicarage, Newark.

1891. *Martin, Edward P., J.P. Dowlais, Glamorgan.

1848. {Martin, Henry D. 4 Imperial-circus, Cheltenham.

1878. {Martin, H. Newexz, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. Physiological
Laboratory, Cambridge.

1883. Pace: Joun Brpputps, M.A., F.S.S. 17 Hyde Park-gate, London,

* *

++++

1884, §Martin, N. H., F.L.S. 8 Windsor-crescent, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1889. *Martin, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Lyon House, New
Barnet, Herts.
1890. §Martindale, William. 19 Devonshire-street, Portland-place, Lon-
don, W.
*Martineau, Rey. James, LL.D., D.D. 35 Gordon-square, London,
W.C.

1865. {Martineau, R. F. 18 Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

1883. {Marwick, Sir James, LL.D. Killermont, Maryhill, Glasgow.

1891. {Marychurch, J.G. 46 Park-street, Cardiff.

1878. {Masaki, Taiso. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street Within,
London, E.C. ;

1847, {Masxetynn, Nrvit Srory, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. Basset Down House,
Swindon.

1886. {Mason, Hon. J. E. Fiji.

1879. {Mason, James, M.D. Montgomery House, Sheffield.

1893. *Mason, Thomas. 6 Pelham-road, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham,

1891. *Massey, William H., M.Inst.C.E. Twyford, R.S.O., Berkshire,

1885. {Masson, Orme, D.Sc. 58 Great King-street, Edinburgh.

1883. {Mather, Robert V. Birkdale Lodge, Birkdale, Southport.

1887. *Mather, William, M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works, Manchester.

1890. {Mathers, J.S. 1 Hanover-square, Leeds.

1865. {Mathews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

1894.§§Mathews, G. B. Bangor.

1865. *Mathews, G.S. 82 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1889. ale, John Hitchcock, 1 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, London,

1861, *Marnews, WILLIAM, M.A., F.G.S. 21 Augustus-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
1881. {Mathwin, Henry, B.A. Bickerton House, Southport.
1883. tMathwin, Mrs. 40 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
U2

68

Year of
Election

1858.
1885.
1885.
1863.
1890.
1893.§
1865.
1894.
1876.
1887.

1883.
1883.
1884.
1878.
1884,
1871.
1879.
1887.
1881.

1867.

1883.
1879.
1866.
1883.
1881.
1887.
1847.
1863.
1877.
1862.

1879.

1880.
1889.
1863.
1869.

1886.
1865.
1881.

1893.
1881.

1894.

1889.
1886.
1881.§
1885.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

{Matthews, 1". C. _Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire,

MartTHews, JAMES. Springhill, Aberdeen.

Matthews, J. Duvcan. Springhill, Aberdeen.

Maughan, Rey. W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Maund, E. A. 294 Regent-street, London, W.

Mavor, Professor James. University of Toronto, Canada.

Maw, Georeg, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Benthall, Kenley, Surrey.

Maxim, Hiram 8. 18 Queen’s Gate-place, Kensington, S.W.

Maxton, John. 6 Belgrave-terrace, Glasrow.

Maxwell, James. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.

Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick.

May, William, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Northfield, St. Mary Cray, Kent.

Mayall, George. Clairville, Birkdale, Southport.

Maybury, A. C., D.Sc. 19 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.

*Mayne, Thomas. 33 Castle-street, Dublin.

tMecham, Arthur. 11 Newton-terrace, Glasgow.

{Meikie, James, F.S.S. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.

§Meiklejohn, John W.S., M.D. 105 Holland-road, London, W.

tMeischke-Smith, W. Rivala Lumpore, Salengore, Straits Settlements.

*Metpoua, Rapwart, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.LC., Professor of
Chemistry in the Finsbury Technical College, City and Guilds.
of London Institute. 6 Brunswick-square, London, W.C.

{Mzrprum, Caarzzs, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Port Louis,
Mauritius.

tMellis, Rev. James. 23 Park-street, Southport.

*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.

tMezt1o, Rey. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.

§Mello, Mrs. J. M. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.

§Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York.

{Melvill, J. Cosmo, M.A. Kersal Cottage, Prestwich, Manchester.

{Melville,Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen’s College,Galway.

{Melvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.

*Menabrea, General, Marquis of Valdora, LL.D. Chambéry, Savoie.

HOt tt t+ t+

t+ tim

¥t++tO &

{Mznnett, Heyry T. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
London, E.C.

§Merivate, Joun Herwan, M.A. Togston Hall, Acklington, North-
umberland.

tMerry, Alfred S. Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea.

*Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tMessent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.

¢Mratt, Lovts C., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Biology im

the Yorkshire College, Leeds.

{Middlemore, Thomas. Holloway Head, Birmingham.

tMiddlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Middlesbrough, The Right Rev. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of.

Middlesbrough.

§Middleton, A. 25 Lister-gate, Nottingham.

{Middleton, R. Morton, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 15 Grange-road, West Har-
tlepool.

“Miers, HL A.,M.A., F.G.S. British Museum, Cromwell-road, Lon-
don, 8. W.

tMilburn, John D. Queen-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Miles, Charles Albert. Buenos Ayres.

§Mrites, Morris. Warbourne, Hill-lane, Southampton.

§Mri1t, Hueu Rosert, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Librarian R.G.S. 109 West
End-lane, Hampstead, London, N.W.

1859. {Millar, John, J.P. Lisburn, Ireland,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 69

Year of
Election.

1889.
1892.

1882,
1875.

1895.

1892.
1888.
1885.
1886,
1861.
1884,
1895.
1876.
1868.

1880,

1834.
1885.
1882.
1885.
1885.
1887.
1882.

1880.

1855.
1859.
1876.
1883.

1883.

1873.
1885.
1885.
1879.

1895.
1885.
1885.
1883.
1878.
1877.
1884,
1887.

1891.
1882.
1891,

*Millar, Robert Cockburn. 30 York-place, Edinburgh.
Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth.

*Millard, William Joseph Kelson, M.D., F.R.G.S. Holmleigh, Reclk-
leaze, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

{Miller, A. J. 15 East Park-terrace, Southampton.

{Miller, George. Brentry, near Bristol.

§Miller, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Bosmere House, Norwich-road, Ipswich.

{Miller, Hugh, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 3 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Miller, J. Bruce. Rubislaw Den North, Aberdeen.

{Miller, John. 9 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

{Miller, Rev. John, B.D. The College, Weymouth.

*Miller, Robert. Totteridge House, Hertfordshire, N.

{Miller, T. F., BAp.Sc. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.

§Miller, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 4 Butter-market, Ipswich.

{Miller, Thomas Paterson. Cairns, Cambuslang, N.B.

*Mitts, Epmunp J., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.C.S8., Young Professor of
Technical Chemistry in the Glasgow and West of Scotland
Technical College, Glasgow. 60 John-street, Glasgow.

§Mills, Mansfeldt H., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Mansfield Woodhouse,
Mansfield.

Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, Bart., G.C.B., F.B.8.E. Inveresk.

{Milne, Alexander D. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

*MILnE, JOHN, F.R.S., F.G.S. Shide Hill House, Shide, Isle of Wight.

{Milne, J.D. 14 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

tMilne, William. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

{Milne-Redhead, R., F.L.8. Holden Clough, Clitheroe.

{Milnes, Alfred, M.A., F.S.S. 22a Goldhurst-terrace, South Mamp-
stead, London, N.W.

t{Mincuin, G. M., M.A., F.R.S. Royal Indian Engineering College,
Cooper’s Hill, Surrey.

t{Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow.

{Mitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen.

{Mitchell, Andrew. 20 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

{Mitchell, Charles T., M.A. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,

_ London, W. ; i tbs

tMitchell, Mrs. Charles T. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,

London, W.

{Mitchell, Henry. Parkfield House, Bradford, Yorkshire.

{Mitchell, Rev. J. Mitford, B.A. 6 Queen’s-terrace, Aberdeen.

u

t

Mitchell, P. Chalmers. Christ Church, Oxford.

Mrvart, St. Grorer, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. Hurst-

cote, Chilworth, Surrey.

Moat, William, M.A. Johnson, Eccleshall, Staffordshire.

Moffat, William. 7 Queen’s-gardens, Aberdeen.

Moir, James. 25 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

Mollison, W.L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.

Molloy, Constantine, Q.C. 65 Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.

Molloy, Rev. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

Monaghan, Patrick. Halifax (Box 317), Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Monp, Lupwie, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 20 Avenue-road, Regent’s
Park, London, N.W.

*Mond, Robert Ludwig, B.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. 20 Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

*Montagu, Sir Samuel, Bart., M.P. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens,
London, W.

tMontefiore, Arthur, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Care of London and South-

Western Bank, South Hampstead, London, N.W.

*

++ tt t+

*

++

70 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1892. {Montgomery, Very Rev. J. F., D.D. 17 Athole-crescent, Edin-
burgh.

1872. {Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 3 Porchester-place, Edgware-road,
London, W.

1872. {Moon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.

1884, {Moore, George Frederick. 49 Hardman-street, Liverpool.

1894. §Moore, H. E, 41 Bedford-row, London, W.C.

1891. {Moore, John. Lindenwood, Park-place, Cardiff.

1890. {Moore, Major, R.E. School of Military Engineering, Chatham.

*Moors, Joun Carricn, M.A., F.R.S.,F.G.S. 115 Eaton-square,

London, 8.W.; and Corswall, Wigtonshire.

1857. *Moore, Rey. William Prior. Carrickmore, Galway, Ireland.

1891. {Morel, P. Layernock House, near Cardiff.

1881. {Morean, Atrrep. 50 West Bay-street, Jacksonville, Florida,
U.S.A.

1895. §Morgan, C. Lloyd, F.G.S., Principal of University College, Bristol.
16 Canynge-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1873. {Morgan, Edward Delmar, F.R.G.S. 15 Roland-gardens, London,
5.W.

1891. {Morgan, F. Forest Lodge, Ruspidge, Gloucestershire.

1885. {Morgan, John. 57 Thomson-street, Aberdeen.

1887. {Morgan, John Gray. 38 Lloyd-street, Manchester,

1882.§§Morgan, Thomas. Cross House, Southampton.

1889. §Morison, J. Rutherford, M.D. 14 Saville-row, Newcastle-upon-

yne.

1892. {Morison, John, M.D., F.G.S. Victoria-street, St. Albans.

1867. {Morison, William R. Dundee.

1893.§§Morland, John, J.P. Glastonbury.

1895. §Morley, Edward W. Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.

1891. {Morley, H. The Gas Works, Cardiff.

1883. *Mortey, Henry Forstnr, M.A., D.Sc., F.C.8. 47 Broadhurst-gar-
dens, South Hampstead, London, N.W.

1889, {Mortery, The Right Hon. Jony, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. 95 Elm
Park-gardens, London, 8.W.

1881. {Morrell, W. W. York City and County Bank, York.

1880. {Morris, Alfred Arthur Vennor. Wernolau, Cross Inn, R.S.O., Car-

marthenshire.

1883. {Morris,C.S. Millbrook Iron Works, Landore, South Wales.

1892. {Morris, Daniel, C.B., M.A., F.L.S. 11 Kew Gardens-road, Kew.

1883. {Morris, George Lockwood. Millbrook Iron Works, Swansea.

1880. §Morris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea.

1883. {Morris, John. 4 The Elms, Liverpool.

1888. {Morris, J. W., F.L.S. The Woodlands, Bathwick Hill, Bath.

1880. {Morris, M. 1. E. The Lodge, Penclawdd, near Swansea.

Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.

1876. {Morris, Rev. 8. 8S. 0., M.A., R.N., F.C.S. H.M.S. ‘ Gaznet,’

S. Coast of America.

1874. {Morrison, G. J., M.Inst.C.E. Shanghai, China.

1890. {Morrison, Sir George W. Leeds.

1871. *Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh.

1886. {Morrison, John T. Scottish Marine Station, Granton, N.B.

1865. {Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-vyillas, Driffield.

1869. {Mortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter.

1857. §Morton, Grorce H., F.G.S. 209 Edge-lane, Liverpool.

1858. *Morton, Henry JosepH. 2 Westbourne-villas, Scarborough,

1871. {Morton, Hugh. Belvedere House, Trinity, Edinburgh.

1887. {Morton, Perey, M.A. TIlltyd House, Brecon, South Wales.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 71

Year of
Blection.

1886. *Morton, P. F. Hook House, Hook, near Winchfield, Hampshire.

1883. {Moseley, Mrs. Firwood, Clevedon, Somerset.

1878. *Moss, Jon Francis, F.R.G.S. Beechwood, Brincliffe, Sheffield.

1876.§§Moss, RicHarp Jackson, F.C.S., M.R.LA. St. Aubyn’s, Bally-
brack, Co. Dublin.

1864, *Mosse, J. R. 5 Ohiswick-place, Eastbourne.

1892. {Mossman, R. O., F.R.S.E. 10 Blacket-place, Edinburgh.

1873. t{Mossman, William. Ovenden, Halifax.

1892. *Mostyn, S. G., B.A. Colet House, Talgarth-road, London, W.

1869. §Morr, Atpert J., F.G.S. Detmore, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.

1866. §Morr, Freprrick T., F.R.G.S. Crescent House, Leicester.

1862. *Movat, FrepEerick Jonn, M.D., Local Government Inspector. 12
Durham-yvillas, Campden Hill, London, W.

1856. {Mould, Rev. J.G.,B.D. Roseland, Meadfoot, Torquay.

1878. *Movutron, J. Frrrcuer, M.A., Q.C., F.R.S. 57 Onslow-square,
London, S.W.

1863. {Mounsey, Edward. Sunderland.

1861. *Mountcastle, William Robert. The Wigwam, Ellenbrook, near
Manchester.

1877. {Mounr-Epecumsr, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount-
Edgcumbe, Devonport.

1887. {Moxon, Thomas B. County Bank, Manchester.

1888. {Moyle, R. E., B.A., F.C.S. The College, Cheltenham.

1884, tMoyse, C. E., B.A., Professor of English Language and Literature
in McGill College, Montreal. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal,
Canada.

1884. {Moyse, Charles E. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

1894.§§Mugliston, Rev. J..M.A. Newick House, Cheltenham.

1876. *Muir, Sir John, Bart. Demster House, Perthshire.

1874. {Murr, M. M. Parrtson, M.A. Caius College, Cambridge.

1876. {Muir, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Beecheroft, Bothwell,
Glasgow.

1872. {Muirhead, Alexander, D.Sc., F.C.S. 2 Prince’s-street, Storey’s-gate,
Westminster, S.W.

1876, *Muirhead, Robert Franklin, M.A., B.Sc. 59 Warrender Park-road,
Edinburgh.

1884. *Muirhead-Paterson, Miss Mary. Laurieville, Queen’s Drive, Cross-
hill, Glasgow.

1883. {Murmaxt, Micnart G. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin.

1883. {Mulhall, Mrs. Marion. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co, Dublin,

1891.§§Mirier, F. Max, M.A., Professor of Comparative Philology in
the University of Oxford. 7 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

1884, *Mizier, Hveo, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 18 Park-square East,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

1880, {Muller, Hugo M. 1 Griinanger-gasse, Vienna.

Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, E.C.

1866. {Munpetxta, The Right Hon. A. J., M.P., F.R.S. 16 Elvaston-
place, London, 8. W.

1876. tMunro, Donald, F.C.S. The University, Glasgow.

1885. {Munro, J. E. CRawrorp, LL.D. 14 Upper Cheyne-row, Chelsea,
London, S.W.

1883. *Munro, Rosert, M.A.,M.D. 48 Manor-place, Edinburgh.

1864, *Murchison, K. R. Brockhurst, East Grinstead.

1855. {Murdoch, James Barclay. Capelrig, Mearns, Renfrewshire.

1890. {Murphy, A. J. Preston House, Leeds.

1889. t{Murphy, James, M.A.,M.D. Holly House, Sunderland.

1884, §Murphy, Patrick. Newry, Ireland.

72

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887.
1891.

1859.
1884,

1884.

1872.
1892.
1863.
1883.
1874,
1870.

tMurray, A. Hazeldean, Kersal, Manchester.

Murray, G. R. M., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. British Museum (Natural His-
tory), South Kensington, London, 8. W.

tMurray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.

tMourray, Joun, LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. ‘Challenger’ Expedition
Office, Edinburgh.

tMurray, J. Clark, LL.D., Professor of Logic and Mental and Moral
Philosophy in McGill University, Montreal. 111 McKay-street,
Montreal, Canada,

tMurray, J. Jardine, F.R.C.S.E. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.

tMurray, T. 8S. 1 Nelson-street, Dundee.

{Murray, William, M.D. 9 Ellison-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Murray, W. Vaughan, F.R.G.S. 2 Savile-row, London, W.

§Musgrave, James, J.P. Drumglass House, Belfast.

*Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.

1891.§§Muybridge, Eadweard. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
U.S.A.

1890.

1886.
1892.
1890.
1876.
1872.

1887.

1887.
1883.
1887.
1887.
1855.
1876.
1886.
1868.
1866.

1889.
1869.
1842,
1889.
1891.
1886.
1842,

*Myres, John L., M.A., F.8.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

§Nacsx, D. H., M.A., F.C.S. Trinity College, Oxford.

*Nairn, Michael B. Kirkcaldy, N.B.

§Nalder, Francis Henry. 16 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, London, E.C,

tNapier, James 8S. 9 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

{Nares, Admiral Sir G. S., K.C.B., R.N., F.B.S., F.R.G.S. St.
Bernard’s, Maple-road, Surbiton.

fNason, Professor Henry B., Ph.D., F.C.S. Troy, New York,
U.S.A.

§Neild, Charles. 19 Chapel Walks, Manchester.

*Neild, Theodore, B.A. Dalton Hall, Manchester.

{Neill, Joseph 8. Claremont, Broughton Park, Manchester.

tNeill, Robert, jun. Beech Mount, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

tNeilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow.

{Nelson, D. M. 11 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.

{Nettlefold, Edward. 51 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Nevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich.

*Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand.

{Neville, F. H. Sidney College, Cambridge.

{Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire.

*Newall, H. Frank. Madingley Rise, Cambridge.

*Newell, W. H. A. 10 Plasturton-gardens, Cardiff.

tNewbolt, F.G. Edenhurst, Addlestone, Surrey.

*NEwMman, Professor Francis Witt1am. 15 Arundel-crescent,
‘Weston-super-Mare.

1889.§§ Newstead, A. H. L., B.A. Roseacre, Epping.

1860.

1892.

1872.

1883,

1882.
1867.
1875.

*NEwron, ALFRED, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag-
dalene College, Cambridge.

tNewron, E. T., F.R.S., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8.W.

{Newton, Rev. J. 125 Eastern-road, Brighton.

TNias, Miss Isabel. 56 Montagu-square, London, W.

{Nias, J. B., B.A. 56 Montagu-square, London, W.

tNicholl, Thomas. Dundee.

fNicholls, J. F. City Library, Bristol.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 73

Year of
Election.

1866. {NicHotson, Sir Cuartzs, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D, F.GS.,
F.R.G.S._ The Grange, Totteridge, Herts.

1867. {NicHotson, Henry Atteynz, M.D., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural History in the University of Aberdeen.

1887. *Nicholson, John Carr. Moorfield House, Headingley, Leeds.

1884, {NicHoxson, Josppx 8.,M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Political Economy in
the University of Edinburgh. Eden Lodge, Newbattle-terrace,
Edinbureh,

1883. {Nicholson, Richard, J.P. Whinfield, Hesketh Park, Southport.

1887. {Nicholson, Robert H. Bourchier. 21 Albion-street, Hull.

1881. fNicholson, William R. Clifton, York.

1893. {Nickolls, John B., F.C.S. The Laboratory, Guernsey.

1887. {Nickson, William. Shelton, Sibson-road, Sale, Manchester.

1885. §Nicol, nek W. J., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S.E. 15 Blacket-place, Edin-
burgh.

1878. {Niven, Cuartes, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural
sens in the University of Aberdeen. 6 Chanonry, Aber-

een.

1886. t Niven, George. Lrkingholme, Coolhurst-road, London, N.

1877. {Niven, Professor James, M.A. King’s College, Aberdeen.

1874. {Nixon, Randal C.J., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.

1884, {Nixon, T. Alcock. 33 Harcourt-street, Dublin.

1863. *Nosiz, Sir Anprew, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Elswick
Works, and Jesmond Dene House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1879. {Noble, T.S., F.G.S. Lendal, York.

1886. {Nock, J. B. Mayfield, Penns, near Birmingham.

1887. {Nodal, John H. The Grange, Heaton Moor, near Stockport.

1870. Nolan, Joseph, M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

1863. §Norman, Rey. Canon AtrreD Mertz, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S.
Burnmoor Rectory, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

1888. {Norman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.

1865. {Norris, Ricnarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham.

1872. {Norris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.

1883. *Norris, William G. Coalbrookdale, Shropshire.

1881. {North, William, B.A., F.C.S. 84 Micklegate, York.

Norton, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. 35 Eaton-place, London,
S.W.; and Hamshall, Birmingham.

1886. {Norton, Lady. 35 Eaton-place, London, 8.W.; and Hamshall,
Birmingham.

1894, §Norcurr, 8. A., LL.M., B.A., B.Sc. 9 Museum-street, Ipswich.

1861. tNoton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham.

Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.

1887. {Nursey, Perry Fairfax. 2 Trafalgar-buildings, Northumberland-

avenue, London, W.C.

1882. §Obach, Eugene, Ph.D. 2 Victoria-road, Old Charlton, Kent.
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.

1878. {O’Conor Don, The. Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland.

1883. {Odgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D. 4 Elm-court, Temple,
London, E.C.

1858. *Optine, WittiAm, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Waynflete Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.

1884, {Odlum, Edward, M.A. Pembroke, Ontario, Canada.

1857. ee William John. 54 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar,

ublin,

74 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1894. §Ogden, James. Kilner Deyne, Rochdale.

1885. {Ogilvie, Alexander, LL.D. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.

1876. {Ogilvie,Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffolk.

1885, {Ocitvis, F. Grant, M.A., B.Sc., F.RS.E. Heriot Watt College,
Edinburgh.

1893. {Ogilvie, Miss Maria M., D.Sc. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.

1859. {Ogilvy, Rev. C. W. Norman. Baldan House, Dundee.

*Ocle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby.

1884, {O’Halloran, J. S., C.M.G., F.R.G.S. Royal Colonial Institute,
Northumberland-ayenue, London, W.C.

1881. {Oldfield, Joseph. Lendal, York.

1887. {Oldham, Charles. Syrian House, Sale, near Manchester.

1892.§§Oldham, H. Yule, M.A., F.R.GS., Lecturer in Geography in the

University of Cambridge. King’s College, Cambridge.

1853. {OrpHAM, James, M.Inst.C.E. Cottingham, near Hull.

1885. {Oldham, John. River Plate Telegraph Company, Monte Video.

1893.§§Oldham, R. D., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India. Care of Messrs.
H.S. King & Co., Cornhill, London, E.C.

1892, tOliphant, James. 50 Palmerston-place, Edinburgh.

1863. {OxIvEeR, Daniet, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Botany
in University College, London. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew.

1887. {Oliver, Professor F. W., D.Sc. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew, Surrey,

1883. {Oliver, J. A. Westwood. The Liberal Club, Glasgow.

1883. §Oliver, Samuel A. Bellingham House, Wigan, Lancashire.

1889. §Oliver, Professor T., M.D. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1882. §Olsen, O. T., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s - terrace,
Grimsby.

1860. *Ommannuy, Admiral Sir Erasmus, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.S. 29 Connaught-square, Hyde Park, London, W.

1880. *Ommanney, Rev. E. A. St. Michael’s and All Angels, Portsea, Hants,

1887. tO’ Neill, Charles. Glen Allan, Manley-road, Alexandra Park, Man-
chester.

1872. {Onslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James’s, London,
S.W.

1883. {Oppert, Gustay, Professor of Sanskrit. Madras.

1867. {Orchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee.

1883. Ord, Miss Maria. Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport.

1883. tOrd, Miss Sarah. 2 Pembroke-vale, Clifton, Bristol.

1880, {O’Reilly, J. P., Professor of Mining and Mineralogy in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.

1861. {Ormerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester.

1858. {Ormerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.

1883. {Orpen, Miss. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

1884, *Orpen, Lieut.-Colonel R. T., R.E. Care of G. H. Orpen, Esq., Er-
pingham, Bedford Park, Chiswick, London.

1884, *Orpen, Rey. T. H., M.A. Binnbrooke, Cambridge.

1838. Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.

1873. {Osborn, George. 47 Kingscross-street, Halifax.

1887. §O’Shea, L. T., B.Sc. Firth College, Sheffield.

*Ostur, A. Fottert, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

1865. *Osler, Henry F. OCoppy Hill, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove,
Birmingham.

1869. *Osler, Sidney F. Chesham Lodge, Lower Norwood, Surrey, S.E. -

1884. {Osler, William, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in
McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

1884, ped oe James, F.C.S. 71 Spring Terrace-road, Burton-on-

rent,

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 75

Election.

1882

1889.
1883.
1883.
1872.

1881.

1882.
1889.
1888.
1877.

*Oswald, T. R. Castle Hall, Milford Haven.

*Ottewell, Alfred D. Brass Foundry, Traffic-street, Siddals-road,
Derby.

tOwen, ee C.M.,M.A. St. George’s, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Owen, Alderman H.C. Compton, Wolverhampton.

*Owen, Thomas. 8 Alfred-street, Bath.

tOxland, Dr. Robert, F.C.S. 8 Portland-square, Plymouth.

tPage, Dr. F. 1 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
t{Page, George W. Fakenham, Norfolk.

{Page, Joseph Edward. 12 Saunders-street, Southport.
*Paget, Joseph. Stuflynwood Hall, Mansfield, Nottingham.

1894.§§Paget, Octavius. 158 Fenchurch-street, London, E.C.

1884.
1875.
1870.

1883.
1889.
1873.
1878.
1866.
1872.

1890.
1883.
1886.

1884.

1883.
1883.
1880.

1863.
1874.
1886.
1891.

1865.

1879.
1887.
1859.
1862.
1883.
1877.
1865.

1878.
1883.
1875.
1881.
1887.

1884,

{Paine, Cyrus F. Rochester, New York, U.S.A.

{Paine, William Henry, M.D., F.G.S. Stroud, Gloucestershire.

*Parcrave, R. H. Inews, F.R.S., F.S.S. Belton, Great Yar-
mouth.

tPalerave, Mrs. R. H. Inglis. Belton, Great Yarmouth.

tPatmer, Sir Cartes Mark, Bart., M.P. Grinkle Park, Yorkshire.

{Palmer, George. The Acacias, Reading, Berks.

*Palmer, Joseph Edward. 8 Upper Mount-street, Dublin.

§Palmer, William. Waverley House, Waverley-street, Nottingham.

*Palmer, W. R. 1 The Cloisters, Temple, E.C.

Palmes, Rey. William Lindsay, M.A. Naburn Hall, York.

{Pankhurst, R. M., LL.D. 8 Russell-square, London, W.C.

§Pant, F. J. Vander. Clifton Lodge, Kingston-on-Thames.

fPanton, George A., F.R.S.E. 73 Westfield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

fPanton, Professor J. Hoyes, M.A., F.G.S. Ontario Agricultural
College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.

{Park, Henry. Wigan.

{Park, Mrs. Wigan.

*Parke, George Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. St. John’s, Wakefield,
Yorkshire.

tParker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tParker, Henry R., LL.D. Methodist College, Belfast.

{Parker, Lawley. Chad Lodge, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

}Parker, William Newton, Ph.D., F.Z.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Cardiff.

*Parkes, Samuel Hickling, F.L.S. Ashfield-road, King’s Heath, Bir-
mingham.

{Parkin, William. The Mount, Sheffield.

§Parkinson, James. Station-road, Turton, Bolton.

tParkinson, Robert, Ph.D. Yewbarrow House, Grange-over-Sands.

*Parnell, John, M.A. Hadham House, Upper Clapton, London, N.E.

{Parson, T. Cooke, M.R.C.S. Atherston House, Clifton, Bristol.

{Parson, T. Edgcumbe. 36 Torrington-place, Plymouth.

*Parsons, Charles Thomas. Mountlands, Norfolk-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham,

{Parsons, Hon. C. A. Elvaston Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tPart, Isabella. Rudleth, Watford, Herts.

{Pass, Alfred C. Rushmere House, Durdham Down, Bristol.

{Patchitt, Edward Cheshire. 128 Derby-road, Nottingham.

}Paterson, A. M., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in University College,
Liverpool.

*Paton, David. Johnstone, Scotland.

76 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Hlection.

1883, *Paton, Henry, M.A. 15 Myrtle-terrace, Edinburgh.

1884, *Paton, Hugh. 911 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

1883. {Paton, Rev. William. The Ferns, Parkside, Nottingham.

1871. *Patterson, A. Henry. 16 Ashburn-place, London, S.W.

1884, {Patterson, Edward Mortimer. Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada.

1876, {Patterson,T. L. Maybank, Greenock.

1874. {Patterson, W. H.,M.R.LA. 26 High-street, Belfast.

1863. [Parrinson, Jonny, F.C.S. 75 The Side, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1863, {Pattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1867. {Pattison, Samuel Rowles, F.G.S. 11 Queen Victoria-street, London,
E.C

1879. *Patzer, F. R. Stoke-on-Trent.

1863, {PauL, Bensamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

1892. {Paul, J. Balfour. 30 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

1863, {Pavy, Freperick Wiriiam, M.D., F.R.S. 35 Grosvenor-street,
London, W.

1887. *Paxman, James. Stisted Hall, near Braintree, Essex.

1887. *Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath.

1881. {Payne, J. Buxton. 15 Mosley-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1877. *Payne, J. O. Charles. Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.

1881. {Payne, Mrs. Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.

1866, {Payne, Joseph F., M.D. 78 Wimpole-street, London, W.

1888, *Paynter, J. B. Hendford Manor House, Yeovil.

1886. {Payton, Henry. Wellington-road, Birmingham.

1876. {Peace,G. H. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester.

1879. {Peace, William K. Moor Lodge, Sheffield.

1885. {Puacu, B. N., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,
Edinburgh.

1883. {Peacock, Ebenezer. 8 Mandeville-place, Manchester-square, Lon-
don, W.

1875, {Peacock, Thomas Francis. 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London, W.C.

1881. *Prarce, Horacs, F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. The Limes, Stourbridge.

1886, *Pearce, Mrs. Horace. ‘The Limes, Stourbridge.

1888. §Pearce, Rev. R. J.,D.C.L. Bedlington Vicarage, R.S.O., Northum-
berland.

1884, {Pearce, William. Winnipeg, Canada.

1886. {Pearsall, Howard D. 19 Willow-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.

1883. {Pearson, Arthur A. Colonial Office, London, S.W.

1891. {Pearson, B. Dowlais Hotel, Cardiff.

1893. *Pearson, Charles E. Chilwell House, Nottinghamshire.

1883. {Pearson, Miss Helen E. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

1892. {Pearson, J. M. John Dickie-street, Kilmarnock.

1881. {Pearson, John. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.

1883. {Pearson, Mrs. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.

1872. *Pearson, Joseph. Grove Farm, Merlin, Raleigh, Ontario, Canada.

1881. {Pearson, Richard. 57 Bootham, York.

1870. {Pearson, Rev. Samuel, M.A. Highbury-quadrant, London, N.

1883. *Pearson, Thomas H. Redclyffe, Newton-le- Willows, Lancashire.

1863. §Pease, H. F., M.P. Brinkburn, Darlington.

1889. {Pease, Howard. Enfield Lodge, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1863. {Pease, Sir Joseph W., Bart., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Quis-
borough.

1863. {Pease, J. W. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1883. {Peck, John Henry. 52 Hoghton-street, Southport.

Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.
*Peckover, Alexander, F.S.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Bank House,

Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 77

Year of
Election.

1888.
1885.
1884,
1883.
1878.
1881.
1861.
1878.
1865.
1861.
1887.

1894
1894
1881
1875
1889

1895

1894
1868

1884.

1864.
1885.
1886,
1886.
1879.
1874.

1883.
1883.
1883.
1895.

1871.
1882.
1886.
1884.
1884.
1886.

1863.

tPeckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.

{Peddie, William, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 2 Cameron Park, Edinburgh.

t{Peebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.

{Puex, CurnperrE., M.A.,F.S.A. 25 Bryanston-square, London, W-

*Peek, William. The Manor House, Kemp Town, Brighton.

{Peges, J. Wallace. 21 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, S.W.

*Peile, George, jun. Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.

{Pemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London, W.C.

{Pemberton, Oliver. 18 Temple-row, Birmingham.

*Pender, Sir John,G.C.M.G., M.P. 18 Arlington-street, London, S.W..

§PEnDLEBURY Wiutiiam H., M.A., F.C.S. 6 Gladstone-terrace,
Priory Hill, Dover.

. §Pengelly, Miss. Lamorna, Torquay.

. §Pengelly, Miss Hester. Lamorna, Torquay.

. {Penty, W.G. Melbourne-street, York.

. {Perceval, Rev. Canon John, M.A., LL.D. Rugby.

. {Percival, Archibald Stanley, M.A., M.B. 16 Ellison-place, New-

castle-upon-Tyne.

. §Percival, John, M.A. The South-Eastern Agricultural College,

Wye, Kent.
*Perigal, Frederick. Cambridge Cottage, Kingswood, Reigate.

.§§Perkin, A. G., F.R.S.E, F.C.S., F.LC. 8 Montpelier-terrace,

Woodhouse Cliff, Leeds.

. *Perxin, Witt1am Henry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Chestnuts,
Sudbury, Harrow, Middlesex.

{Prrxin, Witr1am Henry, jun., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Organic Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester.

*Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.

tPerrin, Miss Emily. 31 St John’s Wood Park, London, N.W.

{Perrin, Henry 8. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, London, N.W.

{Perrin, Mrs. 23 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London, W.

{tPerry, James. Roscommon.

*Prrry, Joun, M.E., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering and
Applied Mathematics in the Technical College, Finsbury. 31
Brunswick-square, London, W.C.

{Perry, Ottley L., F.R.G.S. Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.

{Perry, Russell R. 384 Duke-street, Brighton.

{Petrie, Miss Isabella. Stone Hill, Rochdale.

§Prrrie, W. M. Frrnpers, D.C.L., Professor of Egyptology in Uni-
versity College, London, W.C.

*Peyton, John E. H., F.R.A.S.,F.G.S._ 13 Fourth Avenue, Brighton.

{Pfoundes, Charles. Spring Gardens, London, S.W.

{Phelps, Colonel A. 28 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Phelps, Charles Edgar. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.

{Phelps, Mrs. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.

tPhelps, Hon. E. J. American Legation, Members’ Mansions, Victoria-
street, London, 8. W.

*Puent, Jonn Samvet, LL.D.,F.S.A., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton-
terrace, Oakley-street, London, 8S. W.

1892. {Philip, R. W., M.D. 4 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

1870. {Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.

1853. *Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.

1853. *Philips, Herbert. The Oak House, Macclesfield.

1877. §Philips, T. Wishart. 3 Tower-villas, George-lane, Woodford, Essex.
1863. {Philipson, Dr. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1889, {Philipson, John. 9 Victoria-~square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

1883. {Phillips, Arthur G. 20 Canning-street, Liverpool.

78 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1894. §Phillips, Staff-Commander E. C. D., R.N., F.R.G.S. 14 Hargreaves-
buildings, Chapel-street, Liverpool.

1887, {Phillips, H. Harcourt, F.C.S. 183 Moss-lane East, Manchester.

1892. §Phillips, J. H. Poole, Dorset.

1880.§§Phillips, John H., Hon. Sec. Philosophical and Archeological
Society, Scarborough.

1890.§§Phillips, R. W., M.A., Professor of Biology in University College,
Bangor.

1883. {Phillips, S. Rees. Wonford House, Exeter.

1881. tPhillips, William. 9 Bootham-terrace, York.

1868. {Puipson, T. L., Ph.D., F.C.S. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey,
S.W.

1894.§§Prckarp-CamBRiIpGE, Rev. O., M.A., F.R.S. Bloxworth Rectory,
Wareham.

1884. *Pickard, Rev. H. Adair, M.A. 5 Canterbury-road, Oxford.

1883. *Pickard, Joseph William. Oatlands, Lancaster.

1885. *PickERINe, Spencer U., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. 48 Bryanston-square,
London, W.

1884. *Pickett, Thomas E., M.D. Maysville, Mason County, Kentucky,
U.S.A.

1888. *Pidgeon, W. R. 42 Porchester-square, London, W.

1871. {Pigot, Thomas F.,M.R.LA. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

1884. ¢Pike, L. G., M.A., F.Z.S. 4 The Grove, Highgate, London, N.

1865. {Prxn, L.Owxry. 201 Maida-vale, London, W.

1873. t{Pike, W. H. University College, Toronto, Canada.

1883. {Pilling, R. C. The Robin's Nest, Blackburn.

Pim, George, M.R.I.A. Brenanstown, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin.

1877. {Pim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

1868. {Pinder, T. R. St. Andrew’s, Norwich.

1876, {Prrre, Rev. G., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Aberdeen. 33 College Bounds, Old Aberdeen,

1884. {Pirz, Anthony. Long Island, New York, U.S.A.

1887. {Pitkin, James. 56 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, London, E.C.

1875. {Pitman, John. Redcliff Hill, Bristol.

1888. {Pitt, George Newton, M.A., M.D. 34 Ashburn-place, South Ken-
sington, London, S.W.

1864, {Pitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.

1883. {Pitt, Sydney. 16 St. Andrew’s-street, Holborn-circus, London, E.C.

1898. *Pitt, Walter, M.Inst.C.E. South Stoke House, near Bath.

1868, {Prrt-Rivers, Lieut.-General A. H. L., D.C.L., F.RS., F.G.S.,
F.S.A.. 4 Grosvenor-gardens, London, 8. W.

1842, Puayrarr, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.RB:S.,
F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 68 Onslow-gardens, South Kensington, Lon-
don, 8. W.

1867. {Puayrarr, Lieut.-Colonel Sir R. L., K.C.M.G., H.M. Consul, Algeria.
(Messrs. King & Co., Pall Mall, London, S.W.)

1884. *Playfair, W. S., M.D., LL.D., Professor of Midwifery in King’s
College, London. 31 George-street, Hanover-square, London, W.

1883. *Plimpton, R.T.,M.D. 25 Lansdowne-road, Clapham-road, London,
S.W

1893.§§Plowright, Henry J., F.G.S. Brampton Foundries, Chesterfield.

1857. {Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland.

1861. *Pocutn, Henry Davis, F.C.S8. Bodnant Hall, near Conway.

1881. §Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds.

1888. {Pocock, Rev. Francis. 4 Brunswick-place, Bath.

1846. {Porz, WritraM, Mus.Doc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8. W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 79

Wieotion.
*Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A. Middleton Tyas Vicarage,
Richmond, Yorkshire.
1862. *Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall.

1891. {Pomeroy, Captain Ralph. 201 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1892.§§Popplewell, W. C., B.Sc. Claremont-road, Irlams-o’-th’-Height,
Manchester.

1868. {Porrat, WynpHAm 8. Malshanger, Basingstoke.

1883. *Porter, Rey. C. T., LL.D. All Saints’ Vicarage, Southport.

1883. {Postgate, Professor J. P., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1863. {Potter, D. M. Cramlington, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1887. {Potter, Edmund P. Hollinhurst, Bolton.

1883, {Potter, M. C., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the College of
Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 14 Portland-terrace, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

1883.§§Potts, John. Thorn Tree House, Chester-road, Macclesfield.

1886. *Poutton, Epwarp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.GS., F.Z.S., Pro-
fessor of Zoology in the University of Oxford. Wykeham House,
Oxford.

1873, *Powell, Sir Francis S., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. Horton Old Hall,
Yorkshire ; and 1 Cambridge-square, London, W.

1887. *Powell, Horatio Gibbs. Wood Villa, Tettenhall Wood, Wolver-
hampton.

1883. tPowell, John. Waunarlwydd House, near Swansea.

1894, *Powell, Richard Douglas, M.D. 62 Wimpole-street, London, W.

1875. {Powell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton,
Bristol.

1887. §Pownall, George H. Manchester and Salford Bank, Mosley-street,
Manchester.

1867. {Powrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.

1855. *Poynter, John E. Clyde Neuk, Uddingston, Scotland.

1883. {Poryntine, J. H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Mason
College, Birmingham. 11 St. Augustine’s-road, Birmingham.

1884, {Prance, Courtenay C. Hatherley Court, Cheltenham,

1884. *Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. 27 Norham-road, Oxford.

1891. {Pratt, Bickerton. Brynderwen, Maindee, Newport, Monmouth-
shire.

1869, *PreEce, Wittiam Henry, C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Gothic
Lodge, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.

1888. aig a Llewellyn. Telegraph Department, Midland Railway,

erby.

1884, *Premio-Real, His Excellency the Count of. Quebec, Canada.

1894. §Prentice, Manning, F.C.S. Woodfield, Stowmarket.

1892. §Prentice, Thomas. Willow Park, Greenock.

1889. §Preston, Alfred Eley, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 14 The Exchange, Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.

1894.§§Preston, Arthur KE. Piccadilly, Abingdon, Berkshire.

1898. *Preston, Martin Inett. 9 St. James’s-terrace, Nottingham.

1893.§§Pruston, Professor Tomas. 85 Merrion-square, Dublin.

*PrestwicH, JosepH, M.A., D.O.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S. Shore-
ham, near Sevenoaks.

1884, *Prevost, Major L. de T. 2nd Battalion Argyll and Sutherland
Highlanders.

1856, *Pricz, Rev. BarrHotomew, M.A., D.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Master
of Pembroke College, Oxford.

1882. {Price, John E., F.S.A. 27 Bedford-place, Russell-square, Lon-

. don, W.C,

80

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.

of

Election,

1888
1875
1891
1892

1875.
18838.
1864.

1889.
1876.
1888.
1881.
1863.

1885.
1863.
1884.
1879,

1872.
1871.
1873.
1867.
1883.
1891.
1842.
1887.
1885.

1852.
1881.

1882.
1874.
1866.

1878.
1884.
1860.
1883.
1883.
1868.

1879

1893
1894

1870,
1887.
1870,
1877.
1879.

Price, J.T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.

. {Pricz, L. L. F.R., M.A., F.S.S. Oriel College, Oxford.

. *Price, Rees. 163 Bath-street, Glasgow. ‘

. {Price, William. 40 Park-place, Cardiff.

. Prince, Professor Edward E. Canada.

Prince, Thomas. 6 Marlborough-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tPrince, Thomas. Horsham-road, Dorking.

*Prior, R. C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W.

*Pritchard, Eric Law, M.D., M.R.C.S. St. Giles, Norwich.

*PRITCHARD, URBAN, M.D., F.R.C.S. 26 Wimpole-street, London, W.

}Probyn, Leslie C. Onslow-square, London, 8. W.

§Procter, John William. Ashcroft, York.

{Proctor, R.S. Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.

tProfeit, Dr. Balmoral, N.B.

{Proud, Joseph. South Hetton, Newcastle-upon- Tyne.

*Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. 2 Phillips-place, Montreal, Canada.

*Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Alvington, Slade-road,
Ilfracombe.

*Pryor, M. Robert. Weston, Stevenage, Herts.

*Puckle, Thomas John. 42 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.

tPullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.

*Pullar, Sir Robert, F.R.S.E. Tayside, Perth.

*Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Ochil, Perth.

tPullen, W. W. F. University College, Cardiff.

*Pumphrey, Charles. Southfield, King’s Norton, near Birmingham.

§PumpHRpy, WittuiAM. 2 Oakland-road, Redland, Bristol.

§Purpiz, Tomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of St. Andrews. 14 South-street, St. Andrews, N.B.

tPurdon, Thomas Henry, M.D.Belfast.

}Purey-Cust, Very Rey. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York. The
Deanery, York.

{Purrott, Charles. West End, near Southampton.

{tPurserR, FrepERICK, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin.

}Purser, Professor Joun, M.A., M.R.I.A. Queen’s College,
Belfast.

{Purser, John Mallet. 3 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.

*Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stratford-place, Oxford-street, London, W.

*Pusey, S. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon.

§Pye-Smith, Arnold. 16 Fairfield-road, Croydon.

§Pye-Smith, Mrs. 16 Fairfield-road, Croydon.

tPyz-Suirn, P. H., M.D.,F.R.S. 48 Brook-street, W.; and Guy’s
Hospital, London, 8.E.

. [Pye-Smith, R. J. 350 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

.§§Quick, James, University College, Bristol.
-§§Quick, Professor Walter J. University of Missouri, Columbia, U.S.A.

{Rabbits, W. T. 6 Cadogan-gardens, London, S.W.

{Rabone, John. Penderell House, Hamstead-road, Birmingham.
tRadcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool.
{Radford, George D. Mannamead, Plymouth.

{Radford, R. Heber. Wood Bank, Pitsmoor, Sheffield.
*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 81

Year of
lection.

1855. *Radstock, The Right Hon. Lord. Mayfield, Woolston, Southampton.

1888. {Radway,C. W. 9 Bath-street, Bath.

1887. *Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Whitefield, Manchester.

1864. Rainey, James T. 3 Kent-gardens, Ealing, London, W.

Rake, Joseph. Charlotte-street, Bristol.

1894, *RampBaut, ARTHUR Bow MEA. Se. ERAS. MER ARAS
Andrews’ Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin,
and Astronomer Royal for Ireland. Dunsink Observatory,
Co. Dublin.

1885, tRamsay, Major. Straloch, N.B.

1863, {Ramsay, ALExanpmER, F.G.S, 2 Cowper-road, Acton, Middlesex, W,

1884. {Ramsay, George G., LL.D., Professor of Humanity in the University

of Glasgow. 6 The College, Glasgow.

1884, {Ramsay, Mrs. G.G. 6 The College, Glasgow.

1861. {Ramsay, John. Kildalton, Argyllshire.

1889. {Ramsay, Major R. G. W. Bonnyrigg, Edinburgh.

1867. *Ramsay, W. F., M.D. 109 Sinclair-road, West Kensington Park,

London, W.
1876. *Ramsay, WritraM, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, London, W.C.

1883. {Ramsay, Mrs. 12 Arundel-gardens, London, W.

1887. tRamsbottom, John. Fernhill, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

1835. *Rance, Henry. 6 Ormond-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W,

1869. *Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletown-road, West Ken-

sington. London, W.

1868. *Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. Ashburnham-road, Bedford.

1893. {Ransom, W. B., M.D. The Pavement, Nottingham.

1863. {Ransom, WittrAm Henry, M.D.,F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.

1861. {Ransomn, Arraur, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Devisdale, Bowdon,

Manchester, -
Ransome, Thomas. Hest Bank, near Lancaster.

1889. §Rapkin, J.B. Sidcup, Kent.

Rashleigh, Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent's Park, London,
N.W.

1864. {Rate, Rev. John, M.A. Fairfield, East Twickenham.

1892. §Rathbone, Miss May. Backwood, N eston, Cheshire.

1870. {Rathbone, Philip H. Greenbank Cottage, Wavertree, Liverpool.

1870. §Rathbone, R. R. Glan y Menai, Anglesey,

1895.§§RatHponre, W. Green Bank, Liverpool.

1874, {Ravenstew, E. G., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. Albion House, 91 Upper Tulse-

hill, London, S.W.
Rawdon, William Frederick, M.D. Bootham, York.
1889. {Rawlings, Edward. Richmond House, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.
1870. {Rawlins,G. W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.
1866. *Rawtinson, Rey. Canon Guorer, M.A. The Oaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.

1887. {Rawson, Harry. Earlswood, Ellesmere Park, Eccles, Manchester.

1875.§§Rawsoy, Sir Rawson W., K.C.M.G., O.B., F.R.G.S. 68 Corn-
wall-gardens, Queen’s-gate, London, S.W.

1886. {Rawson, W. Stepney, M.A., F.C.S. 68 Cornwall-gardens, Queen’s-
gate, London, S.W.

1868. *RaytereH, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A.. D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
Royal Institution, London. Terling Place, Witham, Essex.

1895. §Raynbird, Hugh, jun. Garrison Gateway Cottage, Old Basing,
Basingstoke.

1883. *Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.O.S. Queen-street, Lancaster,

1895. F

R2 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

*Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A. 12 Blake-street, York.
1870. {ReADE, THomas Metiarp, F.G.S. Blundellsands, Liverpool.
1884, §Readman, J. B., D.Sc., F.R.S.E, 4 Lindsay-place, Edinburgh.
1852. *REeDFERN, Professor Perrr, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.
1892. {Redgrave, Gilbert R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E, Grove Lodge, Muswell
Hill, London, N.
1863. {Redmayne, Giles. 20 New Bond-street, London, W.
1889. {Redmayne, J. M. Harewood, Gateshead.
1889. {Redmayne, Norman. 26 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne..
1888. {Rednall, Miss Edith E. Ashfield House, Neston, near Chester.
1890, *Redwood, Boverton, F.R.S.E.,F.C.8. 4 Bishopsgate-street Within,
London £.C.
Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales.
1891. {Reece, Lewis Thomas. Somerset House, Roath, Cardiff.
1861. {Reep, Sir Epwarp Jamus, K.C.B., F.R.S. 75 Harrington-
gardens, London, 8. W.
1889. t{Reed, Rev. George. Bellingham Vicarage, Bardon Mill, Carlisle.
1891. *Reed, Thomas A. Bute Docks, Cardiff.
1894. *Rees, Edmund 8. G., 15 Merridale-lane, Wolverhampton.
1891. §Rees, I. Treharne, M.Inst.C.E, The Elms, Penarth.
1891. {Rees, Samuel. West Wharf, Cardiff.
1891. {Rees, William. 25 Park-place, Cardiff.
1888. {Rees, W. L. 11 North-crescent, Bedford-square, London, W.C.
1875. {Rees-Moge, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.
1881, §Reid, Arthur 8., B.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B.
1883, *Rerp, CLEMENT, F.L.S., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.
1892.§§Reid, E. Waymouth, B.A., Professor of Physiology in University
College, Dundee.
1889. {Reid, George, Belgian Consul. Leazes House, Newcastle-upon-

ne.

1876. tReid, J ames. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

1884. tReid, Rev. James, B.A. Bay City, Michigan, U.S.A.

1892.§§Reid, Thomas. University College, Dundee.

1887. *Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.

1850. {Reid, William, M.D. Cruivie, Cupar, Fife.

1893. §Reinach, Baron Albert von. Frankfort s. M., Prussia.

1875. §Rurvoxp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E.

1863, {Renats, E. ‘ Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham,

1894, §RenpDALL, G. H., M.A., Principal of University College, Liverpool.

1891. §Rendell, Rev. J. R. Whinside, Whalley-road, Accrington.

1885. tRennett, Dr. 12 Golden-square, Aberdeen.

1889. *Rennie, George B. Hooley Lodge, Redhill.

1867. {Renny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

1883. *Reynolds, A. H. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.

1871. {Ruynotps, JAmes Emerson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.R.LA.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Dublin. The Labora-
tory, Trinity College, Dublin.

1870. *Reynotps, Osporne, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor
of Engineering in Owens College, Manchester. 28 Lady Barn-
road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

1858. §Rrynoips, Ricwarp, F.C.S. 18 Briggate, and Cliff Lodge, Hyde
Park, Leeds.

1887. {Rhodes, George W. The Cottage, Victoria Park, Manchester.

1883. {Rhodes, Dr. James, 25 Victoria-street, Glossop.

1890. {Rhodes, J. M., M.D. Ivy Lodge, Didsbury.

1858. *Rhodes, John. Potternewton House, Leeds.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 88

Year of
Hiection.

1877. *Rhodes, John. 360 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.

1888.§§Rhodes, John George. Warwick House, 46 St. George’s-road,
London, 8.W.

1884. {Rhodes, Lieut.-Colonel William. Quebec, Canada.

1877. *Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Rua .
Muro, 14, Modena, Italy.

1891. {Richards, D. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.

1891. {Richards, H. M. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.

1889, {Richards, Professor T. W., Ph.D. Cambridge, Massachusetts,
U.S.A.

1888, *RicHarpson, ArnTHUR, M.D. University College, Bristol.

1863, {RicHARDson, Sir Bensamry Warp, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 25
Manchester-square, London, W.

1861. {Richardson, Charles. 10 Berkeley-square, Bristol.

1869. *Richardson, Charles. 15 Burnaby-gardens, Chiswick, London, W.

1882. §Richardson, Rev. George, M.A. The College, Winchester.

1884. *Richardson, George Straker. Isthmian Club, 150 Piccadilly,
London, W.

1889. §Richardson, Hugh. Sedbergh School, Sedbergh R.S.O., York-
shire.

1884. *Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.

1870, {Richardson, Ralph, F.R.S.E. 10 Magdala-place, Edinburgh.

1889, {Richardson, Thomas, J.P. 7 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

1881. Peeatcdcon, W. 8B. Elm Bank, York.

1876. §Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

1891. {Riches, Carlton H. 21 Dumfries-place, Cardiff.

1891. §Riches, T. Harry. 8 Park-grove, Cardiff.

1886. §Richmond, Robert. Leighton Buzzard.

1868. {Rickerrs, CuHartus, M.D.,F.G.S. 19 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.

1877. { Ricketts, James, M.D. St. Helens, Lancashire.

*RIDDELL, Major-General Cuartzs J. Bucuanan, C.B., R.A., F.R.S.

Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon.

1883, *RipEaL, Samupt, D.Sc., F.C.S. 28 Victoria-mansions, London, 8. W.

1862. { Ridgway, Henry Ackroyd, B.A. Bank Field, Halifax.

1894. §Riptey, E. P. 6 Paget-road, Ipswich.

1861. {Ridley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, London, N. W.

1889, {Ridley, Thomas D. Coatham, Redcar.

1884. {Ridout, Thomas. Ottawa, Canada.

1881. *Rige, Arthur. 5 Harewood-square, London, N.W.

1883. *Rieg, Epwarp, M.A. Royal Mint, London, E.

1883. { Rigg, F. F., M.A. 32 Queen’s-road, Southport.

1892. {Rintoul, D., M.A. Clifton College, Bristol.

1873. {Ripley, Sir Edward, Bart. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.

*Riron, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, K.G., G.C.S.L, C.LE.,

D.O.L., F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 9 Chelsea Embankment,
London, 8.W.

1892. {Ritchie, R. Peel, M.D., F.R.S.E. 1 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

1867. {Ritchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.

1889. {Ritson, U. A. 1 Jesmond-gardens, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

1869. *Rivington, John. Babbicombe, near Torquay.

1888. {Robb, W. J. Firth College, Sheffield.

1869. *Rospins, Jonny, F.C.S. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida Vale,
London, W.

1878. {Roberts, Charles, F.R.C.S. 2 Bolton-row, London, W.

1887. *Roberts, Evan. Thorncliffe, 5 York-road, Southport.

1859. {Roberts, George Christopher, Hull.

F2

&4

Year of
Election

1870.

1894,
1891.

1881.

1879.
1879.
1883.

1868.

1883.
1859.
1884.
1871.

1883.
1885.
1876.
1892.
1888.

1886.
1886.
1861.
1887.
1861.
1888.
1865.
1878.
1895.
1876.
1887.
1881.
1875.
1884.
1865.
1891.

1888.

1870.
1876.
1872.
1885.
1894.
1885.
1866.
1867.
1890.

1885.
1882.
1884,

LIST OF MEMBERS.

*Rozerts, Isaac, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Starfield, Crow-
borough, Sussex.

*Roberts, Miss Janora. 5 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

tRoberts, Rev. John Crossby, F.R.G.S. 41 Derby-road, East Park,
Northampton.

tRoberts, R. D., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. 17 Charterhouse-square,
London, E.C.

tRoberts, Samuel. The Towers, Sheffield.

tRoberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield.

t{Roperrs, Sir Wituam, M.D., F.R.S. 8 Manchester-square,
London, W.

*Roperts-AusTEN, W. CHAnpiER, C.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Chemist to
the Royal Mint, and Professor of Metallurgy in the Royal Col-
lege of Science, London. Royal Mint, London, E.

tRobertson, Alexander. Montreal, Canada.

tRobertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen.

tRobertson, E. Stanley, M.A. 43 Waterloo-road, Dublin.

atta George, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. Athenzeum Club, Lon-
don, 8. W.

tRobertson, George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.

tRobertson, Mrs. George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.

{ Robertson, R. A. Newthorn, Ayton-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

{Robertson, W. W. 3 Parliament-square, Mdinburgh.

*Robins, Edward Cookworthy, F.S.A. 8 Marlborough-road, St.
Jokn’s Wood, London, N. W.

*Robinson, C. R. 27 Elvetham-road, Birmingham.

tRobinson, Edward E. 56 Dovey-street, Liverpool.

tRobinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.

{Robinson, Henry. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, S.W.

tRobinson, John, M.Inst.C.E. Atlas Works, Manchester.

tRobinson, John. Engineer’s Office, Barry Dock, Cardiff.

{Robinson, J. H. 6 Montallo-terrace, Barnard Castle.

tRobinson, John L. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.

*Robinson, Joseph Johnson. 8 Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, Southport.

tRobinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.

§Robinson, Richard. Bellfield Mill, Rochdale.

{Robinson, Richard Atkinson. 195 Brompton-road, London, 8.W.

*Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Beechwood, Darlington.

tRobinson, Stillman. Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.

{Robinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.

{Robinson, William, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in
University College, Nottingham.

tRobottom, Arthur. 3 St. Alban’s-villas, Highgate-road, London,
N.W

*Robson, E.R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster, S. W.

t Robson, Hazleton R. 14 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.

*Robson, William. 5 Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edinburgh.

*Rodger, Edward. 1 Clairmont-gardens, Glasgow.

*Rodger, J. W. 80 Anerley-park, London, 8.E.

*Rodriguez, Epifanio. 12 Jokn-street, Adelphi, London, W.C.

tRoe, Sir Thomas, M.P. Grove-villas, Litchurch.

tRogers, James S. Rosemill, by Dundee.

*Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Yorkshire College,
Leeds. 13 Beech Grove-terrace, Leeds.

tRogers, Major R. Alma House, Cheltenham.

§Rogers, Rev. Saltren, M.A. Gwennap, Redruth, Cornwall.

*Rogers, Walter M. Lamowa, Falmouth.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 85

Year of
Election.

1889.
1876.

1892.
1891.
1894.
1869.
1872.

1881.
1855.

1883.
1892.
1894.
1885.
1874.
1887.
1880.

1859.
1869.

1891.
1893.
1865.

1876.
1884,
186].

1861.
1883.
1887.
1881.
1865.
1877.

1890.
1881.

1881.
1876,
1883.

1885.

1888.
1875.

1892.
1869.

1882.
1884.

1887.

tRogerson, John. Croxdale Hall, Durham.
fRoriit, Sir A. K., M.P., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon.
Fellow K.C.L. Thwaite House, Cottingham, East Yorkshire.
*Romanes, John. 3 Oswald-road, Edinburgh.
{Ronnfeldt, W. 43 Park-place, Cardiff.
*Rooper, T. Godolphin. The Elms, High Harrogate.
tRoper, CO. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter.
*Roper, Freeman Clarke Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.S. Palgrave House,
Eastbourne.
*Roper, W.O. Bank Buildings, Lancaster.
*Roscoz, Sir Henry Enrrerp, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
10 Bramham-gardens, London, 8. W.
*Rose, J. Holland, M.A. 11 Endlesham-road, Balham, London, S.W.
{Rose, Hugh. Kilravock Lodge, Blackford-avenue, Edinburgh.
§Rose, T. K. 9 Royal Mint, London, E.
}Ross, Alexander. Riverfield, Inverness.
tRoss, Alexander Milton, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Toronto, Canada.
tRoss, Edward. Marple, Cheshire.
tRoss, Captain G. E. A., F.G.8. 8 Collingham-gardens, Cromwell-
road, London, S.W.
*Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster.
*RossE, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., B.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A. Birr Castle, Parsonstown, Ireland.
§Roth, H. Ling. 32 Prescott-street, Halifax, Yorkshire.
TRothera, G. B. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
*Rothera, George Bell, F.L.S. Orston House, Sherwood Rise,
Nottingham.
TRottenburgh, Paul. 13 Albion-crescent, Glasgow.
*Rouse, M. L. 54 Westbourne-villas, West Brighton.
tRovurn, Epwarp J., M.A., D.Sc., F.RS., F.RAS., F.G.S. St.
Peter’s College, Cambridge.
tRowan, David. Elliot-street, Glasgow.
tRowan, Frederick John. 134 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
tRowe, Rev. Alfred W., M.A. Felstead, Essex.
tRowe, Rey. G. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York.
tRowe, Rey. John. 13 Hampton-road, Forest Gate, Essex.
tRowz, J. Brooxine, F.LS., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Ply-
mouth,
tRowley, Walter, F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood, Leeds.
*Rowntree, Joseph. 38 St. Mary’s, York.
*Rowntree, J.S. Mount Villas, York.
tRoxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.
tRoy, Cuartxs S., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in the Uni-
; versity of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.
tRoy, John, 33 Belvidere-street, Aberdeen.
tRoy, Parbati Churn, B.A. Calcutta, Bengal, India.
*“Rtcxzr, A. W., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the
Royal College of Science, London. (GrNERAL TREASURER.)
19 Gledhow-gardens, South Kensington, London, 8.W.
§Riicker, Mrs. Levetleigh, Dane-road, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea.
a fF. W., F.G.8. The Museum, Jermyn-street, London,

{Rumball, Thomas, M.Inst.0.E. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, 8.W.

tRuntz, John. Linton Lodge, Lordship-road, Stoke Newington,
London, N.

§Ruscoe, John, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. Ferndale, Gee Cross, near Man-
chester.

86 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1847. {Rusxin, Jon, M.A., D.C.L., F.G.S. Brantwood, Coniston, Amble-
side.

1889. tRussell, The Right Hon. Earl. Amberley Cottage, Maidenhead.

1875. *Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park,Surrey.

1884, tRussell, George. 13 Church-road, Upper Norwood, London, 8.E.

1890. tRussell, J. A., M.B. Woodville, Canaan-lane, Edinburgh.

1883. *Russell, J. W. 16 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

Russell, John. 89 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.

1852. *Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Hanover-square, London, W.

1876. {Russell, Robert, F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.

1886. {Russell, Thomas H. 3 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

1852. *Russect, WritraM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
in St. Bartholomew’s Medical College. 34 Upper Hamilton-
terrace, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W.

1886. {Rust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester.

1883. *Ruston, Joseph. Monk’s Manor, Lincoln.

1891. §Rutherford, George. Garth House, Taft’s Well, Cardiff.

1871. §RurnEeRrorD, WriittAM, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physi-
ology in the University of Edinburgh.

1887. tRutherford, William. 7 Vine-grove, Chapman-street, Hulme, Man-
chester.

Rutson, William. Newby Wiske, Northallerton, Yorkshire.

1879. tRuxton, Vice-Admiral Fitzherbert, R.N., F.R.G.S. 41 Cromwell-
gardens, London, S.W.

1875. {Ryalls, Charles Wager, LL.D. 3 Brick-court, Temple, London, E.C.

1889. {Ryder, W. J. H. 52 Jesmond-road, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

1865. {Ryland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.

1861. *Ryranps, Tomas GuiazEproox, F.L.S., F.G.S. Highfields, Thel-
wall, near Warrington.

1883. {Sadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1871, {Sadler,Samuel Champernowne. 186 Aldersgate-street, London, E.C.

1885. {Saint, W. Johnston. 11 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen,

1866. *Sr. ALBANS, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near
Nottingham.

1886. §St. Clair, George, F.G.S. 225 Castle-road, Cardiff.

1898.§§SaLisBuRY, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.G., D.C.L., F.RS.
20 Arlington Street, London, 8. W.

1881. {Salkeld, William. 4 Paradise-terrace, Darlington.

1857. {Satmon, Rev. Groren, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Provost of
Trinity College, Dublin.

1883. {Salmond, Robert G. Kingswood-road, Upper Norwood, S.E.

1873. *Salomons, Sir David, Bart., F.G.S. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.

1872. {Sanvin, Ospert, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Hawksfold, Haslemere.

1887. {Samson, C. L. Carmona, Kersal, Manchester.

1861. *Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.

1894, §Samugtson, The Right Hon. Sir Brrnwarp, Bart. F.RS.,
M.Inst.C.E. 56 Prince’s-gate, London, 8.W.

1878. {Sanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent.

1883. *Sanders, Charles J. B. Pennsylvania, Exeter.

1884. {Sanders, Henry. 185 James-street, Montreal, Canada.

1883. {Sanderson, Deputy Surgeon-General Alfred. East India United
Service Club, St. James’s-square, London, 8.W.

1872. §SanpERson, J. 8. Burpon, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S.,
F.R.S.E., Regius Professor of Medicine in the University of
Oxford. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 87

Election.

1883.
1893.

1892.
1886.
1886.
1886.
1868.
1886.
1881.
1885.
1846.

1884,
1891.
1884.
1887.

1871.
1885.
1883.
1872.
1887.
1884.
1883.
1884.
1879.

1883.
1888.

1880.

1892.
1842.
1887.
1883.

{Sanderson, Mrs. Burdon. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.
{Sanderson, Oundle, 9 The Ropewalk, Nottingham.
Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.

§Sang, William D. 28 Whyte’s Causeway, Kirkcaldy, Fife.

§Sankey, Perey E. Down Lodge, Fairlight, Hastings.

tSauborn, John Wentworth. Albion, New York, U.S.A,

{Saundby, Robert, M.D. 83a Edmund-street, Birmmgham.

{Saunders, A., M.Inst.C.E. King’s Lynn.

{Saunders, C. T. Temple-row, Birmingham.

{SaunpErs, Howarp, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 7 Radnor-place, London, W.

{Saunders, Rev. J. C. Cambridge.

{Saunpers, TRELAwNEY W., F.R.G.S. 38 Elmfield on the Knowles,
Newton Abbot, Devon. ;

{Saunders, William. Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada.

{Saunders, W. H. R. Llanishen, Cardiff.

{Saunderson, C. E. 26 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.

§Savage, Rev. E. B., M.A., F.S.A. St. Thomas’ Parsonage, Douglas,
Isle of Man.

{Savage, W. D. Ellerslie House, Brighton.

{Savage, W. W. 109 St. James’s-street, Brighton.

{Savery, G. M., M.A. The College, Harrogate.

*Sawyer, George David. 55 Buckingham-place, Brighton.

§Saycr, Rey. A. H., M.A., D.D. Queen’s College, Oxford.

tSayre, Robert H. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

*Scarborough, George. Whinney Field, Halifax, Yorkshire.

{Scarth, William Bain. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

*Scnaver, E. A., F.R.S., M.R.C.S., Professor of Physiology in Uni-
versity College, London, (GuNERAL Secretary.) Croxley
Green, Rickmansworth.

{Schiifer, Mrs. Croxley Green, Rickmansworth.

§Scmarrr, Ropert F., Ph.D., B.Sc., Keeper of the Natural History
Department, Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.

*Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt
& Sons, Birmingham.)

{Schloss, David F. 1 Knaresborough-place, London, 8.W.

Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.

{Schofield, T. Thornfield, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Manchester.

{Schofield, William. Alma-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1885.§§Scholes, L. Eden-terrace, Harriet-street, Stretford, near Man-

1873.
1887.
1847.
1883.
1867.
1881.

1882.
1878.

chester.
Scuunck, Epwarp, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersal Moor,

Manchester.

*Scuuster, ARTHUR, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Physics
in the Owens College, Manchester.

{Schwabe, Colonel G. Salis. Portland House, Higher Crumpsall,
Manchester.

*Sctater, Pamir Lutiey, M.A., Ph.D., F.RS., F.LS., F.GS.,
F.R.G.S., Sec.Z.S. 3 Hanover-square, London, W.

*Scrater, Wittiam Lurtry, M.A., F.Z.S. Eton College, Windsor.

{Scorr, ALEXANDER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.

*Scott, Alexander, M.A., D.Sc. University Chemical Laboratory,
Cambridge.

{Scott, Colonel A. de O., R.E. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.

*Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. David's College, Lampeter.

1881.§§Scott, Miss Charlotte Angas, D.Sc. Lancashire College, Whalley

Range, Manchester.

88 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Hlection.

1889. §Scorr, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. The Old Palace, Rich--
mond, Surrey.

1885. tScott, George Jamieson. Bayview House, Aberdeen.

1886. {Scott, Robert. 161 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C.

1857. *Scorr, Roprrr H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.S., Secretary to
the Council of the Meteorological Office. 6 Elm Park-gardens,
London, 8. W.

1884. *Scott, Sydney C. 28 The Avenue, Gipsy Hill, 8.E.

1869. {Scott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon.

1895. §Scott-Elliott, G. F. Newton, Dumfries.

1881. *Scrivener, A. P. Haglis House, Wendover.

1883. {Scrivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.

1895. §Scull, Miss E. M. L. 2 Langland-gardens, Finchley -road,
London, N.W.

1890.§§Searle, G. F. C., B.A. Peterhouse, Cambridge.

1859. {Seaton, John Love. The Park, Hull.

1880 j{Sepewrcx, Anam, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1880. {SrnBoum, Heyry, F.R.G.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. 22 Courtfield-gardens,
London, 8.W.

1861. *Sxerry, Harry Govigr, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.,
Professor of Geography in King’s College, London, 25 Palace
Gardens-terrace, Kensington, London, W.

1895.§§Surron, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Abbeystead, Lancaster.

1893. {SrLpy-Bieer, L. A., M.A. University College, Oxford.

1891, {Selby, Arthur L., M.A., Assistant Professor of Physics in University
College, Cardiff.

1855. {Seligman, H. L. 27 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.

1879. {Selim, Adolphus. 21 Mincing-lane, London, E.C,

1885. {Semple, Dr. A. United Service Club, Edinburgh.

1887. §Semple, James C., F.R.G.S., M.R.L.A. 2 Marine-terrace, Kings-
town, Co. Dublin.

1873. {Semple, R. H., M.D. 8 Torrington-square, London, W.C.

1892. {Semple, William. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.

1888. *Senrer, Atrrep, M.D., Ph.D., F.0.8., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway.

1858. *Senior, George. Old Whittington, Chesterfield.

1888. *Sennett, Alfred R., A.M.Inst.C.E. 389 Bedford Place, Bloomsbury-
square, W.C.

1870. *Sephton, Rey. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.

1892.§§Seton, Miss Jane. 37 Candlemaker-row, Edinburgh.

1895. §Seton-Karr, H. W. Wimbledon, Surrey.

1875, {Seville, Thomas. Blythe House, Southport.

1892, {Seward, A. C., M.A., F.G.S. 33 Chesterton-road, Cambridge.

1891. {Seward, Edwin. 55 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1868, {Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.

1891. {Shackell, E. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1888. {Shackles, Charles F. Hornsea, near Hull.

1883. {Shadwell, John Lancelot. 30 St. Charles-square, Ladbroke Grove-
road, London, W.

1871. *Shand, James. Parkholme, Elm Park-gardens, London, S.W.

1867. {Shanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.

1881. {Shann, George, M.D. Petergate, York.

1869, *Shapter, Dr. Lewis, LL.D. 1 Barnfield-crescent, Exeter.

1878. {Smarp, Davin, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Museum of Zoology,
Cambridge.

Sharp, Rey. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield.

1886, {Sharp, T. B. French Walls, Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 89

Year of

Election

1883.
1870.
1865.
1887.
1870.
1891.
1889.
1887.§
1883.
1883.
1891.
1884.
1878,

1865.
1881.
1885.
1885.
1890.

1883.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1888.
1886.
1892.
1888.

1867.
1887.
1889.
1885.
1883.
1870.

1888.
1888,
1875.
1882.

1889.
1885.
1883.
1883.
1877.
1885.

1873.
1878.

1859.

*Smarp, Wit1AM, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.8. Horton House, Rugby.
Sharp, Rey. William, B.A. Mareham Rectory, near Boston, Lincoln-

shire.

tSharples, Charles H., F.C.S. 7 Fishergate, Preston.

tShaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.

tShaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham.

*Shaw, James B, Holly Bank, Cornbrook, Manchester.

{Shaw, John. 21 St. James’s-road, Liverpool.

{Shaw, Joseph. 1 Temple-gardens, London, H.C.

*Shaw, Mrs. M.8., B.Sc. Halberton, near Tiverton, Devon.

§Shaw, Saville, F.C.S. College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Suaw, W.N., M.A., F.R.S. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.

t{Shaw, Mrs. W. N. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.

{Sheen, Dr. Alfred. 23 Newport-road, Cardiff.

{Sheldon, Professor J. P. Downton College, near Salisbury.

tShelford, William, M.Inst.C.E. 354 Great George-street, West-
minster, S. W.

{Shenstone, Frederick S. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.

tSuenstonz, W. A. Clifton College, Bristol.

tShepherd, Rev. Alexander. Ecclesmechen, Uphall, Edinburgh.

{Shepherd, Charles. 1 Wellington-street, Aberdeen.

{Shepherd, J. Care of J. Redmayne, Esq., Grove House, Heading-
ley, Leeds.

tShepherd, James. Birkdale, Southport.

{Sherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

{Sherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

tSherlock, Rey. Edgar. Bentham Rectory, vid Lancaster.

*Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A. Langridge Rectory, Bath.

{Shield, Arthur H. 35a Great George-street, London, 8. W.

tShields, John, D.Sc., Ph.D. Dolphingston, Tranent, Scotland.

*Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. 2 Frederick-place, Old Jewry, Lon-
don, E.C.

{Shinn, William C. 39 Varden’s-road, Clapham Junction, Surrey, S. W.

*Suipiey, AntHUR E., M.A. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

{Shipley, J. A. D. Saltwell Park, Gateshead. -

{Shirras,G. F. 16 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

{Shone, Isaac. Pentrefelin House, Wrexham.

*SHootBreD, JAMES N., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 47 Victoria-street,
London, 8S. W.

¢Shoppee, C. H. 22 John-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C.

§Shoppee, G. A., M.A., LL.D. 7 Furnival’s Inn, London, E.C.

tSHore, THomas W., F.G.S. Hartley Institution, Southampton.

{SHorn, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, E.C.

{Sibley, Walter K., B.A., M.B. 7 Upper Brook-street, London, W.

{Sibly, Miss Martha Agnes. Flook House, Taunton.

*Sidebotham, Edward John. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Sidebotham, James Nasmyth. Parkfield, Altrincham, Cheshire.

*Sidebotham, Joseph Watson, M.P. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Sipewick, Henry, M.A., Litt.D., D.C.L., Professor of Moral Philo-
sophy in the University of Cambridge. Hillside, Chesterton-
road, Cambridge.

Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Siemens, Alexander. 7 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, London, W.

{SicrRson, Professor Groren, M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 3 Clare-
street, Dublin.

$Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen,

90

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1871. {Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.
1862. {Simms, James. 188 Fleet-street, London, E.C.

1874. {Simms, William. Upper Queen-street, Belfast.

1876. {Simon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-gardens, London, W.
1887. *Simon, Henry. Lawnhurst, Didsbury, near Manchester.

1847.

1866.
1898.
1871.

1883.
1887.
1859.
1863.
1857.

1894.
1883.

1887.
1874.
1870.
1864,

1892.
1879.

1883.
1885.
1892.
1888.
1870.

1873.
1889.
1884,
1877.
1891.
1884.
1849.

tSmmon, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Consulting
Surgeon to St. Thomas’s Hospital. 40 Kensington-square,
London, W.

{Simons, George. The Park, Nottingaam.

{Simpson, A. H., F.R.Met.Soc. Attenborough, Nottinghamshire.

*Simpson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.

{Simpson, Byron R. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Simpson, F. Estacion Central, Buenos Ayres.

{Simpson, John. Maykirk, Kincardineshire.

{Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.

{Smrpson, Maxwett, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., 9 Barton-street,
West Kensington, London, W.

§Simpson, Thomas. Fennymere, Castle Bar, Ealing, London, W.

{Simpson, Walter M. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

Simpson, William. Bradmore House, Hammersmith, London, W.

{Sinclair, Dr. 268 Oxford-street, Manchester.

tSinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast.

*Sinclair, W. P. Rivelyn, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

*Sircar, The Hon. Mohendra Lal, M.D., O.1.E. 51 Sankaritola, Cal-
cutta.

{Sisley, Richard, M.D. 11 York-street, Portman-square, London, W.

{Skertchly, Sydney B. J. 3 Loughborough-terrace, Carshalton,

Surrey.

{Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.

{Skinner, Provost. Inverurie, N.B.

{Skinner, William. 35 George-square, Edinburgh.

§Sxring, H. D., J.P., D.L. Claverton Manor, Bath.

§SrapEN, WatrEr Percy, F.G.S,, F.L.S. 13 Hyde Park-gate, Lon-
don, 8. W.

{Slater, Clayton. Barnoldswick, near Leeds.

§Slater, Matthew B., F.L.S. Malton, Yorkshire.

{Slattery, James W. 9 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

tSleeman, Rey. Philip, L.Th., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Clifton, Bristol.

§Slocombe, James. Redland House, Fitzalan, Cardiff.

{Slooten, William Venn. Nova Scotia, Canada.

{Sloper, George Elear. Devizes.

1887.§§Small, Evan W., M.A., B.Sc., F.G.8. County Council Offices, New-

1887.
1881.
1885.
1889,
1858.
1876.
1877.

1890.
1876.
1876.

1867.

port, Monmouthshire.
§Small, William. Lincoln-circus, The Park, Nottingham.
tSmallshan, John. 81 Manchester-road, Southport.
§Smart, James. Walley Works, Brechin, N.B.
*Smart, William, LL.D. Nunholme, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
{Smeeton, G. H. Commercial-street, Leeds.
{Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glascow.
{Smelt, Rev. Maurice Allen, M.A., F.R.A.S. Heath Lodge, Chel-
tenham.
§Smethurst, Charles. Palace House, Harpurhey, Manchester.
{Smieton, James. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
{Smieton, John G. 38 Polworth-road, Coventry Park, Streatham,
London, S.W.
tSmieton, Thomas A. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 91

Year of
Election.

1892.
1892.
1872.
1874.

1887.
1873.
1887.
1889.

1865.
1886.
1886.
1886.
1886.
1892.
1866.
1887.
1892.
1885.
1860.

1870.
1889.

1888.
1885.

1876

1883

1837.
1885.

1870.
1866.

1878

1867.

1867
1859

1894

1884.
1892.
1885.
1887.
1852.
1875.
1876.
1883.

1883.
1883.

{Surrx, Apam Gutties, F.R.S.E. 35 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edin-
burgh.

{Smith, ‘Alewarder, B.Se., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Chicago,
Illinois, U.S.A.

*Smith, Basil Woodd, F.R.A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead
Heath, London, N.W.

*Smith, Benjamin Leigh, F.R.G.S. Oxford and Cambridge Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.

{Smith, Bryce. Rye Bank, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.

{Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.

*Smith, Charles. 739 Rochdale-road, Manchester.

*Smith, Professor C. Michie, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., FR.A.S. The Ob-
servatory, Madras.

{Saarn, Davin, F.R.A.S. 40 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

{Smith, Edwin. 33 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Smith, Mrs. Emma. Hencotes House, Hexham.

{Smith, E. Fisker, J.P. The Priory, Dudley.

{Smith, E.O. Council House, Birmingham.

{Smith, E. Wythe. 66 College-street, Chelsea, London, S.W.

*Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.

§Smirn, Rev. F. J., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Oxford.

{Smith, Rev. Frederick. 16 Grafton-street, Glasgow.

{Smith, Rev. G. A., M.A. 21 Sardinia-terrace, Glasgow.

*Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 18 Harley-street, Cavendish-square,
London, W.

{Smith, H. L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire.

*Smith, H. Llewellyn, B.A., B.Sc., F.S.S. 49 Beaumont-square,
London, E.

t{Smith, H. W. Owens College, Manchester.

{Smith, Rev. James, B.D. Manse of Newhills, N.B.

*Smith, J. Guthrie. 54 West Nile-street, Glasgow.

Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, Coalport, Iron Bridge,

Shropshire.

{Smith, M. Holroyd. Royal Insurance Buildings, Crossley-street,
Halifax.

Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.

{Sairn, Rosert H., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in the
Mason Science College, Birmingham.

{Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.

{Smith, Samuel. 33 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, E.C.

{Smith, Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.

{Smith, Thomas. Dundee.

{Smith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.

{Smith, Thomas James, F.G.S., F.C.S. Hornsea Burton, East York-
shire.

§Smith, T. Walrond. 137 Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W.

tSmith, Vernon. 127 Metcalfe-street, Ottawa, Canada.

{Smith, Walter A. 120 Princes-street, Edinburgh.

*Smith, Watson. University College, London, W.C.

{Smirx, Dr. WitprRroRcE. 14 Stratford-place, London, W.

{Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow.

*Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton Downs, Bristol.

{Smith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

{Smirnetrts, ARTHUR, B.Sec., Professor of Chemistry in the York-
shire College, Leeds.

tSmithson, Edward Walter. 13 Lendal, York.

{Smithson, Mrs. 13 Lendal, York.

92

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of .
Election.

1892.

§Smithson, G. E.T, Tyneside Geographical Society, Barras Bridge,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1882.§§Smithson, T. Spencer. Facit, Rochdale.

1874.
1850.
1885.
1874.
1857.

1888.
1888.
1887.

1878.
1889.
1879.

1892.

1859.
1879.
1892.
1888.
1886.

1865.
1859.
1887.
1883.

1890,
1863.
18938.
1889.
1887,
1884.
1889.
1891.
1863.

1864,

{Smoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.

*SmyTH, Cuarwes Prazzi, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. Clova, Ripon.

{Smyth, Rev. Christopher. Firwood, Chalford, Stroud.

tSmyth, Henry. LHastern Villa, Newcastle, Co. Down, Ireland.

*Smyra, Jonny, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.M.S., M.Inst.C.E.I. Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.

*Snare, H. Luoyp, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University Colleze, Aberystwith.

{Snell, Albion I’. Brightside, Salusbury-road, Brondesbury, London,
N.W

tSnell, Rev. Bernard J., M.A. 5 Park-place, Broughton, Man-
chester.

§Snell, H. Saxon. 22 Southampton-buildings, London, W.C.

tSnell, W. H. Lamorna, Oxford-road, Putney, 8. W.

*Sotnas, W. J., M.A., D.Sc. F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor
of Geology in the University of Dublin. Trinity College,
and Lisnabin, Dartry Park-road, Rathgar, Dublin.

*Somervail, Alexander. Torquay.

Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell.

*Sorpy, H. Crirron, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.G.S. Broomfield, Sheffield.

*Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Runmoor, Sheffield.

{Sorley, James, F.R.S.E. 18 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh.

tSorley, Professor W. R. University College, Cardiff.

fSouthall, Alfred. Carrick House, Richmond Hill-road, Birming-
ham.

*Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.

{Southall, Norman. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C.

§Sowerbutts, Eli, F.R.G.S. 44 Brown-street, Manchester.

{Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley,
Staffordshire.

{Spark, F. R. 29 Hyde-terrace, Leeds.

*Spark, H. King, F.G.S. Startforth House, Barnard Castle.

*Speak, John, Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston,

{Spence, Faraday. 67 Grey-street, Hexham.

{Spencer, F. M. Fernhill, Knutsford.

§Spencer, John, M.Inst.M.E. Globe Tube Works, Wednesbury.

*Spencer, John. Newburn, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Spencer, Richard Evans. 6 Working-street, Cardiff.

“Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co.
Durham.

“Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen Park, High-
bury, London, N.

1894.§§Spiers, A. H. Newton College, South Devon.

1864

1854,
1883.
1888.
1884,

. “SPILLER, JOHN, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N.
1878.
1864.

§Spottiswoode, George Andrew. 3 Cadogan-square, London, 8, W.
*Spottiswoode, W. Hugh, F.C.S. 41 Grosvenor-place, London,
S.W

*SpracuE, THomas Bonn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 26 St. Andrew-
square, Edinburgh.

{Spratling, W. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. Maythorpe, 74 Wickham-road,
Brockley, S.E.

{Spreat, John Henry. Care of Messrs. Vines & Froom, 75 Alders-
gate-street, London, E.C.

*Spruce, Samuel, F.G.S. Beech House, Tamworth.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 93

Year of

Hlection.

1877. {Sevarr, Witr1AM, F.R.C.S., F.R.G.S. 4 Portland-square, Plymouth.

*Squire, Lovell. 5 Munster-terrace, Fulham, London, 8.W.
1888. *Stacy, J. Sargeant. 7 and 8 Paternoster-row, London, E.C.
1884. {Stancoffe, Frederick. Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.
1892. {Stanfield, Richard, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., Professor of En-
gineering in the Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh. 49 May-
field-road, Edinburgh.
1883. *Stanford, Edward, jun., ¥.R.G.S. Thornbury, Bromley, Kent.
1865. {Sranrorp, Epwarp C.C., F.C.S. Glenwood, Dalmuir, N.B.
1881. *Stanley, William Ford, F.G.S. Cumberlow, South Norwood,
Surrey, S.E.
1883. {Stanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, Surrey, S.E.
1894, §Stansfield, Alfred. Royal Mint, London, E.
1893. {Staples, Sir Nathaniel, Bart. Lisson, Cookstown, Ireland.
Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.

1883. {Stapley, Alfred M. Marion-terrace, Crewe.

1876. {Starling, John Henry, F.C.S. 8 Victoria-road, Old Charlton, Kent.
Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.

1894.§§Stavert, Rev. W. J., M.A., F.C.S. Burnsall Rectory, Skipton-in-
Craven, Yorkshire.

1873. *Stead, Charles. Red Barn, Freshfield, Liverpool.

1881. {Stead, W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, London, E.

1881. {Stead, Mrs. W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, London, E.

1884. {Stearns, Sergeant P. U.S. Consul-General, Montreal, Canada,

1892. *Sreppine, Rev. Toomas R. R., M.A. Ephraim Lodge, The Common,
Tunbridge Wells.

1891. {Steeds, A. P. 15 St. Helen’s-road, Swansea.

1878. {Steinthal,G. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire,

1887. {Steinthal, Rev. 8. Alfred. 81 Nelson-street, Manchester.

1887. {Stelfox, John L. 6 Hilton-street, Oldham, Manchester.

1884. {Stephen, George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884, {Stephen, Mrs. George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada,

1884, *Stephens, W. Hudson. Lowville, Lewis County, State of New York,
U.S.A.

1879. *SrepuEnson, Sir Henry, J.P. The Glen, Sheffield.

1870. *Stevens, Miss Anna Maria. 23 Elm Grove-terrace, London-road,
Salisbury.

1880. *Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. Le Mayals, near Swansea.

1886. {Stevens, Marshall. Highfield House, Urmston, near Manchester.

1892. {Stevenson, D. A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 84 George-street,
Edinburgh.

1863. *Srnvenson, JAmus C., F.C.S. Westoe, South Shields,

1889. {Stevenson, T. Shannon. Westoe, South Shields,

1890. *Steward, Rey. Charles J., F.R.M.S. Somerleyton Rectory, Lowes-
toft.

1885. *Stewart, Rev. Alexander, M.D., LL.D. Heathcot, Aberdeen.

1887. *Stewart, A. H. St. Thomas’s Hospital, London, S.E.

1892. {Stewart, C. Hunter. 3 Carlton-terrace, Edinburgh.

1864, {Srewart, Cartes, M.A., F.L.S. St. Thomas’s Hospital, London,
S.E

1885. {Stewart, David. Banchory House, Aberdeen.

1886. *Stewart, Duncan. 12 Montgomerie-crescent, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

1887. {Stewart, George N. Physiological Laboratory, Owens College, Man-
chester.

1875. *Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, near
Clifton, Gloucestershire.

1892.§§Stewart, Samuel. Knocknairn, Bagston, Greenock,

94

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1876.
1867.
1876.

1867.
1865.
1890.
1883.

1845.

1887.
1862.

1886.
1886.
1874.

1888.
1876.

1883.
1857.

1895,
1895.
1878.
1861.

1876.
1883.
1887.
1887.
1873.

1884.
1888.
1874.
1871.

1881.

1876.
1865.
1889.
1882.
1881.

1889.
1879.

1884.
1859.

{Stewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s-road, Glasgow,

{Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.

tSrretine, Witt1aM, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the Owens College, Manchester.

*Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. Stamford-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Stock, Joseph 8. St. Mildred’s, Walmer.

{Stockdale, R. The Grammar School, Leeds.

*Srooker, W. N., M.A., Professor of Physics in the Royal Indian
Engineering College. Cooper’s Hill, Staines.

*Sroxgs, Sir Guorce GABRIEL, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc,
F.R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Cambridge. Lensfield Cottage, Cambridge.

{Stone, E. D., F.C.S. 19 Lever-street, Piccadilly, Manchester.

{Sronz, Epwarp James, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of
the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.

{Stone, J. B. The Grange, Erdington, Birmingham.

{Stone, J. H. Grosvenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham,

{Stone, J. Harris, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. 3 Dr. Johnson’s-buildings,
Temple, London, E.C.

{Stonz, Joun. 15 Royal-crescent, Bath.

tStone, Octavius C., F.R.G.S. 49 Bolsover-street, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.

tStone, Thomas William, 189 Goldhawk-road, Shepherd’s Bush,
London, W.

{Sronry, Brypon B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., M.R.LA., Engineer
of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin.

*Stoney, Miss Edith A. 8 Upper Hornsey Rise, London, N.

*Stoney, F.G.M., M.Inst.C.E, Tumbricane, Ipswich.

*Stoney, G. Gerald. 90 Meldon-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Srongy, Grorce Jounsrony, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., MARIA. 8
Upper Hornsey Rise, London, N.

§Stopes, Henry, F.G.S. 31 Torrington-square, London, W.C,

{Stopes, Mrs. 31 Torrington-square, London, W.C.

{Storer, Edwin. Woodlands, Crumpsall, Manchester.

*Storey, H. L. Caton, near Lancaster.

§Storr, William. The ‘Times’ Office, Printing-house-square, Lon-
don, E.C.

§Storrs, George H. Gorse Hall, Stalybridge.

*Stothert, Percy K. Audley, Park-gardens, Bath.

{Stott, William. Scar Bottom, Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.

*Srracuey, Lieut.-General Ricuarp, R.E., C.S.1., LL.D., F.BS.,
F.R.G.S., F.L.S., F.G.8. 69 Lancaster-gate, Hyde Park, Lon-
don, W.

{Strahan, Aubrey, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-
street, London, S.W.

tStrain, John. 143 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

{Straker, John. Wellington House, Durham.

{Straker, Captain Joseph. Dilston House, Riding Mill-on-Tyne.

{Strange, Rey. Cresswell, M.A. Edgbaston Vicarage, Birmingham.

{Strangways, C. Fox, F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, S.W.

§Streatfeild, H.S., F.G.S. The Limes, Leigham Court-road, Streat-
ham, 8.W.

*Strickland, Charles. 21 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.

{Strickland, Sir Charles W., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton.

{Stringham, Irving. The University, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.

{Stronach, William, R.E. Ardmellie, Banff.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 95

Year of
Election.

1883.
1887.

1887.
1876.

1878.
1876.
1872.

1892.
1884.
1898.
1888.
1885.
1879.
1891.

1884.
1887.
1888.
1885.
18738.
1863.
1886.

§Strong, Henry J., M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing.

*Stroud; Professor H., M.A., D.Sc. College of Science, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.

*Srroup, Wixt11AM, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Yorkshire Col-
lege, Leeds.

*StruTHERS, JoHn, M.D., LL.D., Emeritus Professor of Anatomy in
ee Ne of Aberdeen. 24 Buckingham-terrace, Edin-

urgh,

{Strype, W.G. Wicklow.

*Stuart, Charles Maddock. St. Dunstan’s College, Catford, S.E.

*Stuart, Rey. Edward A.,M.A. St. Matthew, Bayswater, 5 Prince’s-
square, London, W.

tStuart, Morton Gray, M.A. Ettrickbank, Selkirk.

{Stuart, Dr. W. Theophilus. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

{Stubbs, Arthur G. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

*Stubbs, Rev. Elias T., M.A. 4 Springfield-place, Bath.

§Stump, Edward C. 16 Herbert-street, Moss Side, Manchester.

*Styring, Robert. 64 Crescent-road, Sheffield.

*Sudborough, J. J., Ph.D., B.Sc. 9 Park-grove, Wordsworth-road,
Birmingham.

tSumner, George. 107 Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.

f{Sumpner, W. K. 57 Pennyfields, Poplar, London, E,

tSunderland, John KE. Bark House, Hatherlow, Stockport.

Sutcliffe, J. S., J.P. Beech House, Bacup.

{Sutcliffe, Robert. Imdle, near Leeds.

{Sutherland, Benjamin John. Thurso House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tSutherland, Hugh. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. a

1892.§§Sutherland, James B. 10 Windsor-street, Edinburgh.
1884. {Sutherland, J.C. Richmond, Quebec, Canada.

1863.
1889.
1891.

1881.
1876.

tSurron, Francis, F.C.S.. Bank Plain, Norwich.

{Sutton, William. Esbank, Jesmond, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

{Swainson, George, F.L.S. North Drive, St. Anne’s-on-Sea, Lan-
cashire.

tSwales, William. Ashville, Holgate Hill, York.

tSwan, David, jun. Braeside, Maryhill, Glasgow.

1881.§§Swan, JosprH Witson, M.A., F.R.S, Lauriston, Bromley, Kent.

1879.
1888.
1887.
1870.
1885.
1887.

1890.
1891.
1889.

1878.

1887.
1895.

1890.

1887.

1893.

{Swanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield.

jSweeting, Rey. T. E. 50 Roe-lane, Southport.

§Swinpurne, Jams. 4 Hatherley-road, Kew Gardens, London.
*Swinburne, Sir John, Bart. Capheaton, Neweastle-upon-Tyne,

{Swindells, Miss. Springfield House, Ilkley, Yorkshire.

*Swindells, Rupert, F.R.G.S. Wilton Villa, The Firs, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

§SwiyHor, Colonel C. Avenue House, Oxford.

{Swinnerton, R. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Bolarum, Dekkan, India.

§Sworn, Sidney A., B.A., F.C.S. The Municipal Technical School,
Gravesend.

{Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. St. John’s House, Cleckheaton.

*Sykes, George H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Glencoe, Elmbourne-
road, Tooting Common, London, S. W.

§Sykes, E. R. 9 Belvidere, Weymouth.

{Sykes, Joseph. 113 Beeston-hill, Leeds,

*Sylkes, T. H. Cringle House, Cheadle, Cheshire.

SYLVESTER, JAMES JosEPH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Savilian
Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford. Athe-
num Club, London, 8. W.

{Symes, Rey. J. E.,M.A. 70 Redcliffe-crescent, Nottingham,

96

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1870.
1885.
1881.
1859.

1855.
1886.

1872.

1865.
IWS
1871.

1867.

{Symes, Ricwarp Guascorr, M.A., F.G.S., Geological Survey of
Scotland. Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh. »

tSymington, Johnson, M.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.

*Symington, Thomas. Wardie House, Edinburgh.

§Symons, G. J., F.R.S., Sec.R.Met.Soc. 62 Camden-square, London,
N.W.

*Symons, WittiAM, F.C.S. Dragon House, Bilbrook, near Taunton.

§Symons, W. H., M.D. (Brux.), M.R.C.P., F.1.C. 53 Dynham-road,
West Hampstead, London, N.W.

{Synge, Major-General Millington, R.E., F.R.GS. United Service
Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.

tTailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, N.B.

*Tart, Lawson, F.R.C.S. The Crescent, Birmingham.

{Tart, PerrrR Gururig, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh. George-square, Edinburgh.

{Tait, P. M., F.S.S. 37 Charlotte-street, Portland-place, Lon-
don, W.

1894.§§Takakusu, Jyun, B.A. 17 Worcester-terrace, Oxford.

1890.
1895,

1891.
1891.
1890.

1892.
1883.

1878.
1861.
1857.
1893.

1890.
1858.
1884,

1887.
1874.
1887.

1881.
1884.
1882.
1887.
1861.

1881.
1865.
1876,
1884,
1881.
1883.
1870.

TTalbot, Rev. E.S. The Vicarage, Leeds.
{Talbot, Herbert, M.IL.E.E. 19 Addison-villas, Addison-street, Not-
tingham.
{Tamblyn, James. Glan Llynvi, Maesteg, Bridgend.
{Tanner, Colonel H. C. B., F.R.G.S. Fiésole, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
{Tanner, H. W. Luoyn, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Astro-
nomy in University College, Cardiff.
*Tansley, Arthur G. 167 Adelaide-road, London, N.W.
*Tapscott, R. Lethbridge, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Woodlands Park, Altrincham, Cheshire.
{Tarpry, Hvuex. Dublin.
*Tarratt, Henry W. 25 Manchester-square Mansions, W.
*Tate, Alexander. Rantalard, Whitehouse, Belfast.
tTate, George, Ph.D., F.C.S. College of Chemistry, Duke-street,
Liverpool.
{Tate, Thomas, F.G.S. 5 Eldon-mount, Woodhouse-lane, Leeds.
*Tatham, George, J.P. Springfield Mount, Leeds.
*Taylor, Rev. Charles, D.D. St. John’s Lodge, Cambridge.
Taylor, Frederick. Laurel Cottage, Rainhill, near Prescot, Lan-
cashire.
§Taylor, G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford.
tTaylor, G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.
tTaylor, George Spratt, F.C.S. 18 Queen’s-terrace, St. John’s
Wood, London, N.W.
*Taylor, H. A. 25 Collingham-road, South Kensington, 8.W.
*Taylor, H. M.,M.A. ‘Trinity College, Cambridge.
*Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. Oxford-street, Nottingham.
{Taytor, Rey. Canon Isaac, D.D, Settrington Rectory, York.
*Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. The Old Palace, Richmond,
Surrey.
*Taylor, John Francis. Holly Bank House, York.
tTaylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.
tTaylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glasgow.
*Taylor, Miss 8. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham.
tTaylor, Rey. 8. B., M.A. Whixley Hall, York.
tTaylor, S. Leigh. Birklands, Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport,
tTaylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 97

Year of
Election.

1887. {Taylor, Tom. Grove House, Sale, Manchester.

1883. {Taylor, William, M.D. 21 Crockherbtown, Cardiff.

1895. §Taylor, W. A., M.A., F.R.S.E. Royal Scottish Geographical
Society, Edinburgh.

1893.§§Taylor, W. F. Bhootan, Whitehorse Road, Croydon, Surrey.

1894, *Taylor, W. W. 10 King-street, Oxford.

1884. {Taylor-Whitehead, Samuel, J.P. Burton Closes, Bakewell.

1858, {Tuatz, THomas Prinain, M.A., F.R.S. 358 Cookridee-street, Leeds.

1885. {Tratt, J. J. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

1879. tTemple, Lieutenant G. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. The Nash, near Worcester.

1880, {Temerz, Sir Ricwarp, Bart., GCS, CLE. D.O.L., LL.D.,
E.R . Athenzeum Club, London, 8.W.

1863, {Tennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1889. {Tennant, James. Saltwell, Gateshead.

1894, §Terras, J. A., B.Sc. Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh.

1882. §Terrill, William. 42 St. George’s-terrace, Swansea.

1881. {Terry, Sir Joseph. Hawthorn Villa, York.

1892. *Tesla, Nikola. 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A.

1883. tTetley,C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

1883. {Tetley, Mrs. C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

1882, *Thane, George Dancer, Professor of Anatomy in University College,
Gower-street, London, W.C.

1885. {Thin, Dr. George, 22 Queen Anne-street, London, W.

1871. tThin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh.

1871, {T'a1secron-Dyzr, W. T., C.M.G.,C.LE., M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D,,F.R.S.,
FILS. Royal Gardens, Kew.

1870. {Thom, Robert Wilson. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.

1891, tThomas, Alfred, M.P. Pen-~y-lan, Cardiff.

1871. {Thomas, Ascanius William Nevill. Chudleigh, Devon.

1891, {Thomas, A. Garrod, M.D., J.P. Clytha Park, Newport, Mon-
mouthshire.

1891. *Thomas, Miss Clara. Llwynmadoc, Garth, R.S.O.

1891. {Thomas, Edward. 282 Bute-street, Cardiff.

1891. §Thomas, E. Franklin. Dan-y-Bryn, Radyr, near Cardiff.

1883, {Thomas, Ernest C., B.A. 13 South-square, Gray's Inn, London,
BAC:

1884, {THomas, F. Wotrerstan. Molson’s Bank, Montreal, Canada.
Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol.

1875. {Thomas, Herbert. Ivor House, Redland, Bristol.

1869. {Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.

1881. §THomas, J. Brount. Southampton,

1892. {Thomas, J. C., B.Sc. Queen Elizabeth's Grammar School, Car-
marthen.

1869. {Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. Custom House, London, E.C.

1891. {Thomas, John Tubb, L.R.C.P. Eastfields, Newport, Monmouth-
shire.

1880. *Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. Drumpellier, Brunswick-road,
Gloucester.

1883.§§Thomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Cardiff.

1883. {Thomas, William. Lan, Swansea.

1886. {Thomas, William. 109 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton.

1886. {Thomason, Yeoville. 9 Observatory-gardens, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.

1875, t{Thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.

1891. *Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S., F.G.S. 55 Victoria-road, Northampton.

1885. {Thompson, Miss C. EK. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.

1891. ¢{Thompson, Charles F. Penhill Close, near Cardiff.

1895. G

98 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1882. {Thompson, Charles O. Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.

1888, *Thompson, Claude M., M.A., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Cardiff. ;

1885. {Thompson, D’Arcy W., B,A., Professor of Zoology in University
College, Dundee. University College, Dundee.

1883. *Thompson, Francis. Lynton, Haling Park-road, Croydon.

1891. {Thompson, G. Carslake. Park-road, Penarth.

1859. {Thompson, George, jun. 5 Golden-square, Aberdeen.

1893. *Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.0.E., Madras. Care of Messrs. Grindlay
& Co., Parliament-street, London, S.W.

Thompson, Harry Stephen. Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, Yorkshire.

1870. {THompson, Sir Henry. 35 Wimpole-street, London, W.

1889. tThompson, Henry. 2 Eslington-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1883. *Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 86 Lower Addiscombe-road, Croydon.

Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairfield, near York.

1891. {Thompson, Herbert M. Whitley Batch, Llandaff.

1891. {Thompson, H. Wolcott. 9 Park-place, Cardiff.

1883. *Tuomrson, Isaac Cooxs, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. (Locan SEcRETARY.)
Woodstock, Waverley-road, Liverpool.

1891, tThompson, J. Tatham. 23 Charles-street, Cardiff.

1861. *Tnompson, JosEPH. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Manchester.

1876. *Thompson, Richard. Dringeote, The Mount, York.

1883. {Thompson, Richard. Bramley Mead, Whalley, Lancashire.

1876. {THompson, Srtvanus Puiwuips, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.AS..
Principal and Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds of
London Technical College, Finsbury, E.C.

1883. *Thompson, T. H. Redlynet House, Green Walk, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1867. {Thoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.

1894.§§Thomson, Arthur, M.D., Professor of Human Anatomy in the Uni-
versity of Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford.

1889..*Thomson, James, M.A. 22 Wentworth-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1868. §THomson, JAMES, F.G.S. 6 Stewart-street, Shawlands, Glasgow.

1876. tThomson, James R. Mount Blow, Dalmuir, Glasgow.

1891. ¢Thomson, John. 70a Grosvenor-street, London, W.

1890.§§Thomson, J. Arthur, M.A., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Zoology at the
School of Medicine, Edinburgh. 11 Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.

1883. {THomson, J. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Experimental
Physics in the University of Cambridge. 6 Scrope-terrace,
Cambridge.

1871. *THomson, Jon Mizar, F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in King’s
College, London. 53 Prince’s-square, London, W.

1874. §Tuomson, Wiiu1aM, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Man-
chester.

1880. §Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens.

1871. {Thornburn, Rey. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.

1886.§§Thornley, J. E. Lyndon, Bickenhill, near Birmingham.

1887. tThornton, John. 3 Park-street, Bolton.

1867. {Thornton, Sir Thomas. Dundee.

1883. §Thorowgood, Samuel. Castle-square, Brighton.

1845, {Thorp, Dr. Disney. Lypiatt Lodge, Suffolk Lawn, Cheltenham.

1881. {Thorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.

1871. ¢Thorp, Henry. Briarleigh, Sale, near Manchester.

1881. *Thorp, Josiah. Undercliffe, Holmfirth.

1864, *T'norP, WintraM, B.Sc., F.C.S. 24 Crouch Hall-road, Crouch End,
London, N.

1871. ¢{THorpsz, T. E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.0.S., Principal
of the Government Laboratories, Somerset House, London, W.C.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 99

Year of

lection.
1883.

1868.

1889.
1870.

1873.
1874.

1875.
1885.
1883.
1865.
1876,
1891.
1889.
1887
1857.

1888,

1864,
1887.

1887.

1865.

1865.
1873.

1887.
1886.
1875.

1886.
1884,
1884.

1873.
1875.
1861.

1877.

1876.

1883.
1870.

1875.
1868,

1891.

1884.

1868.
1891.

§Threlfall, Henry Singleton. 12 London-street, Southport.

{Tuvureuer, General Sir H. E. L., R.A., O.S.1, F.R.S., F.R.GS.
Tudor House, Richmond Green, Surrey.

{Thys, Captain Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels.

{Tichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.0.S., M.R.LA. A pothecaries’
Hall of Ireland, Dublin.

*Trppeman, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London,
S. W,

{Tmpen, Wittram A., D.Sc., F.RS., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry
in the Royal College of Science, South Kensington, London,
WwW

{Tilghman, B. C. Philadelphia, U.S.A.

{Tillyard, A.I.,M.A. Fordfield, Cambridge.

{Tillyard, Mrs. Fordfield, Cambridge.

{Timmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A. Hill Cottage, Fillongley, Coventry.

{Todd, Rev. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, London, S.E.

§Todd, Richard Rees, Portuguese Consulate, Cardiff,

§Toll, John M. Carlton House, Kirkby, near Liverpool.

{Tolmé, Mrs. Melrose House, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

{Tombe, Rey. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.

{Tomkins, Rev. Henry George. Park Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

*Tomurnson, Cartes, F.R.S., F.CS. 7 N orth-road, Highgate,
London, N.

fTonge, Rev. Canon. Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.

tTonge, James. Woodbine House, West Houghton, Bolton.

tTonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwick-
shire,

*Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield.

*Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal School of Mines, Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W.

{Topham, F. 15 Great George-street, London, 8. W.

{Topley, Mrs. W. 13 Havelock-road, Croydon.

{Torr, Charles Hawley. St. Alban’s Tower, Mansfield-road, Sher-
wood, Nottingham.

{Torr, Charles Walker. Oambridge-street Works, Birmingham,

{Torrance, John F. Folly Lake, Nova Scctia, Canada.

*Torrance, Rev. Robert, D.D. Guelph, Ontario, Canada,

Towgood, Edward. St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire.

{Townend, W. H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tTownsend, Charles. St. Mary’s, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

{Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.

{Tozer, Henry. Ashburton.

“Trait, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.RS., F.L.S., Regius Professor of
Botany in the University of Aberdeen.

fTRarit, A., M.D., LL.D. Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland.

tTraitt, WirramM A. Giant's Causeway Electric Tramway,
Portrush, Ireland.

tTrapnell, Caleb. Severnleigh, Stoke Bishop.

{TRagvarr, Ramsay H., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the
Natural History Collections, Museum of Science and Art,
Edinburgh.

pee Valentine. Maindell Hall, near Newport, Monmouth-
shire,

{Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S. Hartlepool.

{Trehane, John, Exe View Lawn, Exeter.

{Treharne, J. Ll. 92 Newport-road, Cardiff.

Trench, F. A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.

100 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887. *Trench-Gascoigne, Mrs. F. R. Parlington, Aberford, Leeds.

1883. {Trendell, Edwin James,J.P. Abbey House, Abingdon, Berks.

1884. {Trenham, Norman W. 18 St. Alexis-street, Montreal, Canada.

Behe Lee yr C. M. 44 West Oneida-street, Oswego, New York,
A

1879. {Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield.

1877. {TRmmen, Henry, M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Peradeniya, Ceylon.

1871. {TRimen, Roranp, F.RS., F.L.S., F.Z.S.

1860. §Tristram, Rev. Huyry Baxer, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Canon of
Durham. The College, Durham.

1884, *Trotter, Alexander Pelham. 22 Cottesmore-gardens, Victoria-road,
Kensington, London, W.

1885. §TROTTER, “ais F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 17 Charlotte-square, Edin-
burgh.

1891. {Trounce, W. J. 67 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1887. *Trouton Frederick T., M.A.., D.Se., Trinity College, Dublin.

1869. {Troyte,C. A. W. Huntsham Court, Bampton, Devon.

1885. *Tubby, A. H. 6 Versailles Road, Anerley, London, 8.E.

1847. *Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristol.

1888. {Tuckett, William Fothergill, M.D. 18 Daniel-street, Bath.

Tuke, James H. Bancroft, Hitchin.

1871. {Tuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire.

1887. {Tuke, W.C. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.

1883. {Tuprer, The Hon. Sir Cuares, Bart., G.C.M.G., C.B., High Com--
missioner for Canada. 9 Victoria-~chambers, London, 8. W.

1892. {Turnbull, Alexander R. Ormiston House, Hawick.

1855. ¢{Turnbull, John. 37 West George-street, Glasgow.

1893. §Turner, Dawson, M.B. 37 George-square, Edinburgh.

1891. ¢Turner, Miss E. R. Ipswich.

1882. {Turner, G.S. Pitcombe, Winchester-road, Southampton.

1883. {Turner, Mrs. G.S. Pitcombe, Winchester-road, Southampton.

1894. *Turnur, H. H., M.A., B.Sc., Sec. R.A.S., Professor of Astronomy
in the University of Oxford. The Observatory, Oxford.

1888. {Turner, J. 8., J.P. Granville, Lansdowne, Bath.

1886. *TurnerR, Tuomas, A.R.S.M., F.C.S., F.C. County Offices,
Stafford.

1863. *Turner, Sir Witt1aM, M.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Pro-
fessor of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-
terrace, Edinburgh.

1893. {Turney, Sir Jonny, J.P. Alexandra Park, Nottingham.

1890. *Turpin, G. S., M.A., D.Sc. 2 St. James’s-terrace, Nottingham.

1883. {Turrell, Miss S. S. High School, Redland-grove, Bristol.

1884. *Tutin, Thomas. The Orchard, Chellaston, Derby.

1886, *Twigg,G.H. 56 Claremont Road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

1888. §Tyack, Llewellyn Newton. University College, Bristol.

1882. es baa la Horneck, 16 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, Hampstead, London,
D

1865. §TyLor, Epwarp Burvyerr, D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of

Anthropology, and Keeper of the Museum, Oxford University.
1883. {Tyrer, Thomas, F.C.S. Garden-wharf, Battersea, London, S.W.
1861. *Tysoe, John, Heald-road, Bowdon, near Manchester.

1884. *Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.

1888. tUnderhill, H. M. 7 High-street, Oxford.

1886. {Underhill, Thomas, M.D. West Bromwich.

1885. §Unwin, Howard. Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick, London.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 101

Year of

lection.

1883. §Unwin, John. Fastcliffe Lodge, Southport.

1883.§§Unwin, William Andrews. The Briars, Freshfield, near Liver-

1876

1887
1872
1876
1859

pool,
. “Unwin, W. C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering at

the Central Institution of the City and Guilds of London In-
stitute. 7 Palace-gate Mansions, Kensington, London, W.

. {Upton, Francis R. Orange, New Jersey, U.S.A.

. [Upward, Alfred. 150 Holland-road, London, W.

. {Ure, John F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

. {Urquhart, W. Pollard. Craigston Castle, N.B.; and Castlepollard,

Treland.

1866. {Urquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
1880. {Ussuer, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.

1885.

{Vachell, Charles Tanfield, M.D. 38 Charles-street, Cardiff.

1887. *Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.

1888.
1884.

1883.

1886.
1868.

1865.
1870.
1869.
1884.
1887.
1875.
1883.
1895.
1881.
1873.

1883.
18838.
1864.
1890,

1868.
1883.

1891.

1886.
1860.
1890.

1888.
1890.
1891.
1884,

‘1886.

ftVallentin, Rupert. 18 Kimberley-road, Falmouth.

tVan Horne, Sir W. C., K.C.M.G. Dorchester-street West, Montreal,
Canada.

*Vansittart, ‘I'he Hon. Mrs. A. A. Haywood House, Oaklands-road,
Bromley, Kent.

{Varpy, Rev. A. R., M.A. King Edward’s School, Birmingham.

{Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newington, London, N.

*VARLEY, S, ALFRED. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.

{Varley, Mrs. S. A. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.

{Varwell, P. Alphington-street, Exeter.’

tVasey, Charles. 112 Cambridge-gardens, London, W.

“VaucHaNn, His Eminence Cardinal. Carlisle-place, Westminster.

{Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.

{Vaughan, William. 42 Sussex-road, Southport.

§Vaughan, D. T. Gwynne. Howry Hall, Llandrindod, Radnorshire.

§Vetzy, V. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.0.S. 22 Norham-road, Oxford.

*VERNEY, Sir Epmunp H., Bart., F.R.G.S. Claydon House, Winslow,
Bucks.

“Verney, Lady. Claydon House, Winslow, Bucks.

{Vernon, H.H.,M.D. York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

*Vicary, Witi1aM, F.G.S. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.

*Villamil, Major R. de, R.E. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co., 16 Char-
ing Cross, London, 8. W.

{Vincent, Rev. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.

“Vines, Sypnny Howarp, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
Botany in the University of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.

}Vivian Stephen. Llantrisant.

*Wackrill, Samuel Thomas, J.P. Leamington.

{Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire.

{Wadsworth, George Henry. 3 Southfield-square, Bradford, York-
shire,

{Wadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Hereford.

§WacErR, Harorp W.T. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

tWailes, T. W. 23 Richmond-road, Cardiff.

f Wait, Charles E., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Ten-
nessee. Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A.

t Waite, J. W. The Cedars, Bestcot, Walsall.

102 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1870. {| Waxes, CHartes Stanrianp. Welton, near Brough, East York-
shire.

1892. {Walcot, John. 50 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.

1884. {Waldstein, C., M.A., Ph.D. Slade Professor of Fine Art in the
University of Cambridge.

1891. {Wales, H. T. Pontypridd.

1891. { Walford, Edward, M.D. Thanet House, Cathedral-road, Cardiff.

1894. § Watrorp, Epwin A., F.G.S. West Bar, Banbury.

1882. *Walkden, Samuel. Downside, Whitchurch, Tavistock.

1893. § Walker, Alfred O., F.L.S. Nant-y-Glyn, Colwyn Bay.

1890.§§ Walker, A. Tannett. Hunslet, Leeds.

1885. {Walker, Mr. Baillie. 52 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.

1885. {Walker, 0. C.,F.R.A.S. Lillieshall Old Hall, Newport, Shropshire.

1883. §Walker, Mrs. Emma. 13 Lendal, York.

1883. {Walker, E. R. Pagefield Ironworks, Wigan.

1891.§§ Walker, Frederick W. Hunslet, Leeds.

1883. {Walker, George. 11 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead, Liverpool.

1894. *Watxzr, G. T., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1866. { Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.

1890. {Walker, Dr. James. 8 Windsor-terrace, Dundee.

1894. *Walker, James, M.A. 30 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

1885. {Wartker, General J. T., C.B., R.E., LL.D., F.RS., F.R.G.S,
13 Cromwell-road, London, S.W.

1866. *Watxer, Jouw Francis, M.A., F.C.8., F.G.S., F.L.S. 45 Bootham,
York.

1855. {Warker, Joun Jamus, M.A., F.RS. 12 Denning-road, Hamp-
stead, London, N.W.

1867. *Walker, Peter G. 2 Airlie-place, Dundee.

1886. *Walker, Major Philip Billingsley. Sydney, New South Wales.

1866. { Walker, S. D. 388 Hampden-street, Nottingham.

1884. {Walker, Samuel. Woodbury, Sydenham Hill, London, S.E.

1888. {Walker, Sydney F. 195 Severn-road, Cardiff.

1887. {Walker, T. A. 15 Great George-street, London, S.W.

1883. {Walker, Thomas A. 66 Leyland-road, Southport.

Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.

1881, *Walker, William, F.G.S. 14 Bootham-terrace, York.

1895. §Watxer, W.G., A.M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, London, S.W..

1883, {Wall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.

1863. {Wattacn, Atrrep Russet, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Corfe
View, Parkstone, Dorset.

1892, { Wallace, Robert W. 14 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.

1887. *Watter, Aveustus, M.D.,F.R.S. Weston Lodge, 16 Grove End-
road, London, N.W.

1889. *Wallis, Arnold J.,M.A. 5 Belvoir-terrace, Cambridge.

1895. §Wattis, E. Wurtz, F.S.S. Sanitary Institute, Parkes Museum,

Margaret-street, London, W.

1883. { Wallis, Rev. Frederick. Caius College, Cambridge.

1884, { Wallis, Herbert. Redpath-street, Montreal, Canada.

1886, {Wallis, Whitworth, F.S.A. Westfield, Westfield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

1883. {Walmesley, Oswald. Shevington Hall, near Wigan.

1894, *Walmisley, A. T., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, London, 8.W.

1887. {Walmsley, J. Monton Lodge, Eccles, Manchester.

1891, § Walmsley, Prof. R. M., D.Sc. Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh. |

1883. {Walmsley, T. M. COlevelands, Chorley-road, Heaton, Bolton.

1862. {Watpotz, The Right Hon. Spencer Horatio, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S. Ealing, Middlesex, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 103

Year of
Election.

1895. ee laa The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., F.R.S. Merton Hall,
Thetford.

1881. { Walton, Thomas, M.A. Oliver’s Mount School, Scarborough.

1863. {Wanklyn, James Alfred. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, 8.W,

1884, {Wanless, John, M.D. 88 Union-avenue, Montreal, Canada.

1887. { Ward, A. W., M.A., Litt.D., Principal of Owens College, Manchester.

1874.§§ Ward, F. D., J.P., M.R.I.A. Wyncroft, Adelaide Park, Belfast.

1881. § Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.

1879. Warp, H. Marswatt, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in
the Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill,
Egham.

1890. {Ward, Alderman John. Moor Allerton House, Leeds.

1874. § Ward, John, J.P., F.S.A. Lenoxvale, Belfast.

1887.§§ Warp, Joun, F.G.S. 23 Stafford-street, Longton, Staffordshire.

1857. {Ward, John 8. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.

1880. *Ward, J. Wesney. Red House, Ravensbourne Park, Catford, S.E.

1884, *Ward, John William. Newstead, Halifax.

1883. {Ward, Thomas, F.C.S. Arnold House, Blackpool.

1887. t{Ward, Thomas. Brookfield House, Northwich.

1882. {Ward, William. Cleveland Cottage, Hill-lane, Southampton.

1867. { Warden, Alexander J. 23 Panmure-street, Dundee.

1858. {Wardle, Thomas, F.G.S. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire.

1884.§§ Wardwell, George J. 31 Grove-street, Rutland, Vermont, U.S.A.

1887. *Waring, Richard 8. Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

1878. §Warineton, Rosert, F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Rural Economy
in the University of Oxford. High Bank, Harpenden, St.
Albans. Herts.

1882. { Warner, F. 1, F.L.S. 20 Hyde-street, Winchester.

1884, *Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.

1875. {Warren, Algernon. 6 Windsor-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

1887. {WarreEN, Major-General Sir Cuartes, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Athenzum Club, London, S.W.

1893. {Warwick, W. D. Balderton House, Newark-on-Trent.

1875. ee HOUR, Lieut.-Colonel J. 15 West Chislehurst Park, Eltham,

; ent,

1870. {Waters, A. T. H., M.D. 60 Bedford-street, Liverpool.

1892. {Waterston, James H. 37 Lutton-place, Edinburch.,

1875. {Watherston, Rev. Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. The Grammar
School, Hinckley, Leicestershire.

1881. §Watherston, HE. J. 12 Pall Mall East, London, 8. W.

1887. { Watkin, F. W. 46 Auriol-road, West Kensington, London, W.

1884. {Watson, A. G., D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex.

1886. *Watson, C. J. 34 Smallbrook-street, Birmingham.

1883. {Watson, C. Knight, M.A. Society of Antiquaries, Burlington House
London, W.

1892. §Watson,G. Athenzeum-buildings, Park-lane, Leeds.

1885, {Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. Hendre, Overton Park,
Cheltenham.

1882. {Wartson, Rev. H. W., D.Sc., F.R.S. Berkeswell Rectory, Coventry.

1887. { Watson, J. Beauchamp. Gilt Hall, Carlisle.

1884, {Watson, John. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.

1889. { Watson, John, F.I.C. 5 Loraine-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead.

1863. {Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.

1863, {Watson, R. Spence, LL.D., F.R.G.S. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.

1867. { Watson, oe Donald. 16 St. Mary’s-road, Bayswater, Lon-
don, W.

1892. § Watson, William, M.D. Slateford, Midlothian.

104 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1879. *Wazson, Wintiam Hevry, F.C.S., F.G.S. Braystones, Cumber-
land.

1894,.*Watson, W. 7 Upper Cheyne-walk, London, S.W.

1882. {Watt, Alexander. 89 Hartington-road, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

1884, t{Watt, D. A. P. 284 Upper Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.

1869. { Watt, Robert B. E., F.R.G.S. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.

1888. {Warts, B.H. 10 Rivers-street, Bath.

1891. *Watts, E. Hannay, F.R.G.S. Springfield, Newport, Monmouth-
shire,

1875. *Warts, Joun, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.

1884. *Watts, Rey. Robert R. Stourpaine Vicarage, Blandford.

1870.§§ Watts, William, F.G.S. Oldham Corporation Waterworks, Pie-
thorn, near Rochdale.

1873. *Warts, W. MarsHatt, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar School, near
Settle.

1883, *Warrs, W. W., M.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-
street, London, S.W.; and Corndon, Worcester-road, Sutton,
Surrey.

1891. { Waugh, James. Higher Grade School, 110 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1869. {Way, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.

1883. {Webb, George. 5 Tenterden-street, Bury, Lancashire.

1871. {Webb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.

1890. {Webb, Sidney. 4 Park-village East, London, N.W.

1866. *Wxss, WitttamM FREDERICK, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Newstead Abbey,
near Nottingham.

1886. §WerssER, Major-General C. E., O.B., M.Inst.C.E. 17 Egerton-
gardens, London, 8. W.

1891.§§ Webber, Thomas. Kensington Villa, 6 Salisbury-road, Cardiff.

1859. {Webster, John. Edgehill, Aberdeen.

1834. { Webster, Richard, F.R.A.S. 6 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C.
1882. *Webster, Sir Richard Everard, LL.D., Q.C., M.P. Hornton
Lodge, Hornton-street, Kensington, London, 8.W.

1889. * Webster, William, F.C.S. 50 Lee Park, Lee, Kent.

1884. *Wedekind, Dr. Ludwig, Professor of Mathematics at Karlsruhe.
Karlsruhe.

1889. {Weeks, John G. Bedlington.

1890. *Weiss, F. Ernest, B.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Owens
College, Manchester.

1886. {Weiss, Henry. Westbourne-road, Birmingham.

1865. {Welch, Christopher, M.A. United University Club, Pall Mall
East, London, 8. W.

1894, §Weld, Miss. Conal More, Norham Gardens, Oxford.

1876, *Wetpon, W. F. R., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Comparative Ana-
tomy and Zoology in University College, London. 3804 Wim-
pole-street, London, W.

1880. *Weldon, Mrs. 304 Wimpole-street, London, W.

188L SSR Henry S. First Avenue Hotel, Holborn, London,
W.C.

1879. §Wetts, CHartes A., A.IL.E.E. 219 High-street, Lewes.

1881. §Wells, Rev. Edward, B.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury.

1894.§§ Wells, J. G. Selwood House, Shobnall-street, Burton-on-Trent.

1883. {Welsh, Miss. Girton College, Cambridge.

1887. *Welton, T. A. 38 St. John’s-road, Brixton, London, 8. W.

1850. { Wemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D, St. Andrews, N.B.

1881. *Wenlock, The Right Hon. Lord. Escrick Park, Yorkshire.
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near

Barnsley, Yorkshire.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS. 105

of

Election.

1864. *Were, Anthony Berwick. Hensingham, Whitehaven, Cumberland.

1886

1865,

. §Wertheimer, Julius, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
the Merchant Venturers’ Technical College, Bristol.

{Wesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington
House, London, W.

1855. { West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.

1853. {West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.

1858. { West, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull.

1882. *Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S. Vale of Health, Hampstead, London, N.W.

1882.

tWestlake, Richard. Portswood, Southampton.

1882. {WeETHERED, Epwarp, F.G.S. 4 St. Margaret's-terrace, Chelten-

1884.
1885.

1888

ham.

tWharton, E. R., M.A. 4 Broad-street, Oxford.

*Wuarron, Admiral W. J. L., C.B., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.,
Hydrographer to the Admiralty. Florys, Prince’s-road, Wim-
bledon Park, Surrey.

. {Wheateroft, William G. 6 Widcombe-terrace, Bath.

1853. {Wheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.

1866,
1884.
1883.

1878,
1888,

1883.
1893.
1888,
1888.
1879.

1874.
1883.
1859,

1884,

1886,
1886.

1876.
1886.
1883.
1882.

1885,
1875.
1859,
1883.
1865.
1895,

1884,
1859.

}Wheatstone, Charles OC. 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W.

tWheeler, Claude L., M.D. 251 West 52nd-street, New York City,
U.S.A

*Wheeler, George Brash. Elm Lodge, Wickham-road, Beckenham,
Kent.

*Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Wyncote, Boston, Lincolnshire.

§Whelen, John Leman. Bank House, 16 Old Broad-street, London,
E.C

tWhelpton, Miss K. Newnham College, Cambridge.

*WuetHam, W.C.D.,M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.

*Whidborne, Miss Constance Mary. Charanté, Torquay.

*WaipporneE, Rey. Grorce Ferris, M.A., F.G.S8. St. George’s
Vicarage, Battersea Park-road, London, 8. W.

{Whitaker, Henry, M.D. Fortwilliam Terrace, Belfast.

*Whitaker, T. Savile Heath, Halifax.

*“Warraker, Wit11AM, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Geological Survey
Office, Jermyn-street, London, S.W.; and 383 East Park-
terrace, Southampton.

fWhitcher, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,
Canada.

tWhitcombe, E. B. Borough Asylum, Winson Green, Birmingham.

TWhite, Alderman, J.P. Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.

tWhite, Angus. Easdale, Argyllshire.

{White, A. Silva. 47 Clanricarde-gardens, London, W.

tWhite, Charles. 23 Alexandra-road, Southport.

tWhite, Rev. George Cecil, M.A. Nutshalling Rectory, South-
ampton,

*White, J. Martin. Balruddery, near Dundee.

TWhite, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.

t}Warre, Joun Forsus. 311 Union-street, Aberdeen.

{ White, John Reed. Rossall School, near Fleetwood.

tWhite, Joseph. Regent-street, Nottingham.

§ White, Philip J., M.B., Professor of Zoology in University College,
Bangor, North Wales.

tWhite, R. ‘Gazette’ Office, Montreal, Canada.

} White, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.

106

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1877.
1883.
1886.
1883.
1898.

1881.
1852.
1891.

1857.

1887.
1874.
1883.
1870.
1892.
1888.
1865.

1886.
1883.
1881,
1878.
1889.
1881.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1857.
1892.
1886.
1879.
1887.
1872.
1890.
1872.
1891.
1861.

1887.
1883.
1861.
1875.

1885.
1857.
1888,
1891.

1887.
1888.

1875.
1879.
1891.
1886.

*White, William. 66 Cambridge-gardens, Notting Hill, London, W.

*White, Mrs. 66 Cambridge-gardens, Notting Hill, London, W.

*White, William. The Ruskin Museum, Sheffield.

{ Whitehead, P. J. 6 Cross-street, Southport.

§Whiteley, R. Lloyd, F.C.S., F.LC. 20 Beeches-road, West
Bromwich.

t} Whitfield, John, F.C.S. 113 Westborough, Scarborough.

tWhitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.

§Whitmell, Charles Thomas, M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. 47 Park-place,
Cardiff.

*Waurrty, Rev. Jonn Irwine, M.A.,D.C.L., LL.D. 1 Rodbourne-
villas, Crescent-road, Ramsgate.

{Whitwell, William. Overdene, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.

*Whitwill, Mark. Lynthorpe, Tyndall’s Park, Bristol.

{Whitworth, James. 88 Portland-street, Southport.

tWhitworth, Rev. W. Allen, M.A. 7 Margaret-street, London, W.

§ Whyte, Peter, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Clifton-terrace, Edinburgh.

tWickham, Rev. F. D.C. Horsington Rectory, Bath.

{Wiggin, Sir Henry, Bart. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birming-
ham

tWigein, Henry A. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.

tWigglesworth, Mrs. Ingleside, West-street, Scarborough.

*Wigelesworth, Robert. Beckwith Knowle, near Harrogate.

tWigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin.

*Wilberforce, L. R., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

tWrtsErrorce, W. W. Fishergate, York.

tWild, George. Bardsley Colliery, Ashton-under-Lyne.

*Witpn, Henry, F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge, Manchester.

{Wilkinson, C. H. Slaithwaite, near Huddersfield.

TWilkinson, George. Temple Hill, Killiney, Co. Dublin.

{ Wilkinson, Rey. J. Frome. Barley Rectory, Royston, Herts.

*Wilkinson, J. H. Hamstead Hill, Handsworthy, Birmingham.

{ Wilkinson, Joseph. York.

*Wilkinson, Thomas Read. The Polygon, Ardwick, Manchester.

tWilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.

tWillans, J. W. Kirkstall, Leeds.

{Wrtert, Henry, F.G.S. Arnold House, Brighton.

{ Williams, Arthur J..M.P. Coedymwstwr, near Bridgend.

*Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 2 Upper Brook-street,
Grosyenor-square, London, W.

t Williams, Sir E. Leader, M.Inst.C.E. The Oaks, Altrincham.

*Williams, Edward Starbuck. Ty-ar-y-graig, Swansea.

*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 6 Heathfield, Swansea.

*Williams, Rev. Herbert Addams. Llangibby Rectory, near New-
port, Monmouthshire.

{ Williams, Rev. H. Alban, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

{ Williams, Rev. James. Llanfairinghornwy, Holyhead.

{Williams, James. Bladud Villa, Entryhill, Bath.

§Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. Midwood, Christchurch-road,
Bournemouth. ?

Williams, J. Francis, Ph.D. Salem, New York, U.S.A.

*Williams, Miss Katherine. Llandaff House, Pembroke Vale, Clifton,
Bristol.

*Williams, M. B. Killay House, near Swansea.

tWitu1AMs, Marrnew W., F.C.S. 26 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool.

t{Williams, Morgan. 5 Park-place, Cardiff.

{Williams, Richard, J.P. Brunswick House, Wednesbury.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 107

Year of
Election.

1883.
1883.
1888.
1877.
1883.
1850.

1857.

1876.
1863.

{ Williams, R. Price. North Brow, Primrose Hill, London, N.W.

{Williams, T. H. 21 Strand-street, Liverpool.

Williams, W. Cloud House, Stapleford, Nottinghamshire.

*Wittiams, W. Carzeton, F.C.S. Firth College, Sheffield.

{ Williamson, Miss. Sunnybank, Ripon, Yorkshire.

*WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.C.S., Corresponding Member of the French Academy. High
Pitfold, Haslemere.

tWittiamson, Benyamin, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Trinity College,
Dublin.

{ Williamson, Rey. F. J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.

{ Williamson, John. South Shields.

1895.§§ Witttnk, W. (Locat Secretary). Liverpool.

1882.
1859,

1886,

1895.

1886.
1885.
1878.

1876.
1894,

1874,

1876.
1890.
1863.
1847.

1875.

1874.
1863,
1895.
1883.
1879.
1885.
1886

1890,

1865.
1884,

1879.

{ Willmore, Charles. Queenwood College, near Stockbridge, Hants,

*Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred. Chelsea Lodge, Tite-street, London,
S.W.

{TWills, A. W. Wylde Green, Erdington, Birmingham.

§ Willis, John C., M.A., Senior Assistant in Botany in Glasgow
University. 8% Lawrence-place, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

tWilson, Alexander B. Holywood, Belfast.

TWilson, Alexander H. 2 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

} Wilson, Professor Alexander 8., M.A., B.Sc. Free Ciaurch Manse,
North Queensferry.

{Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh.

*Wilson, Charles J., F.I.C., F.C.S. 19 Little Queen-street, West-
minster, S. W.

tWiutson, Major-General Sir C. W., R.E., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L.,
E.R.S., F.R.G.S. The Athenzum Club, London, 8. W.

tWilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.

tWilson, Edmund. Denison Hall, Leeds.

t Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.

*Wilson, Frederick. 99 Albany-street, Regent’s-park, London,

N.W.

tWitson, GrorcE Ferevsson, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.L.S. Heatherbank,
Weybridge Heath, Surrey.

*Wilson, George Orr. Dunardagh, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

tT Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B.

§Wilson, Gregg. The University, Edinburgh.

*Wilson, Henry, M.A. Farnborough Lodge, R.S.O., Kent.

tWilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield.

Wilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

Wilson, J. E. B. Woodslee, Wimbledon, Surrey.

tWilson, J. Mitchell, M.D. 51 Hall Gate, Doncaster.

}Wutson, Ven. Jamus M., M.A., F.G.S. The Vicarage, Rochdale.

tWilson, James 8. Grant. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-
buildings, Edinburgh.

{Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield.

1894.§§Wilson, Rev. R. J., M.A., Warden of Keble College, Oxford.

1876.
1847.
1883.

Oxford.
tWilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, S.W.
*Wilson, Rey. Sumner, Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.
Wilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.

1892.§§ Wilson, T. Stacey, M.D. Wyddrington, Edgbaston, Birming-

1861.
1887,
1871.

ham,
tWilson, Thos. Bright. 4 Hope View, Fallowfield, Manchester.
§ Wilson, W., jun. Hillock, Terpersie, by Alford, Aberdeenshire.
“Wilson, William E, Daramona House, Streete, Rathowen, Ireland.

108 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

186]. *WitrsHirE, Rev. THomas, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., Pro-
fessor of Geology and Mineralogy in King’s College, London.
25 Granville-park, Lewisham, London, 8.E.
1877. {Windeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.
1886. {WinbDLE, Bprrram OC. A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., Professor of Ana-
tomy in Mason College, Birmingham.
1887. { Windsor, William Tessimond. Sandiway, Ashton-on-Mersey.
1893. *Winter, G. K., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.A.S. Arkonam, Madras, India.
1863. *Winwoop, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. 11 Cavendish-crescent,
Bath.
1894.§§ Witley, Arthur. 17 Acton-lane, Harlesden, London, N.W.
1888, ¢{Woprnovuss, E. R., M.P. 56 Chester-square, London, 8.W.
1883. {Wolfenden, Samuel. Cowley Hill, St. Helens, Lancashire.
1884, {Womack, Frederick, Lecturer on Physics and Applied Mathematics
at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. 68 Abbey-road, London, N.W.
1881. *Wood, Alfred John. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
1883. §Wood, Mrs. A. J. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
1863. *Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.
1861. *Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire.
1883. t Wood, Miss Emily F. Egerton Lodge, near Bolton, Lancashire.
1875. *Wood, George William Rayner. Memorial Hill, Albert-square,
Manchester.
1878. tWoop, Sir H. Trurwan, M.A. Society of Arts, John-street,
Adelphi, London, W.C.
1883, *Woop, Jamus, LL.D. Grove House, Scarisbrick-street, Southport.
1881. tWood, John, B.A. Wharfedale College, Boston Spa, York-
shire,
1883. *Wood, J. H. Hazelwood, 14 Lethbridge-road, Southport.
1886. { Wood, Rev. Joseph. Carpenter-road, birmingham.
1893. tWood, Joseph T, 29 Muster’s-road, West Bridgeford, Nottingham- -
shire.
1883. {Wood, Mrs. Mary. Care of E. P. Sherwood, Esq., Holmes Villa,
Rotherham.
1864, {Wood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.
1890. *Wood, Robert H., M.Inst.C.E. 15 Bainbrigge-road, Headingley,
Leeds.
1871. { Wood, Provost T. Baileyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh,
1850. t{Wood, Rev. Walter. Elie, Fife.
1872. ¢{Wood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.
1845, *Wood, Rev. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Higham, Rochester.
1863. *WoopaLtL, JoHN Woopatt, M.A., F.G.8. St. Nicholas House,
Scarborough,
1884. {Woodbury, C.J. H. 31 Milk-street, Boston, U.S.A.
1883. {Woodcock, Herbert S. The Elms, Wigan.
1884. {Woodcock, T., M.A. 150 Cromwell-road, London, S.W.
1884. t{Woodd, Arthur B. Woodlands, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1888. *Woodiwiss, Mrs. Alfred. Hulme House, Cheadle Hulme, near
Stockport.
1872. t{Woodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex.
*Woops, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Victoria-street, Westminster,

London, 8. W.
1883. {Woods, Dr. G. A., F.R.S.E., F.R.M.S. 16 Adelaide-street, Lea-
mington.

Woops, Samvust. 1 Drapers-gardens, Throgmorton-street, London,

1888. {Woodthorpe, Colonel. Messrs. King & Co., 45 Pall Mall, Lon-
don, 8. W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 109

Year of
Election.

1887.

1869.
1886.

1866.

1870.
1894.

1884,
1890,

1877.

1883.
1856.

1874.

1878.

1863.
1855.
1856.

1884,
“1879.

1883.
1883.
1890.
1857.

1886.
1884,
1876.
1865.
1884.

1831.
1876,
1871.

1887.

1876.

1892.
1883,
1885.
1871.
1862.

*Woopwarp, Artaur Smiru, F.L.S., F.G.S., Assistant Keeper of
the Department of Geology, British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, London, S.W.
*Woopwapb, C. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. 97 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
t Woodward, Harry Page, F.G.S. 129 Beaufort-street, London,
S.W.

tWoopwarp, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Depart-
ment of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-
road, London, 8. W.

tWoopwarp, Horace B., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8S. W.

*Woodward, John Harold. 6 Brighton-terrace, Merridale-road,
Wolverhampton.

*Woolcock, Henry. Rickerby House, St. Bees.

§ Woollcombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.I.Inst., F.S.S., M.R.1.A.,

F.R.S.A. (Ireland). 14 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
tWoollcombe, Surgeon-Major Robert W. 14 Acre-place, Stoke,
Devonport.

*Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.

f{Woolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark.

{Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast:

{Wormell, Richard, M.A., D.Sc. Roydon, near Ware, Hertford-
shire.

*Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.

*Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A. Old Swinford, Stourbridge,

Worcestershire.
Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey.
}Worthy, George S. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent,
Hampstead-road, London, N.W.
{Wragee, Edmund. 109 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.
{tWrentmore, Francis. 384 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London,
S.W

*Wright, Rev. Arthur, M.A. Queen’s College, Cambridge,

*Wricht, Rev. Benjamin, M.A. Sandon Rectory, Chelmsford.

{Wright, Dr. C. J. Virginia-road, Leeds.

{Wereut, E. Percevat, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., M.R.I.A., Professor
of Botany and Director of the Museum, Dublin University.
5 Trinity College, Dublin. A

t Wright, Frederick William. 4 Full-street, Derby.

t Wright, Harrison. Wilkes’ Barré, Pennsylvania, U.S.A,

{Wright, James, 114 John-street, Glasgow.

{Wright, J.S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham.

tWright, Professor R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. University College,
Toronto, Canada.

Warieat, T.G.,M.D. 91 Northgate, Wakefield.

tWright, William. 31 Queen Mary-avenue, Glasgow.

tWricurson, Tuomas, M.P., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8S. Norton Hall,
Stockton-on-Tees.

tWrigley, Rev. Dr., M.A., M.D., F.R.A.S. 15 Gauden-road, Lon-
don, S.W

tWinscn, Epwarp Atrrep, F.G.S. Carharrack, Scorrier, Cornwall.

{ Wyld, Norman. University Hall, Edinburgh.

§Wyllie, Andrew. 1 Leicester-street, Southport.

{Wyness, James D., M.D. 549 Union-street, Aberdeen.

tWynn, Mrs. Williams. Cefn, St. Asaph.

tWyrynz, Artaur Brevor, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.

110

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election. .

1875.

1894.
1883.
1867.
1887.
1884.
1877.
1891.
1884.
1891.

1886.

1894,
1884.

1884,
1876.
1885.
1886.
1883.
1887.

1890.
1868.

1886.
1886.

{Yabbicom, Thomas Henry. 37 White Ladies-road, Clifton, Bristol.

*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp's Mount, Doncaster.

*Yarrow, A. F, Poplar, London, E.

§ Yates, James. Public Library, Leeds.

tYeaman, James. Dundee.

tYeats, Dr. Chepstow.

tYee, Fung. Care of R. E. C. Fittock, Esq., Shanghai, China.

tYonge, Rev. Duke. Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.

tYorath, Alderman T. V. Cardiff.

{York, Frederick. 87 Lancaster-road, Notting Hill, London, W.

§ Young, Alfred C., F.C.S. 64 Tyrwhitt-road, St. John’s, London,
S.E.

*Youne, A. H., M.B., F.R.C.S., Professor of Anatomy in Owens
College, Manchester.

*Young, George, Ph.D. Firth College, Sheffield.

TYoung, Sir Frederick, K.C.M.G. 5 Queensberry-place, London,
S.W

{Young, Professor George Paxton. 121 Bloor-street, Toronto,
Canada.

{Youne, Joun, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the University
of Glasgow. 38 Cecil-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.

tYoung, R. Bruce. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

§Young, R. Fisher. New Barnet, Herts.

*Youna, Sypnery, D.Sc., F.R.S., F'.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, Bristol.

tYoung, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, London, E.C.

Young, T. Graham, F.R.S.E. Westfield, West Calder, Scotland.

Youngs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich.

tZair, George. Arden Grange, Solihull, Birmingham.
tZair, John. Merle Lodge, Moseley, Birmingham.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. lll

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887. Professor Cleveland Abbe. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, United States.
1892. Svante Arrhenius. The University, Stockholm. :
1881. Professor G. F. Barker. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
United States,
1894. Professor F. Beilstein. Technological Institute, St. Petersburg.
1894, Professor E. van Beneden. The University, Liége, Belgium.
1887. Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Mannheim, L 11, 3, Germany.
1892. Professor M. Bertrand. L’Kcole des Mines, Paris.
1894. Deputy Surgeon-General J. S. Billings. Washington, United States.
1893, Professor Christian Bohr. 62 Bredgade, Copenhagen.
1880. Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. Vienna.
1887. His Excellency R. Bonghi. Rome.
1887. Professor Lewis Boss. Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York,
United States,
1884, Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D. Boston, Massachusetts, United
States.
1890. Professor Brentano. 1 Maximilian-platz, Miinchen.
1893. Professor W. CO. Brégger. Universitets Mineralogske Institute,
Christiania.
1887. Professor J. W, Briihl. Heidelberg.
1884. Professor George J. Brush. Yale College, New Haven, United
States.
1894. Professor D. H. Campbell. Stanford University, Palo Alto, Cali-
fornia, United States.
1887. Professor G. Capellini. Royal University of Bologna.
1887. Professor J. B. Carnoy. Rue du Canal 22, Louvain.
1887. Dr. H. Caro. Mannheim.
1894, Emile Cartailhac. Toulouse, France.
1861. Dr. Carus. Leipzig.
1894, Dr. A. Chauveau. The Sorbonne, Paris.
1887. F. W. Clarke. United States Geological Survey, Washington,
United States.
1855. Professor Dr. Ferdinand Cohn. The University, Breslau, Prussia.
1878. Professor Guido Cora. 74 Corso Vittorio Emanuele, Turin.
1880. Professor Cornu. Rue de Grenelle 9, Paris.
1870. J. M. Crafts, M.D. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.
1876. Professor Luigi Cremona. The University, Rome.
1889. W. he Dall. United States Geological Survey, Washington, United
tates.
1862. Wilhelm Delffs, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Heidel-
berg.
1864. M. Des Cloizeaux. Rue de Monsieur 13, Paris.

112

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1872.
1870.
1890.
1876.
1894.
1892.
1894.
1892.
1874.
1886.
1887.
1894.
1872.
1894,
1894,
1887.
1892.
1881.
1866.
1861.
1884,

1884.
1889.
1892.

1870.
1889.
1889.
1876.
1884,
1892.

1876.
1889,
1881.
1872.
1889.
1887.
1893.
1894.
1893.
1898.
1887.
1881.
1887.

1884,
1867.
1876.
1881.

1887.
1876,

Professor G. Dewalque. Liége, Belgium.

Dr. Anton Dohrn. Naples.

Professor V. Dwelshauvers-Dery. Liége, Belgium.

Professor Alberto Eccher, Florence.

Professor W. Einthoven. Leiden.

Professor F. Elfving. Helsingfors, Finland.

Professor T. W. W. Engelmann. Utrecht.

Professor Léo Errera. 1 Place Stephanie, Brussels.

Dr. W. Feddersen. 9 Carolinenstrasse, Leipzig.

Dr. Otto Finsch. Bremen.

Professor Dr. R. Fittig. Strasburg.

Professor Wilhelm Foerster. Encke Platz 3a, Berlin, S.W., Germany.

W. de Fonvielle. 50 Rue des Abbesses, Paris.

Professor Léon Fredericq. Liége, Belgium.

Professor C. Friedel. 9 Rue Michelet, Paris.

Professor Dr. Anton Fritsch. The University, Prague.

Professor Dr. Gustav Fritsch. The University, Berlin.

Professor C. M. Gariel. 6 Rue Edouard Detaille, Paris.

Dr. Gaudry. 57 Rue Cuvier, Paris.

Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden.

Professor J. Willard Gibbs. Yale College, New Haven, United
States.

Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.

G. K.Gilbert. United States Geological Survey, Washington, United
States.

Daniel C. Gilman. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, United
States.

William Gilpin. Denver, Colorado, United States.

Professor Gustave Gilson. Louvain.

A. Gobert. 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.

Dr. Benjamin A. Gould. Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States.

General A. W. Greely, LL.D. Washington, United States.

Dr. C. E. Guillaume. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures,

Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres.

Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.

Horatio Hale. Clinton, Ontario, Canada.

Dr. Edwin H. Hall. 387 Gorham-street, Cambridge, U.S.A.

Professor James Hall. Albany, State of New York.

Dr. Max von Hantken. Budapesth.

Fr. von Hefner-Alteneck. Berlin.

Professor Paul Heger. The University, Brussels.

Professor Ludimar Hermann. The University, Kénigsberg, Prussia.

Professor Richard Hertwig. Munich.

Professor Hildebrand. Stockholm.

Professor W. His. Leipzig.

Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht, LL.D., C.M.Z.S. Utrecht.

Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.

Professor C. Loring Jackson. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, United States.

Dr. J. Janssen, LL.D, The Observatory, Meudon, Seine-et-Oise.

Dr. W. J. Janssen. Villa Frisia, Aroza, Graubiinden, Switzerland.

W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States
Naval Academy. Annapolis, United States.

Professor C. Julin. Liége.

Dr. Giuseppe Jung. 7 Via Principe Umberto, Milan.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 113

Year of

Election.

1877. M. Akin Karoly. 92 Rue Richelieu, Paris.

1862. Aug. Kekulé, Professor of Chemistry. Bonn,

1884, Professor Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokio,

1873.
1894.
1856,
1894,
1887.

1894.
1887.
1877.

~ 1887.
1887.
1887.

1882.

1887.
1887.

1872.
1887.
1883.
1877.

1887.
1871.
1871.
1894.
1887.
1867.
1881.
1887.
1890,

1894,

1887.
1887.
1884,
1848.
1887.
1894,
1895.
1877.
1894,
1864.
1887.

1889.
1894,
1864.
1884.
1869.

Japan,

Dr. Felix Klein. The University, Gottingen.

Professor L. Kny. The University, Berlin.

Professor A. von Kélliker. Wiirzburg, Bavaria.

Professor J. Kollman. Basle, Switzerland.

Professor Dr. Arthur Kénig. Physiological Institute, The Uni-
versity, Berlin.

Maxime Kovalevsky. Beaulieu-sur-Mer, Alpes-Maritimes,

Professor Krause. 31 Brueckenallee, Berlin.

Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. The University, Bern,
Switzerland.

Lieutenant R. Kund. German African Society, Berlin.

Professor A. Ladenburg. Breslau.

Professor J. W. Langley. 8474 Fairmount-street, Cleveland, Ohio,
United States.

Dr. S. P. Langley, D.C.L., Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Washington, United States.

Professor Count Solms Laubach. Strassburg.

Dr. Leeds, Professor of Chemistry at the Stevens Institute, Hoboken,
New Jersey, United States.

M. Georges Lemoine. 76 Rue d’Assas, Paris.

Professor A. Lieben. Vienna.

Dr. F. Lindemann. 42 Georgenstrasse, Munich.

Dr. M. Lindemann, Hon. Sec. of the Bremen Geographical Society.
Bremen.

Professor Dr. Georg Lunge. The University, Zurich.

Professor Jacob Liiroth. The University, Freiburg, Germany.

Dr. Liitken. Copenhagen.

Dr. Otto Maas. The University, Munich.

Dr. Henry C. McCook. Philadelphia, United States.

Professor Mannheim. Rue de la Pompe 11, Passy, Paris.

Professor O. C. Marsh. Yale College, New Haven, United States.

Dr. C. A. Martius. Berlin.

Professor E. Mascart, Membre de l'Institut. 176 Rue de l'Université,
Paris.

Professor A. M. Mayer. Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken,
New Jersey, United States.

Professor D. I. Mendeléeff, D.C.L. St. Petersburg.

Professor N. Menschutkin. St. Petersburg.

Albert A. Michelson. Cleveland, Ohio, United States,

Professor J. Milne-Edwards. 57 Rue Cuvier, Paris.

Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, United States.

Professor G. Mittag-Leffler. Stockholm.

Professor H. Moissan. The Sorbonne, Paris.

Professor V. L. Moissenet. L’Kcole des Mines, Paris,

Dr. Edmund von Mojsisovics. Strohgasse 26, Vienna.

Dr. Arnold Moritz. The University, Dorpat, Russia.

EK. 8. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Massachusetts,
United States.

Dr. F. Nansen. Christiania.

Professor R. Nasini. The University, Padua, Italy.

Herr Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.

Professor Simon Newcomb. Washington, United States.

Professor H. A. Newton. Yale College, New Haven, United States,

H

1895,

114

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887.
1894.

1894.
1890.
1889,

1890,

1887.
1890.
1894.
1870.
1884.

1887.
1886.

1887.
1868.
1886.
1873.
1892.
1890.

1881.
1894,
1883.
1874.
1846.
1873.
1876.
1892.

1887.
1888.
1866.
1889.
1881.
1894.
1881,
1884.

1864,

1887,
1887.

1890.
1889.
1886.
1894,

1287,

Professor Noelting. Miihlhausen, Elsass.

Professor H., F. Osborn. Columbia College, New York, United
States.

Baron Osten-Sacken. Heidelberg.

Professor W. Ostwald. Leipzig.

Professor A. 8. Packard. Brown University, Providence, Rhode
Island, United States.

Maffeo Pantaleoni, Director of the Royal Superior School of Com-
merce, Bari, Italy.

Dr. Pauli. Hochst-on-Main, Germany.

Professor Otto Pettersson. Hogskolas Laboratorium, Stockholm.

Professor W. Pfeffer. The University, Leipzig.

Professor Felix Plateau. 152 Chaussée de Courtrai, Gand.

Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey of the
United States. Washington, United States.

Professor W. Preyer. The University, Berlin.

Professor Putnam, Secretary of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science. Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, United States.

Professor G. Quincke. Heidelberg.

L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich.

Rev. A. Renard. Rue du Roger, Gand, Belgium.

Professor Baron von Richthofen. Kurfiirstenstrasse 117, Berlin.

Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria.

A. Lawrence Rotch. Blue Hill Observatory, Readville, Massachu-
setts, United States.

Professor Henry A. Rowland. Baltimore, United States.

Professor P. H. Schoute. Tha University, Groningen, Holland.

Dr. Ernst Schroder. Karlsruhe, Baden.

Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Cairo.

Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium.

Dr. A. Shafarik. Prague. |

Professor R. D. Silva. L’Ecole Centrale, Paris.

Dr. Maurits Snellen, Chief Director of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht.

Ernest Solvay. 25 Rue du Prince Albert, Brussels.

Dr. Alfred Springer. Cincinnati, Ohio, United States.

Professor Steenstrup. Copenhagen.

Professor G. Stefanescu. Bucharest.

Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. ‘The University, Athens.

Professor EH, Strasburger. The University, Bonn.

Professor Dr. Rudolf Sturm. The University, Breslau.

Professor Robert H. Thurston. Sibley College, Cornell University,
Ithaca, New York, United States.

Dr. Otto Torell, Professor of Geology in the University of Lund,
Sweden.

Dr. T. M. Treub, Java.

Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.

Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.

Professor J. H. van’t Hoff. Amsterdam.

Wladimir Vernadsky. Mineralogical Museum, Moscow.

Professor Jules Vuylsteke. 80 Rue de Lille, Menin, Belgium,

General F. A. Walker. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Boston, United States.

Professor H, F. Weber. Zurich,

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 115

Year of
Election.

1887.
1887.
1887.
1881.

1887,

1874.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1876,
1887.
1887.

Professor Dr. Leonhard Weber. Kiel.

Professor August Weismann. Freiburg-im-Breisgau, Baden.

Dr. H. C. White. Athens, Georgia, United States.

Professor H. M. Whitney. Beloit College, Wisconsin, United
States.

Professor E. Wiedemann. Erlangen. [C/o T. A. Barth, Johannis-
gasse, Leipzig. |

Professor G. Wiedemann. Leipzig.

Professor R. Wiedersheim. Freiburg-im-Breisgau, Baden.

Professor J. Wislicenus. Liebigstrasse 18, Leipzig.

Dr. Otto N. Witt. 33 Lindenallée, Westend-Charlottenburg, Berlin.

Professor Adolph Wiillner. Aix-la-Chapelle,

Professor C. A. Young. Princeton College, United States.

Professor F. Zirkel. Leipzig.

116

LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.

GREAT BRITAIN

Belfast, Queen’s College. |

Birmingham, Midland Institute. |

Brighton Public Library. |

Bristol Naturalists’ Society.

Cambridge Philosophical Society. |

Cardiff, University College of South |
Wales.

Cornwall,
ciety of.

Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland.

, Royal College of Surgeons in

Treland.

» Royal Geological Society of
Ireland.

—, Royal Irish Academy.

——, Royal Society of.

Dundee, University College.

Edinburgh, Royal Society of.

——, Royal Medical Society of.

--——, Scottish Society of Arts. |

Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum.

Glasgow Philosophical Society.

, Institution of Engineers and
Shipbuilders in Scotland.

Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute.

—, Philosophical and Literary
Society of.

Liverpool, Free Public Library and
Museum.

, Royal Institution.

London, Admiralty, Library of the.

——, Anthropological Institute.

—.,, Arts, Society of.

——., Chemical Society.

——,, Civil Engineers, Institution of.

——., East India Library.

, Geological Society.

, Geology, Museum of Practical,

28 Jermyn Street.

, Greenwich, Royal Observatory. |

Royal Geological So- |

AND IRELAND.

London, Kew Observatory.

, Linnean Society.

——, London Institution.

, Mechanical Engineers, Institu-
tion of.

——., Meteorological Office.

| ——, Royal Asiatic Society.

——.,, Royal Astronomical Society.

——, Royal College of Physicians.

——., Royal College of Surgeons.

——, Royal Engineers’ Institute,
Chatham.

——, Royal Geographical Society.

—-, Royal Institution.

——.,, Royal Meteorological Society..

-—, Royal Society.

——.,, Royal Statistical Society.

——, Sanitary Institute.

——, United Service Institution.

———, University College.

| ——, War Office, Library of the.

, Zoological Society.

Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.

, Mechanics’ Institute.

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Literary and
Philosophical Society.

, Public Library.

Norwich, The Free Library.

Nottingham, The Free Library.

| Oxford, Ashmolean Society.
| ——, Radcliffe Observatory.
| Plymouth Institution.

Salford, Royal Museum and Library.

| Sheffield, Firth College.

Southampton, Hartley Institution.
Stonyhurst College Observatory.

| Swansea, Royal Institution of South

Wales
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

EUROPE.
ISAUNEEL vena ss+0> Die Kaiserliche Aka- | Milan ............ The Institute.
demie der Wissen- Modena ......... Royal Academy.
schaften. Moscow ......... Society of Naturalists.
BEOMEEL, ccsesecdeae University Library. | —— _......... University Library.
Brussels ......... Royal Academy of | Munich ......... University Library.
Sciences. Naples’. .2.<s<s Royal Academy of
Charkow ......... University Library. Sciences.
Coimbra-......... Meteorological Ob- | Nicolaieff......... University Library.
servatory. IBARIS (cd. aas'c0s0=e Association Francaise
Copenhagen ...Royal Society of pour l’Avancement
Sciences. des Sciences.
Dorpat, Russia... University Library. cas Bs sbah alae Geographical Society.
Dresden ......... Royal Museum. shuren eee ies Geological Society.
Frankfort ...... Natural History So- | —— ............ Royal Academy of
ciety. Sciences.
SENG VA... 2.000000 Natural History So- |; — ............ School of Mines.
ciety. Pultova .........[mperial Observatory.
Gottingen ...... University Library. FROME) Joss sscceare Accademia dei Lincei.
0S 7 Naturwissenschaft- ——rineeevecees Collegio Romano.
licher Verein. ma | Fast etapaces Italian Geographical
BEUGNID 1 -.2.-00..000 Leopoldinisch-Caro- Society.
linische Akademie. | —— ............ Italian Society of
Harlem ......... Société Hollandaise Sciences.
des Sciences. St. Petersburg . University Library.
Heidelberg ...... University Library. ...Lmperial Observatory.
Helsingfors......University Library. Stockholm ...... Royal Academy.
Kasan, Russia ... University Library. "TONING cxecsaseses Royal Academy of
“12! CteCCRDOaEREEES Royal Observatory. Sciences.
i oneanasr ees see University Library. Utrecht): s...<25- University Library.
Lausanne......... The University. Witeriitiess.sveseee The Imperial Library.
Leyden ......... University Library, = |§ —— .........00 Central Anstalt fur
PRE <----0.0002- University Library. Meteorologie und
Eispon............ Academia Real des Erdmagnetismus.
Sciences. Girich.cisvsesans3 General Swiss Society.
ASIA.
Bannon cceees The College. Calcutta ......... Presidency College.
Bombay ......... Elphinstone Institue | ——- _........ Hooghly College.
tion. | —— eeeseeeee Medical College.
—_— ees Grant Medical Col- | Ceylon............ The Museum,Colombo.
lege. Madras’: ccc. 2.<.<0 The Observatory.
Calcutta ...... ...Asiatic Society. stehwanagene University Library,
AFRICA.

Cape of Good Hope. . . The Royal Observatory.

118

AMERICA.
Allbariyitutesceness The Institute. New York......Lyceum of Natural
Boston........... American Academy of ' History.
Arts and Sciences. | Ottawa ........ Geological Survey of
California ...... The University. Canada.
rae Lick Observatory. Philadelphia... American Medical As-
Cambridge ...... Harvard University | sociation.
Library. — .. American Philosophical
Kingston ......... Queen’s University. | Society.
Manitoba ......... Historical and Scien- | ...Franklin Institute.
tific Society. Toronto ...... The Observatory.
Montreal ......... McGill University. Washington ... The Naval Observatory.
hia Council of Arts and .. Smithsonian Institution.
Manufactures. — ...United States Geolo-
New York ...... American Society of gical Survey of the
Civil Engineers, Territories.
AUSTRALIA.
Adelaide. . . . The Colonial Government.
Brisbane . . . . Queensland Museum,
Sydney . . . . Public Works Department.
Victoria . . . . The Colonial Government.

NEW ZEALAND.

Canterbury Museum.

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