eS + oY a ee ” 75 : S re a ae A 4 , ie. AMS Vi PAT: we 1a eee Lay ny Mi ae & OW vee v 1 sce OF REPORT OF THE SIXTY-SIXTH MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE HELD AT LIVERPOOL IN SEPTEMBER -1896. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, 1896. Office of the Association: Burlington House, London, W. PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE LONDON CONTENTS. ws Ape Page Ossects and Rules of the Association .............csecesseneeeeeeeeeeeeeceeeeeeees XXVil Places and Times of Meeting, with Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local Secretaries from CommenceMent ..........seseeeseeeeeeceeeceeeeneeeceseneeenes XXXViii Trustees and General Officers, 1831-1897 .............cccsceeeceeceeeseeeneeeeeeees 1 Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from 1832... li Taist of Evening Lectures ...........0.:cccccseccescasccssensccnesceccesccenecescesseeces ]xix Lectures to the Operative Classes ........escesecseeeeeneeteenseneereeneeneeseeeennes Ixxil Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Liverpool Meeting ......... Ixxiil ficers and Council, 1896-97 ........0..0.cers.coessoesacooessweoecstaporsencereendaes lxxv DRPPRSTINEEISPACCCOUMN bist seececesneacracs abet iceesscuectsaepvenben cbse eeennceseceade ates Oh Ixxvi Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings ...... Ixxxvili Report of the Council to the General Committee ..............essseeeeenereeee ees lxxx Committees appointed by the General Committee at the Liverpool Meet- ING in September 1896 ...............seecsecsecesccccesscrseascnstacecerscceseeecens lxxxv Communications ordered to be printed 27 e1tenso ..........sccseeseeeeeeeeneneeees xciil Resolutions referred to the Council for Consideration, and action if Rr shes ry sos cccns cs cta Ie Mededeids 145 MIN eS xciv Semonsis Of Grants of Money ......2..cc0sssceesestesrbccecdssceetcncctscseestaneessons XCV Places of Meeting in 1897, 1898, and 1899 ...............s.csesseccscsecesceseaeeee xevi General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants for SMT ETEUUIC Es OM POSOS ful fect Senin exits ante sided Musee eee Jha) tel gaasiyes Teva cecelsqasteebniawacet xevil BEE MAIUINICELINIIS vedscacecetcescectsescescsccesccsscaccctsseesssdcdsecesceccceeeees {R28 exil Address by the President, Sir Josrpm Lister, Bart., D.C.L., LL.D., PET DPEUIBE SPEIER ro PREECE Ra cto wets ce AN lass U haa sis ehcitah qaaabiedd oiente ncG4UEA 3 iv REPORT—1896. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. [An asterisk * indicates that the title only is given. The mark ¢ indicates the same, but a reference is given to the journal or newspaper where it is published in extenso. | Page Corresponding Societies.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor R. Metpora (Chairman), Mr.’f. V. Houmss (Secretary), Mr. #Rancis GALTON, Sir Doveras Gatton, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir Jounw Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. W. Wairaxer, Professor E. B. Poutron, Mr. CurHpprrt PreK, and Rey. WanonvHeys. DRISURAM 22. .5<2..00.-22se+2e-0 sees epee sesepoetince== += eee annem aes BL Calculation of the G (7, v)-Integrals.—Preliminary Report of the Committee, consisting of Rev. Ropert Hariey (Chairman), Professor A. R. ForsytH (Secretary), Mr. J. W. L. Guatsner, Professor A. Lopez, and Professor Kart Pearson. (Drawn up by Professor KARL PEARSON.) .......2..+0000+++ 70 AprEenpix.—Tables of y-functions, x1, x5) Xs) ANA Xz -esseveeseeeeecseees 75 On the Establishment of a National Physical Laboratory.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Dovetas Gatton (Chairman), Lord RaYLeieH, Lord Ketvry, Sir H. E. Roscon, Professors A. W. Rucker, R. B. Cirrron, Carey Fostpr, A, Scuuster. and W. E. Ayrton, Dr. W. ANDERSON, Dr. T. KE. Toorrn, Mr. Francis Gatton, Mr. R. T. GrazeBrRoox, and Professor FT LODGE, (Secretary), Jc: +7.:02-sesspesce+sospepesseaceseceee sees Se eae enema 82 Uniformity of Size of Pages of Scientific Societies’ Publications.—Report of : the Committee, consisting of Professor Srtvanus P. THompson (Chairman), Dr. G. H. Bryan, Dr. C. V. Burton, Mr. R. T. Guazeproox, Professor A. W. Ricrer, Dr. G. Jounstonr Stoney, and Mr. James SwINBURNE ABECTREALY) © Zediisicasin gs yaad as daivadsnn ches dee talismrae eae sila ce ppesaarek eae ae 86. Comparison of Magnetic Instruments.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. W. Ricker (Chairman), Mr. W. Watson (Secretary), Pro- fessor A. Scxustur, and Professor H. H. TurRnER, appointed to confer with the Astronomer Royal and the Superintendents of other Observatories with reference to the Comparison of Magnetic Standards with a view of carry- gnc ront such Comparison ...2..c07.o Algological Notes for Plymouth District. By Mr. Grorecr Bresyer . The Necessity for the Immediate Investigation of the Biology of Oceanic Islands.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. H. FLowrr (Chairman), Professor A.C. Happon (Secretary), Mr. G. C. Bourns, Dr. H. O. Forsis, Professor W. A. Herpman, Dr. Jonn Murray, Professor A. Newton, Mr. A. E. Surprny, and Professor W. F. R. Wetpon. (Drawn PSMMUNVALUENSECTOLALY:)avecsescccccsacscccscssessseccodoccnccccnessetuacences Bets ccsceseads Index Generum et Specierum Animalium.—Report of a Committee, consist- ing of Sx W. H. Frowrr (Chairman), Mr. P. L. ScuatEer, Dr. H. Woop- Warp, and Mr. F. A. Barurr (Secretary), appointed for superintending the Compilation of an Index Generum et Specierum Animalium ............ Zoological Bibliography and Publication.—Report of the Committee, con- sisting of Sir W. H. Frowsr (Chairman), Professor W. A. HerpMaAN, Mr. W. E. Hoyts, Dr. P. L. Sctarer, Mr. Apam Srepewickx, Dr..D. Sarr, Mr. C. D. SuHerporn, Rev. T. R. R. Srepsine, Professor W. F. R. WeLpon, REE tee Bee AL EATEN (SCCKELALY Ji sicees s+ sn-asee ite anes net rns Gsee ee Eee 878 3. Proposed Modifications of the Rating System. By W.H. Smira......... 878 4, Farm Labour Colonies and Poor Law Guardians. By Harorp E.Moors, BUS eoesrerasss ee vse ssGuls osleseiceasicressiavacate acest yra seb as ee ae cneee see eee een 879 5. *Raffeisen Village Banks in Germany. By Professor W.B. Borromtry 879 G. The Decay of British Agriculture: its Causes and Cure. By Cuartzs IBANTOUT ese .esdon.ccstcssdtpocesveck vccssteetteesetes ceoeseavo cece sevecs soca anaes 879 SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19. 1. Metric Measures and our Old System. By F. Toms ............sereeee: Speanpe CBU 2. *Comparison of the Age-Distribution of Town and Country Popula- tion in Different Wands. By A. W. Brux, M.A. ......::.::caces sc serene -- 880 MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21. 1. Mercantile Markets for ‘Futures.’ By Exryan HLM ........ccccececseeees . 880 2, Grain Futures, their Effects and Tendencies. By H.R. RaTHont ...... 881 3. Cotton Futures, what they are, and how they Operate in Practice. By CRABIRS SUBWART IS . Seipings vcsinvan dus sles If it should be inconvenient to the Author that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send in- formation thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors who send in their MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers are accepted, will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their Reports and abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual Volume unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Assistant General Secretary before the conclusion of the Meeting. ! Sheffield, 1879. 2 Swansea, 1880. 3 Edinburgh, 1871. * The meeting on Saturday is optional, Southport, 1883, * Nottingham, 1893. EE — oe RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXxi Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord- ingly. 3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organ- ising Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional Committees. At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association and printed in the last volume of the Report. He will next proceed to read the Report of the Organising Committee.? The list of Communi- cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap- pointed, At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday in the Journal. On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days, the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the same before 8 A.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening. Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of the Committee. Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the Sectional Meetings, to the Assistant General Secretary. The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ea officio temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxix), and will receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets entitling them to attend its Meetings. The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are ‘specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association, and the com- munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the state and progress of which Reports are wanted ; to name individuals or _ Committees for the executiou of such Reports or researches ; and to state whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Locai Authorities. In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science, it is expedient that all Members uf the Committee shouid be named, and 1 These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877. 2 This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, Edin- burgh, 1871, XxXxil REPORT—1896. one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have notified per- sonally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Chairman to have the responsibility of receiving and disbursing the grant (if any has been made) and securing the presentation of the Report in due time; and, further, it is expedient that one of the members should be appointed to act as Secretary, for ensuring attention to business. That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on a Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient working. That a tabular list of the Committees appointed on the recommendation of each Section should be sent each year to the Recorders of the several Sec- tions, to cnable them to fill in the statement whether the several Committees appointed on the recommendation of their respective Sections had presented their reports. That on the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Comnuttee for a special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional Committee, the number of Members of such Committee be then fixed, but that the Members to serve on such Commuittee be nominated and selected by the Sectional Com- mittee at a subsequent meeting.' Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist- ance they may require. The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant General Secretary for presentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be done, the Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association. N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the General Committee. Notices regarding Grants of Money.? 1. No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of the British Association without special permission from the General Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in accordance with the Rules of the Association. 2. In grants of money to Committees the Association does not contem- plate the payment of personal expenses to the Members. 3. Committees to which grants of money are entrusted by the Association for the prosecution of particular Researches in Science are ap- pointed for one year only. Ifthe work of a Committee cannot be completed in the year, and if the Sectional Committee desire the work to be continued, application for the reappointment of the Committee for another year must be made at the next meeting of the Association. 4, Each Committee is required to present a Report, whether final or in- terim, at the next meeting of the Association after their appoint- ment or reappointment. InterimReports must be submitted in writing, though not necessarily for publication. 1 Revised by the General Committee, Bath, 1888. 7 Revised by the General Committee at Ipswich, 1895. RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXill 5. In each Committee the Chairman is the only person entitled to call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Riicker, I'.R.S8., for such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be required. 6. Grants of money sanctioned at a meeting of the Association expire on June 30 following. The Treasurer is not authorised after that date to allow any claims on account of such grants. 7. The Chairman of a Committee must, before the meeting of the Asso- ciation next following after the appointment or reappointment of the Committee, forward to the Treasurer a statement of the sums which have been received and expended, with vouchers. The Chairman must also return the balance of the grant, if any, which has been received and not spent ; or, if further expenditure is con- templated, he must apply for leave to retain the balance. 8. When application is made for a Committee to be reappointed, and to retain the balance of a former grant which is in the hands of the Chairman, and also to receive a further grant, the amount of such further grant is to be estimated as being additional to, and not inclusive of, the balance proposed to be retained. 9. The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting to whom a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the Committee of Recommendations in every case where no such report has been received. 10. Members and Committees who may be entrusted with sums of money for collecting specimens of Natural History are requested to re- serve the specimens so obtained to be dealt with by authority of the Association. 11. Committees are requested to furnish a list of any apparatus which may have been purchased out of a grant made by the Association, and to state whether the apparatus will be useful for continuing the research in question, or for other scientific purposes. 12. All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Asso- ciation are to be deposited at the Office of the Association when not employed in scientific inquiries for the Association. Business of the Sections. The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation shortly before the meeting commences. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto can be used for no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association. At the time appointed the Chair will be taken,' and the reading of communications, in the order previously made public, commenced. Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications delivered in may render such divisions desirable. ' The Organising Committee of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours of meeting of the Section and Sectional Committee, except for Thursday and Saturday. 1896. b XXX1V REPORT—1896. A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author. Duties uf the Doorkeepers. 1. To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged. 2. To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex- hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the Assistant General Secretary. 3. Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room. No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the Association whose names are printed in the Programme, p. 1. Duties of the Messengers. To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur- ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed cn messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms. Committee of Recommendations. The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science. Presidents of the Association in former years are ex officio members of the Committee of Recommendations.! All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re- searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recommendations. All proposals for establishing new Sections, or altering the titles of Sections, or for any other change in the constitutional forms and funda- mental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of Recommendations for a report.” If the President of a Section is unable to attend a meeting of the Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Committee shall be authorised to appoint a Vice-President, or, failing a Vice-President, some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice of the appointment being sent to the Assistant General Secretary.® 1 Passed by the General Committee at Newcastle, 1863. ? Passed by the General Committee at Birmingham, 1865. ® Passed by the General Committee at Leeds, 1890. RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION, XXXV Corresponding Societies.' 1. Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga- tions, and publishes notices of the results. 2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the List of Corresponding Societies. Applications must be addressed to the Assistant General Secretary on or before the lst of June preceding the Annual Meeting at which it is intended they should be considered, and must be accompanied by specimens of the publications of the results of the local scientific investigations recently undertaken by the Society. 3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi- nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers published by them. ‘This Committee shall make an annuai report to the _ General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable. 4. Every Corresponding Society shall return each year, on or before the ‘Ist of June, to the Assistant General Secretary of the Association, a schedule, properly filled up, which will be issued by him, ard which will contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee. 5. There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association a list,in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre- sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the results of the local scientific work conducted by them; those papers only being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of one or other of the various Sections of the Association. 6. A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele- gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time a Member of the General Committee. Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies. 7. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies is em- powered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommen- dations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee. 8. The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con- stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre- taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding Societies Committee shall be ew officio members. 9. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa- tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take _ part in the meetings. 10. The Secretaries of each Section shall be instructed tc transmit to 1 Passed by the General Committee, 1884. b2 EXRVI REPORT—1896. the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommen- dations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them earried into effect. 11. It will bethe duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer- ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear- ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera- tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of publishing results. Local Committees. Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire. Officers. A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. Council. In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting. (1) The Council shall consist of ! . The Trustees. . The past Presidents. . The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being. . The President and Vice-Presidents elect. . The past and present General Treasurers, General and Assistant General Secretaries. . The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting. . Ordinary Members. NI lor) oe Conor (2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the General Committee. (3) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of * Passed by the General Committee at Belfast, 1874. RULES. OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXVil whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council, as Ordinary Members, in the previous year. (4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election be ineligible for nomination :—1st, those who have served on the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years; and, 2nd, those who, being resident in or near London, have attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year —observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by seniority to two by least attendance. (5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their Annual Report the names of the Members of the General Committee whom they recommend for election as Members of Council. (6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the Officers of the Association. Papers and Communications. The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve his right of property therein. Accounts. _ The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors appointed by the General Committee. 1896. REPORT XXXVI “bsg “19180 149110 ‘S'u'a “bsg ‘aosspoyH ydesor "a'W “bsg ‘uoystyeig woz 40g ‘SU “bsg “teyxreg od.1005 "SW “WW ‘moysuqor 10ssajorg ‘S'D'ua “bsg ‘u0yqny “UL AA ‘oR “ST “bsy ‘aosmepy uyor *JOOdA1aATT WOT4WN} -1ysuy [efoy ‘sorg “by ‘tayxTB AA “N Udasor “Ds ‘SLIIND aoU[[e A “UTA "CW ‘Iter, 1osseyorg “bsg ‘uapuaao0y “A ‘oR SW ““a'W ‘Aueqneg sosseyorg “sa ‘pAor'T Jossayorg *Aayy orp ‘puslary jo [vAoY ‘uomsy ‘uOITMBA "Y “AA IIS ‘E'S’ ‘oag ‘UOsuIqoYy UYOL Ig ‘ory “OPT SU ‘Seq.log 1ossajorg “SW TOMO “A * Ae ‘SD “oT “WI ‘Mo[sueH Jossejorg ‘Aey oN “SW “WW ‘eA\0d tossayorg *Aoy oR “SU “C'W ‘Auaqueq zossojorg SOUS Wa “VW ‘sdimidd rossejorg “S'D'd “bsg “anf ‘Avr wer “SSIYVLSYOaS 1vV9071 “GEST ‘93 ysusuY ‘NVHDNUWUIG Oe eee we were . Sb ‘ . * ’ . . . ps ed a Ee oboe ote {om OS “VN “LUQOOUVH NONUHA ‘A ‘ATE ous sereeeeesoranomre Jo [Vy aL, ‘uojdmeq41ON Jo smubavyy OUT, "ESI 0s WsuSNY “ANA T-NO-TIESVOMANT eee eee eee ee aUuvlIvjovyy [edioung *Aoy AIDA OTT, | oR “S'D'U “SU's ‘GNVIUGINOHLUON AO TUNG eu see ew eee my.) oot ‘qan001e FL UOMIAA “Al “ACY OL eee eee eee ee eee eee ees vs “sag ‘ueyanq jo doystg ay, “Sead TIOMOUM “MA “AOU “LEST ‘TL toquiaydag ‘100duaArT tre tseeeseeseeeess s TOpUO'T JO APSIOATUL O13 JO 1OT[90 29 gees se ie:2.8/8: 8:4: e\aiale\b. © Mialase| slein:e inlet: ala arma “bs ‘kq1ag uygor su ou} cl ‘SY “SW “ueg ‘uojsgq Aory ep dirty ai} ) swacro'a “bse ‘woreda aor ‘SY "S"1'd ‘Woon Jodoysig ou) -weyo “S'D'd “SU ‘NOLDNITUNG JO TUVE enE Lee eet eer eae ‘StD' Wd ‘orvaqAuoy “qd “AV Anak “9E8T ‘2s JsNSNY “TOLsIUg aes J ‘uojdureyytoN Jo smbrvyy ou) ***" “SW “TOC “ANMOGSNYVTI JO SINOUVW euL Poe tue eee aes “Op SU “TIOMOUAN “AL "Ad ) *CSSL ‘OL qsngny ‘nriaaq see ee neee sisie|shele/eiaieininisisis\eYelein,slelsiecrany > rocco: ‘UAOJUBUIXG JUNODSIA J BUDO COO SODCONIOON OG Laity tay ‘CAOTI LSOAOUd ‘ATU ouL DR Mabe a Hens es aoe ‘a MOSUIGOY “YL “WL oa "FEB ‘8 Joqmaydos ‘HounaNtag Bie pe E sssssesssesneeenevertecneectees essen ssegr ayy (garg OF SW SMT PACT US (eno-g “gow ‘aNVaSIUd TIVONOGOVN “L UIs eee eee eee ee er ee pa ise seine ae key he sara “Toa “Esa ‘uoyeq ca ; “E81 “Ge oune “apaluaNvo sr reeeeereeseoeeseceeson ‘Tufoy IWOUONsY “SU “bsg ‘Arya HJ 's'D'd'A “S'U'd'A “V'N SHOIMDGYS WVGV ‘AGU oug, Tea cta ek ocage eke ogee Tee ee OE TRMaU Aa Aten | : P 8681 “61 ounp ‘au0axo HOODODOHO HAUG OCIS 9 SCID OCOS Ss try. “TT ‘SU “taqysMoag praec as on “SOU “Sua “a'a ‘aNvTIMONs “MA CAT ouL . ‘ ‘ } thee e eee er eres ee es esas scenery Counter wT ‘qIMOoIvA UOUIAA “M ‘ACT { om “SD ogra ee ee pie pas “SLNSGISSYd-3SIA “SLN3GISSYd ‘qUaUMaUIWWo) 872 WoULf ‘sarunjalaagy JMIOT PUD ‘syUaprsalJ-2004 ‘s,Wrpisald Ypn ‘uoynwossy ysywg ay, fo buyoayy fo somry pun soonpq ay, Gurnoys aqny, PAST PRESIDENTS, YICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES, XXxX1x “spd “G'd Taysururjsay Jo wea aq} ‘Aoy AT9A OT, "P10JXO "LPSI ‘ez auNL ‘au0IxO ‘SU “VW Tesod ‘Jorg *Aoy on “Sud “a ‘Aaoqueq oe | jo AyIsi9AtUy 844 Joy "gq ““T'O'a “bsg ‘qanooqsyy T[Teayong 5 aa | pesseeenecercerere** DIOFXO JO APISIOATUQ 9U4 10J *q" PT “Wid “bsg “pUvpoy WOMITOM “H "SW VW LOAWAL HOMO “AP | ee eseee sees eerseecseseeseeser Aqisqaaiuy) ag JO LO[aOUBIO-201A OL | “SW “TOC “Wa ‘SITDNI AUUVH LUAAOU UIs seeeee scunre yr “pIOFXO JO doysig ploy oF, “SW ‘ossoy jo [ley oy T. se ercoat aT TTaMOg LOssajorg *Aey Oy, "SW CCW SWaaKO tossajorz | steed este tteeetsgueeraeeserarense scunrer “DIOR, Jo dOystg PLOT ol, ween eens ‘SW “TOA “TN “qeg ‘aoqzuneys aa i as1005) rs “3281 ‘OL AE labord dag ‘NOLANVYHLAOG treretessss “qe ‘otAaoT AUVYS soPTVYD “COR ISTH [ 'S'vf "S'IS'O'D ‘NOSIHOUAN AWANI MOMAGOIL HIS ** ‘ay ‘uoqsromyeg qunoosIA = “Tq ‘WOLANQYsSY p10T sereeertorg ‘YSnoLOqIVA JO [eq OYT, *IoysoyOuy A, Jo stubavyy ay, / “bsg ‘Apoow ‘0 'H “L ‘a’ “bsg ‘y4vI9 LauoH nO seeneee seeee ‘Sa Wht ‘yoLMSpag rcssejorg "ADIT au ‘SW “V'W ‘peysay tossayorc, ) +" °° seseeeeesesces ard “TO'd “VW “bsg ‘Airy “gD “OPSI “61 oun “ADaTUANVD SW OVW “bsg ‘surydoy wert | ***** "0" ‘ad “eNsUry “H “Ae ‘C' “weqery “facut oR “SU “GUE “IGHOSUGH “Md NHG? 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ULBITITA, “N’U Tepugy ureydep se ee svieeeeesecseyacvesvtceccseenevis ‘swat "T'O'C ‘Aupeswy LOssajorg Sas ieee s2 ain Slee visaie a sien yA aun IOC emer Rao "Cn (yaOnsaOdey: E sees mond A “CW “WOSITY ‘d “A 1Ossejo1d, “qemmquipy Jo | “GPSL ‘ZT Joqmoqydog ‘WVHONINUIG: see ee eens ecuarer roars a greg ‘aod OO AUS “uoH WSKT 3tt | SVUA “VIUN “a’d NOSNIGOU “UH “L “AAU FT, trreseeeeess severe ‘Co[soqI0LM PLOT OUT, ‘A(MOLIVAT JO [AVG OL, “SPST ‘6 YSNSuy “VASNVAAS DS OIOGIITS per eE “bsg ‘oAory "TM ‘SW “bso ‘aM AM SLMO'T ineso Urge Ss DASUaPRReE neg eN ete PU ‘{go100g qesoxy PUCOO OUST TOGO DUO UOUCT 7. ahd ‘Qepuryy jo weaq 944 “aay ALBA OUT, ** spraeq "4g Jo doystg pi0'y oud, ‘SW “a “bsg ‘werAtA “HL ‘OW “bsg ‘{OoIN "a "Ds SOSPIATSOPY[ MOUPICPL | .. ce eececccsecceuccveesereees “SH ‘sold “STW OUoeg VLA VL “H as | 049 Jo JUepIsorg ‘NOLUNVHLYON JO SINOWVIN onG thet eeeeenereescunrer ‘QBpY JUNOOSTA “Ly ‘ong Jo sinbavyy og, A “SSINVLAYNO]RS 1V901 ‘SLNAGISSYd-F9IA *"SLN3QISayNd xli PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES. ‘Ss v'a af “Sd “OVW “apuog Ss serfenss USS Em nf ‘C'W ‘puvpoy tossayorg SeenON SAnNDS Spd “ST “SCL “ATT CW ‘Auoqned sossojorq } 8" pIOFXO “YOINYO IHD JO ULE “C'C ‘TOPPYT “D "H “AY 410A OL "SO°T ‘Vv nw ce phe? 93.1005) eee eee eee eee eee ee) oe "3" w as ‘aa’ pai0xxXO jo doystq pio0'y ou. ‘Oost ‘18 oune ‘ato Ax0 "Sr s' T eer ener ee eee tweet ew es . be *9880' 0718! 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ACHRGG SOROS Ts, SHU “Sowa “SU “att sew “Ds “PI9Gd0N “WL XTeT “Sa “WW “urared "A “9 tossayorg 5 “@O'M ‘NOLTVO SVIDNOd UIS NIVLdvI ENON EY a0 Lossajoilg suisey “SW “a W “qaeg puvpy eyAq sauey ug gee: eres s* coeara “any “tug 6 TORToaUE SS pivquisg 11g “ada[T09 s[nos ITY JO uapre A “'T'O' ‘aosuy "37 “MA IIS SEP OOnrce Cee eee es eeteseeretes *pIOJXO Jo 1OLB PY ON, "POST ‘8 4snsny ‘uu0axO a *PIOFXO jo AYPSIOATT() OY JO TO[[aouLYO-so1A JY} “Ad OUT, ‘PIOIXO JO AqIs19A1UQ OY} JO AOTJeoUBYO “SW “T'O'A ‘S'U'serd “1'0'C “OrAey pro “WOH WS OL (“NM ‘KUNASTTVS AO SIQOUVN AHL ‘NOH LSOW ouL anyswrey(3 aryong jo gueueqnery- PlOT ‘plqosy4oy pso'yT ‘uo yqsry on ye eon siniei siajeieisieleieime recy ‘pqOFXO, jo doysig P10'T 049 “AT qys1y ouL “Sad “TO'd “py ‘Aroqasoy jo [rey oy} “WOH 4YSTY OUT, ee ei i i ri a 6 ie ei ay “W'W “bsg ‘1o5eN *H “a “WW “bsg ‘soniq "9 “9 ‘VW “bs ‘ourmog ‘9 410q]15 aITYSyIog jo aes Eee poy “OTA “G'O'M ‘osv}UePM PIOT ‘UOH 3q5Iy oN, f Tee te eee eens ce sceeteerenereserseaeeseeerer eet *nroryg 10 AqUnOp oT} JO JULMAINETT-paloTyT “H'W'O'YD ‘Aassoe Jo [req oy ‘uo yYSsry ong, ‘Sa’ wba: ULOSUBY "AM *S*t['09g “y'TL 1a49s0,y JowtorTY Iossajorg ‘df KOU, WoL Ug “SUH PAOTH "YM Tg “UO ISTY OU, ’ ‘ srereseeess+ Urey sULION Jo 1OMUTY OY T, ‘todjog pxoy ‘woH yqsIH ou | ............c08!, See aie £7 SE BCOMON: OCG Ory COBL DOLE DUM soca ee Nhe SIH Fong ur ABopo1skyq Jo sossayorg “AST “SUA “TOT Wwe tg eine nove eis Sve Su Tsiarelactis og/Sis le toric aoe SENTRA ere era = } j "TO AqIsTOaTUQ oy Jo AOTPPoUVYO “H“y ‘oITYsMOAEG Jo oyNG oy) ooWIH si | “ATI “GW “VW ‘NOSUMANVS NOGUN 'S ‘“¢ ‘UC esa Jo ‘qnor]-pxoy ‘suvqry ‘4g JO eXNC oy} coBIH KIEL —_ a il ee | . “bsg ‘SUIeTTITM IaqyIty “V'WW ‘003e9H “H "A JOossojorg OQ" ‘sAMO[N “WT AOssajorg 1896. ] REPORT—1896. TRUSTEES AND GENERAL OFFICERS, 1831—1897. TRUSTEES. 1832-70 (Sir) R. I. MuRcHISON (Bart.), F.R.S. 1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S. ¥832-39 C. BABBAGE, Esq., F.R.S. 1839-44 F. BAILy, Esq., F.R.S. 1844-58 Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S. 1858-82 General E. SABINE, F.R.S. 1862-81 Sir P. EGERTON, Bart., F.R.8. 1872-97 Sir J. LUBBOCK, Bart., F.R.S. 1881-83 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., Pres. RS. 1883-97 Lord RAYLEIGH, F.R.S. 1883-97 Sir Lyon (now Lord) PLAYFAIR, F.RS. GENERAL TREASURERS. W831 JONATHAN GRAY, Esq. 1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Esq, F.R.S. 1862-74 W. SPOTTIsWOODE, Esq., F.RS. | 1874-91 Prof. A.W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S. 1891-97 Prof. A. W. Rickur, F.R.S. GENERAL SECRETARIES. 1852-35 Kev. W. VERNON HARCOURT, F.RB.S. 1835-36 Rev. W. VERNON HARcoURT, F.R.S, and F, Batty, Esq., F.RB.S. 1836-37 Rev. W. VERNON HARcouURT, F.R.S., and R. I. MurcHIsoN, Esq.. F.R.S. 1337-39 R. I. MuRcHIsON, Esq., F.R.S., and Rey. G. Peacock, F.R.S. 1839-45 Sir R. I. Murcutson, F.R.S., and Major E. SABINE. F.R.S. 1845-50 Lieut.-Colonel E. SABINE, F.R.S. 1850-52 General E. SABINE, F.R.S., and J.F. ROYLE, Esgq., F.R.S. 1652-53 J. F. RoYLeE, Esq., F.B.S. 1853-59 General E. SABINE, F.R.S. 7859-61 Prof. R. WALKER, F.R:S. 1896-62 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.RS. 1662-63 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S. 1863-65 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.RS., and F. GALTON, Esca., F.RS. 1865-66 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S. 1866-68 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S., and Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.RB.S. 1868-71 Dr. T. A. Hrgst, F.R.S., and Dr. T. THOMSON, F.R.S. 1871-72 Dr.T. THomson,F.R.S.,and Capt. DOUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S. 1872-76 Capt. DOUGLAS GALTON, F.B.S., and Dr. MICHAEL FostTEr, F.BS. 1876-81 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.B.S., and Dr. P. L. SCLATER, F.B.S. 1881-82 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.B.S., and Prof. F. M. BALFouR, F.RB.S. 1882-83 Capt. DouGLAS GALTON, F.R.S. 1883-95 Sir DouGLAS GALTON, F.RB.S., and A. G. VERNON HARCOURT, Ksq., F.R.S. 1895-97 A. G. VERNON HArcouRtT, Esq., HRS: and ‘Prof, shoe. ScHAFER, F.R.S. ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES. 1631 JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Secretary. 2832 Prof. J. D. Forses, Acting Secretary. 1822-62 Prof JOHN PHILLIPS, F.R:S. 1862-78 G, GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A. 1$78-80 J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A., Assistant Secretary. G. GRIFFITH, Esy., M.A., Acting Secretary. 1881 1881-85 Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.RS. Secretary. 1885-90 A. T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A., Secretary. 1890 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting Secretary. 1890-97 G, GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A. li Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association. Date and Place Presidents Secretaries MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS. 1832. Oxford 1833. Cambridge 1834. Edinburgh 1835. 1836. 1837. 1838, Liverpool... Newcastle 1839. Birmingham 1840. Glasgow ... 1841. Plymouth 1842. Manchester 1843. Cork......... 1844. York......... 1845. Cambridge 1846. Southamp- ‘ ton. 1847. Oxford 1848, Swansea ... 1849. Birmingham 1850, Edinburgh 1851. Ipswich .., ~ 1852. Belfast...... 1853. Hull... Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ...... Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. Rev. H. Coddington. Prof. Forbes. Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd. SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. Rev. Dr. Robinson .......... ..|Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof. Rev. William Whewell, F.2.8. Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., F.R.S. Rey. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S.... Prof. Forbes, F.R.S............. Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S....... Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D., F.R.S. Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.I.A. ... The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. 3... The Very Rey. the Dean of Ely. Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., F.R.S. Rev. Prof. Powell, M.A., F.R.S. Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ..... William Hopkins, F.R.S....... Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S., Sec. R.S.E. W. Whewell, D.D., F.R.S. W. Thomson, ‘ M.A., E.R.S., F.R.S.E. .| The Very Rey. the Dean of Ely, F.B.S. als Wheatstone. Prof, Forbes, W. S. Harris, F. W. Jerrard. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell, Prof. Stevelly. Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine, Prof. Stevelly. J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof. Stevelly. Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly, Arch. Smith. Prof. Stevelly. Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. W. Scoresby. J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly. Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly. Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof, Stevelly, G. G. Stokes. John Drew, Dr. Stokes. Stevelly, G. G. 'Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes. . Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes. Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W. Ridout Wills. W.J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof.Smyth, Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes. 8. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes. |Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran- kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. pee B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt, Prof, Stevelly, J. Welsh. CY hii Date and Place REPORT—1 896. Presidents 1854, Liverpool... 1855. Glasgow ... 1856, Cheltenham 1857. Dublin 1858. Leeds 1859. Aberdeen... 1860. Oxford...... 1861. Manchester 1862. Cambridge 1863. Newcastle 1864. Bath......... 1865. Birmingham 1866. Nottingham 1867. Dundee 1868. Norwich ... 1869, Exeter 1879. Liverpool... 1871. Edinburgh 1872. Brighton... 1873. Bradford ... 1874. Belfast...... 1875. Bristol eoenes 1876. Glasgow 1877. Plymouth... 1878. Dublin 1879. Sheffield ... Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec. B.S. Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S. Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D., F.R.S., M.R.1A. Rev. W. Whewell, D.D., V.P.R.S. The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P., F.R.S. Rey. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S.... G. B. Airy, M.A., D:C.i;, F.R.S. Prof. G. G. Stokes, F.R.S. Prof.W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.E., F.R.S. M.A., Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S., F.R.A.S, Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L., F.R.S. .| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L., F.R.S. Prof de Lyndall; bse, F.RB.S. Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D., E.R.S. J. Clerk Maxwell, LL.D., F.R.S. M.A., Prot. PG. Tait, Hake. iemees W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.B.S. Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, F.R.S. . Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A., M.R.LA. Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A., D.C.L,, F.B.S. Prof. G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S., Pres. Physical Soc. Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. George Johnstone Stoney, ) M.A., F.R.S. Secretaries J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof, Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh. Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof. Tyndall. C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull. Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A. Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Prof. Stevelly. Rev. 8. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy, Prof, Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof. Tyndall. J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, .H, J. 8. Smith, Prof. Stevelly. Rev. G. C. Bell, Rey. T. Rennison, Prof. Stevelly. Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. dw (Ss Smith, Prof. Stevelly. Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly. Rev. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T. Whitley. Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. Stevelly. Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G. S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. S. Smith, J. M. Wilson. Fleeming Jenkin, Prof.H.J.S. Smith, Rev. 8. N. Swann. Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster, Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan. Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley, R. B. Hayward. Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward, W. K. Clifford. Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford, Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen Whitworth. Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley, Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D. Everett, Rev. R. Harley. Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher, Prof, A. 8. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell. Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J. W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S. Herschel. J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel, Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F. Rodwell. Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher, C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell. Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley, Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher, T. Muir. Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley, J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon. Prof. J. Casey, G. I’. Fitzgerald, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge. A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Date and Place lili Presidents Secretaries 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1832. 1833. 1834. 1835. 1836. 1837. 1838. Swansea ... Southamp- ton. Southport Montreal ... Aberdeen... Birmingham Manchester Newcastle- upon-Tyne Leeds Cardiff ...... Edinburgh Nottingham Oxford ...... Ipswich Liverpool... Edinburgh Dublin Bristol ...... Liverpool... Newcastle 1839. Birmingham 1840. 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. Glasgow ... Plymouth... Manchester Cambridge |Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A., || PEO “Ws F.R.S. Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S. Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh, M.A., F.R.S. Prof. O. Henrici, Ph.D., F.B.5. | Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A..,| LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. Prof. G. Chrystal, | F.R.S.E. |Prof. G. H. Darwin, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Prof. Sir R. 8. Ball, M.A., LL.D., F.RB.S. | Prof. G. F.. Fitzgerald, M.A., F.R.S. Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B., R.E., F.R.S. J. W. L. Glaisher, F.R.S., V.P.B.A.S. M.A., Sc.D., Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. Prof. A. Schuster, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S. Prof. A. W. Riicker, M.A., F.RB.S. M. Hicks, M.A., F.R.S. Prof. J. J. Thomson, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister. Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh. W. M. Hicks, Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister, Rev. G. Richardson. W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe. C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, A. John- son, O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister. R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram. |R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw. R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw. R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A. Lodge, W. N. Shaw. R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A. Lodge, W. N. Shaw, H. Stroud. R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge, W. N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud. R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A. Lodge, Prof. A. I. Selby. |. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie. W. T. A. Emtage, J. Larmor, Prof. A. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie. | Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge, J. Walker. Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge, G. T. Walker, W. Watson. Prof. W. H. Heaton, J. L. Howard, Prof. A. Lodge, G. T. Walker, W. Watson. CHEMICAL SCIENCE. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IJ.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY. Oxford...... John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. I PRELO PC sersee = noses seascenccsllaes James F. W. Johnston. Prof. Miller. SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY. | Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ...... Rey. Prof. Cumming Michael Faraday, F.R.S....... Rey. William Whewell,F.R.S. Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ...... Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S. Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. ......... John Dalton, D.C.L., F.B.S. Prof. Apjohn, M.R.I.A......... Prof. T. Graham, F'.R.S. ....:s Rey. Prof. Cumming Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston. ‘Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera- path. \Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr. Reynolds. ‘Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas Richardson. Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson. Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr, T, Clark, Dr. L. Playfair. J. Prideaux, R. Hunt, W. M. Tweedy. Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham. R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny. Dr. L, Playfair, E. Solly, T, H. Barker. |R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof, Miller, H. Solly. liv REPORT—1896. Date and Place Presidents Secretaries 1846. Southamp- ton. 1847. Oxford...... 1848. Swansea ... 1849. Birmingham 1850. Edinburgh 1851. Ipswich ... 1852. Belfast...... 1853. 1854. Liverpool 1855. Glasgow ... 1856. Cheltenham 1857. Dublin...;... 1858. 1859. Aberdeen... | 1860. 1861. Manchester 1862. Cambridge 1863. Newcastle 1864. 1865. Birmingham 1866. Nottingham 1867. Dundee 1868. Norwich ... 1869. Exeter ...... 1870. Liverpool... 1871. Edinburgh 1872. Brighton... | 1873. Bradford... 1874. Belfast...... | 1875. Bristol...... 1876, Glasgow .. 1877. Plymouth... | 1878, Dublin...... . | Prof. -|W. H. Perkin, -F.R.S; ....0... Michael Faraday, D.C.L., RES; Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,) F.R.S. Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ...... John Percy, M.D., F.R.S....... Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. | Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S8. Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S. | Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A., F.R.S. Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.8. Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S. | Prot. Bb. ©.) Brodie, HORS, ... Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA. Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., D.C.L. | Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S. Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S...... | Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S. | Prof. W.H.Miller, M.A.,¥.R.S. | Dr. Alex. W. Williamson, F.R.S. W. Odling, M.B., F-.R.S. Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., AVALON CASy H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S. T. Anderson, F.R.S.E. Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.| M.D..,| Dr. Hy. Debus, Fi Risy. oars: Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A., F.R.S. Prof. T. Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S. Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.... Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S.... Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., F.R.S.E. A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., WOAY Abel) BH RiSierccsccetee ee Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D., Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall. B. C. Brodie, R, Hunt, Prof. Solly. T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams, R. Hunt, G. Shaw. Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson. 'T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward. Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof. Ronalds. H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J. Pearsall. Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr. Price. Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe. J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof. Voelcker. Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul- livan. Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey- nolds. J. S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D. Liveing, Dr. Odling. A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D, Liveing, A. B. Northcote. A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing, H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof. Roscoe. Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C. Stevenson. A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R. Biggs. A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof. Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills. J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J. Russell, J. White. A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing, W. J. Russell. Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus- sell, F. Sutton. Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Russell, Dr. Atkinson. Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher, Dr. W. J. Russell. J.T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T. E. Thorpe. Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr. W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood. Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand- ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe. Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand- ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe. Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler Roberts, W. A. Tilden. .|W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden. Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thomson. W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom- F.R.S. son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T, Wills. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lv Date and Place 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. Presidents Secretaries Sheffield ... Swansea Southamp- ton. Southport Montreal ... Aberdeen... Birmingham | Manchester Newcastle- upon-Tyne Leeds Cardiff ...... Edinburgh Nottingham ee eeee Ipswich Liverpool... ...| Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,' Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S. F.R.S. | Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. |Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,) F.R.S. | | Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S... Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D., | LL.D., F.B.S. Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D., | F.R.S., Sec. C.S. W. Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S. | | Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S8. Prof. W. A. Tilden, F.R.S., V.P.C.S. Sir J. Lowthian Bell, Bart., | D.C.L., F.R.S. D.Sc., B.Sce., Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.8. |Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen, C.B., F.R.S. Prof. H. McLeod, F.R.S8. Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. | Prof. H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S. | Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S. |H. 8. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thomson. P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, W. R, E. Hodgkinson, J. M. Thomson. P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, 'T. Gough. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, J. L. Notter. Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, H. Forster Morley. Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike. Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, H.¥ForsterMorley,Dr.W.J.Simpson, Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, H. Forster Morley, W. W. J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward. Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster Morley, W. Thomson. Prof. H. B. Dixon, H. Forster Morley, R. E. Moyle, W W. J. Nicol. H, Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattinson, jun. C. H. Bothamley, H. Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol. C. H, Bothamley, H. Forster Morley, W. W. J. Nicol, G. 8. Turpin. J. Gibson, H. Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol. J. B. Coleman, M. J. R. Dunstan, D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol. A. Colefax, W. W. Fisher, Arthur Harden, H. Forster Morley. SECTION B (continwed).—-CHEMISTRY. ..| Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. ......! E. H. Fison, Arthur Harden, C. A. Kohn, J. W. Rodger. Arthur Harden, C. A. Kohn GEOLOGICAL (ann, untm 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 1832. Oxford 1833. Cambridge. 1834. Edinburgh . 1835. Dublin 1836. Bristol 1837. Liverpool... 1838. Newcastle. .' 1839. Birmingham R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ..... G. B. Greenough, F.R.S....... Prof, Jameson Rie Dp Grist, jen .ecessessececscenee Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— Geog.,R.I.Murchison,F.R.S. Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.— Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S. C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.— Geography, Lord Prudhoe, Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S. .../John Taylor. W. Lonsdale, John Phillips. J. Phillips, T. J. Torrie, Rev. J. Yates. SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie. William Sanders, 8S. Stutchbury, T. J. Torrie. Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Geo- graphy, Capt. H. M. Denham, R.N. W.C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.— Geography, Capt. Washington. George Lloyd, M.D., H, E. Strick- land, Charles Darwin. lvi REPORT—1896. Date and Place . Glasgow ... 1840 1841. 1842, 1843. 1844. 1845. 1846. 1847. 1848. Plymouth... Manchester Cambridge. Southamp- tor. Oxford Swansea ... 1849. Birmingham 1850. 1851 1852 1853, 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864 Edinburgh! . Ipswich ... . Belfast . Hull see eeeees Liverpool.. Glasgow ... Cheltenham Aberdeen... Oxford... Manchester Cambridge Newcastle Presidents Charles Lyell, F.R.S.—Geo- graphy, G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ... R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ...... Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S., M.R.LA. Henry Warburton, Pres. G. 8. Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A., F.B.S. Leonard Horner, F.R.S.— Geo- graphy, G. B. Greenough, F.K.S. Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S. Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B., F.R.S. Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S., F.G.S. Sir Roderick I. Murchison, F.R.S. SECTION C (continued). William Hopkins,M.A.,F.R.S. Lieut.-Col. F.RB.S. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.........| Prof. Edward Forbes, F,R.S.| Portlock, R.E., Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.... Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S.... The Lord Talbot de Malahide William Hopkins,M.A.,LL.D., F.RB.S. Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S. Prof. Warington W. Smyth, E.R.S., F.G.8. Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.B.S., F.G.S. Secretaries W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh Murray, H. E. Strickland, John Scoular, M.D. W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D., R. Hutton. KE. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R. Lloyd, H. E. Strickland. Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick- land. Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury. Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay, Rev. W. Thorp. Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton, Prof. Oldham.— Geography, Dr. C. T. Beke. Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C. Ramsay, J. Ruskin. Starling Benson, Prof. Prof. Ramsay. J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof. A. C. Ramsay. A, Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller, - Prof. Nicol. Oldham, — GEOLOGY. C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod, Searles Wood. James Bryce, James MacAdam, Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol. Prof. Harkness, William Lawton. John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness, G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall. J. Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof. Nicol. Rey. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep- worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall, T. Wright. 4 Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders, Robert H. Scott. Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W. Shaw. Prof. Harkness, Rey. J. Longmuir, H. C. Sorby. Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt. D. C. L. Woodall. Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T. Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod. Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert Jones, H. C. Sorby. E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C. Sorby, Thomas Sopwith. W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C, Sorby, W. Pengelly. 1 The subject of Geography was separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology, to constitute a separate Section, under the title of the “Geographical and Ethnological Section” in 1850; for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page 1xii. ‘7 3=—e * oes Peer or. «- 5 sf PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Date and Place 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1865. Birmingham Nottingham Dundee Norwich ... Liverpool... Edinburgh Brighton... Bradford ... Belfast...... Bristol...... Glasgow ... Plymouth... Dublin...... Sheffield ... Southamp- ton. Southport Montreal ... Aberdeen .. Birmingham Manchester Newcastle- upon-Tyne Leeds eneee Edinburgh Nottingham Ipswich ... Liverpool... .|Archibald Geikie, F.B.S. .|H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., lvii Presidents Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart., K.C.B. Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,) F.R.S. R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S., F.G.S. Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S., F.G,8. Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S. R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, Prof; J: Phillips, D.C.L.,| F.R.S., F.G.S8. Prof. Hull, 1): ere dg Sah 5 F.G.S. Dr. T. Wright, F.R.S.E., F.G.5. Prof. John Young, M.D. ...... W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S. John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S. Prof. P. M. Duncan, F.R.S. BiG.Ss... | A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S. Prof. W. C. LL.D., F.R.S. We Te Blanford, F.RS., Sec. 8. Williamson, G. .|Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec. | G.S. Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., LL.D., F.RB.S., F.G.S. Henry Woodward, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S8. Prof. J. Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S. Prof. A. H. Green, M.A., FE.R.S., F.G.8. Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., F.G.S. Prof. C. Lapworth, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. J. J. H. Teall, M.A., F.RB.S., F.G.S. L. Fletcher, M.A., F.B.S. W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S. ... Secretaries Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. EK. Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly. R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil- son, G. H. Wright. KE. Hull, W. Pengelly, H. Woodward. Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood. |W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins, Rey. H. H. Winwood. W. Pengeliy, Rev. H. H. Winwood, W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton. R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny Hughes, L. C. Miall. L. C. Miall, George Scott, William Topley, Henry Woodward. L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W. Topley. F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes, R. H. Tiddeman. L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Topley. J.Armstrong,F.W.Rudler,W.Topley. Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde- man, W. Topley. |E. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly, R. H. Tiddeman. |W. Topley, G. Blake Walker. W. Topley, W. Whitaker. J. HE. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley, W. Whitaker. T. W. Shore, W. Topley, EH. West- lake, W. Whitaker. R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top- ley, W. Whitaker. F, Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W. Topley, W. Whitaker. C. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H. Teall, W. Topley. W. J. Harrison, Jied. (H.. Teall Wi. Topley, W. W. Watts. J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top- ley, W. W. Waits. Prof. G. A. Lebour, W. Topley, W. W. Watts, H. B. Woodward. Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W. W. Watts, H. B. Woodward. J. E. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J. E. Marr, W. W. Watts. W. Galloway, J. E. Marr, Clement Reid, W. W. Watts. H. M. Cadell, J. E. Marr, Clement Reid, W. W. Watts. J. W. Carr, J. E. Marr, Clement Reid, W. W. Watts. F. A. Bather, A. Harker, Clement Reid, W. W. Watts. F, A. Bather, G. W. Lamplugh, H. A. Miers, Clement Reid. J. E. Marr, M.A., F.R.S.,|J. Lomas, Prof. H. A. Miers, Clement Sec. G.S. Reid. lviii REPORT—1 896. Date and Place Presidents Secretaries BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY. 1832. Oxford 1833. Cambridge? 1834, Edinburgh. 1835. Dublin 1836. Bristol seeeee 1837. Liverpool... 1838. Newcastle 1839. Birmingham 1840. Glasgow ... 1841. Plymouth... 1842. Manchester 1843. Cork Serer ry 1844, York......... 1845, Cambridge 1846. Southamp- ton. 1847. Oxford aeeeee |Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ...| Rev. Prof. J. 8. Henslow. Rey. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S. C. C. Babington, D. Don. |Prof. Graham |W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett. eee e wate eseereeesesee SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. Dr AUN AT osc cteesenseccessnccs ‘J. Curtis, Dr. Litton. Rev. Prof. Henslow ...........5 J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, 8. Rootsey. Wi SS) Macleay ....:2.0-ssceees C. C. Babington, Rey. L. Jenyns, W. | Swainson. Sir W. Jardine, Bart. ......... J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen, | Dr. Richardson, Prof Owen, FURS. <.. access 'E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson. Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D....... Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat- terson. John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.| J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson. Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her- Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A. bert, LL.D., F.L.S. | Turner. William Thompson, F.L.S.....G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R. | Patterson. Very Rev. the Dean of Man- Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King, chester. | Dr. Lankester. Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S..., Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston. Sir J. Richardson, M.D., Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H. F.R.S. | Wooldridge. H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S. Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V. Wollaston. SECTION D (continued).—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY. [For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Sub- sections and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. Ixi.] 1848. Swansea .. 1849, Birmingham 1850. Edinburgh 1851. Ipswich 1852. Belfast 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856, Liverpool. f Glasgow ... Cheltenham 1857. Dublin ») Lu. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S.......05. .../Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A., Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen- frey, Dr. Lankester. | Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell, Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan- kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan. Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E. Lankester. | Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr. Edwin Lankester. Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester. Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester. Rev. Dr, Fleeming, F.R.S.E. | William Keddie, Dr. Lankester. Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S8.| Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman, | Dr. Lankester. Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D., Prof.J.R.Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester, F.R.S. Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele. William Spence, F.R.S. ....../ Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E. F.R.S. Wie CUD Yi itioss vsceresscscses C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S. Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S.... 1 At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee, for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. 1xi. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lix Date and Place 1858. Leeds ...... 1859. Aberdeen... 1860. Oxford...... 1861. Manchester 1862. Cambridge 1863. Newcastle 1864. Bath......... 1865. Birming- ham ! 1866. Nottingham 1867. Dundee 1868. Norwich ... 1869. Exeter...... 1870. Liverpool... 1871. Edinburgh. Presidents Secretaries | iC. GC. Babington, M.A., F.R.S. Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E. | Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wricht. Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E. Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester, | Dr. Ogilvy. Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S.... W. 8. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P. | L.Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright. Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S8.' Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr. | | P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright. | Prof. Huxley, F.R.S._......... Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright. |Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S.... Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H, | B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright. Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S. ... H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T. Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright. 'T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev. H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright. SECTION D (continued), —BIOLOGY. Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.—Dep.|Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H. of Physiol., Prof. Humphry,| 3B. Tristram, W. Turner, HE. B. ¥.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,| Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright. A. R. Wallace. ...| Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.|C. Spence Bate, Dr. S. Cobbold, Dr. —Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,| M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev. George Busk, M.D., F.R.S. | H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner. Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr. —Dep. of Physiology, W.| M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H.T. H. Flower, F.R.S. Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright. George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster, —Dep. of Bot. and Zool.,| EH. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson, C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.— H. T,. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris- Dep. of Ethno., E. B. Tylor.| tram. Prof.G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans, F.R.S., F.L.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H. Anat. and Physiol.,Prof.M.| T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram, Foster, M.D., F.L.S.—Dep.| C. Staniland Wake, HE. Ray Lan- of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S. kester. Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,|Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee, 1872. Brighton ... 1873. Bradford ... 1 The title of F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and| HE. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson, Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,| H.T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake, F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,| Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne Prof. W. Turner, M.D. King, Sir J. Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.— | Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton, Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,| Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H. Dr. Burdon Sanderson,| Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, HE. Ray F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,| Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith. Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S8. Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson, Anat.and Physiol.,Prof.Ru-| BR. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E. therford, M.D.—Dep.ofAn-| Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J. thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.|_ H. Lamprey. Section D was changed to Biology; and for the word ‘Sub- ‘section,’ in the rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word ‘Depart- ment’ was substituted. lx Date and Place REPORT— 1896, Presidents Secretaries 1874. Belfast....., 1875, Bristol 1876. Glasgow ... 1877. 1878. 1879. Sheffield ... 1880. Swansea ... 1881. 1882. Southamp- ton.! 1883. Southport * 1884. Montreal ... 1885. Aberdeen... Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker, C.B.,Pres.R.S.—Dep. of An- throp., Sir W.R. Wilde, M.D. P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of Anat. and Physiol., Prof. Cleland, F.R.s.-—Dep. of Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston, F.R.S. A. Russel Wallace, F.L.S.— Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,| Prof. A. Newton, F.R.S.— Dep. of Anat. and Physiol., Dr. J. G. McKendrick, F.R.S.E. ; Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S.—| Dep. of Anat. and Physiol., Prof. Macalister.—Dep. of Anthropol.,F.Galton,F.R.S. Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.— | Dep. of Anthropol., Prof. Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.| of Anat. and Physiol. B.| McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S. | Prof. St. George Mivart,| F.R.S.-—Dep. of Anthropol., E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.B.S. | —Dep. of Anat. and Phy- siol., Dr. Pye-Smith. A. C. L. Giinther, M.D., F.R.S. | —Dep. of Anat. and Phy-| siol., F. M. Balfour, M.A., F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol., F. W. Rudler, F.G.S. Richard Owen, C.B., F.R.S. —Dep. of Anthropol., Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.— Dep. of Anat. and Physiol., Prof. J. 8. Burdon Sander- son, F.R.S8. Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S. | ~-Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,| Prof. M. A. Lawson, F.L.S. —Dep. of Anthropol., Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,. F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropal., | W. Pengelly, F.R.S. J. Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A., F.RB.S. Prof. W. C. M‘Intosh, M.D., W.T. Thiselton-Dyer, R. 0. Cunning- ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W. Rudler. E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W. Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr. W. Spencer. E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr. ~ Knox, Prof. W. KR.) M‘Nab; Dr, Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat- son. E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J. Cunningham, Dr. C, A. Hingston, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler. Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M. Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler. Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof. Schafer. s G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley, Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg- wick, G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev. W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, W. North, John Priestley, Howard Saunders, H. E. Spencer. G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B. Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg- wick, T. W. Shore, jun. G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam, W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M. Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr. G. A. Woods. Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, A. Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright. W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson, LL.D., F.R.S. F.R.8.E. J. Duncan Matthews, Howard Saunders, H. Marshall Ward. * The Departments of Zoology and Botany and of Anatomy and Physiology were amalgamated. * Anthropology was made a separate Section, see p. lxviii. ———— PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lxi Date and Place Presidents | Secretaries 1886. Birmingham|W. Carruthers, Pres. L.8., Prof. T. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. F.RB.S., F.G.8. | W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof, H. Marshall Ward. Manchester | Prof, A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S., C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, S. F. Har- BES. Web Zen: | mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater, | Prof. H. Marshall Ward. BAG oeciess cos W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G., F. E. Beddard,:S. F. Harmer, Prof. F.RB.S., F.L.S. H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner, Prof. W. D. Halliburton. Newcastle - | Prof. J. 8S. Burdon Sanderson, C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, S. F. Har- upon-Tyne| M.A., M.D., F.R.S. mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar- shall Ward. Leeds ...... Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,|S. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 8. J. Hickson, F. W. Oliver, H. Wager, H. Marshall Ward. F. E. Beddard, Prof. W. A. Herdman, Cardiff ....., Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B.,| Dr. S.J. Hickson, G. Murray, Prof. F.R.S., F.L.S. W.N. Parker, H. Wager. G. Brook, Prof. W. A. Herdman, G. Edinburgh |Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D.,) Murray, W. Stirling, H. Wager. E.R.S., F.R.S.E. G. C. Bourne, J. B. Farmer, Prof. 1893. Nottingham' Rev. Canon H. B. Tristram,) W. A. Herdman, §. J. Hickson, 1894. 1895. 1896. 1833. 1834, 1835. 1836. 1837. 1838. 1839. 1840. 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844, 1845. | M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. W. B. Ransom, W. L. Sclater. W. W. Benham, Prof. J. B. Farmer, Oxford? ...| Prof. I. Bayley Balfour, M.A.,) Prof. W A. Herdman, Prof. S. J. F.R.S. Hickson, G. Murray, W. L. Sclater. SECTION D (continwed).—zZOOLOGY. Ipswich ...)Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.8.|G. C. Bourne, H. Brown, W. E. Hoyle, W. L. Sclater. Oe ee E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. bree O. Forbes, W. Garstang, W. E. Hoyle. ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. Cambridge |Dr.J. Haviland................0. |Dr. H. J. H. Bond, Mr. G. E. Paget. Edinburgh | Dr. Abercrombie .....-......... |Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson. SECTION E (UNTIL 1847).—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE. Dublin ...... Drid..@: Pritchard. ...34....4 Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart. Bristol ...... Dr. P. M. Roget, F.R.S. ......| Dr. Symonds. Liverpool..,|/ Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ......... Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long, Dr. J. R. W. Vose. Newcastle |T. E. Headlam, M.D. ......... T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose. Birmingham|John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S....} Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland. Glasgow ...|James Watson, M.D. ......... Dr.J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof. Reid. SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY. Plymouth...|P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. |Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. S. Sargent. ' Manchester | Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.|Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. S. Sargent. WOK sesscenns Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ...|Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. Worlace. i. J. ©. Pritchard, M.D. ......... I. Erichsen, Dr. R. S. Sargent. Cambridge | Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ...... Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster, 1 Physiology was made a separate Section, see p. Ixviii. 2 The title of Section D was changed to Zoology. xii REPORT—1896. | Date and Place | Presidents Secretaries Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ... iC. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar- 1846. Southamp- | ton. gent. 1847. Oxford! ...|Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......|Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P. | | Ormerod. PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D. 1850. Edinburgh | Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E. | 1855. Glasgow ...|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. | Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers. 1857. Dublin...... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ...... Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof, Redfern. 1858. Leeds ...... Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,)C. G. Wheelhouse. F.R.S. 1859. Aberdeen... | Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.|Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern. 1860. Oxford...... Prof.G.Rolleston,M.D.,F.L.S. | Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith. 1861. Manchester | Dr. John Davy, F.R.S. L.& E.|Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith. 1862. Cambridge |G. E. Paget, M.D.............+65 G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith. 1863. Newcastle |Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.|Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner. 1864. Bath......... Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D.,|J. 8. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner. F.RS. 1865. Birming- | Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,)/Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop, ham.” F.RB.S. | Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner. GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES. [For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section OC, p- lv.] ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D. 1846.Southampton) Dr. J. C. Pritchard ............ Dr. King. 1847. Oxford ...... Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. ...| Prof. Buckley. MS pS NVARHSCre Berl beuacpesces cn sciesneensrea: |/Dr: A. Ho HiSOn 2. .:cehvarsee=ses- Colour. 1896. Liverpool... | Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S....| The Earth a Great Magnet. lxxiii OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE LIVERPOOL MEETING. SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE, President.— Professor J. J. Thomson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A., F.R.S. ; Prof. W. M. Hicks, F.R.S. ; Lord Kelvin, F.R.S.; Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc., F.R.S, ; Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S. Secretaries.—Prof. W. H. Heaton, M.A.; J..L. Howard, D.Sc.; Prof. A. Lodge, M.A. (Recorder) ; G. T. Walker, M.A.; W. Watson, B.Sc. SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. President.—Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Sir F. Abel, F.R.S.; Prof. J. Campbell Brown ; Prof J. Dewar, F.R.S.; Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S. ; A, G. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S.; E. K. Muspratt, Esq. ; Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R.S. ; . Sir H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S. ; Dr. T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S. Secretaries.—Arthur Harden, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Recorder); C. A. Kohn, Ph.D., B.Sc. SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. President.—J. E. Marr, M.A., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. ; Sir Wm. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.; G. H. Morton ; J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S.; W. W. Watts, M.A. Secretaries.—J. Lomas, F.G.S8.; Prof. H. A. Miers, M.A. ; Clement Reid, F.L.S. (Recorder). SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY. President.—Professor E. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S. ; Rev. Canon Tristram, F.R.S.; Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.RB.S. . Secretaries.—Dr. H. O. Forbes ; Walter Garstang, M.A. ; W. E. Hoyle, M.A. (Recorder). SECTION E,—GEOGRAPHY. ' President.—Major L. Darwin, Sec.R.G.S. Vice-Presidents.—J ohn Coles, F.R.A.S. ; Admiral Sir Erasmus Ommanney, C.B., F.R.S. ; Sir Lambert Playfair, K.C.M.G. ; E. G. Ravenstein ; P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.; Coutts Trotter ; Horace Waller. lxxiv REPORT—1896. Secretaries.—Col. F. Bailey, Sec.S.G.8. ; H. N. Dickson, F.R.S.E. ; Hugh Robert Mill, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. (Recorder) ; E. C. Du Bois Phillips. SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS, President.—The Rt. Hon. Leonard Courtney, M.P.? Vice-Presidents. —= Prof. W. Cunningham, D. ee ; Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, A A.;* D.O.L, 5 do Bs Martin, “MACs tea. Price, Wika Rathbone, LL. D. Secretaries—E. Cannan, M.A.; Professor E. C. K. Gonner, M.A. (Recorder) ; W. A. 8S. Hewins, M.A. ; H. Higgs, LL.B. SECTION NCE. President.—Sir Douglas Fox, Vice-President Inst.C.E. Vice-Presidents.—Sir B. Baker, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.; J. W. Barry, C.B., F.R.S. ; H. P. Boulnois; G. F. Deacon ; Prof. L. F. Vernon Har- court, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. ; Prof. H. 8. Hele-Shaw. Secretaries.—Professor T. Hudson Beare, F.R.S.E. (Recorder) ; Conrad W. Cooke ; S. Dunkerley ; W. Bayley Marshall, M.Inst.C.E. SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. President. —Arthur J. Evans, F.S.A. Vice-Presidents.—Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S. ; Prof. A. Macalister, M.D., F.R.S.; R. Munro, M.D. ; De O. Montelius ; Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie, DiCia 7 Ca. Read, F.S.A.; Sir Wm. Tur ner, F.R.S. Secretaries.—Prof. A. C. Medion, MAYS Ji. eee M.A. Pane) : Prof. A. M. Paterson, M.D. SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY, President.—W. H. Gaskell, M.D., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—R. Caton, M. D.: Prof. F. Gotch, F.R.S.; Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., D.C.L., Pres. RS. ; Prof. Burdon Sanderson, M.D., F.BS.; ; Prof. KE. A. Schiifer, F.RS. Secretaries. Prob Rubert Boyce, M.B. (Recorder) ; Prof. C. 8. Sherring- ton, F.R.S. SECTION K,—BOTANY. President.—D. H. Scott, M.A., Ph.D., F.B.S. Vice-Presidents.—Professor Bayley Balfour, M.A., F.R.S.; Professor F. O. Bower, F.R.S.; F. Darwin, F. RS. ; W.T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.MLG.,-C.T. E,, F.R. S.: 5 Prog. Marshall Ward: F.R.S. Secretaries pas aaa ‘Gisaon, M.A.; A.C. Seward, M.A.; Prof. F. E. Weiss (Recorder), 1 Mr. Courtney was unable to attend the Meeting. OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1896-97. PRESIDENT. SIR JOSEPH LISTER, Barr., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres.R.S. VICE-PRESIDENTS. The Right Hon. the Eant oF DrerBy,G.0.B., Lord | THE PRINCIPAL of See College, Liverpool. Mayor of Liverpool. W. RaTuBons, Bsq., LL D The Right Hon. the EArt or Serron, K.G., Lord- | W. Crooxss, Esq., ERS. Lieutenant of Lancashire. T. H. Ismay, Esq., J.P., D.L. Sir W. B. Forwoop, J.P. Professor A, LIVERSIDGE, F.R.S. Sir Henry E, Roscon, D.C.L., F.R.S. PRESIDENT ELECT, Sir JOHN EVANS, K.O.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Treasurer of the Royal Society of London. VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. His Excellency the Right Hon. the Earn or } The Hon. LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR of the Province ABERDEEN, Governor-General of the Dominion of Ontario. of Oanada. The Hon. the MINISTER OF EpuUCcATION for the The Bight Hon. the Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A,, Province of Ontario. D.O.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Hon. Sir OHARLES TUPPER, Bart., G.C.M.G. The Right Hon. the Lorp KELVIN, M.A., D.O.L., | Sir WiLL14aM Dawson, O.M.G., F.R.S. E. Professor J. Loupon, M.A., Tare D., President of His Honour WirFrrRED LAuRIER, Prime Minister the University of "Toronto. of the Dominion of Canada. GENERAL SECRETARIES. A. G. VERNON Harcourt, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres.C.S., Cowley Grange, Oxford. Professor E, A. SC HAFER, F.R.S. ” University College, London, W.C, ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY. G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., College Road, Harrow, Middlesex. GENERAL TREASURER. Professor ARTHUR W. RiickER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W. LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT TORONTO. Professor A. B. MACALLUM, M.B., Ph.D. | B. E. WaLkkr, Esq. ALAN MACDOUGALL, Esq., M.Inst. C.E. | J.S. WILLISON, Esq. LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT TORONTO. JAMES BaIn, Jun., Esq. | Professor R. RAMSAY WRIGHT, M.A., B.Sc. ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL, ANDERSON, Dr. W., C.B., F.R.S. ‘ Preece, W. H., Esq., O.B., F.R.S. Boys, Professor C. VERNON, F.R.S. RAMSAY, Professor W., F.R.S. OREAK, Oaptain E. W., F.R.S. REYNOLDS, Professor J. EMERSON, M.D»,. EpDGEWORTH, Professor F. Y., M.A. F.R.S. FOXWELL, Professor H.§., M.A. SuHaw, W.N., Esq., F.R.S. Harcourt, Professor L. FR, VERNON, M.A. Symons, G. J., Esq., F.R.S. HERDMAN, Professor W.A.,, F.R.S. TEALL, J. J. H., Esq., F.R.S. Hopxinsov, Dr. J., F.B.S. THISELTON-Dygr, W. T., Esq., C.M.G., F.R.S.. HORSLEY, Vie TOR, Esq., F.R.S. THOMSON, Professor J. M., F.R.S.E. LonpGE, Professor ‘OLIVER J., F.R.S. TyLor, Professor E. B., F.R.S. Mark, J. E., Esq., F.B.S. UNWIN, Professor W.C., F.R.S. MELDOLA, Professor R., F.R.S. “4 VINES, Professor S. H., F.R.S. Povtoy, Professor E. B., F.R.S. WARD, Professor MARSHALL, F.R.S. EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years, the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer an@ Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting. TRUSTEES (PERMANENT), The Right Hon. Sir Jonn Lussock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. The Right Hon. Lord Raye, M.A., D.C.L., Ue a0 Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S. The Right Hon. Lord PLAYFAIR, K.0.B., Ph.D. LED, ERS. PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS, The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T. Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. | Sir Frederick Abel, Bart. ae ca 8. Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., Sec.R.S. Dr. Wm. Huggins, D.C. Ti RS. Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K SI. Lord Playfair, K.C. Fy "Fr. HS e Sir Archibald Geikie, LL. D., . R. = Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart. +, F.R.S. Sir Wm. Dawson, C. 1G. es S. | Prof.J.S.Burdon Sanderson, RS Lord Kelvin, LL. D., F.R.S. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D. 0. L., nis i whe Marquis of Salisbury, K. G., ip F.R.S. Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S, Sir F. J. Bram well, Bart., F.R.S. Prof, Allman, M.D., F.R.S. Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B.,F.R.S. | Sir Douglas Galton, K.O.B., F.R.S. GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS. F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. G. Griffith, Esq., M.A. Prof, T. G. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S. Prof, Michael Foster, Sec.R.S. P. Ti. Sclater, ¥sq., Ph.D., F.R.S. | Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S, Sir Douglas Galton, K.0.B. FBS. AUDITORS. Ludwig Mond, Esq., F.R.S. | Jeremiah Head, Esq., M.Inst.0.E. | Professor H. McLeod, F.R.S. lxxvi REPORT—1896. Dr. 1895-96. THE GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT, RECEIPTS. £ 8 dd. Balance broughs Morwards co.cc... sccosescsrescscssqusestennsideet eae 1621 19 11 iferComposibions uh eecseet het ece scenester scecsvenehcccsesesanseteorte 200 0 0 New Annual Members’ Subscriptions ............scececseecsceeeees 76 0 0 Annual Sibscriptions).yet. ts. 4eeeskee te eeee ease sen ch <> ssssseseens cos 541 0 O SaleiofAssociates’ Tickets 2.20. 0e.er.ccesOitsncsedevcss socesencense 487 0 0 Sale 6f Ladies” Tickets. wvavnwaqecgshacetwesiyh onsecccuccsscwevceescee 261 0 0 Sale.of Index, ASGIE OO ye ucein ose ssines aapashe snctdssavetts mesat='ashtecw 1813 9 Sale of other Publieations...... acscecssceccss-Padivenetstecskacedetes 136 18 8 Interest on Deposit at Ipswich Bank ...............c.scececeneeees 10 4 0 Interest on Mxchequer Billi: «tess. sccussczvccesceseperetveate Menthe 913 4 Dividends onWonsgols) sic aes .b «vad hands eceetees ce tuloel. Mat ast 200 7 4 Dividends on India 3 per Cents ............ssecsecececcsevcsececees 104 8 O Unexpended Balances of Grants returned :— Committee on North-Western Tribes of Canada £76 15 0 Committee on New Sections of Stonesfield Slate 26 7 6 Committee on Erratic Blocks ...... sayecdhwsngsees ces 210 6 Committee for Comparison of Magnetic Stand- ALAS ic acaseunesacass tates cammmeeaare neces erent cetdates 0 4 8 ————. 10517 3 ye e Lee 4 va £3773 2 3 ie Investments £ s, d. June 295 189% Consols. ic... cosccantassencah meen se nwar espe aaelatets 7537 3 India ‘3 per Cents) 2..see:,-2¢--ssosessdear-peeees 3600 0 0 £11,137 3 5 ae ee eS Lupwic Monp, ‘ BE, FRANKLAND, } Auditors. GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. lxxvii from July 1, 1895, to June 30, 1896. Or. 1895-96. PAYMENTS. ees EE Expenses of Ipswich Meeting, including Printing, Adver- tising, Payment of Clerks, &c. ......... evstidetnenah ccevanscaeaeret 148 10 5 Rent and Office Expenses ............ Bb 2 MalaMESiavecostesh see seecectveduscpesecs 0 0 Printing, Binding, &c. .............. 5 4 Payment of Grants made at Ipswich: s. d. Photographs of Meteorological Phenomena .. 00 Seismological Observations............ccceceeeee 0 0 Abstracts of Physical Papers...... 0 0 Calculation of Certain Integrals 0 0 Uniformity of Size of Pages of Transactions, kc. ...... 5 0 0 Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements .... 10 0 0 Action of Light upon Dyed Colours.............00000% oe 2 NT Electrolytic Quantitative Analysis ..............eseeee 10 0 0 The Carbohydrates of Barley Straw ............se00s 50.0 0 Reprinting Discussion on the Relation of Agriculture to SELGNCEI rc. crop telaiolaira chsiail aiktplotavalete siclalexcle aces) siccere sie 5 0 0 Erratic Blocks...... 10 0 0 Paleozoic Phyllopoda ........ &.0 40 Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, &e. 10 0 0 Eurypterids of the Pentland Hills..... 200 Investigation of a Coral Reef by Boring and Sounding... 10 0 0 Examination of Locality where the Cetiosaurus in the Oxford Museum was found....,.. Sc.dtr botidnopccradcs 25 0 0 Paleolithic Deposits at Hoxne .............- ce eeeeee ae De 40 Fauna of Singapore Caves .......sseesescesececes oe 40,0 0 Age and Relation of Rocks near Moreseat, Aberdeen .... 10 0 0 Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ..... a Aer- etree 190 0 0 Schafer, Professor. ae va logical Effects of PPERPR and its Precursors ....... ’ : = 20 0 0 oS Farmer, Professor J. B.—Fertilisation in Pheophycee ...... 20 -0 0 Corresponding Sozieties. *Meldola, Professor R.—Preparation of Report ............0080+ 25 0 0 £1,355 0 0 * Reappointed. The Annual Meeting in 1897. The Meeting at Toronto, Canada, will commence on Wednesday, August 18. The Annual Meeting in 1898. The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1898 will be held at Bristol. The Annual Meeting in 1899. The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1899 will be held at Dover. ~ xevli General Statement of Sums which have been paid on acocunt of Grants for Scientific Purposes. 1834. £ 8. d. Tide Discussions ......- spaces 20 0 0 1835 Tide Discussions .........+0++++ 62 0 0 British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0 Zot OFr0 1836. Tide Discussions .........++++++ 163 0 O British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0 Thermometric Observations, Raed en we cet aaddedesaterctecesse 50 0 0 Experiments on Long-con- tintled Heat .2......cecesveees WGA (0) Rain-gauges ..........s.s00 Rama S! 0 Refraction Experiments ...... 15 0 0 Lunar Nutation...............+6+ 60 0 0 Thermometers ........2...00000 15 6 0 £435 O O 1837. Tide Discussions .............4. 284 1 0 Chemical Constants ............ 2413 6 Lunar Nutation.................. 70 0 0 Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0 Tides at Bristol .....,....2.......' 150 0 0 Meteorology and Subterra- nean Temperature............ 93 3 0 Vitrification Experiments 150 0 0 Heart Experiments ............ 8 4 6 Barometric Observations ...... 30 0 0 IBSAROIMELETS yu Jet'sse se Usvssiveccecs 1118 6 £922 12 6 1838. Tide Discussions ............... 29 0 0 British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 O Meteorological Observations and Anemometer (construc- PHDED actrubesswe Neh ctseetts vets 100 0 0 Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0 Animal and Vegetable Sub- stances (Preservation of)... 19 1 10 Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10 BVIStol Tides ....siacsvcoscsse -embOIgO 0 Growth of Plants ............... 750 «0 Mud in Rivers ............00008 3 6 6 Education Committee ......... 50 0 9 Heart Experiments ........., so Bred 10 Land and Sea Level............ 267 8 7 Steam-vessels............s.c0ce008 100 0 O Meteorological Committee 31 9 56 £932 2 2 1896. 1839. £ / 8. Fossil Ichthyology .........+8. 110 0 Meteorological Observations at Plymouth, &C. ......00.+0. 63 10 Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2 BrIshOl) Tides .2..cecssseessepneoss 35 18 Meteorology and Subterra- nean Temperature........,..+ 21 11 Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 Cast-iron Experiments......... 103 0 Railway Constants .........:.. 28 7 Land and Sea Level............ 274 1 Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 171 18 Stars in Lacaille .............:. ll 0 Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue 166 16 Animal Secretions.........+... . 1010 Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 Atmospheric Air) .......s006+es awed Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3.0 Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 Hourly Meteorological Ob- servations, Inverness and Kane uSsiejjeasc-pencesscseee sass 49 7 Fossil Reptiles .......00s0-+.:-+ 118 2 Mining Statistics ............... 50 0 £1595 11 1840. Bristol Wiles eecacdssacersuceese- 100 0 Subterranean Temperature... 13 13 Heart Experiments ............ 18 19 Lungs Experiments ............ 8 13 Tide Discussions ............+0« 50 O Land and Sea Level....... carers para Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 Stars @lacaille) 7 c..ss+..ssrosee 415 Stars (Catalogue) ............06 264 0 Atmospheric Air ............... 15 15 Water on ItOn earusassa:-seencss 10 0 Heat on Organic Bodies ...... T 10 Meteorological Observations. 52 17 Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 Working Population............ 100 0 School Statistics ............... 50 0 Forms of Vessels ..........00.++ 184 7 Chemical and Electrical Phe- MOMGHAL te daevasnocereste sates aes 40 0 Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ........ssessseee - 80 0 Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 £1546 16 coofscomosoRNSONOSO aco Of o1owvn jm] Ooo © COOOSSBeooococrooosanco f REPORT—1896. XcVill 1841. £3) Aa: Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 O Meteorology and Subterra- nean Temperature..........+- 8 8 Q ACHINOMETETS)...0220002cese0s00e = LOO 0 Earthquake Shocks ..... 50 0h eh MY) PNCTIG SE OLSOU Sere tase caters on eecls or OO Veins and Absorbents ......... De OmO GT cEnVETS i irra. seisassecestses em OPEN) Marine Zoology .......ssceesseeee 1512 8 Skeleton Maps ..........sseesees 20 0 0 Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6 Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 185 0 0 Stars (Lacaille)...............00« 79 56 O Stars (Nomenclature of)..... pe wele(ait). Stars (Catalogue of) ...........6 40 0 0 VEEL OMUITON cmascodacteasn sss 50 0 0 Meteorological Observations SUP PAVETIESS tireratmsccaresee es 20 0 0 Meteorological Observations @eduction Ob) <....0..c.c.s-- 25 0 0 Fossil Reptiles’ ........ssecs.csee 50 0 O Foreign Memoirs ........ ss... 62 0 6 Railway Sections ..........06. 2) S850 Forms of Vessels <...tsesecsoss 193 12 0 Meteorological Observations BME lyINGUU! oy stestasecteesse es 55 0 0 Magnetical Observations...... 6118 8 Fishes of the Old Red Sand- ALONE Mirerenesletvedse ascsin amis sorees LOOP IO) 20 AGES tat CI LY Yocs aes ceces tees 50 0 0 Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10 Tabulating Observations ...... 90 iGianes IRACESTOLAMCN «<2. ORO Radiate Animals ............... 2 O40 £1235 10 11 1842, Dynamometric Instruments... 113 11 2 Anoplura Britanniz ............ 5212 0 Tides at Bristol ................. be Ja 0) Gases on Light ...............006 30 14 7 Chronometers.......00....ssse0e as) 20) L416 Marine Zoology.........ceececeee 15 RO British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 O Statistics of Education......... 20 0 0 Marine Steam-vessels’ En- CAN GS Oh arvsesschpanieseccrrsevsss sic 28 0 0 Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 0 0 Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0 Railway Sections .............6. i61 10 0 British Belemnites ............ 50 0 O Fossil Reptiles (publication GEAREPOND) i ccscsersssedseavsencs 210 0 0 HORMSLODe VESBEIS wesseut secure es 180 0 0 Galvanic Experiments on IM GIOES) Aiadsne SCALE Ceecereeen 5 8 6 Meteorological, Experiments AUC NGTIOUUM) sparaesaceseree ace 68 0 0 Constant Indicator and Dyna- mometric Instruments...... 90 0 0O £ 8. de Force of Wind ..........+0+ Totes 31009 (0540 Light on Growth of Seeds .... 8 O O Vital Statistics .............0. awe OO 6) 10 Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11 Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O £1449 17 8 1843. Revision of the Nomenclature ORISHONSE cs aecssceaesecsvsas secs 2-0 0 Reduction of Stars, British Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 0 Anomalous Tides, Firth of HOPG ay ccc cbisetes och toeaces .. 120 0 0 Hourly Meteorological Obser- vations at Kingussie and IMVEINESS) .scccseasccecscvenees Ih 1208 Meteorological Observations at) Plymouth | ..:.0s0.5s Pena. 55 0. 0 Whewell’s Meteorological Ane- mometer at Plymouth ...... 10. 70%40 Meteorological Observations, Osler’s Anemometer at Ply- POM Maw sc.'c.soescssensccvcsrese 20 0 O Reduction of Meteorological Observations ...........seee0s . 80 0 0 Meteorological Instruments and Gratuities .......... 39 6 O Construction of Anemometer At IMVerness, «s.scsseesnsscues 5612 2 Magnetic Co-operation......... 10 8 10 Meteorological Recorder for Kew Observatory ....... eceonnan 0 Action of Gases on Light...... 18 16 1 Establishment at Kew Ob- servatory, Wages, Repairs, Furniture, and Sundries... 183 4 7 Experiments by Captive Bal- UGOMS ews .-.sesscascarteciued 81 8 0 Oxidation of the Rails "of Rall WAY S.e..ncdcessetesccaseae 20 0 0 Publication of Report on Fossil Reptiles .............05 40 0 0 Coloured Drawings of Rail- way Sections .........s0ss0 « 14718 3 Registration of Earthquake SOCKS). janice sce ees seeker cree 30 0 0 Report on Zoological ‘Nomen- GIALUEC. pe aaccueeatcamecrenecees 10 0 0 Uncovering Lower Red Sand- stone near Manchester...... 44 6 Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 3 8 Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 0 0 Marine Zoology .......ssseeseee. . 10 0 0 Marine Zoology .........++ seecese’) 02 MEL Preparation of Report on Bri- tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0 0 Physiological Operations of Medicinal Agents ............ 20 0 0 Vital Statistics .....00000 36 5 8 eon ae 100 0 O Computation of the Gaussian Constants for 1829 ......... BUA OO Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory 146 16 7 Strength of Materials ......... 60 0 0 Researches in Asphyxia ...... 616 2 Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 0 Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 215 10 Vitality of Seeds .........1845 712 3 Marine Zoology of Comwall 10 0 0 Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 0 Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0 O Expenses attending Anemo- MU BLOTA te dacinvicscaics cease desea so | Anemometers’ Repairs ebeemenne 23 6 Atmospheric Waves ............ 3.3 3 Captive Balloons ......... 18¢4, 8 19 S Varieties of the Human Race 1844 7 6 3 S‘atistics of Sickness and Mortality in York............ 12 0 0 £685 16 O ¢c 1847. £ 8s. a Computation of the Gaussian Constants for 1829....,....++. 50 0 0 Habits of Marine Animals... 10 0 0 Physiological Action of Medi- PINGS) creseateessseceoessavene ss 20). 0. 0 Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0 Atmospheric Waves ........++++ Ging Oh fads Vitality of Seeds .........-...-+ BA el Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6 £208 5 4 1848. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 ith Atmospheric Waves ........-... 3) 10 29 Vitality of Seeds ............... 9, 15; 10 Completion of Catalogue of SEATS a pecodeaaess s sacs sa taacarses 70 0 0 On Colouring Matters ......... D0, 0 On Growth of Plants ......... 1d, Oe 0 £275 1 8 1849. Electrical Observations at Kew Observatory ............ 50 0 O Maintaining the Establish- MEMO Ab ATELY. cose snceaeenses% G6! 2) 15 Vitality of Seeds ............... be Beall On Growth of Plants ......... 5! OPO Registration of Periodical ANS MOM EMA ccsiceosue tomes erie 10 0 0 Bill on Account of Anemo- metrical Observations ...... ib S970 £159 19 6 1850. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0 Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0 0 Periodical Phenomena......... 5s 10neO Meteorological Instruments, PAZOVES Pesce eipiee saclenewreecicians 25 0 0 £345 18 O 1851. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory (includes part of grant in RAD) Re esharcsessenngasasssey es 309 Mheory of Heati.............00. 20) Periodical Phenomena of Ani- INAS ANCE LAS ce cccecenness 5 0 0 Witality.of Seeds ...........2... 5 6 4 Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0 Ethnological Inquiries......... 12) 0) 0 Researches or Annelida ...... 107-0720 £391 9 7 REPORT—1896. 1852. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory (including balance of grant TOT USHO) cece avrncssneneneepapee 2 Experiments on the Conduc- tion of Heat Influence of Solar Radiations Geological Map of Ireland ... Researches on the British An- — ~~ — o oafo oob syiowe Sco0 o@ NGM GA Beencsecasecnestvaneessree 10 Vitality of Sceds ...........0006 10 Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 £304 6 1853. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 @ Experiments onthe Influence of Solar Radiation ......... 1b. 50% OF Researches on the British Anneli dan scctetagecsaetaeeicaae 10 0 O Dredging on the East Coast |) “o£ (Scotlandises.carcc.s.sh ose 10 0 0 Ethnological Queries ......... BOs 10 £205 0 0 1854. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory (including balance _ of formeniprTant)) .snasacasse- saarh 330 15 4 Investigations on Flax......... 1 07" Effects of Temperature on Wrought Iron..............6008 LON ONO Registration of Periodical Phenomend....c...sssccascsneas 10) 0) 50. British Annelida ...........s0«« 10 0 @ Vitality of Seeds ..... Renee es Conduction of Heat ............ 4 2 0 £380 19 7 1855. Maintaining the HEstablish- ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0 Earthquake Movements ...... HOMO SEG Physical Aspect ofthe Moon 11 8 5 Vitality of Seeds ............... LOMO aT: Map of the World............... 15 0 © Ethnological Queries ......... BOM 'O Dredging near Belfast......... 4.0: 30) £480 16 & 1856. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observa- tory :— 1854... vaneeup Or O 18BBscsesese: £500 0 oy O1 al t Eee GENERAL STATEMENT. £ 3.4 Strickland’s Ornithological EVHOMYINS. occ ussncasasescavesce 100 0 @ Dredging and Dredging MICRIIEIS arstacisiiosiie ass oxe'e ses 913 0 Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0 Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10° 10) 0 Registration of Periodical PPRCNOMENA os 02 .2c02ce0cese0ese 10 0 0 Propagation of Salmon......... 10 0 0 £734 13 9 1857. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory 350 0 0 Earthquake Wave Experi- PP ESPUL SIs cfeciawa seikictanienstoeedeacle 40 0 0 Dredging near Belfast......... 10 0 0 Dredging on the West Coast PSIPSCOMLAN cn aciecscacnc-soce 10 0 0 Investigations into the Mol- lusca of California ......... 10 0 O Experiments on Flax ......... 5 0 0 Natural History of Mada- DiGdietreta cass scdessaliclavasese 20 0 0 esearches on British Anne- RI AMMee a rancirccssapaistscanseeses 25 0 0 Report on Natural Products imported into Liverpool... 10 0 0 Artificial Propagation of Sal- PRS EMMateevaalssio dees wacedneteres LODO 20 Temperature of Mines......... a8. 10 Thermometers for Subterra- nean Observations............ Dind), MUMCSDDBIUS ..socesdvcccdecssssocseece ya ak) £507 15 4 1858. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0 Harthquake Wave Experi- LL ELIE cont onooconenpeaes, Seoere nae 25 0 0 Dredging on the West Coast DHISCOUANG .....ccacsseveesveses 10),,,05, 0 Dredging near Dublin......... Dive. Oke O Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 5 0 Dredging near Belfast......... 1813 2 Report on the British Anne- may lida)...... Anes ianesao hss Seeane ane 25 0 0 Experiments on the produc- tion of Heat by Motion in ARIATAS. .chassasdessavandieaaneuse 20 0 0 Report on the Natural Pro- ducts imported into Scot- PENN e ei, vvnsccasiceue mba rcearataaasd 10 0 0 £618 18 2 1859. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0 Dredging near Dublin......... LD Oia) QO me £8. de Osteology of Birds ............ 50 0 0 Irish Donic ta sie.s ae vescovoare i000 Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 0 British Medusidee ............+6. 5 0 0 Dredging Committee ......... 5 0 0 Steam-vessels’ Performance... 5 0 O Marine Fauna of South and West of Ireland............... 10 0 0 Photographic Chemistry ...... 10 0 0 Lanarkshire Fossils ............ 20 0 1 Balloon Ascents......... adsouer se SILI O £684 11 1 1860. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0 Dredging near Belfast......... 16 6 O Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 145 0 0 | Inquiry into the Performance of Steam-vessels ........... 124 0 0 Explorations in the Yellow Sandstone of Dura Den 20 0 0 Chemico-mechanical Analysis of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 0 Researches on the Growth of IPIAMIGS | foc ssees na teptiesssedaastae's 10 0 0 Researches on the Solubility GEG GHIULS wesnasssanaccosepaceeeeds 30 0 0 Researches on theConstituents OLMMANUTES scsseaiectscncnses 25 0 0 Balance of Captive Balloon ACCOUNUGSS asec Nace aeces eases 113 6 £766 19 6 Chie A ells 1861. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory... 500 0 O Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0 O Dredging North and East Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0 O Dredging Committee :— 1860...... £50 0 0 a 1861......£22 0 e, TBO. 0 Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0 O Solubility of Salts ............ 20 0 O Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 O Fossils of Lesmahagow ...... 145 0 O Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0 Chemical Alloys ....... emcees 5 20° 0 0 Classified Index to the Trans- ACUIOUS seneseoesatcdcesaacses seas 100 0 O Dredging in the Mersey and INGO PZ. secccet tor doadeenssachidp ca 5 00 I OILCl OW caectdanckdes canasase= 30 0 0 Photoheliographic Observa- PIONS ease ge tide sesiacansecxesccer ss 50 0 O PRISON, waccesccccetsndtecas= 208 Oe Gauging of Water............+- aa LOD Ola Alpine ‘Ascents Sotheisemenesess 6 5 10 Constituents of Manures ...... 25 0 0 £1111 5 10 ell cli 1862. Maintaining the LEstablish- ment at Kew Observatory Pater GAGAWS) veces veces esses says Mollusca of N.-W. of America Natural History by Mercantile Mariner Pinca. cs ideceesstbiescneny Tidal Observations ............ Photoheliometer at Kew ...... Photographic Pictures of the HET COPE S. «os cneiacicasiassagebenmemn Rocks of Donegal............... Dredging Durbam and North- umberland Coasts ............ Connection of Storms ...,..... Dredging North-east Coast Oi PCOUANG. aaccneaewesetaeess Ravages of Teredo ............ Standards of Electrical Re- SISUAMEE! enecieccececcccpertentes Railway Accidents ............ Balloon Committee ............ 200 Dredging Dublin Bay ......... Dredging the Mersey ......... [Biats(ovdh ID S12 rhe wee casnacoaeeces -oeesoG Ganeine/ Of Water.......cscsc+s Steamships’ Performance...... Thermo-electric Currents £1293 1 1863. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory... Balloon Committee deficiency Balloon Ascents (other ex- KO OAIPHOSSIUMBS sheets casesctscuiiers PT OUDUTO A sat niciewes neva cs ONE Granites of Donegal............ PTISON DiSti ge sesewte.cssieaces esr c Vertical Atmospheric Move- PH EIUS pe soiemernsie ides -tesscenccencesseee uence 10 Askham’s|Gitt™ 2.s-ssesshoceees 50 Nitrite’ of Amyle .Aittiscecse 10 Nomenclature Committee ... 5 Rain=CauCes tears ..ckdsa. tavereed 1) Cast-iron Investigation ...... 20 Tidal Observations in the PUM BEL Gacecnsessscacddeccecse 50 Spectral ayer .css..:deerseteiehie 45 Luminous Meteors ............ 20 £1289 15 1865. Maintaining the LEstablish- ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 Balloon Committee ............ 100 ECON ees roa cise eecnisanesese see 13 Ralm-Sae es! .cercasessseseseseeae 30 Tidal Observations in the Ta (ehealle\ sq sagooceeesaeotebooddact 6 Hexylic Compounds ..........++ 20 Amyl Compounds ............... 20 TRISH LOTS soins clecccestacseaaae 25 American Mollusca ............ 3 | OreanieP Acid Sica uesecatcoeee 20 Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10 UY PLE RUS) se see ene sted ee aes 50 Electrical Standards............ 100 Malta Caves Researches ...... Bi) Oyster Breeding \.c. cies ceee 25 Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150 Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100 Moon’s Surface Observations 35 Marine Having tresses cence. 25 Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25 Dredging Channel Islands ... 50 Zoological Nomenclature...... 5 Resistance of Floating Bodies im! Wraberccrencscaseee mete esae 100 | Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8 | Luminous Meteors ............ 40 £1591. 7 1 Soescoo of 11SOO% Ssiooo® _ eoo onmooocecse = SoC ,OoGeooaocoaSsosaesoonaooonm sooo _ GENERAL STATEMENT. 4 1866. £ 8. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 Lunar Committee............... 64 13 Balloon Committee ............ 50 O Metrical Committee............ 50 0 British, Rainfall............00000+ 50 0 Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16 0 _ Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 15 0 Luminous Meteors ............ 50 0 Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20 0 Chemical Constitution of AGBSINUEOTIS hicsessccusssccccees 50 O _ Amyl Compounds ............... 25 0 Electrical Standards............ 100 0 _ Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30 0 Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200 0 Marine Fauna, &c., Devon and Cornwall .......0ss..es0ee 25 0 _ Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25 0 _ Dredging Hebrides Coast ... 50 0 _ Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0 Resistance of Floating Bodies UE WALT sas sacscsscceeetvseseee 50 0 _ Polycyanides of Organic Radi- | GHIS Rees atitedsecethes sncsteecae 29 0 RIFOL MOTHS -ccccccesecessrescoess 10 0 ® trish Annelida ..........0..c.006 15 O Catalogue of Crania............ 50 0 Didine Birds of Mascarene MBIANGS, navies inewvwerresescuees 50 0 Typical Crania Researches ... 30 0 Palestine Exploration Fund... 100 0 ; £1750 13 4 | 1867. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory... 600 0 0 Meteorological Instruments, ERE S DIM Craciescaieienacpisesisiec'sss 50 0 O Lunar Committee ............... 120 0 0 Metrical Committee............ 30 0 0 Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 100 0 0 Palestine Explorations......... 50 0 0 Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30 0 0 British Rainfall................. 2 §bO® *0" “0 Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25 0 0 Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 25 0 0 Luminous Meteors ............ 50 0 0 Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-beds 30 0 0 Dredging Shetland ............ 75 0 0 Steamship Reports Condensa- tion ........ arasseneacanesvesctes - 100 0 0 _ Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0 Ethyl and Methyl Series...... 25 0 0 Fossil Crustacea .............0 25 0 0 Sound under Water ............ 24.4 0 North Greenland Fauna ...... 75 0 0 Do. Plant Beds 100 0 O - Tronand Steel Manufacture... 25 0 0 Patent Laws ...........06 oe 30 0 O £1739 4 O £1940 cil i=) co cooocooco ooocoococecqooeoo on oO — a) oo ocoocoocoooo ecoocoeooocooscoooeso & 1868. £ Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory.. €00 Lunar Committee ............... 120 Metrical Committee............ 50 Zoological Record............++. 100 Kent’s Hole Explorations 150 Steamship Performances ...... 100 | British Rainfall .................. 50 Luminous Meteors............... 50 | OYeanICPACIGS, crccsseacccesscese 60 | Fossil Crustacea..........-.sse0-: 25 Methyl Series. ....5.:sccscesee+oas 25 Mercury and Bile ............... 25 Organic Remains in Lime- stone Rocks ............ toca 2D Scottish Earthquakes ......... 20 | Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30 | British Fossil Corals ......... 50 Bagshot Leaf-beds .......-...: 50 Greenland Explorations ...... 100 IM OSSUIMM OTA). essicnscnasceenae nt «oc 2 Tidal Observations ............ 190 Underground Temperature... 50 Spectroscopic Investigations of Animal Substances ...... 5 Secondary Reptiles, kc. ...... 30 | British Marine Invertebrate AUB eae seacenasaceoesiticenen ase, 100 1869. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 Lunar Committee.............000. 50 Metrical Committee.............0+ 25 Zoological Record ............00 100 Committee on Gases in Deep- PU VWBEL, aciaee nis sence ex's Se 2p. British Rainfall.... 50 Thermal Conductivity of Iron, Sc eieasteacecesenaadaceresacipans« oe ou | Kent’s Hole Explorations...... 150 | Steamship Performances ...... 30 Chemical Constitution of CaSGMiOn, .ctepes-desmaanercone Ste) Tron and Steel Manufacture 100 Methyl Series... .:s...---cveewss: « 30 Organic Remains in Lime- Stone ROCKS. ...5..dsssetslcieedeus 10 Earthquakes in Scotland...... 10 British Fossil Corals ......... 50 Bagshot Leaf-beds ......... .. 30 MOSSi MONA, . coe nt Sede ev soem 25 Tidal Observations ......... ..» 100 Underground Temperature... 30 Spectroscopic Investigations of Animal Substances ...... 5 Organic! ACIGS., ...5..ccdadesadeacs 12 Kiltorcan Fossils .........-.ssas 20 ooo oooocoeoco e090 occ CSO cosOo ooo gooocoocoo.|U6cSOCcCOCcOCO (—— i) i) oo so civ £ 3. d. Chemical Constitution and Physiological Action Rela- TEVOUS Mer erire crete psiesasiaeises's 15 0 Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 Utilisation of Sewage ......... 10 0 Products of Digestion ......... 10 0 £1622 0O 1870. Maintaining the Ustablish- ment at Kew Observatory 600 Metrical Committee............ 25 Zoological Record...........+06 100 Committee on Marine Fauna 20 Ears in Fishes ...... jee LO Chemical Nature of Cast Tron teencedacdecttnawesMercateeses 80 Luminous Meteors ............ 30 Heat in the Blood............... i153 British Rainfall joc. .cuccedenss 100 Thermal Conductivity of TEOM OCC Mecuvaeereetectartiwote.s 20 British Fossil Corals............ 50 Kent’s Hole Explorations 150 Scottish Earthquakes ..,...... 4 Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ 15 HGOSSUMHIONE: tis ccuscaaveencresden 25 Tidal Observations ............ 100 Underground Temperature... 50 Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... .20 Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 Utilisation of Sewage ......... 50 Organic Chemical Compounds 30 Onny River Sediment ......... 3 Mechanical Equivalent of 16 2 Whecer dann caOrOc ee CCP BERERear 50 oooococso oooo oooco = o|o ooco ole oooocooooocoocoo ocoeo ogoco 1871. Maintaining the Establish- ment at Kew Observatory 600 Monthly Reports of Progress TMA CHEMISE Yajewcsmds avec decece 100 Metrical Committee............ 25 Zoological Record............... 100 Thermal Equivalents of the Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10 Tidal Observations ............ 100 MORSLIULOTA, cecsesdaunstossseise 25 Luminous Meteors ............ 30 British Fossil Corals ......... 25 Heat in the Blood............... if British Rainfall.................. 50 Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150 Fossil Crustacea .............6. 25 Methyl Compounds ............ 25 PiMAariODCCts,...c.cccsatecepevne 20 oooconwnocooodcoe coo f=) SCoSoooascocooco coo o coloocoo REPORT—1896, £ Fossil Coral Sections, for Photographing .......csseree 20 Bagshot Leaf-beds .........6+ 20 Moab Explorations ..........6 100 Gaussian Constants .........+ . 40 £1472 bs ;oocoo & at'toooce 1872. Maintaining the Ustablish- ment at Kew Observatory 300 | o ofS) oa coocoooces> Smcooes ol oc cS oO ooCcceooco ooeceo > Metrical Committee............ 75 Zoological Record............266 100 Tidal Committee ............... 200 Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 Organic Chemical Compounds 25 Exploration of Moab............ 100 Terato-embryological Inqui- TUES {Ses acacsabweversssteaseneckia 10 Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 Luminous Meteors ............ 20 Heat in the Blood.............0s 15 Fossil Crustacea ......:.....006 25 Fossil Elephants of Malta ... 25 rmmarhO ECS encces-ccsnneeee 20 Inverse Wave-lengths ......... 20 Britisaekaimtal 7... ssccssencedte 100 Poisonous Substances Anta- POSTS cascapssecasenssmeesaeare 10 Essential Oils, Chemical Con- ShILMHIOD, Ks) cds cccseaenwccarve 40 Mathematical Tables ......... 50 Thermal Conductivity of Me- GUIS teak saeassasesucavaceceetoeass 25 £1285 1873. Zoological Record............066 100 Chemistry Record............+66 200 Tidal Committee .............45 400 Sewage Committee ......:...6. 100 Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 Fossil Elephants ............... 25 Wave-lengths ........scseeseces 150 British Rainfall......... .....00« 100 Hissential Oils. ...s0ccessenssenses 30 Mathematical Tables ......... 100 Gaussian Constants .........+6 a 0 Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 Underground Temperature... 150 Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20 Timber Denudation and Rain- fall igaavessaeeccmeosens cece edss 20 Luminous Meteors.............06 30 £1685 S|oo seoeocococoocoococooco Sloo SSOSCSoSoCoOCOSCCCOCCCOCOS GENERAL STATEMENT. 1874. , £ Zoological Record ............06 100 Chemistry Record.............66 100 Mathematical Tables ......... 100 Elliptic Functions............... 100 Lightning Conductors ......... 10 Thermal Conductivity of EPCS Ue stressct esses sassesessesss 10 Anthropological Instructions 50 Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 Luminous Meteors ............ 30 Intestinal Secretions ....,.... 15 iBrpsh RamMtall. f... ic. ..cccceeee 100 Essential Oils..................00. 10 Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 Mauritius Meteorology ...... 100 Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20 Marine Organisms............... 30 Fossils, North-West of Scot- HAUTE Gwante see oce ses aawslvcscccies 2 Physiological Action of Light 20 PETAGESHUMIONS | 5..c.ccns-cvcece 25 Mountain Limestone-corals 25 PITTALIGHBIOCKS \.e.sscccssecceceee 10 Dredging, Durham and York- a oooco oooocecooooo ocooocs C15 SOD COCO O Sooo oOSeCoOOCOOC OO Coo o oO BMUTEMCOASES © ...adecesecscass+s 28 5 High Temperature of Bodies 30 0 Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... She Labyrinthodonts of Coal- RRR USULCS i wecanadanccrceccacesses 7 15 £1151 16 1875. Elliptic Functions ............ 109 0 0 Magnetisation of Iron ......... 2) 0 0 prapish) Rainfall .......css.0cs-c00 120).0° 0 Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 0 Chemistry Record............... 100 0 O Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0 . Hstimation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid............... 10 0 O Isometric Cresols .............0. 20 0 0 Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0 Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0 Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0 Harthquakes in Scotland...... 15.0.0 Underground Waters ......... 10) 10.20 Development of Myxinoid BISNIS free sivas tesa cece eae cant 20 0 0 Zoological Record............... 100 0 0 Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0 Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 0 Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 0 £960 0 0 ————_ 1876. Printing MathematicalTables 159 4 2 British Rainfall,............0.06 100 0 0 Ob SMa Wissivcseessccceereeiel 915 0 Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0 _ Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0 o ofo909 909 SoococooN COO CV £ s: a. Isomeric Cresols ..........+248. 10 0 0 Action of Ethyl Bromobuty- rate on Ethyl Sodaceto- BCOLAuC tee sen ciseelsansskio eens 5 0 0 Estimation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid.............+ 13 0 0 Exploration of Victoria Cave 100 0 0 Geological Record...........+++ 100 0 0 Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0 Thermal Conductivities of ROCKS iwane caceeactsareusds sears 10 0 0 Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0 Earthquakes in Scotland...... 110 0 Zoological Record..........0+.4 100 0 0 Close Wimey. 2a sccmessaressancese 5 0 0 Physiological Action of pstewiiG lieqaancirisceanopeck= ofaoore 25 0 0 Naples Zoological Station ... 75 0 0 Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0 Physical Characters of Inha- bitants of British Isles...... 13 15 0 Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 O Effect of Propeller on turning of Steam-vessels ............ 5 0 0 £1092 4 2 1877 Liquid Carbonic Acid in Ninerals).cec.seccucersore recent 20 0 Elliptic Functions ............ 250 0 Thermal Conductivity of ROCKS) .ecsnssaescneeeecossecterts 9 11 Zoological Record............06 ‘100 0 Kent's Cavern ctserscsscscestesss 100 0 Zoologica] Station at Naples 75 0 Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 Elasticity of Wires ............ 100 0 Dipterocarpex, Report on ... 20 0 Mechanical Equivalent of Gallas raeeoccrats same ronaeetees se 35 (0 Double Compounds of Cobalt Ane NT Chel eeereteaxc) oo o o oo j=) fo) (=) SO SOT oOoo (SoCo, So "Ss oO ao oF So So to Mo me ts £1385 1886. Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0 Nolan Radiationieca.-..0d8+hexs 910 6 Tidal Observations ............ 50 0 0 Magnetic Observations......... 10 10 O Observations on Ben Nevis... 100 0 0 Physical and Chemical Bear- ings of Electrolysis ......... 20 0 0 Chemical Nomenclature ...... b'O. 0 Fossil Plants of British Ter- tiary and Secondary Beds... 20 0 0 ‘Caves in North Wales ......... 25 0 0 Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- RUS n= once crea cadtacaseas “Sale vnc 30 0 O Geological Record............... 100 0 0 Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 15 0 0 Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 0 Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0 Naples Zoological Station...... 50 0 0 Researches in Food-Fishes and InvertebrataatSt. Andrews 75 0 0 REPORT—1896. £ 8d. Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0 Secretion of Urine............... 10 0 0 Exploration of New Guinea... 150 0 0 Regulation of Wages under Sliding Scales .............06 10) :0220 Prehistoric Race in Greek Telands 10: sicssesiseetedessbceeke 20 0 0 North-Western Tribes of Ca- MAGA des cte onset aeeee meee 50 0 O £995 0 6 1887. Solar Radiation .....:.......00.0 18 10 WleGtxOlySisc wean sce se sorsaasasccae 30 Ben Nevis Observatory......... 75 Standards of . Light (1886 STADE) | sccsszancceneshsnepieeere 20 Standards of Light (1887 PTA) ccarescssheos seheusemanncehe 10 Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Observations. svecsscceseet 15 Magnetic Observations......... 26 Electrical Standards............ 50 Silent Discharge of Electricity 20 Absorption Spectra ............ 40 Nature of Solution ............ 20 Influence of Silicon on Steel 30 Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- NIMS Onoda ace ts see tees scscestaret ate 20 Volcanic Phenomena of Japan (E886: orant)) 5. .c0c0.c.ccscenes 50 Volcanic Phenomena of Japan (USB TieTAND) |<: 2-50..emactonett 50 Cae Gwyn Cave, N. Wales ... HrraticiBlocks s.sss.ecsesseseses 10 Fossil Phyllopoda ............... 20 Coal Plants of Halifax......... 25 Microscopic Structure of the Rocks of Anglesey............ 10 Exploration of the Eocene Beds of the Isle of Wight... Underground Waters ‘Manure’ Gravels of Wexford Provincial Museums Reports 5 Lymphatic System Naples Biological Station Plymouth Biological Station eee eee weene Granton Biological Station... 75 Zoological Record ..........00++ 100 Flora/of'China s.asc.thescusesees 75 Flora and Fauna of the Cameroons Migration of Birds Bathy-hypsographical Map of British Isles Regulation of Wages Prehistoric Race of Greek IslandsRysiceeesiessisessceseess0 20 Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20 eee eee ee eee eee 10 £1186 18 e'oo SSO SS SSOSSCOCOOSCCSC oO eoooo SF FS Sooo CoOoOCO Co oOo ooo tied i GENERAL STATEMENT. 1888. £ Ben Nevis Observatory......... 150 Electrical Standards............ 2 Magnetic Observations......... 15 Standards of Light ............ 79 IMLEGUEOLYSIS: vc. sescccscscseccesss 30 Uniform Nomenclature in ECGAAMIGS|\.sccclsssnoeescts'oes 10 Silent Discharge of Elec- FUGUE tei decescvscsnceSceace sete 9 Properties of Solutions ...... 25 Influence of Silicon on Steel 20 Methods of Teaching Chemis- HSU MERR tet cea sacinccisseccucan css 10 Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva- BENE SIRM De socs-) fl ie =) of Soo) CS: Oo COS OSS) oo fo) So ooocovoooco OF (Si ocoococso oS — a1o o>) f=) coos ooocooceceo oo (= o oooococoeocoeso o ooo o oworno® nan ocoodod cix Sars as Methods of teaching Chemis- LES” ScocaotinnonlcansanceBOnenere 10 0 0 Action of Light on Hydracids 10 0 0 Geological Record..........000.s 80 0 0. Volcanic Phenomena ofJapan 25 0 0 Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- WAUIS! So .wecnnacotneentacaceiack eote 20 0) O Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 20 0 O Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of WASH voes tenn cecwoceven seer ecss 16 0. 0 West Indian Explorations ... 100 0 0 HloraroijChimaiges. vceed eons as 25 0 0 Naples Zoological Station 100 0 @ Physiology of Lymphatic SMSHEMI Mrbanserecac ldsdeieceeee te 25 0 0 Experiments with a Tow-net 516 3 Natural History of Friendly TSE a6 CES parr aansac basccuscicons 100 0 0 Geology and Geography of Alas hRangesc:) w.kseerateos 100 0 © Action of Waves and Currents |) MRINGHSHUATIES Peace. -pecceeeescs 100 0 © North-Western Tribes of CAITR KG ES cde canner Boccoeeeeretee 150 0 O Nomad Tribes of Asia Mivor 30 0 © | Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 © Marine Biological Association 200 0 0 ‘ Baths Committee,’ Bath...... 100 0 @ £1417 011 1890. Electrical Standards............ 12 ie Blectrolysisiv ss istesea ens. ae 5 0 0 Hlectro-optics..........5/.0.00 w= (D0 0; 0 Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 0 Volcanic and Seismological Phenomena of Japan ...... 75 0 0 Pellian Equation Tables ...... 15 0 © Properties of Solutions ...... LOR IOF 10s International Standard forthe Analysis of Iron and Steel 10 0 © Influence of the Silent Dis- charge of Electricity on OXVGON es sie cueudes doh kits 5 0.0 Methods ofteachingChemistry 10 0 @ Recording Results of Water AMAIVSISr ws ceteagegssonkeeoncs, es Ca Oxidation of Hydracids in Sunlight swe sweticesceeeseee- 50 Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements... 10 Action of Light upon Dyed COlOUTS: eset citteeativeteleee 4 Formation of Haloids from Pure Materials .............2. 20 Isomeric Naphthalene Deri- VALIVES...250s:2sshisehsocteeck one 30 Electrolytic Quantitative An- AILYSIS, seth. . Fovee ete acted 30 Brratic RIOCKS se wseweeweesy aot 10 Paleozoic Phyllopoda ....... 5 Photographs of Geological In- UETESty es dodese= serecess eoaractee 10 Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, &eee tee 10 Eurypterids of the Pentland inl Site csrevs a eesces «teste. deeess 3 New Sections of Stonesfield Slaterearete. ses. esece=seecanes 50 Exploration of Calf Hole Cave 10 Nature and Probable Age of High-level Flint-drifts .... 10 Table atthe Zoological Station abrNaples: csesccsccsssseauenwes 100 Table at the Biological Labo- ratory, Plymouth ............ 15 Zovlogy, Botany, and Geology of the Irish Sea............ 35 Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands ......... 50 Index of Genera and Species Of AMIMAIS ~ ess. cd.vecnetsese 50 Climatology of Tropical Africa 5 Exploration cf Hadramut 50 Calibration and Comparisonof _ Measuring Instruments 25 Anthropometric Measure- ments in Schools ......... 5 Lake Village at Glastonbury 30 Exploration of a Kitchen- midden at Hastings ......... 10 Ethnographical Survey ...... 10 Physiological Applications of the Phonograph............... 25 Corresponding Societies ..... 30 ooo — Td Cs oe OO OS ee SS, oo. oO oo o oo. => SO" © So oo o o o ooo i) f=) ooo of = Te (al — Te >} | nd artoo oo o~w”* eo” Soo "OURS oO o o° ou Sr Ss ooo oS exil REPORT—1896. 1896. £ Ss. ae s. d. | Paleolithic Depositsat Hoxne 25 0 © Photographs of Meteorologi- Fauna of Singapore Caves ... 40 0 0 cal Phenomena ........-...+++ 15 0 O | Age and Relation of Rocks Seismological Observations... 80 0 0 near Moreseat, Aberdeen . 19 0 O Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 O | Table at the Zoological Sta- Calculation of Certain Inte- tion at Naples .............05 100 0 0 TAINS, ccvcscetnscoseesissvesiess see 10 0 O | Table at the Biological Labo- Uniformity of Size of Pages of ratory, Plymouth ............ 15 0 0 Transactions, KC. .....+..ee0e 5 0 O | Zoology, Botany, and Geology Wave-length Tables of the of the Irish Sea ............... 50 0 O: Spectra of the Elements... 10 0 0 | Zoology of the Sandwich Is- Action of Light upon Dyed NANOS iewsccemcnesanatd + ocaebs tee 100 0 0 (Glolkoyeid Ganoornancesoancserdoa 2 6 1 | African Lake Fauna............ 100 0 0 Electrolytic Quantitative Ana- Oysters under Normal and WSIS tees sesneaeessoeebenss anieriante 10 0 0 Abnormal Environment ... 40 0 0 The Carbohydrates of Barley Climatology of TropicalAfrica 10 0 0O SID AD) Tp AsaqonaBoosodyDnoseaoere 50 0 O°-| Calibrationand Comparison of Reprinting Discussion on the Measuring Instruments...... 20 0 0 Relation of Agriculture to Small Screw Gauge ............ 10 0 0 SCIENCE: kepeicscaccesonsesenvuse 5 0 O | North-Western Tribes of HirrabiCyBlOCKS ccserses.sesessssse 10 0 0 (Cra GVO EI asabensddcpennconpaadas 100 0 06 Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 5 0 O | Lake Village at Glastonbury. 30 0 0O Shell-bearing Deposits at Ethnographical Survey......... 40 0 0 CHER ree eneeiconceo aoe 10 0 O | Mental and Physical Condi- Earypterids of the Pentland tion of Children............... 10 0 0 ELI Si paeseuidee cbs Lakaneleics sdteres 2 0 O | Physiological Applications of Investigation of a Coral Reef the Phonopraph’.............. 25 0 0 by Boring and Sounding... 10 0 0 | Corresponding Societies Com- Examination of Locality where TAIGUCRY. 2 cdiecescsecasevcceuneres 30 0 0 the Cetiosaurus in the Ox- £1104 6 1 ford Museum was found... 25 0 0 | sn eles arepe. General Meetings. On Wednesday, September 16, at 8 p.m., in the Philharmonic Hall, Liverpool, Captain Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.G.8., resigned the office of President to Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., D.C.L., LL.D., President of the Royal Society, who took the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see page 3. On Thursday, September 17, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place at. the Town Hall. On Friday, September 18, at 8.30 p.m., in the Philharmonic Hall, Dr. Francis Elgar, F.R.S., delivered a discourse on ‘ Safety in Ships.’ On Monday, September 21, at 8.30 p.m., in the Philharmonic Hall, Professor Flinders Petrie, D.C.L., delivered a discourse on ‘Man before Writing.’ On Tuesday, September 22, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place at the Museum and Art Gallery. On Wednesday, September 23, at 2.30 p.m., in the small Concert Room, St. George’s Hall, the concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings of the General Committee and the Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes were explained to’ the Members. The Meeting was then adjourned to Toronto. [The Meeting is ap- pointed to commence on Wednesday, August 18, 1897.] Smart hie PAG MUSe> for’ wy a7 x Men et? &e i Ween Ne ee PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1896. —_ ADDRESS BY Se JOouPH LISTHR, Bazt.,..D.C.L., OL.D., P.BS., PRESIDENT. My Lord Mayor, my Lords, Ladies, and Gentlemen, I have first to _ express my deep sense of gratitude for the great honour conferred upon me by my election to the high office which I occupy to-day. It came upon me as a great surprise. The engrossing claims of surgery have prevented me for many years from attending the meetings of the Association, which excludes from her sections medicine in all its branches. This severance of the art of healing from the work of the Association was right and indeed inevitable. Not that medicine has little in common with science. The surgeon never performs an operation without the aid of anatomy and physiology; and in what is often the most difficult part of his duty, the selection of the right course to follow, he, like the physician, is guided by pathology, the science of the nature of disease, which, though very difficult from the complexity of its subject matter, has made during the last half-century astonishing progress ; so that the practice of medicine in every department is becoming more and more based on science as distinguished from empiricism. I propose on the present occasion to bring before you some illustrations of the interdependence of science and the healing art ; and the first that I will take is perhaps the most astonishing of all results of purely physical inquiry—the discovery of the Réntgen rays, so called after the man who first clearly revealed them to the world. Mysterious as they still are, there is one of their properties which we can all appreciate—their power of passing through substances opaque to ordinary light. There seems to be no relation whatever between transparency in the common sense of BQ A REPORT—1896. the term and penetrability to these emanations. The glasses of a pair of spectacles may arrest them while their wooden and leathern case allows them to pass almost unchecked. Yet they produce, whether directly or indirectly, the same effects as light upon a photographic plate. As a general rule the denser any object is the greater obstacle does it oppose to the rays. Hence, as bone is denser than flesh, if the hand or other part of the body is placed above the sensitive film enclosed in a case of wood or other light material at a suitable distance from the source of the rays, while they pass with the utmost facility through the uncovered parts of the lid of the box and powerfully affect the plate beneath, they are arrested to a large extent by the bones, so that the plate is little acted upon in the parts opposite to them, while the portions correspond- ing to the muscles and other soft parts are influenced in an intermediate degree. Thus a picture is obtained in which the bones stand out in sharp relief among the flesh, and anything abnormal in their shape or position is clearly displayed. I need hardly point out what important aid this must give to the surgeon. As an instance, I may mention a case which occurred in the practice of Mr. Howard Marsh. He was called to see a severe injury of the elbow, in which the swelling was so great as to make it impossible for him by ordinary means of examination to decide whether he had to deal with a fracture or a dislocation. If it were the latter, a cure would be effected by the exercise of violence which would be not only useless but most injurious if a bone was broken. By the aid of the Réntgen rays a photograph was taken in which the bone of the upper arm was clearly seen displaced forwards on those of theforearm. The diagnosis being thus established, Mr. Marsh proceeded to reduce the dislocation ; and his suc- cess was proved by another photograph which showed the bones in their natural relative position. The common metals, such as lead, iron, and copper, being still denser than the osseous structures, these rays can show a bullet embedded in a bone or a needle lodged about a joint. At the last conversazione of the Royal Society a picture produced by the new photography displayed with perfect distinctness through the bony framework of the chest a half- penny low down in a boy’s gullet. It had been there for six months, causing uneasiness at the pit of the stomach during swallowing ; but whether the coin really remained impacted, and if so, what was its position, was entirely uncertain till the Réntgen rays revealed it. Dr. Macintyre of Glasgow, who was the photographer, informs me that when the presence of the halfpenny had been thus demonstrated, the surgeon in charge of the case made an attempt to extract it, and although this was not successful in its immediate object, it had the effect of dislodging the coin ; for a sub- sequent photograph by Dr. Macintyre not only showed that it had disap- peared from the gullet, but also, thanks to the wonderful penetrating power which the rays had acquired in his hands, proved that it had not ADDRESS. 5 lodged further down in the alimentary passage. The boy has since com- pletely recovered. The Rontgen rays cause certain chemical compounds to fluoresce, and emit a faint light plainly visible in the dark ; and if they are made to fall upon a translucent screen impregnated with such a salt, it becomes beautifully illuminated. If a part of the human body is interposed between the screen and the source of the rays, the bones and other structures are thrown in shadow upon it, and thus a diagnosis can be made without the delay involved in taking a photograph. It was in fact in this way that Dr. Macintyre first. detected the coin in the boy’s gullet. Mr. Herbert Jackson, of King’s College, London, early distinguished himself in this branch of the subject. There is no reason to suppose that the limits of the capabilities of the rays in this way have yet been reached. By virtue of the greater density of the heart than the adjacent lungs with their contained air, the form and dimensions of that organ in the living body may be displayed on the fluorescent screen, and even its move- ments have been lately seen by several different observers. Such important applications of the new rays to medical practice have strongly attracted the interest of the public to them, and I venture to. think that they have even served: to stimulate the investigations of physicists. The eminent Professor of Physics in the University College: of this city (Professor Lodge) was one of the first to make such practical applications, and I was able to show to the Royal Society at a very early period a photograph, which he had the kindness to send me, of a bullet embedded in the hand. His interest in the medical aspect of the subject remains unabated, and at the same time he has been one of the most dis- tinguished investigators of its purely physical side. There is another way in which the Réntgen rays connect themselves with physiology, and’ may possibly influence medicine. It is found that if the skin is long exposed to their action it becomes very much irritated, affected with a sort of aggravated sun-burning. This suggests the idea that the transmission of the rays through the human body may be not altogether a matter of indifference to internal organs, but may, by long- continued action, produce, according to the condition of the part con- cerned, injurious irritation or salutary stimulation. This is the jubilee of Anesthesia in surgery. That priceless blessing to mankind came from America. It had, indeed, been foreshadowed in _ the first year of this century by Sir Humphry Davy, who, having found a toothache from which he was suffering relieved as he inhaled laughing gas (nitrous oxide), threw out the suggestion that it might perhaps be used for preventing pain in surgical operations. But it was not till, on September 30, 1846, Dr. W. T. G. Morton, of Boston, after a series of experiments upon himself and the lower animals, extracted a tooth pain- lessly from a patient whom he had caused to inhale the vapour of sul- phuric ether, that the idea was fully realised. He soon afterwards publicly 6 REPORT—1896. exhibited his method at the Massachusetts General Hospital, and after that event the great discovery spread rapidly over the civilised world. I witnessed the first operation in England under ether. It was performed by Robert Liston in University College Hospital, and it was a complete success. Soon afterwards I saw the same great surgeon amputate the thigh as painlessly, with less complicated anesthetic apparatus, by aid of another agent, chloroform, which was being powerfully advocated as a substitute for ether by Dr. (afterwards Sir James Y.) Simpson, who also had the great merit of showing that confinements could be conducted painlessly, yet safely, under its influence. These two agents still hold the field as general anesthetics for protracted operations, although the gas originally suggested by Davy, in consequence of its rapid action and other advan- tages, has taken their place in short operations, such as tooth extraction. In the birthplace of anesthesia ether has always maintained its ground ; but in Europe it was to a large’ extent displaced by chloroform till recently, when many have returned to ether, under the idea that, though less convenient, it is safer. For my own part, I believe that chloroform, if carefully administered on right principles, is, on the average, the safer agent of the two. The discovery of anesthesia inaugurated a new era in surgery. Not only was the pain of operations abolished, but the serious and sometimes mortal shock which they occasioned to the system was averted, while the patient was saved the terrible ordeal of preparing to endure them. At the same time the field of surgery became widely extended, since many procedures in themselves desirable, but before impossible from the pro- tracted agony they would occasion, became matters of routine practice. Nor have I by any means exhausted the list of the benefits conferred by this discovery. Anesthesia in surgery has been from first to last a gift of science. Nitrous oxide, sulphuric ether, and chloroform are all artificial products of chemistry, their employment as anesthetics was the result of scientific investigation, and their administration, far from being, like the giving of a dose of medicine, a matter of rule of thumb, imperatively demands the vigilant exercise of physiological and pathological knowledge. While rendering such signal service to surgery, anesthetics have thrown light upon biology generally. It has been found that they exert their soporific influence not only upon vertebrata, but upon animals so remote in structure from man as bees and other insects. Even the func- tions of vegetables are suspended by their agency. They thus afford strong confirmation of the great generalisation that living matter is of the same essential nature wherever it is met with on this planet, whether in the animal or vegetable kingdom. Anzsthetics have also, in ways to which I need not here refer, pewerrelly promoted the progress of physio- logy and pathology. My next illustration may be taken from the work of Pasteur on fer- ADDRESS. 7 mentation. The prevailing opinion regarding this class of phenomena when they first engaged his attention was that they were occasioned primarily by the oxygen of the air acting upon unstable animal or vege- table products, which, breaking up under its influence, communicated disturbance to other organic materials in their vicinity, and thus led to their decomposition. Cagniard-Latour had indeed shown several years before that yeast consists essentially of the cells of a microscopic fungus which grows as the sweetwort ferments ; and he had attributed the break- ing up of the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid to the growth of the micro-organism. In Germany Schwann, who independently discovered the yeast plant, had published very striking experiments in support of analogous ideas regarding the putrefaction of meat. Such views had also found other advocates, but they had become utterly discredited, largely through the great authority of Liebig, who bitterly opposed them. Pasteur, having been appointed as a young man Dean of the Faculty of Sciences in the University of Lille, a town where the products of alcoholic fermentation were staple articles of manufacture, determined to study that process thoroughly ; and as a result he became firmly con- vinced of the correctness of Cagniard-Latour’s views regarding it. In the case of other fermentations, however, nothing fairly comparable to the formation of yeast had till then been observed. This was now done by Pasteur for that fermentation in which sugar is resolved into lactic acid. This lactic fermentation was at that time brought about by adding some animal substance, such as fibrin, to a solution of sugar, together with chalk that should combine with the acid as it was formed. Pasteur saw, what had never before been noticed, that a fine grey deposit was formed, differing little in appearance from the decomposing fibrin, but steadily increasing as the fermentation proceeded. Struck by the analogy pre- sented by the increasing deposit to the growth of yeast in sweetwort, he examined it with the microscope, and found it to consist of minute particles of uniform size. Pasteur was not a biologist, but although these particles were of extreme minuteness in comparison with the constituents of the yeast plant, he felt convinced that they were of an analogous nature, the cells of a tiny microscopic fungus. This he regarded as the essential ferment, the fibrin or other so-called ferment serving, as he believed, merely the purpose of supplying to the growing plant certain chemical ingredients essential to its nutrition not contained in the sugar. And the correctness of this view he confirmed in a very striking manner, by doing away with the fibrin or other animal material altogether, and substituting for it mineral salts containing the requisite chemical elements. A trace of the grey deposit being applied to a solution of sugar containing these salts in addition to the chalk, a brisker lactic fermentation ensued than could be procured in the ordinary way. I have referred to this research in some detail because it illustrates 8 REPORT—1896. Pasteur’s acuteness as an observer and his ingenuity in experiment, as well as his almost intuitive perception of truth. A series of other beautiful investigations followed, clearly proving that all true fermentations, including putrefaction, are caused by the growth of micro-organisms. It was natural that Pasteur should desire to know how the microbes which he showed to be the essential causes of the various fermentations took their origin. It was at that period a prevalent notion, even among many eminent naturalists, that such humble and minute beings originated de novo in decomposing organic substances ; the doctrine of spontaneous generation, which had been chased successively from various positions which it once occupied among creatures visible to the naked eye, having taken its last refuge where the objects of study were of such minuteness that their habits and history were correspondingly difficult to trace. Here again Pasteur at once saw, as if by instinct, on which side the truth lay ; and, perceiving its immense importance, he threw himself with ardour into its demonstration. J may describe briefly one class of experiments which he performed with this object. He charged a series of narrow- necked glass flasks with a decoction of yeast, a liquid peculiarly liable to alteration on exposure to the air. Having boiled the liquid in each flask, to kill any living germs it might contain, he sealed its neck with a blow- pipe during ebullition ; after which, the flask being allowed to cool, the steam within it condensed, leaving a vacuum above the liquid. If, then, the neck of the flask were broken in any locality, the air at that particular place would rush in to fill the vacuum, carrying with it any living microbes that might be floating in it. The neck of the flask having been again sealed, any germs so introduced would in due time manifest their presence by developing in the clear liquid. When any of such a series of flasks were opened and re-sealed in an inhabited room, or under the trees of a forest, multitudes of minute living forms made their appearance in them ; but if this was done in a cellar long unused, where the suspended organisms, like other dust, might be expected to have all fallen to the ground, the decoction remained perfectly clear and unaltered. The oxygen and other gaseous constituents of the atmosphere were thus shown to be of themselves incapable of inducing any organic development in yeast-water. Such is a sample of the many well-devised experiments by which he carried to most minds the conviction that, as he expressed it, ‘la généra- tion spontanée est wne chimére,’ and that the humblest and minutest living organisms can only originate by parentage from beings like themselves, Pasteur pointed out the enormous importance of these humble organisms in the economy of nature. It is by their agency that the dead bodies of plants and animals are resolved into simpler compounds fitted for assimilation by new living forms. Without their aid the world would be, as Pasteur said, encombré de cadavres. They are essential not only to our well-being, but to our very existence. Similar microbes must ADDRESS. 9 have discharged the same necessary function of removing refuse and providing food for successive generations of plants and animals during the past periods of the world’s history ; and it is interesting to think that organisms as simple as can well be conceived to have existed when life first appeared upon our globe have, in all probability, propagated the same lowly but most useful offspring during the ages of geological time. Pasteur’s labours on fermentation have had a very important influence upon surgery. I have been often asked to speak on my share in this matter before a public audience ; but I have hitherto refused to do so, partly because the details are so entirely technical, but chiefly because E have felt an invincible repugnance to what might seem to savour of self- advertisement. The latter objection now no longer exists, since advancing years have indicated that it is right for me to leave to younger men the practice of my dearly loved profession. And it will perhaps be expected that, if I can make myself intelligible, I should say something upon the subject on the present occasion. Nothing was formerly more striking in surgical experience than the difference in the behaviour of injuries according to whether the skin was implicated or not. Thus, if the bones of the leg were broken and the skin remained intact, the surgeon applied the necessary apparatus without any other anxiety than that of maintaining a good position of the fragments, although the internal injury to bones and soft parts might be very severe. If, on the other hand, a wound of the skin was present communicating with the broken bones, although the damage might be in other respects comparatively slight, the compound fracture, as it was termed, was one of the most dangerous accidents that could happen. Mr. Syme, who was, I believe, the safest surgeon of his time, once told me that he was inclined to think that it would’ be, on the whole, better if all compound fractures of the leg were subjected to amputation, without any attempt to-save the limb. What was the cause of this astonishing difference? It was clearly _ in some way due to the exposure of the injured parts to the externa} world. One obvious effect of such exposure was indicated by the odour of the discharge, which showed that the blood in the wound had undergone putrefactive change by which the bland nutrient liquid had been converted into highly irritating and poisonous substances. I have seen a man with compound fracture of the leg die within two days of the accident, as plainly poisoned by the products of putrefaction as if he had taken a fatal dose of some potent toxic drug. An external wound of the soft parts might be healed in one of two ways. If its surfaces were clean cut and could be brought into accurate apposition, it might unite rapidly and painlessly ‘by the first intention.’ This, however, was exceptional. Too often the surgeon’s efforts to obtain primary union were frustrated: the wound inflamed and the retentive stitches had to be removed, allowing it to gape ; and then, as if it had been left open from the first, healing had to be effected in the other way 10 REPORT—1896. which it is necessary for me briefly to describe. An exposed raw surface became covered in the first instance with a layer of clotted blood or certain of its constituents, which invariably putrefied ; and the irritation of the sensitive tissues by the putrid products appeared to me to account sufficiently for the inflammation which always occurred in and around an open wound during the three or four days which elapsed before what were termed ‘ granulations’ had been produced. These constituted a coarsely granular coating of very imperfect or embryonic structure, destitute of sensory nerves and prone to throw off matter or pus, rather than absorb, as freshly divided tissues do, the products of putrefaction. The granula- tions thus formed a beautiful living plaster, which protected the sensitive parts beneath from irritation, and the system generally from poisoning and consequent febrile disturbance. The granulations had other useful properties of which I may mention their tendency to shrink as they grew, thus gradually reducing the dimensions of the sore. Meanwhile, another cause of its diminution was in operation. The cells of the epidermis or scarf-skin of the cutaneous margins were perpetually producing a crop of young cells of similar nature, which gradually spread over the granulations till they covered them entirely, and a complete cicatrix or scar was the result. Such was the other mode of healing, that by granulation and cicatrisation ; a process which, when it proceeded unchecked to its completion, commanded our profound admiration. It was, however, essen- tially tedious compared with primary union, while, as we have seen, it was always preceded by more or less inflammation and fever, sometimes very serious in their effects. It was also liable to unforeseen interruptions. The sore might become larger instead of smaller, cicatrisation giving place to ulceration in one of its various forms, or even to the frightful destruction of tissue which, from the circumstance that it was most frequently met with in hospitals, was termed hospital gangrene. Other serious and often fatal complications might arise, which the surgeon could only regard as untoward accidents and over which he had no efficient control. It will be readily understood from the above description that the inflammation which so often frustrated the surgeon’s endeavours after primary union was in my opinion essentially due to decomposition of blood within the wound. These and many other considerations had long impressed me with the greatness of the evil of putrefaction in surgery. I had done my best to mitigate it by scrupulous ordinary cleanliness and the use of various deodorant lotions. But to prevent it altogether appeared hopeless while we believed with Liebig that its primary cause was the atmospheric oxygen which, in accordance with the researches of Graham, could not fail to be perpetually diffused through the porous dressings which were used to absorb the blood discharged from the wound. But when Pasteur had shown that putrefaction was a fermentation caused by the growth of microbes, and that these could not arise de novo in the ADDRESS. 11 decomposable substance, the problem assumed a more hopeful aspect. If the wound could be treated with some substance which, without doing too serious mischief to the human tissues, would kill the microbes already con- tained in it and prevent the future access of others in the living state, putrefaction might be prevented, however freely the air with its oxygen might enter. I had heard of carbolic acid as having a remarkable deodorising effect upon sewage, and having obtained from my colleague Dr. Anderson, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow, a sample which he had of this product, then little more than a chemical curiosity in Scotland, I determined to try it in compound fractures. Applying it undiluted to the wound, with an arrangement for its occasional renewal, I had the joy of seeing these formidable injuries follow the same safe and tranquil course as simple fractures, in which the skin remains unbroken. At the same time we had the intense interest of observing in open wounds what had previously been hidden from human view, the manner in which subcutaneous injuries are repaired. Of special interest was the process by which portions of tissue killed by the violence of the accident were disposed of, as contrasted with what had till then been invariably witnessed. Dead parts had been always seen to be gradually separated from the living by an inflammatory process and thrown off as sloughs. But when protected by the antiseptic dressing from becoming putrid and therefore irritating, a structure deprived of its life caused no disturbance in its vicinity ; and, on the contrary, being of a nutritious nature, it served as pabulum for the growing elements of the neighbouring living structures, and these became in due time entirely substituted for it. Even dead bone was seen to be thus replaced by living osseous tissue. This suggested the idea of using threads of dead animal structures for tying blood-vessels ; and this was realised by means of catgut, which is made from the intestine of the sheep. If deprived of living microbes, and otherwise properly prepared, catgut answers its purpose completely ; the knot holding securely, while the ligature around the vessel becomes gradually absorbed and replaced by a ring of living tissue. The threads, instead of being left long as before, could now be cut short, and the tedious process of separation of the ligature, with its attendant serious danger of bleeding, was avoided. Undiluted carbolic acid is a powerful caustic ; and although it might be employed in compound fracture, where some loss of tissue was of little moment in comparison with the tremendous danger to be averted, it was altogether unsuitable for wounds made by the surgeon. It soon appeared, however, that the acid would answer the purpose aimed at, though used in diluted forms devoid of caustic action, and therefore applicable to operative surgery. According to our then existing knowledge, two essen- tial points had to be aimed at: to conduct the operation so that on its completion the wound should contain no living microbes, and to apply a 12 REPORT—1896. dressing capable of preventing the access of other living organisms till the time should have arrived for changing it. Carbolic acid lent itself well to both these objects. Our experience with this agent brought out what was, I believe, a new principle in pharmacology—namely, that the energy of action of any substance upon the human tissues depends not only upon the proportion in which it is contained in the material used as a vehicle for its administration, but also upon the degree of tenacity with which it is held by its solvent. Water dissolves carbolic acid sparingly and holds it extremely lightly, leaving it free to act energetically on other things for which it has greater affinity, while various organic substances absorb it greedily and hold it tenaciously. Hence its watery solution seemed admirably suited for a detergent lotion to be used for destroying any microbes that might fall upon the wound during the operation, and for purifying the surrounding skin and also the surgeon’s hands and instruments. For the last-named purpose it had the further advantage that it did not act on steel. For an external dressing the watery solution was not adapted, as it soon lost the acid it contained, and was irritating while it lasted. For this purpose some organic substances were found to answer well. Large proportions of the acid could be blended with them in so bland a form as to be unirritating ; and such mixtures, while perpetually giving off enough of the volatile salt to prevent organic development in the dis- charges that flowed past them, served as a reliable store of the antiseptic for days together. The appliances which I first used for carrying out the antiseptic prin- ciple were both rude and needlessly complicated. The years that have since passed have witnessed great improvements in both respects. Of the various materials which have been employed by myself and others, and their modes of application, I need say nothing except to express my belief, as a matter of long experience, that carbolic acid, by virtue of its powerful affinity for the epidermis and oily matters associated with it, and also its great penetrating power, is still the best agent at our dis- posal for purifying the skin around the wound. But I must say a few words regarding a most important simplification of our procedure. Pasteur, as we have seen, had shown that the air of every inhabited room teems with microbes ; and for a long time I employed various more or less elaborate precautions against the living atmospheric dust, not doubting that, as all wounds except the few which healed completely by the first intention, underwent putrefactive fermentation, the blood must be a peculiarly favourable soil for the growth of putrefactive microbes. But I afterwards learnt that such was by no means the case. I had performed many experiments in confirmation of Pasteur’s germ theory, not indeed in order to satisfy myself of its truth, but in the hope of convincing others. I had observed that uncontaminated milk, which would remain unaltered for an indefinite time if protected from dust, ADDRESS. 13 was made to teem with microbes of different kinds by a very brief exposure to the atmosphere, and that the same effect was produced by the addition of a drop of ordinary water. But when I came to experi- ment with blood drawn with antiseptic precautions into sterilised vessels, I saw to my surprise that it might remain free from microbes in spite of similar access of air or treatment with water. I even found that if very putrid blood was largely diluted with sterilised water, so as to diffuse its microbes widely and wash them of their acrid products, a drop of such dilution added to pure blood might leave it unchanged for days at the temperature of the body, although a trace of the septic liquid undi- luted caused intense putrefaction within twenty-four hours. Hence I was led to conclude that it was the grosser forms of septic mischief, rather than microbes in the attenuated condition in which they existed in the atmosphere, that we had to dread in surgical practice. And at the London Medical Congress in 1881, I hinted, when describing the experiments I have alluded to, that it might turn out possible to disre- gard altogether the atmospheric dust. But greatly as I should have rejoiced at such a simplification of our procedure, if justifiable, I did not then venture to test it in practice. I knew that with the safeguards which we then employed I could ensure the safety of my patients, andI did not dare to imperil it by relaxing them. There is one golden rule for all experiments upon our fellow-men. Let the thing tried be that which, according to our best judgment, is the most likely to promote the welfare of the patient. In other words, Do as you would be done by. Nine years later, however, at the Berlin Congress in 1890, I was able to bring forward what was, I believe, absolute demonstration of the harm- lessness of the atmospheric dust in surgical operations. This conclusion has been justified by subsequent experience : the irritation of the wound by antiseptic irrigation and washing may therefore now be avoided, and nature left quite undisturbed to carry out her best methods of repair, while the surgeon may conduct his operations as simply as in former days, provided always that, deeply impressed with the tremendous importance of his object, and inspiring the same conviction in all his assistants, he vigilantly maintains from first to last, with a care that, once learnt, becomes instinctive, but for the want of which nothing else can compen- sate, the use of the simple means which will suffice to exclude from the wound the coarser forms of septic impurity. Even our earlier and ruder methods of carrying out the antiseptic principle soon produced a wonderful change in my surgical wards in the Glasgow Royal Infirmary, which, from being some of the most unhealthy in the kingdom, became, as I believe I may say without exaggeration, the healthiest in the world ; while other wards, separated from mine only by a passage a few feet broad, where former modes of treatment were for a while continued, retained their former insalubrity. This result, I need hardly remark, was not in any degree due to special skill on my part, but simply 14 REPORT—1896. to the strenuous endeavour to carry out strictly what seemed to me a prin- ciple of supreme importance. Equally striking changes were afterwards witnessed in other institu- tions. Of these I may give one example. In the great Allgemeines Krankenhaus of Munich, hospital gangrene had become more and more rife from year to year, till at length the frightful condition was reached that 80 per cent. of all wounds became affected by it. It is only just to the memory of Professor von Nussbaum, then the head of that establish- ment, to say that he had done his utmost to check this frightful scourge ; and that the evil was not caused by anything peculiar in his management was shown by the fact that in a private hospital under his care there was no unusual unhealthiness. The larger institution seemed to have become ‘hopelessly infected, and the city authorities were contemplating its demo- lition and reconstruction. Under these circumstances, Professor von Nussbaum despatched his chief assistant, Dr. Lindpaintner, to Edinburgh, where I at that time occupied the chair of clinical surgery, to learn the details of the antiseptic system as we then practised it. He remained until he had entirely mastered them, and after his return all the cases were on a certain day dressed on our plan. From that day forward not a single case of hospital gangrene occurred in the Krankenhaus. The fearful disease pyzemia likewise disappeared, and erysipelas soon followed its example. But it was by no means only in removing the unhealthiness of hos- pitals that the antiseptic system showed its benefits. Inflammation being suppressed, with attendant pain, fever, and wasting discharge, the suffer- ings of the patient were, of course, immensely lessened ; rapid primary union being now the rule, convalescence was correspondingly curtailed ; while as regards safety and the essential nature of the mode of repair, it became a matter of indifference whether the wound had clean-cut surfaces which could be closely approximated, or whether the injury inflicted had been such as to cause destruction of tissue. And operations which had been regarded from time immemorial as unjustifiable were adopted with complete safety. Tt pleases me to think that there is an ever-increasing number of prac- titioners throughout the world to whom this will not appear the language of exaggeration. There are cases in which, from the situation of the part concerned or other unusual circumstances, it is impossible to carry out the antiseptic system completely. These, however, are quite exceptional; and even in them much has been done to mitigate the evil which cannot be altogether avoided. I ask your indulgence if I have seemed to dwell too long upon matters in which I have been personally concerned. I now gladly return to the labours of others. The striking results of the application of the germ theory to Surgery acted as a powerful stimulus to the investigation of the nature of the ADDRESS. 1s micro-organisms concerned ; and it soon appeared that putrefaction was by no means the only evil of microbic origin to which wounds were liable. I had myself very early noticed that hospital gangrene was not necessarily attended by any unpleasant odour; and I afterwards made a similar observation regarding the matter formed in a remarkable epidemic of erysipelas in Edinburgh obviously of infective character. I had also seen a careless dressing followed by the occurrence of suppuration without putrefaction. And as these non-putrefactive disorders had the same self- propagating property as ferments, and were suppressed by the same anti- septic agencies which were used for combating the putrefactive microbes, I did not doubt that they were of an analogous origin ; and I ventured to express the view that, just as the various fermentations had each its special microbe, so it might be with the various complications of wounds. This surmise was afterwards amply verified. Professor Ogston, of Aber- deen, was an early worker in this field, and showed that in acute abscesses, that is to say those which run a rapid course, the matter, although often quite free from unpleasant odour, invariably contains micro-organisms belonging to the group which, from the spherical form of their elements, are termed micrococci; and these he classed as streptococci or staphylo- EE —<—— ee Ol cocci, according as they were arranged in chains or disposed in irregular clusters like bunches of grapes. The German pathologist, Fehleisen, fol- lowed with a beautiful research, by which he clearly proved that erysipelas is caused by a streptococcus. A host of earnest workers in different countries have cultivated the new science of Bacteriology, and, while opening up a wide fresh domain of Biology, have demonstrated in so many eases the causal relation between special micro-organisms and special diseases, not only in wounds but in the system generally, as to afford ample confirmation of the induction which had been made by Pasteur that all infective disorders are of microbic origin. Not that we can look forward with anything like confidence to being able ever to see the materies morbi of every disease of this nature. One of the latest of such discoveries has been that by Pfeiffer of Berlin of the bacillus of influenza, perhaps the most minute of all micro-organisms ever yet detected. The bacillus of anthrax, the cause of a plague common among cattle in some parts of Europe, and often communicated to sorters of foreign wool in this country, is a giant as compared with this tiny being ; and supposing the microbe of any infectious fever to be as much smaller than the influenza bacillus as this is less than that of anthrax, a by no means unlikely hypothesis, it is probable that it would never be visible to man. The improvements of the microscope, based on the principle established by my father in the earlier part of the century, have apparently nearly reached the limits of what is possible. But that such parasites are really the causes of all this great class of diseases can no longer be doubted. The first rational step towards the prevention or cure of disease is to 16 REPORT—1896. know its cause ; and it is impossible to over-estimate the practical value of researches such as those to which I am now referring. Among their many achievements is what may be fairly regarded as the most important discovery ever made in pathology, because it revealed the true nature of the disease which causes more sickness and death in the human race than any other. It was made by Robert Koch, who greatly distinguished himself, when a practitioner in an obscure town in Germany, by the remarkable combination of experimental acuteness and skill, chemical and optical knowledge and successful micro-photography which he brought to bear upon the elucidation of infective diseases of wounds in the lower animals; in recognition of which service the enlightened Prussian Government at once appointed him to an official position of great impor- tance in Berlin. There he conducted various important researches; and at the London Congress in 1881 he showed to us for the first time the bacillus of tubercle. "Wonderful light was thrown by this discovery upon a great group of diseases which had before been rather guessed than known to be of allied nature; a precision and efficacy never before possible was introduced into their surgical treatment, while the physician became guided by new and sure light as regards their diagnosis and prevention. At that same London Congress Koch demonstrated to us his ‘ plate culture’ of bacteria, which was so important that I must devote a few words to its description. With a view to the successful study of the habits and effects of any particular microbe outside the living body, it is essential that it should be present unmixed in the medium in which it is cultivated. It can be readily understood how difficult it must have been to isolate any particular micro-organism when it existed mixed, as was often the case, with a multitude of other forms. In fact, the various in- genious attempts made to effect this object had often proved entire failures. Koch, however, by an ingenious procedure converted what had been before impossible into a matter of the utmost facility. In the broth or other nutrient liquid which was to serve as food for the growing microbe he dissolved, by aid of heat, just enough gelatine to ensure that, while it should beeome a solid mass when cold, it should remain fluid though re- duced in temperature so much as to be incapable of killing living germs. To the medium thus partially cooled was added some liquid containing, among others, the microbe to be investigated ; and the mixture was thoroughly shaken so as to diffuse the bacteria and separate them from each other. Some of the liquid was then poured out in a thin layer upon a glass plate and allowed to cool so as to assume the solid form. The various microbes, fixed in the gelatine and so prevented from inter- mingling, proceeded to develop each its special progeny, which in course of time showed itself as an opaque speck in the transparent film. Any one of such specks could now be removed and transferred to another vessel in which the microbe composing it grew in perfect isolation, Pasteur was present at this demonstration, and expressed his sense of ' ADDRESS. 17 the great progress effected by the new method. It was soon introduced into his own institute and other laboratories throughout the world ; and it has immensely facilitated bacteriological study. One fruit of it in Koch’s own hands was the discovery of the microbe of cholera in India, whither he went to study the disease. This organism was termed by Koch from its curved form the ‘comma bacillus,’ and by the French the cholera vibrio. Great doubts were for a long time felt regarding this discovery. Several other kinds of bacteria were found of the same shape, some of them producing very similar appearances in cul- ture media. But bacteriologists are now universally agreed that, although various other conditions are necessary to the production of an attack of cholera besides the mere presence of the vibrio, yet it is the essential materies morbi ; and it is by the aid of the diagnosis which its presence in any case of true cholera enables the bacteriologist to make, that threatened invasions of this awful disease have of late years been so successfully repelled from our shores. If bacteriology had done nothing more for us than this, it might well have earned our gratitude. I have next to invite your attention to some earlier work of Pasteur. There is a disease known in France under the name of choléra des poules, which often produced great havoc among the poultry yards of Paris. It had been observed that the blood of birds that had died of this disease was peopled by a multitude of minute bacteria, not very dissimilar in form and size to the microbe of the lactic ferment to which I have before referred. And Pasteur found that, if this bacterium was cultivated out- side the body for a protracted period under certain conditions, it under- went a remarkable diminution of its virulence ; so that, if inoculated into _a healthy fowl, it no longer caused the death of the bird, as it would have done in its original condition, but produced a milder form of the disease which was not fatal. And this altered character of the microbe, caused by certain conditions, was found to persist in successive generations culti- vated in the ordinary way. Thus was discovered the great fact of what Pasteur termed the atténwation des virus, which at once gave the clue to understanding what had before been quite mysterious, the difference in virulence of the same disease in different epidemics. But he made the further very important observation that a bird which had gone through the mild form of the complaint had acquired immunity against it in its most virulent condition. Pasteur afterwards succeeded in obtaining mitigated varieties of microbes for some other diseases ; and he applied with great success the principle which he had discovered in fowl-cholera for protecting the larger domestic animals against the plague of anthrax. The preparations used for such preventive inoculations he termed ‘vaccins’ in honour of our great countryman, Edward Jenner. For Pasteur at once saw the analogy between the immunity to fowl- cholera produeed by its attenuated virus and the protection afforded against small-pox by vaccination. And while pathologists still hesitated, 1896. c 18 REPORT—1896. he had no doubt of the correctness of Jenner’s expression variole vaccine, or small-pox in the cow. It is just a hundred years since Jenner made the crucial experiment of inoculating with small-pox a boy whom he had previously vaccinated, the result being, as he anticipated, that the boy was quite unaffected. It may be remarked that this was a perfectly legitimate experiment, involving no danger to the subject of it. Inoculation was at that time the established practice ; andif vaccination should prove nugatory, the inoculation would be only what would have been otherwise called for ; while it would be per- fectly harmless if the hoped-for effect of vaccination had been produced. We are a practical people, not much addicted to personal commemora- tions : although our nation did indeed celebrate with fitting splendour the jubilee of the reign of our beloved Queen ; and at the invitation of Glasgow the scientific world has lately marked in a manner, though different, as imposing, the jubilee of the life-work of a sovereign in science (Lord Kelvin). But while we cannot be astonished that the centenary of Jenner’s immortal discovery should have failed to receive general recogni- tion in this country, it is melancholy to think that this year should, in his native county, have been distinguished by a terrible illustration of the results which would sooner or later inevitably follow the general neglect of his prescriptions. I have no desire to speak severely of the Gloucester Guardians. They are not sanitary authorities, and had not the technical knowledge neces- sary to enable them to judge between the teachings of true science and the declamations of misguided, though well-meaning, enthusiasts. They did what they believed to be right ; and when roused to a sense of the greatness of their mistake, they did their very best to repair it, so that their city is said to be now the best vaccinated in Her Majesty’s dominions. But though by their praiseworthy exertions they succeeded in promptly checking the raging epidemic, they cannot recall the dead to life, or restore beauty to marred features, or sight to blinded eyes. Would that the entire country and our Legislature might take duly to heart this object-lesson ! How completely the medical profession were convinced of the efficacy of vaccination in the early part of this century was strikingly illustrated by an account given by Professor Crookshank, in his interesting history of this subject, of several eminent medical men in Edinburgh meeting to see the to them unprecedented fact of a vaccinated person having taken small- pox. Jt has, of course, since become well known that the milder form of the disease, as modified by passing through the cow, confers a less permanent protection than the original human disorder. This it was, of course, impossible for Jenner to foresee. It is, indeed, a question of degree, since a second attack of ordinary small-pox is occasionally known to occur, and vaccination, long after it has ceased to give perfect immu- nity, greatly modifies the character of the disorder and diminishes its si i ei i ee me ADDRESS. 19 danger. And, happily, in re-vaccination after a certain number of years we have the means of making Jenner’s work complete. I understand that the majority of the Commissioners, who have recently issued their report upon this subject, while recognising the value and importance of re-vaccination, are so impressed with the difficulties that would attend making it compulsory by legislation that they do not recommend that course ; although it is advocated by two of their number who are of peculiarly high authority on such a question. I was lately told by a Berlin professor that no serious difficulty is experienced in carrying out the compulsory law that prevails in Germany. The masters of the schools are directed to ascertain in the case of every child attaining the age of twelve whether re-vaccination has been practised. If not, and the parents refuse to have it done, they are fined one mark. If this does not prove effectual, the fine is doubled : and if even the double penalty should not prove efficacious, a second doubling of it would follow, but, as my informant remarked, it is very seldom that it is called for. The result is that small-pox is a matter of extreme rarity in that country ; while it is almost unknown in the huge German army, in consequence of the rule that every soldier is re-vaccinated on entering the service. Whatever view our Legislature may take on this question, one thing seems to me clear : that it will be the duty of Government to encourage by every available means the use of calf lymph, so.as to exclude the possibility of the communication of any human disease to the child, and to institute such efficient inspection of vaccination institutes as shall ensure careful antiseptic arrangements, and so prevent contamination by extraneous microbes. If this were done, ‘conscientious objections’ would cease to have any rational basis. At the same time, the ad- ministration of the regulations on vaccination should be transferred (as advised by the Commissioners) to competent sanitary authorities. But to return to Pasteur. In 1880 he entered upon the study of that terrible but then most obscure disease, Hydrophobia or Rabies, which from its infective character he was sure must be of microbic origin, although no micro-organism could be detected in it. He early demon- strated the new pathological fact that the virus had its essential seat in the nervous system. This proved the key to his success in this subject. One result that flowed from it has been the cause of unspeakable consola- tion to many. The foolish practice is still too prevalent of killing the dog that has bitten any one, on the absurd notion that, if it were mad, its destruction would prevent the occurrence of Hydrophobia in the person bitten. The idea of the bare possibility of the animal having been so affected causes an agony of suspense during the long weeks or months of possible incubation of the disease. Very serious nervous symptoms aping true Hydrophobia have been known tc result from the terror thus inspired. Pasteur showed that if a little of the brain or spinal cord of a dog that had been really mad was inoculated in an appropriate manner into a rabbit, it c2 20 REPORT—1896. infallibly caused rabies in that animal in a few days. If therefore such an experiment was made with a negative result, the conclusion might be drawn with certainty that the dog had been healthy. It is perhaps right that I should say that the inoculation is painlessly done under an anesthetic, and that in the rabbit rabies does not assume the violent form that it does in the dog, but produces gradual loss of power with little if any suffering. — This is the more satisfactory because rabbits in which the disease has been thus artificially induced are employed in carrying out what was Pasteur’s greatest triumph, the preventive treatment of Hydrophobia in the human subject. We have seen that Pasteur discovered that microbes might under some circumstances undergo mitigation of their virulence. He afterwards found that under different conditions they might have it exalted, or, as he expressed it, there might be a renforcement du virus. Such proved to be the case with rabies in the rabbit ; so that the spinal cords of animals which had died of it contained the poison in a highly intensified condition. But he also found that if such a highly virulent cord was suspended under strict antiseptic precautions in a dry atmosphere at a certain temperature, it gradually from day to day lost in potency, till in course of time it became absolutely inert. If now an emulsion of such a harmless cord was introduced under the skin of an animal, as in the subcutaneous administration of morphia, it might be followed without harm another day by a similar dose of a cord still rather poisonous ; and so from day to day stronger and stronger injections might be used, the system becoming gradually accustomed to the poison, till a degree of virulence had been reached far exceeding that of the bite of a mad dog. When this had been attained, the animal proved incapable of taking the disease in the ordinary way ; and more than that, if such treatment was adopted after an animal had already received the poison, provided that too long a time had not elapsed, the outbreak of the disease was prevented. It was only after great searching of heart that Pasteur, after consultation with some trusted medical friends, ventured upon trying this practice upon man. It has since been extensively adopted in various parts of the world with increasing success as the details of the method were improved. It is not of course the case that every one bitten by a really rabid animal takes the disease ; but the percentage of those who do so, which was formerly large, has been reduced almost to zero by this treatment, if not too long delayed. While the intensity of rabies in the rabbit is undoubtedly due toa peculiarly virulent form of the microbe concerned, we cannot suppose that the daily diminishing potency of the cord suspended in dry warm air is an instance of attenuation of virus, using the term ‘ virus’ as synonymous with the microbe concerned. In other words, we have no reason to believe that the special micro-organism of hydrophobia continues to develop in the dead cord and produce successively a milder and milder ADDRESS. 21 progeny ; since rabies cannot be cultivated in the nervous system of a dead animal. We must rather conclude that there must be some chemical poison present which gradually loses its potency as time passes. And this leads me to refer to another most important branch of this large subject of bacteriology, that of the poisonous products of microbes. It was shown several years ago by Roux and Yersin, working in the Institut Pasteur, that the crust or false membrane which forms upon the throats of patients affected with diphtheria contains bacteria which can be cultivated outside the body in a nutrient liquid, with the result that it acquires poisonous qualities of astonishing intensity, comparable to that of the secretion of the poison-glands of the most venomous serpents. And they also ascertained that the liquid retained this property after the microbes had been removed from it by filtration, which proved that the poison must be a chemical substance in solution, as distinguished from the living element which had produced it. These poisonous products of bacteria, or toxins as they have been termed, explain the deadly effects of some microbes, which it would otherwise be impossible to understand. Thus, in diphtheria itself the special bacillus which was shown by Léffler to be its cause, does not become propagated in the blood, like the microbe of chicken cholera, but remains confined to the surface on which it first appeared : but the toxin which it secretes is absorbed from that surface into the blood, and so poisons the system. Similar observations have been made with regard to the microbes of some other diseases, as, for example, the bacillus of tetanus or lockjaw. This remains localised in the wound, but forms a special toxin of extreme potency, which becomes absorbed and diffused through the body. Wonderful as it seems, each poisonous microbe appears to form its own peculiar toxin. Koch’s tuberculin was of this nature ; a product of the growth of the tubercle bacillus in culture media. Here, again, great effects were produced by extremely minute quantities of the substance ; but here a new peculiarity showed itself, viz. that patients affected with tubercular disease, in any of its varied forms, exhibited inflammation in the affected part and general fever after receiving under the skin an amount of the material which had no effect whatever upon healthy persons. I witnessed in Berlin some instances of these effects, which were simply astounding. Patients affected with a peculiar form of obsti- nate ulcer of the face showed, after a single injection of the tuberculin, violent inflammatory redness and swelling of the sore and surrounding skin ; and, what was equally surprising, when this disturbance subsided the disease was found to have undergone great improvement. By repeti- tions of such procedures, ulcers which had previously been steadily advancing, in spite of ordinary treatment, became greatly reduced in size, and in some instances apparently cured. Such results led Koch to believe that he had obtained an effectual means of dealing with tubercular disease in all its forms. Unhappily, the apparent cure proved to be only of 92 REPORT—1896. transient duration, and the high hopes which had been inspired by Koch’s great reputation were dashed. It is but fair to say that he was strongly urged to publish before he was himself disposed to do so, and we cannot but regret that he yielded to the pressure put upon him. But though Koch’s sanguine anticipations were not realised, it would be a great mistake to suppose that his labours with tuberculin have been fruitless. Cattle are liable to tubercle, and, when affected with it, may become a very serious source of infection for human beings, more especially when the disease affects the udders of cows, and so contaminates the milk. By virtue of the close affinity that prevails between the lower animals and ourselves, in disease as well as in health, tuberculin produces fever in tuber- cular cows in doses which do not affect healthy beasts. Thus, by the subcutaneous use of a little of the fluid, tubercle latent in internal organs of an apparently healthy cow can be with certainty revealed, and the slaughter of the animal after this discovery protects man from infection. It has been ascertained that glanders presents a precise analogy with tubercle as regards the effects of its toxic products. If the microbe which has been found to be the cause of this disease is cultivated in appropriate media, it produces a poison which has received the name of mallein, and the subcutaneous injection of a suitable dose of this fluid into a glandered horse causes striking febrile symptoms which do not occur in a healthy animal. Glanders, like tubercle, may exist in insidious Jatent forms which there was formerly no possibility of detecting, but which are at once disclosed by this means. Ifa glandered horse has been accidentally introduced into a large stable, this method of diagnosis surely tells if it has infected others. All receive a little mallein. Those which become affected with fever are slaughtered, and thus not only is the disease pre- vented from spreading to other horses, but the grooms are protected from a mortal disorder. This valuable resource sprang from Koch’s work on tuberculin, which has also indirectly done good in other ways. His distinguished pupil, Behring, has expressly attributed to those researches the inspiration of the work which Jed him and his since famous collaborateur, the Japanese Kitasato, to their surprising discovery of anti-toxic serum. They found that if an animal of a species liable to diphtheria or tetanus received a quantity of the respective toxin, so small as to be harmless, and after- wards, at suitable intervals, successively stronger and stronger doses, the creature, in course of time, acquired such a tolerance for the poison as to be able to receive with impunity a quantity very much greater than would at the outset have proved fatal. So far, we have nothing more than seems to correspond with the effects of the increasingly potent cords in Pasteur’s treatment of rabies. But what was entirely new in their results was that, if blood was drawn from an animal which had acquired this high degree of artificial immunity, and some of the clear fluid or scrum which exuded from it after it had clotted was introduced under the ADDRESS. 23 skin of another animal, this second animal acquired a strong, though more transient, immunity against the particular toxin concerned. The serum in some way counteracted the toxin or was antitoxic. But, more than that, if some of the antitoxic serum was applied to an animal after it had already received a poisonous dose of the toxin, it preserved the life of the creature, provided that too long a time had not elapsed after the poison was introduced. In other words, the antitoxin proved to be not only preventive but curative. Similar results were afterwards obtained by Ehrlich, of Berlin, with some poisons not of bacterial origin, but derived from the vegetable kingdom ; and quite recently the independent labours of Calmette of Lille and Fraser of Edinburgh have shown that antidotes of wonderful efficacy against the venom of serpents may be procured on the same prin- ciple. Calmette has obtained antitoxin so powerful that a quantity of it only a 200,000th part of the weight of an animal will protect it perfectly against a dose of the secretion of the poison-glands of the most venomous serpents known to exist, which without such protection would have proved fatal in four hours. For curative purposes larger quantities of the remedy are required, but cases have been already published by Calmette in which death appears to have been averted in the human subject by this treatment. Behring’s darling object was to discover means of curing tetanus and diphtheria in man. In tetanus the conditions are not favourable ; because the specific bacilli lurk in the depths of the wound, and only declare their presence by symptoms caused by their toxin having been already in a greater or less amount diffused through the system ; and in every case of this disease there must be a fear that the antidote may be applied too late to be useful. But in diphtheria the bacilli very early manifest their pre- sence by the false membrane which they cause upon the throat, so that the antitoxin has a fair chance ; and here we are justified in saying that Behring’s object has been attained. The problem, however, was by no means so simple as in the case of some mere chemical poison. However effectual the antitoxin might be against the toxin, if it left the bacilli intact, not only would repeated injections be required to maintain the transient immunity to the poison perpetually secreted by the microbes, but the bacilli might by their growth and extension cause obstruction of the respiratory passages. Roux, however, whose name must always be mentioned with honour in relation to this subject, effectually disposed of this difficulty. He showed by experiments on animals that a diphtheritic false membrane, rapidly extending and accompanied by surrounding inflammation, was brought to a stand by the use of the antitoxin, and soon dropped off, leaving a healthy surface. Whatever be the explanation, the fact was thus established that the antitoxic serum, while it renders the toxin harmless, causes the microbe to languish and disappear. No theoretical objection could now be. urged against the treatment ; 24 REPORT—1896. and it has during the last two years been extensively tested in practice in various parts of the worid, and it has gradually made its way more and more into the confidence of the profession. One important piece of evi- dence in its favour in this country is derived from the report of the six large hospitals under the management of the London Asylums Board. The medical officers of these hospitals at first naturally regarded the prac- tice with scepticism : but as it appeared to be at least harmless, they gave it a trial ; and during the year 1895 it was very generally employed upon the 2,182 cases admitted ; and they have all become convinced of its great value. In the nature of things, if the theory of the treatment is correct, the best results must be obtained when the patients are admitted at an early stage of the attack, before there has been time for much poisoning of the system : and accordingly we learn from the report that, comparing 1895 with 1894, during which latter year the ordinary treatment had been used, the percentage of mortality, in all the six hospitals combined, among the patients admitted on the first day of the disease, which in 1894 was 22:5, was only 4:6 in 1895; and for those admitted on the second day the numbers are 27 for 1894 and 14:8 for 1895. Thus for cases admitted on the first day the mortality was only one-fifth of what it was in the previous year, and for those enter- ing on the second it was halved. Unfortunately in the low parts of London which furnish most of these patients the parents too often delay sending in the children till much later: so that on the average no less than 67:5 per cent. were admitted on the fourth day of the disease or later. Hence the aggregate statistics of all cases are not nearly so striking. Nevertheless, taking it altogether, the mortality in 1895 was less than had ever before been experienced in those hospitals. I should add that there was no reason to think that the disease was of a milder type than usual in 1895 ; and no change whatever was made in the treatment except as regards the antitoxic injections. There is one piece of evidence recorded in the report which, though it is not concerned with high numbers, is well worthy of notice. It relates to a special institution to which convalescents from scarlet fever are sent from all the six hospitals. Such patients occasionally contract diphtheria, and when they do so the added disease has generally proved extremely fatal. In the five years preceding the introduction of the treatment with anti- toxin the mortality from this cause had never been less than 50 per cent., and averaged on the whole 61:9 per cent. During 1895, under antitoxin, the deaths among the 119 patients of this class were only 7:5 per cent., or one-eighth of what had been previously experienced. This very strik- ing result seems to be naturally explained by the fact that these patients being already in hospital when the diphtheria appeared, an unusually early opportunity was afforded for dealing with it. There are certain cases of so malignant a character from the first that no treatment will probably ever be able to cope with them. But taking ADDRESS. 25 all cases together it seems probable that Behring’s hope that the mortality may be reduced to 5 per cent. will be fully realised when the public become alive to the paramount importance of having the treatment com- menced at the outset of the disease. There are many able workers in the field of Bacteriology whose names time does not permit me to mention, and to whose important labours I cannot refer ; and even those researches of which I have spoken have been, of course, most inadequately dealt with. I feel this especially with regard to Pasteur, whose work shines out more brightly the more his writings are perused. I have lastly to bring before you a subject which, though not bacterio- logical, has intimate relations with bacteria. Ifa drop of blood is drawn from the finger by a prick with a needle and examined microscopically between two plates of glass, there are seen in it minute solid elements of two kinds, the one pale orange bi-concave discs, which, seen in mass, give the red colour to the vital fluid, the other more or less granular spherical masses of the soft material called protoplasm, destitute of colour, and therefore called the colourless or white corpuscles. It has been long known that if the microscope was placed at such a distance from a fire as to have the temperature of the human body, the white corpuscles might be seen to put out and retract little processes or pseudopodia, and by their means crawl over the surface of the glass, just like the extremely low forms of animal life termed, from this faculty of changing their form, ameebe. It was a somewhat weird spectacle, that of seeing what had just before been coursing through our veins moving about like inde- pendent creatures. Yet there was nothing in this inconsistent with what we knew of the fixed components of the animal frame. For example, the surface of a frog’s tongue is covered with a layer of cells, each of which is provided with two or more lashing filaments or cilia, and those of all the cells acting in concert cause a constant flow of fluid in a definite direction over the organ. If we gently scrape the surface of the animal’s tongue, we can detach some of these ciliated cells; and on examining them with the microscope in a drop of water, we find that they will contiuue for an indefinite time their lashing movements, which are just as much living or vital in their character as the writhings of a worm. And, as I observed many years ago, these detached cells behave under the influence of a stimulus just like parts connected with the body, the movements of the cilia being excited to greater activity by gentle stimulation, and thrown into a state of temporary inactivity when the irritation was more severe. Thus each constituent element of our bodies may be regarded as in one sense an independent living being, though all work together in marvellous harmony for the good of the body politic. The independent movements of the white corpuscles outside the body were therefore not astonishing : but they long remained matters of mere curiosity. Much interest was called to them by the observation of the German pathologist Cohnheim that in some 26 REPORT—1896. inflammatory conditions they passed through the pores in the walls of the finest blood-vessels, and thus escaped into the interstices of the surrounding tissues. Cohnheim attributed their transit to the pressure of the blood. But why it was that, though larger than the red corpuscles, and contain- ing a nucleus which the red ones have not, they alone passed through the pores of the vessels, or why it was that this emigration of the white corpuscles occurred abundantly in some inflammations and was absent in others, was quite unexplained. These white corpuscles, however, have been invested with extraordi- nary new interest by the researches of the Russian naturalist and patholo- gist, Metchnikoff. He observed that, after passing through the walls of the vessels, they not only crawl about like amebz, but, like them, receive nutritious materials into their soft bodies and digest them. It is thus that the effete materials of a tadpole’s tail are got rid of ; so that they play a most important part in the function of absorption. But still more interesting observations followed. He found that a microscopic crustacean, a kind of water-flea, was liable to he infested by a fungus which had exceedingly sharp-pointed spores. These were apt to penetrate the coats of the creature’s intestine, and project into its body-cavity. No sooner did this occur with any spore than it became surrounded by a group of the cells which are contained in the cavity of the body and correspond to the white corpuscles of our blood. These proceeded to attempt to devour the spore; and if they succeeded, in every such case, the animal was saved from the invasion of the parasite. But if the spores were more than could be disposed of by the devouring cells (phagocytes, as Metchnikoff termed them), the water-flea succumbed. Starting from this fundamental observation, he ascertained that the microbes of infective diseases are subject to this same process of devouring and digestion, carried on both by the white corpuscles and by cells that line the blood-vessels. And by a long series of most beautiful researches he has, as it appears to me, firmly established the great truth that phagocytosis is the main defensive means possessed by the living body against the inva- sions of its microscopic foes. The power of the system to produce anti- toxic substances to counteract the poisons of microbes is undoubtedly in its own place of great importance. But in the large class of cases in which animals are naturally refractory to particular infective diseases the blood is not found to yield any antitoxic element by which the natural immunity can be accounted for. Here phagocytosis seems to be the sole defensive agency. And even in cases in which the serum does possess antitoxic, or, as it would seem in some cases, germicidal properties, the bodies of the dead microbes must at last be got rid of by phagocytosis, and some recent observations would seem to indicate that the useful elements of the serum may be, in part at least, derived from the digestive juices of the phagocytes. If ever there was a romantic chapter in pathology, it has surely been that of the story of phagocytosis. ADDRESS. PA I was myself peculiarly interested by these observations of Metchni- koff’s, because they seemed to me to afford clear explanation of the healing of wounds by first intention under circumstances before incomprehensible. Complete primary union was sometimes seen to take place in wounds treated with water-dressing, that is to say, a piece of wet lint covered with a layer of oiled-silk to keep it moist. This, though cleanly when applied, was invariably putrid within twenty-four hours. The layer of blood between the cut surfaces was thus exposed at the outlet of the wound to a most potent septic focus. How was it prevented from putrefying, as it would have done under such influence if, instead of being between divided living tissues, it had been between plates of glass or other indifferent material ? Pasteur’s observations pushed the question a step further. It now was, How were the bacteria of putrefaction kept from propagating in the decomposable film? Metchnikoff’s phagocytosis supplied the answer. The blood between the lips of the wound became rapidly peopled with phagocytes, which kept guard against the putrefactive microbes and seized them as they endeavoured to enter, If phagocytosis was ever able to cope with septic microbes in so con- centrated and intense a form, it could hardly fail to deal effectually with them in the very mitigated condition in which they are present in the air. We are thus strongly confirmed in our conclusion that the atmo- spheric dust may safely be disregarded in our operations : and Metchni- koff’s researches, while they have illumined the whole pathology of infective diseases, have beautifully completed the theory of antiseptic treatment in surgery. I might have taken equally striking illustrations of my theme from other departments in which microbes play no part. In fact any attempt to speak of all that the art of healing has borrowed from science and con- tributed to it during the past half-century would involve a very extensive dissertation on pathology and therapeutics. I have culled specimens from a wide field ; and I only hope that in bringing them before you I have not overstepped the bounds of what is fitting before a mixed company. For many of you my remarks can have had little if any novelty : for others they may perhaps possess some interest as showing that Medicine is no unworthy ally of the British Association—that, while her practice is ever more and more based on science, the ceaseless efforts of her votaries to improve what have been fittingly designated Que prosunt omnibus artes, are ever adding largely to the sum of abstract knowledge. ‘te i ed zur Ts ' age freee pura | f thats yall We ashy ais hey ned cf tea oahy, bn how j rh | e > i Datel paige a OP 4 Reale shi palartny « P74 “ae oe Ui rthh, to tay, iy aay f tty wigs} > oe oh pat ' t al anlbhia ty - REPORTS | ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. CF iL ORERTST ' Fue May a Ven TOOT Aas a EE ———————-_---~ REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Corresponding Societies.— Report of the Comittee, consisting of Professor R. MELDOLA (Chairman), Mr. T. V. HOLMES (Secretary), Mr. Francis GALTON, Sir DotGLas GALTonN, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir JoHn Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor T. G. BonNEy, Mr. W. WuitTaker, Professor E. B. Poutron, Mr. CuTHBpert PEEK, and Rev. Canon H. B. TRISTRAM. Tue Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Association beg leave to submit the following Report of the Conference held at Liverpool. The Council intended to nominate Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., Chairman of the Liverpool Conference, but, owing to serious illness, Mr. Whitaker was unable to be present, and Dr. Garson was nominated in his place. Mr. T. V. Holmes was nominated Secretary to the Conference. The meetings of the Conference were held in St. George’s Hall, in the Small Concert Room, on ee September 17, and in the Crown Court on Tuesday, September 22, at 3.30 p.m. The following Corre- sponding Societies nominated as delegates to represent them at the Liverpool meeting :— Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club. : William Gray, M.R.1.A. Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Alexander Tate, M.Inst.C.E. Society Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club . ‘ Wm. T. Hindmarsh, F.L.S. Birmingham Natural History and Philo- Charles Pumphrey. sophical Society Bristol Naturalists’ Society : : . Professor 8. Young, F.R.S. Buchan Field Club . . John Gray, B.Sc. Burton-on-Trent Natural History and Philip B. Mason, F.L.S. Archeological Society Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club . W. W. Watts, M.A., F.G.S. Cardiff Naturalists’ Society , E. W. Small. Chester Society of Natural Science and Osmund W. Jeffs. Literature Chesterfield and Midland Counties Institu- M. H. Mills, F.G.S. tion of Engineers REPORT—1896. Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club . East Kent Natural History Society . East of Scotland Union of Naturalists’ Societies Essex Field Club Federated Institution of Mining Engineers Glasgow Geological Society . Glasgow Natural History Society Glasgow Philosophical Society . Hampshire Field Club Hertfordshire Natural History Society Holmesdale Natural History Club Treland, Statistical and Social Inqu'‘ry Society of Isle of Man Natural History and Anti- quarian Society Leeds Geological Association . Leeds Naturalists’ Club and Scientific Association . Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society Liverpool Engineering Society . . Liverpool Geographical Society Liverpool Geological Society Malton Field Naturalists’ and Scientific Society Manchester Geographical Society Manchester Geological Society . Manchester Microscopical Society 5 Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society . North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club North of England Institute of Mining Engineers Nottingham Naturalists’ Society Perthshire Society of Natural Science Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society . Scotland, Mining Institute of . Somersetshire Archeological and Natural History Society Tyneside Geographical Society. Warwickshire Naturalists’ and Archzolo- gists’ Field Club Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club. Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union T. R. Polwhele, F.G.S. N. M. Richardson. Professor T. Jchnson, D.Sc. Henry Coates, F.R.S.E. A. M. Rodger, M.A. T. V. Holmes, F.G.S. M. H. Mills, M.Inst.C.E. J. Barclay Murdoch. Professor F. O. Bower, F.R.S. W. W. Blackie, B.Sc. Rev. A. G. Joyce. Sir John Evans, K.C.B. Miss M. C. Crosfield. Professor Bastable, M.A. A. W. Moore, M.A. Professor P. F. Kendall, F.G.S. Ilarold Wager, F.L.S. Montagu Browne, F.L.S. Arthnr J. Maginnis, M.Inst.N.A. Horace Walker. E. Dickson, F.G.S. Dr. E. Colby, M.A. Eli Sowerbutts, F.R.G.S. Mark Stirrup, F.G.S. F. W. Hembry. Clement Reid, F.G.S. C. E. De Rance, F.G.S. J. H. Merivale, M.A. Professor J. W. Carr, M.A. Sir Robert Pullar. J. R. Heape. James Barrowman. F, T. Elworthy. G. E. T. Smithson. Wm. Andrews, F.G.S. Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A. Wm. Cash, F.G.S. Rev. E. P. Knubley, M.A. First CONFERENCE, SEPTEMBER 17, 1896. The first meeting of the Conference took place in the Crown Court, adjoining the Reception Room, St. George’s Hall. The Chairman, Dr. Garson, opened the proceedings by expressing his regret that serious illness prevented Mr. Whitaker from being present, though he was glad to be able to add that the latest accounts of ‘him were that he was progressing satisfactorily. He was pleased to see a larger number of delegates than usual, as a sign that the connection of the Corresponding Societies with the British ‘Association was becoming more ee eee pt i eel CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 33 and more appreciated. He hoped the delegates would attend regularly, so that they might the better explain to their respective Societies on their return home the nature of the work in which they were asked to co-operate. Mr. George Abbott, M.R.C.S., General Secretary of the South Eastern Union of Scientific Societies, then read a short paper entitled ‘ District Unions of Natural History Societies.’ Mr. Abbott remarked that while local Natural History Societies had done much good work, yet that in many eases their efforts had been weak, irregular, and desultory. He thought the chief cause of failure had been want of organisation. A step in the right direction had been taken by the Unions of Scientific Societies already existing, such as those of Yorkshire and the East of Scotland, but he considered that the British Association did not sufliciently foster such unions. He therefore felt that a plan was necessary which would organise the local societies under the guidance of the British Association, which shouid help to bring these unions into being through the agency of an organising secretary. He submitted the following plan for the consideration of the Conference :— Districts—The United Kingdom should be divided into fifteen or twenty districts, in each of which all Natural History Societies should be afhliated for mutual aid, counsel, and work. Existing unions should perhaps be imitated, at any rate not disturbed. Geographical lines should decide their size, which might vary in extent and be dependent, in some measure, on railway facilities. From time to time these areas might be subject to review, and necessary changes made. Congress.—Each of such unions would have its annual congress attended. by delegates and members from its affiliated societies. This would be held in a fresh town every year, with a new president, somewhat after the manner of the British Association itself. The congresses would probably take place in spring, but two should never be held on the same day. iohese unions would render important help to local societies, would bring isolated workers together, assist schools, colleges, and technical institutes and museums, start new societies, and revive waning ones. Through these annual meetings local and petty jealousies would Jessen or turn to friendly rivalries—each society trying to excel in real work, activity, and good science teaching. Further, economy of labour would be accomplished by a precise demarcation of area for each local society. This would be understood as its sphere of work and influence ; in this portion of country it would have a certain amount of responsibility in such matters as observation, research, and vigilance against encroachments on footpaths, commons, and wayside wastes. These unions might also, through their Central Committees, bring about desirable improvements in publication, but it would perhaps not be desirable, in all cases, to go in for joint publication. In this, as in other matters connected with the unions, co-operation and not uniformity must be our aim. Union Committees.—Each union would need a general secretary and a committee, all of whom should be intimately acquainted with methods of work and the best ambitions of local societies. 1896. D 34 REPORT—1896. Corresponding Members.—This is another necessary development. Each local society should appoint in every village in its district a corre- sponding member with some distinctive title, and certain privileges and advantages. The work asked of him would be to— 1. Forward surplus Natural History specimens to their Society’s Museum. 2. Supply prompt information on the following subjects :— (a) New geological sections. (b) Details of wells, borings, springs, &c. (c) Finds of geological and antiquarian interest. 3. Answer such questions as the British Association or the local society may require. 4. Keep an eye on historic buildings. 5. Assist the Selborne Society in carrying out its objects. No mean occupation—certainly a useful, attractive, and honourable post—worthy of any man’s acceptance. In return he should be offered— 1. Assistance in naming specimens, and with the formation of school museums. 29. Free admission to lectures and excursions. 3. Copies of transactions. 4. Free use of the Society’s library. Every village would soon, under this scheme, possess an agent, registrar, or whatever you like to call him, who would be more and more able, as he gained experience, to further the aims of this association. Expenses or Ways and Means.—This cannot be ignored, but would not form a sufficient barrier to prevent the adoption of the scheme. The unions would be self-supporting, by means of small contributions from the affiliated societies. Money is only wanting for the expenses of an organising secretary. Ido not attempt to estimate the cost of this, but with objects so desirable and far-reaching in view, the price cannot be considered excessive, and the British Association would soon be repaid by obtaining prompt and direct communication with all the towns and villages in Great Britain, by greater assistance in its research work and in all other branches which the British Association was established sixty- five years ago to promote. . The Chairman was sure that they all felt much obliged to Mr. Abbott for his paper on this important subject. He invited discussion. The Rev. E. P. Knubley remarked that he would give briefly the results of the experience of the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union during the twenty years of its existence. It was, he believed, the largest union of scientific societies in England, having thirty-six affiliated associations. There were 500 members and 2,500 associates, making a total of 3,000 workers. He thought they owed much to their geographical position and to the great variety of rocks, scenery, soil, and climate in Yorkshire. As to the organisation of the Union, it was based to a considerable extent on that of the British Association. Their president, a distinguished York- shireman, was elected annually. There were general secretaries, an executive of twelve members, and a general committee. Their work CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 35 came under five sections—those of geology, botany, zoology, conchology, and entomology. In addition, much work was carried on by means of research committees, which were in direct communication with the British Association. Eight such committees were then in existence : a Boulder Committee ; a Sea Coast Erosion Committee ; a Fossil Flora Committee ; a Geological Photographs Committee ; a Marine Biology Committee ; a Micro-zoological and Micro-botanical Committee ; a Wild Birds and Eggs Protection Committee ; and a Mycological Committee. All these Committees reported annually, and their Reports were presented to the British Association. An annual meeting of the Union was held in one of the Yorkshire towns. For excursion purposes Yorkshire was divided into five parts, and a meeting was held in each of them. One meeting every year took place on the sea coast. Great care was taken by the secretaries before each excursion to get all the geological, botanical, and other information obtainable about the place to be visited, and, when there, every endeavour was made to get each member to do some special work. In short, every effort was made to train workers in the various departments of natural science. It has been found necessary to discourage the offering of hospitality, on account of the loss of time involved. He would only add that the success of the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union was largely due to the energy and perseverance of their general secretary, Mr. W. D. Roebuck. The Chairman asked Mr. Knubley how many of the Yorkshire Scientific Associations which were on the list of the Corresponding Societies of the British Association were also on that of the Yorkshire Union. Mr. Knubley replied that the Leeds Naturalists’ Club, Leeds Geological Association, and Malton Naturalists’ Society were affiliated to the Union, but not the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society, nor the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. Mr. M. H. Mills then gave some account of the organisation of the Federated Institution of Mining Engineers. He said that the rules of the Federation had been carefully considered by the secretaries and councils of the various societies composing it, and it had been found that the best kind of federation was that which touched only the publication of their papers. ach society did its work independently, as before the existence of the Federation, but now they had one publication instead of many. In answer to questions from Sir Douglas Galton, Mr. Mills added that he thought it would be a good thing that societies doing the same kind of work should be federated together ; he also stated that members of the societies composing the Federation paid but one subscription, a portion of it only being given tu the Federation for printing the publication. Mr. Montagu Browne gave some details as to the present constitution of the Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society. With regard to payments for printing, he said that usually each section was self- supporting, but that in the case of papers of exceptional interest and expense, the parent society made a special grant, if necessary. Mr. C. E. De Rance was glad to learn that the Yorkshire Union had established a Coast Erosion Committee to carry on the work in Yorkshire, which had been done for so many years by a British Association Com- mittee for the country generally. As regards Mr. Abbott’s plan, he fully concurred with him as to the need for an organising secretary, without whose aid he felt sure that scarcely any federation would be accomplished. r D2 36 REPORT—1896. Mr. W. T. Hindmarsh said that while the Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club had a large area for its field of work, extending not only over Berwickshire, but over Northumberland, outside Newcastle there was no large town or University within its boundaries. The district was sparsely populated, and there was no other Naturalists’ Club in it with which they could unite. Mr. J. H. Merivale thought, from some remarks of the last speaker, that he did not quite realise that federation did not imply the slightest loss of independence on the part of any local society joining a union. The great advantage was that the transactions of all the local societies were to be found in one publication. ,He was certain that if the Natural History Societies throughout the kingdom would unite as the societies composing the Federated Mining Engineers had done, the result would be excellent. Professor T. Johnson mentioned that in Ireland they had a good: example of a Union, It comprised four clubs, one in Dublin, another in Belfast, a third in Cork, and a fourth in Limerick, which combined to form the Irish Field Club Union. A yearly meeting was held in various parts of the country, and they had a publication which was common property—the ‘ Irish Naturalist.’ There was a poll-tax of twopence from each member to defray the expenses of the Union, and there was a com- mittee formed of the president and secretaries of the four societies. They had an arrangement by which a specialist belonging to one club could have his expenses paid if he lectured to another club. They were also forming a directory, so that students coming to Ireland would shortly be able to learn who was working at any given subject and where he might be found. They made a point of sending their specimens to museums. In addition, they had short courses of lectures to arouse the interest of amateurs, with occasional excursions. The Union had been originated by Mr. Praeger, secretary of the Dublin Club. In answer to a question from the Chairman, Professor Johnson added that the fees received from persons attending the lectures were put into a common fund and used for excursion purposes, the lecturer himself re- ceiving nothing from the course. Mr. Eli Sowerbutts thought that while in some respects federation must commend itself to all, there were some questions of great delicacy involved in it which made him hesitate to come to any decision at that meeting. He felt sure that a society would not submit to'be controlled by another society as regards the publication of its papers. There were also many other matters needing careful discussion before any decision could be safely arrived at. Much discussion then arose as to the possibility of arranging for a meeting for the further consideration of Mr. Abbott’s paper before the second meeting of the Conference. In this the Chairman, Sir Douglas Galton, Professor Johnson, Mr. Abbott, Mr. Watts, Mr. Tate, and others took part. At length the following motion was proposed by Mr. Abbott, seconded by the Rev. E. P. Knubley, and carried unanimously :— ‘That Mr. Montagu Browne, Professor Johnson, the Rev. E. P. Knubley, Mr. Hindmarsh, Mr. W. W. Watts, and Mr. Abbott be nomi- nated to form a sub-committee (with power to add to their number) to consider this question, and report to the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.’ Mr. W. Watts inquired whether anything was being done to preserve CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 37 the publications of the local societies. The Chairman replied that many pounds had been spent in binding those sent to the British Association Office, and that it was proposed to index them if funds could be obtained for that purpose. The meeting then terminated. MEETING OF THE SUB-COMMITTEE, A meeting of the sub-committee was held in the Crown Court on Monday, September 21. The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing and Mr. O. W. Jeffs were added to the sub-committee. Report of Sub-committee appointed at Meeting of Delegates of Corre- sponding Societies, September 17, 1896 (Chairman, Rev. T. R. R. STEBBING, F.R.S.). The following resolutions have been unanimously agreed to :— (1) That Mr. G. Abbott’s paper on ‘District Unions of Natural History Societies’ be distributed by the Committee of the Corresponding Societies amongst a// the Natural History Societies in the United King- dom, with the request that their opinion on the feasibility of the plan advocated in the paper be communicated as early as possible to the Corresponding Societies Committee for their report to the next Conference of Delegates. (2) That the formation of District Unions of Natural History Societies is highly desirable, and would be of general advantage. (3) That the Committee of the Corresponding Societies be requested to take steps to encourage the formation of District Unions of Natural History Societies. (4) That it should be distinctly understood that the formation of Unions would not in any way prevent the affiliation of individual Societies of such Unions to the British Association as at present. LiIvERPOOL, SECOND CONFERENCE, SEPTEMBER 22, 1896. The Second Conference was held in the Small Concert Room, St. George’s Hall, Dr. Garson in the chair. The Chairman called upon Mr. Abbott to read the Report of the sub- committee appointed at the last Conference. [Mr, Abbott then read the resolutions given above. | Mr. De Rance expressed his satisfaction with the outcome of the Sub- committee’s deliberation. The more our local societies could combine for purposes of publication the better. He moved that the Report be received. Mr. Hembry seconded the motion. After some discussion, in which the Chairman, Mr. Sowerbutts, the Rev. J. O. Bevan, and others took part, the Report was received. Some further discussion took place as to the adoption of the Report, which was moved by Mr. Abbott and seconded by Mr. Hembry. The Report was at length adopted, and a resolution was also passed referring the Report to the Corresponding Societies Committee. 38 REPORT-—1896. A delegate having inquired when the next Conference would take place, the Chairman replied that it would be next year at Toronto. The following Paper by Professor Flinders Petrie was then read :— On a Federal Staff for Local Museums. The present suggestions only affect a distribution of labour, and will rather economise than require extra expenditure. In all local museums the main difficulty of the management is that there is neither money nor work enough fora highly trained and competent man. It is in any case impossible to get a universal genius who can deal with every class of object equally well, and hardly any local museum can afford to pay for a first-class curator on any one subject. These difficulties are entirely the result of a want of co-operation. According to the report of the Committee in 1887, there are fifty-six Ist class, fifty-five 2nd class, sixty-three 3rd class, and thirty 4th class museums in the kingdom. Setting aside the last two classes as mostly too poor to pay except for mere caretaking, there are 111 in the other classes ; and deducting a few of the 1st class museums as being fully provided, there are 100 museums, all of which endeavour to keep up to the mark by spending perhaps 30/. to 200/. a year on a curator. The practical course would seem to be their union, in providing a federal staff, to circulate for ail purposes requiring skilled knowledge ; leaving the permanent attention to each place to devolve on a mere caretaker. If half of these Ist and 2nd class museums combined in paying 30/. a year each, there would be enough to pay three first-rate men 500/. a year apiece, and each museum would have a week of atten- tion in the year from a geologist, and the same from a zoologist and an archeologist. The duties of such a stafl’ would be to arrange and label the new specimens acquired in the past year, taking sometimes a day, or perhaps a fortnight, at one place ; to advise on alterations and improvements ; tc recommend purchases required to fill up gaps; to note duplicates and promote exchanges between museums ; and to deliver a lecture on the principal novelties of their own subject in the past year. Such visitants, if well selected, would probably be welcome guests at the houses of some of those interested in the museum in each place. The effect at the country museums would be that three times in the year a visitant would arrive for one of the three sections, would work everything up to date, stir the local interests by advice and a lecture, stimulate the caretaker, and: arrange routine work that could be carried out before the next year’s visit, and yet would rot cost more than having down three lecturers for the local institution or society, apart from this work. To many, perhaps most, museums 30/. for skilled work, and 30/. or 40/. for a caretaker, would be an economy on their present expenditure, while they would get far better attention. Such a system could not be suddenly started ; but if there were an official base for it, curators could interchange work according to their specialities, and as each museum post fell vacant it might be placed in commission among the best curators in that district, until by gradual selection the most competent men were attached to forty or fifty museums to be served in rotation. It is not im- possible that the highest class of the local museums might be glad to CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 39 subscribe, so as to get special attention on subjects outside of the studies of their present curators. The Chairman was sure that the meeting felt much obliged to Professor Petrie for this very suggestive paper. He hoped that gentlemen wishing to discuss it would be as brief as possible in their comments, as they had much business before them. Mr. W. E. Hoyle said that he had no legal locus standi there, but had come on the suggestion of the Assistant General Secretary, who had sent him a copy of Professor Petrie’s paper, and asked him to take part in the discussion. He hoped no action would be taken in this matter in such a way as to prevent co-operation with the Museums Association. Professor Petrie’s scheme seemed to him a most simple and practical one, and he thought it would be a good thing for those specially interested in it to confer with the officials of the Museums Association with regard to it. The chief difficulty which he foresaw in carrying it out was the almost incredible inertia of museum committees. The Museums Association met once a year, and everyone who had attended its meetings had admitted their value in enabling curators to exchange ideas upon all museum questions. It had been in existence about six years, but hitherto very few societies had cared to go to the expense of sending their curators to its meetings. In the museum over which he had the honour to preside there were four assistant curators who were doing good work. It was probably not in Professor Petrie’s mind when he drew up his scheme for a Federal staff. Yet he was quite prepared to urge upon his Committee the adoption of Professor Petrie’s plan. Mr. M. H. Mills could testify to the thoroughness with which museum questions were discussed at meetings of the Museums Association. If his proposition were in order, he would move that this question be referred to the Museums Association. The Chairman thought Mr. Mills’ proposition inadmissible. Mr. G. Abbott cordially supported Professor Petrie’s suggestions, and thought that an increase in the number of Unions of Naturalists’ Societies would greatly tend towards their general adoption. Mr. N. M. Richardsor did not think there could be any doubt as to the advantages of Professor Petrie’s scheme, though he was afraid that the Committee of the Dorset County Museum were hardly in a position to incur the expense. Professor Johnson thought it would be a good thing if the Museums Association could become a Corresponding Society of the British Associa- tion, so that one or more of its chief officials might be present at discus- sions of this kind. He had listened with considerable interest to Professor Petrie’s paper, but he would protest strongly against the suggestion that the curators of our local museums should be converted into mere care- takers, as he thought the tendency should be in the opposite direction. It would be well to urge our local societies to employ as their curator a specialist of some kind, and to give him a chance of rising above the position he held at first, rather than to make him feel that he would always be a mere caretaker dependent wholly on some one who came down occasionally from some centre of enlightenment. He knew an admirable curator in the north of Ireland, seventy years of age, and a specialist in three or four branches, who was then living on a salary of 70. per annum, and had to dust the tables, open the door, and act in 4.0 REPORT—1896. general as a mere caretaker. This was a disgrace to the great town in which the museum was situated. Local museums should have a grant of 50/. to 1002, or even 150/. for the payment of specialists. Professor J. W. Carr was inclined to regret that Professor Petrie’s paper had not been read before the Museums Association. Mr. Hoyle (who, like the speaker, was a member of the Council of the Museums Association) had not mentioned that some years ago a sub-committee was appointed by that Association to report upon a suggestion much resem- bling that of Professor Petrie. No definite result had, however, been arrived at. He thought that if Professor Petrie were now to bring this paper before the notice of the Museums Association the weight of his authority might produce more important effects. He regretted the absence of delegates from the Museums Association to discuss this ques- tion. The Chairman remarked that any society might apply to be placed on the list of Corresponding Societies. He hoped the delegates would give a full account of this discussion to the societies they represented. He called upon Professor Petrie to reply. Professor Petrie said that this was to a great extent a money question. He did not think that his suggestions necessarily involved additional expense. He thought it would be better that the money should be divided between the mere caretaker and the specialists, rather than that an attempt should be made to combine them by employing one man who could not posslbly be a specialist on all points. ‘Indeed, those curators who were more than mere caretakers would by his plan receive a larger amount of money than before by rendering their services in a number of places, instead of being confined to one. It would be better to have a dozen men of science and fifty caretakers than sixty curators, all receiving a very inadequate salary. A vote of thanks to Professor Petrie for his paper having been passed, the Chairman invited remarks from any representatives of the various sections of the British Association who wished for the co-operation of the Corresponding Societies in any work. Section C. Mr. W. W. Watts said that, though the labours of some of the Committees nominated by Section C had come to an end, the Geological Photographs Committee was still in existence. Though much assistance had been received from Leicestershire and some other places, a very large area was still unphotographed. The eastern counties had sent very few photographs. The Erratic Blocks Committee still existed, and their work was being largely done by the committees of local societies. Some societies in Yorkshire were doing most admirable work. Those were the two chief committees of Section C which needed the co-operation of the local societies. Mr. C. E. De Rance made some remarks on the labours of the Under- ground Waters Committee of the British Association. Though the Committee had ceased to exist, he hoped the delegates of the Corresponding Societies assembled there would urge on their members to record carefully in their districts everything bearing on that matter, not only as regards the geological nature of the strata, but also as to the tempera- ture of water obtained from considerable depths. As to the Erratic CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Al Blocks Committee, he wished to point out how much work had been done in that department by members of the Glacialists’ Association. Secrion H. Mr. Sidney Hartland wished to ask for the co-operation of the local societies in the work of the Ethnographical Survey Committee. Consider- able progress had been made in the work of the Committee since he had asked their aid at Ipswich last year. Many measurements of the natives of Galloway had been taken by Dr. Macgregor. During the present century the movements of our population had been immensely greater than in previous centuries. Still there were places where there had been little change in that respect. As it was the object of the Committee to acquire a knowledge of the distinguishing characteristics of the various races of British Isles, it was important that the measurements, &c., of individuals in any district should be those of persons whose families had lived there during a considerable period. Dr. Macgregor had accordingly been careful to select persons whose pedigrees could be traced back a century or more. He had also collected much of the folklore of the district. There was no department in which it was more desirable to have speedy information than that of folklore. Much had been done with regard to the dialects of the different counties of England by the publication of the English Dialect Dictionary, but in Scotland and Ireland there was still much work to be done both in dialect and in folklore. Education, facilities for railway travelling, and industrial migrations were rapidly destroying local customs, dialects, and traditions, so that it was more important that speedy information about them should be obtained than that there should be an immediate supply of physical measurements. The historic and prehistoric monuments of a locality should also be noted. Mr. Hartland concluded by remarking that he would be glad to furnish any delegates interested in the subject with copies of the Ethnographical Committee’s Schedules, or with any help in his power. Mr. John Gray, Buchan Field Club, said that in his district they had begun to note the physical characteristics of the inhabitants by placing themselves at the entrance to a field where some sports were being held, and observing the colour of the eyes and hair, the contour of the nose, and other characteristics of people entering the field. They also measured about 200 persons in the grounds, and obtained some very interesting results. In addition they had obtained measurements, &c., of almost all the school children of the district. The Chairman remarked that Mr. Gray’s Society was obtaining excellent results, and giving an example of the work required. As the information asked for by the Ethnographic Survey Committee was of so many different kinds, it appeared to him that the formation of sub- committees by the local societies would greatly expedite the work. One sub-committee might confine itself to physical measurements, another to dialect and folklore, a third to ancient monuments, and so on. Then photographers were needed for illustrations of people and monuments. And persons with a turn for history might consider the historical evidence of continuity of race. Investigations of this kind would at once enrich the Transactions of a local society, and help the work of the British Association. The meeting then adjourned. 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REPORT 4, “ce S681 “ce SEs. G16 Gh-&6 968T GPG-EES 99-49 69-8 OST-ZEl LOF-068 03-61 61-91 “ /881-631 90T- GOT 6L-G9 LEG GEG FIZ-O1G 8I6-F16 FPL 6&1 | cesT \gre-eee 9681 | 9-89 S68T |PLI-TLT poysl] “qn aseg “ATXX S6-Fo8T “AI | TIA C681 1O4 “THX ‘TAX JVI 10 auInjoA * “SUDA T, ‘ 20tg & qLodarT 20 . . e 0b * ——-saj0AT aouaragy * ‘SUDLT * ISYDINIDAT xassyy song alng fo'Iay . ii “e ‘supa 2 .Loday ybouruunyy LvovT ug * PSUYDINZON YS WbT ' 0g ¥ 2L0day : ‘ pouLnor | * gsypDAngoyr ay T, . . “ D0LT UoOHBOTTAN JO OILY, ‘20g "[OI4) MOSSeLH "ON WP j a ‘00g ‘ATOg "[OeH ‘syIOX 0 HV HN Wee 008 "1S ‘N A WozeA * "00g ‘[oay "ouryy ‘0H ‘'N ‘W uopforp “SUL “ULL “YSU "pag ‘0 “Xess ‘DH IPA “A8g 2 “IRD te “ ‘008 'V ‘0 ‘dH (N ‘8¥19 “N "*008 “V “HN Ue] JO ‘] * "0H N arrqud ‘ ‘ON 92719 * "008 *H 'N “W0},.N *UOlUQ "JBN ‘syIOX ‘009 ‘ATOg *[0945 ‘syIOX ‘O° “V “HN 99si0q Aya100g JO ORL poyeraaiqqy purvpyjoog UI9jSAM Ul SATFITBOO'T OAT, Ut ‘speysdIQ oSrerT Ul ‘ayLony Io auaxoidg Jo voueLIM00Q9 91} UC : *SIAI Uo ALTO Joplnog Jo sduermM990 OUT, Teed “Aq7y MA Jo svrvy toddq oy} Jo soystq [Issog oy9 uO tunasn], YV_ 244 Ul 1oysuLuT[yT Jo sery raddg © oY} WOIF SOYSLT [ISSO] JO UOTZO9TIOD oY] UO sajON L : : : : *‘ SsoIppy [eIyUepIsalg Aso0p0a4y ssoIppy [ejuepiserg * STIPAL Soting autog dOUSTY IOMO'T UI WANETOIJOg JO ULSNIQ PUB ‘SUTYIOAA JO apoyy ‘eouetmm0909 ou, paiojsupayp ye Y}wva-yOUg oy} Wor, s[[ays oy} uo sajon (syooy oy} JO aingonI4g o1doos -O1NT) SYOOY atysdoryg ay} Jo ASojoay oxy, OMYSPIOPVIY YON JO sainsvayy [voH aq} UL S[ISSOq oULIVP, JO ddUETINIDG 94} UQ OITYSpPLOF FEI YION Jo Adojojyuoweg pur ‘Asoyrerourpy ‘AS0[OIH OY} OF Surqyepor ornyqvasoqry Jo Arwewmung Uv FO OTST OY} FO YAON Ol} UL SYIOM FBG Teyuewtodxg oy} pue ‘yeop 10y ssuttog 943 UG ‘ * £S0[O9H : GEST ‘eouereyUOD ABMTLYy OI], uo sjyysnoyy Ae, Vy : aIOYSIIO,T JO WI W S9JON [BOLSOTOA YAO A Stv9X UQUIN SJL puv so7}IMI MOD Jep[Nog sI1YySyI0 A oy, : : : ‘pod roaty A1q weyyeyl ony, puryyiog uo yoveg pastexy @ WOIF BOSNI[OP[ JO WOTJOoT[OH [[euMs B JO 4ST] redvg jo ay}1y, ugop ‘aq ‘sunox ydosop ‘qystt A, ity ts vc ty ‘S “V ‘preapoo A, “y ‘AopUeysUT A, “M “TOSI AL * uBA “Iq, ‘OYOAIO AL ‘WA ‘499A “AA AA ‘S79@ AL . ce “6 * ugor ‘pre * uyor ‘PROL : ong ssty ‘aosduoyy, Aqoeg ‘uosdmouy, “ce 3 svuoyy, ‘yey, "Ul “MH ‘soyty TOYINY JO ouvyy en eee ee ee ee ee eee ed *“(panuyuor) XNOTORN— 72 worjaag > 1D CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. | GG8T 9Ss-F93 "AI 9681 193-E92 “AI ALIS LO BE | | COST 82126 | IAX 968) 96-6 | 9381 104 | IS-O1& “xX “ec &6L “ “ . Z6L “ee 9681 IGI ‘AX G68I| FIT ‘TA = 98 ‘XI 9681 |2eI-€31] S681 104 G6SI |SLI-Z11 ITA ¥ aa it “| 68-98 uh “ | $-T | 968T 100 Micte-TRal cAyl 19681 |L96-SS3| “IILA a LFF) at [SY VINJON UST ; 1DUb Of? ‘I0L J PUY "SUDLT, DOU] PBYVINDIN ILL : qpudnor . . “ec * heogsuyy ° *'SUDLG IYVLNIDAT VSS . . sé . . “ce ; SUDA, “ ity AYDANIDN BUT ‘0 aN aang ‘0904 ‘HN Mossel * “DY 'N ‘00g YHag Ope Veekl oNer Seo * WLU) "JEN ‘SPIO A "90g “Soay “(ours . be “ . “ec cc QUID “JEN “YSyOrMIog ‘009 “JUN “AION 'JION : * "oO ‘yy Xess] * *009 “OTA “our ‘009 “YBN “AION “JION ‘O “HT MPA “498 29 “180, . ce ‘cc *UOIUQ) “JUN ‘SYIOX ‘009 "H 'N MOsse[y epodors 'QG8T ‘aoUsTayUOD ABAD oY, g : SdsRA\ JNOgV p1o A, V ALIYSTJAIT JO vunvsy IAW Of} UL papnyout spargq Jo woryngIsystq sayy, pue vprunorry stapidg ysuiig o1vy pure MaN uC * -ULOOUTT 4v uotuy SJslRinqeN oigsalcoury stag o1orvjUy 0} a8efoA @ SulInp padatosqo ojty yeurUy ULIYO'T JSVY ‘UOJAPITG avau ('T ‘SN7JIULLOUW SNIMOLPNY ) [d19}JOQ BY} JO VoIJON lequucy 4e Cry ‘syn0n7)6 snqwiijo)) WAI UIIyIION Jeary Cry ‘sya -mb snopujng) Y1{aq Wun, IY} JO saoyoN pruepynyd -008 SNU0LD WOIF paiq wopdn.tw07 snyavumozag 480.10, Suddq ut uaye} (srvaq vuadi4 ) Iappy ue uo * SaINSvERT [BO OITYSEOUeT] O49 JO OFrT TUMITY ; 2 snaygonby SNIP UO SE}ON 2 : : ° . ; 15un if era} dopidary i yMdryg 32 eESt Jo wosvag oxy, UV] JO VST 9} UL SYOOA\ OOATLT, * Cry ‘2779 snpnbvaqy) YOY WT Oud, * aitysuoyduegqyIoN Jo vosnT[oyy YL, 10 Sa}JON . . > "kN0T00Z—'(T_ U0249a9) ki [pUuLnor *" "009 "A 'N “W0}.N . . ‘ ‘“ ts = id “cc ‘“ a i3 i \* "Hy ‘raymedieg |* somurp ‘jjaqdmeg ‘190 “qnary ‘oqdurg dO ‘Aol, «= ‘as piuquivy : ‘Ww ‘uoyng Me “"S “AL ‘oontg . “ “ee . “ee “ee : purg ‘song * -g -p ‘ueuSspig ‘ "Wouy ‘rasuonog * gaaqioyy ‘W0}[0q “HOW A0u “pat dd ‘sey ‘jouueg . ae “ce " *@'O “Aou “USy “aqteig “A\ ‘snsay "yf Jouory ‘smepy | pueyqoog u18}s0 4 JO OUOJSOWILT snoLezIuogiey oy} ut vozs[Og SNGJVMIO}SOUD}) JO BOUBIINIDG VY} WO S8JON savmto -adg datyeI}Su] II YALA *satoadg snot jisuncog., ule . “cc “ec he a ig “ 1896. REPORT 56 “ec “cc 968T S681 “ 9681 S68T 968T “ce “ee “ce S68T 968T S681 “ 968T 681 payst| “qn IGI-LIT, LI-g 06T S6I-061 6OT-TOT 6ST-T91 S61 P6-16 IG-F1 6-66 OI-g F €87LL IS-GF TAX] THT AUX UX 66-06 43 0979¢ BESS 89-1 $93 ‘1&2 eseg “AX ‘Il “AX ‘II TIAXX “A “AX *XIXX “AI TI ce 968T 100 “XI ‘XIXXX ‘II g ON ‘I G68T 107 968T 107 “A “AI yivg 10 auInyoA huopsuyy 2DuLnor hwoqsrzy 'D0l PUD *SUDAT, : : * ‘SUD * PSUYDINION “T'S! hiowsiyy ‘SUDLT, Dun .Lodaay ; * ‘SUDLT YOouruunyy Lvorvy ux . “cc “ * QSyDunqOAT OY.L ‘“ 208g * SUDINIDAT assy . “e “ce ‘D0 Y SUWOLT spong awog fo aay [Ooupien pmo Tux . * "SUDLL * 9syDUNJONT YT * 98yDUNQONT YSoeT uoryworqng JO OTT, ‘QUID “JEN “YSHOMTOg 009 ‘Td “H ‘N “Mug ‘QNIO "JEN “YsHoArog ‘TOY "N ‘00g "sq}Og ‘00g "FUN BIpreD ‘009 ‘HN 0M “H QNIO “FEN “"Ysyoraog 008 °V ‘0 "A 'N “BRS °“N '00§ "TIT d “HT 104s0010"T "008 "V “H 'N Ue Jo I . oe “ * UOIUQ ‘YN ‘SyIOX "O08 TPL EL! NiOaees . sO ene ees “cc "10g "N ‘00g ‘sqyIOg ‘OD 7 TRA 498 4 48D ‘008 °V “H 'N Ue JO T * "90g ‘OIL “Woueyy * WOTUQ) “F@N “SxIOR * ‘Ot (N Gana * £qato00g Jo OPEL poyeraciqqy GEST toqimajdag ut ‘orttsyormaog ‘qqnomad punoiv poayo[loo (wapihuvpyyd) WIUSIAIV]T pue (vapiauvey) siopidg jo 4svy 3d PPYPION UwoPYNg jo vuney ojyviqaytoA IJ, wopi0y Ieau ‘syoor0z[oH ye punoyz CT ‘revyNU yz209gQ uy) SuLyUNG UIOD sy} JO ysaN alquoq wv ud * soddrq oy} Jo owoyyT oy, * + Syrarqydup ur orey OUT, 4O1IStq eq} 30 vozk[OJ JOywA-Yso1g oy} WO sojON SYOOY $78.92 MOID WOTLIED + ASojomoyug —y10day [euory004 qolaystq yoou “avy eo} UE syOesU] SUT}OIT[OD UO SsdJON aTI0G c * q1odayy pvotso,007 g68T FO UMNINY oy} UL POMASIG JequNA oy} WOIF SION PU eUNey-IAV YSyIg 944 07 UOIIPPY UV +: alqsyIOX Url PouRT[Ng UleyiION sprlouey JO u184 eurg Arosuag oy} uodn sayorvasayy om0g xossq Ul SPIT PI AA JO WOTJOO40Ig OTT, “sig . . . . . . ssorppy Sutusdg gO1tsIC ou} jo ASopoyALUIO aq, qi1odeyy Teorsojomoquy BVIQUING) 0} JISTA JWIOI V UO SOJON OU Oa a tat ‘TOSMIVITIIM PLOJMBID “UIA, : WeMOMeyy uy * —- Ygnog oy} puw YON oy} Jo Suypsaryy ou ByoVSUT : CER] ‘aoudrezuOH ABMTPYH OTT, . . . . *ssorppy [enuuy | ‘ THRITITAL ‘sag * 979998 *f “901TH ; “C'S 90M1IE WH 'M IPO: ADOUL ‘arqqng “yy ‘ourig * 981004) ‘IayMOM * "9 Iq ‘setsnog “ML A0y ‘Aged ‘LO ‘ANT = “T9499, * "9 ayor ‘uryer9 . “ec “cc * ugor ‘xnvep.10p * "GMA fasuryo9 "WRITE ‘e109 “ (73 * — £ruayyT ‘sayvog “2°. 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OPI-Ss1| 9681 €1I-OTT F8-Z8 9681| I6T “1896-696 pal Ow ekepe C681 |FLI-SLT “ \g1s-ITg “| 01-19 C68T | 9-S% 968T | 8-18 G68T 6L1I-LLT “oe 16 “ 0g “ ) Th-63 “1966-812 “1661-881 “| 99-09 “ |LPI-IFI “ ITTL-ort| Ee eLO=68 “ I@PI-OFT, “| 001-16 “ Tg L681 107 TA [6-F68T 968T 100 S681 10 6 968T 1OW “AI TIA S68T 104 968T 1047 * ‘SUDLT hiozs yyy poe there * BYVINIDN YSroy * WSYDINIDN YT . . * ‘SUDLT, ‘904g pin qloday . “ “cc * JSYDINQON OY, : S9J0NT aouarag : - *SUDLT, wulnor . . . . * ity . . * ‘SUDLT, * PSNVANION OY,T, © * IS DLNID AT wassyy ~ « . oe . . . “cc * “SUDA, ‘Od ‘TTRA ‘Aag % ‘19 QUID “FEN "YSPOrMog . “cc “ec ' ‘9 2 ‘N Ulqnqd * UOIUQ “JN ‘syIOX ‘009 “JEN “AION *JION ‘008 "TM d "H "N ISPJ9R . “ * MOIUQ “YBN ‘SYIOK be ‘00g “10g "NT WOT * "009 “OT “Goueyl ‘009 "H ‘N Mossepy * "009 'H ‘N syox * "909 ‘OTL ‘qoueyy * UOIUQ “JUN ‘SYIOX ‘ . é é . 4 ‘ Spal ystug : viaqdoajopn = * — ereqdrmeayy : GEgt ‘aoudreyuog AvmTey OUI, a1OMB][UY, “dog [[Nsvag oy} 42 poqoaT[09 syoosuT dILYSHIOX UL aedidp wey poyjodg oy} Jo oouermooQ pasoddng YLOFION ut ‘(ry ‘o77n snynbuwapy) ANV PWT oy} Jo eouvpunqy yusooy oy} UC pUvleary JO 4sa,\\ 949 YO Surysty pue UShL Bg sievaf OA} Se] OY} SuLIMp Jou4sIqT Ysno10q -I¥Og 94} ul ASOTOOZ oULIvIY UO saJON YSnoy sivat OA\Y 4SPl 9} SaLINp JoIystg YSnoroqivog oy} Ur poares “qo Ysty UMOUG-TOSsOT ON} JO MOF B UO B0]0N : : : * g[avy, JUBLSITY qioday [eorsojourozugy : : ® : J * - sysag yoosuy omog : * 9JIT JO spoy[ S}t pur “poury ‘sur vue FEST wok oy4 sutinp SILYSPIOFJIOY UI paaresqo ‘eraqdopidery m0 SoJON AIIOY ‘0D ‘purysyt eyUSTeA 0} UOTpIpodx [eoLsojooz wv UO soJONy : * sJoVqoOSI[Q UMOUY-9]1}4I'T pus MON xossy WOIZ T0q ‘(pudIty, ‘vsojasiawnd wrwyouq) soUaTOg 04 Aou satoadg pue snuay v jo pur “(mayopn.d ‘ps0)norwequaa moquorr) UIvyLIg 0} MoU soToedg S70: uomdrroseq(.: i SUMIOM Xess UO so}0N * splrg sag TIIOSNJUT omy Jo quoudojaasq pue AIO4SITT [eInjJeN oy, ~ —-™--syaey TeIOD pue sTeIoH Uo 9IN409'TT Spoom eT}8e9 sung ur wolpu sndovsospuag JO doYWON pur ‘FEgT ‘1g oun ‘ssy[sunq 04 FISTA UO W99S SpITg FO ASV] aarys synod will Ae Lg ewATA TAR TA amd orraAncamer Aen eee | * “A Sdfate * ‘see ig ‘fprey “ “ . te “e ‘(Nf “oqrey . “ “ : "H ‘ef ‘Aoumy “SM ‘Ay ‘mo019 ’ a“ 6e * f£orxO ‘ureyqery “ “ee * ydasor ‘1aXstepy * LV ‘stapureyyr ‘WC LAG |staqoyLD i “a “Vv ‘sqqry . “M “aA ibe) . . * oop “TH ‘oy ‘puorg . . "M 9) “xoq . “ 13 : "MH “480.1107 * uyor ‘uosns10,7 1896 REPORT “cc G68T peqsty “qd €16 FgT-GFl PQT-LFl TILT 691 EG 666 6éT-9IT C8-F8 $9696 FL-ag GOI-&6 998-29 BS-Q1 £02 013-692 Z8I ‘I8T 001-16 861-981 ese 96-T68T “ “XIXX G6-868T “ ‘Il ‘TA TIA S681 104 ‘II ‘TITA 1B q 10 aun[oOA "ION iT} “ce ‘sul, pun pLodary 0b pouinor *-SUDLT vuinor ; 2 * 00lq . ° ° “ * "SUDLT * QSYDUNQONT YSreT * PSUYVLNDAT YSVoT * WsUDUNIOAT “DOT . . 66 “ * QSYDUNIOAT YT "20 PUD "SUDAT, * ‘SUDA “c * PSYyDINIONT assay uoTzwoTTNg JO PLL, * gtodaaz- * — uoTu "409g “ ‘008 °V 0 ‘HN HRS "N . ‘009 “FL ‘N eTepsawoy * "008 "H “N “G0},N * "009 "H 'N 83107] 009 “H ‘N Mossrpy : * “O “Wl syaeH 009 ‘[Iq “4UT 194s9018'T *008 ‘IlTd WeOLty 'S * "0 'H (N Utiqnqg ‘008 “H “N ‘1190 “42 * "0 aN Urqud * "9 "NT Joqysoooy. "009 “JBN “MIO;T “JLON * 009 ‘H ‘N soy ac te * UOIUQ “JEN ‘SYIOX ‘TOG ‘N ‘009 ‘st{qIog ‘O “l Xossiy Aya100g Jo ORL, poyeraerqay WOTJIIG [BOISOTOMOJU UL JO UOIZVUIO OY} UO e * oyeTenby 0} WOIsIMOX [VOLsofoyylUIg uy C68T Areniqag pu Arenuer jo IOYJVIAA IIBAOS VY} SALIMp IJV] paltq uo sejoN * wroqdiq. 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""98UT “pag ‘swouy, * “SUDLE . . *00LT ‘ * "SUD4T, : qvuimor : * SUDLT, . * 90bq “ec ce ‘Bug “UI “ysuy “pag * 00g "[oedH ‘yOUrTY ‘SU “ySUy purlpIyy ‘Sug ‘UIT “‘4suy ‘pay “OU “ysuy ‘Bes ‘Ss ‘Sug "4suy puerpryy “qSU] UNO "PIP “F193S899 * "009 "[oaH ‘Touryy ‘Sug “4suy purlpryy ‘Sug “ysuy ‘yey “g ‘Sug “4SUT purrpryy * ‘009 ‘4suy Surulyy qsUl"JUNOD PIP F194s0y[9 * "00g ‘Toey "ToOURTT SOUTT[ UL SIOpITy [e049 Jo osq ony, " * * SUrpjeM o109THT SouTT [POD toy snqereddy Surkerids-10ze\\ ur sjuetmuaaord my syyeus Surpura, ysvodg yo sdog, 943 Sutsojo JO spoyyey sATqseyH ‘10, “SON ‘ATOTI[ON [IIT OY} Je AULT{ Surysem-[vog * AIOTION ITH Uopey ye yurpg somog omyoapy : ‘ : SOUTT Toy ATOUTTORTY [eorIyOeT A ; ; : * TOYO qdesor Jo Arenq1q9 SaJeyg Surpurm, Toyz saqvs-Suroua,, : : J E sduvy AWoyeg Sury1uSt-yyag tavag [VoD U0}S90q PUB SUOISHTIG 94} JO 4no Suiuuryy, oy 07 soudIejar Teloads YALA ‘KraTT[OO T[V_ uoWyy OU} 98 Yd TON oY} Jo Suryurg a4} uo sajoN - . c : * ssoIppy [ujuepisarg SOUL TeoH ynoqe pue Ur uoTZVOTUNMUTOD oIMOYdaTaz, . & : soursugq surdwng jo 4ynq ayy, : - G C ; * SSOIPpy [eIQUEpIseIg sdurey Ajoyeg S19ulyy Sunysi-ey jo poyjoyy mon “MONGIOG IVOINVHOA—'Y uUouaeg ‘009 ‘TIYd Mossepy * “00g 'yeIg "qouryy ‘009 ‘00h opisausy, * ‘00g "4ejg “GourT “00S "[IYd Mossepy SpeeN [PIO ano 03 uoryeqdepy sqrt pue ‘moeyshg AuopoD anoqerT oud : . : * spooyog uotyenuquop Sutueaq Argunog TOYJOTY OY} YJIM suoyElay Joy pue epeurg ; 7. es uoyvoNpy pur sjiounog AyunoD MOSSE] JO saltysnpuy jediounyy ony, 100g pasy : ‘y ‘uosdmoryy, ‘1 ‘Wostapuy-4j009 "WRITE Gereg : ‘Vv SPY , somes. 49eTq ‘unt “p ‘moeyovayy g ‘yy ‘Apauusy . . 7 of T12s : THBNITAA “Avy F * Aluay “TVA ‘C98 ‘A ‘proyurng ‘ "Hp ‘fasyoog * "MM “V “jJouueg ‘ presng ‘preg * “q ‘esprqureg . . He ‘U07]I9T IV “dU FOI “YSIIAL ‘ "HO ‘97e4T AL sapqryo arg ‘1adduy, * seuroyy, ‘edvug * “OTA, “Iq ‘gremIg . 1896 REPORT 64. 9681 “ec “ C681 “ 9681 “cc S68T 968T 2681 9681 a EEE “ATXX iti 2681 968T C68T peysty -qnd LIT-LOT 1é OFZ-96G 66-916 STL 16-88 L81-69T LLI-SLT 8g1-9E1 $3-8F 61 €8-8L 98-3 60L ‘80T 691-FFT LI-IT OIT-801 89-49 96~S6 P9E-9G6 €L1-8F1 esug ‘AX “AX IL Ix x TAXX yivgq 10 aunjo A. * "SUDLT A098 YT . . . “cc ; + ‘SUDLT qayydung quodayy * SUDLT . . . “ec . . . “ 20 y Sota arene UX : : * SUDA], * QSYDANIDAT WSS HT . . hogs yyy * "SUDL], ~ - * "SUDLT “ “e “ee “ce “49Uy ‘pay ‘SWOL, . . . 0b TOIywosTIN JO OL 009 ‘VH'N ‘Tey ‘wn * qRIO JUN ‘YSyOIMsiog : "9 “Wy ueyong ‘O “WL xoessqy * *008 H 'N ‘ILD “4178 ‘008 "HN SHOH . “ee “ * ‘Ou V “HN Jesi0q ‘008 ‘V H'N Ue fo I ‘00§ ‘V'H ‘N Te) “ng * 909 ‘GUN ‘MION “JION ; : +9 yp KOSS * quid “UN “Ysyorrog ‘009 "V H'N 189 ‘wng . . . . OUT, UAP[O 99 Ut taenbory, * apne saoqe sdmvy ystyag 94} UO AMUUTL ‘Surrayyex) uvyong oy 4e suory -BAlosqg Teoydersouyyy Areurmtperg uo 4y10dayy : * ueyong jo soaing Teorydersouqy a OuL xossq] ‘[JPMSIYO w juoUTE|}}0S YSIHg-ouemoy oy uodn soj0N * @aRO SYQIMUg purlAT A, (ssorppV Avesroatauy) STtyspr0y418H UL Os oU0}g oq], - * auoqs[oy] qosiod ‘TH woperqmey Awapoyg JO wurun(g PIO oy puy dorep [erojseg ayy, : Ainqpunog * 4groday jeorsotodorqquy A1jreMoyzg oy} Jo souojg Sulpuvyg oT, : ; * JoLtqsiq plofzqyouL, UL ULI, OLTWTOON , $99'T S,yoo}ng , JO oWlva-plaly ay} UO ytryped pue *ysimqxoy ‘yo: ateg Jo sacyyg aq} Wor satyMbyUy IdYyJO pue MOY YoIg go BuO} OeTIO0 uvoT jo onsojeyep oarduosaq : * Q1OPA[OT Nvaqapiry aug . . . . . . . . ‘QyIBIG-VOyTUE HY 951004) ‘Ady ‘uUNy IBYOO], f pue ‘uyor ‘Avery * uyor Avy ‘OL ‘poy ‘py Aoy ‘urdyey uypor Ug ‘suvaty “ ae “ec “ec * ny SuoySuruUNA “WV SSH ‘UTTT810 . ae | aS ‘salon “AA ‘OXTLIO TOT ‘Aystuay ‘WT oan Word Jenureg ‘qjJouLy ‘IDOTOAOUHINY—']] “02999g =% ‘ * "909 "JOH ‘youryy "Bug UTP “ySUl "pad ; “oUg “YSUT PUeTPIN ; ‘Sug, “sul ‘Yrs “S : 00g "TI MosselyH Ayotoog JO OTALL peywraoiqq y . ‘ é oor Surypowjaqy Ayayvg $489 A\ UO souisuy toyjo pue Surpur, jo dey pue peoy : ; ‘ sqgoyg Surd Jo poppe WOU OGL : : : * eIpuy ‘Messy UL SUlUTTY, [v0p SoOVUIN IOTIOg WIIG 0} SBOUBTOJOI YI JUOMIAZVGQy oyowg rode g JO PILL, “ay ‘AOTURISUTAA * *H ‘saoqTe@ MA ‘a 4) “TONTR AL 9s100%) ‘aUINY, SIOTpIN.L wp“) ‘aoswmorLy, IoyNy Jo oweyy ‘(panuyquoo) FONMIOY TVOINVHOSY—') woroarg CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. syUvAIOg & Sempey pue sioulreyy 10f¥ Butyso3z-1n0jop pur S681 \966-G16| “IAXX / Cele: "00 "[IYd MOSseTH | 0} sv apes], JO pivog 04} Jo so[ny MON oY, | -ee1g “IQ ‘sns10q ‘fS 9681 | 21-9! IL s . ‘sunt, | 009 ‘VAN ‘Tey ‘ang | * : . : : unIssaidxm RuUoT}OUI | ‘aUMOIg - WOZYONITD | ‘ADOTOISAT (— "J 2022006) “| op-pp | S6-FGST | * ‘004g punquoday | * 00g Td “HN PIG | * surg Terqo[ndag ysuy sosy], Jo uordrsosogq | ° ‘W “a ‘Sanox qytor (ava) siayovey, tidng weysurur -sIouuey, “L : S68T | GOI-L6 ‘XI ; ; Ae ee * ‘D0 ‘Md “HN “wg | -I1q Jo dnorpy v Jo sroyowreyO [eoiskyg oy} UO ve ‘O'JOId OTPUTAA 9681| 1 TUX [0 St Bear OR AIO OR eee ae Sawa] JO oeA oY} Ul ssuryfemq oyxeT * 2) ea CERT |9FZ-1FS “TII . . me ae ; ‘Om ueyong | * seatyog ye suremoy uviuenbiuy uo yzoday |* samy ‘aouedg es GP SIE IL - : ‘sunt, | 009 ‘VY H Ney) ‘ung | * * — gdodsuNG JO so1jiIubryuy a43 UO SajJON | * “Y “Ady ‘uosdutg “ aliysdme py Jo ArZUNOD 219TD ZSI-TL1] ‘LIT : ; wo0uEy |) : * -"¢ “ syuez | PIO oY} UI suremay s19y} pure soovyy oWojsIYyorg | * “AAT, ‘axoyg “ | 101-66 II : : ‘-supty, | ‘009 "V"H “N ‘Tey ‘ung | ° wos, Uy aoMEpIseY SAvaA, AJALYT, JO SAION | * soulee ‘aveys i €8T "T ° o ‘ ‘donq | * ‘O09 'TIGd gry Jood ary | ° * surewmoy oruny | * “f ‘Aa ‘uozYdag | twunesnyy Aueqiy “ I@1I-O1l| “IITA ‘ : ewmag | * “008 "Tid UeOLyy “S | Sdt jo MOPFOS TOD SUA GE SLES Me AE MNOS Tn) ete a ‘purugyss 9681 GRI-G81 "AX ; . huoguyy | * Anjo ‘3eN ‘YsHoTeg F SOMVU-Bd"TJ YSIyJOOG VUIO, | * SSTIV ‘Tlassny : wvsiry ppAudyy pue SS NGRE DLs nA. | : ove Gh . * "00g ‘EN PIPED | Wepred. ppia SJy uo sduep puv syuemyoueryay j* ureNT A ‘A0qray “ |L01-901 TA : ‘ ‘sun | * "909 ‘4eN ‘AION “JAON : uudy je smiojsng Aep-Aey | “qo Iq ‘IysIIMOTg “| $9=69 ‘III ySouguunyy ory, {| ° 009 "V‘H'‘N ury jo 'T | * asensury xureyl 94} Ul sjuoma[y uste10 7 | * "M ‘YY ‘al00yy “ I9LT-LOT ‘TI : ‘SUDLT, | * : ‘oO "7 ueygong Amyuep YL 9g} Ul S}uouIYsIUNg [eoseIsapog |* “yg “aay ‘aUuTITT S681 | L9-€9 | $6-F68T ‘20ng pun soda | **00§ “Ttd “H “N S219 * JoqS[Q UT suorqoaT[o) UeLeNbyUy | * “YW “Sg ‘URsITTTW 968T |I81-9gT tF : : ‘quodag | * “009 "HN ‘1190 ‘QUTIT | * ; J * soMstytyg [eoryouodoryqyuy | ° "a ‘yorsoyy 3 weqyeM LL OI-T ‘XI 3 « ce C u U eS JO 4yso10,q 943 JO sou0jg Arepunog uLeyseq oy, | * “ ¥ xossq ‘SUOUIUIOD 4909S C68I |SIZ- §1Z| ‘IIIA * syvInIoNy xassg | * $ * ‘gq Xossy | -OAVN UO JUOIMYOUaIQUq JuolOUy be uo SaION | * “Y “FOIg “eOpTeTT BMO][VY ce 96 “ ‘ : 5 C x s Ul saijeg Sunok ynoqe wmoysnp snorjyWs1edng VW | * ‘ugor ‘ory. “| 19-99 II P * swo4E | 008 “V “HN ‘yey ‘UNG | YIeAsuslIg puv suerIIg 4¥ SyIOMYIIeG uvMoy | ¢ Iq ‘preuopoeyy 968T |€SI-6I1T ‘XI ‘PUYDINIDAT Vassey * "ol Xossqy Adjenpuy [einy 4soy YW :Xossq ul Suryeur-ysejog | ° Aruey ‘19ae'T “| -69=59 "AT . . * “SUDLT, s someang Bosh oe rraa iG © 210N V | semoqy Ig Suny | * ‘00S, 109 “a1 SEP 1ooe 1896. 1896. REPORT: Je) ie) 29) “Cd “H pae “M H'100 ‘uapllog “MT M'40q old ; I9jog ‘SULMAT “LS ‘uung * gs100x) ‘ayMO ‘NH ‘Woxtd eal 9) ‘MOxIq * uyor ‘xnevap10y . 70) Wd ‘9300 "aut, ‘QnTO * JOT *Aysuqp ‘ ‘L ‘Vv ‘soTMog ‘dL unig "SM “3909sxOUTA * anyg.y ‘yaouuag sour ‘oudjueyeg 7 We ‘Aetpny g ‘OW, ‘ody 968/296 | “AX LOST | 2 ANID “AEN “USHOIAOg syurq CEST] &S-LF ‘TA . : ""SUDLT, | * "008 ‘JEN ‘AION ‘JION uesiaqzards JO UOI409T[0H [[RUIS & UO SaJ0N “© 112B-GBs "IIL . 2 2 aon | ° * "oO" squeAL ‘ * (sung 11ysdurezy JO 4ST ‘ ss PUBTJODY JO 4saA4 OY} FIZ-661 “AT : : * “SUDAT, ‘00g "H "N MoSsET | JO fuvyog yeorydersodoy, 049 03 uorqnqryu0_D “ GI-EI | S6-S68T | ° : * 20Iq | * ‘009 "H 'N e]epsomyoy, 5 AarIng *M'g Ul syuRg JO uoynqriaysiq “ ZS aN * gsyDANQUNT “A'S! | * “009 ‘HN U9 “WT | UlvylIg 0} MoU JUR[g V—NwMOZ0YIIp auarig 113 TTA |° °° Qouimop|* * ‘00g"H'N UN] * °° — FEST ‘SUOBAIASGO [vOTSoToUsy 9681 | GL-&L CyNIT : c * "SUDT | * 009 "[1Y_ ‘4lT Ioysoo10T | * SIOMOT] PUB SJOOSUT UseA40q AJr100Id THAI | ony “ l9Ze-LIE] S681 IOT | * 7S22DUN2MAT OY.T | ° * MOIUQ “JVN “SYIOX | SIvaAX parpuny{ ouQ aiNg[NoWsSy srysupooury GGRI \ShS-F4Z| IITA | Rem wom | °° * OA NOS | | ung qse10g surddg Jo ysvJ ayy 04 suoTyIppy “| 91-9 gon | spong aung fovoay |* ‘OA WEA ‘AG WIPO | * — (squRTA Jo ysvT) WUSI ey} Jo Auvjog OYL “ |G0 1-801 ‘XI JSUYDINIDAT LASS | * : ' ‘oy xossy | xossq ‘Somer 4g [BUSIYO 4e YVO JUueTOUY ur UC ysney ce 9L-FL "AX : y hwo | Qnio I@N “YsyormMiog | [eqjOg 72 uMoIs “ow ‘sqniqg ‘sde1y, JO 4svy 9681 |801-O0T Tl : : ‘supe |" ‘OA ‘TIPA “A989 2 IRD aIng[NOI3 V 04 PRSiaaet UIVI1IO JO UOI4R[AY IU, « \eg-ts!| Geareel |-° = * -<00 | > Sen OMA. 4008 ‘+ Kppeoyary Jo squvyg CEST IGLS-1LG| GGSL JOM | * = asyvUngDAr ay], | * * uoldy ‘QeN ‘syIOX | ° : * a1lysyIOX Ul “IT vsopedswa xawng | aqyng 9681 |S9T-L9OT “AI : : * SUDGT | ° 009 ‘FT ‘N Mossely “Peas “unauputabh unipnjg FO 9oUa1INd90) “| 66-6 | “XIXX | ‘suey puv quoday | ‘008 "VO ‘AN ‘BRIS 'N | ° ‘ — fuvjog—yrodayy yeuorjoag cGST| $§IT ‘1A ts sgumeg | * ‘oog‘seN “MON “HONE * * ARQ BUTEQABTUTAL ‘ANVLOG —Y worjoagy 9681| STs mp ° * * 00tg |? toogtimawEtoodarT |: * *) *** ent yo Ar0qs47q OU “ ¢9-ZS ss ‘I04gq pun quodayy | **909 TlUd "HN 3SPF1PR | * : : : uolWVAlouUy pue uoTZvONp A “ lzeT-eZI| G6-FGST | ° . ‘-suni, |* ‘OH ‘NW uopsoig | * Blaajoeg Jo A109S1H{ 9j!'T 94} UI S}UlOg BU0g cReTeGier2) IAkk |° So * * 00g ‘TY MosseTD | ° * eoadid jo quomyvely, UIXOT-14UV oJ, 9681| TOL T . , * ‘204g | * 1009 [Yq “YT Tood,ary | * : fqrpastay Jo syoodsy ulepoy 4 Bett ofea | Sundog | UORPOHAMA JOOMAL | 55 ony Sa eee sadug Jo OWL : uyor ‘uojMaN "fC Iq ‘ovMIOHoVyK W ‘f£ “Iq ‘uosqoyy * “P JOIg “Toqs1epH AO ‘meal aoT Ny jo avy DN Se a *(panu1uor) XNOTOISAHG—'J 0279991 ~ 67 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES i “| 86-98 il STXxO a> SATO « f | MWAxxxy] —ATXXT 9681 | TI-9 se WPEG=G13 G6S8T |OFS-SEz 968T |F9S-9FZ S681 Ss hs oe 16 9681 | TI-OT {6ST |8G-9z3 , | Sh er 9681 | 08 ‘6F s aa “ IGFS-1FG mi iahese C68T |F9T-LS1 “ 66 018-99 9681 Joce-goy: G6RT |IFI-LEI 9681} LL G68T |FLI-99T “| 68 ‘28 “ 9) “| 09 ‘gr “ |ISI-9FT 9681 | 16-68 S681! GI-@L | S6-T68T | ‘AI IT S681 IOW S681 104 968T 10, ‘Ill "AI “AI 6-F68T 13 « “AX I vd * “SUDLT, . “ “e . “ec iti " SYDINIDN YSLey qpuLnor * PSY DINQON YSroy * ‘SUDLT " psyoungoyr ay, : : * “SUDLT, * YSU DANQOAT OY T, YSourunyy sv0vy ux * PUYVANIDT Y8deT : * “SUDA, * $9207 aauarag * ISUOLNIDAT *YOOaT * PBYDMNIONT YS2LT : C Ahogsryy : ° ywusnor . . “ . . “ec : < hwoqsyy . . . “SUDAT, : $920NT a0UAaLIAY ~ * "20 lc. ac its “ “es 008 ‘Td ULONFY *s . oe be “ "0 “HN Urrqng 009 ‘"H 'N Mossepy Gan tO pt ON. orang ee 0S °V ‘H'N ‘ey ‘ung * WOlU) “JEN ‘syIOX * ‘009 ‘OI, “Youepy " WOIUA “JN “SIO X ‘008 ‘V ‘H'N Uv] jo] * “OCH N anquqd ‘009 "Ud “WT t0ysa0jarT ‘0 "H 'N ‘W wopdorp 009 ‘lS "N “Wf uoIep * "2 'N Ja}saqoory * ‘Oa ‘N ulqng NID “GBN ‘YSyOrM1eg 008 ‘Id “H “N “wg te “ce uh Ti ‘QUID “JEN “YSyOrMs0g ‘00S °V “H'N ‘Tey ‘ung * "005 “10S "N ‘Wf UoqTe . mOIug "4009 “4 SUIvJUNOW IA xopT OT} OF UOISINOXY WL JO s}[Nsayy OyTWUAIOg amg { SIvVOX UIT, ISP[ 94} SutMp voy yNog 0} UOL}Z[aL UL aOUaIOg [eAnyeN Jo ssarSorg BIOL ULOLIZY YMoOg 9} Ul sprxg Jo uoMNarIysiq Jo suvaqy : * Ul[qud 0) ‘Waoj}suexDeIg UMO’y Bung ; o 3 : ; *susuniy YsWy MON y : * sang : eggT ‘eousrayu0g Aem[ey ou, FEST PUL E681 Ul epeM sadIy, JO sjueMIaInsva~y Jo sp10doy S}IOMIOATT pue sassoyT :68T ‘souerazuog Avmey ayy, : : * @S[y Joyem-ysorg Lemorpey MON ; ; ‘ * F681 1Of sejoN [eoruvjog Cqanyy ‘7929709 vunjway) weIyUEN ZufAo[-puey puelMoyT y : : : : * esly Joyem-yserg [eo0rT mo SsUIqeT s[epiey “Jorg pue Aaqvy, pioy : wewoweyy uy q1oday [eormejog BSLV : 9681 ‘aouarozuoD Amey ayy, BI[VL}JSNY JO VIO 94} WO sajoN “oetesadd’ Sree’ STF Jo TOniAnN ot; as] JuURTg Ul suosse'T . . . SNIPeY IIWI-uay, INGO Fo vIO, A * S[[ayg JO uoryersoquIstq ey} Jo sosneg euog c "TT ‘vubow myaurdurg 10} sarytyroort : ‘ c * aIlysploypeg jo vxop,q snsungy Sd0IJ, JSA8Iel[ 9Y4 JO SUOTS “USM, OS[e + UIeISIOT[OTY ¥e pearesqo szurfg : ‘ ; , * ‘yyodiopl 42% punoz squerg URIQIOT JSe PUL JITYSHOIAIOg JO VOD OF FISIA UO pozGIyxXs Io punoz syuvpg om c : *s[eo1ep oy T—szuelg poo . e . ‘ . . iepus 'e “ "Yad ‘qyopreyy “ec c Biel Id ‘fatl99 Ay J yormuay uyor pave “y ‘sey. : @ ‘OIPIV NN iis somep ‘Morpuyoyy * pjoury ‘“Wq ‘sary * sapegp ‘10Sspary . © ‘Vv “a caalt ‘d‘V.8 “ADT. ‘apourIa yy UVUWUSUdFT SSTIL 29 “ZT ‘Jorg ‘aosuyor * sstyt ‘toSur}4077 uOJIN I ‘AA SOUOPL * semoqy, ‘“YorH * . *p ‘qyr10mday "IJ SSIP ‘UBUISTOyT ‘soumvp aq. ‘Apreyy “ * "pf ‘uosuIe yy . “ se a81095 ‘aay ‘auny 3s * roqyog ‘Aer - * ydesor ‘roAsrepy K2 1896. REPORT 68 weaver = TT 9681 g68T 9681 £2 ‘9 2-61 OOI-L6 96-8681 G6-1681 9681 104 \ 681 |LOS-EOE|S68T 10a S 968T | 79-19 | 9681 104 ~* \BRGaTEe| 4 ‘, |POS-ERS 4 FZG-18% og E681 |9LI-SL1| S681 104 “oe FLL “ 9681 |GL1-ZL1 “AI ‘ \GSS-9F6 “AI S681 | FI-T ‘TA 9681 SOI-101/968T 204 \ * legg-T92/S68I 104 J “ |) g9-9¢ | IIAXX “ \1¢T-OS1| S6-F68T pt SIL ‘IA C681 | 6-SF “AL 9681 | GOI-66 ‘AX “ l,ep-1P2) IL 9d TTX y 6-3 “AI GEST |ILI-I91| S681 IO “| 801-66 +P 9681| 16 . G6SI| Zé j PeUS!| ofeg qirg 10 -qng emny A . “ “ * gsyvingnar OUT . . . “ * ‘SUDLT, * gsyDangny Ystey * “SUDLT, PUYDANIVNT OUT . . . “ . . . “ec : + *SUDLT, hows 00k * SUDA © PY DINIVA, AUT, : : * qodayy 4“ , “ $aj0N7 aouawg worqeoryqng JO 8TH * woruQ "3009 “a “c “ . “ec “ . “ “ . a“ “ * WOIUQ) “FUN ‘SHOX . “ce “ 1009 ‘]] ‘N MOSSETD S10) eh NEALE ‘003 “UN “AMON “J1ON * DOING “JEN ‘SHIOX * "90g "FEN PIPILH ‘OH 'N‘W uopfo1y 009 “JBN “AION “JION 00 “[IGd “AVI 104890fe'T QniO ‘JEN “YsHoMsog ‘00g “H “N “V "US}08,WOS “009 ‘Td “WT 10980019] . RE aka ee SS a ee WOU “JEN ‘SxIOZ P08 TN 190 pilsnait 009 “"19§ "N “A UOWPN A£ya100g Jo OPEL poyeraeiqqy > syuBte JOF SeIqTTLOOT | *" ~oltysiq qUOUII0}g at} JO KaIpruised ey + p91yj906 vismUaLP JO SeOAOOSI, 1OYIANT OGST ‘Auvjog olmesorouey “ FGSL 02 PSST ‘soryedey 2 Sossoyy “ "S681 07 8881 ‘ang 3 ; ; EGST OF SRST ‘SUSYOLT ‘“ ZEST OF SSSI ‘VSly ourteyy : ydvasoyatg ; ysepmav'y Wolf Bspy ue ‘(Snoyoseiy) s17V.20 supshouvy raded 04 ureqs ontq & aavs guy} SSy ‘pO ‘seprbvivdsv vrwosnumauuog ‘oy ‘SULIT ‘smeSoroutyg “eggt ‘eoucrajuop Avmyey oly, ; ssalppy [B@ueplsog { E681) LEST “BIOTA aITyseouRry YON oy} JO sjuanaysuoH ey, * -ylpreg ‘yg yyeoy ‘ueprepy peormejog OGL, " ** satgraggy yue9 BIC JO syUR[g UaeMzoq seourquiesey eIoysedng uo sylvMay omg : SyuRT JO SJeIIQeH pur syqeA ; , - garg, Aroq, payue(dsurry, V ay] JUL Ut sisorqursg poysod -uit ATpeooy ‘soraMIWMOD JO JaquT], SNOIe} UCD ‘TIT Wed : Jostau0g JO PIO, OGL SYOOI IITYS10}SI01e'T OY], aIIysyIOX pus ‘guiysupooury ‘airysmeysutyjON ul pooysnoq “YSN weysuayyyM oN) JO syUe[_ Joey oqL : : : 3 : : sajoN Teotuvzog : : soasso|y Sulpry ysey aT} Woy s9j}ON . . . . asdug Jo O11, *(panwquor) INVLOG—Y 027005) ac we) % “ga OWTRQ * uyor ‘iq ‘soy raysrT ‘Av10q307 “ “ce . “ «cs . o “ee x “ce Ty -( a “ONGe0y . “ae “e ‘ad ‘Iq ‘uosy1eqoy TIVO ML Jd x TTY ‘tedovrg ‘AOI ‘WU SIMOd ; rays] ‘4999g "MM ‘A0I51999d ‘A ‘H ‘iq ‘suosivg Aqueg “q ‘wemyped 20 SI ‘T2UN * "TT \ ‘UBULION “Tuy aay ‘AvrIN : ‘La ‘OW yoooveg -aynIpooM “VL “ADT pue “YW of “Ady 8}. “OTINN 7 + gy Sqortéaqy "Pf Treqsieyy JOYNY jo aweny 69 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. “ 09-89 a 9681 | 9I-IT | 9681 104 “ IGTé-S1é . “* |1T08-682 Y “ |L86-662| S68T 10.7 S681 | 8% G6-I68I 968T| 6I-I | E681 104 Q68T \09S-LES S681 104 9681 |OFS-Gae| “AT “| 19-29} S6-1681 GGST \SSe-ese S681 104 “| 86-16 | S68T 10,4 “| O8-F2 ‘XI 968T |STI-LOT “AI “a : ISI-1Z1 ‘Il «J | 89 ‘es | \ eel 6 96.{? 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L OUD . “cc “ : WOT ADIT ‘yo00va J-9YNIpOO MA * OOBITIEA “HOSTEL “fH ‘WOsuryyT "TUN AA “TL ANITOM, * souree ‘W04zT AA ‘ad ‘a “Id ‘Ov AA . ‘unl “TH SoM ‘a ‘A ‘JOIg ‘SSIOAA : SNOTIv A : O°) ‘aun, “H'M LJ °c THeLL ‘MM ‘puepponys * JasovIg “TT YW pue“y “g “qiemeyg * 9510984 “IaTqryg * *y ‘ay[TAreut0g * suyor ‘q1UIg . o “ . “ or . “e ad . “ce oe . “cc “ ' “ “ * - "@ ‘W “189eIg "g ssi ‘A2TqIS 70 REPORT—1896. Calculation of the G (xr, v)-Integrals—Prelininary Report of the Committee, consisting of Rev. Ropert HarLEy (Chairman), Pro- fessor A. R. Forsyta (Secretary), Mr. J. W. L. GLaisHEr, Professor A. LopGer, and Professor Kart PEARSON. (Drawn up by Professor KARL PEARSON.) APPENDIX . : . Tables of x-functions, x,, Xx) X53 INA X, - page 75 . . wv ‘° - Preliminary Report on the Integral G (r, »)=| sin’ v9 dA. 0 l. Tue integral G (7,7) occurs in the determination of frequency curves and of the probable errors of their constants under the form e—4”G (r, v), or, what is the same thing, the integral je cos” 0 e—v8 dé occurs. The calculation of this integral for the values of r, which most frequently arise in practice, is for special cases somewhat laborious, and this much impedes the use of the generalised frequency curves by statisti- cians and biologists.! It seems desirable, accordingly, to form tables of the values of the integral for the most usual values of sand». If tan d=r/7, then r=2 to r=50, and d=0° to ¢=90° are the ranges of values which experience has shown to be most useful for statistical purposes. For the same purposes it is not necessary to calculate to a greater degree of exactitude than 1 in 1,000. Hence, if a table of double entry be formed proceeding by units from r=1 to r=50, and by degrees from f=0° to p=90°, intermediate values of 7 and ¢ will be given with sufficient accuracy by interpolation ; such a table will contain 4,500 entries, and involves a large amount of labour in its calculation. The integral G(r, 7) is, however, of considerable interest from the standpoint of pure mathematics,” and is not unlikely to be required for a variety of investigations, as it is closely related to the Eulerian integrals. Hence the formule of this report and the scheme of the proposed tables are adapted to expansion, should it be found ultimately of service to form as complete a table for G (7, 1) as exists for T’ (x). 2. The value of the integral may be expressed in terms of Eulerian integrals with complex arguments (see Forsyth, Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, 1895). Thus: 2-"r et’T (r+1) ‘ fel ot a9 eer'h GS): S (0ST ica Grel443) Aad Re Bie UT. é amv a 1 ; (ii ) r+] Bbrt+l—hui,gr¢ lg hry © 7 Since e 47” is the mid-value of sind e”®, it is very roughly proportional to the value of G(r,v), and accordingly e—#” G(r, )=F (7,1) will be found to change more uniformly and gradually than G (7,1), and as this 1 See a paper on ‘Skew Variation in Homogeneous Material,’ Phil. Trans., vol. 186 A, pp. 377-380. A further memoir on the probable errors of frequency constants also largely involves the values of G (7, v). 2 Professor Klein, I am told, has drawn the attention of his students to G (7, vy in unpublished lectures, and has suggested to them its fuller consideration. ON CALCULATION OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS. 71 is the quantity actually required in statistical problems, it is F (7, v), which will be tabulated. Interpolation between two values of F (7, 1) gives better results for G(r, v) than direct interpolation between two values of G(r, v). It has been shown by Lipschitz (Cre//e : Bd. 56, S. 20) that the well- known expansion in terms of Bernoulli’s numbers for log T (7 +1) still holds when is a complex quantity ; the remainder after B2,,_1 is - Bom+1 1 - Li ! ae") (2m+1)(2m+2) n2m+1 Co where « and «’ are both less than unity. We can accordingly use this expansion to obtain a semi-convergent series for F (r, 1). log F (7, v)=log 27 —r+ 1 log 2+log I (r+1)—log T (47 +1--$17) —log [ (4r+1+4+ $77). Let r=2 § cos $, v=2/ sin ¢, and let the [’-function terms be calculated separately. isis log T (r+1)=log / 27+(r+4) logr—r Bom+1 1 S a m staat (2m+1)(2m+4+2) x2m+1’ log C (474+1—43ri)=log T (fse— +1) =log V 27+(Be- +4) (log B—ip) —e-*# Bp 1 , 4+9(—1)" 2m+1 (2m+1) ip ES )"Gm+1) (2m+2) Bema? and log T ($7 +1+4 }1i)=log I (Ge#+1) =log J 27+ (Be*+4) (log +i) —Be'* m Bom 1 1 —(2m t SP stare ly (PIT at F (r+1) na LD ($r+1—$12) C($r+14+422) —log / 2x—log V7 + log (cos g)"+1+4 79 tan ¢ +(1+7r) log 2 Bom 1 1 +S(—1)” (2m +1) (m2) p2m+l a — 92m+2 egg 2m+1 cos amelie), Let x (7, 6)=4 (the Bernoulli number series in this expansion), en: Hence : log log F (7,1)=log co bie? +log (cos ¢)"+1+7r9 tan ¢+ 2x (7, ¢), or, EF (7, v)=e-i G(r, v) =. / 2 (cos ¢)"+1erbt2x(%d) . ‘ . (iii-) i Here: X(e.= P44) 00) 4 (aye rman. Gr) 72 REPORT—1896. = Bom41 (2m + 1) (2m+ 2) and the series will be semi-convergent, if 7 >2, as it always is in statistical problems. Throughout m is tobesummed for all integer values from 0 to co, and the logarithms are to Napier’s base. The results (iii.) and (iv.) allow us to calculate F (7,1) and G (7, v) to any degree of accuracy that may be required. If we stop at the m term in x (7, #) then the error in the value of y (7, ¢) will be less than where X2m+1 (¢) {(5)?" +? — cos?” +1 @ cos (2m+1) 9}, (—1)n X2m41 (o) (fr)2m+1 j Now, it is easy to show that although y2»41() has several maxima given by sr ®= 3 (m+) where s is an integer, still its absolutely greatest numerical value is given by ¢=0, and it is then equal to Bom4i ee (ante 2m +1) (2m+2) (I=) ) Thus, if we stop the calculation of x (7, ”) at the m term, we shall not: make an error + or — in its value so great as Bom+1 ee eel (2m+1)(2m+ 2) (dr)2m+1 We accordingly obtain the following system of the maximum errors possible when we stop at successive terms in x (7,7): Term stopped at : Ist 2nd 3rd Error less than: + °0625000/(4r) +-0026042/(4r)? +-0007812/(47)°. Term stopped at : 4th 5th 6th Error less than : +£-0005929/(3r)7_ +-0008409/(3r)9 +-0019171/(4r)". Term stopped at : 7th 8th 9th Error less than :. +-0064099/(47r)!3 +-0295499/(4r)! +-1796437/(4r)"7, Term stopped at : 10th Error less than: +1-3933926 /(4r)!9. Now, if r=2, we ought to stop at x; to get the closest result from our semi-convergent series. We shall then make an error of less than 6 in the 10,000. Such a result is generally close enough for statistical practice, but is hardly sufficient for the purposes of pure mathematics. However, if we start with r=4, and proceed only to the fourth term, X7 we should obtain results only showing error in the sixth place of decimals. If we calculate y (7, v) up to yo, we have an error less than ‘000002 for r=4, and less errors for larger values of 7. Finally, if we limit ourselves to values of r= or < 6, we shall find that by proceeding to y, only we have errors of. less than -0000003 in our results. As the tables of logarithms and trigonometrical functions in general use do not go beyond seven figures, it does not seem necessary for practical purposes to go beyond x, in the calculation of the y-functions. If we, then, start our tables with r=6, we shall obtain results for x (7, ») certainly correct to ON CALCULATION OF THE G (1, v)-INTEGRALS. 73 the sixth figure. The earlier portion of the table may then be calculated from the formula of reduction : Bop cc Us 2 ig aie , CCl carircays Thee z eee) and the entire tables will then be correct to the sixth place. 3. It may be observed that the formula (iv.) is of considerable signifi- cance. It is quite independent of the nature of 7, whether fractional or integer, and thus shows that there is no abrupt change in the value of G (r,») when we pass from integer to fractional values. 1t thus justifies interpolation between integer values of vr, in order to find the value of the function for x fractional. It might be supposed, if for statistical purposes it is sufticiently accurate to interpolate between integer values of r, and as G(r, v) is directly integrable in a terminable series ' when is integer, that to use this latter series would be the readiest means of calculating tables of G(r,v). But this is far from being the case, and for the following reasons : (i.) We have always as many terms to calculate as in finding x (7, 9), and often many more. (ii.) These terms are not the same for all values of ¢, and must be calculated afresh for each pair of values of ¢ and 7; 2.¢., they cannot be broken up into ¢-factors and r-factors, and the former and latter calculated independently and once for all. Hence, even when 7 is an integer the calculation of G (7, 1) proceeds best by aid of the x-functions. 4. The process of calculation has accordingly been the following :— (a) The calculation of a table of y-functions from x, to x; for values of » from 0° to 90°. This table will be found at the end of this paper, and, until the complete tables of F (7, ) are ready, will enable the value of F (r, v) for any value of r and » to be found with a fairly small amount of labour. (6) Very considerable progress has been made with the calculation of F(r, v) from the x-functions for selected values of 7. It is proposed to fill in the gaps by means of the reduction formula (v.). A test of the accuracy of the calculations will thus be obtained by the agreement of the directly calculated values with those obtained by reduction from the last directly calculated value. The arithmetic has proved much more laborious than was at all anticipated at the start. It was originally undertaken by Mr. H. J. Harris, assistant to Professor M. J. M. Hill at University College, London, but the whole of the calculations have been again and indepen- dently worked out by members of the Department of Applied Mathemat‘cs in that College. 5. It seems desirable to illustrate the method of calculation, and to show, in one case at any rate, the degree of accuracy obtainable by inter- polating between integer values of 7 and values of ¢ proceeding by degrees. Let it be required to calculate F(r, v), when r=9°35 and r=3-51133. Tt will be found that ¢=20° 35’, and hence, when the tables are com- pleted, it will be necessary to interpolate between r=9 and 10 and ¢=20° 1 By expressing sin "@ in cosines or sines of multiple angles. 74 REPORT—1896. and 21°. The values of x might be taken at once from our table, but the method of calculation is illustrated by calculating them ab initio. The following are the logarithmic values of the y’s to base 10 :— log x, =2-9208188 + log (:250000— cos ¢ cos @) log x3=3°4436975 + log (062500 — cos * cos 3) log x;= 48996294 + log (:015625—cos *@ cos 59) log y;=4'7746907 + log (:003906,(25)—cos “¢ cos 7). These are obtained by inserting the values of the Bernoulli numbers.! In the case of the trigonometrical quantity in the argument of the last logarithm being greater than the numerical constant, care must be taken to make the corresponding x negative. We find = 20° o=21° = 20° 35! =20° 35’ By [ater- Direct polation Calculation xX, — 052752 — 051798 —°052196 —-052200 x3 —000979 —-000852 —-000905 —-000905 x, +°000113 +-000158 +:000139 +-000140 X7 +°000297 + 000311 +:000305 -+-000306 x (9, 20°9)=— 0117119 x (9, 21°) =—-0115013 x (9°35, 20° 35’) x (10, 20°)=—-0105425 x (10, 21°) =—-0103527 ~ = —-011157 F (9, 20°)=1°374821 (9, 21°) = 1-456858 F (10, 20°)=1-394909 F(10, 21°) = 1-488643 F (9-35, 20° 35’) F (9°35, 20° 35/’) =1-429911 35 is oD by direct 265 91)° “N29 “9 y airec =F (9, 20°) +5" (-082037) + = (-020088) Pa pecs 4 =1:429707 by interpolation. Thus we see that if tables of F (7, »), proceeding by units and degrees, are calculated, the value of F (9°35, 20° 35’), as found by interpolation from the tables or direct calculation, would only differ by two units in the fifth place of figures. Such a degree of approximation is more than sufficient for practical purposes in statistics. Had we used values of the x’s correct to the seventh place of figures and used second differences, our results would have agreed to the sixth place of figures. Should this not suffice for the more exact purposes of pure mathematics, our table would still serve as a skeleton to be filled in at smaller intervals of the variables, when necessity arises. So far as the value of F (7, ¢) we have selected is concerned, x; and x; contribute no sensible portion up to the sixth place of decimals. They have been included above, however, to indicate how their values for 1 Higher values of x are given by log x= 4°9251836 + log (-000976(56) — cos ° cos 99) log x), = 3°2827414 + log (-000244(14) —cos "9 cos 11) log x), = 3°8068754 + log (:000061(04) — cos '¥p cos 139) log x,, = 2°4705670 + log (-000015(26)—cos'°9 cos 15¢) log x,,= 1:2544136 + log (-000003(82) — cos "p cos 17) log X,,= °1440741+ log (-000000(96) — cos *p cos 19). Still higher values of x may be found almost exactly from 2 2n Xan+1= — (Bx jansa 08 2n+1h cos (2n+ 1). ON CALCULATION OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS. 75 @=20° 35’ are sensibly identical with those obtained by interpola- tion from a table of y’s proceeding by degrees. The tables of the x-functions will thus, till the F(r, ») tables are completed, save a great deal of calculation in the finding of any series of y-functions ; the inter- polated values must then be substituted in equation (iv.) to find x (7, 9), and this value substituted in (iii.) will give F (rv, 7). It will be found that this needs only a moderate amount of arithmetic, but if it nas to be done for a considerable number of frequency curves, the statistician may still reasonably demand the completion of the F (7, 7) tables themselves. APPENDIX. Tables of x-functions (x1) X39 X51 and x7): These tables have been calculated by Miss A. Lee, Mr. G. U. Yule, Dr. C. E. Cullis, and Mr. Karl Pearson, and the independent values thus obtained used for the verification and correction of the tables originally provided by Mr. H. F. Harris. The figures in brackets will generally only be required to determine the accurate seventh figure in the value of the y-function or its differences. The differences in the higher values of y have been found by calculating x to eleven figures and then dropping the last two. On this account it will be found that the tabulated differences do not in the bracketed figures always agree in the last place with the results obtained by subtracting the tabulated y’s. Two differences will always suffice to calculate y3, x;, and y, to seven places, and even with x, two differences will very rarely give a unit error in the last place of figures, while the use of the third difference would amply suftice for all seven places. TABLE OF VALUES OF y. % log (4X1) X1 Ay As o 0 2°7958800 —-0625000(00) = -- 1 2°7957037 — -0624746(30) + 253(70) = 2 2°7951742 —-0623985(00) + 761(30) + 507(60) 3 2-7942911 — ‘0622717(57) + 1267(43) + 606(13) 4 27930532 —-0620945(14) + 1772(48) +505(00) 5 2-7914590 —+0618670(00) + 2275(14) + 502(71) 6 27895066 —-0615894(84) + 2775(16) + 500(02) 7 27871935 —:0612623(30) + 3271(54) + 496(38) 8 27845168 —-0608859(00) + 38764(30) +492(76) - 9 27814731 —+0604607(00) + 4252(00) + 487(70) 10 27780586 —+0599872(00) + °4735(00) + 483(00) 11 27742688 —-0594660(14) + 5211(86) +476(86) 12 27700986 —-0588977(27) + 5682(87) +471(01) 13 2°7655426 — -0582831(00) + 6146(27) + 463(40) 14 27605945 —0576228(13) + 6602(87) + 456(60) 15 27552476 —-056917 7(40) + 7050(73) +447(86) 16 27494942 —-0561686(64) + 7490(76) + 440(03) 17 2°7433260 — -0553765(50) + 7921(14) + 430(38) 18 27367341 —-0545423(75) + 8341(75) + 420(61) 19 2-7297083 —+0536671(25) + 8752(50) + 410(75) 20 27222378 —*0527518(61) + 9152(64) + 400(14) 76 REPORT—-1896. TABLE OF VALUES OF x,—continued. p log (+ x1) x1 ° 21 27143105 —°'0517977(00) 22 2-7059136 —-0508058(35 ) 23 2 6970325 —°0497774(35) 24 2°6876518 —-0487137(80) 25 26677543 — ‘0476161(54) 26 26673213 — '0464859(11) 27 2-6563320 — -0453244(00) 28 2-6447639 —°0441330(40) 29 26325919 —°0429133(00) 30 2°6197888 —'0416666(77) 31 26063238 —*0403946(47) 32 2°5921635 — ‘0390988(09) 33 25772700 — -0377806(95) 34 2-5616016 —-0364419(50) 35 2-5451113 —‘0350841(81) 36 2-5277464 --°0337090(39) 37 25094475 —-0323182(22) 38 24901470 —-0309134(14) 39 24697679 —-0294963(27) 40 24482220 — *0280686(85) 41 2°4254073 — ‘0266322(12) 42 24012056 —‘0251886(87) 43 2-3754780 — °0237398(54) 44 23480610 — -0222874(82) 45 2-3187588 —-0208333(40) 46 2-2873356 —-0193791(90) 47 2-2535031 —-0179268(12) 48 wis 2169040 —°0164779(84) 49 21770877 —:0150344(60) 50 2:1334748 —0135979(94) 51 2:0853029 —°01217038(45) 52 2-0315400 —-0107532(57) 53 39707394 —:0093484(50) 54 39007836 — '0079576(27) 55 38183905 ~—°'0065824(95) 56 3-7180635 — -0052247(25) 57. 35894999 —-0038859(74) 58 34095729 —-0025678(69) 59 31044934 —-0012720(19) 60 —oo 0 61 30957397 +:0012466(36) 62 B+3920585 + 0024663(72) 63 35632104 + °0036577(19) 64 36829775 + :0048192(28) 65 3°T744793 + °0059494(84) 66 3°8480110 + °0070471(10) 67 3°9090619 + 0081107(67) 68 39609062 + 0091391(60) 69 2-0056538 + 0101310(38) 70 20447430 + °0110851(87) 71 2°0791975 + °0120004(50) 72 21997712 + °0128757(12) 73 2°1370343 +°0137099(00) 74 21614281 + -0145020(07) 75 '2-1833000 +°0152510(60) 76 2-2029282 + °0159561(55) {ith 2-2205374 +°0166164(19) 78 2-2363121 + °0172310(64) Ai + 9541(61) + 9918(65) + 10284(00) + 10636(55) + 10976(26) +11302(43) +11615(11) +11913(60) + 12197(40) + 12466(23) 12720(30) +12958(38) +13181(14) + 13387(45) +13577(69) +13751(42) + 13908(17) + 14048(08) + 14170(87) + 14276(42) + 14364(73) + 14435(25) + 14488(33) +14523(72) +14541(42) + 14541(50) + 14523(78) + 14488(28) “+ 14435(24) + 14364(66) + 14276(49) +14170(88) + 14048(07) + 13908(23) +13751(32) +13577(70) + 13387(51) + 13181(05) +12958(50) +12720(19) + 12466(36) +12197(36) +11913(47) + 11615(09) +11302(56) + 10976(26) + 10636(57) + 10283(93) 9918(78) 9541(49) 9152(63) 8752(62) $341(88) 7921(07) 7490(53) 7050(95) 6692(64) 6146(45) ++ tettti+s Ae + 888(97) +377(04) +365(35) + 352(55) +339(71) + 326(17) +312(68) + 298(49) «+ 283(80) + 268(83) + 254(07) + 238(08) + 222(76) + 206(31) +190(24) +173(73) + 156(75) +139(91) +122(79) +105(55) + 88(31) + 70(52) + 53(08) + 35(39) + 17(70) + (08) — 17(72) — 35(50) — 53(04) — 70(58) — 88(17) —105(61) —122(81) —139(84) — 156(91) —173(62) | —190(19) — 206(46) —222(55) — 238(31) — 253(83) —269(00) —283(89) — 298(38) —812(53) —326(30) —339(69) — 352(64) —365(15) —377(29) —388(86) — 400(01) —410(74) — 420(81) — 430(54) — 439(58) —448(31) — 456(19) ——EO EEO ON CALCULATION OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS. i i TABLE OF VALUES OF x,—continued. $ log (+ x1) x1 | Ay Ae ° 79 22504036 +:0177993(30) + 5682(66) —463(79) 80 2°2629380 + °0183205(25) + 5211(95) —470(71) 81 22740198 + 0187940(26) + 4735(01) —476(94) 82 2+2837362 +°0192192(40) + 4252(14) — 482(87) 83 22921598 + 0195956(54) + 3764(14) —488(00) 84 22993508 +°0199228(28) | + 3271(69) —492(45) 85 2°3053584 +°0202003(23) | + 2775(00) —496(69) 86 23102225 + 0204278(42) + 2275(19) —499(81) 87 23139744 + 0206050(84) + 1772(42) —502(77) 88 2°3166378 + 0207318(33) + 1267(49) —504(93) 89 2-3182293 + 0208079(48) + 761(15) —506(34) 90 2-3187588 = | + 0208333(43) + 253(85) —507(30) TABLE OF VALUES OF x3 p log (+xs) Xs Ai Ay A | i) 3°4156688 — 0026041 (67) — _ 1 B-4148216 —-0025990(91) + 50(76) _ 2 34122765 — ‘0025839(05) + 151(86) +101(10) 3 34080198 — -0025587(02) + 252(03) +100(17) 4 34020305 —+0025236(58) + 350(44) + 98(41) 5 33942768 — 0024790(02) + 446(56) + 96(12) 6 33847176 —+0024250(33) + 539(69) + 93(13) 7 3'3732999 —-0023621(09) + -«6 2924) + 89(55) 8 B°3599580 —-0022906(46) + 714(63) + 85(39) 9 33446110 —-0022111(13) + 795(33) + 80(70) 10 3°3271611 — ‘0021240(32) + 870(81) + 75(48) 11 33074892 —-0020299(68) + 940(64) + 69(83) 12 B 2854513 —-0019295(29) + 1004(39) + 63(75) 13 32608723 —-0018233(60) = + 1061(69) + 57(30) 14 32335381 —°0017121(35) +1112(25) + 50(56) 15 3°2031839 — -0015965(55) + 1155/80) + 43(55) 16 31694793 — '0014773(36) +1192(19) + 36(39) 17 3°1320082 —-0013552(15) 4 1221(21) + 29(02) 18 30902342 — °0012309(32) + 1242(83) + 21(62) 19 30434528 —0011052(30) +1257(02) + 14(19) 20 4°9907133 —‘0009788(46) + 1263(84) + 6(82) 21 #'9307004 —-0008525(12) +1263(34) = (60) 22 48614987 —-0007269(40) +1255(72) — 4%(62) 23 4°7801902 —+-0006028(23) + 1241(17) — 14(55) 24 46819914 —-0004808(30) + 1219(93) — 21(23) 25 45582220 —*0003615(95) +1192(35) — 27(58) 26 #3904405 —-0002457(20) +1158(75) — 33(60) 27 1263481 —+0001337(67) + 1119(53) — 39(22) 28 54191943 — *0000262(54) + 1075(14) — 44(39) 29 58827886 + -0000763(46) + 1026(00) — 49(14) 30 F-2395775 +-0001736(11) + 972(65) — 53(35) 31 4°4235223 + 0002651(69) + 915(58) — 57(07) 32 45449269 | + °0003507(01) + 855(32) — 60(26) 33 #6324118 + 0004299(44) + 792(43) — 62(89) 34 4°7012995 + °V005026(89) + 727(45) — 65(02) 35 4°7549475 + 0005687(84) + 660(95) ~ 66(50) 36 #7980501 + °0006281(31) + 593(47) — 67(48) 37 ¥-8329471 +°0006806(86) | + 625(55) — 67(91) 78 REPORT—1896, TABLE OF VALUES OF x,—continued. $ log (+xs) Xs At Ae ° 38 4°8612122 + °0007264(61) + 457(74) — 67(81) 39 4°8839544 + °0007655(16) + 390(55) — 67(19) 40 4:9019828 + °0007979(63) + 324(47) — 66(08) 41 4°9159058 + *0008239(59) + 259(96) — 64(51) 42 49261915 + °0008437(07) + 197(48) — 62(49) 43 4°9332071 +°0008574(47) + 137(40) — 60(08) 44 4°9372466 +°0008654(59) + 80(13) — 57(27) 45 49385475 + ‘0008680(56) + 25(96) — 54 (16) 46 4°9373057 + °0008655(77) — 24(79) — 60(75) AT 49336844 + 0008583(89) — 71(88) — 47(09) 48 49278214 + °0008468(79) — 115(10) — 43(23) 49 4°9198345 + °0008314(47) — 154(32) — 39(22) 50 4:9098275 +°0008125(08) — 189(89) — 35(07) 51 4°8978917 + °0007904(81) — 220(26) |; — 380(87) 52 4°8841103 + °0007657(91) — 246(90) |; — 26(64) 53 4°8685611 + °0007388(58) — 269(33) | — 22(42) 54 4°8513188 +:0007100(99) — 287(59) | — 18(26) 55 4°8324575 + -0006799(20) — 301(79) | — 14(20) 56 48120529 +°0006487(13) — 312(06) | — 10(27) 57 4°7901839 +0006168(56) — 318(57) — 6(61) 58 4.7669366 +°0005847(05) — 321(51) | — °2(94) 59 47424064 +°0005525(94) | — 8217010) | + (41) 60 47166988 +°0005208(33) | — 317(61) | + 8(50) 61 46899344 +°0004897(05) | — 311(29) | +. 6(32) 62 46622497 + °0004594(62) | — 802(43) | + 8(87) 63 46338018 + 0004303: 30) =— 291(382) 9) +) 111) 64 46047677 + 0004025(02) — 278(29) | + 13(03) 65 4°5753491 +-0603761(40) | — 263(62) | + 14(67) 66 4°5457711 +:0003513(75) | — 247(64) + 15(98) 67 4°5162823 + 0003283(09) | — 230(67) + 16(98) 68 4°4871534 4 :0003070(11) | — 212(98) + 17(69) 69 4°4586715 + °0002875(22) | 194(88) + 18(10) 70 44311341 +:0002698(57) | — 176(65) | + 18(28) 71 4:4048397 | +°0002540(03) |= — 158(54) | + 18(11) 72 4°3800749 + °0002399(25) — 140(79) | + 17(75) 73 4°3571014 +°0002275(63) — 123(62) + 17(17) 74 43361417 +°0002168(41) — 107(22) + 16(40) 75 4'3173648 +°0002076(64) — 91(76) / + 15(46) 76 4'3008735 | + °0001999(28) = SRI) | grt eae) Dis 42867038 +°0001935(10) — 64(18) | + 13019) 78 4°2748163 +°0001882(85) — 52(25) | + 11(93) 79 4°2651037 | +°0001841(21) — 41(64) + 10(61) 80 42573990 | +°0001808(83) | — 82738) | + 9(26) 81 42514896 | + °0001784(39) | — 24(45) | + 798) 82 4 2471302 | + °0001766(57) | — 17(82) + 6(63) 83 42440616 +°0001754(13) — 12¢43) | + 5(88) 84 4'2420230 | + 000174591) — §8(22 + 4(21) 85 4°2407665 +:°0001740(87) - 504) + 3(€7) 86 4°2400676 +°0001738(07) — 2(80) + 2(24) 87 42397333 + °0001736(73) — 1(84) + 1(46) 88 42396084 +'0001736(23) - (50) + (84) 89 42395795 +-0001736(12) = (12) + (88) 90 4°2395775 +:°0001736(11) = (1) + (11) () WOONAAPWHEHO OC ON CALCULATION OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS. log (Xs) Xs 4 8927900 —‘0007812(50) 4°8907716 —°0007776(28) 4°8846906 —‘0007668(15) 48744634 —+-0007489(68) 4°8599470 —°0007243(47) 4°8409266 —0006933(09) 48171020 —-0006562(99) 4°7880613 —0006138(49) 4°7532440 —°0005665(57) 47118821 —-0005150(89) 4°6629054 — '0004601(56) 4°6047756 — *0004025(09) 4°5351936 —‘0003429(21) 4°4505186 —°0002821(75) 4:3444970 —'0002210(53) F-2049877 —+-0001603(20) 4-0030767 —-0001007(11) 36326875 —+-0000429(23) 30934494 +0000124(01) 58107272 +-0000646(74) 40545335 + 0001133(79) 4:1988645 + *0001580(75) 4°2975411 + 0001984(00) 4-3693484 + °0002340(71) 4°4230728 + *0002648(94) 44635286 + -0002907(56) 4-4936239 +°0003116(19) 4°5152802 +°0003275(52) 4°5297595 +°0003386(57) 4°5379822 + °0003451(30) 4°5405975 + *0003472(14) 45381198 +0003452(39) 4°5308763 + °0003395(29) 4°5191401 + °0003304(76) 4-5030997 + °0003184(93) 4°4828826 +°0003040(06) 4:-4585690 + ‘0002874(54) 4:4301924 + °0002692(73) 4°3977466 +°0002498(89) 4°'3611876 + °0002297(14) 4-3204315 +°0002091(37) 4:°2753479 +°0001885(16) 4°2257891 +°0001681(86) 4°1715210 +°0001484(30) 4°1122697 + 000129500) 40476919 ++0001116(07) 3 °9773563 + °0000949(20) 39007216 +°0000795(65) 5°8171055 +- (0000656(30) 3°7256634 + 0000531(70) 5 6251809 +°0000421(87) 3°5149314 + -0000326(76) 5°3907754 +-0000245(91) B-2519153 +0000178(61) 30934494 + °0000124(01) 69088385 + 0000081(07) 6°6871147 + 0000048(65) 64978385 + °0000025(58) TABLE OF VALUES OF x;. 79 Ai Ao + 36(22) = + 108(13) +71(90) +178(47) +70(34) + 246(21) +67(74) 4310(39) + 64(18) +370(09) +59(70) + 424(51) +54(42) +472(91) + 58(40) _ -+514(69) 4+41(78) + 549(32) +34(64) +576(47) +27(15) 4+ 395(88) +19(41) + 607(46) +11(87) +611(22) + 3(76) +607(33) — 3(88) +596(09) —11(24) + 577(88) —18(21) +553(23) — 24(64) + 522(73) —30(51) +487(06) —35(67) + 446(96) — 40(09) + 403(24) — 43(72) +356(72) — 46(53) + 308(23) — 48(49) +258(62) —49(61) + 208(63) —49(99) + 159(33) —49(30) +111(05) —48(28) + 64(73) —46(31) + 20(85) ~ 43(88) — 19(75) —40(60) — 57(10) —37(35) — 90(53) —33(42) —119(83) —29(30) — 144(87) — 25(04) ~165(52) ~20(65) —181(82) —16(30) —193(84) ~12(02) —201(75) = Wok) —205(77) — 4(02) — 206(21) — (45) —203(30) + 2091) —197(56) + 5(74) ~189(30) + 8(26) —178(93) +10(37) ~166(87) +12(05) —153(55) +13(33) —139(34) + 14(20) —124(61) +14(74) —109(82) +14(78) — 96(11) + 14(71) — 80(85) +14(26) — 67(30) +13(56) — 54(61) + 12(69) — 42(94) +11(66) — 32(41) + 10(53) — 23(08) + 9(34) 80 REPORT—1896. TABLE OF VALUES OF x,—/-—C=Z,| S’/—C=Z =-S = a | Observation / | Aug. 16 | Fr a0 SU} og] Oume2 | 000276) | 0:00277 | 016905 s = / [* 278) Uy pa | 8 al | oars | 284 | | «00289 etesee es ee | Se, Mota) beg Ang, 37 io | 8 v1 | 017193 | 0900287 LD a 12292 | SV) | o-17I198 - 0:00293 | 0-16905 i ae i 20 | : ¥ | 017162 270} | O-DosG8 | 016894) | cno10 : 12 22 / x x! | 017190 B79) | 000283 | O-god4 ) Ang: 20 | loss | § vat ovat Paty 0-00271 | 016900 ) entes 4 1218 | = V) | 017201 279) | 000298 — o-16908 | ) Aug. 21 10 23 3 4 | 017186 25 | 0-00263 | o-16993 | ) a: ; L > wid | § ¥} O1nTT 277 0700271 / 016906 } ” 1438 | 3 vi 017206 | 295) 100800 | 016906 | it pentoee ‘3 1628 | 8 BI} oia2 | 300) 0-00297 016915 } a | 204 Mean = = = == = == — —0:00005 | —————— lS ON COMPARISON OF MAGNETIC INSTRUMENTS. 95 Comparison between Dip Circle Dover No, 94 and the Instrument in use at the Stonyhurst Observatory. Date Time Instrument Dip =-S=, H. M. : d August 18 . - 16 25 = 2 9-9 7 0-727 | 1:136 561 595 | 388,351 || 0-777 | 1:156 723 802 874 0-728 | 1136 949 946 954 | 0-778 | 1:157 142 676 419,493 0-729 | 1-137 338 900 | 389,558 || 0-779 | 1:157 562 169 420,111 0-730 | 1:137 728 458 390,162 || 0-780 | 1:157 982 280 420,730 0-731 | 1:138 118 620 | 390,765 || 0-781 | 1158 403 010 421,351 0732 | 1:138 509 385 | 391,370 || 0-782 | 1-158 824 361 969 0-733 | 1138 900 755 | 973 || 0-783 | 1:159 246 330 429,590 0-734 | 1:139 292 728 | 292,580 || 0-784 | 1:159 668 920 423,209 0:735 | 1:139 685 308 393,184 || 0-785 | 1:160 092 129 | 830 0-736 | 1:140 078 492 790 || 0-786 | 1:160 515 959 494,452 0-737 | 1-140 472 289 394,395 || 0-787 | 1:160 940 411 495,071 0738 | 1-140 866 677 | 395,001 || 0-788 | 1-161 365 482 694 0-739 | 1-141 261 678 | 608 || 0-789. | 1-161 791 176 426,316 = = ! = - a 0-740 | 1-141 657 286 396,215 || 0-790 | 1:162 217 492 426,938 0-741 | 1-142 053 501 396,821 || 0-791 | 1:162 644 430 427,560 0-742 | 1:142 450 322 397,429 || 0-792 | 1-163 071 990 428,183 0-743 | 1:142 847 751) 398,036 || 0-793 | 1:63 500 173 807 0-744 | 1-143 245 787 643 | 0-794 | 1-163 928. 980 429,430 0745 | 1143 644 430 | 399,252 || 0-795 | 1:164 358 410 430,054 0-746 | 1-144 043 682 861 | 0-796 | 1-164 788 464 678 0-747 | 1144 443 543 400,470 || 0-797 | 1165 219 142 431,301 0748 | 1144 844 013 401,078 || 0:798 | 1:165 650 443 928 0-749 | 1-145 245 091! | 687 | 0-799. | 1:166 082 371 439,552 0-750 | 1145 646 778 | 402,298 | o-800 | 1-166 514 923 433,178 — SPS Noose ee ee ty ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. Difterence ‘107 ‘Differe isa | x Tor | x Iyr | 0800 | 1166 514 923 | 433,178 || 0-850 | 1188 946 902 | 464,878 ‘| O80L | 1:166 948 101 433,803 |, 0851 | 1:189 411 780 | 465,520 0:802 | 1-167 381 904 434,429 | 0852 | 1-189 877 300 | 466,163 0803, | 1:167 816 333 | 435,057 | 0:853 | 1-190 343 463 | 806 | 0-804 | 1-168 251 390 682 | 0-854 | 1-190 810 269 467,450 0805. | 1-168 687 072 | 436,310 || 0-855 | 1:191 277 719 | 468,095 0806 | 1:169 123 382 936 | 0-856 | 1-191 745 814 739 0807 | 1:169 560 318 437,565 | 0857 | 1-192 214 553 | 469,384 0808 | 1:169 997 883 | 438,194 | 0-858 | 1-192 683 937 | 470,029 0809 | 1-170 436 077 820 | 0859 | 1-193 153 966 674 | 0810 | 1170 874 897 | 439,451 | 0860 | 1-193 624 640 | 471,321 0811 | 1:171 314 348 | 440,078 | 0-861 | 1-:194 095 961 | 471,967 0812 | 1171 754 426 709 || 0-862 | 1-194 567 998 472,614 0813 | 1-172 195 135 441,339 | 0863 | 1-195 040 542 473,260 0814 | 1-172 636 474 967 | 0-864 | 1-195 513 802 908 0815 | 1-173 078 441 442,599 | 0-865 | 1:195 987 710 | 474,556 | 0816 | 1173 521 040 | 443,229 | 0-866 | 1-196 462 266 475,204 0817 | 1:173 964 269 861 | 0-867 | 1-196 937 470 | 852 0818 | 1174 408 13¢ | 444,493 | o-s68 | 1-197 413 322 | 476,501 0819 | 1-174 852 623 445,122 || 0-869 | 1-197 889 823 | 477,151 0820 | 1:175 297 745 | 445,756 || 0870 | 1-198 366 974 | 477,800 0821 | 1175 743 501 446,388 || 0871 | 1:198 844 774 | 478,450 0:822 | 1-176 189 889 447,021 || 0-872 | 1-199 323 224 479,100 0:823 | 1-176 636 910 654 || 0873 | 1:199 802 324 750 0824 | 1-177 084 564 | 448,288 || 0-874 | 1-200 282 O74 480,402 0825 | 1:177 532 852 921 | 0875 | 1-200 762 476 | 481,053 0:826 | 1:177 981 773 449,555 | 0-876 | 1-201 243 529 705 0827 | 1178 431 328 | 450,190 | 0-877 | 1-201 725 234 482,357 0828 | 1178 881 518 824 | 0-878 | 1-202 207 591 483,009 0829 | 1-179 332 342 451,460 | 0:879 | 1-202 690 600 662 0830 | 1179 783 802 | 452,095 | 0-880 | 1-203 174 262 484,316 0831 | 1-180 235 897 | 452,731 || 0-881 | 1-203 658 578 484,969 0832 | 1-180 688 628 | 453,367 | 0°882 | 1-204 143 547 | 485,622 0°833 | 1-181 141 995 454,004 | 0-883 | 1-204 629 169 486,277 0°834 | 1-181 595 999 640 0-884 | 1-205 115 446 | 932 0835 | 1-182 050 639 | 455,278 || 0-885 | 1-203 602 378 | 487,587 0836 | 1-182 505 917 915 | 0886 | 1-206 089965 | 488,242 0837 | 1-182 961 $32 456,553 | 0887 | 1-206 578 207 898 0838 | 1-183 418 385 457,191 | 0-888 | 1-207 067 105 489,554 0839 | 1-183 875 576 830 | 0889 | 1-207 556 659 | 490,211 0840 | 1184 333 406 | 458,469 | 0-890 | 1-208 046 870 | 490,867 0841 | 1-184 791 875 | 459,108 || 0-891 | 1-208 537 737 | 491,525 0842 | 1-185 250 983 748 | 0892 | 1-209 029 262 | 492,183 0843 | 1-185 710 731 460,387 | 0-893 | 1-209 521 445 840 0844 | 1-186 171 118 461,028 | 0-894 | 1-210 014 285 493,499 0845 | 1-186 632 146 669 | 0895 | 1-210 507 784 | 494,157 0846 | 1187 093 815-| 462,309 | 0-896 | 1-211 001 941 817 0847 | 1187 556 124 951 | 0897 | 1-211 496 758 495,476 0848 | 1188019075 | 463,593 | 0898 | 1-211 992 234 | 496,136 0849 | 1-188 482 668 464,234 || 0-899 | 1-212 488 370 796 0-850 | 1-188 946 902 464,878 || 0-900 | 1-212 985 166 | 497,457 REPORT—1896. x Ir Difference Gy Tor Difference 0900 | 1-212 985 166 497,457 | 0:950 | 1-238 675 250 | 530,980 0901 | 1-213 482 623 498,117 || 0-951 | 1-239 206 230 531,661 0-902 | 1-213 980 740 780 || 0952 | 1-239 737 891 532,339 0-903 | 1-214 479 520 499,441 | 0°953 | 1-240 270 230 533,023 0-904 | 1-214 978 961 500,103 | 0-954 | 1:240 803 253 704 0-905 | 1-215 479 064 766 || 0-955 | 1-241 336 957 534,386 0:906 | 1-215 979 830 501,428 | 0-956 | 1-241 871 343 535,068 0:907 | 1-216 481 258 502,092 | 0-957 | 1:242 406 411 7152 0:908 | 1-216 983 350 754 | 0-958 | 1-242 942 163 536,435 0-909 | 1-217 486 104 503,420 || 0:959 | 1-243 478 598 537,118 0-910 | 1-217 989 524 504,084 | 0-960 | 1-244 015 716 537,803 ———————- ns ee 0-911 1:218 493 608 504,748 || 0-961 1:244 553 519 538,488 0-912 | 1-218 998 356 505,415 | 0-962 | 1-245 092 007 539,172 0913 | 1-219 503 771 506,080 | 0-963 | 1-245 631 179 858 0-914 | 1-220 009 851 745 || 0964 | 1-246 171 037 540,543 0915 | 1-220 516 596 507,412 | 0-965 | 1-246 711 580 541,230 0-916 | 1-221 024 008 508,077 | 0-966 | 1-247 252 810 916 0917 | 1-221 532 085 746 || 0-967 | 1-247 794 726 542,603 0:918 | 1-222 040 831 509,413 | 0-968 | 1-248 337 329 543,291 0-919 | 1-292 550 244 510,081 | 0-969 | 1-248 880 620 979 0920 | 1-223 060 325 510,749 || 0-970 | 1:249 424 599 544,667 0-921 | 1-223 571 074 511,419 | O-971 | 1:249 969 266 545,355 0-922 | 1-224 082 493 512,086 | 0-972 | 1-250 514 621 546,045 0923 | 1-224 594 579 757 || 0-973. | 1-251 060 666 734 0924 | 1-225 107 336 513,426 || 0974 | 1:251 607 400 547,424 0925 | 1-225 620 762 514,095 || 0-975 | 1-252 154 824 548,115 0926 | 1:226 134 857 767 || 0-976 | 1-252 702 939 805 0:927 | 1-226 649 624 515,439 || 0977 | 1-253 251 744 549,496 0:928 | 1-227 165 063 516,109 | 0-978 | 1-253 801 240 550,188 0-929 | 1-227 681 172 780 | 0-979 | 1-254 351 428 880 0-930 | 1-228 197 952 517,453 || 0-980 | 1-254 902 308 551,573 0-931 | 1-228 715 405 | 518,126 | 0-981 | 1-255 453 881 552,265 0932 | 1-229 233 531 799 | 0-982 | 1-256 006 146 958 0933 | 1-229 752 330 519,473 || 0-983 | 1:256 559 104 553,652 0-934 | 1-230 271 803 520,145 || 0-984 | 1:257 112 756 554,347 0935 | 1-230 791 948 819 | 0-985 | 1-257 667 103 555,041 0-936 | 1-231 312 767 521,495 | 0-986 | 1-258 292 144 736 0-937 | 1-231 834 262 522,169 | 0-987 | 1-258 777 880 556,431 0-938 | 1-232 356 431 844 || 0988 | 1:259 334 311 557,127 0-939 | 1-232 879 275 523,521 || 0-989 | 1-259 891 438 823 0940 | 1-233 402 796 524,196 | 0:990 | 1:260 449 261 558,520 0-941 | 1-233 926 992 524,873 || 0-991 | 1-261 007 781 559,217 0-942 | 1-234 451 865 525,550 | 0-992 | 1-261 565 998 914 0943 | 1-234 977 415 526,228 | 0-993 | 1:262 126 912 560,612 0-944 | 1-235 503 643 905 | 0-994 | 1:262 687 524 561,311 0945 | 1-236 030 548 527,583 || 0-995 | 1:263 248 835.| 562,009 0-946 | 1-236 558 131 528,260 | 0-996 | 1:263 810 844 709 0947 | 1-237 086 391 940 || 0-997 | 1-264 373 553 563,408 0948 | 1-237 615 331 529,620 | 0-998 | 1:264 936 961 564,108 0-949 | 1-238 144 951 530,299 | 0-999 | 1-265 501 069 809 0-950 | 1238 675 250 | 530,980 || 1-000 | 1-266 065 878 | 565,509 ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 109 Iov | Difference | x Jor Difference 1-266 065 878 | 565,509 | 1050 | 1-295 209 055 | 601,113 1-266 631 387 | 566,211 | 1-051 | 1-295 810 168 601,839 1-267 197 598 big, || 1one 1-296 412 007 602,562 1-267 764 511 567,615 | 1:053 | 1-297 014 569 603,286 1-268 332 126 568,318 | 1-054 | 1-297 617 855 604,011 1-268 900 444 |* 569,020 | 1055 | 1-298 921 866 736 1-269 469 464 724 | 1-056 | 1-298 826 602 605,462 1-270 039 188 570,428 | 1-057 | 1-299 432 064 606,189 1-270 609 616 571,133 | 1:058 | 1-300 038 253 915 1-271 180 749 837 | 1:059 | 1-300 645 168 607,643 1-271 752 586 572,542 | 1-060 | 1-301 252 811 | 608,370 1-272 325 128 573,248 | 1061 | 1-301 861 181 609,097 1-272 898 376 954 | 1-062 | 1-302 470 278 828 1-273 472 330 574,661 | 1-063 | 1-303 080 106 610,556 1-274 046 991 575,368 | 1-064 | 1-303 690 662 611,285 1-274 622 359 576,075 | 1-065 | 1-304 301 947 612,015 1-275 198 43 783 | 1-066 | 1-304 913 962 746 1-275 775 217 577,491 | 1-067 | 1-305 526 708 613,476 1-276 352 708 578,200 | 1-068 | 1-306 140 184 614.210 1-276 930 908 909 | 1-069 | 1-306 754 394 939 1-277 509 817 579,620 | 1-070 | 1-307 369 333 615,672 1-278 089 437 | 580,329 || 1-071 | 1-307 985 005 616,405 1-278 669 766 581,039 | 1-072 | 1-308 601 410 | 617,137 1-279 250 805 750 || 1073 | 1-309 218 547 872 1-279 832 555 582,461 | 1-074 | 1-309 836 419 618,607 1-280 415 016 583,174 | 1-075 | 1-310 455 026 619,341 1-280 998 190 885 | 1076 | 1-311 074:367 620,076 1-281 582 075 584,598 | 1077 | 1311 694 443 812 1-282 166 673 585,311 || 1-078 | 1-312 315 255 621,548 1-282 751 984 586,026 | 1-079 | 1-312 936 803 | 622/285 1-283 338 010 | 586,739 | 1-080 | 1-313 559 088 623,021 1-283 924 749 587,454 | 1-081 | 1314 182 109 623,759 1-284 512 203 588,168 | 1-082 | 1-314 805 868 624,497 1-285 100 371 884 | 1-083 | 1315 430 365 625,234 1-285 689 255 589,599 | 1-084 | 1-316 055 599 975 1-286 278 854 590,316 | 1-085 | 1-316 wat 574 626,713 1-286 869 170 | 591,033 | 1-086 | 1-317 308 287 627,454 1-287 460 203 751 || 1-087 | 1-317 935 741 |. , 628,194 1-288 051 954 592,466 | 1-088 |- 1-318 563 935 935 1-288 644 420 593,186 | 1-089 | 1:319 192 870 | 629,775 1-289 237 606 | 593,904 | 1-090 | 1310 822 545 | 63041, 1-289 831 510 594,623 | 1:091 | 1-320 452 963 631,160 © 1-290 426 133 595,343 | 1-092 | 1-321 O84 123 903 1-291 021 476 596,062 | 1-093 | 1-321 716 026 632,646 1-291 617 538 783 | 1-094 | 1-322 348 672 633,390 1-292 214 321 597,503 | 1-095 | 1:322 982 062 | 634/133 1-292 811 824 598,225 | 1-096 | 1-323 616 195 879 1-293 410 049 946 | 1-097 | 1-394 951 O74 635,625 1-294 008 995 599,669 | 1:098 | 1-324 886 699 636,369 1-294 GOS 664 600,391 || 1-099 | 1-395 523 068 637,116 1-295 209 055 601,113 | 1100 | 1326 160 184 637,862 110 REPORT—1896. r Tor | Difference ia Tov Difference 1100 | 1326 160 184 | 637,862 || 1-150 | 1-358 978 177 675,826 1101 | 1-326 798 046 638,609 || 1151 | 1°359 654 0u3 676,597 1:102 | 1:327 436 655 639,357 || 1152 | 1-360 330 600 677,370 1103 | 1:328 076 012 640,105 || 1-153 | 1-361 007 970 678,143 1:104 | 1-328 716 117 854 || 1154 | 1-361 686 113 918 1105 | 1:329 356971 | 641,603 || 1:155 | 1362 365 031 679,690 1160 | 1:329 998 574 642,352 || 1156 | 1-363 044 721 680,466 1107 | 1-330 640 926 643,102 || 1:157 | 1:363 725 187 681,242 | 1108 | 1:331 284 028 853 | 1158 | 1-364 406 429 682,017 | 1109 | 1:331 927 881 644,604 | 1159 | 1:365 088 446 | 793 1110 | 1:332 572 485 | 645,355 || 1-160 | 1-365 771 239 683,570 1-111 | 1:333 217 840 | 646,107 || 1:161 | 1-366 454 809 684,347 1-112 | 1-333 863 947 860 | 1:162 | 1:367 139 156 685,125 1113 |. 1-334 510 807 | 647,613 || 1163 | 1-367 824 281 904 1114) | 1-335 158 420 | 648,366 || 1-164 | 1-368 510 185 686,683 1115 | 1:335 806 786 649,121 | 1165 | 1-369 196 868 687,461 1116 | 1:336 455 907 ' 875 | 1166 | 1-369 884 329 688,243 1117 | 1:337 105 782 650,629 || 1:167 | 1-370 572 572 689,022 1118 | 1-337 756 411 651,385. || 1-168 | 1-371 261 594 804 1119 | 1-338 407 796 652,142 | 1469 | 1:371 951 398 690,585 | 1120 | 1:339 059 938 652,897 || 1170 | 1-372 641 983 691,367 — 1121 | 1-339 712 835 | 653,655 || 1171 | 1:373 333 350 692,150 1122 | 1-340 366 490 654,412 || 1172 | 1:374 025 500 933 1123 | 1-341 020 902 655,170 || 1173 | 1:374 718 433 693,716 1124 | 1:341 676 072 928 || 1174 | 1:375 412 149 694,500 1125 | 1-342 332 000 | 656,687 || 1175 |: 1:376 106 649 695,286 1126 | 1-342 988 687 | 657,447 || 1176 | 1:376 801 935 696,071 1127 | 1:343 646134 | 658,207 || 1177 | 1:377 498 006 856 1128 | 1-344 304 341 | 967 | 1178 | 1378 194 862 697,643 1:344 963 659,728 1378 892 505 698, 429 1°345 23 1:346 1°346 1:347 ils 348 1:350 283 944 606 269 933 597 262 928 594 660,490 1379 590 934 . 66s 251 | 662, 014 77 663.540 | 664,305 || 665,069 | 8 | 666,599 | 667,366 | 380 290 151 380 990 1 1381 690 948 1:382 392 530 1:383 094 902 1383 798 O64 384 502 017 1:385 206 760 385 91 699,2 217 700,004 793, 701,582 702,372, 703,162 953 704,743 705,535 706,327 262 668,132 | 386 618 6 orci oe MAD Solem Hob OrSeSt Sroecr 930 599 268 939 610 289 _ rs Oo ee Wi www www www Or nm 668,899 669,667 670,433 |) 671,203 |! 973 741 673,512 | 674,283 675,053 || +1199 \ 1387 325 742 1388 033 655 1:388 742 363 1:389 451 864 1390 162 160 1:390 873 252 391 585 140 1:392 297 824 1393 O11 305 707, 120 707,913 708,708 709,501 710,296 711,092 888 712,684 713,481 714,279 675,826 1393 725 584 715,078 ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 112 Difference 2 Jor i z Ir Difference 1200 | 1393 725 584 | 715,078 |) 1-260 | 1-430 468 718 | 755,695 1201 | 1:394 440 662 715,875 || 1251 | 1-431 224 413 | 756,521 1-202 | 1:395 156 537 716,676 | 1°252 | 1-431 980 934 757,349 1-203 | 1:395 873 213 717,474 || 1-253 | 1-432 738 283 758,176 1-204 | 1-396 590 687 718,274 | 1:254 | 1-433 496 459 759,005 1:205 | 1-397 308 961 719,077 || 1:255 | 1-434 255 464 835 1:206 | 1-398 028 038 878 || 1-256 | 1-435 015 299 760,665 1:207 | 1:398 747 916 720,680 || 1:257 | 1-435 775 964 761,495 1:208 | 1-399 468 596 721,482 || 1-258 | 1-436 537 459 762,325 1:209 | 1-400 190 078 722,285 || 1:259 | 1-487 299 784 763,157 1-210 | 1-400 912 363 723,089 || 1260 | 1-438 062 941 763,989 | 1-211 | 1-401 635 452 723,893 || 1-261 | 1-438 826 930 764,821 | 1-212 | 1-402 359 345 724,697 || 1-262 | 1-439 591 751 765,655 _ | 1-213 | 1-403 084 042 725,505 | 1263 | 1-440 357 406 766,489 1-214 | 1-403 809 547 726,308 | 1-264 | 1-441 123 895 767,323 1:215 | 1-404 535 855 727,115 || 1-265 | 1-441 891 218 768,158 1:216 | 1-405 262 970 922 | 1-266 | 1-442 659 376 ay 1-217 | 1-405 990 892 728,730 | 1267 | 1-443 428 370 769,830 1-218 | 1-406 719 622 729,539 || 1-268 | 1-444 198 200 770,665 1:219 | 1-407 449 161 730,346 || 1-269 | 1-444 968 865 771,504 1-220 | 1-408 179 507 731,156 || 1-270 | 1-445 740 369 772,343 1:221 | 1-408 910 663 731,965 || 1-271 | 1-446 512 712 773,180 1:222 | 1-409 642 628 732,777 || 1:272 | 1-447 285 892 774,018 1:223 | 1-410 375 405 733,586 || 1:273 | 1-448 059 910 860 1224 | 1-411 108 991 734,399 || 1-274 | 1-448 834 770 775,699 1-225 | 1-411 843 390 735,210 | 1275 | 1-449 610 469 776,541 1-226 | 1-412 578 600 736,023 || 1-276 | 1-450 387 O10 777,381 1:227 | 1-413 314 623 835 || 1-277 | 1-451 164 391 778,224 1-228 | 1-414 051 458 737,650 || 1-278 | 1-451 942 615 779,067 1-229 | 1-414 789 108 738,464 | 1279 | 1-452 721 682 909 | 1-230 | 1-415 597 572 739,279 || 1-280 | 1-453 501 591 | 780,754 1-231 | 1-416 266 851 740,094 | 1-281 | 1-454 982 345 781,598 1-232 | 1-417 006 945 910 | 1-282 | 1-455 063 943 782,443 11-233 | 1-417 747 855 741,726 | 1-283 | 1-455 $46 386 783,289 1-234 | 1-418 489 581 742,545 | 1-284 | 1-456 629 675 784,135 | 1-235 | 1-419 232 126 743,361 | 1:25 .| 1-457 413 810 982 1:236 | 1-419 975 487 744,179 || 1-286 | 1-458 198 792 785,829 1:237 1:420 719 666 998 || 1-287 1-458 984 621 786,678 1-288 | 1-421 464 664 745,818 || 1-288 | 1-459 771 299 787,527 1-239 | 1-422 210 482 746,638 | 1-289 | 1-460 558 826 788,375 1-240 | 1-422 957 120 747,458 ||.1-290 | 1-461 347 201 | 789,224 1-241 | 1-493 704 578 748,279 | 1291 | 1-462 136 425 | 790,076 1:242 | 1-494 452 857 749,100 | 1-292 | 1-462 926 501 | 927 1243 | 1-425 201 957 924 || 1-293 | 1-463 717 428 | 791,780 1244 | 1-425 951 881 750,746 || 1-294 | 1-464 509 208 792,630 1245 | 1-426 702 627 751,569 || 1295 | 1-465 301 838 793.484 1-246 | 1-427 454 196 752,392 | 1-296 | 1-466 095 322 794,338 1247 | 1-428 206 588 758,218 | 1-297 | 1-466 889 660 795,191 1248 | 1-428 959 806 754.044 || 1:298 | 1-467 684 851 796,045 1:249 | 1-499 713 850 868 || 1-299 | 1-468 480 896 902 1430 468 718 755,695 || 1:300 | 1-469 277 798 | 797,768 1:250 142 REPORT— 1896. x Ipr Difference | x Iyvr Difference 300 | 1:469 277 798 797,758 || 1:350 | 1-510 227 098 841,348 1301 | 1-470 075 556 798,613 || 1351 | 1-511 068 446 842,235 1302 | 1-470 874 169 799,471 || 1352 | 1-511 910 681 843,126 1:303 | 1-471 673 640 800,329 || 1:353 | 1:512 753 807 844,014 1:304 | 1-472 473 969 801,188 || 1:354 | 1-513 597 821 903 1:305 | 1-473 275 157 802,047 || 1355 | 1-614 442 724 845,794 1306 | 1-474 077 204 905 || 1:356 | 1-515 288 618 846,687 1:307 | 1-474 880 109 803,766 || 1:357 | 1°516 135. 205 847,576 1:308 | 1-475 683 875 804.627 || 1358 | 1:516 982 781 848,471 1:309 | 1-476 488 502 805,489 || 1:359 | 1:517 831 252 849,363 1310 | 1-477 293 991 806,351 || 1360 | 1518 680 615 850,257 1311 | 1-478 100 342 807,213 || 136L | 1-519 530 872 851,150 1312 | 1-478 907 555 808,076 || 1:362 | 1-520 382 022 852,047 1:313 | 1-479 715 631 940 | 1363 | 1-521 234 069 942 1314 | 1480 524 571 809,806 || 1-364 | 1:522 087 011 853,839 1:315 | 1-481 334 377 810,670 || 1-365 | 1-522 940 850 $54,736 1316 | 1-482 145 047 811,536 | 1366 | 1523 795 586 855,634 1317 | 1-482 956 583 812,408. || 1367 | 1:524 651 220 856,532 1318 | 1-483 768 986 813,269 || 1:368 | 1:525 507 752 857,431 1319 | 1-484 582 255 814,138 || 1:369 | 1-526 365 183 858,331 1:320 | 1-485 396 393 815,005 || 1370 | 1:527 223 514 859,231 1321 | 1-486 211 398 815,874 || 1-371 | 1-528 082 7 860,133 1:222 | 1-487 027 272 816,744 || 1:372 | 1-528 942 a 861,033 1:323 | 1-487 844 016 $17,614 || 1:373 | 1:529 803 911 937 1:324 | 1-488 661 630 818,486 || 1-374 | 1-530 665 848 862,839 1325 | 1:489 480 116 819,356 || 1375 | 1:531 528 687 863,743 1:326 | 1-490 299 472 820,229 || 1376 | 1-532 392 430 864,646 1:327 | 1-491 119 701 821,100 || 1377 | 1:533 257 076 865.553 1328 | 1-491 940 S801 975 || 1:378 | 1-534 122 629 866,458 1:329 | 1-492 762 776 822,849 || 1379 | 1/534 989 087 867,365 1:330 | 1-493 585 625 823,723 || 1380 | 1:5385 856 452 868,271 1331 | 1-494 409 348 824,598 | 1381 | 1536 724 723 869,179 1332 | 1-495 233 946 825,474 || 1:382 | 1°537 593 902 870,087 1333 | 1-496 059 420 826,351 || 1:383 | 1:538 463 989 997 | 1:334 | 1-496 885 771 827,227 || 1384 | 1:589 334 986 871,906 1:335 | 1-497 712 998 828.106 || 1:385 | 1:540 206 892 872.817 | 1336 | 1-498 541 104 983 || 1386 | 1:541 079 709 873,727 1:337 | 1-499 370 087 829,863 || 1387 | 1:541 953 436 874,639 1:338 | 1-500 199 950 830,743 || 1388 | 1542 828 075 875,551 1:339 | 1:501 030 693 831,622 || 1389 | 1:543 703 626 876,464 1340 | 1-501 862 315 832,503 | 1:390 | 1:544 580 090 877,378 1341 | 1-502 694 818 833,386 || 1391 | 1545 457 468 878,293 1:342 | 1:503 528 204 $34,267 || 1392 | 1546 335 761 879,207 1:343 | 1-504 362 471 835,150 || 1:393 | 1:547 214 968 880,124 1:344 | 1-505 197 621 $36,038 |. 1394 | 1:548 095 092 881,039 1345 | 1-506 033 654 919 | 1:395 | 1548 976 131 957 1:346 1:506 870 573 837,802 | 1:396 1549 858 088 882,875 1:347 | 1-507 708 375 838,688 || 1397 | 1/550 740 963 883,793 1:348 | 1-508 547 063 39.575 || 1398 | 1561 624 756 884,712 1:349 | 1-509 386 638 840.460 | 1399 | 1:552 509 468 885.632 1:350 | 1510 227 098 | 841,348 | 1-400 | 1:553 395 100 886,552 ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 1138 a Igor Difference x Jor Difference 1400 | 1553 395 100 | 886,552 | 1-450 | 1598 864 661 | 933,460 1-401 1554 281 652 887,473 || 1-451 | 1:599 798 121 | 934,416 1-402 | 1-555 169 125 888,396 || 1-452 | 1-600 732 537 935,372 1403 | 1:556 057 521 889,318 || 1453 | 1-601 667 909 936,330 1-404 | 1:556 946 839 890,240 || 1-454 | 1-602 604 239 937,289 1-405 | 1:557 837 079 891,165 | 1-455 | 1-603 541 528 938,248 1-406 | 1:558 728 244 892,090 | 1-456 | 1-604 479 776 939,207 1-407 | 1:559 620 334 893,014 | 1-457 | 1-605 418 983 940,168 1:408 | 1-560 513 348 941 || 1-458 | 1-606 359 151 |, 941,129 1:409 | 1:561 407 289 894,868 |) 1-459 | 1-607 300 280 942,091 1-410 | 1-562 302 157 895,795 || 1-460 | 1-608 242 371 943,053 1-411 | 1:563 197 952 896,723 || 1-461 | 1-609 185 424 944,017 1-412 | 1:564 094 675 897,651 || 1-462 | 1-610 129 441 981 | 1-413 | 1:564 992 326.| 898,580 || 1-463 | 1-611 074 422 915,946 1-414 | 1-565 890 906 899,511 | 1-464 | 1-612 020 368 946,912 1-415 | 1-566 790 417 900,442 | 1-465 | 1-612 967 280 947,877 1416 | 1:567 690 859 901,373 || 1-466 | 1-613 915 157 948,845 1-417 "| 1:568 692 232 902,304 | 1-467 | 1-614 864 002 949,811 1-418 | 1:569 494 536 903,238 | 1-468 | 1-615 813 813 950,781 1-419 | 1-570 397 774 904,172 || 1-469 | 1-616 764 594 951,751 1-420 | 1-571 301 946 905,106 || 1-470 | 1-617 716 345 952,720 1-421 | 1°572 207 052 906,041 | 1-471 | 1-618 669 065 953,691 1:422 | 1-573 113 093 976 || 1-472 | 1-619 622 756 954,662 1:423 | 1-574 020 069 907,913 || 1-473 | 1-620 577 418 955,634 1-424 | 1-574 927 982 908,850 | 1-474 | 1-621 533 052 956,607 1425 | 1:575 836 832 909,787 || 1-475 | 1-622 489 659 957,580 1-426 | 1-576 746 619 910,726 || 1-476 | 1-623 447 239 958,556 1-427. | 1-577 657 345 911,664 | 1-477 | 1-624 405 795 959,530 1:428 | 1:578 569 009 912,605 || 1-478 | 1-625 365 325 960,606 1-429 | 1:579 481 614 913,546 | 1-479 | 1-626 325 831 961,483 1-430 | 1:580 395 160 914,486 || 1-480 | 1-627 287 314 962,460 1-431 | 1-581 309 646 915,429 | 1-481 | 1-628 249 774 963,438 1-432 | 1:582 225 075 916,370 || 1-482 | 1-629 213 212 964,417 1-433 | 1:583 141 445 917,314 || 1-483 | 1-630 177 629 965,396 1-434 | 1-584 058 759 918,259 || 1-484 | 1-631 143 025 966,376 1-435 | 1-584 977 018 919,203 | 1-485 | 1-632 109 401 967,358 1:436 | 1:585 896 221 920,149 || 1-486 | 1-633 076 759 968,339 1:437 | 1:586 816 370 921,095 || 1-487 | 1-634 045 098 969,322 1-438 | 1-587 737 465 922,042 || 1-488 | 1-635 014 420 970,305 1-439 | 1-588 659 507 989 || 1-489 | 1-635 984 725 971,289 1-440 | 1-589 582 496 923,937 || 1-490 | 1°636 956 014 972,274 1441 | 1:590 506 433 924,887 || 1-491 | 1-637 928 288 973,259 1-442 | «1-591 431 320 925,836 | 1492 | 1-638 901 547 974,246 1-443 «| «=1:592 357 156 926,787 || 1-493 | 1-639 875 793 975,232 / 1-444 | 1593 283 943 927)738 || 1-494 | 1-640 851 025 976,220 21-445 «| #1:594 211 681 928,689 || 1-495 | 1-641 827 245 977,209 1-446 | 1-595 140 370 929,642 || 1-496 | 1-642 804 454 978,198 1-447 | 1-596 070 012 930,596 || 1-497 | 1-643 782 652 §79,189 1-448 | 1-597 000 608 931,550 || 1498 | 1-644 761 841 980,178 1-449 | 1/597 932 158 932,503 || 1-499 | 1-645 742 019 981,171 1-450 | 1-598 864 661 933,460 || 1:500 | 1-646 723 190 982,163 1896. i REPORT—1896. 1 Ee Tor Difference | x Iqvr Difference | 1:500 | 1646 723 190 982,163 | 1550 | 1-697 062 826 | 1,032,758 | 1501 | 1-647 705 353 983,156 || 1551 | 1-698 095 584 | 1,033,791 | 1:502 | 1°648 688 509 984,149 | 1:552 | 1-699 129 375 34,822 1:503 | 1-649 672 658 985,144 || 1-553 | 1-700 164 197 35,856 1504 | 1:650 657 802 986,139 | 1554 | 1-701 200 053 36,891 1:505 | 1:651 643 941 987,136 | 1:555 | 1-702 236 944 37,926 1:506 | 1-652 631 077 988,132 | 1:556 | 1-703 274 870 38,962 1507 | 1-653 619 209 989,130 || 1557 | 1-704 313 832 39,998 1:508 | 1-654 608 339 990,128 || 1:558 | 1-705 358 830 41,035 1509 | 1-655 598 467 991,127 | 1:559 | 1-706 394 865 42,074 1510 | 1-656 589 594 | 992,127 | 1-560 | 1-707 436 939 | 1,043,113 sobad wie ete Yeap iel fh | 7 Be ee 1511 | 1-657 681 721 993,128 | 1:561 | 1-708 480 052 | 1,044,153 1512 | 1-658 674 349 994,129 | 1362 | 1-709 524 205 45,194 1513 || 1-659 568 978 995,132 | 1:563 | 1-710 569 399 46,236 1:514 | 1-660 564 110 996,134 | 1:564 | 1-711 615 635 47,278 1516 | 1-661 560 244 997,139 || 1:565 | 1-712 662 913 48,321 1:516 | 1-662 557 383 998,142 | 1:566 | 1-713 711 234 49,364 15617 | 1-663 555 525 | 999,148. |] 1-567 | 1-714 760 598 50,409 1:518 | 1-664°554 673 | 1,000,155 ~|| 1:568 | 1-715 811 007 51,455 1519 | 1-665 554 828 1,160 || 1:°569 | 1-716 862 462 52,502 1520 | 1-666 555 988 | 1,002,168 | 1:570 | 1-717 914 964 | 1,053,549 1521 | 1-667 558 156 | 1,003,176 || 1571 | 1:718 968 513 | 1,054,596 1:522 | 1-668 561 332 | 4,186 | 1572 | 1:720 023 109 55,646 1523 | 1-669 565 518 | 5,196 || 1573 | 1-721 078 755 56,695 1524 | 1-670 570 714 6,206 || 1574 | 1-722 135 450 57,745 1525 | 1-671 576 920 | 7,218 || 1:575 | 1-723 193 195 58,797 1526 | 1-672 584 138 8,230 | 1576 | 1:724 251 992 59,849 1527 | 1-673 592 368 | 9,243 ||. 1577 | 1-725 811 841 60,902 1528 | 1-674 601 611 10,257 | 1578 | 1:726 372 743 61,956 1529 | 1-675 611 868 271 | 1579 | 1-727 434 699 63,010 | 1530 | 1-676 623 139 | 1,012,287 | 1580 | 1-728 497 709 | 1,064,067 1:53 1677 635 426 | 1,013,303 | 1:581 | 1-729 561 776 | 1,065,121 1532 | 1-678 648 729 14,319 | 1-582 | 1-730 626 897 66,178 1:533 | 1-679 663 048 15,337 | 1583 | 1-731 693 075 67,237 1:534 | 1-680 678 385 | 16,356 | 1:584 | 1-782 760 312 68,296 1:535 | 1-681 694 741 | 17,375 || 1:585 | 1-733 828 608 69,355 1536 | 1-682 712116 | 18,395 || 1386 | 1:734 897 963 70,415 1537 | 1-683 730 511 | 19,415 |) 1-587 | 1-735 968 378 71,476 1538 | 1-684 749 996 | 20,487. ||:1-588. | 1-737 039 854 72,538 1539 | 1-685 770 363 | 21,460 | 1589 | 1-738 112 392 73,601 1540 | 1-686 791 823 | 1,02 22,483 | 1590 | 1-739 185 993 | 1,074,664 1541 | 1687 814 306 | 1,023,507 || 1591 | 1-740 260 657 | 1,075,729 1542 | 1-688 837 813 24,532 || 1592 | 1-741 336 386 76,795 1:543 | 1-689 862 345 25,557 || 1:593 | 1-742 413 181 77,860 1544 | 1-690 887 902 26,584 || 1594 | 1-743 491 O41 78,927 1545 | 1-691 914 486 27,611 | 1:595 | 1-744 569 968 79,996 1546 | 1-692 942 097 28,638 | 1596 | 1-745 649 964 81,064 1547 | 1-693 970 735 29,668 | 1597 | 1:746,73L 028 82,133 1:548 | 1-695 000°403 30,696 | 1:598 | 1-747 813 161 83,204 1549 | 1-696 031 099 31.727 || 1599 | 1-748 896 365 84,275 1550 | 1-697 062 826 | 1,032,768 | 1-600 | 1:749 980 640 | 1,085,347 ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 115 Tox Difference | up | Tov Difference 1-749 980 640 | 1,085,347 | 1-650 | 1-805 578 834 | 1,140,033 “1-751 065 987 | 1,086,419 | 1-651 | 1-806 718 867 | 1,141,149 1-752 152 406 87,493 || 1:652 | 1-807 860 016 142,266 1:753 239 899 88,568 | 1653 | 1-809 002 282 143,384 1-754 328 467 89,643 || 1:654 | 1-810 145 666 144,502 1755 418 110 90,719 | 1655 | 1-811 290 168 145,621 1:756 508 829 91,796 | 1656 | 1:812 435 789 146,741 1:757 600 625 92,874 || 1657 | 1-813 582 530 147,863 1:758 693 499 93,953 | 1658 | 1-814 730 393 148,986 1:759 787 452 95,033 | 1659 | 1-815 879 379 150,108 1-760 882 485 | 1,096,113 | 1-660 | 1-817 029 487 | 1,161,231 1-761 978 598 | 1,097,194 | 1661 | 1-818 180 718 | 1,152,356 1:763 075 792 98,276 || 1:662 | 1-819 333 074 153,482 1:764 174 068 99,359 || 1-663 | 1-820 486 556 | 154,610 1-765 273 427 100,443 | 1-664 | 1-821 G41 166 155,736 1:766 373 870 101,528 | 1°665 | 1:822 796 902 156,864 1:767 475 398 102,613 | 1666 | 1:823 953 766 157,994 1-768 578 O11 103,699 || 1-667 | 1-825 111 760 159,124 1:769 681 710 104,786 | 1-668 1 826 270 884 160,255 1:770 786 496 105,875 || 1-669 | 1-827 431 139 161,386 1-771 892 371 | 1,106,964 | 1-670 | 1-828 592 525 | 1,162,520 1-772 999 335 | 1,108,053 |} 1-671 | 1-829 755 045 | 1,163,654 1:774 107 388 109,144 | 1672, | 1830 918 699 164,787 1:775 216 532 110,236 || 1-673 | 1-832 083 486 165,924 1:776 326 768 111,327 | 1-674 | 1-833 249 410 167,060 1:777 438 095 112,421 || 1-675 | 1-834 416 470 168,197 1:778 550 516 113,515 || 1-676 | 1-835 584 667 169,334 1-779 664 031 114,610 || 1-677 | 1-836 754 001 170,475 1:780 778 641 115,706 | 1-678 | 1-837 924 476 171,615 1:781 894 347 116,803 | 1-679 | 1-839 096 091 172,755 1:783 011 150 | 1,117,900 | 1680 | 1840 268 846 | 1,173,897 1-784 129 050 | 1,118,998 || 1-681 | 1-841 442 743 | 1,175,040 1:785 248 048 120,097 || 1-682 | 1-842 617 783 176,184 1:786 368 145 121,198 || 1-683 | 1-843 793 967 177,328 1:787 489 343 122,299 | 1684 | 1-844 971 295 178,474 1:788 611 642 123,401 || 1685 | 1-846 149 769 179,621 1:789 735 043 124,504 | 1686 | 1-847 329 390 180,767 1:790 859 547 125,606 | 1-687 | 1-848 510 157 181,916 1:791 985 153 126,711 | 1688 | 1-849 692 073 183,065 1:793 111 864 127,817 | 1-689 | 1-850 875 138 184,216 1-794 239 681 | 1,128,923 || 1-690 | 1-852 059 354 | 1,185,366 | | = 1-795 368 604 | 1,130,030 |- 1-691 | 1-853 244 720 | 1,186,517 1:796 498 634 131,138 || 1:692 | 1-854 431 237 187,671 1-797 629 772 132,246 || 1693 | 1-855 618 908 188,825 1:798 762 018 133,357. || 1-694 | 1-856 807 733 189,980 1:799 895 375 134,467 || 1-695 | 1-857 997 713 191,135 1:801 029 842 135,579 || 1:696 | 1-859 188 848 192,291 1/802 165 421 136,691 | 1:697 | 1-860 381 139 193,449 1-803 302 112 137,804 || 1698 | 1-861 574 588 194,607 1:804 439 916 138,918 | 1699 | 1-862 769 195 195,767 1805 578 834 | 1,140,033 | 1-700 | 1863 964 962 | 1,196,997 12 116 REPORT—1896. x Ipr Difference | xr | Ipz Difference 1:700 | 1-863 964 962 | 1,196,927 |! 1-750 | 1:925 252 154 | 1,256,142 1-701 | 1:865 161 889 | 1,198,088 || 1-751 | 1-926 608 296 | 1,257,350 1:702 | 1-866 359 977 199,251 || 1:752 | 1:927 765 646 258,560 1:703 | 1/867 559 228 200,412 || 1:753 | 1-929 024 206 259,771 1:704 | 1-868 759 640 201,577 || 1-754 | 1-930 283 977 260,982 1-705 | 1-869 961 217 202,742 || 1:755 | 1-931 544 959 262,196 1-706 | 1:87! 163 959 203,908 || 1:756 | 1-932 807 155 263,409 1:707 | 1-872 367 867 205,074 || 1:757 |. 1:934 070 564 264,623 1-708 | 1-873 572 941 206,242 || 1:758 | 1-935 335 187 265,839 1709 | 1/874 779 183 207,411 || 1:759 | 1-936 601 026 267,056 1:710 | 1:875 986 594 | 1,208,581 || 1-760 | 1-937 868 082 | 1,268,273 1711 1:877 195 175 1,209,751 1-761 1:939 136 355 1,269,493 1712 | 1-878 404 926 210,922 || 1-762 | 1-940 405 848 270,712 1713 | 1/879 615 848 212,094 || 1-763 | 1-941 676 560 271,932 1-714 | 1-880 827 942 213,269 || 1-764 | 1-942 948 492 273,153 1-715 | 1-882 041 211 214,442 || 1:765 | 1-944 221 645 274,376 1:716 | 1/883 255 653 215,617 || 1-766 | 1-945 496 021 275,600 1-717 | 1-884 471 270 216,793 || 1-767 | 1-946 771 621 276,825 1:718 | 1-885 688 063 217,971 || 1-768 | 1-948 048 446 278,049 1:719 | 1-886 906 034 219,149 "|| 1-769 | 1-949 326 495 279,276 1:720 | 1-888 125 183 | 1,220,328 || 1-770 | 1-950 605 771 | 1,280,504 1:721 | 1-889 345 511 | 1,221,507 || 1-771 1951 886 275 | 1,281,733 1:722 | 1-890 567 018 22,689 || 1-772 | 1-953 168 008 282,962 1-723 | 1/891 789 707 223,870 || 1-773 | 1-954 450 970 284,192 1-724 | 1/898 013 577 225,053 || 1:774 | 1-955 735 162 285,424 1:725 | 1-894 238 630 226,236 || 1:775 |° 1-957 020 586 286,656 1-726 | 1-895 464 866 227,422 || 1-776 | 1-958 307 242 287,890 1:727 | 1:896 692 288 228,608 || 1-777 | 1-959 595 132 289,124 1:728 | 1:897 920 896 229,793 || 1-778 | 1-960 884 2656 290,360 1-729 | 1-899 150 689 230,981 || 1:779 | 1-962 174 616 291,596 1730 | 1-900 381 670 | 1,232,170 || 1-780 | 1-963 466 212 | 1,292,834 1-731 1-901 613 840 | 1,233,359 || 1:781 | 1-964 759 046 | 1,294,072 1-732 | 1:902 847 199 234,549 || 1-782 | 1-966 053 118 295,312 1-733 | 1-904 081 748 235,741 || 1:783 | 1-967 348 430 296,552 1-734 | 1-905 317 489 236,933 || 1:784 | 1-968 644 982 297,794 1-735 | 1-906 554 422 238,127 || 1:785 | 1-969 942 776 299,036 1-736 | 1-907 792 549 239,321 || 1:786 | 1-971 241 812 300,280 1:737 | 1-909 031 870 240,516 || 1:787 | 1-972 542 092 301,525 1:738 | 1-910 272 386 241,712 || 1:788 | 1:973 843 617 302,771 1:739 | 1-911 514 098 249.909 |) 1-789 | 1:975 146 388 304,016 1-740 | 1-912 757 007 | 1,244,107 || 1-790 | 1-976 450 404 | 1,305,264 1-741 | 1-914 001 114 | 1,245,307 || 1-791 | 1-977 755 668 | 1,306,513 1-742 | 1-915 246 421 246,506 || 1:792 | 1-979 062 181 307,763 1:743 | 1-916 492 927 247,707 || 1:793 | 1-980 369 944 309,012 1:744 | 1-917 740 634 248,909 | 1:794 | 1-981 678 956 310,265 1:745 | 1-918 989 543 250,113 | 1:795 | 1:982 989 221 311,518 1:746 | 1-920 239 656 251,316 | 1:796 | 1-984 300 739 312,772 1:747 | 1:921 490 972 252,521 || 1-797 | 1-985 613 511 314,026 1-748 | 1-922 743 493 253,727 || 1:798 | 1:986 927 537 315,282 1:749 | 1-923 997 220 254,934 || 1:799 | 1-988 242 819 316,538 1-750 | 1:925 252 154 | 1,256,142 || 1-800 | 1-989 659 367 | 1,317,796 ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 117 x Ipr Difference Sh Igor Difference 1-800 1-989 559 357 | 1,317,796 1:850 2°057 O11 587 1,382,015 1:801 1:990 877 153 1,319,055 1851 2:058 393 602 1,383,326 1-802 1992 196 208 320,315 1°852 2°059 776 928 384,639 1:803 1993 516 523 321,576 1°853 2°061 161 567 385,952 1804 1:994 838 099 322,838 1854 2062 547 519 387,267 1:805 1:996 160 937 324,101 1855 2°063 934 786 388,583 1-806 1:997 485 038 325,364 1°856 2:065 323 369 389,900 1:807 1:998 810 402 326,629 1-857 2:066 713 269 391,218 1-808 2-000 137 031 327,896 1:858 2:068 104 487 392,537 1:809 2001 464 927 329,163 1°859 2069 497 024 393,856 1810 2002 794 090 1,330,431 1:860 2070 890 880 1,395,178 1811 2:004 124 521 1,331,700 1861 2:072 286 058 1,396,500 1812 2:005 456 221 332,970 1-862 2°073 682 558 397,823 1813 2:006 789 191 334,242 1:863 2:075 080 381 399,148 1814 2-008 123 433 335,513 1-864 2:076 479 529 400,474 1815 2:009 468 946 336,787 1:865 2077 880 003 401,799 1-816 2:010 795 733 338,062 1-866 2:079 281 802 403,128 1817 2:012 133 795 339,336 1-867 2080 684 930 404,456 1818 2:013 473 131 340,613 1-868 2:082 089 386 405,786 1819 2014 813 744 341,891 1-869 2083 495 172 407,117 1-820 2016 155 635 it, 343, 169 1-870 2-084 902 289 1,408,450 1-821 2-017 498 804 1,344,448 1871 2:086 310 739 1,409,782 1822 2018 843 252 345,729 1:872 2087 720 521 411,117 1:823 2:020 188 981 347,011 1873 | 2-089 131 638 412,452 1:824 2:021 535 992 348,294 1874 2:090 544 090 413,788 1825 2:022 884 286 349,577 1875 2:091 957 878 415,127 1:826 2:024 233 863 350,862 1-876 2:093 373 005 416,464 1-827 2°025 584 725 352,147 1877 2-094 789 469 417,805 1828 2°026 936 872 353,435 1:878 2:096 207 274 419,146 1:829 2°028 290 307 354,723 1:879 2°C97 626 420 420,488 1:830 2029 645 030 1,356,012 1-880 2:099 046 908 1,421,831 1831 2:031 001 042 1,357,301 1°881 2°100 468 739 1,423,175 1832 2°032 558 343 358,593 1:882 2°101 891 914 424,520 1833 2:033 716 936 359,885 1:883 27103 316 434 425,867 1834 2035 076 821 361,179 “884 2104 742 301 427,214 1:835 2°036 438 000 362,472 1-885 2°106 169 515 428,563 1:836 2:037 800 472 363,768 1:886 2107 598 078 429,912 1837 2039 164 240 365,065 1-887 2°109 027 990 431,264 1838 2:040 529 305 366,362 1-888 27110 459 254 432,615 1-839 2041 895 667 367,660 1-889 2-111 891 869 433,969 1-840 2°043 263 327 1,368,960 1-890 2-113 325 838 1,435,322 1841 2°044 632 287 1,370,261 1:891 2°114 761 160 1,436,679 1842 2046 002 548 371,562 1-892 2°116 197 839 438,035 1843 2047 374 110 372,866 1:893 2°117 635 874 439,392 1-844 2048 746 976 374,169 1894 2°119 075 266 440,752 1845 2°050° 121 145 375,474 1°895 2°120 516 0J8 442,110 1846 2-051 496 619 376,780 1-896 2°121 958 128 443,472 1847 2052 873 399 378,087 1897 2°123 401 600 444,835 1-848 2054 251 486 379,396 1-898 27124 846 435 446,197 1-849 2°055 630 882 380,705 1-899 2°126 292 632 447,562 | 2. 1-850 | 2057 O11 587 1,382,015 194 1,448,927 2127 740 | 118 REPORT—1896. a Ior Difference | x Toa Difference “1-900 | 2127 740 194 | 1,448,927 | 1-950 | 2-201 883 143 | 1,518,668) 1-901 | 2129 189 121 | 1,450,295 | 1:951 | 2-203 401 811 | 1,520,093 1902 | 2-130 639 416 451,661 | 1-952 | 2-204 921 904 521,518 1903 | 2132 091-077 453,030: || 1953 | 2-206 443 422 522,946 1904 | 2133 544 107 454,401 | 1:954 | 2-207 966 368 524,374 1905 | 2:134 998 508 455,772 | 1:955 | 2-209 490 742 525,803 1906 | 2136 454 280 | 457,144 | 1-956 | 2-211 016 545 527,234 1907 | 2137 911 424 | 458,518 || 1957 | 9-212 543 779 28,666 1908 | 2139 369 942 459,892 | 1-958 | 2-214 072 445 530,099 1:909 | 2-140 829 834 461,268 || 1959 | 2215 602 544 531,533 1910 | 2142 291 102 1,462,645 | 1-960 | 2217 134 077 | 1,532,968 “yo | 2443 753 747 | 1,464,022 || 1-961 | 2-218 667 045 | 1,534,405 1:912 | 2145 217 769 465,403 || 1:962 | 2-220 201 450 535,843 1913 | 2146 683 172 466,782 || 1:963 | 2221 737 293 537,281 1-914 | 2148 149 954 468,164 || 1:964 | 2-293 274 574 538,722 1915 | 2149 618 118 469,546 | 1:965 | 2-224 813 296 540,163 1916 | 2151 O87 664 470,930 || 1:966 | 2226 353 4 541,606 1917 | 2152 558 594 472,315 || 1:967 | 2-227 895 065 543,050 1918 | 2154 030 909 473,701 | 1-968 | 2229 438 115 544,494 1919 | 2155 504 610 475,088 | 1:969 | 2-230 982 609 545,941 | 1920 | 2156 979 698 | 1,476,476 | 1-970 | 2-232 598 550 | 1,547,388 1921 | 2158 456 174 | -1,477,866 || 1-971 | 2-234 075 938 | 1,548,837 1:922 | 2-159 934 040 479.957 || 1972 | 2-235 624 775 550,286 1923 | 2161 413 297 480,648 |, 1973 | 2-237 175 061 551,737 | 1-924 | 2162 893 945 482,042 | 1:974 | 2-238 726 798 553,190 1925 | 2-164 375 987 483,436 || 1:975 | 2-240 279 988 554,644 1:926 | 2165 859 423 484,831 || 1976 | 2:241 834 632 556,098 1:927 | 2:167 344 254 486,226 | 1-977 | 2-243 390 730 | 557,554 1:928 | 2-168 830 480 487,625 || 1978 | 2:244 948 284 559,011 1929 | 2170 318 105 489,024 | 1:979 | 2246 507 295 560,470 1-930 | 2-171 807 129 | 1,490,423 || 1-980 | 2-248 067 765 | 1,561,929 1931 | 2173 297 552 | 1,491,825 | 1-981 | 2249 629 694 | 1,563,390 1:932 | 2174 789 377 493,227 || 1:982 | 2-251 193 084 564,852 1933 | 2-176 282 604 494,630 || 1983 | 2252 757 936 | 566,315 1-934 | 2:177 777 234 496,035 | 1:984 | 2:254 324 251 567,780 1:935 | 2179 273 269 497,441 || 1-986 | 2-255 892 O31 569,245 1:936 | 2-180 770 710 498.847 || 1-986 | 2-257 461 276 570,712 1:937 | 2-182 269 557 500,256 || 1:987 | 2-259 031 988 572,181 1938 | 2-183 769 813 501,665 | 1:988 | 2-260 604 169 573,650 1:939 | 2-185 271 478 503,076 || 1:989 | 2262 177 819 575,121 1:940 | 2186 774 554 | 1,504,487 | 1:990 | 2:263 752 940 | 1,576,592 | 1941 | 2-188 279 041 | 1,505,900 | 1:991 | 2-265 329 532 | 1,578,066 1:942 | 2189 784 941 507,314 || 1:992 | 2-266 907 598 579,540 1943 | 25191 292 255 508,729" || 1:993 | 2-268 487 138 581,016 1:944 | 2-192 800 984 510,145 || 1-994 | 2-270 068 154 582,492 1945 | 2194 311 129 511,563 || 1:995 | 2-271 650 646 583,970 1:946 | 25195 822 692 512,982 || 1:996 | 2-273 234 616 585,450 1:947 | 2197 335 674 514,401 || 1-997 | 2-274 820 066 586,930 1:948 | 2198 850 075 515,823 || 1:998 | 2-276 406 996 588,412 1:949 | 2-200 365 898 517,245 || 1-999 | 2277 995 408 589,894 1:950 | 2-201 883 143 | 1,518,668 || 2-000 | 2-279 585 302 | 1,591,379 | ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 119 Difference x Tox Difference || © @ I,v } 2000 | 2279 585 302 | 1,591,379 || 2050 | 2-360 998 757 | 1,667,207 2-001 | 2-281 176 681 | 1,592,865 | 2-051 | 2:362 665 964 | 1,668,757 2002 | 2-282 769 546 594,352 || 2052 | 2364 334 721 670,308 2003 | 2-284 363 898 595,839 | 2053 | 2-366 005 029 671,860 2004 2:285 959 737 597,329 || 2054 | 2-367 676 889 673,413 2005 | 2-287 557 066 598,819 || 2055 | 2-369 350 302 674,968 2-006 | 2:289 155 885 600,311 || 2056 | 2-371 025 270 676,524 2007 | 2:290 756 196 601,804 | 2057 | 2-372 701 794 678,081 2-008 | 2:292 358 000 603,298 | 2058 | 2374 379 875 679,639 2-009 | 2:293 961 298 604,794 || 2059 | 2-376 059 514 681,200 2010 | 2:295 566 092 | 1,606,291 | 2060 | 2-377 740 714 | 1,682,761 2011 | 2-297 172 383 | 1,607,788 | 2:061 | 2-379 423 475 | 1,684,323 2012 | 2298 780 171 609,288 || 2062 | 2-381 107 798 685,887 2013 | 2300 389 459 610,789 || 2063 | 2382 793 685 687,453 2-014 | 2-302 000 248 612,290 | 2-064 | 2-384 481 138 689,019 2-015. | 2:303 612 538 613,794 || 2065 | 2:386 170 157 690,587 2016 | 2:305 226 332 615,298 | 2066 | 2387 860 744 692,156 2:017 | 2:306 841 630 616,803 | 2067 | 2:389 552 900 | 693,727 2-018 | 2-308 458 433 618.311 | 2-068 | 2:391 246 627 695,298 2-019 | 2-310 676 744 619,818 || 2069 | 2392 941 925 | 696,871 2020 | 2311 696 562 | 1,621,328 } 2-070 | 2-394 638 796 | 1,698,446 _ 2-021 | 2-313 317 890 | 1,622,839 || 2071 | 2:396 337 242. | 1,700,023 2-022 2-314 940 729 624,350 || 2072 2:398 037 265 701,599 2023 | 2°316 565 079 625,864 || 2073 | 2-399 738 864 703,177 2-024 2:318 190 943 627,379 || 2-074 2°401 442 041 704,758 2025 | 2-319 818 322 628.394 | 2075 | 2-403 146 799 706,338 2026 | 2:321 447 216 630,411 | 2076 | 2-404 853 137 707,921 2027 | 2:323 O77 627 631,930 | 2:077 | 2-406 561 058 709,506 2028 | 2-324 709 557 633,449 | 2078 | 2-408 270 564 711,090 2029 | 2:326 343 006 634,971 | 2-079 | 2-409 981 654 712,677 2030. | 2:327 977 977 | 1,636,492 || 2080 | 2-411 694 331 | 1,714,265 2-031 | 2:329 614 469 | 1,638,016 | 2081 | 2-413 408 596 | 1,715,854 2032 | 2-331 252 485 639,541 || 2082 | 2-415 124 450 717,445 2-033 | 2-332 892 026 641,067 || 2-083 | 2-416 841 895 719,037 2-034 | 2°334 533 093 642,594 || 2084 | 2-418 560 932 720,629 2035 | 2:336 175 687 644,122 | 2-085 | 2-420 281 561 722,225 2:036 | 2:337 819 809 645,652 || 2086 | 2-422 003 786 723,821 2037 | 2:339 465 461 647,184 || 2087 | 2-423 727 607 725,416 2038 | 2-341 112 645 648,717 || 2-088 | 2-425 453 023 727,017 2-039 | 2:342 761 362 650,250 || 2089 | 2-427 180 040 728,618 2040 | 2344 411 612 | 1,651,785 || 2090 | 2-428 908 658 | 1,730,219 2-041 | 2346 063 397 | 1,653,322 | 2091 | 2-430 638 877 | 1,731,821 9:042 | 2-347 716 719 654,859 || 2092 | 2-432 370 698 | 733,425 2043 | 2:349 371 578 656,399 || 2093 | 2-434 104 123 735,031 2044 | 2-351 027 977 657,939 | 2094 | 2-435 839 154 736,638 2045 | 2:352 685 916 659,479 || 2095 | 2-437 575 792 738,246 2-046 | 2:354 345 395 661,023 || 2-096 | 2-439 314 038 739,855 2-047 | 2:356 006 418 662,567 || 2097 | 2-441 053 893 741,466 2-048 | 2:357 668 985 664,113 | 2098 | 2-442 795 359 743,078 2-049 | 2°359 333 098 665,659 || 2-099 | 2-444 538 437 744,692 2050 | 2-360 998 757 -| 1,667,207 || 2100 | 2-446 283 129 | 1,746,308 REPORT—1896. zr Ipr Difference x Iov Difference 2100 | 2-446 283 129 | 1,746,308 || 2-150 | 2535 605 920 | 1,828,840 2101 | 2-448 029 437 | 1,747,924 || 2151 | 2537 434 760 | 1,830,527 2102 | 2-449 777 361 749,542 || 25152 | 2539 265 287 832,216 2103 | 2-451 526 903 751,161 || 2:153 | 2-541 097 503 833,905 2104 | 2-453 278 064 752,781 || 2154 | 2542 931 408 | 835,696 2105 | 2-455 030 845 754,404 || 2:155 | 2-544 767 004 837,289 2106 | 2-456 785 249 756,027 || 2156 | 2-546 604 293 838,983 2107 | 2-458 541 276 757,652 || 2157 | 2-548 443 276 840,678 2108 | 2-460 298 928 759,278 || 2158 | 2-550 283 954 842,376 2109 | 2-462 058 206 760,905 || 2:159 | 92-552 126 330 844,074 2110 | 2-463 819 111 | 1,762,534 || 2:160 | 92-553 970 404 | 1,845,773 2111 | 2-465 581 645 | 1,764,165 || 2-161 | 4-555 816 177 | 1,847,474 2112 | 2467 345 810 765,796 || 2162 | 92-557 663 651 849,178 2113 | 2-469 111 606 767,429 || 2163 | 9-559 512 829 850,882 2114. | 2-470 879 035 769,064 || 2164 | 2-561 363 711 852,588 2115 | 2-472 648 099 770,699 || 2165 | 2-568 216 299 854,295 2116 | 2-474 418 798 772,337 || 2:166 | 9:565 070 594 856,003 2117 | 2-476 191 135 773,975 || 2167 | 2-566 926 597 857,713 2118 | 2-477 965 110 775,615 || 2168 | 2-568 784 310 859,424 2119 | 2-479 740 725 777,258 || 2169 | 2-570 643 734 861,138 2120 | 2-481 517 983 | 1,778,899 || 2170 | 2-572 504 872 | 1,862,852 2121 | 2:483 296 882 | 1,780,544 || 2171 | 2-574 367 724 | 1,864,568 2-122 | 2-485 077 426 782,189 || 2172 | 9:576 232 292 866,286 2123 | 2-486 859 615 783,836 || 2173 | 2:578 098 578 868,005 2124 | 2-488 643 451 785,485 || 2:174 | 2-579 966 583 869,724 2125 | 2-490 428 936 787,135 || 2175 | 2-581 836 307 871,446 2126 | 2-492 216 O71 788,786 || 2°176 | 92-583 707 753 873,169 2127 | 2-494 004 857 790,438 || 2177 | 92-585 580 922 874,895 2:128 | 2495 795 295 792,092 || 2178 | 92-587 455 817 876,621 9:129 | 2-497 587 387 793,748 || 2179 | 2-589 332 438 878,349 2130 | 2°499 381 135 | 1,795,405 || 2-180 | 92-591 210 787 | 1,880,078 2131 | 2501 176 540 | 1,797,063 || 2181 | 2-593 090 865. | 1,881,808 2132 | 2°502 973 603 798,722 || 2182 | 2-594 972 673 883,540 2133 | 2:504 772 325 800,384 || 2:183 | 9:596 856 213 885,274 2:134 | 2:506 572 709 802,047 || 2184 | 2598 741 487 887,009 2135 | 2:508 374 756 803,710 || 2185 | 2600 628 496 888,746 2136 | 2510 178 466 805,376 || 2186 | 2-602 517 242 890,484 2:137 | 2511 983 812 807,042 || 2:187 | 92-604 407 726 892,223 9:138 | 2:513 790 884 808,710 || 2188 | 2-606 299 949 893,965 2:139 | 2:515 599 594 810,380 || 2189 | 2-608 193 914 895,707 2140 | 2517 409 974 | 1,812,051 || 2:190 | 2-610 089 621 | 1,897,451 2141 | 2519 222 025 | 1,813,724 || 2191 | 2611 987 072 | 1,899,197 2142 | 2521 035 749 815,398 || 2192 | 9-613 886 269 900,944 2143 | 2:522 851 147 817,073 || 2193 | 2-615 787 213 902,693 2144 | 2524 668 220 818,750 || 2194 | 2-617 689 906 904,442 2145 | 2:526 486 970 820,427 || 25195 | 9-619 594 348 906,194 2146 | 2°528 307 397 $22,108 || 2:196 | 2-621 500 542 907,947 2147 | 2:530 129 505 823,789 || 2197 | 2-623 408 489 909,701 2148 | 2531 953 294 825,471 || 2198 | 9-625 318 190 911,458 2149 | 2-583 778 765 | 827,155 || 2199 | 92-627 229 648 913,216 2150 | 2:535 605 920 | 1,828,840 || 2-200 | 2629 142 864 | 1,914,974 » ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 121 2 Tor Difference x Tor Difference 2200 | 2°629 142 864 | 1,914,974 | 2250 | 2-727 078 307 | 2,004,886 2-201 | 2-631 057 888 | 1,916,735 || 2-251 | 2-729 083 193 | 2,006,724 2202 | 2°632 974 573 918,497 || 2:252 | 2731 089 917 8,563 2:203 | 2°634 893 070 920,261 || 2:253 | 2-733 098 480 10,405 2204 | 2-636 813 331 922,026 || 2:254 | 2-735 108 885 12,248 2:205 | 2-638 735 357 923,792 || 2-255 | 2-737 121 133 14,091 2206 | 2°640 659 149 925,56L || 2-256 | 2-739 135 224 15,938 2:207 | 2:642 584 710 927,332 || 2257 | 2-741 151 162 17,786 2208 | 2644 512 042 929,101 || 2-258 | 2-743 168 948 19,634 9209 | 2-646 441 143 930,874 || 2:259 | 2-745 188 582 21,486 2210 | 2-648 372 017 | 1,932,649 || 2260 | 2-747 210 068 | 2,023,337 2211 | 2-650 304 666 | 1,934,425 || 2-261 | 2-749 233 405 | 2,025,192 2212 | 2°652 239 091 936,201 || 2262 | 4-751 258 597 27,047 2213 | 2654 175 292 937,981 || 2-263 | 2-753 285 644 28,904 9:214 | 2-656 113 273 939,761 || 2:°°64 | 2-755 314 548 30,763 2215 | 2658 053 034 941.544 || 2-265 | 2-757 345 311 32,623 2216 | 2°659 994 578 943,326 || 2:°266 | 2-759 377 934 34,485 2:217 | 2:661 937 904 945.111 || 2:267 | 2-761 412 419 36,350 | 2-218 | 2:663 883 015 946,898 || 2-268 | 2-763 448 769 38,214 2-219 | 2°665 829 913 948.686 | 2-269 | 2-765 486 983 40,080 2-290 | 2°667 778 599 | 1,950,476 || 2.270 | 2-767 527 063 | 2,041,949 2-221 | 2-669 729 075 | 1,952,266 || 2-271 | 2-769 569 012 | 2,043,819 2:292 | 2-671 681 341 954,060 || 2:272 | 2-771 612 831 45,691 9:223 | 2:673 635 401 955,854 || 2273 | 92-773 658 522 47,564 2224 | 2-675 591 255 957,649 || 2274 | 2-775 706 086 49,439 2:295 | 2-677 548 904 959,447 || 2:275 | 2-777 765 625 51,315 2-296 | 2°679 508 351 961,246 || 2276 | 2-779 806 840 53,194 2:297 | 2-681 469 597 963,045 || 2-277 | 2-781 860 034 55,074 2298 | 2°683 432 642 964,848 || 2278 | 2-783 915 108 56,954 2299 | 2:685 397 490 966,652 || 2279 | 2-785 972 062 58,838 2230 | 2°687 364 142 | 1,968,457 | 2280 | 2-788 030 900 | 2,060,722 2-231 | 2689 332 599 | 1,970,263 || 2281 | 2-790 091 622 | 2,062,609 9-232 | 2691 302 862 972,070 || 2282 | 2-792 154 231 64,496 2233 | 2°693 274 932 973,881 || 2283 | 2-794 218 727 66,386 9-234 | 2695 248 813 975,693 || 2284 | 2-796 285 113 68,277 2235 | 2-697 224 506 977,505 || 2:285 | 2-798 353 390 70,170 2-236 | 2°699 202 011 979,318 || 2:286 | 2-800 423 560 72,064 2237 | 2-701 181 329 981,137 || 2:287 | 2-802 495 624 73,961 2:238 | 2-703 162 466 982,953 | 2:°288 | 2-804 569 585 75,858 2:239 | 2-705 145 419 984,772 | 2289 | 2806 645 443 77,167 2:240 | 2-707 130 191 | 1,986,592 | 2-290 | 2-808 723 200 | 2,079,658 - 2241 | 2-709 116 783 | 1,988,415 || 2291 | 2-810 802 858 | 2,081,562 2242 | 2-711 105 198 990,239 | 2:292 | 2-812 884 420 83,465 2-243 | 2713 095 437 992,064 | 2-293 | 2814 967 885 85,371 2244 | 2-715 O87 501 993,892 || 2294 | 2-817 053 256 87,279 2245 | 2-717 081 393 995,720 || 2-295 | 2819 140 536 89,188 2246 | 2719 077 113 997,548 | 2296 | 2-821 229 723 9},098 2247 | 2721 074 661 999,382 | 2-297 | 2-823 320 821 93,012 2248 | 2-793 074 043 | 2,001,215 || 2-298 | 2-825 413 833 94,926 2249 | 2-725 075 258 3,049 || 2-299 | 2-827 608 759 96,842 2-250 | 2-727 078 307 | 2,004,886 || 2300 | 2-829 605 601 | 2,098,759 REPORT—1896. x Ir Difference x Ior Difference 2300 | 2829 605 601 | 2,098,759 || 2:350 | 2-936 927 511 | 2,196,787 2301 2-831 704 360 | 2,100,678 || 2:351 | 2-939 124 298 | 2,198,791 9-302 | 2-833 805 038 102,599 || 2-352 | 2-941 323 089 200,796 2303 | 2°835 907 637 104,521 | 2353 | 2-943 523 885 202,805 2304 | 2838 012 158 106,446 | 2354 | 2-945 726 690 204,814 2305 | 2-840 118 604 108,372 | 2355 | 2-947 931 504 206,825 2306 | 2842 226 976 110,299 || 2356 | 2-950 188 329 208,839 2307 | 2°844 337 275 112,299 | 2-357 | 2-952 347 168 210,854 2308 | 2846 449 504 114,159 | 2-358 | 2:954 558 022 212,870 2309 2-848 563 663 116,091 | 2359 | 2-956 770 892 214,888 “2310 | 2-850 679 754 | 2,118,026 | 2360 | 2-958 985 780 | 2,216,907 2311 | 2°852 797 780 | 2,119,962 | 2-361 | 2-961 202 687 | 2,218,930. 2-312 | 2854 917 742 121,900 | 2362 | 2-963 421 617 220,954 2313 | 2°857 039 642 123,838 || 2°363 | 2-965 642 571 222,979 2314 | 2859 163 480 125,779 || 2364 | 2-967 865 550 225,006 2-315 | 2:861 289 259 127,722 || 2-365 | 2-970 090 556 227,034 2316 | 2°63 416 981 129,667 || 2:366° | 2-972 317 690 229,067 2317 | 2865 546 648 131,613 || 2367 | 2-974 546 657 231,097 2318 | 2-867 678 261 133,559 | 2368 | 2-976 777 754 233,131 2319 | 2:869 811 820 135,510 | 2369 | 2-979 010 885 235,169 — = | aed = = 2-320 | 2°871 947 330 | 2,137,461 || 2370 | 2-981 246 054 | 2,237,206 2321 | 2°874 084 791 | 2,139,413 | 2371 | 2-983 483 260 | 2,939,245 2-322 | 2-876 224 204 141,367 || 2:372 | 2-985 722 505 241.286 2323 | 2-878 365 571 143,323 || 2373 | 2-987 963 791 243,329 2324 | 2880 508 894 145,282 | 2-374 | 2-990 207 120 245,374 9-395 | 2882 654 176 147,242 || 2:375 | 2-992 452 494 247,421 2326 | 2°884 801 418 149,202 || 2376 | 2-994 699 915 249,470 2-327 | 2886 950 620 151,165 || 2377 | 2-996 949 385 251,519 2-328 | 2°89 101 785 153,130 | 2378 | 2-999 200 904 253,571 2-399 | 2-891 254 915 155,096 || 2379 | 3-001 454 475 255,625 2330 | 2°893 410 011 | 2,157,064 || 2°380 | 3-003 710 100 | 2,257,680 2331 | 2°895 567.075 | 2,159,035 || 2381 | 3-005 967 780 | 2,259,739 2333 | 2897 726 110 161,006 | 2382 | 3-008 227 519 261,797 2-333 | 2:899 887 116 162,978 | 2-383 | 3-010 489 316 263,858 2334 | 2-902 050 094 164,954 || 2384 | 3-012 753 174 265,921 2335 | 2-904 215 048 166,930 || 2385 | 3-015 019 095 267,984 2-336 | 2-906 381 978 168,908 || 2°386 | 3-017 287 079 270,052 2°337 | 2-908 550 886 170,889 || 2387 | 3-019 557 131 272,120 2-338 | 2-910 721 775 172,871 | 2-388 | 3-021 829 251 274,189 2-339 | 2:912 894 646 174,854 || 2389 | 3-024 103 440 576,262) 2340 | 2-915 069 500 | 2,176,839 | 2390 | 3-026 379 702 | 2,278,334, 2341 | 2-917 246 339 | 2,178,826 | 2:391 | 3-028 658 036 | 2,280,410) 2342 | 2-919 425 165 180,815 || 2°392 | 3-080 938 446 282,488 2343 | 2921 605 980 182,804 | 2393 | 3-033 220 934 284,566 2344 | 2-993 788 784 184,798 | 2394 | 3-035 505 500 286,647. 2345 | 2:925 973 582 186,792 || 2395 | 3-087 792 147 288,730 2346 | 2-928 160 374 188,786 || 2:396 | 3-040 080 877 290,814 2347 | 2-930 349 160 190,784 || 2:397 | 3-042 371 691 292.900 2348 | 2-932 539 944 192,783 || 2398 | 3-044 664 591 294,988 9349 | 2-934 732 727 194,784 || 2399 | 3-046 959 679 297,079: 2-350 | 2936 927 511 | 2,196,787 || 2-400 | 3-049 256 658 | 2,299,170 | ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. | Difference 123 z Toa Difference | z lor s se & 3 ee 2-400 | 3:049 256 658 | 2,299,170 | 2-450 | 3-166 815 966 | 2,406,120 2401 | 3051 555 828 | 2,301,263 || 2451 | 3169 222 086 | 2,408,308 9-402 | 3-053 857 091 303,359 | 2-452 | 3-171 630 394 | 410,496 2-403 | 3-056 160 450 305,456 | 2403 | 3174 040 890 | 412,687 2404 | 3-058 465 906 | 307,555 | 2-454 | 3176 453 577 | 414,880 2405 | 3-060 773 461 309,656 | 2455 | 3178 868 457 417,075 2-406 | 3-063 083 117 311,759 | 2-456 | 3-181 285 532 | 419,272 2-407 | 3-065 394 876 313,864 || 2457 | 3-183 704 804 | 421,470 2-408 | 3-067 708 740 | 315,969 || 2-458 | 3-186 126 274 493,671 2-409 | 3:070 024 709 318,077 || 2459 | 3-188 549 945 | 425,873 2410 | 3-072 342 786 | 2,320,188 | 2-460 | 3-190 975 818 | 2,428,077 2411 | 3-074 662 974 | 2,322,300 || 2461 | 3-193 403 895 | 2,430,284 2412 | 3-076 985 274 | 324,413 | 2462 | 3-195 834179 | 432,493 2413 | 3-079 309 687 326,529 || 2-463 | 3-198 266 672 | 434,702 2414 | 3-081 636 216 | 328,646 || 2-464 | 3-200 701 374 436,914 2415 | 3-083 964 862 330,766 || 2465 | 3-203 138 288 439,129 2-416 | 3-086 295 628 332,887 | 2466 | 3205 577 417 | 441,345 2-417 | 3-088 628 515 335,010 | 2467 | 3208 018 762 | 443,562 2418 | 3:090 963 525 | 337,135 || 2468 | 3-210 462 324 | 445,782 2419 | 3-093 300 660 | 339,261 | 2469 | 3212 908 106 448,005 2-420 | 3-095 639 921 | 2,341,389 | 2-470 | 3-215 356 111 | 2,450,298 2421 | 3-097 981 310 | 2,343,521 || 2471 | 3-217 806 339 | 2,452,454 2422 | 3-100 324 831 345,654 || 2-472 | 3-220 258 793 | 454,682 2493 | 3-102 670 485 347,786 || 2473 | 3-222 713 475 | 456,912 2-494 | 3-105 018 271 349,922 || 2474 | 3225170 387 | 459,142 2-495 | 3-107 368 193 352,061 | 2-475 | 3-227 629 529 | 461,377 2426 | 3-109 720 254 354,201 || 2-476 | 3-230 090 906 463,613 2497 | 3112 074 455 | 356,342 || 2-477 | 3-282 554 519 465,849 2-428 | 3-114 430 797 358,485 | 2-478 | 3-235 020 368 | 468,089 2-429 | 3-116 789 282 | 360,631 | 2479 | 3-237 488 457 | 470,330 2-430 | 3-119 149 913 | 2,362,778 || 2-480 | 3-239 958 787 | 4,472,574 2431 | 3-121 512 691 | 2,364,928 | 2-481 | 3-242 431 361 | 2,474,819 2-432 | 3-123 877 619 367,079 || 2-482 | 3-244 906180 | 477,067 2-433 | 3126 244 698 369,230 || 2-483 | 3-247 383 247 479,317 2-434 | 3-128 613 928 371,386 | 2-484 | 3-249 862 564 | 481,567 2435 | 3130 985 314 | 373,543 || 2485 | 3-252 344 131 483,820 2-436 | 3-133 358 857 | 375,702 || 2-486 | 3-254 827 951 486,075 2437 | 3135 734 559 | 377,862 || 2-487 | 3-257 314026 | 488,334 2-438 | 3138 112 421 380,024 || 2-488 | 3-259 802 360 | 490,593 2-439 | 3-140 492 445 | 382,188 || 2-489 | 3-262 292 953 492,853 2440 | 3-142 874 633 | 2,384,354 || 2-490 | 3-264 785 806 | 2,495,116 244; | 3-145 258 987 | 2,386,523 | 2491 | 3-267 280 922 | 2,497,382 2-442 | 3-147 645 510 | 388,693 || 2-492 | 3-269 778 304 499,649 2443 | 3-150 034 203 390,863 || 2-493 | 3-272 277953 | 501,918 2444 | 3-152 425 066 | 393,037 || 2494 | 3-274 779 871 504,189 2445 | 3-154 818 103 395,214 | 2-495 | 3-277 284060 | 506,463 2446 | 3-157 213 317 | 397,392 || 2-496 | 3-279 790 523 508,738 2447 | 3159 610 709 | 399,570 || 2-497 | 3-282 299 261 511,014 2-448 | 3-162 010 279 401,752 || 2-498 | 3-284 810 275 513,294 2-449 | 3-164 412 031 403,935 || 2-499 | 3-287 323 569 | 615,575 2450 | 3-166 815 966 | 2,406,120 || 2-500 | 3-289 839 144 | 2,517,858 124 REPORT—1896. Jor Difference xr Igor Difference 3289 839 144 2,517,858 | 2°550 3418 671 188 2,634,614 3292 357 002 2,520,143 2551 3-421 205 802 2,637,002 3294 877 145 522,431 . || 2°552 3°423 842 804 639,393 3°297 399 576 524,719 2°553 3°426 482 197 641,786 3:299 924 295 527,011 2°554 3°429 123 983 644,179 3°302 451 306 529,304 2:555 3-431 768 162 646,575 3°304 980 610 531,599 2°556 3-434 414 737 648,973 3307 512 209 533,896 2:557 3°437 063 710 651,575 3°310 046 105 536,197 2°558 3°439 715 085 653,778 3°312 582 302 538,497 ||’ 2°559 3-442 368 863 656,183 3315 120 799 | 2,540,800 || 2560 | 3-445 025 046 | 2,658,589 3°317 661 599 2,543,106 2°561 3-447 683 635 2,660,998 3°320 204 70 545,413 2562 3-450 344 633 663,410 3-322 750 118 547,722 2°563 3°453 008 043 665,823 3°325 297 840 550,034 2°564 3°455 673 866 668,238 3°327 847 874 552,348 2°565 3°458 342 104 670,656 3°330 400 222 554,662 2°566 3°461 012 760 673,076 3°332 954 884 556,981. 2°567 3463 685 836 675,497 3°335 511 865 559,300 2568 3°466 361 333 677,922 3°338 O71 165 561,622 2°569 3469 039 255 680,348 | | | | 3°340 632 787 2,563,945 2°570 3-471 719 603 2,682,776 3°343 196 732 | 2,566,271 || 2571 | 3-474 402 379 | 2,685,207 3°345 763 003 568,599 2572 3°477 087 586 687,639 3°348 331 602 570,928 2573 i 3:479 775 225 690,074 3°350 902 530 573,260 2574 3°482 465 299 692,511 3°353 475 790 575,594 2575 3°485 157 810 694,950 3°356 051 384 577,930 2°576 3°487 852 760 697,391 3°358 629 314 580,268 2577 3°490 550 151 699,835 3°361 209 582 582,609 2578 3:493 249 986 702,281 3363 792 191 584,951 2579 3495 952 267 704,727 3-366 377 142 | 2,587,294 || 2580 | 3-498 656 994 | 2,707,177 3368 964 436 | 2,589,641 | 2:581 | 3-501 364171 | 2,709,629 3°371 554 O77 591,990 2°582 3504 073 800 712,083 3°374 146 067 594,339 2°583 3506 785 883 714,541 3:°376 740 406 596,692 2584 3°509 500 424 716,999 3°379 337 098 599,046 2°585 3°512 217 423 719,459 3°381 936 144 601,403 2°586 3514 936 882 721,922 3°384 537 547 603,762 2°587 3°517 658 804 724,387 3°387 141 309 606,123 2°588 3520 383 191 726,855 3°389 747 432 608,486 2°589 3°523 110 046 729,324 3-392 355 918 | 2,610,851 || 2590 | 3525 839 370 | 2,731,795 3394 966 769 2,613,217 || 2°591 3°528 571 165 2,734,269 3°397 579 986 615,586 2°592 3°531 305 434 736,746 3°400 195 572 617,958 2°593 3°534 042 179 739,223 3402 813 530 620,331 2°594 3°536 781 402 741,703 3405 433 861 622,706 2-595 3°539 523 105 744,186 3°408 056 567 625,083 2°596 3°542 267 291 746,671. 3°410 681 650 627,464 2°597 3545 013 962 749,157 3413 309 114 629,846 2°598 3°547.763 119 751,647 3415 938 960 632,228 2:599 3°550 514 766 754,138 3-418 571 188 | 2,634,614 | 2600 | 3:53 268 904 | 2,756,632 ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 125 eS SS OEE x Tor Difference z Iqv Difference 9-600 | 3°553 268 904 | 2,756,632 | 2-650 | 3-694 201 463 | 2,884,162 2601 | 3556 025 536 | 2,759,127 || 2-651 | 3697 085 625 | 2,886,771 2-602 3°558 784 663 761,625 2°652 3°699 972 396 889,381 2°603 3561 546 288 764,125 2°653 3:702 861 777 891,994 2-604 3°564 310 413 766,628 2°654 3°705 753 771 894,611 2°605 3°567 O77 O41 769,132 | 2°655 3°708 648 382 897,227 2°606 3°569 846 173 771,639 || 2°656 3711 545 609 899,848 2-607 3°572 617 812 774,148 2°657 3-714 445 457 902,471 2:608 3575 391 960 776,659 | 2°658 3717 347 928 905,096 2-609 3578 168 619 779,172 2°659 3:°720 253 024 907,723 2610 | 3680 947 791 | 2,781,688 || 2660 | 3728 160 747 | 2,910,352 2611 | 3583 729 479 | 2,784,206 | 2661 | 3-726 071 099 | 2,912,985 _ 2°612 3°586 513 685 786,726 2-662 3°728 984 084 915,619 2°613 3589 300 411 789,248 2°663 3731 899 703 918,255 2°614 3592 089 659 791,774 || 2°664 3°734 817 958 920,894 2615 3°594 881 433 794,299 2-665 3°737 738 852 923,535 2°616 3597 675 732 796,829 2°666 3740 662 387 926,179 2°617 3600 472 561 799,361 2°667 3743 588 566 928,824 2618 3°603 271 922 801,893 2-668 3746 517 390 931,473 2°619 3°606 073 815 804,430 2°669 3749 448 863 934,124 2-620 | 3°608 878 245 | 2,806,966 | 2°670 | 3-752 382 987 | 2,936,777 2-621 | 3-611 685 211 | 2,809,508 | 2-671 3755 319 764 | 2,939,431 2°622 3°614 494 719 812,050 || 2°672 3°758 259 195 942,089 : 2°623 3°617 306 769 814,596 || 2-673 5761 201 284 944,750 2°624 3°620 121 365 817,141 | 2-674 3764 146 034 947,412 2°625 3°622 938 506 819,691 || 2°675 3767 093 446 950,077 2°626 3°625 758 197 822,243 2°676 3770 043 523 952,744 2°627 3628 580 440 824,796 | 2°677 3°772 996 267 955,413 2°628 3°631 405 236 827,352 | 2°678 3:775 951 680 958,085 2°629 3°634 232 588 "829,912 2679 3°778 909 765 960,760 2°630 3°637 062 500 2,832,471 2-680 | 3-781 870 625 2,963,436 2-631 3°639 894 971 2,835,034 || 2-681 3-784 833 961 2,966,115 2°632 3°642 730 005 837,600 2°682 3787 800 076 968,796 2°633 3°645 567 605 840,166 2°683 3°790 768 872 971,480 2°634 3°648 407 771 842,737 2-684 3°793 740 352 974,167 2°635 3°651 250 508 845,308 2°685 3°796 714 519 976,855 '2°636 3°654 095 816 847,882 2°686 3799 691 374 979,546 2°637 3°656 943 698 850,459 2°687 3°802 670 920 982,238 2°638 3°659 794 157 853,038 2°683 3°805 653 158 984,935 2°639 3°662 647 195 855,619 2°689 3°808 638 093 987,633 9640 | 3665 502 814 | 2,858,201 || 2690 | 3-811 625 726 | 2,990,333 72-641 | 3°668 361 015 | 2,860,788 || 2°691 | 3:814 616 059 | 2,993,036 9-642 | 3-671 221 803 863,375 || 2692 | 3817 609 095 995,742 2-643 | 3:674 085 178 865,966 || 2693 | 3:820 604 837 998,449 (2644 3°676 951 144 868,559 2°694 3823 603 286 3,001,159 2°645 3°679 819 703 871,153 2°695 3°826 604 445 3,871 2°646 3°682 690 856 873,750 2°696 3°829 608 316 6,586 2°647 3°685 564 606 876,350 2°697 3°832 614 902 9,304 2°648 3°688 440 956 878,951 2°698 3°835 624 206 12,024 2°649 3°691 319 907 881,556 2°699 3°838 636 230 14,747 2°650 3°694 201 463 2,884,162 2°700 3841 650 977 3,017,471 | eC nec cn ee REPORT—1896. a Tor Difference | a Iov Difference 2-700. | 3841 650 977 | 3,017,471 || 2750 | 3-995 913 107 | 3,156,835 2701 | 3844 668 448 | 3,020,197 || 2-751 | 3-999 069 942 159,686 2702 | 3°847 688 645 92.926 || 2752 | 4-002 229 628 162,539 2703 | 3850 711 571 25,659 || 2:753 | 4-005 392 167 165,396 2704 | 3853 737 230 28,393 || 2754 | 4-008 557 563 168,254 2705 | 3856 765 623 31,129 |} 2:755 | 4-011 725 817 171,115 2706 | 3-859 796 752 33,869 || 2:756 | 4-014 896 932 173,979 2-707 | 3862 830 621 36,611 || 2:757 | 4-018 070 911 176,846 2-708 | 3865 867 232 39,354 || 2758 | 4-021 247 757 179,714 2709 | 3868 906 586 42,101 |) 2°759 | 4-024 427 471 182,586 2710 | 3871 948 687 | 3,044,849 || 2-760 | 4-027 610 057 | 3,185,460 2-711 | 3:874 993 536 | 3,047,601 || 2:761 | 4-030 795 517 | 3,188,336 2-712 .| 3878 041 137 50,356 | 2°762 | 4-033 983 853 191,215 2713 | 3881 091 493 53,110 || 2:763 | 4-037 175 068 194,097 2-714 | 3884 144 603 55,870 || 2:764 | 4-040 369 165 196,981 9-715 | 3:887 200 473 58,631 || 2-765 | 4-043 566 146 199,869 2716 | 3890 259 104 61,395 || 2766 | 4-046 766 015 202,757 2717 | 3893 320 499 64,160 || 2:767 | 4-049 968 772 205,650 2-718 | 3896 384 659 66,929 || 2768 | 4-053 174 422 208,544 2-719 | 3899 451 588 69,700 || 2:769 | 4-056 382 966 211,441 2-720 | 3-902 521 288 | 3,072,474 || 2770 | 4-059 594 407 | 3,214,340 2-721 3905 593 762 | 3,075,249 || 2-771 4062 808 747 | 3,217,243 2722 | 3-908 669 O11 78,028 || 2772 | 4-066 025 990 220,148 2-723 | 3-911 747 039 80,808 || 2°773 | 4-069 246 138 223,056 2724 | 3-914 827 847 83,592 || 2774 | 4072 469 194 225,966 2-725 | 3917 911 439 86,378 || 2775 | 4075 695 160 228,878 2726 | 3-920 997 817 89,166 || 2-776 | 4-078 924 038 231,793 2727 | 3-924 086 983 91,957 || 2-777 | 4-082 155 831 234,711 2728 | 3927 178 940 94.750 || 2-778 | 4-085 390 542 237,632 2729 | 3930 273 690 97,546 || 2°79 | 4-088 628 17 240,555 2-730 | 3933 371 236 | 3,100,344 || 2780 | 4-091 868 729 | 3,243,481 2731 | 3936 471 580 | 3,103,145 || 2-781 | 4095 112 210 | 3,246,408 2-732 | 3-939 574 725 105,948 || 2782 | 4-098 358 618 249,339 2733 | 3-942 680 673 108,754 || 2-783 | 4-101 607 957 252,274 2734 | 3945 789 427 111,561 || 2:784 | 4104 860 231 255,209 2735 | 3-948 900 988 114,373 || 2-785 | 4-108 115 440 268,148 2736 | 3-952 015 361 117,186 || 2-786 | 4-111 373 588 261,090 2-737 | 3-955 132 547 120,001 || 2:787 | 4-114 634 678 264,033 2-738 | 3-958 252 548 122,820 || 2-788 | 4117 898 711 266,980 2:739 | 3-961 375 368 125,641 || 2°789 | 4321 165 691 269,930 2-740 | 3-964 501 009 | 3,128,463 || 2-790 | 4124 435 621 | 3,272,881 2741 | 3-967 629 472 | 3,131,290 || 2-791 | 4127 708 502 | 3,275,835 2-742 | 3-970 760 762 134,118 || 2-792 | 4-130 984 337 278,793 2-743 | 3-973 894 880 136,948 || 2:793 | 4134 263 130 281,753 2-744 | 3-977 031 828 139,782 || 2794 | 4137 544 883 284,715 2745 | 3-980 171 610 142,617 || 2:795 | 4-140 829 598 287,681 2746 | 3-983 314 227 145,456 || 2-796 | 4:144 117 279 290,648 2747 | 3:986 459 683 148,297 || 2-797 | 4:147 407 927 293,618 2-748 | 3-989 607 980 151,141 || 2:798 | 4:150 701 545 296,592 2749 | 3992 759 121 153,986 || 2799 | 4-153 998 137 299.567 2-750 | 3995 913 107 | 3,156,835 || 2800 | 4:157 297 704 | 3,302,545 ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 127 x Ior Difference || Tov Difference 2300 | 4-157 297 704 | 3,302,645 | 2850 | 4326 126 469 | 3,454,906 2801 | 4160 600 249 | 3,305,527 || 2-851 | 4329 584 375 | 3,458,024 2-802 | 4163 905 776 308,510 | 2-852 | 4-333 042 399 461,143 2803 | 4167 214 286 311,496 | 2853 | 4336 503 542 464,267 2804 | 4170 525 782 314,486 | 2-854 | 4339 967 809 467,393 2805 | 4:173 840 268 317,476 || 2-855 | 4-343 435 202 470,519 2306 | 4:177 157 744 320,472 || 2:856 | 4:346 905 721 473,652 2807 | 4180 478 216 323,469 || 2-857 | 4-350 379 373 476,785 2-808 | 4183 801 685 326,468 || 2:858 | 4:353 856 158 479,922 2-809 | 4-187 128 153 329,470 || 2:869 | 4:357 336 080 483,063 2-810 4:190 457 623 3,332,476 || 2-860 4360 819 143 | 3,486,204 2811 | 4193 790 099 | 3,335,484 || 2-861 | 4:364 305 347 | 3,489,350 9812 | 4-197 125 583 338,493 | 2:862 | 4:367 794 697 492,498 2813 | 4-200 464 076 341,507 || 2:63 | 4:371 287 195 495,648 2-314 | 4-203 805 583 344,523 || 2-864 | 4:374 782 843 498,802 2815 | 4207 150 106 347,542 || 2-865 | 4:378 281 645 501,959 2816 | 4-210 497 648 350,562 || 2-866 | 4381 783 604 505,118 2-817 | 4-213 848 210 353,586 || 2-867 | 4385 288 722 508,280 2818 | 4217 201 796 356,613 | 2-868 | 4:388 797 002 511,446 2-319 | 4-290 558 409 359,642 | 2-869 | 4392 308 448 514,613 2-320 | 4223 918 051 | 3,362,674 || 2-870 | 4395 823 061 | 3,517,784 2821 | 4227 280 725 | 3,365,709 | 2-871 | 4399 340 845 | 3,520,956 2-822 | 4-230 646 434 368,746 || 2-872 | 4-402 861 801 524,134 2823 | 4-234 015 180 371,787 || 2:873 | 4-406 385 935 527,313 2-824 | 4-237 386 967 374,830 | 2-874 | 4-409 913 248 530,495 2-825 | 4-240 761 797 377,875 || 2-875 | 4-413 443 743 533,680 2-826 | 4-244 139 672 380,923 || 2:876 | 4416 977 423 536,867 2827 | 4-247 520 595 383,974 | 2:877 | 4-420 514 290 540,058 2828 | 4-250 904 569 387,029 || 2:878 | 4:424 054 348 543,252 2-829 | 4-254 291 598 390,085 || 2879 | 4-427 597 600 546,448 2-830 | 4-257 681 683 | 3,393,143 || 2-880 | 4-431 144 048 | 3,549,646 72831 | 4-261 074 826 | 3,396,206 || 2-881 | 4-434 693 694 | 3,552,850 2-832 | 4-264 471 032 399.271 || 2:882 | 4-438 246 544 556,054 2-833 | 4267 870 303 402,338 | 2883 | 4-441 802 598 559,261 2-834 | 4-271 272 641 405,408 | 2-884 | 4-445 361 859 562,473 2835 | 4:274.678 049 408,481 || 2:885 | 4448 924 332 565,686 2836 | 4:278 086 530 411,557 | 2886 | 4:452 490 018 568,902 2-837 | 4:281 498 087 414,635 || 2-887 | 4-456 058 920 572,122 2838 | 4-284 912 722 417,717 || 2-888 | 4-459 681 042 575,344 2-839 | 4-288 330 439 420,801 | 2-889 | 4:463 206 386 578,569 9840 | 4-291 751 240 | 3,423,886 || 2890 | 4-466 784 955 | 3,581,797 2841 | 4295 175 126 | 3,426,977 || 2891 | 4-470 366 752 | 3,585,028 2-842 | 4-298 602 103 430,069 | 2:892 | 4-473 951 780 588,261 2-843 | 4:302 032 172 433,163 || 2:893 | 4:477 540 041 591,498 2-844 | 4305 465 335 436,262 | 2:894 | 4-481 131 539 594,738 2845 | 4-308 901 597 439,362 || 2:95 | 4-484 726 277 597,980 2346 | 4:312 340 959 442,466 | 2896 | 4:488 324 257 601,226 2-347 | 4:315 783 425 445,571 || 2:897 | 4-491 925 483 604,474 2348 | 4319 228 996 448,681 | 2:898 | 4-495 529 957 607,725 2-849 | 4:322 677 677 451,792 || 2899 | 4-499 137 682 610,979 2850 | 4326 129 469 | 3,454,906 || 2-900 | 4-502 748 661 | 3,614,236 128 REPORT—1896. x Igor Ditference 3 Ipr Difference 2900 | 4:502 748 661 | 3,614,236 || 2-950 | 4-687 511 830 | 3,780,869 2901 | 4-506 362 897 | 3,617,496 || 2951 | 4-691 292 699 | 3,784,277 2-902 | 4:509 980 393 620,760 || 2:952 | 4695 076 976 787,690 2903 | 4513 601 153 624,025 || 2-953 | 4-698 864 666 791,107 2904 | 4:517 225 178 627,293 || 2954 | 4-702 655 773 794,525 2-905 | 4520 852 471 630,566 || 2-955 | 4-706 450 298 797,947 2906 | 4524 483 037 633,839 || 2-956 | 4-710 248 245 801,370 2:907 | 4:528 116 876 637,117 || 2957 | 4-714 049 615 804,800 2908 | 4:531 753 993 640,398 || 2:958 | 4-717 854 415 808,231 2:909 | 4:535 394 391 643,681 || 2-959 | 4-721 662 646 811,664 2910 | 4539 038 072 | 3,646,968 || 2-960 | 4-725 474 310 | 3,815,102 2911 | 4:542 685 040 | 3,650,256 || 2961 | 4-729 289 412 | 3,818,541 2912 | 4:546 335 296 653,550 || 2-962 | 4-733 107 953 821,985 2:913 | 4549 988 846 656,844 || 2-963 | 4:736 929 938 825,432 2-914 | 4:553 645 690 660,142 || 2964 | 4-740 755 370 828,881 2-915 | 4:557 305 832 663,443 || 2965 | 4-744 584 251 832,334 2:916 | 4:560 969 275 666,748 || 2-966 | 4-748 416 585 835,790 2917 | 4:564 636 023 670,055 || 2967 | 4-752 252 375 839,248 2-918 | 4568 306 078 673,364. || 2:968 | 4756 091 623 842,710 2919 | 4571 979 442 676,678 || 2:969 | 4-759 934 333 846,176 2920 | 4:575 656 120 | 3,679,994 || 2.970 | 4-763 780 509 | 3,849,643 2-921 | 4:579 336 114 | 3,683,312 || 2-971 |. 4:767 630 152 | 3,853,115 2-922 | 4-583 019 426 686,635 || 2:972 | 4:771 483 267 856,590 2:923 | 4:586 706 061 689,969 || 2:973 | 4:775 339 857 860,066 2924 | 4:590 396 020 693,287 | 2974 | 4-779 199 923 863,548 2925 | 4:594 089 307 696,618 || 2:975 | 4:783 063 471 867,032 2926 | 4:597 785 925 699,952 || 2:976 | 4:786 930 503 870,518 2:997 | 4-601 485 877 703,289 || 2-977 | 4-790 801 021 874,008 2928 | 4605 189 166 706,629 || 2978 | 4-794 675 029 877,502 2929 | 4608 895 795 709,971 || 2:979 | 4:798 552 531 880,998 2930 | 4:612 605 766 | 3,713,317 || 2980 | 4-802 433 529 | 3,884,497 2931 | 4-616 319 083 | 3,716,666 || 2-981 | 4-806 318 026 | 3,888,000 2-932 | 4:620 035 749 720,018 || 2-982 | 4-810 206 026 891,506 2-933 | 4:623 755 767 723,373 || 2-983 | 4-814 097 532 895,015 2-934 | 4-627 479 140 726,731 || 2-984 | 4817 992 547 898,527 2935 | 4631 205 871 730,092 || 2.985 | 4-821 891 074 902,042 2:936 | 4:634 935 963 733,455 || 2-986 | 4825 793 116 905,560 2-937 | 4:638 669 418 736,822 || 2987 | 4829 698 676 909,082 2-938 | 4642 406 240 740,192 || 2-988 | 4-833 607 758 912,608 2-939 | 4646 146 432 743,565 || 2:989 | 4-837 520 366 916,135 2-940 | 4-649 889 997 | 3,746,942 || 2-990 | 4-841 436 501 | 3,919,666 2941 | 4:653 636 939 | 3,750,320 || 2-991 | 4-845 356 167 | 3,923,200 2:942 | 4657 387 259 753,702 || 2-992 | 4-849 279 367 926,738 2-943 | 4661 140 961 757,088 || 2:993 | 4-853 206 105 930,278 2944 | 4-664 898 019 760,475 || 2-994 | 4-857 136 383 933,823 2945 | 4-668 658 524 763,866 || 2:995 | 4-861 070 206 937,369 2946 | 4-672 422 390 767,261 || 2996 | 4:865 007 575 940,919 2947 | 4-676 189 651 770,659 || 2:997 | 4-868 948 494 944,473 2-948 | 4:679 960 310 774,058 || 2-998 | 4-872 892 967 948,029 2-949 | 4-683 734 368 | ° 777,462 || 2999 | 4-876 840 996 951,590 2950 | 4-687 511 830 | 3,780,869 || 3-000 | 4-880 792 586 | 3,965,152 ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 129 Zz Ipxr Difference x Tor Difference 3:000 4880 792 586 3,955,152 3°050 5:082 982 407 4,137,453 3001 4-884 747 738 3,958,718 3051 5087 119 860 4,141,184 3002 4888 706 456 962,288 3-052 5091 261 044 144,918 3-003 4°892 668 744 965,861 3:053 5095 405 962 148,656 3:004 4-896 634 605 969,437 3-054 5-099 554 618 152,396 3:005 4:900 604 042 973,015 3:055 5103 707 014 156,139 3-006 4:904 577 057 976,597 3-056 5107 863 153 159,886 3:007 4-908 553 654 980,183 3057 5112 023 039 163,637 3-008 4:912 533 837 983,772 3058 5116 186 676 167,392 3009 4-916 617 609 987,365 3059 5120 354 068 171,149 3010 4:920 504 974 3,990,959 3-060 5124 525 217 4,174,909 3011 4-924 495 933 3,994,557 3061 5-128 700 126 4,178,674 3012 4:928.490 490 998,160 3062 57132 878 800 182,442 3013 4:932 488 650 4,001,764 3:063 5137 O61 242 186,213 3014 4:936 490 414 5,372 3-064 5141 247 455 189,986 3015 4:°940 495 786 8,984 3°065 5°145 437 441 193,764 3016 4944 504 770 12,598 3-066 5149 631 205 197,546 3017 4:948 617. 368 16,216 3:067 57153 828 75L 201,330 3018 4°952 533 584 19,838 3°068 5°158 030 081 205,118 3019 4:956 553 422 23,462 3-069 5162 235 199 208,910 3-020 4960 576 884 4,027,090 3:070 5166 444 109 4,212,704 3021 4964 603 974 4,030,721 3-071 5170 656 813 4,216,503 3:022 4968 634 695 34,354 3-072 5174 873 316 220,304 3:023 4-972 669 049 37,993 3-073 5°179 093 620 224,110 3024 4:976 707 042 41,633 3-074 5183 317 730 227,918 3025 4:980 748 675 45,277 3075 5°187 545 648 231,730 3026 4984 793 952 48,924 3076 5191 777 378 235,546 3-027 4988 842 876 52,575 3:077 5196 012 924 239,364 3 028 4:992 895 451 56,230 3:078 5°200 252 288 243,187 3029 4:996 951 681 59,886 3079 5204 495 475 247,013 3°030 5-001 O11 567 4,063,547 3-080 5°208 742 488 4,250,841 3031 5005 075 114 4,067,211 3:081 5°212 993 329 4,254,675 3°032 5:009 142 325 70,878 3-082 5217 248 004 258,510 3:033 5-013 213 203 74,548 3:083 5:221 506 514 262,351 3-034 | 5-017 287 751 78,222 | 3084 | 5-225 768 865 266,194 3035 5021 365 973 81,899 3085 5°230 035 059 270,039 3°036 5°025 447 872 85,579 3:086 5234 305 098 273,889 3:037 5029 533 451 89,263 3087 5°238 578 987 277,743 3°038 5:033 622 714 92,951 3:088 5242 856 730 281,600 3039 5037 715 665 96,640 3-089 5:247 138 330 285,461 3040 5041 812 305 4,100,333 .|| 3-090 5251 423 791 4,289,325 3-041 5045 912 638 4,104,031 3:091 5255 713 116 4.293, 192 3°042 5050 016 669 107,731 3:092 5260 006 308 297,063 3043 5054 124 400 111,435 3-093 5264 303 371 300,937 3044 | 5:058 235 835 | 115,142 | 3:094 | 5-268 604 208 304,815 3045 5:062 350 977 118,852 3095 5272 909 123 308,697 3046 5066 469 829 122,565 3096 5277 217 820 312,581 3:047 5070 592 394 126,282 3:097 5:281 530 401 316,469 3048 5074 718 676 130,004 3098 5:285 846 870 320,362 3:049 5078 848 680 133,727 3°099 5:290 167 232 324,258 3-050 5082 982 407 4,137,453 3°100 5:294 491 490 4,328,156 K 130 REPORT—1896. x Ipr Difference || x Tor Difference 3100 | 5-294 491 490 | 4,328,156 | 3-150 5515 749 636 | 4 527,661 3101 | 5-298 819 646 | 4,332,058 || 3151 | 5520 277 297 | 4,531,743 3102 | 5:303 151 704 335,965 || 3152 | 5-524 809 040 535,831 3:103 | 5307 487 669 339,874 | 3153 | 6529 344 871 539,920 3:104 | 5-311 827 543 343,787 || 3:154 | 6-533 884 791 544,014 3:105 | 5316 171 330 347,704 || 3155 | 65-588 428 805 548,111 3106 | 5320 519 034 351,623 || 3156 | 6542 976 916 552,213 3107 | 5324 870 657 355,548 || 3157 | 6547 529 129 556,317 3108 | 5:329 226 205 359,475 || 3158 | 6552 085 446 560,426 3-109 | 5333 585 680 363,405 || 3°159 | 65556 645 872 564,539 3110 | 5337 949 085 | 4,367,340 || 3-160 | 5-561 210 411 | 4,568,655 3-111 | 5:342 316 425 | 4,371,277 || 3-161 | 5-665 779 066 | 4,572,774 3-112 | 5346 687 702 375,219 || 3162 | 5:570 351 840 576,898 3113 | 5°351 062 921 379,164 || 3163 | 5-574 928 738 581,025 3:114\ | 5:355 442 085 383,112 || 3-164 | 5:579 509 763 585,156 3115 | 5°359 825 197 387,064 || 3165 | 5584 094 919 589,292 3:116 | 5364 212 261 391,021 || 3166 | 5588 684 211 593,429 3117 | 5:368 603 282 394,979 || 3-167 | 5-593 277 640 597,572 3118 | 5372 998 261 398,942 || 3168 | 5597 875 212 601,717 3119 | 5377 397 203 402,909" 3169 | 5-602 476 929 605,868 3120 | 5-381 800 112 | 4,406,879 | 3170 | 5-607 082 797 | 4,610,021 3121 | 5386 206 991 | 4,410,851 | 3171 | 5-611 692 818 | 4,614,178 3-122 | 5-390 617 842 414,230 | 3172 | 5:616 306 996 618,339 3:123 | 5:395 032 672 418,810 | 3173 | 5620 925 335 622,504 3-124 | 5-399 451 482 499.795 || 3174 | 5-625 547 839 626,672 3125 | 5403 874 277 426,782 || 3175 | 5630 174 511 630,845 3-126 | 6-408 301 059 430,774 || 3176 | 5634 805 356 635,021 3127 | 5-412 731 833 434,769 || 3-177 | 5-639 440 377 639,200 3128 | 5-417 166 602 438,768 | 3178 | 5-644 079 577 643,384 3:129 | 5-421 605 370 442.769 | 3179 | 68648 722 961 647,572 3-130 | 5-426 048 139 | 4,446,776 | 3-180 | 5-653 370 533 | 4,651,763 3-131 | 5-430 494 915 | 4,450,786 | 3181 | 5-658 022 296 | 4,655,957 3132 | 5-434 945 701 454,799 | 3182 | 6662 678 253 660,157 3133 | 5-439 400 500 458,815 | $183 | 5-667 338 410 664,359 3:134 | 5-443 859 315 462,837 3184 | 5672 002 769 668,566 3135 | 5448 322 152 466,860 | 3185 | 5676 671 336 672,776 3:136 | 5452 789 012 470,889 || 3186 | 5681 344 111 676,990 3:137 | 5457 259 901 474,920 | 3:187 | 5-686 021 101 681,207 3138 | 5-461 734 821 478,954 | 3188 | 5690 702 308 685,430 3139 | 5-466 213 775 482.994 | 3-189 | 5:695 387 738 689,656 3140 | 5-470 696 769 | 4,487,036 || 3:190 | 5-700 077 394 | 4,693,884 3141 | 5-475 183 805 | 4,491,081 | 3191 | 5-704 771 278 | 4,698,117 3:142 | 5-479 674 S86 495,132 | 3192 | 5-709 469 395 702,354 3143 | 5-484 170 018 499,185 || 3193 | 5-714 171 749 706,596 3-144 | 5-488 669 203 503,242 || 3194 | 5-718 878 345 710,839 3145 | 5493 172 445 507,302 || 3195 | 5-723 589 184 715,088 3146 | 5497 679 747 511,367 || 3196 | 5728 304 272 719,341 3147 | 5-502 191 114 515,434 | 3197 | 6-733 023 613 723,597 3148 | 5-506 706 548 519,506 || 3198 | 5737 747 210 727,857 3149 | 5511 226 054 523,582 || 3199 | 5-742 475 067 732,120 3150 | 5°515 749 636 | 4,527,661 | 3-200 | 6747 207 187 | 4,736,388 ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 131 3250 5-989 4,954,779 3°300 x 1or Difference & 1px Difference 13-200 5°747 207 187 | 4,736,388 3250 5989 335 998 | 4,954,779 | (3-201 5-751 943 575 | 4,740,661 3251 5-994 290 777 | 4,959,250 3-202 5756 684 236 744,936 3252 5999 250 027 963,723 3-203 5°761 429 172 749,214 3-253 6-004 213 750 968,200 3204 5:766 178 386 753,498 3254. 6:009 181 950 972,682 3-205 5770 931 884 757,785 3255 6014 154 632 977,168 3206 5775 689 669 762,077 3-256 6:019 131 800 981,657 3207 5:780 451 746 766,371 3-257 6:024 113 457 986,151 3-208 5:785 218 117 770,669 3258 6:029 099 608 990,650 3:209 5:789 988 786 774,973 3259 6:034 090 258 995,152 3°210 5794 763 759 | 4,779,279 3-260 6:039 085 410 | 4,999,657 3-211 | 5-799 543 038 | 4,783,590 || 3-261 | 6:044 085 067 | 5,004,168 3-212 5804 326 628 787,904 3-262 6-049 089 235 8,682 3:213 5809 114 532 792,222 3:263 6054 097 917 13,200 3214 5813 906 754 796,545 3264 6:059 111 117 17,724 3215 5818 703 299 800,870 3265 6:064 128 841 22,250 3-216 5'823 504 169 805,200 3266 6-069 151 091 26,780 3:217 5828 309 369 809,535 3267 6074 177 871 31,316 3-218 5833 118 904 813,872 3-268 6-079 209 187 35,855 3219 5:837 932 776 818,214 || 3:269 6084 245 042 40,396 3-220 | 5842 750 990 | 4,822,560 || 3270 | 6089 285 438 | 5,044,944 3-221 5'847 573 6550 | 4,826,910 3271 6:094 330 382 | 5,049,496 3222 5'852 400 460 831,268 3272 6.099 379 878 54,051 3223 5857 231 723 835,621 3-273 6104 433 929 58,611 3224 5862 O87 344 839,982 3-274 6109 492 540 63,175 3225 5866 907 326 844,347 3:275 6G1l4 555 715 67,742 3:226 5871 751 673 848,718 3:276 6119 623 457 72,314 3:227 5876 600 391 853,091 3:277 6124 695 771 76,891 3228 5881 453 482 857,467 3-278 6129 772 662 81,471 3-229 5886 310 949 861,849 3:279 6-134 854 133 86,056 3-230 5°89] 172 798 | 4,866,235 3:280 6139 940 189 | 5,090,644 3231 5°896 039 033 | 4,870,623 3281 6:145 030 833 | 5,095,236 3-232 5:900 909 656 875,017 3-282 6150 126 069 99,834 3-233 5905 784 673 879,414 3-283 6155 225 903 104,435 3234 5910 664 087 883,815 3284 6160 330 338 109,039 3-235 5915 547 902 888,221 3285 6165 439 377 113,650 3/236 5920 436 123 892,630 || 3°286 6170 553 027 118,263 | 3-237 5925 328 753 897,043 3:287 6175 671 290 122,881 3238 5-930 225 796 901,460 3-288 6180 794 171 127,503 3-239 5:935 127 256 905,881 3:289 6185 921 674 132,130 3-240 5940 033 137 | 4,910,306 3-290 6191 053 804 | 5,136,760 3:241 5-944 943 443 | 4,914,736 3-291 6196 190 564 | 5,141,394 3-242 5-949 858 179 | 919,168 3292 6201 331 958 146,033 3243 5954 777 347 923,607 3293 6-206 477 991 150,676 3-244 5959 700 954 928,048 3294 6211 628 667 155,324 3245 5964 629 002 932,493 3295 6216 783 991 159,975 3246 5°969 561 495 936,941 3296 6221 943 966 164,631 3247 5974 498 436 941,395 3297 6227 108 597 169,290 3-248 5:979 439 831 945,858 3:298 6°232 277 887 173,985 3-249 5-984 385 684 950,314 3299 6237 451 842 178,623 6°242 465 5,185,296 K 2 132 REPORT—1896. x Ior Difference x Tox Difference 3°301 6°247 813 761 5,187,973 3'351 6513 031 022 5,427,315 3°302 6-253 001 734 192,654 3°352 6515 458 337 432,214 3°303 6258 194 388 197,340 3°353 6°523 890 551 437,117 3°304 6:263 391 728 202,028 3°354 6°529 327 668 442,024 3°305 6°268 593 756 206,723 3°355 6°534 769 692 446,936 3°306 6:273 800 479 211,421 3°356 6540 216 628 451,853 3°307 6:279 011 900 216,123 3°357 6545 668 481 456,774 3°308 6°284 228 023 220,830 || 3°358 6551 125 255 461,698 3°309 6289 448 853 225,541 || 3339 | 6556 586 953 466,629 3310 6-294 674 2394 3°311 6°299 904 651 5,230,257 || 3360 | 6562 053 582 | 5,471,564 5,234,976 || 3361 | 6567 525 146 | 5,476,501 3°312 6°305 139 627 239,699 3 362 6573 O01 647 481,445 3°313 6°310 379 326 244,428 | 3:363 6578 483 092 486,394 3°314 6°315 623 754 249,160 | 3°364 6583 969 486 491,346 3315 6°320 872 914 253,897 || 3°365 6589 460 832 496.302 3°316 6°326 126 811 258,638 3°366 6°594 957 134 501,264 3317 6°331 385 449 263,383 3367 6600 458 398 506,230 3°318 6336 648 832 268,133 -|| 3368 6605 964 628 511,200 3°319 6°341 916 965 272,887 3°369 6611 475 828 516,174 3°300 6°242 630 465 5,183,296 3°350 6°507 608 60L 5,422,421 | 3320 | 6-347 189 852 | 5,277,644 || 3370 | 6-616 992 002 | 5,521,154 3321 | 6352 467 496 | 5,282,408 || 3371 | 6622 513 156 | 5,526,138 3322 | 6357 749 904 287,175 || 3:372 | 6628 039 294 531,127 3323 | 6363 037 079 291,946 || 3373 | 6633 570 421 536,119 3324 | 6368 329 025 296,721 || 3:374 | 6639 106 540 541,116 3325 | 6373 625 746 301.501 || 3375 | 6-644 647 656 546,120 3326 | 6378 927 247 306,285 || 3376 | 6650 193 776 551,126 3327 | 6384 233 532 311,074 || 3:377 | 6655 744 902 556,137 3328 | 6389 544 606 315,867 || 3378 | 6-661 301 039 561,152 3329 | 6-394 860 473 320,665 || 3379 | 6:666 862 191 566,174 3°330 6-400 181 138 5,325,466 3°380 6672 428 365 5,571,198 3°331 6:°405 506 604 5,330,272 3381 6677 999 563 5,576,227 3°332 6410 836 876 335,083 3382 6 683 575 790 581,262 3°333 6416 171 959 339,897 3°383 6689 157 052 586,301 3:334 6-421 511 856 344,716 3°384 6°694 743 353 591,343 3°335 6426 856 572 349,539 3°385 6:700 334 696 596,391 3°336 6:432 206 111 354,368 3°386 6705 931 087 601,443 3°337 6437 560 479 359,200 3°387 6711 532 530 606,500 3338 6442 919 679 364,036 3°388 6717 139 030 611,563 3339 6-448 283 715 368,879 3°389 6722 750 593 616,628 3°340 6453 652 594 5,373,723 3°390 6:728 367 221 5,621,699 3°341 6°459 026 317 5,378,573 3°391 6°733 988 920 5,626,775 3°342 6464 404 890 383,428 3 392 6°739 615 695 631,855 3°343 6469 788 318 388,286 3°393 6745 247 550 636,939 3°344 6475 176 604 393,149 3394 6'750 884 489 642,028 3°345 6480 569 753 398,017 3°395 6°756 526 517 647,122 3°346 6485 967 770 402,889 3°396 6 762 173 639 652,221 3°347 6:491 370 659 407,765 3397 6:767 825 860 657,324 3°348 6-496 778 424 412,646 3°398 6:773 483 184 662,432 i 3°349 6°502 191 070 417,531 3 399 6-779 145 616 667,544 3°350 6°507 608 601 5,422,421 3400 6-784 813 160 | 5,672,662 SSS eT ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 133 = Tor Difference x Tor Difference 3-400 | 6784 813 160 | 5,672,662 | 3-450 | 7-074 812 823 | 5,934,549 3-401 | 6790 485 822 | 5,677,783 || 3-451 | 7-080 747 372 | 5,939,908 3-402 | 6796 163 605 682,910 | 3-452 | 7-086 687 280 945,274 3-403 | 6801 846 515 688,041 || 3-453 | 7-092 632 554 950,644 3-404 | 6807 534 556 693,176 || 3454 | 7-098 583 198 956,019 3-405 | 6813 227 732 698,318 || 3-455 | 7-104 539 217 961,399 3-406 | 6-818 926 050 703,463 || 3-456 | 7-110 500 616 966,784 3-407 | 6824 629 513 708,611 || 3-457 | 7:116 467 400 972,173 3-408 | 6830 338 124 713,766 || 3-458 | 7-122 439 573 977,569 3-409 | 6836 051 890 718,927 || 3-459 | 7-128 417 142 982,968 3-410 | 6841 770 817 | 5,724,090 || 3-460 | 7-134 400 110 | 5,988,371 3-411 | 6847 494 907 | 5,729,258 || 3-461 | 7-140 388 481 | 5,993,781 3-412 | 6853 224 165 734,432 || 3-462 | 7-146 382 262 999,197 3-413 | 6853 958 597 739,609 || 3-463 | 7-152 381 459 | 6,004,615 3-414 | 6864 698 206 744,793 || 3-464 | 7-158 386 074 10,039 3-415 | 6870 442 999 749,980 || 3-465 | 7-164 396 113 15,468 3-416 | 6876 192 979 755,173 || 3-466 | 7-170 411 581 20,902 3-417 | 6-881 948 152 760,369 || 3467 | 7-176 432 483 26,341 3-418 | 6887 708 521 765,570 ,|| 3:468 | 7-182 458 824 31,785 3-419 | 6893 474 O91 770,777 || 3-469 | 7-188 490 609 37,235 3-420 | 6899 244 868 | 5,775,988 | 3-470 | 7-194 527 844 | 6,042,689 3-421 | 6-905 020 856 | 5,781,203 || 3-471 | 7-200 570 533 | 6,048,146 3-422 | 6910 802 059 786,425 || 3472 | 7-206 618 679 53,610 3-423 | 6-916 588 484 791,651 || 3473 | 7-212 672 289 59,080 3-424 | 6922 380 135 796,880 || 3-474 | 7-218 731 369 64,554 3425 | 6928 177 015 802,115 || 3-475 | 7-224 795 923 70,032 3426 | 6933 979 130 807,355 || 3-476 | 7-230 865 955 75,516 3-427 | 6939 786 485 812,599 || 3-477 | 7-236 941 471 81,005 3-428 | 6945 599 084 817,848 || 3-478 | 7-243 022 476 86,499 3-429 | 6-951 416 932 823,103 || 3-479 | 7-249 108 975 91,997 3-430 | 6-957 240 035 | 5,828,361 || 3-480 | 7-255 200 972 | 6,097,502 3-431 | 6963 068 396 | 5,833,625 | 3-481 | 7-261 298 474 | 6,103,010 3-432 | 6-968 902 021 838,893 || 3-482 | 7-267 401 484 108,524 3-433 | 6974 740 914 844,166 || 3-483 | 7-273 510 008 114,043 3-434 | 6-980 585 080 849,445 || 3-484 | 7-279 624 051 119,567 3-435 | 6-986 434 525 854,727 || 3-485 | 7-285 743 618 125,096 3-436 | 6:992 289 252 860,014 || 3-486 | 7-291 868 714 130,630 3-437 | 6998 149 266 865,307 || 3-487 | 7-297 999 34t 136,169 3-438 | 7-004 014 573 870,604 || 3-488 | 7-304 135 513 141,714 3-439 | 7-009 885 177 875,906 || 3-489 | 7-310 277 227 147,262 3-440 | 7-015 761 083 | 5,881,213 || 3-490 | 7:316 424 489 | 6,152,816 3-441 | 7-021 642 296 | 5,886,525 || 3491 | 7-322 677 305 | 6,158,376 3-442 | 7-027 528 821 891,842 || 3-492 | 7-328 735 681 163,941 3-443 | 7-033 420 663 897,163 || 3-493 | 7-334 899 622 169,510 3-444 | 7-039 317 826 902,489 || 3494 | 7-341 069 132 175,084 3-445 | 7-045 220 315 907,820 || 3-495 | 7-347 244 216 180,663 3446 | 7-051 128 135 913,156 || 3-496 | 7:353 424 879 186,248 3447 | 7-057 041 291 918,496 || 3-497 | 7359 611 127 191,839 3-448 | 7-062 959 787 923,842 || 3-498 | 7-365 802 966 197,433 3-449 | 7-068 883 629 929,194 || 3-499 | 7:372 000 399 203,033 3450 | 7-074 812 823 | 5,934,549 || 3500 | 7-378 203 432 | 6,208,639 x Tox Difference x Tox Difference 3500 | 7378 203 432 | 6,208,639 | 3550 | 7-695 609 296 | 6,495,512 3501 | 7384 412 071 | 6,214,248 || 3551 | 7-702 104 808 | 6,501,387 3502 | 7-390 626 319 219,864 || 3552 | 7-708 606 195 507,264 3503 | 7-396 846 183 995,484 || 3:558 | 7-715 113 459 513,146 3504 | 7-403 071 667 231,110 | 3554 | 7-721 626 605 519,034 3505 | 7-409 302 777 236,741 | 3555 | 7-728 145 639 524,927 3506 | 7-415 539 518 242,376 || 3:566 | 7-734 670 566 530,828 i} 3507 | 7-421 781 894 248,017 || 3-557 | 7-741 201 394 536,731 3508 | 7-428 029 911 253,665. || 3558 | 7-747 738 125 542,641 3509 | 7-434 283 576 259,315 || 3559 | 7-754 280 766 548,556 3510 | 7-440 542 891 | 6,264,971 || 3660 | 7-760 829 322 | 6,554,476 3511 | 7-446 807 862 | 6,270,632 | 3561 | 7-767 383 798 | 6,560,403 3512 | 7-453 078 494 276,301 | 3562 | 7-773 944 201 566,334 3513 | 7-459 354 795 281,972 || 3563 | 7-780 510 535 572,270 | 3514 | 7-465 636 767 287,649 || 3564 | 7-787 082 803 578,212 3515 | 7-471 924 416 293.331 || 3565 | 7-793 661 017 584,161 3516 | 7-478 217 747 299.019 | 3:566 | 7-800 245 178 590,113 3517 | 7-484 516 766 304,711 || 3567 | 7-806 835 291 596,072 . 3518 | 7-490 821 477 310,410 ||" 3-568 | 7-813 431 363 602,036 3519 | 7-497 131 887 316.112 | 3569 | 7-820 033 399 608,005 3520 | 7-503 447 999 | 6,321,820 || 3570 | 7-826 641 404 | 6,613,980 3521 | 7-509 769 819 | 6,327,534 | 3°571 | 7-833 255 384 | 6,619,960 3522 | 7-516 097 353 333,253 || 3572 | 7-839 875 344 625,946 3523 | 7-522 430 606 338,977 3573 | 7-846 501 290 631,937 3524 | 7-528 769 583 344,706 || 3574 | 7-853 133 297 637,934 3525 | 7-535 114 289 350,440 || 3575 | 7-859 771 161 643,936 3526 | 7-541 464 729 356,180 || 3576 | 7-866 415 097 | 649,943 i} | 3527 | 7-547 820 909 361,926 || 3577 | 7-873 065 040 | 655,957 3528 | 7-554 182 835 367,675 || 3578 | 7-879 720 997 661,976 3529 | 7-560 550 510 373,430 || 3-579 | 7-886 382 973 667,999 | 3530 | 7-566 923 940 | 6,379,190 || 3580 | 7-893 050 972 | 6,674,029 3531 7-573 303 130 | 6,384,967 || 3°58] 7899 725 001 | 6,680,065 3532 | 7-579 G88 087 390,728 || 3582 | 7-906 405 066 | 686,105 35383 | 7586 078 815 396,505 || 3583 | 7-913 091 171 | 692,151 3534 | 7-592 475 320 402,286 || 3584 | 7-919 783 322 698,208 3535 | 7-598 877 606 408,073 || 3585 | 7-926 481 525 | 704,260 3536 | 7-605 285 679 413,865 | 3586 | 7-933 185 785 | 710,323 35387 | 7-611 699 544 419,662 | 3587 | 7-939 896 108 | 716,391 35388 | 7-618 119 206 425,465 || 3588 | 7-946 612 499 | 722,465 3539 | 7-624 544 671 431,274 || 3589 7-953 334 964 | 728,645 3540 | 7-630 975 945 | 6,437,087 || 3-590 | 7-960 063 509 | 6,734,630 3541 | 7-637 413 032 | 6,442,905 || 3591 | 7-966 798 139 | 6,740,720 3-542 7-643 855 937 448,730 || 3592 | 7-973 5388 859 746,816 3543 | 7-650 304 667 454,559 | 3593 | 7-980 285 675 | 752,917 3544 | 7-656 759 226 460,394 || 3:594 | 7-987 038 592 | 759,025 3545 | 7-662 219 620 466,224 | 3595 | 7-993 797 617 | 765,138 3646 | 7-669 685 854 472,078 | 3596 | 8-000 562 755 | 771,257 3547 | 7-676 157 932 477,930 || 3597 | 8-007 384 012 | 777,380 3548 | 7-682 635 862 483,787 || 3598 | 8-014 111 392 783,510 3549 | 7-689 119 649 489,647 || 3599 | 8-020 894 902 789,645 3550 | 7695 609 296 | 6,495,512 || 3-600 | 8-027 684 547 | 6,795,786 REPORT-—1896. . ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 138 Fa Tov Difference | x Tor Difference 3-600 | 8-027 68 547 | 6,795,786 | 3650 | 8375 114 576 | 7,110,095 3601 | 8-034 480 333 | 6,801,932 || 3651 | 8-382.224 671 | 7,116,528 3602 | 8041 282 265 808,085 | 3°652 | 8-389 341 199 122,968 2603 | 8-048 090 350 814,242 || 3653 | 8396 464 167 129,414 3604 | 8-054 904 592 820,405 || 3:654 | 8-403 593 581 135,866 3605 | 8-061 724 997 826,575 || 3:655 | 8-410 729 447 142,323 3606 | 8-068 551 572 832,749 || 3-656 | 8-417 871 770 148,788 3607 | 8075 384 321 838,929 | 3:657 | 8-425 020 558 155,256 3608 | 8-082 223 250 845,115 || 3658 | 8-432 175 814 161,731 3609 | 8-089 068 365 851,306 || 3:659 | 8-439 337 545 168,212 3610 | 8095 919 671 | 6,857,504 || 3-660 | 8-446 505 757 | 7,174,700 3611 | 8-102 777 175 | 6,863,707 || 3-661 | 8-453 680 457 | 7,181,192 3612 | 8-109 640 882 869,915 || 3:662 | 8-460 861 649 187,692 3613 | 8116 510 797 876,129 || 3:663 | 8468 049 341 194,196 3614 | 8-123 386 926 882,350 || 3-664 | 8-475 243 537 200,707 3615 | 8-130 269 276 888,575 || 3:665 | 8-482 444 244 207,224 3616 | 8-137 157 851 894,806 || 3°666 | 8489 651 468 213,747 3617 | 8-144 052 657 901,043 || 3-667 | 8-496 865 215 220,276 3618 | 8-150 953 700 907,285 || 3668 | 8504 085 491 226,811 3619 | 8-157 860 985 913,534 || 3-669 |. 8511 312 302 233,351 3620 | 8164 774 519 | 6,919,789 || 3-670 | 8518 545 653 | 7,239,898 3-621 | 8-171 694 308 | 6,926,048 || 3-671 | 8525 785 551 | 7,246,450 3622 | $178 620 356 932,313 || 3:672 | 8533 032 001 253,009 3°623 | 8-185 552 669 938,585 || 3673 | 8540 285 010 259,574 3°624 | 8-192 491 254 944,862 || 3674 | 8547 544 584 266,145 3625 | 8-199 436 116 951,145 || 3675 | 8554 810 729 272,722 3626 | 8-206 387 261 957,433 | 3676 | 8-562 083 451 279,304 3°627 | 8-213 344 694 963,727 || 3-677 | 8569 362 755 285,893 3628 | 8-220 308 421 970,027 || 3-678 | 8-576 648 648 292,488 3°629 | 8-227 278 448 976,333 || 3-679 | 8583 941 136 299,088 3630 | 8234 254 781 | 6,982,645 || 3-680 | 8-591 240 224 | 7,305,696 3-631 | 8-241 237 426 | 6,988,962 || 3-681 | 8598 545 920 | 7,312,308 3632 | 8-248 226 388 995,285 || 3682 | 8-605 858 228 318,927 3633 | 8255 221 673 | 7,001,614 || 3-683 | 8-613 177 155 325,553 3634 | 8-262 223 287 7,948 || 3-684 | 8-620 502 708 332,184 3635 | 8-269 231 235 14,289 || 3-685 | 8627 834 892 338,821 3636 | 8-276 245 524 20,636 || 3686 | 8-635 173 713 345,464 3:637 | 8283 266 160 26,987 || 3687 | 8-642 519 177 352,113 3638 | 8290 293 147 33,345 || 3688 | 8649 871 290 358,769 3-639 | 8297 326 492 39,709 || 3689 | 8-657 230 059 365,431 3-640 8-304 366 201 7,046,078 3°690 8:664 595 490 | 7,372,098 3-641 | 8311 412 279 | 7,052,454 || 3691 | 8-67] 967 588 | 7,378,772 3642 | 8-318 464 733 58,835 || 3692 | 8-679 346 360 385,461 3643. | 8325 523 568 65,222 || 3693 | 8686 731 811 392,138 3644 | 8332 588 790 71,614 || 3:694 | 8-694 123 949 398,830 3645 | 8339 660 404 78,014 || 3:695 | 8701 522 779 405,528 3646 | 8346 738 418 84,418 || 3696 | 8-708 928 307 412,232 3647. | 8353 822 836 90,828 || 3:697 | 8-716 340 539 418,943 3°648 | 8-360 913 664 97,245 || 3-698 | 8-723 759 482 425,660 3°649 8-368 010 909 103,667 | 3:699 8-731 185 142 432,382 3650 | 8375 114 576 | 7,110,095 || 3700 | 8738 617 524 | 7,489,112 1386 REPORT—1896. x Ipr Difference x Tor Difference 3°700 8°738 617 524 | 7,439,112 3°750 9118 945 861 7,783,538 3701 8-746 056 636 7,445,846 3-751 9:°126 729 399 7,790,589 3°702 8753 502 482 452,587 3-752 9134 519 988 797,647 3°703 8:760 955 069 459,335 3°753 9142 317 635 804,710 3°704 8-768 414 404 466,089 3754 9:150 122 345 811,780 3°705 8-775 880 493 472,849 3°755 9°157 934 125 818,857 3°706 8783 353 342 479,615 3°756 9165 752 982 825,940 3°707 8-790 832 957 486,387 3757 9173 578 922 833,029 3°708 8798 319 344 493,165 3758 9°181 411 951 840,126 3°709 8805 812 509 499,950 3°759 9189 252 O77 847,228 3°710 8-813 312 459 7,506,741 3760 9°197 099 305 7,854,337 3711 8-820 819 200 7,513,538 3761 9:204 953 642 7,861,453 3712 8828 332 738 520,341 3762 9°212 815 095 868,576 3°713 8835 853 079 527,151 3°763 9°220 683 671 875,704 3714 8843 380 230 533,966 3764 9°228 559 375 882,839 3°715 8850 914 196 540,789 3°765 9:236 442 214 889,981 3°716 8858 454 985 547,616 3°766 9°244 332 195 897,129 3717 | 8866 002 601 554,452 “3°767 9°252 229 324 904,284 3718 8873 557 053 561,292 3768 9:260 133 608 911,445 3719 8-881 118 345 568,129 3°769 9°268 045 053 918,614 3°720 8888 686 484 7,574,992 3770 9:275 963 667 7,925,788 3-721. | 8896 261 476 | 7,581,852 || 3-771 | 9-283 889 455 | 7,932,970 3°722 8903 843 328 588,718 3-772 9:291 822 425 940,156 3723 8911 432 046 595,590 3773 9:299 762 581 947,351 3°724 8919 027 636 602,468 3774 9°307 709 932 954,553 3:725 8:926 630 104 609,353 3775 9°315 664 485 961,760 3°726 8934 239 457 616,245 3776 9°323 626 245 968,974 3°727 8941 855 702 623,143 3777 9°331 595 219 976,195 3728 8949 478 845 630,045 3778 9°339 571 414 983,423 3°729 8957 108 890 636,955 3°779 9°347 554 837 990,656 3-730 | 8964 745 845 | 7,643,872 || 3°780 | 9-355 545 493 | 7,997,897 3-721 | 8972 389 717 | 7,650,794 || 3-781 | 9-363 643 390 | 8,005,144 3°732 8-980 040 511 657,724 3°782 9°371 548 534 12,398 3°733 8°987 698 235 664,660 3°783 9°379 560 932 19,658 3°734 8995 362 895 671,600 3784 9°387 580 590 26,926 3°735 9°003 034 495 678,549 3°785 9°395 607 516 34,200 3°736 9:010 713 044 685,504 3°786 9°403 641 716 41,480 3737 9°018 398 548 692,464 3°787 9-411 683 196 48,769 3°738 9°026 091 012 699,432 3'788 9-419 731 965 56,062 3°739 9°033 790 444 706,405 3°789 9°427 788 027 63,362 3-740 | 9:041 496 849 | 7,713,385 || 3°790 | 9-435 851 389 | 8,070,670 3°741 9:049 210 234 7,720,372 3791 9°443 922 059 8,077,984 3°742 9:056 930 606 727,364 3°792 9°452 000 043 85,304 3°743 9:064 657 970 734,364 3°793 9°460 085 347 92,632 3-744 9:072 392 334 741,370 3794 9°468 177 979 99,967 3°745 9:080 133 704 748,382 3°795 9°476 277 946 107,307 3°746 9:087 882 086 755,400 3°796 9°484 385 253 114,655 3°747 9:095 637 486 762,424 3°797 9:492 499 908 122,009 3-748 9°103 399 910 769,457 3°798 9°500 621 917 129,371 3749 97111 169 367 776,494 3°799 9°508 751 288 136,738 3°750 9118 945 861 7,783,538 3°800 9516 888 026 8,144,113 ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 137 ——e Ir Difference x Ipr Difference 9516 888 026 8,144,113 3°850 9°933 270 161 8,521,607 9°525 032 139 8,151,495 || 3°851 9°941 791 768 8,529,336 9°533 183 634 158,883 3°852 9:950 321 104 537,070 9°541 342 517 166,277 3°853 9°958 858 174 544,812 9°549 508 794 173,680 3°854 9°967 402 986 552,562 9557 682 474 181,088 3855 9975 955 548 560,318 9°565 863 562 188,503 3°856 9°984 515 866 568,081 9574 052 065 195,926 | 3°857 9:993 O83 947 575,853 9°582 247 991 203,354 3°858 10-001 659 800 583,630 9°590 451 345 210,790 3°859 | 10-010 243 430 591,415 9°598 662 135 | 8,218,233 || 3860 | 10-018 834 845 | 8,599,207 9:606 880 368 | 8,225,683 || 3°861 | 10-027 434 052 | 8,607,006 9°615 106 051 233,138 3°862 | 10:036 041 058 614,812 9°623 339 189 240,602 3°863 | 10°044 655 870 622,627 9°631 579 791 248,072 3°864 | 10:053 278 497 630,447 9°639 827 863 255,548 || 3865 | 10°061 908 944 638,274 9°648 083 411 263,033 || 3866 | 10070 547 218 646,110 9°656 346 444 270,523 || 3867 | 10:079 193 328 653,953 9°664 616 967 278,020 || 3868 | 10-087 847 281 661,802 9°672 894 987 285,525 3869 | 10:096 509 083 669,658 9-681 180 512 | 8,293,036 || 3870 | 10-105 178 741 | 8,677,523 9°689 473 548 | 8,300,554 || 3871 | 10-113 856 264 | 8,685,394 9697 774 102 308,079 3°872 | 10°122 541 658 693,271 9°706 082 181 315,611 || 3873 | 10131 234 929 701,158 9-714 397 792 323,150 3°874 | 10139 936 087 709,051 9°722 720 942 330,695 3°875 | 107148 645 138 716,950 9:731 051 637 338,248 || 3876 10°157 362 088 724,858 9°739 389 885 345,808 | 3877 | 10:166 086 946 732,774 9°747 735 693 353,375 | 3878 | 10174 819 720 740,694 9°756 089 068 360,948 || 3°879 | 1U0°183 560 414 748,624 9°764 450 016 8,368,528 3880 | 10:192 309 038 8,756,560 9°72 818 544 8,376,115 3°881 10:201 065 598 8,764,504 9°781 194 659 383,710 3°882 10:209 830 102 772,455 9°789 578 369 391,312 | 3883 10-218 602 557 780,414 9-797 969 681 398,919 || 3884 10°227 382 971 788,379 9°806 368 600 406,535 3°885 10:236 171 350 796,353 9814 775 135 414,158 | 3°886 10°244 967 705 804,332 9823 189 293 421,787 | 3887 10:253 772 035 812,321 9-831 611 080 429,423 | 3°888 10°262 584 356 820,315 9 840 040 503 437,066 3889 10°271 404 671 828,318 9848 477 569 | 8,444,717 || 3890 | 10-280 232 989 | 8,836,327 9°856 922 286 8,452,374 3°891 10:289 069 316 8,844,344 9°865 374 660 460,038 | 3°892 | 10-297 913 660 852,369 9°873 834 698 467,710 || 3°893 | 10-306 766 029 860,401 9°882 302 408 475,388 3894 | 10°315 626 430 868,440 9°890 777 796 483,073 || 3895 | 10:324 494 870 876,487 9°899 260 869 490,766 3896 | 10°333 371 357 884,540 9907 751 635 498,467 3°897 | 10°342 255 897 892,602 9916 250 102 506,173 3°893 | 10°351 148 499 900,671 9°924 756 275 513,886 || 3899 | 10°360 049 170 908,747 9°933 270 161 8,521,607 3900 | 10368 957 917 8,916,830 REPORT—1896. a Jor Difference Py, Ioxr Difference 3900 | 10368 957 917 | 8,916,830 | 3-950 | 10824 858 358 | 9,330,631 3-901 | 10°377 874 747 | 8,924,922 | 3-951 | 10-834 188 989 | 9,339,102 3-902 | 10°386 799 669 933,020 | 3-952 | 10843 528 091 347,582 3-903 | 10395 732 689 941,126 || 3-953 | 10-852 875 673 356,069 3-904 | 10-404 673 815 949,239 | 3-954 | 10-862 231 742 364,563 3-905 | 10-413 623 054 957,360 || 3955 | 10-871 596 305 373,067 3-906 | 10-422 580 41 965,489 | 3-956 | 10-880 969 372 381,577 3907 | 10-431 545 903 973,625 || 3-957 | 10:890 350 949 390,096 3908 | 10-440 519 528 981,767 || 3:958 | 10899 741 045 398,622 3909 | 10-449 501 295 989,918 | 3-959 | 10-909 139 667 407,156 3910 | 10-458 491 213 | 8,998,077 | 3-960 | 10-918 546 $23 | 9,415,698 3911 | 10-467 489 290 | 9,006,242 | 3-961 | 10-927 962 521 | 9,424,247 3-912 | 10-476 495 532 14,415 || 3-962 | 10-937 386 768 432,806 3913 | 10-485 509 947 22,596 || 3-963 | 10-946 819 574 441,370 3-914 | 10-494 532 543 30,785 | 3964 | 10:956 260 944 449,944 3915 | 10503 563 328 38,981 || 3-965 | 10-965 710 888 458,525 3916 | 10512 602 309 47,183 || 3966. | 10975 169 413 467,115 3-917 | 10521 649 492 55,395 || 3-967 | 10-984 636 528 475,711 3-918 | 10:530 704 887 63,613 || 3968 | 10-994 112 239 484,317 3-919. | 10539 768 500 71,839 || 3969 | 11-003 596 556 492,930 3920 | 10548 840 339 | 9,080,073 || 3-970 | 11-013 089 486 | 9,501,551 3-921 | 10557 920 412 | 9,088,313 | 3971 | 11-022 591 037 | 9,510,179 3-922 | 10:567 008 725 96,562 || 3-972 | 11-032 101 216 518,815 3-923 | 10:576 105 287 104,820 || 3-973 | 11-041 620 031 527,460 3924 | 10:585 210 107 113,082 || 3974 | 11-051 147 491 536,114 3-925 | 10:594 323 189 121,354 || 3975 | 11-060 683 605 544,774 3926 | 10°603 444 543 129,633 || 3-976 | 11-:070 228 379 553,442 3-927 | 10°612 574 176 137,919 || 3-977 | 11-079 781 821 562,119 3-928 | 10621 712 095 146,215 | 3978 | 11-089 343 940 570,803 3929 | 10-6830 858 310 154,516 || 3579 | 11-098 914 743 579,496 3930 | 10-640 012 826 | 9,162,824 | 3-980 | 11108 494 239 | 9,588,197 3-931 | 10649 175 650 | 9,171,148 || 3-981 | 11°118 082 436 | 9,596,904 3932 | 10°658 346 793 179,468 || 3-982 | 11-127 679 340 605,621 3933 | 10 667 526 261 187,800 || 3-983 | 11:137. 284 961 614,346 3-934 |- 10-676 714 061 196,141 || 3-984 | 11:146 899 307 623,078 3-935 | 10°685 910 202 204,488 || 3985 | 11156 522 385 631,819 3936 | 10:695 114 690 212,844 || 3-986 | 11-166 154 204 640,568 3-937 | 10-704 327 534 221,207 | 3-987 | 11-175 794 772 649,325 3°938 | 10°713 548 741 229,577 || 3-988 | 11-185 444 097 658,089 3-939 | 10-722 778 318 237,956 | 3-989 | 11-195 102 186 666,862 3940 | 10-732 016 274 | 9,246,343 || 3-990 | 11-204 769 048 | 9,675,642 3-941 | 10-741 262 617 | 9,254,737 || 3:991 | 11-214 444 690 | 9,684,432 3:942 | 10:750 517 354 263,137 || 3°992 | 11-224 129 122 693,229 3-943 | 10-759 780 491 271,548 || 3-993 | 11-233 822 351 702,034 3:944 | 10-769 052 039 279,965 || 3994 | 11-243 524 385 710,848 3:945 | 10-778 382 004 288,390 || 3-995 | 11:253 235 233 719,669 3°946 | 10°787 620 394 296,823 || 3:996 | 11-262 954 902 728,498 3947 | 10796 917 217 305,263 || 3-997 | 11-272 683 400 737,335 3948 | 10-806 222 480 313,711 || 3-998 | 11-282 420 735 746,182 3:949 | 10-815 536 191 322,167 || 3-999 | 11-292 166 917 755,035 3-950 | 10824 858 358 | 9,330,631 | 4-000 | 11-301 921 952 | 9,763,898 ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 139 | 12°323 570 116 as | Tor Difference x Tov Difference £000 | 11301 921 952 | 9,763,898 || 4-050 | 11-801 144 658. | 10,217,562 4001 | 11°311 685 850 | 9,772,767 || 4051 | 11-811 362 220 | 10,226,850 | 4-002 | 11-321 458 617 781,646 || 4-052 | 11-821 589 070 236,147 | 4-003. | 11-331 240 263 790,533 || 4-053 | 11-831 825 217 245,452 ‘| £004 | 11-341 030 796 799,428 || 4054 | 11-842 070 669 | 254,765 | 4:005 | 11-350 830 224 808,330 || 4:055 | 11°852 325 434 264,089 4006 | 11-360 638 554 817,241 || 4:056 | 11-862 589 523 | 273,418 4-007 | 11°370 455 795 826,161 || 4-057 | 11°872 862 941 282,758 4008 | 11-380 281 956 835,089 || 4:058 | 11-883 145 699 292,106 4009 | 11-390 117 045 844,024 || 4059 | 11-893 437 805 301,463 “£010 | 11-399 961 069 | 9,852,968 || 4060 | 11-903 739 268 | 10,310,828 #011 | 11-409 814 037 | 9,861,920 | 4061 | 11-914 050 096 | 10,320,202 4012 | 11-419 675 957 870,881 || 4062 | 11-924 370 298 329,584 4013 | 11-429 546 838 879,849 | 4063 | 11-934 699 882 338,976 — 4014 | 11-439 426 687 888,826 || 4064 | 11-945 038 858 348,375 4015 | 11-449 315 513 897,812 || 4065 | 11-955 387 233 357,185 4:016 | 11-459 213 325 906,805 | 4066 | 11-965 745 018 367,201 4017 | 11-469 120 130 915,807 || 4067 | 11-976 112 219 376,627 4-018 | 11-479 035 937 924.817 || 4068 | 11-986 488 846 386,062 4019 | 11-488 960 754 933,835 | 4069 | 11:996 874 908 395,505 14020 | 11-498 894 589 | 9,942,862 | 4070 | 12-007 270 413 | 10,404,956 } 4021 | 11-508 837451 | 9,951,897 || 4071 | 12:017 675 369 | 10,414,418 11518 789 348 960,940 || 4:072 | 12-028 089 787 423,887 11528 750 288 969,992 || 4073 | 12-038 513 674 433,365 11°538 720 280 979,052 || 4074 | 12-048 947 039 442,852 11548 699 332 988.120 | 4075 | 12-059 389 891 452,347 11:558 687 452 997,197 || 4076 | 12069 842 238 461,852 11568 684 649 | 10,006,282 || 4-077 | 12-080 304 090 471,364 11578 690 931 15,375 || 4078 | 12690 775 454 480,886 11588 706 306 24.477 | 4079 | 12101 256 340 490,418 11-598 730 783°) 10,033,587 | 4080 | 12-111 746 758 | 10,499,956 11-608 764 370 | 10,042,706 || 4081 | 12-122 246 714 | 10,509,505 11618 807 076 51,833 || 4-082 | 12:132 756 219 519,062 11°628 858 909 60,967 || 4:083 | 12143 275 281 528,627 11°638 919 876 70,112 || 4:084 | 12-153 803 908 538,202 11648 989 988 79,264 || 4085 | 12-164 342 110 547,785 11°659 069 252 88.424 || 4086 | 12174 889 895 557,379 11:669 157 676 97,594 || 4-087 | 12-185 447 274 566,979 11679 255 270 106,771 || 4088 | 12:196 014 253 576,588 11°689 362 041 115,957 || 4089 | 12-206 590 841 586,208 11°699 477 998 | 10,125,151 || 4:090 | 12-217 177 049 | 10,595,836 11:709 603 149 | 10,134,354 || 4-091 | 12-227 772 885 | 10,605,471 11:719 737 503 143,565 || 4-092 | 12-238 378 356 615,118 11:729 881 068 152,786 || 4-093 | 12-248 993 474 624,772 11:740 083 854 162,013 || 4-094 | 12-259 618 246 634,435 11:750 195 867 171,251 || 4:095 | 12270 252 681 644,107 11-760 367 118 180,495 || 4:096 | 12-280 896 788 653,788 11:770 547 613 189,750 || 4-097 | 12-291 550 576 663,478 11:780 737 363 199,012 || 4-098 | 12:302 214 054 673,177 11-790 936 375 208,283 || 4-099 | 12312 887 231 682,885 11:801 144 658 | 10,217,562 | 4100 10,692,602 REPORT—1896. x Ipr Difference | x Ipx Difference 4100 | 12323 570 116 | 10,692,602 || 4-150 | 12870 291 948 | 11,190,039 4101 | 12334 262 718 | 10,702,327 || 4-151 | 12-881 481 987 | 11,200,225 4102 | 12344 965 045 712,062 || 4-152 | 12-892 682 212 210,419 4103 | 12:355 677 107 721,806 | 4153 | 12-903 892 631 220,621 4104 | 12°366 398 913 731,559 || 4-154 | 12-915 113 252 230,834 4105 | 12377 130 472 741,320 | 4155 | 12-926 344 086 241,057 4106 | 12387 871 792 751,091 | 4:156 | 12:937 585 143 251,288 4107 | 12:398 622 883 760,871 | 4157 | 12-948 836 431 261,529 4108 | 12-409 383 754 770,659 | 4:158 | 12-960 097 960 271,779 4109 | 12-420 154 413 780,457 || 4159 | 12-971 369 739 282,039 4110 | 12480 934 870 | 10,790,264 | 4-160 | 12-982 651 778 | 11,292,309 4111 | 12-441 725 134 | 10,800,080 | 4161 | 12-993 944 087 | 11,302,588 4-112 | 12-452 595 214 809,904 | 4162 | 13-005 246 675 312,876 4113 | 12-463 335 118 819,739 || 4163 | 13-016 559 551 323,174 4114 | 12-474 154 857 829,581 | 4164 | 13-027 882 725 333,481 4115 | 12-484 984 438 $39,434 | 4-165 | 13-039 216 206 343,798 4116 | 12495 823 872 849,294 | 4166 | 13-050 560 004 354,124 4117 | 12:506 673 166} 859,165 || 4-167 | 13-061 914 128 364,460 4118 | 12:517 532 331 69,044 || 4168 | 13-073 278 588 374,806 4:119 | 12°528 401 375 878,933 || 4169 | 13-084 653 394 385,161 4120 | 12:539 280 308 | 10,888,830 | 4:170 | 13-096 038 555 | 11,395,525 4121 | 12:550 169 138 | 10,898,737 || 4-171 | 13-107 434 080 | 11,405,899 4-122 | 12°561 067 875 908,652 | 4172 | 13118 839 979 416,283 4123 | 12:571 976 527 918,579 || 4:173 | 13-130 256 262 426,677 4124 | 12-582 895 106 928,511 || 4-174 | 13-141 682 939 437,079 4195 | 12°593 823 617 938,455 || 4175 | 13153 120 018 447,491 4126 | 12-604 762 072 948,407 || 4:176 | 13-164 567 509 457,914 4127 | 12-615 710 479 958,269 || 4177 | 13-176 025 423 468,345 4128 | 12:626 668 848 968,340 || 4178 | 13-187 493 768 478,787 4129 | 12-637 637 188 978,320 || 4:179 | 13198 972 555 489,238 4130 | 12648 615 508 | 10,988,309 | 4:180 | 13-210 461 793 | 11,499,698 4131 | 12°659 603 817 | 10,998,308 || 45181 | 13-221 961 491 | 11,510,168 4132 | 12-670 602 125 | 11,008,315 || 4182 | 13-233 471 659 | -520,649 4133 | 12681 610 440 18,332 || 4183 | 13-244 992 308 531,138 4134 | 12-692 628 772 28,358 || 4184 | 13-256 523 446 541,637 4135 | 12°703 657 130 38,394 || 4°185 | 13-268 065 083 552,146 4-136 | 19-714 695 524 48,439 || 4186 | 13-279 617 229 562,665 4137 | 12-725 743 963 58,492 | 4187 | 13-291 179 894 573,193 4138 | 12:736 802 455 68,555 || 4188 | (13302 753 087 583,731 4139 | 12:747 871 010 78,628 | 4189 | 13314 336 818 594,279 4140 | 12758 949 638 | 11,088,710 | 4190 | 13-325 931 097 | 11,604,837 4-141 | 12°770 038 348 | 11,098,800 || 4-191 | 13-337 535 934 | 11 615,404 4-142 | 12-781 137 148 108,901 || 4192 | 13-349 151 338 625,980 4143 | 12792 246 049 119,011 || 4193 | 13-360 777 318 636,568 4144 | 12-803 365 060 129,129 || 4194 | 13372 413 886 647,165 4145 | 12814 494 189 139,258 || 4-195 | 13°384 061 051 657,770 4146 | 12-825 633 447 149,395 || 4196 | 13-395 718 821 668,386 4:147 | 12836 782 842 159,543 || 4:197 | 13-407 387 207 679,014 4148 | 12847 942 385 169,699 || 4-198 | 13-419 066 221 689,648 4149 | 12859 112 084 179,864 || 4-199 | 13-430 755 869 700,294 4150 | 12-870 291 948 | 11,190,039 || 4-200 | 13-442 456 163 | 11,710,950 ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 141 nen EannEEeneeeeeeT “_ | . x Tor Difference a Tor Difference 4200 | 13:442 456 163 | 11,710,950 || 4250 | 14041 263 683 | 12,256,456 4-201 13454 167 113 | 11,721,614 4:251 14053 520 139 | 12,267,625 4-202 | 13°465 888 727 732,290 4-252 | 14:065 787 764 278,804 4-203 | 13°477 621 017 742,975 4253 | 14:078 066 568 289,993 4204 | 13-489 363 992 753,670 4254 | 14-090 356 561 301,194 4-205 | 13°501 117 662 764,374 || 4255 | 14:102 657 755 312,404 4206 | 13512 882 036 776,089 | 4:256 | 14:114 970 159 323,625 . 4-207 | 13°524 657 125 785,813 || 4257 | 14:127 293 784 334,857 ; 4:208 | 13°536 442 938 796,548 4°258 14:139 628 641 346,097 4:209 | 13°548 239 486 807,291 4°259 14151 974 738 357,348 4-210 | 13560 046 777 | 11,818,047 || 4260 | 14-164 332 086 | 12,368,611 #211 | 13571 864 824 | 11,828,810 | 4261 | 14176 700 697 | 12,379,885 4212 | 13583 693 634 39.584 | 4262 | 14189 080 582 391.167 4213 | 13595 533 218 850,368 || 4263 | 14-201 471 749 402,460 4:214 | 13-607 383 586 861,162 || 4264 | 14-213 874 209 413,764 4-215 | 13619 244 748 871,966 || 4:265 | 14-226 287 973 425,079 4216 | 13631 116 714 842.780 || 4:266 | 14-238 713 052 436,404 4217 | 13642 999 494 893.604 || 4-267 | 14-251 149 456 $47,739 4218 | 13-654 893 098 904,438 || 4268 | 14:263 597 195 459,084 4219 | 13666 797 536 915,282 | 4269 | 14-276 056 279 470,441 4220 | 13°678 712 818 | 11,926,136 | 4:270 | 14-288 526 720 | 12,481,808 4221 | 13-690 638 954 | 11,936,999 | 4271 | 14301 008 528 | 12,493,185 4-229 | 13°702 575 953 947.874 || 4272 | 14313 501 713 504,572 4-293 | 13-714 523 827 958.757 || 4273 | 14°326 606 285 515,970 4-224 | 13:726 482 584 969,651 || 4-274 | 14338 522 255 527,380 4:95 | 13°738 452 235 yg0.556 || 4275 | 14:351 049 635 538,799 4-226 | 13:750 432 791 991.470 || 4276 | 14363 688 434 550,228 4-997 | 13-762 424 261 | 12,002,395 || 4277 | 14-376 138 662 561,670 4-298 | 13-774 426 656 13.328 || 4278 | 14388 700 332 573,120 4-229 | 13-786 439 984 24.973 |) 4279 | 14-401 273 452 584,582 $930 | 13°798 464 257 | 12,035,227 || 4280 | 14-413 858 O34 | 12,596.954 4931 | 13°810 499 484 | 12,046,192 || 4-281 | 14-426 454 088 | 12,607,537 4-932 | 13822 545 676 67.167 || 4-282 | 14-439 O6L 625 619,030 4-233 | 13°834 602 843 68,151 || 4-283 | 14-451 680 655 630,534 4-234 | 13846 670 994 79,147 || 4-284 | 14-464 311 189 642,049 4-235. | 13858 750 141 90,153 || 4-285 | 14476 953 238 653,574 4-236 | 13870 840 294 101,168 | 4-286 | 14-489 606 812 665,110 4937 | 13882 941 462 112,193 || 4-287 | 14:502 271 922 676,657 4-238 | 13895 053 655 123,298 || 4288 | 14514 948 579 688,214 4-239 | 13-907 176 883 134,275 || 4.289 | 14527 636 793 699,782 4240 | 13919 311 158 | 12,145,331 || 4-290 | 14540 336 575 | 12,711,361 #241 | 13-931 456 489 | 12,156,398 || 4-291 | 14°53 047 936 | 12,722,950 4-242 | 13-943 612 887 167,474 || 4:292 | 14°565 770 886 734,550 4-243 | 13-955 780 361 178,560 || 4-293 | 14°578 505 436 746,161 4:244 | 13-967 958 921 189,658 || 4.294 | 14591 251 597 757,783 4-245 | 13-980 148 579 200,765 || 4295 | 14604 009 380 769,415 4246 | 13-992 349 344 211,883 || 4-296 | 14616 778 795 781,058 4-947 | 14-004 561 227 223,010 | 4-297 | 14°629 559 853 792,711 4248 | 14-016 784 237 234.149 || 4-298 | 14-642 352 564 804,376 4249 | 14-029 018 386 245,297 || 4-299 | 14655 156 940 816,052 £250 | 14-041 263 683 | 12,256,456 || 4300 | 14-667 972 992 | 12,827,738 | 142 REPORT—1896. SS x Ior Difference ie Igor Difference 4300 | 14667 972 992 | 12,827,738 || 4:350 | 15-323 902 914 | 13,426,031 _ £301 | 14-680 800 730 | 12,839,434 || 4351 | 15°337 328 945 | 13,438,289 4302 | 14693 640 164 851,142 || 4-352 | 15:350 767 227 450,543 4303 | 14-706 491 306 862,861 || 4-353 | 15:364 217 770 462,815 4304 | 14-719 354 167 874,59t || 4-354 | 15-377 680 585 475,100 4305 | 14732 228 758 886,330 || 4-355 | 15:391 155 685 487,396 4306 | 14°745 115 088 898,082 || 4:356 | 15-404 643 O81 499,703 4307 | 14758 013 170 909,844 || 4-357 | 15-418 142 784 512,021 4308 | 14-770 923 014 921.616 || 4-358 | 15-431 654 805 524,350 4-309 | 14-783 844 630 | 938,400 || 4-359 | 15-445 179 155 536,692 4310 | 14-796 778 030 | 12,945,195 || 4360 | 15-458 715 847 | 13,549,045 4311 | 14-809 723 225 | 12,957,000 | 4361 | 15-472 264 892 | 13,561,408 4312 | 14-892 680 295 968,817 || 4362 | 15-485 826 300 573,784 4313 | 14-835 649 042 980,644 | 4:363 | 15-499 400 084 586,170 4314 | 14848 629 686 992,483 364 | 15-512 986 254 598,569 4315 | 14-861 622 169 | 13,004,332 || 4:365 | 15-526 584 823 610,979 4316 | 14-874 626 501 16,192 || 4366 | 15:540 195 802 623,400 4317 | 14-887 642 693 28,063 || 4-367 | 15-558 819 209 635,834 4318 | 14-900 670 756 39.945 || 4-368 | 15-567 455 036 648,276 4319 | 14-913 710 701 51,839 || 4369 | 15-581 103 312 660,733 4320 | 14926 762 540 | 13,063,742 || 4370 | 15594 764 045 | 13,673,200 15°608 437 245 | 13,685,679 4321 | 14939 826 282 | 13,075,658 || 4371 4:322 | 14-952 901 940 87,584 || 4:372 | 15622 122 924 698,170 4323 | 14-965 989 524 | 99,521 || 4373 | 15-635 821 094 710,671 4324 | 14-979 089 045 111,469 || 4:374 | 15-649 531 765 723,185 4-325 | 14-992 200 514 123,428 || 4-375 | 15°663 254 950 735,710 4326 | 15°005 323 942 135,399 || 4:376 | 15°676 990 660 748,247 4-327 | 15-018 459 341 147,380 || 4-377. | 15-690 738 907 760,795 4-328 | 15-031 606 721 159,373 || 4:378 | 15°704 499 702 773,355 4-329 | 15°044 766 094 171,376 || 4:379 | 15-718 273 057 785,926 4330 | 15-057 937 470 | 13,183,391 || 4-380 | 15-732 058 983 | 13,798,510 4331 | 15-071 120 861 | 13,195,417 || 4-381 | 15-745 857 493 | 13,811,104 4332 | 15°084 316 278 207,453 4382 | 15:°759 668 597 823,711 4333 | 15:097 523 731 219,502 4383 | 16°773 492 308 836,329 4:334 | 15°110 743 233 231,561 4384 | 15°787 328 637 848,959 4335 | 15:123 974 794 243,631 4385 | 15801 177 596 861,600 4:336 15137 218 425 255,712 4386 | 15°815 039 196 874,253 4:337 15:150 474 137 267,806 4387 | 15828 913 449 886,918 4°338 15163 741 943 | 279,909 4388 | 15°842 800 367 899,595 4339 15:177 021 852 292,024 4:389 | 15°856 699 962 912,283 4:340 | 15:190 313 876 | 13,304,150 4390 | 15:870 612 245 13,924,984 4-341 | 15-203 618 026 | 13,316,288 4391 15°884 537 229 | 13,937,695 4:342 | 15:216 934 314 328,436 4:392 | 15°898 474 924 950,419 4343 | 15:230 262 750 340,597 4393 15°912 425 343 963,154 4344 | 15:243 603 347 352,767 4:394 | 15:°926 388 497 975,901 4:345 | 15:256 956 114 364,950 4395 15940 364 398 988,660 4:346 | 15°270 321 064 377,144 4396 | 15°954 353 058 | 14,001,431 4:347 | 15:283 698 208 389,348 4397 | 15968 354 489 14,214 4:348 | 15°297 087 556 401,565 4398 | 15°982 368 703 27,008 4349 | 15°310 489 121 413,793 4-399 15996 395 711 39,814 4350 | 15°323 902 914 | 13,426,031 || 4-400 | 16-010 435 525 | 14,052,632 ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 143 : ey Tae Differenca | ox Ir Difference 4400 | 16-010 435 525 14,052,632 4-450 | 16-729 019 208 | 14:708,899 4401 | 16024 488 157 | 14,065,462 | 4451 | 16743 728 107 | 14,722,337 4-402 | 16-038 553 619 78,305 || 4-452 | 16-758 450 444 735,787 4-403 | 16-052 631 924 91158 || 4°453 | 16-773 186 231 749,250 | 4-404 | 16-066 723 082 | 104,023 || 4-454 | 16-787 935 481 762,724 | 4-405 | 16-080 827 105 116.901 | 4-455 | 16-802 698 205 776,212 4-406 | 16-094 944 006 129.791 || 4456 | 16-817 474 417 789,711 4-407 | 16109 073 797 142,692 | 4-457 | 16-832 264 128 803,223 4-408 | 16123 216 489 155,605 || 4458 | 16-847 067 351 816,749 4409 | 16137 372 094 168,531 || 4-459 | 16-861 884 100 830,287 | 4410 | 16-151 540 625 | 14,181,468 | 4-460 | 16-876 714 387 | 14,843,837 | 4411 | 16-165 722 093 | 14,194,417 | 4461 | 16-891 558 224 | 14,857,399 | 4-412 | 16-179 916 510 207,378 || 4462 | 16-906 415 623 870.973 | 4-413 | 16-194 123 888 220,352 || 4463 | 16-921 286 596 884.563 | 4-414 | 16-208 344 240 233,337 | 4464 | 16-936 171 159 898,162 > | 4-415 | 16-299 577 577 246,334 | 4465 | 16-951 069 321 911,775 | 4416 | 16-236 823 911 259,343 | 4-466 | 16-965 981 096 925,401 | 4-417 | 16-251 083 254 | 272,365 || 4-467 | 16-980 906 497 939,039 | 4-418 | 16-265 355 619 285,398 || 4-468 | 16-995 845 536 952,689 4419 | 16-279 641 017 298,443 || 4-469 | 17-010 798 295 966,353 4-420 | 16-293 939 460 | 14,311,501 || 4470 | 17-025 764 678 | 14,980,029 4421 | 16-308 250 961 | 4499 | 16-322 575 531 337,653 || 4-472 | 17-055 738 326 | 15,007,419 4493 | 16336 913 184 | 350,746 || 4-473 | 17-070 743 744 21'133 4-494 | 16351 263 930 363,852 || 4-474 | 17-085 766 877 34,860 4-495 | 16365 627 782 376,970 || 4-475 | 17-100 801 737 48,599 4-496 | 16380 004 752 390,100 | 4-476 | 17-115 850 336 62,352 4497 | 16394 394 852 403,243 || 4-477 | 17-130 912 688 76,117 4-498 | 16-408 798 095 416,397 || 4478 | 17-145 988 805 89,895 4429 | 16-423 214 492 | 4291564 || 4-479 | 17-161 078 700 103,685 4430 | 16°437 644 056 | 14,442,743 4480 | 17:176 182 385 | 15,117,488 4431 | 16-452 086 799 | 14,455,934 || 4-481 17-191 299 87 15,131,304 4432 | 16:466 542 733 469,138 4482 | 17-206 431 177 145,134 4433 | 16-481 011 871 482,353 4483 | 17-221 576 311 158,975 4434 | 16-495 494 224 495,581 4484 | 17-236 735 286 172,829 4435 | 16509 989 805 508,820 4485 | 17-251 908 115 186,697 4436 | 16-524 498 625 522,073 4486 | 17:267 094 812 200,577 4437 | 16:°539 020 698 535,338 || 4487 | 17-282 295 389 214,470 4-438 | 16°553 556 036 548,615 || 4488 | 17-297 509 859 228,376 4439 | 16°568 104 651 561,903 4489 | 17:312 738 235 242,295 4440 | 16582 666 554 | 14,575,205 4-490 17°327 980 530 | 15,256,226 | 4-441 | 16597 241 759 | 14,588,519 4491 17-343 236 756 “15,270,171 4442 | 16611 830 278 601,846 4-492 | 17°358 506 927 284,129 4443 | 16°626 432 124 615,183 4493 | 17373 791 056 298,099 4444 | 16°641 047 307 628,534 4494 | 17°389 089 155 312,083 4445 | 16°655 675 841 | 641,898 || 4495 | 17-404 401 238 326,079 4446 | 16670 317 739 655,273 4496 | 17-419 727 317 340,088 4447 | 16°€84 973 012 668,661 4497 | 17-435 067 405 354,110 4-448 | 16°699 641 673 682,061 4-498 17-450 421 515 368,146 4449 | 16-714 323 734 695,474 4499 | 17-465 789 661 382,195 4450 | 16:729 019 208 | 14,708,899 4500 | 17-481 171 856 15,396,256 14,324,570 || 4-471 | 17-040 744 607 | 14,993,718 144 REPORT—1896 x Tor Difference x Tor Difference 4-500 | 17-481 171 856 | 15,396,256 4550 | 18:268 484 229 | 16,116,194 4501 17-496 568 112 | 15,410,330 455] 18-284 600 423 | 16,130,936 4-502 | 17-511 978 442 424,417 4552 | 18300 731 359 145,692 4-503 | 17:°527 402 859 438,517 4553 | 18:316 877 051 160,460 4504 | 17542 841 376 452,632 4554 | 18:333 037 511 175,244 4-505 | 17-558 294 008 466,758 4555 | 18:349 212 755 190,040 4-506 | 17-573 760 766 480,898 4556 | 18°365 402 795 204,850 4507 | 17589 241 664 495,050 4557 | 18:°381 607 645 219,674 4508 | 17604 736 714 509,217 4558 | 18397 827 319 234,512 4509 | 17-620 245 931 523,395 4559 | 18-414 061 831 249,363 4510 | 17635 769 326 | 15,537,587 4560 | 18-430 311 194 | 16,264,229 4-511 17651 306 913 | 15,551,794 4561 18446 575 423 | 16,279,107 4512 | 17:666 858 707 566,012 4-562 | 18°462 854 530 294,000 4513 | 17°682 424 719 580,243 4563 | 18479 148 530 308,907 4-514 | 17-698 004 962 594,488 4-564 | 18-495 457 437 323,828 4515 | 17:713 599 450 608,746 4565 | 18511 781 265 338,761 4516 | 17:729 208 196 623,018 4566 | 18:528 120 026 353,710 4517 | 17744 831 214 637,302 4567 | 18544 473 736 368,672 4518 | 17-760 468 516 651,600 4568 | 18560 842 408 383,647 4519 | 17°776 120 116 665,911 4569 | 18:577 226 055 398,638 4520 | 17°:791 786 027 | 15,680,235 4570 | 18593 624 693 | 16,413,641 4521 | 17-807 466 262 | 15,694,573 | 4571 18°610 038 334 | 16,428,659 4:522 | 17°823 160 835 708,924 4572 | 18°626 466 993 443,690 4523 | 17°838 869 759 723,288 4573 | 18 642 910 683 458,735 4:524 | 17854 593 047 737,665 4574 | 18659 369 418 473,795 4525 | 17:°870 330 712 752,056 4575 | 18675 843 213 488,869 4526 | 17-886 082 768 766,461 4576 | 18692 332 082 503,956 4°527 | 17:901 849 229 780,877 || 4577 | 18708 836 038 519,057 4-528 | 17-917 630 106 795,309 4578 | 18°725 355 095 534,172 4529 | 17:933 425 415 809,753 4579 | 18°741 889 267 549,302 4530 | 17-949 235 168 | 15,824,211 || 4-580 | 18-758 438 569 | 16,564,444 4531 | 17965 059 379 | 15,838,681 || 4581 | 18-775 003 013 | 16,579,603 4°532 | 17-980 898 060 853,166 4582 | 18'791 582 616 594,775 4533 | 17-996 751 226 867,664 4583 | 18808 177 391 609,959 45384 | 18:012 618 890 882,175 4584 | 18824 787 350 625,160 4535 | 18:028 501 065 896,700 4:685 | 18841 412 510 640,373 4536 | 18:044 397 765 911,238 || 4586 | 18°858 052 883 655,601 4:5387 | 18:060 309 003 925,790 4587 | 18874 708 484 670,843 4538 | 18:076 234 793 940,356 4588 | 18891 379 327 686,099 4-539 | 18:092 175 149 954,933 4589 | 18908 065 426 701,370 4540 | 18108 130 082 15,969,526 4590 | 18:924 766 796 | 16,716,654 4-541 18-124 099 608 | 15,984,132 4-591 18-941 483 450 | 16,731,952 4542 | 18140 083 740 998,751 4592 | 18958 215 402 747,265 4543 | 18156 082 491 | 16,013,384 4593 18-974 962 667 762,593 4544 | 18172 095 875 28,030 4594 | 18991 725 260 777,934 4545 18-188 123 905 42,690 4:595 19:008 503 194 793,289 4546 | 18:204 166 595 57,364 4596 | 19:025 296 483 808,659 4547 | 18220 223 959 72,051 || 4597 | 19:042 105 142 824,043 4:548 18-236 296 010 86,752 4598 | 19:058 929 185 839,441 4549 | 18:252 382 762 101,467 4599 | 19°075 768 626 854,854 4:550 | 18268 484 229 | 16,116,194 4-600 | 19:092 623 480 | 16,870,280 ee ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS, 145 Tor Difference oe Tow Difference 19092 623 480 | 16,870,280 4650 | 19°955 336 846 | 17,660,154. 19109 493 760 | 16,885,722 4651 | 19-972 997 000 | 17,676,329 19°126 379 482 901,177 4652 | 19-990 673 329 692,519 19-143 280 659 916,647 4653 | 20008 365 848 708,722 19160 197 306 932,131 4654 | 20:026 074 570 724,942 19177 129 437 947,630 4655 | 20:043 799 512 741,176 19194 077 067 963,143 46566 | 20:061 540 688 757,425 19-211 040 210 978,670 4657 | 20-079 298 113 773,690 19-228 018 880 994,212 4658 | 20:097 071 803 789,969 19:245 013 092 | 17,009,767 4659 | 20114 861 772 806,264 19'262 022 859 | 17,025,339 4660 | 20132 668 036 | 17,822,574 19:279 048 198 | 17,040,923 4661 | 20150 490 610 17,838,899 19296 089 121 56,523 || 4662 | 20:168 329 509 855,239 19313 145 644 72,137 || 4663 | 20186 184 748 871,594 19°330 217 781 87,766 4664 | 20-204 056 342 887,965 19°347 305 547 103,408 4665 | 20:221 944 307 904,351 19-364 408 955 119,066 | 4666 | 20239 848 658 920,751 19381 528 021 134,738 || 4667 | 20-257 769 409 937,168 19°398 662 759 150,424 4668 | 20275 706 577 953,599 19°415 813 183 166,126 4669 | 20-293 660 176 970,045 19:432 979 309 17,181,841 4670 | 20:311 630 221 | 17,986,508 19:450 161 150 | 17,197,571 4671 | 20-329 616-729 | 18,002,984 19:467 358 721 213,317 4672 | 20°347 619 713 19,477 19-484 572 038 229,075 4673 | 20°365 639 190 35,985 19501 801 113 244,850 4674 | 20383 675 175 52,508 19:519 045 963 260,639 4675 | 20-401 727 683 69,046 19°536 306 602 276,441 4676 | 20-419 796 729 85,601 19:553 583 043 292,260 4677 | 20-437 882 330 102,169 19°570 875 303 308,093 4678 | 20-455 984 499 118,754 19°588 183 396 323,940 4679 | 20-474 103 253 135,354 19°605 507 336 | 17,339,802 4-680 | 20-492 238 607 18,151,970 19°622 847 138 | 17,355,679 4681 | 20-510 390 577 | 18,168,600 19°640 202 817 371,571 4-682 | 20528 559 177 185,246 19°657 574 388 387,477 4683 | 20546 744 423 201,908 19674 961 865 403,398 4684 | 20°564 946 331 218,586 19:6$2 365 263 419,334 4685 | 20583 164 917 235,278 19:709 784 597 435,285 4686 | 20°601 400° 195 251,986 19727 219 882 451,250 4687 | 20619 652 181 268,710 19:'744 671 132 467,230 4688 | 20°637 920 891 285,449 | 19°762 138 362 483,225 4689 | 20°656 206 340 302,204 19'779 621 587 | 17,499,236 4690 | 20°674 508 544 | 18,318,973 19°797 120 823 17, 515, 260 4-691 | 20°692 827 517 | 18,335,762 19°814 636 083 531,300 4692 | 20-711 163 279 352,561 19°832 167 383 547,354 4-693 | 20°729 515 840 369,379 | 19849 714 737 563,424 4694 | 20°747 885 219 386,212 19°867 278 161 579,509 4695 | 20°766 271 431 403,059 19-884 857 670 595,608 4696 | 20°784 674 490 419,924 : 19:902 453 278 611,722 4697 | 20°803 094 414 436,804 : 19°920 065 000 627,851 4698 | 20°821 531 218 453,699 ; 19°937 692 851 643,995 4699 | 20°839 984 917° 470,610 f 19955 336 846 | 17,660,154 4700 | 20°858 455 527 | 18,487,536 L REPORT— 1896. x Tor Differenca | ep, Jor Diff: rence 4700 | 20°58 455 527 | 18,487,536 || 4-750 | 21-803 898 741 | 19,354,230 4701 | 20:876 943 063 | 18,504,479 | 4-751. | 21-823 252 971 | 19,371,977 4-702 | 20895 447 542 521.438 | 4752 | 21-S42 624 948 389,742 4-703 | 20913 963 #80 538,411 | 4-753 | 21-862 014 690 | 407,529 4:704 | 20°932 507.391 555,4(1 || 4-754 | 21-881 422 212 425,320 4:705 | 20-951 062 792 572,406 || 4:755 | 21-900 847 532 443,133 4706 | 20969 635 198 589.428 | 4756 | 21-920 290 665 | 460,963 4707 | 20-988 224 626 606,465 | 4-757 | 21-939 751 628 | 478,811 4-708 | 21-006 831 Ox] 623.518 || 4758 | 21-959 230 439 | 496,674 4-709 | 21-025 454 GO9 640,586 || 4-759 | zi-978 727 113 514,553 4710 | 21-044 095 195 | 18,657,671 | 4:760 | 21-998 241 666 | 19,532,451 471L | 21062 752 866 | 18,674,772 | 4-761 | 22-017 774 117 | 19,550,364 4712 | 21-081 427 G38 | 691,888 | 4762 | 22-037 324 481 588,294 4-713 | 21100 119 526 709,020 | 4763 | 22-056 892 775 | . 586,240 4-714 | 21-118 828 546 | 726.169 | 4-764 | 22-076 479 O15 604,204 4-715 >| 21-137 554 715 | 743,332 || 4-765 | 22-096 083 219 622,183 4716 | 21-156 298 047 | 760,513 | 4766 | 22-115 705 402 640,181 4-717 | 21-175 058 560 |° 777,709 || 4-767 | 29-135 345 583 658,193 4-718 | 21-193 836 269 | 794,92L || 4768 | 22-155 003 776 676,225 4-719 | 21-212 631 190 812,148 | 4:769 | 22-174 G80 COL 694,270 4-720 | 21-231 443 328 | 18,829,393 | 4770 | 22-194 374 271 | 19,712,335 A721 | 21-250 272 731 | 18,846,653 | 4771 | 22-214 086 606 | 19,730,415 4-722 | 21-269 119 B84 863,928 | 4:772 | 22-233 817 021 | 748,513 4-723 | 21987 983 312 881,221 | 4773 | 22-253 565 534 | 766,626 4-794 | 21-306 864 533 898,529 | £774 | 22-273 832 160 784,758 4-725 | 21-225 763 062 915,854 | 4775 | 22293 116 918 | 802,905 4-726 | 21:344 678 916 933193 4776 | 22-312 919 823 || 821,070 4-727 | 21-363 612 109 950.550 | 4:777 | 22332 740 893 | 839,252 4728 | 21-382 562 659 967,923 | 4:778 | 22352 580 145 857,450 4-729 | 21-401 530 582 985,311 | 4:779 | 22:372 437 595 875,665 1730 | 21-420 515 S92 | 19,002,716 | 4780 | 22392 313 260 / 19,893,898 4731 | 21-439 518 609 | 19,020,137 | 4:78L | 22-412 207 158 19,912,147 £732 | 21-458 538 746 37,575 | 4:782 | 29-432 119 305 930,413 4-733 | 21-477 576 321 55,028 | 4783 | 22-452 049 718 948,696 4-734 | 21-496 631 349 72,497 | 4:784 | 22-471 998 414 966,997 4-735 | 21515 703 846 89.984 | 4785 | 22491 965 411 | 985,314 4736 | 21°534 793 830 107,485 | £786 | 22-511 950 725 | 20,003,648 4°73 21:553 901 315 | 125,004 4-787 .| 22-531 954 373° | 22,000 4738 | 21-573 026319 | 142,539 | 4788 | 22551 976 373 | —«-40,367 4-739 | 21-592 168 858 | 160089 | 4:789 | 22572 016 740 58,754 4740 | 21-611 328 947 | 19,177,657 | 4°790 | 22592 075 494 | 20,077,155 4741 | 21-630 506 GOL | 19,195, 241 4.791 22-612 152 649 20,095,576 4-742 | 21-649 701 845 Y12,840 | 4792 | 22-632 248 295 | 114,012 4-743 | 21-668 914 685 230,457 | 4793 | 22652 362 237 | © 182,466 | 4744 | 21-688 145 142 | 248,089 | 4-794 | 22-672 494 703 150,937 4-745 | 21-707 393 231 | 265,738 | 4:795 | 22-692 645 640 169,425 4-746 | 21-726 G58 969 | 283404 4-796 | 22-712 815 065 187,931 4-747 | 21:745 942 373 301,086 | 4797 | 22-733 002 996 206,454 4748 | 21-765 243 459 | 318,783 | 4798 | 22-753 209 450 |. 224,993 4-749 | 21-784 562 242 336.499 4799 | 22°773 434 443 | 243,550 4750 | 21-803 898 741 | 19,354,230 | 4-800 93 677 993 | 20,262,125 | ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 147 L2 ' Ipr Difference x | Difference 22793 677 993 | 20,262,125 | 4850 | 23-829 901 540 | 21,213,203 | - — — |} = oo os 22-813 940 118 | 20,280,716 | 4851 | 23-851 114 743 | 21,232,679 29'834 220 834 299,325 || 4:852 | 23-872 347 422 252,174 29-854 520 159 317,951 | 4853 | 23-893 599 596 271,686 22:874 838 110 336,595 || 4854 | 23-914 871 282 291,217 22-895 174 705 355,256 || 4855 | 23-936 162 499 310,765 22-915 529 961 373,984 || 4856 | 23-957 473 264 330,333 22-935 903 895 392,629 || 4857 | 23-978 803 597 349,917 22-956 296 524 411,343 || 4:858 | 24-000 153 514 369,521 22-976 707 867 430,073 || 4:859 | 24-021 523 035 389,148 22-997 137 940 | 20,448,821 || 4:860 | 24-042 912 178 | 21,408,782 23-017 586 761 | 20,467,585 | 4°861 | 24-064 320 960 | 21,428,440 23-038 054 346 486,369 | 4:862 | 24-085 749 400 448.117 23-058 540 715 505,168 || 4:863 | 24107 197 517 467,811 23-079 045 883 523,986 || 4:864 | 24-128 665 328 487,525 23-099 569 869 542,822 | 4865 | 24150 152 853 507,256 23-120 112 691 561,674 | 4:866 | 24-171 660 109 527,005 93:140 674 365 580,544 | 4:867 | 24-193 187 114 546.774 23:261 254 909 599,431 | 4:868 | 24-214 733 888 566,560 23-181 854 340 618,337 | 4:869 | 24-236 300 448 586,365 23-202 472 677 | 20,637,260 | 4870 | 24-257 886 813 | 21,606,189 23-223 109 937 | 20,656,201 | 4871 | 24279 493 002 | 21,626,030 23-243 766 138 675,158 | 4-872 | 24:301 119 032 645,890 | 23-264 441 296 694,134 || 4873 | 24322 764 922 665,769 23:285 135 430 713,128 | 4-874 | 24344 430 691 685,667 | 23-305 848 558 732,138 | 4875 | 24366 116 353 705,582 23°326 580 696 751,167 | 4:876 | 24387 821 940 725,516 23-347 331 863 770,214 || 4:877 | 24-409 547 456 745,469 23:368 102 077 789,277 | 4:878 | 24-431 292 925 765,441 23°388 891 354 808,360 | 4:879 | 24-453 058 366 785,431 23-409 699 714 | 20,827,459 | 4880 | 24474 843 797 | 21,805,439 23-430 527 173 | 20,846,576 | 4881 | 24-496 649 236 | 21,825,466 23-451 373 749 865,711 | 4:882 | 24518 474 702~| 845,512 23-472 239 460 884,865 | 4883 | 24-540 320 214 865,577 23:493 124 325 904,035 | 4:884 | 24-562 185 791 885,660 23:514 028 360 923,223 | 4:885 | 24-584 071 451 905,761 23534 951 583 942,481 | 4886 | 24-605 977 212 925,882 23-555 894 014 961,654 | 4887 | 24-627 903 094 | 946,022 23°576 855 668 980,897 | 4888 | 24-649 849 116 | 966,179 23:597 836 565 | 21,000,156 | 4889 | 24-671 815 295 986,356 23°618 836 721 | 21,019,435 | 4890 | 24-693 801 651 | 22,006,552 23639 856 156 | 21,038,730 | 4891 | 24715 808 203 | 22,026,766 23°660 894 886 58,044 | 4892 | 24-737 834 969 46,999 23 681 952 930 77,376 | 4893 | 24-759 881 968 67,252 23-703 030 306 96,726 | 4894 | 24-781 949 290 87,522 23°724 127 032 116,094 | 4895 | 24-804 036 742 107,812 23:745 243 126 135,480 | 4896 | 24-826 144 554 1; 8,120 23-766 378 606 154,883 | 4897 | 24-848 272 674 148,448 23°787 533 489 174,305 | 4898 | 24870 421 122 | 168,794 23-808 707 794 193,746 | 4899 | 24892 589 916 189,160 23°829 901 540 | 21,213,203 | 4-900 | 24-914 779 076 | 22,209,544 148 REPORT—1896. x Tox Difference | x Ir | Difference 4900 | 24914 779 076 | 22,209,544 | 4-950 | 26-050 626 651 | 23,253,325 4-901 | 24-936 988 620 | 22,299,947 || 4-951 | 26-073 879 976 | 23,274,701 4-902 | 24-959 218 567 250,369 || 4-952 | 26-097 154 677 296,095 4-903 | 24-981 468 936 270,811 4-953 | 26120 450 772 317,510 4-904 | 25-003 739 747 291,271 || 4-954 | 26-143 768 282 338,945 4:905 | 25026 031 018 311,750 || 4-955> | 26-167 107 227 360,400 4:906 | 25-048 342 768 332,249 || 4-956 | 26-190 467 627 381,874 4907 | 25-070 675 017 352,767 || 4:957 | 26-213 849 501 403,370 4-968 25093 027 784 373,303 4:958 26:237 252 871 424,884 4909 | 25°115 401 087 393,858 || 4:959 | 26-260 677 755 446,418 4-910 | 25°137 794 945 | 22,414,433 || 4-960 | 26-284 124 173 | 23,467,974 ra =a | =: 4-911 | 25°160 209 378 | 22,435,028 | 4-961 | 26°307 592 147 | 23,489,549 4-912 | 25182 644 406 455,640 || 4-962 | 26-331 081 696 511,143 4-913 | 25-205 100 046 476,273 || 4-963 | 26354 592 839 532,759 4-914 | 25-227 576 319 496,925 || 4-964 | 26378 125 598 554,394 4-915 | 25°250 073 244 517,595 || 4-965 | 26-401 679 992 576,049 4°916 | 25-272 590 839 | 538,285. || 4-966 | 26-425 256 O41 597,725 4-917 | 25-295 129 124 558,995 || 4-967 | 26-448 853 766 619,421 4918 | 25°317 688 119 579,723 || 4-968 | 26-472 473 187 641,137 4-919 | 25-340 267 842 600,471 || 4-969 | 26-496 114 324 662,872 4-920 | 25°362 868 313 | 22,621,238 || 4970 | 26-519 777 196 | 23,684,630 4-921 | 25°385 489 551 | 22,642,024 || 4-971 | 26-543 461 826 | 23,706.406 4-922 | 25-408 131 575 662,831 || 4-972 | 26-567 168 232 728,203 4-993 | 25430 794 406 683,655 || 4-973 | 26590 896 435 750,020 4-924 | 25-453 478 061 704,501 || 4-974 | 26-614 646 455 771,858 4-925 | 25-476 182 562 725,364 || 4:975 | 26638 418 313 793,716 4-926 | 25-498 907 926 746,248 || 4-976 | 26°662 212 029 815,595 4-927 | 25:521 654 174 767,150 || 4:977 | 26686 027 624 837,493 4-998 | 25°544 421 324 788,073 || 4:978 | 26-709 865 117 859,412 4:929 | 25°567 209 397 809,015 || 4:979 | 26-733 724 529 881,351 4-930 | 25°590 018 412 | 22,829,976 || 4-980 | 26-757 605 880 | 23,903,312 4-931 | 25°612 848 388 | 22,850,957 || 4981 | 26-781 509 192 | 23,925,292 4-932 | 25°635 699 345 871,957 || 4982 | 26-805 434 484 947,293 4-933 | 25°658 571 302 892,978 || 4-983 | 26-829 381 777 969,314 4-934 | 25-681 464 280 914,016 || 4984 | 26-853 351 091 991,356 4:935 | 25°704 378 296 935,076 || 4985 | 26-877 342 447 | 24,013,418 4-936 | 25°727 313 372 956,155 || 4-986 | 26-901 355 865 35,502 4-937 | 25°750 269 527 977,253 || 4987 | 26-925 391 367 57,605 4-938 | 25°773 246 780 998.370 || 4988 | 26-949 448 972 79,729 4-939 | 25796 245 150 | 23,019,509 || 4989 | 26-973 528 701 101,874 4-910 | 25°819 264 659 | 23,040,665 || 4-990 | 26-997 630 575 | 24,124,039 4-941 | 25842 305 324 | 23,061,843 || 4-991 | 27-021 754 G14 | 24,146,226 4-942 | 25865 367 167 83,039 || 4-992 | 27-045 900 840 168,432 4-943 | 25-888 459 206 104,256 || 4993 | 27-070 069 272 190,659 4-944 | 25-911 554 462 125,492 || 4-994 | 27-094 259 931 212,908 4-945 | 25°934 679 954 146,749 || 4-995 | 27-118 472 839 235,176 4-946 | 25°957 826 703 168,023 || 4:996 | 27:142 708 015 257,466 4-947 | 25-980 994 726 189,320 |! 4:997 | 27-166 965 481 279,776 4-948 | 26-004 184 046 210,635 | 4998 | 27-191 245 257 302,108 4-949 | 26027 394 681 231,970 | 4-999 | 27-215 547 365 324,459 4-950 | 26-050 626 651 | 23,253,325 | 5-000 | 27-239 871 824 | 24,346,832 ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 149 x Ipxr Difference x Ior Difference 5000 | 27:239 871 824 | 24,346,832 5-050 | 28-485 059 067 25,492,459 . 5001 | 27:264 218 656 | 24,369,225 5051 | 28°510 551 526 | 25,515,920 5002 | 27-288 587 881 391,640 5:052 | 28536 067 446 539,404 5:003 | 27-312 979 521 414,075 5:053 | 28°561 606 850 562,908 5:004 | 27-337 393 596 436,532 5:054 | 28587 169 758 586,436 5005 | 27:361 830 128 459,009 5055 | 28-612 756 194 609,984 5006 | 27:386 289 137 481,507 5056 | 28-638 366 178 633,555 5:007 | 27:-410 770 644 504,026 5:057 | 28°663 999 733 657,147 5008 | 27:435 274 670 526,566 5058 | 28689 656 880 680,763 5-009 | 27-459 801 236 549,127 5-059 | 28:715 337 643 704,399 5010 | 27-484 350 363 | 24,571,709 5060 | 28-741 042 042 | 25,728,058 5-011 | 27508 922 072 | 24,594,312 5-061 | 28-766 770 100 | 26,751,739 5-012 | 27-533 516 384 616,937 5-062 | 28-792 521 839 775,441 5013 | 27-558 133 321 639,581 5-063 | 28-818 297 280 799,167 5-014 | 27:582 772 902 662,248 5-064 | 28:844 096 447 822,914 5015 | 27°607 435 150 684,936 5:065 | 28-869 919 361 846,683 5016 | 27-632 120 086 707,644 5-066 | 28-895 766 044 870,474 5-017 | 27:656 827 730 730,374 5:067 | 28-921 636 518 894,288 5-018 | 27-681 558 104 758,125 5068 | 28-947 530 806 918,124 5019 | 27-706 311 229 775,897 5-069 | 28:973 448 930 941,982 5020 | 27°731 087 126 | 24,798,690 5-070 | 28999 390 912 | 25,965,863 6021 | 27°:755 885 816 | 24,821,505 5-071 | 29:025 356 775 | 25,989,764 5022 | 27-780 707 321 844,341 5-072 | 29:051 346 539 | 26,013,690 5023 | 27-805 551 662 867,198 5:073 | 29:077 360 229 37,637 5024 | 27-830 418 860 890,077 5-074 | 29:103 397 866 61,606 5-025 | 27-855 308 937 912,976 5075 | 29:129 459 472 85,598 5-026 | 27-880 221 913 935,897 5-076 | 29-155 645 070 109,612 5027 | 27-905 157 810 958,840 5077 | 29°181 654 682 133,649 5-028 | 27-930 116 650 981,804 5078 | 29:207 788 331 157,708 5:029 | 27-955 098 454 | 25,004,789 5-079 | 29:233 946 039 181,789 5-030 | 27-980 103 243 | 25,027,796 5-080 | 29-260 127 828 | 26,205,893 5031 | 28-005 131 039 | 25,050,824 5081 | 29-286 333 721 | 26,230,019 6-032 | 28-030 181 863 73,873 5082 | 29:312 563 740 254,168 5033 | 28-055 255 736 96,945 5083 | 29:388 817 908 278,340 5-034 | 28-080 352 681 120,037 5-084 | 29:365 096 248 302,533 5035 | 28105 472 718 143,151 5-085 | 29:391 398 781 326,750 5-036 | 28-130 615 869 166,287 5086 | 29-417 725 531 350,989 5037 | 28-155 782 156 189,444 5087 | 29-444 076 520 375,251 5:038 | 28-180 971 600 212,623 5-088 | 29-470 451 771 399,534 5-039 | 28-206 184 223 235,823 5089 | 29:496 851 305 423,842 5-040 | 28-231 420 046 | 25,259,045 5-090 | 29:523 275 147 | 26,448,171 5-041 | 28-256 679 091 | 25,282,289 5-091 | 29:549 723 318 | 26,472,524 5-042 | 28-281 961 380 305,554 5-092 | 29-576 195 842 496,898 5-043. | 28:307 266 934 328,842 5:093 | 29-602 692 740 521,296 5-044 | 28332 595 776 352,150 5094 | 29-629 214 036 545,717 5045 | 28-357 947 926 375,480 5-095 | 29:655 759 753 570,160 5-046 | 28383 323 406 398,833 5096 | 29:682 329 913 594,626 5-047 | 28-408 722 239 422,206 5097 | 29:708 924 539 619,114 5048 | 28-434 144 445 445,602 || 5-098 | 29-735 543 653 643,626 5049 | 28-459 590 047 469,020 || 5-099 | 29-762 187 279 668,161 5050 | 28-485 059 067 | 25,49: a) 855 441 | 25,492,459 — 29-788. 150 RETORT—1896. Experiments for improving the Construction of Practical Standards for Electrical Measurements—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Carey Foster (Chairman), Lord Ketvry, Lord Ray- LEIGH, Professors AyrRTON, J. PERRY, and W. G. Apams, Drs. O. J. Lopce, Joon Hopkinson, and A. MurrHEaD, Messrs. W. H. PREECE and HERBERT TAYLOR, Professor J. D. EVERETT, Professor A. Scuuster, Dr. J. A. FLEMING, Professors A. W. RUCKER, G. F. FirzGeratp, G. CarystaL, and J. J. THomson, Messrs. R. T. GuazEesroox (Secretary) and W. N. Suaw, Rev. T. C. Firzpatrick, Dr. J.T. BoTromuey, Professor J. VIRIAMU JONES, Dr. G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, Professor S. P. THompson, Mr. G. Forses, Mr. J. RENNIE, and Mr. E. H. Grirrirus. APPENDIX PAGE I.— Extracts from Letters received, dealing nith the Question of the Unit of Heat . 154 « Il.— The Capacity fi for Meat of Water from 10° to 20° 0. referred to its Capacity at 10° C.as Unity . 162 Ill.—Reealculation of the Total Heat of W. ater from “the Eeperiments of Regnault and Ronland. By W.N.SHAW . 5 . « 162 Tue work of testing resistance coils at the Cavendish Laboratory has been continued, and a table of the values of the coils tested is given. Ohms. No. of Coil Resistance of Coilin Ohms} Temperature Paul, 38 m0) .¢, No. 447 | 100098 11°9 Paul, 35 ab, St tc No. 448 100 (1 —-00179) 11°8 Paul, 40 Ab Tg .¢, No. 449 | 1000 (1—-00188) 12°-5 Hlliott,227. . 0. =. @_ No. 400 ‘99658 12°-4 Paul, 37 ph ah: Pik ¢, No. 451 | -99961 13°4 Nalder, 5324... GF No. 462 / -99881 12°-8 Nalder, 5326. . . C No. 453 “99869 13°5 Nalder, 4939 G, No. 454 ‘99899 13°-6 PURO S254 Kip ne eee ¢, No. 455 | 1:00050 17°-7 ape ed pe VES UO Se ¢, No. 456 | 100067 17°8 Mow 325 as cc woul, Nev a07 | 1-00057 177-8 Elliott, 326 ¢, No. 458 | 1:00060 1728 The comparison between the set of standards ordered from Germany— referred to in the last report—is not yet completed. The work will be continued during the current year. ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 151 At the Ipswich Meeting of the Association the question of a standard thermal unit was referred to the Electrical Standards Committee, and has been under their consideration during the year. After the Ipswich Meeting Mr. E. H. Griffiths sent the following letter to a number of physicists in various foreign countries, together with a copy of the paper! he had communicated to the Association :— Herewith I forward you a copy of a recent communication to the ‘ Philo- sophical Magazine, in which I have endeavoured to call attention to the unsatisfactory nature of our present system of thermal measurements. At the Ipswich Meeting of the British Association the consideration of the question of a standard thermal unit was referred to the Electrical Standards Committee. As a member of that Committee I now approach you with a request that you will communicate to me any suggestions which you may regard as calculated to assist our deliberations on the subject. I am anxious to lay before the Committee the opinions of the leading authorities of al! countries; I trust, therefore, that you will favour me with some expression of your views, particularly as to the nature and magnitude of the thermal unit (if any) that you would recommend for adoption. Unless you state that I am to regard your reply as ‘ for Committee only’ or ‘ private,’ I shall conclude that you have no objection to its publication. The importance of arriving (if possible) at some general agreement regard- ing the thermal unit will, I hope, be accepted as a sufficient excuse for thus troubling you. Copies of the circular letter, and of the paper ' on the Thermal Unit, were sent to the following :— Professor Abbe, Washington, U.S.A. Professor Ames, Baltimore. Professor Bartoli, Pavia. Professor Barus, Providence, B.I. Professor Benoit, Sevres. Professor Berthelot, Paris. Professor Boltzmann, Vienna. Professor Callendar, Montreal. | Dr. Chappuis, Bureau International, | Sévres. | Dr. Curie, Paris. Professor Dieterici, Hanover. Professor Dorn, Halle. Professor Du Bois, U.S.A. Professor Willard Gibbs, Yale, U.S.A. Dr. Guillaume, Bureau International, Sevres. Professor Hall, Harvard, U.S.A. Professor Himstedt, Freiburg. Professor Hittorf, Miinster. | | Professor Joubert, Paris. Professor Kayser, Bonn. Professor Kohlrausch, Berlin. Professor de Kowalski, Freiburg, Swit- zerland. Dr. S. P. Langley, Washington, U.S.A. | Professor Landolt, Berlin. | Professor Le Chatelier, School of Mines, Paris. Professor Lippmann, Paris. Professor Victor Meyer, Heidelberg. Professor Nernst, Géttingen. Professor Nichols, Ithaca, U S.A. Professor Olszewski, Cracow. Professor Ostwald, Leipzig. Professor Overbeck, Tiibingen. Professor Paschen, Hanover. Professor Planck, Berlin. Professor Pellat, Paris. Professor Pernet, Ziirich. Professor Potier, Hcole Polytechnique, Paris. Professor Quincke, Heidelberg Professor Remsen, Baltimore, U.S.A. Professor Rowland, Baltimore, U.S.A. Professor Runge, Hanover. Professor Schuller, budapest. Professor Stohmann, Leipzig. Professor J. Thomsen, Copenhagen. Professor Van ’t Hoff, Amsterdam. Professor Vaschy, Ecole Polytechnique, Paris. Professor E. Warburg, Berlin. Professor Wartha, Budapest. Professor Weber, Ziirich. Professor E. Wiedemann, Erlangen. Professor G. Wiedemann, Leipzig. Professor Wiillner, Aachen. 1 Phil. Mag., November 1895. 152 REPORT—1896. Replies were received from the following, and the Committee desire to thank those who so courteously responded to Mr. Griffiths’ inquiry for their very valuable assistance. Professor Ames, Baltimore. Professor Nichols, Ithaca, U.S.A. Professor Boltzmann, Vienna. Professor Olszewski (and Colleagues}, Professor Callendar, Montreal. Cracow. Dr. Chappuis, Bureau International, | Professor Ostwald, Leipzig. Sévres. Professor Paschen, Hanover. Professor Dieterici, Hanover. Professor Planck, Berlin. Professor Dorn, Halle. Professor Quincke, Heidelberg. Dr. Guillaume, Bureau International, Professor Remsen, Baltimore, U.S.A. Sévres. Professor Rowland, Baltimore, U.S.A. Professor Le Chatelier, School of Mines, Professor Runge, Hanover. Paris. Professor Stohmann, Leipzig. Professor Victor Meyer, Heidelberg. Professor Wiillner, Aachen. Professor Nernst, Gottingen. Extracts from such replies as contain definite suggestions bearing on the question of the unit of heat are printed in Appendix I. ; the letters have been translated, and those which merely give general approval to some such scheme as that outlined have not been included. No replies were received adverse to the suggéstion that an endeavour should be made to secure common agreement in the matter. The concluding propositions of Mr. Griffiths’ paper were substantially as follows : (I.) To adopt as the theoretical unit of heat a multiple (42 x 10°) of the erg. (II.) To adopt as the practical unit of heat, the heat required to raise 1 gramme of water 1° C. of the nitrogen thermometer at some temperature t° C. as given by that thermometer. (III.) To adopt provisionally some formula expressing the specific heat of water in terms of the temperature over a range of, say, 10° C. If the number, 42 x 10° ergs, be adopted for the theoretical unit, then, according to the experiments of Rowland, the theoretical and the practical unit agree, provided that the temperature ¢° C. be 10° C, Mr. Griffiths, in the paper already referred to, has made a comparison of the results obtained by Joule, Rowland, Schuster, Micuiescu, and him- self, for the amount of energy required to raise 1 gramme of water 1° C. at various temperatures. The results differ according as the readings of Joule’s mercury thermometer are reduced to the scale of Rowland’s air thermometer, or to the scale of the nitrogen thermometer, as has been done by Schuster. In the first case the mean values are— At 10° C. (41-971+-023) x10®; and at 15° C. (41:°891+:023) x 106 ; and in the second — At 10° C, (41:958-029) x 108 ; and at 15° C. (41°875+-029) x 108. Tables of the values of the specific heat of water between 10° C. and 20° C. have been calculated by Mr. Griffiths, and are given in Appendix IT. The Committee have made an analysis of those replies which contain definite suggestions. a i. en eee ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 153 Most of the writers wish to see some multiple of the erg adopted as the theoretical unit, but there are differences of opinion as to the mul- tiple to be chosen, Thus, Professors Dorn and Wiillner, Dr. Chappuis, and Professor Ames would prefer 42 x 10° ergs. Professor Ostwald, Professor Olszewski and his colleagues, and Professor Callendar suggest 10’ ergs. Professor Planck and M. Le Chatelier suggest 10% ergs, or in the case of the latter, as an alternative, 5 x 107. Professors Rowland and Nichols consider the ice unit as theoretically best ; the latter, however, would be willing to adopt 42 x 10° ergs as the theoretical unit, while Professor Rowland writes: ‘From a practical stand- point, however, the unit depending on the specific heat of water is cer- tainly the most convenient. It has been the one mostly used, and its value is well known in terms of energy.’ There is fairly general agreement in the view that as a practical unit the heat required to raise 1 gramme of water 1° C. at some fixed tempera- ture must be taken, but views differ as to the temperature which it is most convenient to choose. Mr. Griffiths suggested the nitrogen thermometer as the standard of temperature. The French physicists agree in the opinion that the hydrogen thermometer should be adopted, and reasons are given for this in the letters of M. Guillaume and M. Chappuis. The Committee concur in this view. The Committee are of opinion that Mr. Griffiths’ paper, and the replies received by him, show clearly that it is desirable to come to an agreement as to the definition of the unit of heat. They understand that a Committee of the French Physical Society have the question at present under consideration, and they hope it may be possible for the Electrical Standards Committee of the British Association to co-operate with this Committee and with representatives of other foreign countries in the matter. The Standards Committee have provisionally approved the following propositions, with the view of opening international discussion of the question. They propose to send the propositions to representative bodies throughout the world, with a letter stating that they have been provisionally approved, inviting further discussion, and asking those bodies to take the steps which seem to them most desirable in order to secure international agreement on the matter. Proposition I.—For many purposes heat is most conveniently measured in units of energy, and the theoretical C.G.S. unit of heat is lerg. The name Joule has been given by the Electrical Standards Committee to 107 ergs, For many practical purposes heat will continue to be measured in terms of the heat required to raise a measured mass of water through a definite range of temperature. If the mass of water be 1 gramme, and the range of temperature 1° C. of the hydrogen thermometer from 9°-5 C. to 10°-5 C. of the scale of that thermometer, then, according to the best of the existing determinations, the amount of heat required is 4:2 Joules. It will, therefore, be convenient to fix upon this number of Joules as a secondary unit of heat. This secondary thermal unit may be called a ‘Calorie.’ 154 REPORT—1896. For the present a second proposition is Proposition I1.—The amount of heat required to raise the tempera- ture of 1 gramme of water 1° C. of the scale of the hydrogen ther- mometer, at a mean temperature which may be taken as 10° C. of that thermometer, is 4°2 Joules. If further research should show that the statement in II. is not exact, the definition could be adjusted by a small alteration in the mean tem- perature at which the rise of 1° takes place. The definition in I. and the number (4°2) of Joules in a Calorie would remain unaltered. In Appendix II. a table is given showing the capacity for heat of water between 10° C. and 20° C., and in Appendix III. the values of the total heat of water has been calculated by Mr. Shaw from his experiments of Regnault and Rowland. Professor J. V. Jones has, during the year, calculated the correction to be applied to the value of the international ohm in absolute measure given by him at the Oxford meeting (1894), in consequence of the ellipticity of the standard coil used in his experiments. The required correction is 00684 per cent., and the corrected value of the international ohm is *99983 x 10° absolute units. In conclusion the Committee recommend that they be reappointed, with a grant of 5/.; that Professor G. Carey Foster be chairman, and Mr. R. T. Glazebrook secretary. APPENDIX I. Extracts FROM LETTERS RECEIVED, DEALING WITH THE QUESTION OF THE Unit or Heat. 1.—From Dr. C. Dieterici, Professor of Physics, Hanover. [This reply has, since it was sent to Mr. Griffiths, been printed in full in Wiedemann’s Annalen for February 1896. It is therefore not thought necessary to print it again here. ] 2.—I’rom Dr. Dorn, Professor of Physics, Halle, December 27, 1895. [TRANSLATION. | . . . I quite agree with you that it is very necessary there should be an improvement in the department of calorimetry, and that the first step must be the determination of sharply defined units. I agree with you in the opinion that the new unit ought not to differ in a marked degree from the present, for it would otherwise cause great inconvenience to both physicists and chemists, and there would be no hope of introducing the new unit technically, I have really no objection to offer to the thermal unit being 42 x 10° ergs (or rather 41-89 x 10° ergs). 3.—From Dr. W. Ostwald, Professor of Chemistry, Leipzig, February 12, 1896. [TRANSLATION. ] I entirely agree with your proposal to take some multiple of the erg as unit of heat. Such a step seems to me so undoubtedly necessary that, in my opinion, the question is when and not if such a change should be ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 155 carried out. I therefore regard your proposition as a welcome oppor- tunity for going into the neglected question, and I may say that I am determined to recalculate, in the forthcoming third edition of my text- book, the whole of the thermo-chemical data in such a manner as to do my utmost to diminish the difficulties consequent on the transition. I have already (in 1891) expressed my opinion very clearly, and I now send you the memoir referring to it.! I differ from your proposals, however, as regards the magnitude of the unit to be adopted. I believe that only an erg multiplied by some integral power of 10 should be chosen. I formerly proposed a Mega-erg, but have now altered my opinion. _ As apractical multiple of the erg, we already possess one in electricity, viz., the Joule = 10’ ergs ; and it appears to me to have the great advantage that the practical unit of energy in constant use in the two great departments of electrical and thermal measurements would be identical ; therefore I do not think that any other choice could be so advantageous. 4.—From Dr. F. Paschen, Tit. Professor of Physics, Hanover, November 24, 1895. . . . We must have an absolute unit simply related to other absolute units, and that would be your ‘ Rowland’ ; but we must also know how to realise this unit. For this purpose the specific heat of water must be fixed for each temperature. I think, as the different observations on the variability of the specific heat of water differ so greatly, your statement III. (p. 3) is a very preliminary one. . . . I think it would be best to propose that a new determination of the changes in the specific heat of water should be undertaken by some institute that has the necessary apparatus and money. 5.—From Dr. M. Planck, Professor of Physics, Berlin, November 25, 1895. [ TRANSLATION. ] If I may venture on giving my opinion on the propositions made by you, I must emphasise, before all things, that I agree with you as to the necessity of having a well-defined universal unit of heat, and I should be very glad if your well-considered plans led to a definite result. As a theorist [ would make even more radical demands as to the unit to be defined. The ideal universal unit of heat appears to me to be still more closely related to the definition of the electrical units ; consequently I would define :— I. One ‘ Rowland’ (or ‘ Meyer,’ or ‘ Kelvin’) as that quantity of heat which is equivalent to 10% ergs. II. According to the best measurements hitherto obtained 1 ‘Row- land’ is that quantity of heat which raises 1 gramme of water at 15° C. through 2°39 C. It would be possible to modify this number in the light of subsequent experiments. We should thus avoid the arbitrary character involved in the choice of such numbers as 41:89 x 10° or 42 x 10°. 1 See Studien zur Energetik, p. 577. 156 REPORT—1896. At the same time I quite acknowledge that the establishment of this unit will cause a considerable revolution in present thermal calculations which will be difficult to carry out, and it will therefore probably meet with energetic opposition from practical physicists and from technical men. Still, as I have already remarked, I should consider it a great step in advance if even the value of the equivalent of heat were established. 6.—From Dr. Wiillner, Professor of Physics, Aachen, February 23, 1896. [TRANSLATION. ] I, also, have finally decided on determining the unit of heat by the work done, inasmuch as I have endeavoured to determine the work which is equivalent to the mean calorie measured by the ice calorimeter. I hope I made it evident that I am quite aware of the uncertainty of this method of calibration. I thus arrived at the value 4175'8 x 104, or, in whole numbers, 4176 x 104, which, according to Rowland, corresponds to the heat required to raise the unit weight of water through 1° C. at 22° C. of the air thermometer. I am, however, quite willing, if an agreement can be arrived at, to discard the always uncertain relation to the mean unit of heat, and to accept your proposed unit 42x 10°. The temperature 15°, at which the specific heat of water is then unity, is more convenient. The consequence of such an agreement will be that all thermal measurements in which absolute values are aimed at will be made with the water calorimeter, in which case it appears easier to experiment with temperatures about 15°; also we are in better agreement as to the behaviour of water between 10° C. and 20° C., although, even then, there is not complete certainty. I should, for example, prefer to make the reductions at 15° entirely according to the observations of Rowland, as he has directly measured the equivalent of heat at these temperatures. Finally, as regards the designation of the new unit, I do not approve of giving it the name of a physicist ; also the name ‘therm’ is suitable for English physicists, but not for others. Why should we not simply preserve the name ‘thermal unit’? Or, if a distinctive name is used, then, approximating to the long-used ‘calorie,’ call the new unit a ‘calor.’ The definition would then be, ‘ A calor is the heat value of 41:89 x 10° ergs,’ and, until further notice, the calor will be equal to the amount of heat which will raise the unit mass of water at 15° through 1° C. No especial name has been given to the length of the mercury column which is equivalent to 1 ohm. In no case would I advocate the adoption of a second definition for the practical unit (besides ‘ Rowland,’ ‘ calor,’ or simply ‘thermal unit’), as that would lead to confusion. 7.—From Dr. Boltzmann, Professor of Theoretical Physics, Vienna, November 26, 1895. The unit ought to be as simple as possible and capable of accurate determination, as all other qualities are of less importance. It would be simplest to choose the heat which raises the temperature from 10° to 11° C. In general I am in accord with all you say in your paper. The most ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 157 important thing is that the same conception should be adopted everywhere, and for this reason I will fully accept the decision of the majority of the Committee. 8.—From Dr. K. Olszewski, Professor of Chemistry, Cracow, December 14, 1895. Ihave taken the advice of my colleagues in the Cracow University, Professors Witkowski and Natanson, and I beg to submit to your attention, as well as to that of the British Association Electrical Standards Com- mittee, the following suggestions, being the conclusions arrived at con- jointly by the above-named gentlemen and myself. 1. It would be advisable, on theoretical grounds, to select a Joule, or 107 ergs, as the fundamental theoretical or ideal unit of heat-energy. Hence the following proposal is brought forward :— ‘That the theoretical or thermo-dynamical, or, say, c.g.s. standard thermal unit, be defined as the heat equivalent of a Joule or of 107 ergs, and termed a thermal Joule.’ 2. That, as a practical thermal wnit, the quantity of heat required to raise | gramme of pure water through 1° of the thermo-dynamical scale at 15° of that scale be temporarily adopted. 8. That, in view of the exceptional importance of the question, steps be taken, by international co-operation or otherwise, leading to the deter- mination of the numerical value of the ratio between the theoretical unit and the practical unit, defined by 15°, as above stated, by some at least of the leading physical and metrological laboratories and institutions of the world, with the highest degree of accuracy nowadays attainable ; and to the extension (if possible) of such determinations over as great a range of temperature as practicable. Added to the highly valuable work already done, such an investigation cannot fail to settle the question of the specific heat of water ; and if this be done, the subject of thermal units will have lost nearly all of its present difficulty. 9.—From Dr. Chappuis, Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, Sevres, February 2, 1896. [TRANSLATION. ] . . . Your arguments have led me to accept the propositions given by you on pp. 452 and 453. If, however, I may. be allowed to express a wish, it is that the values may be reduced to the normal scale of temperature, 7z.e., to that of the hydrogen thermometer, and not to the air or nitrogen. It is true that the difference between these scales is very small, but still it is perfectly measurable. Some experiments of the Bureau Inter- national des Poids et Mesures (not yet published) have led me to the conclusion that the thermometric scale of hydrogen is independent of the initial pressure between 0:5 and 2 atmospheres, and that the hydrogen thermometer at constant pressure gives sensibly the same values as the thermometer at constant volume. It is not so with the nitrogen or the air thermometer. The difference between the nitrogen and hydrogen scales is indicated both in the original memoir (‘Trav. et Mém. du Bureau International,’ 158 REPORT—1896. Vol. VI.) in the pamphlet on thermometry of precision by M. Guillaume, as well as in Landolt and Bornstein’s physical tables, 2nd edition, p. 93. Also a great number of physicists have adopted the decision of the International Committee of the Poids et Mesures to take, as the normal seale of temperature, that of the hydrogen thermometer at constant volume. 10.—From Professor Le Chatelier, School of Mines, Paris. [TRANSLATION. | . . . I should like the thermal unit to be a number of ergs chosen arbitrarily ; either 10° ergs, or, in order to approach more nearly to the present unit, 5 x 10’ ergs. Then; as practical unit, I should like two : (1) A unit, of precision analogous to the ohm, which should be the quantity of heat yielded by a given mass of mercury in passing from one state to another, the states being defined by volume or electrical conductivity. (2) The present unit should be the specific heat of water at 15°. The use of water is indispensable for current researches, but it appears to me very doubtful for researches of precision. It is supposed that the condition of water and, consequently, its internal energy are completely determined when the pressure and temperature are ascertained. Now, nothing is less probable. Since Ramsay’s researches, we know decisively that water is formed of a mixture of molecules at various degrees of association ; it is a system in equilibrium. The state of equilibrium of analogous systems is in theory eutirely defined when the pressure and temperature are known. But in practice the state of equilibrium is only attained with an extreme slowness, and sometimes it is never reached. The lower the temperature, the more serious are those delays in reaching the state of equilibrium. It is therefore possible that the specific heat of water varies with the temperature, and that it differs according to whether the initial temperature of the experiment has been reached when ascending or descending. 11.—From Dr, Guillaume, Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, Sevres, November 19, 1895. [TRANSLATION. | I believe that if the French Committee adopt your proposal as to the fixing of the new unit, they will declare themselves still more decidedly in favour of the name which you have given them, as it has already been proposed here to name ‘therm’ the equivalent of heat of the erg or of one of its decimal multiples. I do not think, in return, that we could agree with you as to the scale of the nitrogen thermometer. There appears to be no doubt that the hydrogen thermometer gives a scale extremely like the thermo-dynamic, and that it is, at all events, the most analogous we can have. Sooner or Jater it will be necessary to adopt the thermo-dynamic scale, and it is well to now approach to it as nearly as possible. Besides, this scale is one of a certain small number of units on whicha legal authority has been conferred. It is now included in the decisions arrived at by the International Committee of Weights and Measures, which a certain number of States have introduced into their legislation. In itself the thing is actually of little importance ; but it becomes more’ : j ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 159 important in proportion as experiments become more exact, and it is best to have as little as possible to change in the end. 12.—From Professor J. S. Ames, Johns Hopkins University, U.S.A., December 10, 1895. . . . I must say your proposal appeals to me in every way. The 10° unit seems to me to be preferable to the 15° one. 13.—From Professor H. L. Callendar, Professor of Physics, McGill University, Montreal, December 5, 1895. I entirely agree that it would be a very great improvement to adopt an absolute unit in place of the present various and uncertain units based upon the peculiar properties of water. I think, however, that it would be better to connect it more simply and directly with the system of electrical units, and to use only names which are already familiar to all engineers, than to attempt to retain a close approximation to the value of any of the old specific heat units, which are essentially arbitrary. The following are the names of the series of thermal units which I should be inclined to suggest as being already familiar in practice :— 1. The thermal watt-second, or ‘Joule,’ defined as being equivalent to 10’ c.g.s. units of work. 4:5=1':48 » North. ,, o 60°5. Effect of 570 lb. Zero 59. On South side, Reading 50. Effect 9=2'":97 » North ,, 3 66. (=203 4. Experiment with load outside the hut within 5 feet on 8S. side and 5 feet on N. side. Effect of 570 lb. Zero 56. On South side, Reading 5 » North ,, ee 5 » 15=0":49 ” 5. Effect 1=0''-33 5. Oe 0 This last reading is unsatisfactory. Five minutes later it became 55:5, but if the north side load showed an effect it ought to have exceeded 56. In the afternoon a few experiments were made in the main building of the Observatory. The horizontal pendulum was placed on the top of a massive pier whilst two boys and a man (almost 350 Ib.) stationed them- selves in the basement of the building, first on the east side and then on the west side of the same. The difference in readings given by the two positions was approximately 0-16. V. The Perry Tromometer. By Professor Joun Perry, F.#.S. What is interesting about the apparatus is this, that any periodic motion of the supports is faithfully indicated by the pointer if its frequency is several times the natural frequency of vibration when its supports are at rest. One body supported on a pivot with three Ayrton-Perry springs will record the vertical and two horizontal motions. A body P G Q is free to move about an axis P at right angles to the paper. G is its centre of gravity. An Ayrton-Perry spring is applied HiGwete: vertically at Q from the point A. Weight of body is W. Vertical force at P is P, force at Qis Q. Let P and A get a vertical displacement ~, downward, and let Q be displaced « downward. Let Q=Q,+¢(a—2,) where c represents the constant of the spring. Then forming the equations of motion we find, neglecting friction etn esen,+nrx, . ” ‘ (1) —_. -= = ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 219 Where Mitre we is called n? so that » divided by 27 is the OATERGY of the natural vibration of Q. re @ 55 called e. The distance PG is called a, and GQ is 6, M is the mass of the body and & its radius of gyration about G. Assuming that friction will destroy the natural vibrations at Q, but neglecting the easily expressed friction term of (1), the forced vibration is easy to find. If an observer moves with P and A, he observes, not 2, but w2—2,. Let y=x—a,. Then if x,=A sin qt, 2 yo —h S * / Lf __ sin gt. y ; are is Now if we arrange that n is, say, less than one-fifth of ¢ [that is, that the natural frequency of Q is less than one-fifth of the fr equency of A and P] we may say that the motion y which is observed is a faithful imitation of any periodic motion of P and A; or, letting a+ 6 or PQ be called 7 and k?+a?=k,?, the square of the radius of gyration about P, y=— ke Oe A magnifying pointer on the spring enables this tiotion to be observed. Tt is obvious that the motion may be in a horizontal plane instead of a vertical. Note. By Professor Joun MILne. A form of Perry Tromometer as experimented with at Shide consists of a horizontal beam free to oscillate upon a knife edge. This beam is heavily loaded by two unequal masses which to obtain a balance are placed at different distances from the knife edge. Attached to one of these masses and running vertically upwards is a light A.P. spring, the top end of which is held by a fixed support. To show the movements of the spring which coils or uncoils with vertical vibratory motion, a very light pointer, or a small mirror from which a beam of light is reflected, is” attached to the same. One photogram representing a period of twenty- ~ four hours has been obtained by this instrument at Shide. This shows that during nearly the whole of the day the mirror is in motion, and the fact that this motion is due to passing carts, carriages at a distance of several hundred yards, and trains at a distance of about a mile speedily led to the conclusion that an instrument so extremely sensitive to rapid elastic motion could not be used at Shide. One interesting observation » was that, at the time of the funeral of Prince Henry of Battenberg, when — minute guns were being fired on ship-board at a distance of about five . miles, each sound wave was accompanied by the sudden displacement of the spot of light through a distance of about one foot. It did not séem that vibrations came from their origin through the ground to disturb the instrument, but as sound waves through the air, which shook the burlding and the foundation on which the instrument rested. ) If an instrument of this description could be installed at a locality ties we can assure ourselves that its movements could only be due to natural * 220 REPORT—1896. causes, it seems likely that we should add to our records of the movements of the earth’s crust forms of vibration which horizontal pendulums and seismographs are incapable of recording. VI. Earthquake Frequency. (Extract from a letter written by Dr. C. G. Knorr.) _ In my paper on Earthquake Frequency (‘ Trans. Seis. Soc. Japan,’ vol. ix. 1884), in which, probably for the first time, a sound mathematical treat- ment of periodicity was insisted upon, various possible causes of periodi- city in earthquake frequency were considered. Next to the solar annual and diurnal periods, the most important are the lunar monthly, fortnightly, and daily periods. From lack of completeness of information at that time, it was impossible to search for these. But the great eight years’ list of 8,331 Japanese earthquakes, prepared recently by Professor Milne, seemed eminently suitable for harmonic treatment. Other necessary work has prevented me getting the investigation carried out so quickly as I had wished, but enough has been done to show the probable results in certain directions. The idea is that the tidal stresses due to the moon influence the perio- dicity. The lunar day gives a periodic tidal stress of comparatively short period ; the anomalistic month (from apogee to apogee) and the nodical month (from ascending node to ascending node), give periodic tidal stresses of long period. Tabulating the earthquakes according to the number of days each has happened after apogee, or after ascending node, we get two statistical tables of monthly means, one nearly 100 months. The anomalistic month is longer than the nodical month by almost exactly one-third of a day— in the hundred months, therefore, one will have gained upon the other by thirty days, or fully one month. The curves obtained, when created by harmonic analysis, give monthly, fortnightly, and weekly periods ; but the fortnightly is more marked in the nodical curve than in the anoma- listic. In discussing the daily lunar period, we must take account of the dis- tricts in which the earthquakes occur, for only in this way can we compare their times of occurrence with the time of meridian passage, or the time of high water. In the case of the Tokio and Yokohama district, there is evidence of a half daily period ; but the investigation is still far from complete. VII. Instruments used in Italy. By Dr. C. Davison. In the following pages a description is given of a few of the principal instruments used in Italy for the registration of pulsations proceeding from more or less distant origins. Many of the instruments erected in that country are long vertical perdulums, the movements of which are magnified and registered in different ways. The length is made as great as circumstances will allow, so that for rapid vibrations the bob may be practically a steady point, and the bob is made as heavy as possible, so as to lessen the friction intro- duced by the mechanical registration. Those who have used these pendu- lums claim that they possess the following advantages over the horizonta} pendulum and other instruments designed for photographic registration. 1. They are much less expensive to work ; the cost of the paper on™ ON SEISMOLOGICAL. INVESTIGATION. 221 which the records are made being only about a franc or a franc and a half a month. 2. Any person can superintend and adjust them easily. 3. They are not subject to the displacement of the zero-line. 4. Owing to the great velocity which can be given to the paper, the epoch of the different phases of the movement can be determined with great accuracy. 5. They allow all the minute details of the movement to be studied. It is obvious that these, especially the two last, are great advantages. On the other hand, the long pendulums are subject to several objections as compared with the horizontal and bifilar pendulums. 1. Owing to their great length (Professor Riccd’s seismometrograph at Catania is 26 metres long), they are difficult to install, and indeed require a building almost specially constructed for the purpose. 2. They are much less delicate than the horizontal and bifilar pendulums. 3. The latter are also adapted for other purposes—e.g., investigating the bending of the ground by barometric and tidal loading—and this will facilitate their adoption at astronomical observatories, where, from the ease with which the exact time can be ascertained, it is most desirable that they should be established. The instruments I propose to describe are: (1) Professor G. Vicen- tini’s microseismograph ; (2) Dr. G. Agamennone’s seismometrograph, (3) Dr. A. Cancani’s seismometrograph, and (4) Professor G. Grablovitz’s geodynamic levels. It will be seen that the first of these is more or less free from the above-named objections. Professor G. Vicentini’s Microseismograph.—An account of this instru- ment and the results which have so far been obtained with it is given in the following papers : 1. G. Vicentini : Osservazioni e proposte sullo studio dei movimenti microsismici: ‘ Atti della R. Accad. dei Fisiocritici’ (Siena), vol. v. 1894. 2. G. Vicentini: Osservazioni sismiche (two papers): bid. 3. G. Vicentini: Movimenti sismici registrati dal microsismografo nella prima meta del luglio 1894: Zbid. 4. M. Cinelli: Sulle registrazioni del microsismografo Vicentini avute a Siena del 15 luglio al 31 ottobre 1894: Tbid. G. Vicentini: Microsismografo a registrazione continua: Cenno sui movimenti sismici dei giorni 14 e 15 aprile 1895: ‘ Bull. della Soc. Veneto-Trentina di Scienze Naturali’ (Padova), vol. vi. 1895, pp. 5-12. 6. G. Vicentini: Microsismografo a registrazione continua: ‘Boll. della Soc. Sismol. Ital.,’ vol. i. 1895, pp. 66-72. 7. G. Vicentini: Intorno ad alcuni fatti risultanti da osservazioni microsismiche : “Atti e Mem. della R. Accad di Scienze, &c., in Padova,’ vol. xii. 1896, pp. 89-97. 8. G. Vicentini and G. Pacher : Considerazioni sugli apparecchi sismici registratori e modificazione del microsismografo a due componenti: ‘ Atti del R. Ist. Veneto di Scienze,’ &c., vol. vii. 1896, pp. 385-399. 9. G. Vicentini: Fenomeni sismici osservati a Padova dal febbraio al settembre 1895 col microsismografo a due componenti: ‘ Atti della Soc. Veneto- Trentina di Scienze Naturali’ (Padova), vol. iii. 1896, pp. 3-63. 5. Some further details with regard to the construction of the instrument are taken from two letters written by Professor Vicentini to Professor Milne. Professor Vicentini was led to design this instrument owing, he says, to the difficulty of obtaining good photographic registration, the incon- 222 REPORT—1896. venience of working in the dark, and of using an apparatus which does not give its record until the sensitive paper is developed, and to the great expense of the photographic paper, the chemical reagents, and the source of light. Fis first experiments were made with an ordinary tromometer, about 1:50 metre long, and with a bob 50 kg. in weight. The support of the pendulum was fixed in a wall of the University buildings of Siena, over- looking a much frequented road, on the third floor, and about 20 metres above the ground. A short straw, terminating in a fine steel wire, was attached to the bottom of the bob, and the movements of the point of the wire were observed by means of a totally-reflecting prism and microscope provided with a micrometer. A tromometer of this kind does not give at any instant the true state of vibra- tion of the ground, its movements being affected by previous disturbances. But if the pendulum be obliged to perform a very little work, such as the movement of the light vertical lever described below (fig. 13), the bob is rendered much more insensible to the rapid vibrations of the point of suspension. Substituting this lever for the straw referred to above, the movements of the lower end were observed with the micro- scope. The superiority of this arrangement is very evident. When a carriage, for instance, approaches from a distance, the point of the lever at first vibrates parallel to the wall, ‘then ina plane more and more inclined to it, until, when the carriage is just opposite the building, the vibrations are per- formed normally to the wall and are synchronous with the ¢ trampling of the horses. When the vibration of the ground ceases, the movement of the lever ceases contemporaneously. Thus, by the application of this vertical lever, the bob of the pendulum is transformed almost into a steady mass, and its steadiness during movements of the ground is further pro- moted by the addition of the two horizontal levers which give the component movements in two directions at right angles 2 to one another. ; In the complete microseismograph erected in the University of Siena, the bob of the pendulum weighs 50 kg., and is sup- @ ported by three chains, united at their upper ends in a brass cap, to which is attached an iron wire about 2 mm. in diameter. € This is fastened to a screw in a strong iron bracket driven into the wall. The length of the pendulum is about 1:50 metre. By means of the screw the bob can be raised or lowered. Immediately below the latter are fixed two iron bars to support it, and prevent damage to the registering apparatus in case the suspending wire or chains should break. The bob is also surrounded by an iron ring carrying three screws, whose office is to prevent excessive displacements of the pendulum. When the pendulum is connected with the recording levers it performs complete oscillations in 2°4 seconds. Fig. 13 shows the vertical amplifying lever referred to above. It consists of a thin tube of aluminium A, soldered at its upper end to a ring B of the same metal. To its lower end is fixed a sewing-needle, DE, whose cylindrical part has a diameter of 0°6mm. The ring B is traversed at its highest point by a second needle, FG, exactly similar to the first. Its point, G, penetrating a short way inside the ring, rests in a small Fig. 13. ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, 223 glass cup carried by a support fixed to the wall. The position of the cup can be adjusted by screws, both horizontally and vertically. The base of the bob is slightly conical, and in its centre a hole is made, covered by a sheet of brass, in which a small hole with bevelled edges is made which clasps the needle, FG, at the point H. By means of the adjusting screws fitted to the glass cup, the points G and E of the needles are placed as nearly as possible in a vertical line below the centre of gravity of the bob. So long as the bob remains steady the point H is the fulcrum of the lever, and the movements of the wall are magnified at the end E in the ratio Fig. 14, EH to GH. The total weight of this lever is 2-2 grammes ; its length is 144 mm., and the ratio EH to GH is equal to 16. The friction at both the points G and H is extremely small. The movements of the lower end of the vertical lever are magnified by two light horizontal levers (fig. 14), which give the components of its motion in directions at right angles to one another. It should be mentioned that this figure is not drawn exactly to scale, and illustrates the slightly law arrangement in a new microseismograph recently erected at ‘adua. One of the levers, K, is rectilinear, and the other, K’, bent at right angles, In the Siena instrument they are made of thin aluminium plate, terminating, at the ends L and L’, in two very thin burnished steel needles, parallel to one another, and separated by a distance equal to the . 224 REPORT—1896. thickness of the needle, DE, of the vertical lever. The vertical axis, M, consists of a fine steel needle, the lower point of which rests in the conical cavity of a small glass cup fixed to the plate, P. The axis, M’, is exactly similar, but the lower end rests in a glass cup, whose height above the plate, P, can be adjusted by a screw. The levers are provided with Oo beeliemaximom jf) 5... . + | 21 14 26 | Not calculated. 6. Heavy motion . : , , : Ses ON AG oe * ls s 43 - 5 ; ; F . | 21 23 6 | 21 24 43 Be. 9 ” : 3 : : : . | 21 27 46 | Not calculated. 9. End of tremors . : , : 3 . | 23 16 20 | 22 59 36 Duration of disturbance . : ; . | 2 63 20 — Duration of preliminary tremors . .| 0 34 0 — REPORT—1896. bo (vy) oO The reason that phase No. 1 is not shown at Shide—and it can only be seen in the Carisbrooke record with the help of a strong magnifying-glass —is apparently due to the fact that the Shide lamp gives a light which is smaller and therefore feebler than that at Carisbrooke. The photograms from the latter station have therefore a definition sharper than those from Shide. Carisbrooke records are also freer from ‘tremors’ than those at Shide. Phases 2 and 3 respectively differ by 4 and 17 seconds ; but inasmuch as the Carisbrooke time was regulated by comparisons with an ordinary watch, it is remarkable that these well-defined periods are so closely coincident. The difference in duration at the two stations is also probably due to difference in definition of the photograms. I do not know where this shock originated, but because the daily papers tell us that there was a severe earthquake in Japan on August 31, and because the preliminary tremors have outraced the principal motion by 34 minutes—which indicates an origin at a distance of about 6,000 miles—the inference is that the above records refer to an exceedingly violent adjustment of crumpling strata, probably in Japan. If this inference is correct, then in that country, in its own time, a violent earth- quake took place on August 31 at a few minutes past 5 p.m. Electrolysis and LElectro-Chemistry.—Report of the Committee, con- sisting of Mr. W. N. Saaw (Chairman), Rev. T. C. Firzpatrick, W. C. D. WHetHam (Secretary). THE parts of the original scheme for a report on the present state of electrolysis and electro-chemistry which remain to be dealt with are as follows :— III. (d) Electro-chemical thermo-dynamics. (e) Electric endosmose. (f) The theory of ionic migration and ionic velocities. (7) Relations between numerical values of the electrical and other physical properties of electrolytes. IV. A discussion of experimental methods and apparatus. V. Electro-chemical phenomena not usually included as ‘ electrolytic.’ VI. Some miscellaneous electrolytic phenomena. ~ The Committee divided the work of Sections III. and IY. among its members. Electro-chemical thermo-dynamics and electric endosmose were assigned to Mr. Shaw, the theory of migration and ionic velocities to Mr. Whetham, and the discussion of apparatus and methods to Mr. Fitzpatrick. Mr. Whetham has completed the account of the theory of migration, &ec., and Mr. Fitzpatrick has dealt with the methods of measuring electrical resistance of electrolytes. With regard to the section upon the numerical relations of electrical conductivity with other properties of electrolytes the Committee are of opinion that very valuable results would be obtained by carrying out measurements of the several properties upon identical solutions with special precautions to protect the experiments against the effects of small impurities. They have learnt that Mr. E. H. Griffiths intends, in the course of the coming year, to make a series of observations on the freezing-points of solutions, and it is thought that the opportunity of making electrical measurements upon the same solutions should not be allowed to pass. Mr. Whetham will undertake the electrical portion of the work, and it is proposed to apply for a grant of 50/. towards the cost of the special apparatus necessary for it. ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 931 It is also proposed to print forthwith, and circulate among those most likely to be interested, revised proofs of the portions which have been completed, but not to include them in the published Report for this year. It is intended to publish them in the Report for 1897, with the remainder of the work that the Committee are able to put before the Association. The Committee therefore ask for reappointment, with the addition of the name of Mr. E. H. Griffiths, and with a grant of 50/, Comparison and Reduction of Mgiiaes Observations.—Report of the Conmmittee, consisting of Professor W. G. Adams (Chawman), Dr. C. CREE (Secretary), Lord KeELvin, Professor G. H. Darwin, Professor G. CurystaL, Professor A. SCHUSTER, Captain H. W. CreAK, The AsTROoNOMER Roya, Mr. WILLIAM ELLIS, and Pro- fessor A. W. Rtcxer. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) CoNTENTS. Nen-cyclic Effects at Kew Observatory during the selected ‘Quiet’ Days of the Siw Years, 1890-1895. By C. Cures, Sc.D. SECTIONS PAGE 1. Introductory Remarks: ‘ Non-cyclic’ Effect . ; ; é F 5) pul 2. WNon-cyclic Effects during Siw Years, 1890-1895. ; : ; . 231 3. Relation of Non-cyclie Effects to Annual Changes . ; : : . 233 4-6. Mean Annual Values from ‘ Quiet’ and Unrestricted Days . : . 234 7-8. Relation of Non-cyclic Effects to Diurnal Ranges . : : é . 235 9. Relation of Non-cyclic Effects to Diurnal Ine ae : : , . 236 10. Llimination of Non-cyclic 5 be : : : : . 236 11-12. Associated Phenomena . : ; : : : : . 237 APPENDIX.—Remarks by W. ELLIS, PF R. 8. : : : : 5 : . 238 Introductory Remarks: ‘ Non-cyclic’ Effect. §1. An analysis of the results from the Kew declination and_hori- zontal force magnetographs during the selected ‘quiet’ days of the five years, 1890 to 1894, was submitted last year to the Committee and adopted as its report for 1895. The corresponding inclination and vertical force results had also been pretty fully worked up, but I held them over pending an inquiry into the sufficiency of the temperature correction. Some considerable time may elapse before these results can be utilised to full advantage. It has thus seemed inexpedient to defer dealing with one set of phenomena whose general character is unaffected by any uncertainty as to the temperature correction, and whose existence seems to render desirable a reconsideration of the whole system of ‘quiet’ day observations. The phenomena in question bear on what I termed last year the non-cyclic effect. Supposing H, and H,, to denote mean values of the horizontal force at the first and second midnights of a selected series of days, then H,,—Hp was defined as the non-cyclic effect or variation of horizontal force ; and a similar definition applies in the case of any other element. Non-cyclic Effects during Six Years, 1890-1895. § 2. It is propasad to give here complete data as to the non- cyclic effects in the selected ‘quiet’ days at Kew during the last six years. To some extent this incorporates results given last year, but it seemed 262 REPORT—1896. desirable to show side by side the results for all the elements throughout the same series of years. There are five selected ‘ quiet’ days a month, and so a total of 360 in the seventy-two months of the six years considered. In November and December 1890, however, the vertical force magnetograph was out of action, which reduces by ten the number of days available in the case of the vertical force and inclination. In the following table, I., the six Januarys, six Februarys, &e., of the six years have been combined together, so as to show the values of the cyclic effects at different seasons of the year. The figures under the heading ‘Individual Months’ show in how many of the six Januarys, &c., the effect was an increase of the element in question, was nil, or a decrease. At the foot of the table appear the mean non-cyclic effects per ‘ quiet’ day throughout the six years, and the totals of the several columns under the headings ‘ Individual Months.’ Taste I.—WNon-cyclic Effect from Six Years, 1890-1895 (Mean per ‘Quiet’ Day). DECLINATION HORIZONTAL FORCE VERTICAL FORCE INCLINATION Month | rm ry 7 ln ial | Individual| (Effect) | Individual | (Effect) | Individual | ;, Individual Effect Months : x 10° } Months x 10° Months Effect Months | | +0 -— a Oh | +0— | +0-— January . | +0°63 | 6 +50 5 1 —52 6 | —0"47 | 1 5 February. | + -33| 4 2 +57 i al +5 3 eal eae eal 5 March | + *18) 3 3 +28 bial +13 22" 2 — ‘17 I wily 4 April SA 8 Le +20 4.14 1 —22 2 4 — 20 3 [es (et | May . «|?+ °07 3 3 +38 5 1 —12 3 3 — ‘27 2 4 June. - 17 3 3 +22 2b: —28 1 5 | — "22 te | July . — 23 | 3 3 +27 4.2 —13 1 5 — +22 2 4 | August — 30/ 11 4 +37 5 1 — 8 3 3 — 27 by September | + 12 3 3 +38 6 +30 Diet ast — 18 5 October + °03 2 Lie +50 6 + 5 3 3 — "28 1 5 November | + °18| 3 1 2 +53 6 —12 2 3 — 40 5 December. | — ‘10| 1 2 3 +15 5 1 — 6 2 3 — 12 2 3 Annual } mean . | +0/072 - +36°4 — =8'3 = | —0/-263/ - | | Totals of | months. — 35 6 31 — 60 7 5 — 25 3 42 — 9 8 53 In the case of the declination + signifies a deflection to the west. The true secular variation at present is towards the east. The components of force are measured in C.G.8. units. Table II. gives the mean results for the several quarters of the year as deduced from Table I., while Table III. gives the annual means for the individual years. TasiE II.—Mean Non-cyclic Effect per ‘ Quiet’ Day for each Quarter of the Year. _— Declination ec Force) (Vertical Force) x 10° Inclination Quarters] 1 AD INE 2 RE Bei Pe 4) ee +3 | —4 |-0-33| —-23| —-g2' —-28 Effect. .| +038) +-01 —-14) +04) +45) +27/ +34 | +39 | cate \ ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS, 299 Taste III.—WMean Non-cyclic Effect per ‘ Quiet’ Day for each Year. | (Horizontal Force) | (Vertical Force) 6 Year Declination x 10 % 108 Inclination ‘ 1890 —0'36 +23 +15} ~0'10! 1891 + °29 +23 —12 — 18 1892 + ‘14 +53 — 20 | — ‘41 1893 + °26 +40 — 26 | — 35 1894 + ‘15 +33 +12 — 18 1895s — 05 +44 —15 | — °33 Relation of Non-cyclic Effects to Annual Changes. § 3. To see the full significance of these data regard must be had to the magnitudes of the annual changes of the several elements. Table IV. gives these for the period considered, along with the number of average ‘quiet ’ days, which, according to Table I., would have sufficed to produce changes numerically equal to the annual changes observed. Tasie IV. \Declinatt Horizontal Vertical F eblivalk — } eciination Force ertica orce nelination Mean annual change, 1890-95. | —6”8 21x10° | —19x10°% —1'9 Number of ‘quiet’ days pro- | | 952 6 23 72 ducing equal change . As = The figures relating to the horizontal force and inclination are so significant that comment in their case seems unnecessary, As regards the declination and vertical force in individual months, notably January, the non-cyclic effects have been as large and consistent as with the other two elements, but in general this has been far from the case. As Table III. shows, in two years out of the six both declination and vertical force have exhibited a mean non-cyclic effect opposite in sign to that supplied by the six years as a whole. In considering such a phenomenon one ought of course to remember that it is contrary to probability that any sixty arbitrarily selected days— the number on which an annual mean is based—will produce a diurnal Variation truly cyclic after allowance is made for the normal annual change ; and thus part of the irregularity exhibited by Table III. may reasonably be attributed to pure chance. When, however, one looks at the uniformity of sign in the non-cyclic effects in the horizontal force and inclination exhibited in Table I., and remembers that the monthly means in that table are based on only thirty days, one must, I think, conclude that the variability of sign in the declination * and vertical force? results, at least in Table III., has probably a true physical basis. 1 In 1890 the means of vertical force and inclination are based on the results of only ten months, in one of which (March) an abnormally large positive non-cyclic effect was recorded in vertical force. * In the case of declination, and it alone, the non-cyclic effect is opposite in sign to the secular variation. ° In 1890 a positive non-cyclic effect appeared in only one month (January); in 1891 a negative effect in only one month (November). * In both 1890 and 1894, however, a slight majority of individual months exhibited a xegative non-cyclic effect as usual. 234 REPORT—1896. Mean Annual Values from ‘ Quiet’ and Unrestricted Days. § 4. Table IV. is merely a plain statement of facts ; but if too exclu- sively considered it might unquestionably convey an exaggerated idea of the defects attaching to the ordinary use made of ‘quiet’ days at the pre- sent time. At Kew Observatory they are employed to get out the mean diurnal inequality for summer and winter and the whole year, as well as the mean annual values of the several elements. As regards the mean annual value of an element, the quantity ‘mean value from “ quiet” days less mean value from all days’ may be irregularly positive and negative, or like the non-cyclic effect in the element it may be normally of one sign. It would certainly be desirable to know which of the alternatives is true. The meaning to be attached to the secular variation deduced from two consecutive years or from a short series of years would be much more uncertain if the former alternative represented the facts than if the latter did. In the Greenwich ‘ Magnetical and Meteorological Observations’ tables are published showing the diurnal variations both in ‘ quiet’ and unre- stricted days, but not apparently direct information as to the difference between the absolute values of means deduced from the ‘ quiet’ and from unrestricted days. ; At St. Petersburg, and then at Pawlowsk, it has, however, long been customary for Dr. Wild to select a series of normal ‘quiet’ days whose results are dealt with alongside of those from unrestricted days. The principle of selection guiding the choice at Pawlowsk and Greenwich has probably been slightly different, but there is at least a strong presumption that the differences between the annual means from unrestricted days and from the Astronomer Royal’s ‘ quiet’ days will prove to be of the same character as the corresponding differences observed in the case of Wild’s. ‘quiet’ days. § 5. The annual means for all the elements at St. Petersburg, from both ‘quiet’ and unrestricted days, for some twelve to sixteen years preceding 1885 are given in a paper by Dr. Miiller in the ‘ Repertorium fir Meteorologie,’ Bd. XII. No. 8. In the case of every element, according to Miiller’s tables 20 to 23, the sign of the quantity ‘ “ quiet ” day mean less unrestricted day mean’ was uniformly, or practically uniformly, of one sign ; and the secular variations deduced from the ‘quiet’ and un- restricted day results, even for consecutive years, showed a remarkably good agreement. The following summary of the mean results deducible from Miiller’s tables is extracted from a recent paper by Leyst ! :— Wild's Normal Days—all Days (Annual Means). Declination west . PhO e2o: Inclination . { . — 0723. Vertical component - —10°x8C.G.S. units. Horizontal component . +107§x 35 Af Tables of the monthly and yearly means for Wild’s ‘quiet’ days and for unrestricted days at Pawlowsk continue to be given in the ‘ Ann. des. Phys. Central-Observatoriums.’ The results from the last two volumes are as follows :— 1 Rep, fiir Met, BA. XVII. St. Petersburg, 1894, No. 1, p. 109. rt ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 235: 7 Wild’s Normal Days—all Days (Annual Means). Year | Declination Horizontal Force Vertical Force 1893 +0'3 +1075 x 40 —10-* x 20 1894 +0"6 +1078 x 60 —107*x 10 There would thus appear to be no essential change in the phenomena since the period to which Miiller’s paper refers. § 6. Wild’s ‘quiet’ days numbered only twenty-five in 1893 and thirty-three! in 1894, as against the Astronomer Royal’s sixty a year ;. thus the results from the latter are likely to exhibit even less irregularity in their departures from the results of unrestricted days than the former. Mere surmises such as the preceding are vastly inferior to the actual numerical facts. Before deciding on the labour necessary to obtain the: facts one has first, however, to estimate their probable value. One factor in this consideration which the practical man can fairly urge is that accuracy in absolute value to anything like 1 x 10~°, in the case even of the horizontal force, is an ideal we can hardly claim to have reached in this country. Relation of Non-cyclic Effects to Diurnal Ranges. § 7. An idea of the amount of uncertainty which the non-cyclic effect. may introduce into the mean diurnal inequalities for summer, winter, and the whole year may be derived from Table V. It gives the ranges of the: elements, uncorrected for non-cyclic effect, as published annually in the: Kew ‘ Report,’ along with particulars as to the ratios borne by the mean. non-cyclic effects to the corresponding ranges. TaBLE V.—Ranges of Elements from Annual Kew Reports. | = Declination re we Force) goon Inclination 7” Win- Sum- 7 Win- | Sum-| ~ Win- | Sum-| ,, Win- | Sum- Yeat ter mer Year ter mer | Year ter mer Year ter | mer |. / / / i / i 1890 6°9 51 87 21 14 30 _— _ — — — _ 1891 8-2 6°0 102 29 20 40 14 9 20 17 11 2:3 1892 9°6 6°9 12:3 33 26 44 17 Il 25 2°0 15 27 1893 101 74 13:0 37 29 46 18 10 25 2:2 7) 2:8 1894 93 70 11°9 36 26 48 17 11 22 2:2 15 28 1895 85 56 121 33 20 46 15 10 23 2-0 12 2:8 Means . a 8°8 6:3 114 32 23 42 16 10 23 2-0 14) 27 (Non-cyclic B Effect) + (Uncorrected ; range) -| +°008 | +°033 | —-006 | +°12 | +°19 | +:07 | —-05 | —-08 | —-04 | —"13 | —:21 | —-08 —— In the case of the vertical force and inclination the year 1890 has been omitted, as the results for it are not altogether complete. ? The number in most of the earlier years dealt with by Dr. Miiller seems, how-. ever, to have been considerably greater. 236 REPORT—1896. % § 8. Table V. shows how much more important relatively the non- cyclic effect is in the winter than in the summer half-year. In the winter half-year we see that the non-cyclic effect in both horizontal force and inclination is equal to about one-fifth of the range. This does not of course imply that there is an uncertainty of 20 per cent. in the range, because, whatever be the nature of the correction applied to eliminate the non-cyclic effect, it is hardly likely to introduce more than a small fraction of the observed difference between 0 and twenty-four hours into the algebraic difference of the maximum and minimum read- ings. The interval of time between these readings is in most cases nearer six hours than twelve. The fact, however, remains that in some indi- vidual winters the uncertainty as to the range must be very appreciable. When we come to individual winter months, notably January, when the observed range is least, the uncertainty is apt to be considerable. The preceding remarks refer exclusively to the uncertainties which the existence of the non-cyclic effect introduces into diurnal ranges deduced from ‘quiet’ days. Previous reports of the Committee! have dealt with differences between the ranges deduced from unrestricted and from ‘quiet’ days. It seems to me, however, that such comparisons are open to criticism so long as the proper treatment of the non-cyclic effect remains uncertain. Relation of Non-cyclic Effects to Diurnal Inequalities, § 9. In the yearly and half-yearly results the most critical point is the nature of the diurnal inequality in the late night and early morning hours. The observed variation is then small, especially in winter, so that a disturbing element of no great absolute magnitude might completely alter the character of the phenomena. This will appear at once on refer- ence to the curves of declination and horizontal force in last year’s report, pp. 212 and 220. The curves on p. 220 are certainly suggestive of the presence of some abnormal influence during the midnight | hours ; at the same time this is not more true of them fhe of curves of the sainig type for Greenwich which Sir G. B. Airy ® based on data derived from all days but those of considerable disturbance. Elimination of Non-cyclic Effect. § 10. If diurnal inequalities are to be got out at all from ‘quiet days’ in a form suitable for harmonic analysis, they must be made cyclic, and there is certainly no simpler way of doing this than that adopted last year, viz., treating the observed data as if the non-cyclic effect proceeded uniformly throughout the twenty-four hours. This method of treatment doesnot prejudice the facts. Supposing the non-cyclic effect to proceed irregularly throughout the twenty-four hours, then it may most conveniently be ana- lysed into terms, one being a linear function of the time, the others periodic functions whose periods are twenty-four hours or submultiples thereof. The linear term is eliminated by the method adopted last year. The cyclic terms of course remain, and are incorporated with the other cyclic terms of like period which go to make up the diurnal inequality on ‘ quiet’ 1 B.A. Report, 1886, p. 71. See also paper by Messrs. Robson and Smith, Phil. Mag., August 1890, p. 142. 2 Phil. Trans. for 1863 and for 1885. OO EE ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS, 237 days. It would, however, be impossible to separate the two sets of cyclic terms by any mathematical device, without an addition of physical facts or a supply of theories in their place. One way of obtaining additional facts would be to compare for a series of years the constant coefficients in the harmonic analysis of the diurnal inequalities from ‘quiet’ and un- restricted days. The accidental features introduced by the arbitrary nature of the choice of ‘quiet’ days might, however, prove troublesome. The term in the non-cyclic effect treated as a linear function of the time may in its turn be composed of a series of terms, some possibly fluc- tuating regularly with the season of the year, others possibly of very long period ; its magnitude, at least in individual months, may depend in large measure on the accidental preference of one set of ‘ quiet’ days to another. Associated Phenomena. § 11. It was pointed out last year (/.c., p. 213) that the elimination of the non-cyclic effect through a correction consisting of a linear function of the time was determined solely by considerations of convenience and mathematical simplicity. It was carefully explained (J.c., §$ 5, 6) that General Sabine and Dr. Lloyd had observed phenomena in magnetic storms so exactly the converse of those presented by the non-cyclic effect on ‘quiet’ days as to suggest that the two classes of phenomena were inter- dependent ; and the conclusion was drawn that if this interdependence were true the non-cyclic effect might be expected in reality to progress irregularly throughout the twenty-four hours. These conclusions may now, perhaps, be regarded as more than sur- mises. In the ‘ Met. Zeitschrift’ for September 1895 Dr. van Bemmelen has described phenomena he terms Wachstérwng, which appear to be of the same general character as, if not identical with, what has been termed here the non-cyclic effect. As the title he selected implies, Dr. van Bemmelen associates the phenomena very intimately with ‘magnetic storms. His investigations have included data from a variety of stations ; and whilst his theoretical conclusions may, perhaps, undergo modification in the future, his work certainly indicates that an increase of knowledge as to this outstanding phenomenon on ‘ quiet’ days is likely to be of service in the general theory of terrestrial magnetism. § 12. In the meantime it might be safest not to assume that the non- cyclic element is an effect, and a preceding magnetic storm a cause. The fact that the horizontal force, for instance, tends to rise abnormally fast during a ‘quiet’ day may, of course, merely represent a recovery from an abnormal loss occasioned by a magnetic storm ; but it is at least con- ceivable that the abnormal fall during a magnetic storm may be partly a consequence of abnormal increase preceding it, or the two phenomena may be effects of a common cause. Tf ‘quiet’ days, with no appreciable disturbance, were the rule, one might possibly determine with ease the relationships of any given ‘quiet’ day to a preceding or succeeding disturbed day ; but appreciable move- ments will usually be found both before and after a ‘quiet’ day at no great interval of time. If the causes operating in large and small disturbances are the same, then it is not improbable & priori that a small disturbance within a day or two of a ‘quiet’ day may have more to do with it than a large disturbance a week before or after. It should also be remembered 238 REPORT—1896. that General Sabine found that whilst, as a rule, large disturbances lowered the horizontal and raised the vertical force, the opposite results ensued in a very considerable number of instances. In proposing any additions to the existing ‘ quiet’ day system, or any substitute, it must be remembered that one of the main objects aimed at by its introduction was a substantial saving in the labour required to obtain comparable results from different observatories. The tabulation of the whole mass of curves was felt in most cases too serious a burden. ‘Considerable light might be thrown on the question of the uniformity or variableness of the non-cyclic element throughout the day by a very ‘simple addition, viz., curve measurements at the noons preceding and suc- ceeding each ‘quiet’ day. In the course of this paper other suggestions have been made, but they could be put into effect only at observatories prepared to tabulate all the curves. In conclusion, I wish to acknowledge the assistance I have derived ‘from discussing a variety of the points involved with Mr. T. W. Baker, ‘Chief Assistant at the Kew Observatory. APPENDIX. Remarks by W. Eis, Esq., 7.2.8. Having had the opportunity of reading Dr. Chree’s report on non- -cyclic magnetic effects, I would beg to be allowed to offer the following remarks :— Thad read with great interest Dr. Chree’s ‘ Comparison and Reduc- tion of Magnetic Observations,’ forming the report of the Magnetic Com- mittee for the year 1895, in which he discusses the Kew magnetic results on ‘quiet’ days for the years 1890 to 1894. I had lately commenced to work up in a similar way the corresponding Greenwich results in order to make comparisons between Greenwich and Kew, when treated for the same years in a similar manner. Interesting questions are involved, since it cannot be said to be at present known how far the magnetic changes at two places not remotely distant one from the other should be expected to be similar, and if not similar to what extent there may be difference, and also whether any part of such difference might be instru- mental. It is not satisfactory to compare results for one period with results for another place for a different period, because at any one place the phenomena may vary considerably at different times. But my work is not sufficiently advanced to enable me to put the results at present into ‘shape ; still I may perhaps give some information bearing on points now discussed by Dr. Chree. In Table I. he gives the mean non-cyclic effect for ‘quiet’ days for different magnetic elements for each month of the year, deduced from the Kew observations of the six years 1890 to 1895. My numbers for Greenwich are for the five years 1890 to 1894. At Kew the non-cyclic change in declination is positive in the first five, and in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh months of the year, and negative in the remaining months. At Greenwich it is positive in the first five months and in the eleventh month, and negative in the other months. At both places the largest positive value is in January, Kew = + 0/63, Green- wich = + 0'-46; the largest negative value is in August, Kew = — 030, —_— ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 239 Greenwich = — 0'-42. Mean for year at Kew = +0/:072, at Greenwich = +0'007. In horizontal force the non-cyclie effect at Kew is positive in all months, and similarly at Greenwich. The greatest values at Kew are (effect x 10° in C.G.S. units), in January, February, October, and November, +50, +57, +50, and +53 respectively ; and similarly at Greenwich, the values being +62, +53, +73, and +57 respectively. Mean for year at Kew = +36, at Greenwich = +40. In vertical force there is considerable difference, both in magnitude and sign, between the non-cyclic effect in different months at the two places. The mean for year at Kew = —8, and at Greenwich = —18. In this comparison it is to be remembered that the Kew results depend on the observations of six years, and the Greenwich results only on those of five years. As regards now the mean values in separate years (Table III.); of the five years 1890 to 1894 the non-cyclic change in declination is in the same direction in four of the five years at both places ; in horizontal force in the same direction in all years, and in vertical force in three years. The actual numbers are :— Non-cy clic change | 1890 | 1891 | 1892 | 1893 | 1894 In declination At Kew . : . 2 2 . | —0'36 | +029 | +014 | +026 | +015 At Greenwich 2 0628 | +008: | —0'-20°| 4015 | F0"24 In horizontal force At Kew . - : : ; é +23 +23 +53 +40 +33 At Greenwich +18 +37 +68 +44 +33 In vertical force At Kew . z . : : : | +15 —12 — 20 —26 +12 At Greenwich —12 — 8 —39 —24 —4 In vertical force there is a tendency to a uniformly greater negative value at Greenwich than at Kew. Considering, however, the values at each station separately, the greatest negative values occur in the same two years, 1892 and 1893, at both places. One question that I had set myself to discuss was how far the abso- lute magnetic values, as, for instance, the mean monthly values, differ, as determined from the five ‘ quiet’ days in each month, and as determined from all days (excepting those of excessive magnetic disturbance). In the Greenwich ‘ Observations’ there are given in Tables I., III., and VII. of the magnetic section mean daily values of declination, horizontal force, and vertical force respectively throughout the year (excepting days of exces- sive disturbance). The means of these values for different months are given in Table XI. Extracting from the different tables the values for the adopted ‘quiet’ days, and taking the mean in each month, the variation of these means from the corresponding means of Table XI. gives in each case the deviation of the ‘quiet’ days mean from that for all days. Since the mean of the five selected days falls always near the middle of the month, the comparison, for a first inquiry, sufficiently eliminates the secular variation, considering it uniform, the only possible supposition. The excess of the ‘quiet’ day monthly mean above the all day or 24.0 REPORT—1 896. unrestricted monthly mean is, in each month of the year, for each element, as follows (average of five years 1890 to 1894) :— Greenwich | Jan. Feb, | Mar. Apr. May | June | July } Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. |Dec. le | PORE In declination aiuinte | —0"04 | +012 | +0"24 | —0"10 | +012 | +010 | 000 | +010 | —0’06 | —0"08 | +0/-24)0"00 Fs esa In horizontal force value | | +35 | +42 | +24 | +37 | +381 | +20 |4+22|] +5 | +27[ +55] +51 [+57 all days In vertical force value . | +31 | —26 | —10 | —13 | —i1 | +10 | -li | a5 %, i pie ii Mean yearly excess of ‘quiet’ day value in declination = + 0/05 es -4 a in horizontal force = + 34 “8 oe is in vertical force = — 8 The corresponding separate yearly differences are :— | Greenwich 1900 | sor | te02 | 1893 | 1894 H In declination +0"01 | —O"12 | +0'07 | +0719 | +012 Excess of absolute In horizontal force ‘ ] ? quiet’ day value - : 7 above all days value | +L eee) + BL. | Bel ieee In vertical foree ee eg 8 |. oo I have not sufficient opportunity at the present moment to add much by way of discussion of these numbers, but taking the element in which the difference of absolute value is most marked, that of horizontal force, some few remarks may be offered. We see that the uniformly positive non-cyclic change on ‘quiet’ days is accompanied by an increased absolute value of horizontal force on such days, as compared with the value from all days, as we should perhaps expect. At Greenwich magnetic disturb- ance commonly causes diminution of horizontal force, after which the value works back to amore normal one. But there are years in which the magnetic registers are unusually quiet, with few disturbances of even moderate amount, as in the years 1878 and 1879. The inference would be that in such years the difference between the absolute value for the especially ‘ quiet’ days and that for all days should be small, varying to a certain extent in different years with the more or less prevalence of magnetic disturbance. I cannot, however, for the moment refer to the Pawlowsk differences of which Dr. Chree speaks, to ascertain whether they exhibit variations of this character. Further, whether the rise of value on ‘quiet’ days represents a recovery from abnormal loss during dis- turbance, or whether the abnormal fall during disturbance is in any way a consequence of preceding abnormal rise, may be a question. But the view that the recovery on ‘ quiet’ days is rather a consequence of abnormal fall during disturbance, that is, that the disturbance is really the primary dominating factor, appears to receive support from the following considera- tion. When disturbance suddenly arises it seems to break out over the ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS, 241 whole earth at precisely the same moment of absolute time (see ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ vol. liii p. 191). But an instantaneous magnetic shock sensible over the whole globe could scarcely, one would imagine, arise from action from within alone ; and since magnetic disturbances are more frequent when sunspots are numerically high, there seems reason to ‘suppose that the exciting cause is in such cases mainly external. To pursue this matter is, however, rather to enter the region of speculation. It may perhaps be remarked that the mean non-cyclic change for horizontal force and vertical force on ‘quiet’ days is +40 and — 18 respectively ; also that the mean excess of absolute value on such days over all days is correspondingly + 34 and — 8 respectively. Thus the rela- tion in both elements is of the same character. A part of my work consisted of a comparison of diurnal inequalities of the magnetic elements on ‘quiet’ days with those found by including all days (always excepting the excessive magnetic disturbances), and also of 4 comparison of diurnal range as given: (1) by ‘quiet’ days as observed ; {2) by ‘quiet’ days corrected for non-cyclic change ; and (3) by including all days, in all cases for the different months of the year ; but the work is not sufficiently advanced to enable any particulars to be given. Dr. Chree, referring to a previous report of the Magnetic Committee and to a paper by Messrs. Robson and Smith in the ‘Phil. Mag.’ for August 1890, speaks of the differences between diurnal ranges deduced from unrestricted days, that is all days, and from ‘quiet’ days. I may perhaps point out that these comparisons were between ‘ quiet’ days at Kew and all days at Greenwich, and were for the element of declination only. In such a comparison the question of difference of locality must be taken into account, and also possibly to some extent the difference of instruments. But in a paper which I communicated to the ‘ Phil. Mag.’ for January 1891 I made a more direct comparison of results, for the one year 1889, compar- ing the diurnal inequalities for ‘quiet’ days (five in each month) at Greenwich with those for all days at the same place. This comparison 4was made for all the three elements of declination, horizontal force, and vertical force. The five-day results were not corrected for non-cyclic change, but in declination and vertical force this was evidently small. The results show a marked difference between the diurnal inequalities for 4quiet’ daysand for all days. The later work in this direction, yet incom- plete, to which I have above referred, includes a discussion of the diurnal inequalities for the five years 1890 to 1894 for ‘quiet’ days and for all days, and the results seem likely to support those found for the single year 1889. Solar Radiation.— Twelfth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir G. G. Sroxes (Chairman), Professor H. McLEop (Secretary), Professor A. ScuustER, Mr. G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, Sir H. E. Roscor, Captain W. pe W. Asney, Mr. C. Curer, Mr. G. J. Symons, and Mr. W. E. Witson, appointed to consider the best Methods of Recording the Direct Intensity of Solar It«adiation. «Drawn up by Sir G. G. STOKEs.) Av the date of the tenth report of this Committee, Professor McLeod, who had undertaken to make some experiments with the Stewart’s actinometer used as a ‘dynamical’ actinometer, tried whether it might 1896. R 242, REPORT—1896. not be advantageous to substitute for the internal thermometer a thermo- electric arrangement whereby the solar radiation should be measured by the deflection of a galvanometer. A thin disk of blackened copper was fixed in the position previously occupied by the flattened bulb of the internal thermometer, and two wires led from this disk, namely, a platinoid wire from behind the middle point of the disk and a copper wire from the edge, the second junction of the two metals being embedded in the solid copper of the case, the temperature of which was given by the case-thermometers. A d’Arsonval galvanometer was intercalated in the thermo-electric circuit, and the difference of temperatures of the two junctions was given by the deflection of the mirror, which was read by eye by means of a divided scale. This arrangement was found to work in a very satisfactory manner ; the observations could be taken in @ shorter time than with the thermometer ; and on reducing the results by the formula given in a former report it was found that the numbers obtained fora magnitude theoretically proportional to the radiation came out very consistent with one another when they were deduced from different trios of readings taken on the same occasion. Professor McLeod had not, however, sufficient leisure to continue the experiments as he wished, and Mr. W. E. Wilson took charge of the instrument with a view to continue the experiments. Mr. Wilson modified the apparatus by introducing an arrangement by which the light reflected by the mirror of the galvanometer, instead of serving for eye observations, was received on a photographic plate which descended by clockwork, and recorded the deviations of the mirror at times which were recorded by a fixed light falling on the plate, which was interrupted at each second, so that the former light traced out a curve, the ordinates of which corresponded to the deflections, while the abscisse gave the time. In this manner very neat curves were obtained, which gave a perma- nent record of the observations. This record was of course exempt from possible errors of reading, and could be dealt with at leisure. In a later arrangement the inter ruptions at each second were recorded on the curve itself as well as on the line of abscissx, a method which presents certain advantages for the subsequent reduction. In order to obtain a base line corresponding to an equality of tempera- ture of the disk and the case, the plate was started, and the permanently tixed light and that reflected from the mirror not yet deflected were wllowed to record themselves a few seconds before the sun’s rays were allowed to fall on the plate. The latter gave a short straight line, paralle? to the axis of abscissee, corresponding to no deviation, from which the curve started when the light of the sun was let on. The curves obtained in the preliminary trials were sent to Sir George Stokes for reduction. The rapidity of the change from the straight line traced before incidence of the sun’s rays to a curve which showed no sign of the discontinuity of the initial conditions showed that the effect of the inertia of the galvanometer was practically insensible, provided at least a very few seconds were allowed for the instrument to get into train, that is, provided a minute portion of the curve, near the point cf sudden change in the conditions, were excluded in the reduction. The galvanometer was dead-beat, but it is conceivable that the damping force might have been such as to cause a sensible difference between the angular position of the mirror of the galvanometer and that ON SOLAR RADIATION. 243 corresponding to equilibrium between the torsional force at the moment and the deflecting force belonging to the thermo-electric current at the same moment. A special experiment showed, however, that such was not the case, and that the difference between the actual position and that corresponding to equilibrium was practically insensible, provided a very few seconds were allowed to elapse after any sudden change of the nature of letting on or cutting off the sun’s light. Tt follows from this that the simple differential equation mentioned in the report of the Committee for 1892 may be used in this case as well as when the solar rays actuated an internal thermometer. The integral of the differential equation shows that the curve is a logarithmic curve, the parameter of which, or index of the exponential, is constant, provided the constant relating to cooling, the q of that report, is the same under all circumstances. Measurement of the curves obtained showed that they agreed extremely well with logarithmic curves. Any two logarithmic curves, of which the parameter is the same, may be superposed by moving one relatively to the other without disturbing the parallelism of their axes, but not if the parameters are different. In general the curves obtained seemed to be sensibly superposable, indicating that gy was not merely constant during an exposure made under given circumstances, but even when the circum- stances were different ; as, for example, when one diaphragm was replaced by another of twice the area. In one case, however, it seemed that the coefficient was slightly but sensibly smaller. The constancy or otherwise of gis a point still under examination. Should it prove to be sensibly different when the circumstances are changed, the expression may still be obtained from three observations, that is, from three points of the curve. If, for the sake of simplifying the formula, the intervals of time are chosen equal, the expression (Av)?/(—A?w) has merely to be multiplied by q, the expression for which need not at present be written down, in order to obtain a measure of the radiation. It may be well to remark that this measure is merely relative ; the question of obtaining the radia- tion in absolute measure is one into which the Committee have not as yet entered. Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—Report of the Convmittee, consisting of Professor HERBERT McLeop, Professor W. C. Roperts—AUSTEN, Mr. H. G. Manan, and Mr. D. H. Nace. Tue work of collecting and arranging the titles of papers on subjects related to spectroscopy has been continued up to the present date. In the Report presented by the Committee last year it was proposed to discontinue the work at the end of 1895, and it was suggested that the four sections of the list of titles should be printed as a separate publica- tion. In view, however, of the meeting of the International Committee to consider the preparation of a catalogue of scientific literature, the Committee now proposes to continue the work up to the year 1900, so as to complete the list up to the time when the International Bureau will commence its labours. The Committee, therefore, asks for reappointment. 244, REPORT—1896. The Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis.— Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor J. EMERSON REYNOLDS (Chair- man), Dr. C. A. Koun (Secretary), Professor P. FRaNKLAND, Pro- fessor F. Clowes, Dr. HucaH Marsnaui, Mr. A. E. FLETCHER, Mr. D. H. NaGeu, and Professor W. CarLeToN WILLIAMS. Tue bibliography of the subject having been completed for the last Report, the Committee have been able to give their full time to experimental work during the past year. In addition to the appended results on the arrange- ments adopted for the work, the determination of bismuth, antimony and tin, and the separation of the two latter, the work on the determination of cobalt, nickel and zinc is well advanced, and will be included, together with further work on bismuth, in the next Report of the Committee. The Determination of Bismuth. (Part I.) By Professor J. Emerson Reyno.tps, D.Sc., ID., F.RS., and G. Percy Battey, B.A. Bibliography. Author | Journal Year| Vol. | Page Composition of Electrolyte i as . ) _—_- ae Luckow, ©. : 5 - | Dingler Polyt. J. | 1864 | 178 42 Sulphurie acid Luckow, C. - Zeits.anal.Chem, | 1880 | 19 1 | Nitric acid | Classen, ee and Reis, MAL | Ber. . Z . | 1881 | 14 | 1622) Ammonium oxalate and nitric¢ acid Th OE hein (ie ag | : . ( Sulphuric acid bin’ f omas, N.W.& Smith, 2.1. | Amer. Chem, J.. | 1883 5 114 | / Citrie acid and sodium hydrate | | Citric acid ( Oxalie acid WWAGIANO Give suis, gud -¢fser| wIRETs jc + | 1884) 17 | 1611 | 1 Nitric acid Smith, E. F., & Knerr, B. B. | Amer. chen J.. | 1885 8 206 | Sulphuric acid Classen, A., and Ludwig, R. | Ber. . 1886 | 19 $23 | Potassium and ammonium | oxalates Moore, T. . 2 “ - | Chem. News . | 1886 53 209 | Phosphoric acid Brand, A. . -. .- . Zeits.anal.Chem. | 1889 | 28 | 4581 | Sodium pyrophosphate, ammo- | nium carbonate, aud ammo- | nium oxalate | | /Hydrochlorie acid and potas- | sium iodide ; as amalgam Hydrochloric acid and a:cohol ; | : | 3 ees | oF H as amalgam Vortmann,G. + +4 +/ Ber, . 4 «| 1801) 24 | 2749 |) nitric and tartaric acids; as ) | amalgam Ammonium hydrate and tar- | taric acid ; as amalgam Riidorff, FP. . . . « Zeitsangew.Chem.| 1892} — | 198 Sodium pyrophosphate, potas- | sium oxalate, and potussium | | sulphate Freudenberg, H. - | Zeits.phys.Chem. | 1893 | 12 97 | Sulphuric acid Smith, E. F., & Sultar, J. B. | J. Analyt.& App. | 1893 7 128 | Nitric acid | Chem. Thomiilen,H. . . . | Zeits. Electro- | 1894 1 304 | Sodium pyrophosphate, potas- Chem. sium oxalate, and sulphate The examination of methods for the electrolytic estimation of this metal was conducted in the chemical laboratory of Trinity College, Dublin. ‘The electrolytic department of the laboratory is fitted in the usual way. The currents required are derived from the ‘ Bristol’ type of storage cells, made up in sets of six in each case, with connections so arranged. that currents of 2 amperes and 4, 8, or 12 volts can be obtained as required. These cells, which are compact and light, have given very satisfactory results during two years’ frequent use, and are now in perfectly good order. ON ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 245 The measurements of currents for most purposes is effected by the usual gravity ammeters indicating 0°5 to 2 amperes, but much smaller currents than 0°5 ampere must be used in bismuth estimations ; the most satisfactory mode of measuring them was by means of a delicate astatic galvanometer, with silk fibre suspension, and carefully calibrated in the position in which it was used. A curve was plotted for converting deflections into amperes, so that 0°01 ampere could be read directly, and 0-001 ampere current measured by interpolation, Provision was also made for shunting in a gravity voltmeter. For bismuth estimation a box of coils giving high resistances was used for regulating the current, as the platinoid spiral with slide, in genera’ use in the laboratory, did not cffer more than 30 ohms resistance. A long series of preliminary experiments made with bismuth nitrate solutions and different forms of electrodes indicated :— 1. That the conical form of negative electrode is not suitable for use in the estimations of bismuth, as it is difficult to get good adherent deposits on the cones, unless the solutions are very dilute. 2. That the large, smooth surface of a carefully spun platinum dish is hest suited for the negative pole in bismuth estimations. The dishes used in the test estimations weighed from 35 to 38 grammes, and the internal areas averaged 190 square centimetres. 3. That a large flat spiral of platinum wire for the positiye electrode is more satisfactory than a disc, as it allows free circulation in the liquid. A large number of experiments were made in the first instance with a view to ascertain the kind of solution most convenient for electrolysis, the nitrate or sulphate being used as the starting point in the production of the different liquids actually electrolysed. Irregular results were obtained with the simple nitrate containing varying proportions of free nitric acid ; but good determinations were more easily made in solutions of the sulphate when electrolysed by currents of 0-08 to 0:2 ampere. On the other hand, for the purposes of actual analysis, it seemed of more practical importance to ascertain how far the more convenient nitrate solution could be made to afford good reguline deposits of bismuth, which should admit of washing without loss or material oxidation. It was found that careful, adjustment of the current is one of the elements of success, but not the only one, and that 0:03 ampere is the maximum current that should be used nearly to the end of the operation, though 0:1 may be passed to complete deposition. Regulation of the current did not alone prove sufficient to neutralise the effect of excess of nitric acid, and most of the substances were tried which have been recommended for use in similar electrolyses. Of these, metaphosphoric acid and citric acid proved so much better than any others we employed that our attention was directed chiefly to examine their effects in test experiments with bismuth nitrate. Test EXPERIMENTS. The bismuth used in the preparation of the test solutions was carefully purified. In the first instance it was repeatedly fused with small quan- tities of nitre and cast. This metal was then heated to low redness for fifteen minutes with potassium cyanide and sulphur, with constant stirring ; was again cast, and reheated to bright redness with 5 per cent. of a mixture of pure sodium and potassium carbonate. The fine metal so obtained was dissolved in nitric acid, the solution evaporated to a small bulk, and then precipitated as oxynitrate by water. The washed pro- 9 ~_ 16 REPORT—1896. duct was again dissolved in nitrie acid, and was fractionally precipitated by ammonia, the first and last fractions being rejected. The middle fraction, after thorough washing, was preserved and used in the prepara- tion of the final test solutions of bismuth. The first solution of bismuth nitrate prepared contained, in 25 c.c., 0-125 grme. of bismuth. This contained a sutticient excess of nitric acid to prevent precipitation unless diluted with about ten volumes of water. In the following series of estimations 25 c.c. of the solution were used in each case, and either diluted to 150 c.c. in a platinum dish with water only, or made up to the total volume of 150 c.c. with water after addition of the various substances stated below. The electrolysis was then com- menced with the current specified, and the action usually allowed to continue all night. At the end the current was generally increased, in order to complete the deposition. As slight oxidation takes place at the edge of the liquid even with apparently very good reguline deposits, the latter, when washed, dried, and weighed, were in some cases oxidised by nitric acid, the solution carefully evaporated to dryness, and heated until the bismuth nitrate was converted wholly into Bi,O,. From the oxide obtained the weight of Bi was then calculated. This operation is easily executed in the electrolytic dish, and was found to be a useful check, especially when the results of electrolysis seemed too good. | Bi from | A 24 F F Bi 0 phen solution | Currents in as Metal! Bi,0; | Remarks iluted to 150 c.c. Amperes grme. weme. ) 1. Water and Nitrate 0-008 0-13 — | Loose deposit, evident only increased | | oxidation. at end to | | 0:05 2. Ditto ‘ é 0:05 0:1238 — | Loose, but reguline. | 3. +2 ¢c.c. strong Me- 0:02 0-124 — | Very firm deposit, easily taphosphoric acid washed. No apparent solution | oxidation. 4. +2c.c. HPO, solu- | OOSin- | 0127 | — _ | Notso firm, and not per- tion creased to fectly reguline. 0:05 at end 5. +4¢.c. HPO, solu- 0:03 to 07125 01248 | Very firm and reguline ; tion 0:05 at end | | easily washed. 6. +1 grme. of Citric | 0:008 to | 0:130 01238 | Firm,but coloured owing Acid 0-01 | | to oxidation. 7. +1 grme. of Citric 0-01 to 0:05} 0126 | — Firm good deposit ; Acid | slightly oxidised. 8. +2 grmes. of Citric 0-01 01246 | — Very firm, easily washed, Acid | and apparently unoxi- dised, 9. +2 grmes. of Citric 0:01 01246 | 0:1246 | :, # Acid 10. +25 grmes. of |0:01 to01} 0125 0°1249 of ”» Citric Acid at end 11. +25 grmes. of |0-01 to0-1| 0125 | 0-1247 | ‘ 7 Citric Acid at end | 12. 0°05192 grme. of Bi | 0-005 to | 0:0526 | 0:052 | 1H 7 as Nitrate + 2°75 |0-Olat end | grme. Citric Acid | 13. 0:07 grme. of Bi as | 0:005 to | 0:07 0:0697 | A » Nitrate + 2:2erme. |0:01 at end | of Citric Acid ON ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 247 Operating in this way, the results on the preceding page, from | to 11, were obtained with 25 c.c. of bismuth nitrate solution=07125 grme. of Bi diluted to 150 c.c. Experiments 12 and 15 were made with solutions of different strengths and larger proportions of nitric acid than those which precede. So far as experiments with the simple nitrate solutions were concerned the results merely confirmed all our previous experience, as it is very difficult to obtain a good adherent deposit on electrolysis except from very dilute solutions. The results obtained with metaphosphoric acid under the conditions specified indicate that the reagent controls deposition in a very marked way, and enables us to get good adherent reguline deposits even in presence of much free nitric acid and when using a comparatively strong current. The use of metaphosphoric acid is therefore attended with considerable advantage in the case of simple bismuth nitrate solutions. Citric acid has proved quite as etfective as metaphosphoric acid, and gives a wider range of utility in general analysis. Moreover bismuth can be separated from alkaline citrate solution in good condition and with considerable accuracy ; hence we are disposed to prefer the use of citric acid to that of metaphosphoric acid in electrolytic determinations of bismuth. The separation of bismuth from stronger solutions and from other dis- solved metals will be considered in the next report. The Apparatus employed and the Arrangement of the Circuits for Electrolytic Analysis. By Cuarues A. Koun, Ph.D., B.Sc. The arrangements for electrolytic work described in this portion of the Report have been fitted up in the Chemical Laboratory of University College, Liverpool, where the work on the determination of antimony and tin and their separation has been carried out. A set of five secondary cells charged by a dynamo were employed throughout the analyses, Electrodes. Platinum dishes of about 200 c.c. capacity, and weighing 37-38 girme., were used as the cathode, and small platinum discs with holes bored through them to admit of the escape of the evolved gases as the anode. For the determination of both antimony and tin, sand-blasted platinum dishes were found preferable to the ordinary polished dishes ; this is especially the case when the deposition of a metal is effected from a hot solution. The electrodes were kept 20 mm. apart. Glass stands with brass supports as described by Classen were used to hold the electrodes, the support for the dishes being covered with an asbestos card when heating was necessary. Voltmeter and Ampere-meter. A suitable ampere-meter for electrolytic analysis has long been a de- sideratum. The use of the water voltameter which was formerly employed has for obvious reasons been abandoned, and the ampere-meters on the market are almost all cither too restricted in their range or lacking in sensibility ; in addition their internal resistance is so high that it must always be allowed for whenever the instrument is not in circuit. The Fic. 1.—Arrangement for Six Circuits. REPORT— 1896. +20 Scale—1 unipolar instruments recently devised by Mr. B. Davies, of University College, Liverpool, fulfil all the requirements for electrolytic work admirably, and they have been used for the past two years with complete satis- faction. The ampere-meter possesses two marked properties which are especially advanta- geous :— 1. A very open scale, espe- cially open for the lower readings. 2. A practically negligible resistance. I am indebted to Mr. Davies for the following description of his instruments :— The construction of the volt- meter and the ampere-meter de- pend upon the same principle, the rotation of a coil conveying a current around one pole of a magnet. The magnetic circuit is composed almost entirely of iron and steel, with an air-gap of 2 mm. in thickness. The steel is carefully magnetised and ‘aged,’ and the circuit is so de- signed that the demagnetising force is negligible. The chief part of the electric circuit is the moving coil, which conveys the current, or a portion of the current to be measured. In the voltmeter the coil is placed in series with a resistance of manganin; in the ampere- meter it is placed in parallel with a small resistance. The whole length of the scale is about 220° of arc. Currents of all mag- nitudes may be measured from ooo ampere upwards, and elec- tromotive forces from ;4, volt upwards. Both instruments are practically ‘dead-beat’ ; this is not due to friction, the pivots being jewelled, but is an elec- tro-magnetic effect. The inter- nal resistance of the ampere- meters is shown in the following table :— 249 ON ELECIROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. ‘pt [-9vog ‘soOURISISOY puV “I}OUTPOA \9JOTUTY 0} Y O[qBI, WOLF smorjoouM. SarMogs “QAI, Q Yee “Aep 9100) —"s ‘DIA 250 REPORT—1896. tange of Resistance Aimpere-meter 0O-Ol ampere. ° ° - . - 04 ~-onnr O-1 * 5 - : : . s “O08 Tras ” . ' 2 - * -» 0;008. a O-100 ,, - ? ; 5 - 09-0008 ,, The ampere-mneter actually employed had a range of from 0-3-5 amperes, the graduations corresponding to 0-02 of an ampere. The internal resistance was 0:03 ohm, and the readings above 0:1 ampere perfectly accurate and constant. For currents below 0:1 ampere an instrument with the range 0 to 0-1 ampere must be substituted, but such small currents are not required for the experiments described in this portion of the report. Small rheostats with mercury connections were used as resistances, one for each circuit, each having a series of resistance coils from 4 up to 40 ohms, and a total resistance of 80} ohms. The current density is in all cases calculated on 100 sq. cm. of cathode surface, and expressed as C.D. ; 9. Arrangement of the Circuits. The accompanying plans show the arrangement adopted for six circuits. The tables A and B are each divided into three parts by thin strips of wood, the current being carried in each case by wires from the brass terminals ‘}’ to the stand for the electrodes, which is placed between them. The circuit is completed or broken by an ordinary electric light switch, ‘8.’ The centre-table contains all the connections to the ampere-meter, voltmeter, and resistances, in addition to the instruments themselves, thus leaving the tables on which the analyses are carried out perfectly free ; this is a decided convenience. This centre-table is provided with a flap- cover, so that the instruments are protected, except when measurements are being taken. The details of the connections on the centre-table for three of the circuits are shown on Fig. 2. The board DD, which is fixed on to the centre-table, carries two small boards A’ and B’, fitted with mercury- cup connections ‘m’; it also carries three small blocks, C, on each of which are fixed three brass binding-screws, connected underneath by a broad copper strip. R,, R,, and R, are the resistance boxes. The negative wire from the secondary cells passes direct to the con- necting board C,, fixed on the wall at the back of the tables, the remaining wires from the batteries passing to the switch-board (Fig. 2), so that any number of cells from one up to six can be put into use. From the ter- minal of the switch-board a wire passes to the connecting board C,, and thence to the table A, where it is divided in parallel into the three circuits 1, 2 and 3 by a small connecting board which, together with the necessary wiring, runs under the ledge of the table A (Fig. 1). The circuit is com- pleted from the connecting board C, through the mercury cup ‘m’ on the board A’ (Fig. 2), marked ‘to circuits.’ This cup is connected to the other cups 1, 2 and 3 on the same board by spanners of stout copper wire with ebonite handles. The resistance of the spanner is negligible, as is that of the ampere-meter, but in cases where that of the latter has to be considered, a spanner must be used, having an equivalent resistance. Similar spanners are used for the ampere-meter and voltmeter connections ; they are all of different lengths so as to prevent mistakes in taking measurements. Supposing the spanner be put to circuit No. 1, the cur- ON ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 251 rent passes through the resistance box R,, then to the block C,, and finally to the table A to complete the circuit. By placing the spanner between m, and the cup on the board A’ leading to the ampere-meter, mm’, the current is similarly completed through the ampere-meter, so that the reading is taken without stopping the current. The connections to the voltmeter will be clear from the diagram ; it is simply a branch from each of the circuits. The Determination of Antimony. By Cuartes A. Konn, Ph.D., BSc., and C. K. Barnes, B.Sc. Bibliography. Author Journal Year | Volume] Page Composition of Electrolyte Parodi, G., and Mas- | ina r ~ | {Ammonium tartrate. Gazinic A. | Zeits. anal, Chem. . 1879 18 587 ( Alkali sulphide. 25 | Fattc ‘ { Hydrochloric acid. Luckow, C. ° | Zeits. anal. Chem.. | 1880 19 1 | Aikali sulphide. F Potassium oxalate. ‘ ais | s . Classen, A., and Reis, Ber. . ° . | 1881 14 1622 | Alkali tartrate. M.A. ji : Ammonium sulphide. } Sodium sulphide. Classen, A. wae oe | ar om he .| 1884 17 2467 | | Sodium or potassium sulph- | { hydrate. Classen, A., and Lud- | Ber. Be oe eS 18 1104 Sodium sulphide. wig, R. Brand, A... . . | Zeits. anal. Chem.. | 1889 28 581 Sodium pyrophosphate and : ammonium carbonate. Lecrenier,A. «» «. | Chem. Zeit. . . | 1889 13 1219 Sodium sulphide and sodium sulphite. Vortmann, G. ., - | Ber. Py 4 c 1891 24 2749 Sodium sulphideand hydrate as amalgam. Riidorff, F. . «| Zeits.angew.Chem. | 1892 — 3 Sodium sulphide, Classen, A. e . | Ber. 2 C .| 1894 Pig 2060 Sodium sulphide. The deposition of antimony from solutions of its sulpho-salts, as first suggested by Parodi and Mascazzini, and also by Luckow, has been espe- cially studied by Classen and his pupils. Classen finds that a sodium sulphide solution is best adapted for the deposition ; the reagent must be free from polysulphides, which, if present, are oxidised by hydrogen per- oxide. The deposition is effected in the cold solution with a current of 15-2 c.c. of electrolytic gas per minute, and requires 10 to 12 hours. Nissenson states that 0:15 erme. of antimony can be deposited from a solution of the su!pho-salt in one hour by electrolysing the warm solution with a current of 0°5—1-0 ampere. Of other solutions ammonium tartrate has alone been stated to give accurate results, the deposits obtained from hydrochloric acid, potassium oxalate, and sodium pyrophosphate solutions not adhering sufficiently well to the dish to be of value for quantitative determinations. Experiments were accordingly restricted to the deposition from sodium sulphide and from ammonium tartrate solution. Deposition of Antimony from Sodium Sulphide Solution. A hydrochloric acid solution of antimony chloride, prepared from pure antimony, was employed for the experiments, the solution containing just sufficient acid to keep the chloride of antimony in solution. It is important to use pure sodium sulphide ; this was prepared from sodium hydrate purified by alcohol, in the usual way, and concentrated to a sp. gr. of 1°18, 252 REPORT—1896. After adding the sodium sulphide to the antimony chloride the solu- tion was filtered into a platinum dish, diluted to 175 ¢.c. with water and electrolysed. The deposited metal was washed successively with alcohol and ether and dried in the air bath at 80° C. before weighing. Series I. Influence of varying quantities of Sodium Sulphide on the Deposition of Antimony. The object of this series of experiments was to ascertain how varia- tions in the quantity of sodium sulphide present, in excess, in the solution of the sulpho-salt, affected the deposition of the antimony, and what degree of accuracy was obtainable with varying quantities of metal under the most favourable conditions. The electrolyses were in all cases conducted in the cold solution and allowed to go over night; an excess of sodium sulphide above that required to form the sodium sulpho-antimonite was always present. The results are recorded in the following table :—- Experi- | Antimony Antimony Sodan aut C.D.09 | EMF. | Time: | phide solution scent ment taken; grme. | fuund: grme. Rdaed Amperes Volts hours 1 0:1010 071065 inere: O14 | 2:5 193 2 0:1010 01076 eee O19 1 eel: 193 3 01010 0 1062 1B, O15 32 193 4 0°1515 0:1572 225 ©.c. O18 eee 173 5 00505 | 0:0516 iD: 1.5 O17 bE 174 | 6 01010 0:1013 30 c.c. 0-19 }> ele 183 | 7 0:2020 02021 30 5, 015 17 174 8 0:2020 0 2023 Sines O18 eva 2se 183 9 0:0505 00508 Seed. ONG. ep ae 17k 10 0:0202 00202 S0 bre | 0200 St eet 173 11 0-0101 0:0100 a0 Ge Og [ae 174 12 0:0505 0:0508 102.5 | 0°20 (E26 18 13 0:0202 00204 ip: 75 } 0 20 2°7 18 | 14 00101 | 00098 | LO; 0:20 | 25 18 Experiments 1-5 show that with only 15 c.c. of sodium sulphide solution per 071 grme. of antimony high results are obtained, whereas with double the proportion the results are accurate (No.6). But in experi- ments 7 and 8, although the quantity of sulphide added is double that in 1 and 2, the proportion to the antimony present is the same. This apparent abnormality is due to the fact that unless a certain excess of sodium sul- phide is present a small quantity of sulphur is precipitated with the antimony on the cathode, hence the high results 1-6, and the excess of sulphide is necessary to keep this sulphur in solution The proportion of sulphur thus separated at the cathode appears to be independent of the quantity of antimony present, within limits. According to experiment 5, 30 c.c. of sulphide should be insufficient for 0-2 grme. antimony, but Nos. 7 and 8 show that this is not the case ; on the other hand, experiment 12 points to 20 ¢.c. as the right quantity of sulphide per 0-1 grme. of metal. In all cases sulphur is separated at the anode. Whenever it comes down with the antimony at the anode the deposited metal, which is usually bright and metallic in appearance, is always dull and almost black ; this was the case in experiments 1-5. ON ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS, 253 The normal decomposition can be represented by the equation :— fo Na 2 SbCS Na = 8d,4+3Na,S48s. S Na Cathode Anode The separation of sulphur at the cathode must be due to a secondary decomposition, which is prevented provided there is a certain excess of the sulphide present. It appears immaterial whether this excess is increased or not, for in Nos. 9, 10, and 11 three times as much sulphide was added as in Nos. 12, 15, and 14 for the same quantities of antimony. From this the method is reliable, provided 30 c.c. of sodium sulphide of sp. gr. 118 are added for every 0-2 grme. of antimony, and up to 50 c.c. can be used with safety. Classen and others recommend this proportion ; the above experiments point out the necessity for it. The current density of 0°15 to 0:20 ampere per 100 sq. cm. should not be exceeded, otherwise the metal does not adhere so well to the electrode. The completion of the deposition is best tested by withdrawing a little of the solution from the dish with a capillary tube, and testing it with acid for the presence of antimony sulphide. The addition of caustic soda to the sodium sulphide has no disadvan- tageous effect on the method as described. Under similar conditions to the above, in which 30 c.c. of sulphide solution and 2 grme. of sodium hydrate were added, 0:1514 grme. antimony were found for 0:1515 taken. Caustic soda is added in the separation of antimony and tin electrolyti- cally, hence it was desirable to ascertain its influence, if any. The solutions of the sulpho-salt were quite free from polysulphides, but should these be present they must be oxidised with hydrogen peroxide. Series IT. Deposition of Antimony from a WARM Solution of the Sulpho. sult. The time required for the deposition of antimony is considerably shortened by conducting the electrolysis in the warm solution. The antimony solution is treated with sodium sulphide as described, and electrolysed with acurrent of 1 ampere ; 0:2 grme. of metal can be readily deposited in 24 hours. Under the right conditions the deposit is bright and metallic in appearance. The following table records the results obtained :— - _ | Sodium | Experi- | Antimony | Antimony | suiphide. C.D.49) |E.M.¥.| Tempera- | Time: | ment takea: fond: Solution Amperes Volts ture hours | Grme. Grine, | added 1 02020 | 02090 | 30c.c. 0-98 61 | 50°-60° | 23 2 02020 | 02028 | 50c.e. 104 6:5 | 50°-60° | 24 3 0 1010 071009 | 50ce. 1:00 G7 0°65" |) Be 4 0:0505 0:0502 | 50 c.c. 0-94 6-7 | 50°65° | 22 5 0-0202 00213 | 50ce. 0:97 6-4 | 50°65° | 2k 6 0-0101 00093 | 50 c.c. 1-01 64 | 50°65° | 25 7 02020 | 02000 | 50c.. 1:03 61 | so°-90° | 25 | The deposits in Nos. 1 and 7 were dull and dark coloured ; this is to be traced to an insufficiency of sodium sulphide in No. 1, and too high a tem- perature in No.7. With 50 c.c. of sodium sulphide solution the method 254, REPORT— 1896. is reliable, as shown in Nos, 2 to 6, though rather less so for small quan- tities of metal than when the electrolysis is conducted in the cold solution. The temperature should not exceed 50° to 60°. The deposit is bright and metallic in appearance, and adheres well to the dish. Series ITT. Deposition of Antimony from Ammonium Tartrate Solution. Parodi and Mascazzini (loc. cit.) state that antimony can be deposited from a solution of its chloride in ammonium tartrate, but give no experi- mental data. According to Classen an adherent deposit is obtained from a potassium tartrate solution, but the separation takes too long to be of value for analysis. As very few results have been published on this method a series of experiments were tried. These show that the complete deposition of antimony from a solution of an alkali tartrate is possible, in about nineteen hours, with a current density per 100 sq. em. of 0°15 am- pere. The deposit, however, does not possess the bright metallic appear- ance of that obtained from sodium sulphide solution ; it is dark and dull and does not adhere very fast to the dish. Still it can usually be washed without loss, although with quantities of metal, above 0-1 grme., this was not possible, hence the low result in No. 1. Also when the current is allowed to exceed 0:15 ampere per 100 sq. cm. the deposit is less adherent and apt to wash off. Nos. 2, 9, and 10 illustrate this. The method of analysis was to neutralise the solution of antimony chloride and add the ammonium tartrate in a 12 per cent. solution, the electrolysis being conducted in the cold solution and over night. The following results were obtained : . Antimony Antimony Bt ; Experi- | ~ fakes fouud< Tartrate C.D.400 E.M.F. | Time: ment Gane’ Grine. rey Ampeies Volts hours 1 0°2036 0:2020 3 015 3°6 183 2 0:2036 0:2003 3 0:18 36 183 3 0-1018 0:1018 25 0-14 37 19 4 01018 01019 4 013 37 193 5 071141 0:1140 6 014 33 ify) 6 0:1141 01142 6 0-15 34 19 7 01018 0°1025 3 013 33 182 8 0:0509 0-0504 3 O15 3-4 183 | 9 0:1018 0:0983 3 0:18 35 184 10 0:0509 0:0477 3 0-18 37 | 183 Variations in the quantity of ammonium tartrate added above 2°5 grme. have no influence on the accuracy of the method, as is seen from Nos. 3, 4, and 5. Summary. The most reliable method for the electrolytic estimation of antimony is the use of the sulpho-salt in presence of a large excess of sodium sulphide, under the conditions already described. This solution can be electrolysed either hot or cold; the latter is always preferable when only small quanti- ties of antimony are to be deposited. The saving of time by using the warm solution is no great advantage, as the deposition from the cold solution requires no watching and can be allowed to go on evernight. a POT wetter s - ON ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 255 Although accurate results can be obtained by electrolysing an ammonium tartrate solution of an antimony salt the method requires much greater attention and the conditions are more limited than the above; it is, there- fore, not to be recommended from a practical standpoint, whereas the deposition from a solution of the sulpho-salt possesses advantages over the ordinary gravimetric methods for the determination of antimony both in regard to rapidity and accuracy. The Determination of Tin. By Cuarues A. Kony, Ph.D., B.Sc., and C. K. Barnes, B.Se. Libliography. Author Journal Year} Vol. | Page Composition of Electrolyte Luckow,C.. . «. . | Zeits. anal. Chem. | 1880] 19 1 | { Hydrochloric acid. | Alkali sulphide. Classen, A., and Ieis, M.A. |Ber, . . «| 1881] 14 | 1692 Vinee Classen, A. . - aie =| eBeren : -| 1884} 17 | 2467 | Ammonium sulphide. Moore,T. . 3 . | Chem. News -| 1886 | 53 209 | Phosphoric acid. Riidorff, F. . : . | Zeitsangew.Chem.} 1892 | — 197 | Acid ammonium oxalate, Freudenberg, H. . : . | Zeits. phys. Chem. | 1893 | 12 97 | Ammonium oxalate. ( Acid ammonium oxalate. Classen, A. . * - «t| Berrw « . -| 1894 | 27 | 2060 lac oxalate and acetic acid. Thomiilen,H. .« . ~~ | Zeits. Electrochem) 1894 1 304 | Acid ammonium oxalate, | ( Hydroxylamine sulphate. Engels,C. «2 « - Zeits, Electrochem| 1896 | 2 | 413 |4A™mmonium acctate, tartaric ( acid and Hydroxylamine hydrochloride. — Luckow states that tin can be deposited from a hydrochloric acid solution, or from a solution of the sulphide in alkali sulphide ; but no analytical data are given in his paper. According to Classen and Reis (Ber., 1881, 14, 1622) fair results are obtained by using a hydrochloric acid solution; but the most important methods are those in which an ammonium oxalate or an alkali sulphide solution are employed. The experimental work has therefore been confined to these methods. Moore states that tin is easily deposited from an acid or alkaline solution of the metal in glacial phosphoric acid, but gives no details or experimental data ; the method has not been tried. The Deposition of Tin from an Ammonium Oxalate Solution. The separation of stannic acid during the electrolysis of ammonium oxa- late solutions of tin salts, owing to the solution becoming alkaline, renders it necessary to keep the solution acid during the electrolysis. Classen uses either oxalic acid or acetic acid for this purpose ; in both cases a CD. inc of 03 ampere is employed, which is increased to 0-5 or even 1-0 ampere towards the end of the experiment. 0-3 grme. of metal are deposited in from 6 to 9 hours, according to the strength of the current. Freudenberg has found that in an E.M.F. of 2:3 to 2-7 volts is required to separate tin from an oxalate solution. A large number of experiments were made with ammonium oxalate solutions, under varying conditions, typical results of which are recorded. The method was not found to be reliable. It is very dificult to effect the complete deposition of the tin before the solution becomes alkaline unless a large excess of acid is employed, and this very much retards the rate of deposition, An increase in current density might overcome 256 REPORT—1896. this, were it not that the deposit then obtained is always more or less powdery in form, and does not adhere sufficiently well to the dish to admit of being washed without loss. The method can be made to yield fair results if the solution be kept jus? acid throughout the electrolysis by the ‘addition of oxalic or acetic acid from time to time, as required (Series IT.) ; but such a procedure requires constant attention, thus withdrawing at once one of the most marked advantages of electrolytic analysis. The tin solution used in the following experiments was prepared by dis- solving pure tin in pure hydrochloric acid, the acid solution being neutra- lised with ammonium hydrate before use and diluted to 175 ¢.c. The other solutions employed were : — Ammonium oxalate . : . 40 grme. per 1000 c.c. Oxalic acid . : ‘ ‘ . 80 BX - Aceticacid . : i ‘: . 50 per cent. solution. PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS, in which 120 c.c. of the ammonium oxalate solution were added for 0:1 grme. of tin, showed that the solution be- comes alkaline and separates stannic acid after 6 hours, during which time only 60-70 per cent. of the metal is precipitated. The decomposition may be represented by the equation :— .. CO.ONH, , CO.0\ g CY GG.ONE, CO.07 2 tem Nas 200 Cathode Anode (ii.) 2NH, +2CO, + 20,0 =2NH,. HCO,. Hence the alkalinity of the solution, which must be overcome to pre- vent the precipitation of stannic acid. EXPERIMENTAL Data. Series I. Ammonium Oxalate Solution Acidified with Ovalic Acid. { ‘ Tin Ammonium Oxali id Experi- | Tin taken: bond’ oxalate xalic aci Fak pe EMF. | Time: ment Grme. ae ‘| solution | Selotion | Ampere | Volts | hours | rme. | added, c.c. added, c.c. 1 | 0:1050 0:0670 | 100 50 0-4 3-4 5 2 00525 | 0:0247 | 100 50 O-4 30 5L 3. | 0:1050 | 0-0669 100 50 0:3 3-2 gi 4 , 00201 | 00158 ; 100 50 0:3 32 gi 5 | 01026 | 01015 80 40 02-0 | 28-37] 8 6 01026 | 01009 80 40 0:25-0°5 | 26-32 | 84 7 | 01026 | 0:0939 80 40 0°24-0°52 | 28-35] 9 8 01026 | 0:0849 | 80 40 0:23-0°5 | 33-35] 9 9 01050 | 0:1030 100 50 0°9-1-2 35 6 10 0-1¢50 | 01042 | 100 50 0-5-1-0 35 7 11 0:1050 | 0-:0740 100 50 0-8-1 0 35 6 hot | 12 01575 | 01526 | 100 50 0-5 2-8 9 hot | 13. | 01050 | 0:1055 100 75 0-5 27 5} 14 01575 | 01250 100 15 05 2:6 5L 15 02100 | 02061 100 5) 0:5-1:0 | 31-38 | 6% | The above results are taken from forty-five experiments carried out. In each case the electrolysis was continued until after the solution became alkaline ; after the solution has turned alkaline, the further deposition of tin is extremely slow, only 2-3 m. grmes. being deposited by a current of 0-5 ampere in twelve hours. Although a few fair results are recorded above ON ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 257 (Nos. 5, 9, 10 and 13), it is quite evident that the method is scibélinblet With a current ‘density of 0-3 to 0°5 ampere, either throughout the experiment, or increased up to 1:0 ampere towards the completion of the electrolysis, as in Nos. 9, 10, the deposition is incomplete, and no advantage is gained by warming the solution to 60°-70° C. as in Nos. 1l and 12. The deposits obtained were bright and metallic in appearance. Series IT. Ammonium Oxalate Solution kept just Acid by by Oxalie Acid. ; E Awmonium Oxalic acid pomneian added -igaecam : ey oxalate solution Pug. 7 added, c.c. At start | During experiment 0:2160 0:2160 80 40 | 65 0:2376 0°2382 80 40 60 0:1050 0:1048 100 _— 80 In the above three experiments the solution was kept acid throughout the electrolysis by the addition of oxalic acid from time to time ; the first addition of acid was necessary after four hours. The results are satisfac- tory, but the deposits were somewhat powdery in appearance, and required very careful washing. In each case a current of 0°54 ampere was em- ployed, and an E.M.F. of 3-5 volts ; the electrolysis was completed after 9% hours, when the solutions had become alkaline. Series IIT. Ammonium Oxalate Solution Acidified with Acetic Acid. : ; Tin Ammonium Acetic acid | Experi- | Tin taken: | p 0,4, [oxalatesolu-) solution C.D io | E.M.F. | Time: ment Grme, Ginnie. tion added, |jadded, 50 per| Ampere Volts hours ; cc, cent. ¢.c. | 1 0:2268 0:2274 100 25 0:67 32 2 0:2592 0:2576 100 25 0°68 3:3 ot 3 0:2052 0°2041 100 25 0°50 3:3 183 4 0:2052 0:2034 100 25 0°32 3:3 19 5 0°1539 01548 100 25 0-54 37 183 6 0:1539 0:1537 100 25 0:32 32 19 6 0:1026 01021 100 25 0:28 3:0 19 8 0:1026 01012 100 25 0°51 34 183 9 0:1026 0:1024 100 25 031 3:4 193 10 0:0513 00518 100 10 0:30 37 183 11 0:0205 0:0208 100 10 0°32 36 182 12 0:01025 | 0:0103 100 10 0°35 3:2 183 13 0:1026 0:1009 100 10 0°36 37 19 14 0:1026 0°1025 100 15 0°31 3:2 19 15 0:1026 071031 100 25 0:34 37 19 ‘The tin solution used was the same as in the previous series of experi- ments ; the total contents of the dish were diluted to 175 .c. in each case, after the addition of the reagents. Experiments 1 and 2 show that the deposition of tin from an ammo- nium oxalate solution acidified with acetic acid is fairly complete in from nine to ten hours, with a current of 0:7 ampere, but the deposit obtained is powdery and difficult to wash without loss. By employing a weaker current and allowing the electrolysis to proceed overnight, the deposit obtained is far better ; 3 itis dark in colour, but adheres “perfectly to the s 2538 REPORT—1896. dish, and the results are altogether more reliable. A current of 0:3 ampere is best, and 18-19 hours must be allowed for the complete deposi- tion even of such small quantities as taken in Nos, 10, 11, 12, for the last traces are only very slowly separated from solution. If a stronger current (1:0 ampere) be employed the deposit does not adhere properly. The only way to tell whether the deposition is complete is to expose a fresh portion of the surface of the cathode to the solution, by diluting the contents of the dish, and to observe whether any more metal is separated after con- tinuing the passage of the current for one hour ; none of the ordinary tests for tin are sufficiently delicate to indicate the completion of the electrolysis. A comparison of Nos. 13, 14, 15, in which the amount of acetic acid added was varied, show that from 15-25 c.c. of a 50 per cent. solution of acetic acid is mostfavourable. The larger quantity was found the more reliable. This method may be regarded as giving accurate results under the conditions mentioned ; but it is extremely important to keep the current steady, and not to exceed 0°3 to 0-4 ampere per 100 sq. cm. of cathode surface, otherwise it is impossible to be certain of a firm deposit. Series LY. Ammonium Ovalate Solution in Presence of Oxalie Acid and Hydroxylamine Sulphate. Engel (/oc. cit.) has recently shown that the electrolytic determination of tin is accurately effected in a neutral solution, either by the addition of hydroxylamine sulphate alone, or of the sulphate or hydrochloride in addi- tion to ammonium acetate and tartaric acid. The presence of such a reducing agent as hydroxylamine prevents the separation of stannic acid during the electrolysis. Such an action is just what is required to render the deposition of tin from ammonium oxalate solution reliable, and the following experiments show that it acts favourably in the desired direction. a oo: | d= st Oxdio toes | z nes xa es , Tin Tin AES ace a0 , ae Experi- toler . | found: | 825 mem piece lene ag0 pte ae ment | (Grime. Ginie BS eet cadeds ne Ampere olts hours ] < ~ zs rt c.c. a | “ es — eee — ~ 2 — 1 SSS ee aa — = 1 06986 | 0.0980 so “| 40 0-4 0:26 2:8 185 2 0:0986 | 0-0981 80 40 O-4 0:26 2°8 195 3 0:0986 | 00986 | 8a 40 O-4 0:27 3:0 195 4 00493 | 0:0497 | 80 40 0-4 0:26 31 19 5 01972 | 0:1946 | 80 40 0-4 0:27 3-0 19 ii | if The previously mentioned solutions of ammonium oxalate (40 grme. per litre) and of oxalic acid (80 grme. per litre) were used in these experi- ments, and the tin solution was prepared as described. The solution of stannous chloride was neutralised before the addition of the reagents. A small current was purposely employed in order to secure a firm deposit ; the deposit obtained was quite satisfactory in all cases. The deposition is incomplete in No. 5, showing that an increase of current or continuation of the electrolysis was required. In each experiment the solution had become alkaline, however, and this fact is undoubtedly the cause of the slow rate of deposition. The results are interesting, inasmuch as they show the possibility of keeping the tin in solution during the electrolysis, ON ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 259 but, from an analytical standpoint, the method possesses no advantages over that described in Series II and III. Series V. Ammonium Sulphide Solution. Luckow and Classen (/oc. cit.) have both suggested the deposition of tin from a solution of a sulpho-salt, and the latter records a number of accurate results obtained by employing the ammonium sulpho-salt. The following experiments show that the method is reliable and rapid. The tin solution, prepared in the manner previously described, was neutralised with ammonium hydrate, and sufficient pure ammonium sulphide added to form the sulpho-salt, the whole being then diluted to 175 c.c. before being electrolysed. Experi- Tin taken : Tin found : C. D. 400 E.M.F. Time: ment Grme. Grme. Amperes Volts hours 1 0°1026 0:1032 118 73 53 2 0°1026 071026 119 77 52 3 0:1026 0:1035 1:25 76 52 4 0:0513 0:0510 1:16 73 43 5 0:0206 ' 0:0207 0:96 V1 43 6 0:0103 00102 0°85 8-1 4} The above were six consecutive experiments. In addition to being vapid the method is reliable, and requires no supervision. The deposit is dark in colour, but adheres well to the dish, and does not oxidise at all during the drying. Under the above conditions no deposit of sulphur on the cathode, as has been referred to by others, occurred ; provided the ammonium sulphide is carefully prepared this can be quite avoided. Summary. The electrolytic deposition of tin from the solution of its ammonium sulpho-salt is a convenient and accurate method for the quantitative esti- ‘Mmation of the metal. The double oxalate solution, acidified either with oxalic acid or with acetic acid, can, when carefully worked, be made to yield very fair results, but it cannot be regarded as reliable ; and, as an analytical method, it is inferior in accuracy, rapidity, and convenience to ‘the electrolysis of the sulpho-salt solution, this latter being especially handy, as it deals directly with the sulphide of tin, the form in which the metal is always obtained in analysis when not separated as oxide. The addition of a hydroxylamine salt to the oxalate solution certainly renders the method easier to carry out, but it does not obviate the other defects mentioned. The Electrolytic Separation of Antimony from Tin. By Cuartes A. Koun, Pi.D., B.Sc., and C. K. Barnes, B.Sc. Bibliography. en AE sar — 5 Metals | Author Journal | Year! Vol. | Page | separated | Composition of Electrolyte from Classen, A,, and Ludwig, R.| Ber. .] 1885 | 18 | 1104 As, Sn Sodium sulphide and hydrate Classen, A., and Ludwig, R. | Ber. . | 188 | 19 323 | As,Sn | Sodium sulphide and hydrate Classen, A.,and Schelle,R. | Ber. .| 1988 | 21 | 9892] Sn Sodium sulphide and hydrate Olassen,A. . 6 866) 4) Bers =. | 1994 | 27 | 2060 As,Sn | Sodium sulphide and hydrate 82 260 REPORT—1896. Classen has taken advantage of the fact that tin is not deposited from a concentrated solution of the sodium sulpho-salt upon electrolysis in order to separate it from antimony. The mixed sulphides are dissolved in sodium sulphide, 1-2 grme. of sodium hydrate added, and the solution electrolysed, either cold with a current of 0:2 ampere, or warm with a current of about 1:0 ampere. Any polysulphides present must be oxidised with hydrogen peroxide. The deposited antimony is washed and dried as usual. The residual solution contains the tin, which is deter- mined either by boiling with ammonium sulphate and electrolysing the solution of the ammonium sulpho-salt thus formed, or by converting the sulphide of tin into stannic oxide, and this into the double ammonium oxalate for electrolysis. Behaviour of Tin in the Electrolysis of its Sodium Sulpho-salt. A few experiments were first tried to ascertain under what conditions tin is not deposited from its sodium sulpho-salt. The tin was first precipi- tated as sulphide, the precipitate thoroughly washed, and then dissolved in sodium sulphide solution of sp. gr. 1:18. The solution was diluted to: 175 c.c., electrolysed with a current C.D.,9) of 0°2 ampere and 3:2 volts Tin taken: Grme. Tin found: Grme. Sodtinm Sol ae ae added 071026 0:0280 10 c.c. 0:1026 No deposit 30 c.c. 0:1026 + 50) Ge; The above quite confirm Classen’s statement that tin is only incom- pletely deposited from a dilute solution of its sodium sulpho-salt, and not ‘ at all from concentrated solutions. Provided the presence of antimony has noveffect on the behaviour of the tin, the addition of 30 c.c. of sodium sulphide solution under the above conditions is sufficient to prevent the separation of the latter. The Separation of Antimony from Tin in Sodium Sulphide Solution. The following method was adopted in the separation. The mixture of antimony and tin solutions (each prepared as described above) were precipitated with sulphuretted hydrogen, and the precipitated sulphides collected and thoroughly washed. They were then dissolved in 50 c.c. of sodium sulphide solution (sp. gr. 1°18), filtered, 1 grme. sodium hydrate added, diluted to 175 c.c., and electrolysed overnight. The tin in the residual solution can be converted into the ammonium sulpho-salt by heat- ing it with 25 grme. of pure recrystallised ammonium sulphate, the solu- tion being boiled for ten minutes after the evolution of the sulphuretted hydrogen has ceased, and the resulting solution electrolysed, as de- scribed under the determination of tin (Series V.). This method of procedure is, however, unnecessarily lengthy, and electrolysis presents no advantages after the separation of the antimony. It is much simpler to precipitate the tin from the solution of its sodium sulpho-salt by the addition of acid, and to convert the sulphide direct into the oxide by the usual gravimetric method, and weigh this. This method was adopted in most cases. ‘The conversion into the ammonium sulpho-salt is, however, quite reliable, and equally accurate results were obtained by both methods. alt ie cae ed ON ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 261 Whenever the sedium sulpho-salt solution was coloured yellow by the presence of polysulphides these were oxidised by gentle warming with a little hydrogen peroxide. A considerable number of experiments were made, using varying pro- portions of antimony and tin, from which the following typical results have been chosen :— ; A Sodium {Sodium Ex) Anti- | Anti- | rin Tin Sulphide] Hy- | o2 | 2! ime-| Rati Bert tre mony: mony | taken: | found: | Solution! drate} “2 jS5 sings soy ment} taken: | found: grme. grme. | added: ladded: Ag las hours |Sb: Sn gre. ErMe- ec. |grme. | O* 1} 0:2104 | 0°2084 | 0:2052 | 0:2069 50 1 019 | 35} 18 dy oll 2 | 0:2104 | 0:2107 | 0:2052 | 0-2070 50 1 0:20 | 35} 17h | 1:1 3 | 0°1052 | 0:°1067 | 0°1026 | 0:1034 50 1 018 | 35} 18 Maal 4 | 0°1052 | 0°1050 | 0:1026 | 0:1039 50 1 CUS I i Sl pla i Ei iat be 5 | 0:0840 | 0:0834 | 0:0968 | 0-0964 50 1 0-19 | 2-8; 19 IL 6 | 0:0505 | 0°0522 | 0:0513 | 0:0516 50 J 0-717 | 39|. 18 LiL 7 | 0:0420 | 0:0424 | 0:0484 | 0:0465 50 1 0:20} 2:9) 172 | Lil 8 | 0°0143 | 0°0143 | 0:0193 | 0:0199 50 1 0:20 | 3:2) 19 ane 9 | 01680 | 0°1700 | 0:0968 | 0:0978 50 1 O20) eS ie ars, 2 470 | 071959 | 0:°1953 | 0°1026 | 0°1037 50 1 0:20 | 33) 195 | 2:1 11 | 0°2145 | 0:2132 | 0:0484 | 0:0515 50 1 0:20 | 28} 18 4:1 12 | 02024 | 0°:2020 | 0:0513 | 0:0517 50 1 O19) | 2:7} 1g ae 13 | 071430 | 0:1440 | 0:0194 | 0:0201 50 1 0:21 | 3:2) 18 (e5! 14 | 02045 | 02049 | 0:0020 | 0:0025 50 1 019 | 31) 183 }10:1 15 | 0°1430 | 0°1459 | 0:0097 | 0:0100 50 1 0°21. | 32) 195 | 1431 16 | 0°1024 | 0:1023 | 0°2052 | 0°2082 50 1 0°18) 3:0) 193 | 1:2 17 | 0:0715 | 0:0730 | 0:°1986 | 0°1920 50 1 0719 | 2°6| 20 2 18 | 0:0354 | 0:0450 | 0:1936 | Not de- 50 1 0-21 | 28} 173 | 1:6 19 | 0:0354 | 0:0430 | 0°1936 |termined; 50 1 0719 | 2°8) 172 | 1:6 Other experiments, the details of which need not be recorded, showed that :— 1. The addition of 30 c.c. of the sodium sulphide solution instead of 50 c.c. for 0-2 gramme of the mixed metals is sufficient, but that there is no disadvantage in employing a larger excess of the reagent ; it is there- fore better to do so as a safeguard against the deposition of tin. 2. The addition of sodium hydrate can be dispensed with if 50 c.c. of sodium sulphide solution are used. 3. The electrolysis of the warm sodium sulpho-salt solution of the metals with a C.D.,o) of 1:0 ampere gives low results for the antimony ; it is therefore preferable to employ the method described, and to conduct the electrolysis overnight. 4. The current must not exceed C.D., 9) of 0:2 ampere, otherwise traces of tin are deposited with the antimony. With a C.D.jo) of 0-3 ampere, the antimony was 6 per cent. too high from this cause. Summary. The accuracy of the method adopted for the separation of anti- mony from tin by electrolysis compares very favourably with that ob- tainable by other methods for the separation of the two metals, pro- vided the proportion of tin to antimony is not greater than 1 to 1 «Nos. 1-8). With a larger proportion of tin (Nos. 16 and 17) the results 262 REPORT—1896. are less favourable, and with a ratio of tin to antimony above 2:1 quite unreliable (Nos. 18 and 19). In presence of an excess of antimony the method is satisfactory (Nos. 9-15). Classen’s published results on his method of separation do not give instances of Jarger proportions of tin to antimony than 2 to 1. The method requires care and special attention to the strength of current employed, the purity of the sodium sulphide used, and the thorough washing of the precipitated sulphides. Vote on the Separation of Arsenic from Antimony and Tin ciectrolytically. It has been shown by Classen that antimony is deposited free from arsenic from a solution of their sodium sulpho-salts, provided the latter is first completely oxidised to arsenic acid ; but in the presence of tin the arsenic must be removed from the solution before the electrolytic determination of the tin can be proceeded with, after the antimony has been deposited. Electrolysis, therefore, offers no advantage whatever under these conditions, and no experiments were carried out with mixtures of the three metals. The most rational method of procedure in presence of arsenic is to first remove it from the mixture by Fischer’s distillation method, as described by one of us (‘J. Soc. Chem. Ind.,’ 1889, viii. p. 256), and then to separate the tin and antimony electrolytically in the residual solution. The Carbohydrates of Cereal Straws.—First Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor R. WarinGton (Chairman), Mr. C.F. Cross, Mr. Manninc Prentice (Secretury). (Drawn up by Mr. Cross.) THe award of a grant of 50/. from the funds of the Association has enabled us to prosecute our researches without interruption. The branch of the investigation with which we have been occupied has been the determination of the precise nature of the furfural-yielding constituents of straws. During the summers of 1894 and 1895 we made investigations on the growing plant (barley) to ascertain the relative rate of accumulation of these furfuroids in the plant tissues. For these investigations we selected two of the typical experimental plots of the Royal Agricultural Society’s station at Woburn, the one being permanently unmanured, the other receiving a maximum treatment with fertilisers, the pair thus representing extreme conditions of soil nutrition. For the supplies of material we are indebted to Dr. Voelcker, the Society’s chemist. To Messrs. Voelcker we are also indebted for assistance and co-operation in other ways, a large part of our experimental work having been conducted at their labora- tories. These investigations gave us positive indications, in general terms, as to the origin and distribution of the furfuroids, and their relationship to the conditions of assimilation and secondary changes obtaining in the plant. Having laid this necessary foundation, we have during the past year applied ourselves to the particular problem of isolating these carbo- hydrates in a condition suitable for the direct diagnosis of their constitu- tion. The methods suggested by our general survey of their ‘ chemical ON THE CARBOHYDRATES OF CEREAL STRAWS. 2638 habit’ were those of acid hydrolysis, and the problem resolved itself into an investigation of the most favourable conditions of selective attack by suitable acids. To simplify the problem we confined ourselves at first to the celluloses proper, isolated from the straws by the usual methods of treatment. The results of these investigations, which occupied us for six months, are recorded in a paper communicated to the Chemical Society, and published in the Journal for June 1896, p. 804. The method of attack employed consisted in digesting the celluloses for fifteen minutes in a 1 per cent. solution of sulphuric acid, at a temperature of 140-150° C. By this method we are enabled to separate the furfuroids almost quantitatively, and in a condition of molecular simplicity. As obtained from the celluloses, the reactions cf these compounds are those of a pentose O monoformal CoHO5€ OH. It does not follow, however, that when O isolated directly from the straws themselves, or from the stems in earlier periods of growth, the whole of the furfuroids will be found to have this constitution. Our subsequent work has been directed especially to this question. The problem involved may be briefly stated as follows : The pentoses are formed in the plant from the hexoses. In this process a terminal CH,OH group is eliminated. The mechanism of the change, which must involve an oxidation to CO, is probably one of re- arrangement, and not an oxidation from without. The pentose monoformal represents the intermediate term of the series. The tendency to the transformation must belong either to the special configuration of the hexose, or to the special mode of aggregation of the molecules in the form of a tissue substance or cellulose. Assuming the former, it may result from these investigations that one of the hexoses as yet unknown will be found to have its terminal CH,OH group ina specially sensitive condition by reason of exceptional configuration, 7.e., disposition of its alcoholic OH groups. It is noteworthy, in fact, that the four hexoses, as yet unknown, are of configurations suggesting a wider divergence from the better known carbohydrates than these show amongst themselves. Thus: By (eth (EO CH,OH—C C C C—COH ; and its Antilogue OH OH OH and EG) oekic 2) Es «HL CH,OH—C C C C—COH ; and its Antilogue OH) OF). OH. «OH Tt is, indeed, not improbable that a special equilibrium might characterise hexoses of this configuration, either in the isolated condi- tion, or in the form of molecular aggregates. This is, of course, a speculative hypothesis. Actually we do find that the furfuroids are obtained in varying con- ditions, and an important diagnosis is their greater or lesser susceptibility to alcoholic fermentation by yeast. Thus, as isolated by acid hydrolysis at high temperatures from the 264 REPORT—1896. celluloses (obtained from the mature straws), they yield only in small part (20 per cent.) to the action of yeast (in neutral solution). On the other hand, on hydrolysing with H,SO,.2H,0, a solution of the furfuroids is obtained which yields much more readily to yeast, and the proportion fermented amounted to 80 per cent. Again, the early growth (barley) of the present year was submitted to the treatment with dilute acid at high temperatures. In the solution the constants bearing on this point were as under, calculated per cent. of the total dissolved solids : CuO reduction ay to dextrose = 100°) . : 52:1 Furfural : : ; . . 16:1 After fermentation the solution contained traces only of furfuroids, and the CuO reduction had fallen to 7:1. Then, again, the ovsazones obtainable from the hydrolysed solutions indicate important variations in the constitution of the furfuroids. The solutions previously obtained from the celluloses at high temperatures gave osazones of m.p. 145-155°. The solutions which we are now obtaining from the plant tissues in their earlier stages of growth give osazones melt- ing at temperatures exceeding 180°. On the other hand again, from the lignocelluloses (which also yield their furfuroids to the acid solution at high temperatures), hydrolysed products are obtained, the osazones of which melt at temperatures as far removed on the other side from the melting points of the pentosazones, viz., at 110-120°. It appears, therefore, that the furfuroids of the vegetable world are a diversified group. In addition to the pertoses themselves they include monoformal derivatives of the pentoses, and possibly also hexoses, cer- tainly some of their derivatives. In the latter sub-group we may include Glycuronic acid, COOH (CHOH),.COH., as it also yields furfural as a product of the action of hydrochloric acid. A complete investigation of these compounds therefore offers not merely developments of the special chemistry of the carbohydrates, but from their wide distribution in the plant world it is clear that they play an important part in the general physiology of tissue formation. A good deal of interest also evidently centres in the problem of their fate in the processes of animal digestion. From the investigations of Stone, Agr. Science, 1893, 6) it appears that the tissue furfuroids of fodder plants are in effect largely digested (60-80 per cent.) by the herbivora. H. Weiske has also recently contributed to the same subject (‘ Bied. Centr.,’ 25, 13), and arrives at a similar conclusion. Though digested however, it is still an open question as to what nutritive value they may have. It needs no further demonstration at this stage that the subject calls for extended investigation from various points of view : that it is a sub- ject offering more than ordinary promise of positive results. As stated above in this report, our immediate object at the present time is the isolation of the furfuroids of the cereal stems in the earlier stages of growth. We have already found that the process of acid diges-. tion adopted in the case of the straw celluloses gives an equally satis- factory separation of the furfuroids of the growing tissues. These we have to investigate by the standard methods—1. ultimate analysis ; 2. con- version into osazones ; 3. fermentation ; 4. oxidation to mono- and dibasic acids ; and so forth. Such investigations have been in progress during the last three months. ON THE CARBOHYDRATES OF CEREAL STRAWS. 265 This concludes our report of progress. We trust to have given satis- factory evidence of useful work, and of having taken advantage of the opportunities provided by the Association in their grant of funds. Lioneric Naphthalene Derivatives.—Tenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. TrLDEN and Professor H. EH. ARM- STRONG. (Drawn up by Professor ARMSTRONG.) THE completion of the investigation of the fourteen possible trichloro- naphthalenes (including the proof that there are only fourteen) by Dr. Wynne and the writer (referred to in the last report), following that of the ten possible dichloronaphthalenes, marks the termination of a section of our work.—perhaps of greater importance than any other, establishing, as it dues, two complete series of reference compounds by means of which all other di- and tri-derivatives of naphthalene may be classified ; whilst, at the same time, it affords unquestionable confirmation of the accuracy of the train of argument on which our present views of the constitution of benzenoid compounds are based, and places the symmetrical structure of naphthalene beyond all doubt. Although great progress has been made in collecting the material needed for the discussion of the laws which govern substitution in the naphthalene series in the case of derivatives containing either halogens, or nitro or other oxylic groups, or amidogen, or hydroxyl, before entering on the final consideration of the results, it is essential to obtain further evidence as to the manner in which the interactions occur, and particu- jarly as to the nature of the ‘isomeric changes’ involved in the formation of many sulphonic acids—an all-important, but seemingly very complex, problem. Much has been done during the year towards procuring the informa- tion needed, especially in the case of the naphthols, which claim attention on account of the remarkable ‘ plasticity ’ they manifest—a plasticity that seems to distinguish them from all other derivatives of naphthalene, due apparently, at least in part, to the readiness with which they are con- verted into keto-compounds of the type first discovered by Zincke. In order to study the influence of the OH group wndisturbed, i.e., to prevent any change taking place in it such as is involved in the formation of a keto-compound, numerous experiments have been made with the methoxy- and ethoxynaphthalenes in the writer’s laboratory. Dr. Lap- worth has very kindly undertaken the study of the sulphonic acids of the 3-compounds, and his results! form a valuable addition to our knowledge, as such substances afford well-defined crystalline sulphochlorides, sulphon- amides, &c., a class of derivatives which cannot be prepared from the naphthol-acids. One very remarkable result has been arrived at by Dr. Lapworth. The initial product formed on sulphonating a cold solution cf B-ethoxynaphthalene is the 2: 1 acid in a nearly pure state ; but if the product be kept at the ordinary temperature it spontaneously changes into a mixture of the 2: 1’ and 2 : 3’ acids, the change being complete, how- ever, at the end of twelve to fifteen hours. When /-methoxynaphthalene is similarly treated it also yields practically nothing but the 2: 1 acid, ' Cf. Proceedings of the Chemical Society, 1895. 266 REPORT—1896. which gradually changes on keeping ; but in this case the change takes place much more slowly, being incomplete at the end of five or six days. The changes which apparently take place are those indicated by the following symbols : s s ep OEt OEt OEt 2 > S It is difficult to believe that hydrolysis and resulphonation go on in a stiff, pasty mass at ordinary temperatures, and the transformation would seem to be more probably the result of direct isomeric change ; but much must be done before this-question can be finally discussed. a-Methoxy- and a-ethoxynaphthalene do not show any similar be- haviour, and yield only the 1 : 4 acid, which apparently does not undergo change when heated. Mr. Shelton, who has examined the acids at my request, has prepared from them a series of crystallised derivatives, viz.— MP. M.P. C,, H, (OMe.) SO, Cl. 97° C,,H,(OEt.)SO,Cl. 102° SO,NH, 225° SO,NH, 167° SO,NH.Ph, 136° SO,NH.Ph. 176° The behaviour of 3-methoxy- and ethoxynaphthalene towards bromine is normal, products being obtained which correspond to those prepared from }-naphthol ; the investigation of the crystallographic relationship of these promises to afford interesting results, and is being carried on by Mr. Bennett. It was shown by Mr. Rossiter and the writer that nitro-/-naphthol may be prepared directly from (3-naphthol by means of nitrogen peroxide ; it appears that it may equally well be obtained by means of nitric acid. ‘I'he acid is carefully added toa very cold solution of the naphthol in acetic acid, and the solution is subsequently mixed with an excess of sodium sulphite. But the yield is poor, seldom exceeding 40 per cent. of the theoretical amount. 5 = 17593°8d 56594 5659-47* 1 | 1°54 5 176647) 6650°90 5651-03*F 4 5651 o } cf es 17691'3ab 5649-02* 3 ae x 1769735 5641-74 2 get 64 17720°20 5639°39* 1 — re 17727°6) 5637°68 1 ” ” 17733°00 5635'91* 2 z “ 17738°6d 5624-06* W 1:53 4 1777600 5621°28 2 a e 17784:8b 5618-30" 3 95 zs 17794:2b 5607:44*+ 8 Es 4:9 17828°60 5606°84 5 5610 pe = » | 1783072 5599°6 5600-91 1 - 4 17853°5b 5597-897} 5 a . 17859:0b 5589-4 1 | 1-52 a i7886'la 5582-204 3 = * 17900:2d 5581°3 1 * PP 17912:1a 5572-71 5572-8T*+ 3 5567 e 2 S 17939:4ab 5559:93*F 3 om : 17980°9b 5558-80 5559-02*+ 6 55570 —i,, % 17984:2ab 5525°2 5525°27*+ 4 5520 = lost = 180937) 5506"7 5506-42%+ | 3 5501 ff 150 |. ., 18155°7) 549602 5496:16*+ 6 54965, é 50 | 18189-5ad 5490-37* 2 A ” 18208°7) 5473-76* 3 1°49 ae 18263°5) 5467-41 3 bs os 18285°2b 5459-57 1 ms x 18311°4d 5458°2 5457-75* + 5456 7 ‘ | 2 18317°62 5451-87 5451-957} 6 n " 18337:2ab 5443-5494 3 5444 5d 2 ‘, 18365°4) 5442-1 5442°54* 1 a 4 18368°8d 5440-28" 4 z 5 18376°4) 5421°9 5421-68*+ 4 5421 es 1°48 oe 18439°5d 54128 1 i: ;, 18469°8a 5410°76* 4 5 o 18476°7) 5494-20* 1 e 51 185333) 5373°76* 3 1:47 <3 18603°8) 52753 i 1:44 5:2 18951L'la lt erie ae ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. RED SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued. 275 Wave-length Reduction to ‘1 | Provinus Vacuum Oscillation : “Intensity | Qbservations § -| Frequency Kayser Eder & | nee a in Vacuo (a) Valenta (b) | A 5254:79* 2 1:44 5:2 19025:10 5254°4 5253°09* 3 5258 Crookes rh - 19031:2d §221°9 5221°65*+ 3 5222 3 1°43 * 19145°8b | 5188-46 } 5 1°42 53 1926820 | 5187-47*+ 5 ” ” 19271:95 5ETTSl* 1) 2 1:41 - 19307:7) 5162°6 5162-59" | 4 5165 7 rE 7 19364:8D 5152°7 5151-74* =| 3 ” ” 19405°6) 51200 SITS bbe el 1:40 * 19531°40 5063-2 5060°39* 2 5065 pS 1°38 5-4 19745:9) 5054-54 1 a3 is 19778°7D 5051°3 ip ot 5 ; 19780°6a 504918 ee A * 19800°20 5010°4 es 5012 F4 1:37 55 19953:0a 4969°6 ee 4965°5 > A ie 20116°8a 489501 | 2 1°34 56 20423-4d 4889-4 4888:21* 1 ” ” 20450°8d 4882°3 2 4879 ts mE Rs, 20476'Ta 4849-9 1 1:33 57 20613°3a 4807'8 4 fats? 5 20801:2a 4768:3 4768°79 1 1:30 58 20963:9D 4753-02 2 ” ” 21033°5d 4746°82 1 ” ” 21060°9) 4738-2 4736:03*F 1 ” ” 21108°90 4732°4 1 rE e 21125'la 4702-504 4702°38* 4 4701°2 # 1:29 59 212596) 4658:04*f 4 1:28 = 21462°3d 4647-45 1 | 1:27 * 21511°3d 4628°628 4628-60 5 4629°5 . rr 6:0 21598: lab 4609-73*} 4 1:26 bs 21687:2d 4596-205 4596°30 5 45945 % re * 21750°8ab 4523°54 1 1:24 61 22100°5d 4522°389 4522-49 3 4514:0 k= 4 a 22105:9ab 4510°851 4510-90 7 4509°5 4 Be aA 22162:5ab 4510°66 1 ” ” 22207:9D 4481-09*F 3 1:23 6-2 22305°30 4431°16*+ 2 1:21 6:3 22561:2d 4430°35*+ 4 * a 22565°3d 4426°16"} 6 ” ” 22586°6b 4424-09 3 ” ” 22597°2b 4401-19*+ 5 . Ss 22714:9d 4379°79*F 4 1:20 55 22825°8b 4371°46*+ 3 ny 5 22869-3d 4663-970 4363°94 4 4 6-4 22908'6ab 4348°11*+ 8 ts) a 22992°1d 4345-322 ” 4345:27 7 43450 ” 75 a 23007-0ad 4337-20* 1 F | 5 23049:°95 4335°491 4335°42 6 ; - BS 23059:2ab 4333°714 4333°65*+ 8 4333°5 * ic 35 23068-6ab 4331:31*} 1 4 5 23081°30 432177 1 A 4s 23132°30 4312°27 2 1:18 45 23183°26 4304033 1 ee 6:5 23227°6a T2 276 REPORT—1896. RED SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued. Reduction to Wave-length Ones Vacuum Oscillation Intensity ona Frequency Kayser Eder & a xe ive in Vacuo (a) Valenta (b) 4300:249 4300718 8 4300°5 Crookes} 1:18 65 23248°5ab 4288°06 1 0) 4 2331416 4278-21 i 1 I ke a” 23367°8d 4277:°65* 1 a9” AL eng 23370°8D 4272°304 4272-29¥+ 8 4272:0__,, ane Wee 23399'6ab 4266°425 4266:44*+ 8 42660 ,, ape Wes 23432°3ab 426538 2 o 55 23438°16 4259 491 4259-50f 9 42595, 3 sy 23470°5ab 4251°329 4251:27 5 42515, ” 66 23515'6ab 4247-68 i ayer WIAs 23535°7b 4228:27*} + 1:16 a 23643°76 | 4212°37 1 ” ” 2373305 4210-14 1 ” ” 23745:6b 4205007 1 ” ” 23774: 6a 4202°11*f 4 1:15 s 23791:06 4200°799 4200 75*+ 10 42010 =», = * 23798 :5ab 4198°162 4198-40t 10 41980, ” 67 23812'6ab 4191°841 j 4191-02*+ 10 ah oil os 23851:5ab 4190°841 | 4190°85*+ 7 41905 5. Te es 23854:8ab 4182-002 4182:03*+ cf 41830 __,, aS = 23905:2ab 4164:309 4164:36*+ if 41645, PeeL | 24006'6ab 4162-906 1 3 24015-0a 4158°722 4158°63* 10 cM G33 Disa Lee. 24039°3ab 4154°657 1 41566, - ™ 24062°6a 4154°663 2 * ’ 24062°6ab 4152:97 5 ” ” 24072°5d 415018 1 i 53 24088°64 4147°36 2 Ps 6:8 24105:0b 4141°65 ig i s 24138°2d 413448 1 25 y 24180°0d 4131°95* 2 ” ” 24194°8b 4104:10* 3 LAS a» 24359'1d 405591 1 1:12 69 24648°5b 4054°65 4, 1-11 » | 24656:°1d 4050'18 3 ss 70 24683°3d 4046-620 2 ” ” 24712-0a 4046:027 4046:04 3 Ae * 24708'6ab 4044-565 4044:52+ 8 4044-0, si ¥ 24717:7ab 4033°11 3 ” ” 24787°8b 4013-97*+ 4 STO tS ES 2490606 3979°57* 5 SONS eel 2512126 3960°24 1 1:09 * 25243:9b 3954°77 1 mf 12 25278°7b 3949:107 3949-08+ 8 3948°5 yy be a 25315'lab 3947-645 3947°75 5 ” ” 25324:0ab 3943°55 2 ae tate, 25350°6d 3928°78*+ 4 1:08 - 25446:0b 3914-93*+ 1 a E 25536:06 3900:065 3900-04 5? As 73 25633-4ab 3894-795 3894:78 3 1:07 os 25668 :0ab 3868°68* 3 3 5 25841:30 3866°353 386623 1 9 ” 25858°3ab 3850 693 3850°70* f 3 L0G tee 25962-0ab 3834-768 3834:83 8 38355, a = 26069°7ab 3809°58* 2 1:05 Te 26242°26 et ee a ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 277 Wave-length RED SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued. | Reduction to | Taseieee Previous Doe Usiectels = ——| Intensi e requeney a Eder & ¥| Observations “a | - = Spe (a) Valenta (b) | A 3801-049 1 105 | 74 | 26301-1a 3781°461 3781°50 3 Tas eyes 26437°3ad 3781:07* 2 2 Rs 26440°10 3775°476 3775°62, 2 1:04 s 26478°3ab 3770°440 3770°80* 4 3771°5 Crookes + 75 26513°3ab 3765°48* 2 - . 26549°5d 3760°43 1 - “ 26585°2b 3743-808 3743°95 1 “ » | 26702°8ab 3738-030 3738:04+* 1 aS » | 26744:5ab 3729°52*+ 3 1:03 : 26805°6d 3696°587 3696-70 PA . 76 27044:0ab 3691-001 3691-09 3 1:02 -e 27085:0ab 3680°30* 5 An et 2716400 3678°43* 6 - me 27177°8D 3675°353 3675°38 2 * ra 27200-5ab 3670°783 367098 2 4 “a 27234-0ab 3663-392 1 “i ” | 97394-4a 3659-632 3659°70 3 : + 27317-ladb 3654:962 1 1-01 % 27352740 3650-258 | 3649-99 3 is ” | 97388-6ab 3643-227 | 3643-30 3 i "| 27440-2ab 3634:586 363464 6 ; re 27505-5ab 3632°766 3632°82 4 36325, os s 27519:2ab 3606-677 3606-69T 3 36050, 1:00 S 27718 :5ab 3599822 3599-19 1 a “5 27773 :8ab 3588-64* 2 FS rps, 27857'8d 3582-72 1 % 4 27903°9D 3582°54* 2 * * 27905°3d 3581:82* 1 ‘ ” | 97910:95 3576-80* 3 099 | 3 | 27950-15 3572-416 | 3579-44 3 os ” | 97984-2ab 3567°789 3567°88 ah 35665, e S 28020°3ad 3564-423 3564°54* 3 a a 28046°7ab 3563°362 3563°50 6 3562°8,, 0:99 79 28055°0ab 3561°51*} oe “ 2807010 3559-601 3559°69* 2 3 x 28085°4ad 3556135 | 3556-16 2 ” | 98119-4ab 3555755 2 = + 28117:10 3554-435 | 3554-48 5 35545 ,, ” | 2 |. 981958ab 3551-95 1 . ” | 98145-5b 3545-947 3545°87 3 + 8:0 28193'5ab 3514°513 3514°53* 2 0:98 os 28445-4ad 3509°934 a “p 28487-3a 3506-650 3506°64 2 “e 81 28509°2ab 3493-435 3493-40 2 0:97 a 28617:2ad 3476894 | 3476-96* 2 i ” | 98752-9ab 3461:192 3461:23 3 A 8-2 28883°4ab 3455-076 345514 1 0:96 és 28934:5ab 3442640 | 3449-77 1 ‘ ” | 99038-7ab 3406-287 340629 1 0:95 8:3 29348°3ab 3398-016 1 » | om | 29420°6a 3393°848 3394 03 3 =n 8-4 29456:0ab 3392-885 3392-94 2 e 4 29464-8ab 3389:955 | 3390-05 1, ” 1” | 99490-1ab 3388-464 ee 1 29501 5a 278 REPORT—1896. RED SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued. Reduction to = Wavedlengie : Prdvious Vacuum eae ntensity ; ‘requency mayest erage Observations 7 1 y i (a) Valenta (b) rz 3387°698 3387°80 1 0:95 8:4 29509'Tab 3381°573 3381°67 1 ‘ 4 29563:2ab 3373586 3373°65 2 0°94 ‘ 29633'4ab 33607146 1 F 8:5 29752:9a 3341°637 1 i 5 29916:9a 3325°626 3325°63 2 0°93 - 30061:0ad 3323°91 1 * 86 30077°5d 3319°459 3319-42 2 3 2 30117:0ab 3303-08 1 - x, 30266-4a 3302°50 3 F's + 30271:5a 3295-44 P4 0:92 s 30336°4a 3244-51 a 0-91 88 30812:5ab 317511 1 0:89 9:0 31486:la 3131-90 2 0°88 91 31920:4a 3125°70 4 és . 31983°8a 3034:7 4 0°86 9-4 32943°8d 3029°10* 2 x “s 33003°7b 3027:07* 1 9 4 33025°8b 3021-52 3021°9 4 0°85 9°5 33085'4ab 2979°35* 2 | 0°84 9-6 335547) 2972°60 1 i = 33631-1a 2968°39 2 PA She 33678'6a 2967-35 2967°3 5 ee bs 33690°4ab 2943:17* 1 é 9°8 33967'1b 2893°5 1 0°82 | 10:0 34550:2b 2891:87* 3 Ae 5 34569°7b 2873'5 3 5 ss 34790°8b 2866:0* 1 ‘. 101 34880°70 2833°6 3 0°81 | 10:2 35280°6b 2802:2 3 0-80 | 10:3 3567596 2614:6 4 0-76 | 11-1 38235°7b 2614:2* 1 se se 38241:7b 2577°6 1 075 | 11:3 38784:5b 2571-5* il _ x 38876°6D ||2536-7 8 O74 | 11-4 39409°8d 2516°3 4 0°73 | 11°6 39729°3d 247865 3 a 11°8 40332°8) 2476°35 2, Be 40370°20 BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON. Reduction to Wave-length , mead Vacuum | Oscillation ntensit : requency Rayass Eder & Y| Observations eet: | 55 dens (a) Valenta (b) A 6684:°2 2 1°82 40 14956°7 6644°2 3 1:80 4-1 15046°6 6638°6 2 6628? Crookes if % 150593 6482'8 1 1:76 4:2 15421:2 6243°7 2 6232? ,, 1:70 4:3 16011°8 6215°6* 1 1-69 44 16084°3 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 279 BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued. Wave-length Kayser (a) 6172°3* 6140°9 6114-1 Fder & Valenta (b) 6032:69* 5928-61* 5912-48* 5889:02* 5834-63* 5772°52* 5739-87*F 5691-94* 5690:19* 5682:26* 5659:47* 5651-03*t 5649-02* 5641-74* 5639°39* 5635:01* 5624:06* 5618:30* 5607°44*+ 5597:89*+ 5582°20*+ 5577-98 5572°87*+ 5559-93*+ 5559:02*+ 5554:37 5534:73* 5529:18* 5525°27*+ 5506-43*+ 5498-55 5496°16*+ 5490:37* 5473-76* 5467°41* 5457°75* 5454-71 5451-95*} 5443-544 5442-54" 5440:28*+ 5421-68*+ 5410-76* 5407°70 5402-95 -5397-90 5394-20* 5375:76* 5306-04 5287-24+ 526505 5254-79* Intensity HR ORE RE DDN D RD EN EDN REP RP RON KUNDEN ON RNP WOR EE RRR ONE RP EDR RP Re Eb Previous Observations 6173 Crookes 6120 % Reduction to Vacuum Oscillation ——| Frequency 1 in Vacuo AF = 1°68 4:4 16197°1 1:67 bs 16279°9 1°66 | ...,, 16351°2 1°64 4:5 16571°8 161 46 16862 7 < 3 16908°8 | 1°60 ” 16976°2 | 1:59 4:7 17134:°3 io vaplewe 17318°8 1°56 e 174173 1°55 48 | 17563°9 F - 175690 ” 99 17593°8 1°54 % 176647 pe a 17691°1 = 17697'3 ms ie 17720°2 ms S 177276 “ - 17738°6 CET rad 17776:0 6 - 17794°2 wb 4:9 17828°6 ¥ 2 17859°0 1°52 “4 17909°2 a 17922°7 z = 17939°2 y Pe 17980°9 Fs - 17983°8 . 17998°9 e is 18051°0 ‘ ‘ 18093°8 1:50 i 181556 5:0 18181°6 a i 18189:0 4 i 18208:0 1:49 “s 18264:0 ie is 183852 se a 18317°6 " fe 18327°8 es ie 18337°1 3 + 18365°4 “ x 18368°7 ¥ 4 1837674 1:48 Fe 18439°5 zs Fs 18476°7 ss "A 18487°1 . * 18503°4 ~ 35 18533°3 i i 18603'8 1:45 a 18841°3 ba 5-2 18908°3 “ :! 19025°1 80 REPORT—1896. BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON —continued. | Reduction to ee ee, Vacuum | Oscillation ——|Intensity! Qbservations | Frequency Kayser Eder & Path Aes in Vacuo (a) Valenta (b) | A } | 5253-09* 2 1:44 | 5:2 | 19031-20 5221-65*+ 4 143 | 5:2 | 19145°8b 5217°17t 3 A ES 19162°3) 5187:47*t 3 1:42 | 5:3 | 19271:9D 5177'81* 1 ~ % 19307-9b 5176°56+ 4 _ + 19312°5d 5166:03f 5 | 1:41 i 19351:9D 5162°59*+ 37} e i. 19364:8) 5151°74* oe ai = id 19404-7 5145-565 5145°57 Ts ; 5 19428-9ab 5141 909 514220 4 | 5140 Crookes | _,, if 19442-2ab 5126714 De 1:40 bi 19502°5b 5118°55* 1 i < 19531°40 5090'81 2 1:39 | 5:4 | 19637°85 5076°25¢ 1 * # 19694-0b 5062°199 5062°35t 5 5065 a 1:38 Fs 19748'6ab 5060°39* 2 ‘ x 19755°9b 5024°47 3 1°37 | 5:5 | 19897-1b 5017°331 5017-46+ 4 5012 pS i ia 19925:2ab 5009-426 5009°63r 5 5007 + it i 19956-5ab 497240¢ | 4 1:36 ee 20105°5d 4965:239 4665°38+ 4 49655, A e 20134:2ab 495531 | 4 | “i & 20174:9b 494953 | 2 1:35 “I 20198'4b 4943-17 | 4 if 202243 4933406 4933-49 | 4 4938 ¥ ry 5:6 | 20264-2ab 490505t | 4 1°34 a 20381°60 4893:57 4 1 20429:4b 4888 88t 4 i s 20449-4D 4888-21* 2 m ie 20451'8d 488246 4 A - 20475°9b 4880-004 4880°14t 8 4879 - 3 te 20485:9ad | 4867-72 5 1°33 5 20537:9b 4866'14+ 6 ei a 205446 4861-44 2 i vs 205643) | 4847-963 4847-94+ 6 48475, rf 57 | 20621-5ad 4834-32 1 1:32 a: 20679°7b 4819°43 2 ” ” 20743'6) 4806:173 4806°17t 8 4805-0, ¢ 20801:4ab 4792°29 1 1:31 ss 20861°10 4791°49 1 a ie 20864°7b 4771 75t 3 :: 5°8 | 20950-90 4765:028 4765-044 4 47630 _,, i - 20980-4ab 4754°64 2 1°30 _ 21026°3d 4736-065 4736-037 6 4) saga US is a 21108'8ab 4727-027 4727 90+ 4 AT266 es, 1:29 as 21149-2ab 4708-66 3 DI ss 21231-6) 4702 40* 1 x 59 | 21259-8b 4658-079 4658-0474 4 46565, 1-28 a 21462-4ab 4640-21 2 1:27 se 2154480 4637°351 4637°35t 3 x x 21558'1ab 4609°742 4609°73*+ T 46080, 1:26 | 60 | 21687:2ab 4590-081 4590-05*+ 5 45869 _,, } x 21775:8ab 4579527 | °4579-53t 6 45795, 1:25 ~ 21830-0ad 4565°42 2, ‘ 21897°8b ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 281 BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued. Reduction to ease Briones Vacuum Oscillation 7 Intensity} Observations Ten eeann e eregueney: Kayser Eder & ren ue in Vacuo (a) Valenta (b) A | 456455 3 | 1:25 6:0 21901-9) | 4563°87 3 £ % 21905°1d 4561°20 1 _ 61 2191800 | 4547-88 2 Mees) ” 21982°1) 4545-220 | 4545-26t 6 4543°5 Crookes ,, F 21949-9ab | 4535-70 3 | 1:24 as 22041-2) 4530°73 3 [veg : 22064°1b 4503°111 4503°15 5 1:23 re 22200°Tab 449368 4 ” ” 22222'6d 4491-221 4 3 62 22259°5d 4482-003 4481-99+ 5 4478°3 a | sens a 22305:2ad 4475°015 447515 2 ; OX - 22339°8ab 4460-682 4460°70 2 1:22 5 22411°9ad 4449-123 444913 2 ” ” 22469°9ad 4443-545 4443-50 1 ” ” 22498'4ab 4439°539 4439-50 1 ” ” 22518:9ab 4434-037 4434-10 2 ” ” 22546:5ad | 4431:172 4431:16*t 3 ” ” 22561°8ad 4430°355 4430°35*f 5 4426°5 4 | 1-20 63 22565:3ab 4426°165 4426°16*} 8 4422°5 +3 | a - 22587:2ab 4421-113 4421-06} 1 | PR a 22612:5ab 4408-095 4408-06 1 ” ” 22679°3ad 4401°156 4401:19*+ 5 4399-5 iy $4 22715:0ab 4400°271 4400:25*+ 3 } » . 3 22719°Tab 4383-900 438394 2 1:20 es 22803 :3ad 4379°827 4379-79*F 5 437675 a x i 22825'7Tab 4376:112 4376°15t 3 “ 3 22845-4ad 4375-201 437525 1 me ‘ 22849-Tab 4371°504 4371-46*f + \ 4369-0 an sé 22869:4ad 4370°928 4370°92+ 3 Ve 2] ss * 22872°2ab 4367°952 4368:04t 1 uf a 22887-4ad 4362°229 4362°20t 2 a 6:4 22917-Tab 4352°368 4352°40t 4 1:19 -f 22969-5ad 4348:°222 4348-11*f 9 4348-5 a AF 5 22992-3ab 4343-904 4343-90 2 e os 23014-4ad 4337°244 4337:20* 1 id oS 23049°9ad 4333-70 4333°65*} 4 a oR 23068°7ab 4332-205 4332715 3 5 +. 23076-7ab 4331°354 4331:31*f + 4333-5 a Py F 23081:2ad 4309°311 4309-31} 2 1:18 5 23199-2ab 4300°824 4300°82+ 2 4299:0? ,, * 6°5 23244-9ab 4298-222 4298:20 1 3: 7 23259: 0ab 4283-054 4283-03} 3 as ie 23341-3ad 4277-718 | 4277-65* 6 4277:0° —%, 1:17 ss 23370°6ad 4275°327 4275°34 1 ” ” 23383:'5ad 4266-684 4266°44*+ 6 42660 _ ,, 5 - 23431-6ad 4255-73 1 # ks 23491-2D 4237°395 4237°34 3 1:16 66 23593:0ad 4229-813 1 K - 23636-la 4229-015 1 % % 23639-6a 4228:310 4228:°27*f 5 4228°5 is ‘ a3 23642:5ad 4227-146 4227-14 2 e 4 23650°6ad 4222-839 4222-76 3 i a 23674-4ad 4218-843 421879 3 a 7 23696'7ab 4203609 4203°54 1 115 * 23782°Tab 282 REPORT—1896. BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued. is 4 Wave-length a Vacuum Oscillation invest Eder & Intensity Observations ae 1 MJ une (a) Valenta (b) A 4202°106 4202-11*4 2 115 66 23791:0ab 4189°774 4200°75*+ 1 5 9 23798°6b 4191:02*t 1 5 67 23853°8d 4190°85*t+ 1 + os 23854°8b 4183:106 4182-03*+ 2 4183:0? Crookes} ,, + 2390516 4179:479 4179-45 3 a - 23919 9ab 4178:504 4178-53 3 : RS 23925-lab 4164:36*t+ 1 1-14 Ny 24006°62 4158°65*f 1 5 i 24039°6) 4156°295 4156-36 2 FS A 24053-2ab 4146-761 4146-68 1 3 6:8 24108 '4ad 4131:913 4131°95* 3 41315, Pe 45 24195:0ab 4129-89 2 1:13 “4 24206:9b 4128-874 4 e * 24212:9b 4112-916 4113:04+ 3 - + 24306:5ad 4104:107 4104-10* df "4105°0 é 35 a 24359 6ab. 4099-602 4099-59 2 oe _ 24385°8ab 4098°33 3 > 69 24393:°2d 4097°265 4097-36 1 % ” 24399-4ab 4089 041 4089-04 1 1:12 +, 24448:Tab 4082°535 4082-59+ 2 pe a 24487-5ab 4080°872 4080°85 1 5 ee 24497:'Tab 4079-712 | 407990/t | 2 " , | 84504-4ab 4077:207 4077-15 2 s oe 24519-9ab 4076°854 4076°85 5 ” ” 24521'8ab 4072°579 4072°58 | 3 Oe 23 24547:5ab 4072°159 4072718 | + 4 4072°5 $3 “3 a 24550:0ad 4068°171 1 a 24574:Ta 4053'111 4053'12 4 111 bs 24665°5ab 4043°039 4043 04 3 4044-0 ” ” 70 24726:9ab 4038°966 4038-99t 4 Be 4 24751-Tab 4035°624 4035-58t t i re 24772:4ab 4034022 4033-99t 4 40330, se “6 24782:2ab 4023°730 4023°68 3 a a 24845'7ab 4017986 1 ¥ “i 24881:la 4014-002 4013-97*+ (6 40130, 1:10 a 24905:0ab 4011°527 4011°38 1 ” ” 24921-6ad 4010:052 1 5 i 24930°3a 3995°035 3994-81 3 ss T1 25024:Tab 39927196 3992-17 4 i * 25041°8ab 3988°378 3988°37 1 a Ss 25065°8ab 3979°541 3979°57* 5 SOKO” |, or “ 25121-3ab 3974859 1 1:09 5 25151:0a 3974646 3974-70 4 ” ” 25152°2ab 3968-496 3968754 2 3967-8 i bs = 25191°3ab 3960°591 3960-62 3 ” ” 25241-6ab 3958°529 3958-58 3 BS A 25254-Tab 3952°892 3952-82 if 7-2 25290°8ab 3946:290 3946:20 4 ” ” 25333°3ab 3944-409 3944-50 4 39435, + a 25344-8ab 3937-208 1 9 ” 25391-5a 3934-20 3 1:08 + 25411°0b 3932-717 3932°71 4 39318 ,, : a 25420-5ab 3931°382 3931:32f 2 ” ” 25429-4ab 3928°749 3928°78*t 7 39285 6,4, 25446:lab Reduction to ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 283 BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued. | Reduction to ee Prcvicua | Vacuum Oscillation Intensity! Observations | Ereineney Kayser Eder & A+ de in Vacuo (a) Valenta (b) A 3925-903 3925°93 3 3927:5 Crookes | 1-08 72 25464°6ab 3924°798 1 here 25471°8a 3914-931 3914:93*+ 3 3915-4 as ee ty 25536-0ab 3911°721 3911°69 1 a 3 25557-1ab 3907°896 3907°80 1 3 73 25581°9ab 3900-763 2 . x 25628-7a 3892-128 3892°15t 4 3892°6 i, 1:07 n 25685:5ab 38917550 3891°53t 2 =n 25689'6ab 3880-432 3880°46 3 7 - 25762°9ab | 3875°406 3875°40t 5 38755 i, =F 5 25796'4ab 3874°288 1 is a 25803:°9a 3872°326 3872°26 4 3871°8 + * a 25817:2ab 3868-718 3868°68* Zi 38685, - - 25841:2ab 3858-456 2 ” ” 25909°8a 3856:210 1 1:06 eS 25924-9a 3855°366 1 be 4 25930-5a 3854°522 1 Z * 25936°3a 3850°715 3850°70*t 8 38515, 2 # 25961:9ab 3846'860 1 * Hs 25987-9a 3845535 384551 3 38455 oy, r - 25997 :0ab 3844:921 3844:90 3 fe 26001:8ab 3841°709 3841°63 3 6) Ss 26023:1lab 3830°585 3830°58t 3 ” ” 26099:4ab 3826°976 382692 3 382775 yy x Me 26123:2ab 3825°865 3825°89 1 3 = 26130°5ad 3819-300 3819°15 l 3 As 26176:ladb 3809°649 3809°58* 3 3809°5 » 1:05 T4 26242:0ab 3808746 | 3808:72t 3 . » | 26248-1ab 3803°381 3803'38 3 38035 4, 3 a 26285'6ab 3800°429 3800°40f 2 Bs sf 26305'5ab 3799596 3799°65 3 37995 a5 i a 26311:0ad 3796°882 3796°83 2 a 7 26330°'lab 3795°509 3795-56+ 3 ‘ 3 26339°3ad 3786536 | 3786-60+ 4 3 » | 26401:8ad 3781:018 3781-07* ie 37803 4, s i 26440-4ab 3776°885 1 1:04 55 26469-5a 3770°719 3770°80* 2 37705, $ 3 26512°3ab 3766°286 3766°30 3 4 7 26473'Tab 3765°463 3765°48* 5 3766°0 ” x. 75 26549°6ad 3763715 3763°76 4 “ fs 26561:°8ab 3756541 1 F as 26612°7a 3754-28 3 fe ¥ 26626'8b 3753-722 3753°60 3 o , | 26633°3ad 3750'428 3750°79 2 es Se 26654°8ab 3747-135 3747-25 1 . a 26679:lab 3739°88 2 . | -26731°35 3738-094 3738°04* 3 373835 gy Be 26744:3ab 3735°542 1 1:03 of 26765°2a 3734-70 5 + 3 26768°20 3733122 1 =) ae 26780°5a 3729°450 | 3729:59*+ 9 37298 % , | 26805-9ab 3725665 1 a. 76 | 26833:2¢ 3724697 | 3724-67 3 ns » | 26840:3ab 3720°617 | 3720-61 1 nf , | 26869:6ad 3718°403 3718-39 5 3718-0 26886°7ab REPORT—1896. BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued. Intensity 284 Wave-length Kayser Eder & (a) Valenta (b) 3717°367 3717°36 3716°704 3714:744 3712°941 371319 3710-167 371011 36967160 3692°739 3680°124 3680-30* 3678478 3678°43* 3670-071. 3669-700 3669°63 3660°635 3660-70 3656°270 3656:26 3655-474 3655°52 3651:141 3651:04 3650°313 3640:022 3640:00 3638-015 3637-212 3637:25 3622°354 3622°31 3612-00 3611-11 3606-056 3605°05 3603°981 3603°70 3601°68 3601°10 3600:24 3598-60 3592-198 3588°633 3588 :'64* 3587122 3586°122 3585203 3582-547 3582°54* 3581-802 3581°82* 3580°439 3579-000 3576°808 3576°80* 3573°290 3566°221 3565°20 3564586 3564°54* 3564-50 3563-198 2563°46 3562°388 3561°213 3561°51*+ 3561-20 3559-695 3559°69* 3558670 3557-029 3556167 3555107 3548680 3548-69 3546°005 3546-03 3545-792 3545°78 = NWO H RHP OMIE EP RN WH DOPE ERNE EHO HP EDEN HEWN ENN WN NDE ROWE NRE DE eee bee Previous Observations 3631°7 Crookes 35870, 35803, 35750, 35640, 35600, 35582 ,, 35475, 3544-5, Reduction to Vacuum Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo ” TT 26893:lab 26898'0a 26912:2a 26925'lab 26945:°2ab 27047:5a 27072°6a 27164:7ab 27176:8ab 27239-Ta 27242°7d 27309'7Tab 27344:lab 27348-4ab 27381-4ab 27387-0a 27464:7ab 2747984 27485:'Tab 27598'6ab 27677°7b 27684°5b 27723°3a 27731:1D 27740:4ab 27757:0b 27761°53 © 27768:1b 27780°7b 27830°2a 27857:8ab 27869:6a 27877 :4a 27884-6a 27905:2ab 27910:9ab 27921-6a 27932°9a 27950: lab 27977-5a 28041-0ab 28046:0ad 28046°5d 28055°8ab 28063:-2a 28071-3ab 28072:5d 28084:3ab 28092-5a 28104-7a 28112-2a 28120-5a 28171-5ab 28192-5ab 28194 5ab ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued. 285 | Reduction to Nate Previous | 2002 | Oscillation ‘Intensity | Observations Frequency Kayser | Eder & ae ee in Vacuo (a) Valenia (b) r 3535°514 3535°53 4 3534°3 Crookes 0:98 8-0 28276:4ab 3522°100 3522°14t 3 ” ar 28384: lab 3521-431 3521-46 3 eS a 28390°5ab 35207191 | 3520715 5 ‘s * 28399'Tab 3519°52 3 ef = 28405-0D 3518-079 | | 1 ” ” 28416°6a 3514576 | | 3514:53* 4 35135, eo + 28445-lab 3514-351 | 4 » |» | 2844680 3511-804 3511-79 1 Be # 28467-4ab 3511-286 3511°35 6 3508°8 ” = * 28471:3ad 3509°961 3509°93 5 ” " 28482-4ab 3509°475 3509°54 3 3 81 28485 9ab 3507-795 1 Fp i 28499-9a 3507-268 1 Pe a5 28504:1a 3506-426 1 re x 28510°9a 3503°730 3503°76f 2 A “i 28532:8ab 3502°841 3502-00 2 = i 28543 '6ab 3500°724 1 co 5 28557'5a 3499°815 3499°85t+ 3 ” ” 28564°7ab 3498-419 1 0:97 x 28576 3a 3497-219 1 7 ss 28586:la 3495°193 1 A x 28602-7a 3493-562 1 55 x 28616-0a 3491-723 3491-71+ 9] 34900, as ' 28631-lab 3491-440 5 J * ms 28633:-4a 3491-030 2 s * 28636°Ta 3488°316 1 3 of 28659-0a 3484121 1 ” ” 28694:3a 3480°636 3480:°69+ 5 - 3 28722:0ab 3478-410 3478-42+ 2 “i Fe 28740°7ab 3476-926 3476:96* 6 3475°T gy . % 28752°9ab 3473°368 . 1 3 3 28782-4a 3472°713 1 nt +: 28787 3a 3471°443 1 . 2 28798-4a 3466533 3466°40 3 s 8-2 28839°6ab 3466-07 4 # ae 28842:95 3464-364 3464°33 2 ” ” 28857:°3ab 3455°572 1 0:96 i 28930'6a 3454:298 3454°30 4 34535, 5 “5 28941-2ab 3450°223 1 s 5 28975'Ta 3448-46 2 7 # 28990°2 3445°254 1 fe + 29017:2a 3438°174 2 Fe Be 29077: 1a 3432°75 2 ” ” 29122'9 3430°650 3430°58 1 = 8:3 29140°7ab 3429°846 3429-81 3 rf 5 29147-5ab 3424-385 3424-41 2 ” ” 29193'9ab 3421°821 3421-80 4 ” ” 29216-0ad 3417-608 al 0°95 ir 29251°9a 341461 3 Fs é 29277-6b 3413-665 1 _ is 29285°7a 3406-43 2 - . 29347:9D 3404-432 1 - , | 29365°2a 3397-97 2 29421-0b 86 REPORT—1896. BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued. Reduction Wave-length =n eoUUaenten Oealehien Intensity | Observations Sy Frequency Kayser Eder & aan ce in Vacuo (a) Valenta (b) A 3393°46 i 0-95 8°4 29460°1) 3388-706 3388°65 5 3388'0 Crookes ” ” 29501:8ab 3384-94 2 ” ” 29534:20 3383-87 1 ” ” 2954360 3381-27 2 ” 9 29570°3h 3379674 B379°73 2 ” ” 29580:0ad 3376°618 3376 61 5 0°94 | 9» 29607'ladb 3371:077 3371-07 3 ” ” 29655°8ab 3366°758 3366°75 3 idler 29693°8ab 3365°660 3365°67 2 ” ” 29703'4ab 3361973 3361-33 1 ” ” 29738:9ab 3361°418 2 9 ” 29740-6a 3358°633 3358°67 4 ” 85 29765'5ab 3355°298 1 ” ” 29795: la 3352°248 2 , ” 29822°2a 3351°112 3351-10 4 5 5 29832-4ab 3348161 i ” ” 29858 -6a 3344°857 334489 5 “e a 29888-0ab 3342°532 1 ” ” 29908 5a 3341°518 3341-88 1 » ¥ 29916:4ab 3339°602 1 9 ” 29935:2a 3336°269 3336°32 4 0:93 i‘ 29964:9ab 3332972 1 ” ” 29995:0a 3327°441 1 ” ” 30044°6a 3323°671 2 ” 86 30078 6a 3314:622 1 ” ” 30160°8a 3311°318 3311-34 5 ” ” 30190:7ad 3308:040 1 ” ” 30220°7a 3307°368 3307'37 5 ” » 30226°9ab 3306°499 1 ” » 30243'9a 3305°720 1 ” ; 30242:0a 3305°249 2 ” ” 30246°3a 3301°938 3301°97 6 ” is 30276°5ad 3298-652 2 0:92 ay 30306°8a 3293°768 3293-82 4 ” 3 30351-5ad 3289-201] 2 ” ” 30388 4a 3285:913 3285-9) Os ” 87 30424-3ad 3282°661 2 ” ” 30454:4a 3281°867 3281°83 5 » “F 30461:9ab 3273:476 3273°40 2 ” ” 30540°2ad 3271:122 1 ” » 30561-8a 3263°953 1 ” ay 30629-0a $261°722 3263°71 3 7 » 30631°2ad 3259 73 1 0-91 a 3066810 3258°95 u ” ” 30776:00 3251-888 3251:90 2 ” 8:8 30742°5d 3249-972 3249°95 4 5 as 30760°8ab 3245°638 1 3 y 30801°8a 3243-845 3243 85 3 ” ai 30818:8ad 3237-920 323705 2 ” ” 30879:4ad 3236812 1 A a 30885°8a 3230°30 1 Py “A 80948:10 3226:16 2 ” ” 30977°6) 3222-183 3222°62 1 s i. 31026-9a els oe ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 287 BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued. Reduction to peawe-teneth. Brovions | Vacuum Oscillation Intensity Observations = Frequency Kayser Eder& | ae om in Vacuo (a), Valenta (b) A 3221-41 2 0:91 | 88 | 31033°3b 3217:89 1 O:900 ines 31067-4b 3216°98 2 tee Ss ” 31076°2b * 3212'737 3212°76 3 i: 89 31117:ladb 3210°678 1 ” ” 31137°2a } 3207°85 1 ” » 3116465 3204:469 3204-49 4 ty as 5 31197 :5ab 3196°109 1 8p ” 31279:la 3194-400 3194:52 3 » ” 31295°3ab 3187-970 1 ar) ” 31359°3a 3186742 2 ” ” 3137420 3183171 1 7 ” 31406°4a 8181:174 3181°26 5 0°89 ” 381425°5ad 3179°30 1 | 3s 9:0 31445°5d 3173°26 1 ” ” 31504°3d 3171°767 1 A lise 31519'1a 3169°812 3169-88 4 » | » | 81538-6ad 3167°70 2 ” | ” { 31559°6b 3165-480 3165-36 2 Vx sch his. *|, ELDR2 ab 3161°519 3161°64 5 Fy thes | BL620:8a0 ‘ 3159°47 1 » | » | 381641°9d 3157-577 3157-13 2 | » | 9 | 31663-1ad 315406 2 fk a5) se 31696°20 3152°89 1 } ‘99 » 31707°9d 3150°70 1 te tess + 31729°95 3148°53 it ” ” 31751-°8b 3146°63 1 ” ” 81770°95 3139°156 3139°26 5 | 088 971 31846:5ab 3137-88 2 ” ” 31859°5d 3127:996 1 ” » 31960°2a 3125-980 1 e » | 81980°9a 3116°162 1 » “A 32081-7a 31107441 1 ” 9-2 32140°6a 310463 2 ” » | 32200°76 3102°88 1 ” » 322189) l 3100°21 1 0-87 3 32246'7b 30937478 3093-57 6 3092°T Crookes ES is 32316:3ab 308529 1 ” » 32402°7b 3083-720 3083715 2 30848 3 7 » | 932421-°9ab 3078-212 2 ” 9:3 32477 la 3066°998 3067°16 2 ” ”» 32595°0ab 3064°830 2 3064:7 » ” ” 32619°9a 3054°846 3 0°86 9-4 32725°3a 3048-552 1 ” ” 32793 la 30467130 3046-28 2 ” ” 32818-4ab 38039°477 if » af 32819'0a 3033°620 3033°76 3 9 » 32953°8ab 3031°759 1 a ” 32974°8a 3029-015 3029°10* 4 ” » 33004:2ab 3027:181 3027:07* 2 ” ” 33025°3ab 3024-078 3 a 9°5 33058-4a 301470 1 0°85 iS 33161°3d 3002-67 4 “ oa 33294:2a 3000°63 3000:70 3 2998°2 ” ” ” 33316°6ab 2979-716 2979°35* 6 29786 F | O84 9°6 33555°9ab 288 REPORT—1896. BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued. Reduction Wave-length ae a to Vacuum Oscillation - ntensity ae ‘requency Kayser Eder & oe alt a in Vacuo (a) Valenta (b) ; oN 296045 2 | O84 9-7 33768:9) 2955°37 2945-67 4 He 2 33825°3ab 2942-94 2943:17* qT 2942:7 Crookes “ 98 33968'5ab 293290 2 0:82 ” 34086°10 2931°52 2931:72 3 2929°6 3 * ” 34101-0ad 292468 2924-92 4 4 5 34180°6ad 2916°3 2 a 9:9 34280°1D 2896°91 2896°97 4 = a 34509:2ab 2891°73 2891-87* 4. =] 10:0 34570°5ad 288424 2884-1 4 5S ” 34661°2a 2879-0 + - % 34724:3) 287879 2- 4» ” 34726°8a 28746 3 ae ” 2477740 2866 0* 5 a 1071 34881°7) 2860°9 1 0:81 ” 34943-9D 2855:29 2855-4 3 Ay ” 35012°Ta 2853°27 2853°5 2 3 35037 5a 2847°0 3 = 10:2 35114:5d 2843°7 3 33 ” 35155°2b 2842-88 2842°6 3 get Ry 35165:4a 2824-47 2824:2 1 2830°2 is 0:80: |. 5 35394 Tab 2818-4 a + 10:3 35470°8D 2809°7 1 7 ” 35581b 2806°3 8 f = 35624d 2800-7 1 Re Palo) to 35695D 2796°66 2797-0 3 2794-4 a ¥ 10-4 35746'5a 2795°65 3 5a > 35759°5b 278971 1 i oo 35844) 2785°3 il 3 = 35893) 27846 2 - ” 359020 2774:90 27751 1 0:79 ” 36026°8a 2769°7 8 * 10°5 360940 2764:5 4 Rs ” 36162) 2762711 27621 3 3 ” 36193°Ta 2757°2 3 3 by 36258) 27539 8 3 A 363020 274488 8 eo 10°6 36420°8) 2741°1 2 0:78 ” 364710 2732°67 6 4, 4 36583°6) 27248 1 S 10°7 36689) 2720-4 1 33 Be 36748) 270840 8 45 ” 36911°40 2701°8 1 5 10°8 37001) 2692°8 4 O77 ” 37125b 2683°6 . 2 - a 37252b 2678°6 2 5 ” 37322d 2674:3 2 ; 10°9 37382b 2663°7 3 4) = 375310 2662:9 1 " . 375440 2660°8 1 :. ‘. 37572b 2660°3 1 ess - 37578) 2654:°8 2 | 0:76 % 37657) 2652-4 1 . 11:0 37691) 26500 2 ‘ i 377250 2647-6 8 3T759D ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 289 BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON— continued. Reduction . th aimee ee to Vacuum | Oscillation ‘Intensity Observations Se Ae Kayser Eder & is 44344 » 2252°4 4 “3 ” 44384 2251°5 1 ra 7 44401 2249°4 1 e 13°5 44443 22461 1 “H “ 44508 2243°7 4 ” ” 44556 2241°8 1 i - 44594 2241-1 3 A x 44607 22379 1 7 13°6 44671 2236°6 1 ” ” 44697 2235°7 3 ss = 44715 2234°7 4 ” ” 44736 2233°6 1 ” ” 44757 2231°6 2 a + 44797 22301 1 ” ” 44827 2229°7 3 0-67 + 44835 2227°4 3 x: ” 44882 2225'8 3 Ee 13-7 | 44914 2221-7 1 op is 44997 9291°4 1 4 ‘ 45003 i 2219°9 4 ‘ F: 45033 -2219°0 2 7 + 45052 22163 2 ” ” 45107 22110 1 > 13:8 45215 2210°5 2 a ” 45225 2205°8 2 a ¥ 45321 2195°6 2 “t 13°9 45532 2191°7 1 J 14:0 45613 2181°4 1 * or 45619 2190°6 u ¥ = 45636 2187°3 2 E- - 45704 2185°5 2 rT - 45742 2181-2 2 x 14:1 | 45832 2175°6 3 0°66 4 45950 2174-7 2 5 a 45969 21715 3 fe * 46037 2165°8 3 = 14:2 46158 21646 1 Es 5 46184 | 9162" 1 if » | 46237 2159°3 1 oa 14:3 | 46297 21541 1 . % 46409 2153°3 1 | c. 46426 2151°2 2 "4 , 46471 2130-6 3 0°65 14:5 46921 2129°5 1 :, x 46945 2126°7 2 * 14:6 | 47007 #21209 1 - * 47155 2116-1 ul pe 14:7 | 47242 | 210671 1 4 148 | 47466 On ea ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES, OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 293 BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued. Reduction to Wave-length ad Wacnnn Oscillation Intensity ; requency ee Eder & y Observations < i TmvatO (a) Valenta (b) | A 2103°6 1 065 | 148 | 47523 209271 1 » | 1£9 | 47784 2078'3 1 » | 15:0} 48101 2077°2 1 % | 5; 48126 2063°9 1 064 | 15:2 | 48437 2057-6 1 ore Nhedatte 48585 2050°5 1 » | 153) 48753 Tiranium (Arc SPECTRUM) Hasselberg : ‘ Kong]. Svenska Vetenskaps—Akadem. Handl,’ Bd. 28, No. 1, 1895. * Coincident with a solar line. ren eee. Reduction to Wave- Intensity | Previous Observations i es fis - Oscillation length and (Rowland) TTY Wa pea Frequency (Rowland) | Character Bes we in Vacuo A *5899°56 6 5900°2 Thalén 161 | 46 16945°8 5880-55 3 160 % 17000°6 *5866°69 7 5866°5 * . mo | 17040°8 5823°95 3 159 | 4:7 17165°8 *5804-45 6n 1°58 3 17223°5 *5786:21 6n be ee 17277°8 *5781-04 3 it w= | 17293°2 *5774:27 6 1°57 Pine al 173135 *5766°56 5n 2 et 17336°7 *5762°52 5n fo 9 17348°8 *5757-08 3 cf ae | 173652 *5740°20 3s 1-56 Tet 17416°3 *5739°69 5 57392 + r teal 174178 *5720°70 4s 3 4:8 174756 5716-71 4 5 mul 17487'8 *5715°30 5 5715-2 Pe Ss - 174921 571412 4 4 5: 174957 *5712:07 4s ra 3 17502°0 5708°46 4 as 3 17513:1 *5702°92 5 67027 —si,, 1°55 5 17530'1 *5689°70 6 5689°8 5 “2 As 17570'8 *5680°15 4 5680°3 - i * 17600°4 *5675°61 vg 56757 =, re Foe 176145 *5663°16 4 1:54 Slee | 176532 *5662:°37 6 5662°8 a - x 176556 *5648°81 5 56483, 35 * 17698-0 *5644:37 6 56443, .. Pe 177120 *5565'70 6 5566-0 e 152 | 4:9 17962°3 *5514'78 6 , 1:50 + 18128:2 *5514-58 6 \ S148, ” i 18128°8 4 *5612-72 6 5513-2 s A i lvoe 181350 294, - REPORT—1896. TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction to : Wave- Intensity | Previous Observations vera O-c'llation length and (Rowland) 7") eae Frequency | (Rowland) | Charac'er xf | ie in Vacuo i A 5512-00 3 150! 4-9 18)37°3 *5504:10 5 5504-2 Thalén a. | 0 18163°3 *5490°38 6 5490-2 i, ones 18208-7 *5488°44 5 54881, | 1821571 *5482-09 5 5481-5 fet | ee | 182362 *5481-64 5 } " Bets, a 18237:7 *5477-92 5 54778, kee rae 182501 *5474-43 4 54746 gs [E49-| ~~ Set 18261°7 | *5472-90 3 .; 182668 | *5471-43 4 54718, - e 18271-8 *5460 72 3 a P 18307-6 *5453°88 3 ieee’ “ 18330°6 | 5449-40 3 54493, - ee 18345°6 | *544680 | 4 ey GC re ee x 18354°4 |- 5138-53 3 : 1-4 £ 18382°3 543693 | 38s 5 . 18387°7 | 5429°37 5 51299, es te 18413°3 | *5496-48 | 3 54263, _ ont 18423-2 | 541900 | 3 5419-2, ss 5 18448°6 | *5409 81 5 5409-9, “ " 184799 | 5404-25 3 5404-4, ; yrel 18499-0 | *5397-28 4 53973, | 1:47 | 61 18522°7 | #5396-78 3 Ea Pa 18524°5 | *5390-23 4 [ae . 18547-0 5389-36 3 vi y 185500 | *5381-20 3 | 6381-4, eo. A 185781 | *5369°81 5 53700, A - 18617°5 | 5366-85 3 lies ia 18627°8 | *5351-28 4 58517 | ,, 1-46 s 18682-0 5341-68 2 | ‘ e.. 18715°6 | *5338-54 2 Vike es 4 ie 18726°6 | *5336-96 3 jos3s1 sy "| -18739-2 #5300°18 2 eck | 145 | 5-2 18862-1 5298-61 4 \ p20e6 o> a » | 188677 *5297-42 5 52978, s eT 18871-9 *5295 95 4 5296-6, 5 - 18877°2 5289:02 3 52889, nl 5 18901-9 *5284-61 3 44). ,, 4 18917-7 *5283'63 5 5283-9, = ee) 18921-2 *5282'61 3 ik 9 bet 189248 *5266:20 5 52661 ,, ai tse 7 18983°8 5263 71 3 52640, has ore 18992°8 526018 3 52607 ,, ae ar 19005°6 5256 OL 4 5256-1, . eu 19020°6 *5252°26 4 52521, (ea, Ce! 19034-2 *5251°14 2 a 5 19038-3 *5247-48 3 wake 1:43 Zs 19051°6 524675 2 } eeer2 in a * | 190542 5246°30 2 ” ” 19055°9 *5238 77 4 52396, a - 19083-2 *5226°70 3 5227-1 ,, ee 19127-3 *522515 5 ‘ A 19133-0 *5224-71 4 | mb ite ce 191346 *5994-46 5 52241, a J 19135°5 | *5223-80 3 || an ees . 191380 i ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES, OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 295 TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction to Wave- Intensity 4 : Vacuum Oscillation length and Previous Observations — Frequency (Rowland) | Character (Rowland) A+ ohm, in Vacuo A *5222'87 £ 1-43 5-2 19141°4 *5219°88 4 * 19152°3 *5212°50 3 leb4? | ,, 19179°5 *5210°55 6 5210°6 Thalén rite 19186°6 *5208-08 3 a 53 19195°6 *5206°30 3 52066, “O: |teen 19202:2 *5201°32 3 52016 ,, a . 19220°6 *5194°25 3 RS ‘ 19246°8 *5193°15 6 51934, r 19250°8 *5188'87 4|| 5189-4, 9 oe 19266°7 5186°57 3 5186-2 so, 2, a 19275'3 *5173°94 6 51741 =, 1-41 19322°3 *5152°36 5 51523, ts oF 19403:3 *5147°63 5 51481, Pe eller 1942171 *5145'62 5 51456, 7 % 19428°7 6133°12 2 1:40 = 19476°0 *5129°32 3 5129°7_—s,, 5 _ 19490°5 *5120°60 5 5121:0_,, He a 19523°7 *5113°64 5 5114-1, % 54 1955071 5109°65 3 51097, : S 19565-4 5103°39 2 58035 », a 19589°4 *5087°24 6 5087°5,, 1:39 = 19651°6 508555 3 ” ” 19658°2 *5071°66 4 5071-2 =, . a 19712-0 *5069-°56 3 » 5 19720:2 *5068°47 3 : 4 19724°4 *5066°12 4 50665, is 19733°6 *5064:82 7 50654, FS a 197386 5064:26 3 ry 19740°8 *5062°30 4 5062°3_—C,, 1:38 19748°5 5054°30 2 4 4 19779°7 *5053:06 4 5053°3 i, ‘ is 19784°6 *5045°58 3 ” ” 19813°9 *5043°77 4 5044-4, > cS 19821:0 *5040'78 — 4 ;, e 19832°8 *5040:12 7 50402, ie 19835-4 *5038°55 7 50392 si, hy 19841°6 *5036°65 {6 } 3, . 1984971 *5036'10 7 eae ON ros 2 4 19851-2 *5025:72 6 50258, 1:37 | 5:5 198921 *5025-00 6 50248, ae e 19895:0 *5023:02 7 5022:2—,, 4 i 19902°8 *5020:17 7 50204 ,, 5 Pr 19914°1 *5016-32 7 50163, " Ps 19929°4 *5014'40 8 50143 —C,, b. - 19937°1 *5013-45 6 5013'2,, a i 19940°8 *5009°81 4 _ 19955°3 *5007°42 8 50076, “ re 19964°9 *5001-16 5 500270 ,, 3 55 19989°9 *4999°67 8 49996 ,, i . 199958 *4997:26 5 ” ” 20005°5 *499T-24 8 49911 ,, i a 20029°6 ' Ca 5189-05. || Solar line double { Ti 6188°97. 296 REPORT—1896, TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction Wave- Intensity Previous Ob-ervations to Lees Oscillation length and (Rowland) RATES iar ai Frequency (Rowland) | Character a pea in Vacuo A *4989°33 6 4989'1 Thalén 1:36 55 20037°3 *4981°92 8 49818 ,, ay “n 200671 *4978°39 4 4978-6 < : 200813 *4977-92 3 t i 200832 *4975°52 5 49760 ,, 5 20092°9 *4973:25 4 49730 ,, sy +) 20102°1 *4968°75 4 49685, sy = 20120°3 4964:90 3 49653, a + 20135°9 *4948-40 3 49478, 1:35 . 20203'1 4941-77 3 , | 56 20230'1 4938°51 + 49380 ,, on A 20243°4 4937°94 3 ” ” 20245-8 ¥*4928-50 5 49283, < 4 202846 4926-31 3 id 20293°6 * 4995-53 3 i A220°S- on * fd 202968 *4921-90 5 49216, kK, . 20311°8 *4919°99 5 49198, 9 5 20319°6 4915-40 3 1:3: = 20338°6 *4913°76 6 49140 ,, . * 20345-4 ¥*4911:38 3 be * 20355°3 4900-08 6 49001, a _ 20402-2 4893-62 2 i rn 20429-2 4893-25 3 x dt 204307 4892-03 3 ss é 20435°8 *4885-25 7 4885-4, é * 204642 4882-53 2 ee 204756 *4881:08 3 a Bs 20481°7 *4870°28 6 4869-9 > 1:33 - 205271 *4868-44 6 4868-4, 3 A 205349 4864:37 3 i 5 20552-0 *4856°18 6 4855°9 + A 57 20586°6 4848-62 4 4848-9. i , 20618'7 4844-13 3 =. i 20637'8 *4841-00 r¢ 4840°9 “4 1:32 5s 20651°2 *4836-25 4 41359, a : 20671:5 #*4897-74 3 af 20707°9 #4895-62 3 ni : 20717-0 *4820°56 6 48204, i it 20738:2 4819-20 3 “A oH 207446 4812°40 3 A 3 207740 4811-24 4 s : 20779-0 *4808°70 + fH = 20789°9 *4805°56 5 A i 20803°5 4805-25 3 48052 if + 20804:9 *4799-95 Bl | 20827'8 #479813 4 4798-3, 4] # 20835'8 *4796°36 4 _ p 208434 *4792°65 5 4792°4 + ay " 20859°6 *4781°91 4 5 58 20906°3 *4778-44 5 4 2 20921°5 *4769-94 4 . ‘ 20958'8 476648 4 1:30 FP, 20974:0 Fe 4800-05. |] Solar line double Ti 4799-95. oe ae ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 297 TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction to Wave- Intensity Previous Observations Vacuam Oscillation length and (Rowland) Frequency (Rowand) | Character KE Bes in Vacuo r *4759°44 6 4759°3 Thalén 1:30 | 58 210051 *4759-08 3 " ” 21006°7 *4758°30 6 47578 ~~, , “6 2101071 *4747-84 4 % 5 21056°4 "4742-94 6 47426 4, Fr 210782 4742°28 4 ” ” 21081°1 ¥*4734-83 3 ” ” 21114°3 *4733°58 4 ” oS 211199 *4731:33 5 ” ” 21129°9 *4723°32 5 47236 1:29 7 21165°7 ¥4722°77 5 3 21168°2 *4715°46 4 ” ” 212010 *4710°34 6|| 47098 ,, ” 21224°1 *4698°94 6 46989 gy A 59 21275°5 _ 4697-10 4 iz i 21283°8 *4693°83 5 ” ” 21298-7 *4691°50 6 46915 ,, 1:28 5 21309-2 4690°97 4 ” ” 213117 *4688°56 3 ” ” 21322°6 4687-97 3 ” ” 21325°3 4687:08 3 ” ” 21329°3 *4684°68 3 * -s 21340°3 *4682°08 T 4682-4, = 21352°1 *4675°27 5 ” ” 21383'2 466854 3 ” ” 21414-1 *4667°76 8§ 46674, 7 21417-7 *4657°35 3 ” ” 21465°5 *4656°60 7 46569 ,, “5 + 21469°0 *4656°20 4 ” y 21470°8 *4655°82 4 ” ” 21472°6 *4650°16 5 1:27 5 21498°7 *4645°36 5 46449, » p 21521°0 *4640°60 2 + i 21543-0 *4640°11 5 9 a 21545°3 *4639°83 5 ; A a 215466 #463950 | 5 { aoe tas tlle 21548°1 *4638:°04 3 ” ” 21554°9 *4637°34 2 - a rE 21558°2 *4635°71 3 ff fy 21565°8 *4635°04 3 * 6:0 21568°8 *4634-87 FA < ae 21569°6 *4629°47 5 46299 ,, “: ” 21594°7 *4623°24 6 46239, 7 oF 21623'9 *4619-67 3 ” »” ‘216406 *4617°41 7 46176 ,, 1:26 Fe 216512 4614-47 2 + 9 216650 4609°55 3 ” ” 21688'1 *4599°40 4 ” ” 21736'6 *4594-28 2 ie 7 21760°2 *4590°11 _ 4 A * 21780°0 4575°71 2 1:25 Ay 21848°5 *4572°15 6 45724, ” ” 21865°5 - ay r44, * Ti 4667-75. || Solar line double {Tt iad § Solar line double { Fe 4667°60. 298 REPORT—1896. TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued. Redes to Wave- Intensit: J 5 ZEEE Oscillation length ae y Ee [apie Ticapaien (Rowland) | Character Say ee in Vacuo A 4571-07 3 1:25 6:0 21870°7 *4563'°94 5 4564:1 Thalén a 61 219048 *4563°60 3 An 35 21906°4 *4562°80 4 5 a 21910°7 *4560°08 4 x ‘a 219233 *4558°28 3 ; . 21932°0 4558-02 3 4 ‘ 219333 *4555°64 6 45562 ,, x es 21944-7 ¥*4552°62 7lI 45527, - ts 21959'3 *4549°79 6§ 4549°8 3 > cr 219729 *4548°93 vi % = 2197771 ¥*4544-83 z 45444, 3 6 21996:9 ¥4536°25 6 1:24 He 22038°5 *4536°12 é| nite & r % 22039'2 *4535°75 6 a Ph : a = 22041:0 *4534:97 7 ae “ és 220448 *4534°15 5 : ” eh fc 22048'8 *4533+42 7 z 220523 *4527-48 6 45271, 4 x 22081'2 *4529-97 6 45229, % i 22103°3 *4518°84 4 a : 22123°5 *4518-18 7 4518-4 4, . - 2212967 4515:76 3 és a 22138°6 *4512°88 6 4512°4 “4 + . 22152°7 4511°32 3 ii 74 221604 4508-21 2 i‘ i 22175°7 ¥*4506°51 3 ni is 22184-0 *4503'92 4 1:23 * 221968 4501-43 6 45016, x 4 222091 *4497-90 3 % - 22226-R *4496°33 6 4496-9 4, ol @2 22934-2 *4495-19 6 is - 229398 *4499-70 8 ‘s 2 222521 *4489-94 5 ¥. : 22269'3 *4488-47 3 9 % 22273-1 *4489-84 4 i “4 2230171 *4481-41 5 44813, a és 223082 *4480°72 4 is 5 22311°6 *44 79-86 4 i 223159 *4475°00 5 , # 22340-2 *4471-40 5 i fi 293582 *4471-00 3 i 4 22360:2 *4469°32 2 4 . 22868°6 *4468°65 6 44693 yy 1:22 a 22371°9 *4465°96 5 ‘ Ps 22385-4 *4464-60 3 4 . 223922 *4463-70 4 a 22396-7 *4463°52 4 i i 22397-6 4462°26 3 33 Ba 224040 4459-62 2 . > 22417-2 *4457-59 7 44583, i“ * 22497-4 Fe 4552°72. (eee I! Solar line double { Ti 4552-62. § Solar line triple {+ Ti 4549-79. Fe 4549-60. ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction to 299 Vacuum ae gp Previous Observations og ee en, an enc (hewsnd) Character ea ah i sft aio A *4455°48 6 4455°8 Thalén 1:22 | 62 224381 *4453°87 5 ” ” 22446°2 *4453-48 6 44533, 3 7 22448°2 *4451-40 3 eee 5 22458°6 *4451-07 6 As 7 22460°3 *4450°66 4 lL) <3 - 22462°4 *4449-33 6 \ 4450°3 4, her ky a 224691 *4444-72 2 1D 3s i 224924 *4444-417 3 I "33 + 22494°0 *4443-97 6 4443-8, " > 22496°2 *4443-16 3 a i 22500°3 ¥*4441-86 3 (i a 225069 *4441-45 4 oe ad 22509:0 *4440-49 5 a ve 225138 *4438°38 3 % Rs 22524°5 *4436°75 4 ve ‘ 21532'8 *4434-54 2 + a 225441 *4434-15 6 4 ws 22546:0 *4433°75 3 i <% ta 225481 *4432°76 3 be Pde - 225531 4431-46 4 aes 63 22559°6 *4430°55 5 | 1-21 % 22564'3 *4430°19 3 pe = 285661 *4497-28 8 44976 yn s es 22580°9 *4496-24 5 rs vi 22586:2 *4426-01 3 “ s 22587'4 4494-58 3 ” i 225947 *4493:00 5 ” ” 22602'8 *4421-92 4 | S % 226083 *4418'52 3 » ” 22625°7 4417-88 | 5 : | ; 22629 0 *4417-46 | 6 } 2 2 bess]. 3 22631: *4416:70 4 bred, “ 22635°0 *4414-29 2 Ne a 22647-4 *4412°61 | 3 bone fda 22656-0 *4409-71 2 heels 4 22670°9 *4409:4) 2 og am 226725 *4408-70 | 3 m3) oe 226761 *4408°39 3 ! ee ss 22677°T *4407°85 3 huey . 22680'5 *4405'86 4 me ss 22690-7 4405-07 4 ae a 226948 *4404°57 4 ‘ be 22697-4 *4404°49 6 44038, 5 ae 22698'2 *4400°74 3 bh - 227172 *4399-92 5 43993, fe fs 22721-4 *4395:99 3 1, ie 22741°7 *4395°17 q se i 22745°9 4139419 3 a es 227510 4394-04 6 43938, i 5 227518 *4390-11 4 1:20 = 22772°2 4388-69 2 , - 227795 4388-22 3 is s 22782:0 *4387-00 2 He oe ; 22788'3 *4384-85 4 | 22799'5 300 REPORT—1896. TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued. Wave- length (Rowland) *4379°40 4375°61 *4374:97 *4372°54 4369°82 4369°1i *4367°81 4361°31 *4360°60 *4355°44 4354-20 4353-01 *4350°99 *4346°76 *4346°76 *4344-47 434393 *4341°51 *4338°62 *4388°05 *4334°98 *4330°85 *4327:12 *4326°50 *4325°30 *4321:82 *4321:12 *4318°83 *4316°96 *4315°16 *4314°95 *4314°50 *4313°01 4311°80 4308-64 *4306:07 *4302'08 *4301-23 *4300°73 *4300:19 *4299°79 *4299'38 | *4298-82 *4295°91 *4294:28 *4291°32 *4291:07 *4290°37 *4290:07 *4289:23 *4288°29 *4287°55 ¢ See Calcium. Intensity and Character Bm bo oo OU HE bo bo a] NSANQIWARAEANNAIAARAANNOHOWWATINEENWARAAWWWANWNHWRN DD WL Previous Observations (Rowland) 43383 Thalén ” 4287°6 ” Reduction to Vacuum = A 1:20 | 63 || Solar line double 1 Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 22827°9 22847°7 22851'0 22863°7 228779 22881°7 22888:4 22922°5 22926-2 22953°4 22959°9 229662 22976°9 22999°2 23001°9 23011°4 23014°2 23027°1 23042°4 23045°4 23061'8 23083°8 23103°7 23107:0 23113°4 23132°0 23135°7 23148°0 23158:0 231678 23168°8 23171-3 23179°3 23185'8 23202-7 232165 23238°1 23242°7 23245°4 23248°3 23250°4 23252°7 23255°7 232715 23280°3 232964 23297°7 23301°5 23303'1 23307-7 23312°8 23316°8 / Fe 4315:28. Ti 4315°15. ——— ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 301 TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction to Wave- Intensity Previous Observations Vacuum Oscillation length and (Rowland) Frequency (Rowland) | Character a Bye. in Vacuo A *4986°15 Ui 118 65 23324°5 *4285°15 5 ” ” 23829°9 *42823°85 6 4282°6 Thalén ” ” 23342°4 *4281:°49 5 ” ” 23349°9 *4280°17 3 117 ” 23357°1 4278°95 2 ” ” 23363°7 *4278°34 4 ” ” 23367°1 *4276°55 4 ” a 23376°8 *4274:73 6 4273°6 ” ” ” 23386°8 *4273°45 ie ” » 23393°8 4272°57 4 ” af 23398°6 *4270°30 4 ” ” 23411°1 *4266:37 3 ” ” 23432°6 *4265°85 3 ” ” 23435°5 *4965°42 3 *” » 234379 *4263°28 6 4263°6 » Pr as 23449°6 *4260°91 2 ” ” 23462°7 *4258°68 4 ” ” 234750 *49256°18 5 ” ” 23488°7 *495 1°93 4 ” 66 23512:1 *4251°77 4 ” ” 235130 4249-29 4 ” ” 23526°7 4245°66 3 ” ” 23546'9 *4238°00 5 4237-1 ” 1:16 ” 23589°4 4227-80 4 ” ” 2364674 4224-96 4 ” ” 23662°3 *4211°85 3 ” ” 23735°9 *4203°58 4 115 » 23782°6 *4200°88 3 ” ” 23797°9 418884 4 ” 67 23866°3 *4186°27 7 4185°6 ” fc a 23880°9 *4183°45 3 ” = 23897:0 *4174-61 3 ” F 23947°6 *4174:20 2 ” ” 23950°0 *4173°66 3 ” ” 23953'1 *4172°04 4 J ” a 23962°4 #417115 | 5 } sd a sagt ae 23967°5 *4169°46 4 ” ” 23977°2 *4166°45 4 1:14 + 239945 *4164:S0 2 ” ” 24004+1 *4164:27 3 ” ” 24007°1 *4163°80 5 4163°6 ” “A i 24009°8 *4161-67 2 ” ” 24022°1 *4158°79 5 ” ” 240330 *4151-11 5 A + 24083°2 4143°16 3n oF 68 241294 *4137-39 5n fp * 241630 *4134-60 3 | i “ 24179°3 4131°38 3 ” ” 24198-2 *4129°30 3 1:13 Pr 24210-4 4128-20 oa ” ” 24216°8 | Solar line double {ie oan 302 REPORT—1896. TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued. | | Reduction to Wave- Intensity | Previous Observations aa Oscillation length and (Rowland). Frequency (Rowland) | Character ae atins in Vacuo A 4127°67 5 TeVS 68 24219°9 *4123°68 5n ” ” 24243°4 *4123°42 4n ” ” 24244-°9 *4122°31 4 % ” 24251°4 4121°79 3s ” ” 24254°5 *4116°64 3 BY ane "as 24284-9 *4115°32 4s aes 5 24292°6 *4112°86 5s eee ch 24307°2 *4111°91 5s 1 +3 ” 24312°8 *4109-92 3 ite Aly ” 24324°6 *4105°31 3 ee 49 24351°9 *4101-08 2 | 5 5 24377-0 *4(099-°94 3s oy ” 243838 *4099-32 4 > 69 24387°4 *4095°65 2 * ” 24409°2 *4090-73 2 ” ” 24438°6 *4082-57 5s ” ; 24487°5 4079°85 4 ” ” 24503°8 *4078'61 6|| ” ” 24511:3 *4077°30 2 ” ” 24519°1 4076°50 2 ” 9 245239 407450 2 1 ” 24536'0 *4065:23 4s ” ” 24592:0 #406436 4s ‘ 5: 24597°2 *4060°42 5 | ” ” 24621°1 4058°28 4n | i " 246341 4057°76 3n | ” ” 24637-2 *4055°18 5 | ” ” 24652°9 *4053-96 3 111 VY 24660°3 4035:98 4 ” 70 24770°1 *4035'05 3 ” ” 24775°8 *4034:05 3 i ”» ” 24782°0 4030-60 5n | 4 7 24803°2 *4028-48 3 on » 24816:3 4027:°66 3 ” ” 24821°3 4026-64 5n A ” ” 24827°6 *4025°26 2 ” ” 24836°1 *4024-71 6 ” ” 24839°5 4021°98 5n ” ” 24856°4 4017°93 4 > ” 248814 4017-13 2 ” ” 248864 4016°44 3n ° ” ” 24890°7 4015°56 4n 1:10 ” 24896°1 4013:°72 hn ” ” 24907°5 *4012°55 3s | ” | ” 24914'8 4009:°80 4 | aah) tl) eases 24931°9 *4(009:06 6 ” ” 24936°5 4008-20 4n | #5 24941°9 4007°38 3n p a 249470 4006°14 3n | | ” ” 24954 7 4003°99 4n | eS 59 24968°1 : Ti 4078°61. Solar line double Fe 407850. SEES rr er ee bs ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued. 303 Reduction to Wave- Intensity Previous Observations Vaca length Q and (Rowland) F Rowland haracter Ae (Rowiand) xe [4 4002°63 4n BIOS | FE 3999-53 3n 3999°6 Lockyer ” ” *3998°77 8 3998°9 5 ” ” 3994°84 3n ” ” *3989°92 8] 3990'1L aa ” ” 3985-76 3n ” ” 3985°57 3n ” ” 3984:48 3 | ” ” *3982°62 5 3982-4 ” ” ” *3981:91 7 3981-7 ” ” ” *3964:40 5s 3964-2 ar 1:09 ” *3962:98 5s 3962°6 ” ” ” *3958°33 7 39581 ” ” ” *3956°45 7§ 3956°4 ” ” ” *3948:80 Tt 3948-6 a fc 72 *3947-90 6 3947°7 ” ” ” *3938°'18 2 ~ 48938°1 “Fl yy tf ogy 3934:37 3 3934'1 on 1:08 “ *3930:02 5 3929'9 ” ” ” *3926°48 5 3926-4 6 ” ” *3924°67 5 3924°7 + ” ” *3221°56 4 3921:3 mn ” ” *3919-95 3 3919°8 a ” ” 3916:27 3 ” ” 3916-00 3 ” ” *3914°86 3s ” ” *3914-45 5 3914-3 ” ” rt *3913:°58 5 3913°5 ” ” ” *3911:34 4n 3911-2 ”» rh = *3904:95 7 3904°9 An - 73 *3901-13 5 3901°2 * 7 ” *3900-68 5 3900°7 aS p oF *3898°68 4s ” ” *3895 42 7 1:07 A *3890:12 4s ” ” *3888-20 4n ” ” *3883°02 Tn ” ” *3882-49 5n ” ” *3882-28 6n of ” *3881:58 3 99 ” 3877-75 3n oo OF *3875°44 6n - = 387432 4 ay 5873°40 5n cf os *3870:28 3 + A *3869°75 3 ” ” 3869-47 5n | os a 3869-13 2 a re , Fe 3990-00. l| Solar line double 4 5 3989-99" + Solar line triple { f 3957°10, § Solar group Fe I agate lai 3956-45, Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 24976°5 24995°8 25000°6 25025°2 25056°1 25082°2 25083°4 25090°3 25102°0 25106°5 25217°4 25226°4 25256°1 25268°1 25317:0 25322°7 25385°2 25409°8 25438:0 25460°9 254727 25492'9 25503°3 25527°3 25529°1L 25536°5 25539°2 255449 25559°5 25601°2 256263 25629°3 25642°4 25663°9 25698°8 25711°5 25745'8 25749°4 25750:8 25755°4 25780°9 257962 25803°7 25809°8 25830°6 258342 258360 25838°3 3949:00. Fe 3948-90. Ti 3948:80. t 304 REPORT—1 896. TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction to Wave- Intensity | Preyious Observations vaccine Cszillation length and (Rowland) Frequency (Rowland) | Character a: be in Vacuo A *3868'56 5n 107 | 73 25842°1 *3867°92 4n 7 > 25846°4 *3866°60 6n 4 % ” 25855°2 *3866:17 2 > 0 25858'1 *3864°66 2 : ” ” 25868°2 *3862 98 5n ” ” 25879°5 *3861°89 3n > ” 25886'8 3861-25 4 ” » |° 25891-1 *3860°61 3 oy » 25895°3 *3858°26 5n 5 » 25911-1 *3858:04 3 4 2 25912°6 *3855'99 3 1:06 - 25926°4 *3853°87 5n » 25940°6 *3853'18 5n % rf 259453 *3848'48 3s > 259770 *3846 57 4 : "5 ss 25989°9 *3845°28 3 ”» ” 25998°6 3842:77 2 ” ” 26015°6 3841-79 | 2 ” ” 26022°2 *3840°90 2 4 5 26028°3 3840-48 2 ” ” 26031-1 *3836:90 4 a rr 260554 *3836°22 3s * £ 26060:0 3834-06 3 ” ” 260747 *3833'80 4s * ” 26076°5 *3833'33 4s ” ” 26079:7 3829°87 3 ” ” 26103:2 *3828°31 4 9 ” 26113'9 *3828°16 3 ” ” 26114°9 3827°80 2 “4 ” 26117°4 3827-61 2 ” ” 26118°7 *3827:12 3 > ms 261220 *3823-03 2 7 3 26150:0 *3822'16 5s§ x 3 26155°9 *3821°86 2 + 7 26158-0 *3818°38 4 ” ” 26181°8 *3817°78 4 . (aes 26185°8 *3815°01 3 | 1-05 ” 26204-9 *3814:°72 4 | es 5 26206°8 *3813-54 3 i 5 262150 *3813-42 3 + 26215°8 *3811:56 2 ” ” 8 26228-6 3807-93 2 ” ” 26253°6 3807°37 2 > 26257°4 *3806°60 2 “S + 26262'8 3806:19 2 - : 26265°€ *3805°64 2 5 ss 26269°4 3805°25 2 + = 26272:1 *3801°73 28 - a 26296°4 *3801:25. | 3s i = 26299°7 *379847. | 3 -, : 26319:0 Ti 3822°16. § Solar line tripley Fe 382206. Ti 3821°16. ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 305 TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM) —continued. Wave- length (Rowland) Intensity Previous Observations chan (Rowland) Reduction to Vacuum *3796°06 3789:46 *3786°44. *3786:20 *3782°26 *3776'20 *3771°80 *3766°60 *3762-01 *3761°46 *3759:42 *3757°82 *3753°75 *3753:00 3748-26 *3741°78 *3741°19 3739°17 *3735°84 *3733-96 *3729-92 *3725:28 *3724°70 *3722°70 *3721°75 *3717-53 *3710:10 3708'83 *3707-68 *3706°37 *3704-84 *3704:42 370313 *3702-42 3700-22 3698'33 *3697-05 *3694:58 3692°35 *3690 04 *3688 19 3687-48 3686-10 *3685:30 *3681:38 *3679°88 3677-90 *3671°82 *3669-08 *3666°71 *3663-82 1896. ee 7) n n i=] i=} PSI OE Ge Nm YS Gra Fe CoB RS Cio Cio TES TBOTESYNS SP), 00 (C7 CS Or Sx St! 8C0 C9 C0 pi He Aa) Ore 9) -Qiko NO 'ST'F [ Fe 378634. § 4 Ti 3786-20. | Fe 378612. Frequency Oscillation in Vacuo 26335°7 26381°6 26402°6 26404:3 26431°8 264742 26505-0 26541°6 265740 265779 265923 26603°7 26632°5 26637'8 26671°5 267178 267220 26736°4 26760°2 26773°7 26802°7 26836:0 26840-2 26854°6 26861°5 26892:0 26945°9 26955-1 26963-4 26973°0 26984:1 26987-2 26996°6 27001°8 27017°8 27031°6 27041:0 27059'1 270754 27092°4 271060 27111°2 271213 27127-2 27156-0 2716771 271817 27226°8 2724771 27264°7 27286:2 306 REPORT—1896. TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction to ec eae Previous Observations Vern ee an re en (Rowland) Character ea Xe fer in wvaeub A *3662°37 . 102 | 7-7 27297-0 #3660°75 6 ‘ A 273091 *3659-91 5s 273154 *3658-22 7 E : 27328°0 | *3654-72 6 1-014) os 27354-2 | #365361 | 10n s é 27362'5 #364632 Bs : 274172 #3644-87 4 x : 274281 #34982 | 10n 2 5 27443'6 3641-48 Bs thre : 27453°7 383810 4 fae eh ree 274791 “363561 | P| 2 | sagre #3635-33 4 i : 275000 3633-60 4 ie 275131 #369622 3s eit: 275691 3624-97 4s] és es 27578°6 3623-25 an : Y 27591-7 3621-37 dn a 27606'1 #369015 2 is i 27615-4 3614-35 4n 1-00). 27659'7 3613-89 4 i é 27663'2 3612-40 3n 276746 *3610-29 6 : ‘i 27690°8 360972 | 3 Aaa Beets 27695°2 epee is ct) c ” ” 7 22° #3.G05°46 4s # if 277279 *3604-39 3s e ‘ 27736 1 3603-98 3 27739°3 *3601-52 9 : ‘ 277583 *3601°31 2 se . 27759°9 *3599-25 5 27775" 3508-87 = ad i pia *3596°17 5 s : 27799'6 #359413 2 » 1 79 27815°2 ae i | a . d ” ? 7 6 #357600 2 099 | 2 27956°3 #357385 | 48 2 Ae oe #3566-16 3 : is 28033°5 #3561-72 3 4 e 28068°4 3558-66 4 ‘ 28092'6 355632 3n bs 8111-1 =a5eris 5 » | 80 28183'6 3549-69 3 2 ped *3535°56 9 i ; 353551 5 098 | |. 282761 #352618 3 i - eo 2 i . 28351°3 ( Ti Fe 3625-00. ( Fe 357405. || Solar line double (Ni 362487. § Solar line double | Ti 3573-85. i. ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 9307 TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued. | Reduction to | Wave- | Intensity |! Previous Observations | Vaeuam Oscillation length and (Rowland) ated a lal Frequency (Rowland) Character eae glo in Vacuo r Sso2zp28 | 3 0-98 | 80 28358°5 *3524°37 4 Veep bat Wea ce 28365°9 | *3520°39 4s nT ee 28397°9 #352015 | 3n eh tes 28399'9 *3516:97 3 alee 28425°6 *3512-23 4b is . 28463-9 *3511-74 2 Ta 28467°9 *3510°98 6s & i: 284741 | | "250755 | 3 = | toed 28501°8 | *2506°76 4 pat | f 28508*8 * 3505-02 6 ! | cy 28522'4 | *3500-48 3 YF "| 985594 *3499-24 4 % | ce 285695 *3495°88 4 0:97 a 28597°0 *3393-44 2 , y i! 28617-0 *3491-20 6s | cy ieee 28635°3 | *3489-90 3 | ag Vis 286460 #348584 3 Oe Rie 286794 | 3481-83 2 bl ay pe eee | *3480-67 5 a eee | 287220 | 3479-07 3 a) | oe Ube 2BTRR2 5 1 dei 28749°6 *3477°33 ae. { Ti 3506-77. || Solar line double | Fe 3506°66. 562 Titanium lines coincide with solar lines, and 156 are doubtful or do not coincide. Rowland’s Normal Solar Lines (on which these measurements of the Titanium Lines rest): 5893:10, 5884-05, 5831:84, 5805-45, 5791:21, 5772-36, 5754-89, 5731-98, 5688-48, 5658-09, 5569°84, 5513-19, 5487-96, 546660, 5447-12, 542427, 5397°34, 5867-67, 5300'S2, 5266-73, 5230:01, 5202-49, 5155-94, 5121:80, 5090-96, 5060:25, 5036:10, 5007-42, 4978-78, 4934-24, 4903-48, 4890-94, 4859-93, 482431, 4805-25, 4783-60, 4754-22, 4727-62, 4703-98, 4679-02, 4668:30, 4637-67, 4611-44, 4578°72, 4563-94, 4536-25, 4508-45, 4494-72, 4468-65, 4447-90, 4425-60, 4407:85, 437610, 4843-98, 4818-83, 4293-24, 4267-94, 425449, 4215-65, 4185-05, 4157-94, 4121-96, 4088-71, 4062-60, 4048-88, 4029-79, 4003-91, 3971-48, 394255, 3924-67, 3897°60, 3875-23, 3843-40, 3821:32, 3794-02, 3770-12, 3747-09, 3716-57, 3695-19, aie 8658-68, 3640:53, 3612-21, 3583-48, 3564-68, 3540-27, 3518-48, 3491-47, x2 308 REPORT—1896. Copper (Spark SPECTRUM). Eder and Valenta: ‘ Denkschr. kaiserl. Akad. Wissensch. zu Wien,’ 1896. Exner and Haschek: ‘ Sitz-ber. kaiserl. Akad. Wissench. Wein,’ civ. (1895), ev. (1896). * Observed in the Arc spectrum by Kayser and Runge. + Observed only in air; the spark was usually taken between copper poles im hydrogen. | | Reduglian | ; to Vacuum ats | Mie ars ae Previous Measurements oe shale (Rowland) Character (Rowland) 1 in Vacuo A+ a | 6381:1 6s 6381:2 Thalén 1:73 4:2 1566771 | 6219°5 4s 6219°7 1:69 4:4 160741 | *5782°30 8s 578274 oy, 5782°5 Neovius | 1:58 4°7 17289°5 | 5768°65 Inb 1:57 | ,, | 17280-4 | 5760°49 1Inb e si 173549 | *5732°50 inb 1°56 Ks 17439°7 |’ *5700:39 6s 57018 , 57008 ,, 1:55 | 48 | 17537-9 | 5696°68 3b a PA 17549 3 | 5685:03 1b 5 A 17585°3 | 5679:42 3s * 5 17602°6 567585 2b $3 a 17613°7 | 6672°92 2b a3 - 17622°8 5668°77 2b ” ” 17635°7 5666°62 3s a 33 17642°4 5663°52 In 1:54 5 176521 | 5652°16 4b ” 5 17687'5 | *5646:13 3b s +5 17706°4 564439 Jn ” An 17711°9 5639-50 In ns 17727°3 5636'84 1b a 53 177356 562471 1b 1:53 - 177739 5621°17 3b 5 a 17785°1 561870 ‘| 3b ” 4 17792°9 560883 3s a 4:9 178241 557410 3b 1:52 os 17935:2 5571:47 In ny i 17943°7 5566°35 3s 5 - 17960°2 556383 2s ” 4 17968°3 ¥*5555°15 2b 5 = 1799674 554311 2b 1°51 ;; 18035°5 *5535°90 3b Ps 55 18059:0 5500:09 2s 1°50 50 181765 549814 2s 3 5 18183°0 549512 4s a is 18193°0 5487°30 3s s rn 18218°9 | 65475°49 2n 1:49 a 18258°2 5472-00 3b = 9 18269°8 5463°55 4b ” 4 18298'1 5460°25 2b te 5 18309°2 | 5456:02 2s - ‘3 18323°4 545393 In x . 18330°4 5450°62 2s 3 18341°5 544090 1n ot ni 18374°3 5438°79 4s 1:48 =< 18381°4 4#5432°26 2b ‘ > 6 18403°5 5429-01 1b ay » | 184146 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. Wave- length (Rowland) 5422-93 5418°61 5410-97 *5408°55 #5391°92 5389°70 5380°75 5369°63 *5360°20 5357°27 #5355°10 #5352°85 5340°71 5338°19 5325°38 531760 5309-41 5295°71. #529275 5287°66 5285°77 528234 5270°13 5268°38 5255°62 #5250°82 5232°80 #*5220°25 | ¥*5218°45 | 5208°37 520374 *5201'14 *5153°40 *5 144-40 513903 513386 5130-97 5124-70 512000 5112-18 *5105°75 5095-08 5094-29 5089-54 *5076-49 5067-33 5060'86 5059°58 5053-02 #5034-49 501699 5013-40 5007-49 500538 500150 CoPpPpER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Intensity and Character Previous Measurements (Rowland) 5293'1 Thalén 5293:0 Neovius \ sais + ie BTL eh 51533 ,, ~«©5153°6 + 51055 =, = 51059 ” 309 Reduction to Vacuum | Frequency | 18435°2 Oscillation in Vacuu 18449°9 18476:0 184842 18641:2 18548'8 18579:7 186182 186509 | 186611 | 18668:7 186765 187190 187278 18772'9 18800°4 18829°4 18878-0 18888°6 18906°8 18913°5 18925°8 18969°7 18976:0 190221 19039°4 19105:0 19151:0 19157°6 191946 192116 192213 19399°4 19433:3 19453°6 194732 194842 19508-0 19526:0 19555°7 19580°4 19621-4 196244 | 196427 19693:2 19728°9 197541 19759°1 19784:7 19857-6 19926°8 19941:0 199646 19973-0 19988:5 310 REPORT—1896. CopPpER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Wave- Intensity length and (Rowland) | Character | 4986-94 | on 4954°83 4n 4945-17 In 493856 ib | 4932°86 4b | 4927-66 1s 4921-82 In 4919-65 In 4913-98 In | 4910°77 3n | 4889°89 2s *4867°33 2n 485648 In | *4767°74 In | 4758°61 Qn | 4748-85 238 | §*4704-76 5s | §*4697°83 3n 4683°35 Qn *4674°98 6s §*4651'29 8s 4649-31 2s | *$643-05 2b | 4634-47 In 4630°77 4s i 4623-26 In 4621°52 2s 4614-30 2n | 4607-45 2s | 4601-80 2s §$*4587:17 8s | §*4555°94 In | §*4539-60 3b t §*4630°98 2s §*4509-50 4b *4507-77 In 4505°65 In | £492°57 2b | $*4480°52 3b $*4416:06 1b §*4378°30 In §*4275°36 10s | §*4260°17 In §*4249-17 3b §*4228°37 In §*4177-92 2b §*4062-89 Tbv §4043:°70 3s §*4022°91 4s 398331 In 398184 In 3979-74 In §3962°77 In 3959-60 in 395498 In Previous Measurements (Rowland) Reduction to | Vacuum Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 4956°5 Thalén 4955°8 Neovius 49334 ,, 4932°5 ds 49123 ,, 4911°0 4758°5 Neovius 4704-0 Thalén 4703:2 Neovius 4651-5 ,, "4651:3 =, 4587-4 Neovius 45562 ,, 4540-1 45311 i 45099 $ 4480-6 + | 4378-2 4275°5 Thalén 4275°3 Neovius 4249-4 Neovius 4063-0 mh 4022°9 x 20050°9 201768 202163 202432 202666 20288-0 20312°1 20321:0 20344°5 | 20357°8 20444°8 | 90539°5 | 20585°3 20968°5 210087 210519 21249°2 | 21280°5 213463 21384°6 21493°5 21502°7 215317 21571-4 | 21588°7 21623°8 _ 21631-9 21665°8 | 216980 | 21724°6 | 21793°9 21943°3 | 22022:3 | 22064:2 22169°3 | 22177°8 22188°3 22252°8 22312°6 22638°3 22833°6 23383°3 23466°7 | 23527-4 23643°2 23928°7 246061 24722'8 24850°6 25097°6 251069 25120°2 252278 252480 252774 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. CoPpPER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Previous Measurements Wave- Intensity length and (Rowland) | Character 3952-02 In 3948-18 In §3934:15 2s 3923-10 2s 3919°72 2n 3917-67 In 3914-00 2n 3912°35 in *3899-90 2s 3894-64 In 3888°77 In Several 388712 In §*3861°88 1s §*3860-95 2n 3839-03 2n 383486 In 3831:97 In 3826°40 2n §3813-77 2n §*3812-05 In §3809-29 3n §3807°84 2n §3804:50 In §3801-29 In 3799°47 In §3791:12 4n 378424 2n 3781°97 In 3780'31 In §3777 17 3n §3775:15 2n §3772°17 In $3764°21 In * { 3762°23§ In 3754°78§ In §3752:29 2n 3748:50 In §3744-94 2n §*3741°44 2s 3737-62 In §*3734°68 2s 3726:43 In §3720°32 In $3715°27 In 3703°10 2n §*3700°56 In 3697-99 In *3687°75 2b *3686:70 3s *3659-54 In *3656°22 1s *3654-59 in $*3645-00 In §*3642-00 In 3686°6 (Rowland) ” dll Reduction to Vacuum 1 At z 1:09 72 ” ” 1:08 Pp ” | ” ” ” ” | ” ” ” ” ” er 73 1:07 nF ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 1:06 3 ” ” ” ” ” ” 1:05 74 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” » ” ” ” 1:04 5. 75 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 1:03 rs ” ” ” 76 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 1:02 +: ” ” ” ” oc TT 1:01 “ Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 25296'3 25320°9 25411°3 25482°8 25504'8 25518°2 2554271 25552°9 256344 25669:0 25707'8 25718°7 25886°8 25893°1 26040'9 26069°3 26088°9 26126°9 26213°4 26225°2 26244-2 262542 26277°3 26299°5 26312°1 263700 26418:0 26433°8 26445°5 26467°4 264816 26502°4 26558°5 26572: 5 26625°2 2€642°9 26669°8 26695:2 26720°2 26747-5 26768°6 26827°7 26871°8 26908 3 26996'8 270153 27034°1 271092 27116°9 273181 273430 27355°2 27427:1 27449°7 312 REPORT— 1896, COPPER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. an ae Previous Measurements (Rowland) | Character ere) 3639°47 In §*3636°10 Qn §3633'14 In §*3627-64 In 3625°61 In $3624-44 In §*3621°31 Qn §*3620-46 In §*3613-89 2n §3611-08 In §*360210 | 4n * 24 3599'7 Neovius Sees) 1) le 1 35096 Hartley & Adeney 3549-09 2n §*3533-'79 | 2n §*3530°44 3s §*3527°56 2s §*3524°36 3s 3524-4 H. & A. §*352020 | Qs 3516°86 Is §*3512°16 38 35112 —,, §*3483°82 4s 34838, §*3476°03 3s 34788, §3472-26 In 3472.4 ,, §*3454-64 In 34558, §*3450°43 3s 34506, §*3416-74 1b §*3413-27 1b §*3404-62 1b §*3402-31 1b *3393°51 3s §*3381-43 Qn 3382-0, §*3365°45 3s §*3349-43 2s §*3338-00 | 4s §3335°59 1b *3329°64 1b §*3319-74 2s §*3317°35 2s §*3308:10 | 7s 83078 ~ ., §*3292°77 In §*3290-60 3b 3290°7 ss, §*328279 | 2s 3282-4, §*3279'89 | 35 32804 ,, §*3274-09 | 8s 32750 ,, §*3266:03 Is 32670, §*3247-65 10s 32484, §*3243:13 | 3b 3245-4, §*3235-68 3s 3235-2, §*3231-25 2s §*3226°60 | In §*3224-67 | Qn §*3223-47 2n §*3208-41 In g3204-64 | 2b Reduction to Vacuum Nat oe N 1:01 JC 3 78 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 1-00 5 ” ” ” ” 0:99 8:0 0:98 * ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 0:97 81 ” ” ” »”» 0:96 8:2 095 | 83 ” ” ” ” ” ” a 8-4 ou 9» 85 0-93 | ,, ” ” ge ” ” 092 |” | 87 ” ” ” ” 0:91 8:8 ” ” ” ” ” ” 0:90 89 Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 27468°8 27494:2 27516°6 27558°3 27573°'8 58272°7 27606°5 27613°0 27663°2 27684°7 27753'8 27775°8 28168:2 28290°2 28317°1 | 28340°2 | 28365°9 28399°5 28426°5 28464°5 28696'0 28760°4 28791°6 28938°4 289737 29267°9 292891 29363°6 29383°5 29459°6 29564°9 29705'3 | 29847°3 29949°6 29971:2 30024:8 301142 30135°9 30220 2 30361°0 30381-0 304532 30480°1 30534°1 30609°5 30782°7 30825°6 30896°6 30939:0 30983°6 31002°1 310137 31159-2 31195°9 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 313 COPPER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. eo aoe to : yacuum “T7048 es invenaty Previous Measurements one (Rowland) | Character Cine x¥ 1__| in Vacuo A 3200-20 Qs 0:90 | 89 | 31239-1 $*3194-15 Gis & » | 312983 §*3169°68 3n ‘ 0:89 | 9:0 | 31539-9 *3159°85 6n is » | 316381 §*3146 84 In a 9:1 | 317688 §*3142°38 In - i » | 31813-9 §*3140°33 In 3139°7 H. & A. 0-38] ,, | 3183847 §#3126-16 6s . » | 319790 §*3116°34 In 3116G =, if » | 32079'8 §*3108'55 5s 3108-2 __,, ‘ 9-2 | 321601 §*3099-93 5s 30987 087 | ,, | 32249°6 *3094-01 3s vi » | 323113 §3088°10 In {i » | 323732 §$*3073'82 Is ts 93 | 32523°5 *3070°86 1s NM » | 325549 §*3063°50 3s A | 826331 §*3036°15 3s 30369 __,, 0:86 | 9:4 | 329271 §*3010°93 3s 0°85 | 9:5 | 33202°8 §3007:42 In 5 » | 382416 §*2997-47 Is ; 9:6 | 33351°9 *2989-21 In 0-84) ,, | 335226 §*2979°31 In ie » | 335552 §2976:00 In A | 335925 2971-80 In fs » | 33640-0 §*2961-20 5s 29596, ; ‘: 9-7 | 33760-4 §2884-50 In “ 0°82 | 10:0 | 34658-1 §*2883:05 Is 28829 ,, a é » | B4675°5 §2878-02 3s 2878-0, i » | 347361 2860-45 3s ; 081 | 10°1 | 349494 2858-28 In : » | 34976-0 | §2837-66 2n eri ,, » | 102 | 352301 | §2824-47 6s 030] ,, | 35394-7 | §2813-25 2s » | 103 | 35535°8. § 2799°55 1b » | 104 | 35709°6 2795-60 ‘2s ‘ iS » | 35760:1 2780-25 Is ‘ 0-79 | ,, | 35957-6 2777-15 Is M » | 35997°7 -§*2769°88 4s 27694, » | 105 | 360921 | §*2766-45 2s 27665, e is » | 36136°9 | 2763-80 ls : %3 . | 36171°6 §*2751°30 2b » | 106 | 36335-9 §2745'54 6s 27463, , ‘s » | 364121 §2739-98 3s O78 | ,, | 364860 §2737°63 3s :- » | 36517°3 | §2734-07 2n 36564:9 | §2731-8 2n len || SB59RS 2730-4 In c , | 36614 §*2724-1 2n - » | 10:7 | 366987 §2721-98 4s 3721-3, a » | 867273 §2719-14 5n 27189 a » | 33765°6 §2713°82 8s a713°7 3 » | 36837°7 §2703-48 9s 27030, , = » | 369787 §2701°34 | 10s 27013, » | 10:8 | 37007.9 26988 1s 077 | ,, | 37042:7 | §*2696-70 =| Qs. ,. 5S + 370716 314 REPORT—1896. CopPER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. “elear eve Previous Measurements Rowland) (Rowland) | Character ( §2689°66 10s 2689°4 H.& A. §*2680°0 In §2666°61 6s 26667 SCs, 2658-7 In $* 2649-9 1n §2644°10 5s 2643°8 ‘45 §2641°75 2s *2635°1 In *2630°1 In 2624°4 In §*2618°46 8s 26183 ,, §2609°43 7s 26094 ,, §2600°51 | 10s 26003, §$2599°15 8s 2598°9 ~ § 2592-9 In §2590°78 5s 2590'S sy, $2587°6 In §2586°5 In 2584:0 1n §2581°3 1s §*2580'3 1s *2578'1 In 2576°8 In 25752 2s §2573-4 3s 25734 4 §2572 0 4s 25724 45 ae Tn 2b71s3: yy 69°7 In §*2566°5 5s 2565'7 2564-4 1s : *2563'1 1s 2561°5 In 2557°4 in §$2554-4 2s §*2553:2 2b 25543 yy 2552°9 ln 2552°6 9 2552-1 ln §2550:4 2b §$2545-08 10s 25449 iy §$2538°8 4s 2538°6 oF S2585'5 4s §2533-8 In 253844 gy 2533-0 2n 253271 2n 25319 45 $2529-60 8s 2529'3 3, §$2526-90 5s 25266 55 §2523°3 4s Bozo | yas §2522-4 4s 25223 45 2521-2 2s §2519-1 2s §$2518:5 3s 2518'S sg, §2517-0 2s iy 2516-6 2s 2515-0 Is Reduction to Vacuum anal eae 077 | 10°8 ” ” Ee 109 ” ” 0-76 | 11:0 ” ” ”» ” ” ” 33 19 Bl ” ” ” ” 075 | 11:2 ” ” ”? ” ” ” ” ” * abs? ” ” ” ” ” ” » ” ” ” ” ” 9 ” ” ” ” ” > ” ” ” * 11-4 0:74 a ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 5 1:5 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 3” ” x 11°6 » ” ” ” » ” ” ” »”» ”» » »” ” ” 0-73 & Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 37168°6 37302°6 37489°9 37601°5 37726°3 37809°1 37842°7 37938°2 38010°3 380929 38179°3 38311°3 384428 384629 38555°7 38587°2 386346 38651:0 386884 38728'9 387439 387770 38796°5 38820°6 38847°8 388689 38881-0 38903°8 38952°2 3898471 39003°9 390282 39090°8 39136°7 3915571 39159°7 391720 39198-1 392800 393772 39428°5 39454°9 394674 39481-4 39520°3 39562°6 39589:2 39619-0 39633°2 39652°1 39685°1 39694°6 397182 39724°6 39749°8 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 315 COPPER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction Wave- Intensity é to Vacuum | Osciliation peng aa eee a “in eal ; Frequency (Rowland haracter in Vacuo a+ | == A 2513-2 5s 2513-4 H. & A. 0-73 | 11-6 | 397783 §2511°5 6s 2511-7, » | 11-7 | 398051 §2508-7 6b 25090 > late! | S9B4Bs §2506:50 | 10s 25066 |. » | os» | 398846 20048 Ib ki ” | 399116 2503" In » | | 39930°8 2503'1 In » | 3, | 399388 2501-0 Qn ; », | 399723 2497°7 3s 24978 ,, > lot) | 40086 $2496-2 4b 24963 » | 3 | 40049°2 2493-6 In » | 118 | 40090-9 §*2492-2 6s 24919, oo 'lehtp) | S04aes g248975 | ss | 24895, » | 9 | 40152-9 Be |e jen = ie | a §2482'5 bs if age, » |. | 40270-2 2481:°2 ls ” ” 40291°3 2479-8 Is * , | 403140 §2478-4 3n 24785, » laGa! | dOaaee 2475-4 In 24755 |. » | 119 | 40385-6 §2473°6 &s 24736 ,, notes, | 4ehae §2468-7 8s 2469-0 072} ” | 40495-3 §2466:0 4n 24657 | » |» | 40539:6 2464-1 Qn » | | 40870-9 2463-2 Qn és 405857 -¥2462/1 3n 24619, » | on | 406038 2460°5 In ; | 40630-2 §2459:4 2s , | 120 | 40648-3 2458-9 4s 24585, » lm. | 406566 2457-9 In eo fee | aoagee! §2453°1 Bs 24526 ,, » «| | 40759-7 2451-9 1s 407727 2449'5 Is Pe dat «ion §2447°6 Qn J 408443 24468 Qn 24470, Ly | 40867°7 2445-5 Qn » | a | 408794 §2444-54 5s 2444-4, ” » | 40895°5 2443-5 Qn | 121 | 409198 2442-6 Qn 1 y |» | 409279 g*244172 | 6s 24419, » | » | 409426 §2440-2 3b 2440-2 > » | a» | 409682 §2436-0 Bs 24360 |. » low | 410388 2433-5 3s 2 410810 §24305 4s 24308 ‘i ” |) 4131-7 2499: Qn Say, {eget 2428:3 Qn 24287, es ” | 41169-0 §2424-70 | 5s 24958 | | 132} 41230-0 2421°8 3s 2429-7 O71) , | 412794 2420-0 In Wet) | 24180021 2418°5 In eat | SBBSET re In 413974 2414:3 2s i "| 1407-7 2413-2 1s ke cl. | 426 g2412-45 | 5s 24125 , | 123 | 414393 2408'6 In » Why | SROORG 316 | REPORT—1896. CopPpER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction Wave- Intensity ‘ to, Nae length rele Previous Measurements (Rowland) | Character Ce pranihy) Nii = *2406°8 Is O71 | 12°3 §2405°64 4s 2405°3 H. & A. ” ” §$2403°63 6b 2403'5 5 ” ” §*2400°23 6s 2400°5 a ” ” §*2392°8 4 23083. 4s » | 124 §2391°8 | 3 Is 23925“ , ‘5 » 2385°1 2s 2385°5 ae ” ” §2376°6 5s 23771 sy, » | 125 §2370°9 2n 2372:0 55 0:70 ” §*2369-97 10s 2369°9T.&.8. 2370-6H.& A. “4 33 2368°8 2s 2368°8 cr 23691 =, ”” oF 2368-4 2s » | 12 Ses In 23663, ” ” *2363°3 In ” » 2362°8 In ” ” 2361°6 In ” ” §*2356°68 6s 2356°7 7 23577 ~—Sy ” ” §2355°2 4n 2355°2 “ 23553, ” ” §2348'8 3n 23491, » | 127 §2346-2 2s 23462 Pa 23465, “ ” 23391 In » | 12°8 §2336°3 4s 2336°3 5 2337°0 =, ” ” 2324-1 In 0°69 | 12:9 2323'1 ln ” ” 2320°4 2s ” ” 2319°7 1s ” ” 23159 In ” ” 2315'3 1s ” ” 2312:3 1s » | 13:0 §$2309:7 2s ” ” §2303°18 4s ” ” §2299°6 2s 2299°6 be 2300°8_ si, | eS 2298 5; $2294-40 6s 2294°4 9 22953 —S,, ” ” 2293:°93 3s 2293°9 ‘; 22949 | ,, bid 2 §2291-1 4s 2291°1 " PMT ne ” ” §2286°7 4s 2286°7 A 2287:0_ =i, - 13°2 2280°9 1s ” ” §2278-4 2s 2278°4 3 2219'9) ass ” ” §2276°30 6s 2276°3 ie 22773 i, 0-68 Ar 2274-9 1s » | 13:3 §2265°5 2s 22655 ” 2266°1 ” ” ” §2263°7 3b 2263°9 ” 2264-2 ” ” ” 22632 2b 22632 % 2263°5 s,, = 13°4 2260°6 2b 22600 __—sé,, ” ” §2255:1 2b 2255°1 of ” ” 2252-0 lb 2250°3 ” a” »” §2248-9 3b 2249:0 a 22485, oe 13°5 § 2247-14 7s 2247-0 x 22480 ,, % §2244-4 1s 22443, a §2242°6 qs 2242°7 aS 2243'8,, ” 2231°8 1s 22333, > 13°6 at 2s 2231:0 x 2231°5,, a 3 §2230°2 3b 22301 Hh 22305, ” ” §2229-0 4b 2228°9 = 22294, 0°67 “p Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 415366 415567 41591°4 41650°4 41779°6 417971 419146 42064:4 42165°6 42182: 42203-0 42210-0 42285-0 423011 42310°1 4331-6 42420-0 42446'6 42562:2 42609-4 42738°7 42789'9 43014°5 43033-0 430831 43096'1 43166 9 43178-0 43234-0 43282-7 43405°2 43472°7 43571°3 435804 43634:1 437179 43829°1 43877'3 43917°7 43944-7 44127-1 44162°2 44171°8 44222°6 44330°5 44391°6 44452°7 44487°5 44541°8 44576'8 44793'3 44807°3 44825°4 44849°6 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES. OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 317 CoPpPER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Wave- Intensity length and (Rowland) Character §2227-9 Qn §2227-0 3n 2225'8 2s §2294-9 2s $2218-2 6s § 2215-4 3s 2214-6 3s 2212-9 1s $2210'4 5s §2200°7 Is 2199°8 3s §2195:9 3s §2192-4 Bs §2189'8 5s 2183-0 Is 2181'8 Is §2179-45 5s 2175-15 3s 2165°2 Is §2161°6 Is 2157-5 2s §2152-0 38 §2149-05 4s 2147:2 2n 2145-7 2n 2144-9 in §2136'1 3s §2134-6 2s 2130°2 In §2126:1 3s 2125°3 3s §2123:06 3s 2117-4 Qs §2112-20 2s §2104:88 2s 2098°7 2b 2093°1 1s 2088-2 2s 2085-4 3s 2079:0 2s 2070°4 In 2066-5 In 2062-7 in 20551 2s 2044-0 2s 2037°28 2s 2036-0 2s Previous Measurements (Rowland) 22273 T.&S. 2228:4H.& A. 22269 __,, 222773), 222378 55 2226°3 —,, 22248, 22196 22182 —,, { o188 (22168 22153, 1 Soeur 9144 ,, 99144, 2213-0 |, 22116 ,, (22111, 22103 99091” 22006 ,, 22006 ,, 21998 |, 22001 |. 21959 3 21968, 9199-3? aortas 1 9191-5 |, 21899 |, sierra 4) Wore 21818 ,, 21813 » 21755 «, 21793 ,, 21783 |. 21752 sy PATS em 5 21492 ,, 21491 ,, 21361 5 213861 ,, 21346 . 21345 ,, 21262 919 21253, Piet ‘ 21224 | Seay { 51918 TRE ae es he ee 21122 3, 91195 |, 21049 |, «21033, 20986 ), 20939 |, 20881 |, 20855 |, 20788 , 20670, 20627 |. 20551 20440 |) 20373 Reduction to Vacuum fos A ae 0°67 | 13-6 » | 187 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 13'8 ” ” ” ” ” 13-9 ” ” ” ” ” 14:0 ” » ” ” +d ” 066 | 141 ” ” ” 14:2 ” ” ” 14:3 ” ” » | 144 ” ” » | 145 ” ” 0°65 a. ” 14:6 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 14:7 ” 14°8 ” ” ” 1:49 ” ” ” 1:50 0-64 | 151 ” ” ” 15:2 ” 15:3 ” 15:4 ” th] ” 15°5 ' 47873:2 Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 44871°7 44889'9 449140 449321 45067°9 45124:9 45141°1 45175°8 45226°9 454262 45444°8 45525°5 455981 45652°3 457945 45819°7 45869:0 45959-7 461709 46247°8 46335°6 46454°1 46517°9 46557°9 46590°4 46607'8 46799°8 46832°7 46929°5 47019°9 470376 470872 47213°1 47329°3 47493°8 47633°7 477611 47937°4 48085:0 48284°7 48375°9 48465:0 48644°} 48908°3 49069°7 49100-4 318 Wave- length (Rowland) REPORT—1896. CoPpPER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction Intensity to Vacuum and Character | Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo Previous Measurements (Rowland) At 2031°3 2025-7 201773 2016-0 20142 2013719 1999'68 1989-24 1979°26 1970°5 1943°88 2030°9 T. & S. 2025°7 492141 49350°1 49555°5 49587°5 49631°8 » | 49656-7 » | 15:8 | 499992 | 16-0 | 502545 | 161 | 505078 16-2 | 507323 1165 | 51427-0 | ! | 2016°0 | 2015°8*'",, mire 2013-2 | 1999-9 2s | 1989-4 Qs | 1979-4 | 1970-4 | 1944-1 § Observed 4590:2, 4552°5, 4384-6, 4355:5, 3940°6, 39286, 3810:°3, 37596, 86559, 36523, 3492°1, 3487°8, 3342°6, 3327:2, 3282-7, 3277-4, 3201°8, 3192-2, 3160°2, 3158°9, 3132-4, 3128°9, 3065-9, 3055-9, 2989°2, 2983:9, 2621-0, 2602°8, also by Exner and Haschek, who give also the following lines: 4525°5, 4520-3, 4513-5, 4494-6, 4485-7, 4458-2, 4437°5, 4420°8, 4896-2, 4348-2, 4829-0, 4253-8,4182-9, 4144-2, 4057-1, 4003:1, 3973:3, 3964-6, 3925°3, 3921-3, 3907°6, 3866-1, 3851-1, 3848-1, 3842°8, 3825°3, 3820°9, 3711-9, 3695-4, 3684-8, 3681-5, 3677-0, 3676:8, 3671-8, 3665-8, 3664-2, 3648-4, 3629°8, 3589-1, 3546-4, 3545-0, 3529°3, 3514-6, 3500-3, 3498-3, 3465'8, 3459-7, 3440°8, 3422-3, 3420-4, 3395-4, 3384:9, 3375-6, 3344°7, 3324-2, 33229, 3821-9, 3318-8, 3315-6, 3301-2, 3293-9, 3288-4, 32845, 3276-4, 3268-4, 3262°7, 3238-9, 3234-1, 3228-2, 3220-9, 3211-7, 3207-4, 3189-4, 3187-8, 3186-2, 3184-7, 3181-7, 3176-0, 3171-4, 3168-4, 3165°5, 3157'5, 31569, 3154-7, 3151-6, 3149-7, 3147-9, 3144-9, 3138-4, 3135-2, 3120-6, 3118-3, 3113-6, 3105-1, 3103-7, 3100-1, 3094-1, 3082-7, 3081°8, 3053-9, 3047-1, 3038°5, 3025-0, 3023-5, 3022-7, 3021-7, 30150, 3012°0, 2978-4, 2874-4, 2858-2, 2762-9, 2735-6, 2731-9, 2725-7, 2647-7, 2646-4, 2388-3, 2387-3, 2365-7, 2279-8, 2273:3, 2269-1, 2250°3, 22460, 2176:5. Notr.—The spark employed by Eder and Valenta was of extraordinary power from a large Ruhmkorff coil, actuated by a current of 8 amperes at 110 volts in com- bination with a large condenser. The number of lines observed is thus greatly in excess of the number of those observed by Thalén and other observers. Sitver (Spark SPEcTRUM). Eder and Valenta: ‘ Denkschr. kaiserl. Akad. Wissensch. zu. Wien.,’ 1896. Exner and Haschek: ‘Sitzber. kaiserl. Akad. Wissensch. Wien.,’ civ. (1895), cv. (1896). * Observed by Kayser and Runge in the Arc spectrum. Reduction to Wave- Intensity : Vacuum | Oscillation length Pail Previous Measurements Frequency (Rowland) Character (Rowland) 1 in Vacuo | A+ mG 6037°3 2n 6037-4 Thalén 1:64 45 | 16559°2 56787 | In 1°55 48 | 176049 *5667-9 In , , | 176384 5656°99 1b 134 | . | 17672+4 5646°50 In 56463, ie , | 17705-3 5628'40 2n 5627'2,, - 3 17762°2 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Wave- length (Rowland) 5623°34 5621°25 561185 5602°93 5597-99 5593-11 5590°37 5580°89 557521 5570 63 5558-98 5552°79 *5544-5 * 5535°41 5538348 553023 5528°72 §521°25 5494-75 5489-05 5480°81 5479°34 *5471-70 *5465'64 5454-41 5450°42 5424°9 5412-62 §404:13 5401°10 *5209°19 *4874:42 467823 467804 §*4668°58 4630710 4620°57 4620-08 *4616:0 *4556°09 4552-41 4511°39 §4509°84 §*4476°31 4447-08 §*4396°30 43 411 §4385°16 4363-46 4358'14 §*4311-35 4226-55 §*4212-76 4210°87 §4085:92 Intensity and Character Previous Measurements (Rowland) 5624:0 Thalén 56120, \ 5591-4 4 5569-4, BBB76 55526, 5523-2 B48ST-6 _ ,, BAIL 4s 54653 | 54246, 54122” 5402-7, 52098 4874-9 46676 ,, 4396°8 Lecoq de B. 42120 L. & D. 42085 Lecoq de B. Reduction to Vacuum Reta A 153 | 468 ” cb) a eo ” ” Lio) 4, ” ” ” ” 150 | 5-0 ” ” ” ” 149°| ,, ” ” 14g |, ” ” 147 | 51 1-42 | 52 1:33 | 5-6 128 | 5-9 ” ” 127 | 60 ” ” 136 | | 125 | 61 ” ” 124th ae 1:23 | 62 1-22 | ,, 121 | 63 ” ” 120 | > 7 ML Ba ” ” rast J 116 | 66 ” ” ” ” 112! 69 Oscillation | Frequency io Vacuo | 177782 | 17784:8 178146 17842-9 17858-7 178742 17883-0 17913-4 17931-6 17946-4 179840 180041 18031-0 18060-6 18066-9 18077-5 18082°5 18106-9 181942 18213'1 18240°5 18245-4 18270:9 18291°1 18328'8 183422 18428°5 18470:3 18499-4 18509°6 19191°6 20509:7 21369°7 21370°6 21413-9 21591'8 21636-4 21638°6 21657°8 21942°5 21960°3 22120'8 22167°6 22333'6 22480°5 22740:1 22751-4 22797°9 22911-2 22939:2 231882 23653'4 23730°8 237415 24467°4 319 } i 320 Wave- length (Rowland) $*4055°46 4046°45 3994-96 $3985°18 §*3981-35 §3968-34 3961-27 §3933-60 §3919-95 3918-41 §*3914-01 §*3607°76 §*3840°74 §3838°38 $*3810°86 3714-37 $3683'40 3682-49 3649-97 §3616-20 §3596:38 §3580°77 $*3542-65 $3513 44 3503-05 §*3502-02 $3495:57 §3475°89 §3469°52 §3468-0 3437-45 $3429-59 3425°56 $3421-69 3419-43 3412-91 $3405:20 3401-56 3400-34 $3397:56 3394-05 3392-56 3389-44 3387-22 $*3382-98 3376-28 §3373'59 §3367-04 3864-94 3363-69 3361-98 3361-18 3360°36 3358-79 3356-90 REPORT—1896. SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. | Intensity and Character Previous Measurements (Rowland) 6s 2s 1s 3s 2s 5s Is 5s Is | 340 4053'9 L. & D. 3542'3 H. & A, or bo ”? 3391-4 s, 3383'5 ss, Reduction to Vacuum A z = Eas 1:12 6:9 111 70 1:10 71 ” ” ” ” 1:09 % ” ” 1-08 72 be) ” ” 9 a 73 1:06 a ” ” 1:05 TA 1:03 76 1:02 dem ” ” 1:01 +5 1:00 78 a 79 0:99 8:0 0:98 a er 81 0:97 » ” ” 5 8:2 ” ” 0:96 of > 8:3 ” 3) 0°95 y ” ” ” »”» ” ” » 8:4 9 ” ” ” ” »” ” ” 0-94 5 ” ” »” ” ” ” ”? bb) »” ” s 8:5 Oscillation Fre quency in Vacuo 24651:2 24706-0 25024-4 25085°9 25110-0 2519-4 25237°3 25414-8 25503°3 25513-4 25542-0 25582°8 26029°4 26045-4 26233-4 26914-9 271411 271478 27389'8 27645°5 27797°9 27919-1 28219°5 28454-1 28538°5 28546°5 28599°5 28761°5 28814-2 288269 29083°1 29149°7 29184-0 292170 29236'3 29292-2 29358'6 29390-0 29400°5 294246 29454-9 294679 29495-0 295143 29551'3 29610-0 29633'6 29691°3 29709°8 29720°9 29736:0 29743'1 29750°2 297641 29780:9 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 321 SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction to ° Vacuum e170 48 Wave- Intensity eeotane Meesaneantonts Oscillation length and Rowland) Frequency | (Rowland) | Character Howls ns 1_ | in Vacuo A 3354-41 2n 0-94 | 85 | 298030 | 3353-45 2n *. » | 29811°5 §3352°16 4s 33535 H. & A. ¥ f 29823-0 3347-60 Is a es 29863°6 §3344-78 2b a tes 29888-8 3343-28 2s f » | 299022 3341:34 1s 2 » | 26919°6 §3339-30 2s ” ” 29937°9 §3433:76 2s 0:93 is 29987-7 §3331-91 3s » | 300043 3330°69 1s a » | 30015°3 §3329-84 ls i » | 300230 3325-90 ls es » | 80058-6 3322-93 1s » | 86 | 30085:3 §3321°81 2s a » | 30095°5 §3318-26 2 Be ww | BOLZT7 3316-73 9 te 5 301416 §3315°54 In , » | 30152-4 3313°75 In - i 30168-7 §3312°65 4s 33138? ., 4 » | 30178:7 3308-58 2s cs . 30215°8 3307°31 2s 33084, a » | 30227°5 *3305-32 In <4 » | 30245°7 3304-75 In fs » | 30250-9 3304-14 In = » | 302565 §3301°61 5s 33028, 0:92 » | 30279-7 §3299°51 4s es » | 30298-9 §3297-74 2s ww lode) (pete §3295-60 2s > toe ht lOsBeed 3294-40 2s (Pe eee onaate §3293-22 3b 32941 .,, » | &7 | 303568 §3289-26 3s 3290-4? ,, » | 9 | 303934 3288-0 1s - » | 30404-9 §*3280:80 | 10s 32816 ,, ee ankt aed ert 3s 32746, A. ee: 30531°2 3272:16 In » |.» |. 30552-2 §3270-05 In ki | BOBTL-9 §3268-43 1s fe » | 305870 gs267 40 1s a » | 305967 266: 30609: $3264.20 2s } Sa » |» {) 306267 §3262°75 1s 32620, jy Lyn hues ee 1n o-v1 » | 30668-0 58° 1s pee PO Sogaes §3257°36 1s F ” | 30691-0 §3256-47 1s x » | 30699-4 §3254-88 In 2 » | 307144 §3253-80 2s 32538, Bs » | 307246 ts 5s a 8:8 | 30735-4 ; 1s n » | 30750°5 §$3249-78 1s # » | 30762°5 §3249-14 2s ‘A » | 307686 §3247-12 3s a » | 30787°7 §3244-77 4s 32453, eel 308100 Brae” 2s double) wat.) | s0seea Y 322 REPORT—1896. SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction Wave- Intensity Previous Measurements to Vacuum | Oscillation length and (Rowland) Frequency (Rowland) | Character si 1__ | in Vacuo ar ipo pro- 3240-83 bably 091 | 88 | 30847-5 } double | 3237°52 1s re » | 808790 §3233:69 Is X » | 80915°6 §* 3233-07 3s 3233'3 H. & A, s » | 30921°6 $3231:24 2s ss » | 30939°1 §3229:90 38 32303, 5 » | 309519 3228°88 Is <4 , | 30961:7 $5004.87 Is » 6s | 810002 §3223-37 3s 32238, me » | 310146 _ §3221-46 1s bs » | 310330 §3217:86 1s 0:90 | ,, | 31067°8 §3216°65 4s 3217-5, x » | BL079-4 BT cons | aes 2320816 3s } a ” » 1] 311616 3207-44 2s : » | 311686 3203-63 Is Ca) iO §3200°80 38 31996, 5 » | 312333 §3200-01 1s ¥: » | 31241-0 §3193-34 Is S » | 313063 §3191-80 2s 31912, . » | 313214 §3187°75 2s iy » | BI361°2 §3185:08 2s ; » | B1887°5 §318415 Is 31843, rf » | 31396-7 §3181°50 2s 089 | ,, | 31429°8 3180-69 2 | | 31430: 3179-28 2s \ SYIOT » 90 adds? §3176:22 2n | ; » | 314750 §3173:52 Is 131749 a » | BI501-8 $3172-22 1s | . » | slale? §3158:73 Is ig » | 31649°3 §3153-09 2s | 5 » | 317059 ee eS > ha Hone é “$2 n “4 5 ‘oO $3142-08 Is i » | 31817-0 §3130-10 2n | §31349__,, 0-88 | ,, | 319388 3129°19 In | 31292, -: » | 319481 3123-97 In ‘ » | 320014 311782 1s ‘ » | 32064-6 3116-93 Is % » | 32073°8 §3115-65 1s ‘4 » | 320869 §3113°10 Is » | 92 | 821131 §3102-74 Is 4 » | 32220°4 3098-10 Is 0:87 | 4, | 322686 3096:50 Is ; » | 322853 BB ORE 42 2s "| | 39390'8 ee |e ae 5 5) Ss ’ ; oa on | Bae 2° n . 2534: §3064:69 1s : ” | 39690-4 §3052'71 In o:s6 | 9-4 | 327484 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 323 SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction | | educ | Wave. | Intensity to Vacuum | Oscillation length pope and Previous Measurements —— | Frequency (Rowland) | Character (Rowland) ee 1_ | in Vacuo r $3047-04 Is 0°86 94 | 32809°3 8303782 In H » 829089 303603 | In | | 889284 3035°29 In “5 “6 32936°4 3031-75 in » ” 329748 3030°51 In oo » | 329883 §3012°85 Is 0°85 9°5 331817 , 3011-89 1s cn oh 33192:2 $3000°67 In | * z 358164 2999-67 In | as . 33327°5 299913 | In Aa A 33333°5 2986-20 | Is aS 9°6 33477°8 §2982-16 Is 0°84 ” 33523 1 2943-93 In H 5 9:8 33958°4 2942:06 | In 29380 H.& A. 0°83 “; 33980-0 §*2938-53 | 3b 29342, Fr a 34020°8 §2934-23 4b 2929°! 5 95 - 34070°7 §2929:33 5s 29199 : » | B4127°7 §2920:0 3s 29022, » | 9:9 | 34236-7 §2902:08 4s | 0°82 A 34448'1 2886-44 5s 10:0 34634°7 2883-99 2b i as 34664 2 $2878:88 In aT | B4725°7 §2873-65 | 5s W732 4 ae » | 847889 §2853°0 | In O81 |} 1071 35040°7 2828-74 In , | 102 | 35341-2 §*2824-06 2n 080 | ,, | 35399:8 eee. ‘e 28149 =a, : 5 10°3 Sees S “76 8 ” ” oo 2801°69 In é | 3682-4 $2799-63 5s 27993, i » | B5708-7 2795 60 4s 104 | 3576071 $2786'53 2n Z » | 38876:5 §2767-60 8s 27668, 0-79 | 10°5 361219 §2756-46 45 27558, x 3 aea67-8 _ -§2753-3 2s xy 9 36309: §2749-4 4s | PROG 363610 §2746-9 3n » | 363941 27466 3n e , | 363981 2744-06 | 4s ae ” | 36431°8 27433 2s Q743'3, i ” | 36441°8 $2740-0 4s 078 | . | 36485-7 2737-2 In és ” | 365231 2727-5 2s ” | ? | 36653-0 §2721-84 3s 27212 =, A 10°7 aA 2719: Is = » | 36766: 27163 1s e ” | 36804-1 2714-5 Is i ” | 36828-5 g2711-94 | 8s T1188 ,, WE 36863'3 §2711:34 | Qs ea SF §2688:40 In 077 | 10°8 | 37186:0 2684°8 Is ba | 872889 $2681-43 5s 26811, ee ” | 372827 2666-4 1 Cu? ” | 16:9 |. 374929 2664-6 In 3 » | 375182 y2 324. REPORT—1896. SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction Wave- Intensit length a y Previous Measurements fo Npenem Oscillation (Rowland) | Character (Rowland) Frequency es 1_ | in Vacuo A §2660°52 8s 2660°2 Go ee §2657-0 4b 2656-7 H. & A. 0:77 10°9 375757 2651:3 1s du ” ” 37625°5 $2628°62 1s 2627-7 0-76 | 11-1 37992°9 §$2625°75 3s 2 ” ” 38031-7 §2621°6 1s ” ” 38073°3 §$2617°8 as ” ” 38133°5 §2614°55 6s 2614:3 ” ” 38188°9 2613'8 2s ue ” ” 38236°4 §$2612-0 2s ” ” 38247°4 2607°0 Is ” ” 38273°7 $ 2606-20 63 2605'S 0-775 | 11:2 | 383471 §2599°26 2s a ” ” 38358'8 §2598°79 2s 25988 ” ” 38461°3 §$2595'60 1s 25953 | ” » | 384683 2592°6 1s » ” ” 38515°5 25914 1s » ” 385601 §2585'8 25 ” ” 38578°0 2584-2 2n ” 11:3 38661°5 §2580-66 8s 2580: ” ” 38685-4 | §*2575°5 in he » |» | $8738 §2567:0 28 2566: ” ” 8816-71 §2564:34 3s poi ihe ” 11:4 38944°6 2563°5 1s sg O74 » 38985-0 §2562°83 2s 2561: ” ” 38997°8 $2562°6 ls “4 4 ” ” 39008:0 2556°8 4s ” ” 39011°5 $2553°30 2s 5 ” ” 39100°0 2538°8 ls epee ui ” ” 39153°6 2536°7 25 ” 11°5 39377°2 $2535°50 6s 2 ri ” ” 39409°8 2534:°5 1s Bae en ” ” 39428°5 2533°8 2s ” ” 394440 2529-7 1s ” ” 394549 2526:3 Is ” 11:6 | 39518°8 2525°5 ls ” ” 39572:0 §2523°1 1s ” ” 39584:5 2516-2 1s ” ” 39622:2 2514-4 1s 0°73 » 39730°9 2511°9 1s 2506: ” ” 39759'3 §2506:74 9s Senne ty ” 117 397988 §$2504:7 ls He ” ” 39830°7 25041 35 : » ” 39913°2 2502°3 In SBE kee ” ” 39922°8 2498:9 1s ” ” 39951°5 2493°2 9s ” ” 40005'9 2489°9 1s ” ” 40137°6 2488:°2 1s ” ” 40150°5 §2486°6 2s 24 . ” ” 40177'9 §2485°8 3s aiee os ” ” 40203'8 2484°3 ln oY ” ” 40216°7 § 2483-4 1s ” ” 40241:0 §$2480°55 5s 2480: ” ” 402556 2478-6 . | Is oe ale ” |” | 40801°8 40333°6 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Wave- length (Rowland) §2477-36 §2473-93 §2472:5 §2469-7 §2466°8 §2462-25 §2461-4 §2460-4 §2458°9 § 2453-36 §$*2447-94 §$2446-45 2445°6 §2444:3 §2439°6 §*2437-84 2436°5 2434-7 $2433°6 §2432°3 §2430:25 §2499-6 §2428°3 § 2424-2 §2499-4 §2420:10 §2415-43 §*2413-20 §$2411:37 §2410°6 2410:2 §2409-0 2406-6 §2405-0 §2402-6 2399°3 §2395:64 §9392-94 §2390:56 §2387-0 2386°6 §2383:3 §2389-2 2380:9 2379°4 §*2375°3 §2373'8 2368:7 §2365'8 2364-9 §2364-1 §2362°3 §2360°4 §2358:86 325 Reduction to i Vacuum se Previous Measurem ents Character (Rowland) Rs 1 i. 6s 24772 H. & A. 0:73 11:8 8s 2473-7 i . 11°9 1s o ; 2s 24696, 0-72 a m ” ” 5s 2462°6__s, i f 2 ” ” 4s 2460-1 Li : : 28 112-0 7s 2453-2, ‘ i 8s 2447-7, 5s 24460, ‘ 2a ” ” 5s 2449-2, ‘ 7 in eee 10s 2437-7, a A Zn > ” Fs : ” ns ” ” - ” ” 2s " bs 2430°3 a, ” ” 5s 2429'°3 3 : is | | 122 3s 2423-1, : { 8s 24203, 071 ? 2s 24162 ,, : 10s 24140, : 4 8s 24116 ,, ” | 13'3 re 2409°7 3 ” ” = ” 2 ae a) ‘ ns aps a »” ” 4s 24049, < E cs ”? 3) a »” ” 5s 23959 - ,, fs 12°4 2b 2393°6 : 4 a ee pe ” ” $ ” ” | 23869 Pies sake. | a ; 4s Das. sy s . oe nib a ” ” 1s : 2b 23759, a i - 070 | ,, bd » | 126 3s 23663, : ‘ 7 23648, . a : ? ” Sy 2362°6 ae as ” ey ” ” 6s 2352°6 40353°8 Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 40409°6 40433-0 404789 40526°4 40601°4 406154 40631°9 40656°6 40748°4 40838°7 40863°6 40877°8 40899°5 409782 41007°8 41030°4 41060:7 41079°3 41101°3 41135°9 411469 41169°0 41238°5 41269-2 41308°4 41388°3 41426°6 41457°9 41471:2 41478-0 41498°7 41540°1 41567°7 41609°3 41666°5 41730°1 41777-2 41818°8 41881:2 418882 41946°2 419655 41988°4 420149 42087°4 421140 42204'6 42256°4 42272'5 42286'8 42319°0 423531 42380°'8 326 Wave- length (Rowland) § 2357-94 § 23568 2348°3 §2343'8 | 2343-5 §2341'8 2340:7 §2339:1 2337°9 § 2332-9 *2331°9 §2331°34 2327-4 § 2325-0 §*2324-69 2321°6 §*2320-24 2319-2 §2318°6 §*2317:03 23161 §*2309°7 §2296°8 § 2296-1 § 2291-0 §2286°5 §2282'5 §2280-0 §2278-9 §2277°4 §2275-4 §2273°3 § 2257-3 §2253'5 § 2250-2 §*2248'80 §*2246-46 §2243:5 § | 2241°9 § | 2241-4 §2240°5 §2238'5 § { 2229-6 (oes § 2226-2 2223-2 2220-9 §2219-7 §2211:3 §2208°6 § 2206-2 §2204'7 §2203°7 §2202:3 §21921 REPORT—1896. SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Intensity and Character 8s In no n KH Previous Measurements (Rowland) 23585 H. & A. 2344-1 2342°5 2339°5 2332°8 233271 2326°3 2325°8 2322°8 2321-1 2320°0 2317°9 | 2310°5 2297-0 2287-0 2281°3 22780 2275'8 2254-4 2250:2 2247°9 2230°9 2206°3 2202°3 ” ” > Reduction to Vacuum | Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 423973 424178 42571°3 42653°1 42658°5 42689°5 42709°5 42738°7 42760°6 42852°3 42870°7 42881:0 42953°5 42997°8 43003°6 43060°8 43086°1 431054 43116°6 43145'8 43163°1 432827 435257 43539°0 43636'0 43721°8 43798-4 43846-4 43867°6 43896°5 43935°0 43975-6 44287°3 44362°0 44427:0 44454°7 44501-0 44559°7 44591°5 44601°5 44619-4 446592 44837°5 44855°6 449059 44966°5 45013'1 45037°4 45208°5 45263°8 453130 45343°8 453643 45393°2 45604°4 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 327 SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. | Reduction to | uum | . : Wave- Intensity Previous Measurements | bie | Oscillation length and (Rowland) | ; Frequency (Rowland) | Character ae _*_ | in Vacuo a §2187-0 38 2186'°3 H. & A. 0 67 | 140 | 45710-7 2173°6 In (066 | 141 | 45999°5 2171°9 In | ” ” 46028°5 §2171:0 In | tys ” 46047°6 §2169°6 In | 5, | 142 | 46077°2 §2166°6 4s 216671 _——s,, » | oo» 461411 §2162'1 2s P1616 © ,, > eae §2149°3 Is ” 143 | 46512°5 §2145-71 3s 21457 =Cs, lv bs 144 | 46590°2 2144°9 | Is | ” 46607'8 §2129°3 | Is 0°65 | 145 | 46949:3 §2125°5 | 1b ” 14:6 | 470332 §2120°5 4s 21193 45 AD Barr 1” 47144-1 §2113°9 3s 21123, i ees 14-7 | 47291-2 2106°7 2s | ” ” 47452°9 2084°3 1b » | 15:0 | 47962-7 2081°5 1b so A sy 48027°3 2075°9 1b 9 481569 _ 2066-2 4s | O64 | 15:1 | 48382°9 2056°9 1 7 15:2 | 48601:7 2053-9 In Vie 15:3 | 48672°6 2053°2 In x » 48689°2 2033°1 2n » | 15:5 | 491705 201671 2s | O63 | 15-7 | 495850 2000°6 | 2s less 15°8 | 49969°2 1999-6 2s Paes is 49994°2 1993°5 Is ° 159 | 501471 19752 Is T 16-1 | 50611:7 § Observed also by Exner and Haschek, who give also the following lines: 44434, 4411-0, 4355-4, 4326:8, 4209-4, 4182-7, 4159:2, 4113-7, 4081-7, 4057-9, 4054:9, 4045:'7, 3973°3, 3949- 5, 3943:0, 3863: 8, 3860:0, 3856°5, 3851- 0, 3848-0, 3843-0, 3830: 3, 3825°9, 3820-4, 3815: 8, 3759°8, 3758°5, 3745°8, 3740- 3, 3737- 3, 3735:0, 3732: 5, 3720°1, 3709°5, 3674-0, 3655- 0, 3623-5, 3619:0, 3570: 4) 3557-2, 3519-0, 3505°3, 3499-9, 3471: 0, 34457, 3390-0, 3245: 9, 3236: 5, 3227-9, 3216:8, 31981, 3196-1, 3185: 8, 3177: 7, 31752, 3170°5, 3167-9, 3166-3, 3157: 8; 31558, 3155°3, 3146: 3, 3142: 6, 3122°8, 3114-6, 3101-7, 3099°3, 3094:8, 3093: 1, 3092: 0, 3067: 9, 3067-0, 3051: 1, 8047:6, 3038:°3, 3034-2,.3028- 6, 30241, 3021-2, 3020°8, 3010:8, 3009°3, 3002-6, 2994-4, 2990°6, 2983: 6, 2973'3, 2967-1, 2949:1, 2930:1, 2896-4, 2885°6, 28823, 2877°8, 2872-1, 2870-6, 2863:5, 2862°3, 2857°3, 2852-1, 2849:°6, 2848-3, 2845-0, 2844-1, 2840-0, 2837-8, 2837:2, 2820-9, 2775:2, 2761°8, 2735°8, 2732:6, 2708:5, 2707-4, 2704-6, 2675:9, 2659-3, 2637: 6, 2620:8, 2619:5, 2617:2, 2602-1, 2560°8, 2559: 0, 2557-5, 2505-6, 2501-4, 2499-8, 2497-3, 2471-5, 2470°6, 2468'8, 2465°6, 2463:8, 2456-7, 2449-7, 2431:5, 2422-0, 2408: 0, 2394-1, 2392:5, 23748, 2867-2, 2361-2, 23556, 2355-1, 2354-7, 2328-2, 2323-5, 2313-8, 2312-5, 2289°8, 2283-2, 2281°7, 2277-7, 2272-4, 2265: 3, 2256- 7, 2252: 0, 2233-8, 2233-1, 2232-8, 2219:0, 2196-6, 2190:0, 2181°8, 2164-0, 2163-2, 2148:9, 2147°5, 21438:1, 2138°3. 3828 REPORT—1896. Gop (Spark SPECTRUM). Eder and Valenta: ‘ Denkschr. kaiser]. Akad. Wissench. zu Wien.,’ 1896. * Observed in the Arc Spectrum by Kayser and Runge. t+ Observed also by Kriiss, ‘ Untersuchungen iiber das Atomgewicht des Goldes, Munich,’ 1886. { These lines appear only in very powerful sparks. meters . | to Vacuum “Wat Wae- rs gs / Previous Measurements eecaton i pein Be (Rowland) frequency (Rowland) | Character an 1__ | in Vacuo A *6§278°37 = _ 6277°8 Thalén, &c.t 171 43 | 15923°4 5961-40 2 | 5961-2 ws Tt 1:62 46 | 16770°0 *595 1-24 2 5956°7 5 iF 5 i‘ 16781°7 5921°43 In | 5920°8 Huggins +t 1°61 ap 16883°2 588157 1b | 5881 oa 1 1:60 - 16997-7 *5863'23 3s 5863 eA i + me 17050°8 *5837°69 6s 5837'7 Thalén, &c.t 1:59 47 eee 5819°64 In a » | 17178: 578911 2b | 5791 Huggins 1:58 & 17269'1 576746 In 1:57 a 17334:0 576221 In + - 17349°7 5760714 5s bee)! .. os 2 17356°0 5742°25 2b s an 17410°1 5732°5?, 2n 156 | ,, | 174396 5730°88 In ” ” 174446 572711 3s 5725°8 L. de B.t 2 pi 174561 571114 4b > 4-8 | 17504'8 5692-49 In 1:55 | ,, | 17662-2 5688-70 38 5 » | 175739 567965 In i é ep 4 5666°82 In =, » | 17641: 5662-90 In 1:54 * 176540 | *5655°95 6s 5654-2 Huggins t ” ” 17675°7 5651-02 In ‘ ,, | 1769171 | 5649-44 In 2 » | 176961 | 564811 1b > » | 17700-2 | 5645-91 3b ¢ » eh 0TA | 564451 3n of i Tae | 5641-61 3s x 4 7720 ' 5619-99 In 1°53 ,. 17788°8 5600-36 2b x 49 | 178511 } 5598748 4n ” ” 17857°1 | 5594-50 3b - , | 17869:8 5593°93 3s ” ” 17871°6 559)-49 2b * i 17879°4 : 5588-08 4b 1:52 s 17890°3 | 5585-87 In ' » | 17897-4 | 6557872 5b | 5581-3 53 t $ x 17920°4 | 5576-42 1b 55 “4 17927°8 | 5566-92 In a » | 17958-4 5565°38 2b . » | 179633 5559°82 3s > , | 17981-3 5550°47 1s 1a = 18011°6 554393 4n 53 < 18032°8 5532°69 3s ” ” 18069°5 5520°67 3s ui ss 18108°8 5514-60 In 1:50 _ 18128°8 5511-70 In 18138'3 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 329 GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction to f Vacuum Oscillation Wave- Intensity Previous Measurements Frequency length and (Rowland) 1 in Vacuo (Rowland) | Character ae 1:50 | 4:9 | 18155:7 5506-42 In ; 5:0 | 181905 5495°86 In - » [etearro 5487°87 In 1-49 3 18290°3 5465°87 In t 1:48 ; 18415°8 5428°64 - 4 - 184327 5423°66 n 8449-4 541877 | bn 5419 L. de B. a Beare 5413-42 Ds - PA 18480°0 5409-80 ls 1:47 | 51 | 185316 539469 3n ; ve 18569°4 538373 | In Sn ed Meise 538138 | 2n 146 | 5, | 18629: 536363 | 2n » | 18668°9 535505 | 2n 5 UP. Weng 526941 | Ib » | 18985-2 5265°83 * ae = 18998'8 5262-05 s =. 43° | 2” | 191133 *5230°53 8s 5231-1 Thalén, &c. ae 53 | 192136 5203°21 Is 141 | , | 19420°6 5147°76 35 ‘ 19440°0 5142-62 In 5144 L. de B. 1:40 | 64 | 195710 5108-20 2n 139 | ,, | 19649-2 5087'87 1b 19738°9 +*5064°76 5s 5067-6 Huggins f 1:38 | | | 198287 504183 | In 1:37 | 5:5 | 199987 501651 | In » | 199741 500510 | 2s 5 espe 500139 | 2s 136 | , | 20100'5 497363 | In 135 | ., | 20200-4 4949-05 2n 56 | 20317-5 4920'50 2s 134 » | 203924 4902°45 4s 1:32 | 57 | 20703:8 4828-70 1s . » | 207689 4813°58 an ints ie | 207775 4811°57 Ss r se a . 20859:0 *4792°79 8b 4792-7 Thalén a 5:8 | 21001-1 4760°34 2s » | 21029°6 4753°90 38 1:29 » | 21201-2 4715-43 1s b » | 21212°5 4701°63 2s * » | 212775 4698°50 3s 2 BO hae oc cch 4696712 2s 1:28 » | 21329:9 4686:96 Is » | 213420 4684°30 6s é > Peet -1 4683°84 6s 2 » | 21365:2 4679:21 1s a » | 21392:5 4673°24 6s 1:27 y» | 21499°7 4649°96 3b » | 21530°7 4646-26 3s i » | 21642°5 4640-72 1s i » | 21558-0 463737 | 3s » | 60 | 215772 4633-23 | 3s : 21589'6 4630°58 3s 330 - REPORT—1896. GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Wave- length (Rowland) 4627°98 4622-02 461485 4614/19 4611-98 4607:80 4601°57 4587°91 4583°87 4582-05 4BTT-T4 457615 4573'14 4570°85 4559-05 4549°64 4543'86 4541:40 4523°20 4492-49 *4488°43 *4437°37 4420:69 441055 4395°72 438225 4373°70 437046 4328°65 4315-34 4310°70 4309-21 4303°15 4292-80 429020 4280°60 4279°24 42760 4260-01 4255:0 *4241°95 4221°87 4219-11 4211-0 4199-54 4186°29 4184-65 4175:28 4172-90 4171-42 41700 4142-30 4128°80 412631 4118°52 Intensity and Character Previous Measurements (Rowland ) 4609 L. de B.t 4489°3 Hugginst 44377 L. de B.t 1) er | Reduction to Vacuum Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 21601°7 21629°6 21663°2 21666°3 21676°7 21696°3 21725°7 21790°4 21809°6 2181873 21838°8 21846°4 21860°8 21871°8 21928°3 21973°7 22001°6 22013°5 2210271 222532 22273°3 22529°7 226146 22666°6 227431 22813:0 22857°6 22874°6 23095°5 23166°7 23191°7 23199°7 23232°3 23288°3 233024 233547 23362:1 23379'8 23467°6 23495°3 23567°5 23679:6 236951 23740°7 238054 23880°8 23890°2 23943°8 23957°5 23966°0 239741 241344 24213°3 24227°9 24273°8 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 351 GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Wave- Intensity length and (Rowland) | Character 4089°95 2n *4084°31 4s 4076°60 3s 4070°76 Is *4065°20 10s 40530 6s *4041:07 4s 4028°66 2s 4021°83 In 4020°86 In 4016°27 8s 401287 2s 401063 Is 4002°57 3s 4001-60 3s 3996-96 1s 3991-64 Is 3990-0 1s 3986°48 - In 3986:04 In 3984°18 In 3982°87 2n 3979°72 3n 3976°80 3n 397180 3nt 3959°35 5st 3950°19 2s 3945°69 2n 3945°19 In 3937°80 In 3936:42 In 393316 4s 3927-82 3s 3922°66 Is 3920:28 Is 3919-08 Int 3916°15 6st 3915-03 2s *3909-60 3s 3903°47 2s 3900-72 2s *3898:03 10s 3895°65 In 389352 In 3892°65 3s 3889°58 2n 3880°34 3s 3877°45 4st 387496 4s 3872'81 2st 3868°50 2n 3865°70 4s 3859°53 3st 385660 2n 3853°76 6st Previous Measurements (Rowland) 40646 L. de B. 4009 Kriiss Reduction to Vacuum ut A+ 5 112 69 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” nila # %3 70 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 1:10 n ” ” a WI ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 7, ye ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 1:09 ss ” ” A 72 ” ” 1:08 a ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ”» 73 ” ” ” 3” 1:07 a ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ’ 1:06 7 Oscillation Frequency in Vaeuo 24443°3 24477-0 24523°3 24558°5 24.592°1 24666'2 24738°9 24815°1 24857°3 24863°'3 24891'7 24912°8 249267 24976°8 24982°9 25011°9 25045°3 25055'6 25077-7 25080°5 25092:2 25100°4 25120°3 25138°7 251704 25249°6 25308-0 25336°9 25340°1 25387°7 25396°6 25417°6 25452°2 25485°7 25501°2 25509-0 25528:1 25535'4 25570°9 25610°9 25629°0 25646°7 25662°4 25676°4 25682:1 25702°4 25763°6 25782°8 25799°4 258137 25842°5 258612 25902°6 25922'3 259414 O02 REPORT——1896. GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Wave- Intensity length and (Rowland) | Character 3845-02 4st 3839°60 Ist 3838°66 Ist 3837-70 Int 3834-42 Int 3831-31 4st 3829°52 3st 3828°56 2st 3825°87 8st 3823°20 4st 3822711 6st 3820°45 2st 3816°50 5s 3814-30 2Qnt 3811-60 2nt 3810°41 2nt 3806°95 2bt 3804:22 4s 3800°75 3st 3799°44 2nt 3796715 3n 3787-37 2st 3783°30 Ist 378013 5st 3777°25 2st 3773°31 4st 3771:12 3st 377014 4st 3765°76 4st 3765°10 3st 8763°10 2st 3759°U3 3s 3754°85 3s 3752-90 3st 38746'5 Int 3744°54 Qst 3736°82 2st 3732-68 2st 3730:92 Ist 3724-46 2st 3718-02 9s 371689 Ist 371496 1st 3708-30 4st 370699 4s 3702°49 3st 3698°65 2st 3695°68 2st 369414 2nt 3691°66 2sf 3690°18 1st 3687-60 3st 3686°21 2st 3684:0 Int 3681°39 2bf Previous Measurements (Rowland) Reduction to Vacuum Oscillation | Frequency in Vacuo 26000°4 26037°1 26043°5 .26050:0 26072°3 26093°4 26105°6 261122 26130°5 26148'8 26156°3 26167°6 261946 26209°7 26228'3 26236°5 26260°3 26277°2 26303°2 26312°3 263351 26396°2 26424°6 26446°7 26466°9 26494-4 26509'8 26516°7 26547°6 26552°2 26566'3 26595'1 26624°7 26638°6 26684°1 26698'0 26753'2 26782°9 26795°5 268419 26888'4 26896°6 26910°6 26958:9 26968°5 27001°3 27029°3 27051:0 27062°3 27080°5 27091°3 27110°3 27120°5 27136°8 271560 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 333 GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction to Wave- Intensity Previous Measurements & acon Oscillation length and (Rowland) ————| Frequency (Rowland) Character A+ _1_ | in Vacuo A 3677°62 Ist 1:02 | 7-7 | 271838 367662 Ist és » | 27191-2 367511 Ist 2 "| 972094 36740 Ist : | 979106 3672.93 2st - , | 272185 3671-34 2st es , | 979303 366461 Ist i | 272803 3663:70 Ist = ” | 97987-1 3662:57 Ist i , | 272955 3661-79 Ist be ” | 973013 3658-05 Ist i | 273293 3657-35 at 1:01 | ;, | 27334:5 s | | 273564 354-22 2st A ” | 297357-9 ane le |e “¢ 3 ; : 27382: 3649-25 4st é ” | 97395-2 3647-90 Ist pS | 27408-3 3642-66 2n i‘ | 274448 3637°57 3s » «6| 8 | 27483-1 3635-21 4s - » | 275009 3633-40 5s is , | S75146 363281 2s ¥ | 275191 3631-02 Ist = » | 275327 3627-47 Int a 3 27559°6 3625°32 2nt » | 275760 3623-73 3st ss » | 275881 3622°93 6sf - es 275942 3620°13 In e » | 276155 3620-11 2n : = 27615°7 361417 ef 100) ,, | 27661-1 6 s s 27685°7 3607-59 38 s "| 97711°5 3604-94 2st . | 277319 3601-17 4st » | 27760:9 3598-28 2n is » | 27783°3 3594-20 2st » 6| 79 | 27814-7 ae = en fee 3581-45 4n + ” | 979137 357611 Ist 0-99] ., | 279554 573- n : ) | 279724 3565-99 | 2s » 6| 2) agogag 355713 2n . »» | 281047 3555°58 3st * , | 281169 *3553°72 6st i », | 281316 ae : | da | Bae 3541-71 | 3st ” |” | 99997-0 3539-18 3nt as » | 282471 3528-25 an 0-98 | ., | 28334-7 s ; | 283735 3516-40 Int re "| 284302 3515°19 Int s "| 98440-0 3506'17 Int , | SL | 28513-0 334 REPORT—1896. GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. 7 Reduction to Wave- Intensity Previous Measurements | ce Oscillation length and (Rowland) | ideal Frequency (Rowiand) | Character at | J — | in Vacuo | Ar a2 ~ le | 3504'62 Int | 0°98 | 81 | 28525°7 3501°85 Int ee a iy? 3496-08 2st | 097) ,, | 2859574 3492-99 Ist |} os deaey Noeeeee 3487°34 Ist eee 3 28667°1 3484-60 Ist ice a 28689°6 347658 Int . 1 aes As 28755'8 3474-36 Int i » | 287742 3471-76 Ist HE De iI 3470°47 1st Hh ss 8:2 | 288063 3452-27 .| 2st 0°96 | ,, | 289582 3437°32 Ist 5 » | 290842 341097 Int 0:95 | 83 | 29308-9 340028 2st Pee apr ie 208) 3398-95 2st ie, Mies 294126 3393°87 1s | ed 8:4 | 29456°5 3383-05 38 is » | 29550°7 3382-26 1 ee » 29557°6 3360-47 2nt | 094 | 85 | 29749°2 3358-61 1s | hen » | 29765°7 3355'35 Ist ere » | 297947 3331-74 Ist 093 | ,, | 300058 *3320°32 2b * 86 | 30109-0 3310°34 2st ees » | 380199°8 *3308-36 38 It as » | 30217°9 3286°56 2bt | 092 | 8&7 | 30418°3 3280°72 6s is » | 30472°4 3277-88 2nt i » | 304988 3273°84 4bt H's 3 305365 3271-63 2bt | 35 » | BO557°1 327017 2b ik » | 30570-0 326696 4s Za » | 30600°8 *3965°18 4s HP aes » | 80617°5 3253'86 2bt | 0-9 fs 307240 3251:73 2bt 33 8:8 | 30744°1 3243-34 2bt i= » | 80823°6 *3230°73 8s | es » | 309440 3228-0 5st » | 309701 3223-03 2n | * » | 81017-9 3221°94 4s 5 » | 31028-4 3219-59 3s | 0:90 | _,, 31051°1 3217°69 2s | oes » | 310694 3216714 2s . 89 | 310843 3212-0 Is i » | 311244 3211-03 4s ss is 31133°8 *3204-75 8s | ges » | 311948 *3194-90 5s | ae é. 31291-0 316502 2s 0-89 | 9-0 | 31586-4 3156°73 5s f » | 316694 3146°52 38 i 91 | 31772:0 314577 1s | » | B1T796 3138-93 3n | o-ss8| ,, | 318489 3133-18 2n Mi » | 31907-4 3131-75 In a » | 31921°9 3129'86 2n Le » | 819412 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 335 GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. nee aie to : acuum ate te no. Previous Measurements _| Free cote (Rowland) | Character (Rowland) 1 in Vacuo A+ a *3127:24 4s 088 | 91 | 31968-0 *3122°88 10s Pr ak 32012°6 *3117-20 38 o A 5! | eOrew 3106°70 1s ” 92 |. 321793 3104:09 2s ” ” 322064 3093°28 3n 0°87 * 32318°9 3091°47 Is ” ” 32337°9 3045°83 2s 0°86 | 94 | 328224 *3033°35 4b 3 eS 32957°5 *3029°32 6s % 3 33001°3 3015-93 4s 0°85 | 95 | 33147°8 *3014:50 2Qn es a 33163°5 3001°81 2s S ” 33303°7 299513 8s 5 96 | 33377°9 2990°38 6s is 5) 334310 2982-21 4s 0:84 i 33522°6 *2973°63 In 5 ks 33619°3 *2970°66 In 5 97 | 33652-9 *2963°91 Is #3 a9 33729'5 2959-90 in oS fe 33775°2 2959-11 In 5 i 337842 295464 6s ya + 33835°4 *2932-33 5s 0°83 | 9°8 | 34092°8 2918-48 4s is 99 | 342545 *2913'63 10s 5 i 34311°5 2907:16 5s - = 343879 *2906:07 3b s : 34400'8 2893-51 5s 0°82 | 10°0 | 34550°1 *2892°05 3s $5 - 34567°6 288569 3s % 34 34643°8 *2883°60 4s 3 3 34668°9 2864:67 In 0°81 | 10°1 | 348979 2860-92 In - as 34943-7 2857-04 3b 53 7 34991:2 2852-71 2b oS 3 35044°3 2852-30 In i 3 35049°3 284725 5s iP 10:2 | 351114 283815 7s a i 35224:0 2835°55 2s es a 352563 2833°20 2s sx 5 35285°6 2825-59 6s us ‘3 35380°6 282287 4s 0:80 | 10°3 | 35414°6 2805°45 2s a af 356346 2802°39 10s ss a 35673°5 2795°69 3s * 10-4 | 35758°9 2780-95 3s 079 » 35948°5 *2748°35 5s A 10°6 | 363749 273217 28 0:78 + 36590°3 2721:97 28 10°77 | 386727-4 2703-42 2s sa 53 36979°5 *2700-99 3s . 10°8 | 37012-7 2699-4 In a 35 37034'5 2697°8 1s 0-77 = 370564 *2694-40 2s 371032 336 REPORT—1896. GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Helene to : acuum Natt ve ae Teenie Previous Measurements Pa ans (Rowland) | Character (Rowland) agelelin |e Wana: A 2690°5 In 0:77 | 10°8 37151°0 *2688°75 4s a cb 37181:2 2688°24 2s a ¥ 37188°3 _ 268768 4s ra 37196:0 2686°0 In - = 37219°3 2682°3 In . ) 372706 *2676:05 8s » | 109 | 37357-6 2672°3 In Ee » | 374101 2670°7 In 3 37432 5 2667-07 2s ‘i » | 37483+4 2665°25 3s K O 375090 26512 | Is 0:76 | 11:0 | 37707'8 2645°5 2b ” ” 37789'0 2641-70 8s = PS 37843°4 2635°4 In i 5 379339 26344 In 4 i 37948°3 2631-7 In b 11-1 | 37987-2 262715 4s Ke » | 38053-0 2625°65 3s - & 38074°7 2624-2 2b Fe * 38095:8 2622-0 2n a i 38127:7 2617:60 2s a & 38191°8 261671 4n 3 +, 382048 26128 In * » | 38262-0 2611:9 In e » | 38275-2 2610°5 In . x 382957 2609°6 2b 075 » 38309:0 2607°4 In 2a 112 | 38341-2 2605-0 In 5 A 38376°5 2599-5 2s a » | 38457-7 2592°0 3s . 7 38569-0 *9590-23 6s ‘ » | 385954 2583°5 2n an 113 | 38695°9 2580-1 In 5 . 387469 2579-4 In es 55 38757°4 2577-7 In a 3 38783:0 2575°3 In * » | 388191 2571°4 2n ty ae 38878-0 2568°3 In = 114 38924:9 2565°80 5s * = 38962°8 2562-7 2s O74 ce 39009°9 2561-9 In i » | 39022" 2558-0 Qn . » | 39081°6 2552-92 3s *. » | 89159°4 2553°25 3 5 + 39200°4 *2544-30 5 x 115 | 392920 2538-03 4 4 5 39389°1 2537-0 2 a .y 39405°1 2536: 3 i » | 394191 2533-68 6 , » | 394568 2528-2 2 » | 116 | 39542-2 2522'8 2n A » | 396269 2520-7 2s 0-73 i 39659°9 2517-2 2n A 3 3971571 2515-2 3s ” ” 39746°7 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 337 GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction to Wave- Intensity Vacuum Ae length aril Previous Measurements + ry | Oscillation (Rowland) | Character (Rowland) 7 a Frequency At + | in Vacuo eet 2511°7 3 *2510-60 ea 0-73 | 11-7 | 39802-0 2506°4 2s » ” 39819°4 2503:42 8s ” ” 39886-2 2495°3 1s ” ” 39933:°7 2492-7 3b ” ” 40063°6 2491-4 1s » | 118 | 40105-3 2490-4 Qs ” » 40126°3 2488°3 2s ” ” 40142°4 2483-4 2n ” ” 40176°3 2480-4 4s ” » 40255°6 2478°6 Is 33) ” 403043 2477'S 1s ” ” 40333°6 2468-0 3b » | 11:9 | 40372°6 2458-1 3s 072 | ,, | 405067 2456-6 2b » | 12:0 | 40669°8 24553 2b ” ” 40694°7 2452-7 2b ” » 40716°2 2447-9 Is ” » | 40759°4 24466 ln ” ” 40839 8 2445-6 4b ” ” 40861:0 2442-3 2b ” » | 40899-5 2437-8 3s » | 121 | 409399 2434°5 ln ” ” 41008°5 2433°7 9s ” ” 410641 2433°3 28 ” ” 41077°6 *2428-10 10s ” » | 41084:4 2423-8 2 » | 12-2 | 411723 2419-4 4n ” » | 41245°3 2419-1 1b O71 | , | 413204 2417-4 2b ” » | 41325°5 2416-6 2b ” » | 413546 2414-7 In ” ” 41368:3 2413°4 3s ” ” 41400°8 2411:5 os ” » | 414231 2410-7 1s » | 12:3 | 41455°7 2408-8 Qn ” ” 41469-4 2407°5 Qn ” ” 41502-1 2405-2 38s ” ” 41524°6 2402-7 4s ” ” / 41564:3 2401°5 Is ” ” 41607°5 2400-2 1s§ ” ” 41628°3 2399°3 ls ” ” 41650°9 2395-7 1s ” ” 41666°5 2393-7 3s ” 12:4 417291 2391°7 In ” ” 41763°9 2388'5 Is ” ” 417989 *2387-9 4s ” ” | 41854:9 23843 9s ” » | 4£1865-4 2382°6 4b ” ” 41928°6 . 2380°5 Tr ” 12°5 | 41958°5 > » | 41996°5 1896 § Coincident with a line of copper. Z REPORT—1896. GoLpD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Previous Measurements (Rowland) 338 Wave- | Intensity length and (Rowland) Character 2379'3 Is 2377-2 Is 2376°4 5s 2373°4 2n 2371°8 4s 2369°5 4n *2364'8 10s.r. 23591 In 2357°9 In 2355°5 2s *2352°8 6s 23515 3s 2348-2 Is 2347-0 2s 2344:3 2s | 2343°6 2s 2342°6 1s | 2341°5 Is 2340'1 8b 2334'1 2b 2332'0 4s | 2331°5 2s 2330°7 Is 2326°7 In | 2325°8 3s 2325'3 23 | 2324°7 Is | 2322°3 8s | 232174 Is 2320°4 2s 2318'4 2s 2317°5 Is 23159 7s 2314:7 7s 2312°2 2s 2309°5 6s 2308°2 ls | 2304-7 8b | 2301°1 Is | 2300°4 Is | 2298'3 In 2296'9 2s | 22951 2s 2294°1 2b 2291°5 6b 2288°7 2s 2287°7 3n 2286°9 In *2283+4 6s | 2283°0 3n 2279°2 2n 2277°6 4n 2273°2 Is 2270°3 3s 2267-0 2s Reduction to Vacuum Fates A O71 | 12:5 ” ” ” ” 0:70 Pi ” ” ” ” a 12°6 ” ” ” ” ” ” Fy 12:7 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 12°8 ” ” ” ” ” ” | ” ” | ” 12°9 0°69 P, ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ri) an 13:0 ” ” ” 9 ” ” “A ileyil ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” _ 13°2 ’ 7” ” 9 ” ” ” ”? 0:68 a a 13:3 ” a” ” ” 42016°7 Oscillation Frequency in Vacuo 42053'8 42068°0 42121-1 42149°6 42190°5 422743 423764 42398-0 424412 42489°9 42513°3 425731 425949 426440 | 42656°7 426749 42695:0 42720°4 42830°3 42868°8 428780 42892°8 42966°4 42983°1 42992°3 43003°4 430479 43064°6 43083°1 43120°3 43127:0 43166°9 43189-2 43235°9 43286°4 43310'8 4£3376°6 43444°4 43457°6 43497°3 43523°8 435580 43577:0 43626°4 43679°8 43698'8 437179 437811 437688 43861°8 43892°7 43977°5 44033°7 440979 ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 339 GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. sai to Wave- Intensit > eee Oscillation length avi y Perini eee Btequehioy (Rowland) | Character (Rowland) Ae 1 in Vacuo T Nin | | | 2266:0 3b | O68 | 13°3 | 4411773 2265°3 In ” ” 44131:0 2264-0 3n ” ” 441563 2262°9 4n ” 134 | 44177-7 2261°5 2n ” ” 44205'0 2260°8 2n ” ” 44218°7 2255°8 2n ” ” 44316°8 2255-0 In ” ” 44332°5 2253°5 3s -¢ Be 443620 2248°9 2n, doublje ? ” 13:5 | 44452°7 2246°7 3n » | » | 44496-2 2243°6 In ’ ” 44557°7 2242°7 6s oS a 445756 2240°4 4n a a 44621°4 2237°7 2n ” 13°6 | 4467571 2233°8 3n ” ” 44753°2 2231°4 4n ” » 44801°3 2229°1 6n 0°67 » | 44847°6 2222°6 2n A 13:7 | 44978°7 2220°5 3s ” ” 450192 2219°4 2s ” ” 45043°5 2215'9 3n 3 et 451147 2213°2 4s +) 13°8 | 45169°6 2210°6 3s af AL 45222°8 2210°3 ls ” ” 45228°9 2206:0 3s be ae 453171 2201°6 5s A 13:9 | 454076 2193°7 1s os “ 45571:2 2192-7 1s ” ” 455920 2190°7 1s ” 14-0 45633°5 2189-3 5s cs » | 456627 2186-9 2s | 457128 2185-7 Qs ; "| 46737°9 2184-2 2s a3 a 45769°4 2172°3 3s 0-66 | 14:1 46020:1 21677 2s + 14:2 | 46117°6 2160°7 2n » ” 46267:1 2159-2 2n pe 14:3 46299-2 2157-4 3n ” ” 46337°8 2154-4 Qn 5 "| 464023 2140°5 In ee 14:4 | 46703°7 2138-0 2b He a 46758'3 2133-4 1b ” 145 46859:0 2129-7 j 0°65 a 46940°5 2126°8 2s ” 14°6 47004:4 21253 5s ¥, a 47037°6 2113-7 Is » 14:7 | 47295°7 21108 9s a = 47360°7 2098°8 In le ics 148 | 47631°5 2098'2 1s ’ ” 47645'1 2095°0 In ! 14:9 47717°8 2085-4 In eal 15:0 | 47937-4 2083-1 1s bes » | 479904 2082-1 8s he, , | 48013-4 2071:7 ls | O-G4 | 15-1 48264-4 z2 340 REPORT—1896. GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. Reduction Wave- Intensity Previous Measurements to Vacuum | Oseillation length and (Rowland) Tai, 2) | Mirequency (Rowland) | Character ee 1 | in Vacuo A 2064:0 Is 0-64 | 15-2 | 48434-4 2059°9 Is 7 48530°8 2056°6 Is ” ” 48608°7 2055-4 Is _ 15:3 | 48637:0 2044-7 5s x 15:4 | 488915 2012°3 In 0°63 | 15-7 49678°7 2000°7 | 3s [ays 15°38 | 49966°7 1988°9 Is $3 16:0 | 50263-0 1977'3 ls | 4 16:1 | 50557-9 Provimate Constituents of Coal.—Report of the Comivittee, consisting of Sir I. Lowrtan BELL (Chairman), Professor P. PHILLIPS: BeEpson (Secretary), Professor F. CLowEs, Dr. Lupwie Monp, Professor ViviaN B. Lewes, Professor E. Huutt, Mr. J. W. Tomas, and Mr. H. BAUERMAN, AccorpInG to Baltzer! coals are mixtures of complex carbon com- pounds, these forming a genetic and possibly a homologous series. The framework of carbon contained in these compounds is a complex one, the only analogy to which is that presented by the aromatic compounds. The physical properties of coals are such as to render a classification possible,. and these different varieties exhibit a similarity in their ultimate com- position. Whilst these several varieties form the essential constituents of coal, there are in addition certain accessory constituents, such as the resinous components, the hygroscopic water, and the ‘inclosed gases.’ The researches of J. W. Thomas, of E. von Meyer, of Schondorff, of Bedson and McConnell, and others have provided an extensive knowledge of the nature of the gases inclosed in coals from different sources, and also a knowledge of the conditions under which these gases are retained by the coal. The hygroscopic water and the absorptive power for water of different coals have, by reason of their technical importance, received con- siderable attention. The remaining group of accessory constituents represented by the resinous bodies, which are distinguished from the coal substance by their solubility, consists of some few hydrocarbons, such as ozokerit, and bodies containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, of which Muck, in his ‘ Chemie der Steinkohle,’ gives the following : 1. Middletonite ; ii. Pyroretenite ; iii. Reussinite ; iv. Scleretinite ; v. Rosthornite ; vi. Anthrakoxen ; vii. Guayaquillite ; viii. Berengelite. These mineral substances are of varying solubilities in alcohol, ether, and turpentine. From the description given by the different investigators it would appear probable that several of these substances are mixtures. 1 Vierteljahrsschr. d. Ziir. Naturf.- Gesellsch., 1872; also Muck, Chem. d. Steink., p. 141. ON PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS OF COAL. 341 In 1874 Dondorff drew attention to the occurrence in several West- phalian gas coals of a blackish solid, with a reddish brown colour in reflected light, having a brown streak. This substance is found in thin leaflets on this coal, and is almost entirely soluble in ether, forming a light yellow solution, which fluoresces not unlike solutions of the salts of quinine. By the extraction of a Westphalian gas coal with ether Muck has obtained an ethereal solution of a similar character, and from it obtained a solid of the following percentage composition :— C=87:22, H=9-20, O=2:29, S=1-29 (nitrogen absent). This substance, when heated in a platinum crucible, leaves a coke-like residue, amounting to 32:09 per cent. The author considers this substance to be widely diffused in coal, and has shown it to exist in varying amounts in different parts of the same seam. Associated with this investigation is that of P. Siepmann, who has submitted the gas coal of the Pluto mine, Westphalia, to a systematic extraction with chloroform, ether, and alcohol, ebtaining the following results :— The chloroform extract amounted to 1:25 per cent. of the coal ; the solution, dark yellow to brown in colour, possessed a strong green fluo- rescence ; the composition of the extract was C= oe ht—7-95, O—A-27 N27 baila. The residue, after extraction with chloroform, gave, when treated with ether, a light yellow solution having a bluish green fluorescence, from which a solid was obtained amounting to 0:3 per cent. of the coal, and containing C=84'82, H=10°51 and O= 4°67. The residue treated with alcohol gave a solution similar in character to the ethereal solution, The amount removed by the alcohol was 0:25 per cent. of the coal, and the composition of the dissolved solid was found to be C=72:52, H=10-08, O=17°4. After the above treatment the residual coal was again extracted with chloroform, which removed 0:75 per cent. of the coal, and left on evapo- ration a dark brown, pitch-like mass, which gave the following results on analysis :— C=78'82, H=8-56, O=9:97, N (trace), S=2°65. The last chloroform solution was dark brown in colour and feebly fluorescent. “1 ips composition of the coal before and after this treatment is given elow :— Cc H oO a ON, Before treatment ‘ : Rats (033 5°50 12°94 1°25 After treatment . > : = . 74:00 4:77 20:09 114 According to H. Reinsch, alcohol extracts from coal a substance sup- posed to be altered ‘chenopodin,’ a body which the author had discovered in the sap of Melilotus albus, and to which he attributes the composition C,.H,;0,N. In 1885 P. Reinsch concluded that coal consists of two 342 REPORT—1896. classes of substances, one soluble in alkalis, forming coloured solutions, and a second insoluble. By the use of phenol as a solvent E. Guignet has extracted from 2 to 4 per cent. of a brown solid from coal, which is precipitated from the solution by alcohol. The finely powdered coal treated with nitric acid yields solutions containing oxalic acid and trinitroresorcinol ; the insoluble residue contains apparently nitro-compounds, or bodies similar to nitro- cellulose. A portion of this residue is dissolved by caustic alkalis and ammonia, forming brown-coloured solutions. Guignet, led by the formation of trinitroresorcinol, as mentioned above, attempted to obtain resorcinol! by fusion of the coal with caustic soda and distillation in a bath of molten lead, but obtained ammonia and aniline only. The residue after this treatment was, however, found to be partially dissolved by water, forming dark brown solutions, from which acids pre- cipitated out humus-like substances. Guignet concludes these bodies are derived from the cellulose-residues of the coal, and that the trinitro- resorcinol owes its origin to the resinous and wax-like constituents. During the session 1889-90 Mr. Saville Shaw, Lecturer in Chemistry at the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon Tyne, made some ex- periments on the action of a mixture of concentrated sulphuric and nitric acids on bituminous coal. The coal, in a finely powdered condition, was allowed to remain for three weeks in contact with the mixed acids, and then poured into a large volume of water, filtered and thoroughly washed. The dried residue differs but slightly in appearance from the original coal, but had evidently undergone change in composition, as after this treat- ment it gave as much as 77 per cent. of ‘ volatile matter,’ whereas the coal contained but 27 per cent. ; further when heated in a test-tube it ‘ puffs ” with slight flame, resembling in this respect gun-cotton. A considerable portion of this ‘ nitro-coal’is soluble in caustic alkalis, yielding very dark brown solutions, from which on acidifying bulky dark brown precipitates are formed. The precipitates, washed and dried, form brilliantly black friable masses, which have lost the semi-explosive properties of the original ‘nitro-coal.’ Methyl alcohol dissolves some 11 per cent. of the ‘nitro- coal,’ the solution yielding a black scaly product on evaporation, which, when heated, suddenly decomposes, leaving a very bulky residue of carbon. Attempts to prepare reduction products from this nitro-coal were un- successful. In a note published in the ‘Proceedings of the Chemical Society’ (1891-92, p. 9) R. J. Friswell described the results obtained by treating finely powdered coal with dilute nitric acid ; a considerable portion of the coal is thus converted into a black insoluble acid, which behaves very much as a nitro-compound. Mention should also be made of the investigations of Mr. Watson Smith, published in 1891, on the soluble and resinoid constituents of bituminous coal. The soluble material extracted by benzene from a Japanese coal Mr. Watson Smith has shown to contain phenols, nitro- genous organic bases, and also some aromatic hydrocarbons. In a previous report experiments with various solvents on a bitu- minous coal from the Hutton seam in the county of Durham were referred to, but, owing to the small yields obtained, this method of attacking the problem as to the nature of the proximate constituents of coal has been relinquished. The oxidation of the finely powdered coal with aqueous solutions of ON PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS OF COAL. 343 potassium permanganate, in some cases made alkaline with caustic potash, appeared to offer a more promising method of attack. The coal uses up very considerable quantities of the permanganate, and dark brown solu- tions are obtained. From these solutions it has been attempted, by the aid of the formation of insoluble salts, to isolate some of the acids which result from the oxidation of the coal in this way. The difficulties met with arising from the unsatisfactory properties of many of these salts, which are usually obtained in the form of gelatinous, clayey solids, difficult to wash and obtain in a state of purity suitable for analysis, have led to the abandonment of this reagent. More promising results have been obtained by acting upon the coal with dilute hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate. Mr. J. A. Smythe, B.Sc. of the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, has under- taken the investigation of this action for the purposes of this committee. When finely divided coal is boiled for several hours with dilute hydro- chloric acid, and potassium chlorate added from time to time, the coal gradually assumes a brown colour, and a brown solid collects on the surface of the yellow liquid. The coal, after lengthened treatment, is filtered off, washed, and dried at 100° C. The product is invariably found to have increased in weight, and when extracted with alcohol or acetone some 30 to 35 per cent. of the material is dissolved out by either of these solvents ; of the two, acetone is the more powerful solvent, leaving a coal- like insoluble residue. The solution obtained in this manner is next dis- tilled, and after removal of the solvent a dark reddish brown resinous mass is left, which, when finely ground, forms a dark brown homogeneous powder. The finely divided powder was extracted with benzene ; the portion insoluble in benzene was treated with alcohol, in which some readily dissolved, leaving a residue sparingly soluble in hot alcohol. The benzene solution, after removal of the benzene, leaves a dark resinous mass, which, when ground, forms a brown powder, which is dis- solved not only by benzene and acetone, but also by ether, chloroform, glacial acetic acid, phenol, and nitrotoluene, but is insoluble in carbon disulphide, petroleum ether, and water. The solutions of this body are all dark brown, almost black, and from these it is always deposited in an amorphous condition. The analysis of this substance gave the following results, from which a formula, C3,H,,Cl,0,9, has been deduced :— Weight of Substance (a) 0°364 gram gave 0°578 gram CO,, and 0-086 gram H,0. 07293), » O-411 ,, AgCl=34-67 per cent. Cl. (6) 0-357 _,, » 0571 ,, CO,, and 0-087 gram H,0. 0:322 °.,, » 0448 ,, AgCl=34:29 per cent. Cl. Caleulated for a b Means C59 Ho2Cls0 19 C, 43°29 - 43°60 A 43°44 ; 43 64 H. 2°62 . 2°70 A 2°66 ‘ 3 2°66 Cl. 34:67 4 34°42 ; 34°54 : : 34:29 0. 19°42 5 19°28 — f 3 19°41 TT aes ANGO. Ober weooyp fh =. hae reys glOOr00 From the alcoholic extraction there was obtained, after removal of the alcohol, a brown solid, very similar in appearance to that obtained from 344 REPORT—1896. the benzene solution. The results of the analysis of this substance most nearly accord with a formula C,,H,,Cl,Oo. (a) 0-420 gram gave 0°740 gram CO, and 0-114 gram H,0. 0:463. 4, » 0451 ,, AgCl=24-05 per cent. Cl. (b) 0386 ,, » 90680 ,, CO, and 0:104 gram H,0. 0:569 _,, » 0:550 ,, AgCl=23-°88 per cent. Cl. Calculated for a b C484 3C1,0, C; 48-05 é : 48 05 ; 4 48-66 i. dUL 5 2 2°99 ° : : 3°04 Cl. 24:05 - ‘ 23°88 ° c . 23°96 O. 24°89 : : 25:08 9 : , 24:34 100:00 From the material left after extraction with benzene and alcohol, which is sparingly soluble in hot alcohol but soluble in acetone, two sub- stances have been obtained which contain a smaller proportion of chlorine than the above, and from the analytical results appear to have the formule C,.H,,Cl,0; and C,;H,,Cl,0,. The deep yellow acid filtrate from which the oxidised and unoxidised coal had been removed was shaken out with ether ; the ethereal solution appears to contain some trichloracetic acid. The aqueous solution, after extraction with ether when concentrated to a small bulk, deposits crystals of potassium chloride, &c., coloured yellow by a colouring matter which is removed by acetone. The acetone solution, on evaporation, gives a reddish viscous liquid, which is dissolved by ether and alcohol, but is insoluble in benzene. The analysis of the residue left after the evaporation of acetone showed that it contained some mineral matter, which was left as ash when the substance was burnt. Owing to the small amount at disposal, a further purification was not attempted. The determination of the carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine gave the following :— (a) 0°4132 gram gave 0°6460 gram CO, and 0:1414 gram H.0. 0°4158 _,, » 02584 ,, AgCl=15-36 per cent. Cl. (0) OBON fins » 9°5608 ,, CO, and 0:125 gram H,0. 04402 _,, 9» 02706 ,, AgCl=15-:20 per cent. Cl. 0-426 =, » O01D 4s.

. . 9378 III. Previous Observations regarding the Shelly Clay, Sic. . 378 IV, Detailed Examination of the Shell- ey ca by the Committee . 9380 V. Direction of Ice-flow in Kintyre. . 387 VI. Report by Dr. DAVID ROBERTSON . : : : : : - . 389 VII. Conclusion : ; ; . : : : : . : . 399 I. Introduction, Since the presentation of their interim Report last year on the investi- gation of the shell-bearing deposits in Kintyre, the members of the Committee have carried out boring operations with the view of proving the extension of the shelly clay near Cleongart. The grant from the British Association having been insufficient for the work, the Committee cordially acknowledge a “grant in aid from the Council of the Royal Society of London, obtained through the courtesy and kindly interest of Sir Archibald Geikie. II. Geographical Position. The shell-bearing deposits in Kintyre, investigated by the Committee during 1895-6, occur at three localities on the west side of the peninsula and to the north of Machrihanish Bay (see maps, figs. 1 and 4). They are exposed in three stream sections: (1) in Tangy Burn ; (2) in Drumore Burn ; (3) in a stream near Cleongart, which run more or less parallel with each other in a westerly direction towards the Atlantic. III. Previous Observations regarding the Shelly Clay, &c. In 1852 Professor James Nicol, of Aberdeen,' chronicled the important fact that ‘many of the striated boulders in the clays of Kintyre are apparently derived from a distance, and some detached travelled stones are seen on the surface.’ He further observed near Macharioch several large boulders of white granite, ‘resembling the granite of Arran, which is the nearest place where this rock occurs in situ, though at the distance of 23 miles across the deep hollow of Kilbrennan Sound.’ Striated rocks were noted at several localities, and he gives a few instances from the 1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe., vol, viii. p. 406. ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 379 southern portion of the peninsula, viz. 8, 55° E., 8. 55° W., E. 10° N., and nearly N. and 8. Tangy Glen.—In 1873 Messrs. Robertson and Crosskey described the section of shelly clay in Tangy Glen! at a height of about 130 feet above the sea-level, in a paper from which the following extracts are taken :— Fic. 1.—Map showing the localities of Shelly Clay where exposed at Cleongart, Drumcre Burn, and Tangy Burn, in Kintyre. \P A - | 5 fie tce if : y/ k Dridnore L7. y yi ' a ’ SE We FN: FUR. 8 a MILES ‘The chief interest of this section consists in the fact that, contrary to the usual position of the boulder-clay in the west of Scotland, it here 1 Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. iv. p, 134. 380 REPORT—1896. overlies shell-bearing clay. The latter is dark grey in colour, and con- trasts strongly with the overlying boulder-clay, which is of a dull reddish brown. ‘The two clays are equally distinct in composition. Boulder-clay. Shell-bearing Clay. 50 per cent. fine mud. 80 per cent. fine mud. 27 * sand, 21 fine and 6 coarse. 14 as fine sand. 23 a gravel. 6 ” gravel. ‘The shell-bearing clay as exposed in this section is seen standing up in the boulder clay like a boss or knoll. . . . At the greatest part visible it is 13 feet high, and it can be traced as it thins down, along the edge of the streamlet for a distance of 60 or 70 yards. Its exact depth could not be ascertained, but as the rock is seen at a short distance on either hand, it is probably not more than a few feet deeper than what is exposed. ‘The fossils in this deposit are but thinly met with—molluses in particular are rare—Leda pygmea being the prevailing shell, with an occasional Leda pernula, Venus ovata, and a few fragments of other species. These were submitted to Mr. J. G. Jeffreys, and at least two of them have proved to be of much interest, viz., Pecten Groenlandicus and Montacuta elevata. ‘ Pecten Groenlandicus has been met with on the east coast at Mon- trose, Errol and Elie, but not before in the west of Scotland... . Montacuta elevata is an Arctic species, and new to the glacial clays of Britain. ‘Ostracoda and Foraminifera are more numerously represented in this deposit, eighteen species of the former and twenty-three of the latter having been obtained.’ A list of the organic remains from the shelly clay of Tangy Glen is appended to the foregoing paper. Drumore Burn.—-Another exposure of shelly clay was observed by Mr. Symes, of H.M. Geological Survey, in the course of his detailed survey of the peninsula of Kintyre. In the Drumore Burn 3 miles N. of Tangy Glen the shelly clay appears to underlie reddish boulder-clay, and yields broken fragments of shells. Cleongart.—By far the best section of shelly clay yet observed in Kintyre was discovered by Mr. Alex. Gray, of Campbelton, in a stream near Cleongart, about 4 miles N. of Tangy Glen, where it is overlaid by a great thickness of boulder-clay. A large collection of organic remains was obtained by Mr. Gray from this deposit, which were named by Dr. Robertson, and appear in the list appended to this Report. The Committee desire to acknowledge the valuable services rendered by Mr. Gray in the course of their investigations during 1895-96. He not only placed at their disposal his knowledge of the locality and his observations on this deposit, but he also superintended for several days continuously the boring operations at Cleongart. These services the Com- mittee feel they cannot overestimate, and in other respects also Mr. Gray did much to assist the Committee in their work. IV. Detailed Examination of the Shell-bearing Deposits by the Committee. Tangy Glen.—The lower part of this glen forms, for a distance of about half a mile, a deep rocky gorge carved out of mica-schist. Further up the glen the shelly clay appears on the left or south bank of the stream, overlaid by boulder-clay. During the visit of the Committee ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 381 it was observed that the section described by Dr. Robertson in 1873 had become overgrown with herbage and bushes, and was also partly concealed by a low breast wall. Several artificial cuttings were made on the face of the bank, and samples of the clay were taken for examination. The observations of the Committee, so far as they went, confirmed those of Messrs. Robertson and Crosskey in the paper referred to. The shelly clay is a stiff, fine, bluish grey clay, upwards of 5 feet of the deposit being laid bare. The upper portion seemed to be affected by exposure to the weather, and the darkish-blue colour was chiefly apparent in the lower part. About 30 feet of reddish boulder-clay with numerous boulders lie above the shelly clay, rising to a greater height further back from the stream. At this point there is evidence of land-slips on the face of the bank, so that the two deposits are sometimes intermingled. The top of the shelly clay as exposed in the trench made by the Com- mittee was found by Mr. Fraser, C.E., to be 1354 feet above the level of the sea. Drumore Glen.—The lower part of this glen shows prominent cliffs of red sandstone (Upper Old Red Sandstone), the strata dipping at angles of about 8° down stream. Overlying the sandstone is a considerable thickness of grey boulder-clay, full of boulders of crystalline schists. The sides of the glen are in some places masked by the boulder-clay slipping down over them. Resting apparently on the sandstone, however, and under the boulder-clay, there are occasional patches of gravel and sand and brown sandy clay, in the upper part of which some shells and shelly fragments have been found. The top of the brown shelly clay here was found by Mr. Fraser to be 199 feet above the level of the sea. Cleongart Burn.—As this is the most important section of shelly clay hitherto observed in Kintyre, the Committee confined their detailed observations chiefly to it. As in Drumore, the lower part of the glen is occupied by red sand- stone (Upper Old Red), which in places forms prominent cliffs, rising to a height of 20 feet or 30 feet. The sandstone is nearly horizontal, or inclined westwards at an angle of 8° to 10°, resting unconformably on the crystal- line schists. About 44 yards eastwards from the unconformable junction of the red sandstone and the schist visible in the bed of the stream, the main section of the shelly clay occurs on the south bank of the Burn, where it is overlaid by a great thickness of boulder-clay. The shelly clay is a stiff, dark, bluish clay, comparatively free from stones in the upper part, though here and there throughout the section well-rounded stones are met with. An ex- amination of the included blocks, the average size of which varies from 1 inch to 3 inches across, shows that they are chiefly of local origin, being composed mainly of mica-schist with granular quartz-schist, and hornblende-schist. No fragment of red sandstone was observed in this deposit in the main section. No striations were observed on any of the stones. Shells were found in abundance during the first visit of the Committee in 1895, a feature which was probably due to long exposure of the mate- rials to the action of the weather, and the removal of the clay from the surface by the rain. 382 REPORT—1896. Some of the species were particularly abundant—as, for example, Turritella, Cyprina, Astarte, Leda, &e. Many were in excellent preser- vation, but others were broken and fragmentary. Some of the smallest shells, Zedas and others, were entire. The lower part of the shelly clay near the level of the stream being concealed by a talus, the Committee resolved to cut a trench to show a vertical section of the deposits down to the level of the stream. The clay was found to rest upon a bed of compact coarse sand and gravel, cut open to a depth of 3 feet 10 inches, no shell fragments being visible. The boundary between the compact shelly clay above and the sand and gravel below was sharply defined, and to all appearance horizontal. Fine shelly mud immediately overlay the sand and gravel. Higher up, the clay contained abundance of shells and a very few small water-worn stones ; one stone, the largest found in the trench, appeared to be finely striated. Owing to the percolation of water from the stream, the cutting was not continued downward to the solid rock ; but the mica-schist is visible in the bed of the Burn a few yards further down or west of the main section. As will be seen from the section (fig. 2), the visible thickness of shelly clay, resting on coarse sand and gravel, is 275 feet ; and the thick- ness of boulder-clay to the top of the bank is 74 feet. This overlying boulder-clay is of a reddish-brown colour, charged abundantly with boulders, some of which are striated. These consist mainly of crystalline schists of local origin, with a marked absence of fragments of red sandstone. Though boulders of Arran granite were not observed in the boulder-clay of the main section, they occur in considerable numbers in the immediate neighbourhood, both on the surface and in the ground-moraine. The shelly clay is also visible at one or two points on the north bank of the Cleongart Burn, where it is in like manner overlaid by reddish- brown boulder-clay. It has not proved so fossiliferous there as in the section on the southern bank which has just been described, but a few shells have been found in it. With the view of proving the extension of the shelly clay along the stream course in an easterly direction, the Committee put down a series of shallow bores as represented in the accompanying ground-plan (fig. 3).! Blue clay, resembling the shelly clay, was recognised in the samples obtained from the three bores Nos. 1, 2, and 3, 22 yards, 44 yards, and 66 yards respectively east of the main section. No shells or other organic remains, except one or two fresh-water Foraminifera, were found in the materials from these bores. A small exposure of a similar clay was visible still further east, or 88 yards distant from the main section. This contained some small frag- ments of shells, and a few Ostracoda and Foraminifera. Seeing that the shelly clay had been found in each of these three glens at nearly the same elevation, the Committee next considered it of im- portance to test its extension southward from Cleongart, in the direction -of Drumore Glen. For this purpose a trench was first cut along the top -of the shelly clay in the main section at Cleongart, extending for about 1 These shallow bores were about 10 feet above the level of the stream, and respectively 23, 21, and 34 feet back from it. 383 KINTYRE, ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN _ PHO] WIS AD HOO 4 f HEL LE si PR OCI ete Ve [ploy ie ee tall ie ghee er PET PY i Q8L0 “De et. eh me os 2, WP YPULD Ss BEND) 2 8 seas Zarhiel ee Pte aS of arch le TY ia, % oe? S| ——— = : : = 4 © > UPBAS. 40 QY01S Uo SS SS Se a EE: = Pa DD GU f2 P02 == —— — — == = 1 ees Bunny pra = ' = 1 <4 = ' == = a ae . =| =e aa peste Sy = a "I pe es = 2 ! y% N ——— 5 ae oh 5 = = “= a = ed | << (oy) ma ; 1 1 ofits Se = Se oe ed a MLIPQQNIOT See SF —-= 5 -. = - —————— Ss 5 Eo ee ee a Sa a Ses es S = 2 Se OE ae ee | a ee ee | a — 5) >. v +«_| —=_ 3 75 = ee = => =e eos. : et —— 2 =S —— Bary : —— er) UF ae Ne - =e — it : ns 2 = ee — Pasi 5 ee nee FS a 2 2S OS =.= 23 ee So See + _———— es 1 = ——. = ' se SF aie 1 ———- ee eee =~ a eS hy == 3 Fi Sse 0 2 BSS SS SS ee = = ———— == een Or tt Yy = i = ioe —— — Ss Dy = 5 ' SN 3 SF SS SE SS SS SS SS SS SN ST 111111111 Obl O08 Of Of OO OB 08 OL 09 OF OP OF Of UW O tt G22] JO BRIG 8 i a% 06 QDR UIA BX DID AfL6 249G ~" iiy aonneten fo Wag ~~ L2YIPLVOUL OF LQ UIBOT 2S Gb #0] MYPYS DLT WIS NOG 9. GLEE PY LNS 4229 “GPUS fIQOMEG & GA GL 227 OYE RYIONT (008 WOYO, & OY PHONG. "9681 ‘ordqury ‘yaeSuoe[y ye AvIO ATTOYY SurMmoys uoloag—'Z “OTT REPORT— 1896. OF OOL LIFTS LIFS OOS CLIO] PILLLZZ JO AZ JO PLOT x Ge WL2 24L0F- ic ==) JO a Sn \ WH igs Wy “nl is vf . uh OA = ap = : Te ii fil Ha y) “ae ‘HVSUOIO ye sSullog pu Av[O AT[eYYG Jo suorptsod Sutrmoys uvftg yoIoyS— ¢ \\e «hu iy ss ily) ul ‘OTL ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 385 8 feet under the boulder-clay of the south bank. The shelly clay was found to continue in a nearly horizontal position as far as the cutting was carried. It was then deemed advisable to sink bores farther back, in the bank and at the top of it, for the purpose of ascertaining whether the shelly clay still continued in that direction under the boulder-clay. Two points were accordingly marked off, one being in the slope, and the other four yards into the field above, the horizontal distances being respectively 34 and 54 yards from the top of the exposed face of the shelly clay (see sketch-plan of ground, fig. 3, and section, fig. 2). Work was begun first at the bore in the slope, 34 yards distant horizontally, from the top of the exposed face of shelly clay. Here it was estimated that the shelly clay, if it extended so far horizontally, might be met with at a depth of 46 feet from the surface. The boring through the stiff, stony, boulder-clay was attended with considerable difficulties. At the depth of 45 feet, however, the borers actually reached the shelly clay, and after passing downward through 10 feet of it, they struck upon a rock or boulder which arrested their progress. The Com- mittee did not think that they had reached the bottom of the shelly clay. If this were the case, it would seem to show that the deposit was rapidly thinning out, and might be met with only sparingly, if at all, farther back. ‘Till this point was tested, the Committee considered it unnecessary to make any detailed examination of the clay from this bore, it being chiefly important to examine it at the most distant locality where it should be found. They therefore transferred operations to the upper station, which had been marked off at the top of the south bank. Here, after a good many difficulties and delays, the shelly clay was struck at a depth of 76 feet from the surface, which also corresponded very well with the estimate that had been made beforehand. Mr. Gray was by this time fortunately able to be with the borers, and give them the benefit of his direction and supervision, and also to mark and lay aside samples of the clay from various depths, which were sent on to Dr. Robertson for examination (see Section VI., Dr. Robertson’s Report). The clay was found to continue downwards, with some variations in colour and com- position, for a depth of about 20 feet from the point where first met with. A good many Ostracoda and Foraminifera were found in it by Dr. Robertson, and a few fragments of shells. The bore was sunk to a depth of 97 feet, the deposit becoming very stony towards the bottom, and finally resembling the hard, compact gravel underlying the shelly clay in the main section. The thickness of the shelly clay here met with seemed to confirm the conclusion of the Committee that the bottom of the deposit had not been reached in the first bore. The Committee regard the proved extension of the shelly clay thus far, under the boulder-clay, as a point of much interest, and as favouring the conclusion that it may extend more or less continuously, about the same level, from one glen to another. They were desirous of putting down another bore, still further south, to test or confirm this conclusion. But the surface of the ground here consists of great mounds and ridges of boulder-clay, which would render boring operations in that direction tedious and costly, as well as uncertain; and their available means being by this time more than exhausted, they were obliged to stop, and can only state the result of these operations, so far as they have gone. 1896. cc 386 REPORT— 1896 The Committee beg to record their obligations to His Grace the Duke of Argyll for the interest he manifested throughout in their work, and for permission readily granted to make the necessary excavations and Fic. 4.—Map of Kintyre and Arran, showing direction of Ice-flow. 4 Fell | Note.—The heights of hills are marked in feet. The Arran granite boundary is dotted-------------- bores at Cleongart ; also to James Hall, Esq., of Tangy, for like favour and assistance in regard to Tangy Glen. ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 387 V. Direction of Ice-flow in Kintyre. The direction of the ice-flow in Kintyre is of great importance in relation to the investigations referred to the Committee. A list of localities where striations were observed, based on observations made by Mr. Symes in the course of the geological survey, is here given with the sanction of the Director-General. With the view of presenting these observations in a clearer form, they have prepared a map (fig. 4) of the district extending from West Loch Tarbert in the north to the Mull of Kintyre in the south. The observations of Mr. Symes have clearly demonstrated that Kintyre has been glaciated by ice which crossed the peninsula in a westerly direc- tion from the Firth of Clyde to the Atlantic. A glance at the appended list and striz map will show that the average direction in the neighbour- hood of West Loch Tarbert is W. 20° 8. Proceeding southwards along the watershed between Carradale on the east coast and Cleongart and Drumore on the west, many of the striz point due W., while some instances trend W. 10°-20°S. Along the transverse hollow at Camp- belton the direction varies from W. to W. 20° N. In that portion of the peninsula lying to the south and south-west of Campbelton the trend is variable : along the east coast it varies from W. to 8. 25° W.; in the Cannie Glen from W. 20° N. to W. 43° S. ; while near the west coast it is W. 5° N. It is obvious therefore that throughout Kintyre there must have been a powerful deflection of the ice which enabled it to cross the watershed, ranging in height from 896 feet near West Loch Tarbert to 1,462 feet near the Mull of Kintyre. List of Ice Strie. Going from North to South in one-inch sheets, 12 and 20. One inch Direction : Bhect Locality 20 W. 208. On north shore of West Lough Tarbert, south of Ferry House 20 W. 255. On north shore of West Lough Tarbert, east of Ardpatrick House 20 W. 25 N. | On south shore of West Lough Tarbert, north of Lough Dughaill 20 W. 25 N. On road to Tarbert, north of Lough Dughaill 20 E. and W. | Close to road and immediately adjoining last locality 20 W. 2058. Not far from shore of West Lough Tarbert and east of Corran farm 20 W. 208. North of Dunskeig farm house 20 | W.308S. North of Ballinakill and } a mile east of Clachan village 20 W.15S. On Ronachan Hill, N.E. of Ronachon House, about 250 contour, 1 mile west of Clachan village 20 KE. and W. | At 300 ft. contour, 3 a mile south of Ronachon House 20 | E.and W. | At 250 ft. contour, 3 a mile south east of Ronachon House 20 W.155. At 500 ft. contour on Cnoc Donn, 13 miles south of Rona- chon House 20, +W.208. | At 500 ft. contour south of Ballochroy Glen, 23 miles south 1 | of Ronachon House | = | W. 20.8. At 700 ft. contour 33 miles south of Ronachon House i 20 | a end Wi On mountain path from a } to $ a mile south of Clachan | 20 W.208. niles | 20 | W.108. | On south shore of Lough Ciaran 13 miles §.8.E. of Clachan ) village cc2 388 REPORT—1896. List oF Ick StRIm—continued. One inch Direction Locality sheet 20 E. and Wes) At 600 ft. contour 2 of a mile W.S.W. of last locality, 13 20 We lOisay) S.8.W. of Clachan village 20 | E.and W. | 23 miles §.8.W. of Clachan village and $ of a mile N.W. of Lough Garasdale 20 E. and W. | 22 miles 8.8.W. of Clachan village and 3 of a mile N.W. of Lough Garasdale 20 W. 2058. On west cliff of Gigha Island 3 of a mile $.8.W. of Cnoc Loisgte 20 W. 20 S. On §.E. shore of Gigha Island. 20 E. and W. | At 600 ft. contour N.E. of Lagloskine, 6 miles §.8.H. of Clachan village 20 E. and W. | At 900 ft. contour, a little over 2 miles E.N.E. of the village of Killean 20 E. and W. | In the Allt a’ Bhlair water, 4 miles E.N.E. of Glenbarr village 20 W. 355. At 1,100 ft. contour, 2 miles west of Carradale Bay on E. side of Kintyre 20 W.108. At 1000 ft. contour, 6 miles E.N.E. of Glenbarr village a ele \ On Bein Bhreac, 52 miles E.N.E. of Glenbarr village 20 E. and W. | East of Blary Hill, 3} miles E. of Glenbarr village 20 E. and W. | In stream W. of Beinn an Tuire, 43 miles E. of Glenbarr village 20 E. and W. | Instream W. of Beinn an Tuire, 44 miles E.S.E. of Glenbarr village 20 W.5S. Bord Mor, 1,250 ft. contour, 4 miles §8.W. of Carradale Bay 20 W.10N. | Onroad 23 miles §.8.W. of Carradale Bay. 12 W. 15S. At 700 ft. contour on rock adjoining fort, 3 miles N.W. of Campbelton 12 W. 20 N In stream, 8. of chapel in ruins, 45 miles W.S.W. of Camp- belton 12 W. 20 N At Ballygreggan farm house, 3 miles W.S.W. of Campbelton 12 E. and W West of Ballimenach Hill, 3 miles 8.E. of Campbelton 12 E. and W. | On road side east of Ballimenach Hill, 3 miles §8.E. of Campbelton 12 W.25N. | In Crossaig water, 63 miles 8,W. of Campbelton 12 W.-ooN: E. of Largybaan, 74 miles §.W. of Campbelton 12 W. 20N. | In brook at Homeston, 4} miles 8.W. of Campbelton 12 W.10N. In Balnabraid Glen, 33 miles 8.E. of Campbelton 12 W. 20 N. South of Achinhoan Head, 43 miles 8.K. of Campbelton 12 W. 158. West of Ru Stafnish, 53 miles 8.E. of Campbelton 12 N. 25 E. 1 of a mile north of last locality oe W.25 8. |) tm Glen Hervie, 6 miles 8.8.E. of Campbelton 12 | H.and W. J } ie E 12 W. 20 N. N.W. of Keprigan farm, 6 miles §.8.E. of Campbelton ¥12 W. 458. At Machrimore, 8 miles §.8.H. of Campbelton 12 W. 105. 1 mile south of east of Southend at the south-east of 1 inch 12 W. 108. 11 mile §.E. of Southend 12 W.105. At Kilmashanachan, 14 miles E. by south of Southend Remarks.—With the exception of the two localities marked with an *, the general trend of the striz is about 10° north or south of west, and east and west. Transport of Boulders.—The distribution of boulders in Kintyre furnishes striking confirmation of the conclusion already given regarding the ice-movement from a consideration of the strie. Indeed, one of the remarkable features connected with the glaciation of that region is the ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 389 occurrence of granite boulders derived from the mass in the north of Arran. They are met with in the boulder-clay and on the surface of the ground throughout the peninsula from the Mull of Kintyre to a point several miles north of Carradale Bay. Mr. Symes has noted many examples in the course of his survey of the region, and the members of the Committee who visited Kintyre likewise recorded several instances. The determina- tion of the northern limit of Arran granite boulders is a point of con- siderable interest in relation to the extent of the deflection of the ice across the peninsula. With the view of obtaining evidence on this question the Secretary of the Committee paid a special visit to Carradale Bay and traced the boulders northwards to Grogport, on the east coast. Mr. B. N. Peach, F.R.S., has noted erratics of quartz-felsite, resembling the quartz- felsite or trachyte of Drumadoon in Arran. Reference may also be made to the fact that along the west coast between Cleongart and Tangy Glen, where a narrow belt of Upper Old Red Sandstone, resting unconformably on the crystalline schists, fringes the coast, no fragments of red sandstone derived from this patch have been observed in the boulder-clay to the east, while blocks of the local crystalline schists have been carried westwards on to the area occupied by the Upper Old Red Sandstone. VI. Report by Dr. Davin Rosertson, /.G.S., ELS, Mem. Imp. Roy. Zool. Botan. Soc., Vienna. In the preparation of the clays for taking the percentage of mud, sand, and gravel of the different deposits, the term ‘mud’ is that which passes through a sieve of ninety-six meshes to the inch ; ‘sand’ is that which passes through a sieve of twenty-four meshes to the inch ; ‘ gravel’ is that which is retained in the same sieve of twenty-four meshes to the inch ; and ‘floats’ is that which is gathered on the surface of the water when the dry clay is put in and stirred up. T have all the materials parcelled separately, except the muds, which passed away in the washing. I have samples of the sand in small bottles, so that each sample can be compared with the others. The stones and gravels are parcelled up for the same purpose. The gravels are mostly water-worn ; some are angular, the proportions differing more or less in different samples. No striations were noticed on the stones, large or small, with the exception of one stone sent me by Mr. Gray, 2 lb. weight, which is well striated on the line of the longest axis on the under side, and obliquely on the upper. It seems possible, however, that this stone may have got into the shelly clay from the adjoining boulder-clay above. On our visit to the Cleongart deposit, no whole shells with their valves together could be seen, except one or two of the very smallest. This may be very well accounted for. Our friend, Mr. Gray, the discoverer of this shelly deposit some years ago, had made several visits to the place, and had gathered nearly all the shells worth taking that weathering had exposed, probably for a long time past. These are now to be seen in the Campbelton Museum. Although fragments of shells are still found thickly strewn over the bank, they are but sparsely met with in the dark blue clay underneath. This also may be explained by the action of weathering. 390 REPORT—1896. The most remarkable feature of this deposit is the condition of the shells of Cyprina islandica, Turritella terebra, and Pusus contrarius. In the case of C. islandica, which is plentiful in the deposit, it is remarkable that they are all excessively fractured, not through the thinnest portions only, but across the thickest parts of the shell. This is all the more sur- prising, as there is no visible striation, aqueous action, or abrasion on the fragments of the shells that would account for such destruction. The late Dr. Jeffreys stated :' ‘In a post-glacial or raised beach at Golspie, Sutherlandshire, close to high-water mark, I noticed that valves were heaped up in extraordinary confusion, generally in fragments. . . . I was told by Mr. Bean, that on pouring boiling water on the living shells (C.. islandica) a succession of reports ensued as if a volley had been fired. . . . The action of severe frost at the period when the climate and other conditions resembled those of polar regions, might have had the same effect on the shells.’ It seems probable that if great heat does splinter the shells, intense frost may do the same. On the other hand, it may be stated that while dredging in the yacht ‘ Medusa,’ in seventy to eighty fathoms, between Brodick and Little Cumbrae, fragments were frequently brought up of C. islandica with the fractured edge quite sharp, and showing no rubbing or marks of striation. Whatever the cause may be, it does not seem to be of frequent occurrence in other post-tertiary deposits. In all the Clyde beds that I have examined, the species is generally moderately common, and a broken valve is quite exceptional. Turritella terebra is another shell that has suffered a great amount of breakage. It is the prevailing shell of the deposit, occurring in great abundance, yet I did not see one perfect specimen. They do not seem to have undergone the same kind of treatment in the breakage as C. islandica, having been chiefly, or all, broken transversely at the groove between the whorls, the whorls themselves having nearly all escaped injury. Seeing the great destruction of C. islandica in the same deposit, it is difficult to conceive how the prominent whorls of 7’. terebra were not crushed in the same way. Fusus contrarius is remarkable, being sinistral, which is very rare in our present seas. They are common in the English Crag, but this is the only occurrence I know of having been recorded in British Post- Tertiaries. Taney Gien: Shelly Clay Deposit.—Dark blue shelly clay, which con- sisted of—mud, 74 per cent. ; sand, 12 per cent. ; gravel, 14 per cent. Mostly water-worn and angular. List of Organisms from Shelly Clay, Tangy Glen, Kintyre. I. Mouvusca. Lamellibranchiata : Corbula gibba, Olivi. One valve. Leda pernula, Mill. Rare, mostly fragments, a few of which were more or less water-worn. Leda pygmea, Miinst. 1 Jeffreys’ British Conchology, vol. ii. p. 305, ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 391 Leda var. Gouldii. Common, and in good condition, mostly covered with epidermis. Montacuta elevata, Stimp. One, very young, with the valves to- gether. Pecten greenlandicus, Zow. One fragment. Venus ovata, Penn. Rare in the glacial clays of Scotland. Gasteropoda.—Fusus antiquus, Linn. One very young shell. Cephalopoda.—Sepia sp.? Fragments of ‘ pen.’ II. ANNULOSA. Ostracoda. Cythere pellucida, Baird. | Cytheridea undata, G. O. Sars. » castanea, G. O. Sars. Ff dlathrata, G. O. Sars. » lutea, Miller. Cytheropteron latissimum, Vorman. » limicola, Vorman. | 3 arcuatum, B.C.dé.R. » globulifera, Brady. | a Montrosiense, » concinna, Jones. B.C. & R. dunelmensis, Norman. Bythocythere constricta, G. O. Sars. Cytheridea papillosa, Bosquet. Sclerochilus contortus, Vorman. “ Sorbyana, Jones. Paradoxostoma variabile, Baird. “f nigrescens, Baird. IIL. EcuinopErMATA. Echinus fragments of spines, a few. Amphidotus ? fragments of spines, a few. IV. Prorozoa. Loraminifera. Cornuspira foliacea, Phill. Biloculina simplex, D’Orb. Lagena squamosa, Mont. Vaginulina legumen, Linn. | a ringens, Lamk. Polymorphina lactea, W. & J. f elongata, D’Orb. f compressa, D’Orb. Miliolina seminulum, Linn. lanceolata, Rewss. » subrotunda, Mont. | Globigerina bulloides, DOrb. » circularis, Bornemanin. Patellina corrugata, Will. » Cuvieriana, D’Orb. Discorbina rosacea, D’Ord. » tenuis, Cyjzck. | Hf globularis, D’Orb. oblonga, Mont. | Truncatulina lobatula, W. & J. Cassidulina levigata, D’Orb. Rotalia Beccarii, Linn. * crassa, D’Orb. Nonionina asterizans, 7’. & M. Lagena costata, Will. | 9 orbicularis, Brady. » gracillima, Seq. | 5 scapha, Ff. & M. », suleata, W. & J. | Z depressula, W. & J. » levis, Mont. Polystomella striato-punctata, » veffreysii, Brady. F. : » globosa, Mont. - crispa, Linn. » lmarginata, W. & J. 392 REPORT—1896. Drumore Guen : Shelly Clay Deposit.—The clay in the dry state con- sisted of—mud, 81 per cent. ; sand, 10 per cent. ; gravel, 9 per cent. The gravel water-worn. No striations observed. List of Organisms from Shelly Clay, Drumore Glen, Kintyre. I. Moxuvusca. These are very rare, mostly all broken, none of the fragments larger than half an inch; and, so far as they could be identified, belonged to Astarte sulcata, together with two perfect valves of Leda minuta. II. Mo.iuscorpa. Tubulipora hispida ? | Cerisia sp. ? IIT. ANNULOSA. Ostracoda. Cythere pellucida, Baird. Cythere dunelmensis, Vorman. » globulifera, Brady. |. Cytheridea papillosa, Bosquwet. 5 concinna, Jones. _ Sclerochelus contortus, Vorman. » Villosa, G. O. Sars. ITV. EcuINOoDERMATA. Amphidotus cordatus? Spines were in great abundance, but no part of the test was seen. This may be accounted for by the spines, after death, readily falling off, as they do, and the light test being easily carried by the currents to some distance. V. PROTOZOA. Foraminifera. Biloculina ringens, Lanvk.. Jaculella acuta (%), Brady (frag- 5 elongata, D’Orb. ment). - simplex, D’Orb. Webbina hemispherica, D’Orb. Miliolina seminulum, Linn. Polymorphina lanceolata, Reuss. 5 oblonga, Mont. Uvigerina pygmea, D’Orb, 3 Cuvieriana, Rotalia Beccarii, Linn. 3 trigonula, Lamk. Nonionina orbicularis, Brady. + Ferussacii, D’Orb. <3 depressula, W. & J. 3 subrotunda, D’Orb. re Boneana, D’Orb. 33 tenuis, Cyjzck. % stelligera, D’Orb. Psammospheera fusca (?), Schulze. Polystomella striato-punctata, F. & M. CLeoncart GiLen: Shelly Clay Deposit.—(a) Clay taken from the brown weathered surface of the bank consisted of—-mud, 83 per cent. ; sand 6 per cent. ; gravel, 11 per cent. Stones mostly water-worn; no striation was noticed. It may be stated, however, that few of the stones were of a kind to admit striation being readily seen. (0) A sample of dark blue shelly clay taken from the same deposit underlying the brown weathered clay consisted of—mud, 95 per cent. ; sand, 2 per cent. ; gravel, 3 per cent. ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 393 Stones mostly water-worn, some angular ; no striations observed. This shows a much higher percentage of mud, and a smaller percentage of gravel and sand than the above, which may be accounted for by much of the fine mud and sand being washed away from the overlying weathered surface clay, and a portion of the stones slipping down from the higher boulder-clay and mixing with the surface shelly clay. Shallow Bores sunk in 1895 to test the extension of the Shelly Clay Eastwards. (c) Shallow Bore, No. 1.—8 feet from surface ; 22 yards east of main - section ; the clay consisted of—mud, 59 per cent. ; sand, 12 per cent. ; gravel, 29 per cent. Stones mostly water-worn, no striations observed, 2 organisms, might be Deflugi. No other animal remains. (d) Shallow Bore, No. 2.—10 feet 9 inches from the surface ; 44 yards east of main section ; the clay consisted of—mud, 54,per cent. ; sand, 18 per cent. ; gravel, 28 per cent. Stones angular and water-worn in about equal proportions ; no animal remains or striation observed. (e) Shallow Bore, No. 3.—9 feet 5 inches from surface ; 66 yards east of main section ; the clay consisted of—mud, 76 per cent. ; sand, 6 per cent. ; gravel, 18 per cent. Stones mostly angular and water-worn ; no striation or animal re- mains observed ; one Deflugi sp.? The ‘floats’ were full of vegetable fragments that had much of the appearance of being waterlogged. (f) From the extreme eastern exposure of shelly clay 88 yards east of main section ; 12 feet 10 inches above level of stream ; 3 lbs. of clay consisted of—fine mud, 96 per cent. ; coarse sand, 3 per cent. ; gravel, 1 per cent. Stones mostly angular, the others water-worn, no striation detected, a few small fragments of shells. Ostracoda and Foraminifera were present in small numbers. (9) Gravel at bottom of Shelly Clay.—From bottom of trench cut into main section 11 feet from surface and 2 inches below level of stream, 14 feet back from stream. This bed of coarse sand and gravel was 3 feet 10 inches thick, very hard ; esaee not reached. The clay consisted of— mud, 28 per cent. ; ; gravel, 7 72 per cent. Inst of Organisms from Shelly Ciay at Cleongart, Kintyre. (* Signifies Mr. Gray’s collection ; + Dr. Robertson’s collection.) Name Remarks Distribution Fossil I. MoLuusca. Lamellibranchiata : } *+ Anomia ephip- | | One small valve, and | British and European seas; | Clyde beds; coralline pium, Linn. a large fragment. low water to 80 fathoms. crag ; Norway, . Sweden. ba 0 a A few valves. Not in British seas; Arctic. | Clyde beds, common ; em. Norway. *{ Astarte com- | Many valves, mostly | | British seas, North Atlantic; | Clyde beds, Clava, r pressa, Mont. perfect. low water ‘to 50 fathoms. Norway; red crag. + Astarte sulcata, rae Mead mostly | British seas, Iceland, Mediter- | Clyde beds, Clava, Da Costa. perfect. ranean; low water to 85 Norway ; red crag. | fathoms. 394 REPORT— 1896. LIsT OF ORGANISMS FROM SHELLY CLAY AT CLEON bi a a Name | } Remarks | Distri i aan Fossil | Lamellibranchiata : Cardium edule, Linn, * Cardium _ exi- guum, Gm. * Cardium fascia- tum, Mont. *+ Cardium tuber- culatum, Linn. *+ Cyprina islan- dica, Linn. ** Dentalium en- talis, Linn. + Dentalium Tar- entium, Zam. *+ Leda — pernula, var. muci- lenta, Steenst. =; Leda pygmea, Miinst. + Montacuta _ bi- dentata, Mont. + Mya _ truncata, Linn, *+ Mytilus edulis, Linn. *f Ostrea edulis, Linn. *}+ Pecten islandi- cus, Mill. 7 Pecten maxi- mus, Zinn. } Pecten opercu- laris, Linn. 7 Saxicava = ru- gosa, Linn. *+ Tellina calearea, Chem. *7 Venus Penn. ovata, Gasteropoda: *+ Buccinum un- datum, Linn. + Chiton sp. ? *+ Fusus con- trarius, Linn. + Hydrobia ulvee, Penn. *+ Littorina littorea, Linn. *f Littorina rudis, Manton. * Natica affinis, Gm. *> Natica grcen- landica, Beck. } Odostomia sp. ? } Pleurotoma tur- ricula, Mont. * Purpura lapillus, Linn. *+ Trochus tumi- dus, Mont, Fragment of a young shell, One valve. One valye, Several fragments, and one perlect valve. Many valves, broken in all directions, Many, mostly imper- fect. One fragment. Many valves, both broken and perfect. A few valves, and some attached. One valve. One hinge fragment. One small fragment. Several perfect and a few fragments. Two small fragments. One small fragment. One small fragment. Two small valves, Moderate’y common, broken and perfect. A few valves, perfect and broken, Several, large and small, more or less imperfect. One plate weathered, One perfect specimen. much One perfect specimen. Two perfect and two fragments. Two perfect and one fragment. One specimen, Two specimens, One specimen, imper- fect. One specimen. One perfect specimen. Two imperfect speci- mens, On all European shores, sandy bays; low water to a few fathoms. British and Northern seas ; 3 to 15 fathoms. British seas, Norway, Canary Isles ; 5 to 90 fathoms. Finisterre, Canary Isles; low water to 12 fathoms. British seas, Norway, Faroe | water to 100 | Isles; low fathoms. British seas, Mediterranean, Adriatic. British seas, Adriatic ; fathoms. Arctic seas. Mediterranean, low water to 25 British northern seas. Norway, Naples ; 20 to 80 fathoms. Norway to Sicily; 10 to 70 fathoms. Greenland,Spitzbergen, British seas, Bay of Biscay, Black Sea Littoral. Greenland, Norway, British seas, Mediterranean; high water to afew fathoms. British seas, North Sea, Medi- terranean, Adriatic; low water to 45 fathoms. Arctic seas. British seas, Norway to Canaries ; 7 to 78 fathoms. British seas, Iceland, Alzeria ; 6 to 90 fathoms. British seas, Iceland. Canaries, Mediterranean ; low water to 145 fathoms. Now extinct in our seas, British seas ; low water to 145 fathoms. British seas, Iceland, Mediter- ranean ; low water to great depths. British seas, Finmark, Medi- terranean ; tidal rivers and oozy sands. British seas,Greenland, Lisbon ; high to low water, common. British seas, Greenland, Black Sea; between tide-marks, locally common. Arctic and northern, no longer British. British east coast, Norway, Greenland; 40 to 60 fathoms. British seas, France, Canary Isles ; 8 to 30 fathoms. British seas, North Atlantic, Arctic, Littoral; to a few fathoms. Iceland to Aigean Sea, Clyde beds, Norway. Clava ; Clyde beds; Belfast, Sussex deposits. Clyde beds ; coralline crag. As far as known, Cleongart only. Clyde beds, Clava; most glacial de- posits. Clyde beds. rare; Norway ; red crag, As far as known, Cleongart only. Clyde beds, Norway. Clava, Clyde beds, Clava; coralline crag. Clyde beds ; red crag ; coralline crag. Clyde beds, Norway. Clyde beds, Clava; coralline crag. Clyde beds, Norway ; coraliine crag. Clyde beds, Uddevalla raised beach. Clyde beds, Norway. Clyde beds (rare), coralline crag. Clyde beds, Norway ; coralline crag. Clyde beds (common), Clava (rare), Nor- way (common). Clyde beds (common), Clava (rare), Nor- way (common). Clyde _ beds, Norway. Clava, Clyde beds, Norway, Norwich crag. Clyde beds, Clava, Norway. England, Seotland, Treland. Clyde beds. Clyde beds, Clava, England, Ireland, Norway. Clyde beds (rare), red crag; Norway. Clyde beds (common), red crag ; Norway. OT ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 395 LIST OF ORGANISMS FROM SHELLY CLAY AT CLEONGART—continued. Name Remarks Distribution Fossil Gasteropoda: *+ Trophon trun- eatus, Strom. *}; Turritella tere- | bra, Linn. Polyzoa: ‘ Crisia denticu- lata ? Insecta: (Beetle) Crustacea: Cirripedia : Balanus crena- tus. Balanus porca- tus. Balanus balan- oides Decapoda: (Crab) Ostracoda: Cythere Miiller. Cythere pellu- eida, Baird. Cythere confusa, Brady. Cythere porcel- lanea, Brady. Cythere globuli- fera, Brady. Cythere tuber- culata, G. 0. lutea, Sars Cythere con- cinna, Rupert Jones. Cythere leioder- ma, Norman. Cythere ema- ciata, Brady. Cythere quadri- denta, Baird. Cythere dunel- mensis, Vor- man. Cythere Jonesii, Baird. Cythere Robert- soni, Brady. Cythere — anti- quata, Baird. Cythere _ papil- losa, Bosquet. Cytheridea pune- tillata, Brady. Cytheridea Sor- byana, Jones. Eucythere decli- vis, Norman. Loxoconcha im- 1 pressa, Baird, Four perfect speci- mens. Very abundant, scarcely one per- fect. | British seas, Norway, Green- land ; 50 fathoms. British seas, Norway, Mediter- ranean ; 3 to 100 fathoms. (The references are from Jeffreys’ ‘ British Conchology.’) | II. M One fragment. III. Wing. | Many valves. Two valves. Two valves, Fragments of plate of | leg and claw, A single valve. Two valves. A few valves, One valve. Valves frequent. Frequent, a few with | valves together. The prevailing Os- tracod in the de- | posit. One valve. One valve. Two valves. Common, one with valves together. Two imperfect valves. One valve, and one with valves gether. One valve. to- | A few valves. A few valves of dif- ferent ages. Two well-marked valves. One valve, Two valves. OLLUSCOIDA. ANNULOSA. British coast, Norway, Medi- terranean. British coast, Norway, Bay of Biscay. British coast, Norway, Bay of Biscay, Mediterranean. British coast, Norway, Bay of Biscay. | Rare, Norway, Spitzbergen. Britain, Greenland, Norway, West Indies. Norway, Spitzbergen, Davis Straits. | Norway, Shetland, St. Law- rence, Britain, Norway, Spitzbergen, Naples. Britain, Norway, Bay of Biscay. Britain. Britain, Norway, Spitzbergen, Bay of Biscay. Oban, Shetland, England, Ire- land, South-west England, Scotland, West of Ireland. | Norway, Davis Straits, St. Lawrence. Britain, Norway, Iceland, Messina, Northern seas, rare, British seas, Norway, Bay of Biscay, Naples. British seas, Norway, Bay of Biscay, Naples, Clyde beds, coralline crag. Clyde beds, Moel Tryfaen, Norway. Scotland, Treland, Norway, Iceland. _beds, Clava Cly de beds, Clava, Ireland, Norway. Clyde beds. Clyde beds, Elie, Errol,, England. England, Scotland, Treland. England, Scotland, Ireland, Norway. England (Bridling- ton), Sicily. Clyde beds, Ireland, Sicily. Clyde aise Clava, England, Scotland, Ireland. England, Scotland, Trelan Scotland (Loch gilp), ‘Norway. Clyde beds, England, Ireland. Scotland, England, Norway, Canada. Britain, Sicily. Scotland, Norway, Canada. Britain, Norway, Canada, Scotland, Ireland, Norway. 396 REPORT—1896. LIsT OF ORGANISMS FROM SHELLY CLAY AT CLEONGART—continued. Name Remarks Distribution Fossil Crustacea: Ostracoda: | Cytheruragibba, One valve. Scotland, Norway, Holland. Scotland (Lochgilp), Miller. | Norway. Cytherura un- | One valve. | British coasts, Norway, Spitz- | Scotland, Treland, data, G O. bergen, St. Lawrence. Norway, Canada. Sars. | Cytherura cla- | One valve. | British coasts, Norway, Davis | Britain, Norway. thrata, G. 0. | Straits. Sars. | Cytheruracellu- | One valve. British coasts, Norway, Biscay, | England, Wales, Scot- losa, Vorman. Naples. land. Cytheropteron | A few valves. British coasts, Norway, Baffin’s | England, Scotland, latissimum, Bay. Norway, Canada, Norman. Cytheropteron Three valves. British coasts, Norway, Biscay, | Britain, Norway, nodosum, St. Lawrence. Canada. Brady. Eyton One imperfect valve, | British coasts, Norway, Biscay, | Scotland, Antwerp, constricta, G. St. Lawrence. Crag. O. Sars. Bythocythere One valve, Scotland, England, Norway, | Scotland (Cleongart). turgida, G. 0. St. Lawrence. Sars. (References are to Brady and Norman's Monograph, ‘Trans. Royal Society Dublin,’ vol. iv.) IV. Prorozoa. Norr.—C. means common; M.C., moderately common; R., rare; M.R., mode- rately rare; R.R., very rare. Foraminifera. Biloculina ringens, Lamk. M.C. Lagena sulcata, Wid J. M.R. 45 elongata, D’Orb. M.R. » semistriata, Well. M.R. . simplex, D’Orb. M.R. » lucida, Will.” M.C: Miliolina Cuvieriana? R. » fimbriata, Brady. R. » Seminulum, Zinn. M.C. » lineata, W. all. MLR. » Oblonga, Mont. M.C. » levigata, Reuss. M.R. 53 Brongniartii, D’Orb. RB. » caudata, D’Orb. M.R. » Ferussacii, D’Orb. R.R. » marginata, WV.d B. M.C. » tenuis, Cyjzck. M.R. » favoso-punctata, Brady. R. » secans, D’Orb. R. » globosa, Wont. M.R. » subrotunda, Mont. M.R. » hexagona, Will. M.C. - circularis, Bornemann. R. » squamosa, Mont. R. » venusta, Karrer. R. » Mmelovar. R. Bulimina marginata, D’Orb. M.C. » melo, D’Orb. M.R. » pupoides, D’Orb. M.C. » apiculata, Rewss. » elegans, D’Orb. M.R. » ovum, Lhrenberg. Bolivina punctata, D’Orb. M.C. Williamsoni, Alcock. » dilatata, Reuss. R. Nodosaria levigata, 'D Orb. R. Cassidulina crassa, D’Orb. M.C. 55 rotundata, Reuss. R. ss levigata, D’Orb. 43 pyrula, D’Orb. R. Lagena levis, Mont. M.R. ” pauperata, D’Orb. » gracillima, Seg. M.C. i consobrina, D’Orb. » Striata, D’Orb. M.C. .) simplex, Silvestri. », distoma, Parker d Jones. R. communis, D’Orb, R. » Feildeniana, Brady. R. Vaginulina legumen, Linn. » costata, Will. M.C Marginulina glabra, D’Orb. R. », interrupta. R. Cristellaria latifrons, Brady. R. ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 397 Cristellaria rotulata, Zam. Rotalia orbicularis, D’Orb. M.R. o cultrata, D’Orb. R. » papillosa, Brady. _ gibba, D’Orb. M.R. | Nonionina orbicularis, brady. M.C. as arcuata, D’Orb. R. x umbilicatula, Mont. R. crepidula, Fech. 4 depressula, VW. dé J. M.C, Polymorphina compressa, D’Orb. 5 Boneana, D’Orb. M.C. ‘ lanceolata, Rewss. 4 stelligera, D’Ord. R. M.R. jects macella, Pd M. C. +. sororia, Reuss. A striato-punctata, 2 oblonga, D’Orb. M.C. EE Ee @ ovata, D’Orb. is arctica, P.& J. R. Urigerina pygmea, D’Orb. ‘Discorbina polystomelloides, P. & J. Globigerina bolloides, D’Orb. R. a globularis, D’O7b. RB. Patellina corrugata, Will. Rhabdamina cornuta (7), Brady. Truncatulina lobatula, W.dé7. M.R. | Planospirina exigua, Brady. R. Pulvinulina Karsteni, Reuss. C. Psammospheera fusca, Schulze. R. V. EcHINODERMATA. Ray and disc plates of starfish. Spines of Spatangus. » Kchinus. Remarks. In some of the parcels from these various depths the gravel was mostly angular ; in others, more or less water-worn. Poe BH 11. Close to BH 7 of 1895. Surface 98 feet above O.D. Feet. Made ground : Ag! C Black carbonaceous loam with leaves, moss, and small twigs re is D Clayey lignite with small roots (?) throughout. Seed of Yew in upper part . . 23 E Hard green clay, with small ‘freshwater shells, becoming softer and more carbonaceous below . : : - . : a ily E Carbonaceous clay and seams of sand . . : » Ab bas Sand, full of water (glacial? or base of E Bn - : : = | BH 12. In Clay-pit in Oakley Park, opposite middle of western face. Surface 104 feet above O.D. (original surface about 113 feet). Feet. Made ground . : = ; 30ND) A? Bluish loamy and carbonaceous brickearth 1 Black peaty lignite 1 Hard green clay with freshwater shells ; 5 Valvata i in the upper E part é : = : : é Sar! Hard clay, greenish and black . ; ee: Chalky clay with a little lignite and freshwater shells. ey gl & Chalky Boulder Clay with small roots in the top foot 7 ™ = | Lead-coloured marl, no stones . 2 55 | Chalky Boulder Clay, as eS put hard stones more abundant FQ (not pierced) . é : . 3 . - ; BLAS 414, REPORT—1896. BH 13. In the middle of Oakley Park. Surface about 110 feet above O.D. Feet. Sandy soil . i Sand . : ‘ : ‘ Sandy loam : “ : : : 5 ane A4Sand and brickearth alternating 5 Darker carbonaceous loam. Valvata piscinalis, Unio, Cyprids at 13 ft.; Pisidiwm pusillum and small twigs at 14 ft. . s 5 Chalky clay with twigs . F : ; : 3 7 OF Hard Chalky Boulder Clay A : : ; 3 : . 1 i No trace of Beds B, C, D, or E was met with. a BH 14. In Oakley Park. Surface 118 feet above O.D. Feet. Loamy sand with a few scattered stones . : 7 A es carbonaceous clayey loam, with occasional twigs and freshwater shells . 7 Lead-coloured Chalky Boulder Clay . 42 19 BH 15. In Oakley Park. Surface 101 feet above O.D. Feet Sand andafew stones. : : : : : ; 5 ES Loamy sand and loam ; ‘ ‘ : : : 5 al A | Bluish loam and freshwater shells. : : : : . i Clay with Chalk pebbles 2 be \atrcsnwater shell-marl 4 rg @ ( Chalky Boulder Clay 3 30 } Gravelly loam and water . 3 | Chalky Boulder Clay + 10 BH 16. In Oakley Park. Surface 97 feet above O.D. Feet. Sandy soil. . aes Sand and a few stones : iy i Loamy sand and scattered stones m2 Whitish sandy loam . eS Grey loam. a: Chalky Boulder Clay, very tough and hard . 2s 13 BH 17. In Oakley Park. Surface 101 feet above O.D. Feet. Gravelly sand 82 Gravelly loamy.sand (boring stopped by alar ge ‘stone before Boulder Clay was reached) : , 5 3 ° : : : pe BH 18. In Oakley Park, near the river Dove, and 8 feet above the Alluvium level. Surface 86 feet above O.D. Feet. * Gravelly sand and a few stones Cee a all rainwash from the | slope above) . 5 s Chalky Boulder Clay (not ‘pierced) . —_- ON THE RELATION OF PALAOLITHIC MAN TO THE GLACIAL EPOCH. 415 BH 19. In Brickyard. Surface 104 feet above O,D. and 8 feet below old surface. Made ground . : - ; : ; F E : A Light blue brickearth (base of A?) . - : ‘ : es C Black loam : : : ‘ : - : - : . f Hard green clay : : : : : : E +} Green and black clay, quartz grains in lower part | Carbonaceous clay and Chalk pebbles : F : 2 Chalky Boulder Clay, penetrated by small roots . ‘ spall BH 20 and section in bank, in the Brickyard near the pug-mill. Surface 111 feet above O.D. Feet. Gravelly sand 1 : e (6 A J Sand and sandy loamy “°°” 7? BBE: bala Grey loam . : 6 C Carbonaceous loam and ‘plant remains, very black below (perhaps base of A) : ; : : : ; ; > rk { Hard green clay : 3 : : : ; : : 5 : . : : : 1 ie ‘ | Green and black clay Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.—Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Mr. J. E. Marr (Chairman), Mr. EH. J. Garwoop (Secretary), and Mr. A. H. Foorp, appointed to study the Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks. (Drawn up by Mr. GARwoob.) Iy a paper read before the British Association at Ipswich, in 1895, two of us called attention to the work of Dr. Waagen on the Upper Palzozoic rocks of the Salt Range, and gave reasons for supposing that the Car- boniferous rocks of Britain might be divided into zones.! In that paper it was suggested ‘that a Committee be appointed to inquire into the possibility of dividing the Carboniferous rocks into zones, to call the _ attention of local observers to the desirability of collecting fossils with this view, and, if possible, to retain the services of eminent specialists to whom these fossils may be submitted.’ This Committee was appointed, and the members thereof beg leave to submit their report. The Committee believe that the following districts would furnish good results, and recommend that those whose names are appended to the various districts be asked to take charge of their particular districts and to endeavour to carry out therein the objects of the Committee :— England and Wales: Northumberland and the Border, Professor G. A. Lebour ; Northern part of Pennine chain and adjoining regions, Messrs. Garwood and Marr ; Southern part of ditto and adjoining regions, Mr. P. F. Kendall and Dr. Wheelton Hind; North Wales, Mr. G. H. 1 See Rept. Brit. Assoc. 18965, p. 696. 416 REPORT—1896. Morton ; South Wales, Mr. A. Strahan ; Devon, &c., Mr. Howard Fox and Dr. G. J. Hinde. Isle of Man: Mr. G. W. Lamplugh. Scotland : Mr. B. N. Peach. Treland : Mr. A. H. Foord. The Committee recommend that the following directions for working be communicated to the various workers :— 1. When possible, a typical measured section should be given of each locality examined, with notes of as many confirmatory sections as possible. 2. Any specimen not actually found am sitw to be labelled to that effect, with the exact conditions under which it was found noted. 3. All specimens should be labelled with the local name of the bed, giving as many additional details as possible, and in all cases the exact locality, which should further be noted on a large-scale map. 4, All specimens should be labelled when found. 5. So far as possible, workers are recommended to collect from one bed at a time, and to pack the specimens from each bed in a separate parcel before commencing to collect from another bed. 6. Attention should be paid to apparently identical forms separated by many feet or yards of deposit, as the forms may be mutations ; large suites of such specimens should be collected ; indeed— 7. As large a number of specimens as possible should be obtained of each species in every bed examined. 8. Absence of fossils in any bed should be noted whenever possible. 9, Attempts should be made to record the relative abundance of fossils, which may be roughly done by recording those which are very rare (v. r.), rare (7.), common (c.), and very common (v. c.). 10. In case of beds being obviously rich in micro-organisms, large pieces should be collected for future examination. 11. Considering the importance which cherts have assumed, it is very desirable to collect specimens of cherts. Specimens may be kept by the discoverers or forwarded to the Secretary of the Committee (E. J. Garwood, Dryden Chambers, 119 Oxford Street, London, W.) on loan or for retention. The Committee recommend that the names of those whom they have mentioned as likely to undertake the charge of districts be added to the Committee, and that the following paleontologists be asked to co-operate with the other members, and to identify such fossils as may be submitted to them, their names being also added (when not previously mentioned) to those of the Committee :—Dr. G. J. Hinde (radiolaria and sponges), Pro- fessor H. A. Nicholson (corals), Mr. J. W. Kirkby (entomostraca), Dr. H. Woodward (other crustacea), Mr. F. A. Bather (echinoderms and brachio- pods), Dr. Wheelton Hind and Mr. E. J. Garwood (lamellibranchs and gastropods), Messrs. G. C. Crick and A. H. Foord (cephalopods), Dr. R. H. Traquair (fish), and Mr. R. Kidston (plants). The Committee recommend that a grant of 15/. be applied for in order to pay for the services of collectors, who are to be under the direc- tion of the Secretary of the Committee. ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 417 The Marine Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Irish Sea.—-Fourth and Final Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. C. Happon, Professor G. B. Howes, Mr. W. HE. Hoyie, Mr. CLE- MENT ReEipD, Mr. G. W. Lampiuaa, Mr. I. C. Taompson, Dr. H. O. Forses, Mr. A. O. WALKER, Professor IF’. E. WErss, and Professor W. A. HerpMan (Chairman and Reporter). Tus Committee have now been at work for four years. It is difficult, how- ever, to dissociate this work from the previous and the contemporaneous work carried on by the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee. Conse- quently it will probably best serve the interests of science if this final report be made to include references to all the work that has been done of recent years on the marine fauna and flora of the Irish Sea. HISTORICAL. A good deal of exploring work in the Irish Sea has been done in the past by Edward Forbes, McAndrew, Price, Byerley, Marrat, Moore, Hig- gins, Collingwood, and others ; but the more modern investigations date from the formation of the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee in March 1885. After a year’s work on the investigation of the fauna and flora of Liverpool Bay and the neighbouring seas, the Committee published in January 1886 the first volume of ‘ Reports upon the Fauna of Liverpool Bay.’ In this first volume they recorded all previous speciographic work done in the district, and also the results of their own dredging and other collecting expeditions, amounting in all to 913 species, of which 235 had not been found before in the district (see fig. 1, p. 450). During the second year’s work the Committee felt the need of a bio- logical station near to one of their richer collecting grounds, and so the Puffin Island Station was fitted up and opened in May 1887. At the end of that year the first annual report was issued under the title of ‘The Foundation and First Season’s Work of the Liverpool Marine Biological Station, Puffin Island.’ From this time onwards an annual report on the work of the L.M.B.C. has been published at the end of each year, the ninth appearing in December 1895. The larger publications, the volumes of the ‘Fauna,’ have appeared at intervals of three years—the first in 1886, the second in 1889, the third in 1892, and the fourth in 1895. The records in the second volume brought the number of known species in the fauna up to 1,456, the third raised it to 1,685, and the fourth to 2,025. The total number to date is 2,133. Volume i. gives the record of the investigations prior to the foundation of the biological station. Volumes ii, and iii. record the observations made at Puffin Island ; while volume iv. opens the account of the Port Erin Station. In 1892 the Committee relinquished Puffin Island and built the new Biological Station at a very much more convenient and richer locality, Port Erin, at the south-west end of the Isle of Man. This establishment was formally opened on June 4, 1892, by his Excellency Dr. Spencer Walpole, Lieut.-Governor of the island. In the following year a second building—the Aquarium—was added, and since then the institution has 1896. EE 418 REPORT—1896. been constantly in use, and has proved increasingly useful each season, both to members of the Committee and to other naturalists. Since the opening of the Port Erin Station, in 1892, fifty-six biologists have paid over 200 longer or shorter visits for the purpose of working at the marine fauna and flora. The British Association Committee for the investigation of the Marine Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Irish Sea were appointed in 1892, and three previous reports have been submitted. The first, laid before the Nottingham meeting in 1893, gave an account of the limits and more prominent physical conditions of the area under investigation, with a brief interim notice of the dredging expeditions undertaken during the year. The second report, at the Oxford meeting in 1894, gave a fuller description of the methods of work on one of the dredging expeditions, and also in- cluded an account of the distribution of the submarine deposits of the area, and a notice of the chief results of the year’s work, including some new species. The third report, given last year at Ipswich, dealt chiefly with the submarine deposits, the investigation of the surface currents, and with the distribution of animals as shown from dredging statistics. The pre- vious reports have all been provisional only, and in none of them have more than a few of the more prominent of the animals obtained been mentioned. In this final report, consequently, we give for the first time a complete list of all the species we have been able to record from our area of the Irish Sea ; and to render this list more useful we append to each name a brief reference to the volume and page of the report or paper in which the species was recorded. First, however, we give a brief account of the work of the past year, so as to complete the record of our collecting expeditions. THE YEAR'S WORK. Since September 1895 the Committee have organised eight dredging expeditions, nearly all in steamers, as follows :— I. October 27, 1895.—Hired steamer ‘Rose Ann.’ Localities dredged and trawled :—off Port Erin and along S.E. side of Isle of Man, from the Calf Sound to Langness, at depths of 15 to 20 fathoms. II. November 24, 1895.—Small boats. Localities dredged :—Port Erin Bay, in depths up to 7 fathoms. III. February 2, 1896.—Hired steamer ‘Rose Ann.’ Localities dredged and trawled :—through the Calf Sound, and off its eastern and western ends, at depths of 16 to 20 fathoms. IV. March 14, 1896.—Sea Fisheries steamer ‘John Fell.? Off Port Erin. V. April 5, 1896.—Hired steamer ‘Rose Ann.’ Localities trawled :— out in the deep channel, 12 miles S.W. of Calf; bottom reamy mud, with many spawning fish; depths 40 to 50 fathoms. VI. April 21-24, 1896.—Sea Fisheries steamer ‘John Fell.’ Localities trawled :—deep channel, 12 miles S.W. of Calf, and further north to opposite Port Erin ; also west of Dalby, 8 miles off ; reamy bottom; depths 20 to 40 fathoms. VII. May 29 and 30, 1896.—Sea Fisheries steamer ‘John Fell.’ Localities :—estuary of the Wyre and around Piel Island, in Barrow Channel ; shallow water. VIII. August 31, 1896.—Mr. Woodall’s 8. Y. ‘ Vallota.’ Localities ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA, At9 dredged and trawled :—between Port Erin and Calf Island ; depth 17 to 22 fathoms. Two of these expeditions—those at Easter in the ‘ Rose Ann, and at the end of April in the ‘John Fell’—were particularly successful, and resulted in the capture of a number of new and interesting species. Amongst these is a large green Gephyrean worm, which is either Thalas- sema gigas, M. Miller, or a new species of Thalassema with a remarkable pigment ; and a Cumacean, for which a new genus is necessary. Additions have been made during the year to most of the groups of invertebrate animals, and these will be found noted in the lists below i but Mr. A. O. Walker has prepared the following special account of the higher Crustacea obtained on these expeditions: — The following species of Crustacea MALacostraca have been added ' to the fauna since the last report. Nearly all were dredged off the S. end of the Isle of Man in the ‘John Fell’ expedition, from April 22 to 24, 1896. PopopHTHaLMA :—Portunus corrugatus (Pennant).—8.E. of Calf Sound, 26 fathoms. Nika edulis, Risso.—Co. Down Coast (Ascroft). From stomach of whiting, 12 m. S.W. of Chicken Rock, 33 fathoms. Scuizopopa :—Lrythrops serrata, G. O. Sars ; 12 m. S.W. of Chicken Rock, 33 fathoms. Siriella armata (M. Edw.). Port Erin harbour, April 1896. Cumacea :—Fam. Leuconide. Leuconopsis, n. gen. Female with a distinct two-jointed appendage to the fourth pair of feet, not furnished with natatory sete. Lower antenne short, with the third joint conical, with a minute one-jointed rudimentary flagellum, Rami of uropoda subequal. Male with the third pair of feet each provided on the second joint with a pair of curved blade-like processes. Remaining characters as in Leucon. Leuconopsis ensifer, n. sp. Female :—Carapace about as long as the free thoracic segments, dorsal crest of fourteen teeth beginning about the middle of the upper margin, and curving down to the base of the rostrum; a small tooth on the upper and near the posterior margin ; lower margin with the anterior half coarsely toothed, and forming with the anterior margin an acute angle, the upper portion of which is finely toothed. Rostrum about quarter the length of the carapace, obliquely truncate, almost horizontal ; lower margin with two or three teeth near the extremity and two or three near the base. Fourth pair of legs with an exopodite or imperfect natatory appendage, two-jointed, reaching nearly to the end of the first joint, which is almost as long as the remaining four. Telson triangular, as in Lewcon. Uropoda with peduncle and both rami subequal in length ; peduncle almost spineless, inner ramus with six unequal spines on the inner and two on the outer side of the first joint ; second joint with two very short and slender spines on the inside ; outer ramus obliquely truncate, with five plumose seté on the inner side and four at the end. Length 5} mm. Male :—Upper margin of carapace as long as the free segments ; lower EE2 420 REPORT—1896. margin with five or six teeth on the anterior half increasing in size an- teriorly, forming a right angle with the anterior margin which has five teeth just below the rostrum, the second from the rostrum being the largest ; rostrum horizontal, blunt, about one-sixth the length of the cara- pace, with five small teeth on the lower margin. First pair of legs with seven teeth on the lower margin of the first joint.. Second pair with a large spine at the distal end of the second, and two unequally long spines at the end of the third joint. Third pair with an appendage on the second joint, consisting of two parallel curved blades, twice as long as the succeeding three joints. Length 8} mm. The above interesting species has a general resemblance to Lewcon, from which genus, however, it may be at once distinguished by the ap- pendages on the fourth pair of legs in the female and the third pair in the male. It was taken in the tow net attached to the back of the trawl net on April 22, 12 m. S.W. of Chicken Rock, 33 fathoms. Eudorella emarginata (Kréyer).—One female. Same locality as last. Campylaspis glabra, G. O. Sars.—Three specimens, from same locality as last. A Mediterranean species, not previously recorded from British Seas. I have specimens taken by Mr. Ascroft off the Ile d’Yeu. AmpPHIPoDA :—WNormanion quadrimanus (Bate and Westwood).—One small specimen ; length 2 mm., 6 miles W.S.W. of Calf, 23 fathoms. Stenothoé crassicornis, n. sp.—Three males. Same locality as last. Mandibles without a palp. Maxillipedes with the basal lobe very small, divided to its base. Antenne stout, the flagellum of the lower but little longer than the last joint of the peduncle ; its first joint almost as long as the remaining four together. First gnathopods as in S. marina. Second gnathopods with the palm of the propodos defined near the base by a triangular tooth, the distal extremity expanded and cut into four blunt lobes, of which the proximal is much the largest ; dactylus with a prominence on the inner margin, coinciding with the palmar lobus. Perzopods short and strong, the third (meros) joint in the last three pairs much produced backwards, as in Proboliwm calearatum, G. O. Sars. Third uropods with four spines on the upper surface of the peduncle, which is twice as long as the first joint of the ramus. Telson with three pairs of dorsal spines on its proximal half, the first pair the smallest. Length 2 mm. In the form of the hand of the second gnathopods this species ap- proaches S. tenella, G. O. S., and S. Dollfusi, Chevreux ; but both these (perhaps identical) species are remarkable for the length and slenderness of their antennz and perzeopods. Halimedon parvimanus, Sp. Bate.—Five or six specimens, 12 m. S.W. of Chicken Rock, 33 fathoms. Argissa hamatipes (Norman) =Syrrhoé hamatipes, Norman, ‘ Brit. Ass. Rep.,’ 1868 (1869), p. 279. Same locality as last.—Two females, one with ova, 2 mm. long. Prof. G. O. Sars, with some hesitation, follows Boeck in placing Argissa among the Pontoporeiidz, but there can be little doubt that Canon A. M. Norman was right in classing it with the Syrrhoide. Gammarus campylops, Leach,—Brackish pond near Colwyn Bay ; also Port Erin harbour. ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 421 LIST OF THE SPECIES RECORDED FROM THE IRISH SEA AREA. The species in this list are given in zoological order, commencing with the Alge and the Protozoa, and each name is followed by a brief reference to the volume and page of the L.M.B.C. publications in which the species was recorded or described. The following contractions have been made use of :—The four published volumes of the ‘ Fauna of Liverpool Bay’ are indicated as i., il, iii, iv. The L.M.B.C. ‘Annual Reports’ are indicated as Ist to 10th A.R. The ‘Transactions’ of the Liverpool Biological Society are referred to as T.L.B.8., I., &c. Species which have been found recently, but of which the record has not yet been published, are followed by 10th A.R. to indicate the Annual Report which will appear in December 1896. The Committee are indebted to some of the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee and other naturalists, who have worked at Port Erin, and have written reports upon the marine fauna, for compiling or supervising the compilation of the following lists :— LIST OF THE DIATOMACEA. [See Report by HENRY STOLTERFOTH, M.D., &c., in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. ii.] Achnanthes brevipes, Ag. Campylodiscus bicostatus, W. Sm. A. longipes, Ag. C. eribrosus, W. Sm. A. subsessilis, Ehr. Cestodiscus johnsonianum, Greg. Actinocyclus crassus, W. Sm. Chetoceros armatum, West. A. Ralfsii, W. Sm. C. boreale, Bail. Actinoptychus splendens (Shad), Ralfs. C. paradvxum, Cleve. A. undulatus, Ehr. C. Wighamii, Brightw. Amphiprora alata, Kiitz. Cocconeis scutellum. A. paludosa, Greg. C. britannica, Neegeli. A, plicata, Greg. C. eecentrica, Dn. A. pusilla, Greg. Coscinodiscus asteromphalus, Grun. A. viirea, Greg. C. concinnus, W. Sm, Amphora affinis, Kiitz. C. eecentricus, Ebr. A. binodis, Greg. C. fimbriatus, Ehy. A. commutata, Grun. C. obscurus, Schmidt. A. complexa, Greg. U. radiatus, Eby. A. hyalina, Kiitz. Cymbella scotica, W. Sm. A. levis, Greg. Dicheia alvoides, Berk. A. litoralis, Dn. | Dimeregramma nanun, Greg. A. membranacea, W. Sm. Epithemia constricta, Greg. A. minutissima, Gray BL. gibba, Kitz. A. salina, W. Sm. ; E. turgida, W. Sm. A. spectabilis, Greg. Eucampia zodiacus, Ebr. A. ventricosa, Greg. EE. striata, Stolt. Asterionella Bleakleyii, W. Sra. Eupodiscus argus, Ehr. A. Ralfsii, W. Sm. Gomphonema marinum, W. Sm. Atheya decora, West. Grammalophora marina, Kiitz. Bactereastrum varians, Lauder. G. serpentaria, Kiitz. Berkileya obtusa, Grev. Hantzschia virgata, Grun. Biddulphia aurita, Breb. Hyalodiseus stelliger, Bail. B. Baileyiit, W. Sm. Hi, scoticus, Grun. B. obtusa, Kiitz. Lauderia delicatula, Peragello. B. granulata, Roper. Liemophora gracilis, Grun. B. radiatus, Greg. L. anglica, Grun. B. rhombus, W. Sm. L. dalmatica, Kiitz. B. suborbicularis, Gran. Mastogloia lanceolata, Th. B. turgida, W. Sm. M. Smithii, Th. 422 Melosivra borreri, Grev. M. nummutoides, Bory. M. sulcata, Ehr. M. Westii, W. Sm. Navicula abrupta, Greg. LV. estiva, Dn. LV. affinis, Ehr. NV. aspera, Ehr. NV. Boechii, Herberg. NV. bombus, Ehr. NV, carassius, Bhr. NV. clepsydra, Eby. NV. crabro, Ehr. NV. cyprinus, Ehr. NV. didyma, Ebr. NV. distans, W. Sm. NV. fortis, Greg. N. fusca, Greg. NV. fusiformis, Grun. NV. granulata, Breb. LV. interrupta, Kitz. LV. Johnsonii, Greg. NV. litoralis, Dn. LV. lyra, Ebr. LV. marina, Greg. NV. northumbrica, Dn. NV. numerosa, Dn. NV. palpebralis, Breb. NV. peregrina, Dn. LV. pusilla, W. Sm. NV. pygmed, Kiitz. LV. rectangulata, Greg. NV. rostrata, Ehr. LV. semiplena, Greg. NV. suborbicularis, Greg. LV. subsalina, Dn. NV. venata, Kiitz. NV. Westii, Greg. Nitzschia bilobata, W. Sm. LV. birostrata, W. Sm. NV. closterium, W. Sm. NV. distans, Greg. NV. granulata, W. Sm. NV. lanceolata, W. Sm. NV. notabilis, Grun. LV. obtusa, W. Sm. N. panduriformis, Greg. NV. (Bacillaria) paradoxa, Gm NV. plana, W. Sm. NV. punctata, Grun. QV. reversa, W. Sm. NV. sigma, W. Sm. NV. scalaris, W. Sm. NV. tenia, W. Sm. NV. tryblionella, Hantz. Plagioaramma gregorianum, Grev. REPORT—1896. | Plagiogramma van-Heurchii, Grun. Pleurosigma aestuarii, W. Sm. P. angulatum, W. Sm. P. balticum, W. Sm. P. delicatulum, W. Sm. P. distortum, W. Sm. P. elongatum, W. Sm. P. fasciola, W. Sm. P. formosum, W. Sm. P. hippocampus, W. Sm. P. litorale, W. Sm. P. marinum, W. Sm. P. obscurum, W. Sm. P. prolongatum, W. Sm. P. scalprum, W. Sm. P. strigilis, W. Sm. P. strigosum, W. Sm. P. tenuissimum, Greg. P. transversale, Roper. Rhabdonema arcuatum, Kiitz. R. minutum, Kiitz. Rhaphoneis amphiceros, Ehr. Do. many varieties of this species. Rhizosolenia imbricata, Brightw. R. setigera, Brightw. i. styliformis, Brightw. R. Wighamia, Brightw. Schizonema crucigera, W. Sm. S. eximium, Th. S. helmintosum, Greg. S. vulgare, Th. Scoliopleura latistriata, Breb, S. tumida, Breb. Skeltonema costatum, Grun. Stauroneis acuta, W. Sm. S. salina, W. Sm. S. linearis, W. Sm. Stephanopyxis turris, Grev. Striatella unipunctata, Ac. Surirella constricta, W. Sm. S. erumeéena, Breb. S. gemma, Ehr. S. fastwosa, Ehr. S. salina, W. Sm. S. splendida, Kiitz. S. striatula, Turp. Synedra affinis, Kiitz., var. arcus, Kiitz. S. fulgens, Kiitz. S. Gallionii, Ehr. S. obtusa, W. Sm. S. pulchella, var. acicularis, Kiitz. Toxonidia gregoriana, Dn. T. insignis, Dn. Triceratium Brightwellii, West. T. favus, Ehy. T. striolatus, Ehr. ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 423 LIST OF THE MARINE ALG. [See Reports by Professor R. J. HARVEY Gipson, M.A., F.L,S., in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. i. p. 1, and vol. iii. p. 65.] CYANOPHYCE. Ord. CHROOCOCCACE. Glaocapsa crepidinum, Thur. ii. iii. 90. Ord. CHAMASIPHONACES. Dermocarpa prasina, Born. iii.7, A. R. iv., lii. 86, 91. D. schousbai, Born. Ord. OSCILLARIACE. Spirulina tenuissima, Kitz. iii. 86, 91. S. pseudotenvissima, Crn. iii. 86, 91. Oseillaria nigroviridis, Thw. ii. 27, iii. 91. O. coralline, Gow. ii. 27, iii. 91. Phormidium papyraceum, Gom. ii. 27 {as Osc. spiralis), iii. 91. Lyngbya semiplena, J. Ag, ii. 27, ili. 91. ili. 86, 91. 27, | Lyngbya estuarii, Liebm. ii. 27, iii. 91. LL. majuscula, Harv. ii. 27, iii. 91. L. spectabilis, Thur. in herb. iii. 91. Symploca hydnoides, Witz, iii. 91. Microcoleus chthonoplastes, Thur. ii. 27, lii. 92. Rivularia biasvlettiana, Menegh. ii. 26, ili, 92. R. atra, Roth. B. ii. 26, iii, 92. Calothrix confervicola, C. Ag. ii. 26, qs 92. C. pulvinata, C. Ag. C. scopulorum, C. Ag. Ord. NOSTOCACEA. Anabena torulosa, Lagerh. ii. 26, iii. 92. Nodularia harveyana, Thur, iii. 92. iil. 92. ii. 26, iii. 92. CHLOROPHYCEZ. Ord. BLASTOSPORACEZ, Urospora collabens, H. and B. iii. 94. Prasiola stipitata, Subr. A. R. iv. 8, Chatomorpha tortwuosa, Kiitz. ii. 24, lili. 92. iii. 96. Ord. ULVACE. | Ch. linwm, Kiitz. ii. 24 (as Conf. Monostroma grevillei, J. Ag. ii. 22, | crassa), 26 (as Conferva sutoria, iii, 92. Diplonema confervoides, Batt. iii. 92. Enteromorpha clathrata, J. Ag. iii. 93. #. ralfsii, Harv. ii. 23, iii. 93. #. erecta, J. Ag. ii. 23, iii. 93. #. ramulosa, Harv. i. 24, ii. 23, ili. 93. Holm. and ii. 23, HE. percursa, C. Ag. var. ramosa, J. Ag. | li. 23 (as H. percursa), iii. 93. EB. compressa, Grev. i. 24, ii.23, iii. 93. | #. linza, J. Ag. i. 25, ii. 23, ili. 93. LE. intestinalis, Link. i. 24, ii. 23, iii. 93. #. canaliculata, Batt. iii. 93. Ulva latissima. i. 314, ii. 22 (as U. lactuca, var. genwina), iii. 93. Ord. ULOTHRICHACK A. Ulothrix impleaa, Kiitz, ii. Rhizoclonium), iii 93. U. isogona, Thur. ii. 24. Ord. CHA®TOPHORACE, Entoderma wittrochii, Wille. A. R. iv. 7, | iii. 93. LE. flustra, Rke. A. R. iv. 7, iii. 93. Ord. CLADOPHORACEA. Urospora pencilliformis, Aresch. ii. 26 (as Conferva youngana), iii. 94. U. flacea, H. and B. ii. 24 (as U. flacca), iii. 94. TU. bangioides, H. and B. iii. 94. 24 (as | Phye. Brit.), iii. 96. Ch. melagoniwm, Kiitz. ii. 23, iii. 96. Ch. erea, Kiitz. ii. 24, iii. 97. Ch. litorea, H. and B, , ii. 26 (as Con- ferva litorea.) Ehizoclonium viparium, Harv. li, 24, iii. 97. Rh. tortuosum, Witz. ii. 24. th. arenosa, Kitz. 11.25 (as Conferva arenosa). Rh. casparyt, Harv. iii, 118. Cladophora pellucida, Witz. A.R.iv.8, rite to) f(- C. hutchinsia, Kitz. ii. 24, 25,(as C. diffusa), iii. 97. C. utriculosa, Wiitz. var. latevirens, Hauck. 1.25(as spec.), li. 25, iii. 97. C.rupestris, Kiitz. 1.25, 11. 24, 11. 12,97. C. glaucescens, Griff. iii. 97. C. fracta, Kiitz. ii. 25, iii. 97. C. flexuosa, Griff. i, 24,11. 25, iii. 97. C. albida, Kiitz. ii. 25, iii. 97. var. refracta, H.and B. ii.25 (as spec.), lii. 97. C. arcta, Kitz. C. lanosa, Kiitz. uneialis, Thur, iii. 97. C. rudolphiana, Kiitz. ii. 25, iii, 118, C. gracilis, Kitz. ii. 25. i. 24, ii. 24, ili. 97. li. 25, iii. 97. var. ii. 25 (as spec.), 424, REPORT—1896. Ord. BRYOPSIDACE. Vaucheria Thuretii, Wor. ii. 22, iii. Bryopsis hypnoides, Lamx. 1.25, iii. 98. 98. B. plumosa, C. Ag. i. 25, ii. 25, 111.98. | Ord. CODIACEZ. Ord. VAUCHERIACE. Codium tomentosum, Stackh. ii. 22, Vaucheria dichotoma, lLyngb. var. ili. 98. marina, C. Ag. ii. 22, ili. 98. f PH ZOPHYCE.. Ord. DESMARESTIACEZ. Sphacelaria cirrhosa, C. Ag. i. 25, ii. Desmarestia viridis, Lamx. i.313, ii. 21, 19, iii. 100. var. fusca, H. and B. ili. 98. j. 25, 11. 19 (as spec.), iii. 100. D. aculeata, Lamx. i. 25, 313, ii. 21, S. plumigera, Holm. iii. 100. iii. 98. Chetopteris plumosa, Kitz, i, 25, 313 D. ligulata, Lamx. iii. 98. | (as Sphacelaria), ii. 19, iii. 100. Ord, DICTYOSIPHONACE®. Halopteris filicina, Kitz. iii. 101. Dictyosiphon faniculaceus, Grey. ii.20, | Stypocaulon scoparium, Kiitz. i. 25, lii. 98. ii. 7 (as Sphacelaria), 19, iii. 101. Ord. PUNCTARIACE. Cladostephus spongiosus, C. Ag. 1. 24, Litosiphon pusillus, Harv. ii. 21, A. R. BLS,.16, Coad, w1., LO iv. 8, iii. 98. C. verticillatus, C. Ag. i. 24, ii. 19, L. laminarie, Harv. ii. 21, iii. 118. iii. 101, Stictyosiphon subarticulatus, Hauck. | Ord. MYRIONEMACEZ. iii. 99. ; Myrionema strangulans, Grey. ii. 18 Punctaria plantaginea, Grey. ii. 20, (as M. vulgare), ii. 101. var. iii. 99. punctiforme, Thur. ii. 18 (as P. latifolia, Grev. i. 313, ii. 20, iii. 99. spec ), ili. 101. var. zoster@, Le Jol. iii. 99, A. R. Ascocyclus leclancherii, Magn. ii. 18 iv. 8 (as P, tenwissima). (as Myrionema), iii. 101. Striaria attenuata, Grev. iii. 118. A. reytans, Rke. A. R. iv. 8, iii. 101. Ord. ASPEROCOCCACE. Ralfsia verrucosa, Aresch. ii. 22, Myriotrichia claveformis, Harv. ii. 19, A. R. iv. 7,1. LOT. lii.99. var. jfiliformis, Farl. ii. 19 | Ord. CHORDARIACEA. (as spec.), ili. 99. Chordaria flagelliformis, C. Ag. 1. 25, Asperocuccus echinatus, Grey. i. 25, li. 20, iii. 101. li. 21, 111. 99. var. vermicularis, Griff. Mesoglaa vermiculata, Le Jol. ii. 20, iii, 99. iii. 101. A. bulbosus, Lamx. ii. 21 (as A. M. verticillata, Ag. ii. 20. turneri), iii. 118. Caustagnea virescens, Thur, ii. 20, ii. 101. Streblonema velutinum, Thur. ii. 18 (as | Lcathesia difformis, Aresch, iti. 20 (as Hetocarpus), iii. 99. L. umbellata), iii. 101, Ectocarpus terminalis, Kiitz. A. R. | Ord. ScyTosIPHONACE®. iv. 8, ili. 99. Phyllitis zosterifolia, Rke. iii, 101. LE. confervoides, Le Jol. var. sivicu- Ph. fascia, Wiitz. ii. 21. losus, Kjell. ii. 18, iii. 99. Seytosiphon lomentarius, J. Ag. ii. 21, E. fasciculatus, Harv. ii. 18, iii. 99. lii. 102. LE. tomentosus, Lyngb. ii, 18, iii. 99. | Ord. CHORDACE AB. E. granulosus, C. Ag. ii. 19, iii. 99. Chorda filum, Stackh. ii, 21, iii. 102. £. crinitus, Carm, ii. 18. Ord. LAMINARIACEA, FE. hincksie, Harv. ii. 19. Laminaria saccharina, Lamx. i. 313, Isthmoplea spherophora, Kjell. A. ht. li. 22, iii. 102. iv. 8, iii. 100. L. hieroglyphica,J.Ag. var. phyllitis, Pylaicila litoralis, Kjell. ii. 19 (as Le Jol. ii. 22, iii. 102. Ectocarpus), iii. 100. L. digitata, Hdm. i, 318, ii. 6, 21, iii. Ord. ARTHROCLADIACE®, 102. Arthrocladia villosa, Duby. iii. 100, L. hyperborea, Fos. iii. 8 (A. R. iv. Ord. ELACHISTACE A. 8), 102. Hlachistu scutulata, Duby. ii. 20, iii. Saechorhiza bulbosa, De la Pyl. iii. 100. 102. LE. fucicola, Fries. ii. 20, iii. 100. Alaria esculenta, Grev. ii. 22, iii. E. flaccida, Avesch. ii. 20, iii. 100. 102. Ord. SPHACELARIACE. Surgassum linifolium, C. Ag. ix 17, Sphacclaria radicans, Harv. ii. 19, iii. wi SE 100, A. R. iv. 8. K 2 ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 425 Ord. SPOROCHNACEX. Sporochnus pedunculatus, C. Ag. iii. 102. Ord. CUTLERIACEZ. Cutleria multifida, Grev. 103. Wu. 22, ii. Aglaozonia parvula, Zan. ii. 22, iii. 119. Ord. FUCACE2. Fucus ceranvides, Linn. iii. 103. F. vesiculosus, Linn. i. 312, ii. 17, iii. 10, 20, 103. F. serratus, Linn, 10, 20, 103. F. platycarpus, Thur. ii. 17, iii. 103. Ascophyllum nodosum, Le Jol. i. 312. (as Fucus), ii. 15, 17, iii. 10, 11, 20 Vaol2yalt, Wet, Lit. (as Fueus), 103. var. scorpioides, Hauck, ii. 17, iii. 119. Himanthalia lorea, Lyngb. 20, iii. 11, 1038. Halidrys siliquosa, Lyngb. 24, 112, 312; ii. 11 (as Fucus), 17, i lii. 103. Pelvetia canaliculata, Decne et Thur. ii. 17 (as Fucus), ii. 103. Cystoseira, sp. ii. 17, 20, iii. 119. Ord. DICTYOTACE A. Dictyota dichotoma, Lamx. i. 313, ii. 18, iii, 104. var. implewa, J. = iii. 104. var. intricata. iii.8 (A. R iv.). Taonia atomaria, J. Ag. iii. 104. Dietyopteris pols ypodivides, Lamx. iii. 119. 1, Li 18, RHODOPHYCE.X. Ord. PORPHYRACES. Porphyra laciniata, C. Ag. i. 24, ii. 5, 8 (as P. vulgaris), iii. 104. Bangia Suscopurpurea, Lyngb. iii. 104. Ord. HELMINTHOCLADIACE®. Chantransia virgatula, Thur. 104. Ch. secundata, Thur. iii. 8 (A. R. iv.), 104. Ch. daviesii, Thur. thamnion), iii. 104. Helminthocladia purpurea, J. Ag. iii. 104. Helminthora divaricata, J. Ag. iii. 105. Nemalion multifidum, J. Ag. ii. 6, iil. 119. Ord. GELIDIACE. Naccaria wiggii, End. ii. 6, iii. 105. Gelidium corneum, Lamx. i. 24, ii 12, iii. 105. G. crinale, J. Ag. Ord. GIGARTINACEH. Chondrus crispus, Stackh. ii. 9, iii. 12, 105. Gigartina mamillosa, J. Ag. ii. 10, iii. 105. Phyllophora vubens, Grev. 15, iii. 105. P. membranifolia, J. Ag. i, 24, i1. 10, iii. 105. P. traillii, H. and B. iv.), 105. P. palmettoides, J. Ag. iii. 105. Gymnogongrus griffithsie, Mart. ii. 10, iii. 105. G. norvegicus, J. Ag. 11.10 (as Chon- drus), tii. 105. Ahnfeldtia plicata, Fries. iv.), 105. Callophyllis laciniata, Witz. ii. 11 (as Rhodymenia), iii. 106, ii. 3, ii. 5, ili. ii. 7 (as Calli- ii. 13, iii. 105. i. 25, 313, i, 24, ii. 10, iii. 8 (A. B. iii. 7 (A. R. Ord. RHODOPHYLLIDACE. Cystoclonium purpurascens, Kiitz. i. 24 (as Hypnea), ii. 11, iii. 106. Catenella opuntia, Grev. i. 313, ii. 12, iii. 8 (A. R. iv.), 106. Rhodophyllis bifida, Kiitz. ii, 10 (as Rhodymenia), tii. 107. Ord. SPH ZZROCOCCACEA. Spherococcus coronopifolius, Grey. il. 12, iii. 107. Gracilaria confervoides, Grev. 1. 25, iis L2, 10,107. Calliblepharis ciliata, Kiitz. i. 24, ii. 10 (as Rhodymenia), iii. 8 (A. R. iv.), 107. C. jubata, Kiitz, iii. 7 (A. BR. iv.), 107. Ord. RHODYMENIACE 4, Rhodymenia palmata, Grev. iii. 108. Rh. palmetta, Grev. iii. 108. Lomentaria articulata, Lyngb. ii. & (as Chylocladia), 11, iii. 12, 108. L. elavellosa, Gaill. iii. 108. Champia parvula, Harv. iii. 108. ii. 11, 18, TERRIERS Wire) Chylocladia halifor mis, Grev. ii. 13 (as Lomentaria), ili. 108. Ch. ovalis, Hook, iii. 108. Plocamium coccineum, Lyngb. 1. 313, ii. 10, iii. 108. Microcladia glandulosa, Grev. iii. 120. Euthora cristata, J. Ag. iii. 120. Ord. DELESSERIACE A, Nitophyllum punctatum, Grev. iii. 108. NV. laceratum, Grey. Delesseria alata, Larx. iii, 108. D.sinuosa, Lamx, i. 24,ii.12, iii.108. D. hypoglossum, Lamx. ii. 12, iii. 109. Dz ruscifolia, Lamx. ii. 12, iti, 109. ii. 12, ii. 12, iii. 108. i, 24, 11. 12, 426 Delesseria sanguinea, Lamx. i. 24, ii. 10 (as Hydrolapathum), iii. 109. Ord. BONNEMAISONIACEZ, Bonnemaisonia asparagoides, C. Ag. ii. 14, iii. 109. Ord. RHODOMELACE®, Bostrychia scorpioides, Mont. iii. 109. Rhodometa subfusca, C. Ag. i, 25, ii. 13, iii. 109. Rh. lycopodioides, C. Ag. 109. Odonthalia dentata, Lyngb. ii. 13, ili. 109. Laurencia obtusa, Lamx. L. hybrida, Lenorm. ii. 13, iii. lii. 109. iii. 109. L. pinnatifida, Lamx. ii. 13, iii. 109. | Chondria tenuissima, C. Ag. iii. 109. Polysiphonia sertularioides, J. Ag. ii. 14 (as P. pulvinata), iii. 110. P. fibrata, Harv. ii. 14, iii. 110. P. urceolata, Grev. ii. 14, iii. 110. var. patens, J. Ag. iii. 110. var. formosa, J. Ag. i. 313, ii. 15 (as species), iii. 110. P. elongella, Harv. P. elongata, Grev. P. violacea, Wyatt. P, fibrillosa, Grev. ii. 14, iii. 110. ii. 14, iii. 110. ii. 14, iii. 110. i. 313, ii. 15, iii. 110. P. fastigiata, Grev. i. 313, ii. 15, iii. 110. P. atrorubescens, Grey. iii. 110. P. variegata, Zan. ii. 14. P. nigrescens, Grev. ii. 14, iii. 111. P. parasitica, Grey. iii. 111. P. byssoides, Grev, Talila P. brodiwi, Grev. ii. 14, iii. 111. P. thuyoides, Harv. ii. 14 (as Rhyti- phlea), iii. 111. P. fruticulosa, Spreng. ii. Rhytiphlea), iii. 111. Dasya coccinea, C. Ag. iii, 111. D. arbuscula, C. Ag. iii. 111. D. ocellata, Harv. iii. 111. Rhytiphiea pinnastroides, Harv. iii. 120. Ord. CERAMIACE®. Sphondylothamnion multifidum, Nig. iii. 111. Spermothamnion turneri, Aresch. ii. 6, iii. 111. var. vepens, Le Jol. iii. ala iii Griffithsia corallina, C. Ag. i. ii. 8, iii. 111. G. setacea, C. Ag. (A. R. iv.), 112. G. barbata, C. Ag. ii. 7, iii. 119. Haluwrus equisetifolius, Kiitz. i. 25, ii. 8 (as Griffithsia), iii. 112. Monospora pedicellata, Solier. i. 314 (as Callithamnion), ii. 6, iii. 112. i. 313, ii. 14, iii. 14 (as i, 313, ii. 15, 314, eae DENG, ais REPORT—1896. Pleonosporium borreri, Nag. Callithamnion), iii. 112. Rhodochorton rothii, Nag. ii. 6, iii. 112. Rh. floridulum, Nig. ii. 6, iii. 112. Rh. membranaceum, Mag. iii. 8. (A. R. iv.), 112. Eh. seiriolanum, Gibs. iv.), 112. Callithamnion polyspermum, C. Ag. “ii. 6, lil. 113. C. byssoideum, Arn. ii. 7. C. roseum, Harv. ii. 7, iii. 113. C. hookeri, C. Ag. ii. 7, iii, 113. C. brodiai, Harv. iii. 119. C. arbuscula, Lyngb. iii. 113. C. tetragonum, C. Ag. ii. 7, iii. 113. var. brachiatum, J. Ag. ii. 7, iii. 113. C. corymbosum, Lyngb. ii. (A. R. iv.), 113. C. granulatum, C. Ag. ii. 7, iii. 118. C. seirospermum, Griff. ii. 7, iii. 113. Compsothamnion thuyoides, Schm, ii. 6 (as Callithamnion), iii. 113. C. gracillimum, Schm. iii. 8 (A. R. iv,), 113. C. pluma, C. Ag. Ptilota plumosa, C. Ag. i. Ds Sy edie lise Plumaria elegans, Schm. Ptilota), iii. 114. Antithamnion cruciatum, Nig. ii. 6, iii. 114. A. plumula, Thur. ii. 6, iii. 114. Spyridea filamentosa, Harv. ii. 10, iii. 114. Ceramiwm tenuissimum, J. Ag. iii. 114. C. fastigiatum, Harv. ii. 8, iii. 114. C. deslongchampsii, Chauy. i. 24, ii. 8,18, iii. 114. C. strictum, Harv. ii. 9, iii, 114. var. divaricata, H.and B. ii. 9 (as C. diaphanumy), iii. 114. C. circinatum, J. Ag. ii. 9 (as C. decurrens), iii. 114. ‘ C. rubrum, C. Ag. i, 24, 314, ii. 5, 7, 8, 9, 18, iii. 114. var. proliferwm, J. Ag. iii 114, C. ciliatum, Ducluz. ii. 9, iii. 114. C. echionotum, J. Ag. ii. 9, iii. 114. C. flabelligerum, J. Ag. ii. 9, iii. 115, C. acanthonotum, Carm. ii. 9, iii. 7 (CAGR, iv), dub: Ord. GL@OsSIPHONIACE®. Glaosiphonia capillaris, Carm. ii. 9, I, U5, Ord. GRATELOUPIACEA. Halymenia ligulata, 0. Ag. Ord. DUMONTIACHA, Dumontia filiformis, Lamx, ili, 115. Dilsea edulis,Stackh. i.25(as Iridea), ii. 10 (as Sarcophyllis), iii. 115. ii. 7 (as i?’ (A. RB, Liege 7 ii, 6, Wino. 25, 314, i. 5, ii. 8 (as ii. 8, iii. 115. 1. 24, 11. 9, 4 — ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. Ord. NEMASTOMACE, Furcellaria fastigiata, Lamx. ii. 10, | 24 (as Fastigiaria), iii. 115. Ord. RHIZOPHYLLIDACES. Polyides rotundus, Grev. ii. 13 (as P. lumbricalis), iii. 7 (A. RB. iv.), 115. Ord. SQUAMARIACE®. Petrocelis cruenta, J. Ag. ii. 5 (as P. pellita), iii. 115. Peyssonnelia dubyi, Crn. i. 3138, ii. 5, | Alii. 115. Hildenbrandtia prototypus, Nard. vay. rosea, Kiitz. iii. 7 (A. R. iv.), 116. Ord. CORALLINACES. Schmitziella endophlea, Born, et Batt. ili. 8 (A. R. iv.), 116. Melobesia confervoides, Kiitz. ii. iii. 116. 15, 4 427 Melobesia pustulata, Lamx. iii. 116. M. farinosa, Lamx. ii. 15, iii. 117. M. membranacea, Lamx. ii. 15, iii. 11 M. verrucata, Lamx. Lithophyllum lichenoides, Phil. iii. 117. LI. lenormandi, Rosan. iv.), 117. Lithothamnion polymorphum, Aresch. li. 16 (as Melobesia), iii. 117. LL calceareum, Aresch. ii. 16, iii. 117. L. fasciculatum, Aresch. ii, 120. Corallina officinalis, Linn. i. 24, 97, 313, 321, ii. 16, iii. 11, 20, 117. C. rubens, Ellis et Sol. i. 24, ii. 16, Ts UT li. 16, iii. 117. ii. 16, ie78. (AR. LIST OF THE FORAMINIFERA. [See Mr. J. D. SrppDAutL’s Report in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. i., and papers since by Mr. PEARCEY, vol. iii., p. 41, Mr. Burq@uss, vol. iii., p- 59, Mr. CHAFFER, 7th A. R., 40, and Dr. CHASTER, Southport Soc. N. Sci., 1892, and 10th A. RJ LTneberhiihnia Wageneri, Clap. i. 42. Shepheardella teniformis, Sid. Gromia dujardinii, Sch. G. oviformis, Duj. Squamulina levis, Schul. Nubecularia lucifuga, Defr. Biloculina ringens, Lamk. B. depressa, D’Orb. B. elongata, D’Orb. Spiroloculina limbata, D’ Orb. S. planulata, D’Orb. S. excavata, D’Orb. S. acutimargo, Brady. S. depressa, D’Orb. Miliolina trigonula, Lamk. M. tricarinata, D’Orb. M. oblonga, Montagu. M. boucana, D’Orb. M. seminulum, Linn. M. venusta, Karrer. MM. subrotunda, Mont. M. secans, D’Orb. M. bicornis, W. & J. MM. ferussacii, D’Orb. M. fusca, Brady. M. agglutinans, D’Orb. M. spiculifera, Sid. MM. contorta, D’Orb. M. auberiana, D’Orb. M. pulchella, D’Orb. MM. sclerotica, Karr. Ophthalmidium ineonstans, Brady. Sigmoilina tenuis, Oz. S. celata, Costa. — Cornuspira involvens, Reuss. Astrorhiza limicola, Sand. Dendrophrya radiata, 8. Wright. Dendrophrya erecta, 8. Wright. Technitella legumen, Norman. Psamnosphera fusca, Schul. Hyperammina elongata, Brady. Al. arborescens, Norm. 10th A. R. Haliphysema Tumanowiczii, Bow. Reophax fusiformis, Will. R. scorpiurus, Monté. R. Scottii, Chaster. R. findens, G. M. Dawson. LR. moniliforme, Sid. R. nodilosa, Brady. Haplophragmium globigeriniforme, P. & J. HI. canariense, D’Orb. HI. agglutinans, D’Orb. HT, anceps, Brady. H, glomeratum, Brady. Placopsilina bulla, Brady. P. Kingsleyi, Sid. P. varians, Carter. Ammodiscus incertus, D’Orb. A, gordialis, P. & J. A. charoides, P. & J. A. shoneanus, Sid. A. spectabilis, Brady. Trochammina nitida, Brady. f. squamata, P. & J. T. ochracea, Will. T. plicata, Terq. T. inflata, Mont. T. macrescens, Brady. Textularia sagittula, Defr. T. agglutinans, D’Orb. T. porrecta, Brady, T. variabilis, Will. T. trochus, D’Orb. T. gramen, D’Orb. 428 Textularia fusiformis, Chaster. Spiroplecta sagittula, Defrance. S. biformis, P. & J. Gaudryina filiformis, Berth. Verneuilina polystropha, Reuss. V. spinulosa, Reuss. Clavalina obscura, Chaster. Bigenerina digitata, D’Orb. Bulimina pupoides, D’Orb. . elongata, D’Orb. . marginata, D’Orb. . aculeata, D’Orb. . ovata, D’Orb. . elegans, D’Orb. . elegantissima, D’ Orb. . sguamigera, D’Orb. B. fusiformis, Will. Virgulina schreibersiana, Czjzek. V. bolivina, D’Orb. Bolivina punctata, D’Orb. B. plicata, D’Orb. B. pygmea, D’Orb. B. difformis, Will. B. enariensis, Costa. B. dilatata, Reuss. B. levigata, Will. B. variabilis, Will. Cassidulina levigata, D’Orb. C. crassa, D’Orb. Lagena sulcata, W. & J. . interrupta, Will. . costata, Will. . Williamsoni, Alcock. . caudata, P. & J. Lyelli, Seguenza. Feildeniana, Brady. striato-punctata, P. & J. levis, Mont. . gracillima, Seg. . apiculata, Reuss, globosa, Mont. striata, D’Orb. clawata, D’Orb. levigata, Reuss. protea, Chaster. hertwigiana, Brady. erinata, P. & J. lineata, Will. botelliformis, Br. . semilineata, Wr. spiralis, Br. quadrata, Will. millettii, Chaster. JSalcata, Chaster. inequilateralis, Wr. bicarinata, Terq. semi-alata, B. & M. castrensis, Sch. lagenoides, Will. . tenuistriata, Br. . depressa, Chaster. L. gracilis, Will. L. semistriata, Will. L,. distoma, P. & J. by Sy by by by by by SSSR SESS SRE SSS SON SSS REPORT—1896, Lagena aspera, Reuss. . marginata, W. & B. . Orbignyana, Seg. . trigona-marginata, P. & J. . lucida, Will. . trigono-oblonga, Seg. & Sid. . ornata, Will. . trigono-ornata, Brady. I. pulchella, Brady. LI. melo, D’ Orb. LD. squamosa, Mont. LD. hexagona, Will. L. hispida, Reuss. Nodosaria scalaris, Lamk. N. radicula, Linn. NV. Calomorpha, Reuss. | WV. hispida, D’Orb. | IV. pyrula, D’Orb. | NV. communis, D’Orb. NV. obliqua, D’Orb. Lingulina carinata, D’Orb. L. herdmani, Chaster. Vaginulina leqgumen, Linn. V. linearis, Mont. Marginulina costata, Batsch. M. glabra, D’Orb. Cristellaria rotulata, Lamk, C. crepidula, F. & M. C. italica, Defy. C. variabilis, Reuss. C. elongata, Will. C. cultrata, Montfort. C. gibba, D’Orb. C. vortex, F. & M. Polymorphina lactea, W. & J. Do., var. oblonga, Will. P. oblonga, D’Orb. P. gibba, D’Orb. . subaqualis, D’Orb. . communis, D’Orb. . thouini, D’Orb. compressa, D’Orb, . lanceolata, Reuss. . concava, Will. . spinosa, D’Orb. . orbignyti, Zborzewskii. sororia, Reuss. . rotundata, Born. P. concava, Will. Uvigerina pygme@a, D’Orb. U. angulosa, Will. U. canariensis, D’Orb. Globigerina bulloides, D’Orb. Do., var. triloba, Reuss. G. inflata, D’Orb. G. equilateralis, Br. G. rubra, D’Orb. | Orbulina universa, D’Orb. Pullenia spheroides, D’Orb. Spheridina deluscens, P. & J. Spirillina vivipara, Ehrenb. S. margaritifera, Will. S. tuberculata, Brady. S. limbata, Brady. NANA Shy hots ts ty ty hs ty Ss — —— ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 429 Patellina corrugata, Will. | Pulvinulina repanda, var. concamerata, Discorbina rosacea, D’ Orb. Mont. D. ochracea, Will. P. auricula, F. & M. D. globularis, D’ Orb. P. canariensis, D’Orb. * D. orbicularis, Terquem, P. Karsteni, Reuss. D. biconcava, P. & J. P. nitidula, Chaster. D. turbo, D’Orb. Rotalia Beeearii, Linn. D. parisiensis, D’Orb. R. nitida, Will. D. nitida, Wright. | Gypsina inherens, Schul. D. Wrightii, Br. G. vesicularis, P.& J. 10th A. R. D. Bertheloti, D'Orb. Nonionina asterizans, F. & M. D. minutissima, Chaster. NV. pauperata, B. & W. D. tuberculata, Balkwill & Wright. NV. turgida, Will. Planorbulina mediterranensis, D’Orb. NV. scapha, F. & M. Truncatulina Haidingerii, D’Orb. N. wnbilicatula, Mont. T. ungeriana, D’ Orb. NV. depressula, W. & J. T. lobatula, Walker & Jacob. NV. stelligera, D’Orb. T. refulgens, Montf. NV. boweana, D’Orb. T. reticulata, Czjzek. Polystomella crispa, Linn. Pulvinulina repanda, F. & M. P. striato-punctata, F. & M. LIST OF THE PORIFERA. [See Reports by Mr. T. Hiaern and Dr. R. HANITSCH in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. i. p. 72, vol. ii. p. 28, vol. ii. p. 192, and Annual Reports. ] CALCAREA. HoMOCG@LA. Sycon compressum, auct. ii. p. 45. _ Leucosolenia botryoides, Ellis and S. coronatum, B. & Sol. iii. p. 237. Solander. iii. p. 233. Aphroceras ramosa, Carter. i. p. 92. L. contorta, Bowerbank. iii. p. 233. Leucandra fistulosa, J. i. p. 92. L. coriacea, Fleming. iii. p. 232. L. Gossei, Bow. iii. p. 236. L. lacunosa, Johnston. iii. p. 233. L. impressa, Hanitsch. iii. p. 234. HETEROCGLA. ? L. Johnstoni, Carter. iii. p. 236. Sycon asperum, Gibson, i. p. 365. ZL. nivea, Grant. iii. p. 236. SILICEA. HEXACERATINA. Reniera pallida, Bow. i. p. 83. Halisarca Dujardini, J. ii. 32, R. simulans, J. i. p. 83. Aplysilla rubra, Hanitsch. iii. p. 196; R. varians, Bow. iii. p. 198. ‘Trish Sponges,’ T.L.B.S., V., p. 219. Esperiopsis fucorum, J. i. p. 84. TETRACTINELLIDA. Esperella egagropila, J. iii. p. 202. Dercitus Bucklandi, Bow. iii. p. 221. Desmacidon fruticosum, Mont. 7th A. R. * Stryphnus ponderosus, Bow. i. p. 88. p. 22. Do., var. rudis. iii. p. 221. Dendoryx incrustans, Esper. iii. p. Stelletta Grubei, O. Sch. iii. p. 227. 204. Pachymatisma Johnstonia, Bow. iii. Jophon expansum, Bow. 6th A. R. p. 44. p. 229. Myxilla irregularis, Bow. 8th A. RB. MONAXONIDA. p. 18. Chalina oculata, Pall. i. p. 76. Pocillon Hyndmani, Bow. Irish sponges, Acervochalina gracilenta, Bow. _ iii. T.LsB.8. Ve, pe 2lt. Sea. Ld. Plunohatichondria plumosa, Mont. i. A. limbata, Mont. ii. p. 34. p. 78. Chalinula Montagui, Flem. iii. p. 201. Microciona atrasanguinea, Bow. iii. Halichondria panicea, Pall. ii, p. 32. p. 207. HI. albescens, J. i. p. 79. Raspailia ventilabrum, Bow. iii. p. H. coccinea, Bow. i. p. 79. 212. Reniera clava, Bow. i. p. 84. Vibulinus rigidus, Mont. iii. p. 213. R. densa, Bow. i. p. 83. Echinoclathria seriata, Grant. iii. p. R. elegans, Bow. i. p. 82. 205. R, fistulosa, Bow. i. p. 88. Hymeniacidon caruncula, Bow. i. p. 79: R. ingalli, Bow. iii. 199. HT, sanguineum, Bow. i. p. 87. 430 Axinella mammillata, Hanitsch. iii. p. 209. Suberites carnosus, J. S. domuncula, Olivi. S. ficus, J. iii. p. 216. Cliona celata, Grant, iii. p. 216. Polymastia mammillaris, Bow. 220. i. p. 86. ili. p. 214. lil. p. REPORT—1896. Polymastia robusta, Bow. Tethya lyncurium, Linn. iii. p. 220. iii. p. 220. MONOCERATINA. Leiosella pulchelia, Sow. 8th A. R, p. 18. Spongelia fragilis, Mont. iv. p. 198. LIST OF THE CQALENTERATA. A. HYDROZOA. I. HYDROIDA. [See Report by Prof. HERDMAN and others in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. i., and Report by Miss L. R. THORNELY in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. iv. | ATHECATA. Clava multicornis, Forskal. 225. C. leptostyla, Agassiz. Teo vail Vie 1. 97, 1v. 225. Tubiclava cornucopia, Norm. 9th A. R., p. 10. Hydiactinia echinata, Fleming. iv. 225. Coryne van-Benedeni. C. vaginata, Hincks. 10th A. R. C. pusilla, Gaertner. i. 98, iv. 225. Syncoryne eximia, All. 8thA. R., p.19. Ludendrium vameum, Pallas. i. 98, iv. 225. E. ramosum, Linn. i. 98, iv. 225. EH. capillare, Alder. i. 98, iv. 225. Hydranthea margarica, Hincks. iv. 222, 223, 225. Garveia nutans, T. 8. W. i. 99, iv. 226. Bimeria vestita, T.S.W. i. 100, iv. 226. Perigonimus repens, T. 8. W. 9th A. R., pei bie ieee conferta, Ald. 8th A.R., p.19. Bougainvillia museus, Allman. i. 100, iv. 226. B. ramosa, v. Ben. Tubularia indivisa, Linn. 226. T. coronata, Abildgaard. 49, iv. 226. T. simplex, Ald. i. 100, iv. 226. T. larynx, Ellis and Solander. i. 101, iv. 222, 226. T. britannica, Pennington. 1. 101, iv. 226. T. attenuata, Allm. iii. 49, iv. 222, 226. Ectopleura Dumortierti, van Beneden. i. 101, iv. 226. Corymorpha nutans, Sars. 226. 1. 97, iv. 222, 225. iv. 222, 226. i. 100, iv. i. 100, iii. i. 101, iv. THECAPHORA. Clytia Johnstont, Ald. i. 101, iv. 226. Obelia geniculata, Linn. i. 102, iv. 222, 226. O. gelatinosa, Pall. i. 102, iv. 226. O. longissima, Padl. i. 102, iv, 226, Obelia flabellata, Hincks. i. 102, iv. 226. O. dichotoma, Linn. i. 103, iv. 226. O. plicata, Hincks. iv. 222, 226. Campanularia volubilis, Linn, i. 103, iv. 226. CO. Hinchsii, Ald. i. 104, iv. 226. C. fragilis, Hincks. iv. 222, 226. C. caliculata, Hineks. i. 104, iv. 226. C. verticillata, Linn. i. 104, iv. 226. C. flexuosa, Hincks. i. 104, iv. 226. C. angulata, Hincks. i. 105, iv. 226. C. neglecta, Ald. i. 105, iv. 226. C. raridentata, Ald. ili. 49, iv. 222, 226. Gonothyrea Lovéni, Allm. 226. G. gracilis, Sars. iv. 222, 226. G. hyalina, Hincks. iv. 222, 223, 226. Opercularella lacerata, Johnston. i. 105, iv. 226. Lafota dumosa, Fleming. i. 226. Do., var. robusta, Sars. iv. 222, 226. L. fruticosa, Sars. iv. 222, 226. Calycella syringa, Linn. i. 106, iv. 227. C. fastigiata, Ald. iv. 222, 224, 227. C. pigmea, Ald. iv. 222, 224, 227. C. grandis, Hincks. iv. 222, 227. C. costata, Hincks. iv. 222, 227. C. humilis, Hincks. iv. 222, 227. Filellum serpens, Hassall. i. 106, iv, 222, 224, 227. Coppinia arcta, Dalyell. i. 106, iv. 227. Haleciwm halecinum, Linn. i. 107, iv. 227. HT, Beanii, Jobnst. H, tenellum, Hincks. 227. HI, muricatum, Ellis & Sol. Sertularella polyzonias, Linn. iv. 227. S. rugosa, Linn. S. Gayi, Lamx. iv. 222, 227. S. tenella, Ald. iii. 49, iv. 222, 227. S. fusiformis, Hincks. iv. 222, 227. Tel'Ob, iv. 106, iv. i. 107, iv. 227. ili. 49, iv. 225, ili. 49. i, 108, i. 108, iv. 227. ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 431 Diphasia rosacea, Linn. i. 108, iv. 227. D. attenuata, Hincks. i. 109, iv. 227. D. pinaster, Ellis & Sol, i, 109, iv. 227. D. tamarisca, Linn. D. fallax, Johnst. Sertularia pumila, Linn. 227. S. gracilis, Hassall. i. 110, iv. 227. S. operculata, Linn. i. 110, iv. 227. S. filicula, Ellis & Sol. i. 110, iv. 227, S. abietina, Linn. i. 110, 227. S. argentea, EB. & Sol. i. 110, iv. 227. S. cupressina, Linn. i. 111, iv. 227. Hydralimania falcata, Linn. i. 111, iv. 227. Thuiaria articulata, Pall. 222, 227. i. 109, iv. 227. i. 109, iv. 227. i, 109, iv oe Malolos Thuiaria thuja, Linn. iv. 222, 227. Antennularia antennina, Linn. i. 112, iv. 227. A. ramosa, Lam. i. 112, iv. 227. Aglaophenia pluma, Linn. i. 112, iv. 228, A, myriophyllum, Linn. i. 112, iv. 222, 228. A. tubulifera, Hincks. iv. 222, 228. A. pennatula, H. & Sol. iv. 222, 228. Plumularia pinnata, Linn. i. 113, iv. 228. P. frutescens, BH. & Sol. iv. 222, 228, P. setacea Ellis. i. 113, iv. 228. P. Catharina, J. i. 113, iv. 228. P echinulata, Lam. iv. 222, 225,228. P. similis, Hincks. i. 113. iv. 228. Il. MEDUSZ. [See ‘ List of Medusze and Ctenophora of the L.M.B.C. District,’ by J. A. CLuBB, ‘Fauna,’ vol. i. p. 114, and ‘ Report on the Meduse of the L.M.B.C. District,’ by E. T. BROWNE, ‘ Fauna,’ vol. iv. p. 371.] HyYDROMEDUS&. ANTHOMEDUS&. Codoniwm pulchellwm, Forb. iv. 374. Corymorpha nutans, Sars. 10th A. R. Sarsia tubulosa, Sars. i. 115, iv. 375. Dipurena halierata, Forb. iv. 375. Steenstrupia rubra, Forb. iv. 575. Luphysa aurata, Korb. iv. 376. oe prolifer, Agassiz. 10th A. R. Amphicodon fritillaria, Steenstr. iv.379 Tiara pileata, Forskal. iv. 386. Turris neglecta, Lesson. i. 115, iv. 388. Dysmorphosa carnea, M. Sars. iv. 388. D. minima, Heckel. iv. 388. ? Cyteandra areolata, Ald. iv. 390, Lizzia blondina, Forb. iv. 393. | Margelis principis, Steenstrup. iv. 394. M. vamosa, van Beneden. WM. britannica, Forb. i. 115, iv. 395. Margellium octopunctatum, Sars. i. 117, iv. 398. Podocoryne carned, Sars. 10th A. R. Thaumantias hemispherica, Mill. i. 116, 117, iv. 403. Laodice cruciata, L. Agassiz. i. 115, iv. 404. L. calcarata, L. Agassiz. iv. 404. LEPTOMEDUS&. Melicertidium octocostatum, Sars. iv. 405. Clytia Johnstoni, Alder. iv. 406. Eucopeé octona, Forb. i. 115, iv. 406. Obelia lucifera, Forb. iv. 406. Tiaropsis multicirrata, Sars. iv. 406. Epenthesis cymbaloidea, Slabber. i. 116, iv. 407. Mitrocomella polydiadema, Romanes. iv. 407. Phialidium variabile, Heckel. iv. 408. Ph. temporarium, Browne, 10th A. R. Ph. cymbaloidium, Van Beneden. Hutima insignis, Keferstein. iv. 410. Saphenia mirabilis, Wright. iv. 410. Tiaropsis multicirrata, Sars. 10th ALR. Thaumantias convexa, Forb. i. 116. T. lucida, Forb. i. 116. SCYPHOMEDUS. STAUROMEDUS. DISCOMEDUS. iy. 152, Chrysaora isosceles, Linn. iv. 412. 4 ala cyathiforme, Sars. 411. -Haliclystus awrieula, Rathke. iv. 157, 411. Cyanea capillata, Linn. i. 117, iv. 412. Aurelia aurita, Lam. i. 117, iv. 412. Pilema octopus, Linn. i. 118, iv. 413. IlI. SIPHONOPHORA, Agalmopsis elegans, Saxs. 10th A. R. Physalia pelagica, Esch, i. 118, 432 REPORT—1896. IV. CTENOPHORA. SACCATA. | EURYSTOMATA. Pleurobrachia pileus, Flem. i. 118. Beroé ovata, Lam. i. 119. P. pomiformis, Pat. i. 119. LOBATA. Bolina hibernica, Pat. 1. 119. B. ACTINOZOA. I, ALCYONARIA. [See Report on the Alcyonaria of the L.M.B.C. District, by Professor HERDMAN, ‘Fauna, vol. i. p. 120, and also note upon yellow variety of Sarcodictyon catenata in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. iv. p. 322.] ALCYONIDA. Alcyonium digitatum, Linn. i, 122. Sarcodictuon catenata, Forb. i, 120, | PENNATULIDA. iv. 322. Virgularia mirabilis, Lamk., A. R. II. ACTINIARIA. [See Report on the Actiniaria of the L.M.B.C. District, by Dr. J. W. ELuis, ‘Fauna,’ vol. i. p. 123 (nomenclature revised since by Prof. HADDON).] PROTANTHID. { Cylista viduata, Mill. i. 125. Corynactis viridis, All. i. 129. ‘ C. undata, Mill. i. 125. Capnea sanguinea, Forb. i. 129. Do., var. candida, Mill. i. 126. HEXACTINIDA. Adamsia palliata, Bohadsch. i. 127. Haleampa chrysanthellum, Peach. i. Actinia equina, Linn. 1. 127. 123; Anemonia sulca‘a, Penn. i. 128. Metridium dianthus, Ellis. i. 123. Urticina crassicornis, Mill. i. 128. Cereus pedunculatus, Penn. i. 124. Bunodes verrucosa, Penn. i. 129. Sagartia miniata, Gosse. 1. 125. Paraphellia expansa, Hadd. 9th S. vosea, Gosse. Jae as S. venusta, Gosse. i, 125. ZOANTHID, S. nivea, Gosse. Epizoanthus arenacea, Delle C. i, 130. S. lacerata, Dall. 7th A. R., 22. CERIANTHID A. S. sphyrodeta, Gosse. i. 127. Cerianthus Lloydii, Gosse. i. 130. LIST OF THE ECHINODERMATA. [See Professor HERDMAN’S Report upon the Crinoidea, Asteroidea, Echinoidea, and Holothuroidea, and Mr. H. C. CHADWICck’s Report upon the Ophiuroidea in the ‘Fauna,’ vol. i., and Mr. H. C. CHApwick’s Second Report on the Echinodermata in the ‘ Fauna,’ vol. ii., and papers in vol. iv. | CRINOIDEA. Antedon bifida, Penn. (rosaceus, Auct.). i. 131, ii. 48. ASTEROIDEA. Asterias rubens, Linn. i. 132, ii. 49. Palmipes placenta, Penn. i. 135, iv. A. glacialis, Linn. i. 133, ii. 50. A. hispida, Penn. i. 133. Porania pulvillus, O.F.M. i. 135, ii, Stichaster roseus, Mill. ii. 49. 51. Henricia sanguinolenta, O.F.M. i. 133, Astropecten irregularis, Penn. i. 135, ii. 50. i. 61, ‘ Solaster endeca, Linn. i, 134, ii. 50. Iuidea ciliaris, Phil. i. 136, ii, 52, S. papposus, Fabr. i, 134, ii. 50. iv. 271. Ast-rina gibbosa, Penn. i. 134. ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 433 ECHINOIDEA. PETALOSTICHA. Spatangus purpureus, Mill. i. 137. EKehinocardium cordatum, Penn, i. 138. DESMOSTICHA. Echinus esculentus, Linn. i. 136. #H. miliaris, Linn i, 136. CLYPEASTRIDA. E. flavescens, O. F. Miill. i. 138. Lchinocyamus pusilius,O. F. M. i. 137. Brissopsis lyrifera, Forb. iv. 23, 175. HOLOTHURIOIDEA. APODA. Cucumaria pentactes, Mill. i. 139. Synapta inherens, O. F.M. iv. 363. C. Hyndmani, Thomp. i. 139. PEDATA. C. Planci, Marenz. ii. 53. Phyllophorus Drummondi, Thomps. 8th A. R., 12. i. 138. Ocnus brunneus, Forb. i. 139. OPHIUROIDEA. Ophiura ciliaris, Linn. i. 140. , Amphiura Chiajii, Forb. 9th A. R., O. albida, Forb. i. 141. p- 17. Ophiopholis aculeata, Linn. i. 141, Ophiocoma nigra, Abild. i. 142. Amphiura elegans, Leach. i. 142. Ophiothria fragilis, Abild. i. 143. Thyone fusus,O. F. M. i. 138, iv. 178. L. raphanus, D. & K. iv. 175, 178. LIST OF THE VERMES. TURBELLARIA. [See Report by F. W. GAMBLE, M.Sc., in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. iv.] I. POLYCLADIDA. Leptoplana tremellaris, O. F. Miill. Oligocladus sanguinolentus, Quatref, iv. 72. iv. 76. ; Cycloporus papillosus, Lang. iv. 74. Stylostomum variabile, Lang. iy. 77. II. RHABDOCGLIDA. Hyporhynchus armatus, Jens. iv. 66. Provortex balticus, Schultze. iv. 67. Plagiostoma sulphwreum, v. Graff. iv. 68. P. vittatum, Frey and Leuck. iv. 68. Aphanostoma diversicolor, Oe. iv. 59. Convoluta paradoxa, Oe. iv. 59. C. flavibacilium, Jens. iv. 61. Promesostoma marmoratum, Schultze. iv. 61. P. ovoideum, Schm. iv. 62. P lenticulatum, Schm. iv. 62. Byrsophiebs intermedia, v. Graft. iv. 63. Proxenetes fiabellifer, Jens. iv. 63. Pseudorhynchus bifidus, McInt. iv. 64. Acrorhynchus caledonicus, Clap. iv. 65. Macrorhynchus Naegelii, Koll. iv. 66. M., heigolandicus, Metsch. iv. 66. Vorticeros auriculatum, O. F. Miill. iv. 69. Allostoma pallidum, Van Ben. iv. 69. Cylindrastoma quadrioculatum, Leuck. iv. 70. C. inerme, Hallez. iv. 21. Monotus lineatus, O. F. Miill. iv. 70. MM. fuscus, Oe. iv. 71. III. TRICLADIDA, Planaria littoralis, van Ben. 10th A. R. NEMERTEA. [See Report by W. I. BEAuMONT, in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. iv.] Malacobdella grossa, O. F. M. is, 145. Cephalothria bioculata, Oersted. iv. 217, 452, 1896, Carinella linearis, Mont. i. 145, 332. C. Aragoi, Joubin. iv. 451. ? C. annulata, Mont. iv. 217. Lineus marinus, Mont. i, 332. FF 434 REPORT—1896. Lineus obscurus, Desor. iv. 220, 465. L. longissimus, Sow. ir. 220, 466. Cerebratulus angulatus (2), O. F. Mill. iv. 220. CG, fuscus, Hubrecht. iv. 467. Micrura purpurea, J. Mill. iv. 466. M. fasciolata, Ehr. iv. 466. M. candida, Biirger. iv. 466. Amphiporus lactifloreus, M‘Intosh. iv. 217, 453. A. pulcher, O. F. Mill. iv, 218, 452. A, dissimulans, Riches, iv. 453. Tetrastemma nigrum, Riches. iv. 218, 457. T. dorsale, Abildgaard. iv. 218, 456. T. immutabile, Riches. iv. 219, 458. T. candidum, O. F. Miill. iv. 219, 458. T. melanocephalum, J. iv. 219, 461. T. vermiculatum, Quatr. iv. 219,461, T. Robertiane, M‘Intosh. iv.219, 463. T. flavidum, Bhr. iv. 455. T. cephalophorum, Biirg. (as Proso- rhochmus Claparedii, Kef.) iv. 464. Nemertes Neesii, Oersted. iv. 219, 465, CHAETOGNATHA. Sagitta bipunctata, Quoy & Gaimard. i. 146, 332. GEPHYREA. Thalassema, sp. (2. sp.). 10th A. R. Phascolosoma vulgare, de Bl. 3rd A. B., p. 34. HIRUDINEA, RHYNCHOBDELLID. Pontobdella muricata, Linn, 1. 146. CHAITOPODA. [See Reports by Prof. R. J. H. GIBSON in ‘Fauna,’ vol. i. p. 144, and by Mr. JAMES HORNELL in vol. iii. p. 126.] ARCHI-ANNELIDA. Dinophilus teniatus, Harmer. 6th A. R., 34; 7th, 44. Polygordius, sp. 9th A. R., 49. MyZOSTOMIDA. | Myzostomum, sp. i. 132. OLIGOCH ATA. Lumbricus lineatus, Mill. i. 147. Clitellio arenarius, O. F. M. 7th A. R., p. 43. POLYCHAETA. Section A—ERRANTIA. Hermione hystria, Savigny. i. 12,147, 332, ili. 132. Aphrodite aculeata, Linn. Tipit Ue os lit, Sh, Panthalis Oerstedi, Kinb. iv. 328. Acholoé astericola, Delle C. i. 148, iii. 139. Polynoi: halieti, M‘Intosh. 332, iii. 130. P. imbricata, Linn. 1.149, 332, iii. 134. P. castanea, M‘Intosh. i. 149, 345, 352, iii. 138. P. impar, Johnst, iii. 135. P. setosissima, Sav. iii. 138. P. lunulata, Delle C. iii. 189. P. Johnstoni, Marenzeller. iii. 139. P. reticulata, Claparéde. 10th A. R. P. semisculpta, Johnst. 10th A. R. Halosydna gelatinosa, Sars. iii. 140. Hermadion assimile, M‘Intosh, i. 12, 150, 334, 348, 353. H. pellucidum, Ehlers, iii. 140, Lepidonotus squamatus, Linn, iil, 133. Nychia cirrosa, Pall, “i, 133: 2, 149, Sthenelais boa, Johnst. iii. 141. S. limicola, Ehlers. iii. 141. Pholoé minuta, Fab. i. 152, iii. 142. Spinther oniscoides, Johnst. iii, 142. Nephthys ceca, Fab. iii. 147. N. hombergi, Aud. & M. Edw, iii. 147. Eulalia viridis, O. F. Mill, i, 152, iii. 149. Phyllodoce maculata, O. F, Mil, , iii. 149, P. laminosa, Sav. iii. 149. Syllis tubifex, Gosse. iii, 147. S. armillaris,O. F. Mill. 1. 153, 332, iii. 148. Autolytus Alewandri, Malmgren. ili. 148. A. prolifer, O. F. Miill. iii. 148. Ephesia gracilis, Rathke. iii. 148. Psamathe fusca, J. iii. 148. Castalia punctata, Mill. iii. 148. Nereis pelagica, Linn, i. 154, 332, iii. 144, N. Dumerilii, Aud. & M. Edw. i. 154, lii. 144. NV. diversicolor, Miill. iii. 144. NV. fucata, Sav. iii. 145. N. virens, Sars iii. 146. Lumbriconereis fragilis, O. F. Mill. i. 154, 332. Eunice Harassii, Aud. & M. Edw. iii.142. Onuphis conchilega, Sars. iii. 148. Goniada maculata, J.. i. 155. Glycera nigripes, Johnst. iii. 147, G. dubia, Blainville. iii. 147. G. Goési, Mgrn. iii. 147. G. capitata, Oersted. iil. 147. ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 435 Section B—SEDENTARIA. Ophelia limacina, Rathke. iii. 150. Ammotrypane aulogaster, H. Rathke. iii. 150. Chetopterus variopedatus, Ren. iii.158. Spio seticornis, Fabr, i. 156, iii. 157. Nerine vulgaris, J. i. 156, iii. 158. NV. cirratulus, Delle C. iii. 157. Leucodora ciliata, J. iii. 158. Magelona papillicornis, F. Mill. 10th A. R. Arenicola marina, Linn, iii. 151. A. ecaudata, Johnst. 10th A. R. Capitella capitata, Fab. iii. 151. Nicomache lumbricalis, Fab, iii. 154. Awiothea catenata, Malmgren. iii. 155. Owenia filiformis, Delle C. iii. 155. Scoloplos armiger, Miill. iii. 155. Cirratulus cirratus, O. F. Miill. i. 156, 333, iii. 156. C. tentaculatus, Montagu. iii. 156. Chetozone setosa, Malmgren. iii. 157. Sabellaria alveolata, Linn, i. 58, 156, iii, 163. S. spinulosa, R. Leuckart. iii. 163. Pectinaria belgica, Pall. i. 8, 157, 332, 349, iii. 163. Pectinaria auricoma, O. F. Miill, i, 157, iii. 162. Ampharete Grubei, Malmgren. iii.161. Lrophania plumosa, Miill. iii. 159, Flabelligera affinis, Mgr. 10th A. R. Lerebelia nebulosa, Mont. i. 158, 333, iii. 160. Amphitrite figulus, Dalzell. iii. 160. Lanice conchilega, Pall. iii. 160. Thelepus cincinnatus, Fab. i. 158, iii. 160. Nicolea venustula, Mont. iii. 161. Sabella pavonia, Sav. iii. 164, Do., var. bicoronata, Hornell. iii. 164. Dasychone Herdmani, Hornell. iii. 165, Amphicora fabricia, Mill. iii. 166. Serpula vermicularis, Ellis. i. 3, 159. S. reversa, Mont. iii. 167. S. triquetra, Linn. i. 159. Spirorbis borealis, Mérch, i. 159, 333, iii. 167. S. lucidus, Mérch, i, 160, iii. 167. Liligrana implexa, Berkeley, i. 12, 160, 333, iii. 167. Tomopteris onisciformis, Eschscholtz, 1. 160, 333, iii. 150. BRACHIOPODA, Terebratula caput-serpentis, Linn. 7th A. R., p. 28. Crania anomala, Miller. iii. 62; 6th A.R., p. 25; 7th, pp. 15, 29 ; 8th, p. 15. POLYZOA. [See Mr. Lomas’ Reports in ‘ Fauna,’ vols. i. and ii., and the various lists and additions made by Miss L. R. THORNELY in the Annual Reports since.] CHEILOSTOMATA, Aetea anguina, Linn. i. 164; ii. 94. A. recta, Hincks. i. 164; ii. 94; 9th A. R., pp. 20, 34. A. truncata, Lands. i, 164; ii. 94. HLucratea chelata, Linn. i. 164; ii. 94. Do., var. repens. i. 164; ii. 94. Do., var. gracilis. i. 165; ii. 94. Do., var. elongata, Lomas. i.165; ii. 94. Gemellaria loricata, Linn, i. 165; ii. 94. Cellularia Peachii, Busk. i. 166; ii. 94. Scrupocellaria scrwposa, Linn. i. 166, ii. 94. S. serupea, Busk. i. 166, ii. 94. S. reptans, Linn. i. 166, ii. 94. Bicellaria ciliata, Linn, i. 167, ii. 94, Bugula aviewlaria, Linn. i. 168, ii. 94 B. turbinata, Alder. i. 167, ii. 94, 3rd A. R., p. 23. B. flabellata, J. V.Thomp. i. 167, ii. 94. B. plumosa, Pallas. i. 168, ii. 94. B. purpurotincta, Norm. i, 168, ii. 94 Beania mirabilis, Johnst. i. 168, ii. 94. Cellaria fistulosa, Linn. i. 169, ii. 92. C. sinuosa, Hass. ii. 88, iii. 29. Flustra foliacea, Linn. i. 170, ii. 94. F. carbasea, Ell. & Sol. i. 170. £. papyracea, Ell. & Sol. i. 170, ii. 94, F’. securifrons, Pall. i. 170, ii. 94. Membranipora lacroiwii, Aud. i. 170, ii. 94. M. monostachys, Busk. i. 171, ii. 94. M. catenularia, Jameson. i. 171, ii. 94, M. pilosa, Linn. i. 171, ii. 94. Do., var. dentata. 4th A. R., p. 25. M. membranacea, Linn. i. 171,ii. 95. MM. hexagona, Busk. i. 171. MM, lineata, Linn. i. 172, ii. 95. M. craticula, Ald. i. 172, ii. 95. iM. spinifera, Johnst. 10th A. R. MM. discreta, Hincks. 9th A.R., pp. 11, 34, M. Dumerilii, Aud. i. 172, ii. 95. M. solidula, Ald. and Hincks. 9th A. R., pp. 11, 34. M. aurita, Hincks. i. 172, ii. 95. M. imbellis, Hincks. 7th A. R.,p.18, M. Flemingii, Busk. i. 172, ii. 94. M. Rosselii, Aud. i. 172, ii. 95. M. nodulosa, Hincks, 9th A. R., pp. 11, 34. FF2 436 Micropora coriacea, Esper. 1.173, ii. 95. Cribrilina radiata, Moll. 1.173, 11. 95. C. punctata, Hass. i. 173, ii. 95. C. annulata, Fabr. i. 173, ii. 95. C. Gattye, Busk. 9th A. R., pp. 11, 34. Membraniporelia nitida, Johnst. i.174, ii. 95. Microporella ciliata, Pall. i. 174, ii. 95. M. Malusii, Aud. i. 174, ii. 95. M. impressa, Aud. 1.175, ii. 95. Do., var. cornuta, Busk. 8th A. R., p. 19. M. violacea, Johnst. i. 175, ii. 95. Chorizopora Brongniartii, Aud. i.175, li. 95. . Lagenipora socialis, Hincks. 9th A. R., pp. 11, 19, 21, 34. Schizoporella unicornis, Johnst. ii. 88. S. spinifera, Johnst. 1, 175, ii. 95. S. Alderi, Busk. 10th A. R. S. vulgaris, Moll. 9th A.R.,pp.11, 34. S. simplex, Johnst. 6th A. R.,p. 26. S. linearis, Hass. i. 176, ii. 95. Do., var. hastata, Hincks. 7th A, R., p. 23. S. cristata, Hincks. 9thA.R.,pp. 11, 54. S. awriculata, Hass. S. discoidea, Busk. S. hyalina, Linn. i. 176, il. 95. 9th. A. R., p. 34. i. 176, ii. 95. Mastigophora Dutertrei, Aud. 9th A. R., pp. 11, 33. M. Hyndmanni, Johnst. ii. 89. 9th A. R., p. 33. Schizotheca fissa, Busk. 9th A. R., pp. 20, 33. S. divisa, Norm. 9th A. R., p. 33. Hippothoa divaricata, Lamour. i. 176, ii. 95. Do., var. carinata, Norm. 7th A. R., J2Be Pp H. distans, McGill. i. 176, ii. 95. Do., var. vitrea, Hincks. 7th A. R., p. 23. Lepralia Pallasiana, Moll. i. 177, ii. 95. L. foliacea, Ell.and Sol. i. 177, ii. 95. L. pertusa, Esper. i. 177, ii. 95. LZ. edax, Busk. 7th A. R., pp. 19, 23. Umbonula verrucosa, Esper. i. 177, ii, 95. Porella concinna, Busk. i. 178, ii. 95. Do., var. belli, Dawson. 9th A. R.,p.34. P. minuta, Norm. 9th A. R., pp. 11, 34. P. compressa, Sow. i. 178, ii. 95. Smittia Landsborovii, Johnst. i. 178, ii. 95. S. reticulata, Macgill. S. cheilostoma, Manz. 10th A. R. S. trispinosa, Johnst. i. 179, ii. 95. Phylactella labrosa, Busk. 9th A. R., p. 34. i. 178, ii. 95. REPORT—1896. Phylactelia collaris, Norm. 95. Mucronella Peachii, Johnst. i. ii. 95. M. ventricosa, Hass. M. variolosa, Johnst. i. 179, ii. 95.. M. coccinea, Abildg. i. 179, ii. 96.. M. coccinea, var. mamillata. 9th A. R.,. p. 34. Palmicellaria Skenei, Ellis and Sol- 7th A. R., p. 23. Cellepora pumicosa, Linn. i. 180, ii. 96. C. ramulosa, Linn. 4th A. R., p. 25- i. 179, ii. 179, li. 89, 96. C. dichotoma, Hincks. ii. 89. C. avicularis, Hincks. ii. 89. C. armata, Hincks. ii. 89, 96. C. Costazii, Aud. CYCLOSTOMATA. Crisia cornuta, Linn. i. 181, ii. 96. C. geniculata, M. Edw. ii. 96. C. eburnea, Linn. i. 181, ii. 96. (. aculeata, Hass. 9th A. B., p. 34. C. denticulata, Lam. i. 181, ii. 96. C. ramosa, Harmer. 7th A. R., p. 23 5. 9th, p. 20. Stomatopora granulata, M. Edw. ii. p. 89, 6th A. R., p. 25, 7th, p. 38. S major, Johnst. i. 181, ii. 96. S. Johnstoni, Heller. ii. 89. S. expansa, Hincks. i. 181, ii. 96, S. incurvata, Hincks. 9th A. R., pp- i. 180, ii. 96. 11, 34. S. incrassata, Smitt. ii. 89, 2nd A. R., p. 16, Tubulipora lobulata, Hass. i. 182, iz. 96. T. flabellaris, Faby. Tdmonea serpens, Linn. Diastopora patina, Lam. i. 183, ii. 96. D. obelia, Johnst. i. 183, ii. 96. D. suborbicularis, Hincks. i. 183, ii- 96. Lichenopora hispida, Flem, i. ii. 96. L. verrucaria, Fabr. 7th A. R., p. 42. CTENOSTOMATA. Alcyonidium gelatinosum, Linn. i. 184, ii. 91, 96. A. hirsutum, Flem. A. mamillatum, Ald. 16, 23. A, mytili, Dalz. i. 184, ii. 96. A. parasiticum, Flem. i. 185, ii. 96. Flustrella hispida, Fabr. 1.185, ii. 96, 3rd A. R., p. 15. Arachnidium hippothooides, Hincks. i. 185, ii. 96. Vesicularia spinosa, Linn. i. li. 96. Amathia lendigera, Linn. i. 186, ii. 96. Bowerbankia imbricata, Adams. 1.187, Neos B. caudata,Hincks, 4th A, R., p. 25. i. 182, ii. 96. i. 182, ii. 96.. 183, i. 183, ii. 96, i. 184, ii. 96. 7th A. R., pp 186, ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. Bownerbankia pustulosa, E. & Sol. i. 187, ii. 97. Farella repens, Farre, var. elongata, i. 188, ii. 97. Bushia nitens, Ald. i. 188, ii. 97. Cylindrecium giganteum, Busk. 10th qi (C. dilatatum, Hincks. i. 188, ii. 97. Anguinella palmata, Van Ben. i. 188, li. 97. Triticella Boeckii, Sars. 8th A. R., pp. ‘6, 15; 9th, p. 10. 437 Valkeria uva, Linn. i. 189, ii. 97. V. uva, var. cuscuta. i. 189, ii. 97. V. tremula, Hincks. i. 189, ii. 97. Mimosella gracilis, Hincks. i. 189, ii. 97. ENTOPROCTA. Pedicellina cernua, Pall. i. 190, ii. 97. Do., var. glabra. 4th A.R., p. 25. Barentsia nodosa, Lomas. i. 190, ii. 90, 97. Loxosoma phascolosomatum, Vogt. 10th Ach: LIST OF THE CRUSTACEA. MALACOSTRACA. (For Podophthalmata and Cuwmacea see Mr. A. O. WALKER’S Revision (Reyv.), in ‘Fauna,’ vol. ili.p.50; for the other groups of Malacostraca see Mr. Walker’s other reports and papers in the ‘ Fauna.’] BRACHYURA. Cancer pagurus, Linn, Rey. Xantho tuberculatus, Couch. Rev. Pilumnus hirtellus (Linn.) Rev. Pirimela denticulata (Mont.) Rev., Addenda. Carcinus menas, Penn. Rev. Portunus puber (Linn.) Rev. P. depurator (Linn.) Rev. P. corrugatus (Penn.), off Calf of Man, 23 fath. 10th A. R. P. arcwatus, Leach. Rev. P. holsatus, Faby. Rey. P. pusillus, Leach. Rev. Portumnus latipes (Penn.) ii. 180. Corystes cassivelaunus (Penn.) Rev. Atelecyclus. septem-dentatus (Mont.) Rev. Thia residua (Herbst.) Rev. Pinnotheres pisum (Linn.) Rev. P. veterum, Bosc. Rev., Addenda. Macropodia rostrata (Linn.) Rev. M. longirostris (Fabr.) Rev. Inachus dorsettensis (Penn.) Rev. I. dorynchus, Leach. Rev., Addenda. HHyas araneus (Linn.) Rev. H. coarctatus, Leach. Rev. Pisa biaculeata, Leach. 8th A. R., p. 25. Eurynome aspera (Penn.) Rev. Ebalia tuberosa (Penn.) Rev. #. tumefacta (Mont.) Rev. ANOMALA. Eupagurus bernhardus (Linn.) Rev. HE. Prideaux (Leach.) Rev. Ei. cuanensis (Thomp.) Rev. LL. pubescens (Kroyer.) Rev. Anapagurus levis (Thomp.) Rev. Porcellana platycheles (Penn.) Rev. P. longicornis (Linn.) Rev. Galathea squamifera, Leach. Rev. G. nexa, Embleton. Rev. Galathea dispersa, Bate. Rev. G. intermedia, Lillj. Rev. Munida rugosa, Fabr. ii. 70. MACRURA. Calocaris Macandree, Bell. 7th A. R., p. 18; Rev. Palinurus vulgaris, Latr. 4th A. R., p. 29. Nephrops norvegicus (Linn.) Rey. Astacus gammarus (Linn.) [Common Lobster]. Rev. Crangon vulgaris (Linn.) Rev. C. Alimanni, Kin. Rev. C. trispinosus, Hailstone. C. nanus, Kroyer. Rev. C. sculptus, Beil. Rev. C. fasciatus, Risso. Rev. Pontophilus spinosus, Leach. 9th A. R., p- 13. Nika edulis, Risso. County Down coast, 12 miles §.S.W. of Chicken Rev. Rock, in whiting’s stomach. 10th A. R. Caridion Gordoni, Sp. Bate. Mev. Hippolyte varians, Leach. 7th A. R., p. 35. Spirontocaris spinus (Sow.) Rev. S. Cranchii (Leach.) Rev. S. pusiola (Kr) i. 179. Pandalus Montagui, Leach. Rev. P. brevirostris, Rathke. Rev. Leander serratus (Penn.) Rev. L. squilila (Linn.) Rev. Palemonetes varians (Leach.) Rev. SCHIZOPODA. Nyctiphanes Rev. Macromysis flewuosa (Mill) Rev. M. neglecta (Sars.) iii. 245. M. inermis (Rathke.) Rev. Schistomysis spiritus (Norm.) Rev. 922, ii. norvegica (M. Sars.) 438 Schistomysis ornata (Sars.); and var. Kervillet (Sars.) iii. 245. Rev. Hemimysis Lamorne (Couch.) ii. 178. Rev. Neomysis vulgaris (Thomp.) ik 178. Rev. Teptomysis lingowra (Sars.) Rev. Mysidopsis gibbosa (Sars.) 7th A. R., p. 25. Evxythrops elegans (Sars.) 7th A. R., p. 24. Cynthilia (Siriella) norvegica. (Sars.) lii., p. 244. Rev. C. armata (M.-Edw.). Gastrosaccus spinifer (Goes.). G. sanctus (van Ben.) 6th A. R., p. 38; 7th A. R., p. 25. Haplostylus Normanni(Sars.) 7tha.R., p. 25. PHYLLOCARIDA. Nebalia bipes, M.-Edw. CUMACEA. Cuma scorpioides (Mont.) iii. 246. C. pulchella, Sars. 8th A. R., p. 25." Iphinoé trispinosa (Goodsir.) 8th A. R., p. 25. I. tenella, Sars. 9th A. B.,p. 14. Cumopsis Goodsiri (van Ben.) Rev. Hudorella truncatula, Sp. Bate. Rev. #. nana, Sars, 8thA.R., p.25; Brit. Ass. Rep., 1895, p. 459. Campylaspis macrophthalma, 8th A. R., p. 25. Pseudvcwma longicornis, Sp. Bate. Rev. 10th A. R. Sars. Petalosarsia declivis, Sars. 8th A. R., p. 25. Lamprops fasciata, Sars. iii. 247. Pl. 16. Rev. Henilamprops assimilis, Sars. 9th A. R., p. 14. Diastylis Rathhei (Ky.) Rev. D. spinosa (Norm.) ii. 178, iii. 247. D. biplicata (Sars.) 7th A. R., p.25. D. rugosoides, Walker. 9th A. B., p. 14; B.A. Rep., 1895, p. 459. Nannastacus unquiculatus, Bate. B. A. Rep., 1894, p. 326. Isopopa. Paratanais Batei, Sars. 7th A.R., p.25. Leptognathia laticaudata, Sars. 7th . A. RK, p. 25. Anthura gracilis (Mont.) 7th A. R., p. 25. Gnathia maxillaris (Mont.) Port Erin. 10th A. R. Cirolana borealis, Lillj. 9th A. R., p. 14. Conilera cylindracea (Mont.) iii. 241. Burydice achatus (Slabber.) i. 218. Spheroma serratum (Fabr.) i. 219. S. rugicauda, Leach. R. Colwyn Bay. Cymodoce emarginata, (Leach.) 8th A.R., p. 25. iii, 241, 248. REPORT—1896. S Dynamene rubra (Mont.) § ii. 72. | Vesa bidentata, Leach. @ ii. 72. Dynamene Montagui, Leach. jr. ii. 72. Limnoria lignorum (Rathke.) i. 219. Idotea marina, Linn. i. 219. I. linearis, Linn. i. 219. Astacilla longicornis (Sow.) iii. 248, A. gracilis (Goodsir.) 7th A. R., p. 25. Janira maculosa, Leach. 1. 219, Jera albifrons (Mont.) i, 219. Munna Fabricii, Ky. ii. 71. Ligia oceanica (Linn.) i. 220, ii. 72. BOPYRIDZ. Pleurocrypta nexa, Steb. 7th A. R., p- 43. P. intermedia,G.& B. 7th A. R., p. 43. P. galatee, Hesse. 7th A. R., p. 43. AMPHIPODA. [See Mr. Walker's ‘ Revision’ (Rev.), in ‘ Fauna,’ iv. ] Hyperia galba (Montagu.) Rev. Hyperoche tauriformis (Bate.) Rev. Parathemista oblivia (Kr.) Rev. Talitrus locusta (Pall.) Rev. Orchestia littorea( Mont.) ii.171; 7th A. R., p. 37. Rev. Hyale Nilssonit (Rathke.) Rev. Lysianax longicornis (Lucas.) ii. 73 (ZL. ceratinus, Walker.) Rev. Socarnes erythrophthalmus, Robertson. Rev. Perrierella Audouiniana (Bate.) ii. 76. Rev. Callisoma crenata (Bate.) Rev. Hippomedon denticulatus (Bate.) ii. 76. Rev. Orchomenella nana, Kr. ii. ciliata, Sars.). Rev. Nannonyx Goésii (Boeck.) Rev. NV. spinimanus, Walker. Rev. Tryphosa Sarsi (Bonn.) Rev. LY. Horringii, Boeck. Rev. Tryphosites longipes, Bate. Rev. Hoplonyx similis, Sars. Rev. Lepidepecreum carinatum, Bate. Rev. Euonyx chelatus, Norm. Rev, Bathyporeia norvegica, Sars. Rey. B. pelagica, Bate. Rev. Haustorius arenarius (Slabber.) Rev. Urothoé brevicornis, Bate. Rev. U. elegans, Bate. Rev. U. marina, Bate. Rev. Phoxocephalus Fultoni, T. Scott. Rev. Paraphoxus oculatus, Sars. Rev. Harpinia neglecta, Sars. Rev. Hi. crenulata, Boeck. Rev. HI, levis, Sars. Rev. Ampelisca typica, Bate. Rev. A, tenuicornis, Lillj. Rev. A. brevicornis (Costa.) Rev. A. spinipes, Boeck. Rev. ' A. macrocephala, Liilj. Rev. ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. Haploops tubicola, Lillj. Rev. : Amphilochus manudens, Bate. Rev. ~ A. melanops, Walker, 7th A. R., p. 27. Rev. Pl. XVIII. Amphilochoides pusillus, Sars. Rev. Gitana Sarsii, Boeck. Rev. Cyproidia brevirostris, T. & A. Scott Rev. Stenothoé marina (Bate.) Rev. S. monoculoides (Mont.) Rev. Metopa Alderi, Bate. Rev. M. borealis, Sars. Rev. M. pusilla, Sars. Rev. M. rubro-vittata, Sars. Rev. M. Bruczelii (Goés.) Rev. Cressa dubia (Bate.) Rev. Leucothot spinicarpa (Abildg.) Rey. L. Lilijeborgti, Boeck. Rev. Monoculodes carinatus, Bate. Rev. Perioculodes longimanus (Bate.) Rev. Pontocrates arenarius(Bate.) ii. p. 172. Synchelidium haplocheles (Grube.) Rev. Paramphithot bicuspis (Kr.)ii.173. Rev. P. assimilis, Sars. Rev. Stenopleustes nodifer, Sars. Rev. Epimeriacornigera (Fabr.) Rev. Iphimedia obesa, Rathke, Rev. I. minuta, Sars. Rev. Laphystius sturionis, Kr. Rev. Syrrhoé fimbriata, Stebb. & Rob. Rev. Eusirus longipes, Boeck. Rev. Apherusa bispinosa (Bate.) Rev. A. Jurinii (M.-Edw.)ii. 79 (Calliopius norvegicus), Rev. Calliopius leviusculus (Kr.) ii.79. Rev. | Paratylus Swammerdamit (M.-Edw.) Rev. P. faleatus (Metzger.) iii. 249. Rev. P. uncinatus (Sars.) iii. 249. Rev. P. vedlomensis (Bate.) Rev. Dewxamine spinosa (Mont.) Rev. D. thea, Boeck. Rev. Tritata gibbosa (Bate.) iii. 249, Pl. 16. Rey. Guernea coalita, Norm. Rev. Melphidippella macera (Norm.) Rev. Amathilla homari (Fabr.) ii. 175. Rev. Gammarus marinus, Leach. Rev. G. locusta (Linn.) Rev. G. campylops, Leach. Brackish pond, Colwyn Bay. 10th A. R. G. pulex (De Geer.) Rev. Melita palmata (Mont.) Rev. 439 Melita obtusata (Mont.) Rev. Mera othonis, M.-Edw. Rey. M. semi-serrata, Bate. Rev. M. Batei, Norm. Rev. Megaluropus agilis, Norm. Rev. Cheirocratus Sundevalli (Rathke.) ii. 175. Rev. C. assimilis (Lillj.) Rev. Lilheborgia pallida, Bate. Rev. L. Kinahani (Bate.) Rev. Aora gracilis, Bate. Rev. Autonoé longipes (Lillj.) Rev. Leptocheirus pilosus, Zaddach, Rev. L. hirsutimanus (Bate.) Rev. Gammaropsis maculata (Johnst.) Rev. G. nana, Sars. Rev. Megamphopus cornutus, Norm, 6th A. R., p. 37. Rev. Microprotopus maculatus, Norm. Rev. Photis longicaudatus (Bate.) Rev. P. pollew, Walker. 9th A. R., p. 15, Rev. Podoceropsis excavata (Bate.) Rev. Amphithoé rubricata (Mont.) Rev. Pleonexes gammaroides, Bate. Rev. Ischyrocerus minutus, Lillj. ii. 82, iii. 250. Pl. 16 (Podocerus isopus, Walker). Rev. Podocerus falcatus (Mont.) Rev. P. pusillus, Sars. Rev. P. Herdmani, Walker. 6th A. R., p. 37. Rev. P. variegatus, Leach. Rey. P. ocius, Bate. Rev. P. cumbrensis, Stebb.and Rob. Rev. Janassa capillata (Rathke.) 11.81. Rev. Erichthonius abditus (Temp.) Rev. L. difformis, M.-Edw. Rev. Siphonecetes Colletti, Boeck. Rev. Corophium grossipes (Linn.) Rev. C. crassicorne, Bruzelius. Rey. C. Bonellii, M.-Edw. ii. 84 (C. crassi- corne). Rev. Unciola crenatipalmata (Bate.) Rev. U. planipes, Norm. Rev. Colomastiz pusilla, Grube. Chelura terebrans, Phil. Dulichia porrecta, Bate. Rev. Pitisica marina, Slabber. Rev. Protella phasma (Mont.) Rev. Pariambus typicus (Kr.) Rev. Caprella linearis (Linn.) Rev. C. acanthifera, Leach. Rev, Rev. Rev. ENTOMOSTRACA, OSTRACODA. [Identified by Professor G. S. BRADY (see 8th Ann. Rep., p. 20), Mr. A. Scorr and Dr. CHASTER.] Pontocypris trigonella, Sars. 8th A. B., p. 20. P. mytiloides, Norm. 8th A. R., p. 20. | Pontocypris serrulata, Sars. 8th A. R., p. 20. ? Argillecia cylindrica, Sars. 10th A. R. Bairdia inflata, Norm. 8th A. R., p. 2 B. acanthigera, Brady. 10th A. R Cythere Jonesii, Baird. 8th A. R., p. 20. 0. 440 Cythere tuberculata, Sars. 8th A. R., . 20. . tenera, Brady. 8th A. R., p. 20. C. finmarchica, Sars. Sth A. R. > p- 20. C. confusa, B. & N. 8th A.R., p. 20. C. albomaculata, Baird. 10th "ALR. C. globulifera, Brady. 10th A. R. C. concinna, Jones. 8th A. R., p. 20. C. dunelmensis, Norm. 8th A. R. ,»p-20. C. antiquata, Baird. 8th A. R, p. 20. C. emaciata, Brady. 8th A. R., p. 20. C. convewa, Baird. 8thA. R., p. 20. C. villosa, Sars. 8th A. R., p. 20. C. lutea, O. F. M. 10th A. R. C. Robertsoni, Brady. 10th A. R. Eucythere argus, Sars. 8th A. R., p. 20. E. declivis, Norm. 10th A. R. Krithebartonensis,Jones. 8thA. R., p.20. Loxoconcha impressa, Baird. 8th A. R., . 20. a guttata, Norm. 8th A. R., p. 20. L.tamarindus, Jones. 8thA.R., p. 20. L. pusilla, Brady. 8th A. R., p. 20. LL. multifora, Norm. 8th A. R., p. 20. Cytherura cornuta, Brady. 8th A. B., . 20. 6. angulata, Brady. 8th A. R., p. 20. C. cellulosa, Norm, 8th A. R., p. 20. C. striata, Sars. 8th A. R. .p. 20. C. sella, Sars. 8th A. R., p. ue C. nigrescens, Baird. 10th A. C. acuticostata, Sars. 10th A. a Pseudocythere caudata, Sars. 8th Ay PRs, ps 2 Cytheropteron latissimum, Norm. 8th A. R., p. 20. C. pyramidale, Brady. 8th A. R., p. 20. C. alatum, Sars. 8th A. R., p. 20. C. punctatwm, Brady. 10th A. R. Scleruchilus contortus, Norm. 8th A. R., p. 20. Paradoxostoma Normani, Brady. &th A.R., p. 20. P. ensiforme, Brady. 8th A. BR., p. 20. P. variabile, Baird. 8th A. R., p. 20. P. hibernica, Brady. 8th A. R., p. 20. P. fleruosum, Brady. 10th A. R. Philomedes interpuncta, Baird. 8th A R,, p. 20. Cytheridea papillosa, Bosquet. 8th A. R., p. 21. C. punctillata, Brady. 8th A. R., p. 21. C. elongata, Brady. 10th A. R. C. torosa, Jones. 10th A. R. Cytherideis subulata, Brady. 10th A. R. Bythocythere acuta, Norm. 8th A. R., p. 21. B. constricta, Sars. 8thA.R.,p. 21. B. turgida, Sars. 8th A. BR., p. 21. B. simplex, Norm. 10th A. R. Macherina tenuissima, Norm. 8th ADR., p- 21. REPORT— 1896. CLADOCERA. Evadne Nordmanni, Loven. i. p. 325. Podon intermedium, Lillj. 4th ae K., p. 25. COPEPODA. [See Mr. I. C. THompson’s Reports, especially the ‘Revision’ in ‘Fauna,’ iv. p. 81.] Calanus finmarchicus, Gunn. iv. 87. Metridia armata, Boeck. iv. 87. Pseudocalanus elongatus, Baird. iv. 87. P. armatus, Boeck. iv. 87. Paracalanus parvus, Claus. iv. 87. Acartia Clausii, Giesbrecht. iv. 88. A. discaudata, Giesb. iv. 88. Temora longicornis, Mill. iv. 88. Eurytemora affinis, Poppe. iv. 88. E. Clausii, Boeck. iv. 88. Scolecithrix hibernica, A. Scott. 10th A. R. Tsias clawipes, Boeck. iv. 88. Lentropages hamatus, Lillj. iv. 89. C. typicus, Kr. (Missed reporting.) Parapontella brevicornis, Lubb. iv. 89. Labidocera Wollastoni, Lubb. iv. 89. L. acutum, Dana. iv. 90. Anomalocera Patersoni, Temp. iy. 90. Eucheta marina, Prest. iv. 90. Pscudocyclopia stephoides, Thomp. iv. 314. Misophria pallida, Boeck. iv. 91. Pseudocyclops crassiremis, Brady. 10th A.R P. obtusatus, Brady & Rob. 10th A. R. Cervinia Bradyi, Norm. iv. 91. Herdmania stylifera, Thomp. iv. 92. Oithona spinifrons, Boeck. iv. 93. Cyclopina littoralis, Brady. iv. 93. C. gracilis, Claus. iv. 94. Giardella callianasse, Canu. iv. 95. Hersiliodes puffini, Thomp. iv. 95. Thorellia brunnea, Boeck. iv. 95. Cyclops Ewarti, Brady. iv. 318. C. magnoctavus, Cragin. iv. 317. C. marinus, Thomp. iv. 94. Notodelphys Allmani, Thorell. iv. 95. Doropygus pulex, Thor. iv. 95. D. poricauda, Brady. iv. 96. D. gibber, Thorell. iv. 96. Botachus cylindratus, Thorell. iv. 96. Ascidicola rosea, Thorell. iv. 96. Notopterophorus papilio, Hesse. iv. 96. Lamippi proteus, Clap. 10th A. R. L. Forbesi, T. Scott. 10th A. R. Longipedia coronata, Claus. iv. 97. L. minor, T.& A. Scott. 8thA.R., p. 19. Canuella perplexa T. & A. Scott. iv. 318. Sunaristes paguri, Hesse. 9th A. R.,p.11. LEctinosoma atlanticum, B. & R.iv. 98. E. curticorne, Boeck. iv. 98. LE. erythrops, Brady. iv. 98. LL. melaniceps, Brady. iv. 98. E. spinipes, Brady. iv. 98. ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. AAD Ectinosoma Normani, T. & A. Scott. 8th A. R., p. 19. E. clongata,T.&A. Scott. 8th A.R.,p.19. E.gracile,T.& A.Scott. 8th A. R.,p.20. EB. pygmeum, T. & A. Scott. 8th A.R., p. 20. E.. Herdmani,T. & A. Scott. 8thA. R., p- 20. Bradya typica, Boeck. — iv. 102. B. minor, T.& A. Scott. 8tha. R.,p. 20. Tachidius brevicornis, Miill. iv. 98. 7. littoralis, Pop. iv. 99. BLuterpe acutifrons, Dana. iv. 99. Robertsonia tenis, Br. & Rob. iv. 99. Amymone longimana, Claus. iv. 99. A. spherica, Claus. iv. 99. Stenhelia hispida, Brady. iv. 99. S. ima, Brady. iv. 100. S. denticulata, Thomp. iv. 100. S. hirsuta, Thomp. iv. 100. S. Herdmani, A. Scott. 10th A. R. S. similis, A. Scott. 10th A. R. S. reflewa, T. Scott. 9th A. R., p. 11. Ameira longipes, Boeck. iv. 101. A. attenuata, Thomp. iv. 101. A. longicaudata, T. Scott. 8th A.R., p. 20. A. exigua, T. Scott. 8th A. R., p. 20. A. gracilis, A.Scott. 9th A. R., p. 35. A. reflewa, T. Scott. 9th A. R., p. 35. A.longiremis,T. Scott. 8th A.R., p. 20. Jonesiella fusiformis, Br. & Rob. iv. 102. J. hyena, Thomp. iv. 102. Delavalia palustris, Brady. iv. 103. D. reflexa, Br. & Rob. iv. 103. Canthocamptus palustris, Brady. 10th A.R Mesochra Lilijeborgii, Boeck. iv. 103. S. Macintoshi,T. & A.Scott. 9thA.R., p. 35. Paramesochra dubia, T. Scott. iv. 103. Tetragoniceps Bradyi, T. Scott. iv. 103. T. consimilis,T. Scott. 9th A.R., p.35. T. trispinosus, A. Scott. 10th A. R. Diosaccus tenuicornis, Claus. iv. 103. D. propinquus, T. & A. Scott. 8th A.R., p. 20. Laophonte serrata, Claus. iv. 104. LL. spinosa, Thomp. iv. 104. LD. thoracica, Boeck. iv. 105. L. horrida, Norm. iv. 105. LT. similis, Claus. iv. 105. L. curticauda, Boeck. iv. 105. tL. lamellifera, Claus. iv. 106. L. hispida, Br. & Rob. iv. 106. L. propinqua, T. & A. Scott. 9th A Bes le L. intermedia, T. Scott. 9th A.R.,p.11. L. inopinata, T. Scott. 8th A. B., p. 20. Pseudolaophonte aculeata, A. Scott. 9th A. R., p. 35. Laophontodes bicornis, A. Scott. 10th A.R. Normanella dubia, Br. & Rob. iv. 106. Normanella attenuata, A. Scott. 9th A. R,, p. 35. Cletodes limicola, Brady. iv. 106. C. longicaudata, Br. & Rob. iv. 106. C. linearis, Claus. iv. 106. C. monensis, Thomp. iv. 106. C. similis, T. Scott. 9th A. R., p. 11. Enhydrosoma curvatum, Br. & Rob. iv. 107. Nannopus palustris, Brady. 9thA.R., 7 He UE Platychelipus littoralis, Brady. iv. 107. Dactylopus tisboides, Claus. iv. 107. D. stromii, Baird. iv. 107. D. tenuiremis, B. & R. iv. 108. D. flavus, Claus. iv. 108. D. brevicornis, Claus. iv. 108. D. minutus, Claus. iv. 108. D. rostratus, T. Scott. 8th A. B.,p. 20. Thalestris helgolandica, Claus. iv. 108. T. rufocincta, Norm. iv. 108. T. harpactoides, Claus. iv. 109. T. Clausii, Norm. iv. 109. T. rufo-violescens, Claus. iv. 109. Tf. serrulata, Brady. iv. 109. T. hibernica, Br. & Rob. iv. 109, T. lonyimana, Claus. iv. 109. T. pelétata, Boeck. iv. 109. 1. forficuloides, T. & A. Scott. 10th A. R Pseudothalestris pygm@a, T. & A. Scott. 8th A. R., p. 20. P. major, T. & A. Scott. 10th A. R. Westwoodia nobilis, Baird. iv. 110. Harpacticus chelifer, Mill. iv. 110. HI, fulwus, Fischer. iv. 110. H. jlexus, Br. & Rob. iv. 10. Zaus spinatus, Goods. iv. 110. Z. Goodsiri, Brady. iv. 110. Cancerilla tubulata, Dal. iv. 319. Alteutha depressa, Baird. iv. 110. A, interrupta, Goods. iv. 111. A. crenulata, Brady. iv. 111. Porcellidiwm viride, Phil. iv. 111. P. tenuicauda, Claus. iv. 111. Idya furcata, Baird. iv. 111. I. elongata, A. Scott. 10th A. R. I. gracilis, T. Scott. 9th A. R., p. 35, Scutellidium tisboides, Claus. iv. 11). S. fasciatum, Boeck. iv. 111. Cylindropsyllus levis, Brady. iv. 112. Monstrilla Dane, Claparéde. iv. 112. M. angtica, Lubb. iv. 112. M. rigida, Thomp. iy. 112. M. longicornis, Thomp. iv. 112. Modiolicola insignis, Auriv. 9th A. R., p. 11. Lichomolqus albens, Thorell. iv. 113. LL. agilis, Leydig. 8th A. R., p. 20. LD. fucicolus, Brady. iv. 113. L. furcillatus, Thorell. iv. 113. L. maximus, Thomp. iv. 114. Pseudanthessius Sauvagei, Canu. 8th A. R., p. 20. 442 Pseudanthessius liber, Br. & Rob. iv. 113. P. Thoreilii, Br. & Rob. iv. 113. Hermanelia rostrata, Canu. (Recorded as Lichomolqusagilis,T. & A.S. iv. 33.) Sabelliphilus Sarsii, Clap. iv. 116. Cyclopicera nigripes, Br. & Rob. iv. 116. C. lata, Brady. iv. 116. Dyspontius striatus, Thorell. iv. 118. Artotrogus Boeckti, Brady. iv. 117. A, magniceps, Brady. iv. 117. A. Normani, Br. & Rob. iv. 117. A. orbicularis, Boeck. iv. 117. Parartotrogus Richardi, T. & A. Scott. 10th A. R. Acontiophorus scutatus, Br. & Rob. iv. ae A. elongatus, T. & A. Seott. iv. 320. Collocheres gracilicauda, Brady. iv. 116. C. elegans, A. Scott. 10th A. R. Dermatomyzon gibberum, T. & A. Scott. 9th A. R., p. 11. Ascomyzon Thompsoni, A. Scott. 9th- A. B., p. 35. Chondracanthus merluccii, Holt. 10th A. R. Lernentoma lophii, Johnst. iv. 117. REPORT—1896. Caligus rapax, M.-Edw. iv. 117. C. curtus, Leach. iv. 118. Lepeopotheirus Stromii, Baird. iv. 118. L. Nordmannii, M.-Edw. iv. 118. L.. hippoglossi, Kr. iv. 118. L. obsewrus, Baird. iv. 118. L. pectoralis, Miller. iv. 320. Lernea branchialis, Linn. iv. 118. Anchorella appendiculata, Kr., iv. 321. A. uncinata, Mill. iv. 119. Lerneonema spratta, Sow. 10th A. R. Lerneopoda galei, Kroyer. 10th A. R. CIRRIPEDIA. [See Mr. MARRAT’s list in ‘ Fauna,’ i. 209; and records in the Ann. Reports since. ] Balanus porcatus, Costa. i. 2094 B. Hameri, Ascan. i. 209. B. balanoides, Linn. i. 210. B. perforatus, Brug. i. 210. B. crenatus, Brug. i. 210. Chthamalus stellatus, Poli. i. 210. Verruca Strimia, O. F. M. i. 210. Lepas anatifera, Linn. i. 210. Scalpellum vulgare, Leach. 9th A, R., p. 17, &e. Sacculina carcini, Thomp. i. 211. LIST OF THE PYCNOGONIDA. [See Reports by Mr. HALHED in ‘ Fauna,’ i. 227; and also anote in 9th Ann. Report, p. 15.] Nymphon gracile, Leach, i. 228. 9th AQUR., 3 153 NV. rubrum, Hodge. 10th A. R. NV. gallicum, Hoek. 9th A. R., p. 15. Ammothea echinata (Hodge.) i. 229. A. levis (Hodge.) i. 229 (as A. hispida). Chetonymphon hirtum, (Kr.) 9th ‘AS Rj p. 15: . Pallene brevirostris (Johnst.) i. 230, P. producta, Sars. 9th A. R., p. 15. Phoxichilidium femoratum (Rathke.) i. 230. Anoplodactylus petiolatus (Kr.) 9th A. R., p. 15. Phoxichilus spinosus (Mont.) i. 230. Pycnogonum litorale (Strém.) i, 231. [Notr.—A few of the marine insects and mites have been identified, but the lists are so far from complete that it would be useless to print them. ] LIST OF THE MOLLUSCA. [See Reports by Mr. R. D. DARBISHIRE in ‘ Fauna,’ i. 232 ; and by Mr. F. ARCHER in iii. 59, with additions by Mr. A. LEICESTER and Dr. CHASTER.] LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. Anomia ephippium, L. i. 234, 248, 320, 337 ; iii. 62. Do., var. sguamula, L. iii. 62. Do., var. aculeata, Miill. iii. 62. Do., var. cylindrica, Gm. iii. 62. A. patelliformis, L. i. 5, 6, 235, 241, 248 ; iii. 62. Ostrea edulis, L, i. 235, 248, 337; iii. 62. Pecten pusio, L. i. 5, 235, 241, 24 319, 337. P. varius, L. i. 5, 235, 248, 337; iii. 32, 62. P. opercularis, L. iii. 215, 62. P. tigrinus, Mill. i. 235, 248; iii. 62. P. tigrinus, var. costata, Jeff, i. 13, 235, 337. 1. 235, 248, 337; ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 4.43 Pecten Testa, Biv. 7th A. R., pp. 15, 28. P. striatus, Mill. iii. 62; 6th A. R., p. 25. P. similis, Lask.i. 248,319, 337 ; iii. 63. P. maximus, L. i. 241, 248, 319, 337 ; li. 14. Lima elliptica, Jeff. 1.13, 235, 248, 337. (2) ZL. subauriculata, Mont. i. 248. L. loscombii, G. B. Sow. i. 7, 13, 235, 248, 319, 337; iii. 63. L. hians, Gm. i. 248. Mytilus edulis, L. i. 31, 235, 241, 248, 337. M. modiolus, L. i. 241,249, 337; iii. 63. ? M. barbatus, L. i. 6, 235, 249; iii. 63. M. adriaticus, Lmk. i. 249. M. phaseolinus, Phil, Isle of Man, South. 10th A. R. Modiolaria marmorata, Forb. i. 13,31, 235, 249, 320, 321, 337; ii. 120, 121, 127. M. discors, L. Nucula sulcata, Brown. pp. 16, 28. NV. nucleus, L. i. 235, 249, 337. Do., var. radiata, ¥. & H. iii. 63. NV. nitida, G. B. Sow. i. 249, iii. 63. Leda minuta, Mill. i. 249. iii. 63. Do., var. brevirostris, Jeff. 10th A. R. Pectunculus glycimeris, L. 249, 319, 323, 337. Arca lactea, L. i. 249. A. tetragona, Poli, i. 249, 319, 337. Lepton squamosum, Mont. i. 249, iii. 64. L. nitidum, Turt. iii. 64. ? L.sulcatulum, Jeff. 6th A.R., p. 26. L. Clarkia, Cl. 7th A. R., p. 28. Montacuta substriata, Mont. i. 249, iii. 64. M., bidentata, Mont. i. 250, iii. 64. M. Jerruginosa, Mont. i. 250. Lasea rubra, Mont. i. 250. Kellia suborbicularis, Mont. i, 250. Loripes lacteus, L. i. 250. Incina spinifera, Mont. iii. 64. L. borealis, L. i. 250, iii. 64. Axinus flecuosus, Mont. i. 250. Diplodonta rotundata, Mont. i. 250. Cyamium minutun, Fabr. i, 250, iii. 64. Cardium echinatum, L. i. 236, 241, _ 250, iii. 61, 64. C. fasciatum, Mont. i. 250. C. nodosum, Turt. iii. 64. C. edule, L. i. 81, 241, 251. C. minimum, Phil. 7th A.B., p. 28; 8th A. R., p. 27. C norvegicum, Speng. i.6, 236, 251, 337 ; iii. 64. Isocardia cor, L. 7th A. B.,p. 28; 8th A. R., p. 30. Cyprina islandica, L. i. 242, 251. i, 249, 337; iii. 63. ith A. R., i. 13, 236, Astarte suleata, Da C. i. 251, 337; iii. 65. A. suleata, var. scotica, M. & Ri. iii. 65. A. triangularis, Mont. i. 251. Circe minima, Mont. i. 251. Venus exoleta, L. i. 236, 242, 251, 337. V. lincta, Pult. 1. 242, 251. V. chione, L. iii. 65. V. fasciata, Da C. 251, 387 ; iii. 65. V. casina, L. i. 13, 236, 251, 337. V. ovata, Penn. i. 31, 236, 251; ili. 65. V. gallina, L. i. 236, 251, 337. Tapes virgineus, L. i. 236, 242, 251, 337; iii. 65. T. pullastra, Mont. i. 242, 251. Do., var. perforans, Mont. i. §, 236. T. decussatus, L. i. 242, 251. Lucinopsis undata, Penn. i. 242, 251; iii. 65. Tellina crassa, Penn. i. 242, 251. Tf. balthica, L. i. 31, 236, 251, 337. T. tenuis, Da C. i. il, 251. TL. fabula, Gron. i. 251, ili. 65. T. squalida, Pult. iii. 65. T. donacina, L. i. 6, 236, 252 ; iii. 65. T. pusilla, Phil. i. 252. Psammobia tellinella, Lmk. 252, 337 ; iii. 66. P. ferroénsis, Chem. i. 237, 252. P. vespertina, Chem. 8th A.R., p. 27. Donazx vittatus, Da C. i. 252; iii. 61. Mactra solida,L. i. 5, 237, 239, 252. M.solida, var. truncata, Mont. Puffin Island. 10th A. R. MM. solida, var. elliptica, Bro. i. 237, 337. M. subtruncata, Da C. i. 252. Do., var. striata, Brown, 10th A. R. Do., var. inequalis, Jeff. 10th A. R. MM: stultorum, L. i. 237, 242, 252 Do., var. cinerea, Mont. i. 5. Lnitraria elliptica, Lmk. 1. 237, 252. Serobicularia prismatica, Mont. i. 6, 237, 252; iii. 66. S. nitida, Mill. 8th A. R., p. 27. S. alba, Wood. i. 6, 237, 252. S. tenuis, Mont. i. 253. S. piperata, Gm. i. 253. Solecwrtus candidus, Ren. i. 253. S. antiquatus, Pult. i. 253. Ceratisolen legumen, L. i. 242, 253. Solen pellucidus, Penn. i. 242, 253; lii. 66. S. ensis, L. S. siliqua, L. S. vagina, L. Pandora inequivaivis, L. Lyonsia norvegica, Chem. iii. 66. Thracia pretenuis, Pult. i. 13, 237, 253, 337. T. papyracea, Poli, i. 243, 253. T. convexa, W. Wood. i. 242, 253. 13, 236, i. 18, 236, 242, i. 237, i, 242, 253. I, 2ba: i, 242, 253. iii. 66. i, 2533 4A Thracia distorta, Mont. i. 253. Corbula gibba, Olivi. i. 7, 237, 253; lii. 66. Mya arenaria, L. M. truneata, L. M. Binghami, Turt. iii. 66. Panopea plicata, Mont. 10th A. R. Saxicava rugosa, L. i. 6, 238, 243, 253, 320, 337; ii. 120; iii. 12, 149. Do., var. aretica, L. Isle of Man, South. 10th A. R. 1. 238, 253. 1. 31, 243, 253. 1. 6. 238, 253 ; REPORT—1896, Pholas candida, L. 254. P. crispata, Li. i. 8, 31, 238, 243, 254, B22, dole Pholaditica papyracea, 254. Teredo navalis, L. iii. 67. T. meqgotara, Han., and var. mionota, Jett. Southport. 10th A. R. T. norvegica, sp., var. divaricata, Desh. 10th A. R. i. 4, 5, 31, 243, Turt. re SCAPHOPODA. Dentalium entale, L. 338, 67, D. tarentinum, lii. 67. mks | as. 254s i. 6, 13, 238, 254, | Siphonodentalium lofotense, Sars. 10th A. R. POLYPLACOPHORA. Chiton fascicularis, L. i. iii. 67. C. diserepans, Bro. iii. 29. C. Hanleyi, Bean. 7th A. R., p. 42. €. cancellatus, G. B. Sow. i. 238, 255, 338. C. cinereus, L. 244, 255; i. 18, 238, 255, 338. | Chiton albus, Ls. i. 238, 255, 338. C. marginatus, Penn. 8th A. R., p. 27. C. ruber, Lowe. i. 255. C. levis, Mont. i. 238, 255, 338. C. marmoreus, Fabr. i. 255. GASTEROPODA. Patella vulyata, L. i. 239, 255, 338. Do., var. athletica, Bean. i. 321, 338. flelcion pellucidum, L. i. 239, 244, 255, 320. Do., var. levis, Penn. i. 320, 338. Leetura testudinalis, Mill. i. 244, 255; iii. 67. T. virginea, Mill. i. 255; iii. 67. Propilidium ancyloides, Forb. 7th A. R., p. 28; 8th, p. 27. Puncturella noachina, L. iii. 67. Limarginula fissura, L. i. 239, 255, 338 ; iii. 67. Do., var. elata, Jeff. LE. rosea, Bell. i. 255. Fissurella greca, L. i. 319, 338; iii. 67. Capulus lungaricus, L. i. 255. 2 Cyclostrema cutlerianum, Cl. 6th A. RB., pp. 26, 39. C. nitens, Phil. 6th A. R., pp. 26, 39. C. serpuloides, Mont. © iii. 68. Zrochus helicinus, Fabr. Th A.R., p. 28. 1. magus, L. i. 239, 256, 323, 338. T. tumidus, Mont. i. 239, 256, 338; iii. 68. T. cinerarius, L. i. 18, 239, 256, 338. T. umbilicatus, Mont. i. 256. T. Montacuti,W.Wood. i. 256; iii. 68. 7. striatus, L. i. 256. DT. millegranus, Phil. i. 256; iii, 68. T. qgranulatus, Born. i. 257; iii. 68. YL. zizyphinus, L. i. 5, 13, 239, 257, 319, 322, 338 ; iii. 68. 10th A. R. Trochus z:zyphinus, var. humilior, Jeff. 10th A. R. Do., var. Lyonsii, Leach. iii. 68. Do., var. lwvigata, J. Sow. iii. 68. Phasianella pullus, L. i. 13, 239, 257, 319, Sa0 + Il. ob, obs Lacuna crassior, Mont. i. 31, 257; iii. 68. L. divaricata, Fabr. i. 31, 257, 338; iii. 68, 69. L.. puteolus, Turt. L. pallidula, Da C. i. 257; iii. 69. Littorina obtusata, L. i. 257, 338. LL. rudis, Maton. i. 257. LL littorea, L. i. 31, 257, 338. ? Rissoa striatula, Mont. Waterloo. 10th A. R. Tk. cancellata, Da C. iii. 69. FR. calathus, F. and H. iii. 69. R. reticulata, Mont. i. 257. R. punctura, Mont. i. 257; iii. 69. RF. abyssicola, Forb. 7th A. R. pp. 16, 28. R. zetlandica, Mont. South. 10th A. R. R. costata, Ad. i. 257; iii. 69: R. parva, Da ©. i. 257; iii. 69. Do., var. interrupta, Ad. iii. 36, 69. R.inconspicua, Ald. 8th A. R., p. 27. R. violacea, Desm. 7th A. R., p. 28. R. striata, Ad. i. 258; iii. 69. Do., var. arctica, Lov. Puffin Island. 10th A. R. - Do., var. distorta, Mar. iii. 69. Isle of Man, 10th A. R. ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 445 Rissoa vitrea, Mont. i. 31, 258; iii. 69. R. soluta, Phil. iii. 70. R. semistriata, Mont. iii. 36, 70. R. cingillus, Mont. i. 258; iii. 69, 70. Do., var. »upestris, Forb. 7th A. R., Pb. Hydrobia ulve, Penn. i. 31, 258. H. ventrosa, Mont. Colwyn Bay. 10th A. R. Do., var. ovata, Jeff. iii. 70. Jeffreysia diaphana, Ald. iii. 70. J. opalina, Jeff. ili. 4th A. B.,p. 36. Shenea planorbis, Fabr. i. 258; iii. 70. Homalogyra atomus, Phil. i. 258 ; iii. 70. H. rota, F.& H. 6th A. R., p. 39. Cacum trachea, Mont. 7th A.R.,p. 28; 8th A. R., p. 27. C. glabrum, Mont. iii. 70. Twrritella terebra, L. i. 259. Scalaria turtone, Turt. i 259. S. communis, Lmk. i. 259. » Aclis unica, Mont. iii. 70. A, ascaris, Turt. iii. 70. A, supranitida, 8. Wood. i. 259; iii. 70. A. Gulsone, Cl. 8th A. R., p. 27. Odostomia minima, Jeff. Isle of Man, South. 10th A. R. O. nivosa, Mont. 6th A. B., p. 39. O. Lukisi, Jeff. 7th A. B., p. 28. O. clavulu, Loy. 10th A. k. O. albella, Lov. 10th A. R. Do., var. subcylindrica, Marsh, 10th A. R. O. vissoides, Han. iii. 70. Do., var. dubia, Jeff. iii. 70. Do., var. glabrata. 10th A. R. O. pallida, Mont. iii. 71. O. conoidea, Broc. iii. 61, 71. O. conspicua, Ald. iii. 71. O. unidentata, Mont. i. 259. O. turrita, Han. 6th A. R., p. 39. Do., var. nana, Jeff. 10th A. R. O. plicata, Mont. i. 259; iii. 71. O. insculpta, Mont. Isle of Man, South. 10th A. R. O. Warreni, Thomp. 6th A. B., p. 39. O. dolioliformis, Jeff. iii. 71. O. decussata, Mont. iii. 71. O. indistincta, Mont. iii. 71. Do., var. brevior, Jeff. iii. 71. O. interstincta, Mont. i. 260. Do., var. sutwralis, Phil. 10th A. R. O. spiralis, Mont. i. 260. O. scalaris, Phil. 6th A. R., p. 26. O. rufa, Phil. i. 260; iii. 71. Do., var. fulvocincta, Thomp. iii. 71. O. lactea, L. i. 260. O. pusilla, Phil. iii. 61, 71. O. scille, Scac. iii. 71. O. acicula, Phil. 6th A. R., p. 26. “th AS) RB... py 28; Odostomia nitidissima, Mont. 6th A. R., p. 26. O. diaphana, Jeff. 10th A. R. Eulima polita, L. i. 261. Lt. intermedia, Can. 7th A. R., p 28. H. distorta, Desh. i. 261; iii. 71. E. subulata, Don. i. 261; iii. 71. E. bilineata, Ald. 6th A. R., p. 26: 7th A. R., p. 16. Natica catena, Da C. i. 11, 240, 261, 338. NV. Alderi, Forb. i. 240, 244, 261, 338. NV. Montacuti, Forb. i. 261. Adeorbis subcarinatus, Mont. iii. 28,72. A. imperspicuus, Monter. 7th A. R., pp. 16, 17, 28 (as Cyclostrema millepunctatum, Friele). Lamellaria perspicua, L. i. 244, 261. Velutina levigata, Penn. i. 239, 244, 261, 323, 338 ; iii. 72. Aporrhais pes-pelicani, L. i. 239, 244, 261. Cerithium reticulatum, Da C. i. 261. C. perversum, L. Isle of Man, South. 10th A. R. Cerithiopsis tubercularis, Mont. iii. 61, 72. Purpura lapilius, L. i. 31, 262, 338 ; iii, 72. Do., var. imbricata, Lmk. iii. 72. Buccinum undatum, L. 1.31, 239, 262, 338. Do., var. littoralis, King. 10th A. R. Do., var. Jordoni, Chester. 10th A. R. Murex erinaceus, L. i. 5, 240, 262, 319, 333. Lachesis minima, Mont. iii. 72. Trophon muricatus, Mont. i. 240, 262- Tf. barvicensis, Johnst. i.240, 262,338. T. truncatus, Str. i. 262, 388. iii. 72. Do., var. alba, Jett. 10th A. R. Fusus antiquus, L. i. 240, 244, 262, 338. Do., var. alba, Jeff. Isle of Man, South. 10th A. R. F. gracilis, Da C. i. 5, 240, 244, 338; iii. 73. Do., var. convoluta, Jeff. 10th A. R. F. propinguus, Ald.i. 244, 262 ; iii. 73- F. Jeffreysianus, Fisch. i. 244. Nassa reticulata, L. i. 263. NV. inerassata, Str. i. 263; iii. 73. Defrancia teres, Forb. 6th A. i, pp: 26, 39. D. gracilis, Mont. i. 263, D. Leufroyi, Mich. 6th A. R., p. 39. D. linearis, Mont. i. 263 ; iii. 73. Do., var. equalis, Jeff. 10th A. R. D. purpurea, Mont. i. 263. Pleurotoma attenuata, Mont. Isle of Man, South. 10th A. R. P. costata, Don. iii. 73. P. nebula, Mont. i. 240, 263, 338; iii. 73. P. septangularis, Mont. i. 263. 4.4.6 Pleurotoma rufa, Mont. P. turricula, Mont. 338 ; lil. 73. Cyprea Europea, Mont. 263, 317, 338. Cylichna umbiticata, Mont. 7th A. R., 28: A cylindracea, Penn. i. 244, 264. Utriculus truncatulus, Brug. iii. 73. Do., var. pellucida, Bro. Puffin Island. 10th A. R. U. obtusus, Mont. i. 73. U. hyalinus, Turt. 7th A. R., p. 28. U. mamillatus, Phil. 10th A. R. Acteon tornatilis, L. i. 244, 264. Bulla hydatis, L. 6th A. R., p. 35, i. 263. i. 5, 240, 263, i. 13, 240, 31, 264; iii, 6th A. R., p. 39; REPORT—1896. Bulla utriculus, Broc. 6th A. R., p. 39 ; 7th A. R., p. 28. Scaphander lignarius, L. lii. 73. Philine scabra, Mill. 7th A. R., p. 28. P. catena, Mont. Isle of Man, South. 10th A. R. P. anqulata, Jeff. 7th A. R., p. 28; 8th A. R., p. 27. P. punctata, Cl. iii. 74. P. nitida, Jeff. iii. 74. P. aperta, L. 1.12, 31, 240, 265, 317 ; iii. 28, 74. Aplysia punctata, Cuv. i. 18, 240, 265, 323, 339 ; iii. 137. Plewrobranchus membranaceus, Mont. i. 13, 240, 2€5, 322, 339; ili. 74. P. plumula, Mont. i. 13; iii. 74. i, 244, 264; NUDIBRANCHIATA. {See Reports by Professor HERDMAN and Mr. CLUBB in ‘ Fauna,’ i. 268, ii. 98, and iii. 131.] Archidoris tuberculata, Cuv. i. 268. _ A. Johnstoni, Ald. & Han. i. 268. A. flammea, Ald. & Han. i. 268. Doris, sp. (2). 9th A. R., p. 11. Lamellidoris bilamellata, Linn. i. 268. LL. depressa, Ald. & Han. i. 269. L.. proxima, Ald. & Han. i. 269. I. aspera, Ald. & Han. 9thA. R., p. 11. Agirus punctilucens, D’Orb. 9th A. R., De Le Acanthodoris pilosa, O. F. M. i. 269. A. quadrangulata, Ald. & Han. 1.269. Gonivdoris nodosa, Mont. i. 269. G. castanea, Ald. & Han. i. 270. Triopa claviger, O. F. M. i. 270. Polycera Lessoni, D’Orb. i. 270, Do.,var. ocellata, Ald. & Han. i. 270. P. quadrilineata, O. F. M. 1. 270. Ancula cristata, Alder. 1.270; ili. 134. Tritonia Hombergi, Cuv. i. 270. T. plebeia, Johnst. i. 271. Dendronotus arborescens, O. F. M. i. 271; 11. 101. Lomanotus genei, Ver. 9th A. R., p. ll. Doto coronata, Gm. i. 272. D. fragilis, Forbes. i. 272. Janus cristatus, D. Ch. i. 272. J. hyatinus, Ald. & Han. i 2 . 272. Eolidia papillosa, Linn. i, 273. Coryphella gracilis, Ald. &Han. i. 274, C. Landsburgi, Ald. & Han. i. 274. C. rufibranchialis, Johnst. i. 274; iii. 140. Favorinus albus, Ald. & Han. 9th A. R., p. 11. Cavolina angulata, Ald. & Han. Tth A. R., p. 45. Cratena concinna, Ald. & Han. i. 274. C. olivacea, Ald. & Han. i. 274. C. amena, Ald. & Han. i. 274. C. aurantiaca, Ald. & Han. i. 275. C. arenicola, Forb, i. 275. C. viridis, Forb. i. 275. Cuthona nana, Ald. & Han. i. 275. C. aurantiaca, Ald. & Han. 9th b Need sei opal I Galvina picta, Ald. & Han. i. 275. G. tricolor, Forbes. i. 275. G. Farrani, Ald. & Han. 9th A. B., jou Tergipes despecta, Johnst. i. 276. T. exigua, Ald. & Han. i. 276. Embletonia pallida, Ald. & Han. i. 276. E. pulehra, Ald. & Han. 9th A,B, Daylis Fiona marina, Forsk. ii. 108. Elysia viridis, Mont. 9th A. R., p. 11. Runcina Hancochi, Forb. 9th A. B., p. ll. Eolidiella glauca, Ald. & Han. i. 273. Acta@onia corrugata, Ald. & Han. 9th Facelina coronata, Korb. i. 273. A.R., p. 11, F. Drummondi, Thomp. i. 273. Limapontia nigra, John. 9th A. R., Coryphella lineata, Lov. i. 274. p- 11. PULMONIBRANCHIATA. Melampus bidentatus, Mont. iii. 74. Do.,var. alba, Turt. Isle of Man, South. 10th-A. R. Melampus myosotis, Drap. 7th A. R., p. 28. Otina otis, Turt. i. 265; iii. 74. ae ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 4.4.7 PTEROPODA. Spirialis retroversus, Flem, 7th A. R., p. 15. CEPHALOPODA. [See Mr. Hoyxp’s list in ‘ Fauna,’ i. 278, and additions in A. R. since. ] Sepiola atlantica, Lamk. i. 6, 24.) 1. 245, 265. 7th 246, 266,279. 7th A. R., 28. S. scandica, Stnp. 7th A. R., p. 28. Rossia macrosoma, D. Ch. i. 245, 266. Loligo media, Linn. i. 5, 7, 245, 266, 279. Loligo Forbesi, Stnp. A. R., p. 28. Sepia officinalis, Linn. Eledone cirrosa, Lamk. 266, 278; iii. 35. 1. 29, 245, 266. i. 6, 24, 246, | } LIST OF THE TUNICATA. [See Professor HERDMAN’s Report upon the Tunicata in the ‘ Fauna,’ vol. i., and Second Report upon the Tunicata in the ‘ Fauna,’ vol. ii., and various passing refer- ences and short lists in the Annual Reports. ] LARVACEA. Oikopleura flabellum, J. Mill. i. 281; Fritillaria, sp. Port Erin. 10th ii. 114, ALR ASCIDIACEA. Polycyclus Savignyi, Hrdm. i. 283, ii. 114. Botryllus moriv, Giard (2). i. 284, 6th A. R., p. 35. B. smaragdus, M.-Edw. i. 285, ii. 115. B. violaceus,M.-Edw. i.286, 6th A. R., . 35. B. Schlosseri, Pall. i. 287, ii. 115. B. gemmeus, Sav. 1. 287. B. pruinosus, Giard (2). i. 287. _ B. aurolineatus, Giard (2). 6th A. R., p. 35. Botrylloides rubrum, M.-Edw. i, 287; ii. 115. B. albicans, M.-Edw. i. 287; ii. 116. B. Leachii, Sav. (2). i. 288; ii. 115. B. sp. (2). 1. 288. Sarcobotrylloides, sp. (2). ii. 116. Distoma rubrum, Sav.(?). i.288; ii. 116. D. vitreum, Ald. (2). i. 289. D. sp. (2). i. 289. Aplidium fallax, John. (2). 1. 290. Parascidia Forbesii, Ald. i. 290. Morchellium argus, M.-Edw. i. 290; ii. 117. Morchellioides Alderi, Hrdm. i. 291. Amaroucium proliferum, M.-Edw. i. 293; ial: Amaroucium, sp. (!). 1. 298. Glossophorum sabulosum, Giard. 7th A. R., p: 17. | Leptoclinum durum, M.-Edw. i. 293; ii. 118. LI. maculatum, M.-Edw. i. 293 ;ii.117. L. candidum, Sav. (2). i. 294; ii, 117. Leptoclinum asperum, M.-Edw. i. 294, Diplosoma punctatum, Forb. i. 294. D.gelatinoswm, M.-Edw.i. 295; ii. 118. D. crystallinum, Giard. i. 295, Astellium spongiforme, Giard. 7th WB of We Clavelina lepadiformis, O. F. M. i. 296; ii. 118. Perophora Listeri, Wieg. i. 297; ii.119. Ciona intestinalis, Linn. i. 297, 362; ii. 119. Agcidiella virginea, O. F, M. ii. 124. A. scabra, O. F. M. A. elliptica, A. & H. A. aspersa, O. F.M. i. 300; ii. 125. A. venosa, O. F. M. ii. 122. Ascidia mentula, O. F. M. i. 298; ii. 121. A, plebeia, Ald. i. 300; ii. 121. A. depressa, Ald. & H. i. 301; 6th A. R., p. 35. A. prunum, O. F. M. i. 301. Corella parallelogramma, O. F.M. i, 301; ii, 126. Forbesella tessellata, Forbes. 3rd A.R., p. 37. 1. 298 ; 1, 2995 lis 125. i. 299. Styelopsis grossularia, V. Ben. i. 302; li. 126. Polycarpa rustica, Linn. (2). 1. 303; ii. 127. P. comata, Ald. i. 303; 8th A. R., p. 11. P. pomaria, Sav. i. 304; ii. 127. P. glomerata, Ald. A. R. P. monensis, Hrdm. i. 305. Cynthia echinata, Linn. ii. 127, A448 REPORT—1896. Cynthia morus, Forb. p. 19. Molgula occulta, Kupf. i. 307; li. 128. 7th A. R., Molgula citrina, A. & H. ii. 128; 6th A. R., p. 35. M. Hancochi, Hrdm. ii. 130. EBugyra glutinans, Mol. i. 309; ii. 128- CEPHALOCHORDA. Branchiostoma lanceolatum, Pall. 10th A. R. LIST OF THE FISHES. [See lists by Mr. P. M. C. KERMODH in ‘ Zoologist,’ 1893, and by Prof. HERDMAN in ‘ Transactions’ Liverpool Biological Society for 1893.] Labrax lupus, Cuv. Serranus cabrilla, C. and V. Mullus barbatus, var. surmuletus, Linn, Cantharus lineatus, Mont. Pagellus centrodontus, C, and V. Sebastes norvegicus, Ascan. Cottus scorpius, Linn. C. bubalis, Buph. Trigla hirundo, Linn. T. cuculus, Linn. ° T. lineata, Gm. T. gurnardus, Linn. Agonus cataphractus, Bl. Lophius piscatorius, Linn. Tyachinus draco, Linn. T. vipera, C. and V. Scomber scomber, Linn. S. Colias, Gm. Orcynus germo, Lac. Thynnus pelamys, Linn. Lampris luna, Gm. Caranz trachurus, Lac. Zeus faber, Cuv. Xiphias gladius, Linn. Sciena aquila, Risso. Gobius niger, Linn. G. Ruthensparri, Euph. G. minutus, Gm. G. paganellus, Gm. G. pictus, Malm. G. quadrimaculatus, C. and V. G. Parnelli, Day. Aphia pellucida, Nard. Callionymus lyra, Linn. Cyclopterus lumpus, Linn, Liparis Montagui, Don. L. vulgaris, Fem. Lepadogaster Gouanii, Lac. L. bimaculatus, Don. Carelophus Ascanii, Coll. Blennius pholis, Linn. B. ocellaris, Linn. B, galerita, Linn. B. gattorugine, Bl. Centronotus gunnellus, Bl. Zoarces viviparus, Linn. ‘Gasterosteus aculeatus, Linn. G. spinachia, Linn. G. pungitius, Linn. Migil chelo, Cav. Labrus maculatus, Bl. L. mixtus, Fries and Eks. Centrolabrus evoletus, Linn. Crenilabrus mélops, Cuv. Ctenolabrus rupestris, Linn, Gadus morrhua, Linn. G. merlangus, Linn. G. virens, Linn. G. eglefinus, Linn. G. luscus, Linn. G. minutus, Linn. G. pollachius, Linn. Merluccius vulgaris, Cuv. Molva vulgaris, Flem. Loto vulgaris, Cuv. Phycvis blennoides, Bl. Motella tricirrata, Nils. M. cimbria, Linn. M. mustela, Linn. Raniceps raninus, Linn. Ammodytes lanceolatus, Les. A. tobianus, Lion. Rhombus maximus, Cuy. RR. levis, Rond. Hippoglossus vulgaris, Flem. Hippoglossoides limandoides, Bloch. Zeugopterus punctatus, Bl. Z. wnimaculatus, Risso. - Z. norvegicus, Giinth. Arnoglossus megastoma, Don. A. laterna, Walb. Pleuronectes platessa, Linn. P. limanda, Linn. P. flesus, Linn. Pleuronectes microcephalus, Don. P. cynoglossus, Linn. Solea vulgaris, Quen. S. lutea, Risso. S. aurantiaca, Giinth. S. lascaris, Risso. S. variegata, Don. Maurolicus Pennantii, Walb. Argentina sphyrena, Linn. Salmo salar, Linn. S. trutta, Linn. S. fario, Linn. Osmerus eperlanus, Linn. Belone vulgaris, Flem, Fngraulis encrasicholus, Lira. Clupea harengus, Linn. ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. Clupea sprattus, Linn. C. finta, Cuv. Anguilla vulgaris, Turt. - Conger vulgaris, Cuv. Siphonostoma typhie, Linn. Syngnathus acus, Linn. Nerophis equoreus, Linn. NV. ophidion, Linn. NV. lumbriciformis, Willugh. Orthagoriscus mola, Linn. Carcharias glaucus, Cuv. Acipenser sturio, Linn. Galeus vulgaris, Flem. Mustelus vulgaris, Mill. Lamna cornubica, Gm. Alopias vulpes, Gm. Selacke maxima, Gunner. Seyllium canicula, Cav. S. catulus, Cuv. Pristiurus melanostomus, Naf. Acanthias vulgaris, Risso. Rhina squatina, Linn. Torpedo nobiliana, Bonap. Raia batis, Linn. RL. oxyrhynchus, Linn. R. alba, Lacép. R&R. clavata, Linn. R. maculata, Mont. RL. circularis, Couch. R. macrorhynchus, Raf. R. radiata, Don. Trygon pastinaca, Linn. Petromyzon marinus, Linn. P. fluviatilis, Linn. 449 LIST OF THE MARINE MAMMALIA. [See Report on Seals and Whales, by Mr. Moorg, in ‘ Fauna,’ ii. p. 134.] PINNIPEDIA. Phoca grenlandica, Fabr. ii. 136. P. vitulina, Linn. 10th A. R. Halicherus grypus, Fabr. ii. 136. Cystophora cristata, Erxl. ii. 137. CETACEA. Megaptera longimana, Rud. ii. 139. Hyperoodon rostratus, Chem. ii. 140. Balenoptera musculus, Linn. 10th A. R. Phocena communis, F. Cuv. ii. 142. Orea gladiator, Lac. ii. 143. Lagenorhynchus albirostris, Gray. ii. 144 \ Delphinus delphis, Linn. ii. 147. Tursiops tursio, Fabr. ii. 148. CONCLUDING REMARKS. Although this is put forward as a final report of the present Com- mittee, they do not desire thereby to indicate that the work of exploring the zoology, botany, and geology of the Irish Sea is finished. Probably such an investigation can never be finished ; but the Committee feel that the occasion of the British Association meeting in Liverpool is one that they ought to take advantage of to present a report which is final, in the sense that it completes the present series of reports, and brings together and sums up the results of all previous marine biological work in the district (see figs. 1 and 2). For the future, they hope that the work will be carried on actively by the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee, the body of investigators by whom most of the work has been done in the past. The Port Erin Biological Station is equipped for such work, and the British Association can best render effective help by supporting the general investigations carried on at that station, or by giving grants for special researches. As may be seen from this and the preceding reports, the greater part of the work of the Committee has been zoological ; botany, however, has been represented by several investigators, and lists are given above of the marine algae, including diatoms. Professor Weiss, a member of the Committee, has commenced observations on the reproduction of diatoins, and has collected much material for an investigation of the coralline alge, upon both of which he will report to the Liverpool Biological Society during next session. oh ae to the geology of the sea-floor, Mr. Clement Reid considers ° GG@ 450 REPORT—1896. it premature to report at any length. He has already in previous reports remarked upon the characteristics of the deposits ; he has all the material, in the form of samples of the various bottoms brought up by the dredge, Fie. 1.— Plan of the L.M.B.C. District. irra | i MM «0 « if i aN Tee NR 1 ahs i NOCACHE cy Ny Wet , i) AI” a 50 Faths., 76 Feths, before him at the Jermyn Street Museum, and he proposes to work these up at some future date, when he is able to compare them with deposits from the other seas around the British Isles. The Iife-History and Economic Relations uf the Coccidee of Ceylon; by Mr. E. E. GREEN.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. McLacuan (Chairman), Professor G. B. Howes (Secretary), Lord WatsinGHaM, Professor R. MELpoLA, Professor L. C. Miaun, Mr. R. NewstTeabD, Dr. D. Saarp, and Colonel C. SWINHOE. Part I. of this work is expected ‘to be ready in October. In addition to the letterpress it will contain thirty lithographic plates. The estimated cost of the entire work is about,1,000/., and up to the present time the promises of financial support received do not amount to 200/., and the , Committee ask to be reappointed, and to receive a grant of 100 ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 451 Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.—Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Professor NEwTon (Chairman), Mr. JOHN CorpEaux (Secretary), Mr. Joun A. Harvie-Brown, Mr. R. M. Barrinetron, Mr. W. HaGue CuarKE, and Rey. EH. P. KNUBLEY, appointed for the purpose of making a Digest of the Observations on the Migrations of Birds at Lighthousesand Lightvessels, 1880-1887. Your Committee have at last the pleasure of reporting that the Digest which they were appointed to make of the observations on the Migration of Birds taken at Lighthouses and Lightvessels from 1880 to 1887 has been completed, and of presenting the same to the Association. As has been before stated at meetings of the Association, this Digest is the work of one of their number, and the remaining Members of the Committee have to record their deep sense of the obligation under which they lie to Mr. William Eagle Clarke, of the Science and Art Museum, Edinburgh, for the assiduity with which he has so long laboured on the enormous task he undertook, and to congratulate him on the success with which he has overcome the countless dithculties it presented. In these congratulations the Committee feel that they are entitled to ask the Association to join, as well as ornithologists of all countries. It cannot be doubted that henceforth, as regards the British Islands, there is now established a firm basis on which may rest a sound and proper conception of many of the phenomena of British migration, for this Digest contains a plain statement of ascertained facts, and is wholly free from theory or speculation of any kind. Thus it will be found to differ from almost everything that has hitherto been published on the subject, In saying this much your Committee would, however, guard them- selves from the inference that the business is exhausted—on the contrary, a very great deal more is yet to be learned from a further examination of the observations which have been collected at the Lighthouses and Light- ships, while the whole subject of inland migration is untouched. Whether it will be possible for the Committee to proceed further must entirely de- pend on the action of the Association ; but they may say that Mr. Clarke, so far from being deterred by the magnitude of the task with which he has so successfully grappled, is willing to work out the details of migra- tion for each of the species to which the observations refer, and has even already begun to do so; and it is to be hoped that he will receive some encouragement to continue such useful work. And the Committee may re- mark that the very considerable funds that private generosity has placed at their service are now exhausted. Though on the present occasion the thanks of the Committee are so certainly due to Mr. Clarke, they feel that, while presenting what may be their final Report, they must again acknowledge their indebtedness to all who have helped them in prosecuting their enquiries ; first, to the Master and Elder Brethren of the Trinity House, the Commissioners of Northern Lights, and the Commissioners of Irish Lights ; but more especially to the men of the several Lighthouses and Lightships, without whose cheerful! and intelligent co-operation nothing could have been done. @a2 452 REPORT—1896. DIGEST. INTRODUCTION. In presenting this Digest of the Results obtained concerning the Migra- tion of Birds, as observed at Lighthouses and Lightships around the coasts of the British Islands, to the Committee appointed by the British Association for the investigation of that subject, during the years 1880-1887 inclusive, I beg to offer an explanation regarding the lapse of time that has taken place between my appointment and the completion of the work. In a word, this has been entirely due to the magnitude of the under- taking. I was instructed to base the Digest upon an examination de novo of the whole of the information furnished to the Committee during the eight years of its active existence. Thus the whole of the data required to be reduced to order before it was available for the purposes of the Digest. Moreover, at the outset there presented itself for consideration an extremely perplexing problem, namely—How to treat or arrange such a vast array of facts on a systematic plan which would render them com- prehensive, and at the same time suited to the enquiry in all its varied aspects. It was not until a number of abortive attempts had been embarked upon that a plan was devised which met the very special requirements of the case. The scheme finally adopted took the form of a Schedule. This was designed to show graphically for each species during each month (1) on what Day ; (2) Coast ; (3) Station ; (4) in what Num- bers ; and (5) whether during the Day or Night the particular species was observed during the particular month and year. It is needless to remark that such asystematic tabulation of at least one hundred thousand records, culled from several thousands of forms filled in by the Light Keepers, in each of which species were numerous and the dates wide- ranging, proved to be both a long and laborious task. The results now presented are, for the first time, based upon the ex- amination of the whole of the information communicated to the Committee Jor all the coasts : a most necessary condition, for from such a complete and comprehensive examination alone could it be at all possible to obtain results worthy of the enquiry, and an accurate knowledge of the nature of the various phenomena associated with the migration of British and Irish birds. Indeed, it is now in our power to declare that it is quite impos- sible, at certain seasons, to distinguish between the widely different Immigratory and Emigratory movements, without due examination and consideration of the whole of the observations, a fact the non-realisation of which has been fruitful of much misconception and of many misleading statements in the past. It is manifestly impossible to conduct an enquiry into the migration of birds over the entire British area, or even of the smallest section of it, under other than imperfect conditions. A hundred circumstances are against such a desirable consummation—even if a party of trained orni- thologists were placed at each station, it would fail to secure anything like perfect results. Remembering, then, the peculiar difficulties and the drawbacks that beset such an investigation, and the further fact that the entire staff of ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 453 observers were volunteers, the nature of the data obtained is most satis- factory. It has proved to be adequate for the purpose of the inquiry, and surprisingly accurate. Indeed, it is often quite wonderful how the observations made at a particular station are borne out by the records at others. The object of the enquiry was to obtain full and trustworthy infor- mation in connection with the migratory movements of birds as observed on our coasts, and not to solve problems connected with the causes of the phenomena, the evolution of the migratory instinct, or other purely theoretical aspects of the general subject. As regards the importance of this investigation, it must be borne in mind that the observers were most favourably stationed for witnessing migration in its various phases, and that such a voluminous and complete set of observations has never been amassed at any previous period in the history of the study of bird-migration. Its special nature can only be fully appreciated when it is realised that, in order to study the pheno- mena of bird-migration in the British Islands, it is necessary that the data upon which any deductions may be satisfactorily or safely founded should be based upon observations taken synchronously at stations encir- cling the entire coasts. This cardinal and most important condition has been attempted and accomplished for the first time, either in this or any other country, through the labours of the Committee. The meteorological aspect of the subject has received very careful attention, and with interesting and important results. In connection with this portion of the work the ‘ Daily Weather Reports’ issued by the Meteorological Office have been consulted and correlated with the data relating to the migratory movements for each year of the inquiry. Finally, I may state that the results now communicated are based ab- solutely upon the records obtained by the Committee ; and, also, that I have approached the subject with an open mind and without preconceived ideas. I have considered this not the place for theory, but for the esta- blishment of facts, and for deductions drawn from a direct study of the observations placed in my hands. Birp MIGRaTION AS OBSERVED ON THE BritTisH AND IrisH Coasts. The migration of birds, as observed in the British Islands, is a very complex phenomenon ; more so, perhaps, than in any other region of the globe. This is readily accounted for. First, the Geographical position of the British Islands is eminently favourable. Placed, as our Isles are, between South-western Europe and the Scandinavian Peninsula, Iceland, and Greenland, they lie directly in the course of the legions of migratory birds which annually make a double journey between their northern summer and their southern winter quarters. For these Birds of Passage our shores form not only a main and much accustomed highway, but afford convenient resting quarters. Secondly, our Islands have a vast bird-population of their own, and the majority of these birds belong to purely migratory species. Some of them are either Summer Visitors from the southern regions or Winter Visitors from continental Europe, Iceland, «ec. Thirdly, many individuals of species which are sedentary in our Islands are strictly migratory. This is especially the case in the more northern 454A REPORT—1896. and elevated portions of the British area ; hence these species are said to be ‘ Partial Migrants.’ Finally, our remarkably variable climate is a constant element of dis- turbance, causing much migration within the British area itself and inter- migration with the islands off our western coasts, especially with Ireland. This occurs during the winter months, and hence these migrations will be alluded to in this report as ‘Winter Movements.’ The above important considerations and influences result not only in much migration of a varied nature being witnessed on our shores, but often, through a combination of meteorological conditions, in more than one movement being observed in progress simultaneously, adding much further intricacy to an already complicated series of phenomena. Having thus shortly described the British Islands as a highway for and as a source of migration, having mentioned the nature of the various movements observed on our coasts, and having alluded to the influence exerted by climatic conditions upon the bird-population of our area, I may now proceed to discuss the main results obtained through the enquiry under the following sections: (1) Geographical, (2) Seasonal, and (3) Meteorological. GEOGRAPHICAL. General.—In passing from their summer to their winter haunts, birds proceed from a northern to a southern clime, and vice versd in the spring. It does not at all follow, however, that these seasonal haunts are reached by a simple movement from north to south, or the reverse. Each species or individual of migratory bird has its particular summer and winter resorts, and these do not necessarily lie in the same meridian—indeed this is often far from being the case. To attain these particular seasonal habitats many of the voyagers must depart more or less considerably from a direct course. This is especially the case in Western Europe, where, owing to the south-western extension of the land-masses, and the conse- quent irregularity of the coast line, various more or less devious routes must be, andare followed. The interposition of the British Islands between the north-western portion of the Continental Area on the one hand and Iceland and Greenland on the other, is an important additional factor in this deviation. The geographical distribution of birds during migration on the British and Irish Coasts, and the routes traversed, naturally depend upon the nature of the particular movement. The chief and most interesting movements from the geographical standpoint are the intermigrations between our Islands and Europe. There are, however, a number of movements between the various sections of the British and Irish areas which are of considerable importance. Intermigration between Britain and Northern Continental Hurope.— Between Britain and Continental Europe travel a host of migrants which are either birds of passage on, or winter visitors to, our shores. The former visit our eastern coast-line in spring when journeying to their northern summer haunts lying to the north-east of Britain, and again in autumn when returning to their winter quarters to the south of our Islands. The winter visitors are chiefly individuals from the ranks of certain species of the birds of passage which winter in the British area and emigrate to the north-east in the spring. In the autumn these numerous migrants cross the North Sea and ss — ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 455 arrive on the east shores of Britain at points between the Shetland Isles and the Humber or the northern seaboard of Norfolk. All the move- ments do not necessarily cover this extensive stretch of coast-line, but such is not infrequently the case. Indeed, as a rule, they are recorded from the greater part of the region indicated. It is possible to define the southern limit on the coast at which these birds strike Britain, with a considerable degree of precision. No section of the British coast is so well equipped with light-stations as that which lies between the north coast of Norfolk and Dungeness. In addition to an average number of lighthouses, there is a fleet of lightships off the coast, which are most favourably situated for recording the movements of birds crossing the North Sea to the English coast. These lightships have furnished the Committee with some of the most carefully kept records to be found among the returns, and it is a very significant fact that these great autumn immigratory movements are not observed at these south-eastern lighthouses and lightships. Evidence of a particularly important nature, in this connection, is also afforded by the records kept at the Outer Dow- sing Lightship, the most isolated of the stations in the North Sea, situated about 38 miles E.S.E. of the mouth of the Humber. At this station these important movements are not observed—another significant fact, indicat- ing unmistakably that these migrants pass to the northward or westward of this Lightship. The conclusion at which I have arrived, after a long and careful study of the records, is that these immigrants and emigrants from and to Northern Europe pass and repass between this portion of the Continent and Britain by crossing the North Sea in autumn in a south-westerly direction, and in spring in a north-easterly one,! and that, while the limit to their flight in the north is the Shetland Islands, that on the south ex- tends to the coast of Norfolk.2 During these movements the more southern portion of the east coast of England is reached after the arrival of the immigrants on the more northern portions. It is to be remarked, also, as bearing upon this important point, that all the species occur on migration in the Orkney and Shetland Islands, but not in the Feroes.? And, further, a// the British birds of passage to Northern Europe are either summer visitors to Scandinavia or are regular migrants along the western shores of that peninsula. After arriving on our eastern shores, these immigrants from the north—some of them after resting for a while—move either down the east coast, en route for more southern winter quarters, or, if winter visitors, to their accustomed haunts in Britain and Ireland. A few occur as birds of passage on the west coast and in Ireland, which they reach by overland routes across Britain, and then pass southwards to their winter quarters. The west coasts, however, do not receive directly any immigrants from Continental Europe. Intermigration between the South-east Coast of England and the Coast 1 The direction varies. It is probably more westerly (in autumn) or easterly (in spring) at the most northern British stations, and south-south-westerly (in autumn) or north-north-easterly (in spring) at the stations on the east coast of England. 2 The formation adopted by the migrants during passage would seem to be an extended line—perhaps a series of lines—whose right wing extends to the Northern Islands and its left wing to the coast of Norfolk. % A few species occur in the Feroes on migration, but these are also summer visitors to those islands and to Iceland. 456 REPORT—1896. of Western Europe—‘ East and West Route. —This is one of the discoveries of theenquiry. It has been already shown that the more southern section of the East coast of England does not receive immigrants direct from Northern Europe. There is, however, a considerable amount of migration of a particular description, and on the part of certain species, observed at the lightships and lighthouses between the Kentish coast and the Wash. During the autumn, day after day, a stream of migrants, often of great volume, is observed off the coast, flowing chiefly from the south- east to the north-west at the more northerly stations, and from east to: west at the southerly ones, across the southernmost waters of the North Sea. This will be hereafter mentioned as the ‘ East and West Route.’ From the stations off the mouth of the Thames as a centre, the birds. either sweep up the east coast, sometimes to and beyond the Tees (many proceeding inland as they go), or pass to the west along the southern shores of England. These important immigrations set in during the latter days of September, reach their maximum in October, and continue at intervals until November. They are chronicled with wonderful precision and regularity in the returns from the stations on the south-east coast of England. They are renewed during winter on occasions of exceptionally severe cold, but the birds then pass to the westward along our southern shores. There are some remarkable features associated with these movements : (1) They are frequently observed for several or many consecutive days ; (2) they often occur when there is an almost entire absence of bird- migration on other parts of our shores ; (3) the movements appear to be entirely confined to the daytime, and are usually timed as from soon after daylight to 1 p.M., sometimes until 3 p.m.—this being probably due to, and indicative of, the shortness of the passage ; (4) the autumn migra- tory flocks are chiefly composed of Larks in vast numbers ; ‘ Black Crows’ (Rooks) very many ; Grey Crows, many ; also numerous Redbreasts, Gold- crests, Chaffinches, Greenfinches, Tree-Sparrows, Swallows, Starlings, ancl occasionally Woodcocks ; and during the winter Larks, various Thrushes, and Lapwings ; (5) and lastly, on certain occasions these immigrants, while passing northward along the English eastern seaboard, actually cross the movements of ‘coasting ’ emigrants proceeding southwards.! Whether this east to west stream is a branch of one that passes down ‘the coast of Continental Europe, or whether it has its source in Central Europe, is a matter of conjecture.” The conclusions relating to these continental migration-routes have been chiefly based upon the autumn data, because the information for that season is much more voluminous and complete. When, however,. we come to examine the information relating to the spring movements, with a view to ascertaining how far they corroborate the conclusions so clearly indicated by the autumn chronicles, it is satisfactory to find decided evidence that the birds retrace their flight to the north and east. along precisely the same lines as those along which the autumnal 1 It is probable that such species as the Golden Oriole, Hoopoe, &c., which occur annuaily during spring and autumn migration in southern and south-eastern England, and the Black Redstart as a winter visitor, are birds that proceed along this route to and from our Islands. 2 There are no essentially northern species recorded for this route, and the occur- rence of the Rook so frequently and in such numbers is suggestive of a Central (Western) European source. ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 457 southerly and westerly journeys were performed. Thus in the spring these birds depart from the same sections of our eastern seaboard as witnessed their arrival in the autumn. Intermigration between Heligoland and Britain.—Much prominence has been given in some of the Annual Reports issued by the Committee, and in Herr Gatke’s book, ‘ Die Vogelwarte Helgoland,’ to an intermigra~ tion between Heligoland and the east coast of England by a direct east-to- west autumn, and it is to be presumed west- to- east spring, movement. Herr Gatke most obligingly communicated the details of the bird- movements observed on Heligoland for four of the years (1883-1886) during which the inquiry was being prosecuted over the British area. These two sets of data have been carefull y examined and compared, and it has been found that the dates of the chief movements of the species common to Heligoland and Eastern Britain seldom if ever correspond, and do not bear out this theory ; that particular species which are irregular as migrants in Britain, such as the Ortolan Bunting, and others, occur regu- larly, often indeed in ‘rushes,’ at the more fav ured. isle off the mouth of the Elbe ; that other species, which are very rare on our British shores, occur in Heligoland as regular migrants and in considerable numbers, as, Motacilla flava, Anthus Richardi, &c.; while species common to both islands occur in ‘flights like clouds,’ in ‘hundreds of thousands,’ ‘ thou- sands upon thousands,’ in ‘marvellous numbers,’ ‘astonishing flights,’ ancl so on, at Heligoland, at periods when there is not a single observation for the same species on the English shores. A study of the phenomena of migration at the stations on the east and west sides of the North Sea compels the investigator to come to the conclusion that Heligoland and Britain draw their migratory hosts from different sources. The ordinary movements of any common migratory bird occur in each month of its. seasonal flight-periods, and the mere coincidence of the species being ob- served simultaneously i in ordinary numbers on both sides of the North Sea has no significance whatever. It is not impossible or improbable that birds may , occasionally cross the German Ocean by an east-to-west flight. in the latitude of Heligoland, but our data lead us to believe that such cases are the rare exception and not the rule. Intermigration between Britain and Feroes, I celand, and Greenland.— The Froes, Iceland, and Greenland are the summer home of several Pale- arctic species which occur as birds of passage on the British coasts. The majority of these visit Iceland, and Greenland claims only two or three of them (Wheatear, White Wagtail, and Whimbrel). It is natural that these birds being of strictly Old World species, our Islands should le in the course of their migrations. It is quite possible that these migrants may pass along both the eastern and western coasts of Britain and the coasts of Ireland. Here, at any rate, we have evidence that these birds are ob- served on passage on our western shores. It may be that some of the birds proceed also along our eastern seaboard, but this is a point difficult: to determine. There is good evidence, however, that important move- ments of Redwings, Wheatears, and Whimbrels are observed on the west- ern coast of Great Britain and the Irish coasts (both east and west as regards the passage of the Whimbrel), which are not observed elsewhere. Such a fact points to the independent nature of these west coast flights, and indicates that, in some instances at least, the western route alone is followed. It is thus evident that, so far as concerns the movements of the birds 458 REPORT—1896. of passage to and from their northern breeding haunts, the British east and west coast migratory movements are very distinct in their characters. The west coast does not receive immigrants direct from Europe; nor do these continental breeding species depart from its shores in the spring. Indeed, it is quite remarkable how rare, or comparatively rare, certain well-known east coast species are on the western portion of our shores. With the movements of the British migratory birds next to be con- sidered it is quite different, for, with the exception of a few species whose summer haunts are much circumscribed in our Islands, the movements are not only common to both coasts, but the great emigratory flights are usually simultaneously observed on the east, west, and south coasts, and also on those of Ireland. The west coast of Great Britain and the Irish coasts are thus only under much migration during the great autumn departure movements from our shores, and to a less extent during the return movements in spring. Intermigration between Great Britain and Ireland and the South, &e.— Having shortly described the migratory movements between the British Islands and Northern and Western Europe, undertaken by birds of pass- age and winter visitors to our Islands, the routes on our coasts along which the summer visitors! travel to and from their breeding quarters in Great Britain and Ireland now demand attention in their geographical aspect. It will be convenient also to refer to the routes between the dif- ferent portions of the British area under this division. The autumn or emigratory movements will be described—but it is necessary to remark that the data clearly indicate that the spring migra- tory movements along our western shores are simply return movements, on the part of the same species, along the same lines of flight as those laid down for the autumn. The movements of these groups of migrants will be treated of under ‘the various sections of our coasts. The first movement on the part of all emigrants among British birds is to the coast, which is reached in some cases, no doubt, by particular inland routes. Hast Coast of Great Britain.—The emigratory movements on the east coast are very simple in their geographical aspect. When the coast is reached, the emigrants follow the coastline southward, gathering strength as they go, and finally quit our shores at various points on the south coast of England. It is during such autumnal movements that the more southern coast- line of Eastern England, and its off-shore fleet of lightships, record night migration. The ranks of the British emigrants are, as we have said, re- eruited as they fly onward, and if a great movement should be in progress, the causing-influence will affect also many birds of passage which may be sojourning on our shores. Two wings of the migratory army thus com- bine, and a great ‘rush’ to the south is the result. West Coast of Great Britain —The emigratory movements which pass down the west coast are far from being so simple in their geographical details as those observed on the east. That such should be the case is not surprising. Here we have Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Hebrides, and an extremely irregular coastline exer- cising their varied influences. In addition, there are intermigrations ’ Those birds which have been described as ‘partial migrants’ are included in this category. ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. , 459 between these off-lying isles and the mainland, and often movements of an independent nature in some portion of the western area. The general route followed by these departing birds has its north- western source in the Outer Hebrides, and after leaving Barra Head it joins an important stream from the Inner Hebrides at Skerryvore. The course then followed is wi@ Dhuheartach, Islay, the Wigtonshire coast, the Isle of Man, Anglesey, and the South Bishop (off Pembrokeshire). Finally, the south-western coast of England is reached (possibly in part by an overland route across Devonshire and Cornwall) between the Scilly Islands and Start Point. In its course southward considerable tributaries, so to speak, are received at Cantire, Arran, the Ayrshire and Wigtonshire coasts, and the Solway, of birds passing down the west coast of Scotland. At the Bristol Channel emigrants are received from western England and Wales, and often also important contributions‘are added from the south-eastern coast of Ireland. In connection with these movements there are several more or less important features to note. (1) The English shores of the Irish Sea, '—1.e. the coasts of Cumberland and Lancashire—lie off the main line of these movements. (2) The north coast of Ireland, which seems to lie right in the course of the birds, and which would naturally be expected to come in for a considerable share of such movements, appears to be only occasionally affected by them. (3) The Irish contributory movements when they occur are chiefly, nay almost entirely, observed on the southern, and especially the south-eastern coasts. (4) The south-western coast of England and Wales—z.e. from the mouth of the Bristol Channel to the Land’s End and the Scilly Isles—appears to be especially affected when there are considerable movements on the southern and south-eastern coasts of Ireland, implying that there is much intermigration between these particular portions of the English and Irish coasts. Sometimes, however, these emigrations from Ireland only affect the south-west coast of England from the Bishop’s Rock (off Scilly) to Start Point. Irish Coasts.—The Irish chronicles have been most excellently and carefully kept, and the returns of specimens killed against the lanterns at the stations have been larger and more valuable than those furnished from the coasts of Great Britain. The coasts of Ireland do not constitute in themselves a main highway for birds, though they participate, along with the western shores of Great Britain, in certain movements to and from the far north on the part of the section of the birds of passage already alluded to. Indeed, the majority of the migrants observed on the shores of the sister isle are probably the migratory members of her own avifauna. The movements of departing birds during the autumn at the southern and south-eastern stations have already been mentioned, and when mi- gration is going on at this part of the coast there is often recorded an emigratory movement along the western coast from Slyne Head south- wards, which probably forms a contributory stream to the general movement to the south. These Irish emigrations, as a rule, occur simultaneously with similar movements passing down the western coast of Great Britain, and the two streams meet and unite at points between the ‘Bristol Channel and the Scilly Isles. Some of the Irish autumnal flights, however, are quite independent of these general movements. There is much evidence to show that not only do the autumnal 460 REPORT—1896. emigrants depart from the south-east coast of Treland en route for more southern winter-quarters, but also, strange to say, that many birds (e.g. Thrushes, Redwings, Blackbirds, Chaffinches, Greenfinches, Linnets, Star- lings, Larks) almost simultaneously enter that country by this very same section of her shores, in order to winter within her limits, These immigrants are often observed arriving from the south-east in great numbers for several days in succession. The English west coast observa- tions also bear evidence that such movements proceed across St. George’s Channel in a north-westerly direction. These cross-channel flights are usually observed during the daytime, but sometimes the arrival of certain of these birds on the Irish coast takes place during the night. According to the records it is only occasionally, as already stated, that the southerly autumnal movements from Western Scotland are observed at the northern Irish stations. Now and then, however, there is evidence that a considerable number of birds do arrive on, or skirt, the north coast of Ireland during the more pronounced west coast emigratory flights. Independently of, and in addition to, these main Irish migratory movements, Thrushes, Larks, and Starlings occur in October and November on the northern coasts of Ireland from Tory Island to the Maidens as immigrants from Scotland. These are to be correlated with movements of the same species observed at the Rhinns of Islay and the Wigton coast. Larks, too, are often recorded for this route during the daytime. There are also autumnal movements between Ireland and England and Wales by an east to west flight across the Irish Sea, on the part of Starlings, Chaffinches, Greenfinches, Larks, and sometimes of various species of Thrushes. Anglesey is the chief Welsh point, and Rockabill (off the north coast of Co. Dublin) the main Irish station at which these departures and arrivals are observed. The migratory movements observed on the west coast of Ireland are neither many nor important, and consist almost entirely of movements on the part of emigratory Irish birds. There are, however, remarkable immigrations from home sources witnessed on the west coast and its off- lying islets during great cold and snow, to which we shall have occasion to refer under the Seasonal and Meteorological Sections of this Report. South Coast of England.—It is much to be regretted that observations relating to the migrations of birds on the southern coast of England as a whole were not obtained by the Committee. The data bearing upon this important English coast-line are from a few stations on the south-eastern and south-western portions only. This information points to (1) a considerable amount of migration taking place between these portions of the coast-line and South-western Europe, and (2) important movements passing along the entire coast-line from east to west in autumn and probably vice versd in spring. The south coast is naturally the great scene of the arrival and departure of migratory birds of all descriptions, but the movements along shore are, perhaps, in some of their aspects, more interesting. Regarding these last, much remains to be ascertained concerning their precise nature and the destination of some of the birds travelling along this route. In the autumn this coasting stream of birds has its source chiefly in the immigratcry movements from the Continent across the southern waters of the North Sea by the East and West Route, of which it is but a continuation. It is possible also that British emigrants, after passing a ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 461 down the east coast of England, may turn to the westward and skirt the south coast, but this is not shown with certainty. The continental immigrants strike the Kentish shore, and, as has been already stated, some pass to the north along the east coast of England, while others pursue a westerly course along our shores of the Channel. The stations on the south-western coast again record these migrants, and the probable destination of many, perhaps most of them, is Treland, on whose south-eastern shores the birds are chronicled, almost simultaneously, as arriving in great numbers from the south-east. It is possible, however, that some of these birds—the Skylark espe- cially—may reach a much more remarkable destination, for one branch of the stream sweeps northwards, being observed at the mouth of the Bristol Channel, at Anglesey, and at the Isle of Man stations, proceeding to the west and north-west, probably to Northern Ireland ; while on the Wigtonshire coast and at the rocks of Dhuheartach and Skerryvore these birds are noted as moving in the direction of the Outer Hebrides. The great autumnal movements from east to west along the south coast of England are renewed in winter, when that season is characterised by periods of unusual cold. At such times it is possible that this western stream is composed in part of native emigrants which have passed down our eastern coasts, as well as of birds of continental origin. “Channel Islands.—Records from the Hanois Lighthouse, situated some two miles off the west coast of Guernsey, were furnished for each of the years of the enquiry, and afford some useful information. These, when compared with the English and Irish chronicles, show that on nearly every occasion on which considerable migration was observed at this station in the autumn, there was also much emigration going on practically simultaneously on the south-west coast of England. It is necessary, however, to state that a number of important movements on the south-west coast of England do not appear in the records for. Hanois, indicating, perhaps, that many movements to the south in autumn and to the north in spring pass to the westward of this station. In the spring, Swallows are observed passing to both the north-east and north-west in great numbers during April and May, and a number of other summer birds are recorded on passage. . SEASONAL. The Seasonal Section of the Report is readily subdivided for treat- ment into Autumn, Winter, and Spring. A few words are necessary in explanation of the differences between the autumn, spring, and winter migratory movements as observed in the British Isles, for they are performed under very different conditions and influences. These remarks apply more particularly to the birds of passage, yet they are also applicable, to some extent, to our native seasonal visitors. In the Autumn the birds, when they appear on our shores, have accomplished the great business of the year—procreation. Food is still abundant in their favourite resting haunts, and hence there is no par- ticular hurry to move southwards. Thus many species tarry on our coasts or in their vicinity, some for a considerable period. Their numbers are, of course, incomparably greater than during the northward journey, 462 REPORT—1896, as they are swelled by the numerous young birds, now a few weeks old. All these circumstances and conditions combine to make the autumn movements comparatively easy of observation. In Spring the conditions are quite different. The all-absorbing duties’ of the season and the procreative influence are upon the voyagers, and since our Islands form one of the last stages in the journey of many species, the birds usually hurry on after a short sojourn for rest and food only. Thus the spring movements do not afford much facility or oppor- tunity for observation ; indeed, with most species their appearance amounts to ‘here to-day, off to-morrow.’ Hence some species and many individuals entirely escape notice at a number of the observing stations. ° All that it is necessary to say here regarding the Winter Movements is- that they are entirely the effect of severe weather. Autumn Immigration.—As the summer, more particularly the arctic summer, is at its height during JULY, it is not to be expected that immi- grants among the northern summer-birds would appear on our shores on their return journey during this month. The initial movements of the autumn, whatever their significance may be, do, as a matter of fact, set in towards the end of July. Of the species observed, the Whimbrel and the Knot are the most frequently recorded. The Green Sandpiper, Curlew Sandpiper, Bar-tailed Godwit, and Turnstone are less frequent. A few others appear only occasionally in the chronicles of the month. In all probability these July immigrants, or the majority of them, are non-breeding birds of their respective species, which have not, perhaps,. proceeded far beyond the limits of Britain on their spring journey north- ward. That such is the case is borne out by the fact that these July birds are all, so far as reported, adults. Immigration sets in in earnest during AuGust on the part of those species breeding northwards beyond the British area, and either occurring as birds of passage or as winter visitors to our isles. The former include the northern representatives of several species which are summer visitors to Britain. The return movements of twenty-six species of birds whose summer haunts lie entirely beyond the British area are chronicled for the- month, During SEPTEMBER a marked increase in immigration takes place as regards both species and more especially individuals. In all, over forty species of European birds which do not summer in Britain are recorded as migrants for September, including all the species regularly recorded for August. In some years (1881 and 1883) there have occurred in Sep- tember the first of the great autumnal ‘rushes’ of immigrants from the north to our shores. These decided movements are, however, entirely the effect of meteorological conditions at the seat of emigration, of which special mention is presently to be made in the Meteorological section. In Ocroser the flood of immigratory birds reaches its highest level, and there are experienced those vast ‘rushes’ upon our shores justi mentioned. The additions to the list of extra-British breeding species are comparatively numerous, forty-seven species of regular birds of passage, besides many other birds breeding in both Northern Europe and Britain, being recorded. But, on the other hand, the movements of cer- tain other species have, according to our chronicles, already ceased to occur, and it may be taken that the majority have passed,! while a few others do not appear so numerously as heretofore. 1 These are the White Wagtail, Temminck’s Stint, Wood Sandpiper, Green Sand- piper, and Spotted Redshank. ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 463 The immigratory movements occurring in NovEMBER are not only on a very much reduced scale, but after the middle of the month the immigra- tion of such birds as spend the summer in the North entirely ceases, with the exception of those of certain marine species (Ducks, Gulls, Grebes, Swans), whose late movements to the South are dependent upon severe weather conditions.' This is entirely contrary to the views hitherto propounded regarding the limits of these movements, but it is, nevertheless, a fact well established by this inquiry. A few (six only?) northern summer birds which do not breed in Britain still occur as immigrants during the earlier days of the month, often in considerable numbers. The additions for the month are species which only occasionally occur, and whose appearance is in some cases indicative of weather influences. A few northern species are recorded more numerously during November than earlier in the autumn—namely, the Lapland Bunting, the Swans, Ducks generally, the Ringdove, the winter Grebes, and the Little Auk, the last, however, irregularly. The immigrants hitherto considered are those derived from the north. There now remain for treatment those which reach us by a westerly movement along the East and West Route, and arrive on the south- eastern shores of England. These diurnal movements set in during the latter days of Sepremprr, when Larks, ‘Crows’ (Rooks), Tree- Sparrows, and some Redbreasts are observed. Immigration increases in volume in OcToBER, when, in addition to the species mentioned, Black- birds, Thrushes, Grey Crows, Chaffinches, Greenfinches, Goldcrests, and, occasionally, Woodcocks are observed. The movements continue until the middle of NovemsBer, when they too, during ordinary seasons, cease to be observed. They are renewed again, however, on the part of Larks, Starlings, Thrushes, and Lapwings on the advent of great cold, when the birds chiefly pass westwards along the south coast of England. During immigration our shores are reached during the late night or early morning on the part of migrants from the north. On the contrary the immigratory movements from the east, across the narrows of the North Sea, appear to be performed during the daytime. Autumn Emigration.—It is somewhat difficult to determine what species among our British summer visitors are true emigrants during Juty. There is no doubt, however, that the departure of adult Cuckoos dates from the latter days of the month, when they not only appear on the coast-line, but are occasionally killed against the lanterns of the light- stations. The Swift is another species that appears with some frequency at the stations, which fact indicates that the ebb of its summer sojourn in Britain has begun. During the month, especially towards its close, there are now and then records of the movements of small numbers of * Thrushes, * Blackbirds, * Wheatears, Whinchats, Redstarts, * Red- breasts, Whitethroats, Goldcrests, Chiffchaffs, Willow Warblers, Pied Wagtails, Grey Wagtails, Meadow Pipits, Swallows, House Martins, * On a few occasions during the years of the inquiry sereral Thrushes, Fieldfares, Woodcocks, Snipes, and Plovers have been observed in the Orkneys and Shetlands (e.g. during the exceptionally severe winters of 1882 and 1886). These may, perhaps, have been immigrants, or they may have been birds that.had moved to island-haunts from the mainland during the period of great cold. * These are the Redwing, Fieldfare, Great Grey Shrike, Brambling, Jack Snipe, and Knot. The Snow Brnting also occurs in some numbers. 4.64 REPORT—1896. Chaffinches, Starlings, Rooks, * Skylarks, Short-eared Owls, Herons, Grey- lag Geese, Land Rails, and Richardson’s Skuas.! It is well, however, to bear in mind, in connection with such July movements, that during this month there is a vast increase in our feathered population in the shape of birds but a few weeks old. These youngsters are many of them outcasts whose parents are engaged with second families, and many of them may, in their wanderings, finally reach the coast, where their appearance is duly chronicled by the observers. Another class of migratory birds, namely, certain Plovers and Sand- pipers which spend the summer inland and the autumn and winter on the shore, also appear on the coast in small numbers accompanied by their young. The young of several species of sea-fowl —Razorbill, Guillemot, and Puffin— are mentioned as leaving their rocky nurseries during the month. Lastly, it is certain that some of the movements recorded for this month are due to spells of ungenial weather. This aspect of July emigration, however, belongs to, and will be treated of under, the Meteorological Section of this Digest. During AvGust much emigration among our summer visitors is witnessed, and thirty-three species are recorded as departing. Of the birds which are partially migratory, no fewer than thirty-four species are noticed as emigratory during August, though, perhaps, all are not neces- sarily passing beyond the British area. Both these groups of emigrants are in all probability swelled during this and other months by birds of the same species, which pass the sum- mer in countries north of the British Isles, and which, having reached our shores as immigrants, are also moving southwards along our coast- tines. SEPTEMBER witnesses the height and close of the emigration of the bulk of the smaller British summer visitors, most of which are absent from the chronicles for October. The movements of forty-two of these emigrants appear in the records for the month ; while those of the partial migrants are also considerable, over forty species being recorded. There are often during this month considerable emigratory ‘rushes’ on the part of both these groups of migratory birds, due to outbursts of ungenial weather in our Islands. The OcToBer emigrants among the summer birds are not numerous, and consist of laggard representatives of their kinds. Only twenty-two species are recorded in the chronicles for the month, and some of these are only observed occasionally. The partial migrants, on the other hand, are much on the move, and are numerous both as regards individuals and species, their ranks, no doubt, being considerably recruited by numbers of the same species from the north, which sooner or later emigrate in their company. These movements are often pronounced, and ‘rushes’ are recorded ; but they cease by or during the first half of NovemBeEr. It is during the great autumn emigrations that the birds are observed on all our shores simultaneously. Emigratory birds are observed passing southwards, and feeding as they go during the daytime ; but their flight to lands beyond our shores is usually undertaken during the nighttime. Under certain peculiar weather conditions, which will be fully ex- 1 Those species marked * are recorded as being occasionally killed against the lanterns, ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 465 plained in their proper place, there are immigratory and emigratory movements simultaneously observed on our coasts, the former affecting the east coast line only. Winter Movements.—In NovEeMBER, and not later than the middle of the month, the ordinary autumnal southward movements on the part of birds of passage and of British emigrants cease. These normal seasonal movements are followed later in the month by emigratory movements of a very different nature, and entirely due to a decided fall in temperature, usually in the form of outbursts of: frost, and to snow. These conditions drive certain species specially affected either to warmer districts within the British area, or to southern regions beyond our shores. Such movements as these naturally become more pronounced as the winter advances, and especially so during severe seasons. They are repeated during each cold spell in the months of DECEMBER, JANUARY, FEBRUARY, and in some exceptional seasons as late as the third week of Marcu. As soon as frost sets in, particularly if accompanied by snow and sleet, even if it is only locally diffused, it causes an immediate rush to the coast and its adjacent islands, especially to the western seaboard and to Ireland, where a milder climate usually prevails. The appearance of these birds on the coast in the late autumn and winter has led them to be regarded as immigrants from abroad. But when the whole of the data relating to their distribution is examined, the true nature of these movements is no longer doubtful ; and this is the case quite apart from the weather conditions, which, in all instances, also afford an unfailing clue to their true character. If the cold is very severe and prolonged, the isles off the south- west coast, such as Scilly and those off the west coast of Ireland, are sought, and many birds are observed at the southern stations to quit both Britain and Ireland. At such times these great western movements form the most prominent feature of the winter migratory records. In the terrible DecemBer of 1882, even these usually safe western retreats failed the refugees, and many succumbed, the hardy Snow Bunt- ing perishing along with the rest. The Januaries of 1881, 1885, and 1887 were also very severe, and were months of great cold-weather move- ments. In 1881 many birds died of starvation at Valentia, then the least cold corner of the British area. During exceptionally severe winters there is a renewal of immigratory movements from the continent by way of the East and West Route across the southern portion of the North Sea. On arriving on our south-eastern shores the Larks, Starlings, Thrushes, and Lapwings, which are the species recorded, move along the south coast of England, and probably seek the warmth of the South-west, the Scilly Isles, and Ireland. The species which appear to be specially susceptible to cold, either constitutionally or through deprivation of food (most probably the latter), are the Mistletoe Thrush, Song Thrush, Redwing, Fieldfare, Blackbird, Greenfinch, Linnet, Starling, Lark, Water Rail, Lapwing, Curlew, Snipe, and Woodcock. In mild winters the only movements recorded are a few local migrations, which strictly coincide with the occasional periods of cold from which hardly any season is entirely exempt. Cold-weather migration is performed during both the night- and day- time. ae the flight is an extended one it is probably undertaken at night, : HH 4.66 REPORT—1896. for much emigration is observed at southern stations during the hours of darkness. Spring Immigration.—The first bird-harbingers of spring are recorded for Frespruary, when during genial periods such partial migrants within the British area as the Pied Wagtail and Lapwing return to the Orkneys and other northern stations, where these species are summer birds. Certain rock-breeding sea-fowl are also noted as visitors to their nesting haunts. . There is in addition indication of a return movement during mild weather on the part of Fieldfares, Redwings, Thrushes, Blackbirds, &c., which had fled the country through the winter cold. During February certain summer visitors have occasionally put in a phenomenally early appearance. In 1885 and 1887 the Wheatear was seen ; in 1887 a Ring Ouzel was shot at one of the light-stations ; and in 1886 (on the 24th) a solitary Swallow was observed at the Eddystone. During the genial periods usually experienced in the changeable month of Marcu there is a considerable immigration or return of the birds which quitted our Islands through the pressure of the severe weather conditions of winter, and also of some partial migrants, including many Gold Crests and Pied Wagtails. In most years the advent of a few summer visitors is recorded. The Ring Ouzel, Wheatear, Whinchat, Willow Wren, Chiffchaff, Swallow, Sand Martin, Cuckoo,! Land Rail, Garganey, Whimbrel, and Sandwich Tern are recorded for the month, some of them once only, and others rarely. APRIL is a month of pronounced immigration on the part of the summer visitors, for no less than thirty-seven species are recorded in the chronicles. It thus witnesses the arrival of certainly the majority of species among the spring migrants, though, perhaps, not of individuals. There arrive, also, a number of migratory birds belonging to species which are either resident in, or winter visitors to, Britain, which have wintered to the south of us and now appear as summer birds, or as birds of passage on their way to the north. In connection with the arrival of these earliest immigrants among our summer visitors during March or April a remarkable and interesting fact remains to be mentioned—namely, that the great majority of these birds are recorded first for the south-western area of the British region—the south-west coast of England and Ireland. Thus in March, out of 94 observations 71, or 75 per cent., were made in the south-west. In April, out of 157 first records of the arrivals of summer visitors, no less than 115, or nearly 74 per cent., are chronicled for the south-west coast and Ireland. These numbers and percentages, however, should be considerably higher and more remarkable, for it must be explained that during the years 1880 and 1881 there were no spring data for Ireland, and in 1883 there was no return made for the west coast of England, while the east coast has been credited, in the statistics quoted, with the observations made during all the years of the inquiry. It thus seems probable that the first arrival of the spring migrants not unnatu- rally occurs on those parts of our isles which are the warmest so early in the season. During May the immigration of summer birds still flows into our Islands. Several species make their first appearance, and a number of 1 At Langness, Isle of Man, March 28, 1887. ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 467 others are more abundantly recorded than hitherto. There are also con- siderable arrivals of Wheatears, Warblers, Swallows, and Sandpipers and Plovers of various species, on our southern coast quite down to the end of the month, some of their movements being very marked. These are undoubtedly birds. of passage, on their way to northern summer haunts beyond the limits of the British Isles, for our own birds of the same species are then busily engaged in incubation or tending their young. During the first half of JuNE several species whose breeding range extends to the Polar regions,appear in considerable numbers on our shores on their way to the far north ; a few appear even still later. The chief among these late birds of passage are the Grey Plover and the Knot, and less numerously or less frequently the Snow Bunting, Wigeon, Barnacle Goose, ‘Grey Geese,’ Swans, the Dotterel, Turnstone, Sanderling, Ruff, Bar-tailed Godwit, Whimbrel, and a few Great Northern Divers.! In connection with the spring immigration it has to be remarked that the observations are all in favour of the theory that the earliest arrivals among the summer visitors to our Islands are British-breeding birds. This is borne out by the fact, well known to all field-naturalists, that our summer birds appear in their breeding hawnts in our islands immediately after their first appearance on our coasts in the spring. Additional proof is furnished by the fact that summer birds arrive in Britain at earlier dates than in Heligoland, where nearly all the species observed are en voute for more northern lands than ours. The further fact already men- tioned, that down to the end of May, and in some instances the first half of June, large numbers of birds of species which are summer visitants to Britain, arrive on and pass along our coast as birds of passage, proves that the migrants bound for the north are the last of their kind to appear in the British area. Spring Emigration.—The spring emigration from the British Isles to. continental Europe sets in on the part of certain species early in the year, indeed before the winter emigratory movements have ceased to take place. Thus in FEBRUARY, in some seasons, ‘Geese’ are recorded as moving northwards in considerable numbers. The chief emigratory movements of this month, however, are the departure of Larks and Rooks along the ‘East and West Route’ to the Continent. These take place in some years during the early days of the month, and are observed on the south-east eoast of England—chiefly at the lightships off the coasts of Essex and Kent—where the birds observed are proceeding in a south-easterly and easterly direction across the North Sea, returning by the same lines of flight as those along which they travelled to our shores in the autumn. During Marcu these south-easterly movements become more pro- nounced, and the emigrants include the Hooded Crow, Rook, and Skylark. Emigration for the north also commences, and the following winter visitors are recorded as leaving our Islands during’ the month : Great Grey Shrike, Shore Lark, Swans, ‘ Wild. Geese,’ Gadwall, Scaup, Golden-eye, Long-tailed Duck, Red-throated Diver, and probably many others. In March, too, certain species (Greenfinch, Chaffinch, Twite), which regularly seek the islands off the west coast of Ireland as winter retreats, are mentioned as taking their departure for the summer. ' The fact that these birds, or most of them, should arrive on our shores as birds of passage thus late in the migratory season, lends some countenance to the theory that the birds of certain species going furthest north in summer go the furthest south for winter quarters, bw HH 468 REPORT—1896. The mild spells of Aprit induce a considerable amount of emigra- tion, for their northern summer haunts, on the part of no less than thirty-four species. These comprise fifteen Passeres, two Birds of Prey, nine Ducks and Geese, six Waders, one Skua, and one Diver, all of them belonging to species which have wintered in our Islands, or off our shores. The emigration to the Continent by the ‘ East and West Route’ across the North Sea also proceeds during April, the species observed departing during the month being the Rook, the Hooded Crow, and the Tree Sparrow. No migratory movements, however, are recorded for this route after this month. May is a month of much emigration on the part both of birds which have wintered in our Islands, and of birds of passage (including many individuals of species which are summer visitors to Britain). In all, no less than fifty-three species of regular emigrants are recorded in the May returns, showing that the movements to the northern breeding grounds reach their maximum during this month, and often take the form of ‘rushes’ after the birds have been held back by spells of ungenial weather. The northward movements from our shores of a few species, whose breed- ing range lies within the Polar regions, are also observed down to the middle of Junr, or even beyond that date, and have already been noticed. The departure for their northern summer quarters of the spring birds of passage and of the winter visitors to Britain takes place from our eastern coasts and the northern isles ; a few only of the species, such as the Redwing, Wheatear, White Wagtail, Barnacle Goose, Swans, Whim- bre], &ec., passing up our western coasts, possibly en rowte for Iceland. METEOROLOGICAL. Special attention has been bestowed upon this section of the Digest, since the actual relationships between migrational and meteorological phenomena have not hitherto, received the attention they deserve, no doubt because the necessary sets of data for a satisfactory investigation of the problem were not obtainable. The material collected by the Com- mittee has proved in all respects most valuable for establishing a useful comparison between these two sets of phenomena, and for determining, to a certain extent, the precise influence exercised by the weather upon bird movements. The standard for the weather has been the ‘ Daily Weather Reports’ issued by the Meteorological Office. For the loan of a complete set of these valuable official records for the eight years of the inquiry, I am indebted to the Council of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society, through its esteemed Hon. Secretary, Richard Reynolds, Ksq., an obligation I here desire to fully acknowledge. It may be well to state that these ‘Daily Reports’ are based upon observations made at fifty-four stations, distributed over Western Europe between Haparanda and Bodé in the North, and Toulon, Biarritz, and Corunna in the South ; as well as all parts of Great Britain and Ireland. When studying bird migration in connection with meteorological con- ditions, it is essential that the weather peculiarities synchronous with the setting in of the emigration, and prevailing in the particular area in which the movement had its origin, should be considered. This alone has any true bearing upon emigration ; not the weather prevailing upon the shores reached after an extended migratory flight. Thus the conti- nental weather conditions must be consulted in connection with the ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 469 arrival of immigrants in the British Isles in spring and autumn, and our home records referred to for an explanation of the movements of emi- grants during the spring, autumn, and winter. As the result of an extensive series of comparisons instituted between the two sets of phenomena, it has been ascertained that they are most inti- mately associated, and that a knowledge of the meteorological conditions prevailing during the movements in most instances contributes in no small degree to a correct interpretation of their precise nature and the seat of their origin. _ The weather influences are of two kinds, as treated of separately below — I. Ordinary Weather Inflwences.—It is found that in both the spring and autumn migratory periods there are spells of genial weather without marked features, other than those favourable for migration. During these the movements of the various species are of an even-flowing and continuous nature. If the weather should prove slightly unsettled during such periods, it is a matter of indifference to the migrants ; if more pro- nouncedly so, their movements are slightly quickened thereby. This may be termed normal migration under ordinary weather con- ditions. The duration of such favourable spells, however, is sooner or later broken by the advent of a cyclonic period of a more or less severe type. This interferes, to a greater or lesser degree, with the progress of the migratory movements. ” Il. Lxtraordinary Weather Influences.—These are exerted by the pre- valence of particular weather conditions, which may act either (1) as barriers to the ordinary movements, or (2) in diametrically the opposite direction as incentives to great movements or ‘rushes,’ as they have been termed. The weather barriers to bird-migration are unfavourable conditions of a pronounced nature, which interrupt and make impossible, during their prevalence, the ordinary seasonal movements. The weather incentives to migration are widely different in their nature and may take several forms. First, there may be favourable weather- periods immediately following unfavourable periods. Secondly, they may be due to weather in certain respects unfavourable to the birds, such as a decided fall in temperature, which either compels the birds to move, or acts as a warning that the time has arrived for their departure south- wards. Such cold spells are characteristic of anticyclonic periods, when the weather is calm and highly favourable for a prolonged flight. Thirdly, and on the other hand, the advent in spring of a genial spell, especially if accompanied by a rise of temperature, is an incentive toa move to the northward for the summer haunts. The weather influences thus vary considerably ; but temperature plays the most important part in the various seasonal movements, and is the main controlling factor in all extraordinary movements, other meteorological conditions being suitable. Each movement, however, has its peculiarity, and the conditions controlling it are often due to meteoro- logical phenomena of a more or less complex nature, most of which, perhaps, admit of explanation. Meteorology and Autumn Immigration.—The immigratory movements of the early autumn are those already mentioned as normal migration under ordinary weather conditions, and need no further notice. 470 REPORT—1 896 It is not until late in September, and during October and early November, that the movements into our Islands from the north-east are sufficiently pronounced to permit of their being associated with and attributable to the great weather changes of the autumn. In ordinary seasons the period named is characterised by a series of great immigratory movements simultaneously performed not only by many species, but also by a vast number of individuals. It has been ascertained that a// these great movements are due to the prevalence in north-western Europe of weather conditions favourable for emigration. These conditions are the result of the following type of pressure distribution—namely, the presence of a large and well-defined anticyclone over the Scandinavian Peninsula, with gentle gradients ex- tending in a south-westerly direction over the North Sea. On the other hand, cyclonic conditions prevail to the westward of the British area, with a low-pressure centre off the west coast of Ireland, or, though less frequently, over areas further to the south. Under these pressure con- ditions the weather is clear and cold, with light variable airs over Norway and Sweden ; while in Britain the sky is overcast, and moderate to strong easterly winds are experienced, with fog not unfrequently prevailing at many east coast stations. The formation of these Goikditions in the autumn usually follows the passing away from Scandinavia—the area in which the movement has its origin—of a spell of a more or less pronounced cyclonic nature, during the prevalence of which the ordinary course of the emigratory movements is either interrupted or rendered impossible. The effects of this sequence of meteorological conditions on bird migration are remarkable. During the cyclonic spell a weather barrier arrests the progress of, and dams back as it were, the ordinary seasonal migratory stream. These periods, too, are not unfrequently characterised by weather of great ungeniality, and this, no doubt, gives the summer birds warning that the time for seeking the south has arrived. Upon the duration and severity of these preliminary conditions depends, to some extent, the maguitude of the emigratory movement that follows. The formation of the anticyclone removes the cyclonic weather barrier, releases the flood, and provides conditions favourable for migration, adding also an incentive in the form of a decided fall in temperature. Thus it is not a matter for surprise that such a combination of meteoro- logical conditions in the north should produce a rush to the southwards of those vast numbers of migratory birds which appear during the hours of darkness on our eastern coasts at the fall of each year, and whose move- ments often extend over several successive nights. These great movements occur most frequently in October, but during that month in the year 1887 no such immigration was recorded for our coasts. On examining the Meteorological Record, it is found that this peculiar type of weather only prevailed for a few hours on the 9th, and that a marked immigratory movement immediately set in, only to be checked by the dispersal of the conditions necessary for a great emigration from North-Western Europe. This fact illustrates in a remarkable manner how very direct the bearing of these conditions is upon the great autumn migratory movements between Northern Europe and Eastern Great Britain. The movements just described take place when gentle pressure- ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 471 gradients bridge, as it were, the North Sea, with fine weather between Scandinavia and Britain. Such an extension, however, of the favourable conditions does not always prevail for the entire journey—that is to say, they do not always reach to the British side of the North Sea. Indeed, it not unfrequently happens that the birds reach our shores under more or less unfavourable weather conditions. When such is the case the immigrants arrive in Britain in a correspondingly exhausted condition, and, no doubt, many sometimes perish during the journey. An exa- mination of the weather data for such occasions reveals a very simple explanation of this peculiar, and partially unfavourable, phase in Migration-Meteorology. It is as follows :—Though the weather-condi- tions at the area of departure be entirely favourable for emigration, and induce the birds to move southwards, the conditions prevailing on the British coast are unfavourable, owing to the too close proximity or the depth of the western low-pressure centre. On the location and character of this cyclonic centre entirely depends the nature of the weather in the immediate neighbourhood of our shores. If the western cyclonic system is too close to Britain, or if the depression is exceptionally deep, then unfavourable conditions for migration, with strong winds, prevail beyond our eastern shores, and the birds perform the latter portion of their journey under trying conditions. On the other hand, if it is off our western shores and shallow, then fine-weather gradients entirely bridge the North Sea. Between these extremes of autumnal migration-weather there are intermediate phases, whose influences are easily determined by a study of the two sets of phenomena. The autumnal immigration from the east by the ‘East and West Route’ across the narrows of the North Sea to the south-east coast of England remains to be considered in connection with its meteorological aspects. Concerning this, however, there is not much to be explained. ‘It has been ascertained that the movements take place during favourable weather conditions, and that they are most pronounced when the per- fectly calm conditions and cold of anticyclonic periods prevail. They are interrupted by rough weather, to be renewed with increased momentum when the cyclonic spell is broken. Simultaneous Autumn Immigration and Emigration—It has been mentioned in the Seasonal Section of this Report, that under certain con- ditions in the late autumn decided immigratory and emigratory movements are witnessed in progress simultaneously. On these not very frequent occasions, it has been clearly ascertained that the anticyclone in North- western Europe covers an unusually wide area. This is due to the gentle character of its gradients, which, having their centre over Scandinavia, extend in a south-westerly direction to and beyond the limits of the British Isles. Thus there prevail over this exceptionally extensive region all the conditions already described as favourable for great emigratory movements. The result is a great simultaneous inpouring of birds on our east coast and a general outpouring from all British coasts of migrants of many species. Autumn Emigration —The autumnal emigratory movements are con- trolled, so far as they may be affected by meteorological phenomena, by weather-conditions prevailing in the British area. The chief feature in migration during the earlier autumn days is the departure of British summer birds, including those which have been 472 REPORT—1896. described as partial migrants. During the prevalence of fine weather or of weather not ungenial for the time of the year, these emigrants slip away gradually and almost unobserved, except by those favourably stationed on and off our coasts, by whom land: birds are only seen when migrating. The pulse, so to speak, of these movements is, however, from time to time manifestly quickened under the influence of ungenial weather conditions of a not too pronounced nature, the chief stimulant being a fall in the temperature. Even JULY, in certain seasons, has its ungenial spells, and so it was in the years 1882 and 1883, which were remarkable for their periods of unseasonable weather. These outbursts make themselves felt on our feathered population, and result in movements of a partial nature, per- haps, but which have left their mark on the migration record. The weather influences inciting these incipient movements are a com- plete break-up of genial and normal conditions and the prevalence of unsettled conditions, not unfrequently accompanied by thunder and heavy rains, and a decided fall in temperature. The result upon our summer visitants, or it may be upon their young, is that many of them move from their accustomed haunts, and appear on the coast at the light stations —sometimes at the lanterns—where their occurrence is duly chronicled. The species chiefly affected are the *Thrush, *Redbreast, Wheatear, *Whitethroat, Willow Warbler, Swallow, Martin, *Swift, and *Cuckoo.! During Aucusr the ordinary emigratory movements of the autumn set in, and are usually performed under ordinary conditions—namely, fine weather. The weather influences other than normal are the same un- genial spells, especially if accompanied by cold, alluded to for July. These, however, are not frequent in most seasons, and yet no season is entirely free from them. With the great increase to emigration that characterises SEPTEMBER, there are recorded, usually on several occasions during the month, very decided movements which may be fairly termed emigratory ‘rushes.’ These occur simultaneously with the weather spells which, among other characters, are remarkable for a decided fall in temperature, sometimes amounting to many degrees. In one instance, on September 15, 1886, the difference in temperature amounted to as much as 20° in twenty-four hours, and naturally produced a marked effect in the emigration returns. The conditions causing such decided falls in the thermometer, in the great majority of instances, are northerly winds, and as these may be due to anticyclonic weather conditions their force is usually slight. Some- times, however, these cold spells prevail with a light southerly wind. This was the case on September 5, 1885, when a cold, showery period caused much emigration. That low temperatures are the prime factors is clearly demonstrated by the September records ; inasmuch ‘as during this month there are unsettled periods which are not characterised by cold, and it is found that their influence on migration is comparatively insignificant. When the unsettled periods become very pronounced or develop gales, which is sometimes the case during this month, the weather barrier thus formed arrests the emigratory movements, which are ren- dered impossible under such adverse conditions. The great autumnal emigratory movements, however, occur late in ' Those marked thus * are recorded as having been killed at the lanterns during this month. ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 4.73 SEPTEMBER, during October, and early in November. These are the result of the identical weather-conditions which cause similar emigratory movements from northern Europe, except that the conditions favourable for emigration prevail over the British area and to the southwards, and do not extend northwards. Indeed, the movement is usually kept quite distinct from an immigration by the interposition of weather barriers to the north, which cut off migratory communication between our shores and those of north-western Europe. These barriers most frequently take the form of a subsidiary low-pressure area lying over the North Sea between Great Britain and Scandinavia. These great emigrations from Britain and Ireland, like the great immi- grations from northern Europe at the same season, set in on the passing away of the cyclonic conditions unfavourable for bird-migration, and on the prevalence of an anticyclonic, or fine weather, spell with its charac- teristic calm and cold. In this case, too, the unfavourable conditions which have passed away probably act as a warning to many laggards among the migratory birds, while the cold adds an additional spur and swells the ranks of the departing birds. During October movements are observed locally, which are directly traceable to the influence exerted on emigration by a considerable lower- ing of the temperature over a particular area. Thus, for example, on October 20, 1883, there was a remarkable movement of Swallows to the south-east coast of Ireland. On this day there was a decided fall in temperature, the lowest readings being recorded for Ireland, where these laggard summer-birds had until then found congenial quarters. Again, on October 10, 1885, a local movement to the southward of Thrushes and Blackbirds was recorded at stations in the north of Scotland, and in this instance, too, the meteorological data afford the information that a fall in temperature had occurred within that area. The emigratory movements in the late autumn and winter are, as has been already stated in this Report, attributable to the direct pressure of severe weather-conditions, in the shape of frost or heavy snow. It has been said, too, that these movements on the part of our resident and visitant birds are renewed with each outburst of cold, &c., during Novem- ber, December, January, February, and early March—in some years down to the third week of the latter month. Little more need be said regard- ing these simple weather influences on British bird-emigration. In certain years, however, the months of midwinter are characterised by conditions of Arctic severity. The January of 1881 was the most terrible month of the period covered by the inquiry. During its severe days many hundreds of birds perished even in the climatically most favourably situated portions of the British area—namely, the isles off the south-west coast of Ireland. The dominant feature of this month was intense cold, which for about three weeks reigned supreme.in all parts of the British area, and was accompanied by severe, harsh gales and heavy snow. Thus, in spite of an exceptionally warm period during the month, the mean temperature for this January was from 5° to 12° below the average. | Spring Immigration.—In connection with the spring immigration, two very remarkable instances occurred on February 17, 1887. On this day several Wheatears arrived at the Chicken’s Rock Lighthouse, and a Ring Ouzel was observed and shot at the Longship station. This date is exceptionally early for these species—indeed, they are the earliest records 474. REPORT—1896. registered for any spring migrants during the eight years of the inquiry. It is noteworthy to find, from the ‘ Daily Weather Report,’ that this portion of the British area was the warmest spot in Western Europe on the date in question. During genial intervals in March, summer birds arrive, the Wheatear appearing some years in considerable numbers. In 1884, during a prolonged spell of warm weather, exceeding in warmth anything recorded tor very many years, which followed a period of sharp frosts and snow, no fewer than six species of spring migrants were recorded as arriving in our Islands. Again, in 1886, five species were noted for a similar genial period. On the other hand, in the cold wintry March of 1883 one summer- bird alone—the Wheatear—was noted. Another March colder than the average was experienced in 1885, during which the arrival of three species only was chronicled. Since the first arrivals of the summer birds appear, asa rule, in March, it may here be remarked that the climatic peculiarities of the British area would appear to play an important part in the geographical distribution of these early immigrants. The remarkable fact that the great majority of the summer visitors to our Islands are first observed on the shores of the south-west of England and Ireland, has already been mentioned. This holds good even in ordinary and genial seasons, but in cold ones it is almost entirely the case. Thus in March, 1887, with its monotonously low temperature, the arrival of six species was recorded on twelve occasions, a// for the south- west. During the exceptionally cold and rough March of 1883, only one species—the Wheatear—was observed on two occasions, both at stations on the west coast of Ireland where the temperature was highest. Again, in the cold March of 1885 every record but one of the fourteen chronicled was made in this same mild region of the British area. It must not, however, be supposed that the thermometric conditions prevailing in our Islands are the cause of the northward movements to Britain and Ireland in the spring. We must seek their cause in weather conditions and influences prevailing and acting in regions to the south of our Islands. A careful comparison has been made between the migrational and meteorological phenomena in connection with these spring emigratory movements from the continent. As the result it has invariably been found that all such movements, except those performed late in the season, are to be correlated with a rise of temperature in south-western Europe and perhaps in northern Africa. That this induces the birds to embark on their northward journey does not admit of doubt. It is worthy of note that in not a few instances such movements are recorded for dates on which the temperature in our Islands was lower than immediately before the immigration. This clearly indicates that the increase of warmth at the seat of emigration is the main factor controlling the spring move- ments to the north. This rise in temperature in south-western Europe may, and sometimes does, extend to and prevail over the British Isles. Apart from this simple phenomenon no other peculiar meteorological condition appears to be. associated with these spring movements from southern Europe to the British Islands. Spring Emigration from Britain.—The movements of birds from our Islands to the northern breeding grounds in spring are influenced by the weather conditions which prevail in the British area, as all our emigratory ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 475 movements naturally are. That such is the case is manifest on a com- parison being instituted between the migrational and the meteorological data for spring. Here, as abroad, it is found, other conditions being equal, that increase in temperature is the main influencing factor, and also that upon it depends, to a considerable degree, the extent of the movement. The emigratory movements from Great Britain and Ireland naturally take place at later dates than the corresponding movements into our Islands from the south. Thus it is not until April, and especially May, that the decided or great departure movements are recorded which are relevant to the particular investigation under consideration. In Aprit the fine weather or anticyclonic periods have varying emigra- tional values, depending entirely on their temperature. They are favourable if characterised by high, or moderately high, temperatures ; or they may be distinctly unfavourable through their decided cold. There is, however, a medium even in the influence of anticyclonic spells, and thus during periods which are moderately cold but calm, some emigration, of a straggling nature it is true, is recorded. In spring, too, cyclonic periods vary also in their influences on emi- gration. They are, as a rule, unfavourable owing to their high winds and ungeniality. On the other hand, when they are of a mild type and characterised by warm rain and soft breezes, following a cold anticyclonic spell in April, they are found to be distinctly favourable to a northward movement from our Islands. The great spring emigratory flights, and most of the lesser ones too, are embarked upon under precisely the same type of pressure distribution as that described as being so markedly favourable for the autumn passage of birds across the North Sea to our Islands, namely, the presence of a high pressure centre to the north-east of our Islands over Norway and Sweden, with gentle gradients to the south-west. Under such circum- stances of pressure distribution the North Sea between our Islands and the Scandinavian peninsula is spanned by fine weather, and moderate easterly or southerly breezes prevail. Such highly favourable periods, as in the autumn, usually follow spells of weather decidedly ungenial for bird migration. Some of these spring movements to the north are occasionally undertaken during somewhat unfavourable weather. Even in May there are a few records of emigration during sleet, cold rain, and north- east breezes, but it has to be explained that these flights followed prolonged spells of ungenial weather, with decidedly low temperature, late in the season, and were genial when compared with the preceding conditions. Late in the spring—at the end of May and in JunE—it is not surprising to find that meteorological influences do not play an important part in the last movements to the north. That this should be the case is due, no doubt, to the advanced state of the season and its settled, or .com- paratively settled, weather. Winds.—The importance attached to winds in connection with bird- migration has hitherto been much over-estimated by popular writers, and their influence, such as it is, misunderstood. The conclusions to be drawn from a careful study of the subject are : (1) that the direction of the wind has no influence whatever as an 476 REPORT—1896. ‘ancentive to migration ; but that (2) its force is certainly an important factor, inasmuch as it may make migration an impossibility, arrest to a greater or lesser degree its progress, or even blow birds out of their course. We have the clearest proof, indeed, that birds do not emigrate when the winds are exceptionally high, though they sometimes pass into high winds and gales when en route, under the meteorological conditions which have already been described and explained. Ordinary winds—that is, winds not too strong—appear to be of small concern to the birds, for they are recorded as migrating with winds blowing from all quarters. It is, however, a fact that particular winds almost invariably prevail during the great autumnal movements, and these have hitherto been con- sidered by some as the direct incentives to such migrations. Such is not the case, and it may be at once stated that these supposed favourable breezes are simply another direct result of the pressure distribution favourable to the movements. This peculiar type of weather has already been fully described and its effects discussed ; the winds prevailing and dependent upon these barometric conditions are easterly, chiefly south-easterly breezes. There is really no reason why westerly (west, north-west, and south-west) winds, not too strong of course, should not, other things being equal, be in every way as suitable for migratory movements as those varying between such divergent points as north-east to south. When, however, we come to inquire into the meteorological conditions producing these westerly winds, the reason for their unsuitability becomes at once apparent. These winds are the result of types of pressure-distribution which are fatal to migration between north-western Europe and Britain, namely, the presence of cyclonic areas to the north-east or east of the British Isles. This means that the area under disturbed conditions would be the very region from which we derive our autumn immigrants and render emigration from such sources impossible. Such areas of disturb- ance, with their high westerly and north-westerly winds, indeed, often extend to and influence the weather in our Islands, and interfere with the British emigratory movements in both autumn and spring. Strong winds have a curious effect on the flight of Gulls, compelling them to move in a direction more or less directly heading the wind. Thus a strong westerly wind causes great numbers of Gulls to seek the estuaries and bays of our east coast. On the other hand, strong easterly winds will fill the estuaries and sea-lochs of the west coasts with these birds. The lee side of islands is also sought under similar conditions of the wind. A south-easterly wind, for the same reason, causes considerable numbers of Gulls of various species to pass southward along the eastern coast of Britain. Large parties of Gulls are also recorded as passing N.— sometimes for a whole day—-with a N.N.W. wind. These movements are more or less local, and the birds return, no doubt, to their regular haunts in a few hours’ time. They are, moreover, chiefly observed in the autumn. Gales.—One effect of gales has already been alluded to, namely, that they arrest or make impossible the migratory movements. At sea, however, they have a direct influence on the migrations of certain marine species, such as Skuas, Phalaropes, Petrels, &c. These birds in the autumn are occasionally driven out of their course by severe gales, and appear on our coasts in exceptional numbers. At such times, indeed, they are often blown far inland. Later in the season (in winter) Guillemots, Razorbills, Puffins, and Little Auks, are in like manner swept from their winter retreats on to our shores. Some of these last- ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 477 named birds are sometimes cast up dead in great numbers during the winter months; the result of prolonged spells of rough weather at sea, which render the procuring of food, and perhaps rest too, an impossibility. Fog.—It often happens that during an important migratory move- ment in the autumn or winter, fog prevails. On such occasions more birds than usual approach the lanterns of the light-stations and are killed, sometimes in considerable numbers, by striking against the giass. This phenomenon is another effect of those anticyclonic spells which have been mentioned as favourable to and causing emigration, and it is thus not surprising that the birds should encounter foggy weather during their movements. Such atmospheric conditions are well known to meteorologists to be characteristic of these high-pressure systems, and of their frosty periods, which latter are also the chief cause of the winter movements. There is also some direct evidence that birds lose themselves in foggy weather, since practically non-migratory species, such as Sparrows, appear during its prevalence at unusual seasons at stations just off the coast. CoNCLUSION. In conclusion it remains to be stated that this is merely a Sum- mary of the Results obtained from a careful study of the data. It is not claimed for the Digest that it is exhaustive in any department. Indeed, such is far from being the case, and it is recognised that much yet remains to be extracted from the enormous mass of information now reduced to order. Further research will, no doubt, yield results of a useful, if not an important nature. It has been found impossible here to enter into many interesting details in connection with the facts now established, while a vast amount of useful information of a statistical nature awaits publication. Much of the latter, however, can only be treated of under the numerous species to which it relates. To the further consideration of the data, with a view to obtaining possible new and interesting facts, I am still actively devoting my atten- tion. I trust in due course to make a more detailed and supplementary communication on Bird-migration in the British Islands, and on the inter- relationship existing between it and the various other phenomena with which it is associated. Post Office Regulations regarding the Carriage of Natural History Specimens to Foreign Countries.—Report of the Committee, consist- ing of Lord WatstncHaM (Chairman), Mr.. R. McLacutuan, Dr. C. W. Stites, Colonel C. SwinHor, and Dr. H. O. Forses _ (Secretary). Your Committee have to report that they have been in communication with the Postmaster-General in reference to the object for which they were appointed, namely, to obtain from the Post Office the relaxation of the rule which prevents small parcels of natural history objects, sent for purely scientific purposes, from passing through the post to addresses abroad at sample-post rates, a privilege enjoyed by the Continental natu- ralists when transmitting to England. Your Committee regret that the latest reply from his Grace leaves no immediate hope of obtaining this concession, and they therefore do not ask for reappointment. 4.78 REPORT—1896. Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. SCLATER, Professor E. Ray LANKESTER, Professor J. Cossar Ewart, Professor M. Foster, Professor S. J. Hickson, Mr. A. SEDG@wick, Professor W. C. M‘Inrosp, and Mr. Percy SLavEn (Secretary). APPENDIX. PAGK I.— Report on the Occupation cf the Table. By Mr. H. CHAS. WILLIAMSON 479 II.—-List of Naturalists who have morked at the Zoological Station from July 1, 1895, to June 30,1896. . 481 ill.—List of Papers which were published in 1895 by Naturalists who have occupied Tables in the Zoological Station . é - . 482 THE Table in the Naples Zoological Station hired by the British Associa- tion has been occupied during the past year, under the sanction of your Committee, by Mr. H. Chas. Williamson, whose objects of research were (a) the life-history of the eel and (6) the absorption of the yolk, and other points in the development of pelagic teleostean ova. Mr. Williamson’s investigations extended from August 15, 1895, to July 16, 1896, with two intervals of absence for the purpose of prosecuting observations in other localities in connection with these researches. The nature of the work undertaken is indicated in the report furnished by Mr. Williamson, which is appended. An application for permission to use the Table during the ensuing year has been received from Mr. M. D. Hill, who wishes to: investigate the ova of certain Hydrozoa. Your Committee trust that the General Committee will sanction the payment of the grant of 100/., as in previous years, for the hire of the Table in the Zoological Station at Naples. Early in the coming year the Naples Zoological Station will celebrate its twenty-fifth anniversary, the foundation-stone having been laid in April 1872. The occasion wili be one of special interest, as it marks a period during which about 1,000 naturalists of various nations have worked at Naples, and more than thirty smaller institutions have sprung into existence elsewhere. It is not too much to say that the Naples Station, as their forerunner, has entirely changed the conditions of marine biolo- gical study. As evidence of the successful management of the undertaking, it is sufficient to refer to the steady development and extension of scope recorded year by year, as well as to the constantly increasing popularity of the Naples Station as an international centre for research. That this feeling is actively maintained is shown by the fact that since the last report the Smithsonian Institute has renewed its contract with the Station for a term of years, and that new tables have been taken by the Columbia College of New York, as well as by Roumania and Bulgaria. The University of Strassburg has also renewed its contract for five years. During the past year the two steamers belonging to the Station have been repaired and improved at a cost of 20,000 francs, and a new com- pound engine by Thornycroft has been bought for 10,000 francs. Other improvements and additions to the general equipment of the station, too numerous to mention here, have also been made. THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 479 The small zoological station established on the island of New Britain (mentioned in your Committee’s last report) has been developing slowly, under the auspices of the Naples Station. The German Colonial Office and the Berlin Academy have recently granted 250/. and 150/. respec- tively for the purpose of sending out Dr. Dahl, of Kiel, to investigate the fauna, both terrestrial and marine. The progress of the various publications undertaken by the station is summarised as follows :— 1. Of the ‘Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel,’ the monograph by Dr. O. Biirger on ‘Nemertinea’ (pp. 743, 31 plates) has been published. 2. Of the ‘Mittheilungen aus der zoologischen Station zu Neapel,’ vol. xii. parts i. and ii., with 15 plates, have been published. 3. Of the ‘ Zoologischer Jahresbericht’ the whole ‘ Bericht’ for 1894 has been published. 4. Anew English edition of the ‘Guide to the Aquarium’ is being printed. The details extracted from the general report of the Zoological Station, which have been courteously furnished by the officers, will be found at the end of this report. They embrace lists (1) of the naturalists who have occupied tables since the last report, and (2) of the works published during 1895 by naturalists who have worked at the zoological station. APPENDIX. I. Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Mr. H. Cuas. WILLIAMSON. During 1895-96, for three separate periods of three months each, I have been engaged in the study of (a) the life-history of the eel and (b) the absorption of the yolk, and other points in the development of pelagic teleostean ova. (a) On the Life-history of the Eel. In connection with this subject, I have been enabled to examine the large eggs first described by Raffaele,' and referred by that author with reservation to the family of the Murznide, a diagnosis which has since received support from Grassi.? A large number of elveos and of eels of various sizes above that stage were supplied me during the winter. In the intervals between the periods of occupation of the Table I was absent from Naples in connection with this research. (b) On the Absorption of the Yolk in Pelagic Teleostean Ova. The process of the absorption of the yolk in teleostean ova is not one which has received much direct attention. In demersal eggs the absorp- tion of the yolk is mainly effected by means of an elaborate vitelline blood circulation. In pelagic ova, with one or two rare exceptions, it is stated generally no vitelline circulation exists. The study of this subject involves an examination almost solely of /we eggs. I find that, in a 1 Raffaele, ‘ Uova galleggianti del Golfo di Napoli,’ Jfttheil. Zool. Stat. Neapel, 1888. * Grassi e Calandruccio, ‘Ancora sullo sviluppo dei Murenoidi,’ Bollet. deil’ Accademia Gioenia in Catania, Fasc, xxxiv, 1893. 480 REPORT—1896. number of pelagic ova which I have been able to examine, there is a distinct, though very much modified, vitelline circulation. The elements of this circulation are not, however, blood corpuscles, but yolk corpuscles. In the ova of etght species! I found this circulation, the corpuscles of which are derived from the periblast. Contemporaneously with the formation of the heart have appeared the primary vessels—viz. (a) the two lateral arteries uniting to form the median trunk, which passes posteriorly a point a little short of the tip of the tail ; (b) the primitive caudal vein, which debouches into the posterior end of the yolk-sac. The pulsations of the heart are at first feeble and slow. The venous end of the heart is open to the interior of the yolk-sac. A few corpuscles are now seen to pass from the yolk-sac into the heart. These corpuscles, which proceed singly and at intervals, are seen moving along the arterial trunks to the tail, and immediately thereafter appear in the caudal vein, from which they pass into the yolk-sac. They then, with varying speed, pass over the ventral surface of the yolk and enter the heart. Some of the corpuscles proceed directly from the posterior end of the yolk-sac to the heart without ; others become attached to the periblast, and remain fast for longer or shorter intervals. On the posterior surface of the yolk, where the caudal vein enters the yolk-sac, the periblast shows a well- marked furrow, which has been worn in it by the circulating fluid. Before the heart begins to beat, corpuscles, similar to the later circulating corpuscles, are seen on the periblast, and that these cor- puscles, derived from the periblast, become the circulating corpuscles there is no doubt. At first, and even up to the time of hatching, the corpuscles are few in number. Only in the case of the three species of the eggs of Murenide have I been able to study the circulation fully. Eggs of other species which I examined presented difficulties, owing to their small size, presence of oil globules, or on account of the supply of specimens being insufficient. Only in the case of two species, in addition to those of the Murznide, was I able to obtain the ova in abundance. The corpuscles are minute, irregular in shape and size. In certain of the eggs the presence of the corpuscles on the periblast, and in motion in the yolk-sac, the connection between the caudal vein and yolk-sac, and the furrow continuing the caudal vein on the periblast have been regarded as sufficient evidence that a circulation of yolk corpuscles, similar to that clearly followed in others, was present. A certain amount of yolk- absorption no doubt takes place at the parts of the embryo in connection with the yolk, but after the formation of the tail of the embryo that absorption is probably very slight. The heart of the embryo in a pelagic ovum is said to pulsate before any blood is present, but the heart is not, however, without a circulation. It is extremely probable that there is, in addition to the yolk corpuscles, a circulating fluid of some sort being directed through the vessels by the heart. The first corpuscles are then formed in the periblast, and pass into the circulating fluid, the existence of which it is not unreasonable to postulate. A second method of adding corpuscles to the circulation is shown in a number of ova. This is a process of budding from the periblast. Slender pseudopodium-like pro- 1 The eight species included:—Ova of Murenide, Raff. (three species) ; Pleuronectes italicus (?); Merluccius vulgaris; Engraulis encrasicholus; Species No. 3 (Coryphena ?), Raff.; Uranoscopus scaber. (In the case of the last species I refer to a stage previous to the appearance of the complete vitelline circulation.) THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 481 cesses are thrown out from the surface of the periblast, and from the tips of these processes are budded off corpuscles which enter the heart and the circulation. These processes have been noticed by several authors, among others by Ryder. I have been able to observe these processes in the eggs of seven species. The eggs of the Murenide, from their large size, offer facilities for the study of this process of budding, and in these eggs the different stages have been successfully followed. The process is very slow, and may easily be overlooked. In the other species, the ova of which are small, the presence of the pseudopodial processes was noted. In these, unless a large number of eggs is obtainable, it is almost impos- sible to follow the actual budding off of the corpuscle. The corpuscles derived from the process of budding do not appear to differ from the primary corpuscles derived from the periblast. They are irregular in shape and size, and show, at least in some cases, nuclei. There is thus, previous to the advent of ‘the blood circulation, a circulation of corpuscles derived from the periblast in two ways, (1) by simple direct transference from the surface of the periblast ; (2) transference by means of a process of budding. That the processes mentioned above are general I am led to believe ; but I have not yet had the opportunity of examining a sufficient number of species to enable me to make a generalised statement. + Other points in development, which occupied my attention at Naples, I must leave over until I have had an opportunity of continuing my observations. Any reference on my part to the advantages afforded by the Zoological Station at Naples is quite uncalled for. This subject has more than once been treated by zoologists more competent to judge thanI am. To me the opportunity given by the Committee of the British Association to occupy the Table at Naples has been of incalculable value, and my sincere thanks are offered for the honour so done me. Il. A List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station from the end of June 1895 to the end of June 1896. Num- State or University Duration of Occupancy ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table List was made use of Arrival Departure 857 | Prof. F. S. Monticelli | Italy ‘ 2 . | July 6,1895| Nov. 4, 1895 858 | Prof. J. Ogneff . . | Russia. : 5 39 BOs, Waren Te ess 859 | Prof. V. Faussek ; 53 , F Jel, Seer =sabel ye — 860 | Dr. F. Massa . . | Italy 5 3 ‘ pire awry soNtoniss dle tos 861 | Stud. V. Diamare . a ‘ 3 - shales — 862 | Dr.G. Mazzarelli . oF = : : Sor aniline — 863 | Dr. A. Romano. A 3 2 ‘ a PAPER CH or, ee 864 | Dr.G.Salvi . a : é 5 Dams) sar eh ipepo.LOs,, 865 | Prof. A. Della Valle . By Z F i Sa de ss Oct. 18, 866 | Mr. H.Ch.Williamson | British Association . Seale os July 16, 1896 867 | Stud. W. Daudt .| Hesse . » 24, 4, | Nov. 15.1895 868 | Dr. N. Germanos . | Zoological Station s Sept 2, 5 i 10, mA 869 | D.J.Wagner . , Russia 4 f We Eee ilar, 15,1896 870 | Prof. B. Grassi . . | Italy : i : 3 14, ,, | Oct. 20,1896 871 | Dr. F. Savorani . | Italian Navy . ; eas 5 as Se MD si ¢ 872 | Mr.J.S.Gardiner .| Cambridge . OC wee Feb. 13, 1896 | 873 | Dr. T. Reibisch. .| Saxony . : : bf ee RE itl4Aueih Al 874 | Dr. G. Schischko . | Bulgaria. , 7 octet a Apa — 875 | Dr. C. Apstein . . | Prussia . : i Spee hay een ears (Goin 1896. II 482 REPORT—1896. II. A List OF NATURALISTS, &C.—continued. Num- State or University Duration of Occupancy ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table . List was made use of Arrival Departure 876 | Dr. H. Driesch . Hamburg Oct. 22, 1895 June11, 1896 877 | Dr. C. Herbst Prussia . y, ZOE otis 11, St 878 | Dr. Vastarini Cresi . | Italy . | Nov. 13, ae: a 879 | Dr. M. Martens . | Prussia . : «| Decs3ly VjpleA tea Len tes 880 | Dr. Tagliani . . | Italy 3 + | JARs. lel S OO: meer suse 881 | Dr. G. Jatta - | Zoological Station * Pcie ie emt — 882 | Mr. E.S. Goodrich . | Oxford 3 GYM, “|p 4, 5, 883 | Prof. D. Voinov Roumania chit ete DAIL, Sess oe LORY iss 884 | Dr. A. Borgert . Prussia . ; 7 » 18, 5, | May 24,. 4; 885 | Dr. R. 8S. Harrison Agassiz Table . | Feb. 1; ,, Be falls peas 886 | Dr. F. v. Wagner Strassburg feed Coe Mar. 28,. >,, 887 | Mr. H. Bosshard Switzerland WEI SBiee en | July 73; as 888 | Prof. E. Ziegler Baden Feb.19,_ ,, Apr. 13; ‘,, 889 | Dr. A. Russo. Italy Maris3.0 278 iee ties 890 | Dr. K. Hescheler Switzerland - 29-38 | Mayeiienn 891 | Mr. W. T. Swingle . | Smithsonian able . a Osens Sg RORY ps 892 | Prof. Oltmanns. . | Baden sa lille 55 pa ee ADESILS pues 893 | Dr.F. M.MacFarland | Smithsonian T able . spells Wy Srp eaten 894 | Miss Hyde, Dr. Ida . | Zoological Station . Pe ean ars Mayt'ly'4; 895 | Dr. Beneke : . | Strassburg 2 asf Sitae sp Apr. 18, ,, 896 | Prof. T. Boveri . . | Bavaria ir Seg ie Ct o 897 | Prof. E. Korschelt Prussia Pa ee Orme ame) IUCR my 898 | Frof. E. Lahousse Belgium . 9) did) a eae ecee ass 899’ | Dr. Rs CrCoe . . | Agassiz Table. py oils. Se) ol e iene ss 900 | Dr. J. v. Uexkiill Wiirtemberg of) £2 AS, PRS Lt lle eee ss 901 | Dr. A. Weysse . Agassiz Table . 2 pw 19,0 53. | dumeks, THs, 902 | Dr. A. Matthews Columbia College boris rt Oho ser LA eRe op $03 | Prof. Solger Prussia Apr Ube _- 904 | Dr. N. Iwanzoff Russia eh, Oa-eeaa) aly DULL ates 905 | Prof. P. Mitrophanow 4 ssi LOS sy, Meta enes 906 | Dr. O.van derStricht | Belgium . ia LBs te al. Cee oe Ill. A List of Papers which were published in the year 1895 by the Naturalists who have occupied Tables in the Zoological Station. W.E. Ritter . S. Fuchs W. M. Wheeler H. Ludwig A. Russo G. Mazzarelli . 5 Anzeiger,’ B. 10, 1895. Ueber die Function der unter der Haut liegenden Canal- ‘Archiv f. d. gesammte systeme bei den Selachiern. Physiologie,’ B. 59, 1895. lopoden. Myzostoma glabrum. phology,’ vol. 10, 1895. Luidia. Napoli. 1895. Bulle. On budding in Goodsiria and Perophora. Bonn, Jahrgg ‘ Anatomischer . 52, 1895. Beitrige zur Physiologie des Kreislaufes bei den Cepha- Ihid., B. 60, 1895. The behaviour of the Centrosomes in the fertilised egg of ‘Leuckart’s Journal of Mor- Ueber die im Mittelmeere vorkommenden Seestern Arten ‘Verh. Nat. Ver.,’ . Studii anatomici sulla famiglia Ophiotrichid del Golfo di ‘Ricerche fatte nel Laboratorio di Anatomia normale della R. Universita di Roma,’ vol. 4, 1895. Sulla morfologia del Syndesmis Echinorum Frangois. ‘Ricerche Laborat. di Anatomia normale,’ Roma, vol. 5, Ricerche intorno al cosi detto apparato olfattorio delle ‘Ricerche fatte nel Laboratorio di Anatomia normale della R. Universita di Roma,’ vol. 4, 1895. 7 THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. G. Mazzarelli . t C. Crety. : A p J. v. Uexkiill . A : ” H. Driesch . A H. Driesch and T. H. Morgan. N. Iwanzofft ” Ch. Hargitt N. Léon — T. H. Morgan H. Pollard V. Diamare H, Klaatsch ” G. Tagliani » Th. List . R. Schneider . 3 ; R. Krause 483 Intorno al rene secondario delle larve degli Opistobranchi. ‘ Boll. Soc. Naturalisti di Napoli,’ vol. 9, 1895. Contribuzione alla conoscenza dell’ uovo ovarico, ‘Ricerche fatte nel Laboratorio di Anatomia normate della R. Universita di Roma,’ vol. 4, 1895. Physiologische Untersuchungen an Eledone moschata 4. Zur Analyse der Functionen des Centralnervensystems. ‘ Zeitschr. fiir Biologie,’ B. 31, 1895. Vergleichende _sinnesphysiologische Untersuchungen 1. Veber die Nahrungsaufnahm des Katzenhais. bid. B. 32, 1895. Von der Entwickelung einzelner Ascidienblastomeren. ‘ Archiv fiir Entwickelungsmechanik,’ B. 1, 1895. _ Zur Analysis der ersten Entwickelungsstadien des Cteno- phoreneies. 1. Vonder Entwick. einzelner Ctenophoren- blastomeren. 2. Von der Entwick. ungefurcht. Eier mit Protoplasmadefekten. ‘Archiv Entw. Mechanik.’ B. 2, 1895. F Der mikroskopische Bau des elektrischen Organs von Torpedo. ‘Bull. Soc. Naturalistes Moscou.’ Moskau, 1895. Das Schwanzorgan von Raja. ralistes Moscou,’ N. 1, 1895. Character and distribution of the genus Perigonimus. ‘Mittheil. Zool. Station Neapel,’ B. 11. 1895. Zur Histologie des Dentalium-Mantels. ‘Jenaische Zeit- schrift,’ B. 30, 1895. Half embryos and whole embryos from one of the first two blastomeres of the frog’s egg. ‘ Anatomischer Anzeiger,’ B. 10, 1895. The formation of one embryo from two blastule. ‘ Archiv fiir Entwicklungsmechanik der Organismen,’ B. 2, 1895. A study of a variation in cleavage. Jbid. Studies of the ‘ partial’ larvee of Spherechinus. Tbid. Experimental Studies of the Blastula and Gastrula stages of Kchinus. bid. The fertilisation of non-nucleated fragments of Echino- derm-eggs. hid. A Study of Metamerism. vol. 37, 1895. The cral cirri of Siluroids and the origin of the head in Vertebrates. ‘Zool. Jahrbiicher, Abth. fiir Anat. und Ontogenie,’ B. 8, 1895. I corpuscoli surrenali di Stannius ed i corpi del cavo addominale dei Teleostei. ‘Boll. Soc. Nat. Napoli,’ vol. 9, 1895. Beitriige zur vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbelsiiule. III. Zur Phylogenese der Chordascheiden, &c. ‘Mor- phol. Jahrbuch.’ B, 22, 1895. Ueber Kernveriinderungen im Ektoderm der Appendicu- larien bei der Gehiusebildung. JZbid., B. 23, 1895. Intorno ai centri nervosi dell’ Orthagoriscus mola. Notizie anatomiche e critiche. ‘ Boll. Soc. Natur. Napoli,’ vol. 9, 1895. Intorno ai cosi detti lobi accessorii ed alle cellule giganti della midolla spinale di alcuni Teleostei. did. Morphologisch-biologische Studien tiber den Bewegungs- apparat der Arthropoden. 2. Theil. Die Decapoden. ‘Mitth. Zool. Station Neapel,’ B. 12, 1895. Die neuesten Beobachtungen iiber natiirliche Hisenre- sorption in thierischen Zellkernen, &c. bid. Die Speicheldriisen der Cephalopoden. ‘Centralbl. fiir Physiol.’ B. 9, 1895. ‘Bull. Soc. Imp. Natu- ‘Quart. Journal Micr. Sc.’ (2), Ir2 484. REPORT—1896. Th. Beer. Der Schlaf der Fische. ‘N. Wiener Tageblatt,’ N. 196, 1895. H. M. Vernon. The effect of environment on the development of Echino- derm larve; an experimental inquiry into the causes of variation. ‘Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, vol. 186, 1895. 3 The respiratory exchange of the lower marine Inverte- brates. ‘Journ. of Physiology,’ vol. 19, 1895. F. Reinke Untersuchungen iiber Befruchtung und Furchung des Eies der Echinodermen. ‘Sitz. Ber. Akad. Berlin,’ 1895. J. Sobotta Die Befruchtung des Eies von Amphioxus lanceolatus. ‘Anat. Anz.,’ B. XI., N. 5, 1895. H. Bury . The Metamorphosis of Echinoderms. ‘Quart. Journal Mier. Sce.,’ V. 38 (2), 1895. O. vom Rath . Ueber den feineren Bau der Driisenzellen des Kopfes von Anilocra mediterranea, Leach, &c. ‘Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.’ B. 60, 1895. J. E. S. Moore On the structural changes in the reproductive cells during the spermatogenesis of Elasmobranchs. ‘ Quart. Journ. Micr. Sc.’ (2), vol. 38, 1895. M. D. Hill Notes on the fecundation of the egg of Sphzrechinus . granularis, and on the maturation and fertilisation of the egg of Phallusia mammillata. bid. C. Nutting . : . Notes on the Reproduction of plumularian Hydroids. ‘ American Naturalist,’ Nov. 1895. R. Hesse. Fite ae . Ueber das Nervensystem und die Sinnesorgane von Rhizo- stoma Cuvierii. ‘ Zeitschr. wiss. Zoologie,’ B. 60, 1895. E. Korschelt . ; . Uber Kerntheilung und Befruchtung bei Ophryotrocha puerilis. bid. §. Trinchese . é . Ricerche anatomiche sul Phyllobranchus Borgninii (Tr.). *R. Accad. Sc. Istituto Bologna’ (5), t. 5, 1895. African Lake Fauna.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. SctaTerR (Chairman), Dr. Joon Murray, Professor E. Ray LANKESTER, Professor W. A. HErpMAN, and Professor G. B. Howes (Secretary). On reaching Blantyre, Mr. T. E. Moore, to whom the Committee had entrusted the investigation of the fauna of Lake Tanganyika, being detained by the Nyasa war, took the opportunity of visiting Lake Shirwa, and made observations upon a Green Bacteriwm, which appears to swarm there. Proceeding subsequently to Tanganyika, he reports that the fresh-water Medusa there (Limnoclida tanganyike) is exceedingly abundant, and announces the discovery of an apparent dimorphism in certain specimens, with active proliferation of each of the dimorphic forms. He has also collected fishes, molluscs, crustacea, and plants, all of which bear out the conclusion that Lakes Tanganyika and Nyasa are quite distinct in origin, and has discovered a large fresh-water sponge. Mr. Moore has also made geological collections, with a special view to their bearings upon the origin of the great African Lakes. After visiting some of the smaller lakes, he proposes shortly to start on his return journey to this country. Under these circumstances the Committee pro- pose to defer their final report on the results arrived at by Mr. Moore until the next meeting of the Association, and ask that they may be reappointed in the meanwhile without any further grant. a -t ON THE LABORATORY OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. 485 Marine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report of the Commuttee, consisting of Mr. G. C. BourNnE (Chairman), Pro- fessor E. Ray LanKkEsTER (Secretary), Professor M. Foster, and Professor S. H. VinEs, appointed to investigate the Relations between Physical Conditions and Marine Fauna and Flora. . Algological Notes for Plymouth District. By Mr. Grorce BREBNER. From January to April (1896) inclusive I had the privilege of occupying the British Association’s table. As a result of my investigations the following marine alge were added to the local flora, several of which were new to Britain, and others (marked thus *) were species or forms new to science. NEW TO BRITAIN. MyYxoPHYCE. Oscillatoria rosea, Crn. (Queen’s Ground.) Symploca atlantica, Gom. f. purpurea, Batt. (Yealm.) Hyella cespitosa, Born. et Flah. var. nitida, Batt. PHOPHYCES. Ralfsia disciformis (Crn.), Batt. (Yealm.). FLORIDES. *Acrochetium endophyticum, Batt. (Off west end of breakwater.) Cruoria rosea, Crn. f. purpurea, Batt. (Yealm.) Cruoriopsis cruciata, Duf. (Queen’s Ground.) Cruoriopsis Hauckii, Batt. (Off west end of breakwater.) Peyssonelia rupestris, Crn. (Queen’s Ground.) NEW TO PLYMOUTH DISTRICT. CHLOROPHYCE. Cladophora hirta, Kiitz. (Drake’s Island.) PHEOPHYCEX. Lithoderma fatiscens, Aresch. (Bovisand Bay). (Plurilocular spo- rangia not previously found in Britain.) FLORIDE. Acrochetium microscopicum, Nag. Peyssonelia Harveyana, Crn. (Queen’s Ground.) Rhododermis elegans, Crn. (Queen’s Ground, &c.) Lithothamnion Strémfeltii, Foslie. (Queen’s Ground.) Peyssonelia Rosenvingii Schm. (Wembury Bay.) The new species of Acrochetiwm is interesting on account of the main part of the thallus being endophytic—namely, in Dasya coccinea (Huds). Ag.—this alga therefore occupying in the genus Acrochetiwm a position analogous to that of Rhodochorton membranacewm Magn. in its genus. A. endophyticum, Batt., was described in the barren condition at the Linnean meeting of December 19, 1895, but the monosporangia were not found till January 1896. 186 REPORT—1896. Cruoria rosea, Crn. f. purpurea, Batt., is probably only a more ad- vanced stage in the life-history of Cruoria rosea, Crn., than had hitherto been recognised. It is so like the figure of Crouan’s Cruoria purpurea that it would have been identified as such by Mr. Edw. Batters and myself but for the fact that our solitary specimen showed several inter- mediate connecting stages. Cruoriopsis Hauckii, Batt. is an interesting member of the Squamariacex, obtained from a stone dredged off the west end of the breakwater. The tetraspores showed almost every transition from zonate to cruciate. It most nearly resembles Cruoriella armorica of Hauck (non Crouan). As one of the two species bearing the name Cruoriella armorica will have to be renamed, Mr. Batters proposes to call our plant as above. The other finds do not call for special mention. Interesting results were obtained from a cultivation experiment with Ahnfeltia plicata, Fr. The nature of its fructification has not been satisfactorily made out. The late Professor Fr. Schmitz maintained that it was a parasite (Sterrocolax decipiens, Schm.), and that the true repro- ductive organs had not yet been found. His view, however, while widely accepted by algologists, was opposed by Reinke and others. This plant, richly supplied with ‘nemathecia,’ was placed in sterilised sea-water on February 1, 1896, and after two months (March 30) a very great number of germinated spores, in the shape of small discs, were found on the sides of the glass jar. The structure and appearance of those discs were such as to strongly support the view that the supposed parasite of Schmitz was in reality the sporogenic nemathecium, or fructification, of Ahnfeltia plicata. Unfortunately, owing to the difficulties of cultivation, I did not succeed in definitely settling this point, as the culture did not get beyond the disc stage ; but, if the opportunity offers, another year I hope to repeat this experiment under more favourable conditions. As part of my investigation J am studying the attaching-discs of the red sea-weeds, or Floridez, in order to ascertain to what extent the conditions found by me in Dumontia filiformis (Fl. Dan.) Grev. (‘Journal of the Linnean Soc.’—Botany—vol. xxx. p. 436) prevail in other species. So far I have found no other red sea-weed which shows a mode of development, from an attaching-disc, similar to that described for D. filiformis (. c.). A large number of the Floridee (e.g. Gigartina, Polyides, Stenogramme) are connected with their attaching disc by a simple parenchyma-like tissue ; one or two species of those which have attaching discs present somewhat different features, and when their structure is more fully worked out will be worth describing and figuring, but they in no way resemble the con- ditions found in D. filiformis. In conclusion I should like to state that two or three of the above finds are entirely due to Mr. Batters, the material having simply been forwarded to him from the Laboratory at my request. He, moreover, has very kindly acted as expert for me by naming such alge as seemed to me to be interesting or new, the Plymouth Marine Biological Laboratory not. being well supplied with the literature necessary for algological research. The diagnosis of Acr. endophyticum, Batt., and particulars with regard to the other new to Britain marine algx, may be found in ‘The Journal of Botany’ for September, 1896, under ‘ New or Critical British Sea-weeds,’ by Mr. Edw. Batters. ON THE BIOLOGY OF OCEANIC ISLANDS. 487 The Necessity for the Immediate Investigation of the Biology of Oceanic Tslands.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. H. FLower (Chairman), Professor A. C. Happon (Secretary), Mr. G. C. Bourne, Dr. H. O. Forses, Professor W. A. HErpMAN, Dr. Joun Murray, Professor A. Newron, Mr. A. E. Suietey, and Professor W. F. R. WELDON. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) THosE students of Botany, Zoology, and Anthropology who have at all considered the matter, are impressed with the fact that the present time is a very critical period for the native flora and fauna of many parts of the world. Owing to the spread of commerce, the effects of colonisation, and the intentional or accidental importation of plants and animals, a very rapid change is affecting the character of the indigenous life of numerous districts. This is notably the case in oceanic islands, the area of which is often extremely limited, and whose native forms have been found to be specially liable to be swamped by the immigrants ; but itis just those spots which are of especial interest to the naturalist, on account of their isola- tion from the great land areas. Thus the flora and fauna of many of the most interesting districts for the field-naturalist are in our day becoming largely exterminated before they have been adequately recorded. The Committee, while fully recognising that it is unwise to compare the rela- tive values of different branches of science, are strongly of opinion that the naturalists of a future date will have a just cause of complaint against us if we have not done our best to save to science a record of these vanishing forms. Certain branches of enquiry may safely be left to the next generation, but the investigation of disappearing animals and plants can, in many cases, be undertaken by us alone—and even now much has disappeared and more is fast passing away. It is, perhaps, scarcely neces- sary to point out that this investigation is not a matter of interest to the systematist only, but it is of great importance in connection with the problems of geographical distribution, variation, adaptation to the environ- ment, and the like. We need only refer to the Reports of the Committee on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, and those of the Committee of the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands, to show that some work is being done in this direction by the British Association and other scientific societies, but we would urge that much more should be done by the Governments, scientific societies and private individuals of this and other countries. Mr. Perkins’ investigations in the Hawaiian group prove that quite a noticeable decrease in the indigenous fauna is taking place each season. The district around Honolulu was perhaps originally the richest in endemic forms, but now introduced forms are in vast preponderance ; the distinctive fauna of the plains, if there was one, has quite disappeared. Captain Cook found certain birds, for example, near the shore ; of these, some are extinct, and others are to be found only in the mountains. The area of the whole group is somewhat larger than Yorkshire. If the diminution of the fauna is so marked in such a comparatively large group as the Hawaiian Islands, how much greater must it be in the small islands. 488 REPORT—1896. Mr. Knight, in the ‘Cruise of the Falcon,’ describes the prostrate forests of the island of Trinidad in the South Atlantic. We never can know what was the nature and extent of this vanished flora and fauna. ‘ What is taking place in the small islands holds good to a somewhat: less extent for the larger ones. In New Zealand the Government is taking steps to preserve certain well-known vestiges of its ancient fauna, which are in imminent danger of extermination ; but it does not interest itself in the inconspicuous forms, which are subject to the same danger, nor does the New Zealand Government systematically investigate the existing fauna of the group. It is necessary that such investigations should be undertaken by a competent naturalist. He should not only be a good collector, but a keen observer, in fact, a naturalist in the true sense of the term; for unless the work is well done it had-almost be better left undone. There are many examples of collecting being so imperfectly done as to lead to very erroneous conclusions. It takes time for a naturalist to become acquainted with the local types. The endemics do not show themselves, as usually the conditions of life are such that insects, for example, live retired lives and are not seen, while those that manifest themselves are often foreigners. The extermination of animal life is more rapid and striking than that of plants, but what has been stated for animals must be applied to plants. as well. Not less important than the foregoing is the study of the anthropology of these districts. The Tasmanians have entirely disappeared and we know extremely little about this interesting people. In many islands the natives are fast dying out, and in more they have become so modified by contact with the white man and by crossings due to deportation by Europeans, that immediate steps are necessary to record the anthropo- logical data that remain. Only those who have a personal acquaintance with Oceania, or those who have carefully followed the recent literature: of the subject, can have an idea of the pressing need there is for prompt action. No one can deny that it is our bounden duty to record the physical characteristics, the handicrafts, the psychology, ceremonial observances and religious beliefs of vanishing peoples ; this also is a work which in many cases can alone be accomplished by the present generation. There is no difficulty in finding men competent to undertake such investigations if the funds were forthcoming. For the Committee to satisfactorily organise any expedition it would be necessary to have a per- manent income or at all events an adequate amount for a defined number of years. Experience has shown that an annual sum of 400/. is necessary to equip and maintain one naturalist. The Committee ask to be reappointed, and hope to propose a definite scheme at the next meeting of the Association. . Since the above was in print Dr. D. Sharp has received a letter from Mr. Perkins, in which the following passage occurs : this is so appropriate that we do not hesitate to quote it in full :—‘ The country where I camped here (Lihue, Kauai) was a low-lying, densely covered forest bogland, at Jirst sight a paradise for Carabide, and differing from any other place known to me. Its fauna is entirely lost for ever. ‘I turned during my stay thousands of logs, any one of which at 4,000 feet would have yielded Carabide. Of all these there was not @ ON THE BIOLOGY OF OCEANIC ISLANDS. 489 single one under which Pheidole megacephala had not a nest, and I never beat a tree without this ant coming down in scores. The only endemic insects seen were two earwigs, which appear to be (as I had already found out on Oahu and Maiu) the only native insects which can resist the ant. It was hardly possible for me to reach the ground behind the forest, but when I did get beyond the ant on one occasion, in pouring rain, I got some native beetles.’—July 21, 1896. Indea Generum et Specierum Animaliwm.—Report of a Committee, consisting of Sir W. H. FLower (Chairman), Mr. P. L. Sciarer, Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Mr. F. A. BaTHer (Secretary), appointed. for superintending the Compilation of an Index Generum et Specierum Animalium. In consequence of Mr. W. L. Sclater leaving England for South Africa, your Committee has added to its number Mr. F. A. Bather, who has served as secretary. During this past year considerable interest has been aroused in this work in connection both with the synopsis of species of living animals proposed to be issued by the German Zoological Society, under the title ‘Das Tierreich,’ and with the scheme for a subject cata- logue of scientific literature discussed at the recent International Congress on scientific bibliography. The importance of this work has been acknow- ledged by the British Association Committee on Zoological Bibliography and Publication, and a resolution bearing on the subject will be found in the Report of that Committee. A paper entitled ‘ Explanation of the Plan adopted for preparing the Jndex Generum et Specierum Animalium’ was read by Mr. Sherborn before the Zoological Society on June 2, and will be published in its ‘ Proceedings.’ To this paper those who require detailed information on the present condition of the work may be referred. Since the commencement of this work in 1890, a total of 130,000 refer- ences has been accumulated in duplicate, and a mass of literature has been carefully and thoroughly indexed. The time available for the work has amounted to about three years, and the whole work has been done by Mr. C. Davies Sherborn, the compiler. Every reference slip is at once sorted into its alphabetical order under the Genus, and the MS. is acces- sible at the British Museum (Natural History) for daily reference. The Museum Authorities furnish cabinets and accommodation for the MS., and the work is also carried on in that building. A considerable number of bibliographic researches of value have been made, the fixation of the dates of publication being regarded as of prime importance. Your Committee has requested Mr. Sherborn to conduct his work in such a manner that the Index should be published in three parts, dealing with the literature from 1758 to 1800, 1800 to 1850, 1850 to 1900, respectively, and to complete the first of these parts as quickly as possible. Your Committee begs to urge upon the Association the importance of completing this work at as early a date as possible, and venture to recom- mend that it be reappointed with a grant of £100, so that Mr. Sherborn may be provided with some secretarial assistance. 4.90 REPORT—1896. Zoological Bibliography and Publication.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. H. FLowEer (Chairman), Professor W. A. HerpMan, Mr. W. E. Hoye, Dr. P. L. Scuatrer, Mr. ADAM Sepewick, Dr. D. Sarr, Mr. C. D. SHERBorn, Rev. T. R. R. STEBBING, Professor W. F. R. WELDON, and Mr. F. A. BaTHER (Secretary). In consequence of the International Conference on scientific bibliography convened by the Royal Society, and held from July 14 to 17, your Com- mittee has deferred expressing any opinion with regard to questions of —oe co-operation or the use of any system of numerical notation. With a view of obtaining a body of opinion to guide it in its decision, your Committee is circulating among various experts, both British and foreign, not included in the Committee, the following questions :— (A) The first questions to be decided are those of Publication, since a bibhography cannot be compiled till it is settled what is to be included. (1) What constitutes publication? It is suggested that private pre- sentation by the author is not publication, but that the work must be obtainable by any individual through ordinary trade channels. An exception must be made in the case of reports and bulletins issued by public bodies gratis to all bona fide applicants, since some of these are not allowed to be sold. (2) What is the date of publication? If private presentation be dis- regarded, as suggested, then the date of private distribution of an author’s separate copies cannot be accepted ; neither can we accept the date of the reading of a paper before a learned society, or even that of the issue of an abstract thereof to the fellows of such society. (3) As a corollary to the above, it was recognised at the meeting on May 7, that the isswe of authors’ separate copies before the issue of the complete volume leads to confusion. Various reasons, however, seem to render this practice a common one, and it is desirable that some remedy should be found. It would be possible either to issue each paper or memoir as soon as printed, with separate pagination and in a separate wrapper, as done by the Royal Society and the Swedish Royal Academy of Science ; or to issue the volumes sheet by sheet, as matter might come to hand and be printed. On this any suggestions would be very welcome. (4) Is it advisable to limit the recognition of publication (a) 1m manner, or (b) in matter? (a) Zoologists have generally refused to accept names of species appearing in the daily press, accompanied by descriptions pos- sibly sent by telegraph ; but where are we to draw the line between the popular newspaper or magazine, and, say, the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society ? It is a serious matter to restrict publication, yet the modern increase of mushroom magazines suggests the desirability of legislation in this direction. Again, are we to recognise new names pub- lished in an unsigned footnote to a report on a public discussion on. a totally distinct subject ? Here, again, where is the line to be drawn ? Is a name appearing in the explanation to a plate and not in the text to be accepted? (b) Can any restriction be placed on language? Russian and Czech are recognised ; what about Japanese? Is it advisable to ON ZOOLOGICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY AND PUBLICATION. 491 ignore certain authors who refuse to comply with the recognised usages of zoologists, ¢.g., by brazenly misdating their publications or by persistent ignoring of the work of others ? (B) The following questions arise in connection with Bibliography :— (1) What limits should be set to bibliography? The aim is to bring to the workers on any one subject information as to all works published on that subject. Bibliography is limited (a) in degree, (b) in kind). (a) There are limits to the minuteness of subdivision: is the minute system of slips (such as a slip for every mention of each species), proposed by the Royal Society, feasible or desirable? (6) Bibliography being a ‘description of writings,’ it does not include criticism or interpretation other than may be needed to explain obscurities. How far should criticism enter into bibliography ? (2) What means can be adopted for producing co-operation between the various bibliographers? Two means have lately come into prominence : (a) the International Bureau at Zurich ; (6) the Dewey Decimal System of Classification. (a) The International Bureau has suffered at the in- ception of its work through the serious illness of Dr. H. H. Field, so that the results can hardly be criticised as yet. (b) The Dewey Decimal Classifi- cation has recently been explained for English readers by Mr, W. E. Hoyle in ‘ Natural Science,’ vol. ix. pp. 43-48, July, 1896. Both of these means will necessarily be discussed by the International Congress on Scientific Bibliography, and the Zurich Bureau would doubtless be absorbed in any ultimate scheme. Any suggestions for the improvement of ‘the Royal Society schemes, so far as they refer to zoology and paleontology, will be welcomed by the present Committee. (3) Is it advisable that authors and editors should co-operate with bibliographers in the ways that have recently been suggested, viz. : (a) by construction of catalogue or index slips; (b) by heading articles with their decimal number? Examples of catalogue slips may be seen in recent issues of the Proceedings of the Royal Society, and the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, while the decimal number has been employed in the Revue Scientifique, Bulletin de VAssociation pour lAvancement des Sciences, Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de Paris, Zoologischer Anzeiger, Natural Science, &e. It is proposed to sift opinions obtained on these points, and to report on them on a future occasion. ' Your Committee has also ventured to utilise its existence in sending out the following circular to the editors of all publications connected with zoology :— Dear S1r,—I am desired by the Committee of the British Association on Zoological Bibliography and Publication to draw your attention to the following statement :— It is the general opinion of scientific workers, with which the Com- mittee cordially agrees : (1) That each part of a serial publication should have the date of actual publication, as near as may be, printed on the wrapper, and, when possible, on the last sheet sent to press. (2) That authors’ separate copies should be issued with the original pagination and plate-numbers clearly indicated on each page and plate, and with a reference to the original place of publication. 492 REPORT—1896. (3) That authors’ separate copies should not be distributed privately before the paper has been published in the regular manner. The Committee, however, observes that these customs are by no means universal, and constant complaints are made that one or other of them is not put into force. In case the Publication or Society with which you are connected does not comply with these desiderata, the Committee ven- tures to ask whether it would not be possible for it so to comply in future. Should you, however, have any good reasons against the adoption of these suggestions, the Committee would be much obliged if you would kindly inform it of your reasons, in order that it may be guided in its future action. The Committee further begs to ask for your co-operation in the follow- ing matter. There are certain rules of conduct upon which the best workers are agreed, but which it is impossible to enforce, and to which it is dificult to convert the mass of writers. These are :— (4) That it is desirable to express the subject of one’s paper in its title, while keeping the title as concise as possible. (5) That new species should be properly diagnosed and figured when possible. (6) That new names should not be proposed in irrelevant footnotes or anonymous paragraphs. (7) That references to previous publications should be made fully and correctly, if possible, in accordance with one of the recognised sets of rules for quotation, such as that recently adopted by the French Zoological Society. The Committee ventures to point out that these and similar matters are wholly within the control of editors (rédaction) and publishing com- mittees, and any assistance which you can lend in putting them into effect will be valued, not merely by the Committee, but, we feel sure, by zoolo- gists in general. The answers received to this circular will, it is hoped, enable your Committee to make further suggestions upon certain practical points. Your Committee desires that the following unanimous resolution should be conveyed to the Committee of Recommendations : ‘Considering how important to zoologists is the speedy completion of the Index Generum et Speceerum Animaliwm, now being compiled by Mr. Charles Davies Sher- born under another Committee of this Association, the present Committee begs to urge upon the Association the advisability of extending to this Index substantial pecuniary support.’ Finally, your Committee ventures to recommend its re-appointment, with a grant of 5/. towards the expenses of printing and posting circulars. The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. Newton (Chairman), Dr. W. T. BLanrorD, Professor 8. J. Hickson, Professor C. V. Ritey, Mr. O. Sarvin, Dr. P. L. ScLaTer, Mr. E. A. Smita, and Mr. D. Suarp (Secretary). THE Committee was appointed in 1890, and has been annually re- appointed. Since it reported to the Association last year, Mr. R. C. L. Perkins has been continuing his work of exploration, and has revisited ON THE ZOOLOGY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 493 the islands of Molokai, Hawaii, Maui, and Kauai in order to fill up cer- tain gaps in previous work. Papers resulting from the Committee’s work have been published—on Orthoptera by Herr Brunner von Wattenwyl (P.Z.S., 1895), on Slugs by Mr. W. H, Collinge (P. Malaco- logical Soc., 1896), and on Earthworms by Mr. F. E. Beddard (P.ZS., 1896). The arrangement with the trustees of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum in Honolulu, alluded to in the last report, has been ratified, and the Committee is consequently not in need of funds at present. Immediately after its last reappointment, the Committee lost one of its members, Professor C. V. Riley, through his decease conse- quent on a lamentable accident. It again applies for reappointment and the sanction of the Association for having availed itself of the offer of the trustees previously mentioned. This was asked for last year, and no doubt it was intended that it should be granted ; but by some inad- vertence the power actually given was only ‘to avail themselves of such assistance in their investigations as may be offered by the Hawaiian Government.’ No assistance of any importance has been rendered by the Hawaiian Government. Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands.—Ninth Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. ScuaTer (Chairman), Mr. GrorGE Murray (Secretary), Mr. W. Carruruers, Dr. A. C. L. Gtnruer, Dr. D. SHarp, Mr. F. Du Cane Gopman, Professor A. Newton, and Sir GeorcE F. Hampson, Bart., on the Present State of owr Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands, and on taking Steps to investigate ascertained Deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora. Tus Committee was appointed in 1887, and has been reappointed each year until the present time, Sir G. Hampson having been added to it during the present year. The Committee has continued the working out of the collections, and since the last report the following papers have been published :— 1. Lichenes Antillarum a. W. R. Elliott collecti, A. Wainio (Journal of Botany, 1896). 2. The Non-Marine Mollusca of St. Vincent, Grenada, and other neighbouring islands, by E. A. Smith (Proceedings Malacological Society, vol. i. part 7). 3. Report on the Parasitic Hymenoptera of the island of Grenada, comprising the families Cynipide, Ichneumonide, Braconide, and Procto- trypide, by W. H. Ashmead (Proceedings Zoological Society, London 1895). L On the Geometride, Pyralidee, and allied families of Heterocera of the Lesser Antilles, by G. F. Hampson (Annals of Natural History, xvi., 1895). 5, Observations on some new Buprestide from the West Indies, by C. O. Waterhouse (Annals of Natural History, xviii., 1896). The Committee has other papers in hand which it hopes to publish shortly, two being, indeed, already in type ; one by W. Dollfus, on Isopod Crustacea ; the other by Professor Williston on Diptera. The latter is to 494, “ REPORT—1896. be produced with the assistance of a donation from the Council of the Royal Society. During the year further collections of Cellular Cryptogams have been received from Mr. Elliott, and their working out has been undertaken— the Musci by Mr. Gepp, the Hepatice by Dr. Stephani, the Lichenes by M. Wainio, and the Fungi by Miss Smith. The Committee recommends its reappointment, and applies for a grant of 50/. to aid it in the working out of the collections already made The Committee to be constituted as at present. The Position of Geography in the Educational System of the Country.— Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. J. MackINDER, (Chairman), Mr. A. J. Hersertson (Secretary), Mr. J. Scorr Kevtig, Dr. H. R. Mitt, Mr. E. G. Ravenstem, and Mr, Eur SOWERBUTTS. No account of the position of geography in our educational system can be adequate which is not based on a comparison with Mr. Scott Keltie’s well- known and admirable report on Geographical Education prepared for the Royal Geographical Society twelve years ago.! It is the best account we possess of the position of geography at that time, not only in our own, but also in other countries. Since it was published several changes for the better have to be chronicled, but unfortunately much of the criticism of the comparative neglect of geography in the schools and colleges of the nation that should foster it most remains only too true. Changes have occurred abroad as well as at home, and the Committee deem it advisable to compare the advances made in other lands with our own progress in recent years. The best way to do this would be to make personal inspections similar to those made by Mr. Keltie ; but as the Committee have no funds at their disposal, it has been necessary to carry on their work mainly by correspondence. Information as to the position of geography has been sought and obtained from educational authorities all over the country, and from those of other lands, and the Committee desire to acknowledge their indebtedness to many correspondents. In the case of secondary schools, the Committee have had the benefit of the inquiries carried on by the Geographical Association, whose object is to improve the position of geography in such schools. The Committee would draw attention to the memorial prepared by this Association, as a result of their investigation. This memorial has been sent to the principal examining bodies in the kingdom. The Committee would also emphasize the need for immediate improve- ment in the training of teachers in geography, and the increase and exten- sion of geographical work in the Universities, as recommended by the International Geographical Congress last year. The Committee consider it better to postpone the presentation of their extended report to the Association until next year, as all the documents necessary for a complete report have not yet come to hand. Accordingly they ask that they may be reappointed. 1 Roy. Geog. Soc. Supp. Papers, vol. i. Part IV. 1885, a i. ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. 495 The Climatology of Africa.—Fifth Report of a Committee, consisting of Mr. E. G. RavENsTEIN (Chairman), Sir JonN Kirk, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. H. R. Mitt, and Mr. H. N. Dickson (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Chairman.) METEOROLOGICAL journals have been received in the course of last year from eighteen places in Tropical Africa. Niger Territories—We have a register from Captain Gallwey’s old station (Warri), as also from a new station (Sapele), opened last year, about thirty miles to the north-west of the former. In nextyear’s report we hope to be able to publish abstracts of important observations made by officials of the Royal Niger Company, which Sir George Taubman-Goldie has promised to communicate. Congo.—The Rey. R. Glennie, the oldest and most constant corre- spondent of your Committee, has forwarded another year’s register for Bolobo. No information has been received from the Gaboon. A set of instruments, with full instructions, has been furnished, on payment, to the Rev. Phillips Verner, who left for the Kasai in November last. Nyasaland.—The only record received is one by Commander C. Hope Robertson, communicated by Mr. Robert H. Scott, the Secretary of the Meteorological Council; but we understand that Mr. Moir, who has been entrusted with a complete set of instruments, intends to read a paper on the Meteorology of Nyasaland at the Liverpool meeting of the Association. Sir Harry Johnston, who is at present in England, takes much interest in the work of your Committee, and there is some hope of organising a carefully considered scheme for meteorological work through- out the Protectorate so ably administered by him. British East Africa.—Observations have been received from thirteen stations. Unfortunately, owing to the disturbed state of the country and to administrative changes, some of the registers are imperfect. The Foreign Office has met the wishes of your Committee in the most gratifying manner. Instructions have been given by Mr. Hardinge, Her Majesty’s Commissioner, to have meteorological returns kept, and these will be sent to us for publication. Three sets of instruments (including barometers and anemometers) have been forwarded by the Foreign Office to Uganda, and since the beginning of this year observations on the water-level of the Victoria Nyanza are being made by means of gauges erected at Port Alice and Port Victoria. Transvaal._An old series of observations made by Mr. W. H. Jessop on the Lataba River have been communicated by Dr. H. R. Mill, and further communications of the same class are very desirable. The abstracts for Bolobo, Warri, Sapele, and Lataba River, which accompany this report were made by the Secretary, and those for the remaining stations by the Chairman of your Committee. The barometer readings, unless stated otherwise, have been reduced to 32° and corrected for gravity, but no attempt has been made to reduce them to the sea- level. This can only be done after the altitude of the stations shall have been determined by spirit-levelling, and with the extension of railway surveys this information is likely to be forthcoming at an early date. Your Committee have expended the 10/. granted. They beg to pro- pose that they be reappointed, and that a grant be made of 20/, 1896. REPORT. 496 “(FEST Ul SOYOUT ¢/.29 ‘TEST UI Tle} SOUOUL g6.¢9) OSvAOAV OY} BAGG UAE BAY] OF SMIAAS T[ByUTeI ONT, *(6+6+6+2)E=pamnsse onqvsoduioy uveyy GG-F | GIT) §6-1L)| — = as — | 98] 99 | 06 | Gol. | I8Z- | LEL-| BBL] 0-92 | ETL | 0-69] G16 | GST | FLL | TL] 8-98] BOL | 9-48] FEZ 01:2 | ST | 89-9 0-9 oF 8-F 28 | 68 | TL | T6 | IG. | 168. | COL-| FEL | GOL | 6TL | F-89 0.06 | OFT | 8-92} 602] 6F8| 292 | 9.28] TEL GF | SL! 16-91} — a = — | 06 | SZ | $6 | $82. | #28. | EOL. GL | B92 | LIL | G19) 06 | LOT | TOL] £02 | #98) BFL) T-28 | 2-02 LET | FL | 80-9 ¢.9 6-9 9-G 0-2 | 68 | 69 | €6 | OLL- | GOB | 6EL- | 9.01 | €-9L | 812 | 0-69 | 0-16 | GET | 2-92 | 602 | 1-98] 8-FL | 0-78 | $82 F0-E | Si | 99-9 9G F-9 L& 8-9 | 18} 69 | 68 | G22. | GOL. | O&L. nay SFL | LIL | #89 | £66 | &-8L | 8-92 | 812 | TS8 |] 242] 668 |] FEL OBL | b | SLs = = — — | 82] 99 | 68 | GL. | TTL | SL9- | ZZL | 6-FL | 2-69 | $89 | 0-46 | 9-91 | 9-52 | FIL} 0-88] TLL] $98 Ce haan (a 9F | “6€ ics FL | 08 | 8 | GB | GIL. | FL9- | 869.) FTL LPL FLO) LI] FIG | BBL | GLL} 0-02 | 688] LE2 | 298 | O-TL cg& |G | OS Lg 9-F LF S-9 | #8 | G9 | 48 | SSL. | SSL. | 9389- | o.ZL 9-22 | 9-69 | 9-89 | §-66 | 9-61 | S22] €-IL] 6-8 8-GL | $68 | €-3L 8&-T | dT | 68-9 $9 6-9 FG 6-9 | 88] 99 | G6 | 89L- | O68. | LLL. | 9-GL | GLL | 9-32 | 9-99 | $66 |} 9-91 | G22) 6TL | 9-88 | 0-61 | 6-8 | €-FL GB-€ | IT | 216 Lg 0-¢ FG 9-9 | 98 | $9 | 06 | GLZ- | OGL. | GLL- | §-EL | 2-92 | B-GL | 9-29] G16 | 9-91 | §-8L | GL) 1-68} €-92 | 268 | 8-FL FET | €L | 11-9 9-9 LL FG FL | 98 |) G9 | 68 6LL+ L8L- | GOL | FEL | £92 | FSL | 689 | $66 | 9-91 | G82 | SIL | #88] 9-91] T-8 | 9-2 06-1 | OL | 62-2 FL L8 9-9 | $2 | 88] 89 | 06 | ZBL | 208 | O9L- | BEL | 992 | LBL | #29] 06] GST | 922 | GIL] GLB] 8-62 | 978 | TPL SLL | OL; 68-€ G9 Lt 8-9 88 | 98] #9 | G6 | B12. | S6L- | ELL. | BEL | 2-92 | F-ZL | 0-29 | F636 | SST | 6-22] &TL | TL8} T-92 | §-88 | 0-2 “ul ‘ur ‘ord ‘ord ‘ord ul ul Ul ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° to} ° oO ° ia & q uveyy 7 ~~ 7a he ce ay we ee z" e- Be . ve ‘ary | “xeyy uveye| cure | xen | wag] wa giv 2 5 asueyy ES | ped TIVYT (01-0) qunowy—pno[p my tie eS a , tinan ote aia (apeyg) eamyerodmay, wrayy Cyafuasp abioaxy ‘aay ‘Og 02 ZI waquiaroyy pup TE 02 Gg] gsnbn yr wo4g) ‘7aaf OOT'T “WZ ST o91 “SU0T “S01 06 27T *(obu0g) oqojog : vax * raqma0aq, OC UIAAO NT * 1aq0400 raquiaydeg * 4qsnsny ‘+ sine * * aune +) Sen Os BU 7 * + qoreyy * Aveniqe,T * Avenuee S68T WOH ‘hjynwoy hanuorwssyuy ysudug ‘avwuaryy j1aqory ‘aaey + waaLasqc— THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. ON “TANAG OY} JO SS9OX9 WT 940JoI9y} PUB “CUM + “EeU) F = oq 07 pommnsse sinqereduo3 wesTH euL (@ (st) eer estat} 4) 2 |e | 2) 0 | er] so] ort] ec | ze | te) 0g] 40 |i 9e¢ | terleerty| zor | co | sor lers|ztaipte) te | tr): * est“ (0 FEI] S91} 93] ¢ | 9 01 |9]0 E S11) GhI| 96 | ZT | GT | $6 | OF | 09-F | 291) 62-811] 0-08 | 09 | 86 jS18jet2 16} ee. | 42 | * * scsT avOx 0 | @ | 91 | or | 1 | WAG | Hie he | Toe 1d Ps eta) ee |e | £0. | T |€0- | 213 | OL | 86 |ges|e-ezlz-F6] O28 | 9.82 | * * aoqmooag 0|;0 | 0T|¢ ° 0/4 g 0!0);0 Poe ao 9 I , 99-8 8 |29-¢ | §1z 69 96 |€-€8 12-32 0-F6| L-08 | BRL | * * faq UIaAO NT 0 M ree eo | 1 | t | & | 0 |, $ |T |& |S |T | 98E | 1 )66 | ¢8r | 69 | 96 |z08|e12\0.06) 082 | ge, |* * * 2q0300 0 0 fe |o}ol}ojolr}o}t lo |o lo jt (0 | #8 | us toe |} oet | oo | +6 [rez/oezioce| exe | ore |* * soqumoydag 0 ) 0 | ¢ On 20a eG 0 0 | 0 I | I | 0 0.0 | 0 | 6¢-3 | 8L |69-8 | J.9T 19 G6 6928-02 $18 | G22 | FEL | ° . * qsnany | 0 10 Ga | > lt ONE | 0) 0 0 |T b lo O/T | 0 | 006 | os |TL8T | &T | OZ £6 1-62 \0-02 6-98 2-92 | ces |* °* * Ame olo ls letris |}olololololo T }0 |0 |T |0 |] 09-% | 08 |60-8t | 9-91 | 69 G8 /F-08 | LCL 288) 6.8L | GFL |° * ° oune ON) ae | 6 Vee ere eo ee eh Ole T |G |€ |F |O | SHE | St |eLIL | 0-83 | 09 | 86 lecsie-tzi¢-es| 008 |erz |° ° ° sew 0}0 |e joo} |o}o} t]o}o/jo | T | | |T /% | CLL | ot jFee | Les | 99 | 66 |aesiz-tzis¢6| gig }oe | ° ° tady o|t jo |uz | o|¢}|1tioj]olo}o | 6 )4 )& | |% || TT | ot Jsgs | Lee | ¢9 | ge joesieorloc6| TIg | en. |* ° ° Yorepr OPO 88 Scs Gh Or 10) |) 10 / 0 | 0 | 0 Ga ee 80m 16z, tio. 1&3 | 69 66 |2-€8 /6-1L 9:96) 6-28 | OFL | °° Arwnaqag 0/0 |0 |jez}o | ti o}]o0/t}]olo 6 )O |S |T |S | 883) % las | 212 | 99 | 26 |o28\F-12\T-e6| 918 | Tez |° ° Axenaes / “uy “UT ° ° ° o || 6 hao ° ° S68 (Le, eee | —-|—'_|_|__ | nee RET he Was (We EM Se 2 | . H | q & Pet calan | =~ [sees | | 4a | ale : : | ‘Wd 9 / WV L pene yyy | — Urey vata eangereduoy, T101}00.1Ip peytoeds B W01j MOT 4I TOUT 1O sfeq JO TaqGMMnN : Pulm 99 jo mOrqoaLTC CT RON HPO TO TN SOA WON NAT !840000890 "J9AL LH 19 09 “BUT “A TS oF MT “(uquoge) wus ee ee eae Yeni enn See EM DEmmE DE! LET CPN a 1896. REPORT 498 ~— Se a “WOO FV OPLUT BIO SUOTFVATASO OT, “AAMSOUXA TON} AO SzUSTUNAYSU] OF SU UAMOUY St SUNJON “TT “AG WSno.«yy paafooar suoyvasasqo asaryy, | | | | | O&F- T¢ GE8-1 09 |} ST IL 06 oF LOL 16 93 | 9¢ 09 OOL | L6L TI6-86 | * ‘s *€68T tua x 8EE-Z IL €F-6 9 G = 4 = IL ira. | am | 8 OL OOT 0-98 F08-86 = 4 * coqureoaqT 196. P L¥8-1 9 ra - —— er | P atan ieeeeieemiee ieee IZ 00T G18 G€8.-86 | * * *aaquaaon 068- G 006- ig rt it I ieee ee iG 9 tate | 4 ¢9 F6 @.6L 9€6-86 Z * -* — JaqoqoQ 083-2 b 0FS.6 I sak A) ng Gh atighredioues Seger lease £9 £6 6-92 11686 |° * ‘aaqmeydes 000. 0 000+ ie § py aa ste Mh) OPE | ¥ Le G ZL €9 | 06 / L-08 £66-86 . 4 * qsnusny | OBZ I 086. g Cael | Sam Sroipeas | 36 = Pe eee 19 8L 9.0L BOHC el sons ee meer 000. 0 000+ ZL € 1 aes G I Hage I eae i 4 oa) |) +406 0.9L L¥0-66 . ‘ , * aun 190. I 190. =| 9 (heh (Ree = ie Ge eS I L 09 | 88 | ges S20:85.¢ |S) fsetates eo heyy OO€- G ELS. pation i a T I L i 8) a 8 a= NRE } G L9 16 6-82 G66-82 Mee ee * judy FOG. 6 88¢. ee L i 8 9 ae G au eg t = GL 16 9.28 G88-86 3 ; F OLB] O8F-% 6 oses |g —- | — Te Ueates gS Or ¢ g I co | ga | oes eres |* * + Sxunsqag OG8-T ST 0692 | IT — ME at wat te ete L —_ I Th Sy “SG OTS 6F9.86 D # * Srvnuee £681 ( OOL-T 9 160:£ ig) SS = = id Sle a) os z if 89 ive G98 | FOL8G |* -* —* aoquiaoaq 008-1 IL 6OLP et = = os = $ 9 g = 6 | $86 ¥-G8 | OLL-86 Z i * CoQ UW9AO N Gel. or PES.3 ieltg he = 25 = L 9 ¢ I 29 &6 L8L | L0886 |° *% * 4taqo,09 OGL. £ 168. 8 = == pa l &L £ it b 99 96 £-£8 928-86 | ° * *ataquieydag O10. G LET. Lit ieee = ae Pe UE 6 = =e € a9 06 GRE | 966-86 | * he . qsnsny “Ul ‘uy | | | | 4 x) gna bid “ul G68T a SRC yj SIU | HTPC | “ANNE | a gee | ‘S| ms oma arussad, qsoTAvo | 4soMoT | qsoysrpy | -vrodumay, nce Chutes | . ; weayl UIRyy | purm “dossar "ET ‘At 1 LIadI8dQ “89 08 MOT “SS 0 8B '29T “(Jovasunuy, ‘buaqsundynog) waavy vqvywT wapy ‘dung hopywag (9+9) } Mors paonpap st oanqvaodute, weaua at, ‘oun? UL SUOTZBAIASGO “UIT ONT ‘UIUE “Iv'Y 9 PUL *XBUI “IW'd 9 oIv AAOG” AIS SaInSTy ‘Wd 9 PUL “IW'Y 9 4v JOS PUL pLad oIv “UIT PUL “XLT “UAOUYUN suOToaAL09 puL ouTeU s eLOYVUL Inq “poos aq 07 paaatjaq spwammayzsuy *AoATey ureqdup Aq paqaeqs uoye|s MAN Go GG. ¢3 16 CG6- 662. F8L 8-EL oo. 9 96.6 88 96 996. F6L- T-6L Lél 91-6 1G 6GL2L G6 o6 168+ GOL. 9.9L LTL TPG 96 00-61 88 6 G8. E81. LL FGL 90-6 9L G0-L ¥8 ob ELL Tél. EL GOL 16-€ GS 9L-16 88 96 L6L. TLL. L-€L 6-TL FSG 6L GF-6 €8 FG CZ8- L6L. €-G) O-€2 ‘ul ul cord od “uy “uy c ae skeq |qunoury) wag |‘wv9 | wag | wv | wag | WV Aqiprum yy aimodva qiug 40M : 01n4 vere _ _ 9ATIRLOY ry JO a010\T | -viadmoay, ues I OL as 26 69 | 66 69 16 69 66 TO 386: 69 88 =e « (BS ° ° JSOMO'T | 4SatLStpy ~ Somlarg Nay 1p HES 19 AMMO a Mmmm ANo o| asuryy Apred TLL 9-62 T-F6 8-18 SL 9-LL SEL G-F6 8-18 FEL 9-92 LOL 0-68 F-8L 8-62 GGL 2) 04 8-8 GLL 6-62 LPL 9-89 0-98 L-9L 9-12 FPL FIL 6-8 G-9L LGL 9-92 a LE8 1-62 LPL ° ° ° °o ° uvay, | ‘UI ‘XU | Weg | ‘WV 9 (apeyg) sornyerodmoy, weoyt ‘hauyoy uyozdyg : saawasqQ “aT OF 0G ‘buoy ®AT LE 0G WT ~"(vaiafy yas, ‘uanay wuag) apadug * raqmiaday * LOqQUIaAO NT * 1902009 * raqmaqdag ' gsnsny = . Ain ir SOON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. ON ‘stayvo JO Jaqtunu 94} pue ‘[nJ1aMod ysour Jo popzooar ATJUONberZ ySOUL SpUIA OMY OY} JO 9OIOZ UII PUL ‘paarosqo TOI wo sfvp Jo Joquanu ‘UOTOeIIp ayy § YJWOM Yova ynoysnosyy putm 94} JO (Z[—0) 9d10F UvoUT oY} SAATS JORIYSqe OT —'spUrAL | iS i (skup 12) 31/9-T |F “A N/6-6 | FS ee FET) FN |60/8 ‘S/S |/GF |S °S/L1T/L N/L3/13/9-1 | ¢ ‘S |F-€ 18 “ANIS-3 tine M61 G-T |\€ “AN|O-T | FN | 7-0 DIOT |P MN GT | STNIGT |G)0€8 | F SIGL | SN |LT {LTS | 2 9 | TS 6 “ONS yee: SABD OE AGT | 9 NITES] 9'S 160 /9/68/2 ‘S|ET | 6 'N|GL |9\61] % Ml60/2 “S121 1914216 © ILE | IT ‘9132 pee sy | sap |e el Sole SS Se ST [09 AN GTO Sy ST Eel | Oo Nalaleal Te geet 20 | CSc LN et ier tegen eae 6Z) ysusny zi ad i] te i=} & © ta ) =) =) & =) Siseel s (eee) | |B lebel Flebs! al | Flobsl Fleesl | |B leEy| Flezyl . =| 2 | y4s| 2 |yA3| 2 5 1o2Za/F | yas! 8 BP lyZ42/% | yas] g Bly4e| 2 | yas! o 2] 3 (§62| 2 S82 2 2] # ebS| F162) = lE| 2 S82] oes2| 5 |S S see) S288 6 a) s [Pee] o [Pee] eis] s ieee] gfe ge) se) es |e ee) Be leg8) SB) Bg lege gle eel | Sec 4 4 al o = = — ° ° SPUIAA SUITIBADIT F SpULAA SUITIVADIg " SPUTAA SaITBAITT i SPUIAA SaIpIVAaTg ce ‘Nd § “Wd $ TOON ‘WV 8 ‘(g+9)£ morz poonpep st aungnuaduay, uvayy out, ‘popIOodI SB WAALS ore Shupway proLdUP OUI, ‘UO}SUYOL 410.7 0} pouInjor A[oyeuTyN pue ‘¢ LaquIsaoN UO SInquesuv’'y 0} dir} v OF UOJSUYOL 410.4 4J9] § TE 1Aq0}009 pue gz ysNSny udeMjoq ‘eUIOYLT sv avy sv ‘“oyxeT oy JO j[eY UIEYINOS oY} poyeotava f YZ ysnony 07 dn uoysuYyOL 4104 4V poULeUaL OIA “IaMIvAYs OYVT B pIvOg UO apeUT 9TAM SUOTZBAIOSQO OTT, | | ot | 8h | FF | s+ | ¢08 | 652 | £:06 | 6-62 | 9.08 | 68 | 8.08 | gue. 08. 686- DORE ~ ih -< — gek Aas SOU RA ORL LE | 83 | GE | TZ | 962 | OTL | 0-6 £64 | 8-8 | 88 | 8-6L | 6OF- PO: SaF- a |eenrmmi 21 ) ee | 63 | 08 | 9-2 | 82 | 299 | 9.48] 952] 908] T-08| sez | O89-82 | EoF- T¥S- Gog. |* ° dequreydes — | % | 8e | g-¢ | [0-12] | 0-29 | 0-28) — | 008] 9-22] 1-02}. — | 029-82 | g¢9-86 | I99-93|° -* .* 4sndny ‘Wd 8 | ‘Wd F | TOON | ‘KV g ‘UT | RUT | ‘Wag | Wa fF] UOON | ‘WVvg] ‘Wag | ‘Nd J uooN ‘WV g UBdyT PO8T (OI-1) Prol9 sanqerod way, uvoyy (12¢ "V eIpy) proasuy CSU ‘09g “IT quoqayr “aye Aq pazvoninmwuwog) “Hyp ‘uosjraqoy adozy “9 Lapumummog : waasasqgqg *wsvhiyr aYDT KK2 500 REPORT— 1896. Mombasa. Lat. 4° 4’ S., Long. 39° 42’ #., 60 feet. Observer: J. J. W. Pigott. Pres-| Tempera- Mean Temperatures & Humidity Rain sure tures: a = e 1895 of Extremes ma |e EI a=) cia ee Atmo-|———____| Dry | Wet | Mean | Mean M 2) 238 qe 5 Pl eS sphere High- | Low- |94.M.|94.M.| Max.| Min. |") “a | @ 2 |OU™) g 1A | Sm 9A.M.| est est A|Pa < ise In, = Bi 5 a iS a a o |iInch | p.c. | Inch Inch January . |29°818) 85°0 | 75:4 | 80:0 | 76-7 | 82-4 | 767 | 80°0 | 5 7 881] 86 ‘01 1 “O01 February . *824| 85°2 | 75°5 | &1°6 | 76°6 | 83:7 | 77°8 | 80°8 | 59 859) 79 "34 3 27 March *787 | 89:1 | 78:0 | 83:7 | 780 | 86:4 | 79°6 | 83:0 | 68 895| 78 3°05 7 | 1:35 April 5 *820| 88:0 | 76°38 | 82:0 | 77°5 8671 | 78:8 | 82-4 | 7:3 892} 82 3°47 | J1 “91 May. 5 *898| 85°6 | 74:0 | 78°83 | 74:9 | 83:2 | 76°3 | 79°7 | 7:9 831) 85 9999 | 19 | 2°29: June rn "985 | 84-2 | 73°0 | 77:5 | 72°9 | 82-1 | 749 | 785 | 7:2 756| 80 144] 4 ‘70 July . é “991 | 83°0 | 71:0 | 76:8 | 72°0 | 80°7 | 73°7 | 77:2 | 7-0 730} 79 1:33 9 “42 August . "954 | 88°0 | 72°5 | 775 | 71°98 | 813 | 74:1 | 777 | 7:2 719| 78 *68 3 47 September *972| 83°5 | 71°2 | 78:2 | 73°1 | 816 | 74°8 | 787 | 6:8 757) 79 6°21 9 | 1°86 October . *899| 83:2 | 74:0 | 79:9 | 74°6 | 82:3 | 76°3 | 79:3 | 6-0] -797| 78 3°04 3 | 2-06 November *875 | 85:0 | 74°0 | 8L°1 | 75°8 | 83°6 | 77-1 | 80°3 | 6°5| +832] 78 3°37 | 10 | 1:03 December *816| 86:2 | 751 | 81-4 | 76°1 | 841 | 77-0 | 80°5 | 71] +841] 79 1:42 6 °36 | Year. . |29°888| 89°1 | 71:2 | 79°9 | 75°0 | 83:1 | 764 | 79°8 66} °816] 80 | 3435 | 86 | 2:22 The barometrical observations have been reduced to 32° and corrected for gravity, but have not been reduced to sea-level. The mean temperature is assumed to be the mean of all max. and min., and is therefore too high. Machako’s (Ukamba). Lat. 1° 31' 8., Long. 37° 18’ #., 5,400 feet. Observers: R. W. Lane, T. T. Githison, and John Ainsworth. | ar area Humidity Rain | | 1895 popes Ss | | | £ pa ey bE Stl) agen The rains generally end in May, Dry | Wet 22 eee] 3 As Ba | een gh es | and the amount recorded for eo} oS \¢2%| S | = | April is exceptionally heavy. No cz 5B | 8H |g%o s : A] Ar | a qe foa| entries were made for January ; ae z | perhaps no rain fell. (January, 5 i In. | pe. | In. | In. In, | 1894, 0°75 in. on three days.) ; January .| 68:1 | 58:7 | -409 | 60 = = = 3 Prevailing Winds.—May, S.E. ; February . | 67:3 | 624 | 519 | 78 | 385 | 319] 11 | 152 | June 1-7,8.W.; June 7-30, 8. March... | 66°3 _| 62°9 | ‘542 84 |1013 | 7°86 19 1°95 April - | 665 | 63:0 | 543 83 | 12°38 | 1068 28 259 May. - |-65°7 | 62:7 | 541 86 210 | ‘72 7 “89 June. - | 615 | 588 | -470 86 cia) 75 4 34 Fort Smith (Kikuyu). Lat. 1° 14' S., Long. 36° 44'E., 6,400 feet. Observers : F. G. Hall (Jan. to Feb.), B. Russell (March to May), 7. T. Gilkison (June to Oct.) eo Mean Temperatures Variableness | Humidity Rain 1894-5 | 2 | 2 y E ta] 8 ae |e 2 | 2 | Dry | Wet | Mean! Mean |, Mean| Ex- | 23 | Ws 3 mb | 28 =| 2 |94'u.l9 a.m. | Max.| Min. |?" Range treme| 28 | G3 2/A | set Hix be ale A a it ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° In p.c. In In Nov. 1894. | — | — |[59°0}} — _ _ 61:3 1:27 | 45 = = 6°68 | c. 24} 2°13 December. | — | — |[60°0]} — _ — | 62°5 1°34 | 35 — = 9°32 16 1°67 Jan. 1895. | 78 | 50 | 67-4 | 585 | 74:3 | 53:5 | 63:9 1:79 | 5:0 “408 61 “00 0 _ February . | 75 | 51 | 63°5 | 60°8 | 716 | 55:1 | 63:4 | 1:32] 4:0 “506 | 86 7°43 13 | 2°13 March .| 74 | 52 | 62°8 | 60°71 | 79°9 | 55:1 | 67°5 117 | 25 “494 87 | 10°46 16 2715 April . | 76 | 54 | 636 | 62:1 | 73°6 | 566 | 65-1 133 | 40 543 93 | 16°33 22 2°75 May. . | 74] 52 | 637 | 618 | 73-1 | 568 | 649 | 1:24] 45 “BA 91 678 16 156 June. .| 74 | 52 | 598 | 58-4 | 693 | 55-1 | 62-2 | 1:35 | 2:0 | -475] 92 | 368] 9 | *91 July. .| 76 | 47 | 59-4 | 57-1 | 715 | 52:0 | 618 | 1:27] 4:0 | -445] 88 | 00] 0 | — August .| 75 | 49 | 585 | 56-9 | 69:8 | 52-4 | 611 | 1:30] 4:0 | -448°} 91-| -65] 6 | -35 September | 78 | 50 | 62°6 | 585 | 735 | B31 | 63:3 1°86 | 3:5 452 80 2°43 10 “49 October . | 82} 50 | 65°0 | 59:7 | 77:8 | 53°8 | 65°83 | 1:50 | 6:0 “463 75 173 8 64 Year. . | 82 | 50 | 62°1 _ _ — | 636 1°40 | 5:0 _ 84 | 65°49 | 140 | 2°75 The following instruments were in use during 1896: Dry-bulb thermometer, B.T. 4634; wet-bulb B.T. 4635 ; max. thermometer, M.O. 1354 ; min. thermometer, M.O. 1460. The Mean Temperature assumed = 4(max.+min.) is too high, Annual range, 5°02 ; daily range, 19°°3. Variableness (difference mean temperature from day to day) : Mean 1°40, extreme 5°. Rain.—Only 10 thunderstorms are noted: 2 in February,1in March, 6 in April, 1 in May. On February 11 a heavy hailstorm, when 0°71 inch fell in less than half an hour, ri = : “‘qsnSNV JO pue ary} 04 UOTZOOIIp yerTy WOIT ATIPeAIS M2TQ pue “A'S OF PUNOT paraaa pura ayy 2% Tad y uo ! 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NC | osoqdeouy e6st ——s =} | 1] eke | > el | | jo danssatld Bp | WV 6 oe! | A N aanjeaad! ure Sqrpra arnye.ted Urey P| Ue ee acs | Py HOMOUH | mag, ureyy ‘as “Y i dadbas © MAL “WO 90 “w ‘yvbnog ony “SY 4009890 ‘Coa 02 hyn) uospia, ‘q pun (hngy 02 ‘wnp) awonbonpy ‘q + 80aatasqo 00F'S “A 166 088 “Suz “gy ‘DL Ob UOT “SET ob 9PT “PUPIL D 1G 068 “Su0T “SSS of “VT “quownrys 106 of (2PT “WONDIS VPNT a i a a a a — 502 REPORT—1896. Magarini (Malindi Shambas), Lat. 3° 13’ N.W. of Malindi. Observer: James Weaver. Rainfall in British Last Africa, 1895. | | Stations — reales lle el ele|slele] e Sie = > ce = = ear Beal ee ea Ser ie |3 g\o| 4 a Takaungu (3° 41’ §.,39° | Inch | -00] -08| 511 |4-56| 12°52 [1-01 “98 | +95 '5-17 |1:08| 3:91 | -34) 35-71 52! ~E.). . Observer: Days 0} 2 8 7 15 3 Lethe 5 9 2 68 K. MacDougall. Heaviest | | fall | — | -05| 3:30 [1:37| 2°67 | -43| -98 -45| -94| -40| 1°53 | -27| 3°30 - | | bade 2 | | Inch | — ]1: E \ ‘91 | = 10 11-00 | |) Se 2} Kulesa, Tana River (2° Days | — ‘ * a 2 de es ae nd es, | a ees TOUS S021 SEnyS 8 Ol naeatact Prat fall | — | 50] -95: |1:63| 1-40 | -10|1:20) 69; —} —}| — |—] — . . | | [Ete | Kibwezi (2° 25/ S., 37° | Inch | -06|1:72| 5-80 6-99} 32 | -00| -00/ -01| -17| +14] 11-76 |6-14| 33-11 55’ E., 3,000 ft.). Ob- | Days | 2 |[11]| [18] }13] 6 0. | 0) | sTsslesiio atom eer cmd server: Rey. T.Watson, | Heaviest E.A.S.M. fall | -04|-95| :99 |212] -16 | -00| -00/ -01| -14/ 09] 2°68 |1:76| 2:68 { 4 ‘ Mbungu (3° 46’ S., 39° | Inch | -00/1-09| 4:17 {4-03| 3:31 | }—| — 30’E.). Observer: Rev. | Days | 0 | 2 | [10] | 7] 1 —j|—| ee ae J. Hofmann. Heaviest | | fall | ==") -90!)! 1°09!"13290)) ead | ce ea ee Pe Lamu, 2° 16’ §., 40° 54" EB. Observer: | Kisimayu, 0° 22! S., 42° 33'E. Donald MacLennan. Observer: C.H. Craufurd. Mean Temp.| jTumidity Rain Rain et Mean 1895 am 1 1895 Temp “Sant Vapour} Rel. .| Heavi- 9 AM. _.| Heavi- Dry || Wet Pressure} Hum. enous) Days est Fall jason Days est Fall Ls | >. | imch Inch e eS Inch | p.c. | Inch Inch |} Jan. . «| 81°0 | “00 0 = meh eer ee F: 3 | Feb. . | 821 “00 0 = Jan. | 840 | 77-4 | -s66 74 00 0 a Choi cieoael @ aie a eee : | April . | 847 | 62 6 “36 April | 847 | 787 | -913 17 3:93 5 | 1:55, || May . | 821 | 4:88 11 | 3:33 / | June . oh Meas Pe = ee | Ma 4 . - . | July »| TT | 1°55 Buen VY | 813 | 789 | -960 | 90 | 1346 | 16 | 285 liane... ll 7e7 | es 6 aa Sept. -com teh 796: |) 08 2 02 June | 79:3 | 76-4 | -876 88 1:97 g | -bl | Oct. . | 81:0 | 00 Oo}; — | | | S., Long. 40° 7’ #., 8 Miles 1895 January . February . March May * | Temperature : Mean Temperature Rain Extremes ' ae! . Heaviest | Highest| Lowest Max. Min. Mean rome Days Tall | — = s ° 2 2 ) Tneh Inch 93 67 91°3 703 80°8 “00 0 “00 93 68 91°4 69'8 80°6 ‘ll BY a 96 68 92:8 69:8 SIS eon 9 2-01 -= _ — _ 776 18 2°21 * Violent earth tremors were experienced between May 15 and 23. E ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 503 ” The Effect of Wind and Atmospheric Pressure on the Tides. —Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor L. F'. VERNon Harcourt, Professor Unwin, Mr. G. F. Deacon, and Mr. W. H. WHEELER (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Arrer the appointment of the Committee at the Meeting at Ipswich , a copy of the paper on the Effect of Wind and Atmospheric Pressure, read at the meeting at Ipswich, was sent to the authorities of all the principal ports in the Kingdom ; and also through the Foreign Office to the Hydro- graphic Departments of the principal maritime ports abroad. The paper was accompanied by a letter asking on behalf of the Committee for | any information as to the records of tides affected by gales or in any way bearing on the subject dealt with in the paper, and a form showing the information required. To these communications a large number of replies were received expressing the willingness of the senders to co-operate in the inquiry as far as possible. In the great majority of cases, however, the records of the tides at the ports and of the meteorological conditions were not kept in such a manner as to be useful in affording the information required. Five ports were selected as fairly representing the tidal conditions round the English coast. The tidal records of these ports were freely placed at the disposal of the Committee : those at Liverpool for the tides by Mr. M. A. Sweney, R.N., the Marine Surveyor, and for the barometer and wind by Mr. W. E. Plummer, of the Bidston Observatory, with the consent of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board ; those for Sheerness and Portsmouth by Admiral Wharton, Hydrographer of the Admiralty ; and those at Hull by Mr. E. Lake, the Manager of the Hull Docks of the North-Eastern Railway Company. Those for Boston are from the register of tides kept by Captain Hudson, the Harbour Master. Mr. Deas, on behalf of the Clyde Navigation Trustees, furnished diagrams and particulars of the principal gales which occurred on the Clyde during the last few years. The Government of India, through the Secretary of State for India, offered to place at the disposal of the Committee the records of the tides - observed at the several ports, and also forwarded a copy of the Handbook of Cyclonic Storms in the Bay of Bengal. The time available has rendered it impossible as yet to make use of this information. The Norwegian Government forwarded for the use of the Committee five volumes containing tables relating to tidal and meteorological conditions on the coasts of Norway. These volumes contain a large amount of valuable information, but there has not been time as yet to make use of them. Copies of the Reports for 1894, 1895, 1896, prepared for the Canadian Government, on the ‘ Tides and Currents in Canadian Waters,’ have also been sent by Mr. W. Bell Dawson, C.E., the Engineer in charge of the Tidal Survey. ' A copy of ‘De Ingenieur’ of September 26, 1891, published at the Hague, containing an article by M. E. Engelenberg, C.E., on the ‘ Influence * of the Wind both in Direction and Pressure upon the Sea Level,’ was sent for the purpose of assisting in this investigation by M. Ortt, of the He 504 REPORT—1896. This article has been translated into English. It contains valuable information and statistics bearing on this subject. The analysis of the Tidal Records of the ports of Liverpool, Ports- mouth, Sheerness, Boston, and Hull has occupied all the time available. Had more opportunity been afforded it was intended to extend the investi- gation over a greater number of years. In considering the report it must be borne in mind that the object of the investigation was only for the practical purpose of ascertaining whether the records of the wind and atmospheric pressure as obtained by an observer at any particular port afforded a reliable guide to pilots and mariners navigating vessels over bars and up the channels of tidal rivers, and to those engaged in coast work, as to the variations to be expected in the height of the tides from those ascertained by calculation and given in the Admiralty or local tables. The deductions to be drawn from a careful examination of the information embodied in the following tables are— 1. That the tides are influenced both by atmospheric pressure and by the wind to an extent which considerably affects their height. 2. That the height of about one-fourth of the tides is affected by wind. 3. That the atmospheric pressure affecting the tides operates over so wide an area that the local indications given by the barometer at any particular port do not afford any reliable guide as to the effect on the tide at that port. 4. Thatalthough, so far as average results go, there can be traced a direct connection between the force and direction of the wind, and the variation in the height of the tides, yet that there is so much discrepancy in the average results when applied to individual tides that no reliable formula can be established for indicating the amount of variation in the height of the tide due to any given force of wind. 5. The results given in the tables relating to atmospheric pressure indicate that the effect of this is greater than has generally been allowed, a variation of half an inch from the average pressure causing a variation of 15 inches in the height of the tides. It has sometimes been stated that an abnormally high tide is fol- lowed by a correspondingly low ebb. The investigations of the Dutch Engineers on the coast of Holland indicate that the effect of gales on the tides is to raise both the low and high water level. The accompanying diagrams of the tides of December 1895 at Flushing, sent by M. Ortt, and of the corresponding tides on the Clyde, sent by Mr. James Deas, show that on this occasion the result of the gale was to raise the mean level of the sea at those places during the gale. Atmospheric Pressure and the Tides. The variation in the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the sea must exercise a considerable effect on the tides. It is, however, very doubtful whether any reliable forecast of the effect can be deduced from the readings of the barometer at any one station. Water being practically incompressible, the variation of pressure on the whole surface of a basin filled with water, to which there is no outlet, cannot have any effect in raising or lowering the surface. If, however, the pressure is high over one part of the basin and low on the other part, a variation in the height of the water in one part, as compared with the other, will take place. 505 ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. DIAGRAM 1. Paik OM/IHSNTS =" ee ee ee A Sgt oo a te See + or ed Ce a oa ee ae ~~ == ae ---- yD Be Ne) Mn Og Sg) ee Ae GRR — \ S82 Ag “N : 6 fete pan ANA AA = 2PM oll nO ae ae hk 9 ws == atop OPO ae, Lee. ae WY GA BLhL CPE JO WL VOY 506 REPORT—1896. DIAGRAM 2, Zoe FH G& TRDC$ Bila oS Mean hig fee ee. Lad i f Ss 8 oe A as SBS SER = w eS Pd & ee R S S| 5 mw! nee Sea aS er x S| : y N Ae ‘ie “Aearus lo eter 2.5 2h 2a, WS, seat Se Bae Fixe low War NTE Stacia Vie wie beats GLASCOW An instance of this is afforded by the effect of the great anticyclone which occurred over the South of Europe in 1882, when the level of the water of the Mediterranean at Antibes was lowered a foot, owing to the exceptionally high pressure, the surface of several inland lakes being lowered at the same time. It is stated by Mr. Bell Dawson, C.E., in his ‘Report of the Survey of the Tides and Currents in Canadian Waters, 1894,’ that a difference of barometric pressure tends to produce a flow from the higher towards the lower pressure, and that ‘in the land-locked area of the Gulf of St. Lawrence he found that the atmospheric pressure influenced the flow of the water through the narrow inlets of that gulf, and that in the Gulf of Mexico, with a high barometer over the area of the gulf, and a lower pressure over the ocean outside, the speed of the Gulf Stream is appreciably affected.’ The effect of atmospheric pressure in raising and lowering the tides was investigated by Sir J. W. Lubbock and communicated to the Royal Society, the general conclusion he arrived at being that a rise of one inch in the barometer caused a depression in the height of the tides in the Thames of 7 inches, in the Mersey of 11 inches, and in the Avon of 135 inches. The paper on the subject does not, however, give any adequate information as to the elimination of the effect of the wind from the calculations on which these figures are based. Admiral Wharton, the Hydrographer of the Admiralty, in his address to the Geographical Section at Oxford in 1894, stated that a difference of one inch in the barometer has been shown to be followed by a difference of one foot in the mean level of the sea, and that in those parts of the world where the mean height of the barometer varies much with the seasons, and the tidal range is small, this effect is very marked. This subject was brought before the Meteorological Society in 1886, and the Shipmasters’ Society in 1894, in papers read by Captain Greenwood, a ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 507 of Glasson Dock. The results deduced were based on observations made over a lengthened period of the atmospheric gradients in the Irish Sea from the south of St. George’s Channel to Morecambe Bay. The mean gradient over this distance—over 240 miles—he found to be 0-043 in., the mercury standing higher to that amount in the south. He also states that no storm of serious extent prevails over the United Kingdom, unless there be a difference of pressure between any two stations of the Meteorological Department exceeding } in., and that the force of wind on the Beaufort scale does not exceed from five to six, unless the gradient is as high as 0-02 in fifteen miles. On the data obtained, Captain Greenwood prepared a table for use on that part of the coast, showing the effect of the difference of the gradient on the tides. This table is given in the ‘Kludometric’ Tide Table published by him annually. From an analysis of the tides at five ports round the coast, given in the following tables, it will be seen that, taking all tides raised or lowered more than six inches from the calculated height, when the wind was blowing with a force less than three of the Beaufort scale, coincident with a variation in atmospheric pressure of 0°25 inch from the average, the number of tides affected by the pressure, as recorded by the barometer reading at local stations in a manner that would naturally be expected, was nearly equal to those affected in a contrary direction, 56 per cent. being depressed when the pressure was above the average, or raised when it was below, and 44 per cent. being influenced in the opposite direction. These results indicate that the reading of the barometer at a single port is not a reliable guide as to the effect of pressure in raising or lowering the height of the tide, and that no reliable data as to the effect of atmospheric pressure on the tides can be arrived at, except by simul- taneous observations of the barometer, the wind, and the tides over extended areas of both land and sea. BAROMETER AND THE TIDES. Boston—Average of the Four Years 1892, 1893, 1894, 1895. Average M ._ |Mean varia-| Maxi- |Mean varia- number of Tide” tion of mum tion of — Tides ° , Bale Tide from | varia- | Barometer affected in LWst predicted | tionof | from one year oY paces aad height Tides average 1891. Ft. In. In. Tn. | High Bar.—Low Tides . | 48 18°51 10°72 bys) 367 mone? |,,)) Eigh’ .,, 17 19°54 9:90 20 439 Total and Means 65 19:02 9°81 — | 403 High Bar.—High Tides . 32 20°60 9°69 29 B76 Low , Low ,, 13 18°14 10°59 27 “B99 ¥ | rs Total and Means A 45 19°37 10:13 — “B87 1892. High Bar.—Low Tides 45 18°60 9:62 — 371 Low , High ,, 15 19-00 8°66 = 466 Total and Means 60 18:80 9:14 —_ “418 a 8 EE 508 BAROMETER AND THE TIDES (Boston, 1892)—continwed. REPORT—1896. Average M ._. |Mean varia-| Maxi- | ean varia- number of tT ane tion of mum tion of — Tides c b 1g Tide from | varia- | Barometer affected in LWST predicted | tion of from one year aris height Tides average Ft. In. In. In. High Bar.—High Tides. 22 20°60 791 — “BT4 TOW 350M ees 21 18-00 11:57 — 409 Total and Means 43 19°30 9-74 — “291 1893. High Bar.—Low Tides . 68 18°84 10°78 —- “B34 Low,..255.) viligh)) s; 23 19°87 10:87 —- “407 Total and Means 91 19°35 11°32 — 371 High Bar.—High Tides . 42 20°73 9°26 — Hale Low Slow’ *:; 13 19°80 11°67 ~- 384 ‘Totaland Means . 55 20°27 10°46 —_ 351 1894. High Bar.—Low Tides . 29 17-92 12°14 — “365 Thow') 4,,,.° ue" .; 19 18°94 10:10 — 340 Total and Means 48 18°43 11:12 — 352 -High Bar.—High Tides . 31 20:09 977 — *Bb9 how... ow. - % 5 16°28 8°60 — “316 Total and Means 36 16°14 9:18 — B37 1895. High Bar.—Low Tides . 48 18°70 10:37 —- 336 Low , High ,, 12 20°32 10 00 — 545 Total and Means 60 19°50 10-18 25 || ae High Bar.—High Tides . 33 21:07 11°82 — “381 Owe «45 5 OW Ay; * a 11 18°48 10°54 — “488 Total and Means, 437 44 19°75 11:18 — 434 Out of 437 tides affected in the four years, an average of 110 a year, 259, or about 59 per cent., were lowered when the pressure of the atmosphere was increased, or raised when it was decreased below the average ; and 178, or about 41 per cent., were influenced in the opposite direction. The tidal observations for Boston are taken from the register kept by the Harbour Master at Boston Dock. Theslight discrepancy between the figures as given in the above table, and those in the paper read at Ipswich Meeting, is due to the fact that a different method has been pursued in separating the tides affected by the pressure from those affected by the sind. ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 509 Hutt, 1895. Average M : Mean varia-| Maxi- |Mean varia- number of “tide tion of mum tion of _ Tides e h e Tide from varia- | Barometer affected in fi WS. T predicted | tion of from one year pgs omni height Tides average Ft. In. In. In. High Bar.—Low Tides 15 19°34 6°53 12 “388 Low ,, High ,, 25 19°76 10:00 24 329 40 19°55 8:26 — B58 High Bar.—High Tides . 43 19°60 9°32 20 365 Low ,, Low ,, y 5 18-06 6°20 12 394 48 18°83 776 -_— 379 The tidal observations are from the Register kept at the Albert Dock of the North-Eastern Railway Company, the calculated height of the tides being taken from the Admiralty Tide Tables, L.W.8.T. being taken as 6°15 feet below Albert Dock sill. SHEERNEsS, 1895. Ae! é Maxi- ,Mean varia- Average M ._. |Mean varia- number of f ti di SE tion of mum tion of _ Tides ab age Tide from | varia- | Barometer affected in LWST predicted | tion of from one year ee height Tides average Ft. In, In. In. High Bar.—Low Tides — — _— Ne cat — Low ,, High ,, 5 15°58 15:20 33 420 35 15°58 15°20 — 420 High Bar.—High Tides . 72 15°58 12°54 24 *332 Low ,, Low ,, 2 12°66 16:00 23 670 74 14:12 14:27 — 451 The tides, as recorded at Sheerness, appear to rise on an average about 12 inches higher than the calculated height as given in the Admi- ralty Tables. Out of 686 times recorded in 1895, 702 were above the height given, an average of 1:02 foot, and only 26 were below, an average of 0°45 foot. This to some extent affects the results given in this table. 510 REPORT—1896. PortsmoutH, 1895. Average M -_. |Mean varia-| Maxi- |Mean varia- number of < Tide tion of mom tion of — Tides c b ice | Tide from | varia. | Barometer affected in LWST predicted | tion of from one year TE far height Tides average Ft. In. ~~. ents High Bar.—Low Tides . 53 11°85 11:26 | 21 “378 Low , High ,, ; 11 12°72 13:19 25) |) 389 64 12-28 12°22 =\ Shee see High Bar.—High Tides . 8 11:06 9°25 LA fee 43, Low ,, Low 5, , 3 9°55 13°33 14). |in-286 11 10°30 11:29 -—- B14 The tidal observations for Sheerness and Portsmouth are from the register kept at the Royal Dockyards. The wind and barometer, not being recorded at Sheerness, is taken from the daily Weather Reports issued by the Meteorological Office. LivERPOOL, 1893 anp 1894. Average M ._. |Mean varia-| Maxi- |Mean varia- number of eAL tion of mum tion of = Tides ¢ b 10e Tide from | varia- | Barometer affected in Lw. OT predicted | tion of from one year bee ae height Tides verage Ft. In. In. | In. | 1893. | High Bar.—Low Tides . 3 24-30 15-66 18> | mee Lov nth) BH ssyovt-alre [37 25-49 19°58 78.) Aaa oa rae ees ae ee" ’ £ = 40 24-89 17°62 — “aD High Bar.— High Tides . 18 24-99 12:33 54 | 39 Low ,, TiOW ‘4.55 | = = = — no —-— —|- 18 24-99 1233 "= 39° || 1894. | | High Bar.—Low Tides . 28 24°61 13°78 72 40 || Mowe; “Eich, 9.) 5 23°48 18-2 30 “38 | 33 24:04 15°94 — 39 | High Bar.—High Tides . — — — -— — Low ., Low ,, F — = — —_ as The tidal observations are from the register of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, and the barometer and wind from the observations recorded at the Bidston Observatory. The tides selected are those which i a eel ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES, 511 were 12 inches or more above the predicted heights as given in Holden’s Tables, when the wind did not exceed a force of 3 on the Beaufort scale (as reduced from the mean velocity), and the barometer was 0°25 inch above or below the average. Low water of spring tides is taken as 9 feet below the Old Dock sill. Holden’s Tide Tables appear to give the predicted tides too low, 78 per cent. of the tides being above those given in the Tide Tables, a mean of 1-04 foot, and only 22 per cent. below—a mean of 0°46 foot. This, to a certain extent, affects the results obtained in the above table. BAROMETER AND TIDES. Summary. | = : Mean varia-|Mean varia- | N ped of aoe tion of tion of | — K Tide from | Barometer affected in above arated fi one year | L.W.S.T. Le piehie er height average Ft. In. In. High Bar.—Low Tides | Boston . 65 19-02 9°81 “403 Low Bar.—High Tides { Hull. 40 19°55 8°26 “358 - - Sheerness . 35 15°58 15°20 “420 - - Portsmouth 64 12:28 12:22.-") © “383 fe = Liverpool . 36 24°46 16°78 “445 240 18°17 1245 | -402 The average result is equal to a variation of 13 half an inch variation in the barometer. inches of the tide for Number of | Mean rise Secret cam ge Ea sk, Tices of Vide | Tide from Baroilleter affected in above védicted f one year | L,W.S.T. 7 : om eight average Ft. Th. In. High Bar.—Low Tides] Boston . 45 19°37 10°13 387 Low Bar.—High Tides f Hull. “ 48 18°83 7:76 379 7% PS Sheerness . 72 14:12 14:27 451 an a Portsmouth 11 10°30 11-29 “314 a _ Liverpool . 9 24°99 12°33 “390 185 17°52 11:15 B85 Average result equal to a variation of 15 inches of the tide for half an inch of the barometer. The above results show that out of an average of 425 tides recorded ina _ year at five ports varying from the calculated height 6 inches and upwards, coincident with a variation of 0-25 inch of atmospheric pressure in calm weather, 240, or 56 per cent., were lowered when the pressure was above, cor were raised when it was below the mean ; and 185, or about 44 per cent., were influenced in the opposite direction. 512 REPORT—1896. WIND AND TipES.—DIRECTION. Boston, 1892-95. Tide, Increase in No. of | Mean | Maxi-| Height Inches Wind Year Tides Force | mum | above {|__— of Wind | Force Low Maxi- Water | Mean mum High Tides : Feet North-east 2 1892 29 3°90 8 19°59 11:70 25 + - 5 : 1893 21 3°62 6 20°75 12°70 26 . - 2 : 1894 31 | 3:80 6 19°34 12°61 23 im ~ * : 1895 17 5:18 6 19°65 10°94 25 North-west 3 4 1892 VStar STV ire 8 20:56 ‘| 19:40 41 rie eee nee er iictes 33. | 4:03 10 | 20-97 | 18-24 60 ” > 1894 36 4:22 8 20°11 13°50 28 » ” 1895 41 4:20 8 20 04 18:40 75 Means . 2 = 56 4:18 — 20:12 14:67 _ South-east : F 1892 4 3°72 5 21:70 13:00 18 ” ” 5 5 1893 14 4:00 10 19°75 13°85 32 ” ” 1894 9 4°77 6 18:08 14°66 26 South-west | 1892 11 4:27 6 20°95 12°82 22 ” ” 1894 26 4:50 8 20°16 13:18 29 ” ” 1895 16 4:50 10 20:09 13°54 52 Means: see ss) 28 4:37 — |-20:00 | 12°55 = Low Tides: South east F : 1892 14 3°33 4 17:30 16°33 33 - : 9 16°42 14:14 27 7 18°75 14:27 25 ” iy : : 8 18°45 14:30 18 South-west : - | 1892 61 416 10 18°53 12:14 34 : c 10 17-42 14°67 48 10 18°32 17°22 60 10 ” ” : 1895 38 4:67 20°25 12°50 24 Means . : ; — 62 4:32 --- 18°18 14:32 = North-east : . 1892 9 3°55 6 20°30 10°50 14 5 a : 1893 9 3°22 4 19°42 9°66 16 33 % 1894 4 3°33 4 18:11 10:00 12 ” ”» 1895 8 3°75 5 18:47 16°25 35 North-west 1892 5 4:50 8 18°50 12°50 18 ” ) 1893 20 5:00 10 19°66 15:70 42 ” ” 1894 7 3:13 4 18°75 13°00 25 » ” 1895 8 4:50 6 16:20 12°24 21 18°68 17-48 —_— = oO o B n | _ a w [ee] ~~ | ee ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 513 WIND AND TipEs.—Forcer. Boston, 1892-95. Mean Variation Maximum Mean Height of ‘i Force Year Tide above Low of Tide in Variation of N ve of W iter in Feet Inches Tide ia Inches 3 1892 19:99 11°64 28 82 1893 19:99 12°75 32 103 1894 18-71 12-28 25 57 1895 19°14 13 06 35 63 Mean 19:20 12°43 30 76 4 1892 19-08 13:63 3t 8 1893 19:79 16°90 48 31 1894 20°86 13°60 33 40 1895 17°52 11°38 24 13 | Mean 19°31 | 13°87 | 34:75 28°75 5 1892 i998 | 1969 -—|° 25 13 1893 1814 11 82 19 11 1894 19°94 14:96 27 23 1895 19:01 11°28 31 34 Mean 19:09 12°68 25 5 20 25 6 1892 19°61 13°60 25 15 1893 20:87 15°35 29 20 1894 19:37 19:20 | 50 21 1895 19:21 16:00 | 26 19 Mean 19°75 16:04 32°5 18°5 7 1892 20:10 15°62 26 8 8 1893 17°56 21 43 50 15 9 1894 18:99 21:07 60 14 1895 21°80 32°57 75 i Mean 19°61 22°67 52°75 11 25 10 1892 20:50 12°50 13 Ds 1893 17-05 23°20 60 5 1894 18:00 27-00 27 1 1895 18°44 23°20 52 5 Mean 18°49 21:47 38 3:25 1896. LL 514 REPORT—1896. WIND AND TIDES. Boston. Average result of 4 years, 1892-95. Average v aviation of Tide i an Maximum Variation Force of Number Mean Rise Wind f Tides f Tid ay ue o sokels HE SS Mean of 4 | Per Foot | wean of| Per Foot Ry y Y Rise of 2 Rise of ears Tide 4 Years Tide Feet 3 76 19:20 12°43 0°65 30:00 1°54 4 29 19°31 13°87 0°72 34:75 1°79 5 20 19° is 12°€8 0-66 25°50 1°34 6 18 19°7 16°04 0:86 32°50 1-63 7 to9 11 19° 61 22:67 ala lis; Bi 75 2-68 10 3 18-49 21°47 | 116 38:00 2°06 ~ a | ie | = 157 19°24 16°52 87 — — i The figures in the tables are taken from the register kept by the Dock Master at Boston Dock. From the tables it will be seen that out of 2,822 tides recorded in the four years, 655, or about 23 per cent., were affected by the wind. Taking the yearly average number of tides affected as 163, 56, or 35 per cent., were increased ane to winds blowing from a northerly Gisecvica: or with the flood tide, and 62, or 38 per cent., were decreased by southerly winds blowing in the opposite direction to the tide, leaving about 27 per cent. affected by the winds in an opposite way to that which might have been expected. The number of tides raised by northerly winds is about the same as those depressed by southerly winds. WIND AND TIDES.—DIRECTION. Hull, 1895. Wind Mean | Increase in Inches | ee El esht | _— Tid - f Tid | ws | Mean | an | ‘above | Mean | Maxi- Force Tea (LWT mum ——- or -~ = | — — } a { High Vides : | North-east . e 2 21 4:00 6 | 19-44 12°57 24 North-west . F ‘ 84 4:12 i.) 19:51 14:78 52 105 406 = 19-42 | 13°68 ==: — —$$—_____—__ — — | | _ ' Acuti east ‘ 3 F 27 3-70 7 19°80 | 10:93 18 South-west . j ; 69 Serer 8 -{ 19:75) 4) 8328 32 96 3783 ie ¥ 19:77 | 12:10 — oe OC ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 515 DIRECTION (HULL, 1895)—continued. Wind Mean Increase in Inches f Height = . aay Mean Maxi- pions Maxi- Force me Tr Mean mum Horeca (Wesehs | = = a = —i Low Tides: South-east . . .| 24 3:42 6 18°65 | 10-02 25, | | South-west . F : 20 4:35 8 19:07 14-25 36, of ; ners = a os, 44 3°83 ae ae Cae ee | A i North-east . .. + 3°25 4 15°82 | 10-75 14} North-west . i F 6 4:00 be) VRBO ‘LT OQ) See aees 10 3°62 Sst en ee: a ' WIND AnD TrpEes.—Forcr. Hull, 1895. a Mean Variation of Tids Maximum Variation}; a Force of | Number of Mean Height Se : | pa Se a = 3 of Tide above j j Wind Tides | L.W.S.T. | Per Foot Per Foot - | Inches Rise of Inches Rise of ; | Tide Tide | Feet | | 3 104 19°83 11°82 0:59 4 2: | 4 65 | 19-23 13:09 0°67 32 106 =| 5 46 | 19°26 13°68 0-71 29 150 | 6 14 | 18°82 15:14 | 0:80 34 188 «| 7 to 10 12 19°58 21°66 | 1:10 52 2°65 | 241 19°34 1607 | O77 a 23) The figures in the above tables are abstracted from the tidal register kept at the Albert Dock, Hull, for the year 1895. ; The heights of the tides given are above low water of spring tides. This has been taken as 6°15 feet above the sill of the Albert Dock. The calculated heights have been taken from the Admiralty Tide Tables. Comparing the Hull tides with those at Boston for the same year, it will be seen that the wind was more effective in raising than in depressing the tides at Hull, 79 per cent. of the whole being raised against 21 per cent. depressed. At Boston the effect was more equal, 59 per cent. being raised and 41 per cent. depressed. Southerly winds appear to have much more effect in raising the tides at Hull than lower down the coast. The mean effect of the force of wind on the tides is about the same at both ports. LL2 516 REPORT—1896. WIND AND TIDES.—DIRECTION. Sheerness, 1895. | Mean Maxi- Height Mean In-| Per Foot Maxi- ; — Neuer Force of | mum of Tide | crease in| Rise of oe Of ACES Wand Force above Inches Tide ‘Inches L.W.S.T. High Tides: Feet Inches North-west 79 4:10 6 15°83 "| 18°84 1:19 55 North-east . 43 4°80 9 15°95 14:70 0:92 32 122 4:45 — 15°89 16°72 1:05 — South-west 54 3°82 6 16°21 14:00 0:86 33 South-east 34 4:20 8 15°92 13 20 0:83 28 88 4:01 — 16:06 13°60 0°84 — Low Tides: South-west . 2 45 5 13°50 11°50 O85 16 South-east — — = == = Es a, 2 = = = me ea £2 North-west -— _ = -- — — — North-east — = = = a ou pai Winp AND TipEs.—FoRrcE. Sheerness, 1895. Mean Height Mean 7 >: Maximum Force N se ye of of Tide above! Variation of Pore a 'S€ | Variation in L.W.S.T. Tide Taches Feet Inches 3 111 16:00 14°63 “91 34 4 105 16:03 14:47 90 38 5 60 15°55 12°53 *80 44 6 18 17°25 21°40 1:24 55 7 7 15°66 14:70 94 32 8 4 16°25 17°20 1:06 28 9 2 16°37 15°50 | “95 18 i= ee 307 16:16 15:78 ‘97 ane The tides at Sheerness appear to be, on an average, 12 inches higher than the height calculated for the Admiralty Tide Tables, and this has to some extent affected the above results. Of the 668 tides, 212 , or about 32 per cent., were affected by the wind. Of these, 122, or about 60 per cent., were increased by winds blowing from a northerly direction, and 88, or about 40 per cent., were increased by winds blowing from a southerly direction. ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 517 WIND AND TripEes.—DIRECTION. Portsmouth, 1895. | Mean Maxi Number} Mean | Maxi- | Height | Mean at Wind of Force of | mum | of Tide | Increase I ue ¥ Tides Wind Force above | in Inches}... 2c7ease ; L.W.S.T. ne High Vides : Feet North-west . d 3 23 408 6 13°52 13°00 44 South-west . 2 - 38 4:39 vi 13°55 12°65 26 61 4:23 13°53 12°82 North-east . . . 8 375 | 6 1937 | 1262 | 93 South-east . Pi ‘ 10 410 fi 14°50 14 30 20 18 3:92 13°43 13°46 Low Tides: : North-east . 3 ' 18 4-22 6 10°98 13°72 23 South-east 2 3:00 3 12:70 9°50 3 20 3°61 11°84 11°61 North-west . 5 2 10 ers0) 1s 5 10°70 9:90 20 South-west . A - 17 3°64 5 11-50 9°58 5 27 ST | a 11:10 9-74 uae WIND AND TipEs.—FORCE. - Portsmouth, 1895. Mean Mean Variation | Maximum Varia- _ Number Height of Tide ey f f Ti PAs 2 a oe faite os Tides give Per Foot Per Foot L.W.S.T.| Inches | Rise of |InInches| Rise of Tide. Tide Feet Inches 3 ‘ - 60 11:93 11°80 098 23 201 4 : : 46 13:07 12 80 0:98 44 3 36 5 15 12°80 13-00 101 24 1:90 6 12 12-22 13°33 1:09 23 1:99 133 12°50 1273 1:01 — =e 18 REPORT—1896. Of the 668 tides recorded, 136, or about 20 cent., were affected by the wind. Of these, 61, or about 45 per cent., were increased by westerly winds blowing with the flood tide, and 20, or about 15 per cent., were decreased by easterly winds blowing in the opposite direction to the tide, leaving about 40 per cent. affected by winds in an opposite way to that which “night have been expected. The number of tides raised by westerly winds is three times as great as those depressed by easterly winds. | Winp AnD Trpes.—DIreEctTIoN. Liverpool, 1893-94. | Mean Mast Number | Mean Maxi- | Height | Mean ues Wind Year | of Tides | Force of | mum of Tide | Increase I pe Wind Force above |in Inches! -DCTe28¢ | L.W.S.T. in Inches | High Tides: Feet North-east . | 1893 | 7 3°11 4 25°01 14:00 15 ° .| 18941 9 3°60 5 | 23-95 | 15-30 2 North-west . | 1893 | 43 4:23 rf | 24:97 19°74 46 a . | 1894 | 40 4:40 10 25-28 18°55 41 a 45 3:83 65 | 2480 | 1684 | 31 South-east . | 1893 9 3°66 5 | 2313 | 1638 | 20 5 . | 1894 39 3:77 5 | 25°62 19:02 33 South-west a eos 116 4°33 10 | 24°70 20°43 58 ‘ . | 1894] 116 540 | 11 | 25:11 | 21-25 80 Meansa acess perl = 140 4:28 775 | 24:64 | 19-25 48 SSS ee eee <> — Low Tides: South-east . | 1893 1 3:00 3 | 28°40 14:00 14 % . | 1894 4 3:00 4 ee renD 14:50 20 South-west . | 1893 1 3:00 3 | 24°84 14:00 14 | oe . | 1894 + 6°25 11 1 Babi ¢ 13:25 is) Wemms . «dae 5 3°81 525 | 26-04 | 18-94 17 North-east 2 | 1395 — — — « | 1894 uk 3} 24 |} 24:10 24:00 24 North- west . | 1893 1 6 6 19:10 13:00 13 1894. 2 3 3 | 22°43 11-50 12 é Means . 4 = 2 4 Tak 21:87 16:16 16 j ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. Winp AND TrpEs.—ForRcE. Liverpool, 1893, 1894. 519 Mean Variation | Maximum Mean Heicht of Tide | Variation 5 7 Number of pale els Fie == = Fores Year Tides | oe ys oh is Per Foot | | Per Foot AS er 2 nee Rise of In Inches Rise of ie Tide | Tide Feet | 3 1893 | 70 24-78 18:10 36. Ci 1894 72 25-08 16°60 33./\/| Mean.| = 71:5 24-93 17°33 69 | 152 * | = — Ps 4 1893 49 24-63 19°60 46 | 1894 60 . | ~ 25:39 18-24 aa! Mean . 495. | Baral 18-92 74 1-54 5 1893 33 25°37 22-40 | 58 1894 27 24-75 20°40 It 37 i LS ee Mean . 30 | 25-06 21°40 85 1:87 | “ees ; af | 6 1893 16 19°43 21:18 35 1894 27 25°56 21-88 37 : Mean . 21:5 22-49 21°53 96 164 7 1893 2 19:47 22°50 25 1894 18 26°10 21-88 36 ; Mean.| 10 22°73 22-19 ‘98 | 1:32 : . 8 1893 1 18°50 19-00 | 19 | 1894 4 26:33 17-70 25 : Mean . 25 22-41 18°35 82 0-97 | 9 1893 * & = ts : 1894 9 17-92 25-20 40 | i red oe ie Mean . 5 1:40 2-23 10 1893 3 24-92 20°50 35 1894 8 27:00 36°50 80 ; 65 25-96 28-50 | 1-09 219 — Tm } Mean. 196 23°69 0-94 Oe a a a The tidal observations at Liverpool are recorded from the Old Dock sill. In the above tables they are taken as above low water of spring tides as adopted for the Admiralty datum or 9 feet below the Old Dock sill. The calculated tides are reduced from Holden’s Tide Tables : these appear to give the expected height less than it actually is, as 78 per cent. 520 REPORT—1896. of the tides are below those given, an average of 1:04 foot, and only 22 per cent. below, an average of 0°46 foot. This to some extent affects the results given. Of about 2,800 tides recorded in the two years, 393, or 192 in a year, or about 14 per cent., can be traced as being affected by the wind. Of these 192 tides, 140, or about 73 per cent., were increased by south- easterly and south- -westerly winds blowing more or less in the same direction as the flood tide, and only two depressed by northerly winds, leaving 50 tides, or about 26 per cent., as affected by wind blowing in an opposite direction to that which might ‘have been expected. Summary. Taking the mean result of the five ports, the following results are obtained :— 180 tides are affected by the wind in a year, or about 26 per cent. of the whole. 123 are either increased by winds blowing with the tide or hapretees by winds against the tide. 67 are influenced in an opposite way. The mean force of the wind affecting these tides is 4:02 (Beaufort scale). With the mean rise of the tide above low water of spring tides 18-14 feet, the mean variation in the height of the tides is 13-89 inches. The mean variation per foot rise of tide due to wind is for force of Bice Pre : ; : : 5 - . 0°76 per foot rise of tide 4and5 . ‘ ° 3 : : - 0°80 s Ae Gua iis in eee nee, mate to ee Se ogy Ge: 3 fT tonlOe =. : : : f ; eel OG ‘5 As showing the extent to which tides may be affected by wind during gales, the following variations from the expected or natural height are taken from the observations contained i in the preceding tables :— Rise of Spring Variations in Difference between | P.rt Tides above Low | Height of Tide two succeeding Water due to Gale Tides ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. Hull . : - ? ‘ ZO 6 4 5) 0 Boston : : 22 0 5 1 TS Yarmouth . : 5 0 | 4 9 6 2 Sheerness . - ; : 16 0 | 4 7 210 Flushing . ‘ : ; ita 10) | yal 2 8 Ymuiden : ; Sy 8 bi ee ee Schokland (Zuy der Zee) . 0 9 (ie if) Liverpooi . . : 27 6 6 8 Ceo Giasson Dock . ; : 20 0 es) 30 Glasgow . - - : 11 3 6 2 3 11 Portsmouth ; : , 13 6 3 8 Bie ib Q > H ti jR WIND AND TipES.—EFFECT OF Gale of November 1893. In November 1893, on the 16th and 17th, the general direction of the wind was from the south-east to south-west, blowing with a force from 4 to 6. In the North Sea the gradient between Yarmouth and ~~ a SE ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 521 Aberdeen, about 270 miles, varied from 0:12 inch to 0:49 inch, the depression being in the north, the barometer there being 1 inch below the average. On the 18th and 19th, the days of the gale, the barometer rose rapidly until it became in the north 0:21 inch above the average, and in the south 0:43 inch below, the gradient being reversed to 0°65 inch on the 18th and 0°53 inch on the 19th, with the depression in the south. The general direction of the wind was north-west to north-east, blowing after midday on the 18th with a force from 8 to 10. The effect of these gales, blowing from opposite directions, affected all the ports round the coast, but in a very varying degree. On the north-east coast the effect was not great, but in the Wash and in the southern part of the North Sea its effect was felt to such an extent that at Boston the difference between two succeeding tides was 7 feet 8 inches ; at Yarmouth 6 feet 2 inches, which is more than the total rise of a spring tide ; at Dover the variation was 5 feet 3 inches ; while at Portsmouth it was only 1 foot 9 inches, and at Avonmouth 3 feet 9 inches. At Liverpool, on the 17th, the wind was blowing from 8.E. to 8.W. with force of 5; on the 18th it backed to the N.W. with force of 6 to 7. In the following table two tides are given at twenty-four hours’ interval on the 17th and 18th. Tides after the Gale of November 1893. F | a 2 Variation from Tide Table | Differen-e in | Poi a eaeee L. Height of | g Above | Below | two Tides ft. in ft. in | {t. in. ft. in A f 1s 8 0 10 | — O 4 oe tilt ag % USTED HN RES, BERANE S: : : rs Sunderland . | a ee . a2 | “? dey : 29.9% zt | = P 19 2 -- hie, BeBe a) Nae] Bt Grimsby : { 25 0 3 3 jens a: Boston . ‘ ao 51 | a4 a ; BMarmouih +. =.) « 1 : 4 9 eos one Lowestoft : { “a win | ¥, . aa ‘ Sheerness : 3 3 -- | _ : 4 2 Dockyard : : ie — — — Victoria and Albert { 24 5 — 2 0 3.9 Dock l!| 28 2 ivy os = London Dock .. { oe = 17 es shi [ ee, —_ 1 5 3 Dover . i} 15 0 OV 4 =. 2. Portsmouth . c - “a we : : pated Avonmouth. . . { a 4 ™ ; ah iiiverpool) . ai). { : i : yesh 1 8 ie Glasson Dock a { = a ac a 2 i) Belfast . : er ts { f: i Ble 2 8 hat f 9 = ee oe “| ie ; yall 110 Ae 522 REPORT—1896. Gale of November 1894. In the gale of November 13th, 1894, the wind at the Scilly Islands blew strongly from the north-west, backing on the following day to the south-west with a force of 7. At Holyhead, on the 13th, the wind was from the west in the morning with a force of 6, backing to south-west in the evening, and blowing with force of 8, and continuing in that quarter during the rest of the week. At Belfast and Cork the direction was S.W., force 8. On the north-east coast the direction was 8.W., force moderate ; further down the coast on 13th the direction was W.N.W., force 5, changing to 8.W., force 9 ; in the English Channel, direction 8.W., force 7 to 10. The barometer was about 0:25 below the mean, the gradient between Scilly and Ardrossan being 0:84. The steepest gradient was across England, being as between Scilly and Denmark 0°84, the reading being 29°84 at the former place, and 29-00 at the latter. Full moon was on the 13th. With these conditions the tides were affected as follows :— At Holyhead the evening tide on the 13th was raised 4 feet above the natural height. The wind continued to blow here stiffly from the south-west all the week, and the tides were all above the natural height, varying from 2 feet 5 inches to 4 feet above. At Belfast the tide on the 13th was raised 4 feet 10 inches, and the mean increase for five tides was 2 feet 9 inches above. At Cork on the 11th the tide was raised 2 feet 8 inches, and on the 13th 2 feet 5 inches. At Liverpool the evening tide of the 13th was raised 3 feet above the natural height, and the succeeding tides 1 foot 2 inches and 1 foot 10 inches. At Glasson Dock the evening tide of the 13th was 2 feet 6 inches higher, and the succeeding tides 10 inches and 12 inches higher. At Leith on the east coast the evening tide of the 14th was raised 2 feet 3 inches ; and at Sunderland 2 feet 9 inches. Lower down the coast the force of the S.W. gale was more felt, blowing in the Wash with force of 8. At Hull the tides of the 12th were depressed respectively 1 foot 6 inches and 1 foot ; on the 13th 1 foot 2 inches and 0 foot 2 inches ; and on the 14th 1 foot 8 inches and 1 foot 5 inches. At Boston the evening tide of the 13th was depressed 1 foot 2 inches, and the morning tide of the 14th 3 feet 5 inches, the evening tide being raised 1 foot, and the next morning tide 11 inches. At Dover, the force and direction of the wind being the same as in the Wash, the morning tide was depressed 3 feet 3 inches, the evening tide being raised 1 foot 6 inches. At Sheerness the tide was depressed 1 foot 6 inches in the evening of the 14th, and raised 3 feet 3 inches on the morning of the 15th. At the Victoria and Albert Dock the tide was depressed 3 feet 5 inches in the evening of the 14th, and raised 1 foot 8 inches on the following morning. At the lower end of the English Channel the effect of this south-west gale was to raise the tides 2 feet at Portsmouth on the evening of the 13th, and the two succeeding tides 1 foot 10 inches and 1 foot 6 inches. At Devonport the morning tide of the 14th was raised 2 feet 9 inches, and the two following tides 1 foot 9 inches and 2 feet 2 inches. In the Bristol Channel the tides were raised 1 foot 4 inches at Cardiff, and 1 foot 5 inches at Avonmouth. . ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 523 The mean result of the effect at fourteen ports round the coast was as follows :—The mean rise of the spring tides at these places: is 20°43 feet, the mean force of the wind was 6°78, and the mean variation of the tides from the natural height 2:70 feet. On the west coast the tides were raised by the gale 3} feet, and on the east coast depressed to a similar extent. Gales, December 1894. On the 20th the wind was from the N.N.W., force varying from 5 to 7. The barometer was about the average. At Hull the morning tide was raised 3 feet 1 inch. At Boston the morning tide was raised 3 feet 2 inches. On the 22nd-23rd ; on the evening of the 22nd the wind blew a gale from the 8.W.., force 10. The barometer at Hull was 0°97 in. below the average, at Boston 0°82 in. below. The tide at Hull on the morning of the 22nd was raised 1 foot 1 inch, the following tide 1 foot, and the morning tide of the 23rd 4 feet 1 eh At Boston the morning tide of the < 22nd was 6 inches depressed, the evening tide raised 1 foot 2 inches, and the morning tide of the 23rd 4 feet "4 inches. High water of the evening aay of the 22nd was 2 hours 33 minutes late, and the morning fide of the 23rd 1 hour 10 minutes early. At Ipswich the evening tide of the 23rd was raised 4 feet 11 inches, and the tide flowed an hour longer than its proper time. On the 28th, 29th, and 30th. the wind blew a gale from W.N.W. with force varying Febiri 10 to 6. The barometer was 0° 52 to 0°72 below the average. The gradient between Aberdeen and Yarmouth was 0°48, the depression being i in the north. At Hull ihe morning tide of the 29th was raised 2 feet, the evening tide 6 feet 4 inches, aud the morning tide of the 30th 1 foot 7 inches. At Boston the evening tide of the 28th was depressed 3 feet 1 inch ; the morning tide of the “29th was normal, the evening tide being raised 4 feet 3 inciés, and the following tide 1 Bot 4 inches. On the west coast at Liverpool on the 21st the wind was from the S.W. with force of 4, and the tides normal. On the morning of the 22nd, the wind being nearly due south with force of 11, the tide rose to 20 fant 6 inches Shove Old Dock sill, or 29 feet 6 inches above L.W.8.T., and 6 feet 8 inches above the expected height. The evening tide was 13 niches below the expected height, making a difference of 7 ‘feet 9 inches in the height of two succeeding fder Gale, November 1895. During the early part of November (1st to 10th) there was a gradient of about half an inch on the English coast, the depression being in the north and the wind from south-east to south-west, blowing vie the force of a gale on the 11th. The barometer was from about 4 l'to 3 3 inch below the average, the mean being 29°85 at the North Boreland: 29-45 at Leith, and on the west coast 29°69 at the Scilly Islands, and 29°54 at Holy- head, the mean resultant being a gradient from the south of 0-40. The new moon was on the 16th. At Leith the average force of the wind for 12 days was 3°41, and during this time the tides averaged 1:33 above the natural height. On 524 REPORT—1896. the 11th, when the wind blew with force of 8 from 8.W., the evening tide was 2 feet 10 inches above the natural height. Lower down the coast at Grimsby the wind from the 5th to the 17th was blowing principally from the 8.W. with force varying from 4 to 7. On the 12th the tide was raised 2 feet 6 inches in the morning and 1 foot in the evening ; on the 13th 1 foot 5 inches and 1 foot 2 inches ; on the 14th and 15th 1 foot and 1 foot 3 inches in the morning ; on the 16th 1 foot 1 inch and 1 foot 5 inches ; on the 17th 2 feet and 1 foot. The mean force of the wind for 7 days was 5, and mean increase of tides 1:30 foot. At Hull the morning and evening tides were raised respectively on the 12th 2 feet 5 inches and 8 inches; on the 13th 1 foot 3 inches and I foot 4 inches ; on the 14th 3 inches and 1 inch; on the 15th 1 foot 7 inches in the morning ; on the 16th 11 inches and 1 foot 5 inches ; and on the 17th 2 feet 1 inch and 1 foot 1 inch. The mean force of the wind for the 6 days was 5, and the mean increase in the tides 1°10 foot. At Boston §8.W. wind had the effect of depressing the tides, the average force from 10th to 16th was 5:10. On the night of the 10th there was a 8.W. gale with force of 10, and the two following tides were respectively 1 foot 3 inches and | foot 6 inches below the normal height ; the morning tides of the 12th and 15th were raised 1 foot 4 inches and 1 foot, and the evening tide of 13th depressed 13 inches ; the barometer was 0°43 below the average. At Ipswich on the 11th the morning tide was depressed 3 feet 9 inches. At Dover from the 10th to 17th the wind was from 8.W., the average force being 4°80 and the barometer below the mean. On the 10th and 11th the tides were depressed from 1 foot 3 inches to 1 foot 8 inches, the morning tide of the 12th was raised 2 feet 1 inch, the wind blowing with force of 7 from 8.W., the tides from the 12th to 15th averaging about 10 inches above normal height. At Sheerness on the 10th the morning tide was raised 13 inches, and the morning tide of the 11th depressed 23 inches, the evening tide being about normal. On the 12th the morning tide was raised 1 foot 8 inches, and the following tides respectively 2 feet 3 inches, 1 foot 8 inches, and 2 feet 5 inches. At Portsmouth on the 13th, with N.W. wind, force 5 to 6, the morning tide was raised 13 inches and the evening tide 10 inches ; on the 15th both tides were raised 13 inches. At the west end of the Channel at Avonmouth on the 15th, with wind from 8.W. to 8.E. with force of 5 to 8, the evening tide of the 15th was 3 feet 4 inches above the normal height and the next tide 1 foot 11 inches above ; the former tide flowed for 58 minutes after the calculated time of high water. On the west coast on the 6th at Liverpool, with wind blowing force of 5 from 8.W., the morning tide was 2 feet 4 inches and the afternoon tide 3 feet 4 inches above the normal height. The barometer stood at 29°26, or 0°59 below the average. On the evening of the 14th the tide was raised 2 feet, and the following afternoon tide 3 feet 11 inches, and next morning 2 feet 5 inches, the wind during this time being from 8.W. with force varying from 3 to 7. Barometer about half an inch low, the gradient on the west coast between Scilly and Holyhead being 0:16, the depression being in the north. At Holyhead the tides from the 10th to the 16th averaged 1} foot ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 525 above normal, the wind being from 8.W. with average force of 5-60, and mean barometer reading 29°44, or 0°40 low. The afternoon tide on the 15th was 3 feet above normal, and that of the following morning 2 feet 10 inches above, the force of wind varying from 5 to 8. At Belfast from 10th to the 16th the tides averaged 1:40 above normal height, wind principally from S.W., with mean force of 5-50, mean barometer 29°19. The p.m. tide of the 15th was 4 feet 6 inches above the normal height, being the highest tide of which there is any record. The two following tides were raised 1 foot 5 inches and 1 foot 11 inches. At Glasgow the wind from the 11th to the 16th was principally from the 8.W., blowing with force of 8 on the llth to 6 on the 16th, the barometer averaging 1:26 below the mean, and the lowest reading being 28°31 on 11th. On the 11th high water occurred three hours before the proper time, and rose 6 feet above the natural height ; on the following day the tide was raised 2 feet 1 inch. On the 16th the tide reached high water 2} hours before the proper time, it then ebbed 2 feet 6 inches and flowed again 3 feet, the height reached being 5 feet above the natural height. Gale, December 1895. From the Ist to the 7th the wind was blowing from the 8.W. with a mean force of 5, increasing to a gale on the 5th and 6th, the force on the west coast being from 8 to 9 and on the east from 5 to 6. The mean barometer on the east coast was 29-87 at the North Foreland, and 29°44 at Leith, showing a gradient of 0°43 ; and on the west coast 30-04 at the Scilly Islands, and 29-10 at Ardrossan, a gradient of 0°94, the mean resultant being a 8.W. gradient of 0-60. At Leith on the 3rd, 4th, and 5th the wind was from the S.W., the average force was 4:83, the maximum on the 5th being 6. The average increase in the height of the tide was 1 foot 3 inches, the maximum increase being 2 feet 6 inches on the 5th. On the 6th and 7th the wind was from the N.W., mean force 3°75, mean increase of tide 2 feet, greatest force of wind 5, and greatest increase of tide 2 feet 5 inches. Tt will thus be seen that at this station the tides were increased both by S.W. and N.W. winds. At Grimsby, near the mouth of the Humber, the wind from the Ist to the 5th was from the 8.W., blowing with a mean force of 5, in¢reasing toa gale with a force of 8 on the 5th. From the 6th to the 8th the direction was from the N.W., with force of 6 to 7; and from the 8th to the 10th S.W., with force of from 3 to 6. The mean force for the whole period was 5. On the Ist the tides were raised at Grimsby 1 foot 3 inches and 8 inches ; on the 2nd, 1 foot 9 inches and 3 inches 3 on the 3rd, 2 feet and 2 feet 2 inches ; on the 4th, 11 inches in the morning ; on the 5th the morning tide was depressed 5 inches and the evening tide raised 2 feet 9 inches ; on the 6th the tides were raised 3 feet 3 inches and 1 foot 8 inches ; on the 7th, 3 feet 1 inch and 3 feet ; on the 8th, 1 foot and 1 foot 1 inch; on the 9th the morning tide was depressed 8 inches and the evening tide raised 2 feet 7 inches; and on the 10th the morning tide raised 1 foot 6 inches, the mean increase for 16 tides being 1°80 foot. At Hull, the force and direction of the wind being the same, the mean increase for 15 tides was 1:57 foot. On the Ist the tides were raised 526 REPORT—1896. 10 inches and 8 inches ; on the 2nd the morning tide 1 foot 4 inches ; on the 8rd the increase was 1 foot 9 inches and 2 feet’; on the 4th the morning tide was raised 7 inches and the evening tide depressed 5 5 inches ; on the 5th the morning tide was depressed 1 foot 6 inches and the evening tide raised 2 feet 7 inches ; ; on the 6th the tides were raised 3 feet and 1 foot 4 inches; on the 7th both tides 3 feet; on the 8th, 10 and 11 inches ; on the 9th the morning tide was depressed 1 foot, and that of the 10th raised 1 foot 9 inches. At Boston the wind on the 4th from W.S.W.., force 5 to 10 ; the evening tide of the 4th was depressed 1 foot 8 inches and the succeeding tide 1 foot 10 inches. From 5th to 7th, with wind from W.N.W. to N.W. mean force 7, the mean increase of the tide was 1°82 foot, the maximum increase being 2 feet 8 inches. At Yarmouth from the 6th to the 8th the wind was from W.N.W. with mean force of 5°55. The tides were increased about 3 feet. At Ipswich on the 6th and 7th, with wind W.N.W. force 7 to 8, the tides were increased above the expected height from 3 feet 2 inches to 3 feet 11 inches. At Dover on the 6th and 7th, wind W.N.W., force 4 to 7. Mean increase of tide 2 feet 11 inches, maximum increase 3 feet 6 inches. At Sheerness on the 6th the morning tide was raised 3 feet 5 inches, and the evening tide 2 feet 9 inches ; on the 7th the morning tide was not recorded, the evening tide was raised 4 feet 7 inches and the next morning | foot 11 inches and evening 1 foot 8 inches. At Flushing, where the mean range of tides is 11 feet 9 inches, the tides from the 4th to the 9th were increased above the mean range, an average of 2°78 feet, the greatest increase being on the 7th, 5 feet 1 inch. At Ymuiden, the entrance to the North Sea Canal, where the mean range of tide is 5-4 feet, the maximum increase was 5:31 feet, and at the island of Schokland in the nee Zee, where the mean range is only 0-72 foot, the increased height was 7-70 feet, At Portsmouth on the 6th and 7th the Are rose to about their normal height, wind on the 7th blowing from N,W. with force 4 to 6. At Avonmouth on the 6th and 7th, wind W. to N.W., force 7 to 10, the mean increase in the tides was only 9 inches, the maximum increase being 13 inches. At Liverpool, from the 2nd to the 7th, the tides were all high, the mean increase being 2 feet 8 inches and the maximum 3 feet 5 inches. The wind was from W.S.W. to W., mean force 6°80 and maximum 9. At, Holyhead, 2nd to the 7th, wind from W. to 8.W., mean force 6-40, maximum 7, mean increase of tides 1:14 foot, maximum increase 2 feet 1 inch. At Belfast, Ist to 6th, wind W.S.W., mean force 6°80, maximum 8, mean increase of tides 1 foot 45 inches, maximum increase 3 feet 1 inch. At Glasgow, on the 4th, the wind was from the W.S.W., with force of 6, increasing to a gale on the 5th, with force of 8 and continuing to blow a gale from 8.W. on 6th. The average increase in the height of the tides for the three days was 3 feet 9 inches, the maximum increase being on the 5th, when high water was raised 6 feet 2 inches, the normal rise above low water of spring tides being 10 feet 10 inches, and the actual rise 17 feet. The barometer fell 0:72 inch below the average reading. a NT ae ON THE SCREW GAUGE, 527 Screw Gauge.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. H. PREECE (Chairman), Mr. Conran W. Cooke (Secretary), Lord KELvw, Sir F. J. BRAMWELL, Sir H. Trueman Woop, Major-Gen. Wesper, Mr. R. E. Crompton, Mr. A. Stron, Mr. A. LE Neve Foster, Mr. C. J. Hewitt, Mr. G. K. B. Evpninstone, Mr. T. Bucxney, Col. Warkin, Mr. E. Riae, and Mr. W. A. Price, ap- pointed to consider means by which Practical Effect can be given to the Introduction of the Serew Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884, (Drawn up by the Chairman.) CONTENTS PAGE I. The Past ° . . . . . . . . . . - ont II. The Present : 5 ' e : . : : ; 7 ; . 529 Ill. The Future : : : : ° , . : 5 ; : . 531 APPENDIX I.—Fnlarged Shadow Photographs of Screns. By y Col. WATKIN, CB eieAs jens 532 II. — Gauges Sor Verifying the Aceu "acy of Screws. (for Workshop Use only). By A. STROH. . 534: yy“: LL.— Working Dimensions in Millimetres and Thousandths of an Inch. By A. LE NEVE FostER 3 . 536 Tests of B.A. Serens by Hervé Diameters. By W. A. Price . 537 I. Tue Past. A UNIFORM system of screw threads was first proposed by the late Sir Joseph Whitworth in 1842, and his thread, a compromise of the numerous threads then in use, has poe of almost universal use for all large screws—that is, screws of over | in. diameter—in the United Kingdom. Mr. William Sellers in 1864 introduced another thread in the United States of America, which has come into very general use in that country, and this thread has recently been accepted by the French. In 1881 the British Association formed a committee to determine a gauge for the manufacture of the various small screws used in electrical apparatus, clock work, and for other analogous purposes ; and after three years of unremitting labour this committee, in 1884, recommended a screw gauge which has come into very general use in this country. [t was based on the metrical system, and with one slight modification on the system adopted in 1880 by the Swiss watchmakers. The series of screws recommended is given in the following table :— British Association Screw Gauge. Dimensions in Millimetres | Dimensions in Thousandths | of an Inch | Threads Number (———W— ona a | per Diameter | Pitch Diameter Pitch inch | | I BEsphao (ern tll Iv Mattes cick 0 6-0 1-00 236 394 | 25-4 1 | «BB 0:90 208 35-4 | 282 2 4-7 0°81 184? 31-9 31-4 || 3 41 0-73 1622 28-7 348 4 3°64 0°66 142 26:0 38°5 5 3-2 059 126 23-2 | 43-0 6 2-8 | O53 110 20:9 47-9 7 25 | 48 98 18-9 | 52-9 8 2-2 | 43 87 16:9 | 591 9 19 0°39 15 15°4 65:1 528 REPORT—1896. Dimensions in Millimetres Demensipns in Thousandths of an inch Threads Number _per Diameter Pitch Diameter Pitch inch I II IIL IV Vv VI 10 17 0:35. 67 13°8 72°6 iil 15 0°31 59 12:2 81:9 12 13 0:28 51 11:0 90°7 13 1:2 0°25 47 9:8 101:0 14 1:0 0°23 3 9:1 1100 | 15 0-90 0°21 35 8:3 121:0 16 0°79 0:19 3 (G5) 134:0 17 0:70 O17 282 6:7 149:0 18 0°62 0715 24 59 169:0 19 0:54 0-14 21 5:5 181:0 20 2 0°47 0:12 19 47 2120 21 0°42 011 17 4:3 231°0 22 0°37 0-098 | 15 379 259°0 23 0°33 0:089 | 1S 3°5 285-0 24 0°29 0-080 | 11 73152 317:0 25 0:25 0:072 10 2:8 353-0 The form of thread adopted was triangular, the sides forming an angle of 474°, with the top and bottom rounded off to +ths of the pitch, The diameter (D) is related to the pitch (P) by the formula D=6 PS, all measurements being in willimetres, and P having succes- sively the values :— 1 (or 0:9°) millimetre ; 0-9! millimetre ; 0-9? millimetre ; 0°93 milli- metre; ... 0°9" millimetre. The index (7) thus becomes a convenient number designating the screw. The reasons supporting these recommendations were fully given in the Report submitted by the Committee at the Montreal meeting of 1884. Experience has justified the adoption of this gauge, which is almost universally used by the electrical trade, and is very considerably employed by the clock and instrument makers in the United Kingdom. It is not proposed to modify it, but there has been great difficulty in obtaining accurate gauges. No official system has yet been adopted by which manufacturers can compare their gauges with the standards, nor has a home been selected to deposit authorised standards for easy reference. British Association screws bought to-day from any screw manufacturer are not necessarily of the same dimensions as those supplied by the same maker a month ago. Screws supplied by different makers vary consider- ably from each other. Measuring gauges now existing, both male and female, differ largely from one another, and do not give correctly the true form of thread specified in the original Report. The essential element of the value of screws made to a standard gauge—their interchangeability— has thus never been fully realised. The British Association, having had their attention called to these anomalies at their last meeting (Ipswich, 1895), appointed a committee to consider the subject, which has now the pleasure to submit its first Report. ~ ia ON THE SCREW GAUGE. 529 II. Tue PRESENT, The Committee were formed ‘to consider means by which better prac- tical effect can be given to the introduction of the Screw Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884.’ They have held many meetings. They have added Colonel Watkin, C.B., R.A., Mr. E. Rigg, and Mr. W. A. Price to their number. They have received great assistance from the Pratt and Whitney Company of Hartford (Connecticut, United States of America), who supplied each member of the Committee with a copy of their book on ‘Standards of Length and their Practical Application.’ They were unfor- tunately deprived of the services of Mr. Hewitt, who was seized with a very severe illness after the first meeting, but they received from him his paper ‘On the Manufacture of Standard Screws for Machine-made Watches,’ read before the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in October 1894 ; a paper which has been of great service. Mr. Griffith, representing the Council, attended regularly, and took advantage of his presence in the United States of America to visit the Pratt and Whitney works. Evidence was taken by the Committee from large users of the screws. Mr. Willmot, of the Post Office Factory, stated that the Post Office had used some tens of millions of screws made to the British Association gauge, and he had never received a single complaint. Various apparatus for measuring screws and different methods of testing their accuracy were carefully considered and discussed. The Committee came to the conclusion that it was necessary to con- sider the subject from the three points of view of the Standards Office, the Works Manager, and the Workman. 1. The Standards Office. This must include, not only the custody of recognised and authen- ticated standards, but also a scientific mode of measuring the dimensions of commercial gauges and screws themselves, and of comparing their accuracy with the authorised standards. The peculiarity of the British Association gauge is this, that material standards are not impera- tivelynecessary. Thetable of dimensions given at page 527, together with the formula, enables any draughtsman to reproduce the form and pitch to any desired scale on paper. Colonel Watkin has shown to the Committee how to throw side by side, for purposes of very accurate comparison, a photographic image of — (a) The screw to be examined. (6) The standard with which it is to be compared. (c) Aseale which may be divided to ,,},,5th of an inch, the images of these three objects being so close to one another that a comparison to a very high degree of accuracy can be made. The Appendix to this Re- port contains a description of Colonel Watkin’s method. Mr. Price submitted to the Committee a microscopical method of measuring screws. The screw to be measured is attached to the stage of the microscope, the traversing slide of which is provided with a vernier and scale, while a vertical cross-hair in the eye-piece forms the index of the instrument. When the microscope has been adjusted for clear focus the screw is traversed across the field until the cross-hair intersects the thread of the screw at the desired point. The traversing screw of the slide is then turned until the corresponding point of the next thread is intersected by the cross-hair, and the reading of the vernier on the scale gives the measurement of the pitch with great accuracy. Mr. Buckney 1896. MM 530 REPORT—1896. showed also how the angle of the thread could be accurately verified by this method by having suitable hairs. 2. The Works Manager. The Committee, after considering various methods, came to the con- clusion that male gauges for ordinary workshop use were best tested, as regards pitch and form of thread, by a template or ‘comb’ for each number, the accuracy of which has been verified by the photographic method. The screw to be tested is placed against the teeth of the comb, and the correctness of its fit verified by the eye against a light background. The external dimensions of the screw can be obtained by any good micrometer gauge, and the internal diameter or core by a gauge such as that which is described in the Appendix by Mr. Stroh. The Committee have failed to discover any very reliable method of testing, to any degree of accuracy, a female standard gauge. No clearance was allowed in the original definition of the system between the male and female standards. Hence a mathematically accurate male gauge cannot be screwed into a mathematically accurate female gauge. But by allowing a certain margin—a maximum and minimum diameter—an internal compatibility of dimensions is allowed in the workshop gauges, which is of a sound, practical character. The female screw must always be a little larger than the standard male gauge, but this must never exceed what is known as a ‘ good fit.’ A working margin is given in Appendix III. by a table prepared by Mr. Le Neve Foster. Mr. Price, on behalf of the Committee, has made a series of measure- ments of certain sizes of B.A. screws which show the limits within which they are obtained in practice. His measurements indicate that the variation from the full diameter, which must be allowed for necessary inequalities in manufacture, is not a function of the diameter, but is rather in the nature of a constant quantity. This quantity appears to be approximately 1 mil. below the full diameter for all brass screws of sizes Nos. 0 to 11, and 1-5 mil. for all iron and steel screws of the same sizes. 3. The Workman. The measuring gauge, available to the workman as well as to the fore- man, is one that need not possess the mathematical accuracy of the standard gauges, but nevertheless it must not be allowed to deteriorate or to maintain false belief in its accuracy. Those that are subject to pressure and friction must necessarily wear, become distorted, and, in time, inaccurate. Hence the Committee were anxious to obtain a mode of comparison which would be free from this source of error. The most important measurement, whose accuracy should be easily verified by the workman is that of the pitch, and this is easily effected with the ‘half- nut gauge’ described in Appendix II. The Committee are pleased to find that the result of their inquiry and discussion enables them to recommend for general use means of comparison which do not involve the wear and deterioration of the gauges. Defor- mation is confined to the taps and screw-plates, and as frequent verifica- tion of the manufactured screw is desirable continued accuracy is insured. With the introduction of simple methods of comparison and measurement errors in the screws issued and want of interchangeability are rendered improbable in a well-regulated shop, and unnecessary in any place. There remains now to determine a place where material standard ON THE SCREW GAUGE. 531 gauges are available for immediate comparison, and where the photographic and microscopic methods can be readily applied to verify gauges and to obtain a record of those submitted for examination. This means work to be done, expenses to be incurred, and fees to be paid, as is now done at the Kew Observatory for chronometers, thermometers, &e. Ill. Tue Furure. The opinions formed by the Committee, after full and exhaustive dis- cussions, for furthering the objects to be attained may be summarised as follows :— (a) The Committee recommend the construction and housing of the comb form of gauges or templates of the B.A. screw thread, by comparison with which master gauges or templates may be exactly and conveniently verified. (6) That, as no exact system of testing femaie threads has yet been devised, the Committee restrict themselves to recommending means for keeping male threads to gauge, and this they consider will be sufficient for the purpose of securing practical uniformity in female screws. (c) Male threads can best be measured by the comb, combined with suitably arranged tests to give the correct diameters. (d) That for purposes of verification or standardisation the gauges to be deposited for reference should consist of a complete set of these comb- pieces, and a complete corresponding set of male screws, so that new combs can be compared with those deposited, or male screws can be com- pared with the standard combs with great accuracy by the photographic or the microscopic method, and that these two methods may be conve- niently used to check and corroborate each other. (e) That in order to obtain interchangeability of these male screws for practical workshop use it is sufficient that they should satisfy the following tests :— ; (1) There should be no appreciable difference in the fit of the screw with a standard comb having not less than twelve teeth. (2) The diameter of the core must not exceed that laid down by the B.A. specification. (3) The diameter of the screw measured over the thread must not ex- ceed that laid down by the B.A. specification. 4) The diameter of the screw measured over the thread must not fall short of that laid down by the B.A. specification by more than a certain amount, which amount depends on the class of work and purpose to which the screw is to be applied. The amount referred to in (4) must be settled by the persons in con- ‘trol of the work for which the screws are to be used. (f) They recommend for general use in the workshop the half-nut gauge, as described in Appendix II., combined with inside and outside diameter gauges. The Committee, in printing the tables, Appendix III., for which they have to thank Mr. Le Neve Foster and Mr. Price, do not take the respon- sibility of recommending any limits, but publish the information as an indication of the limits of accuracy within which these screws may be expected to be produced in practice. If the recommendations of the Committee be approved of, they further recommend that the Committee should be reappointed for the purpose of obtaining and verifying standard combs and male screws, and determining the future home of the gauges. MM2 ja2 REDORT—1896. APPENDIX I. Eniarged Shadow Photographs of Screws. By Col. Watxty, C.2., R.A., de. The objects aimed at in producing enlarged photographs of screws are— (a) To provide a means of verifying the accuracy of the shape of a thread. (6) To provide a means of accurately gauging the dimensions of screw threads. (c) To provide a “record or certificate of a screw, in a similar manner to the certificate of accuracy given by Kew Observatory. As in this process a standard scale is photographed at the same time as the screw, a direct reading to any desired accuracy can be obtained. There seems to be hardly any limit to the amount of enlargement, as the difficulties inherent to the enlargement of an ordinary negative do not apply to this process. The question arises, Does the shadow photograph give accuracy as regards— 1. Dimensions ; 2. Shape of thread ? To test (1) a No. 2 B.A. thread was enlarged 37:18 times. The linear dimensions could in this photo be measured to at least soooth of an inch. The diameter, pitch, and angle of thread of this particular screw were gauged by a member of the Committee, and found to be: By an Elliott gauge . - - 01818 alten (os » &@ Brown and Sharp gauge , 071820 Sa 0:03184 pitch 54° 30’ angle of thread The photo gave the following :— 01818 diameter 0:03181 pitch 54° 30’ angle of thread Fig. 1 shows a reduced copy of an actual photograph and scale. As regards (2) there has been considerable discussion as to whether the shadow photograph gave the true shape of the thread. There are two methods of obtaining a photograph of a screw thread = one in which the axis of the screw is at right angles to the beam of light ; the other im sp which the axis of the screw is inclined at an angle which differs from the right angle by the angle of the pitch of the screw. D Asregardsthe first method, a mathematical consideration worked out by Mr. Price seems to show that a slight correction of about 4 degree in the total angle of the screw thread would have to be made. i think, as regards the second method, no correction is required. In any inch. ) P4 Fig. 1.—Standard Glass Scale, lines at intervals of -0 (Photograph magnified 34°415.) ON THE SCREW GAUGE. B.A. Thread No. 12, inch, 000 cale reading to 75} c i 534 REPORT—1896, case the correction is so small that for practical purposes it might be neglected, as on a No. 2 B.A. thread it only represents about 7,',jth of an inch, and proportionately less on the smaller sizes. However, to determine practically whether this was the case, I suggested filing away a part of the screw to be photographed to make it a comb. There could be no doubt that the photo of such a comb would give the true shape of the thread. Mr. Stroh kindly supplied such a screw. From the photos it would appear that there is no practical differ- ence in the shape, and that therefore the photograph of a complete screw gives a true record of the shape as well as the dirfiensions. The following gives the detail of the method employed in photographing the screws :— On a plate A, B, c, D, fig. 2, is a block, £, to which is secured a glass scale, Fr, which has been carefully etched with lines 4, inch apart. A piece of spring brass, HG, serves to hold the screw KK to be photographed, with its axis parallel to the plate a, B, c, D. The distance of the screw from the plate can be adjusted by means of the screw 1, so that when the scale FIG. 3. is sharply focussed on the screen the shadow of the screw may also be brought into focus. The frame 4, B, C, D, fig. 2, is adjusted in the same position as an ordinary microscopic slide in a magic lantern arranged for microscopic work ; only I found it desirable to employ a photographic lens of modern design instead of the usual objective. The arrangement is shown in the accompanying diagram, fig. 3, where A represents the limelight ; B the ordinary condenser ; c Alum trough to stop the heat rays; D Small condensing lens ; E Screw, in its frame as described in fig, 2; F Photographic lens ; c Milled head screw for focussing the lens F. APPENDIX II. Gauges for Verifying the Accuracy of Screws (for Workshop Use only). By A. Strou. In the gauge represented in fig. 4 the hole @ is for the external diameter. It should be of exactly the diameter given in the table of mem ON THE SCREW GAUGE. 53D sizes for B.A. screws. A screw should pass into this hole freely, but without much shake. The hole é is the minimum gauge, and the screw should not pass into this hole. The difference of diameter between the holes a and 6 has not yet been determined by the Committee ; in the present case it is 0015 in. ¢ is a threaded hole or female gauge in which a screw should just turn freely. The hole d is for the diameter of the core, but as it is impossible, without turning down some of the threads of a screw, to pass the core of it into this hole, the gauge e is provided for gauging the core, or, in other words, the depth of the thread. It consists of a fork the inner edges of which are shaped so as to enter between the threads of a screw. The correctness of the pitch of a screw is ascertained by placing it in the comb / and against the back-rest g, and by holding the gauge against the light or a white paper. It has been found by practice that there is considerable difficulty in making these combs with any degree of accuracy, and also that it would be almost impossible to carry out the above form of gauge for the smaller sizes. It is therefore suggested that the gauge represented in fig. 5 has certain advantages over the comb-gauge. With this the half-nut h is employed for verifying the pitch of screws instead of the comb. The half-nut can be carried out with greater certainty and ease, and is there- fore less costly, and there is no difficulty in making it for the smaller sizes, as shown in fig. 6. Gauges on the principle of figs. 5 and 6 have also the advantage of being more compact and stronger for workshop use. The process of making the half-nut gauges is the following :—Two have to be made at one time. When the two steel bars intended for the gauges are filed to shape they are placed together, as shown in sketch 536 REPORT—1896. (a and b) ; a temporary rivet or bolt is put through the hole c, and the ends intended to receive the half-nut device are clamped together as shown. A hole of the diameter of the core is then drilled across the two FIG. 7. bars at d, so that each bar receives one half of it. The clamp is then unscrewed, the bars are slightly separated, the tap is inserted between them, and the clamp screw tightened again gently. Of course now the two steel bars cannot meet, being prevented by the insertion of the tap. But the smooth end of the tap is now fixed in a chuck on a lathe, and is rotated forwards and backwards, while the clamp screw is tightened from time to time. This is carried on till the threads forming the half-nuts are complete. It is only necessary towards the end of the operation to separate the bars once or twice for the purpose of removing the bur which is raised by the operation. APPENDIX III. Working Dimensions in Millimetres and Thousandths of an Inch. By A. Le Neve Foster. | D ffer- External Diameter of | enceof Workin Diameter Core | Dia- Pitch Margin ee | meter ING eee oe SS ee Bs ae he, | | ag : ' } | co mm. | inches | mm. inches mm. | mm. o-5 |; mm. mils, | | a Bar tacnsslvery a a | ue | 0 6:0 236 48 | -189 ee 10 25-4 “O05 *002 1 53 *209 4:22 | +166 1:08 9 28:2 *O5 ‘002 2 47 185 S12 ay “972 81 31:4 04 *0016 3 41 161 3°22 “127, ‘S76 73 34°8 “Ot ‘0016 4 3°6 142 ZRE (LO "792 66 38°5 “O4 ‘0016 5 3°2 “126 2:5 “O984 708 59 43 0 ‘03 ‘0012 6 2:8 110 | 2:16 085 636 53 479 03 C012 7 2°5 ‘098 1:92 ‘O76 575 48 52:9 03 ‘0012 8 2°2 ‘O87 1°68 ‘066 ‘516 43 59:1 “02 “0008 9 1:9 ‘O75 1:43 “0565 468 39 65:1 02 “0008 10 i ter 067, 28 “0505 “420 35 726 ‘O02 “0008 ON THE SCREW GAUGE. do7 Mr. Foster informed the Committee that in the experience of his firm these limits are found to be convenient for all screws connecting ordinary pieces of mechanism. Tests of B.A. Screws by Hervé Diameters. By W. A. Price. Of the measurements given in the following table all, excepting the No. 8 steel and No. 11 brass screws, were made with a gauge of which the zero was out of adjustment, the measures to be reduced by 0002 in the first 9 columns. These measurements. were made to ascertain within what limits a screw maker can work, not as chausson screws with their theoretical diameters. It seems that 1-2 inch below the full diameter is all that is required for brass screws Nos. 0 to 11, and that the same is required for all sizes. It is clear that steel screws are more troublesome than brass, but the lot of No. 4 steel examined were probably not made with sufficient care. The margins are : 1:2 1:0 =) 11 ‘9 1:8 8 1:2 1:0 1:2 a) (16) (3:2) (3:0) (@3219) (1:5) The figures in brackets in each case include the screws, even those that are clearly too small to pass. ‘| No. 0 No. 0 No. 2 No, 2 No. 4 No. 4 No.6 | No.6 | No.8 | No.8 | No. 11 Brass | Brass Brass Steel Brass Steel Brass | Steel Brass | Steel Brass 2373 *2385 *1852 1852 1424 1438 1110 ‘1111 0865 “0860 “0595 “2372 2382 *185C “1851 "1424 1437 1109 1110 “0864 “0858 “0594 "2371 2382 "1850 "1851 1423 1434 1108 “1110 “0863 “0857 “0594 +2370 “2380 1849 “1851 1422 1434 “1106 ‘1110 *O86L “0857 “0594 *2370 *2380 "1849 “1850 1421 1433 “1106 “LLLO “0860 “0857 0593 2370 “2380 "1849 “1850 1421 1432 1106 1110 “0860 “0857 "0593 *2370 "2380 1849 1850 "1421 1431 “1105 1109 “0860 “0855 0593 *2370 2379 1849 1849 1421 1431 1105 1109 0860 “0855 “0593 “2369 2379 +1848 1848 “1420 1430 “1104 1109 “0859 “0855 “0593 2368 2379 1848 1848 "1420 1430 “1103 1109 “0859 “0854 “0593 "2368 *2378 *1848 1848 "1420 "1430 “1103 ‘1109 “0859 0854 “0592 2367 2378 1848 1847 "1420 1429 +1103 1109 0859 “0854 0592 2367 2378 1848 “1845 1419 "1428 1103 1109 0859 “0853 “0592 2365 “2378 1848 1844 "1419 “1428 1103 “1109 “0859 “0852 0592 "2364 2377 1848 “1843 1419 "1426 1103 ‘1108 “0858 “0852 “0591 "2364 *2377 "1847 “1842 1418 *1425 “1103 “1108 “0857 “0852 “0591 2363 2376 1847 1842 1418 1422 1103 1105 0856 “0852 “0590 *2362 “2375 1842 1842 "1418 "1422 “1103 “1102 "0856 *O851 “0590 * 2362 "2309 .1842 1841 1417 1419 1102 1102 “0856 “0850 0589 * 2362 _— 1845 “1841 “1417 1421 1102 “1101 "0855 “0850 “0589 * 2361 _— "1845 1841 1417 "1420 _— “1101 — “0850 *0587 “1845 (it 832 “1416 "1412 Mean “1100 Mean “0849 “0586 Mean} Mean 1843 *1830 1416 1412 _ — —_ = -- 2368 +2379 1843 | “1825 1415 “1410 1104 "1099 “0859 0849 | (0581 1820 1410 —_— 1094 _ “0848 | (| :0580 Omitting 1409 — { “1090 _ "0848 — Mean | last four| Mean 1408 Omit- Omit- 18475 Mean "14205 1408 ting M ting 1846 1408 last 2 “0833. | last 2 Mean Mean zs Mean Omitting “1108 “0592 last 8 1429 The No. 11 brass screws were a lot that Hervé had been asked to make with especial care. 538 REPORT—1896. Calibration of Instruments used in Engineering Laboratories.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. B. W. KENNEDY, F.R.S. (Chairman), Professor J. A. Ewing, F’.R.S., Professor D. S. CapPER, Professor T. H. BEARE, and Professor W. C. Unwin, ERS. (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Tr was stated in the previous report, presented at Ipswich in 1895, that the Committee had decided initially to investigate the accuracy of instru- ments for measuring the tension coefficient of elasticity, or Young’s modulus. It was decided that sets of standard test bars should be prepared to be subjected to tension and the extensions measured by the instruments in use in different engineering laboratories. The forms of the test bars are shown in figs. 1 and 2. Two of the standard test bars of each set were cylindrical bars with screwed ends suitable for use with shackles having spherical seatings. The third bar of each set was a flat bar suitable for wedge grips. All the cylindrical bars were cut from a single bar of specially strong steel rolled for the Committee by the Blenavon Company. The flat bars were cut from a single plate of good mild steel. Four sets were prepared, of which two were used for most of the measure- ments. The bars were marked as follows : Flat bars, A, B, C, D, of mild steel, approximately 2 inches by } inch in section. Cylindrical bars, E, F, G, H, of special steel, approximately 1} inch in diameter. Cylindrical bars, K, L, M, N, of special steel, approximately ? inch in diameter. The bars were carefully prepared by Mr. R. W. Munro. The cylindrical bars had marked gauge points suitable for extensometers 8 inches, 10 inches, 16 inches, or 20 inches in length. The flat bars had gauge points for extensometers 8 inches or 10 inches in length. In order to obtain some preliminary information as to the mechanical properties of the standard bars, one round bar and one flat bar were tested in the testing machine at the Central Technical College. The following table gives the results obtained : Preliminary Tests of Materials used for Standard Bars. TENSION EXPERIMENTS. 7 Yield Point Maximum Breaking | Load Load Mark] _: : : - Elonga- Con- E. ow Dimensions. Area. tion on traction} Tons Ban Inches Sq. in. Load | Tons Tons | Tons 8in. |of Area per Tons | per Tons per Tons per percent,|percent.| sq. in. sq. in. sq. in. sq. in. D 2:000 x 0°507 | 1°014 | 16:19 | 15:97 | 23°725) 23°40 ee 19°48 32 62 Sees N 0°750 diam. | 0°4418 | 9:00 | 20:37 [15-725] 35°59 | 13:76] 31-14 |° 24°5 42 ee ee ee ee ee eee eee ea ee Bar D was exac:ly similar to the flat bars A, B, C. Bar N was of th2 same steel as standard bars marked E, I’, K, L, &c. a a S. INSTRUMENTS USED IN ENGINEERING LABORATORIE Fia. 2. Fig. 1, Marked End ¢ ° igr a~? Sagas 4 ! ' ' ! —- eee. —ere eo 16 Whitworth Oread 1896 REPORT 540 ——— amen ee a eee art ar pouby / = 78 | | i | | i| sd ie L ta ae mod ie ja ie ore x wemoedg Vv uawpoadg d auarrig) | seta cari|| coon ge | 2zemamaer, || Sekar ur | Soom | caste | ary go anne | SMOUL UE | ere athomototg are ceneng | a 0} $Z ug | ~Sodons soz || 09 $z aoyz bah a0} || SAO COTEHIC : -bioduay, SOPBB EG -etodmay, | prot a a a Ss = xX yo iy =0 "70 =7717 @ oy vnwMI0,T aaa a age =mM=Bvoly * ivq Jo suotsuautg 7 in x ; + (potmnbar Jr) Surpvar 1oy9u0sua}xKa TOF yULsUO; soyouL =7T = > a S'S “qUOMOIMsveM 10} pesn syutod asney *19}OTLOSTI9}.XO —- TITAN a Aq sjusnIonseva TT ‘ON “Teg ,,FT punoy eyed [ased yxou v0g] “(warswaz) hnousoyy fo snynpozy INSTRUMENTS USED IN ENGINEERING LABORATORIES. 544 Test sheet forms were drawn up by the Committee, to be issued to different observers with the sets of test bars, on which the observations were to be recorded in a uniform manner. A sample of the form of ob- servation sheet prepared by the Committee is printed on the opposite page- In January 1895 two sets of test bars were sent out, to be circulated amongst those observers who had consented to make measurements for the Committee. A very large number of measurements have been made with great care, and the record forms have been returned to the Committee. It is proposed in the present report to give an analysis of these results. The following short statement gives particulars, so far as they are stated on the forms received, of the extensometers used. Extensometers used in Measurements made for the British Association Calibration Committee. Instrument used | H Observer Kennedy’s Extensometer. Lever or mechanical multiply- ing arrangement. Ewing’s Extensometer. Measurements taken by micro- scope with micrometer in eyepiece. Ewing’s Extensometer. : Goodman’s Extensometer. A mechanical multiplying in- strument of Kennedy type. Unwin’s Mirror Extensometer. The extension of the bar deflects a mirror. A scale is placed at a distance, and by a fixed telescope the reading of the scale reflected in the mirror is taken. Also a lever extensometer with triple compound levers. Mechanical multiplying instrument of Kennedy type. Bronze mechanical extensometer, Kennedy pattern. | A. B. W. Kennedy . J.A.Ewing . ‘ H.S.Hele Shaw . J.Goodman . : W.C. Unwin . . T. Hudson Beare . D.S. Capper . ‘ _1. Variations in Measurement of the Area of the Test Bars by different Observers. The following table gives the measurements of the test bars by different observers. They are satisfactory as showing that the error of measurement of area of a test bar, by different observers, seldom exceeds. about one-fifth of 1 per cent. That is the error reckoned from the mean value of the area given by several observers. The difference of measure- ment for any two observers may amount to 0:5 of one per cent. Taste I.—Comparison of Measuremenis of Test Bars. ry F ¢ | Distin- Observed | Mean value of pret ead Deviaticn in Meee? guishing} Observer area in | observed atea) po, nen per cent. Letter sq. in. in sq- in. | valuein sq. in. of mean value Flat A W.C.U. . | 1:0175 — ‘0002 — "02 A. B.W. K. | 1:0170 — 0007 — 07 T.H. B. . {| 1:0190 10177 +0013 +13 J.G.. - | 1:0170 —°0007 — 07 | | D.S.C. . | 1:0180 +°0003 +08 ay REPORT—1896. TABLE I.—continued. cpl 5 . | Deviation of separ bon f Distin- Observed Mean value of; obderven Grea Deviation in r “Bat & guishing Observer area in | observed area ean EAT per cent. BE Letter sq. in. in eq. in. | value in eq. in. | Of mean value Flat B W.C.U. 1:0157 —-0001 01 H. 8. H. 8. | 1:0180 10158 +°0022 + 22 | J. A. E. 1:0120 — ‘0038 —°37 i | D. 8. C. 1:0175 +:0017 +17 Round F W.C. U. 1:2230 — 0008 —‘07 A. B. W. K. | 1:2230 12938 — 0008 —'07 T.H.B. . | 1:2262 a +0024 +°'20 J.G.. 1:2230 — ‘0008 — 07 Round E W.C. U. 1°2252 +0020 416 H. 8S. H. 8. | 1:22125 12232 —°0019 —'16 J.A. E. 1:2250 ary +0018 +°15 D.8.C. . | 1:2213 —-0019 —-16 Round L W. C.U. 0°4412 +0009 +-20 A. B. W. K. | 0°4394 —°0009 —°20 T. H. B. 0°4418 0°4403 +0015 +34 J.G.. . | 04390 —0013, —-30 D.8.C. . | 04400 —-0003 — ‘07 iw rae tee = Is Round Kk W.C.U. . | 0°4418 0 0 H. 8. H. 8S. | 0°44179 0-4418 | 0 0 J.A.E. . | 0°4418 0 (0) D.S.C. . | 0°4418 0 0 Il. Variations in each Observer's Results of the Measurement of Eaxten- sion for a given Interval of Load. In the following table have been arranged the greatest and least measured extensions by each observer on each bar, for an increment of load of 1} ton in the case of some bars, and of 2} tons in the case of other bars. For the rectangular bars A, B, the extensions were measured for increments of 23 tons load, corresponding to stress increments of about 21 tons per sq. in. For the 1}-in. round bars E, F, the load increments were 24 tons, corresponding to stress increments of about 2 tons per sq. in. For the 3-in. round bars K, L, the load increments were 1} ton, corre- sponding to stress increments of nearly 3 tons per sq. in. For each observer’s measurements on each bar the mean extension for the same increment in his set of observations is also given. By comparing each observer’s maximum and minimum values with his mean value, an indica- tion is obtained of the magnitude of instrumental or observational errors * in each case. As this comparison is not affected by error in the determination or the calibration constant of the instrument, it is an index of the observational or instrumenta! error of particular extensometer observations. INSTRUMENTS USED IN ENGINEERING LABORATORIES. Taste II, Comparison of Observer's Greatest and Least Values of Extensions with his own Mean Values. j Mean per | for exch bar \cent.deviation | — Oe Hee Ss ce. 263, 8) a4 2°95 2 o> to . Rar | Greatest | Least | strineer | from mean Beer No. Sh interval of 2h or | TEST | «ofeach, ieviatton 1; ton observer Tesults 2m ABW.E .|A | 00200-00140 j-oo1775 | *"Hnnees a3 | ZL | -00225 00205 |-ooa1g | * 00110 ial | (700160, 00140 | 00160 rahe eer f | |-oo160» j00140 |-oo1s1 | + "00080 738 f J. A.E. (| -oos2 |oous |-oo19 Somme. | ier | (EK | 00172 foo1ss |-oo170 | *ooo10 | tae} H} oie 00122 |-oo128 | *‘ooo10 | oar} T.H.B.. . A} -o190 joo17o |-oo1ss + +059 | tio} {00220 }00190 00208 = ooteo. | eee | | |-00220. |-00190 |-oo210 | + 7000100 one yp | [00185 j00140 | oo15s ni er weds | | | {-oo16s foo1so |-oo1ss | + 000120 | 7:84 } ae Sar ae ores Wael: K | -oo17s16|oo1672 |-oo1716 | *Spoo4s | ase | | E | 001277 /oo12102/-o01242 | *Sooosis | ae6 | iG. «| A] -o0190 |oo1s0 |-oo1ss | +:000020 re ! | L | -00220 00210 |-o0216 | *Doo60 | a78} | F | -00170 | 00150 |-00156 * 0080 35) [IG «+ A | 00200 00170 | oo1ss | * Noor40 Tat (Students). | L./ -00210 00200 | 00207 ea war: _F | 00170 jo0150 |-oo15e | *pooe0 | *2e0f | W.c.U. . B | -o18o1 }oo17ss |-oo1sss | *Sooss | 598} (Mirror exten- someter) K | -ov21s2 }oozoss |-oo2105 | *"Soooey | sis} BAA REPORT—1896. TABLE II.— Continued. | Mean for} Deviation from S8 ia Greatest Least. \ninter-| mean of Pata Re ar extension |exten-ion| 01, 4 each Per cent sea Observer 'No.! in Interval of 23 y ». |deviation |2.2 3 | aieaea | eich observer’s oto 4 observer results a 3 = = | =. i] | ee tel WHS: Yo fe +-000094 | 6:09 _E | -001638 001447 | 001544 | 7 Goggg7 cal 6-18 W.c.U... .| B | -001852 |.001418 | -001485 Bee pia 451 (Lever extenso- aeq | + 000032 5°54" - 7 . 9 iy 9 . ‘ ys) = . meter) E | -001293 |-001217 | 001261 — Soo0014 | 350 3-02 = oilvemienee|tnt 0008s | |) MzeaaNln ls ars Cae A | -00190 }00185 | 001855 | * Soog95 | o27 f| 1°35 fe Lapua Olleaa@iaecctere COOOKS |) iia | fap 00430 | 004345 | > ooooas hg 115 eee Gi crag | +:000010 | 0-477}. | L |,-00215 00210 | 002140 | * oooo4g | tary) 1:70 I]. ha o1ox | +°000075 | 353 | | 00220 00195002125 * “oooi75 398 f 588 , 003088 | + 000012 ees ; | ( 00310 | 00300 | 003088 | Oooggs 9-35 [| 1°62 |; eg me en eae Ro 3:23 | E | a Looiso |-oo1ss | 7 DNa0e 323 f 3:23 a at (thiolase Cath oc OOOH 3:23) | 9. 00160-00150 | -oo155 | *‘O00NS ae \ 3-23 ar kolck 00002. 1°33 1 | o. By} 0019 © 0018 "|'-001875 | Nanas | og i 2°66 hanes Pyavat “NN91% + 000046 2°13 . ws (0022-0021 Ofz16e noosa | oes is aacts (alte +-000054 | 251 {70022 — }00205 "002146 | Foe | a art 3-49 Tt will be seen that the deviations of the maximum and minimum values of the extension for 1} ton (or 25 tons) from the mean value are somewhat considerable, and often exceed 5 per cent. ina Tn considering the apparently large percentages of error in some cases. in this table, it must be remembered that the extensions were measured for a comparatively small increment of stress ; also that the greatest and least extensions of each observer are those probably affected by the largest. accidental errors. Ill. Method of finding the Mean Extension for a given Increment of Load from which the Coefficient of Elasticity is calculated. Tf a series of extensions are observed for a series of equal increments of load, and if the coefficient of elasticity is constant for the whole range of stress to which the bar is subjected, then the arithmetical mean of the observed extensions is the true mean extension according to the observa- tions for the given increment of load. It is this mean which should be used in calculating the coefficient of elasticity. Also, apart from mere observational errors, the value of the mean extension will in no wa depend on the magnitude of the increments of load for which the exten- sions are observed, * Tf, however, the coefficient of elasticity is not constant for the range INSTRUMENTS USED IN ENGINEERING LABORATORIES. DAD of stress to which the bar is subjected, then a different value of the mean extension will be found for different values of the increment of load for which the extension is observed. Professor Kennedy suggested that the simple arithmetical mean of the observed extensions should be compared with the mean extension taken wut in the following way. Suppose six micrometer readings are taken for six equal increments of load. The extension is calculated for the first and fourth, the second and fifth, and the third and sixth, loading ; the mean of these is then taken. The following is a sample of this method for a single set of readings : 1 : Micrometer Differences for Mean Extension | Mean Extension Load'in Tons Reading 74 Tons for 74 Tons for 24 Tons 0 (40°41) a 2 23 er 005533 t 7s 52°17 005528 - 005553 ‘001851 ea eee 005599 123 60:05 The following table contains a comparison for some of the sets of observations of the simple arithmetical mean of the extensions ‘observed, and the mean calculated by the method suggested by Professor Kennedy : Sa Taste ITI.—Comparison of Mean Extension. Mean Extension Observer Bar | Loading i reel Arithmetical Mean} Kennedy’s Mean A. B.W.K. A Ist 23 00178 00182 Be . 2nd Be ‘00177 ‘00181 a L Ist 1} 00214 00215 a ae 2nd a 00214 , -00216 Hs 1 1st 22 ‘00150 “00152 m4 6 2nd aa *0Q150 , 00151 fi EF Ist & “OO151 00153 Fy a 2nd 8 “00151 “00153 W.C.U. B Ist 22 “001851 -001851 Le Fr 2nd tA “001850, 001840 a K { Ist 1} *002097 -002094 od ss | 2nd a 002113 ‘002106 . E lst 22 *0Q1546, *001537 ” ” | 2nd is 001542 “001539 As the differences are small between the means found by. the two methods, compared with the variations due to other causes, the simple arithmetical mean has been used in the following comparisons. As the modulus of elasticity is usually calculated for the whole range of stress, it does not seem to matter which method of getting the mean extension is adopted. But in a case like this, where.the instrumental or accidental errors of single readings are obviously not inconsiderable when compared with the whole extension for small ranges of stress, it would seem that it is not desirable to take out the extensions for very small ranges of stress. Professor Kennedy’s method averages the error over a longer range of stress. 1896, NN 546 REPORT—1896. IV. Comparison of the Values of the Coefficient of Elasticity obtained by different Observers. The different values of the coefficient of elasticity calculated from the observations are affected by errors of measurement of the bars, errors of calibration of the testing machine and extensometer, errors of observa- tion, and errors inherent in the construction of the extensometer, Taste LV.—Values of Coefficient of Elasticity obtained by different Observers. (Tons per square inch.) . Mean of all Results by | Mean results| Mean ofall | results on Bar ‘Observer each by each results on | bars of same observer observer one bar material and size 13290 13290 13116 |) 13160 | 13198 13231 | 13260 | 13260 13200 13320 13260 13260 | 13430 13430 | | 13465 13500 | ) } | | E J.A. Ewing , Dea eee ee ees sce ees ees i ct ee eet CU = bc nat Sg H. 8S. Hele Shaw W.C. Unwin , Fy D.S. Capper . e 13260 13249 A. B. W. Kennedy . 13500 13050 13150 13070 13150 13250 13250 13380 13350 13310 13072 13495 13385 13100 13040 13100 13160 13200 13200 13260 13420 13210 13160 13244 13244 13120 13120 13210 ) ) 13210 | F |. Hudson Beare . 13273 J.Goodman . 5 J. A. Ewing . ° oe > H. 8. Hele Shaw ‘ K |W.C.Unwin. . 13274 D.S. Capper . e A. B. W. Kennedy . 13245 T. Hudson Beare , 13215 L J.Goodman , 4 D.8. Capper . . - 13153 13130 13130 ba | INSTRUMENTS USED IN ENGINEERING LABORATORIES. 54. TABLE LV.—continued. Mean of all | | Results by | Mean results} Mean ofall | results on Bar Observer each by each results on | bars of same observer observer one bar | material and | size A. B.W, Kennedy . {| Teor, |} 18150. | | T. Hudson Beare f ae j 13210 | (| 13110 |) Sah nese A J.Goodman . 13110 j 13110 || 296 D.§8. Capper . | yeaan | 13260 bad pepiacen lt oa. | ag | J. A. Ewing ‘| 13310 y 13285 | |B |H.S.HeleShaw . {| fee doe le | | | ; |~ 13203 W.C. Unwin a 13294 ) 13298 | | ae» {| ioe Pg | / ( 13110 } ania D.§. Capper . y 13110 py 13110 | The foregoing table contains all the values of E calculated from the total range of stress to which the bars were subjected in the record sheets sent in to the Committee. The total range of stress in each case was about the maximum range which could safely be used without risk of straining the bar beyond its elastic limit. It should be remembered that bars E, F, K, L were all cut from the same rolled bar, and of these E and F were approximately of 1:25 inch diameter and K L approximately 0°75 inch diameter. Bars A and B were cut from the same plate, and were approximately*of the section 2 x4 inches. V. Variation of Individual Results from the Mean of all the Results. In the preceding table the means are given of all the results sent in for the pairs of bars of the same material and size. It cannot, of course, be assumed that these means are the true values of the coefficients of elasticity of the bars. Nevertheless, they furnish convenient reference numbers for estimating the probable magnitude of the differences of values of E determined by different observers with different instruments. In the following table this comparison of each observer's results with the mean of all the results is made. The percentage deviation from the mean is, of course, not necessarily the percentage error, but it is at least some indication of the probable magnitude of the error of the calibration constant as distinguished from error due to instrument or observer in individual determination of the extension. 048 REPORT—1596. TABLE V; Variation of Values of Coefficient of Elasticity from the Mean Value of all the Observations on corresponding Bars. Mean Value of o\5e > 7 Mean Value of | Deviation Observer Bar Gauge aa all Loadings by | from Mean Points ae Over all Observers | per Cent. BOT ape. PEPSI A Flats - ae jae L a.c. 13200 13245 = A.B. W. Kennedy . f ae 13500 13249 41:89 | Fr c.e. | 13430 13249 +1°37 (B = 13285 | ~ 13193 + °70 J.A.Ewing . .|1K SS HORST e3R5 _ 13245 + 91 (E — | 13290 13249 + 31 A ae Te, 13210 13193 + 13 [1 ac. | 13340 13245 + 72 | T. Hudson Beare Be Wy c.d. | 13185 13245 — ‘45 [E ac. | ‘13100 13249 _-112 F c.d. 13110 13249 —1-05 (B lm,..- | — ‘13120 13193 — *55 ' H. S. Hele Shaw 1K eaess OH T5167 13245 = “At | (E see With fe1ae 13249 ed | A oe 13110 13193 — +63 J. Goodman . F = 13244 13245 — O01 F = jee 1S95D 13249 + 01 ( B kn. | 13298 13193 + -80 Wee Unwin ~- 14K ae 7" 13440 13245 41:47 | (i dltea bird (oageianni: age — 26 | A ps. 13260 13193 + ‘Bl L BB. >| pp 89120 13245 — 94 L ac. | 13210 13245 — 26 | L c.e. 13130 sus as a : B is... | 18110 1319 ats | DS. Capper) s (2 |\K oe 13070 13245 _1:32 K ac. | 183130 13245 — ‘87 E ce. | 13260 13249 + 08 ' E ac. | 13260 13249 + -08 E aen fi «T8860 13249 + 08 On the Physical and Engineering Features of the River Mersey and Port of Liverpool. By GrorGE Fossery Lyster, M.Jnst.0.E., Lngineer-in-Chief to the Mersey Dock Estate. [Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.] LIveRPOOL, with its river and docks, is such an important factor in the history of the world, and has so largely contributed towards England’s commercial greatness, that, though doubtless the subject is well known, it would be out of place to allow the visit of so distinguished a body as the British Association for the Advancement of Science to the city and its surroundings to pass without briefly submitting to them something of the history, physical conditions, and progressive development of the port. Although the Bay of Liverpool is open to the north and west, there- fore at times subject to very heavy gales from those quarters, nevertheless, ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY. 549 being sheltered by Ireland from the tumultuous and overwhelming seas of the Atlantic, and further guarded by the flanking coasts of Wales, Cumberland, South Scotland, and the off-lying Isle of Man, its position— as an examination of the map of the British Isles clearly shows—is assimilated more to a port situated within a large lake, like those of the North American Continent, than one on an open and exposed seaboard ; while the numerous sheltered roadsteads, deep estuaries, and good har- bours abounding along these coasts afford such facilities for economic interchange of traffic as nowhere else exist throughout the coasts of Great Britain. To these peaceful advantages is to be added the invaluable feature of its unique position as regards safety in time of war, for, though modern battleships, by reason of their great speed and comparative invulnera- bility, are able to swoop down and make unlooxked-for raids on an enemy’s coast, it may be considered that, while England maintains her supremacy of the sea, a prudent hostile commander would scarcely risk annihilation by attacking a seaport such as Liverpool, approachable only through the well-guarded narrows of St. George’s Channel, or the still narrower and more easily watched North Channel by the Mull of Cantire, and further protected by the mass of banks outside the port, the channels through which could be easily defended. Landward, Liverpool has a supreme advantage over the rest of England by being in close proximity to the chief centres of manufacturing industry, as well as to great coal-fields and salt-mines, which are most important adjuncts to its trade. Further swelling the list of favourable elements are the unusual and peculiar characteristics of the river Mersey itself; namely, a deep, capacious, and sheltered roadstead close to its mouth, with shores suitable for the construction of docks and approached by easy sea channels, and so large a tidal range and other such physical conditions as to enable it to maintain its natural advantages without the aid of art—except as regards its bar, eleven miles seaward of its mouth, where nature is now being assisted by special dredging operations to improve its deep-water condition. These salient advantages, now so briefly outlined, will readily account for the Mersey having been wisely selected as the best and most secure position for a great northern trading and distributing centre, to which the merchandise of the world now easily gravitates. The foresight evidenced in such a selection has been more than amply justified, for, from a small beginning, less than 200 years ago, when the era of the manufacturing trade of the northern counties was com- mencing, Liverpool has expanded pari passw with that trade, from its position of an insignificant fishing village of a few hundred inhabitants to that of the second, if not the premier, commercial port of the world, and now has, with its surrounding urban districts, a population of upwards of 800,000. This splendid and unrivalled progress, though in some degree owing to the foresight of its early founders and later administrators, is due primarily to the natural advantages before mentioned, and chiefly to the magnificent stretch of upwards of six miles of deep water which the Mersey presents and maintains immediately in front of the city and its suburbs, thus allowing docks of convenient form and size to be constructed along its foreshore, easy of approach, thoroughly sheltered, and in all respects suitable for ships of every class, both large and small. 550 REPORT—1896. In olden times, and while Liverpool was still in its infancy, the sea trade of this part of England was carried on through the ports of Preston and Chester, and that of the south-west of the country by Bristol and Milford Haven. Preston was a prominent port of the Romans, but lost its value, even in the early days of light-draught vessels, by the deterioration and silting up of the river Ribble and the exposed condition of its estuary ; while Chester, which chiefly commanded the trade and intercourse with Ireland, though also a favoured port with the Saxons and Romans, became obsolete from a like cause. It may, however, be remarked that the authorities of both the Ribble and the Dee have, in recent days, sought the aid of artificial works to improve the navigable condition of these rivers. The precise origin of the name ‘ Liverpool’ has for long been some- what a difficulty to all inquirers, and, though a great variety of opinions have from time to time been under discussion, no definite conclusion has been come to, the meaning of the first portion of the name, ‘ Liver,’ being the knotty point of contention. Without having gone sufliciently into the question to justify more than a general opinion on the much-mooted point, it appears to the author sufficiently reasonable to suppose that, as the ancient seal on the old deeds of the Corporation, also on the present city arms, is emblazoned with a traditional bird called the ‘liver,’ generally accepted as the cormorant (though, as some suggest, it may have been originally intended for the more noble symbolic eagle of St. John, the patron saint of the guilds of that day), it is very probable that the first portion of the name is derived from that source, and that the creek or pool, evidenced by ancient maps as existing towards the centre of the old town, was the habitation of the cormorant, thus providing a fitting terminal for the ornithological puzzle. As in the case of the doubtful origin of the name ‘ Liverpool,’ and the variety of opinions that have been urged on the point, a difficulty exists, though probably not so prominently, as to the origin of the name ‘Mersey,’ though it is generally accepted that the river was so called from having been the northern boundary line of the kingdom of Mercia, and this appears to be a reasonable explanation. It is stated by Picton, in his history of the district, that the earliest documentary evidence having reference to Liverpool is of the date 1004, when it is said to be mentioned in a deed of the reign of King Ethelred. He also relates that King John, about the year 1170, founded the borough and port of Liverpool, and constructed a castle for their defence : this was chiefly with a view to facilitate the communication with Ireland, which was in a chronic state of disaffection and disturbance, rather than as a commercial enterprise, which in those days was little thought of. The river Mersey tirst takes that name in Cheshire at a point four miles to the east of the town of Stockport, at the junction of the two small rivers Goyt and Etherow, which severally rise in the high lands bordering South Yorkshire, North Derbyshire, and Cheshire. They are insignificant streams, scarce worthy of the name of rivers, their courses being narrow, tortuous, and irregular. The length of the river Mersey proper, from the point of junction above mentioned to its mouth between the north end of Liverpool on the Lancashire shore and New Brighton on the Cheshire shore, is 56 miles. It has, as tributaries, the Tame, running into it near Stockport, and the Irwell, one of its most important affluents, which has its source in ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY. 551 North Lancashire, and which, after receiving the waters of minor streams, passes through the city of Manchester, and joins the Mersey at Flixton, eight miles lower down. Between that point and Warrington the Mersey receives from the adjoining marshes the waters of several small streams. The aggregate drainage area of the combined catchment basins above Warrington is about 750 square miles. From Warrington downward to Runcorn, a distance of about ten miles, it partakes of the form of an ordinary narrow tidal river, passing through the low-lying marsh lands of the district with little fall. At the town of Runcorn, where the name Runcorn Gap fitly describes the narrow and special configuration of its high and abrupt red sandstone shores, the Mersey is crossed by the high-level viaduct which carries the London and North-western Railway to Liverpool. From this point the river passes into the enlarged portion of the estuary, which at high tide assumes the appearance of a large inland lake. Reaching seaward to the south end of Liverpool, a distance of about 12} miles, by from 2 to 3 miles wide, with an area of 30 square miles, it is filled to about. half-tide level with a deposit of sand, which mostly becomes dry at low tide. This part of the river, owing to its form and size, plays an important part in maintaining the deep water abreast of Liverpool, as well as the sea channels. - About 24 miles below Runcorn the river Weaver passes into the Mersey on its left bank, and, with its tributaries, forms its most important adjunct, being the chief drainage basin of mid-Cheshire, with a water- shed of 550 square miles. Below the mouth of the Weaver the adjoining part of Cheshire is drained by the Gowy and a few other insignificant streams, while on the Lancashire side minor streams of a like character drain that district. The drainage of the city of Liverpool is effected by an ordinary system of sewers which pass into large intercepting culverts, carried at intervals through the Dock Estate into the river. Owing to the large volume of ‘tidal water which daily passes backwards and forwards, the material from this source is swept away, leaving little or no trace of fouling along the foreshores. The aggregate drainage area of these several rivers and streams is computed at 1,724 square miles. The total amount of up-river water discharging into the estuary in each twelve hours is estimated at from two to three million cubic yards, while the volume of tidal water on high Springs is computed at about 710 million cubic yards, and on low neaps at 281 million cubic yards. It should not be inferred from this disparity in quantity between the volume of upland water and that of the tides that the former does not play an important part in the régime of the river— on the contrary, the river channel is formed primarily by the land water, and the wandering tendency which it displays in its downward course to the sea is the first step towards insuring the capacity of the estuary being fully maintained. This is effected by its action in grooving out the surface of the sandbanks, so forming minor channels to receive the in-flowing tide, which, running through them with great velocity, enlarges and extends them. This process, repeated in all the varying positions which the channels take, ploughs up the whole area of the estuary from ‘shore to shore, so preventing the growth of the banks by accretion and the tidal displacement which would follow such accretion. bow REPORT—1896. Near the point where the Mersey leaves the wide portion and enters the comparatively narrow channel abreast of Liverpool, it assumes the condition of a magnificent deep-water river passing shore lines largely in rock, and midway of its course of about six miles to the sea it gradually narrows to a width of 1,000 yards, widening again towards its mouth to about 1,800 yards. There is ample width in this deep reach of the river for the convenient handling and anchoring of a large number of the largest ships, the soundings at low water for the most part ranging from 40 to 50 feet, with considerable areas below 60 feet. It is here well sheltered by the high lands on the Cheshire shore from all winds from south to west, and by the Lancashire shore from south to north. The Bay, as has been said, is open to north and north-west gales, and these cause heavy seas on the banks, which, however, having their crests for the most part much above low-water level, act to a very considerable extent as breakwaters, and modify greatly the force of the waves through the sea channels as well as at the mouth of the river and along the line of docks. From the point where the river Mersey enters the sea at New Brighton on the Cheshire shore, that shore trends westerly in a straight line to the mouth of the Dee, a distance of about eight miles, and the Lancashire shore in a straight line northerly for a like distance. Within these coast-lines are contained about 23,000 acres of sand- ‘banks, which dry at low tides, and form the formidable barrier fronting the port. Doubtless a large proportion of this enormous mass of sand is brought from the adjoining coasts of Wales, by the action of the sea and currents, and deposited within this rectangular area, which it cannot pass, to which is added the large quantity that is necessarily brought down by the river from the continual wasting of its banks and foreshores, as also. from the quantity of detritus that is constantly being conveyed seawards. by floods and freshets. . Over and through these banks the flood and ebb tides force their way, maintaining, however, one large well-defined deep channel, used by: all the important ships of the port, with two subsidiary channels of less value. The main channel is known as the Crosby, and for the first six miles. of its course it takes a straight and northerly direction, running parallel ‘with the Lancashire coast, and at low tide skirting its extended sandy foreshore in front of the suburbs of Seaforth, Waterloo, and Formby,,. while the main body of the great Burbo Bank forms its seaward barrier and boundary. The continuity of the inner face of the Burbo is. frequently broken by creeks, depressions, and shallow channels, evidencing the efforts of the ebb currents to find their way to the open sea through a shorter course than that of the main channel. At the end of the six-mile reach, which is marked by the Crosby Lightship, the Channel trends, with a gradual curve seaward, in a north-westerly direction to the Bar, which is about five miles from the Crosby Light, and thence forces and maintains its way through the enormous mass of. sand, which forms the great Burbo and Taylor’s Banks, and which, but for this severance, would ‘present a solid unbroken mass, with a sea face in the form of an ordinary beach. The outer portion of the main channel is known as the Queen’s Channel. The Crosby Channel, considering its leeshore position, and its being flanked and almost surrounded by vast masses of mobile sand, has main- ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY. 553 tained its general conditions, both as regards position and capacity, with ‘singular regularity, so that the conditions of navigation have remained practically uniform. This indicates the value of the tidal volume flowing into and out of the Upper Estuary, and clearly points out the vital necessity of main- taining it undiminished and untrammelled to the fullest possible extent. The Bar, as is doubtless well understood, is a sandy accumulation or ridge, with a long sloping foreshore on each side, stretching across the mouth of the main channel ; on plan its form is that of an irregular ‘curve, somewhat in the shape of a horseshoe with its convex side seaward, separating the deep water of the channel from that of the offing. It is the result of the loss of concentration of the current due to the channel departing from its regularity of form where it issues from the banks and meets their outer or sea slopes. It is joined up on its north flank to the tail or westernmost extremity of the most seawardly bank of the group known as the Zebra Flats, which forms an extension of Taylor’s Bank under water, and on the south to the western spit of the ‘Little Burbo. The Bar is not constant in position, but has been found to be moving slowly seaward, in accord with the growth of the banks in a like direction, ‘maintaining, however, its general characteristics. [F urther on, the author refers to the works undertaken to give increased depth of water on the Bar. | In addition to this main channel, there are two minor or subsidiary ‘channels, viz.—the Formby Channel and the Rock Channel. The former is a prolongation nearly in the same direction as that of the inner reach of the main channel, which it leaves at a point abreast of the Crosby Lightship and continues in a northerly direction to the Formby ‘Spit, after which it reaches the open sea, five miles from its junction with the Crosby Channel. It is narrow, shallow, and somewhat tortuous when it leaves the main channel, but is thoroughly buoyed, and is used by small vessels proceeding to and from the north, as it saves a détour of several miles. The Rock Channel, so called from the rocks which crop up at the point at New Brighton, where it leaves the main channel, runs from that. point westerly, nearly parallel to the Cheshire shore for a distance of six miles, when it turns to the north-west and passes into the Bay by an outlet known as the Horse Channel, between a spit of the Great Burbo and the East Hoyle Bank, which separates the water of the river Mersey from that of the river Dee. Before the Crosby Channel with its bar entrance became stable and pronounced, the Rock was the chief channel to and from the port, owing to its position relative to the prevailing winds. Its main body was then wider and deeper than at present, it having considerably deteriorated ‘of late years and come inshore, while the Horse entrance has become narrower and more difficult. The whole of the entrances to the port are buoyed and lighted on the most approved system. Powerful distinguishing lights to serve both the Crosby and Rock Channels are placed on the land at the river mouth, at. New Brighton and North Wall. In the main channel floating lightships are moored as follows :—the Crosby light at the point where the Crosby Channel changes its direction ; the Formby light about halfway between the Crosby and Bar lights, the latter of which is moored about 13 mile 554 REPORT—1896. outside the Bar. Out at sea, some eight miles from the Bar, a lightship known as the North-west Lightship is moored, this being the first floating light to be picked up by vessels making for the port. There are, however, along the north coast of Wales, to as far as Holyhead, several light- houses maintained at the expense of the port of Liverpool. Each important station has its distinguishing light and fog-signal. In addition to the lightships in the main channel, there are also a number of lighted gas-buoys. The dredged cut at the Bar is also defined by two lighted buoys on each side. The system of buoyage adopted in the sea channels of the Mersey is that approved in 1883 by the Conference on Buoyage in Ports of the United Kingdom, of which Captain Graham Hills, R.N., then Marine Surveyor to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, was a prominent member. The width of the main channel varies in its several reaches, its deep- water fairway being outlined by the buoys referred to, which are moored to give a width of channel from 800 to 1,400 yards. Doubtless the several features are well understood and appreciated by navigators, but they present such interesting characteristics as to render them worthy of the attention even of landsmen and laymen unacquainted with. the locality. It will be evident from the foregoing necessarily very general description that the main sea-channels of the Mersey being wide, deep, thoroughly well buoyed and lighted, and provided with powerful fog-horns at all the leading points, there is no difficulty in entering or leaving the Mersey by day or night, which facility is essential in a sea- port used by such an enormous number of vessels, of all sizes and classes, as carry on its trade. Until a few years ago vessels arriving at the approaches to the port occasionally ran some risk, and were, in some cases, subject to considerable inconvenience through being compelled to wait in the open bay outside the Bar until there was sufficient water over it to enable them to cross safely. By the very extensive dredging operations carried out in recent years, and to which the author now proposes to make some reference, this difficulty has practically been entirely removed. It has been mentioned above that the main channel of the Mersey has maintained its general features with regularity, so that the conditions of navigation have remained practically uniform. ‘This applies, amongst other features, to the depth of water over the Bar, which has generally under natural conditions been about 10 or 11 feet below low water of spring tides. Sometimes in the course of changes it has been somewhat greater or less. Assuming a depth on the Bar of 10 feet below low-water springs, then, with the range of tide obtaining in Liverpool Bay, the depth of water over the Bar at high water would scarcely ever be less than 30 feet, and would vary between that and about 40 feet, so that at high water (that is, about once every twelve hours) any vessel could enter or leave the port. Doubtless, therefore, the measure of inconvenience was not great when vessels were small and slow; but in recent years, where the size and speed of steamers have greatly increased, the detention at the Bar of vessels arriving at or about low water became a serious inconvenience, especially in the case of the ocean greyhounds carrying a large number of impatient passengers. Previous to 1890 no attempt had been made to obtain by artificial ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY. 550 works more than the natural depth of water on the Bar, except that about the year 1838, when the condition of the sea channels for navigation was below the normal efficiency as regards depth and otherwise, Captain Denham, the Marine Surveyor of that day, was authorised to harrow or rake across the Bar in the channel then forming in the course of natural changes at the outer end of the main channel. A sum of between 3,000/, and 4,0007. was spent in this work, the precise effect of which is uncertain, as in the course of nature a channel having the normal depth was formed in this position and was adopted for navigation. It must not be inferred that the subject of the Bar obstruction was lost sight of through the period intervening between Captain Denham’s experiment and the commencement of practical work. On the contrary, it had never ceased to be a source of anxiety to the authorities, and more particularly, in recent years, to the Dock Board, and the author as their engineer, and suggestions for its amelioration had from time to time been under consideration. There was, however, a natural and wise hesitation to tackle a question that presented such formidable difficulties and responsibilities, both physi- cal and financial, at all events unless and until there appeared a fair prospect of obtaining successful and satisfactory results within reasonable limits, both as regards time and expenditure. At New York, the western terminus of the great Atlantic ferry, in- convenience arising from a similar cause had been felt, and after failure of certain expedients, experiments by dredging the obstructed channel, undertaken in 1885 and subsequent years, met with a considerable degree of success. Although the problems were by no means the same, the difficulties at Liverpool being infinitely greater than those at New York, the success at the latter port appeared to warrant an experiment on the Bar at Liverpool, and it was accordingly decided to undertake an experi- ment of some magnitude in dredging. Had the lowering of the Bar been dependent on the old-fashioned bucket system of dredging, excellent as it is for some positions, experience teaches that in this instance costly failure would have been inevitable. The employment of the centrifugal pump as a dredger, which is a com- paratively recent application, offered the best, and practically the only, means of removing the Mersey Bar, which consists of sand of various degrees of fineness. The author had made early experiments with the centrifugal pump as a dredger, these being carried out after an examina- tion which he made in 1876 of a plan he saw in practice in the sandy bed of the river Loire in France, where he found a suction dredger at work in clearing out the foundations for a bridge oyer that river. His first attempt to adapt this principle to the work on the Dock Estate at Liver- pool was by fitting up an old mud hopper barge with a centrifugal pump and trailing suction-pipe, for the purpose of testing its ability to remove the silty accumulation from the docks, and thus supersede the clumsy bucket system which was found very inconvenient to work in such confined spaces, and was costly. This experiment, for the most part, failed by reason of the light flocculent character of the material to be dealt with, and consequent im- possibility to retain it within the hoppers, as also from the frequency of foreign substances which had fallen into the docks, such as ropes, baskets, bags, mats, and the like, choking and breaking down the suction pipes, 556 REPORT—1896. The system, however, gave such evidence of ultimate success (provided the material was of a suitable character) that further experiments were successfully made at that time on the sandbanks within the river. When, therefore, there appeared a possibility of success warranting an experi- ment in dredging the Mersey Bar, the experience in pump-dredging indi- cated the method to be adopted, and the adaptation and use of two of the Board’s 500-ton steam hopper barges, followed in course by the construc- tion and setting to work of the gigantic dredger Brancker, novel in many features besides her size, of 3,000 tons capacity, and capable of filling herself in about three-quarters of an hour, resulted in a notable ameliora- tion of the condition of the Bar. From a channel, having in 1890 a minimum depth of 11 feet at low water of lowest tides between the fairway buoys, the Bar has now cut through it a channel 1,500 feet wide between its buoyed alignments, with a minimum depth of 24 feet—and so small a depth only in a few isolated patches over its area—by far the greater portion ranging to a depth of 28 feet. It is fortunate that so important an improvement of the access to the port has been secured at a time when the enormous growth in the size of ships, the frequency of their voyages,.and the urgency of trade competi- tion absolutely demanded some advance of the kind. This achievement has not, of course, been attained without considerable expenditure, of which the cost of the two 3,000-ton dredgers (the Brancker above referred to having been followed by the G. B. Crow, of like capacity), which had ta be specially designed and constructed for the purpose, forms an important item. The total quantity of sand removed to this date (September 1896) and deposited in a safe position, whence it cannot return to its old site, amounts to 15,511,390 tons, the actual cost of the operation being at the rate of 1}d. per ton. A description of this work has been so fully and exhaustively given in the paper read to the British Association last year by the author’s son and chief assistant, Mr. A. G. Lyster, that it is un- necessary here to enlarge further on the subject beyond stating that since last year costly additions have been made to the plant, which, by mini- mising the chance of a breakdown, still better ensure a successfu} issue. The subject of the tides may be considered as collateral to that of the channels. They are another important feature in the welfare of the Port, demanding some slight notice, and as a preliminary it may be well to explain the standard by which local tides are measured. The datum level, long since arbitrarily adopted for all engineering work in connection with the Mersey, is that of the level of the sill of the first dock constructed, which has long since disappeared, but the level has been transferred to the bench mark on the wall of one of the more recently constructed pier-heads. This local datum is known as the ‘Old Dock Sill.’ Several years ago a Committee of the British Association considered closely its relation to other standard levels, and its relation to Ordnance datum was then determined to be that the latter was 4°67 feet above Old Dock Sill. It may be noted in passing that the Ordnance datum was settled from observation taken by Royal Engineers of the mean level of the sea at Liverpool during a certain month in the year 1841. The rela- tions of a number of important tidal levels to Old Dock Sill, mostly taken ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY. 557 from the record of the self-registering tide-gauge at George’s Pier, Liver- pool, during ten years’ observations, 1854-63, are as given below, viz.— Above datum Ft. in. An extraordinary high tide, as marked on the Leasowe Lighthouse. 25 0 An extraordinary high tide, January 20,1863 . - 3 B wz D Average high-water mark of equinoctial spring tides : ¢ Ar) gan Average high-water of spring tides, including equinoctial tides - 19 02 Average high-water mark of ordinary spring tides, excluding equinoctial tides . : ‘ ; : 4 18 10 Mean high-water level - ; , ; . 15 6 Highest high-water mark of neap tides. : 14 8 Average high-water mark of ordinary neap tides a ely Lowest high-water mark of neap tides Spur Mean tide level . 5 0 Ordnance datum level F ° 4 8 Highest low-water mark of neap tides 4 1 Below datum Average low-water mark of ordinary neap tides 4 “ X BPE she Lowest low-water mark of neap tides - 5 : : “ - 310 Mean low-water level 5 - 5 62 Average low-water mark of ordinary spring tides, exclusive of equinoctial tides . - A ; 7 : - ° 2 ences Average low-water mark of spring tides, inclusive of equincctial tides 8 10 Lowest low-water mark of equinoctial spring tides . 5 - - 10 4 The abnormally high range of tide in this locality, as shown by the foregoing figures, is sufficiently interesting to warrant a brief explanation of its causes. It is, shortly, due to the fact that a part of the great tidal wave, generated in southern latitudes, enters St. George’s Channel round by the south of Ireland, and thence moves forward simultaneously in one vast current throughout, to a position in the Irish Sea abreast of the Isle of Man, where it meets that part of the ocean tide which passes by the north of Ireland and turns southwardly with great velocity through the North Channel by the Mull of Cantire. This meeting causes an up- heaval of the tidal volume, which is transmitted laterally to such parts of the adjoining coasts as are within its influence, the Bay of Liverpool coming in for its share, and thus enabling it to project a tidal wave far up the river Mersey to Woolston Weir, 33 miles from the mouth of the river, and to Frodsham Bridge on the Weaver, 19 miles distant from the same point. At these points the tidal flow is barred by weirs on both rivers. The gross volume thus sent into the estuary has been calculated at 10,000,000 cubic yards on springs, and 281,000,000 cubic yards on neaps. It now remains to describe the share which man has taken to complete the benefits which Nature has so lavishly bestowed, and this may best be done by a brief and necessarily very general description of the works ‘and docks which have brought Liverpool into such prominence and active ouch with the outside world. The major portion of the space upon which the Liverpool docks have %een constructed has been gained from time to time by inclosing the foreshore of the river. Its width varies from 2,300 feet, where back ‘land was low lying, at the mouth of the river, to 700 feet in the centre of the river frontage of the city, opposite the narrows of the river 558 REPORT—1896. channel, and widening again to 1,100 feet at the southern extremity, where, however, width has only been won by excavation of the steep, rocky banks. The river wall fronting the Estate is continuous for six miles from the mouth of the river opposite New Brighton to the southern extremity of the developed portion of the Estate. The enclosure thus effected with most of the works thereon, and the expenditure incurred thereby, have been authorised from time to time by Acts of Parliament. Beyond this enclosure additional adjoining land and foreshore have been secured further south, and will admit of dock extensions when the necessi- ties of trade demand increased accommodation. The total area of the Board’s Estate on the Liverpool side is 1,105 acres, of which 950 acres are developed, the remaining area being brought only into partial use for dock purposes. The first dock erected in Liverpool, already referred to, was towards the centre of the system as now existing, on the site of the Old Pool, and was constructed, under an Act obtained in 1708, from designs of Mr. Thomas Steers, an eminent engineer of that day. It was only four acres in area, and afforded accommodation for 100 small vessels. It was filled in about seventy years ago, and the group of buildings forming the Custom House, Post Office, and Dock Offices has been built on its site. The earlier docks were all constructed in the vicinity of the Old Dock, but nearer to, and running parallel with, the river, and some of them exist to this day, partly in their original form. They were designed and carried out by Mr. John Foster and his son, who were then the Surveyors to the Corporation. In 1824 the late Mr. Jesse Hartley took charge of the engineering of the Dock Estate, the business of which was in those days administered by the Corporation. Mr, Hartley occupied that honourable position with singular success for the long period of thirty-six years, and died in 1860. During the latter portion of his useful life he was assisted by his son, Mr. John Bernard Hartley, who succeeded him as Engineer, but who, owing to failing health, was shortly obliged to resign. Undoubtedly the prominent position of Liverpool among the commer- cial centres of the world is largely due to the practical knowledge and ability of these eminent engineers and the success of their achievements, at a period when the science of engineering was but imperfectly under- stood. This is universally acknowledged both in and out of the profession. In 1861 the author of this paper was appointed Engineer, and has remained so ever since. It is, however, but right to say that for the last six years Mr. A. G. Lyster has designed and carried out all the new works subsequent to those of the Canada, Huskisson, and Sandon improvements, which are the last with which the author has been prominently con- cerned. The Hartleys designed and carried out most of that group of docks extending from the Prince’s to the Canada on the north, and from the Salthouse to the Brunswick on the south, including the fine blocks of Albert and Stanley warehouses, for the storage of general produce. These docks all present features of great similarity, having been constructed to suit the special classes of shipping and trades which in those days were located in different positions along the Estate. They now require no special description. ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY, 559 Soon after the author took charge as Engineer, it became evident that the days of sailing ships were numbered, trade and steam developing on all sides, so that ships of greater size, with increased speed and draught, became the ruling requirements to ensure successful trading. As a natural sequence, it was found that the older docks were rapidly becoming obsolete for this new class of ship, so that docks of improved type had to be specially designed and brought into use with all possible despatch. Fortunately the foresight of the Dock Board had provided for this contingency by the large enclosure—about 300 acres of foreshore—they had effected north of Canada Dock. -An area of about 80 acres at the southern end of the Estate also had for some years been waiting for development. These lands were handed over to the author in order to prepare designs for furnishing them in some form to meet the new conditions, the result being that the groups, north of Canada Basin, and known as the Alexandra system, at the North End, and the Herculaneum at the south, including the Harrington, Toxteth, and Union Docks, were carried out. The Parliamentary Estimates for the whole of these works amounted to 4,100,000/. The main features of these schemes, both north and south, were such as to afford ample and convenient accommodation for ships of the largest class, in view at the time of their design, with facility of ingress and egress to and from the docks, and approaches with entrances as deep as the conditions of the river would safely justify ; also abundant quay and water space, large shed accommodation, and all requisite appliances for the rapid discharge of goods, combined with wide roadways and convenient lines of railway in full connection with the main trunk lines of the country. Fortunately the large area of the enclosure at the north and the favourable condition of the river in the vicinity admitted of these desiderata being obtained. The northern scheme comprised the extension and alteration of the Canada Basin and its pierhead, with the lowering of the level of its floor ; the formation of the Langton Half-tide dock, which was to be the vestibule for the surrounding group ; two graving docks, each 950 feet long ; a branch dock for repairing purposes ; a great steam dock with three branches, called the Alexandra; and a dock opening out of it called the Hornby, being the northernmost dock on the Estate. The total water area of this group amounts to 83 acres, having an aggregate quayage of 23,700 lineal feet. The Parliamentary Estimates for this section of docks amounted to 2,691,360/., within which they have been completed. They were opened for traffic on September 8, 1881, by their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales. In designing works of this important character one of the difficult matters to successfully accomplish is that of effecting a simple and ready means of keeping the approaches, entrances, and dock sills clear of silt, with which the water of the Mersey is largely charged. This becomes all the more necessary where ships are large and valuable, and difficult where the sills are laid at abnormally low levels. In the case of this group the sills were laid at twelve feet below datum, being the deepest in the river with the exception of those pre- viously constructed at the northern entrances of the Birkenhead Docks. For the purpose of maintaining the required depth in the dock approaches a special arrangement of sluices of an elaborate character was designed. 560 J REPORT—1896. and carried out, passing along and incorporated with the wing walls and pierheads of the entrances and basin, and continuing along timber piers projecting into the river, which structures, being of a heavy and substan- tial character, materially assist the passage of ships into and out from the docks. The result of this arrangement is that the fairway is daily swept clear of all sandy accumulation, and kept in perfect working order, while the entrances are thoroughly sheltered, even in heavy on-shore gales. It may not be out of place to mention that one of the most important features of successfully working a dock system, particularly in a crowded port like Liverpool, is facility of ingress and egress, especially at times of heavy seas and bad weather, when big ships are difficult to handle and keep under control. This matter received special attention, and the approaches and entrances were carefully designed to meet that end. The result has been satisfactory, no difficulty having been experienced with the new entrances, and no accident of any moment having occurred during the fifteen years that the docks have been in work. The responsible officer in charge of this division has informed the author that, no matter what the,weather is, whenever a ship-master considers it safe to leave his moorings in the river, or his berth in the dock, he can enter or leave easily and safely by way of Canada Basin. This is all the more satisfactory as in the incep- tion of this North End scheme it was freely predicted that in bad weather from the north-west the entrances would be dangerously exposed, if not unapproachable with any degree of safety. An instance may be quoted to illustrate the facility with which vessels are worked in and out of this group of docks. On February 13, 1889, twenty-three steamships of an aggregate of 34,197 tons and thirty-five smaller vessels passed in and cut during the working tide of two and a third hours. This, though an excellent record, has no doubt been since exceeded, as during the seven years that have elapsed the docks have been largely overcrowded. Since. their opening in 1881 they have accommodated an immense amount of the best steam shipping of the port. That part of the works at the South End also included in the Act of 1873 consists of a chain of three docks, known as the Harrington, Toxteth, and Union Docks, extending from the Herculaneum Half-tide towards the north, up to the old Brunswick Dock. Their sills are laid at the level of 12 feet below datum throughout, and their main entrances and wing walls at Herculaneum are provided with an elaborate system of sluices, carried under a jetty on the river-side on the same principle as that at the North End, but alongside the river wall instead of projecting into the river. This has been the means of fully maintaining the sills and fairway open and free from silt and preventing the tail of the Estuary banks from approaching too near the entrances. The Herculaneum Half-tide Dock, which in its original form, with two graving docks opening out of it southward, was constructed under the Act of 1863, was, under the Act of 1873, greatly extended eastwardly, and an additional graving dock was constructed alongside the other two. These docks were cut out of the solid red sandstone rock, which originally was much higher than the present quay level. Cliffs therefore exist on the east and south sides of the dock, and in the face of these have been excavated casemates separated by solid partitions of rock. These casemates were designed for the storage of petroleum in barrels, and are so used. Northward of the Herculaneum Dock the Estate is ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY 561 narrow, and consequently docks on the Alexandra system, of a great trunk with branches, could not be laid out; but the Harrington and Toxteth take the form of long docks of ample width, and are provided with sheds of the most modern type, double storey, of moderate width, on the eastern quays, and single storey, of exceptionally great width, on the western. The Union Dock forms a connecting link between the new deep-water dock and the older group having comparatively shallow sills. The total area of the docks from Herculaneum to Union inclusive is 32 acres, 3,348 square yards, and the quayage 8,518 lineal feet, and the Parliamentary Estimate for the works was 1,408,640/. At night the entrances and passages throughout the new north and south systems are lighted at tide-time by electric lights raised on tall lattice masts, placed on the pierheads and standing 80 feet above the quay level; these being amongst the first introduced into England or elsewhere for dock purposes, as far as the Author knows. The sills of the older docks immediately north of the Union Dock, and extending as far north as George’s Dock, are laid at a level of about six feet below datum—six feet higher than the Herculaneum- Union group. These older docks could not, on neap tides, be available for vessels of, say, more than 16 feet draught, and could therefore not be safely used on neap tides by deep-draught modern vessels. To meet this ditticulty, the Author arranged that on such tides the water in the shallow group should be impounded at such a level as to afford ample draught for all vessels, the only disability from which they would suffer, and this is only of a trifling nature, being that, if required to pass between river and docks on neap tides, they would have to do so by way of the deep-water river entrances at Herculaneum Dock, the Union Dock being used as a lock between the old and new groups of docks. Inasmuch as there is a considerable loss of water by leakage at dock gates, and culverts, and for filling graving docks, such Joss must be made good if the water is to be maintained at a constant level, and this is done by means of a powerful installation of centrifugal pumps, situate at the Coburg Dock, which are used to pump water from the River Mersey into the Coburg Dock, from which it dis- tributes itself throughout the system. By these means the effective depth of the whole of the docks from Brunswick to George’s, having an area of about 80 acres, is practically increased to that of the lowest sills leading to them, 12 feet below Old Dock Sill, and much detention of vessels and consequent loss are avoided, which could not be done in any other way, except by the reconstruction of the old docks, the cost of which would be immense, while that of the pumps is moderate, say, some 3,000/. per annum. A pumping scheme of this character was first adopted by the Author in the case of the Sandon Graving Docks, of which there is a group of six, opening out of the Sandon Dock, constructed in 1851, and which, owing to the increase in the draught of ships, which prevented them entering the shallow graving docks on neap tides, had become much less useful to the Port than they formerly had been. Pumps were therefore provided of sufficient power to raise the water in the docks to such height as might be required by any individual ship, to pass her over the sill of any of the graving docks, and so the graving docks were made fully available for any ship which could enter the dock from which they opened, the sill of which was much lower than those of the graving docks. The success of this experiment warranted the extension of the system, and so it was 1896, 00 562 REPORT—1896. applied to the Brunswick-George’s group, and, afterwards, also adopted at Birkenhead, where the area to be deepened was about 150 acres, and the difference between the outer and inner sills three feet. In the case of each of these installations it is necessary to do the pumping in a short time at and about high water, therefore the machinery is of a very powerful character. At the Sandon there are four pumps, each having suction pipes 36 inches diameter, and the Coburg and Birkenhead installations each consist of three pumps having 54-inch suc- tion pipes. Some idea of the work done may be formed when it is noted that the discharge of each of the two last-named sets is about equal to that of the River Thames at Teddington. They have now been at work for many years without hitch of any kind. In referring to these schemes, only bare facts are given, details heing purposely omitted as unnecessarily encumbering a Paper of this general character. The works carried out under the Act of 1873 added about 44 per cent. to the dock accommodation previously existing on the Liverpool side of the River, and this of a class much better suited than the older docks for modern requirements ; but, notwithstanding this fact, and that the pumping schemes above mentioned provided much additional accom-- modation for deep-draught vessels, the necessities of the largest class of steamers in the Port are ever pressing, and the Author is now, and has been for some time past, carrying out a design for very important alterations and additions to the group of docks immediately south of the Langton- Alexandra system. ‘The works comprised in the complete scheme are as follows : the alteration by deepening and lengthening of the entrance from the Canada Basin into Canada Dock ; straightening of the walls of Canada Dock and deepening of berths there ; the construction of a new Branch dock out of Canada Dock as altered ; a new Half-tide dock to serve as a vestibule to the improved system and having deep-water river entrances ; and the construction of a new large and wide graving dock. The work of altering Canada Lock, though apparently trifling, has in reality been of considerable magnitude and exceedingly difficult of execu- tion. It meant the cutting out of the masonry at the bottom of a lock 600 feet long by 100 feet broad, and providing a new floor at a level of 6 feet 3 inches lower than before, without disturbing or letting in the side walls, which had to be underpinned for a depth of about 10 feet. The excellence of the granite masonry of which it had been con- structed made it doubly difficult and costly, as it was the late Mr. Jesse Hartley’s last work, and indeed his chef d’euvre, and the Author, com- pelled to interfere with such a substantial model of excellent workmanship, did so regretfully. The work, however, has been substantially completed without accident, and ships are now daily passing to and fro through it. Considerable and costly alterations have also been carried out within the Canada Dock, in taking down and rebuilding in straight and con- tinuous form the old walls of contorted shape, originally built so as to allow of the construction of Huskisson Battery, and quite unsuited for the berthage of modern ships. The large Transatlantic steamers of the Cunard Line now berth at the straightened west wall. This work was rendered more difficult and expensive in consequence of its being necessary to keep the water within the docks so as not to allow trade to be interfered with. The new branch out of the Canada, giving a large amount of extra accommodation to the Port, has also been completed. This dock is 1,085 ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY. 563 feet in length by 300 feet in width, and has an aggregate quayage of 2,469 feet, amply provided with single and double storey sheds of large size with improved crane appliances. The White Star Company occupy berths on the north and south sides of this dock, and there their largest steamers lie. In connection with the Canada a new passage 90 feet in width, with a bridge over, has been constructed, to join up with the Huskisson system. The new Half-tide Dock occupies the site of Sandon Basin and Wellington Half-tide Dock, and will afford room for a large number of great vessels. The sills of the river entrances are laid at a much lower level than any of the existing docks, viz., 20} feet below Old Dock Sill, so that vessels of the deepest draught will be able to enter and leave the Half-tide on any tide in the year. On neap tides this dock will be used as a lock for vessels passing between the River and docks, which latter will on such tides be maintained on the impounded system, powerful pumps being provided in positions near to the Half-tide dock. The new Graving Dock, 920 feet long, will be constructed out of the east quay of Canada Dock immediately north of the Branch Dock. Having now described the dock extensions most recently constructed and in hand at Liverpool, the Author will, before mentioning the accom- -modation provided for some of the most noteworthy trades, refer shortly to the history of that portion of the Mersey Dock Estate situate on the Cheshire shore at Birkenhead. In 1855 the dock authorities of that day applied for Parliamentary powers to extend their docks on the Lancashire side of the river. This was only partially acceded to, and, in lieu of powers for their complete proposal, it was arranged that the Birkenhead Docks, then belonging to two independent authorities and only partially developed, should be purchased by the Liverpool Corporation, who in those days administered the affairs of the Liverpool Estate. Two years later the administration of the combined Liverpool and Birkenhead Estates was handed over to an independent Trust to be called ‘ The Mersey Docks and Harbour Board.’ The Birkenhead system, therefore, now forms an integral portion of the Mersey Dock Estate, and is worked in complete unison with the Liverpool system. ; The Birkenhead Docks are constructed on the site of a tidal creek, known as Wallasey Pool, which extended inland for about two miles from the left bank of the River, and formerly was the outlet of the drainage of the low lands of the Leasowes, lying between the Dee and the Mersey. The original design, by the late eminent engineer, Mr, James Meadows Rendel, F.R.S., having been partially carried out, was mainly completed on the same lines by Mr. John Hartley, who, however, introduced several important alterations when it came into Dock Board hands. The main features of the scheme were two large docks, called the East and West Floats, of 120 acres in area, occupying a large portion of the pool, the connection between these docks and the River being by means of a lock, and a half-tide dock called the Alfred, the sills of which, at the pret end, are nine feet below datum, and at the River end twelve feet low. On taking charge of the engineering of the Estate in 1861, the Author carried out these works to completion, but made seyeral important altera- tions in Mr. Hartley’s design, unnecessary now to particularise. In con- sequence of the entire area of the Float, East and West, being excavated 002 564 REPORT—1896. only to a depth of nine feet below datum, it has been found inconveniently shallow for large modern ships on neap tides, to rectify which the pumping scheme before referred to has been adopted. Towards the middle of the Liverpool Estate, the Author, about twenty- five years ago, designed and carried out &n important system of docks, known as the Waterloo group. They consist of two docks, each running parallel with the river, and approached from the south through the Prince’s Half-tide dock, which formed part of the design. The easternmost dock is surrounded on three sides by warehouses of a very extensive character, having a total length of 1,500 feet. They, with a similar group at Birkenhead, were especially constructed for the storage of grain, which at that time was beginning to come into the Port in large quantities. The combined floor area of the two sets of warehouses is twenty-three acres, and they are capable of storing upwards of 400,000 quarters. They are equipped with a novel and elaborate system of machinery, specially de- signed for facilitating the rapid discharge of ships, and for housing, trans- mitting, and delivering grain, not only in the warehouse, but also from ship to quay. This system has since everywhere become the recognised means of dealing with grain under similar conditions. The import of live cattle from abroad, chiefly the United States and Canada, has of late years assumed very large proportions, and a Foreign Animals’ Wharf, with extensive lairages and slaughter-houses, and other necessary adjuncts have been provided. These were the first constructions of the kind in the country, and have been increased from time to time until they now occupy twenty-two acres ; the lairages or stables are suffi- cient to accommodate about 8,000 head of cattle, and a vast number of sheep, the number of cattle which passed through the wharf last year having been about 200,000, and the number of sheep about 500,000. The landing of the cattle is effected’ at two floating stages, alongside of which cattle-ships can berth at most states of the tide. ‘These stages are moored in the River abreast of the walls, to which they are connected by bridges formed of girders about 150 feet long. The accommodation thus afforded amounts to 850 feet of lie-by. Special cattle runs are laid from the stage to lead into the lairages. At Liverpool, the Coal Trade of the Port is well provided for on a high-level structure, midway of the Estate, standing on and above the east quays of the Bramley-Moore and Wellington Docks, and north quay of the former. It is abundantly supplied with the most modern appliances, viz. hydraulic cranes, and an elaborate and extensive system of sidings and main lines in direct communication with the Lancashire and Yorkshire Coal-fields. The shipment by this Railway last year amounted to 809,000 tons. Recently a 25-ton hydraulic crane has been erected on the east quay of Herculaneum Dock, chiefly for Lancashire and Yorkshire coal for ships’ bunkers. At Birkenhead an important system of sidings and coal-hoists has been constructed on the south quay of the West Float. These are worked in connection with the coal-fields of North and South Wales, and add materially to the trade and commerce of the Port ; an average of 1,190,000 tons being annually brought to the docks for export and the use of steam- ships. "The petroleum trade has of late years become so important as to require a large amount of accommodation in the immediate vicinity of the docks. In addition to the storage space provided in the casemates exca- ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY. 965 vated in the solid rock at Herculaneum Dock, to which reference has been made, and which afforded thoroughly safe accommodation for 60,000 barrels, extensive provision for the storage of petroleum in bulk has been made by the erection on some of the undeveloped land at the southern end of the Liverpool Estate of a group of five tanks, varying in capacity from 2,000 to 3,009 tons, and having a total capacity of 12,500 tons. They are supplied from the ocean-going tank vessels, berthed alongside the west quay of the Herculaneum Dock, the connection being by means of pipes through which the oil is forced by the ships’ pumps. Precautions against fire are taken, and each tank stands ina moat of capacity sufficient to hold the whole contents of the tank in case of accident. Railways are laid in connection with each installation. At Birkenhead, on land belonging to the Dock Board, there are large depots for the storage of petroleum in bulk close to the docks. They belong to the Anglo-American Oil Company, Limited, and have a total capacity of 18,000 tons. Precautions against fire, similar to those at the Liverpool depét, have been adopted also in these cases. Extensive warehouses for the storage of ordinary goods, also for the special storage of tobacco, have been erected in various positions along the Estate, the aggregate floor area of which is about ninety acres. Improved buildings of an extensive character for the storage and display of wool and tobacco are now in course of erection, from the designs of Mr. A. G. Lyster. q The Timber Trade of the Port is located at the north end of the Estate, where large areas are occupied as storage ground and enclosed ards. . The handling of the immense quantities of goods of all sorts in their transit across the Dock Estate is a very important matter, but scarcely more than a passing reference to the appliances required for this purpose and for working the bridges, gates, capstans, &c., can be given, It may be said, however, that in addition to a large amount of machinery worked’ by hand-power, and to the steam-power available on the steamers now forming the great majority of the sea-carriers, there are provided by the Dock Board a large number of steam and hydraulic cranes, including a 100-ton hydraulic crane, and a 90-ton steam crane, fixed on dock quays, a floating steam crane capable of lifting 100 tons under certain restrictions, and any load up to 30 tons freely, and another floating steam crane of 25-ton power. For the maintenance of the docks, and River channels, a large fleet of dredgers of all types, and hopper barges for carrying dredged material to sea, are provided. Hydraulic power is largely made use of for working bridges, gates, capstans, &e. ; centres of hydraulic power being established at a great many different points at Liverpool and Birkenhead. The means of communication between the Dock Estate and the adjoining Towns, and between the several parts of the Estate itself, for goods and people, are various and ample. The development of the City of Liverpool has steadily kept pace with that of the docks, and the interchange of traffic between them is carried on by means of a wide street traversing the whole length of the Estate from north to south, upon which the side streets abut. This thorough- fare is of sufficient width to allow of a double line of railway being laid along its margin throughout, communicating, where necessary, with lines along the dock quays, and also with several railway systems, which have 566 REPORT—1896. their goods termini adjoining. There are in all about fifteen stations along this six-mile length, divided among the London and North-Western, Lancashire and Yorkshire, Cheshire lines, Midland, Great Northern, Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire, and Great Western Railways, some of which, however, having no direct rail access to Liverpool, have depots for the interchange of traffic with their fully developed systems at Birkenhead. For many years a service of large omnibuses traversed the dock lines, from north to south and vice versa, every ten minutes throughout the day, and thus added considerably to the convenient working of the Kstate. _ As, however, the docks extended, this arrangement was found to be inconvenient and insufficient for the wants of the community, and the Author designed an Overhead Railway to be erected at the level of 16 feet above the street lines, with spans standing on slender wrought- iron columns, so as to offer as little impediment as possible to the under- neath street traffic. Twenty-three stations, approached by easy stairs, were designed to be erected along the line in convenient positions to some of the side streets. It was further designed that it should be worked by electricity, that being the simplest arrangement for a railway in such a situation. The plans were all matured for the construction of the work, and tenders were on the eve of being invited, when the Dock Board, as a final decision, concluded that, considering the great labour and responsibility of admi- nistering an Estate of such magnitude as that of the Docks, it would be somewhat anomalous to undertake in addition such duties as those of directing a passenger railway which was likely to develop to great magni- tude. They therefore entered into an arrangement with a syndicate, who undertook the work, which, to the designs and under the able engineering direction of Sir Douglas Fox and Mr. James Henry Greathead, has been most satisfactorily carried out to completion, and now forms not only a most interesting engineering work, but a valuable public convenience, daily becoming of greater magnitude and importance. The Mersey Tunnel railway, an important work which has added very materially to the facilities of the passenger cross-river traffic, as well as in effect linking up for passenger purposes the railway systems of the Lancashire and Cheshire sides of the River, was carried out from the designs of Sir James Brunlees and Sir Douglas Fox, and has since been in full and constant use. The construction of the Tunnel presented considerable difficulties which were very successfully overcome by the Engineers. Several canal systems, from up the River, work in connection with the Dock Estate, and are important adjuncts to the trade of the Port, the entrance to the docks being generally arranged to meet their special tidal requirements. The only one, however, which has a direct communi- cation with the docks is the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, which traverses the country to the north of Liverpool, and is in direct communication with the manufacturing and mineral centres of Lancashire and York- shire. In the foregoing sketchy narrative of the Mersey and its great Sea- port, the Author has been unwillingly compelled, by the exigencies which a Paper of this description imposes upon him, to exclude many matters of great interest, even a descriptive outline of Garston, Widnes, Elles-° ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY. 567 mere Port, and, though last in time by no means least in magnitude, the Ship Canal, with its entrance at Eastham and great terminal dock system at Manchester, each and all of which not only add to the importance of the River, and the trade which it fosters in its ample embrace, but also give substantial evidence of the commercial activity of our common country, and, as such, are well worthy of enlarged, if not exhaustive, com- ment. Time forbids more than this passing notice, which the Author trusts will be sufficient apology for not dwelling upon them. While ships generally, at Liverpool, are discharged, on account of the great range of the tide, in enclosed docks, which are open to the River only at high water, the necessary means of access to boats at all states of the tide, for communication between shore and shore, or with boats in the River, is for the most part afforded by the Floating Landing Stages, which form a striking feature of the riverscape. The first stage at Liverpool, the George’s, 500 feet long, was constructed about 1847, and the Prince’s, 1,000 feet long, was constructed about 1857 ; the stages on the Cheshire shore followed these. The two stages on the Liverpool side, formerly separated from each other by a length of 500 feet for the purpose of retaining the entrance into the old George’s Basin, are now joined together, and form one con- tinuous structure, 2,463 feet in length, 400 feet having been recently added from the designs and under the superintendence of Mr. A. G. Lyster. The northern extremity of the stage abuts on to a timber jetty joined with the south pierhead of the Prince’s Half-tide Dock, to be used to facilitate the landing of cattle from Ireland and other outside ports. The Liverpool stage is connected with the shore by a series of girder bridges, and also by a floating roadway in the form of a bridge of boats, constructed on the site of the George’s Basin, and which, at low water, rests on a stone slipway, having an inclined surface of 1 in 20, enabling the bridge to be easily traversed by wheel traffic. At high water it is all afloat. The additional 400 feet lately added to the stage has facilitated the arrangement of the Dock Board for berthing the great Atlantic liners alongside the stage for the purpose of landing or taking on board their passengers, which had been discontinued for some twenty years, and which can now be effected at practically all states of the tide, and in an expeditious and effectual manner. Thus the old and inconvenient method of landing by means of tenders has been done away with, to the great advantage of the travelling public. Convenient examining rooms for the use of the Customs have long been erected at the back of the stage, adjoining these berths, so that little delay occurs in the transit of passengers and their baggage. In connection with this a very important additional improvement has lately been carried out, in order to render passenger service as expeditious and convenient as possible, by the erection of a capacious railway station on the quay adjoining, and running parallel with, the stage, thus bringing the outgoing passengers alongside their ships, and the incoming vice versa. This station is in direct communication with the London and North- Western Railway. The arrangements have been designed and carried out by Mr. A. G. Lyster. On the Birkenhead side of the River the Dock Board have constructed a landing-stage, known as the Woodside Stage, 800 feet in length, 300 feet of which is vested in the Birkenhead Corporation. The remainder is 568 REPORT— 1806, in use for general dock purposes, chiefly for the landing of cattle. Con- venient bridges connected with the quays and a floating roadway, similar to that at Liverpool, have been provided for wheel traffic. A second stage, half a mile further north, has also been provided for general pur- poses, but is chiefly used by cattle ships. A large amount of dredging is involved in keeping the docks on both sides of the River clear of silty deposit, and different kinds of dredgers are in use for that purpose. The material removed is chiefly composed of fine silt and mud, and is conveyed to the sea by steam hopper barges and deposited in positions indicated, on behalf of the Conservancy Commis- sioners, by their Acting Conservator, Admiral Sir George Richards, K.C.B., F.R.S. The total area of the Estate, both at Liverpool and at Birkenhead, amounts to 1,611 acres, subdivided into 546 acres of water space, made up of docks, half-tide docks and basins, surrounded by 35 miles of quays, warehouses, and sheds, with an aggregate floor area of over 150 acres, the remainder being made up of timber-yards, shipbuilding-yards, open quays and streets, with a residue of undeveloped land and foreshore. The unde- veloped portion of the Estate includes a large area of foreshore, amounting to about 200 acres at Tranmere, about one mile further up the river than Woodside. This has lately been acquired by the Board for future dock | extension whenever the trade of the Port demands it. The total number of graving docks belonging to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Boards is twenty-three, having an aggregate length of 14,920 feet. of floor. The total number of ships which entered the Port and paid tonnage rates for the year ending July 1, 1896, was 23,695, having a net tonnage of 11,046,459. In this figure the tonnage in or out only is represented. The total revenue of the Estate from all sources is about 1,400,000/. per annum. The affairs of the Dock Trust are administered by a body named the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, with a number of members fixed by Act of Parliament at 28, of whom 24 are elected by the Dock ratepayers, the remaining four being nominee members appointed by the Mersey Con- servancy Commissioners. This important body consists of the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and the President of the Board of Trade, who are represented by an Acting Conservator. That position is now and has been for some years ably filled by Admiral Sir George Richards, K.C.B., F.R.S. The Commissioners are appointed under the authority of Parliament to preserve the navigation of the Mersey, from Warrington and Frodsham bridges to the sea. In submitting a Paper of this general character, the Author has been compelled, from the extent and variety of the subjects he has touched upon, to do so in the briefest possible manner, with a view to explaining the general features of the Dock Estate and its surroundings, rather than dwell upon details and special works of interest with which the history of the Estate abounds, and which, to be properly dealt with and understood, would require a lengthy paper to themselves. ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 569 The North-Western Tribes of Canada.—Lleventh Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Professor E. B. TyLor (Chairman), Mr. Curueert EK, PrEk (Secretary), Dr. G. M. Dawson, Ri. th. Gr. Hauisurron, and Mr. Horatio Hats, appointed to investigate the Physical Characters, Languages, and Industrial and Social Condi- tions of the North-Western Uribes of the Dominion of Canada. Tur Committee were originally appointed at the Montreal Meeting of the Association in 1884, and, as indicated in the Tenth Report, presented last year at the Ipswich Meeting, it had been determined that that Report should conclude the series. When, however, it was decided to hold the meeting for 1897 in Toronto, it appeared to be appropriate that the work of the Committee begun at the first Canadian Meeting should be con- cluded at the second, and the Committee were accordingly continued. The concluding Report of the Committee to be prepared for the Toronto Meeting may afford the occasion of pointing out to the Government and public of Canada the necessity for further and systematic investigation of the ethnology of the country. The Report presented herewith contains a number of observations by Dr. Franz Boas, through whose agency the greater part of the work has been done, chiefly supplementary to articles contained in the Fifht and Tenth Reports. Although the result of previous journeys by Dr. Boas, these have not been heretofore published. It is now hoped to include in the final Report of 1897 the results of further field work in contemplation and to be directed toward the filling of some gaps still existing in our general knowledge of the tribes of British Columbia, particularly in respect to the anthropometric observa- tions, which, in Dr. Boas’ hands, have already yielded results of so much interest. Sixth Report on the Indians of British Columbia. By Franz Boas. The following pages contain notes that were collected by me on pre- vious journeys to the North Pacific coast. They supplement mainly the data on the Kwakiutl Indians, given in the Fifth Report of the Com- mittee, and those on the Nass River Indians in the Tenth Report of the Committee. There still remain two important gaps in our general knowledge of the ethnology of the North Pacific coast. In order to fill these, further anthropometric investigations on the Haida and Héiltsuk- and ethno- logical and linguistic researches among the Hé'iltsuk- would be required, When these have been added to the data gathered heretofore, it will be possible to give a fairly satisfactory general outline of the anthropology of British Columbia. I. Nores oN THE KWAKIUTL. The Kwakiutl tribes speaking the Kwakiutl dialect call themselves by the general name of Kwa'kwakyewak*. The following notes refer to this group, more particularly to the tribes living at Fort Rupert. Ox “I =) REPORT—1896. THE SHAMANS. The shamans are initiated by animals, supernatural beings, or by inanimate objects. The killer whale, the wolf, frog, and black bear are the most potent animals which have the power of initiating shamans. The cannibal spirit Baqbakualanugsi’waé (see Fifth Report, p. 850), the warrior’s spirit Wina’lagyilis, the fabulous sea bear Na/nis, the sea monster Mé’'koatEem or K'elk”’a/yuguit, the ghosts, the hemlock-tree, and the quartz may also initiate them. Shamans who were initiated by the killer whale or by the wolf are considered the most powerful ones. Only innocent youths can become shamans. A person who is about to become a shaman will declare that he feels ill. For four days or longer he fasts in his house. Then he dreams that the animal or spirit that is going to initiate him appeared to him and promised to cure him. If he has dreamt that the killer whale appeared to him, he asks his friends to take him to a small island ; in all other cases he asks to be taken to a lonely place in the woods. His friends dress him in entirely new clothing, and take him away. They build a small hut of hemlock branches, and leave him to himself. After four days all the shamans go to look after him. When he sees them approaching, he begins to sing his new songs and tells them that the killer whale—or whatever being his protector may be—has cured him and made him a shaman by putting quartz into his body. The old shamans place him on a mat,and wrap him up likeacorpse, while he continues to sing his songs. They place him in their canoe, and paddle home. The father of the young person is awaiting them on the beach, and asks if his child is alive. They reply in the affirmative, and then he goes to clean his house. He must even clean the chinks of the walls, and he must take particular care that no trace of the catamenial flux of a woman is left in any part of the house. Then he calls the whole tribe. The singers arrange themselves in the rear of the house, while the others sit around the sides. For a few minutes the singers beat the boards which are laid down in front of them, and end with a long call: yoo. This is repeated three times. Then the new shaman begins to sing in the canoe, and after a short time he appears in the house, dressed in head-ring and neck-ring of hemlock branches, his eyes closed, and he dances, singing his song. Four times he dances around the fire. During this time the singing master must learn his song. After the dance the new shaman leaves the house again and disappears in the woods. In the evening the people begin to beat the boards and to sing the new song of the shaman which they had learned from him in the morning. Then he reappears and dances again with closed eyes. This is repeated for three nights. On the fourth night when the people begin to sing for him he appears with open eyes. He wears a ring of red cedar bark, to which a representation of the animal that initiated him is attached. He carries a rattle on which the same animal is carved. He looks around, and says to one of the people : ‘You are sick.’ It is believed that the shaman can look right through man and see the disease that is in him. Then he makes his first cure. The power of shamanism may also be obtained by purchase. The intending purchaser invites the shaman from whom he is going to buy the power and the rest of the tribe to his house. There the people sing and the shaman dances. During his dance he throws his power into the purchaser, who falls down like one dead, and when he recovers is ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 571 taken by the shaman into the woods, where both stay for four days. Then he returns, and the same ceremonial is performed that has been described before. When the shaman has singled out a person whom he declares to be sick, he proceeds with the following performance: He carries a small bundle of bird’s down hidden under .his upper lip. He lets the sick person lie down, and feels his body until he finds the seat of the disease. Then he begins to suck at the part where the sickness is supposed to be seated, while the people beat the boards and sing his song. Three times he endeavours to suck out the disease, but in vain. The fourth time, after having sucked, he puts his hands before his face and bites the inside of his cheek so that blood flows and gathers in the down that he is carrying in his mouth. Then he takes it unnoticed from his mouth, and hides it in his hands. Now he begins to suck again, holding his hands close to that part of the body where the disease is supposed to be seated. Then he removes them, blows on them, and on opening his hands the bloody ball of down is seen adhering to the palm of the shaman. After a short while he closes his hands again, applies them once more, and shows one or four pieces of quartz, which he is supposed to have removed from the body of the sick person. Then he closes his hands again, and upon a renewed application produces the feathers, which , he declares to be the soul of the patient. He turns his hands palm down- ward, so that the ball adheres to his hand. If it becomes detached and falls down, it signifies that the patient will die an early death. If the ball adheres, he will recover. For four months the shaman continues to make cures similar to the one described here. Every fourth day he must bathe. After this time people whom he treats are expected to pay him for his services. It is forbidden to pass behind the back of a shaman while he is eating, because it is believed that he would then eat the soul of the person passing him in this manner. The person as well as the shaman would fall in a swoon. Blood flows from the shaman’s mouth, because the soul is too large for him and is tearing him. Then the clan of the person whose soul he has swallowed must assemble and sing the song of the shaman. The latter begins to move, and vomits blood, which he tries to hold in his hands. After a short time he opens his palms, and shows a small bloody ball, the soul which he had swallowed. Then he rises, while the person whose soul he had swallowed is placed on a mat in the rear of the house. The shaman goes around the fire, and finally throws the soul at its owner. Then he steps up to him, blows upon his head, and the person recovers. It is said that the shaman in this ease also bites his cheek and hides some bird’s down in his mouth, which soaks up the blood and is made to represent the soul. The person whose soul was swallowed must pay four or five blankets for the harm he has done to the shaman, and for his own cure. The protector of a shaman informs him if an epidemic should be about to visit the tribe. Then he warns the people, and in order to avert the danger lets them go through the following ceremony. He resorts to a lonely place in the woods for one day. In the evening the people assemble in his house and beat the boards three times. When they begin to beat the boards the fourth time, he enters, wearing a large ring of hemlock branches. It is believed that the souls of unborn children and also those of deceased members of the tribe are hanging 572 REPORT—1896. on the branches of the ring, ten to each branch. He talks to them, and brushes them off from the ring. When he enters another shaman goes to meet him, and strews bird’s down on to the ring and on the shaman’s head. Then the latter walks around the fire, and stays in the rear of the house. Now every member of the tribe must go to him, and he ‘puts them through the ring.’ The person who is thus cleansed must extend his right hand first, and put it through the ring, which is then passed over his head, and down along the body, which is wiped with the ring. When the ring has almost reached the feet of the person, the latter must turn to the left, and step out of it with his right foot first, turn on that foot, take out the left foot and turn once more to the left, standing on the left foot. Every member of the tribe is made to pass through the ring. It is believed that this is a means of preventing the outbreak of the epidemic. Sick persons must pass through the ring four times. Nobody is allowed to speak or to laugh during this performance. After the shaman has finished, he speaks to the people, making statements intended to show them that he knows even their most secret thoughts. The shaman wears his neck-ring of red cedar bark all the time. Powerful shamans are able to transform stones into berries. Their dance is so powerful that the ground gives way under their steps, and they disappear underground. Sones oF SHAMANS. 1. Song of Shaman, initiated by the Killer Whale. 1. Koa'h’ ulagyilahyastlie hai’ ligyaitihoastlasa naw’ alakué mahar Making alive means of healing from this supernatural being wahai ehé' nau'alakué. éhé’ supernatural being. 2. Gyilgyildiquilakyastlé hat ligyaitihoaqgsi naw alakué wahar Making life long means of healing from this supernatural being wahai che! nau alakué. éhé’ supernatural being. 3. Gyd'gyayapalaytiadia naw alakuéhkoagsi nau alakué wahar Going along under water supernatural being from this supernatural being wahai ehée! naw alakué. éhé’ supernatural being. 4. St'sonapalayiiedie naw alakué nahai che’ naw alakué. Made to paddle under water supernatural being wahai éhé’ supernatural being. TRANSLATION. 1. He received the power of restoring to life from the supernatural being. 2. He received the power of lengthening life from the supernatural being. 3. His supernatural helper gave him the power to travel under water. 4. His supernatural helper gave him the power to paddle along under water. 2. Song of Shaman, initiated by the Killer Whale. 1. Koé'k’ulagyilakyastlie nau'alahua. Life-maker real this supernatural being. 2. K-a'selétlilayatlie naw alakua. Making walk this supernatural being. 3. Ts'é'tltsth’uéh tlayatlog naw alakua. Making life short this supernatural being. ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 573 TRANSLATION. 1. My supernatural power restores life. 2. My supernatural power makes the sick walk. 3. My supernatural power cuts life short. 3. Song of Shaman, initiated by the Wolf. 2 Laistalt' srlaytiedies gy lgyildiguilatlaindé kauq nauw'alak Made to go around the world by making lifelong past the supernatural hai tlo' koala. being hai magic. 2. To-isti' liszlaytiedias gyi lgyildiguilatlaindé haug nawalak Made to walk around the world by making life long past the supernatural hai tlo' koala. being hai magic. ‘ 3. Ma'tela ond'gua'yask'ai gyi'lgyildoguilatlaindé k:aug nau'alak har Ahead I the poor one making life long past the supernatural being hai tlo'koala. magic. TRANSLATION. 1. The one who makes life long made me go all around the world, the supernatural being. 2. The one who makes life long made me walk all around the world, the super- natural being. 3. The one who makes life long placed my poor self ahead of all, the super- natural being. 4, Song of Shaman, initiated by Bagbakudlanwasv wae. 1, Ai, hai'alikyilaamede no'gquaia k’od'nastés Bagbakualanuest'waé, do'hula. Ai, healing all the time I wildness of Baqbakuadlanugsi'waé, behold ! 2, Ai, goa'gulagyiydithyas ond'gua k°od'nastes Bagbakudlanuest'waé, do'kula. Ai, saving life I wildness of Baqbakualanugsi’waé, behold ! TRANSLATION. 1. Behold ! I am able to heal by the power of the wildness of Baqbakualanugsi’ waé 2. Behold ! I save lives by the power of the wildness of BaqbakualanuQsi’ wae. 5. Song of Shaman, wmitiated by the Echo. 1. Yahau, hé'ilikyayatloe gyi lgyildigquilags héilikyayugdé haus’ Yahau, healing with making life long with means of healing of : tla' koalahyas’o. the magician real. 2. ntyakayatloe gyi lgyildiguilags Héyak ayoqda haus Blowing water with making life long with means of blowing water of tlo' hoalahyas’s. the magician real. TRANSLATION. 1. Yahau. The power that makes life long lets me heal with the means of healing. 2. Yahau. The power that makes life long lets me blow water with the means of blowing water. BIRTHe The husband of an enceinte woman in the seventh month of preg- nancy prepares to insure an easy delivery by collecting the following four medicines ; four tentacles of a squid, a snake’s tail, four toes of a 574 REPORT— 1896. toad, and seeds of Peucedanum leiocarpum, Nutt. If the birth should prove to be hard, these objects are charred, powdered, and drunk by the mother. The toad’s toes are also moved downward along her back. This is called ‘making the child jump’ (dd’yugsté). It is worth re- marking that Peucedanwm leiocarpum is used as a powerful medicine also by the Salish tribes of Vancouver Island (see Sixth Report of the Committee, 1890, p. 577), who call the plant k-rqmé’n, while the Kwakiutl call it k’aqgmé'n. Judging from the form of the word, I think that it is rather Salish +han Kwakiutl. Certainly the belief in the power of this plant was transmitted from one tribe to the other. During the period of pregnancy the husband must avoid to encounter squids, as this would have the effect of producing a hard delivery. When the woman is about to be confined, she leaves the house accom- panied by two of her friends who are to assist her. The latter dig a hole in the ground, and one of them sits down on the edge of the hole, stretching her legs across it so that her feet and the calves of her legs rest on the opposite edge. Then she spreads her legs, and the woman who is about to be confined sits down on her lap, straddling her legs so that both her feet hang down in the pit. The two women clasp each other’s arms tightly. The third woman squats behind the one who is about to be contined, pressing her knees against her back and embracing her closely, so that her right arm passes over the right shoulder, her left arm under the left arm of her friend. The child is allowed to lie in the pit until after the afterbirth has been borne. Then the navel string is tied and cut, and the child is taken up. For four days the afterbirth is kept in the house. A twig of yew wood about four inches long is pointed and pushed into the navel string, which is then tied up. Four layers of cedar bark are wrapped around the afterbirth. That of boys is in most cases buried in front of the house-door. That of girls is buried at high-water mark. It is believed that this will make them expert clam-diggers. The afterbirih of boys is sometimes exposed at places where ravens will eat it. It is believed that then the boys will be able to see the future. The navel string is believed to be a means of making children expert in various occupations. It is fastened to a mask or to a knife, which are then used by a good dancer or carver, as the casemay be. Then the child will become a good dancer or carver. If it isdesired to make a boy a good singer, his navel string is attached to the baton of the singing master. Then the boy calls every morning on the singing master while he is taking his breakfast. The singing master takes his baton and moves it once down the right side of the boy’s body, then down the left side ; once more down the right side, and once more down the left side. Then he gives the child some of his food. This, it is believed, will make him a good singer. I referred in the Fifth (p. 847) and Sixth (p. 614) Reports to the beliefs in regard to twins. I have received the following additional information in regard to this subject. Four days after the birth of twins, mother and father must leave the village and resort to the woods, where they stay for a prolonged period. They separate, and each must pretend to be married to a log, with which they lie dgwn every night. They are forbidden to touch each other. They must not touch their hair. Every fourth day they bathe, rub their bodies with hemlock twigs, and wipe them with white shredded cedar bark. Their facesare painted redall the time. For this purpose they do not use vermilion, but ochre. They are not allowed ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 575 todo any work. These practices are continued for a period of sixteen months. During this period they must not borrow canoes or paddles from other people ; they must use bucket and dishes of their own. If they should use the belongings of other persons, the latter would have also twin children. The woman must not dig clams and the man must not catch salmon, else the clams and the salmon would disappear. They must not go near a fire in which bracken roots are being roasted. It is believed that the birth of twins will produce permanent backaches in the parents. In order to avert this, the man, a short time after the birth, induces a young man to have intercourse with his wife, while she in turn procures a girl for her husband. It is believed that then the backache will attack them. A year after the birth of the twins the parents put wedges and hammers into a basket, which they take on their backs and carry into the woods. Then they drive the wedges into a tree, asking it to permit them to work again after a lapse of four months. All the young women go to the pit over which the twins were born and squat over it, leaning on their knuckles, because it is believed that after doing so they will be sure to bear children. BURIAL. When a person is about to die, his friends spit water all over his body. After death the body is carefully washed, so that every particle of the bodies of the survivors that might adhere to the corpse may be removed. Even the places where their breath might have touched the body must be carefully washed. This is done in order to prevent that the survivors might accidentally bewitch themselves (see Sixth Report, p. 610). If the death occurs during the night, the body is left in the house until day- light ; if it occurs during the day, it is removed at once. It must not be taken out of the door, else other inmates of the house would be sure to die soon. Either a hole is made in one of the walls, through which the Fig. 1. pao itt eee oe, body is carried out, or it is lifted through the roof. It is placed behind the house to be put into the box that is to serve as a coffin. . If it were placed in the coffin inside the house, the souls of the other inmates would enter the coffin too, and then all would die. The coffin is placed at the right-hand side of the body. Then a speaker calls the relatives of the deceased, saying: ‘Let the dead one take away all the sickness of his friends.’ Then they all come and sit down at the side of the corpse, wail- ing for a short time. Now they arise and give the body a kick. They turn once toward the left, and give the body another kick, repeating this 576 REPORT—1896. action four times. This is called ‘ pushing away the love of the deceased,’ that he may not appear in their dreams, and that his memory may not trouble them.! Then the wife of the deceased lets the children take off their shirts and sit down, turning their backs towards the corpse. She takes his hand and moves it down the backs of the children, then moving the hand back to the chest of the body. With this motion she takes the sickness out of the bodies of the children and places it into the body of the deceased, who thus takes it away with him when he is buried. After this ceremony an olachen net is placed over the head of the body, his face is painted red, and the body is wrapped in a blanket. Then it is tied up, the knees being drawn up to the chin. Now four men of the clans of which the deceased was not a member lift the body to place it into the box. Four times they raise it. The fourth time they actually lift it over the box. Four times they move, but only the fourth time they actually let it down into the box. If the box should prove too small, they must not take it out again, but the body is squeezed in as best they can, even if they should have to break its neck or feet. The head is placed at the edge where the sides of the box are sewed up (see Fifth Report, p. 817) because the soul is believed to escape through the joint. The soul leaves the body on the fourth day after death, escaping through the place where the frontal fontanel of the child is located. The box is tied up, as indi- cated in fig. 1. As soon as the four men who carry the coffin to the burial- ground raise it the women cease to wail, because their tears would recall the deceased. The relatives are not allowed to attend the funeral, as it is believed that their souls would stay with that of their dead friend. Twelve women accompany the coffin. Children are not allowed to go with it. When the tree on which the body is to be deposited has been reached, four poor men are sent up to carry a rope by which to haul up the coffin. When they have reached the branch on which the coffin is to be placed, they lower the rope. The men who remained below pre- tend three times to tie the rope to the coffin. The fourth time they really tie it. Then the men in the tree pull up the rope. Three times they rest in pulling it up, so that the coffin reaches its final resting-place after having been pulled four times. It is placed on the branch and covered with a large board. Then the men climb down again, cutting off the branches for some distance under the coffin. When the men come down from the tree, the women resume their wailing. They scratch their cheeks with their nails. (The Koskimo use shells for this purpose.) After they have returned to the village the blankets and mats which the deceased used are burnt, together with the objects which he used. Food is also burnt for him. All this is intended for his use, and is burnt because the dead can use only burnt objects. If he has left a widow, she must use his blankets, mats, kettle, &c., once before they are burnt. After the death of a woman the widower must do the same. After four days a person belonging to another clan cuts the hair of the mourners. The hair is burnt. This service is paid for heavily, because it is believed to shorten the life of the one who has rendered it. The climbers receive a payment of two blankets each ; those who placed the corpse in the coffin and carried it to the burial-ground receive one blanket each for their services. ' The widow and the children of the deceased wear strings made of mountain- goat wool and white cedar bark mixed, one around the neck, one around the waist, and two connecting ones down the chest; also strings of the same material around wrists, elbows, knees, and ankles. ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 577 Chiefs and common people were buried on separate trees. There is also a separate tree on which twins are buried. Nowadays the bodies are mostly buried in small grave-houses. The custom of raising the coffin three times before it is placed in its final resting- place is still adhered to. The customs of the Koskimo and Tlatlasiqoala differ somewhat from: those of the Kwakiutl. They place the body in the box in the house. . Before doing so the box is turned round four times. Then a hole is cut into the bottom of the box with an axe, which is raised three times before the hole is really cut. This is the breathing hole of the soul, which does not die or escape until the fourth day after the death of the body. The coffin, before it is carried to the burial-ground, is placed on the beach. The Kwakiutl paint twins, before they are buried, red all over. Four feathers are attached to the coffin. Nobody is allowed to wail for them. A surviving twin is washed in the water with which the corpse of the dead one was washed. When a person dies by an accident, and his body is not recovered, a grave is made for him, which consists simply of painted boards. The say- ing is that, if this were not done, it would be as though a dog had died. Nobody is allowed to walk behind such a grave, as by doing so he would indicate his desire to lie in a grave. The widow, particularly if she has many children, must undergo a very rigorous ceremonial. On the evening of the third day after the death of her husband, her hairis cut. At the same time a small hut is built for her. It is made of the mats which were hanging around the bed of the deceased. The roof is made of the boards which were placed over his bed in order to keep the soot off. An old woman, preferably one who has been a widow four times, is appointed to assist her. On the fourth morning after the death of her husband, she must rise before the crows ery. She is not allowed to lie down, but must sit all night with her knees drawn up to her chest. She eats only four bites four times a day, and drinks only four mouthfuls four times a day. Before taking water or food she raises it three times. If she thinks that her husband has been murdered, she takes her food up, saying thatit is the neck of her husband’s enemy, and calling his name, she bites it four times. Then she throws it into the fire, saying : ‘This will be your food when you are dead.’ That means that the person whom she named must soon die. When she is tired she stretches her legs, first the one, then the other, naming her enemy. This is also believed to bring him death. After four days the old woman washes her and wipes her with a ring of hemlock branches, as described above. This is repeated four times in intervals of four days. After the last washing her old blanket is hung over the stump of a tree, and her hat, which she wears all the time, is hung on top of the stump. Then she is given new clothing, and is taken back to the house. There she must stay in one corner, where she has a small fire of her own, Her children are not allowed to see her. When she leaves the house, she must pass out of a small door of her own. Four times she must turn before putting her foot in the doorway. Four times she must put her foot for- ward before actually going out, and in the same manner she returns. The old woman now washes her every sixth day, and rubs her with the ring of hemlock branches. After the fourth washing she is permitted to come to the fireplace, but she must avoid going around the fire. Now the old age washes her every eighth day, and then four times more every 896. PP 578 REPORT—1896. twelfth day. Thus the whole period extends over one hundred and twenty days. "Tt the woman is poor, and has many children, four washings in intervals of ten days are substituted for the washings of the last eighty days, thus reducing the whole period to eighty days. During all this time she must not cut her hair. She does not wail during the first sixteen days of the mourning period while she is confined in the small hut. GAMES. 1. Hibayu.—These dice have the shape indicated in fig. 2, The casts count according to the narrowness of the sides. This game is also played by the Tlingit of Alaska. 2. T?e'mkodyu.—A stick, about three feet long, with a knob at its end, is thrown against an elastic board, which is placed upright at some distance. If the stick rebounds and is caught, the player gains four points. If it rebounds to more than half the distance from the player to the board, he gains one point. If it falls down nearer the board than one- half the distance, or when the board is missed, the player does not gain any point. The two players throw alternately. Each has ten counters. When one of them gains all the counters, he is the winner of the stake. When the stick falls down so that the end opposite the knob rests on the board, the throw counts ten points. 3. A’lagoa, the well-known game of lehal, or hiding a bone ; played with twenty counters. 4. T’e'nk-oayu, or carrying a heavy stone on the shoulder to test the strength of those who participate in the game. 5, Mo'k:oa.—This game was introduced from the Nootka. It is played between tribes. An object is given to a member of one tribe, who hides it. Then four members of another tribe must guess where it is. They are allowed, to guess four times. If they miss every time, they have lost. This game is played for very high stakes. VARIOUS BELIEFS AND CUSTOMS. In seal feasts the chest of the seal is given to the highest chief ; the feet are given to those next inrank. The young chiefs receive the flippers, and the tail is given to the chief of the rival clan, who must give a feast in return. The hunter, before returning home, cuts off the head of the séal and gives it to his steersman. He eats the kidney before going home, and cuts a strip three fingers wide along the back. These customs are said to have been instituted by O’magt#’a'latiz, the ancestor of the clan Gy gqyilk-am of the K’d'moyue. The lowest carving on a totem pole is that which the owner inherited from his father. The higher ones are those which he obtained by marriage. * The hunter, before going out to hunt seals or sea-otters, or other sea animals, rubs his whole canoe with the branches of the white pine, in order to take away all the bad smell that would frighten away the animals. In order to secure good luck, hunters of sea animals bathe in the sea before starting. Hunters of land animals bathe in fresh water. Both rub their bodies with hemlock branches. ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 579 Of the first halibut caught in the season the stomach is eaten first, then the pectoral fins, next the head. The rest is divided. If this were not done, the halibut would disappear. : Hunters carve the figure of any remarkable animal that they have killed on the butts of their guns, or on their bows. The souls of hunters are transformed into killer whales ; those of hunters who pursue land animals become wolves. Only when a killer whale or a wolf dies can their souls return and be born again, Hunters have the bow seat of their canoes ornamented, and a hole cut in the centre of the seat. It becomes their dorsal fin when they become killer whales after their death. It is believed that, after the death of a hunter, the killer whale into which he has been transformed will come to the village and show itself. When a great number of killer whales approach a village, it is believed that they come to fetch a soul. Not only hunters are transformed into killer whales. I was told that at one time a killer whale had been killed, the flipper of which showed a scar as though it had been burnt. Not long before this event a girl had died who had at one time burnt her hand. She was identified with the killer whale. When a wolf has been killed, it is placed on a blanket. Its heart is taken out, and all those who have assisted in killing it must take four morsels of the heart. Then they wail over the body : AlawéstEns hégyésd qEns nEmoqtséqdé—i.c., Woe! our great friend. Then the body is covered with a blanket and buried. A bow or a gun with which a wolf has been killed is unlucky, and is given away by the owner. The killing of a wolf produces scarcity of game. Wolf’s heart and fat are used as medicines for heart diseases (see Sixth Report, p. 613). Women are forbidden to touch a wolf, as else they would lose their husbands’ affections (see Sixth Report, p. 613). The screech owl is believed to be the soul of a deceased person. The pees catch them, paint them red, and let them free, asking for long ife. The root of the bracken (Pteris aquilina, L.) is believed to know everything that is going on in the house in which it is being roasted. It must be treated with great respect. If a person should warm his back at the fire in which it is being roasted, he will have backache. Parents of twins, and people who have had sexual intercourse a short time pre- viously, must not enter a house in which the roots are being roasted. When a person dreams that he goes up a mountain and the latter tilts over, it signifies that he will die soon. The gum of the red pine is chewed. That of the white pine is not used by girls, because it is believed to make them pregnant. The world is described as a house. The east is the door of the house ; the west is the rear of the house. North is called ‘up the river,’ south ‘down the river.’ In the north of the world is the mouth of the earth. There the dead descend to the country of the ghosts. The part of the beach immediately to the west of Fort Rupert, in front of the place where formerly the village of the sub-tribe Kué’qa stood, is called the village of the ghosts, who are believed to reside there from time to time. PP2 580 REPORT—-1 896. When there is an eclipse of the sun a man, named Ba'wulé, is required to sing :— Hok-oai’, hok-oai’, hok-valai’, a’tlas lalaq ts’a’ya laqsgya Bawule’— Vomit it, vomit it, vomit it, else you will be the younger brother of Bawulé’. In order to gain the love of a girl the following philter is used : The tongues and gizzards of a raven and of a woodpecker are placed in a hollow stick, together with some saliva. They are mixed with the latter ; the tube is closed and worn under the blanket. The underlying idea was explained to me thus: The woodpecker and the raven are pretty birds ; therefore the girl will consider the man who wears them just as pretty and attractive. . The tongue of a snake or of a frog is also used as a philter. They are believed to make the wearer irresistible to everybody. Another philter is as follows: The man wears a snake skin on his body for some time. About the month of August he gathers a root called ¢/’e’tayas, which resembles in shape two people embracing each other. He procures four hairs of the girl whom he loves, which, together with four hairs of his own, he places. between the two portions of the root which resemble the two people. The root is tied up with sinews taken from a corpse, and wrapped in the snake-skin which the man has been wearing. For four days after, the man must not look at the girl. Then she will call him, but he must not follow her. Finally she will come to him. In order to bewitch a person it is necessary to obtain some of his soiled clothing, hair, or blood. I described some methods of witchcraft in the Sixth Report (p. 612). The following method is also used : The clothing of the enemy is placed in the mouth of a lizard, the head of which has been cut off. Then a snake’s head is pulled over the lizard’s head, so that the latter is in the mouth of the snake. The whole is placed in the mouth of a frog, which is then sewn up. This bundle is tied as tightly as possible with the sinews of a corpse, and placed inside a stick which has been hollowed out, and is then tied up again with the sinews of a corpse. The whole is then covered with gum. This package is placed on the top of a hemlock-tree which is growing at a windy place. In winter this method of witchcraft does not do much harm, but as soon as it grows warm the victim must die. If a person is believed to be bewitched (é’k-a) his body is rubbed with white cedar bark, which is then divided into four parts, and buried in front of four houses, so that the people when entering or leaving the house must step over it. This will break the spell. If the children of a couple always die while very young, the little finger of the last child to die is wound with a string. A notch is cut in the upper rim of the burial box, in which the finger is placed. Then the cover is put on, and the finger is cut off. It is hidden in the woods that nobody may find it. The body of the child is placed on a new tree, not on the tree on which other children are put. IJ. Toe Houses oF tHe TsiMsHIAN AND NisxK:a! The houses of the Tsimshian and of the Niska’ are square wooden structures, like those of the Haida and Kwakiutl, but they differ some- what in the details of construction. While the house of the Haida (see 581 eel ssoaieelie cia me | mi ie Yl UL semen Z 2 vats pansanotillip WELLL #, on EERO WH LLL. ——— 582 REPORT—1896. Dr.G. M. Dawson, ‘ Report of Progress, Geol. Surv. of Canada,’ 1878-79, Plates III., IV., and V.), generally has on each side of the central line three heavy beams which support the roof, the house of the Tsimshian and of the Kwakiutl has only one pair of heavy beams, one on each side of the doorway. In the Kwakiutl house these two beams, which rest on heavy posts, stand no more than 6 feet apart (see ‘ Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.,’ 1888, p. 210). In the houses of the Tsimshian and Nisk‘a’ they stand about halfway between the central line and the lateral walls. This arrangement necessitates that provision is made for a ridge-beam. The heavy beams B rest on the uprights U, which are seldom carved. On top of the beams four supports S are laid, on which rests the ridge- beam R. The latter consists of two parts, leaving a space in the middle for the smoke-hole. Sometimes, but not regularly, two additional beams R rest on these supports. In a few cases the central ridge-beam is then sup- ported by a smaller support 8’. The lower end of the roof is either arranged as shown in figs. 3 and 4, or as indicated in fig. 5. In the former Fig. 5. case the roof-supports are separate from the walls ; a beam V is laid on the uprights C, and the roof-boards rest on the beams R, B, and V. In the latter case (fig. 5) the corner-post P is connected with the rear corner-post by a square beam which supports the lower ends of the roof-boards. The walls of the old houses consist of horizontal planks of great width. The thick planks of the front, rear, and sides (figs. 4, 5) are grooved, and the thinner planks are let into these grooves. The two mouldings of the front are also thick planks, which are grooved. Over the door D is a short, heavy plank, on which rests a single thinner vertical plank. The construction of the back may be seen in fig. 3. Sometimes the houses are built on steep banks, so that only the rear half is built on the ground. In this case a foundation of heavy cedar-trees is built. A short log is placed with its end into the bank, the butt end standing out towards the beach, where the side wall is to be. Another log is placed in the same manner where the second side wall is — ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 583 to be. A third heavy log is placed over the butts of the two projecting logs. Then two more logs are put on top of the preceding one with their ends into the bank, and thus a foundation is built up to the level of the embankment. This is covered with a platform, and the house is built about eight or ten feet back from its outer edge, so that the platform forms the front portion of the floor of the house, and also a walk leading to the house-door. Ill. Tae Growrs or INDIAN CHILDREN FROM THE INTERIOR OF British CoLuMBIA. The table below shows the results of a compilation of the rates of growth of Indian children of the following tribes :—Ntlakya’pamug, Shuswap, Okanagan, Kalispelm, Yakima, Warm Springs. I have com- bined all these tribes, because the adults have very nearly the same stature, and because the geographical environment is very much alike. The numbers of individuals are rather small, but nevertheless a few results of general interest may be deduced from it. i It will be noticed that in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth year's girls are taller than ‘boys. This agrees closely with the period during which the same phenomenon takes place among the whites, and is later than among the Indians of southern latitudes. The decrease in variability is not very well marked, probably because there is a considerable uncer- tainty in regard to the estimated ages of the children. Still, it appears that there is a distinct drop in the fifteenth year in boys, and in the thirteenth year in girls. Among the Mission Indians of Southern Cali- fornia this drop takes place between the thirteenth and fourteenth years in boys, between the ninth and eleventh years in girls. Among the white children of Massachusetts the drop takes place between the fifteenth and sixteenth years in boys, between the fourteenth and fifteenth years in girls—i.e., nearly at the same time as, or a little later than, among the Indians of British Columbia. | Boys GIRLs : | ee Number of Average Average Average Average | Number of 8 cases variation stature stature variation cases: mm, mm | mm. mm. 2 5 + 2°8 796 || == — — 3 3 +3°0 853 860 +15 ae || 4 “ +52 983 . || 990 +24 Bt | 5 17 4+ 6°5 1,073 | 1,073 +33 10 6 12 +58 1,161 1,100 +2°8 14 7 12 +3°6 1 200 1,207 245 TH} 8 13 £43 1,256 | 1,207 +59 20 } 9 20 + 4:3 1,286 || 1,263 £45 19 11 19 +5°8 1,386 1,400 +50 18 12 37 +50 1,423 1,443 +65 19 13 18 +59 1,461 1,487 + 54 13 14 21 +58 1,527 1,508 +43 16 15 18 +38 1,578 || 1,517 + 6-0 15 16 17 + 51 1,611 1,537 444 20 17 12 +50 ao a 18 5 +2°5 1674" 1 ee 2 19 6 452 1,692 = | | | 10 29 +65 1,365 1,338 £48 25 |} 584 REPORT—1896., It is of interest to compare the rate of growth of Indian and white children. In the following table I give the statures of the Indian children of British Columbia and of the white children of Worcester, Mass. :— Boys GIRLS Age: Years Indian White Difference Indian White Difference 5 1,073 1,097 —24 || 1,073 1,074 — 1 6 1,161 1,127 +34 1,100 1,113 —13 7 1,200 1,170 +30 1,207 1,175 +32 8 1,256 1,223 +33 "|| 1,207 1,216 - 9 9 1,286 1,270 1G. ORR 268 1,266 — 3 10 1,365 1,340 +25 || 1,338 1,328 +10 11 1,386 1,388 — 2 1,400 1,370 +30 12 1,423 1,429 — 6 | 1,443 1,447 — 4 13 1,461 1,476 -15 | 1,487 1,479 + 8 14 1,527 1,543 —16 || 1,508 1,537 —29 15 1,578 1,622 —44 1,517 1,570 —53 16 1,611 1,658 —47 | 1,587 1,584 —47 17 1,622 1,685 — 63 — | 1,694. | a 18 1,674 | 1,700 2 ea 1591 3) 19 1,692 | 1,713 —21 | — — | — It appears from both tables, although more clearly in the case of boys, that the Indian child is taller than the white child, although in the adult the inverse relation of statures prevails. I have shown at another place that a similar relation prevails between full-bloods and half-breeds (‘ Verh. Berliner Anthr. Ger.,’ 1895, p. 386). It is therefore probable that the difference in the laws of growth is a racial phenomenon. NASAL INDEX OF SKULLS, On p. 544 of the Tenth Report of the Committee I pointed out the difference of racial types found along the coast, and stated (p. 545) that the nose of the Kwakiutl represents a peculiar type which is not found in any other region of the coast. I have investigated the same question on a series of skulls, and have obtained the following results :— Nasal Indices of Skulls Nanaimo and | Songish, not Index Kwakiutl Comox cara deroned Chinock re | | ee] cerererocrno re eee feilbife secsnateeete [gceesinets pea. | ilmlitetie | acne + | | || Jromremtd = bem] | fd mesrorow| ooo! ol o | (es ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 585 Nasal Indices of Skulls (continued). Index Kwakiutl Comox eee h ind pres a Chinook 52 —_— —— — 1 ae 53 — — 3 — — 54 _ 1 3 2 1 55 — a 2 — — 56 = as 1 = es 57 = — — —_ — 58 1 -- 1 — —— 59 = 2 — = es 60 = = = =u = 61 = att Be a a fe : se ~ a a 71 ae ue 1 ue ae Cases z 25 7 38 10 12 Average . 45:1 46°6 | 49°6 478 476 It appears that the nasal index of the Kwakiutl is by far the lowest, and that it increases among the Coast Salish. The nasal bones are at the same time large and high, while among the Coast Salish they are small, decidedly flat, and sometimes synostosed. IV. Ltneuistic Notes. 1. KWAKIUTL. I indicated on p. 659 of the Sixth Report of the Committee that there seemed to exist cases in Kwakiutl, I have since investigated this matter more fully, and find that cases clearly exist. There is a definite article which has the following forms :— Nominative: da. Genitive: sa Accusative: ga. Locative : laqa. The indefinite article is expressed only in the genitive and locative :— Genitive : & Locative : laq. The possessive pronoun has the following cases :— 1st Person. 2nd Person. 3rd Person. Nominative: —zn —os —as. Genitive: SEN sos 8és. Accusative : gen qos ges. Locative : lagen lagos laqés, lagq—(a) s Examples: 1. Definite Article :— Nominative: Ya'h’tgyatle da nemdo'h’'ué begua'nem. It said the one man, Genitive : Gytkamaya sa ma'q’énég. . The chief of the killer whales Accusative: Aatitsa'la ga dé'wegq. He tore the cedar twigs Locative: Zd'gyaa la'ga ts’eld’tl. He arrived at the lake. 586 REPORT—1896. 2. Indefinite article :-— Nominative : Ma' généq hy'a'tama’ya sa gyok*. Killer whale painting on front of the house. Genitive : tlema'is s Tsd'qis. the beach of Tsa’qis. Accusative:. K’d’ga wap. He found water. Locative : Gyo' qrulsa sa gyo'hué lag Ky'a'h-a. He built a house of the house at Ky’a’k-a. 3. Possessive pronoun :— 1st Person. Nominative: Yi’ga gu'nkhyin k’a'lhoa. This my nettle harpoon-line. Genitive : Ta'lak'emen sen d'mpée. Iam sent by my father. Accusative: amen aqg’é't gen likya'yu. I took mr hammer. Locative : Laé'ti ld'gen gyo'hua. He entered inmy house. 8rd Person. Nominative: Gyd'kuas. His house. Genitive : Gyo' guat sés gyd'hué. He had a house of his house. Accusative: Da'la és sé'hy'ak-ano. He took his staff. Locative : Née'nlat’a lagés tsa'yé. But he said to his younger brother. I pointed out in the Sixth Report that these possessive forms may be modified according to the location, as near speaker, near person addressed, absent visible, absent invisible. I have not, so far, discovered these distinctions in the genitive, while they occur in aJl the other cases. 2. NiSK’A. As my treatment of the Nisk-a language in the Tenth Report of the Committee was very brief, I give here some additional information in regard to it. In the Fifth Report (p. 878) I have treated the formation of the plural in the Tsimshian, and Count von der Schulenburg has treated the same subject on pp. 9 ff. of his work (‘ Die Sprache der Zimshian-Indianer.’ Braunschweig, 1894). The principles underlying the formation of the plural will become clearer by the following remarks on the formation of the plural in the Nisk:a dialect :— 1. Singular and plural have the same form. This class embraces the names of all animals except the dog and the bear, trees, and a great many words which .cannot be classified. I give here a list of some of these :— 8E, day. bam, belly. ia'ns, leaf. ya'tsEsk‘, animal. ma'dzikys, breast. még’ da'ukst, salmon berry. kh?’ Ek’a' x, wing. nisk*, wpper lip. lagamda'k‘s, prairie. misuk’da'n, down of bird. tldtsq, tail of fish. ts'‘aky, dish. gie, hair. hawi'l, arrow. ' _ wé'6s, dish. opq, forehead. loatigya' 6th‘, axe. kKotl, yes. dzak*, nose. ts'anik:srtqa’, moccasins. k-asd'eq, front. ua'n, tooth. lak‘, fire. ts’én, inside. ié’mk:, beard. akyc, water. nuldi'gytt, warrior. ?emla'nin, neck. \ prit' st, star. ala'igytg, language. tlak's, nail. awk‘, night. lé'rlgyit, feast. gtlh:ao'm, payment. iocand'tlk*, to be astonished. mi'uke, sweet smelling. leqia'k-, to fall (rain, snow). hatlha'tluks, lean. . liya'k:, to hang (v. a.). tlana'k‘t, old. k’a'merqk‘, to wish. 7 . — = ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 587 ida'hy, to thunder. hasa'k’, to want. saanund'k-, to rebuke. tlma’zm, to help. silg-aué'l, to accompany. haitht, to rush, dé'lemngh*, to reply. gyi'dxgq, to ask. mé'lek’, to damn. k:ala'n, to leave something. lé'mén, to sing. bak-, to feel. gyé, to see. . The plural is formed by reduplication, the beginning of the word, as far as the ‘ke consonant following the first vowel, being repeated with weakened vowel. The ‘accent of the word is not changed. The reduplicated syllable remains separated from the reduplicated word by a hiatus. This is particularly evident in words beginning with a vowel. In these there is a distinct pause between the terminal consonant of the reduplication and the initial vowel of the reduplicated word :— Alvar ou plural 2x’6 Hy to throw. a'lgyigq plural z?a'lgyiq, to speak. am » Em a'm, good. It seems to me that this method of forming the plural may be considered dupli- cation affected by certain laws of euphony. Monosyllabic words beginning and terminating either with a vowel or with a single consonant, according to the rule given above, are duplicated. Monosyllabic words terminating with a combination of consonants drop all the elements of the terminal cluster of consonants, except the first one, because else there would be a great accumulation of consonants in the middle of the word. The same causes that bring about the elision of the terminal cluster of consonants probably affect polysyllabic words in such a manner that the whole end of the word was dropped. This seems the more likely, as the repeated syllable has its vowel weakened. Ifa polysyllabic word was thus repeated the effect must have been very similar to the repetition of a word with a terminal cluster of consonants. For instance, wuld'x, to know, duplicated with weakened vowels, would form wulawuld'n. In this word, according to the rule governing the reduplication of monosyllabic words with a terminal cluster of consonants, the first # would drop out, so that the form wulwuld'n would originate. A few euphonic changes of consonants take place :— ky, gy, and k, following the first vowel of the word, are aspirated in the redupli- cation, and form uz. g and k: are also aspirated, and form gq. y becomes the surd aspirate w. ts becomes s. The weakened vowels have a tendency to change into z or @. The variability and indistinctness of the vowels make it difficult to establish a general rule. I classify the examples in order to bring out the points referred to above. a. Monosyllabic words beginning and terminating either with a vowel or with a single consonant. OH plural in’d’n, to throw. Cag plural ?agt’a'g, lake ; also t’xt’a'q. Us » £8'u's, dog. dzok: » adzik-dzd'hk:, to camp. am » Emda'm, good. ve » vet’, valley. ol » @Vo'l, bear. métl a mitlmé'ti, to tell. dan » dixda'n, bill. gytc » gytcgy?'c, wrong. Wee » @icd'e'c, to push. (10) nd’ —s,_~—s (10) nod", hole. tlap » tleptla'p, deep. la'ép » lepla'dp, stone. bati » betlba'tl, to lay down a flat tsap » tstptsa'p, to do. thing. ts’al » tsélts’a'l, face. hap » hapha'p, to shut. ts'é'ip » tsxpts dtp, to tie. gan » gianga'n, tree. b. Monosyllabic words beginning with a vowel or a single consonant, terminating with a cluster of consonants. sv'éph* plural sips?'épk*, sick. hréch® plural Ieash'é 'ch‘, narrow. 8’ éph* » ts'tpts’é'pk*‘, hard. délpk* » déldé'lpk*, short. ash* ' 4, @s't/sk‘, stench. (la) da'lth® ,, (Wo) dulda'itk*, to meet. gick » gicg i'ok', lean. tlantk‘ » tlentla'ntk‘, to move. 588 REPORT—1896. mith’ plural métmi'th, full. tlinta plural tlenti’ntu, to be angry, gyith » gyitgyi'th', to swell. qyéphe » gytpgyée'pke, high. gyatlh§ » gyitlgya'tlk, to pierce. éth'c » avé'th‘c, to end. hana 3, Aanha'nu, thin. mao xku » maaxmad'xhyu, meek. yalth* » ytlga'ltk‘, to return. c. Polysyllabic words beginning with a vowel or a single consonant. st'eb'en plural stpsz'eb’en, to love. dé'lin plural di/dé'lin, tongue. had'a'gh' ,, hadhad'a'gk*, bad. lo'lak: » lrllo'lak:, ghost. wulda'x » wulwuld'h, to know. (gan) mda'la » (gan)ymelma'la, bottom, ba' sighs » besba'sigk‘, to separate. a'lgytqg » &la'lgyitg, to speak. wa' lin » wulwa'lin, load, to carry ma‘lg-éksk* » meElma'lgéhysk‘, heavy. on bark. haeda' k* » hiehaeda'k‘, bow. a'@ihkysk ,, ad a'@ikysk, to come. ho'mts'tq » hamhd' mts’iq, to kiss. gyt'deq » gyidgyi'dxq, to ask. ha'qg''at » hagha'gg’at, sweet asa! » as'asa'u,‘foot. smelling. d, Change of hy, gy, and & into u. taky — plural Vint'a'hy, to forget. sakysk* plural stxsa'hysi‘, clean. hakys » hauha'hys, to abuse. tlégya't », tltntligya't, cripple. ohye » | aH dkyc, to drop. mok* » minmo'k‘, to catch fish, id/okys » tid’ dhys, to wash. gyuke » gyéngyw' ke, fish jumps. akys » éH’dhys, broad. hokeh‘ » hauhd'kek‘, to join others. dakytl » diuda'hytl, to lie around. e. Change of y into z. ho ytq plural hinhd'yigq, just. J. Change of g' and : into gq. mag a'nsk’ plural miqmag'da’nsk‘, explanation, g dik ch » gegqg wik-ch, to sit. s0'uk:shk* » sEqgso'uk:sk*, to dive. hak tt » kxgh’aktl, to drag. ak ktl » aga'kktl, to arrive. g. Change of ¢s into s, and of dz into z. yats plural yis’ia'ts, to chop. hots » kk’ xsk’d'ts, to chop a tree, hé'its » Aéshe'tts, to send. a' dzihs » az a'dziks, proud. hée'tsumeq » hashé'tsumegq, to command. h. Words beginning with combinations of consonants do not always reduplicate in the manner described above, as it sometimes results in an accumulation of con- sonants in the middle of the word. If such inadmissible clusters should result, only the first consonant of the word is repeated. In such cases initial ¢ is transformed into k-. : pte plural ppté, door. gtlko'lug plural k-egtlké'lug, to scold. gtlho » tk xgtlké, to pray. qtsa'e » hkxgqtsa'e, thick. (See, however, the words with initial ¢s. 7. Words beginning with hw have in the plural him. When hw is considered as one syllable, the semi-vowel w standing for a weak w and m, the reduplicated form would be hwhw, which, when pronounced rapidly and with the following vowel, must naturally become him. I believe, therefore, that this plural must be included in the reduplications :— ha plural hia’, name. Anil plural hini'l, to do. hnilp » hiini'lp, house. hid » hit’, to call. hwdt » huwva't, to sell. Andu » Aind'n, paddle. Ee ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 589 j. Irregular reduplications. a. Elision of the consonant following the first vowel. gyin plural gyigyi'n, to give food. quik Fe qytgui' hk‘, to buy. ts'ahy ts’Ets’a'hy, dish. taq FE, vrt’a’g, lake. ts’ép » ts’£ts’é'p, bone. gyit x gyigya't, people. mal 3 mmiéal, canoe. 8. Introduction of (euphonic ?) H. drda'lek plural dindeda'lzk-, to talk to. amdo's 73 au’amo's, corner. Votsh* “A Ciut’o' tsk‘, iron. yind'tsig 9 yininatsig, whip. Endd'yEn - au endod'yrn, garden, Ensqyé'ist »° «© an Ensgyé'ist, grave. sa'atlk* ‘ siusa'atlk‘, weak. hatla'alst ty hanétla'alst, to work. hatlebisk* i hanétlebi' sk‘, knife. sanlai'dikys — ,. stusantlai'dikys, sign. é' asks e awé' Esk‘, debt. aqya' dhysk* 4 ag inya' dkysk*‘, to trust. ty aluné'lemtlh*,, tg-aluninwé'lemtlhs, servant. Here may also belong yo'timeg plural hinio'timng, to command . Introduction of consonants other than H. dedé'ls plural dxldé'ls, alive. makysk* ig mesma’ hkysk*. heeg eth hetg é'th‘, difficult. laqlé'ly Een >: laqluplé'lp’en, to roll. 8. The reduplicated syllable amalgamates with the stem. ali'ch* plural alli'chk*‘ weak (instead of avali'ch‘). ane’ st Fh anne'st branch ( , 3 an’ane' st). e. The vowel of the reduplicated syllable is lengthened and the accent is thrown back upon the first reduplicated syllable, while the vowel of the stem is. weakened. Ixk's plural 1a’lzhs, to wash the body. moh’ 5 mwa wok’ to sleep. caky x c@icihy, to haul out. tlaky FC tlé'tliky, to bend. Vok 55 ¢éa't ek’, to scratch, 3. The plural is formed by dizresis, or lengthening of vowels. anda's plural and'es, skin. gwula' plural gutla’, cloak. gytna'm gyé'nam, to give. hala'it E ha' lait, ceremonial dance- hyiba' ~ hytba', to wait. hana'k: * ha'nak-, woman. 4. The plural is formed by the prefix #;a—. In this class are included many names. of parts of the body, adjectives expressing states of the body, such as blind, deaf, and also poor, words of location, and miscellaneous words which cannot be classified. a. Parts of the body. emg é'c plural k-at’emg'é'e, head. avon plural z:aan’o'n, hand. ts'emi'H $s lrats’emi'H, ear. plraie i h-aplna'e or plnde, body. ts'emd'h ,, hats ema'k:, mouth, k°étlk: sy hak’ étlk, chest. temk an ,, hat «mk'a'x, arm. gad u h-ag'a'd, heart. Vemtla’m 4; h-at’emtla'm, leg. tgami'k ,, hratg:ama'h, lip. ~ h-atsuné' ent, fingers. g"é'sEx “ hag’é'ser, knee. 590 REPORT—1896. b, Adjectives expressing states of the body. hytba! plural k-tkytba’, lame. sins * h-asi'ns, blind. ts ak: % k-ats’a'h’, deaf. mEnd'tsg x k:amewa' tsq, crazy (=similar to a land otter). Here may belong also gqwi'E plural k-agwaii'r, poor. hug id'nst = huekwio'nst, liberal. e. Locations. dau plural k-:adda'n, outside. laq’o x k-alaq?o’, on top. sto'ohys ,, k:asto'dhys, side of. d. Other words, unclassified. semo'ths plural k-asemd'ths, to believe. no'den a h-and'd’en, to adorn. yiegu' sgyith'c a yisk-agu'sqyith‘c, to rejoice. lz' luke FA k:alé'luke, to steal. guinsilé'ensgut ,, quink asilé'ensgut, hunter. nist ds h-ami'st, root. ha'it xs k-ak‘a'it, hat. 5. Terms of relationship from the plural by the prefix %-a— and the suffix —(4)k*. nid! plural k-anid'xth‘, grandfather. ntsé' Ets + h-antsé'rtsk‘, grandmother nEgua' ot a k'anequa’éthk:, father. nEbe'p 5 k-anebé'pk‘, uncle. waky % k:anakyh*‘ (2), younger brother. The following two have besides reduplication of the stem with lengthening of the reduplicated syllable : nakys plural hk-ané'nikysk‘, wife. nog 3 k:and'neqgk‘, mother. I found the following two without the prefix h;-a— naky plural wakyk‘, younger brother. gyimudé ,, gyimudé'tk‘, elder brother. Irregular is hueda'ehyen plural tluedda'eh'enth‘, grandson. Here belongs also mé'en plural k-amé'renth‘, master. 6. The plural is formed by the prefix 7— with variable vowel, Words forming the plural in this manner have a tendency to form irregular plurals. a. akys plural daa'‘kys, to drink. yoxrks 9 léy6'xk*, to follow, gokské lego'hksk‘, to be awake. Wik: a. led’d'h, to devour. qbsts'ae F laqgbé'ts nqt, afraid. b. Some words have the prefix 7— combined with reduplication. edan plural luudé'din, hunger. ¢e. Initial gy and hk: are elided when they follow the prefix 7— gyakye plural lakye, a bird swims, gyrba'yuk ,, liba'yuk, to fly. leé'neg » lé'nxq, atree falls. Se ee ee = ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 591 Here belong also the reduplicated plurals :— gyamkys plural lemla'mkys, to warm one’s self. gya'mgyitl ,, lzmla'mgyitl, to warm something. d. Irregular but related to this class are yae plural 7'léa, to hide. yeqya'h » lésli'sk’, to hang (v. n.). adak* 3 lidue, to shoot. gyené'th® ,, lenédemk‘st, to arise. 7. Irregular plurals. a. Singular and plural are derived from different stems. qyaigk' plural hd'ut, to escape. da@utl plural sa'hysk‘, to go away. Bye » tlé, to walk. malk‘ » tga'ldxt, to put into fire. ao’ ogh* » tgé'ogk*, to eat. magkt » centh', to go aboard. toh’ e'n » tgak’x'n, to feed. baq » gl, to run. Va » wan, to sit. ma'gat ,, atl, to put. leksda! » lekswa'n, island. gyetl » l@tl, to lie down. dzahk‘ » yéts,to kill (pl.=to chop). ts’@n » la'mdziq, to enter. heth* » mak:sk‘, to stand. NOE » dag, to die. dephé'th ., dxpma' ksh‘, short. with‘ » bak‘, form. qau » tltlé'ngytt, male slave. go » dok-, to take. wat ak‘ » tltlé'ngytt, female slave. dé' gh (qtina) » (qtina) sgyi'th‘, to kneel. t1go » ober, small. kyjoie ~~~", ksitlo' (ksi—, out. t16, to tlgdwi'iky- ,, RB openilhycttlh‘, walk), to go out. cit tks nobleman. makt » nilkt, to carry. gyat » . @'wet, man. shatsa'a ,, alisgyt'da, ugly. me » wud a'g, large. ts’dsky », s888'0's, small. b. Singular and plural are formed from the same or related stems. muyeth' plural _ si'ya'th‘, to cry, to weep. aiana' th ie alaywva' de, to shout. N7EMEC' E “s nudag alemé'd’z, to shout. loma' kysa fe lole'dikysa, to wash clothing. ninak' Ar nné'nek*‘, long. nid’d'e es d@’EQd’d'a, stout. k‘stak-s . lukstsa'dek:s, to leave. gaéema's 5 gaema'k'st, young. amama's ~ anvama'k:st, pretty. COMPOSITION. _ The composition of words in Tsimshian and Nisk:a is remarkably loose. Although there are a great number of formative elements which have no independent existence they do not combine very intimately with the words to which they are prefixed. I pointed out before that the reduplicated syllable remains separated from the stem by a hiatusorpause. The same is true of all compositions, as the following examples - will show :— hagun’ié'r, to walk towards. ts’'em’a' kys, in water. leg'em’oH, to throw into (from top). This loose connection is also shown by the fact that in compounds the plural is formed from the stem alone. Iealts'a'p plural kalts’rts'a'p, town. —_nsi'bensk* plural nsepsé'b’ensk‘, friend. kealhnilp ,, k-alhuwvia'lp, house daqgya't “6 daqgyigya't, strong. There are very few cases of contractions. Siyidemna'k-, chieftainess; plural, styidzmhd'nak. The end of this word was undoubtedly originally danak, woman. 592 REPORT—1896. Mental and Physical Deviations from the Normal among Children in Public Elementary and other Schools.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir DouGLas GALTON (Chairman), Dr. FRANcIS WakrnER (Secretary), Mr. E. W. Brasroox, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. WILBERFORCE SMITH, and Mr. E. WHITE WaLuis.—(Report drawn up by the Secretary.) PAGE APPENDIX.—T7welve tables, shoring for cach division of schools the number of children seen, the number presenting one or more class of defect. The classes of defect are distributed first under school standards, secondly in age groups 595 Tue Committee, acting in conjunction with a committee appointed for the same purpose by the International Congress of Hygiene and Demo- graphy, and the British Medical Association, is now able to give a further account of the 50,000 children examined individually, 1892-94, in sixty-three schools, together with some information bearing on the causation of defects in childhood. The methods of examination and the points observed were described in our first report. The total number of boys and girls, with each class of defect, was given in 1894. In our last report the number of boys and girls, with the individual defects,was given as distributed in twelve divisions of schools, representing Board schools, Voluntary schools, the nationalities and social classes ; also the primary classes of defect in pro- portions on the number of children seen and the number noted. In each of the following tables the heading shows the division of schools dealt with. The cases are arranged first in school standards, secondly in age groups. Standard 0 contains children too old for the infant school and too dull or backward for Standard I. In Table VII. the column headed ‘No standard’ contains the boys in a high-class school which was not arranged in standards. The average ages as recognised for pupils in the standards respectively are :—Infants, five years and under ; Standard I., six years, rising a standard a year, so that at twelve years of age the child may reach Standard VII. The primary main classes of defect are indicated in the tables by symbols :— A. Defect in development only : not in combination with other class of defect. B. Abnormal nerve-signs only ; not in combination with other class of defect. C. Pale, thin, or delicate only. D. Reported as mentally dull or backward only. Six other primary groups are arranged by taking cases with two main classes of defect only. Four primary groups present three main classes of defect only. One primary group presents the four main classes of defect combined in each case. The remainder—groups E, F, and G—contain the cases with defects not classed above as main classes ; such as eye cases, children maimed or crippled, &c. We thus show for each division of schools the children who presented an observed defect in development of body, in nerve status, in physical health and nutrition, and those reported by the teachers-as dull or back- ON THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN. 593 ward, arranged in primary groups presenting only the class of defect indi- cated by the formula. To obtain the total number of cases with any class of defect, whether combined with other class of defect or not, the numbers representing all the primary groups containing such defect must be added . together. The total or compound group AB=primary AB+ABC+ ABD +ABCD. It is also possible, for the purposes of research, to arrange from the tables the children in whom any class of defect is absent, and thus compare their conditions in contrast with the children in whom such defects were present. Such actuarial work is useful in seeking the causation of defects. Examples have been worked out by Dr. Francis Warner.! This arrangement of our cases has afforded much information for the ' solution of certain problems, and the means of answering many questions concerning conditions of childhood. It has become possible to compare similar groups of children under varied environment and at different ages. Comparison of the cases presenting some defect, as to their ages in relation to the standard in which they were placed, shows that 25-6 per _ cent. of the boys and 26:3 per cent. of the girls were over the average age recognised for the standard. Thus evidence is obtained of a lower mental status in children with the signs of defect, apart from the report of the teachers, while the value of the signs observed is indicated. Facts such as these can be arranged for any division of schools. It is well known that developmental and congenital defect forms an appreciable eause in the high rate of infant mortality, especially among males ; many children, however, with the lesser degrees of defect, survive to school age, and form 8°8 per cent. of the boys and 6°8 per cent. of the girls seen in schools. It was shown in our report of 1894 that conditions of defect are frequently associated in children ; the tables now published make it possible to show that such conditions vary in boys and in girls respectively in the age groups. Among the children with developmental defects, those who are seven years old and under have the lowest percentage association with additional or acquired defects. This is more marked among boys than girls. They have, however, a tendency to acquire nerve-disturbance, delicacy, and mental dulness under the continued action of their environment, as they grow older ; this is specially marked with the girls. When eight to ten years of age the proportion of those children who have acquired additional defects has risen 7 per cent. ; while at twelve years and older only 37 per cent. of the boys and 25 per cent. of the girls with developmental defects are free from additional or acquired delicacy, nerve-disturbance, or mental dulness. Further, among developmental defect cases, the signs of nerve- disturbance are more associated with other defect in boys under eleven years ; while at all ages the association with low nutrition and mental dulness is greater in girls. At eleven years of age and over, develop- mental defect is most associated with nerve-disturbance, delicacy, and dulness in the girls. The calculations upon which these statements are made, as founded upon the tables here given, will be found in the ‘Statistical Journal,’ March 1896. Brain-disorderliness, as indicated by abnormal nerve-signs, is a more potent cause of mental dulness than congenital defect of development of 1 See Statistical Journal, March 1896. 1896, QQ 594 REPORT—1896, the body. Nerve-signs, whether they occur alone or in combination with defect in development or not, are more directly connected with low mental ability than congenital defect of the body. This is most marked in children seven years and under, particularly with girls ; in the age-group eight to ten it is most marked with boys ; while at eleven years and over it is about equal in the sexes. It should thus be an object, in training children, to prevent them from acquiring any abnormal nerve-signs. In the London Board schools efficient physical training was given (these children are presented in Tables I. to IV.) ; in the Scotch Board school (see Table VI.) no physical training was given. The physical condition of the Scotch children was better—developmental cases, boys 8 per cent., girls 4-6 per cent. ; and delicate children, boys 2-2 per cent., girls 3:3 per cent., as against, in the London schools—developmental cases, boys 8°5 per cent., girls 6°8 per cent. ; and delicate children, boys 2°8 per cent., girls 3°4 per cent. When, however, we come to look to their brain status, we find, in the Scotch school, 13-6 per cent. boys and 10:3 per cent. girls with abnormal nerve-signs, while 9°8 per cent. boys and 6:2 per cent. girls are dull or backward pupils; as against, in the London schools, 9:7 per cent. boys, and 8-2 per cent. girls with nerve-signs, and 7:9 per cent. boys, and 7:1 per cent. girls reported as dull pupils. Further analysis of the cases shows the nerve-signs as probably connected with the larger propor- tion of dull pupils. The inference is that good physical training lessens the proportion of children with inco-ordinated brain action, and coinci- dently the proportion of dull pupils. Many other points of interest might be dealt with on the basis of the facts arranged in the tables, and answers can be given therefrom to many questions raised from time to time. In the last two reports we have dealt mostly with the main classes of defects; in searching for the means of removing or preventing them it will be necessary to make further analysis and classification of the individual defects, especially as to the nerve- signs. Cases presenting each nerve-sign should be classified, as the main class of nerve-cases has been classified ; we should thus obtain information as to the lines of causation of each, and their relative significance. As all our cases are recorded on separate cards, this can readily be done, but the work would involve much clerical labour. The Committee desire to be reappointed, and ask a grant in aid of this work. Description of Tables. Each table is arranged for a division of schools as given in the heading. Cases are distributed into primary groups presenting only the class of defect indicated by the symbols. The numbers on the left hand refer to definition of the class, as given in the full report published.! In the first half of the table the groups are distributed according to educational standards. The numbers seen and the numbers noted are given at the bottom of this section of the table. In the second half of the table the groups are distributed according to ages. ' ‘Report on the Scientific Study of the Mental and Physical Conditions of Childhood. 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OR ayoypre bg S| eal eS ats | Sk ne ore ae St 3 ee =) (=) s a a Bose ers: 000000 Ball 8 |B ---++--+--+-000000/ 8 3 moocadmMo0o0u o3 "3 é MOQCAAMMOOAL | 8 ! } | a” & [he (LG Li? Pex re E>] o ae a -£ + greiner picimr ies | = | ob (SRSe rere ree ee flirt BS || $3 i. “< any TS is 5 gn | ; 2s ae Ga ac ai Va all b=) = 2 na FL Cons ete to rcs epee els |i eS ‘ > | = i Fay Sa ee rest [et seca or Te BASF DL IO MOE be peed : Ss ar tit am (i cil [bl | ed (| eee I WILT Ue a a te es 2 cy IGA) [See SOM SR ASS, SS a a a — i o . sale sid || Jb ete enti aes Lo} = ] ; a My Lol Lael on Se VLE Ty ee pa ie LA ae Aqa|. a Pacer amore momo cf E S| 11 Wee aes ry : sb ee er a Re CROC CIE Oo CON OU ) a 3 Ss a os = Bove seseeee OOOG00 | $34 Sg. +--+. caaa0g |B =“ “M0000OQmmo00MmL ae 3 = moovdommo0m: | 8 | | a ec ~~ ME). oo eseuie isles ||" a cutie le rit | ee ZT a /a@ 1ILTITtttidl \| ele diiiitiiiiittiit |i] Pe erg Aas 2 . Cee ee we te eee ee ae . ie PPP ee Pettit |v ere ee oe » me ear AAS Sl = i) os |3 Bw. ns. » WENODe | S51 S18... ....-- 09e00G|% g moavagammoOmu | Fs || FB | mUdoadgmmooMm: | & | amo0oaqaqqnmodcaecoqcw BE 2 qamoogaqcanmodccaqocu 8 a 2O & a Ss ga C) 2 a ah 0. 8) atk) 68) 15 6 JR re SL eieiene aa) See ie a. @ke <0 6 oe & ddddnddddddddans | 22 || 4 E aueevedsuddddans [2 Tapue X.—Ten Voluntary Schools in London; Poorer Social Class ; Irish Children. REPORT—1896, ai 6 GB ° RAAF RSPAS lag 33 S SE°RALH BRO RSMaAR E 34 —|| $8 — fo) B5 |. = petliers Z| SQARSARASteeesea | 85 Ald 2Rtgsagagncnoseg l a -} l= ]air} con 5 " = ==; BSS IIIIII ttt bhi ibd | s len! o a | Deine: stilitimtirimtriy|s Sh io) Zebeta ayia ye fe z 5 et iF i + [A Miittditimniit|s is cept Tt Pe Peet SYST The T1 pe] ise Fo? pia ae ee a i A | ARR H a BE |— 318 Miri |= @ eeu [ea] WE Bee (that Mata tales) |e 2 abet ed beatae Se Rk = = oS at oH i ada Pe cee pedi ple pare PIS al = . faa] re} bd mae mn AND isd o FETA Si Rea i Sa Ha Sn S| ot a8 | | a | al ES a 7, . ae Bb SZAINS*owRAMaT | Hoo ls a ome he Pa tia 2 z G CRANOALAM [as] A Pa | ee = 4 d ES sb = p EG & om DANA [Soy [iaiex | w raft a a ace a i Ds (a | ce g & Both) Poach fa OLA bal | ie BR | Z | = len! a4 7 a | mh ON | NOM H | ANoraA | oS eS fF YRMCMAHAD Aw ~ APA | op : he 1 RoAA mo — a Si Lo] bd Np (CRIS BC Rc CATS Bl Pen bc) Ve) ae f 5 oO I oR | SH am: i | i US [0 Se en ame bs ~ “ere Spel Po Ect i a sto n AAA a] a © 69 © = = re fas tee No NO I Me S| eee iat. & =z & Ie FONTS ICEMAN Hoch: BS. ae 3.4 ~ - aN tH Coie ~~ an ae | (au 11 a n Aw to on wD | Te) FS ae = —— — nt py OM | AMMAN | A 2 E cc Flee Cl Fe) bea Vt le on) en a SAB WSS ink ahs : 4 =) = ao |e 5 | cota Palle ral omen Aesratleadlile tell df crs g t a teas lor Vie lemme eee el et yi P=) | a : aera Maki hie). Hf 3 : <8 Sl : 2 607 I) LU aa _ fan] BES SO Se 93 NS et a ENE th) So ey acd = ial . : + .. Lt z Sl. ° Hes) Wee tlie Tene Sol tol Sch | eam el MeL Maen ike 1 je Tel ” i ; : yay af | ee MGB RARRRRREE BE i) ke Sinaia jo"le Mayo so) en org |W eaoes 2 PID OEE MO Se ae ae . i) z ’ a 2 3 z Q 3 Bocce) sts 000009 2§ rs Bo SoU ea 7’ RE Oo hes | & mOoQO0COOMMOOML | = ey MOQ0COAMMOOM: | g qnmo0gqqqOMOdqaqaMaw | 54 B qmoOdqaqqmmOqaqqMewy | ¥ 2s s 2 5 SARA RARAARARRNS | wy || 2 |S SASSRRRRRNPARARRS | Z ON THE MENTAL AND, PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN. 600 3 ee Syst [Laie Sed | ,ouen [3 | Se 33 ai ea mesene xo mia | 3 33 3 a Ino] er Ge S919 OCS Resa (Ele, cole Ce F=f CO RS SVE fo) SS BR 00 CNIS cai eeiee 60 4 6a rt 00 lz SHA hl p]e imitiimiteitiiis [+ 5] 7 | +5 ae LI err bir |e hee ere a a0. > Hieron eh Be eet eliiitimttiisie| sa | S ; iS | ee |: Saou PEO e ed bil to 3 Boe PIMP PPC LL bl pee fis : Ele Meats hdl Wl alk RL URI RL Beye emitter iris pea Lon . mS | EP | Sl aa Winwellbet Aiba!) re Loerie Pr erery kee yr | 2 sil esl Jae nad cl) gel Maat SIL N52) = eee I hips 1 s ms | EF ane ta ko waren banda had Makes Ba me fee Poi hi ei fess eee Sit iis 2 {ie sb a ESE ef = POT eee 1 Bee Pe PSP Pr pits psa tg ‘ crotisiairiodl Utell ule? LAS Beye (ST Imm ili blne iii pas ot A © | ee Pelt bollies ei be Le Ba Sle leer risimisnisini ig] C=] Lani ey aeetiessttiiiiin|s s z. epee Pr Ph eae ‘ie | BF éImtiierisgititat|@ B, - ss. Pee Abed apa RAN eee Po eee) ei) psa cS: * 46 37 Seed iad besa AT bl ig 3 cee (1 ee ert Pie ae als . aemiinieisissd it |e Mee (So II IITITiiittityy el . z° Sm TITEEtit iets |© Pte ll Litt Eble tly by ; § Lineieisrsari fe wfott | aan |] Gr} aN wa 2 o | | lial ea | as - = 2 S$ imuititinttitiit |= — Pres eee | aR CUS OD et ean = p eal abe ia | SSAA EF a AMMEIETiieritiiit | AI TE mie: °C) | SaaS er oo yr a aan in dow DAIS Oa et ee E Eee —r: EE OES Sige Solas Moana aes: * a > BY: eae ia ro a . = 3 p> Bo ne ob ee OSOB00, |S q° ||. 2 Bose saan 4000000 | 8 c | moQ00O0mmo0mu | 35) = | & moacadmmoovan | =e ; | ( == Psy Secs) ree eon a arated as) s 5 WANN AR MOH | A meyw | oo || oO Ss r Sila |a~s [Ta pee 42 : & Ss S ea ee a ae aT eer ioe “ef Bole PT LI Pe hee | @ | sp ] spl 8 gs [7 : 69) 1 ee Stee Ete Manta Tew Hs ~ AMS "eae ARE eh, Sk clalaan Red ol tae 2 = S [sx =! ; ~® | se 67112 27 LO = (ee = pa TO Ny Ht kota (al Jia st $ n i> Cc nt $ ; A VETIUELIIETOtIIt| A dels claelsl TIT LL ea abe SS VaRIT. SMIIUTITL IAEA Ita | CREA Ce ceseakec ce mie ae mt bine S . Se NT The 1 —c A VIIEIETTILEEII IT [go SS it bas = Erin [- ) fs taeriiertctitiag [1 Safa a aa Peg Ss 3 a yreyl i111 ee Eas ee eHeVe-6)EYa e e ics} | a ae ty SUIUUITUVT ETT t nd | dees LL ha VET a AA : — ie . A VIUIVITLUTITI Itt | Phos (Se A ee a Ht a 2 ferrite fa Bole) UC OC UOD Ia ate Ws bo} a Te] a E eT i amnoee ee aq . © @) 0) 6) eye, af a) ey 0 sen Pere ° Biles Sra Mitr) ia ere SF Fuat ie wt te j0 Shee . *. b 2 0-6 a © 68:6 6) 5) « gel wre,» Fs i) a 3 | Qa 5 gq ocee- 0q0000 | 3. ] S |e ....------00a00g | 8 Bi MOQACOOgmoom" | 58 |] 2 |B mOoQvaAmmaOOm: | 8 | |% «moacccmm0gqaqmaw | 2% | 2 | a emoncccmmoccamau | = & ee | 2 le F eric 88 koe RO ee a oe aq 2 See hi ae eS § SAssnsaadddadane | 22 | & | 2 sesensesadddddys | 2 ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 607 Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom.—Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. E. W. BraBroox (Chairman), Dr. Francis GALtTon, Dr. J. G. Garson, Professor A. C. Happon, Dr. JoseEpH ANDERSON, Mr. J. RomitLy ALLEN, Dr. J. BEDDOE, Professor D. J. CUNNINGHAM, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Mr. ARTHUR J. Evans, Mr. F. G. Hitton Price, Sir H. Howorrs, Professor R. MELDOLA, General Pirt-Rivers, Mr. E. G. Raven- STEIN, and Mr. E. SmipNEY HartTLanp (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Chairman.) APPENDIX PAGE I. The Ethnographical Survey of Ireland. Report of the Committee . . 609 Il. Report of the Ethnographical Survey of Pembrokeshire. By EDWARD Laws, F.S.A.. . A 2 A " 2 . 5 ; ; - 610 Ill. Preliminary Report on Folklore in Galloway, Scotland. By Rev. Dr. WALTER GREGOR . 612 IV. On the Method of determining the Value of ' Follilore as Ethnological Data. By G. LAURENCE GOMME, F.S.A. 626 1. As in previous years, the Committee have had the advantage of the co-operation of several gentlemen not members of the Association, but delegates of various learned bodies who are interested in the Survey. Mr. George Payne, one of the delegates of the Society of Antiquaries, and Mr. E. Clodd, Mr. G. L. Gomme, and Mr. J. Jacobs, the repre- sentatives of the Folklore Society, Sir C. M. Kennedy, K.C.M.G., representing the Royal Statistical Society, Mr. Edward Laws, the Ven. Archdeacon Thomas, Mr. S. W. Williams, and Professor John Rhys, representing the Cambrian Archeological Association, and Dr. C. R. Browne, a representative of the Royal Irish Academy, have continued their valuable services. Other members of the Committee are delegated by the Anthropological Institute. 2. In previous reports, the Committee presented a list of villages or places which, in the opinion of competent persons consulted by the Com- mittee, appeared especially to deserve ethnographic study. They also recorded the commencement of such study in several parts of the United Kingdom by observers residing in the respective neighbourhoods. Since the last meeting of the Association the Committee have taken an impor- tant step in advance by commissioning the Rev. Dr. Walter Gregor to make a special visit to the district of Galloway for the purpose of the survey. He remained there during part of the months of October and November 1895, and paid another visit in the spring of the present year. On these occasions he collected a considerable amount of information on the current traditions and folklore of the district, and took measurements of a number of the inhabitants. The Committee have requested him to complete his observations on the people of Galloway, and to commence a similar systematic survey of Ayrshire, the results of which will, it is expected, be ready for insertion in their next Report. Dr. Gregor pos- sesses special qualifications for this work, and his preliminary notes are appended to this Report, not merely as being of interest in themselves, but as indicating by example the manner of recording folklore. 3. The tabulation of the results of Dr. Gregor’s physical measure- ments, and of those which the Committee have received from other sources, 608, REPORT—1896. is deferred to a future Report. The Committee hope also, if reappointed, in future Reports to supply bibliographical information. 4. The Committee have provided, for the use of observers of the physical characters of the people, a number of the following instruments graduated in millimetres :-— 1. A two-metre tape. 2, A pair of folding callipers. 3. A folding square. 4, A small set-square. Sets of these have been supplied to applicants in various parts of the country, who will communicate to the Committee the measurements they take. Others are still available for use by competent observers who may desire to borrow them, and those at present in circulation will be reissued as soon as returned. Several applications were made in consequence of an announcement on the matter inserted in the ‘ Academy,’ ‘ Athenzeum,’ and ‘Nature’ by the courtcsy of the editors of those journals. 5. The Committee have to thank the Rev. Fletcher Moss, of Didsbury, for a number of measurements and other observations. 6. The Committee are much indebted to Mr. G. Paul for undertaking to organise, through communications to the local papers circulating in Nidderdale, and communications with the local Naturalists’ Club, a survey of that district, the results of which the Committee hope to receive in due course. 7. The Buchan Field Club has published a series of observations made by Mr. John Gray, B.Sc., and Mr. Tocher, secretary of the club, upon the anthropological characters of the people of East Aberdeenshire. It is proceeding with the work upon the lines laid down by this Committee. 8. The Irish Ethnographic Committee, consisting of Professors Cun- ningham and Haddon, members of this Committee, and Professors Haugh- ton and Wright, is engaged in tabulating the results of the measurements of over 500 individuals taken during the last four years in the Anthro- pometric Laboratory of Trinity College, Dublin. It is intended to tabulate the statistics with reference to ethnography, to the occupation of the subjects, and to the success of the students. For the first of these the subjects will be grouped geographically, according to the districts from which their parents come, in probably a dozen groups. Dr. C. R. Browne, who co-operates with this Committee, has undertaken the work of tabulating the observations and calculating the indices. A Report from the Committee is appended. 9. The Cambridge Ethnographic Survey Committee have also com- menced operations. They are at present investigating the villages of Barrington and Foxton, but as yet there are no results available for this Report. 70. The Committee have to thank the Congress of Archeological Societies in union with the Society of Antiquaries of London for printing and circulating among their members a large number of this Committee’s code of instructions, with Mr. Hartland’s explanatory paper appended thereto. At the Canterbury Meeting of the Royal Archeological Insti- tute a discussion has taken place on the sabject of an ethnographical survey of Kent. 11. Appended to this Report is an important communication made to this Committee by Mr. Laurence Gomme, on the method of determining —— ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 609 the value of folklore as ethnological data. The recommendations of Mr. Gomme will be found to be valuable when the stage arrives at which it is practicable and necessary to compare the collections made by the Com- mittee in different localities. 12. The Committee have learned with much gratification from Mr. Griffith that the establishment of similar committees for the Dominion of Canada and the United States of America, working on the same lines as this Committee, is in contemplation. 13. The Committee look upon these several results of their work as encouraging, and ask to be reappointed for the purpose of continuing it. They also ask for a further grant of 50/., having wholly expended the sum granted for the present year. APPENDIX I. The Ethnographical Survey of Ireland.—Report of the Committee, con- _ sisting of Dr. C. R. Browne, Professor D. J. Cunnincuam, Dr. 8. Havueuton, Professor E. Percevat Wricut, and Professor A. C. Happon (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) Last year the Royal Irish Academy published! a. Report by Dr. C. R. Browne on ‘The Ethnography of the Mullet, Inishkea Islands, and Portacloy, co. Mayo,’ illustrated by three plates of photographs. This is the third Report issued by the Dublin Ethnographic Committee, and the investigation was carried out on the same lines as previously —that is, it embraces the physiography of the district, anthropography (physical characters and statistics, vital statistics—personal and economic, phy- siology, folk-names) ; sociology (occupations, customs, food, clothing, dwellings, and transport) ; folklore, archeology (survivals and antiqui- ties) ; history, &c. The district investigated is a very wild and remote part of Ireland, and, in spite of great difficulties, Dr. Browne has produced a valuable and interesting memoir. A full series of observa- tions were taken on sixty-two adult males, and the eye and hair colours of 494 individuals were recorded. The average stature of the men is 1-725 m. (about 5 ft. 8 in.) ; they are stoutly built and broad-shouldered. Over 80 per cent. of the adults have brown or dark hair, and about the same number have light eyes; but the eyes of the women run darker than those of the men. The cephalic index of the men is mainly (39) mesaticephalic, there being 20 brachycephals and only 3 dolichocephals ; if two units are deducted (as is often done to compare with cranial indices), the numbers are 41 mesati-, 10 brachy-, and 11 dolicho-cephals. The mean cephalic index is 79:4, the facial is 111-9, and the nasal 64. Dr. Browne analyses the differences of the people from the various districts. Thus the North Inishkea and the Portacloy are the tallest (ay. 1727 m.=5 ft. 8 in.) ; but the former have the shortest arms, the proportion of span to height being 102:45; while at Portacloy it is 105-65, and intermediate elsewhere. The nigrescence index is as follows : Tnishkea Islands 10°5, Mullet 62-3, Portacloy 77-5 ; thus the islands show ® greater proportion of light hair. There is a greater tendency to brachy- cephalism in South Inishkea and Portacloy, and none of these men were 1 Proceedings (3), vol. iii. pp. 587-649. 1896. RR 610 REPORT—1896. dolichocephalic. The reader is referred to the original paper for fuller details. In 1895 Dr. Browne investigated the natives of Ballycloy, in the southern portion of the barony of Erris, in co. Mayo. This is an isolated district, being cut off by a semicircle of mountains from the rest of the county. The people, who are much intermarried, are largely descended from Ulster settlers. A statement, originally made by an anonymous writer, has somehow gained currency, and has been repeatedly quoted abroad, noticeably by M. de Quatrefages and by M. Devay, that the descendants of the Ulster people, driven two centuries ago into Sligo and Mayo, had dwindled into dwarfs of 5 feet 2 inches high, prognathous, and pot-bellied. Dr. Browne found that the average height of these people is 1-721 m. (5 feet 7? inches), and they exhibited no sign of physical degeneracy ; they are very healthy, fond of music and dancing, given to joking, and sharp in business, Though there is a coast-line of forty- seven miles, nearly all the men are farmers. The houses are of a some- what better order than those commonly found in the West of Ireland. Fifty men were measured, and the hair and eye colours of 298 individuals noted. The mean cephalic index is 80°5 (78:5), facial index 112°6, and nasal index 63:9. Full details, as in the last Report, will shortly be published in the ‘ Proceedings’ of -the Royal Irish Academy. APPENDIX VII. Report of the Ethnographical Survey of Pembrokeshire. Ly Epwarp Laws, Esq., /S.A. At the annual meeting of the Cambrian Archeological Association, held at Launceston in August 1895, Mr. Henry Owen, F.S.A., and myself were requested to institute an archeological survey of the county of Pembroke. Mr. Owen undertook to compile a bibliography —no slight task, for though Pembroke is comparatively a small county it has perhaps been more freely ink-bespattered than any shire in Wales. Mr. Owen has now ready for press an annotated catalogue of printed books referring to the county. This list he will present to the committee appointed by the Cambrian Archeological Association at their meeting on the 7th Septem- ber in Aberystwith. When the catalogue of printed books has been issued it is proposed to prepare and print a list of MSS. relating to the county of Pembroke. This is a work that cries aloud for the worker. The list of MSS. relating to the Welsh counties preserved in the British Museum was compiled just one hundred years ago, and other great libraries are equally behind the times. I myself undertook to raise a company of Pembrokeshire men, and with their assistance archeologically annotate the 6-inch ordnance survey of the county of Pembroke. I have now ready for press thirty quarter sheets, and hope before the end of the month of August to receive twenty more. The system we have adopted is as follows: I send out one or more quarter sheets to a volunteer worker, requesting that he will mark thereon with a pinhole the position of the following objects :— Camps or spaces enclosed by earthworks. Camps or spaces enclosed by stone wall. ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 61] Camps or spaces enclosed by banks or walls at right angles, Earthworks which do not enclose a space. ' Settlements as shown by hut foundations, animal bones, shells, &c. Intermenis, barrows, graves. Megalithic remains, cromlechs, rocking stones, menhirs, holed stones, stone circles. - Tnscribed stones, with Ogam or Roman lettering, or carved. Stone implements, or flint chips. Bronze implements. Pottery. Coins. Ecclesiastical buildings, or remains. Military buildings, or remains. Domestic buildings, manor houses, &c., or remains. Battle-fields. Holy wells. Localities connected with legends. Other spots of archeological interest. Having marked these spots on the map with a pinhole, the assistant is requested to put a number on the back of the map by his pinhole, and a symbol on the face (for this purpose he has been supplied with a simple code of symbols, which seems to answer fairly well), and then on a separate piece of paper to writ@ his remarks, measurements, de. On receipt of the quarter sheet with the accompanying notes, [ schedule the latter thus :— Symbol | No. | Locality | Object | Notes and References. I look up former descriptions of the object already published and give them in the fifth column. If the object is technical, such as an Ogam or inscribed stone, I ask aid from an expert ; if something that seems to me important or incomprehensible, I personally inspect. Of the thirty quarter sheets received two haye proved barren ; on the remaining twenty-eight I find 246 objects marked, and of these 106 have escaped the Ordnance Surveyor. The gentlemen to whom I am indebted for this valuable assistance are six in number: Lieut. Howorth, R.A. ; Lieut.-Col. Lambton ; A. H. Lascelles, Esq. ; Henry Mathias, Esq. ; Thos. Wall, Esq., M.D.; Mr, Henry Williams, editor of the ‘Pembroke County Guardian.’ These gentlemen still hold some sheets, and a good many more have been distributed among other friends, which I hope shortly to receive. When finished each quarter sheet will be complete in itself, and, if my Committee think good, can be supplied to members and non-members of the Association at a cost very little exceeding the original price of the map. Our associate, Mr. Williams, has been good enough to give up to the survey a column of newspaper in which to collect notices of the customs, traditions, and superstitions of the people. As the ‘ Pembroke County Guardian’ is published at Solva, in the Welsh-speaking district of Pembroke- shire, this is a very valuable aid, for although the English-speaking portion of the county has been well exploited, the Welshery is still untrodden ground. We call this column ‘Yn amsang ein Tadau ’—1.e. in the footsteps of our fathers—and have collected therein a vast amount of matter which, RR2 612 REPORT—1896. when properly digested, we hope to reprint at the end of the year. Two notes I will give as specimens :— 1. The Vicar of Pontfaen draws attention to a custom called ‘ Y Wyl- nos,’ or the Wake Night. Formerly, the day before burial, the corpse was removed from the coffin, a rope passed under the arms, by which it was drawn up the chim- ney of the house, then lowered again and replaced in the coffin. This ghastly ceremony was common in the last century : the last recorded per- formance took place at the Old Mill on the glebe land of Pontfaen. Several persons have corroborated the vicar’s story as to this unnatural performance. 2. The hell-hounds, whist-hounds, or dandy-dogs, as they are called in different places, are still occasionally heard on the slopes of Precelli, but here they are termed ‘ Cwn bendith y Mamau.’ APPENDIX III. Preliminary Report on Folklore in Galloway, Scotland. By Rev. Watter Grecor, LL.D. On October 16, 1895, I went, on the invitation of Sir Herbert Max- well, to the Airlour, parish of Mochrum, Wigtownshire. He afforded me, during the time I was his guest, every facility to carry out the work entrusted to me. From one of his workmen, John Thomson, aged seventy years, I obtained the Folk-tale of ‘ Marget Totts’ and the tale of Aiken- drum the Brownie, along with a good many items of folklore, including the mode of cutting ‘The Hare.’ On Monday the 21st, on the invitation of Mr. Wright of Alticry, I went to Alticry House, and took measure- ments of three men, two farmers and Mr. Wright’s gamekeeper, from the last of whom I got some rhymes and other items of folklore. In the parish of Mochrum seven sets of measurements were got, and one was obtained in the neighbouring parish of Glasserton. The best thanks of the Committee are due to Sir Herbert and Lady Maxwell, as well as to the Misses Maxwell for their helpful kindness. Mr. Wright showed great attention. On Tuesday, October 22, I went to Soulseat, the Manse of Inch, the residence of the Rev. Mr. Paton. He used every exertion to help me to carry out the wishes of the Committee. He took me to those of his parishioners whose ancestors had been for the longest period in Galloway. From this parish, Stranraer and Stoneykirk, were obtained eleven sets of measurements, nine males and two females. The difficulty met with in those parishes is the mixture of modern Irish. With the help of Mr. and Mrs. Paton those whose ancestors were Irish either on . the father’s or mother’s side were avoided as much as possible in the parish of Inch, though it was not always convenient to do so. From Inch were obtained several rhymes and other items of folklore. I have to say that Mr. and Mrs. Paton were most kind, and without Mr. Paton’s help not much could have been accomplished. On October 29 I went to the Manse of Minnigaff, and was most cordially received by Mr. and Mrs. Reid. Mr. Reid spared no pains to meet my wishes, both by driving me for miles through the wild Galloway moors and by taking me to those he considered able to help me both in Minnigaff and in Newton-Stewart. ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 613 Eleven measurements of males and ten of females were obtained, along with some folklore. Some items of folklore have not been communicated to the Com- mittee, as I wish to make further investigation into them. It will be seen that twenty-eight measurements of males and twelve of females—in all forty—have been obtained, along with a considerable amount of folk- lore. The items of folklore which follow are numbered for facility of reference, and the place where each was obtained is indicated at the commencement of the paragraph. I have only to add that nothing could exceed the kindness and courtesy with which I was received by all, and the readiness with which all gave themselves to be measured, and that all were much interested in the survey. 1. Mochrum. ‘ Marget Totts.’—Once on a time a man was very hard towards his wife, and laid tasks on her no one could accomplish. He at one time gave her such a quantity of flax to spin within a fixed time that the work was beyond human power. As she was sitting in the house bemoaning herself, and thinking of what was to be done, a woman entered. Seeing her in great distress and perplexity, she asked her what was the matter with her. She told her of the task that had been laid on her by her husband. The stranger said to her: ‘I'll tack awa’ yir lint an spin’t t? you, an bring’t back t’ you on such and such a day (naming the day), if ye can tell me my name.’ The guidwife agreed at once, and gave the woman the lint. But she was now in as great straits as ever, and could in no way come to her apparent friend’s name, and the day on which the lint was to be brought back was drawing near. As she was one day sitting at her wits’ end in the house a man came in. He asked her what ailed her that she was looking so cast down and sad. She told him all her tale. Now near the house there was a small hill covered with thorn bushes and whins. The man told her to go to this hill and hide herself among the bushes near an open space on it, and she would hear something to help her. She did as she was told. She had not been long in her hiding-place till a lot of fairy women came with their spinning wheels and sat down on the open space not far from her. She saw her friend amongst them. As she span she went on saying, ‘ Little does the guidwife ken it my name’s Marget Totts.’ The woman with- drew without being seen by the fairies. The day fixed for bringing back the yarn came, and the woman appeared with it. ‘Here’s yir yarn, if ye can tell me what my name is.’ ‘ Your name’s Marget Totts,’ said the guidwife. The spinner went up the lum in a blaze of fire, and left the yarn. 2. Mochrum.—The Brownie is believed to be, for the most part, of a kind, obliging disposition. A Brownie that bore the name of Aikendrum went one day to the mill of Birhosh and offered his services to the guidwife on the sole con- dition of getting a ‘cogful o’ brose each evening atween the licht an the dark’ as his wages. He took in hand for this wages to bring all the grain into the stackyard and to thresh it, and to gather the sheep into the ‘rees.’ The guidwife was ouite keen for keeping him, but the daughters objected as no wooers would come to the house so long as Aikendrum was in it. The mother ordered silence, and took the Brownie into service. The harvest was late, and he began his work at once. Within a short time all the grain was safe in the stackyard. One evening he was ordered to 614 - REPORT—1896. gather in all the sheep. By morning, when the family was astir, the sheep were all in the ‘rees.’ ‘It must have been a hard job for you, said the guidwife, on seeing what had been done. ‘I had mair trouble,’ said the Brownie, ‘ wi a little broon ane wi’ waggin’ horns nor a’ the laive thegither.’ The little ‘broon ane wi’ waggin horns’ was a hare. A married daughter came to live at the mill. One day she gave him a pair of her husband’s breeks. He was so offended that he left at once. Before going away he took out the two millstones and threw them into the weal below the bridge over the Bladnach. He would have nothing more than his fixed wages—‘the cogful of brose.’ 3. Mochrum.—tThe following story was told to my informant when a boy by an old woman eighty years of age. It was on the Sacrament Sunday, ‘the langest day in June.’ She was a girl at the time, and was left to look after the house in the absence of the other members of the family at church. She went outside and sat down on a stone ‘t’ read her beuk.’, While sitting and reading she saw ‘the bonniest wee man she ever saw in her life come oot amon’ the thorn busses, go to the kiln knowe, and sit doon on the loupin-on-stane, and for twa oors he played on the bagpipes “The Birks o’ Aberfoyle,” the bonniest music she ever heard in her life.’ The bonnie wee man was dressed in green, braided with yellow, and had a four-cornered hat. 4. Mochrum.—About forty-eight years ago, as some men were approach- ing the bridge over the Airlour Burn, a big black dog with fire flying out of his mouth was seen crossing the road into a wood on the opposite side of the road. Before any of them could come up to him, he had entered the wood and disappeared. 5. Mochrum.—It is considered to be unlucky to cart away ‘standing stones,’ z.¢. the stones of the circles called Druidical. 6. Mochrum.—It is unlucky to cart away any of the soil from a grave- yard, however long it has ceased to be used. There is a farm called Kirkland in the parish of Mochrum. On it is a spot said to have been used as a burial-ground long ago. It remained untouched till about sixty years ago. At that time the tenant set about carting away the soil. Hardly had he begun work when two of the horses fell dead. 7. Mochrum.—To forget the Sabbath-day and to begin to work as on week-days was very unlucky. The farmer of D once forgot that it was the Sabbath, and yoked the plough as usual. A man going to church saw him ploughing ; he ran to him and told him what day it was. The farmer said he had forgotten. Within a year the farmer, his wife, and the farm had all gone to ruin. 8. Mochrum.—If£ one was leaving a house with a grudge and did not wish the incoming tenant to thrive, the following ceremony was gone through. After all the furniture was taken out, the house was swept clean and all the ashes were removed from the hearth, which was also swept quite clean. Stones were then placed upright on the hearth, in the same way as peats are placed to make a fire. Those that entered the house would be as bare as the house, and there would be no luck to the indwellers till that fire (of stone) would burn. My informant has seen such. 9. Mochrum.—On taking up one’s abode in a house from which others had removed, in case ‘ill had been left on the house,’ a hen, a cat, a dog, or other living creature was thrown into it. 10. Wigtownshire (General).—When one is meeting a reputed witch, a Ee ES ee ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 615 the thumbs are stuck into the palms, with the fingers pressed tightly over them. 11. Whithorn.—A thorn-bush or tree would not be cut down. It is believed to be a protection against witches. 12. Mochrum.—aA piece of ‘will-grown’ rowan tree about ten inches long used to be kept in the byre, on the ‘wa’-head’ over the door, with which each calf was rubbed when it fell from the cow. This act kept off the witches. My informant, a farmer, had such a piece in his byre not over six months ago. 13. Inch.—When a cow calved, a piece of rowan tree about two inches long was tied to her tail. My informant has seen this done. 14. Minnigaffi—Some goodwives keep a small rod of rowan tree in the milk-house wherewith to stir the cream in the ‘crock.’ This keeps the witches’ power at a distance. 15. Minnigaff.—My informant has heard of those that carried a piece of rowan tree in their pocket to protect themselves from the power of the witch. 16. Mochrum.—A piece of the bark of the rowan tree was carried by some to ward off the power of witches. 17. Minnigaff.—To find out who was to be her husband, the young woman took an apple in one hand and a lighted candle in the other on Hal- loween, and placed herself in front of a mirror, and then ate the apple in the name of ‘Uncle Geordie,’ z.e. the devil. The face of the future husband appeared in the mirror when the last mouthful was eaten. My informant once went through this incantation, but when she came to the last bit she turned and fled in fright lest ‘Uncle Geordie’ should make his appearance. 18. Mochrum.—If an unmarried woman takes one of her shirts and goes to a stream, well, or loch where three lairds’ lands meet, washes it in the water, returns home, hangs it in front of the fire, goes to bed, and lies Sia she will see her future husband come and turn the article of ress. 19. Mochrwm.—When an unmarried woman sees the new moon for the first time, if she lifts her foot and examines the sole of her shoe she will find a hair of the colour of her future husband’s hair. 20. Galloway (General).—Friday is the common day for celebrating marriage. 21. Inch.—A marriage party always carried bread and cheese, with whisky. The first person met, no matter of what rank, must eat and drink. A story is told of the Lord Stair (John Dalrymple), who died in 1821, that a marriage party at one time met him, and as a matter of course asked him to partake of bread and cheese with a glass of whisky. He refused, but wished the two all happiness, and in token of his good will made a present of a sovereign to the couple. 22. Inch.—When the bride was brought home a ‘farle o’ bread’ was broken over her head. 23. Mochrum.—tThe bride was welcomed to her own house by the bride- groom’s mother, if she was living. 24. Mochrum.—tThe ‘best man’ and the ‘best woman’ attended the newly married pair to church the Sunday after the marriage —the ‘ kirkan.’ 25. Mochrum.—Tuesday was at one time (about thirty-five or forty years ago) the chief day for celebrating marriages. Few marriages took place on Friday. Now Friday is the chief day. 616 REPORT—1896, 26. Inch.—The husband’s breeks used to be laid on the bed when the wife was in travail. 27. Inch.—After the birth there is a feast called the ‘blythe meat.’ It consists of bread and cheese, buns, whisky, and other good things. 28. Minnigaf-—My informant (aged 85) has seen a live coal cast into the water in which a new-born babe was washed. 29. Inch.—When a sleeping infant was left alone a Bible was laid below the pillow to prevent the fairies from carrying it off. (Informant aged 85.) 30. Mochrum.—A Bible was put below the pillow of an infant ; no Satanic power could then hurt it. 31. Mochrum.—A pair of the husband’s breeks laid on the bed over the wife when lying in childbed kept the fairies at a distance. 32. Wigtownshire (General).— When a cradle was borrowed it was not sent empty. An apron, a shawl, or a pillow was put into it. What was put in might be returned. 33. Minnigaffi—A scone was at times laid into a cradle when borrowed. 34. Mochrum.—Something must always be laid into a new cradle before being taken into the house in which it was to be used. A carpenter, known to my informant, had made a cradle. When he was entering the house in which it was to be used, he was met just outside the door by the old grandmother, who took off her apron and cast it into the cradle. This took place about fifteen years ago. 35. Minnigafii— A new cradle was never taken empty into the house in which it was to be used. A common thing placed in it was a pillow. 36. Minnigaff:-—The cradle when in use is always placed in the back part of the apartment with the head towards the door. 37. Minnigaffi—The cradle, when there is no infant, is stowed away in some convenient place. It is not lucky to allow it to stand in the apart- ments occupied by the family. 38. Minnigaff:— Rocking the cradle when the child was not in it caused headache to the child. 39. Minnigaff.—It was accounted unlucky if the infant did not cry when the water of baptism was sprinkled on the face. 40. Inch.—Young women sometimes pin a piece of bread and cheese under the baby’s dress when attired for baptism. After baptism the bread and cheese are divided and put below the pillow to call forth dreams as to the young women’s future husbands. It is called ‘ dreaming cheese.’ 41. Minnigaff.—Unbaptized children were buried in a corner by them- selves apart from other graves. 42. Mochrum.—When a child’s tooth falls out it is thrown over the left shoulder into the fire, and the words are repeated :— Fire, fire, burn bane, And bring me back my tooth again. 43. Inch — When a child’s tooth falls out it is thrown over the left shoulder in the belief that a sixpenny piece will be found. My in- formant has done this. 44. Inch.—Of the fingers :— This is the man that broke the barn, This is the man that stole the corn, This is the man that sat and saw, This is the man that ran awa’, And peerie weerie Winkie paid for them a’. SE Ne ee eee Sees id ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 617 A variant of the last line :— And wee Willie Winkie paid for a’. 45. Inch.—Of the face :— This is the broo of knowledge, This is the ee of life, This is the bubbly ocean, This is the pratie knife. A variant of the third line is :— This is the snokie college. 46. Inch.—Dandling the child :— This is the way the ladies ride, Mim, mim, mim ; This is the way the gentlemen ride, Gallop-a-trot, gallop-a-trot. 47. Inch.— The way the ladies ride (softly), The way the gentlemen trot (move quickly), Cadgers, creels an a’ (roughly). 48. Mochrum.—Bathing in the sea is done when the tide is ebbing. It is believed that, if there is any disease, the tide carries it in, and that one, bathing when the tide is flowing, may catch it. 49. Inch.—A cure for whooping cough was to put the patient under the belly and over the back of an ass. 50. Minnigaffi—A cure for the same disease is to take the patient down the shaft of a mine (lead). 51. Mochrum.—Patients labouring under whooping-cough are carried to Chapel Finnan Well, and given a draught of its waters. 52. Wigtownshire (known over).—The well of St. Medana (St. Maiden) in the parish of Glasserton is resorted to for the cure of whooping-cough. At times the water is carried away for the same purpose. Not long ago a lady of title had a quantity of it sent to be administered to some members of her household that were suffering from the disease. 52a. Kirkmaiden.—There is a well at St. Medan’s cave, at which visitors were in the habit of leaving pins, buttons, and suchlike small articles. Some may still be seen around it. 53. Mochrum.—To get a ‘piece’! from a married woman having the same name as her husband effected a cure of whooping-cough. 54. Mochrum.—A cure for the bite of an adder is to kill a chicken, split it up, and while still warm tie the whole bird over the wound. 55. Minnigaffi—A mode of curing warts is by ‘selling’ them. The one ‘that has the warts takes as many stones as there are warts, ties them into a ‘bundle,’ and lays it on the public road. Whoever comes across it and opens it gets the warts. 56. Mochrum.—One mode of curing a cow or other domestic animal was to strike the teeth with a clew of blue yarn. My informant has seen this done. 57. Minnigaff—When one was dying the window or windows of the apartment were opened. ) A little bit of anything given to a person, particularly a child, to eat. 618 REPORT—1 896. 58. Minnigaff, Inch.— When death looked near or when one was dying, all kinds of food were taken from the apartment. 59. Minnigaffi—When one was dying, if there was a cat in the room, it was driven out. 60. Minnigaff, Inch.—When one died the looking-glass was turned or covered with a cloth. 61. Minnigaff-—The clock was stopped when one died. 62. Minnigaff:—A plate with a little salt was placed on the breast of the dead body. 63. Minnigaff-—A penny was placed on the eye of the dead if it did not close. 64. Inch.—A few friends are always present at the ‘kistin’—i.c., when the body is put into the coffin. 65. Inch.—There used to be wakes. Those present commonly employed themselves in religious exercises,—‘read and prayed time aboot.’ Those of the ‘ wilder sort’ smoked tobacco and kept themselves in good cheer by drinking whisky. 66. Jnch.—Wine and short-bread are commonly served to those that are present at a funeral. 67. Inch.—The coffin, when the house of death is at a distance from the graveyard, is conveyed in a cart to the graveyard. 68. Inch.—The coffin of a suicide was carried to the graveyard on two rough beech branches, and not on the ‘spokes’ on which the coffins of those who died a natural death were carried. The coftin was hoisted over the wall and buried close under it. The two beech branches were cast on the side of the grave next the wall. In later times the coffin was carried through the gateway. 69. Minnigaffi—A suicide was not buried in the graveyard. The clothes of the unfortunate were either buried in the grave or burned. 70. Mochrum.—lIt is believed that if one is ill and about to die, the cat of its own accord leaves the apartment in which the patient is lying. 71. Mochrum.—aA dog’s howling at night forebodes death. 72. Mochrum.—If£ one was ill and confined to bed, a Bible was placed below the bolster. My informant has seen this done. 73. Wigtownshire (General).—One on setting out on a journey, or to transact any piece of business, must not turn back to fetch anything that may have been forgotten. * 74. Mochrum,—lIt is accounted unlucky to meet a bare-footed woman. 75. Mochrum.—It is unlucky to meet a hare. (Gamekeeper, Alticry). 76. Mochrum.—It is unlucky to shoot a cuckoo. (Gamekeeper, Alticry). 77. Mochrum.—Crows flying high is an indication of coming wind and rain. 78. Mochrum.—Sea-gulls coming inland during the afternoon is a sign of rain. (Gamekeeper, Alticry). 79. Mochrum.—Geese ‘ flaupin’ up the water with their wings when they are swimming is a sign of rain. 80. Mochrum.—oOf the magpie it is said :— Yane’s sorrow, Twa’s mirth, Three’s a beerial, Four’s a birth, Five’s a ship in distress at sea, Six is a love-letter comin’ t’ me. (Gamekeeper, Alticry). SO OP CREO as 2 ar See LS NT ee ea ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 619 81. Mochrum.-—It is unlucky to meet a single magpie. To meet two brings luck. £2. Mochrum.—A few magpies flying and hopping about a house is an indication of a death in the house within no long time. 83. Mochrum.—If a hen crows she is killed at once. She is not cooked and used as food, but buried. Such a crowing is accounted most unlucky. 84. Mochrum.—It is looked on as unlucky if a hen lays a very small egg. Re ob Minnigaf.—A little of the cow’s droppings—‘sharn’—was put into the calf’s mouth when it fell from the cow. 86. Mochrum.—A little salt is sprinkled along the cow’s back when the calf is dropped. 87. Inch.—A sixpenny piece and a little salt were put into the bottom of the milking pail into which the first milk of a cow just calved was drawn. 88. General.—‘ Beesnan ’ is the name given to the first drawn milk of a newly calved cow. Jt is sometimes given asa draught to the cow, and sometimes part of it is made in scones, which are called ‘ beesnan scones.’ 89. Mochrum.—Some put a pinch of salt into the churn when the cream was to be churned. 90. Minnigaff:i—One day the goodwife at the farm of Waterside parish of Minnigaff began to ‘kirn the kirn.’ She churned in vain. No butter would ‘come.’ A horseshoe was put below the churn, and the butter came at once. 91. Jnch.—Each child carried every morning to school a peat to serve as fuel for the day. A scholar was appointed to see that each brought a peat, and of the proper size. If he considered any peat too small, or if any one neglected to bring one, the defaulter had to bring two next morn- ing. This inspector bore the name of ‘ Peat-bailie.’ 92. Inch.—The first reading book was called ‘ Reed-a-ma-daisy.’ 93. Minnigaffi—It was a custom that the beadle got a fleece of wool from each farmer in the parish at ‘clippin’ time.’ The sheep-shearing took place in June, and the beadle made his rounds commonly in July to collect his dues. 94. Minnigaffi—W hen a carpenter finishes his apprenticeship he treats some of his fellow-workmen and companions to strong drink. This treat- ing is called the - Lowsan.’ 95. Mochrum.—tThe quantity of oats taken to the mill to be ground into meal at one time for household use was commonly four bolls. This quan- tity was called a ‘kilncast,’ and the meal made from it a ‘melder.’ When the ‘ melder’ was brought home, a bannock of 14 or 13 inches was baked, and ‘fired’ in front of the fire. At the evening meal a dish of ‘brose,’ called the ‘melder brose,’ was served to the whole household, and then a piece of the bannock was given to each member of the family. A small quantity of the ‘melder’ was given to a poor neighbour, or to a working- man with a large family. This deed was thought to bring a blessing on the ‘melder’ and make it last well. _ 96. Inch.—A small cake with a hole in the centre, called the ‘melder- bannock,’ was baked from the ‘melder’ for each member of the family. The younger members not unfrequently put a piece of string through the hole and hung it round the neck. 97. Mochrum.—If a sower inadvertently omitted to sow a ‘rig’ when 620 REPORT—1896. he was sowing the seed, a member of the family would die before that time next year. 98. Mochrum.—The reapers, when ‘ shearing,’ would not allow a woman to put off her bonnet and ‘shear’ with bare head. If a woman did so, one of the reapers would soon cut his (her) fingers. 99. Minnigaf—When a young horse was taken to the smithy to receive the first shoes, whisky was carried by the one that took the animal to the smithy. When the first nail was driven into the first shoe, the smith and any others that might be present were treated with a glass each. 100. Port William, Mochrum.—An old blacksmith told me that it was the custom to give the smith a glass of whisky when he had finished putting on the first shoe of the first set of shoes of a young horse. 101. Minnigagi—oOn the first day of April jokes used to be played. One would pretend to send a letter to a friend, and the ene on whom the joke was to be played was asked to carry it. The victim, suspecting nothing, took the letter and carried it. All that the letter contained was, ‘Send the gowck another mile,’ and this might sometimes be done. 102. Minnigaff-—On Halloween a dish of mashed potatoes—‘beetlt praties’—was prepared. Into it were put a ring, a sixpenny piece, and a button. The dish was stirred in the form of the figure 8. The household partook all together of the dish. 103. Minnigaff-—There existed at one time in the parish of Minnigaff a Hell-fire Club. The members used to meet at Creeton. On one occasion they celebrated the Sacrament of the Lord’s Supper by giving the bread and wine to their dogs. The room in which this profanation took place was afterwards haunted. All the members died untimely deaths. 104. Minnigaff—lIf a fire was kept constantly burning for a period of years, a beast grew at the back of it. Such was the case with the fire of a woman called Nelly Coull. that lived at Corbreknowe or Cordorkan. 105. Minnigafi—Over the river Penkiln there is a bridge not far above the point where it joins the Cree. It is called Queen Mary’s Bridge. It consists of two arches. The middle pier rests on a rock. On the top of this rock is a round hole like a small cauldron. It is a custom to take three stones, to form a ‘silent wish,’ and to lean over the parapet, and drop the stones, the one after the other, into the hole. If the stones fall into it, the wish will be fulfilled. 106. Minnigaff:—Children’s Hogmanay rhyme :— Rise, guidwife, an shake your feathers ; Dinna think that we are beggars, Boys and girls come out to play, To seek our Hogmanay. Gin ve dinna gee’s our Hogmanay, We dunner a yer doors the day. 107. Inch.—Everything was made ready for the New Year’s welcome. Oaten cakes had been baked ; and a haggis had been cooked, and was served cold. The ‘first fit’ got a ‘farle o’ bread’ and a slice of the cold haggis. 108. Minnigaffi—A cake of flour with dried fruit is made by each household. It is of a round shape. It is baked in a pot. 109. Minnigaff-—A day or two before Hogmanay a haggis has been cooked and set aside to cool. On Hogmanay it is laid out on a table with a knife beside it. When the ‘first fit’ has finished his congratulations he EES SS ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 621 helps himself to a slice of the haggis, and walksaway. Each one that calls afterwards does the same. The custom still exists, but not to such an extent as in days of old. ‘There’s not one in fifty’ compared with old times. 110. Minnigaf—All dirty water and ashes —in short, all that is usually carried out of a house each morning—are carried out on the last evening of the year. This is done that nothing may have to be taken out on New Year’s Day. 111. Znch.—The ashes, as well as all dirty water, were carried out of the house on the last evening of the year. 112. Minnigaff:—Nothing was given out of a house on New Year’s Day. 113. Inch, Minnigaff—tIt was deemed unlucky to give a burning peat to a neighbour to kindle a fire on the morning of New Year’s Day, and no housewife would do so. 114. Minnigaff.—It was taken as an omen for good if one brought anything into the house on New Year’s Day. 115. Jnch.—It was accounted unlucky for a man with red hair to come into the house on New Year’s morning as ‘ first fit.’ If it was known that one with such hair intended coming as ‘first fit,’ means were taken to forestall him. 116. Mochrum.—One with fair hair is accounted an unlucky ‘ first fit’ on the morning of the New Year. There are some that will not open the door to one having such hair. 117. Mochrwm.—One with dark hair is counted a lucky ‘ first fit’ on the morning of New Year’s Day. 118. Jnch.—One of good character was preferred as ‘first fit’ on the morning of New Year’s Day. 119. Creebank Farm, Minnigaffi—At 12 o’clock on New Year’s Eve the ‘foreman’ entered the master’s bedroom as ‘first fit.’ He carried with him a sheaf of oats and a bottle of whisky. He cast the sheaf on the bed over the master and his wife. A glass of whisky was then poured out and health to the family and prosperity to the farming opera- tions were drunk to. 120. Mochrum.—It was customary on the morning of the New Year to give a portion of unthreshed oats to each of the horses and the cattle of the farm. 121. Mochrum.—One must have on some piece of new dress on New Year’s Day. 122. Minnigaff:—As the clock strikes twelve at night on Hogmanay a large bonfire is kindled on the Green of the village of Minnigaff. For some weeks before the boys are busy collecting brushwood and pieces of fallen trees from the neighbouring woods. The Earl of Galloway, to whom the woods belong, gives all facilities for this purpose. By the last day of the year a goodly quantity of material has been gathered. On that day everyone is busy in erecting the pile to be burned, and before the appointed hour everything is ready. There is no ceremony before or at the kindling, and there is no special person set apart to apply the fire. The pile burns through the night and commonly through part of next day. {t is always erected on the same spot. About seventy years ago the bonfire was composed of different material. For months before the bones all round the district were collected and stored in a little hut built by the boys with rough stones in a corner of the village green. The bones of 622 REPORT—1896, any animal that had died and been buried for a considerable time were dug up and stored. For about a fortnight previous to Hogmanay the boys went the round of the village and laid all the peat-stacks under tribute. The peats were all carefully stowed away till required. On the last day of the year the peats were first piled up, and then the pile was covered with the bones. At twelve o'clock at night the whole was set on fire, and the younger part of those present ran round the blazing pile, but no words were repeated. My informant (eighty-three years of age) has engaged in all this. He also said that he as well as others used to get empty tar-barrels, put a little tar into them, place them on their heads, have the tar in them set on fire, and, with them blazing on their heads, parade the village. About thirty years ago those in authority set them- selves to put down the custom. The bonfire was erected as usual, but the word went round that the kindling of it was to be prevented, and if anyone succeeded in kindling it every endeavour would be made to ‘droon’t oot,’ and this could have been easily done, as the village pump is quite close to the site of the bonfire. Nothing daunted, the villagers assembled to wait the current of events. As the midnight hour approached, the policeman made his appearance carrying a pail. He came up to the pile, put down his pail, and began to walk round and round the green. The boys stood at a distance, peeping from every corner, and watching if an opportunity of throwing a piece of fire on the pile could be found. Ti. aes - 5 ; 9,945 ake DBE w ‘ é : 31 ” 71 ” . : . 9,360 ” 48 ” O 0 2 38 cnt is ‘ é 5,850 Penk (aes 5 = . negative az ..,, big” Siewithy 260 A aoa rome Bas 1 o) 340°, Oa FAS yt ihe), hagrsaies |g ces Na 0 EXPERIMENT II. | EXPERIMENT VY. At time of mixine . : : 1,300 At time of mixing . : Be Re E240,0) After 21 a . ; ; : 1,105 Afcer 172 hours “ : 9,360 ah Lath a Es 780 » 244 ,, eo Eras Se 325 e wl is why are 650 - _ re 5 ‘ : 20K EXPERIMENT YI. St ae - 3 c 2 | At time of mixing . 2 : 325 5 40! = P ‘ # O | After 172 hours ‘ i - 2 EXPERIMENT III. EXPERIMENT VII. At time of mixing . % . 22.750 | At time of mixing . ; 3 325 After 5 hours : , . 17,550 | After 504 hours (water kept at eas oe, Say Oo S' Cfo 1G) 2-74; 79 Mg = bs Ap.) Pipa oe EXPERIMENT VIII. ” ” . . . ’ » 247 4 i’ Auvtrds 455 | Attimeof mixing .. 325 me OLb CC, F 5 ‘ 325 | After 504 hours : - : 0 These results are fairly uniform. When a large number of bacilli are added to the water their presence may be demonstrated longer than in cases where smaller quantities are used. Fourteen days would appear to be the average duration in sea-water incubated at 35° C., whilst kept in the cold their presence was demonstrated on the twenty-first day. There appears to be no initial or subsequent multiplication of the bacilli. Between forty and seventy hours after infection there is less decrease than at other periods ; but there is no evidence of increase in numbers of the bacilli when grown in sea-water either when incubated or at ordinary temperatures. We do not think, however, that these experiments can be taken without reserve as an indication of what might take place in nature. II1.—The Bacteria present in the Alimentary Canal of the Oyster. This research has proved of very considerable utility in guarding us against errors in our subsequent infection experiments, and are of further 666 REPORT—1896. interest in demonstrating the large number of cases in which the colon bacillus was normally present. No, of Colonies Bacillus isolated giving following Reactions : Oysters v : a Salt-water) Fermen- Coagula- KI as Agar Gelatine tation Eadol tion Gelatine Motility =? A 0 | not made) B 5 F 0 B. coli not [2 looked for F 6 ( 108 | Shop 2 | 1080 active marked | marked | marked -- decolorised 390 | Ae 455 2 | | | 2 | active | marked | marked | marked | very motile| decolorised 102 | 350 | | » O 12 | / | 1,170 | 21 195 / | 5 | » 6 i| 29 | : {| 5 | | » 74 3 g ! 3 | | ” (| 70 | active | none marked | marked | motile decolorised ( 9 | active | none marked | marked | = decolorised 5 » 95 65 ) | ( 260 195 » 10 { | 590 | | n! 65 | active | marked | marked | marked | motile decolorised ” { 70 q2 J | 650 | | ye iit) (eee od active none marked marked | motile decolorised 131) 150 | | active marked | marked | marked | motile decolorised ” l| 195 | | 14 $| 6 none none marked | marked | motile decolorised ” il | 2 | ip {| 100 | active marked | marked | marked | motile decolorised ” ( | 5 | | 16 f 20 4 | active marked | marked | marked | motile decolorised ” UI 70 | } sy) pola | 25 8,025 | active marked | marked | marked | motile decolorised 19 1 2,330 | * 90 | 265 | 13,000 | ae 100 1,755 | active marked | marked | marked | motile decolorised 3 22 35 | 2,330 | active marked | marked marked | motile decolorised sree 15 3,025. | active marked | marked marked | motile decolortsed a 24 40 6,500 | 3) 95 5 13,000 | 26 2 8775 | ea 29 325 | 17,550 | active marked | marked marked | motile deecolorised 30 50 20,475 | es 31 65 | 2,925 | active marked | marked | marked motile | decolorised Methods.—In analysing the contents of the stomach we have in all cases cauterised the mantle over the region of the stomach, and have inserted a sterilised fine glass pipette and withdrawn a quantity of fiuid varying from ;\, to #1, of a cubic centimetre. The contents of the tube have then been mixed with liquefied agar, ordinary gelatine, or sea-water gelatine, and Petri dishes made. The agar dishes have been incubated at ON INFECTIVITY, ETC., OF THE OYSTER. 667 37° C., the gelatine at 21°C. to 24°C. As the figures will subsequently demonstrate, there is an enormous difference between the number of organisms appearing upon the agar incubated at the high temperature and the simple or sea-water gelatine incubated at the low temperature. This heat method of separation proved quite equal to, if not better than, the earbolic acid or potassic iodide methods. Experiments.—In the first six cases examined precautions were taken to ensure that the oysters were especially fresh ; in the other cases they were obtained haphazard from the various shops (see table opposite). The number of organisms taken from the stomach of the oyster which could survive a temperature of 37°C. were comparatively small. In a very large proportion of cases (4 to }) the organism present was 4. coli in overwhelming numbers, and next in frequency were species of Proteus. It will be seen that in one instance at least the organism approached in its reactions the typhoid type. We believe that on account of the presence of this coli group the identification of the B. typhosus would be difficult in nature. We cannot at present state whether the coli group found in these experiments indicates sewage contamination, or whether we are dealing with a group common in the intestine of the oyster and in salt-water. The matter is being investigated by us. But as bearing upon the next question we have found that the perfectly fresh oyster contains far fewer bacteria, and that the percentage of &. coli is much less. IV.—The Infection of the Oyster with the B. typhosus and its Removal by Washing. The following table shows that the typhoid bacillus does not increase in the body or in the tissues of the oyster. The figures would rather indi- cate, comparing the large number of bacilli present in the water with those found in the alimentary tract, that the bacilli perish in the intestine. : Table showing Number of Organisms present in Stomach after infecting Water. | ee ae | Organisms | = y Oyster! Inoculated | Examined ~°°™®S!) _ present oe present in the 75 0 alee in Oyster Sess Agar | 1 Aug. 25 | Aug. 26 1,700 almost en- | water in the same case | |tirely typhoid) 585,000 per c.c. 2 ” ” } ” ” 3 A Aug. 27 7,020 b water in the same case | 468,000 per c.c. 4 i | Ang. 28 7,000 | + | water in the same case 40,950 on agar, 5,200 | gelatine 5 Aug. 26 | Aug. 29 455 7 6 Aug. 28 | Aug. 30 195 3 | water in the same case 2,047,500 per c.c. 7 a Sept. 4 390 4 8 Aug. 31 Fa 325 pe 9 3 Sept. 10 455 As 668 REPORT—1896. In the following series of experiments infected oysters were taken, the duplicates of which, as seen in the preceding table, contained comparatively large numbers of the B. typhosus, and were subjected to a running stream of pure clean sea-water. The result is definite and uniform ; there is a great diminution or total disappearance of the B. typhosus in from one to seven days. No. of Oyster | Inoculated | Washed | Examined a Kind of Organisms present Agar i Aug. 25 | Aug.26 | Aug.30 | 80 2 colonies B. typhosus ory 3 | Aug. 28 3 gee B. typhosus present 3 (| Aug. 26 | + ” | 44 3 fe a: ” | Aug. 29 ” 40 ” ” 5 Aug. 2 ” ” | 5 ” ” 6 = = Aug. 31 700 abundant B. typhosus 7 Aug. 28 | Aug. 30 Ege | meta B. typhosus present 8 Aug. 26 | Aug. 28 Sept. 3 | 4 1 B. typhosus 9 Aug. 27 Aug. 29 oi 10 no B. typhosus found 10. 4 i * # 8 3 colonies of B. typhosus 11 | Aug.28 | Aug.30 | Sept.4 | 4 1 colony of B. typhosus 12 a Sept. 3 bs 200 mInajority B. typhosus 13 Aug. 31 | 2 | - 4 14 | Aug. 28 | Sept. 3 Sept.6 | 65 no B.typhosus, but Proteus 15 =| Aug. 3l ES Be 5 ? B. typhosus 16%) = Sept. 5 as | 70 one half colonies B. typhosus 1 7 | Sept.3 | Sept. 10 1 no B, typhosus 13} i; | Sept.5 | Sept. 11 2 ? B. typhosus V.—The Green Coloration and ‘ Green Disease’ in Oysters. We have been investigating the well-known green coloration of certain healthy oysters grown at Marennes and other places on the west and north coasts of France, and in the river Roach in Essex. It has long been known that copper has nothing to do with this green colour, but an attempt has lately been made to show that it is due to the presence of iron in the mud which is taken up by cells in the gills, &e. At our request Dr. Kohn has made a chemical analysis of oysters from a number of localities for us, and his results (given in detail as a separate paper) show conclusively that, while there are minute quantities of both iron and copper in all oysters, the amount present bears no proportion to the degree of green coloration. There is not more iron in the gills and labial palps than in the rest of the body, and there is, on the whole, more iron in ordinary white or yellow American and Dutch oysters than in the green ‘huitres de Marennes.’ We have made experiments in the feeding of oysters with various strengths of a number of saline solutions of iron and of copper salts, with the result that, although in some of the experiments the oysters lived healthily for weeks, and the shells and other exposed parts became strongly coloured—green, blue, brown, and yellow, according to the salt deposited— in no case did the soft tissues take in any staining until after death. There was no evidence that any iron had been taken up by the animal. The cause and meaning of the green coloration of the French cultivated = ON INFECTIVITY, ETC., OF THE OYSTER. 669 oyster are still under investigation, and we hope to give a fuller account of it in our next report. We do not doubt that these oysters are in a thoroughly healthy condition, and their colour is not due to copper or iron. There is, however, a pale greenness (quite different in appearance from the blue-green of the ‘ huitres de Marennes’) which we have met with in some American oysters laid down in this country, and which we regard as a disease. It is characterised by a leucocytosis in which enormous numbers of leucocytes come out on the surface of the body, and especially on the mantle. The green patches visible to the eye correspond to accumulations of the leucocytes, which in mass have a green tint. These cells are granular and ameboid. The granules do not give any definite reaction with the aniline stains, and so far we have not made out their precise nature. Associated with the green disease we have found numerous exceedingly small flagellate organisms both in the blood and in the green patches, and observations so far lead us to believe that there is some relationship between the two. We have tried growing oysters under various unusual conditions, including the addition to the sea-water of fluids from alkali works, such as may enter our estuaries, in the hope of getting some clue to the cause of this green disease, but have so far failed to reproduce exactly in the laboratory the changes which apparently take place in nature. Our present opinion, however, is that oysters exhibiting this pale-green leucocytosis are in an unhealthy state, and we may add that we find the liver in these specimens is histologically in an abnormal, shrunken, and degenerate condition. Whether actually ‘unfit for food’ or not, they are at any rate in very ‘poor’ condition, and have lost the aroma and flavour of the normal healthy oyster. For much assistance in connection with this research the authors acknowledge their indebtedness to Mr. Andrew Scott, Drs. Abram, Evans, and Balfour Stewart. Physiological Applications of the Phonograph.—Report by the Com- mittee, consisting of Professor JoHN G. McKEnpRICK (Chairman), Professor G. G. Murray, Mr. Davin 8S. WINGATE, and Mr. Joun S. McKenprick, on the Physiological Applications of the Phonograph, and on the Form of the Voice-curves made by the Instrument." 1. THE work of the Committee has, during the past year, been directed to improving the method by which the curves of the phonograph may be transcribed. The arrangement described in the ‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology ’ for July 1895 has been much improved in two respects : (1) by driving the phonograph at a slow rate by a small electric motor ; and (2) by adapting the recording lever, now made of aluminium, to a new form of siphon recorder.? In this way beautiful curves may be obtained, amplified from 500 to 800 times, and on strips of telegraph 1 See Brit, Assoc. Report for 1895, p. 454. 2 The Committee are much indebted to Lord Kelvin for encouragement during the research. They also desire to express their obligations to Mr. Reid and to Mr. Keen, of James White and Co., for executing the mechanical devices employed. 670 REPORT—1896. paper moving at such a speed that the vibrations occurring in 0°5 second are spread over a distance of about 12 feet. The curves are thus greatly amplified, and the following facts may be demonstrated graphically :— (1) That many instruments have a curve-form so characteristic as to enable one by inspecting the curve to recognise the instrument. (2) That the curve-forms of sounds produced by instruments giving a pure tone are comparatively simple, while the curve-forms of instruments giving a mixed tone (with numerous partials) are more complicated. (3) That the curve forms of sounds produced by a band of music, or such a noise clang as that of a boiler-maker’s shop, are very complicated. (4) That if the tone of an instrument predominates in the sound of a band, the characteristic curve-form may be seen, modified to some extent by the other instruments. (5) That the curve-forms indicating a gradation from a tone of one pitch to a tone of another pitch may be observed. (6) That when numerous sounds, varying in pitch, follow each other in rapid suc- cession (as when a piece of music is quickly played), from ten to fifteen vibrations appear to be sufficient to enable the ear to appreciate the relative pitch of any one of the tones, or, in other words, pitch may be appreciated by vibrations lasting only a fraction of a second. This time cannot yet be definitely stated, as it has been found to vary from ./j>th to !,th of a second.! _ 2. The Committee has carefully studied the mechanism of the recording point in the English form of the phonograph, and they have constructed a model which makes the matter easily understood. The original tinfoil phonograph was so constructed that when the diaphragm was pressed inwards by the condensation of the air wave, the marker made a corre- sponding depression on the tinfoil, and when the diminution of pressure came on, corresponding to the rarefaction of the air wave, the marker passed away from the tinfoil. There were thus a series of marks the depth of each of which corresponded to the degree of pressure on the diaphragm. A hasty inspection of the more complicated apparatus in the English model might lead one to suppose that the action in it was of the same nature, but a careful scrutiny will show that this is not the case. By a large model made for the Committee it can be seen that, when pressure is made on the diaphragm, the effect is to cause the cutting edge of the recording gouge to be directed downwards. As the cutting edge of the gouge is directed against the wax cylinder, and is opposed to the rotation of the latter, it is evident that this change of the angle of the gouge to a downward direction will cause the gouge to cut a deeper groove into the wax cyliader. The depth of the groove, as determined by the angular movement, is therefore a measure of the pressure on the glass disk. It must be borne in mind that when no pressure is exerted on the glass disk the marker cuts a groove. When there is greater pressure, by the cutting edge being placed at a larger angle with the tangent of the curved surface of the cylinder, a deeper groove will be cut. On the other hand, when the cutting edge is placed at a smaller angle with the tangent of the curved surface of the cylinder a shallower groove will be ploughed on the surface of the wax cylinder. It follows that, if the sound acting on the wax cylinder of the phonograph be very intense, during the increase of pressure, the groove will be deep, and during the diminution 1 A detailed account of the investigation will appear in the Trans. of the Roya Soc. of Hdin., 1896. ; ON PHYSIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE PHONOGRAPH. 671 of pressure the groove will be shallow ; and so great may be the difference between the plus pressure of condensation and the minus pressure of rare- faction that during the latter the recording point may only skim the surface of the wax cylinder, without making any groove. This explains an anomaly in several of the photographs taken of portions of the surface of the wax cylinder. For example, a photograph of a portion of a record taken of sound emitted by a full organ shows deep furrows, continued for a considerable distance, corresponding to the long chord-like sounds of the instrument, and these are succeeded by portions in which there is no groove. In this case, so great has been the rebound from the state of great pressure that the cutting edge has only slid along the surface of the wax cylinder without cutting a groove. ' Tt is possible that here we have the explanation of one of the imperfec- tions of the phonograph, or, perhaps, rather an illustration of the wrong way of using the instrument. All who have tried the instrument must have observed that the best effects are obtained by tones of moderate intensity. If too weak, the tones given out by reproduction are only imperfectly heard on account of their weak intensity, and by no system of reinforcement or electrical relays can these be made fairly audible. On the other hand, if too strong, there are two risks :—(lst) The intensity of the tone may cause a jarring between the end of the wire in the loop connecting the wire of the lever with the wire from the glass disk, and, as this is communicated to the glass disk, a noise is produced ; and (2nd) the intensity of the tone may be so great as to cause, during the rarefaction of the air corresponding to the diminution of pressure, the recording marker to come to the surface of the wax cylinder, or even to leave it altogether. Suppose the marker just skims the surface, it will produce a friction sound which must affect quality, and suppose the marker leaves the surface altogether for a fraction of a second, there will be a rebound from the glass disk (owing to the removal of pressure coming from the marker) which is not exactly the same as the diminution of pressure due to the rarefaction of the aérial wave in the immediately preceding vibration These changes must affect quality of tone. 3. The Committee has also been engaged on a method of recording variations in the intensity of the sounds of the phonograph. Suppose a series of sound waves of gradually increasing intensity to act on the disk of the phonograph, the pressure on the disk will gradually increase, and the normal groove will be cut deeper. In this process each vibration wil. be a little deeper than the one immediately before it, but the difference in depth will be very small. If the increase of pressure of the note or chord lasted more than half a second, the extent of surface covered by the recording point during that time would be nearly 7 inches, and there might be from 500 to 1,000 depressions in that distance. Suppose, now, that we recorded all these little depressions, it will be evident that the _ gradually increasing differences in height of the little curves would scarcely be appreciable. The slow method of recording vibrations, there- fore, whilst it is the method by which data can be obtained that have to do with pitch and quality, will fail in giving us a record of variations in intensity. This aspect of the matter came under notice at an early period of the investigation. So far as the Committee are aware, no one has attacked this side of the problem. Nothing is more striking in listening to the phonograph when it is reproducing either human speech or musical 672 REPORT—1896. sounds than the way in which it catches every inflection of the voice or the slightest emphasis, diminuendo, and crescendo of the sound. This must be due to variations of pressure. How may these variations be recorded ? The most evident method is to attempt to record mechanically the variations in an electro-magnet produced by pressures on a variable resistance apparatus in the same circuit. The first attempt of the Committee was to place Graham’s transmitter over the glass disk of the phonograph and to place in the same circuit an electro-magnetic marker such as is used for physiological purposes. This gave poor results, but still they were encouraging. On placing a Breguet’s chronograph in circuit the results were much better, and it was evident that there was a movement of the vibrator of the chronograph for each note or chord emitted by the phonograph. The Committee then heard of an ingenious apparatus devised by Heurtley of Breslau, by which he has succeeded in recording by electrical and mechanical arrangements the sounds of. the heart. His apparatus consists essentially of a large stethoscope on which a peculiar resonator is fixed. The resonator carries a small wooden tuning-fork, between the prongs of which is fixed a simple microphonie contact of two carbon buttons. This is one half of the apparatus. The other half consists of an electro-magnet, over the poles of which is fixed, face downwards, a shallow tambour, of the Marey pattern, having on its under surface a broad ferrotype plate. This tambour is then connected with an extremely delicate recording tambour. It is evident that the second half of this apparatus is exactly what is wanted for the phono- graph work, and, by the kindness of Professor Heurtley, the apparatus was made in Tiibingen without delay. When placed in the circuit along with the carbon transmitter the pen of the recording tambour moves at right angles to the line of revolution of the cylinder with each tone and chord played by the phonograph. When the ear perceives tones of con- siderable intensity the lever point is seen moving through a greater distance than when the tones are weaker; consequently we have a graphic record of the variations in intensity. If the recording cylinder is timed to travel at the same rate as the cylinder of the phonograph, then the curves on the former exactly correspond to the ensemble of the minute marks on the latter corresponding to a particular variation in intensity. When the recording cylinder is caused to travel as fast as the phonograph cylinder, the variation in the heights of the curves recorded on the revolving cylinder is not so apparent as when the recording cylinder travels more slowly. It is easy, however, to time the rate of revolution of both cylinders by a chronograph. Thus we have found that when the recording cylinder is travelling at such a rate that an extent of surface of one-fourth of an inch corresponds to one-fourth of a second, an easily read tracing is obtained. In such a distance we may have one little wave representing the pressure of a chord lasting for one-fourth of a second, or we may have from two to as many as fifteen little waves, often varying much in general character. Suppose we find as many as fifteen ; then each must have lasted not more than ,,th of a second. Even then the ear is able to follow the individual notes when the phonograph is listened to simultaneously. This may be readily done either by listening directly to the phonograph or by connecting a telephone with the secon- dary of an induction coil, while the current in which the variable resistance ON PHYSIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE PHONOGRAPH. 673 apparatus is interposed passed through the primary. If, then, we. hold the telephone to the ear while we look at the little pen writing on the recording drum, it is easy to see that the sensations are simultaneous. Now if a note of a pitch, say, of 300 vibrations per second lasts only gpth of a second, it is evident that only five vibrations must have occurred in that time. This shows that we may appreciate a tone and decide as to its pitch if only five vibrations fall on the ear. This conclusion coincides with the opinion previously arrived at from a careful inspection of the photographs and of the mechanically recorded curves. Of course we assume that the music is being played by the phonograph in its proper tempo. If the phonograph is made to travel faster, possibly it may be found that pitch may be appreciated for even shorter periods. Examina- tion of the curves shows that as a rule no ‘chord’ lasts longer than half a second. This method of recording seems well suited to the study of the time relations if a series of complex sounds pour in upon the ear. By causing the lever of the tambour to act on the siphon recorder, large curves are readily obtained, and a complete tracing of a piece of music from the phonograph cylinder may be transcribed on a band of paper about four feet in length. If one doubts whether the movements of the recording lever are ex-, pressions of the tones of the phonograph, three ways are open by which the statement may be put to the test :—(1) Listen attentively with the telephone, and at the same time watch the recording point. The sensa- tions of hearing and of vision for any particular note are simultaneous. (2) Remove the elastic tube from the recording tambour and place it in the ear, and the music will be heard. (3) Lead the elastic tube from the electric tambour to a recording phonograph, and a feeble record will be obtained of the music, showing that all the vibrations are present. In the last two experiments, as might be expected, quality suffers, but the rhythm, the tempo, and the general character of the tune are repro- duced. The apparatus may also be used for recording phonetic sounds, such as syllabic sounds, words, sentences, cc. 4. The Committee desire reappointment and an additional grant of 15/. It is proposed to carry out the following work during the year 1896-97 :— (1) To continue the investigation, with the improved recorder, of the phonographic curves of one or two selected instruments. (2) To investigate the curves of speech, taking simple syllabic sounds, such as man, can, pat, rat, &c. (3) To begin a series of phonographic records of dialects with the view of ascertaining how far such records can be made available for philological purposes, This investigation was suggested in the report of re “ohana made aetna at Ipswich in 1895, but it had to be elayed from pressure of other work. 1896. pa 2 674 REPORT—1896. On the Ascent of Water in Trees. By Francis Darwin, F.R.S. [Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.] Wiruin the last few years the problem of the ascent of water has entered on a new stage of existence. The researches which have led to this new development are of such weight and extent that they might alone occupy our time. It will be necessary, therefore, to avoid, as far as possible, going into ancient history. But it will conduce to clearness to recall some of the main stepping-stones in the progress of the subject. The two questions to be considered are—(1) What is the path of the ascending water? (2) What are the forces which produce the rise ? (1) The first question has gone through curious vicissitudes. The majority of earlier writers assumed that the water travelled in the vessels. This was not, however, a uniform view. Czsalpinus, 1583, seems! to have thought that water moved by imbibition in the ‘nerves.’ Malpighi and Ray held that the vessels serve for air, and the wood fibres for the ascent of water. Hales,” who believed in the ‘sap-vessels’ as conduits, speculated on the passage upwards of water between the wood and the bark. Also,* that water may travel as vapour not in the liquid state. In the present century Treviranus,‘ 1835, held that water travelled in vessels ; De Candolle, 1832, that the intercellular spaces were the conduits. In Balfour’s ‘Manual of Botany,’ 1863, vessels, cells, and intercellular spaces are spoken of as transmitting the ascending water. The change in botanical opinion was introduced by the great authority of Sachs,” who took up Unger’s view ® that the transpiration current travels in the thickness of the walls as water of imbibition. Then followed the reaction against the imbibitionists—a reaction which has maintained its position up to the present time. Boehm, who had never adopted the imbibition theory, must have the credit of initiating this change : his style was confused and his argument marred by many faults, but the reaction should in fairness be considered as a conversion to his views, as far as the path of the travelling water is concerned. Nevertheless, it was the work of others who principally forced the change on botanists—e.g., von Hohnel,’ Elfving,® Russow,® R. Hartig,!® Vesque,!! Godlewski,!? and others. (2) The second question has a curious history, and one that is not particularly creditable to botanists generally. Jt has been characterised ' Sachs, Hist. of Bot. (English Trans.), p. 451. * Vegetable Staticks, p. 130. 3 Loe. cit. p. 19. 4 Sachs, History. 5 Physiol. Végétale (French Trans.), 1868, p. 235, and more fully in the Lehrbuch. Sachs also partially entertained Quincke’s well-known suggestion of movement of a film of water on the surface of vessels. * Sitz. kk. Ahad. Wien, 1868. Dixon and Joly’s paper in the Annals of Botany, September 1895, gives evidence in favour of a certain amount of movement of the imbibed water. 7 Pringsheims Jahrb. xii. 1879. 8 Bot. Zeitung, 1882. ® Bot. Centr. xiii. 1883. ‘0 «Ueber die Vertheilung,’ &c., Untersuchungen aus dem Forst. Bot. Inst. zu Miinchen, ii. and iii. n Ann. Se. Nat. xv. 1883, p. 5. 2 Pringsheims Jahrb. xv. 1884. 5 a at NR OM _ ON THE ASCENT OF WATER IN TREES. 675 by loose reasoning, vagueness as to physical laws, and a general tendency to avoid the problem, and to scramble round it in a mist of vis & tergo, capillarity, Jamin chains, osmosis, and barometric pressure. An exception to this accusation (to which I personally plead guilty) is to be found in Sachs’ imbibition theory, in which, at any rate, the baro- metric errors were avoided, though it has difficulties of its own, as Elfving has pointed out. But the most hopeful change in botanical speculation began with those naturalists who, concluding that no purely physical causes could account for the facts, invoked the help of the living elements in the wood. To Westermaier ' and Godlewski ? is due the credit of this notable advance ; for, whether future research uphold or destroy their conclusions, it claims our sympathy as a serious facing of the problem by an ingenious and rational hypothesis.? We may pass over the cloud which arose to witness for and against these theories, and proceed at once to Strasburger’s great work,‘ in which, with wonderful courage and with the industry of genius, he set himself to work out the problem de novo, both anatomically and physiologically. In my opinion it is difficult to praise too highly this great effort of Strasburger’s. Strasburger’s general conclusion is now well known. He convinced himself that liquid can be raised to heights greater than that of the barometric column in cut stems, in which the living elements have been killed. Therefore, the cause of the rise could not be (1) barometric pressure, (2) nor root pressure, (3) nor could it be due to the action of the living elements of the wood. His conclusions may be stated as follows :— (a) The escent of water is not dependent on living elements, but is a purely physical phenomenon. (5) None of the physical explanations hitherto made are sufficient to account for the facts. Strasburger has been most unjustly depreciated, because his book ends in this confession of ignorance. I do not share such a view. I think to establish such distinct, though negative, conclusions would be, in this most nebulous of subjects, an advance of great value. Whether he has established these conclusions must of course be a matter of opinion. To discuss them both would be to go over 500 pages of Strasburger’s book, and will not here be attempted. Conclusion (a) that the ascent is not de- pendent on living elements must, however briefly, be discussed, because it is here that the roads divide. If we agree with Strasburger, we know that we must seek along the physical line ; if we differ from him, we are bound to seek for the missing evidence of the action of the living elements. Schwendener’s Criticism.—Perhaps the best plan will be to consider the most serious criticism that has been published of Strasburger’s work, namely, Schwendener’s paper ‘ Zur Kritik,’ &c.? ! Deutsch Bot. Ges., BA. i. 1883, peor. 2 Pringsheims Jahrb., xv. 1884. * It is of interest to note that Hales, in speaking of the pressure which he found to exist in bleeding trees, says: ‘ This force is not from the root only, but must also proceed from some power in the stem and branches’ (Veg. Staticks, 1727, p. 110). + Leitungshahnen, 1891. * K. Preuss. Ahad. 1892, p. 911, xx2 676 REPORT—1 896. Schwendener objects that although a continuous column of water cannot be raised by air pressure to a greater height than that of the barometric column, yet when broken into a number of columns, as in the case of a Jamin chain, that a column considerably over 10 m., even as much as 13 or 14 m., of water can be suspended. This, though not fatal to Strasburger’s conclusions, is no doubt a serious criticism. For if 13 m. can be supported, some of Strasburger’s experiments are inconclusive. He finds that a branch can suck up a poisonous fluid to over 10 m., and, as above explained, argues that all ascent above that height, not being due to barometric pressure or to the living elements (since the wood is poisoned), is for the present inexplicable. But, if Schwendener is right, the effect above 10 m. may have been due to atmospheric pressure. Askenasy (loc. cit. infra, 1895, p. 6) objects to Schwendener that the supposed action cannot be continuous. By repeating the diminution of air pressure at the upper end the movement of water becomes less and less, and sinks to almost nothing. Askenasy adds, moreover, that the amount of water which could be raised according to Schwendener’s theory would be very small. One diticulty about Schwendener’s theory is that the result depends on the length of the elements of which the chain is made up (such element being a water column plus an air bubble). In his paper ‘ Ueber das Saftsteigen’! he finds that the elements of the chain in /agus equal in round numbers 0°5 mm. In his paper? ‘ Wasserbewegung in der Jamin’schen Kette’ he finds the element in Acer psewdo-platanus=0'9 mm., in Acer platanoides and Ulmus effusa=0°2. But the calculation (1892, p. 934) is based on the existence of a chain in which the water columns are each 10 mm. in length ; a condition of things which he allows does not occur in living trees. But even if we allow Schwendener to prove theoretically the possi- bility of a Jamin chain being raised to a height much greater than that of a barometric column, I do not think he invalidates Strasburger’s posi- tion. Schwendener’s idea necessitates the travelling of a Jamin chain as a whole, 7.e., the translation, not only of water, but of air bubbles. But this cannot (as Strasburger points out) apply to his experiments on coni- fers, in which the movement of air to such an extent is impossible.* And for the case of dicotyledonous woods, Strasburger has shown that the movement of air is excluded by the fact that transverse walls occur in the vessels at comparatively short distances. In Aristolochia the sec- tions may be as long as 3m., but in ordinary woods, according to Adler,‘ we get: Alnus, 6 cm.; Corylus, 11 cm.; Betula, 12 cm. ; Quercus, 57 em. ; Robinia, 69 cm. These facts seem impossible to reconcile with Schwendener’s views. Action of the Poisonous Fluids in Strasburger’s Huperiments.— The question whether the living elements are killed in Strasburger’s experiments is of primary importance in the problem. Schwendener does not criticise it at length ; he seems to assume °—as far as I can understand—that since the death of the tissues extends gradually from the cut end upwards, there are living cells in the upper ' K. Preuss. Ahad. 1886, p. 561. 2 K. Preuss. Ahad. Sitz., 1893, p. 842. 3 ‘Ueber das Saftsteigen,’ Hist. Beitrdge, v. 1893, p. 50. ' As quoted by Strasburger. 5 Zur Kritik, loc. cit., 1892, p. 935 ee Si gy IO ¢ ON THE ASCENT OF WATER IN TREES. 677 part which may still be effective. He also doubts ‘whether the cells were always killed at once.’ The first objection of Schwendener’s may or may not be sound, but in any case it does not (as Strasburger points out) ac- count for the experiment! in which an oak stem was poisoned by picric acid, and three days afterwards was placed in fuchsin-picric. The second reagent had to travel in tissues already killed with picric acid, yet a height of 22 m. was reached. The question whether the reagents kill the cells in Strasburger’s experiments does not lend itself to discussion. It is difficult to see how they should escape, and we have Strasburger’s direct statement that the living tissues were visibly killed. It must not be forgotten that in some of his experiments the death of the tissues was produced by prolonged boiling, not by poisons.?, Thus the lower 12 m. of a Wistaria stem were killed in this way, yet liquid was sucked up toa height of 108 cm. In the Histolog. Beitr., v. p. 64, he has repeated his air-pump experiment, using a boiled yew branch, and found that eosin was sucked up from a vessel in which almost complete vacuum was established, so the action of living elements and of atmospheric pressure was excluded. On the whole, the balance of evidence is, in my judgment, against the belief that the living elements are necessary for the rise of water. In other words, I think we should be justified, from Strasburger’s work, in seeking the cause of ascent in the action of purely physical laws. Strasburger’s general argument from the structure of wood.—lt seems sometimes to be forgotten that, apart from the physiological or experi- mental evidence, there is another line of argument founded on the structure of wood. Strasburger’s unrivalled knowledge allows him to use this argument with authority, and he seems to me to use it with effect. Thus? he points out that though in coniferous wood the action of the living elements in pumping water is conceivable, yet this is far from being universally the case. He points out that in the monocotyledons such theories meet with almost unconquerable difficulties. This is, he says, especially the case in Dracena. He goes on to point to difficulties in the case of such dicotyledons as Albizzia. The case may perhaps best be put in the generalised manner that Strasburger himself employs.* If the living elements are of such importance as Godlewski, Westermaier, and Schwendener hold, we ought not to find these difticulties; we ought rather to find structural peculiarities pointing distinctly to the existence of such functions. For instance, we ought to find the tracheal water-path actually interrupted by living elements, which might act like a series of pumping stations one above the other. It should, however, be remem- bered that if we deny the importance of the medullary rays and other living elements in raising water, we ought to be able to point more clearly than we can at present to the function of the medullary rays and to structural adaptations to these functions. The work of Dixon and Joly and of Askenasy.—I now pass on to the recent work in which Strasburger’s indications to search along a purely physical line have been followed ; namely, the paper of Dixon and Joly,” 1 Hist. Beitr. v. p. 12. 2 Leitungsbahnen, p. 646. 8 Hist. Beitr. v. p. 17. 4 Loc. cit. p. 20. 5 Proc. Roy. Soc., vol, lvii. No. 340. Also Annals of Bot., vol. viii.; Phil. Trans., vol. 186, 1895 (B). 678 REPORT—1896. which was followed by that of Askenasy.' The leading idea common to these works is now well known, namely, that the raising of water to the tops of trees depends on the quality which water possesses of resisting tensile stress. To most botanists the existence of this quality is a new idea. To believe that columns of water should hang in the tracheals like solid bodies, and should, like them, transmit downwards the pull exerted on them at their upper ends by the transpiring leaves, is to some of us equivalent to believing in ropes of sand. Askenasy has earned the gratitude of his botanical readers by giving some of the evidence which demonstrates the existence of this property of water.?, A tube a meter in length was filled by Donny with water, and the remaining space was as far as possible freed from air. When the tube was placed vertically the water-column at the upper end hung there, and could not be made to break or free itself from the glass by violent shaking. Berthelot filled a thick-wall capillary tube completely with water at 28°-30 C.° ; it was allowed to cool to 18°, so that the space left by the shrinking of water was filled with air. It was then sealed up and again warmed to 28°-30°, so that the air was dissolved in the water. When it was allowed to cool again it retained its volume, filling the tube com- pletely. A slight shake, however, allowed the water to break and return to its proper volume at 18° with the appearance of a bubble of air. In this experiment the water contained air, yet it seems to have been until recently assumed by some physicists that, to show cohesion, water must be air-free. If this were the case the application of the principle to plants would be impossible. Dixon and Joly have, however, proved that this is not so, and this forms an important part of their contribution to the subject. They also? investigated the amount of tension which water under these circumstances will bear, and found it about equal to seven atmo- spheres. If, therefore, the leaves at the top of a tall tree can exert the requisite upward pull on the water in the trunk, it seems certain (if no other conditions in the problem interfere) that the pull can be transmitted to the level of the ground. This opens up the question whether the leaves can exert this traction on the water in the tracheals, and what is equally important, Are there any factors in the problem incompatible with the theory ? 1. Lhe sucking force of the leaves.—In Dixon and Joly’s first paper 4 they assume that tractional force is given by the meniscuses ‘formed inthe membranous réseau of the evaporating cell walls,’ as well as pos- sibly by the osmotic action of the cells of the mesophyll. We shall take these theories in order. Our knowledge of the cell wall does not allow us to believe in the existence of pores visible with even the highest powers of the microscope. Dixon’s more general expression, ‘surface tension forces developed in the substance of the walls of the evaporating cells,’ is there- ) Verhand. d. naturhist. med. Vereins Heidelberg, N.F., Bd. v. 1895; and N.F., Bd. v. 1896. * He gives references to Donny, Poggendonff’s Annalen, 67. Bd. (143. Bd. d. g. R.), 1846, p. 562; Berthelot, Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 8. 3, t. 30, 1850, p. 232; Worthington, Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. 1. 1892, p. 423. ° Phil. Trans. vol. 186, p. 570. With ethyl alcohol Worthington records a ten- sion of 17 atmospheres. See Proc. R. Soc., vol. 1. 4 Phil. Trans. pp. 563, 567. > Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. Jan. 13, 1896, p. 767. i i i i a i Re ee eee _—————— ss rc‘é (<&P’””~=s— , ON THE ASCENT OF WATER IN TREES. 679 fore preferable. But Askenasy seems to me to state the matter much more conveniently by using the term ‘imbibition.’! The force with which vegetable membranes, e.g., the thallus of Laminaria, absorb water has been demonstrated by Reinke and others, and the existence of such a force is familiar to botanists. Both Askenasy (loc. cit.) and Dixon and Joly? have pointed out that the force of imbibition, or the surface tension forces, as the case may be, can exert a tractional effect on the water in the tracheals, when the turges- cence of the mesophyll has been destroyed. But Askenasy in his original paper (1895), Dixon in the January 1896 paper, and again Askenasy in his second paper (March, 1896) have also considered the imbibitional or surface tension forces in connection with the turgescent cell. In his 1896 paper Dixon in fact gives up the view published in the Pil. rans. and adopts the view given by Askenasy in his original paper, that the tractional force is supplied by the osmotic suck of the leaves. It must clearly be under- stood that this does not remove imbibition from the problem. It is one of the chief merits of Askenasy’s work that he clearly sees and states the important relation between these forces. The sun’s heat causes the evaporation of the water with which the walls of the mesophyll cells are imbibed : this water is replaced by imbibition from the cell-sap. The con- centration of the cell-sap so produced maintains the osmotic torce of the cell, which again exerts suction on the water on the tracheals.! I have now given, in its simplest form, the modern theory of the rise of water. Apart from the main idea, it combines the points of several familiar views. Imbibition becomes a factor of paramount importance, though not in the way that Sachs employs it. The suspended threads of water remind us of Elfving’s capillary theory, while the living-element factor is represented by the turgescent mesophyll cells. Resistance.—It is not possible to discuss the question whether the tractional forces in the leaf are sufficient for the work imposed on them until we know what is the resistance to the passage of water through wood, For it is clear that the work done by the leaf includes, not only the lifting of a given column, but the overcoming of the resistance to its flow. The resistance to the flow of the transpiration current is in want of further investigation. Janse° has discussed the question, and points out (loc. cit., p. 36) that two kinds of resistance must be reckoned with. The first (which he calls statical) is illustrated by means of a cylinder of Pinus wood fixed to the short arm of a J tube filled with water, when it was found that in five days the level of water in the long arm was only 1 mm. above that in the short arm.6 That is to say, when time enough is given, the resistance is practically nothing. Janse has also investigated the resistance to the passage of water flowing through wood at the rate of an ordinary transpiration current. His method seems to me open to criti- cism, but this is not the place to give my reasons. His experiments give a wide range of results. With Pinws strobus a pressure of water equal to ten times the length of the wood was required to force water through at 1 Loe. cit. 1895, p. 10. ? Annals of Bot. Sept. 1895. 3 Askenasy, 1895, p. 11. * Sachs, Zert Book, edit. iv. Eng. Tr., p. 679, describes evaporation taking place in the cell wall, which makes good the loss by imbibition. ° Pringsheims Jahrb. xviii. 1887, p. 1. § Strasburger (Leitungsbahnen, p. 777) observed equilibrium established a good deal quicker. 680 REPORT—1896, a pace equal to the transpiration current. In Ginkgo the pressure was twenty-one times the length of the wood. Strasburger’ has repeated Janse’s experiment, and finds a coluinn ‘several times the length of the object’ necessary. Nigeli? found that 760 mm. of mercury were needed to force water through fresh coniferous wood at the rate of 4 mm. per second, 7.¢., at 180 mm. per hour. If we allow one metre per hour as a fair transpiration rate,? we get a pressure of 5 atmospheres required to produce such a flow. To return to Janse’s experiments: even if we assume that the resistance (expressed in water) = 5 times the length, it is clear that with a tree 40 m. in height, the resistance of 20 atmospheres has to be overcome. This would not be a pressure greater than that which osmotic forces are able to exert ; but when we come to a tree of 80 m. in height, and a resistance of 40 atmospheres, the thing becomes serious.‘ A great difficulty in the question of resistance is that the results hitherto obtained are (though here I speak doubtfully) much greater than those obtained by physicists for the resistance of water flowing in glass capil- laries. Until this discrepancy is explained, it is rash to argue from our present basis of knowledge.® Is the osmotic suck sufficient ?—The osmotic force of a turgescent cell is usually measured by its power of producing hydrostatic pressure within the cell. Thus, De Vries® investigated the force necessary to extend a plasmolysed shoot to its original length ; Westermaier’ the weight necessary to crush a tissue of given area ; Pfeffer’ the pressure exerted by growing roots ; Krabbe ® the pressure under which cambium is capable of maintaining its growth. The figures obtained by these naturalists have a wide range ; it may be said that the hydrostatic pressure varies between 3 and 20 atmospheres. Another method is to ascertain the osmotic strength of the cell-sap in terms of a KNO, solution, and calculate the pressure which such a solution can produce. According to Pfeffer,!° 1 per cent. KNO, with artificial membrane gives a pressure of 176 cm. = 2°3 atmospheres. De Vries!! calculates that in a cell a 0:1 equivalent solution (practically=1 per cent.) gives a pressure of 3 atmospheres. We may therefore take it as between 2-5 and 3 atmospheres. Now, De Vries found that beetroot requires 6-7 per cent. KNO; to plasmolyse it ; this would mean 15—21 atmo- spheres. Ido not know what is the greatest pressure which has been estimated in this way. Probably Wieler’s '? estimate of the pressure in the developing medullary ray cells of Pinus sylvestris at 21 atmospheres is the highest. It is clear that investigation of the osmotic capacity of ' Leitungsbahnen, p. 779. ® Das Mikroskop, 2nd edit. p. 385. % Sachs, Ardeiten, ii. p. 182. ‘ Schwendener’s experiments, K. Preuss. Ahad., 1886, p. 579, do not particularly bear on this question. 5 Tt is possible that the rate of the ascending water is much less than is usually assumed. ‘Thus Schwendener (K. Preuss. Ahad., 1886, p. 584) calculates from an observation of v. Héhnel that the transpiration current in the stem of a tall beech was only 2 metres per day. ® Untersuchungen iiber d. mechanischen Ursachen der Zelistrechen, 1877, p. 118. 7 Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 1883, p. 382. 8 Abh. kh. Stichs. Ges. 1893. ® K. Ahad. Berlin (Abhandlungen), 1884, pp. 57, 69. 10 Pfeffer, Phys., i. p. 53. 1 Pringsh. Jahrb., xiv. p. 527. 2 Thid., xviii. p. 82. ON THE ASCENT OF WATER IN TREES. 681 leaves for high trees is wanted ; also investigations of the variation in osmotic power produced by varying resistances in the flow of the current. The experiments of Pfeffer and others | show that the osmotic strength of cell-sap is capable of great adaptation to circumstances—cells respond by increased turgescence to various stimuli, Whether they can respond sufficiently to account for the ascent of water is another question. My own opinion is that the question of resistance to the flow of water is a difficulty which the authors of the modern theory have not sufficiently met. Unless it can be shown that the resistance to the flow of water in wood is less than that indicated by existing researches, we must face the fact that we do not at present know of osmotic forces which we can suppose capable of raising water to a greater height than 40 metres. Continuity of the water in the tracheals.—The theory we are considering apparently requires that there shall be continuous columns of water from leaf to root, because a break in the column means a collapse of the machinery. This seems at first sight a fair assumption, though I doubt its complete correctness. It is in any case worthy of discussion. It has been constantly insisted on by Sachs and others that at the time of most active transpiration the vessels contain air, and not water. It is therefore a violent disturbance of our current views to believe in continuous columns of water. For evidence on this point we are chiefly indebted to Strasburger. It is a remarkable fact that he should, without any theory to encourage such a view, have come to the conclusion that approximate continuity of water columns is a condition of primary importance, and that he should have made out the cognate fact that the whole of the alburnwm need not be simultaneously occupied by a transpiration current ; parts of it may be so eccupied, while parts of it are filled with air, and do not function as water ways. This is a valuable contribution to knowledge, and to the adherents of the new theory it is priceless; the very existence of their hypothesis may depend on it. Strasburger’s statements and reasoning are by no means accepted by everyone ; for instance, Schwendener refuses to take them seriously.” Strasburger has microscopically examined the condition of the tracheals as regards air.? He found in the spruce fir in July ‘almost no air bubbles’ in the wood of the current year, but air in considerable quantity in four- year-old wood. In the same month Pinus Salzmanni (Laricio) showed scattered bubbles in the spring wood of last year, and more in the autumn wood. In a larch there were only very occasional bubbles in the two last years’ wood. In the silver fir the current year’s wood was practically free from air: the air increased in the inner rings. TZsuga canadensis had no air in this year’s wood, only a little in last year’s, and an in- creasing quantity in the older rings, the fifth being very rich in air. In February Pinws strobus had hardly any air in this year’s wood, and the silver fir was all but free from it in the youngest ring. Robinia in July had the youngest wood almost air-free. Ficus elastica and spuria, various Acacias, and willows gave vessels not entirely free from air, but nearly so. 1 Pfeffer, Ahhand. der hk. Sachs. Ges. xx. p. 300; Eschenhagen, Untersuchungen aus d. Bot. Inst. z. Tubingen, 1889; Stange, Bot. Zeit., 1892. 2 K. Preuss. Akad., 1892, p. 931. 3 Leitungsbahnen, p. 683 et seg.; Russow in 1882 (Bot. Centr., Bd. xiii. 1883) observed similar facts in the distribution of water and air. 682 REPORT—1896. He concludes! that the path of the transpiration current is not absolutely free from air. The younger wood, which especially functions as the water- carrier, is the most free. Dixon and Joly quote Strasburger’s results, which they consider sufficiently favourable to their views. They rely, in addition, on the impermeability of wet cell-walls to air isolating the conduits in which air has appeared ; and on the possibility that the air may be redissolved under root pressure,” an idea well worth testing. I think Strasburger’s facts are not so favourable to their theory as these authors believe ; in the same way it seems to me that Askenasy is rash in saying? that the tracheals in many cases contain continuous columns of water. It is true that this statement does not affect the validity of his general argument, since he faces the undoubted occurrence of air bubbles in many cases. This is undoubtedly necessary, and fortu- nately we can once more turn to the Leitungsbahnen. Strasburger states that he has seen water creep past the air bubbles‘ in coniferous tracheids. The best evidence for this seems to be the fact mentioned * that the part of a single tracheid in front of an air bubble gets red with absorbed eosin, though the neighbouring tracheids are colourless. This clearly suggests the creeping round the bubble which Strasburger believes in. Schwendener® has been unable to confirm Strasburger’s microscopic obser- vations, and, moreover, denies the physical possibility of the phenomena. I am unable to judge of the validity of Schwendener’s theoretic objections, and must leave this point. It is a question of great importance whether it is possible that on the breaking of a column of water a film of water remains surrounding the air bubble, and capable of holding the two columns together. If this is impossible we must suspend our judgment until we know more of the contents of the tracheals. To sum up this part of the subject, we may believe that the tracheals in their youngest condition may contain water in continuous columns, since the cambium cells from which they arise certainly contain fluid. But we know also that this condition is not absolutely maintained, since Strasburger has shown that the young wood contains air, though in small quantity. We must therefore believe either (1) that the transpiration current is able to travel past the air-bubbles, or (2) that tracheals partly filled with air may again become continuous waterways by solution of the air. If we adopt the first alternative we must believe that the film of water between the bubble and the wall of the vessel is able to bear such a tensile stress that it can serve to link the column above with the column below the bubble. But this is analogous to trusting a rope so nearly cut through that only a few threads remain intact. With regard to the second alternative, we have at least indications from Strasburger’s work that a tracheal, partly filled with air, does not necessarily remain permanently functionless (see Leitungsbahnen, p. 692). The isolation of the tracheals.—There are a number of points connected with the structure and properties of wood which ought to be considered ' Loc. cit. p. 688. 2 Phil. Trans. p. 572. % Verhand. naturhist. med. Vereins Heidelberg, 1895, p. 15. * Leitungsbahnen, pp. 704, 709. See also Hist. Beitr. v. p. 76. 5 Ibid. p. 79. 5 Zur Kritih, &e., p. 921. ON THE ASCENT OF WATER IN TREES. 683 in relation to the modern theories. Want of space forbids my doing more than referring to two of them. The resistance which the wetted cell-wall offers to the passage of un- dissolved air is a point on which many writers have laid stress. It is clear that on any theory of the movement of water in the tracheals it is essential that air should not filter into the waterway. This necessity is not, however, stronger in the case of the modern theories we are consider- ing. The pressure tending to fill the tracheals with air from outside cannot be greater than atmospheric pressure, and since the wetted cell walls of gymnospermous wood can resist the passage of air under a pressure of about an atmosphere,! we need not fear criticism of the theory on this ground. The above remarks seem, however, to be needed in face of the frequently recurring statement that wet wood membranes are impermeable to free air. Schwendener has some good remarks on this head.* Strasburger has called attention to the important subject of the localisation or isolation of vessels or of certain lines of tracheids. When this is possible we may have one set of tracheals containing continuous water columns, while neighbouring ones contain air at negative pressure.* This is especially important in connection with the Dixon-Joly-Askenasy theory, since, if there were no such isolation, a functioning tracheal con- taining a continuous column of water would give up its water to one which was not functioning. In other words, the inactive tracheals would, by nega- tive pressure, suck water from the active ones. In the coniferous trees the young wood is cut off by the absence of pits in the tangential walls * from free communication with the older wood, where air is more frequent. In the same way the valve-like closure of the pits by the aspiration of the pit membrane comes to be a subject of much importance. At present I merely wish to show by a couple of examples the necessity of a complete study of the minute structure of wood in relation to the modern theories. It is at least a hopeful fact for Messrs. Dixon, Joly, and Askenasy that we cannot point to anything in the anatomy of wood which is absolutely inconsistent with their views. Finally, with regard to the question at large, whether we are friends or opponents of Messrs. Dixon, Joly, and Askenasy’s theory, the broad facts remain, that water has the power of resisting tensile stress, and that this fact must hence- forth be a factor in the problem. There are difficulties in the way of our authors’ theory, but it is especially deserving of notice that many of these _ difficulties are equally serious in the case of any theory which excludes the help of the living elements of the wood, and assumes a flow of water in the tracheals. The authors have not only suggested a vera causa, but have done so without multiplying difficulties. There is therefore a dis- tinct balance in their favour. Huxley, quoting from Goethe, makes use of the expression thdtge Skepsis. 1t is a frame of mind highly appropriate to us in the present > juncture if we interpret it to mean a state of doubt whose fruit is activity, _ and if we translate activity by experiment. _ en 1 Leitungsbahnen, p. 722. Niigeli and Schwendener, Das Mikroskop, 2nd edit., 'p. 367, give 225 cm. of mercury. ” Zur Kritik, p. 9438. 3 See Histolog. Beitrige, v. p. 87. 4 Strasburger discusses in this connection the existence of tangential pits in the autumnal wood (see Leitungsbahnen, p. 713). 684 REPORT-—1896. Preservation of Plants for Exhibition Interim Report of the Com- mittee, consisting of Dr. D. H. Scorr (Chairman), Professor J. BayLtey Batrour, Professor L. Errera, Mr. W. GARDINER, Professor J. R. GREEN, Professor J. W. H. Trait, Professor F. E. WEtss, and Professor J. B. Farmer (Secretary), appointed to Report on the best Methods of Preserving Vegetable Specimens for Exhibition in Museums. APPENDIX PAGE I.—Report on Experiments made at the Institut Botanique de Université de Bruxelles. By Professor ERRERA . . - : 5 - 686 Il.— Report by Prof. J. W. H. TRAIL, WA, ERS. . : ; . + G92 THE Committee are not yet in a position to present a definitive report ; in the meantime they desire to place on record the results obtained by in- dividual members of the Committee and others, as their experience may be of immediate service to those interested in this subject. Mr. W. Gardiner points out that in his opinion the processes of (1) killing, and (2) fixing and mounting, have not been kept sufficiently distinct. The killing of the protoplasm should be as rapid as possible, so as to avoid active plasmolysis. He suggests (1) hot glacial acetic acid, owing to its power of rapid penetration ; (2) superheated steam ; (3) strong alcohol. If a rapidly acting substance cannot be used, a poisonous solu- tion, possessing as nearly as possible the same osmotie equivalent as the cell-sap, should be employed. After the tissues have been killed they may be preserved in any suitable liquids, e.g. 70 per cent. spirit, or solution of formic aldehyde. Professor Farmer has made a number of experiments with formic aldehyde. He agrees with Mr. Gardiner as to the advisability of a preliminary and rapid killing, and finds that green parts of plants im- mersed in strong alcohol for a short time, then transferred to strong solutions of copper acetate, and finally preserved in formic aldehyde, gave better results than when the preliminary killing in spirit was omitted. For most plants experimented on, he finds that strong solutions (15-30 per cent. of the commercial ‘ formaline’) in weak (15-20 per cent.) spirit give better results than weaker solutions. In all cases the specimens were . greatly improved by the treatment with copper acetate or sulphate (see Professor Trail’s report, Appendix II.). Without this, the green colour had, with but few exceptions, failed after immersion in the formic aldehyde for four months, although they had in some cases shown no change until three months had elapsed. Mr. J. R. Jackson, of the Royal Gardens, Kew, finds that a saturated solution of salt, boiled to expel air, and carefully stoppered, is useful for many fleshy fruits, some of which, e.g. apples, retain their colour very well under this treatment. He finds Goadby’s solution, formerly so much employed, unsatisfactory, and considers methylated spirit, on the whole, the best of the liquids in common use. Formic aldehyde has been tried on a number of plants, with good results in some cases, especially with those fruits with red or reddish tints and firm flesh, In drying large specimens of succulent plants or fruits, it is important that the process should not be hurried, or cracking and warping may ensue. eT IOS ia ON PRESERVATION OF PLANTS FOR EXHIBITION. 685 The following methods, devised by Mr. Tagg, assistant in the museum at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, are in use there :— 1. For cementing Specimens to Glass, Mica, &c.—Gelatine is necessary for large specimens, and though becoming opaque in alcohol may be used when the specimen is sufficiently large to hide the cement. f Delicate specimens that dry when exposed to air for a very short time can be fixed to the glass with gelatine while still in alcohol. To do thisa pipette with hot water jacket is required (see figure). Pipette.—An ordinary pipette is surrounded by an outer tube forming a jacket, in which water is put. Method of using Pipette with Hot-water Jacket.—Gelatine is taken into the pipette, the outer tube filled with water, and the whole placed in a beaker of boiling water till the water in the jacket surrounding the pip- ette is also boiling. The specimen is laid in a flat dish in alcohol ; at the bottom is also the glass to which specimen is to be cemented. Having decided where specimen shall be fastened, the pipette with hot water is put quickly into the spirit, its,orifice is made to touch the glass, and some of the hot gelatine is forced out. With the other hand the specimen is now gently pressed into the still soft gelatine and held in position for a second or two. The gelatine soon hardens, and the specimen is permanently fixed. 2. For making jflat-sided Vessels to hold Specimens.—Pieces of glass are cut to required Boiling Water sizes for the sides of the vessel, and are then fastened together in the following manner :— 1 oz. Nelson’s amber gelatine is soaked in water for twelve hours. Water not absorbed is poured off, and the softened gelatine is melted over hot water. To this are added 0:5 grm. of bichromate of potash and 10 drops of glycerine. The cement is put on warm. Professor Errera sent an account of ex- periments conducted in his museum in Brus- sels, and his statements are in agreement with those already set forth. He finally decides against all liquid preservative media in cases in which it is desired to retain the original colour, and substitutes a method of rapid desiccation in sand. By this means he has hay genbber.pad to make = Z joint water-tight. been able to prepare specimens which have ; remained unaltered as to colour for a considerable number of years. The method was described by EH. Cornélis in ‘La Belgique horticole,’ August 1880. Professor Errera states that the drying in vacuo, as recommended by E. Cornélis, is, however, unnecessary. The dried specimens are preserved in airtight bottles, which contain in their hollowed stoppers some calcium oxide, in order to absorb any moisture from the air within the bottles. The reports of Professors Errera and Trail appear of special import- ance, and are printed in full, forming Appendices I. and IT. Gelatine 686 REPORT—1896. APPENDIX I. The Preservation of Plants for Exhibition: Report on Bxperiments made at the Institut Botanique de ?Université de Bruxelles. By Professor ERRERA. Les quelques notes qui vont suivre n’ont en aucune maniére la préten- tion de répondre aux nombreuses et intéressantes questions soulevées par le Comité de la British Association. Elles sont simplement destinées & résumer, suivant le désir de mon ami, le Dr. Scott, le peu d’expérience que nous avons pu acquérir a l'Institut Botanique de Université de Bruxelles. J’ai préféré les rédiger en francais plutot qu’en anglais, afin d’étre pius str de formuler exactement ma pensée, I.—LiquipEs CONSERVATEURS. Alcool.—L’emploi de l’alcool fort est bien connu. I] durcit les tissus végétaux, ce qui, suivant les cas, peut étre un avantage ou un inconvénient Dans les Musées, c’est généralement un avantage, puisque les objets conser vent ainsi, une fois pour toutes, une attitude donnée. On peut surtout reprocher a l’alcool de modifier la couleur des spéci- mens et—notamment en Belgique—de cotter fort cher. En revanche, il a le mérite, précieux dans nos climats, d’étre pratiquement incongelable. Divers objets brunissent dans l’alcool, par suite de l’oxydation d’un chromogéne incolore. Hugo de Vries a indiqué, on le sait, un procédé fondé sur l’emploi de l’alcool acidulé d’acide chlorhydrique ! qui empéche, dans la grande majorité des cas, ce brunissement. Liquides aqueux.—Les liquides conservateurs aqueux: que nous avons jusqu ici employés a l'Institut Botanique sont: le ‘liquide au sublimé,’ la solution saturée de sel marin, et les solutions de formol (=aldéhyde formique). Notre liquide au sublimé a la composition suivante : Eau de pluie . < = > : + 1,000 ¢.c. HgeCP. : . : 5 5 . 2.5 grammes NaCl . : ; : - : ; 2.5 rs HCl concentré . - ° = 5 3 5¢.c. L’addition de sel et d’acide chlorhydrique a pour but de faciliter la dissolution du sublimé corrosif et d’empécher qu'il ne se réduise sous Vinfluence de la lumiére, ce qui troublerait la solution. Ces liquides ne cofitent presque rien—détail important si les collections sont considérables et les budgets modiques. Mais ils ont le grand défaut d’étre congelables. Afin d’avoir a cet égard des données précises, j’ai engagé, il y a un an environ, mon assistant, M. Clautriau, a Jéterminer le point de congélation de notre liquide au sublimé, pur et mélangé d’alcool ou de glycérine. Voici ses chiffres : Liquide au sublimé . : . : : : : —0°.3 Centigr. Liquide au sublimé +10 pour cent de glycérine. : . —3°.5 Liquide au sublimé +20 pour cent de glycérine. ue Se Liquide au sublimé +10 pour cent d’alcool 4 92° Gay-Lussac —5° Liquide au sublimé + 20 pour cent d’alcool a 92° Gay-Lussac— 9° 1 H. de Vries, Maandblad voor Natuurwe/enschappen, 1886, No. 1. Id., Berichte der bot. Gesclisch., 1889, No. 7. ON PRESERVATION OF PLANTS FOR EXHIBITION. 687 On voit done qu'il faut ajouter 4 ce liquide des quantités assez grandes de glycérine ou dalcool si l’on veut abaisser son point de congélation de quelques degrés seulement. I] doit en étre de méme pour les solutions de formol. Quant a la solution saturée de sel marin, elle ne se congéle, il est vrai, qu’a — 21°, suivant Riidorff ;* mais déja & une température beaucoup moindre (—5° d’aprés Noelle ; —10° suivant d’autres) ? elle dépose des cristaux de chlorure de sodium hydraté. Dans tous ces liquides aqueux, les spécimens deviennent flasques - cest la un défaut, lorsqu’il s’agit de les exposer d’une maniere définitive. Essais antérieurs avec les Liquides Aqueux. Liquide au sublimé.—Nos essais avec ce liquide datent de 1893. En voici le résultat : Les feuilles vertes sont soit décolorées (Lathyrus, Dioscorea), soit plus ou moins brunies (Quercus, Humulus). Les racines sont bien conservées (Lathyrus). Les feuilles rouges (Quercus) et les fleurs rouges (Mreycinetia) sont brunies. La coloration jaune du plasmode et la coloration brune des spores ad Athalium septicum se sont bien conservées. Les Champignons (Amanita, Clavaria, Saprolegnia) ont pris une teinte grise, mais sont bien conservés, surtout le dernier. Solutions de jormol (=aldéhyde formique).—Nos essais avec ce liquide datent de 1894. II n’est pas invraisemblable que l’aldéhyde formique puisse se décomposer en présence des matiéres organiques, de sorte que la concentration des solutions baisse sans doute progressivement. Dans le formol 4 1 pour mille, les parties végétales charnues dépassant le niveau du liquide ont généralement moisi, et le liquide lui-méme s’est couvert d’une couche épaisse de mycélium. Un mycélium analogue se développe parfois a la surface du formol a 1 pour mille, méme lorsque aucun tissu végétal ne vient émerger. Pour les objets qui sont depuis le printemps de 1894 dans le formol a 1 pour mille, on remarque que : Les feuilles sont devenues vert-sale (Lamium, Arwm) ou sont com- plétement décolorées (Sznapis). Les tissus incolores le sont restés (racines de Sinapis, racines d’Lvony- mus) ou ont bruni (fleurs de Veburnwi). Les corolles bleuatres (/ritillaria persica) sont décolorées. Les corolles rouges (Antirrhinum majus) ont conservé une certaine coloration ; les rouge-brunatres (Primula variabilis) également. La coloration du spadice d@Arwm maculatum reste bien marquée ; seulement, du violet foncé elle a passé a une teinte bleudtre intense, La coloration jaune et brune d’ Hthalium septicum (plasmode et spores) s’est bien conservée. Solution satuwrée de sel marin.—Pendant plusieurs années, les Aleues marines rouges, vertes et brunes se sont bien conservées dans ce milieu, A la longue, de la moisissure s’est développée. ‘ Essais récents. Pour pouvoir présenter au Comité de la British Association un avis mieux motivé, il m’a paru désirable de soumettre un certain nombre Vobjets végétaux, méthodiquement choisis, 4 une épreuve comparative au moyen de divers liquides conservateurs. .) Wiirtz, Diet. de Chimie, t. ii. p. 1516. 2 Thid. 688 a> BHA SHOR 2 REPORT—1896. Lessai a été commencé il y a un mois seulement et il serait prématuré de vouloir conclure dés a présent. Cependant, ‘il peut étre opportun d’in- diquer ici en quoi il consiste et quel en est le résultat provisoire. Les liquides essayés sont au nombre de quatorze : Liquide au sublimé (composition indiquée plus haut). Sublimé glycériné (Liquide A+15 pour cent de glycérine). Solution de formol a 1 pour mille. (1 pour mille aldéhyde formique dans I’eau de la ville de Bruxelles.') 7 . Solution de formol 4 2 pour mille. ” a 5 ” 1 pour cent. 20 ,, (alcool 20, eau 80). ” x 30 ” ” a 40 ” %9 a50 ,, ” a 60 ” a 70 ” ” ” Alcool acidulé (alcool éthylique 50, eau 50, acide chlorhydrique con- centré 2). Alcool aluminié (alcool éthylique 50, eau 50, chlorure d’aluminium, ACIS, 2). Ce dernier essai était destiné a voir si le sel d’aluminium constituerait peut-étre avec la chlorophylle une laque insoluble. Des spécimens des objets suivants ont été mis le 26 décembre 1895 dans chacun de ces 14 liquides et conservés dans des flacons en verre, bouchés avec des bouchons en liége et placés au fond de mon laboratoire, c’est-a-dire & un endroit modérément éclairé : 1. Feuille de Begonia Rex (feuille verte argentée). Is 10. Oplismenus imbecillis, fol. variegatis (feuille verte panachée). Pandanus javanicus, fol. varieg. (feuille verte panachée, trés coriace). Selaginella Martensii (feuille uniformément verte). Maranta Mackoyana (feuille 4 plusieurs nuances). Abutilon tessellatum (feuille tachetée de vert, de vert pale et de blanc). Tradescantia xebrina, fol. varieg. (feuille verte en dessus, rouge en dessous). Coleus sp. (feuille nuancée de vert, de blanc et de rouge intense). Pilea callitrichoides (petites feuilles charnues). Genista Spachiana (folioles caduques). il. Rameau d’Asparagus plumosus (tissus verts trés jeunes) 12. Feuille d’Asplenium diversifolium (feuille sporangifere). 13. Fleur de Goldfussia anisophylla (fleur 4 suc violet). 14, 15. 16. ” ” oP) Coronilla glauca (fleur a plastides jaunes). Centradenia rosea (fleur a suc rose). Lamprococeus miniatus (Broméliacées) (ovaire rouge: minium, pétales bleus). 17. Feuille de Myriophyllum proserpinacoides (feuille glauque). ’ Le titre vrai de la solution commerciale de formol 4 40 pour cent environ em- ployée pour ces essais avait été vérifié. ON PRESERVATION OF PLANTS FOR EXHIBITION, 689 Dans tous les liquides aqueux (A-F), les tissus sont déja devenus flasques ; les matitres colorantes rouges, roses, bleues, solubles dans l’eau, ont disparu ; le jaune insoluble (Coronzlla) s’est bien conservé ; la chloro- phylle commence a brunir dans la plupart des feuilles, sauf Selaginella, Pandanus et Oplismenus, qui se sont, jusqu’ici, parfaitement conservés, avec leur teinte verte et leur panachure blanche. Dans les alcools faibles (G-J) les tissus sont devenus flasques ; dans Valcool & 60 pour cent (K) et surtout dans celui 4 70 pour cent (L), ils le sont devenus beaucoup moins. Les tissus rouges, roses et bleus sont décolorés comme dans les liquides aqueux ; le jaune s’est moins bien con- servé ; les tissus verts se décolorent ou brunissent. Dans Valcool acidulé (M) beaucoup de tissus ont bruni, mais ils sont en train de se décolorer ensuite. Les tissus rouges, roses et bleus ont perdu leur matiére colorante ; la fleur jaune a pris une teinte sale. L’alcool avec chlorure d’aluminium (N) n’a présenté aucun avantage réel, Conclusion.—Des divers liquides essayés, aucun ne conserve d’une maniére satisfaisante et durable la couleur des objets verts. Pour certains objets colorés (fleurs jaunes, spadices d’Arwm, fleurs rouges d’Antirrhinum, Primula, etc.), les liquides aqueux (liquide au sublimé, ou formol 4 1 pour cent) conviennent assez bien. En somme, dans les Musées, les objets conservés dans les liquides ne _seront agréables a l’ceil qu’a la condition d’étre uniformément décolorés, blanchis, par le procédé de de Vries. H. de Vries conserve les objets ainsi décolorés dans l’alcool ordinaire. On pourrait aussi, je pense, une fois qu’ils sont tout a fait décolorés, les conserver dans le liquide au sublimé (plus stable que le liquide au formol, plus économique que l’alcool), mais additionné d’alcool ou de glycérine de maniére a abaisser autant qu’il est nécessaire son point de congélation. Bien plus que les liquides, je recommanderai pour les Musées la con- servation a sec. TI.—ConsERVATION A SEc, On sait que les tissus végétaux se conservent fort bien quand on les desstche dans du sable chaud. Ce procédé a été appliqué avec un succes remarquable par un pharma- cien belge bien connu, feu Louis Cornélis de Diest (Belgique). J’ai examiné récemment des fleurs conservées 4 la lumiére par ce procédé depuis plus de seize ans et je puis déclarer qu’il n’est guére pos- sible de souhaiter miewx. Les fleurs ont si admirablement gardé leur forme et, presque toutes, aussi leur couleur, qu’on les dirait cueillies depuis un instant. Les teintes blanches, roses (Glowinia), rouges (Hya- cinthus, Pentstemon), violettes (Hyacinthus, Franciscea), bleu-pale (Scilla), jaunes (Linaria vulgaris) sont parfaites. Certains rouges sont devenus plus foncés qu’a l'état frais (Digitalis purpurea). Parmi les sépales verts, datant de plus de 16 ans, quelques-uns ont assez bien conservé leur teinte; d’autres ont bruni ou ont pali. Le _neveu et successeur de Louis Cornélis, M. Joseph Cornélis, pharmacien a Ciney (Belgique), m’assure que les feuilles, bourgeons et racines se con- servent aussi bien que les fleurs ;: mais ce point mériterait d’étre bien fixé par de nouveaux essais, Le procédé employé a été publié par son auteur dans la Belgique horti- cole (aoit 1880). Il est d’application facile. M. Clautriau, que j’avais 1896. YY 690 REPORT—-1896. prié d’en faire l’essai, a obtenu un succés complet, comme pourront le con- stater mes honorables collegues de la Commission : je viens, en effet, de leur adresser par l’interméddiaire de M. le professeur J. B. Farmer un flacon avec les fleurs et les feuilles que M. Clautriau a ainsi desséchées. Ce sont’ les spécimens suivants : Feuilles de : | Fleurs de : Begonia Rew. Goldfussia anisophylla. Oplismenus imbecillis, fol. var. Coronilla glauca. Genista Spachiana. Centradenia floribunda. Asplenium diversifolium. Lamprococcus miniatus. Adiantum Capillus-Veneris. Monochetum ensiferum. Rameau de: Camellia japonica, fol. var. Asparagus plumosus. Azalea amena. Kennedys sp. Gesnera sp. Voici la marche a suivre : Le spécimen a conserver est piqué dans un pot a fleurs ou dans un cornet en papier, 4 moitié remplis de sable sec et propre. Puis, on verse doucement une nouvelle quantité de sable, de fagon 4 recouvrir compléte- ment l’objet. I] est laissé en cet état, soit en présence d’acide sulfurique sous une cloche ou l’on fait le vide et que l’on peut placer ensuite dans un endroit chaud, soit simplement dans une étuve portée 4 35°-40° OC. A ce point de vue, les chambres thermostatiques ou les armoires chauffantes, comme il en existe maintenant dans la plupart de nos Instituts, con- viennent fort bien. Aprés quelques jours (8—10 au plus), le spécimen doit étre retiré du sable—avec beaucoup de précaution, 4 cause de sa grande fragilité. On le dépouille du sable qui y adhére souvent, au moyen d’un pinceau fin ou en laissant tomber sur lui du sable grossier d’une certaine hauteur. I] suffit maintenant de conserver l’objet dans un milieu bien sec. Le mieux est de le placer dans un flacon a large goulot,' fermé 4 V’émeri par un bouchon de verre creux dont la cavité est aux deux tiers remplie de fragments de chaux vive, retenus par un morceau de peau. Si le flacon n’est. pas souvent ouvert, la chaux vive n’a pas besoin d’étre renouvelée. Comme les objets sont extrémement cassants, il peut étre utile de les immobiliser en les collant, par une goutte de gomme arabique. D’aprés Cornélis, la dessiccation réussit d’autant mieux qu'elle a été ‘plus rapide : c’est pour cette raison qu’il a employé le vide ; mais cela n’est -nullement nécessaire. Au sujet des changements de teintes que les fleurs ainsi traitées peu- -vent présenter, je crois bien faire en transcrivant les quelques renseigne- ments publiés par Cornélis (Joc. cit.) : ‘Un certain nombre de fleurs changent de couleur par le fait de la dessiccation seule ; par rie la Mauve qui est rose devient bleue ; @autres foncent en couleur ; : la Passiflore, la Digitale pourprée, le Colchique, la Fumeterre, etic. ‘L’action de la lumiére sur les couleurs des fleurs est trés-variable et il n’est jamais possible de dire & priori quel en sera le résultat. Certaines fleurs résistent parfaitement 4 la lumiére, méme & la lumiére directe du 1 Ces flacons dessiccateurs, connus ici sous le nom de flacons i peptone Cornélis,’ se trouvent, par exemple, chez Vanderborght-Minne, rue du Berger, a Bruxelles. ON PRESERVATION OF PLANTS FOR EXHIBITION. 691 soleil ; d’autres sont déja influencées par la lumiétre diffuse ; enfin il y en a qui sont méme décolorées dans une demi-obscurité. Parmi les fleurs, les jaunes sont les plus sensibles 4 l’action de la lumiére ; plus de la moitié de celles expérimentées sont complétement décolorées. Trois plantes, VAbutilon Sellowi, le Fritillaria imperialis et le Vanda suavis, présentent un phénoméne toutefois inattendu : par la dessiccation ces fleurs prennent une couleur d’un brun roux et lorsqu’on les expose au soleil elles repren- nent une couleur qui se rapproche assez de la primitive, excepté pour le Fritillaria, qui devient. violet. ‘Tl est assez curieux de voir des fleurs reprendre leur couleur au soleil, alors que Ja plupart des autres la perdent.’ Conclusion.—En résumé, la dessiccation au sable, suivant le mode appliqué par J. Cornélis, donne des résultats excellents pour un grand nombre de spécimens végétaux intéressants a exhiber au public. Au dire de l’auteur, c’est pour les fleurs jaunes qu'il convient le moins bien. Mais peut-étre suffit-il de les soustraire 4 la lumiére trop vive. On a vu, du reste, que, dans nos quelques essais, les couleurs jaunes se maintiennent justement trés bien dans le liquide au sublimé ou dans celui au formol. Algues marines.—J’ajouterai que lon peut garder & sec les grandes Algues marines (/ucus, Laminaria, etc.) en leur conservant leur souplesse, si on les plonge d’abord, pendant 2-3 jours, dans l’eau de mer additionnée de !/,9 de glycérine, et qu’on les laisse ensuite sécher a Jair. ILJ.—PREPARATION DES SPECIMENS. De Vries.—Il- a déja été question du procédé de de Vries pour la décoloration des tissus végétaux. Vert de Méthyle.—D’un autre cdté, j'ai obtenu de bons résultats dans quelques essais déja anciens, en recolorant au moyen de vert de méthyle des tissus décolorés par l’alcool. Les feuilles destinées 4 étre montrées aux éléves et conservées dans la glycérine aqueuse, ont ainsi repris, en apparence, leur teinte verte naturelle. Lode.—Pour l'étude de la formation et de la disparition del’ amidon dans les feuilles, on obtient des spécimens trés instructifs par la méthode succes- sivement employée par Bohm, Hanstein et Sachs, et généralement connue sous le nom de ‘Sachs’ Jodprobe.’ Ces objets seront conservés dans de Palcool iodé étendu de deux volumes d’eau, en flacons bien bouchés. Une méthode similaire m’a donné des préparations tout aussi démonstratives pour l’accumulation et lYemploi du glycogéne chez les Champignons. Les pédicelles de Phallus impudicus conviennent tout spécialement. ITV.—MontTaGE DES SPECIMENS. _Photoxyline.—Pour mettre sous les yeux des visiteurs une série de spécimens dans alcool représentant, par exemple, les étapes du développe- ment d’un Gastromycéte, ou diverses périodes de la germination, ou les états successifs d’une fleur protérandrique, ou les stades de la digestion d’un insecte par une feuille de Drosera, etc., ou bien encore pour main- tenir les objets dans une position immuable, il est souvent nécessaire de les fixer sur une lame de verre. Le meilleur procédé est l’emploi de la _ photoxyline. Les objets frais ou sortis de l’alcool sont collés sur le verre au moyen ‘dune goutte d’une solution sirupeuse de photoxyline de Griibler, dans 692 REPORT—1896. un mélange de parties égales d’éther et d’alcool absolu. On plonge ensuite la lame de verre avec l’objet, pendant 5 minutes, dans l’alcool a 70 pour cent. On retire et on conserve de préférence dans alcool fort, a 92 pour cent. La photoxyline est ainsi transparente et invisible. L’alcool absolu dissoudrait la photoxyline ; l’alcool trop faible la rendrait trouble. L’alcool acidulé par HCl détache les objets. Dans les liquides au formol, il y a également moyen d’attacher les objets avec de la photoxyline ; mais les détails du procédé ne me sont pas encore connus. Lames de Verre blew.—Quant aux spécimens rendus absolument blancs par le procédé de de Vries, je les ai vu fixer (a l'Université de Gand, si je ne me trompe) sur une lame de verre, non pas blanc, mais bleu-foncé. Cela est souvent d’un joli effet. V.—REcIPIENTS ET FERMETURE. Je n’ai rien de particulier &-dire 4 ce sujet. Les flacons a faces paralléles sont, dans bien de cas, préférables aux flacons cylindriques ; mais ils sont d’un prix élevé. J’ai parlé plus haut des ‘flacons dessiccateurs Cornélis,’ et de leur emploi. La fermeture des récipients au moyen de bouchons en verre ou de lames de verre est plus élégante qu’au moyen de bouchons en liége. Rien 4 en dire. Si l’on veut obtenir un bouchage hermétique au moyen d’un bouchon en liége, il faut le plonger d’abord dans de la parafiine trés- chaude, pour qu'il s’en imprégne. Puis, aprés l’avoir appliqué sur le flacon, ou recouvre d’une nouvelle couche de paraftine le bord du flacon et le bouchon lui-méme. VI.—Eriquerace. Etiquettes.—Inutile de dire que l’étiquette doit étre aussi claire que possible, indiquant au public non seulement le nom de l’objet et son origine, mais attirant encore l’attention sur les détails les plus intéressants. A ce point de vue, comme a tant d’autres, les collections du Natural History Musewm,.Cromwell Road, sont du reste des modéles, et c'est aux Continentaux a y prendre des lecons. Encre.—A défaut d'une étiquette imprimée, il faut naturellement qu’on se serve d’une encre indélébile. Les encres dites a l’aniline sont & rejeter. Mon regretté collégue, M. le professeur Bommer, assurait que les encres Stephens’ ‘Blue Black’ sont les meilleures pour l’étiquetage des collections, Je n’ai point a ce sujet d’expérience personnelle étendue. Si le Comité le juge utile, je pourrai lui communiquer ultérieurement quelques détails complémentaires, ainsi qu’un certain nombre de renseigne- ments bibliographiques. APPENDIX II. Report on the Preservation of Vegetable Specimens for Museums. By Professor J. W. H. Trait, JC.A., FBS. KILLING. All plants or parts intended for museum specimens should be killed as rapidly as possible, to prevent changes in the preservative fluids or while being dried. This may be effected by dipping them for a few minutes into boiling water, or (better) into strong alcohol, cold or hot. ON PRESERVATION OF PLANTS FOR EXHIBITION. 693 PRESERVATIVE MEDIA. Spirit—I have used this medium for a number of years, usually diluted with 30 to 50 per cent. of water. I still employ it, but to a much less amount, and seldom as the only medium. It serves excellently after treatment with cupric acetate in suitable cases. Specimens treated in this way seldom discolour spirit sufficiently to require it to be changed. I have employed the acid spirit to decolourise specimens that would otherwise become dark in spirit ; but I seldom now attempt or wish to obtain bleached preparations. The retention of the more or less natural colours renders specimens both more pleasing and more instructive. Formic Aldehyde (Formol).—I have used this for over two years with varying results, employing solutions of from 0-5 to. 5 per cent. in water. Even the weakest solutions have in some cases proved sufficient when the object is small relatively to the amount of the fluid ; but in many cases there appeared a fungus after a few weeks in the weak solutions. I now employ habitually a 2 per cent. solution, except for fleshy specimens or where there is relatively little space for the fluid in the jar owing to the size of the specimen. Under these precautions I have not found the fungi appear. The colour of the specimens is not always well preserved, but they are usually superior to specimens treated with spirit alone in my experience. The 2 per cent. solution has in my experience retained the colours best. Cupric Acetate and Acetic Acid.—I have experimented with the object of retaining the green colour in preparations in fluids by forming the compounds of chlorophyll and copper. The results have been very satis- factory in some cases, notably so in Lycopodiwm and Selaginella, and good, though with a bluish tinge in the green, in most plants that are free from tannin. Where tannin is present it combines with the copper and discolours the specimen ; hence this method does not succeed where it occurs. The method is as follows : Acetic acid has cupric acetate dis- solved in it to saturation, and 1 part of the solution is added to 4 of water, which should have been distilled if not naturally soft. Or 1 part of acetic acid may be added to 4 of water, and this solution may be saturated with cupric acetate. In some cases it is sufficient to employ 1 part of acid in 10 or even more of water. Sometimes one, sometimes another of these solutions has given the best results, according to the material to be treated. In each case the treatment is the same. The specimen, after having been washed clean, is submerged in the solution, and remains in it for at least a month ; it suffers no harm even if left a good deal longer. When it is to be transferred to the permanent pre- servative fluid it is washed in water, to remove any particles of acetate from the surface, and is then at once put into its jar in spirit or in what- ever other fluid is used. Specimens successfully treated in this way may be exposed to sunlight with impunity. Specimens are apt to become soft under this treatment. The cupric acetate solution may be used again and again, but acetate should be added occasionally to keep a sufficiently strong solution. Brine, Alum Solution, Wickersheimer’s Solution, Glycerine (10 to 50 per cent. in water), Barff’s Boroglyceride (1 in from 20 to 50 of water), and Boracie Acid (1 per cent. in water) have all given good results in some cases. The solutions of the salts are apt to become turbid and to allow the growth of fungi, especially if any part of the specimens is uncovered. It is better to wash both the specimens and the vessel, 694: REPORT—1896, with an alcoholic solution of mercuric chloride before mounting the speci- mens for permanent preservation. Potassium Acetate, used with the same precaution as to disinfection, makes a useful medium in some cases in a saturated solution in water. Acetic Acid diluted with from 1 to 4 parts water has been used by me with fair success as a preservative solution for some things. [Mercurie Chloride, 4 ounce to one gallon of distilled or soft water, renewed every year or two, preserves fruits. Glycerine may be added to bring the fluid to the proper density. Salicylic Acid, about 1 ounce to 5 gallons of water, with glycerine added in proportion to juiciness of fruits, usually from 8 to 15 per cent. Salicylic Acid.—1 ounce is dissolved in 8 ounces of alcohol, which is added to 2 gallons of soft or distilled water. Recommended for dark fruits. Zine Chloride, 2 per cent. dissolved in water and filtered. Recom- mended for light-coloured and for yellow fruits. Sulphurous Acid, 2 ounces of concentrated solution in 1 gallon of soft or distilled water. Said to be useful, but bleaches some and overcolours other fruits. Sodium Bisulphite, } ounce, spirit 4 ounces, water 1 gallon. Dissolve the salt in half a pint of the water, add the rest of the water and the spirit, and filter. Kerosene when pure is said to be good for fruits of Rubus. I have not tried the methods within the brackets, owing to want of facilities while extension of buildings is going on. | Dry PREPARATION. For Herbarium.—For over twenty years I have employed wire frames, obtaining the requisite pressure by use of rug-straps or of old and pliant rope secured over the ends as well as the sides of the bundle. Pressure sufficient only to prevent shrinkage gives the best results. The wire frames permit of the easy application of artificial heat, and the results as to colour of all parts and as to retention of shape have been excellent, with a minimum of labour in changing papers. Plants that require specially careful handling and dissections are, of course, treated in thin sheets of paper, in which they lie till dry, the thin sheets being trans- ferred unopened to the new sheets in changing the papers. For ‘ Habit’ and as Museum Specimens.—-The specimens are exposed to dry air without special precautions, or are sometimes secured to prevent warping, or hung up in the position most likely to preserve the forms, a weight sometimes being suspended from each to prevent distortions in drying. Some can be treated most satisfactorily by placing them in a box prepared with a sliding bottom and a wire partition near it to lay the plants on or to support them in it. Fine clean silver sand is then run around and between all parts of the specimen, and. the box is placed for some days in a dry warm place until the plant is dried. PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS. Boiling has proved effective in preserving the natural arrangements of protoplasm, &c., in Spirogyra and other microscopic plants; and it has also been resorted to by me with advantage to prevent blackening of the tissues in some of the species notoriously apt to become black, both as herbarium specimens and in fluid. ON PRESERVATION OF PLANTS FOR EXHIBITION. 695 I have also resorted to it with advantage in preparing succulent plants that are difficult to kill and to free of moisture, and also in lessening the tendency to the fall of the leaves in certain plants, such as Hrica. (Exposure to Vapour of Chloroform, Ether, or other poisonous gases till the plants are dead serves the same ends.) Colouring or Staining.—I have employed this to bring into greater clearness the course of the bundles, but not to any great extent. Red or purplish-red flowers will retain their colour, or more often be coloured more brightly than natural, if dipped, before they are pressed, into a mixture of one part hydrochloric acid in four of spirit. Drying Fungi.—I have tried the method devised by Mr. English ; but my results have not been satisfactory, though the form has in a good many been fairly well preserved. Hard fungi dry easily and well if exposed to air in a dry place. Movuntine PREPARATIONS. Dry Preparations, including Herbarium Specimens. Fixing to paper is done with fish-glue. The simplest and quickest method I find to be as follows :—A sheet of plate glass slightly larger than the herbarium sheet has a thin layer of glue smeared uniformly over it. The plant is then laid on this, and is pressed gently. Thus each part that will touch the paper has received a little of the glue, and on the specimen being laid on the paper it adheres wherever it should do so, and no other part is smeared. Of course this method is not suited for weak plants that could not be lifted without injury. The specimens after having been glued are placed under pressure for some hours. Special dissections, seeds, and other small portions I place in a special envelope on the sheet, or under a piece of mica or of the gelatine used in Christmas crackers. Preparations in Boxes are also fixed with fish-glue usually, unless the surface of attachment is very small, in which case they are secured by threads or wires to the bottom of the box. Preparations in Fluids.—Photoxylin has been found to give sufficiently good results with many small objects, the slight opacity that is apt to “ae not being a serious objection to its use. Gelatine is used for larger objects. Silk Thread has also proved very useful for some kinds of objects, allowing them to be easily fixed to mica or glass tablets, or to strips of hard paraffin, which do well sometimes. To the paraffin the specimens can sometimes be fixed conveniently by the use of a hot rod or wire to melt it at the point of contact. Ihave recently used xylonite for supports, but have scarcely had sufficient experience of it to warrant a definite conclusion. It appears to do best in solutions of formalin. Black xylonite loses its colour in spirit. Poisoninc Dry PREPARATIONS. Mercuric Chloride is the substance of which I make most use for poisoning herbarium specimens, and also for disinfecting specimens and jars for fluid preparations. The herbarium specimens are most con- veniently treated by dipping them into the solution, of the usual strength, in a shallow earthenware dish, handling them with wooden forceps, and placing them till quite dry under pressure between sheets of paper. 696 REPORT—1896. Carbon Disulphide is also most useful for fumigating bundles occasionally, the whole bundle being placed for a day or two in a large trough rendered air-tight by the usual method, the atmosphere in it being saturated with the vapour. EXHIBITION OF SPECIMENS. Morphological Preparations and Dissections to illustrate Systematic Characters, if mounted like herbarium specimens on stiff paper, and also ordinary herbarium specimens, can be well exhibited on any available wall-space by a method that I have used for some time, and that permits the rapid change of the specimens when desired, they being kept when not exhibited in the ordinary herbarium cases or in boxes. The sheets to be exhibited are placed in frames each consisting of a stiff back of card- board and front of glass, the two being separated by strips of wood, which in some are 2 in. and in others only 4%; in. thick. The fourth side (top) is left open, and through it the sheet is dropped into the space, I use different sizes of frames, the largest being 174 in. by 11 in. in surface. To support the frames strips of wood are fixed against the wall, each strip being grooved so as to hold the frames both above and below itself, as shown in the sketches in the margin. The specimens are quite protected from injury and dust, and are very easily and rapidly inserted and removed at will. VESSELS FOR SPECIMENS. Fluid Preparations.—For these, after having tried all the various forms of jars and bottles that I could procure, I prefer the jar in most cases, and, where the expense is not an insurmountable obstacle, the rectangular jar with polished front. This is, of course, if the preparation is to be mounted for permanent preservation. For small objects I sometimes prefer bottles, either round or flat, as the narrower neck is more easily secured. Dry Preparations T usually place in glass-topped boxes if it is desirable to protect them specially. METHODS OF SEALING. Hermetical Sealing.—I have employed this method with success for small objects that can be preserved in fluid or dry in tubes, e.g. some galls ; but it is suited to only a limited number, Corks for Bottles and Jars.—A coat of paraffin or of collodion helps a good deal to retard evaporation through corks, while not preventing their removal when wished. Glass Tops.—I use these for the jars, the cover and the mouth of the jar both being ground. A convenient cement is isinglass dissolved in acetic acid, heated slightly to render it fit for use. This permits of the top being readily removed when necessary. It is rendered more secure by two coats of collodion painted over it when firm. It is convenient to provide for the addition of fluid to replace any lost by evaporation after a time by having a small hole bored through the glass cover. This hole is closed with a cork, A more elaborate cement, composed of gum mastic, isinglass, and acetic acid, with a small admixture of gum galbanum and gum ammoniac, has proved useful and reliable in my experience. Labelling.—I employ manuscript, type-written, or printed labels, as may be determined by the advantages in each case, and by the expense. RO -OVD, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ZZ TRANSACTIONS OF ‘THE SECTIONS.» “Section A.-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE “PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Prorsssor J. J. THoMson, M.A., D.Sc, FOR.S. THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 17. The Prestent delivered the following Address :— ‘THERE is a melancholy reminiscence connected with this meeting pf our Section, for when the British Association last met in Liverpool the chair in Section A was occupied by Clerk-Maxwell. In the quarter of a century which has elapsed since that meeting, one of the most important advances made. in our science has -been the researches which, inspired by Maxwell’s view of electrical action, con- firmed that view, and revolutionised our conception of the processes occurring in the electro-magnetic field. _When the Association last met in Liverpool Maxwell’s ‘view was almost without supporters; to-day its opponents are fewer than its sup- porters then. Maxwell’s theory, which is the development and extension of Paraday’s, has not only affected our way of regarding the older phenomena of electricity, it has, in the hands of Hertz and others, led to the discovery of whole _ regions of phenomena previously undreamt of. It is sad to think that his prema- _ ture death prevented him from reaping the harvest he had sown. His writings are, however, with us, and are a storehouse to which we continually turn, and never, I think, without finding something valuable and suggestive. ‘Thus ye teach us day by day, Wisdom, though now far away.’ The past year has been rich in matters of interest to physicists. In it has oceurred the jubilee of Lord Kelvin’s tenure of the Professorship of Natural Philo- ‘sophy at the University of Glasgow. Some of us were privileged to see this year at Glasgow an event unprecedented in the history of. physical science in England, when congratulations to Lord Kelvin on the jubilee of his professorship were offered by people of every condition and country. Every scientific society and every scientific man is Lord Kelvin’s debtor; but no society and no body of Men owe him a greater debt than Section .\ of the British Association ; .he has ne more for this Section than any one else, he has.rarely missed its meetings, he has contributed to the Section papers which will make its proceedings imperishable, and by his enthusiasm he has year by year inspired the workers in this Section to mew with increased vigour their struggles to penetrate the secrets of Nature. song may we continue to receive from him the encouragement and assistance which have been so freely given for the past half-century. By tke death of Sir W. R. Grove, the inventor of Grove’s cell, we have lost a physicist whose name is a familiar one in every laboratory in the world. Besides the Grove cell, we owe to him the discovery of the gas battery, and a series of re- searches on the electrical behaviour of gases, whose importance is only now beginning ZZ2 700 REPORT—1896. to be appreciated. His essay on the correlation of the physical forces had great influence in promoting that belief in the unity of the various branches of physics which is one of the characteristic features of modern natural philosophy. In the late Professor Stoletow, of Moscow, we have lost the author of a series of most interesting researches on the electrical properties of gases illuminated by ultra-violet light, researches which, from theirplace of publication, are, I am afraid, not so well known in this country as they deserve to be. As one who unfortunately of late years has had only too many opportunities of judging of the teaching of science in our public and secondary schools, I should like te bear testimony to the great improvement which has taken place in the teaching of physics in these schools during the past ten years. The standard at- tained in physics by the pupils of these schools is increasing year by year, and ereat credit is due to those by whose labours this improvement has been accom- plished. I hope I may not be considered ungrateful if I express the opinion that in the zeal and energy which is now spent in the teaching of physics in schools, there may lurk a temptation to make the pupils cover too much ground, You may by careful organisation and arrangement ensure that boys shall be taken over many branches of physics in the course of a short time; it is indeed not uncommon to find boys of 17 or 18 who have compassed almost the whole range of physical subjects, But although you may increase the rate at which information is ac- quired, you cannot increase in anything like the same proportion the rate at which the subject is assimilated, so as to become a means of strengthening the mind and a permanent mental endowment when the facts have long been forgotten. Physics can be taught so as to be a subject of the greatest possible educational value, but when it is so it is not so much because the student acquires a knowledge of a number of interesting and important facts, as by the mental training the study affords in, as Maxwell said, ‘bringing our theoretical knowledge to bear on the objects and the objects on our theoretical knowledge.’ I think this training can be got better by going very slowly through such a subject as mechanics, making the students try innumerable experiments of the simplest and, what is a matter of im- portance in school teaching, of the most inexpensive kind, but always endeavouring to arrive at numerical results, rather than by attempting to cover the whole range of mechanics, light, heat, sound, electricity, and magnetism. I confess I regret the presence in examinations intended for school boys of many of these subjects. I think, too, that in the teaching of physics at our universities there is perhaps a tendency to make the course too complex and too complete. I refer especially to the training of those students who intend to become physicists. I think that after a student has been trained to take accurate observations, to be alive to those pitfalls and errors to which all experiments are liable, mischief may in some cases be done if, with the view of learning a knowledge of methods, he is kept perform- ing elaborate experiments, the results of which are well known. It is not given to many to wear a load of learning lightly as a flower. With many students a load of learning, especially if it takes a long time to acquire, is apt to crush enthusiasm. Now, there is, I think, hardly any quality more essential to success in physical investigations than enthusiasm. Any investigation ia experimental physics requires a large expenditure of both time and patience; the apparatus seldom, if ever, begins by behaving as it ought; there are times when all the forces of nature, all the properties of matter, seem to be fighting against us: the instruments behave in the most capricious way, and we appreciate Coutts Trotter’s saying, that the doctrine of the constancy of nature could never have been discovered in a labora- tory. These difficulties have to be overcome, but it may take weeks or months to do so, and, unless the student is enthusiastic, he is apt to retire disheartened from the contest. Ithink, therefore, that the preservation of youthful enthusiasm is one of the most important points forconsideration in the training of physicists. In my opinion this can best be done by allowing the student, even before he is supposed to be acquainted with the whole of physics, to begin some original research of a simple kind under the guidance of a teacher who will encourage him and assist in the removal of difficulties. If the student once tastes the delights of the successful completion of an investigation, he 1s not likely to go back, and will be better TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 701, equipped for investigating the secrets of nature than if, like the White Knight of ‘Alice in Wonderland,’ he commences his career knowing how. to, measure or weigh every physical quantity under the sun, but with little desire or enthusiasm to have anything to do with any of them. Even for those students who intend to devote themselves to other pursuits than physical investigation, the benefits derived from original investigation as a means of general education can hardly be over-estimated ; the necessity it entails of independent thought, perseve- yance in overcoming difficulties, and the weighing of evidence gives it an educational value which can hardly be rivalled. We have to congratulate ourselves that through the munificence of Mr. Ludwig Mond, in providing and endowing a labora- tory for research, the opportunities for pursuing original investigations in this country have been greatly increased. The discovery at the end of last year by Professor Réntgen of a new kind of radiation from a highly exhausted tube through which an electric discharge is passing has aroused an amount of interest unprecedented in the history of physical science. The effects produced inside such a tube by the cathode rays, the bright phosphorescence of the glass, the shadows thrown by opaque objects, the deflection of the rays by a magnet, have, thanks to the researches of Crookes and Goldstein, long been familiar to us, but it is only recently that the remarkable effects which occur outside such a tube have been discovered. In 1893 Lenard, using a tube provided with a window made of a very thin plate of aluminium, found that a screen impregnated with a solution of a phosphorescent. substance became luminous if placed outside the tube in the prolongation of the line from the cathode through the aluminium window. He also found that photographic plates laced outside the tube in this line were affected, and electrified bodies were discharged ; e also obtained by these rays photographs through plates of aluminium or quartz. He found that the rays were affected by a magnet, and regarded them as the pro- longations of the cathode rays. This discovery was at the end of last year followed by that of Rontgen, who found that the region round the discharge tube is traversed by rays which affect a photographic plate after passing through substances such as aluminium or cardboard, which are opaque to ordinary light; which pase from one substance to another, without any refraction, and with but little regular reflection ; and which are not affected by a magnet. We may, I think, for the purposes of discussion, conveniently divide the rays occurring in or near a vacuum tube traversed by an electric current into three classes, without thereby implying that they are necessarily distinctly different in physical character. We have (1) the cathode rays inside the tube, which are deflected by a magnet ; (2) the Lenard rays outside the tube, which are also deflected by a magnet; and (3) the Réntgen rays, which are not, as far as is known, deflected by a magnet. Two views are held as to the nature of the cathode rays; one view is, that they are particles of gas carrying charges of negative electricity, and moving with great velocities which they have acquired as they travelled through the intense electric field which exists in the neighbourhood of the negative electrode. ‘The phosphorescence of the glass is on this view produced by the impact of these rapidly moving charged particles, though whether it is produced by the mechanical violence of the impact, or whether it is due to an electro-magnetic impulse produced by the sudden reversal of the velocity of the negatively charged particle—whether, in fact, it is due to mechanical or electrical causes, is an open question. This view of the constitution of the cathode rays explains in a simple way the deflection of those rays in a magnetic field, and it has lately received strong confirmation from the results of an experiment made by Perrin. Perrin placed inside the exhausted tube a cylindrical metal vessel with a small hole in it, and connected this cylinder with the leaves of a gold- leaf electroscope. The cathode rays could, by means of a magnet, be guided so as either to pass into the cylinder through the aperture, or turned quite away from it. Perrin found that when the cathode rays passed into the cylinder the gold leaf of the electroscope diverged, and had a negative charge, showing that the bundle of eathode rays enclosed by the cylinder had a charge of negative electricity. Crookes had many years ago exposed a disc connected with a gold-leaf electroscope to -the - bombardment of the cathode rays, and found that the disc received a slight. positive 702 - REPORT— 1896. charge; with-this arrangement, however, the charged particles had to give up their charges to'the' disc if the gold leaves of the electroscope were to be affected, and we’ know that it is'extremely difficult, if not impossible, to get electricity out of a: charged gas mérély by bringing the gas in contact with a metal. Lord Kelvin’s electric strainers are an example of this. It is a feature of Perrin’s experiment that since it acts by induction the indications of the electroscope are independent of the communication of the charges of electricity from the gas to the cylinder, and: since the cathode rays fall on the inside of the cylinder the electroscope would not be affected, even if there were such an effect as is produced when ultra-violet light falls upon the surface of an electro-negative metal when the metal acquires a positive charge. Since any such process cannot affect the total amount of electricity inside the cylinder, it will not affect the gold leaves of the electroscope ; in fact, Perrin’s experiments prove that thecathode rayscarry a charge of negativeelectricity. The other view held as to the constitution of the cathode rays is that they are waves in the ether. It would seem difficult to account for the result of Perrin’s experiment.on this view, and also I think very difficult to account for the magnetic deflection of the rays. Let us take the case of a uniform magnetic field: the experiments ‘which have been made on the magnetic deflection of these rays seem: to make it clear that in a magnetic field which is sensibly uniform, the path of these rays is curved ; now if these rays were due to ether waves, the curvature of the path would-show thatthe velocity of propagation of these waves varied from point to point of the path. That is, the velocity of propagation of these waves is not only affected by the magnetic field, it is affected differently at different parts of the field.. But in a uniform field what is there to differentiate one part from another; ‘so as to account for the variability of the velocity of wave propagation in such a field? The curvature of the path in a uniform field could not be accounted for by supposing that the velocity of this wave motion depended: on the strength of the magnetic field, or that the magnetic field, by distorting ‘the shape of the boundary of the negative dark space, changed the direction of ‘the wave front, and so produced a deflection of the rays. The chief reason for Supposing that the cathode rays are a species of wave motion is afforded‘ by Lenard’s discovery, that when the cathode rays in a vacuum tube fall on a thin aluminium window in the tube, rays having similar properties are observed on the side of the window outside the tube ; this is readily explained on the hypothesis that the rays are a species of wave motion to which the window is partially transparent, while it is not very likely that particles of the gas in the tube could fdrce their way through a piece of metal. This discovery of Lenard’s does not, howéver, seem to me incompatible with the view that the cathode rays are due to negatively charged particles moving with high velocities. The space outside Lenard’s: tube ‘must have heen traversed by Réntgen rays: these would put the surrounding gas in a state in which a current would be readily started in the gas if any electromotive force acted upon it. Now, though the metal window in Lenard’s experiments ‘was connected with the earth, and would, therefore, screen off from the outside of the tube any effect arising from slow electrostatic changes in the tube, it does not follow that it would be able to screen off the electrostatic effect of charged particles moving to and from the tube with very great rapidity. For in order to screen off electrostatic effects, there must be a definite distribution of electrification over the screen: changes in this distribution, however, take a finite time, which depends upon the dimensions of the screen and the electrical conductivity of the material of which it is made. If the electrical changes in the tube take place at above a certain rate, the distribution of electricity on the screen will not have time to adjust itself, and the screen will cease to shield off all electrostatic effects. Thus the very rapid electrical changes which would take place if rapidly moving charged bodies were striking against the window might give rise to electromotive forces in the region outside the window, and produce convection currents in the gas which has been made a conductor by the Réntgen rays. The Lenard rays would thus be analogous in character to the cathode rays, both being convective currents of electricity. Though there are some points in the behaviour of these Lenard rays which do not admit of a very ready explanation from this point of view, yet the TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 703° difficulties in its way seem to me considerably less than that of supposing that\a wave in the ether can change its velocity when moving from point to point in a uniform magnetic field. tts I now pass on to the consideration of the Rontgen rays. We are not yet acquainted with any crucial experiment which shows unmistakably that these rays are waves of transverse vibration in the ether, or that they are waves of normal vibration, or indeed that they are vibrations at all. Asa working hypothesis, how- ever, it may be worth while considering the question whether there is any property known to be possessed by these rays which is not possessed by some form or other of light. The many forms of light have in the last few months received a note- worthy addition by the discovery of M. Becquerel of an invisible radiation, possess- ing many of the properties of the Réntgen rays, which is emitted by many fluores- cent substances, and to an especially marked extent by the uranium salts. By means of this radiation, which, since it can be polarised, is unquestionably light, photographs through opaque substances similar to, though not so beautiful as, those obtained by means of Réntgen rays can be taken, and, like the Rontgen rays, they cause an electrified body on which they shine to lose its charge, whether this be positive or negative. - The two respects in which the Réntgen rays differ from light is in the absence of refraction and perhaps of polarisation. Let us consider the absence of refraction first. "We know cases in which special rays of the spectrum pass: from one substance to another without refraction; for example, Kundt showed that'gold, silver, copper, allow some rays to pass through them without bending, while other rays are bent in the wrong direction. Pfliiger has lately found that» the same is true for some of the aniline dyes when in a solid form. In addition to this, the theory of dispersion of light shows that there will be no bending when the frequency of the vibration is very great. 1 have here a curve, taken from a paper by Helmholtz, which shows the relation between the refractive index and the frequency of vibration for a substance whose molecules have a natural period of vibration, and one only ; the frequency of this vibration is represented by OK in the diagram. ‘The refractive index increases with the frequency of the light until the latter is equal to the frequency of the natural vibration of the substance; the refractive index then diminishes, becomes less than unity, and finally approaches unity, and is practically equal to it when the frequency of the light greatly exceeds that of the natural vibration of the molecule. Helmholtz’s results are obtained on the supposition that a molecule of the refracting substance consists of a pair of oppositely electrified atoms, and that the specific inductive capacity of the medium. consists of two parts, one due to the ether, the other to the setting of the molecules along the lines of electric force. Starting from this supposition we can easily see without mathematical analysis: that the relation between the refractive index and the frequency must be of the kind indicated by the curve. Let us suppose that an electromotive force of given amplitude acts on this mixture of molecules and ether, and let us start with the fre- quency of the external electromotive force less than that of the free vibrations of the: molecules : as the period of the force approaches that of the molecules, the effect of the force in pulling the molecules into line will increase ; thus the specific inductive capacity, and therefore the refractive index, increases with the frequency of the external force ; the effect of the force on the orientation of the molecules will be: greatest when the period of the force coincides with that of the molecules. As long as the frequency of the force is less than that of the molecules, the external field tends to make the molecules set so as to increase the specific inductive capacity of the mixture; as soon, however, as the frequency of the force exceeds that of the molecules, the molecules, if there are no viscous forces, will all topple over and point so as to make the part of the specific inductive capacity due to the molecules of opposite sign to that due to the ether. Thus, for frequencies greater than that, of the molecules, the specific inductive capacity will be less than unity. When the frequency of the force only slightly exceeds that of the molecules, the effect of the external field on the molecules is very great, so that if there are a considerable number of molecules, the negative part of the specific inductive capacity due to the. 704, REPORT— 1896, molecules may be greater than the positive part due to the ether, so that the specific inductive capacity of the mixture of molecules and ether would be negative ; no waves of this period could then travel through the medium—they would he. totally reflected from the surface. As the frequency of the force gets greater and greater, its effect in making the molecules set will get less and less, but the waves will continue to be totally re- flected until the negative part of the specific inductive capacity due to the mole- cules is just equal to the positive part due to the ether, Here the refractive index of the mixture is zero. As the frequency of the force increases, its effect on the molecules gets less and less, so that the specific inductive capacity continually approaches that due to the ether alone, and practically coincides with it as soon as the frequency of the force is a considerable multiple of that of the molecules. In this case both the specific inductive capacity and the refractive index of the medium are the same as that of the ether, and there is consequently no refraction, Thus the absence of refraction, instead of being in contradiction to the Réntgen rays, being a kind of light, is exactly what we should expect if the wave-length of the light were exceedingly small. The other objection to these rays being a kind of light is, that there is no very conclusive evidence of the existence of polarisation. Numerous experiments have been made on the difference between the absorption of these rays by a pair of tourmaline plates when their axes are crossed or parallel. Many observers have failed to observe any difference at all between the absorption in the two cases. Prince Galitzine and M. de Karnojitsky, by a kind of cumulative method, have obtained photographs which seem to show that there is a slightly greater absorption when the axes are crossed than there is when the axes are parallel. There can, however, be no question that the effect, if it exists at all, is exceedingly small compared with the corresponding effect for visible light. Analogy, however, leads us to expect that to get polarisation effects we must use, in the case of short waves, polarisers of a much finer structure than would be necessary for long ones. Thus a wire bird-cage will polarise long electrical waves, but will have no effect on visible light. Rubens and Du Bois made an instrument which would polarise the infra red rays by winding very fine wires very close together on a framework ; this arrangement, however, was too coarse to polarise visible light. Thus, though the structure of the tourmaline is fine enough to polarise the visible rays, it may be much too coarse to polarise the Réntgen rays if these have exceedingly small wave-lengths. As far as our knowledge of these rays extends, I think we may say that though there is no direct evidence that they are a kind of light, there are no properties of the rays which are not possessed by some variety of light. It is clear that if the Réntgen rays are light rays, their wave-lengths are of an entirely different order from those of visible light. It is perhaps worth notice that on the electro-magnetic theory of light we might expect two different types of vibration if we suppose that the atoms in the molecule of the vibrating substance carried electrical charges. One set of vibrations would be due to the oscillations of the bodies carrying the charges, the other set to the oscillation of the charges on these bodies. The wave-length of the second set of vibrations would be com- mensurate with molecular dimensions; can these vibrations be the Rontgen rays? If so, we should expect them to be damped with such rapidity as to resemble electrical impulses rather than sustained vibrations. If we turn from the rays themselves to the effects they produce, we find that the rays alter the properties of the substances through which they are passing. This change is most apparent in the effects produced on the electrical properties of the substances. A gas, for example, while transmitting these rays is a con- ductor of electricity. It retains its conducting properties for some little time after the rays have ceased to pass through it; but Mr. Rutherford and I have lately found that the conductivity is destroyed if a current of electricity is sent through the Rontgenised gas. The gas in this state behaves in this respect like a very dilute solution of an electrolyte. Such a solution would cease to conduct after enough electricity had been sent through it to electrolyse all the molecules of the electrolyte. When a current is passing through a gas exposed to the rays, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 705, the current destroys and the rays produce the structure which gives conductivity to the gas; when things have reached a steady state the rate of destruction by the current must equal the rate of production by the rays. The current can thus not exceed a definite value, otherwise more of the conducting gas would be destroyed than is produced. This explains the very characteristic feature that in the passage of electricity through gases exposed to Réntgen rays the current, though at first proportional to the electromotive force, soon reaches a value where it is almost constant and independent of the electromotive force, and we get to a state when a tenfold increase in the electromotive force only increases the current by a few per cent. The conductivity under the Réntgen rays varies greatly from one gas to another, the halogens and their gaseous compounds, the compounds of sulphur, and mercury vapour, are among the best conductors. It is worthy of note that those gases which are the best conductors when exposed to the rays are either elements, or compounds of elements, which have in comparison with their valency very high refractive indices. The conductivity conferred by the rays on a gas is not destroyed by a con- siderable rise in temperature; it is, for example, not destroyed if it be sucked through metal tubing raised to a red heat. The conductivity is, however, de- stroyed if the gas is made to bubble through water ; it is also destroyed if the gas is forced through a plug of glass wool. This last effect seems to indicate that the structure which confers conductivity on the gas is of a very coarse kind, and we get confirmation of this from the fact that a very thin layer of gas exposed to the Rontgen rays does not conduct nearly so well as a thicker one. I think we have evidence from other sources that electrical conduction is a process that requires a considerable space—a space large enough to inclose a very large number of molecules. Thus Koller found that the specific resistances of petroleum, turpentine, and distilled water, when determined from experiments made with very thin layers of these substances, were very much larger than when determined from ex- periments with thicker layers. Even in the case of metals there is evidence that the metal has to be of appreciable size if it is to conduct electricity. The theory of the scattering of light by small particles shows that, if we assume the truth of the electro-magnetic theory of light, the effects should be different according as the small particles are insulators or conductors. When the small particles are non-conductors, theory and experiment concur in showing that the direction of complete polarisation for the scattered light is at right angles to the direction of the incident light, while if the small particles are conductors, theory indicates that the direction of complete polarisation makes an angle of 60° with the incident light. This result is not, however, confirmed by the experiments made by Professor Threlfall on the scattering of light by very small particles of gold. He found that the gold scattered the light in just the same way as a non- conductor, giving complete polarisation at right angles to the incident light. This would seem to indicate that those very finely divided metallic particles no longer acted as conductors. Thus there seems evidence that in the case of con- duction through gases, through badly conducting liquids, and through metals, _ electric conduction is a process which requires a very considerable space and aggregations of large numbers of molecules. I have not been able to find any direct experimental evidence as to whether the same is true for electrolytes. Experiments on the resistance of thin layers of electrolytes would be of con- _ siderable interest, as according to one widely accepted view of electrolysis con- duction through electrolytes, so far from being effected by aggregations of molecules, takes place by means of the ion, a structure simpler than that of the molecule, so that if this represents the process of electrolytic conduction, there would not seem room for the occurrence of an effect which occurs with every other kind of conduction. Tn this building it is only fitting that some reference should be made to the question of the movement of the ether. You are all doubtless acquainted with the heroic attempts made by Professor Lodge to set the ether in motion, and how suc- 706. REPORT—1896. cessfully the ether resisted them. It seems to be conclusively proved that a solid body in motion does not set in motion the ether at an appreciable distance outside it; so that if the ether is disturbed at all in such a case, the disturbance is not com- parable with that produced by a solid moving through an incompressible fluid, but must be more analogous to that which would be produced by the motion through: the liquid of a body of very open structure, such as a piece of wire netting, where the motion of the’ fluid only extends to a distance comparable with the diameter of the wire, and not with that of the piece of netting. There is another class of phenomena relating to the movement of the ether which is, I think, deserving of consideration, and that is the effect of a varying electro-magnetic field in setting the ether in motion. I do not remember to have seen it pointed out that the electro-magnetic theory of light implicitly assumes that the ether is not set in motion even when acted on by mechanical forces. On the electro-magnetic theory of light such forces do exist, and the equations used are only applicable when the ether is at rest. Consider, for example, the case of a plane electric wave travelling. through the ether. We have parallel to the wave front a varying electric polari- sation, which on the theory is equivalent to a current; at right angles to this, and also in the wave-front, we have a magnetic force. Now, when a current flows through a medium in a magnetic field there is a force acting on the medium at right angles to the plane, which is parallel both to the current and to the magnetic force; there will thus be a mechanical force acting on each unit volume of the ether when transmitting an electric wave, and since this force is at right angles to the current and to the magnetic force, it will be in the direction in which the wave is propagated. In the electro-magnetic theory of light, however, we assume that this force does not set the ether in motion, as unless we made this assumption we should have to modify our equations, as the electro-magnetic equations are not the same in a moving field as in a field at rest. In fact, a complete discussion of the transmission of electro-magnetic disturbances requires a knowledge of the con- stitution of the ether, which we do not possess. We now assume that the ether is not set in motion by an electro-magnetic wave. If wedo not make this assump- tion we must introduce into our equation quantities representing the components of the velocity of the ether, and unless we know the constitution of the ether, so: as to be able to deduce these velocities from the forces acting on it, there will be- in the equations of the electro-magnetic field more unknown quantities than we, have equations to determine. It is, therefore, a very essential point in electro- magnetic theory to investigate whether or not there is any motion of the ether in a varying electro-magnetic field. We have at the Cavendish Laboratory, using Professor Lodge’s arrangement of interference fringes, made some experiments to see if we could detect any movement of the ether in the neighbourhood of an electric vibrator, using the spark which starts the vibrations as the source of light. The movement of the ether, if it exists, will be oscillatory, and with an undamped vibrator the average velocity would be zero; we used, therefore, a heavily damped vibrator, with which the average velocity might be expected to be finite. The experiments are not complete, but so far the results are entirely negative. We also tried by the same method to see if we could detect any movement of the ether in the neighbourhood of a vacuum-tube emitting Réntgen rays, but could not find any trace of such a movement. Professor Threlfall, who independently tried the same experiment, has, I believe, arrived at the same conclusion. Unless the ether is immovable under the mechanical forces in a varying electro- magnetic field, there are a multitude of phenomena awaiting discovery. If the ether does move, then the velocity of transmission of electrical vibrations, and therefore of light, will be affected by a steady magnetic field. Such a field, even if containing nothing but ether, will behave towards light like a crystal, and the velocity of propagation will depend upon the direction of the rays. A similar result would also hold in a steady electric field. We may hope that experiments on these and similar points may throw some light on the properties of that medium which is universal, which plays so large.a part in our explanation of physical phenomena, and of which we know so little. TRANSAGTIONS OF SECTION A. 707 — “The following Report and Papers were read :— 1. Report on the Establishment of a National Physical Laboratory. a. «See Reports, p. 82. 4. On the Evolution of Stellar Systems. By Isaac Roserts, D.Sc., LBS. The evidence of stellar evolution which it is now proposed to submit may be presented in either of two forms :—(1) By tracing back from the visually finished stars to the material of which: they may have been built up; this we may term the analytical method. (2) By tracing their development from an amorphous material to the visually finished stars ; this would be the synthetical method. The first of these will now be considered. Tt should be noted that the evidence has been obtained by processes which are not subject to the disturbing influence of human or personal imperfections. A series of photographs, untouched by handwork, were shown, and the objects as they undoubtedly exist in the sky were thus submitted to judgment. A small selection of characteristic photographs were exhibited by lantern projections on a screen. ; The first was a photograph: of the sky in the constellation Auriga, which was taken with an exposure of the plate during 90 minutes, and attention was drawn to the remarkable groups, curves, and lines of stars which were clearly shown upon it. Some of them are constituted of bright stars of nearly equal magnitude ; some are of faint stars, also of nearly equal magnitude ; some are of both bright and faint stars, and there is much regularity in the spacing distance between the stars in the several groups. These appearances are persistently found upon all photographs, taken with a long exposure, in any part of the sky where the stars are numerous. In order to emphasise these statements, two photographs of stars in the con- stellation Argo and one in Cassiopeia were shown on the screen, and upon them also was seen the appearances referred to; and hundreds of photographs of other regions of the sky could be shown in further confirmation of these features. The explanation offered to account for the grouping of the stars, that they were so placed from the beginning, is not the only one. Photographs were then shown which suggest, if they do not demonstrate, stellar evolution. The spiral nebula in Pisces clearly shows that the spirals consist of nebulous matter with faint stars immersed in it, and of bright stars apparently in their completed forms. The curvatures and the general arrangements of these stars, both bright and faint, can be readily matched with similar curves seen on the photographs already shown; but the taint stars which are immersed in the nebu- losity are not yet in the completed form, and will not arrive at that stage until the whole of the nebulosity has been absorbed, when they will stand out clearly separated like the other stars. The spiral nebula in the constellation Ursa Major, like the last, has spirals formed of nebulous matter, with numerous starlike condensations in it; and six well-defined stars are involved at irregular intervals. The nebulous condensations are not so regular in their outlines as are those on the first photograph, and are suggestive of a more recent period in their development. The spiral nebula in Ursa Major, like the two others, consists of faint starlike condensations immersed in the convolutions. [here are also five well-formed stars involved, but the stellar condensations are less fully developed in this nebula. The fourth photograph was of the spiral nebula in Canes Venatici, and it was observed that the conyolutions are more strongly shown in this than in the other nebule ; also that they consist of several well-formed stars, whilst the star-like condensations show various degrees of development, from the likeness of a nebulous star to that of diffused nebulosity. The fifth photograph, the spiral nebula in 7’rzangulum, shows the spirals to be crowded with stars and star-like condensations in the midst of diffused nebulosity. 708, -REPORT—1896, - The convolutions are less symmetrical in their outlines than are those of the other spirals exhibited. The evidence, part of which had been laid before the Section, is reasonably conclusive that some, if not many,.of the stars which we see in curves and in groups strewn over the sky have been formed in the manner pointed out. There are, besides this, other methods of stellar evolution, shown in other photographs, such as condensations into stars of nebulze which have not at present symmetrical structures and outlines—of globular nebulz and of annular nebule ; but these were not described. If it be true that stars are evolved from spiral and other forms of nebulosity, it may be asked, Whence came the nebulous matter ? We can answer with conti- dence that it exists in very large quantities over extensive areas, and in many parts of the sky; and that it exists there in the form of gas, or, more probably, as Professor Norman Lockyer urges, in his ‘ Meteoritic Hypothesis,’ of meteors or meteoric dust. There is also evidence that collisions between bodies in space take place— perhaps large bodies may collide, with the result that their component materials would again be converted into gas, meteoric dust, and meteoric stones. What- ever the sources of the nebular material may be, we know that collisions in space would supply the energy requisite for the formation of the spiral nebule, of the existence and the forms of which now we have ample proof. 3. On Periodic Orbits. By G. H. Darwin, FBS. If a planet, say Jove, of unit mass, moves in a circular orbit round the sun, of mass (n*—1)?, at unit distance, the equations of motion of an infinitesimal third body, referred to heliocentric origin, with x axis passing through Jove, are dt? dt dx dy on dv da dt dt dy’ where C is a constant. The function Q is given by 9 20 = (nr? - 1 (72+2)+ Gi + =) UP p: where 7, p are the heliocentric and jovicentric radii vectores. The curves defined by 20 = C give a partition of space into regions where the velocity is real, and those where it is imaginary. From these curves are obtained an inferior limit to the heliocentric distance of a superior planet, and superior limits to the heliocentric and jovicentrie distances of an inferior planet and of a satellite. There are four critical cases, corresponding to the four exact solutions of the problem, in which the three bodies move round without relative motion. Solutions of these equations, which are represented by closed curves, are called periodic, orbits, and if they are re-entrant after a single circuit, they are called simply periodic orbits, The object in view is to obtain a complete synopsis of simply periodic orbits, and of their stabilities, for all values of C. This can only be done in a concrete case, and the sun’s mass is taken as ten times that of Jove, and the orbits are determined by the method of quadratures. is The field to be covered is so large that up to the present time it has been found necessary to pass over the retrograde orbits and the superior planets; and only.a portion of the cases of inferior planets and satellites haye been as yet considered, A number of figures were shown, amongst which may be mentioned and the Jacobian integral is ————————————— —————— —“‘“‘“‘:SC TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. ‘709 some exhibiting orbits of oscillating satellites, and orbits with cusps and loops. Perhaps the most curious cases are those representing the orbits of satellites, which present three new moons in a month, and another with five full moons in a month. The consideration of the stability of the orbits shows that there are stable satellites close to Jove, or at some distance from Jove; but that there is a tract between these two in which no stable motion can take place. This conclusion appears to throw some light on Bode’s empirical law as to the distribution of planets and satellites. A paper containing an account of this investigation will appear in the Acta Mathematica of Stockholm. Se en FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18. The following Papers were read :— 1. On Cathode Rays and their probable connection with Réintgen Rays. By Professor Puiriep Lenarp, Aachen. Until a few years ago it was impossible to make experiments on cathode rays under modified conditions, because it was impossible to vary their surroundings without at the same time altering the circumstances under which they were pro- duced. Hertz’s discovery that thin sheets of metals were transparent to the cathode rays has enlarged the field of experiment. By making a small aluminium window in one end of the discharge-tube the rays can now be allowed to go out from the space where they were generated ; they can thus be investigated without altering the conditions of generation, and therewith the properties of the rays themselves. The cathode rays emerge into air at ordinary pressure, but they are very rapidly absorbed by it, so that at a distance of from 6 to 8 centimetres no trace of them is visible on a screen capable of phosphorescence. The free atmo- sphere proves, moreover, to be a turbid medium to these rays, their propagation behind shadow-casting objects being similar to the propagation of light in milk. Other gases of equal density behave in the same way. But as the density of a gas is diminished by lowering its pressure, it becomes more transparent and less turbid. In the highest vacuum that can be produced there is no limit to the transmission of the rays, and behind a diaphragm they are quite as sharp as rays of light are under the same circumstances. From the fact that the rays are not stopped by a space containing only minute traces of matter it is concluded that they are processes going on in the ether. The absorption of the rays in various substances can also be investigated. It is found to be in every case approximately proportional to the density of the medium, whether this be solid or gaseous, and whatever be its chemical nature. The rays are deflected by a magnet, and it was found that in this respect there were different kinds of cathode rays, those which are produced when the dis- charge-tube was more exhausted being less deflectible than those produced when it was less exhausted. The deflectibility of the rays depends also in other respects on the circumstances of their production ; it is, however, quite unalterable by any change in the observing-space. Whatever the nature or the pressure of the gas in this space was, the deflectibility of the rays remained the same whenever it could be tested—z.e. whenever the density of the gas was such as allowed rays of some sharpness to be obtained. This was the case, for instance, in common air below about one tenth of an atmosphere, and in hydrogen of ordinary or any smaller pressure. The deflectibility of the rays was also found to be the same before and after traversing an air-tight sheet of aluminium set up in the observing-space. The deflectibility of a cathode ray once produced being thus quite unalterable, its magnitude may serve as a characteristic to denote any particular kind of cathode tay. Rays of smaller deflectibility were found to be less easily absorbed and ‘710 -., REPORT——1896, diffused by all substances than rays of greater deflectibility. 1t might therefore be expected that there exists an extreme form of cathode rays which is not per- ceptibly. deflected by a magnet, and which is accordingly very slightly absorbed and diffused by all substances, but which would have the same property of being absorbed by all substances approximately in proportion. to their density. The rays discovered by Réntgen agree in these respects with such cathode rays; they agree with them also in other respects, and, in fact, no observation yet made contradicts the hypothesis that the Rontgen rays are of the same nature as the cathode rays, being an extreme form of cathode ray with zero deflectibility. \ 2. On the Laws of Conduction of Electricity through Gases exposed to the Réntgen Rays. By Professor J. J. Tuomson, F.RS., and E. RUTHERFORD. [Published in the Phil. Mag., Nov. 1896, pp. 392-417.] 3. On the Transparency of Glass and Porcelain to the Réntgen Rays. By A. W. Ricker, F.R.S., and W. Watson, B.Sc. ‘The transparency to the X-rays of a number of different pieces of the same kind of glass up to a total thickness of 5'1 mm. was determined by the photometric method. The results can be expressed very approximately by the formula I =I, {0-2 + 0°8 x 0:35794,3, where I, is the intensity of the phosphorescent light when no absorbing medium is interposed, and I the intensity when the X-rays have passed through ¢ mm, of the glass used. This suggests that the rays emitted. by the tube consist of two great groups, to one of which the glass is very transparent, while the remainder are absorbed according to the ordinary law. - * Observations were then made on the ratio between the transparency of different kinds of porcelain to that of glass of the same thickness. The specimens were in part lent by the authorities of the South Kensington Museum, and were in part selected from a small collection belonging to one of the authors. The mean results were as follows :— Bow opaque. Phosphatic Soft Paste . : ri ery BE aeons ; : 4 Crown Derby .:: °a... =~ O27 Soft Paste ‘ ; - r . . Worcester . - ates . 036 _ Hard Paste ‘ 3 z : .__ Bristol Cottage Ware : . 0:56 Soft, but glass-like Paste. ; | poe Loam Beaphts . Aes ; Ny Po Gecio . Soee Hard Paste - » . = Bionenpar eet “ut i 0-93 4, Measurement of Electric Currents through. Air at different Densities down to one Five-millionth of the Density of Ordinary Air. By Lord - Ketvin, J. T. Borromney, and Macnus Maciean. The apparatus used in these experiments consisted of (1) a cylindrical tube 13 ems. long and 13 cm. diameter, with two aluminium wires as terminals ground to points 15 cm. apart; (2) a large Wimshurst electrostatic machine of 24 plates; (8) a high-resistance mirror galvanometer to measure the current between the aluminium-point terminals inside the tube; (4) an electrostatic volt- TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 711 meter to measure the difference of potential between the terminals of the tube ; (5) a five-fall Sprengel pump, by means of which the density of the air inside the tube could be reduced to any desired extent. The galvanometer was placed on a block of paraffin between one terminal of the electric machine and one terminal of the glass tube. Its deflections were read by a telescope’ and its sensibility was arranged by external magnets, so that one division of ‘deflection corresponded to 0:3 mikroampere. Our method of experimenting was to keep the ‘density of the air constant while we varied the difference of potential between the terminals of the tube, and taking simultaneous readings on the voltmeter and‘ on the galvano- meter. The electric potential was varied either by varying ‘the speed of rotation of the machine or by varying the distance between the needle-point terminals of the machine, or by a combination of both. ol “We found that at ordinary atmospheric density it’ requires a difference of ‘potential of between 2,000 and 3,000 volts at the terminals of the tube before the galvanometer indicates any current. As the difference of potential is now increased, the current through the galvanometer increases at a greater ratio, so that if a curve be drawn with differences of potential as absciss and galvanometer readings or currents as ordinates, the curve is always concave towards’ the axis of current. Through this particular tube the currents at 3,000, 5,000; and 8,000 volts difference of potential were 7:2, 17-6, and 63:2 mikroamperes respectively. As the density of the air was diminished, the difference of potential necessary to start a current, as ‘indicated by the galvanometer, gradually diminished also, till, at'a density of about zoo Of the ordinary density, a few score volts were suflicient to start a current. For the same difference of potential the current increased as the density of the air diminished ; or, otherwise, the same current was obtained by smaller differences of potential as the density of the air was reduced. Thus a current of about 56 mikroamperes was obtained by differences of potential of 7,400, 1,090, 700, 370, ‘405, 570 volts, when the densities of the air were 1 (ordinary density), 0-058, 0:0095, 0:0007, 0:00006, 0:000024 respectively; or, otherwise, when the air ‘pressures were 750, 44, 7, 4, 35, =; millimetres of mercury respectively. As the air density was still further reduced, the difference of potential necessary to start a current increased, and the current for the same difference of potential diminished. Thus, when the density of the air was reduced to one five-millionth of the density of air at ordinary atmospheric pressure and temperature, differences of potential of 3,000, 5,000, and 8,000 volts gave currents of 1:3, 4:4, and 14:6 mikroamperes respectively. \. If a curve be drawn for a constant difference of potential, with air densities as abscissze and currents as ordinates, we find the curve rising as the air density is diminished to about z,/55 Or zs'q_Of ordinary density; then falling again as the density is still further reduced to about a five-millionth of ordinary density. This is the lowest density we have experimented with, but we have no reason to doubt that at very much lower densities we would still be able to get measurable currents through the tube. _ We are now experimenting with a tube 15 cms. long and 1} em. diameter, having ball terminals of } cm. diameter and about 2 mm. apart. The investigation is not complete enough for publishing any results. 5. The Duration of X-Radiation at each Spark. By Frep. T. Trouton, IA., D.Se. The object of these experiments was to ascertain how long a Crookes’ tube continued at each spark to give out Roéntgen radiation. The method adopted was to rotate a metallic-toothed wheel (cut out of sheet zinc) interposed between a tube and a sensitive photographic plate. Only one spark is allowed to pass by making one brake of the primary of the inductive coil used. The departure from sharpness of outline of the image of the moving teeth on 712 REPORT—1896, development is observed and measured in terms of the width of a tooth. If the speed of rotation is known, the length of time the effective radiation persists can be at once deduced. A mercury brake worked simply by hand was generally used. The tube was distant from the plate about eight centimetres. When the wheel is rotated sufficiently fast, a drawing out of the image is always observed ; but the amount of this drawing out in each case is found to vary in an important way with circumstances, and is probably but a measure of the length of time the E.M.F. remains above the value necessary for discharge, and thus ultimately depends upon the arrangements used—the coil, Ke. If a spark gap in parallel with the tube be provided, the drawing out is cut short by the passage of a spark at the gap. How early this occurs depends on the distance between the sparking points. In this way comparatively sharp-looking images are obtainable without otherwise altering the arrangements. The time the radiation lasted, as measured from the photographs obtained in this way, varied from, roughly, the g$>5 to the zo5$95 of a second. In the first case the points were too far apart for a spark to pass; in the latter the points were as near as possible consistent with getting any photographic effect. Experiments can also be made by using a phosphorescent screen, but the measurements are not capable of being made with the same certainty ; however, it is a more convenient way to demonstrate the existence of the early cut-off in the duration of the radiation caused by a parallel spark. When the brake of the primary is made by hand by means of the usual hammer arrangements, the results sometimes are difficult to explain. Often three images appear as if three sparks occurred, each image being drawn out. This might be merely due to something oscillatory in the circuits, but for the fact that the character of the drawing out is peculiar, the half shadow region shading the wrong way. That is to say, instead of passing uniformly in shade from the longer exposed parts to the parts always covered while the radiation lasted, there is a fluctuation in intensity, so that a tooth is bounded first by a dark line or band, while the region longer exposed outside this is not so black. 6. On the Relations between Kathode Rays, Réntgen Rays, and Becquerel Rays. By Professor Sirvanus P. Toompson, /.2.S. The author described experiments, made with vacuum tubes of several shapes, to test several points in the relations between the various kinds of rays. It was found that when kathode rays were caused to fall on an oblique platinum piece in the interior of the tube, true kathodic shadows could be obtained in the rays reflected from the platinum surface, from metallic and other objects interposed between this target and the walls of the tube. These shadows were deflected by magnets, and were affected in size by electrifying the interposed objects, At the same time, and when the tube was sufficiently highly exhausted, Rontgen-ray shadows were obtained on a luminescent screen outside; but these shadows, unlike the shadows of the reflected kathodic rays within the tube, were not deflected by either magnetic or electrostatic influences. Experiments on filtermg the kathodic rays, direct and reflected, through screens of aluminium of various thicknesses showed that the more deflectable rays were more easily stopped by screens than the less deflectable ; and that the power of producing luminescence in different bodies differed for rays of different deflectability. Uranium, as a target, appeared to be more active than platinum in evoking emission of Réntgen rays, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 713 SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19. The Section was divided into two Departments. The following Reports and Papers were read :— DeEpaRTMENT I.—Puysics. 1. Report on the Comparison of Magnetic Standards. See Reports, p. 87. 2. Report on the Comparison and Reduction of Magnetic Observations. See Reports, p. 231. 3. Adjourned Discussion on Professor 8. P. THompson’s Paper on the Relation between Kathode Rays, Réntgen Rays, and Becquerel’s Rays. 4. On Hyperphosphorescence. By Professor Strvanus P. Tuompson, D.Se., FAS. . This phenomenon, discovered by the author independently at the same time with M. Henri Becquerel, consists in the persistent emission by certain substances, notably by metallic uranium and its salts, of invisible rays which closely resemble Réntgen rays in their photographic action, and in their power of penetrating aluminium, and of producing diselectrification. The author finds the order of transparency of substances to be different for these rays from that which exists for Réntgen’s rays. He has also observed photographic action through opaque screens of paper by light emitted from phos- phorus slowly oxidising in air. The hyperphosphorescence of uranium in the metallic state is about equal in darkness and when exposed to light, but with ‘aranium nitrate the continued stimulation of light promotes the emission of these xays. No similar rays exist either in are light or in sunlight as observed in London. 5. Observations on the X-Rays. By H. H. F. Hyypmay. 6. On the Component Fields of the Earth's Permanent Magnetism. By Dr. L. A. Bauer. 7. On a One-Volt Standard Cell with Small Temperature Coefficient. By W. Hispert. The author and Mr. Sewell have worked for two years dt improving a cell first made by Helmholtz. The elements are zinc and mercury, in a solution of chloride of zinc. To get a potential difference of one volt the solution must be pure, and have a density of about 1:380, 1896. 3A 714 REPORT—1896. The temperature coefficient is only one ten-thousandth of a volt for 1° Centi- rade. The cell has many other advantages. Its resistance remains constant, and is lower than in most other cells used as standards. Notwithstanding this, the cell protects itself against a charging current from other sources, as well as from dis- turbing tendency due to short circuit. The reason for this immunity from permanent disturbance is not yet clear, and the authors are engaged in investigating it. 8. On Reostene, a new Resistance Alloy. By J. A. Harxer, D.Sc., and A. Davipson. This communication is a descripiion of the physical properties of a new alloy for electric resistance coils, which has the extremely high specific resistance of forty- five as compared with copper. Its temperature coeflicient is comparatively small, 0-0011 per ohm per degree Centigrade, and from a large number of tests with heavy currents, under varying conditions, it was found to alter only very slightly with time. The paper was illustrated with a model and several samples, and the appa- ratus by which the specimens were maintained{at a known temperature during the measurements of resistance was also shown. DEPARTMENT II.—MATHEMATICS. : 1, Report on the G (r, v) Integrals,—See Reports, p. 70. 2. Report on Bessel Functions and ozher Mathematicai Tables. See Reports, p. 98. 3. Results connected with the Theory of Differential Resolvents. By the Rev. Ropert Hartey, J/.A., F.R.S. The linear differential equations whose forms are recorded in this paper stand in a very close and important relation to the trinomial forms of algebraic equations. For, on the one hand, the complete integration of the differential equations deter- mines the form of the roots of the algebraic equations, and, on the other, the general solution of the algebraic equations determines the complete integrals of the several differential equations; so that the relation is reciprocal. In fact, the algebraic equations and their corresponding differential equations are eo-resolvents. In a paper printed in the British Association Report for 1878, at pp. 466-8, it is shown that if y be a function of x, and a, b, ¢ arbitraries independent of a: and y, any root y of the algebraic equation ay™ + by" +ex=0... (@) will satisfy the linear differential equation Ld . ; ” We ro En ni poy | 2 "y= ee 1 ay GA) m=—-7 b"c" Lm—r m—r or, when 7 is greater than m, poy | |" (—) ee | Yam. (AD r—m = 27 and any rcot of ay” + bry"+e=0..... (0) tate meee TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 745 will satisfy pyry= (=| 2D estas moty. 2s = 1} ange -. (B) or (r>m) ope [2s 2 eas) Fe a 21 faye) in which D=2 fy and the usual factorial notation, viz. : te [O\*=6 (@—1) (0-2)... (@-a+1) is adopted. By the process employed in the above cited paper we are also led to the follow- ing results :— Any root of ary™ + by"+c=0.... (©) will satisfy D Yr m—r n eee nm — gees) m1] ter Me ee pr [*"p+"] y (—) Ser r TF ay or (r>m) ners T qrom oul Dl'y"=(— ae & aM ‘lt [""p- 2-1] ar sh te C’ Pit = (=) pearl -Dacat ; = ayn « » (CD And any root of ay +bay"+cxr=0.., (a) will satisfy Pees] Roufse-ta ero or (7 >m) [™p- faa sk Ber -) PD 1 eyn -.. (D) ) em The complete integral of each of the above differential equations is of the form CY s" + CQYo™ 2 os FCmYm'y or CY" $CoYo” 2 ow +O Ys according as m or 7 is the greater, and ;, Yo,» + © Yin OF Yr are the m or r roots of the connected algebraic equation. The same results may be obtained by suitable substitutions, or interchanges, and reduction by known theorems. Thus (a), (A), (A’) may be changed into (0), (B), (B’) respectively by the substitution (“ 6,0, m7 ) c, a, b, —r, m—r or into (¢), (C), (C’) respectively by the substitution 2, Overman, “4 ) b,c, a, r—m, —m or into (d), (D), (D’) respectively by the substitution (% Cow a7ity Ns En :) Cc, a, —M, T—M, L- Or (4), (B), (B’) may be changed into (ec), (C), (C’) respectively by means of the interchanges (22). 3A 2 716 REPORT—1896. And (c), (C), (C’) into (2), (D), (D’) respectively by writing 2-1 for x. In this way the accuracy of the results has been sufficiently confirmed, 4. Connexion of Quadratic Forms. By Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN Cunnincua, R.F., Fellow of King’s Coll. Lond. Two quadratic partitions of the same integer (N) are said to be conformal, when derivable from one another by mere multiplication by a unit factor, e.g., mr? + nv? =1; when not so interchangeable they are said to be 2on-conformal. Let N be an integer expressed in two non-conformal quadratic forms. N = 60? + mw* = 627 + ny*; (6, m, n integers ; m # n). Tien N20, Ary — (yr) mw — ny” It is shown that a third non-conformal partition may be hence directly com- puted by the known processes of conformal multiplication and conformal division combined, when 6 is of suitable form, &c. i, O= 41; ii. 00,2? +mw,? = +1= 62,7 + ny,?; iii, + 00% =mr?—nv*; iv. + 00° =7? —mnv’*. Also, in Cases i., ii., iii, any one of the three forms is derivable by the same pro- cedure from the other two. Ev. N =a? +b? =v? 4+ mw? =2—my’, forms such a Triad that each form is directly derivable from the other two as above. This is a very useful process for directly effecting a quadratic partition of a very large number from two given non-conformal partitions. 5. On the Plotting out of Great Circle Routes on a Chart. By H. M. Taytor, JLA., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. It is proposed that on the charts used by ocean-going vessels a series of curves should be engraved, each curve representing accurately a great Circle. It is shown how such a series of curves may, without the use of mathematical calculations, be made use of to plot out on the chart, with much accuracy, the Great Circle route between any two points. 6. On the Stationary Motion of a System of Equal Elastic Spheres in a Field of no Forces when their Aggregate Volume is Not Infinitely Small compared with the Space in which they Move. By 8. H. Bursury, 1 FO The object of this paper is to prove that the velocities of spheres near to one another are correlated. 1. Consider first the system in which the molecules are material points, between which there are no collisions, with their velocities distributed according to Max- well’s law. The chance that any molecules shall have component velocities Uy Vy + + + Wy is then Ae Tew di, G0; - » . AWp, and this motion is stationary. Let p be the number of molecules per unit volume. Let R be a radius at present arbitrary. Definition. Let & ¢ at any point P, and at any instant, be the component velocities of the centre of inertia of all the molecules which at that instant are contained within a sphere of radius R described about P. 2, If an equal sphere be described about a neighbouring point P’, and P P’ = 3s, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 717 the volume common to the two spheres is = 7R®—7ROs, or = 7R (1 - a So the value of € for the new sphere is g- + = wv, where x is a vector for which positive and negative values are equally probable, and for which on ye d 3 3 : : average 22=£. So we find = (vx—&)= ~ gp OD average if € be given, 2 EX In the same way we find the mean value of ) to be = that is, proportional to &, 3. Now consider the function h 9 ° ¥o dé M= iit andyde| [fe Kong 05? + 183") dw,dwydwww, © j C7 in which w, w, w are the component velocities of a molecule, and the iategration includes all space and ali values of w, w, w.. If we follow individual molecules, W, Wy w: Yemain unchanged in the absence of collisions. But if we regard w, wy wz as belonging to those molecules which are for the time being within a fixed space, W, W, w vary with the time by the passage of molecules into or out of the space. dM Now in stationary:motion M is constant, and at 0, that is {V Boel edw, dw dw x { swat, = + 2 = (yz) =0, in which W= U2 +0, +0, , : : . : : ; 5 c : ce a ley) ‘We have now to express . ; (w,,W:). Suppose, near a certain point P, ES ~ in is positive. Form the integral I for a small cylindrical space AB, containing P, whose ends are unit area of two planes A and B, respectively parallel to ay. Then we find dé d Qhwt 3 & that — on (w,w-) has throughout AB the mean value — —— - is iz Bye) And therefore 2 0 |{faxayae| | soe A(w," + wy? +w “dwydw, dre, i dd& 2w*t 3 & eW,— —— ——— _-« — e . . Il, Ciera Sao Te un) Transition to Finite Spheres. 4, We now pass to the case in which our molecules, instead of being material points, are finite spheres, each of unit mass and diameterc. The first effect of this alteration is to increase the quantity of momentum transferred across any plane per unit of area and time in the ratio 1: 1+, where k=2zc*p. But this increases both the terms of I or II in the same ratio, and therefore ae so far as this is concerned, remains zero. ___ 6, But collisions alter the term 7 (wa), because at each collision the direc- tion of motion changes for each of the colliding spheres. The state of the medium near P being as assumed in Art. 3, viz. & positive, consider two planes, one the 718 REPORT—1896. plane of wy, and the other z= vc, \ » v being direction cosines of a diameter ec. For our present purpose we may take €=0 on plane of «y, and the value of € on the second plane is ues Consider two spheres, one on the plane of ay, the other on the da second plane, and suppose their relative velocity to be V, and its direction cosines | X pv. If the number per unit of volume of pairs of molecules having relative velocity V... V+dV be Ae~4” V2dV, the number having near P X p » for direction cosines of V is in excess of the normal by — Ac va vnvehv 2 Let @ be the angle between V and the line of centres at collision. If we form the integral value of AvV* for all collisions taking place per unit of volume and time near P under the circumstances assumed, it is ae 7 pert —AvAe 3 Vd Viren VavchV! = | cos? 8 sin 646; . oO pee yt Ce Eee that is — Wer AL 2 VedVh & di 6. Again, let X’ p’ v’ be the values of Ap vy after collision. Then we find easily j v= — vcos 26+ /1—r’* sin 26 cos d, NV = —A cos 26 ~— Ay _ sin 26 cos d, a‘ l—y $ being the angle between the plane containing \ » v and 2, and the plane con- taining A » v and the point of contact. Whence we find the integral value of ’y’ for all collisions per unit of volume and time to bergreater than > q Pak sa Av : {2 sin 6 cos ofa —vcos26 + 4/1 —v*sin 26 cos ){ —Ac0s26 — ier sin26 cos), 0 0 44) 40 ’ nies Oo ed so ee AE which is zero, Let \V=V,,vV = V*. Hence if \’y’ =0, a (VeNe) = sais VvAV = 3 rep 1 yyaé 5 dz 79? because on average \?y? = rae 3. 6° So> and changing the variable, we obtain Therefore, if 2 relate to the change due to collisions only, ; [Jfox dy ae{|| e« A(wa? + Wy? + w,") dw, dwy dw; = = (w,w:) = 2 2 2 3 a = all dy All| € (wa? + wy" + wz") dw, dw, dw . = = « ha* ne by Art. 2. 7. Wesee then that if . denote the whole time variation, the expression (w,W:); which was zero on average, has now, as the result of collisions, acquired a positive 3 hw 3 & Inne ieee, oes oy 4. Re If we stop there a # O, and the motion is not stationary. The way to make TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 719 it stationary in the medium of finite spheres is to write &+ & for &, n +n’ for n, ¢+¢' for ¢, where &’ n’ ¢’ are three vectors for which positive and negative values are equally probable and for which &” n’ ¢ are very small compared with & &c. Further they are chosen at haphazard independently of & ny ¢,.so that ££ =nn’ =¢¢’=0 on average. The object is to find the ratio &” : &. The introduction of £ 7 ¢ does not directly affect w,w.on average, but it affects Sw. w-) as foundin Art. 3. In lieu of € in that article we must now write (€+ é’)’, that is, since £’=0 on average, €°+&”. Our equation II. now becomes dM —h(w,? + w,? +w.) dH ~2|| | drdydz| || dw, dwy dw: x {w w dak 2 hur eg Oe ba B25 ER? hw* chp ee SL +h pe wp ll Se ete The first line is zero by II. The second line is zero if &” =e Pe + &?) = ED 2 2 i = iy (B42), where k= Peclp. Or e?=* £_2 hs ie m2, 18, Be, but not k, bo negligible. Evidently ? +n? +¢?: &+7?+(::& : &; and as this ratio is inde- pendent of R and 2, it gives the solution for all values of R and x. 8. When the chance that molecules within a sphere of radius R shall have velocities uw, ... u,+du, &. wy, .. w,+dw, is proportional to ——r++w, du, . . . dw, we know that the mean value of the energy of the motion of their common centre of gravity, or > (E47? +), is es If, therefore, the energy of this motion be “@ +n t+) + : (&2% +77 +0), as in the medium of finite spheres we now see it must be, that is iu 4h +E +7 +), it is impossible that the above chance can any longer be represented by LECT he ed AW. The term containing ww’ + vv’ + ww’ necessarily appears in the index. The case is the same as if, the molecules being in motion according to the ordi- nary law, we gave to each of the spheres the additional component velocities € 7’ (’, at. the same time maintaining / constant. It can then be proved that the above chance is proportional under those circumstances to e~"@du, . . . dwn, and Q = $3 (w+? +") — He +1? + (°)33 (uu! + vv’ + ww’). _ But we have seen that for small values of & in stationary motion &%+7n”"+¢? = Le +7 +0)= oe where » is the number of molecules within the R sphere, _and therefore the coefficient of (wu’+vv’+ww’) in Q is ~*. 9. If now we write h,=h (147 — 1% , AQ becomes y n hy{(ad(w? + v7 + w?) + b SS (wu + vo’ + ww’)} with Qa-147—% 7 720; REPORT—1895. he sad | n And we can now describe the motion of the medium of finite spheres as follows : If it be given that there are 7 spheres within a spherical space 8, but nothing is known of their positions within §, the chance that they shall have. velocities U, .. Uj tdu,... Wy. . + Wr+dw, is proportional to e~%@du, ... dwn, and Q = a3(u? + v* + w) + bE3(uw’ + vv’ + ww’), and Cae cama? n and be = provided & be small. 10. If T be the whole kinetic energy of the 2 molecules, T, the kinetic energy of their motion relative to their common centre of inertia, Q="+KT., and Q is that which is constant in a vertical column under the action of gravity. 11. The function M which we have used, if we add to it the corresponding dé d terms in dy 29 &c., can be shown to be the rate of time variation of ly ‘ dx ie k= NG +n? + C)dadydz. The investigation shows that H increases or diminishes with the time according as ates +7? +?) is below or above the limit = 2 o 12. Dr. Ladislas Natanson, in his ‘ Sur |’Interprétation cinétique de la Fonction. de Dissipation,’ defines as follows:—Let & 7 ¢ be the component velocities of the centre of inertia of the molecules in ‘un élément de volume contenant n.dvdydz molécules,’ while x v w are the velocities of a molecule relative to that centre of inertia. (I have interchanged Dr. Natanson’s letters.) ‘Then he takes H= NG ++ C)dadydz, E= {Joe +0 + w*)dadydz throughout the space filled by molecules. And he shows that in nature H tends to diminish, its energy being converted into the energy, E, of molecular motion. _ Dr. Natanson’s definition (though I am not contesting its suffici ney for his own purpose) is inapplicable to molecules of finite dimensions, because _a system of such molecules ‘ un élément de volume contenant .dvdydz molécules’ does not exist. But the function which in this case corresponds to Natauson’s function H is NG +2 + (?)dxdydz, which does, as we have seen, tend to a limit, though not to the limit zero. 13. The theorem of Arts. 5 and 6, and therefore the whole of this investiga— tion, would apply to the case where the molecules, instead of being conventional : ; d ..- am elastic spheres, are centres of repulsive force, only the exact value of a (V2V.) will not be the same. It would still be of the same sign as dg which is the essential dz characteristic. bo — TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 7 7. On some Difficulties connected with the Kinetic Theory of Gases. By G. H. Bryan, Se.D. The recent attacks of M. Bertrand on Maxwell’s investigations emphasise the view that all proofs of the Boltzmann-Maxwell distribution involve some as- sumption or other, and that such assumptions are only justifiable in attenuated assemblages of molecules such as constitute an ideal gas. But if the thermal properties of gases are really due to molecular motions, as the kinetic theory sup- poses, the same must be true of the corresponding properties of matter in its other states; so that a kinetic theory of solids and liquids also must exist even though the complete investigation of that theory may present insuperable difficulties to the mathematician. Now, the most important physical property for which the kinetic theory has to account is that of temperature, and the existence of such a quantity depends on the fact that if a body A be in thermal equilibrium with B, and also with ©, then B will be in thermal equilibrium with C; in other words, the condi- tion of thermal equilibrium between A and B must be expressible in the form F(A) =f,(B) - - : ‘ . : (1) where the left-hand side involves no variables depending on the state of B, and the right-hand side involves no variables depending on the state of A. On the assumption that the temperature of a body is proportional to the mean kinetic energy of translation of its molecules, the condition of equal temperature requires that if the mean translational energies of two sets of molecules A and B are equal, no energy will be transferred from A to B. Now if we take only two molecules M and m, moving in the same straight line, the con- dition for no transference of energy between them is ot that their kinetic energies shall be equal. Indeed, Prof. Tait has shown that this condition holds good if the molecules of A and B are distributed according to the Boltzmann- Maxwell distribution, but not in general. The author is at present investigating what restrictions are imposed on the law of distribution of molecular velocity in order that the condition of thermal equi- librium may be expressible in the form (1), in other words, in order that tempera- ture may exist. The analysis is somewhat complicated, but it may be safely concluded, even at the present stage, that the existence of temperature cannot be inferred from dynamical considerations alone, independently of the law of dis- tribution. It will be necessary for us to regard the laws of thermodynamics as the fundamental assumptions of a general kinetic theory of matter rather than as the results to be proved, and we must therefore deduce from those laws the nature of the molecular motion which we call heat. MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21. The following Papers and Reports were read :— 1. On the Communication of Electricity from Electrified Steam to Air. By Lord Ketvin, /.2.S., Dr. Magnus Maciean, and ALEXANDER GALT. 2. On the Molecular Dynamics of Hydrogen Gas, Oxygen Gas, Ozone, Peroxide of Hydrogen, Vapour of Water, Liquid Water, Ice, and Quartz Crystal. By the Right Hon. Lord Ketviy, G.C.V.0., P.B.S. In a communication, ‘ On the Different Crystalline Configurations possible with the same Law of Force according to Boscovich, to the last meeting (July 20) of the Royal Society of Edinburgh ‘a purely mathematical problem of fundamental importance for the physical theory of crystals—the equilibrium of any number of ints acting on one another with forces in the lines joining them—was considered in the simplest case of Boscovichian statics; that in which the mutual force between every pair of atoms is the same for the same distance between any two 722 REPORT-—1896. atoms of the whole assemblage. The next simplest case is that in which there are two kinds of atom, /, 0, with the distinction that the force between two /’s and the force between two o's and the force between an / and an o are generally different at the same distance. The mutual force between two h’s is, of course, always the same at the same distance. So also is the mutual force between two o’s and between an / and an o, The object of the present communication is to find how much of the known properties of the substances named in the title can be explained with no further assumption except the conferring of inertia upon a Boscovich atom. The known chemical and physical properties to be provided for are: 1, That in each of the gases named the molecule is divisible into two; which is the meaning of the symbols H,, O,, used to denote them in chemistry. 2. That Ozone (Q,) is a possible, though not a very stable, gaseous molecule, consisting of a group of Oxygen atoms of which the constituents readily pass into the configuration (O,) of Oxygen gas. 3. That Peroxide of Hydrogen (H,O,, or perhaps HO) is a possible, but not a very stable, combination, which, for all we know, may exist asa liquid ora dry gas, but which is only generally known as a solution in water (of density 1:45 in the highest concentration hitherto reached), readily absorbing Hydrogen or parting with Oxygen so as to form H,O. 4, That water (H,O) is an exceedingly stable compound in the gaseous, liquid, or crystalline form, according to circumstances of temperature and pressure, 5. That dry mixtures of Hydrogen and Oxygen gases, and also mixtures of these gases with water in the same inclosure, have been kept by many experi- menters for weeks or months, and perhaps for years, inclosed in glass vessels, without any combination of the two gases having been detected. 6. That Ice contracts by about 8 per cent. in melting, and that ice-cold water, when warmed, contracts till it reaches a maximum density at about 4°C., and expands on further elevation of temperature. 7. For Quartz crystal— (a) The difference between neighbouring corners of the hexagonal prism. (0) The similarity between each face and its neighbour on either side turned upside down (the axis of the prism supposed vertical). (c) The right-handed and left-handed chiralities of different crystals in nature with, so far as known, an equal chance of one chirality or the other in any crystal that may be found. In the present communication it is shown that all the properties stated in this schedule can be conceivably explained by making H consist of two Boscovich atoms (h, h), and O of two others (0, 0). This essentially makes H, consist of four /’s at the corners of an equilateral tetrahedron, and O, a similar configuration of four o’s. It naturally shows Ozone as six o’s at the corners of a regular octahedron. It makes H1,0 (the gaseous molecule of water) consist of two o’s with two /’s attached to one of them and two other /’s attached to the other; the /’s of each o getting as near to the other o as the mutual repulsion of the A’s allows. This configuration and the modification it experiences in the formation of crystals of ice are illus- trated by models which accompany the communication. To understand what is probably the true configuration of ice-crystal, we are helped by first considering a double cubic assemblage of point-atoms, such that each point-atom isin the centre of a cube having eight point-atoms for its corners. This double cubic assemblage may be imagined as consisting of two simple cubic assemblages, so placed that one atom of each assemblage is in the centre of a cube of atoms of the other. The annexed diagram shows, in the centres of the circles which it contains, atoms of a double cubic assemblage, which lie in the plane of a pair of remote parallel edges, A D, B C, of one set of constituent cubes. It shows all the atoms in the lines of this plane which it contains except certain omissions in the lines aD, Dc, made specially on account of the present applica- tion of the diagram. The circles of simple shading and of shading interrupted by two small concentric circles constitute one of the simple cubic assemblages ; the unshaded and the circles with shading interrupted by one concentric circle TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 723 constitute the other cubic assemblage. A C,B Dare parallel to body diagonals, A B,D C are parallel to face diagonals, of the cubes. Annul now all the atoms at Uy UY ly the centres of the blank circles! Lastly, stretch the diagram perpendicularly to A c in the same definite ratio of perhaps about 3 to 1. It then represents what we may believe to be probably the true molecular structure of ice-crystal: the circles with simple shading and with shading interrupted by two concentric circles denoting hydrogen atoms, and the circles with shading interrupted by single concentric circles the oxygen atoms. The named properties of Quartz are explained by supposing the crystalline - molecule to consist of three of the chemical molecules (OSiO) to be placed together jn a manner readily imagined according to a suggestion which I communicated to 1 The assemblage thus constituted is precisely that described in Section 24, and in footnote on Section 69 of ‘ Molecular Constitution of Matter,” Proc. R.S.L., July 1889, reprinted as Art. xcvii. of Vol. III. of ‘Mathematical and Physical Papers.’ I was led to it in the course of my investigation of a Boscovichian elastic solid, _ havine’ two independent moduluses} of resistance to compression and of rigidity. (Elasticity of a Crystal according to Boscovich,’ Proc. R.S., June 1893). 724 REPORT—1896. the British Association at its Southport meeting in 1883. Models showing right- handed and left-handed specimens of these crystalline molecules and the configura- tion in which they must be placed to form a rock crystal ending in its well-known six-sided pyramid are before the meeting to illustrate the present communication. In a communication which I hope to make to the Royal Society of Edinburgh at an early meeting essential details of the configurations now suggested, and of the mutual forces between the atoms required by the conditions to be fulfilled, will be considered, 3. A Magnetic Detector of Electrical Waves. By E. RutHEerRForD, JA. It has long been known that a steel needle placed in a spiral round which an ordinary Leyden jar discharge is passed is magnetised. The magnetism of the needle is generally confined to the surface, and the way in which the magnetisation varies from the surface inwards may be directly determined by dissolving the needle slowly in acid before a magnetometer. If a magnetised piece of steel wire be subjected to the discharge, the magnetic moment is always reduced, whatever the direction of the discharge. The screening action of thin cylinders of metal for the discharge may be immediately shown by placing tnem between the solenoid and detector needle. With a thin copper P leria the needle remained unafiected, while a few turns of tinfoil gave a small effect. A short steel wire magnetised to saturation also has the remarkable property of being able to distinguish between the two first half oscillations of the discharge. If the needle is saturated, in one direction the first half oscillation can produce no effect on the magnetism of the needle, since it is already saturated, while in the opposite direction it produces its full effect. From the comparisons of the fall of magnetic moment of the needle in the two cases, the damping of the discharge may be deduced. By an application of this method also the apparent resistance of air breaks of different lengths to the discharge was deduced, and the resistance of iron wires for currents of high frequency of alternation obtained. Instead of a single wire a compound needle of short thin steel wires insulated from each other by paraffin was used. This was a sensitive means of detecting and comparing oscil- lation of small intensity. Ifa circle of wire 30 cm. in diameter be taken, and the discharge passed round only a small portion of its arc, there is quite a large effect on the detector needle at the centre. If a discharge is sent /ongitudinally through a short magnetised steel wire, the magnetic moment is always reduced, due to the circular magnetisation of the surface layers of the wire. Using a thin wire in series with the circuit, oscillations of very small frequency may thus be detected. A compound detector needle of fine wire placed in a solenoid of two or three turns is a very simple and conyenient means of investigating waves along wires and determining nodes and antinodes. A compound detector needle was also found to be a sensitive means of detecting Hertzian waves in free space at large distances from the vibrator. A collection of twenty or thirty fine steel wires, each about 1 cm. long, was taken and formed into a compound detector needle, each wire being insulated from the other to prevent eddy currents. A fine wire solenoid of several hundred turns was wound over it. When the small solenoid was placed in series with receiving wires, a wave falling on the receiver set up oscillations in that circuit, and the needle is more or less demagnetised according to the intensity of the wave. Using large vibrators effects were obtained at a distance of over half a mile between the vibrator and receiver. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 725 4, On a Complete Apparatus for the Study of the Properties of Electric Waves. By Professor JaAGADIs CHuNDER Boss, I.A., D.Sc. A complete electro-magnetic radiation apparatus was exhibited with which the following determinations may be made :— A. Verification of the laws of reflection. 1. Plane mirrors. 2. Curved mirrors. B. Phenomena of refraction. ]. Prisms. 2. Total reflection. 3. Opacity caused by multiple refraction and reflection. 4, Determination of the indices of refraction. C. Selective absorption. 1, Electrically coloured media. D. Phenomena of interference. E. Double refraction and polarisation. 1. Polarising gratings, 2. on crystals. 3. Double refraction produced by crystals. 4. A y other substances. 5. a " strain. Ms Need aioe eas 4 Experiments still in progress. 8. Electro-polariscope and polarimeter. The complete apparatus consists of (1) A radiating apparatus emitting electric waves of short length ; (2) A receiver used as a detector of electric radiation ; and (8) Various accessories for the study of the different phenomena. Arrangement of the Apparatus.—The radiating apparatus and the receiver are mounted on stands sliding in an optical bench. Experiments are carried out with divergent or parallel beam of electric radiation. To obtain a parallel beam, a cylindrical lens of sulphur or ebonite is mounted in a square tube. This lens tube fits on the radiator tube, and is stopped by a guide when the oscillatory spark is at the principal focal line of the lens. The radiator tube is further provided with a series of diaphragms by which the amount of radiation may be varied. For experiments requiring angular measurement, a spectrometer circle is mounted on one of the sliding stands. The spectrometer carries a circular platform on which the various reflectors, refractors, &c., are placed. The platform carries an index, and can rotate independently of the circle on which it is mounted. The receiver is carried on a radial arm (provided with an index) and points to the centre of the circle. An observing telescope may also be used with an objective made of ebonite with a linear receiver at the focal plane. But an ordinary receiver provided with a funnel is all that is necessary for ordinary experiments. 5. Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis. See Reports, p. 166. 6. Report on Solar Radiation.—See Reports, p. 241. 7. Report on Seismological Observations.—See Reports, p. 180. 8. Report on Meteorological Photographs.—See Reports, p. 172. 726 REPORT—1896. 9. The Effect of Atmospheric Retraction on the Apparent Diurnal Move- ment of Stars, and a Method of allowing for i in Astronomical Photography. By Professor A. A. Rampaut, J/.4., Se.D, The variation in the degree of refraction which the light of a star undergoes in passing through the earth’s atmosphere, apart from irregularities which arise from local disturbances in the strata of air, affects the apparent movement of a star, so that the angular motion depends upon its position in the sky. When approaching its upper culmination the hour angle of a star is diminished by refraction, but to a continually diminishing extent, and consequently the motion of a star at this part of its course appears slower than it actually is. After culmination the result is similar, the refraction in this case throwing the apparent, more and more to the following side of the true, image as the distance from the meridian increases. When the observer's object is merely to obtain pictures of star groups the work can be so arranged that each group is photographed when it arrives at or near the meridian. It is different, however, when it is intended to utilise the plates for the detection of stellar parallax. In connection with this research, it is desirable that a large proportion of the photographs should be taken when the stars are near the apses of their parallactic ellipses, and this condition often necessitates the photo- graphing of stars at very large hour angles. If the apparent western hour angle of a star at any moment be denoted by /, the effect of refraction in hour angle by Af, the right ascension by a, and the sidereal time by 6; then h=6-—a+Ah NSS PAIN and 7+ Gee Hence the expression = measures the rate at which the apparent movement dé gains on sidereal time. If @ denotes the latitude and 6 the declination, and if we assume m, n, p, v, such that tan m=cot ¢ cos h, cot »=tan ¢ cos hk, cot n=sin m tan h, cot v=cos p» tan h, then we may write dh _1_8 cos ¢ sin y sin (1 +4) i : \ P (a) in which 8 is the refraction constant. If the telescope were required to follow the star with absolute precision it would be necessary to construct a clockwork system which would drive the instrument at a rate varying continually with the hour angle according to the law expressed by thisformula. In practice, however, it is sufficient to alter the rate at intervals, the length of which will depend upon the rapidity of the refraction changes, provided always that the error thus introduced does not exceed a certain definite limit. A description of the method of making this alteration, a full account of how formula (a) is deduced, and diagrams showing the appropriate rate for any given hour angle and declination, and the length of exposure for which a uniform rate is permissible, will be found in the ‘ Monthly Notices’ of the Royal Astronomical Society. 10. On the Sailing Flight of Birds. By G. H. Bryan, Se.D., LRS. That birds are capable, under certain circumstances, of supporting themselves indefinitely in the air without expending energy by flapping their wings is a matter of common observation. To account for this apparent realisation of ‘perpetual - TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 120 motion’ various theories have been proposed, and amongst these the most important are the three which suppose the seat of available energy to lie in— (1) Upwerd air-currents (Mr. Maxim). (2) Variations of the wind-velocity at different heights above the ground (Lord Rayleigh). (8) Variations of the wind-velocity from one instant to another, the wind habitually blowing in gusts separated by lulls (Dr. 8. P. Langley and others). Before proceeding further, another source of energy may be mentioned, namely, the presence of vortices, z.e., miniature whirlwinds or cyclones, in the atmosphere. Even on a perfectly calm day one of these little vortices may sometimes be seen travelling across a road, carrying up a funnel-shaped cloud of dust. According to mathematical theory, a vortex always consists of the same particles of fluid; and, even under the modified conditions which occur in nature, our experience of cyclones tells us that such vortices are remarkable for their persistency, and their motions are so regular that it would be easy for birds to take advantage of them, This would account for the fact that birds so often congregate in a certain spot when in sailing flight. Against the third hypothesis it has been objected— (i.) That to take advantage of every puff of wind in such a way as to be lifted up by it would be an extremely difficult feat of aérial gymnastics, whereas birds appear to circle in the air without requiring to exercise any particular alertness or agility. i (u.) That the variations in wind-velocity are not sufficient to sustain the weight of a bird in the air. In answer to the first objection, it is to be observed that if the bird’s centre of mass is slightly below the wing-surface—especially if the wings are slightly curved upwards—the action will be purely automatic. We may illustrate this point perhaps better by considering the parallel effect in the seeds of many composite plants (such as the common ‘ dandelion’), which are supported in the air by a parachute placed at some distance above them. Ifa sudden gust of wind blows upon such a seed, the parachute is set in motion more rapidly than the seed, causing the structure to heel over so as to receive the wind on the under surface of the parachute, and this lifts the seed. When the wind subsides, the greater inertia of the seed carries it on in front of the parachute, causing the latter to again present its under side to the air, which again lifts the seed. The more the seed is blown about, the more it rises in the air. This action would take place automatically in the same way in any body whose supporting parachute, aéroplane, or wing surface was slightly above its centre of mass. The height of the supporting surface should not be too great, otherwise the body would heel over too much, and would make so great an angle with the horizon that the lift would be considerably reduced. The effect evidently depends on the znertia of the body, and the lift could therefore be increased by increasing the body’s mass. But this would also increase the weight of the body in the same proportion, so that no advantage would be gained, The difficulty is overcome in the case of the sailing bird by the increased buoyancy which it is able to obtain from the air in consequence of the horizontal speed at which it travels, and herein, to my mind, lies the answer to the second objection. Dr. S. P. Langley! has found (1) that a horizontal plane under the action of gravity falls to the ground more slowly if it is travelling through the air _ with horizontal velocity than it would do if allowed to fall vertically, ard (2) that the horse-power required to support a body in horizontal flight by means of an aéroplane is less for high than for low speeds. Hence it readily follows that the bird’s forward motion causes it to fall through a smaller height between successive gusts of wind than it would do if it were at rest, and that when a side wind strikes the bird (7.e. a wind at right angles to the bird’s course), the lift is considerably increased in consequence of the bird’s forward velocity. 1 Experiments on 4érodynamics. 728 REPORT—1896. According to this theory, the sailing bird derives its energy from fluctuations in the resolved part of the wind-velocity, at right angles to the bird’s course. Such side winds would, in particular, be brought into action first on one side and then on the other whenever the bird passed through the centre of an atmospheric vortex. The exact part played by variations of wind-velocity 7” the direction of the bird's course is more difficult to understand, but it seems improbable that such variations alone could account for the phenomena. If the bird were moving slowly enough to receive the wind sometimes in front and sometimes from behind, it would at intermediate instants be at rest relative to the wind, and would then obtain the minimum degree of support. Ifit were moving rapidly through the air, the latter would always strike the bird in front, so that its horizontal ‘motion would be constantly retarded. Anyone watching a flock of birds will observe that they often actually are carried up by a sudden side-gust of wind in the manner here described, showing that if this is not the only cause of the phenomena presented by the sailing bird, it is at any rate one of the causes. So much has been written on the subject that it is impossible to say how far these remarks may have been anticipated ‘by other writers; but I think they may help to clear up some of the difficulties which have been experienced in accounting for the sailing flight of birds. 11. On the Stanhope Arithmetical Machine of 1780. By the Rev. R. Haruey, W/.A., FBS. 12. The Exploration of the Upper Air by means of Kites, By A. LAvURENCE Rotcu. This is a preliminary account of experiments being conducted at the Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory, Roadville, Massachusetts. The author, after referring to previous instances of the use of kites for meteorological purposes, gives details of the apparatus and methods employed at Blue Hill in kite observations, which were commenced in 1891, and are still being carried on. The kites are, some of trapezoidal, and some of Hargreaves’ cellular, form, and are controlled by pianoforte wire of 300 lb. tensile strength. The pull on the wire is not allowed to exceed 125 lb. Two self-recording aluminium instruments are used, one recording, on a single cylinder, barometric pressure, temperature, and humidity. The other records temperature, humidity, and wind-velocity. Each is suspended between two kites to diminish oscillation. As an illustration of the importance of the use of kites in weather prediction may be mentioned the fact, which has been demonstrated at Blue Hill, that in the United States, at least, warm and cold waves commence in the upper regions before they are felt at the ground. The conditions at mountain stations only approximate to those prevailing in the free air. Kites are superior to captive balloons, as being both cheaper and capable of flying through a greater range of wind velocity, and to greater altitudes. TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22, The following Reports and Papers were read :— 1. Interim Report on Electrolysis and Electro-chem try.’ See Reports, p. 230. 2. Report of the Electrical Standards Committee—See Reports, p. 150. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 729 3. The Total Heat of Water.—By W. N. Suaw, I.A., F.R.S. Appendix III. of Report on Electrical Standards.—See Reports, p- 162, 4. Note on the Measurement of Electrical Resistance. By HE. H. Grirrirus, ILA., F.R.S. 5. Researches in Absolute Mercurial Thermometry. By 8, A. Sworn, IA. (Oxon.), F.C.S., Assoc. R.CO.Se.I. This work practically consists of the life-history of the instruments. It is therein shown, as the result of observations carried on for four years, that the zero point of a mercurial thermometer (when fully corrected for the above constants) is 2 complicated function of time and temperature environment. It will be proved experimentally that the so-called ‘ depression of the freezing point’ is not a constant, but that the magnitude of the depression is a function depending upon the previous environment and the duration of the cause of the depression. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23. The Section was divided into two Departments. The following Papers and Report were read :— DEPARTMENT I, 1, Measurement by means of the Spectroscope of the Velocity of Rotation of the Planets. By James E. Kerter, Sc.D., Allegheny Observatory. The method of determining the velocity of rotation of a planet by means of the spectroscope was suggested at a comparatively early date, but it is only quite recently that accurate measures have been made. Such measures, in which the spectrum is photographed, instead of being observed directly, have been made by Deslandres, Bélopolsky, Campbell, and by the author. The slit of the spectroscope is always made to coincide as nearly as possible with the equator of the image of the planet, so that the inclination of the planetary lines on the photographed spec- trum may be as great as possible, and measurement of this angle gives, when the linear dispersion and size of the image of the planet are known, the equatorial velocity of rotation. In the Astrophysical Journal for May, 1895, the author gives a convenient formula for reducing the observations when the planet is in opposition. It is vy —pDLtand 2 cosB * If the planet is not nearly in opposition, so that the earth and sun as seen from it are separated by the angular distance a, we must write 1 + cosa in the denominator instead of 2. (Deslandres, C.R, 120, 417; Poincaré, C.R. 120,420.) The formula then becomes = 4 va sPDL tang | A(1 + cos a)cos p’ and this is the formula which has been employed in reducing the observations which follow. 1896, 3B 730 REPORT— 1896. From a considerable number of photographs of Jupiter, four of the best, taken on the following dates, were selected for measurement:— 1895, February 24, region &’—D, orthochromatic plate. 1895, March 21, ,,° O—D, rr 1896, April 22, ,, G—F, ordinary plate. 1896, May Go, 1G= 5; + on The following table contains the data, taken in part from Marth’s ephemeris, which are required for the reduction of the photographs :— 3? | Date of Photograph a B Eq. Diam. p | | DH ° ' ’ 5 ie ' w" m. 1895, Febrnary 24 8 TO 22 2 05 41-09 0°654 | 4, March ~ 21 82 11 05 2 01 37°91 0-263 1896; April 228. .| 10 53. 0 34 38-00 0:4286 » May GiBi ce es kn 40:4 $88 0 32 36-48 0-4114 mm. Focal length of telescope for )= 4640. ” ” rr Hy= 4653. L=velocity oflightin kilometres = 299860). ReEsvLts. Photograph of February 24, 1895. Photograph of April 22, 1896. A D tang Vkm. A D tan p V km. 5230 23°65 0326 10°37 4352 11°30 ‘O744 12°53 5270 24:75 “0470 15 54 4415 12°35 0644 11°68 5328 26°20 “0404 14°11 A427 12°70 0626 11°64 5372 27:25 “0434 15°50 4476 13°80 “0614 12°28 5430 28°75 0434 LN SEA U7) 4495 14:40 0660 13°42 5456 19:40 0296 11:22 4529 14°75 0490 1035 Mean 13°82 Mean 11:98 Photograph of March 21, 1895. Photograph of May 6, 1896, 5230 23°65 "0656 19°14 4315 10°60 0816 12°47 5270 24°75 0464 14:06 4370 11°65 0846 14:03 5328 26°20 0484 15°50 4427 12:70 ‘0774 13°81 5372 27:25 0390 12°77 4476 13°80 0590 11°32 5430 28°75 0460 15:72 4495 14:10 “0594 11:59 5456 29°40 .0390 13°56 4529 14°75 0544 11:02 Mean 15:12 Mean 12°37 Giving double weight to the last two photographs, for which the dispersion is about twice that of the first two, the result of all the measures is km. km. V=12-94 +027. Deslandres found V =12°5, 11:9, 12°1, 11:7. Bélopolsky found V = 11°42. The computed value is 12:1 to 12°8, according to the value of the equatorial diameter of Jupiter which is assumed. Bélopolsky has pointed out that his spectroscopic observations of both Jupiter and Saturn give a smaller velocity than that deduced from observations of spots, and he suggests, in explanation of this fact, that Jupiter may be a body like that considered in Schmidt’s theory of the sun, so that rays apparently proceeding TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 731 from the limb really come from a considerable depth, where the velocity of rotation is less. The observations above given do not support this view, since the velocity deduced from them is a little too great, It is altogether probable that the discrepancies noted by Bélopolsky are due to errors of observation. If, how- ever, the slit were not properly placed, a velocity slightly too small would be obtained, since the angular velocity of the surface diminishes with increasing ' latitude, and falls off quite rapidly in the region near the equator. In 1895 the author succeeded in showing, by an extension of the same method, that the velocity at any point on the ring of Saturn is that of a particle moving in obedience to Kepler’s third law, and hence that the ring is not a solid body. Attempts to determine the rotation of Venus have so far been unsuccessful, 2. On the Photo-electric Sensitisation of Salts by Cathodic Rays. By Professor J. Exster and Professor GEITEL, Wolfenbiittel, Germany. The results of the investigation made by the authors may be summed up as follows :— Cathodic rays falling upon the chlorides of czesium, rubidium, potassium, sodium, lithium, clear fluorspar, and even powdered glass, convert these salts into substances which are incapable of retaining a negative charge of electricity when exposed to light belonging to the visible part of the spectrum. All circumstances capable of abolishing the colours produced by cathodic radiation also destroy the photo-electric sensitiveness. A complete account of the investigation will shortly be published in Wiede- mann’s ‘ Annalen.’ 3. On Certain Photographic Effects. By Professor P. pe HrEn. 4, Some Experiments on Absorption and Fluorescence. By Joun Burke, B.A. Fluorescent bodies are generally more or less transparent to the rays they emit. The experiments were with a view to detecting whether any difference exists between the absorption when a body is fluorescing and when not. The comparisons were made with a form of double slit photometer in which photography was employed, described at length in the paper. Allowing for the various sources of error which may possibly arise, there still remains a marked difference between the iutensity of the light transmitted in the two cases, amounting in some instances to a difference of 40 per cent. in the absorptive power. Thus a substance such as uranium glass would appear to be less transparent to the yellow rays from a candle in daylight than in the dark. The latter part of the paper deals with the influence of dissociation on fluorescence and with the theory of fluorescence itself. 5. On Homogeneous Structures and the Symmetrical Partitioning of them, with application to Crystals.! By WittiaM Bartow. This paper 1s the outcome of several years’ study of the geometrical possibilities of symmetrical space relations, the importance of which in regard to crystals has long been recognised, and whose value in relation to the fundamental concepts of matter generally is of late becoming more and more appreciated. The inquiry is a purely geometrical one, and is therefore independent of any particular concept as to the ultimate nature of matter. ; The basis of the investigation is a definition of homogeneity of structure which runs as follows :— A homogeneous structure is one every point within which, if we regard the ! Published in full in the Mineralogical Magazine, vol. xi. p. 119; and also in Groth’s Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographic, vol. xxvii. p. 449. 3B 2 732 REPORT—1896, structure as without boundaries, has corresponding to it an infinitude of other points whose situations in the structure are precisely similar, so that all of the infinite number of geometrical point-systems respectively obtained by taking all similarly situated points are regular infinite point-systems defined by Sohncke as systems of points such that the arrangement about any one of these points of the rest of the points of the system is the same as it is.about any other of them,’ ! This definition is not limited in its application to point-systems or assemblages of particles; it may be obeyed by any kind of structure, whether material or merely ceometrical, whether filling space or continuously ramifying through it, or distributed through it in discrete patehes. Itmay, too, be obeyed by structures whose parts are in motion, provided the similarity extends to the movements of similar parts; but the similar movements need not be simultaneous; they may, for example, resemble the rhythmically related movements of combined figure skating. The models employed to show the nature of the repetition in space which cha- racterises different types of homogeneous structure consist of symmetrically arranced dolls’ hands, the reason for employing these objects being that they are familiar and and at the same time of so exceptional a shape as to avoid any suggestion that a particular form is essential for the ultimate parts of a structure. Primarily the structures are to be regarded as not partitioned into parts, the type of homogeneity being expressed in a more general manner when there is no partitioning. The number of different types of symmetrical arrangement presented by all unpartitioned homogeneous structures is 230, As to the symmetrical partitioning of homogeneous structures the author points out that many different types of partitioning into molecular units are possible for each type of structure, and appends a fragment of a table of the types of partitioning which pertain to the different types of structure belonging to the cubic system. DEPARTMENT IT. 1. Report on the Sizes of Pages of Periodicals. See Reports, p. 86. 2. On Disturbance in Submarine Cables. By W. H. Prerce, C.Biy Holts This paper deals with the several problems connected with the difficulties in working sub-marine cables, and especially when used for telephonic purposes. It is fully reported in the ‘ Electrician’ for September 27, 1896. 3. On Carbon Megohms for High Voltages. By W.M. Morpry. 4, On an Instrument for measuring Magnetic Permeability: By W. M. Morpry. 5. A Direct-reading Wheatstone Bridge. By A. P. Trorrer, B.A. The author describes a Wheatstone slide bridge which is made direct-reading upon a scale of equal parts. This is accomplished by making the ratio-arms of a 1 Sohneke’s Entrichelung coner Theorie der Krystallstruktur, p. 28. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 7390 second slide-wire of equal resistance to the slide-wire on which the galvanometer contact works, the zero for the galvanometer slide-wire being taken at a point so far along the wire that the piece between this point and the end shall be equal to the length of the other slide-wire between the end and the other contact of the galvanometer circuit. Nickel steel wire is used for the slides. 6. The Division of an Alternating Current in Parallel Circuits with Mutual Induction. By FREDERICK BEDELL. A divided circuit with mutual induction between the two branches is the same as a transformer with the primary and secondary circuits connected in parallel. The problem may be treated in the same manner as that of the transformer. The electromotive force equations for the two circuits are similar, the internal electro- motive forces in each being equal to the same impressed electromotive force. The electromotive force of mutual induction will be positive or negative according to the sense or direction in which the coils are connected. If the coils are connected so that the ampere turns of the two coils assist each other, the electromotive force of self and mutual induction will be of the same sign, and the coefficient of mutual induction will be positive. If the coils are connected so that the two oppose each other, the electromotive force of mutual induction will be opposed in sign to that of self-induction. The coefficient of mutual induction may accordingly be plus M or minus M. Writing the electromotive force as a function of the time, the electromotive force equations for the two circuits are: e=f(t)=R,z, + L, De, + MDz, ; e=f(t)=R,2, + L,Di, + MDz, ; where e and 7 represent current and electromotive force, R and L represent resis‘- ance and self-induction, and D stands for the operator & . The solution of these equations gives us the values for the currents in the two circuits, and their phase relations. Where the coils are opposed and nearly similar, the angle of phase ene between the currents depends largely upon the amount of magnetic eakage. The graphical treatment of the problem shows this relation more clearly. The electromotive force to overcome the resistance of each circuit is represented by a vector in the direction cf the current. The electromotive forces of self and mutual induction are at right angles to the currents in their respective circuits. This gives us three vectors for the electromotive forces in either circuit, and the sum of these three vectors in either circuit is equal to the electromotive force impressed upon the two circuits. The direction of the vector representing the electromotive force of mutual induction depends upon the sense in which the coils are connected. The equivalent resistance and self-induction of the two coils together, whether they are additive or opposed, may be found by resolving the electromotive force into two components, one in the direction of the main current, and the other at right angles to it. The resultant of these components may be obtained graphically and from them the values of the equivalent resistance R1, and the equivalent self- induction L'. The equivalent resistance and self-induction of their branches may be obtained in the same manner. Particular cases may be discussed by assuming definite values for the constants of the circuits or definite relations between them. 734 REPORT—1896. Section B.—CHEMISTRY. PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION.—Dr. Lupwie Monp, F.R.S. THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1i. The President delivered the following Address :— Iy endeavouring to fix upon a suitable theme for the address I knew you would to-day expect from me, I have felt that I ought to give due consideration to the interests which tie this magnificent city of Liverpool, whose hospitality we enjoy this week, to Section B of the British Association. I have therefore chosen to give you a brief history of the manufacture of chlorine, with the progress of which this city and its neighbourhood have been very conspicuously and very honourably connected, not only as regards quantity— I believe this neighbourhood produces to-day nearly as much chlorine as the rest of this world together—but more particularly by having originated, worked out, and carried into practice several of the most important improvements ever intro- duced into this manufacture. I was confirmed in my choice by the fact that this manufacture has been influenced and perfected in an extraordinary degree by the rapid assimilation and application of the results of purely scientific investigations and of new scientific theories, and offers a very remarkable example of the incalculable value to our commercial interests of the progress of pure science. The early history of chlorine is particularly interesting, as it played a most important rdle in the development of chemical theories. There can be no doubt that the Arabian alchemist Geber, who lived eleven hundred years ago, must have known that ‘Aqua Regia,’ which he prepared by distilling a mixture of salt, nitre, and vitriol, gave off on heating very corrosive, evil-smelling, greenish- yellow fumes, and all his followers throughout a thousand years must have been more or less molested by these fumes whenever they used Aqua Regia, the one solvent of the gold they attempted so persistently to produce. But it was not until 1774 that the great Swedish chemist Scheele succeeded in establishing the character of these fumes. He discovered that on heating manganese with muriatic acid he obtained fumes very similar to those given off by ‘Aqua Regia, and found that these fumes constituted a permanent gas of yellowish-green colour, very pungent odour, very corrosive, very irritating to the respiratory organs, and which had the power of destroying organic colouring matters. According to the views prevalent at the time, Scheele considered that the manganese had removed phlogiston from the muriatic acid, and he consequently called the gas dephlogisticated muriatic acid. When during the next decade Lavoisier successfully attacked, and after a memorable struggle completely upset, the phlogiston theory and laid the founda- tions of our modern chemistry, Berthollet, the eminent ‘father’ of physical a TRANSACTLONS OF SECTION B. 739 chemistry—the science of to-day—endeavoured to determine the place of Scheele’s gas in the new theory. Lavoisier was of opinion that all acids, including muriatic acid, contain oxygen. SBerthollet found that a solution of Scheele’s gas in water, when exposed to the sunlight, gives off oxygen and leaves behind muriatic acid, He considered this as proof that this gas consists of muriatic acid and oxygen, and called it oxygenated muriatic acid. In the year 1785 Berthollet conceived the idea of utilising the colour- destroying powers of this gas for bleaching purposes. He prepared the gas by heating a mixture of salt, manganese, and vitriol. He used a solution of the gas in water for bleaching, and subsequently discovered that the product obtained by absorbing the gas in a solution of caustic potash possessed great advantages in practice. This solution was prepared as early as 1789, at the chemical works on the Quai de Javelle, in Paris, and is still made and used there under the name of é Kau de Javelle,’ James Watt, whose great mind was not entirely taken up with that greatest of all inventions—his steam-engine—by which he has benefited the human race more than any other man, but who also did excellent work in chemistry—became acquainted in Paris with Berthollet’s process, and brought it to Scotland. Here it was taken up with that energy characteristic of the Scotch, and a great stride forward was made when, in 1798, Charles Tennant, the founder of the great firm, which has only recently lapsed into the United Alkali Company, began to use milk of lime, in place of the more costly caustic potash, in making a bleaching liquid; and a still greater advance was made when, in the following year, Tennant proposed to absorb the chlorine by hydrate of lime, and thus to produce a dry substance, since known under the name of bleaching powder, which allowed the bleaching powers of chlorine to be transported to any distance. In order to give you a conception of the theoretical ideas prevalent at this time, I will read to you a passage from an interesting treatise on the art of bleaching published in 1799 by Higgins. In his chapter ‘On bleaching with the oxygenated muriatic acid, and on the methods of preparing it’ he explains the theory of the process as follows :— ‘ Manganese is an oxyd,a metal saturated with oxygen gas. Common salt is composed of muriatic acid and an alkaline salt called soda, the same which barilla affords. Manganese has greater affinity to sulphuric acid than to its oxygen, and the soda of the salt greater affinity to sulphuric acid than to the muriatic acid gas; hence it necessarily follows that these two gases (or rather their gravitating matter) must be liberated from their former union in immediate contact with each other ; and although they have but a weak affinity to one another, they unite in their nascent state, that is to say, before they individually unite to caloric, and separately assume the gaseous state; for oxygen gas and muriatic acid gas already formed will not unite when mixed, in consequence principally of the distance at which their respective atmospheres of caloric keep their gravitating particles asunder. The compound resulting from these two gases still retains the property of assuming the gaseous state, and is the oxygenated muriatic gas,’ Interesting as these views may appear, considering the time they were pub- lished, you will notice that the réle played by the manganese in the process and the chemical nature of this substance were not at all understood. ‘The Jaw of multiple proportions had not yet been propounded by John Dalton, and the vesearches of Berzelius on the oxides of manganese were only published thirteen years later, in 1812. The green gas we are considering was still looked upon as -muriatic acid, to which oxygen had been added, in contradistinction to Scheele’s _ view, who considered it as muriatic acid, from which something, viz., phlogiston, had been abstracted. It was Humphry Davy who had, by a series of brilliant investigations carried out in the Laboratory ot the Royal Institution between 1808 and 1810, accumu- lated fact upon fact to prove that the gas hitherto called oxygenated muriatic acid did not contain oxygen. He announced in an historic paper, which he read before the Royal Society on July 12, 1810, his conclusion that this gas was an elementary 736 REPORT—1896. body, which in muriatic acid was combined with hydrogen, and for which he proposed the name ‘chlorine,’ derived from the Greek yAwpos, signifying ‘ green,’ the colour by which the gas is distinguished. The numerous communications which Humphry Davy made to the Royal Society on this subject form one of the brightest and most interesting chapters in the history of chemistry. They have recently been reprinted by the Alembic Society, and I cannot too highly recommend their study to the young students of our science. I need not remind those who have followed the history of chemistry how hotly and persistently Davy’s views were combated by a number of the most eminent chemists of his time, led by Berzelius himself; how long the chlorine controversy divided the chemical world ; how triumphantly Davy emerged from it; how com- pletely his views were recognised; and how very instrumental they have been in advancing theoretical chemistry. The hope, however, which Davy expressed in that same historic paper, ‘that these new views would perhaps facilitate one of the greatest problems in economi- cal chemistry, the decomposition of the muriates of soda and potash,’ was not to be realised so soon. Although it had changed its name, chlorine was still for many years manufactured by heating a mixture of salt, manganese, and sulphuric acid in leaden stills, as before. This process leaves a residue consisting of sulphate of soda and sulphate of manganese, and for some time attempts were made to recover the sulphate of soda from these residues, and to use it for the manufacture of carbonate of soda by the Le Blanc process. On the other hand, the Le Blane process, which had been dis- covered and put into practice almost simultaneously with Berthollet’s chlorine process, decomposed salt by sulphuric acid, and sent the muriatic acid evolved into the atmosphere, causing a great nuisance to the neighbourhood. Naturally, therefore, when Mr. William Gossage had succeeded in devising plant for condensing this muriatic acid, the manufacturers of chlorine reverted to the original process of Scheele, and heated manganese with the muriatic acid thus obtained. Since then the manufacture of chlorine had become a by-product of the manufacture of soda by the Le Blanc process, and remained so till very recently. For a great many years the muriatic acid was allowed to act upon native ores of manganese in closed vessels of earthenware or stone, to which heat could be applied, either externally or internally. These native manganese ores, containing only a certain amount of peroxide, converted only a certain percentage of the muriatic acid employed into free chlorine, the rest combining with the manganese and iron contained in the ore, and forming a brown and very acid solution, which it was a great difficulty for the manufacturer to get rid of. Consequently, many attempts were made to regenerate peroxide of manganese from these waste liquors, so as to use it over again in the production of chlorine. These, however, for a long time remained unsuccessful, because the exact conditions for super-oxidising the protoxide of manganese by means of atmospheric air were not yet known. Meantime, viz., in 1845, Mr. Dunlop introduced into the works created by his grandfather, Mr. Charles Tennant, at St. Rollox, a new and very interesting method for producing chlorine, which was in a certain measure a return to the process used by the alchemists. Indeed, the first part of this process consisted in decomposing a mixture of salt and nitre with oil of vitriol—a reaction that had been made use of for so many centuries! The chlorine so obtained is, however, not pure, but a mixture of chlorine with oxides of nitrogen and hydrochloric acid, which Mr. Dunlop had to find means to eliminate. For separating the nitrous oxides, Mr. Dunlop adopted the method introduced twenty years before by the great Gay-Lussac in connection with vitriol-making, viz., absorption by sulphuric acid, and the nitro-sulphuric acid thus formed he also utilised in the same way’as that obtained from the towers which still bear Gay- Lussac’s illustrious name, viz., by using it in the vitriol procesg in lieu of nitric TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 737 acid. He then freed his chlorine gas from hydrochloric acid by washing with water, and so obtained it pure. This process possessed two distinct advantages :— (1) it yielded a very much larger amount of chlorine from the same amount of salt; and (2) the nitric acid, which was used for oxidising the hydrogen in the hydrochloric acid, was not lost, because the oxides of nitrogen to which it was reduced answered the purpose for which the acid itself had previously been employed. But this process was very limited in its application, as it could only be worked to the extent to which nitric acid was used in vitriol-making. The process has been at work at St. Rollox for over fifty years, and, as far as I know, is still in operation there; but I am not aware that it has ever been taken up elsewhere. Within the last few years, however, several serious attempts have been made to give to this process a wider scope by regenerating nitric acid from the nitro- sulphuric acid and employing it over and over again to produce chlorine from hydro- chloric acid. Quite a number of patents have been taken out for this purpose, all employing atmospheric air for reconverting the nitrous oxides into nitric acid, and differing mainly in details of apparatus and methods of work, and several of these have been put to practical test on a fairly large scale in this neighbourhood, and also in Glasgow, Middlesbrough, and elsewhere. As I do not want to keep you here the whole afternoon, I bave to draw the line somewhere as to what | shall include in this brief history of the manufacture of chlorine, and have had to decide to restrict myself to those methods which have actually attained the rank of manufacturing processes on a large scale. As none of the processes just referred to have attained that position, you will excuse me for not entering into further details respecting them. Mr. Dunlop’s process only produced a very small portion of the chlorine manufactured at that time at St. Rollox, the remainder being made, as before, from native manganese and muriatic acid, leaving behind the very offensive waste liquors I have mentioned before, which increased from year to year, and became more and more difficult to get rid of. The problem of recovering from these liquors the manganese in the form of peroxide Mr. Dunlop succeeded in solving in 1655. He neutralised the free acid and precipitated the iron present by treating these liquors with ground chalk in the cold and settling out, and in later years filter- pressing the precipitate, which left him a solution of chloride of manganese, mixed only with chloride of calcium. This was treated with a fresh quantity of milk of chalk, but this time under pressure in closed vessels provided with agitators and heated by steam, under which conditions all the manganese was precipitated as carbonate of manganese. This precipitate was filtered off and well drained, and was then passed on iron trays mounted on carriages through long chambers, in which it was exposed to hot air at a temperature of 300° C., the process being practically made continuous, one tray at the one end being taken out of these chambers, and a fresh tray being put in at the other end. One passage through these chambers sufficed to convert. the carbonate of manganese into peroxide, which was used in place of, and in the same way as, the native manganese. The whole of the residual liquors made at the large works at St. Rollox have been treated by this process with signal success for a long number of years, For a short time the process was discontinued in favour of the Weldon process (of which I have to speak next); but after two years Dunlop’s process was taken up again, and, to the best of my knowledge, it is still in operation to this day. It has, however, just like Mr. Dunlop’s first chlorine process, never left the place of its birth (St. Rollox), although it was for a period of over ten years without a rival. In 1866 Mr. Walter Weldon patented.a modification of a process proposed by Mr. William Gossage in 1837 for recovering the manganese that had been used in the manufacture of chlorine. Mr. Gossage had proposed to treat the residual liquors of this manufacture by lime, and to oxidise the resulting protoxide of manganese by bringing it into frequent and intimate contact with atmospheric air. This process—and several modifications thereof subsequently patented—had been tried in various places without success. Mr. Weldon, however, did succeed ‘in obtaining a very satisfactory result, possibly—even probably—because, not 738 REPORT—1896. being a chemist, he did not add the equivalent quantity of lime to his liquor to precipitate the manganese, but used an excess. However, Mr. Weldon, if he was not a chemist at that time, was a man of genius and of great perseverance. He soon made himself a chemist, and having once got a satisfactory result, he studied every small detail of the reaction with the utmost tenacity until he had thoroughly established how this satisfactory result could be obtained on the largest scale with the greatest regularity and certainty. He even went further, and added considerably to our theoretical knowledge of the character of manganese peroxide and similar peroxides by putting forward the view that these compounds possess the character of weak acids. He explained in this way the necessity for the presence of an excess of lime or other base if the oxidaticn of the precipitated protoxide of manganese by means of atmospheric air was to proceed at a sufficiently rapid rate. He pointed out that the product had to be considered as a manganite of calcium, a view which has since been thoroughly proved by the investigations of Geergen and others; and it is only fair to state that Weldon’s process is not only a process for recovering the peroxide of manganese originally used, but that he introduced a new substance, viz., manga- nite of calcium, to be continuously used over and over again in the manufacture of chlorine. Mr. Weldon had the good fortune that his ideas were taken up with fervency by Colonel Gamble of St, Helens, aud that Colonel Gamble’s manager, Mr. F. Bramwell, placed all his experience as a consummate technical chemist and engineer at Mr. Weldon’s disposal, and assisted him in carrying his ideas into practice. The result was that a process which many able men had tried in vain to realise for thirty years became in the hands of Mr. Weldon and his coadjutors within a few years one of the greatest successes achieved in manufacturing chemistry. The Weldon process commences by treating the residual liquor with ground chalk or limestone, thus neutralising the free acid and precipitating any sulphuric acid and oxide of iron present. The clarified liquor is run into a tall cylindrical vessel, and milk of lime is added in sufficient quantity to precipitate all the manganese in the form of protoxide. An additional quantity of milk of lime, from one-fifth to one-third of the quantity previously used, is then introduced, and air passed through the vessel by means of an air-compressor. After a few hours all the manganese is converted into peroxide ; the contents of the vessel are then run off; the mud, now everywhere known as ‘ Weldon mud,’ is settled, and the clear liquor run to waste. The mud is then pumped into large closed stone stills, where it meets with muriatic acid, chlorine is given off, and the residual liquor treated as before, You note that this process works without any manipulation, merely by the circulation of liquids and thick magmas which are moved by pumping machinery. As compared to older processes it also has the great advantage that it requires very little time for completing the cycle of operations, so that large quantities of chlorine can be produced by a very simple and inexpensive plant. These advan- tages secured for this process the quite unprecedented success that within a few years it was adopted, with a few isolated exceptions, by every large manufacturer of chlorine in the world; yet it possessed a distinct drawback, viz., that it pro- duced considerably less chlorine from a given quantity of muriatic acid than either native manganese of good quality or Mr. Dunlop’s recovered manganese. At that time, however, muriatic acid was produced as a by-product of the Le Blane pro- cess so largely in excess of what could be utilised that it was generally looked upon as a waste product of no value. Mr. Weldon himself was one of the very few who foresaw that this state of things could not always continue. The am- monia soda process was casting its shadow before it. Patented in 1838 by Messrs, Dyar and Hemming it was only after the lapse of thirty years (during which a number of manufacturing chemists of the highest standing had in vain endeavoured to carry it into practice) that this process was raised to the rank of a manufactur- ing process through the indomitable perseverance of Mr. Ernest Solvay, of Brussels, and his clear perception of its practical and theoretical intricacies. A few years TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 739 later, in 1872, Mr. Weldon already gave his attention to the problem of obtaining the chlorine of the salt used in this process in the form of muriatic acid. He pro- posed to recover the ammonia from the ammonium chloride obtained in this manufacture by magnesia instead of lime, thus obtaining magnesium chloride instead of calcium chloride, and to produce muriatic acid from this magnesium chloride by a process patented by Clemm in 1863, viz., by evaporating the solution, aed residue in the presence of steam, and condensing the acid vapours iven off, ‘ Strange to say, this same method had been patented by Mr. Ernest Solvay within twenty-four hours before Mr. Weldon lodged his specification. It has been frequently tried with many modifications, but has never been found practic- able. Soon afterwards Mr. Weldon, with the object of reducing the muriatic acid required by his first process, proposed to replace the lime in this process by mag- nesia, and so to produce a manganite of magnesia. After treating this with muriatic acid and liberating chlorine he proceeded to evaporate the residual liquors to dryness, during which operation all the chlorine they contain would be disengaged as hydrochloric acid and collected in condensers, while the dry residue, after being heated to dull redness in the presence of air, would be reconverted into manganite of magnesia. This process was made the subject of long and extensive experiments at the works of Messrs. Gamble at St. Helens, but did not realise Mr. Weldon’s expecta- tions. It, however, led to some further interesting deyelopments, to which I shall refer later on. Those of you who were present at the last meeting of the British Association in this city will remember that this Section had the advantage of listening to a paper by Mr. Weldon on his chlorine process, and also to another highly interest- ing paper by Mr. Henry Deacon of Widnes ‘on a new chlorine process without manganese,’ And those of you who came with the then President of the Section (Professor Roscoe) to Widnes to visit the works of Messrs. Gaskell, Deacon, and Co. will well remember that at these works they saw side by side Weldon’s process and Deacon’s process in operation, and no one present will have forgotten the thoughtful, flashing eyes and impressive face of Mr. Deacon when he explained to his visitors the theoretical views he had formed as regards his process. Mr. Deacon had made a careful study of thermo-chemistry, which had been greatly developed during the preceding decade by the painstaking, accurate, and comprehensive experiments of Julius Thomsen and of Berthelot, and had led the latter to generalisations which, although not fully accepted by scientific men, have been of immense service to manufacturing chemistry. Mr. Deacon came to the conclusion that, if a mixture of hydrochloric acid with atmospheric air was heated in the presence of a suitable substance capable of initiating the interaction of these two gases by its affinity to both, it would to a very great extent be converted into chlorine with the simultaneous formation of steam, because the formation of steam from oxygen and hydrogen gives rise to the evolution of a considerably larger quantity of heat than the combination of hydrogen and chlorine. Mr. Deacon found that the salts of copper were a very suitable substance for this purpose, and took out a patent for this process in 1868. He entrusted the study of the theoretical and practical problems connected with this process to Dr, Ferdinand Hurter, who carried them out in a manner which will always remain memorable, and will never be surpassed, as an example of the application of scientific methods to manufacturing problems, and which soon placed this beautiful and simple process on a sound basis as a manufacturing operation. In the ordinary course of manufacture the major part—about two-thirds—of the hydrochloric acid is obtained mixed with air and a certain amount of steam, but otherwise very little contaminated. Instead of condensing the muriatic acid from this mixture of gases by bringing it into contact with water, Mr. Deacon passed it through a long series of cooling pipes to condense the steam, which of course absorbed hydrochioric acid, and formed a certain quantity of strong muriatic acid, The mixture of gases was then passed through an iron superheater to raise 74.0 REPORT—1896. it to the required temperature, and thence through a mass of broken bricks im- pregnated with sulphate or chloride of copper contained in a chamber or cylinder called a decomposer, which was protected from loss of heat by being placed in a brick furnace kept sufficiently hot. In this apparatus from 50 to 60 per cent. of the hydrochloric acid in the mixture of gases was burnt to steam and chlorine. In order to separate this chlorine from the steam and the remaining hydrochloric acid the gases were washed with water, and subsequently with sulphuric acid. The mixture now consisted of nitrogen and oxygen, containing about 10-per cent. of chlorine gas, which could be utilised without any difficulty in the manufacture of bleach liquors and chlorate of potash, and which Mr. Deacon also succeeded in using for the manufacture of bleaching powder, by bringing it into contact in specially constructed chambers with large surfaces of hydrate of lime. Within recent years this latter object has been attained in a more expeditious and perfect manner by continuous mechanical apparatus (of which those constructed by Mr. Robert Hasenclever and Dr. Carl Langer have been the most successful), in which the hydrate of lime is transported in a continuous stream by single or double conveyors in an opposite direction to the current of dilute chlorine, and the bleaching powder formed delivered direct into casks, thereby avoiding the intensely disagreeable work of packing this offensive substance by hand. Mr. Deacon's beautiful and scientific process thus involves still less movement of materials than the very simple process of Mr. Weldon, because in lieu of large volumes of liquids he only moves a current of gas through his apparatus, which requires a minimum of energy. The only raw material used for converting hydro- chloric acid into chlorine is atmospheric air, the cheapest of all at our command. The hydrochloric acid which has not been converted into chlorine by the process is all obtained, dissolved in water, as muriatic acid, and is not lost, as in previous processes, but is still available to be converted into chlorine by other methods, or to be used for other purposes. In spite of these distinct advantages, this process took a long time before it became adopted as widely as it undoubtedly deserved. This was mainly due to the fact that the economy in the use of muriatic acid which it effected was at the time when the process was brought out, and for many years afterwards, no object to the majority of chlorine manufacturers, who were still producing more of this commodity than they could use. Moreover, there were other reasons, The plant required for this process, although so simple in principle, is very bulky in proportion to the quantity of chlorine produced, and, as I have pointed out, the process only succeeded in converting about one-third of the hydrochloric acid produced into chlorine, the remainder being obtained as muriatic acid, which had in most instances to be converted into chlorine by the Weldon process; so that the Deacon process did not constitute an entirely self-contained method for this manufacture. This defect, of small moment as long as muriatic acid was produced in excessive quantities, was only remedied by an invention of Mr. Robert Hasenclever a short number of years ago; when by the rapid development of the ammonia soda process the previously existing state of things had been completely changed, and when, at least on the Continent, muriatic acid was no longer an abundant and valueless by-product, but, on the contrary, the alkali produced by the Le Blane process had become a by-product of the manufacture of cblorine. Mr. Hasenclever, in order to make the whole of the muriatic acid he produces avail- able for conversion into chlorine by the Deacon process, introduces the liquid wuriatic acid in a continuous stream into hot sulphuric acid contained in a series of stone vessels, through which he passes a current of air. He thus obtains a mixture of hydrochloric acid and air, well adapted for the Deacon process, the water of the muriatic acid remaining with the sulphuric acid, from which it is subsequently eliminated by evaporation. In this way the chlorine in the hydrochloric acid can be almost entirely obtained in its free state by the simplest imaginable means, and with the intervention of no other chemical agent than atmospheric air. Since their introduction the Deacon process has supplanted the Weldon process in nearly all the largest chlorine works in France and Germany, and is now also making very rapid progress in this country. < TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 741 Mr. Weldon, when he decided to give up his manganite of magnesia process, by no means relaxed his efforts to work out a chlorine process which should utilise the whole of the muriatic acid. While working with manganite of magnesia he found that magnesia alone would answer the purpose without the presence of the peroxide of manganese. He obtained the assistance of M. Pechiney, of Salindres, and in conjunction with him worked out what has become known as the ‘ Weldon-Pechiney ’ process, which was first patented in 1884. This process consists in neutralising muriatic acid by magnesia, concentrating the solution to a point at which it does not yet give off any hydrochloric acid, and then mixing into it a fresh quantity of magnesia so as to obtain a solid oxychloride of magnesium. This is broken up into small pieces, which are heated up rapidly to a high temperature without contact with the heating medium, while a current of air is passing through them. The oxychloride of magnesium containing a large quantity of water, this treatment yields a mixture of chlorine and hydrochloric acid with air and steam, the same as the Deacon process, and this is treated in a very similar way to eliminate the steam and the acid from the chlorine. The acid condensed is, of course, treated with a fresh quantity of magnesia, so that the whole of the chlorine which it contains is gradually obtained in the free state. The rapid heating to a high temperature of the oxychloride of magnesium with- out contact with the heating medium wasan extremely difficult practical problem, which has been solved by M. Pechiney and his able assistant, M. Boulouvard, in a very ingenious and entirely novel way. They lined a large wrought-iron box with fire-bricks, and built inside of this vertical fire-brick walls with small empty spaces between them, thus forming a number of very narrow chambers, so arranged that they could all be filled from the top ofthe box, and emptied from the bottom. These chambers they heated to a very high temperature by passing a gas flame through them, thus storing up in the brick walls enough heat to carry out and complete the decomposition of tke magnesium oxychloride, with which the chamber was filled when hot enough. Mr. Weldon himself called this apparatus a ‘baker's oven, in which trade certainly the same principle has been employed from time immemorial; but to my knowledge it had never before been used in any chemical industry. This process has been at work at M. Pechiney’s large alkali works at Salindres, and is now at work in this country at the chlorate of potash works of Messrs. Allbright and Wilson at Oldbury, a manufacture for which it offers special advantages. Mr. Weldon and M. Pechiney had expected that this process would become specially useful in connection with the ammonia soda process by preparing in the way pro- posed by Mr. Solvay and Mr. Weldon in 1872 a solution of magnesium chloride as a by-product of this manufacture, but instead of obtaining muriatic acid from this solution by Clemm’s process, to treat it by the new process, so as to obtain the bulk of the chlorine at once in the free state. But M. Pechiney did no more suc- ceed than his predecessors in recovering the ammonia by means of magnesia in a satisfactory way. Quite recently, however, it has been applied to obtain chlorine in connection with the ammonia soda process by Dr. Pick, of Czakowa, in Austria, He recovers the ammonia, as usual, by means of lime, and converts the solution of chloride of calcium, obtained by a process patented by Mr. Weldon in 1869, viz., by treatment with magnesia and carbonic acid under pressure, into chloride of magnesium with the formation of carbonate of lime. The magnesium chloride solution is then con- centrated and treated by the Weldon-Pechiney process. I have repeatedly referred during this brief history to the great change which has been brought about in the position of chlorine manufacture by the develop- ment of the ammonia soda process, and have pointed out that the muriatic acid which for a long time was the by-product of the Le Blanc process, without value, thereby became gradually its main and most valuable product, while the alkali became its by-product. I have told you how, very early in the history of this process, Mr. Solvay and _ Mr. Weldon proposed means to provide for this contingency, and how Mr. Weldon continued to improve these means until the time of his death, Mr. Solvay, on his 742 REPORT—1896. part, also followed up the subject with that tenacity and sincerity of purpose which distinguish him, his endeavours being mainly directed to producing chlorine direct from the chloride of calcium running away from his works by mix- ing it with clay and passing air through the mixture at very high temperatures, thus producing chlorine and a silicate of calcium, which could be utilised in cement- making. The very high temperatures required prevented, however, this process from becoming a practical success. I have already told you what a complicated series of operations Dr. Pick has lately resorted to in order to obtain the chlorine from this chloride of calcium. Yet the problem of obtaining chlorine as a by-product of the ammonia soda process presents itself as a very simple one. This process produces a precipitate of bicarbonate of soda and a solution of chloride of ammonium by treating natural brine or an artificially made solution of salt, in which a certain amount of ammonia has been dissolved, with carbonic acid. In their original patent of 1838 Messrs. Dyar and Hemming proposed to evaporate this solution of ammonium chloride and to distil the resulting dry product with lime to recover the ammonia. Now all that seemed to be necessary to obtain the chlorine from this ammonium chloride was to substitute another oxide for lime in the distillation process, which would liberate the ammonia and form a chloride which on treatment with atmospheric air would give off its chlorine and reproduce the original oxide. The whole of the reactions for producing carbonate of soda and bleaching powder from salt would thus be reduced to their simplest possible form; the solution of salt, as we obtain it in the form of brine direct from the soil, would be treated with ammonia and carbonic acid to produce bicarbonate and subsequently monocarbonate of soda ; the limestone used for producing the carbonic acid would yield the lime required for absorbing the chlorine, and produce bleaching powder instead of being run into the rivers in combination with chlorine in the useless form of chloride of calcium ; and both the ammonia used as an intermediary in the production of soda and the metallic oxide used as an intermediary in the production of chlorine would be continuously recovered. The realisation of this fascinating problem has occupied me for a great many years. In the laboratory I obtained soon almost theoretical results. A very large number of oxides and even of salts of weak acids were found to decompose ammonium chloride in the desired way ; but the best results (as was to be clearly anticipated from thermo-chemical data) were given by oxide of nickel. When, however, I came to carry this process out on a large scale, I met with the most formidable difficulties, which it took many years to overcome successfully. The very fact that ammonium chloride vapour forms so readily metallic chlo- rides when brought in contact at an elevated temperature with metals or oxides, or even silicates, led to the greatest difficulty, viz., that of constructing apparatus which would not be readily destroyed by it. Amongst the metals we found that platinum and gold were the only ones not attacked at all. Antimony was but little attacked, and nickel resisted very well if not exposed to too high a temperature, so that it could be, and is being, used for such parts of the plant as are not directly exposed to heat. The other parts of the apparatus coming in contact with the ammonium chloride vapour I ultimately succeeded in constructing of cast and wrought iron, lined with fire-bricks or Doulton tiles, the joints between these being made by means of a cement consisting of sulphate of baryta and waterglass. After means had been devised for preventing the breaking of the joints through the unequal expansion of the iron and the earthenware, the plant so constructed has lasted very well. Oxide of nickel, which had proved the most suitable material for the process. in the laboratory, gave equally good chemical results on the large scale, but occasion- ally a small quantity of nickel chloride was volatilised through local over-heating, which, however, was sufficient to gradually make up the chlorine conduits. We therefore looked out for an active material free from this objection. Theoretical considerations indicated magnesia as the next best substance, but it was found that the magnesium chloride formed was not anhydrous, but retained a certain amount TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 743 of the steam formed by the reaction, which gave rise to the formation of a con- siderable quantity of hydrochloric acid on treatment with hot air. In conjunction with Dr. Eschellman (who carried out the experiments for me), I succeeded in reducing the quantity of this hydrochloric acid to a negligible amount by adding to the magnesia a certain amount of chloride of potassium, which probably has the effect of forming an anhydrous double chloride. This mixture of magnesia and potassium chloride is, after the addition of a certain quantity of china clay, made into small pills in order to give a free and regular passage throughout their entire mass to the hot air and other gases with which they have to be treated. In order to avoid as far as possible the handling and consequent breaking of these pills, I vapourise the ammonium chloride in a special apparatus, and take the vapours through these pills and subsequently pass hot air through. and then again ammonium chloride vapour, and so on, without the pills changing their place. The vapourisation of the ammonium chloride is carried out in long cast-iron retorts lined with thin Doulton tiles, and placed almost vertically in a furnace which is kept by producer gas at a very steady and regular temperature. These retorts are kept nearly full with ammonium chloride, so as to have as much active heating surface as possible. From time to time a charge of ammonium chloride is introduced through a hopper at the top of these retorts, which is closed by a nicke} plug. The ammonium chloride used is very pure, being crystallised out from its solution as produced in the ammonia soda manufacture by a process patented by Mr. Gustav Jarmay, which consists in lowering the temperature of these solutions considerably below 0° C. by means of refrigerating machinery. The retorts will therefore evaporate a very large amount of ammonium chloride before it becomes necessary to take out through a door at their bottom the non-volatile impurities which accumulate in them. The ammonium chloride vapour is taken from these retorts by cast-iron pipes lined with tiles and placed in a brick channel, in which they are kept hot, to prevent the solidification of the vapour, to large upright wrought-iron cylin- ders which are lined with a considerable thickness of fire-bricks, and are filled with the magnesia pills, which are, from the previous operations, left at a temperature of about 800°C, On its passage through the pills the chlorine in the vapours is completely retained by them, the ammonia and water vapour formed pass on and are taken to a suitable condensing apparatus, The reaction of the ammonium chloride vapour upon magnesia being exo-thermic, the temperature of the pills rises during this operation, and no addition of heat is necessary to complete it. The temperature, however, does not rise sufficiently to satisfactorily complete the second operation, viz., the liberation of the chlorine and the re-conversion of the magnesium chloride into magnesium oxide by means of air. This reaction is. slightly endo-thermic, and thus absorbs a small amount of heat, which has to be provided in one way or another. I effect this by heating the pills to a somewhat higher temperature than is required for the action of the air upon them, viz., to 600° C., by passing through them a current of a dry inert gas free from oxygen heated by a Siemens-Cowper stove to the required temperature. I use for this purpose the gas leaving the carbonating plant of the ammonia soda process. This current of gas also carries out of the apparatus the small amount of ammonia which was left in between the pills. It is washed to absorb this ammonia, and after washing this same gas is passed again through the Siemens- Cowper stove, and thus constantly circulated through the apparatus, taking up the heat from the stove and transferring it to the pills. When these have attained the: required temperature, the hot inert gas is stopped and a current of hot air passed through, which has also been heated to 600° C. in a similar stove. The air acts: rapidly upon the magnesium chloride, and leaves the apparatus charged with 18 to: 20 per cent. of chlorine and a small amount of hydrochloric acid. The chlorine comes gradually down, and when it has reached about 3 per cent. the temperature: _ of the air entering the apparatus is lowered to 350° C. by the admixture of cold air to the hot air from the stove; and the weak chlorine leaving the apparatus is passed through a second stove, in which its temperature is raised again to 600° C., and passed into another cylinder full of pills which are just ready to receive the 744 REPORT— 1896. hot-air current. 0, z.¢., the solid solvent is present in the liquid, and the system is heterogeneous. 4,. Velocity of melting of solid solvents in liquid solvents or solutions (¢.g., of ice in water or aqueous solutions), The velocity of ice melting cannot be measured with the same accuracy as the velocity of ice separation. The author has carried out experimental verification of the equation = =c(t,—t), where c is directly proportional to the surface of the solid in contact with the liquid, by using cubes of ice, whuse surface could be directly measured at the beginning and at the end of the reaction, and during the reaction it could be calculated from the fall of temperature of the investigated liquid. 5. Velocity of crystallisation of oversaturated solution (equilibrium between separated salt and salt solution), The equation (2.) holds good—z.e., the velocity of reaction is directly proportional to the surface of the salt in contact with the liquid and to the amount of oversaturation (not to the total quantity of the salt dissolved). This very remarkable fact throws light on the meaning of the velocity of reaction before perfect equilibrium, Let us assume that the total quantity of the salt dissolved takes place in the reaction, then our equation will be = =c(t,—t)A, where ¢t,—¢ as is directly proportional to the surface of the separated crystals, A is the concen- tration of the liquid part of the time z. This equation can be written in the form eels —t) (A’+a), where A’ is the concentration at equilibrium and a is the amount of oversaturation at the time z. Now c(t, —t)A’=0 independently of the value ¢, —¢, since the concentration A’ is in equilibrium with any quantity of the salt present in the liquid. The only equation for the reaction is therefore = =e(¢,—t)a—ve., the equation given above. Since in the case of perfect equilibrium one of the parts of the heterogeneous system can completely disappear (with the change of the temperature or of the pressure of equilibrium), it follows that above or below the point of equilibrium 4 ; : dt ie! no opposite reaction occurs, and because of this when 5 becomes zero, the equili- brium is a static one (and not a dynamic one, as assumed). ‘We thus find that one and the same equation represents the relations of all investigated reactions before perfect equilibrium. The equation is therefore general, and must be put at the basis of all other reactions of more complicated form (which will form the subject of further investigation). Static equilibrium because of the interference of other factors is never in reality reached in nature. The equilibrium is never real or perfect, but only apparent. A detailed investigation of this in the case of equilibrium between ice and water or solution is given in the author’s paper ‘On the real and apparent freezing-point and the freezing-point methods.’ This gives us the possibility of explaining some of the most important phenomena in nature, &c., as the formation of glaciers, icebergs, snow, the melting processes, &c. All these phenomena never completely reach the dead-point of perfect equilibrium, but a continuous change or reaction takes place in nature, 6. The Behaviour of Litmus in Amphoteric Solutions. By Tuomas. R. Brapsnaw, B.A., ILD. Solutions which redden blue litmus, and at the same time turn red litmus blue, are said to have an amphoteric (dug@o répas) reaction. This reaction is always TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 753 given by human urine when its acidity is low, and is in this case due to the exist- ence together of the dihydric and monohydric phosphates, MH, PO, and M, HPO,, of which the former acts as an acid and the latter as an alkali towards litmus. The actual colour resulting is violet. No satisfactory explanation has been offered of the nature of the change in the litmus when the violet is produced. Heintz? supposed that litmus was of the nature of a diabasic acid, the red pigment con- taining two atoms of displaceable hydrogen, which in the blue litmus were replaced by a metal. He supposed that the monohydric and dihydric phosphates displaced only one atom of hydrogen or of metal, forming a body analogous to an acid salt— the violet litmus. He seems to have overlooked the fact that the violet litmus is only produced when both phosphates act together—alone they produce red and blue litmus. The object of the present communication is to show that the violet litmus is a mechanical mixture of the red and the blue. It can be shown on theoretical erounds that when both phosphates are present in nearly equal proportions they must each affect the litmus in their own special way, the exact amount of blue and red produced being determined by the mass action of the phosphates. If red litmus is provisionally represented by the formula LH the reactions may be repre- sented as follows :— nM,H PO, +” M H, PO, +2L=(n—1) M,HPO,+(n+1) MH,PO,+LH+LM. n M,H PO, +nMH, PO, +2 LM=(n+1) M,HPO, + (x—1) MH, PO,+LM+ LH. The violet litmus is shown to be a mixture of the red and the blue by observing the light transmitted through its solution by the eye and by the spectroscope. This light is, in all respects identical with that transmitted through the red and the blue successively. Cochineal behaves in an analogous manner. It can be shown that acetic acid behaves in a manner analogous to litmus in presence of the two phosphates. A small quantity of sodium acetate is added to a strong solution of NaH, PO, and Na,H PO,. On distilling the solution free acetic acid comes over. The solution is then taken to dryness, the residue dis- solved in water and acidulated with a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid. On distilling a further quantity of acetic acid comes over. Thus it appears that sodium acetate behaves in a manner analogous to blue litmus in the amphoteric solutions. To sum up :— 1. There is no evidence to show that any special modification of litmus is pro- duced by amphoteric solutions, 2. The violet litmus is a mixture of the red and the blue. 3. The amount of the two forms of litmus in the amphoteric solution is deter- mined by the mass action of the two kinds of phosphate. 7. Constitution of Sun Yellow or Curcumine, and Allied Colowring Matters. By Artuur G. GREEN and ANDRE WAHL. When caustic soda or caustic potash is added to a hot concentrated solution of paranitrotoluene-ortho-sulphonate of soda the liyuid becomes at first bluish red, then changes to orange and deposits a thick orange-yellow precipitate (Walter, * Bull. Soc. Mulhouse,’ 1887, 99), The yellow colouring-matter thus formed, which is known in commerce as curcumine, sun yellow, &c., and dyes unmordanted cotton orange-yellow shades of considerable fastness to light and other agents, appears to consist for the most part of a body to which the constitution of an azoxy-stilbenedisulphonic acid Sk : CH N z Ren: > OuHa(80,Na) OK 0) ms, Heintz, Wirzburger med. Zeitschr., 2, 230, 1861; Journ. fiir prakt. Chem., 85, 24, C,H,(SO,Na) Tod REPORT—1896. has been ascribed by Bender and Schultz (‘ Ber., 19, 3234; 28, 422), and that ofa . dinitrososostilbene disulphonic acid OH : CH CoH,(SO.NaYC ou eS ONA) by Fischer and Hepp (‘ Ber.,’ 26, 2231 ; 28, 2281). It had long been known that by the action of caustic alkalies upon an alcoholic solution of paranitrotoluene a sparingly soluble red condensation product was formed, to which no satisfactory formula could be assigned (Klinger, ‘ Ber.,’ 15, 866; 16,941). It was shown by Bender and Schultz that this condensation product on reduction gave diamido- stilbene whilst curcumine on reduction gave diamidostilbenedisulphonic acid, and that hence both products are probably stilbene derivatives. In 1888 it was discovered by Bender that by condensing paranitrotoluene sul- phonic acid with caustic soda in presence of weak reducing agents such as alcohol, glycerol, glucose, &c., colouring-matters were obtained possessing similar properties to curcumine, but dyeing redder shades of orange and dissolving in concentrated sulphuric acid with a violet or blue colour instead of a red (Eng. Pat. 2664 of 1888). It was subsequently found that these colouring-matters (so-called Mikado oranges) were also formed by the action of mild reducing agents, such as ferrous hydrate upon the primary condensation product (curcumine). Neither of the two formule which have been proposed for curcumine gives 2 satisfactory explanation of its properties and reactions. They afford, for instance, no explanation of the dye-stuff character, the great stability towards oxidising agents, or of the difficulty of reduction to diamido-stilbene disulphonic acid. Both formule are based upon determinations of the quantity of hydrogen required to reduce the colour to its leuco compound, to which an hydrazo constitution EX: CH. EOE ax yy Ca {80,Na) is attributed. According to Bender 4 atoms of hydrogen are required, whilst Fischer and Hepp find 6 atoms. In order to clear up this discrepancy Bender's experiments were repeated exactly according to his directions, but using the free acid of,curcumine instead of the sodium salt. In agreement with Bender 4 atoms of hydrogen were found to be required. Since, however, the properties of the substance in no way correspond with those of an azoxy compound, and the equation 2C,H,(CH,)(NO,)(SO,Na) = C,,H,N,0(SO,Na), + 3H,0 would indicate the formation of a body having 2 atoms of hydrogen less than Bender’s formula, we have been led to seek another formula more in accordance with the facts. It may be supposed that the first action of caustic soda upon paranitrotoluene sulphonic acid consists in an intramolecular oxidation giving rise to dinitrosostilbene disulphonic acid. The two nitrogen atoms may now enter the opposite rings, forming an unstable compound— N(OH) C,H,(S0,Na~ ‘6, H,(80,Na) | SN NCO | nL, which, by loss of water, would give rise to curcumine— O N CHSONIE > C.HS0Na) TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 799 According to this formula curcumine should require 4H for reduction to its leuco compound and 2H for conversion to the azine— N CoH(SONAK > CH80.Na) This latter formula would therefore represent the constitution of the pure Mikado orange, which dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with a blue colour; and, in agreement with this view, it has been found that 2H are required by this colour for reduction to the leuco compound. The progressive reduction is accordingly shown by the following formule :— O is pete + ee =N= —_—- + + | | | | CH sas CH CH——_———-CH Curcumine Mikado orang: “Ae NH, + = if NH, —p es ea 5 jace “8 ar | i: | | Leuco compound Diamidostilbenedisulphonic acid (readily reoxidised in air) ; (stable in air) [N.B.—The crosses indicate the position of the HSO, groups.] The above formulz would explain the difficulty found in reducing curcumine to diamidostilbene disulphonic acid, also the extreme oxidisability of the leuco com- pound in air, a property characteristic of all azines, oxazines, thiazines, &c.; and, moreover, by representing these compounds as derivatives of an ortho-quinone, would account for their dye-stuff properties. It is probable that a similar constitution must be assigned to chloramine orange, which is formed by oxidation of diamidostilbene disulphonic acid with sodium hypochlorite, and to Chicago orange obtained by caustic soda condensation of paranitrotoluene sulphonic acid with benzidine. An analogous constitution is also suggested in the case of another class of colours—namely, the yellow, direct-dyeing, cottcn-colouring matters which are obtained by the oxidation of amidothiazols such as primuline and dehydrothioto- juidine sulphonic acid. These colouring-matters, known in commerce as oxyphenine, chloramine yellow, chlorophenine, &c., present great analogy with the curcumine colours .in their fastness to light, acids, and alkalies and in their chemical properties. In order to determine the amount of oxygen required for their formation pure dehydrothiotoluidine sulphonic acid was oxidised with a known quantity of sodium hypochlorite both in the cold and at 80° C. The excess of hypochlorite was deter- 756 REPORT—1896., mined after filtering off the colouring-matter, by titration with arsenious acid. For 2 molecules of dehydrothiotoluidine sulphonic acid there were required— In the cold —3 atoms of oxygen Hot —4 atoms of oxygen which corresponds to the following formule for the products : — + Ze. s) Ne WA Ss | 7s s | CHACHA 0 —=N— + First Product. a = S$ ay... KX. ee yy S eager cl) _y_ + Final Product. 8. Abnormalities in the Behaviour of Ortho-derivatives of o-Amido and Nitro-benzylamine. By Dr. F. E. Francis. 9. Nitrates: Their Occurrence and Manufacture. By Wit114m Newron. The world’s chief supply of nitrate is that of the northern provinces of Chili. The nitrate here occurs in a narrow band, following the eastern foot of the coast- line of hills at an elevation of 3,000 to 4,000 feet, and at a distance in a direct line from the sea varying from fifteen to thirty-five miles, extending from Pisagua in the north, to Antofagasta in the south, about 250 miles. Owing to its rainless condition, this plain is almost absolutely devoid of growing vegetation. Previous vegetation there has been in abundance, as shown by the remains of forests, a few inches below the surface, in addition to which large quantities of organic matter are carried down by mountain floods. The decom- position of this organic matter forms nitrate in the ordinary way, but the nitrate has no growing vegetation to absorb it, and is therefore carried in solution by the drainage waters of the west side of the Andes, which are always percolating under the surface of the plain, and, at periods of about eight or nine years, even com- pletely flood it. These waters collect at the lower side of the plain against the coast-hills, and there evaporate under the hot, dry atmosphere. The crude nitrate is found under a layer of a few inches of blown dust. The first layer of nitrate-bearing strata is extremely hard rock, containing from 10 to 20 per cent. of nitrates; this rock varies from a few inches in thickness to 16 and 18 teet, and is bored through to reach the richer material called caliche, which contains sometimes as much as 70 to 80 per cent. of nitrate. This layer also varies in thickness up to 7 feet. In the extraction the boring is continued through this, and the whole mass is upheaved by blasting powder made on the spot. The rock nitrate is neglected, and the caliche carted away to the crushers, thence to large iron boiling-tanks, a favourite shape of which is 32 feet by 6 feet broad, and 9 feet deep. In these are five coils of steam pipes, and the boiling is TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. Tae done by steam at about 50 lb. pressure. The boiling tanks are connected in series of six, so as to allow of proper lixiviation, The liquor of the tanks is run off at 112°Tw. It then contains about 80 lb. of nitrate to the cubic foot, of which it deposits 40 lb. at 25°C. The mother liquor, containing sometimes over 2 grammes of iodine to the litre,is pumped up to the iodine house, where it is treated with bisulphate of soda, and, after the deposition of the iodine, is, of course, used over again in the solution of the nitrate. The total production of nitrate from June 1885 to June 1886 in Chili was 1,218,000 tons. MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21. The following Papers and Report were read :— 1. On Helium. By Professor W. Ramsay, /.R.S. 2. On the Discovery of Argon in the Water of an Austrian Well. By Professor Max BAMBERGER. In the year 1853 Ragsky examined the gas of a spring in Peschtoldsdorf, near Vienna, and obtained the following results :— Volume per cent. Oxygen . . . : . . ° : 30 Carbonic acid . ' E : : : A . La Marsh gas 2 - A E = 6 5 > 15 Nitrogen . c . : = 5 < > - 93:8 100-0 Last year the author made a new analysis of this gas, which showed figures but little deviating from the above-mentioned analysis. After argon had been discovered by Rayleigh and Ramsay, it was probable that this gas, consisting almost entirely of nitrogen, also contained argon, To determine this, a larger quantity of the gas (about 12 litres) was collected and, for further examination, was dried by sulphuric acid and chloride of calcium. The gas was passed through a glowing tube, which was half filled with copper netting, half with oxide of copper. Leaving this tube, the gas had to pass through two soda lime and two calcium chloride conductors, in order to absorb the water formed, and was afterwards passed over quicksilver into a gasometer of Ehrenberg. In order to remove the nitrogen, glowing magnesium was used in an apparatus, which in principle is similar to that of Schlésing fils. It was found of considerable advantage to use three glowing tubes with mag- nesium. Under these circumstances an experiment which was carried out with about two litres of the gas took seven hours before the whole of the nitrogen was absorbed, and for a long time a high pressure on the manometer was to be observed. Consequently the gas in the apparatus was led off into an eudiometer. Now the gas containing the supposed argon, with traces of nitrogen and hydrogen, was freed from these gases by known methods. After an experiment, it was found that the gas thus obtained was mixed with a large quanity of hydrogen. The original gas having been absolutely dry, the hydrogen could have had its origin in the magnesium only, as this material was cleaned by distillation in a stream of hydrogen, at which operation considerable quantities of this gas are absorbed (after Dumas). In another experiment a dry tube filled with pentoxide of phosphorus was introduced into the hot conductor, to remove the hydrogen formed in the mag- nesium tube by oxidising it with copper oxide and absorbing the water formed. 738 REPORT—1896. In these two experiments the following figures were found for the quantity of gas not absorbed by magnesium : — I It c.c. c.c. Volume of the nitrogen before the absorption by 1172 1918 magnesium . $ 4 : = : : : Volume of the collected gas (hydrogen, traces of nitrogen and argon) 5 : c ; 95°6 28°2 Volume of the dry cleaned gas (argon) . : 13°0 23°9 Volume per cent. of gas not absorbed compared with the original quantity of nitrogen ‘ . ; iki 1:24 Volume per cent. compared with the original volume of gas . : : ; 1-04 1:16 The gas thus cleaned was put into Pliicker’s tubes at the glass technical Insti- tute of Menes Goetze in Leipzig. The examination of the gas by spectral analysis was made by Professors Eder and Valenta with their concave grating. The result of this examination was.an absolute conformity of the spectrum of the gas isolated by the author with Lord Rayleigh’s normal spectrum of argon determined by Eder. The author concluded by expressing the great pleasure he had in making this communication upon argon in the land of its birth, and in the presence of one of its distinguished discoverers. 3. The Manufacture of Chlorine by means of Nitric Acid. By Dr. F. Hurter. 4, Low Temperature Research. By Professor J. Dewar, F.R.S. 5. Report on Electrolytic Analysis.—See Reports, p. 244. 6. A Modified Form of Schrotter’s Apparatus for the Determination of Carbonic Anhydride. By Cuartes A. Koun, Ph.D., B.Sc. Of the many forms of apparatus for the estimation of carbonic anhydride by loss, that devised by Schrétter is probably most widely in use. Compared with other forms, it is certainly more handy than Bunsen’s apparatus, although the latter is more accurate, since it contains an absorption tube charged with dehy- drated copper sulphate on pumice in addition to calcium chloride. In a modified Bunsen apparatus described by A. Christomanos (‘ Ber.,’ 1894, 27, 2748), the drying tube is replaced by a small wash bottle containing concentrated sulphuric acid ; the advantages of the latter over calcium chloride as a drying agent are pointed out. But this modified form suffers from the same disadvantage as the ordinary Schrétter apparatus in not making any special provision for the absorption of hydrochloric acid gas which is evolved whenever hydrochloric acid is employed in the decomposition of a carbonate. This is a well-recognised source of error, and it is customary to attach a tube charged with dehydrated copper sulphate on pumice to the sulphuric acid bulb of the ordinary Schrétter apparatus in order to effect the complete absorption of the hydrochloric acid gas. With this addition, very reliable results can be obtained, but the method of attachment of the additional tube is always more or less clumsy. The object of the present modification is to overcome this, and the new form has two additional advantages. The apparatus is more stable, and the copper sulphate tube can be easily turned through any angle, so as to attach the indiarubber tubing for drawing air through the apparatus, after heating to drive out the carbonic anhydride and allowing to cool. The pumice containing the dehydrated copper sulphate is held in place by a plug of glass wool, and the ground glass stopper below it keeps well in its place if TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 759 properly greased. If necessary it can be made perfectly secure by means of platinum wire. The total weight of the apparatus when fully charged is 58 to 60 grms. Mr. J. Towers, of Widnes, has undertaken to supply the apparatus. 7. A new Form of Aspirator. By Cuartes A. Koun, Ph.D., B.Sc., and T. Lewis Barney, Ph.D. The aspirator consists of a reversed gas meter worked by a small electric motor, and is specially adapted for aspirating large quantities of gas, such as are required for the determination of sulphur dioxide in air. A series of three cog-wheels are fixed to the axle of the drum of a wet gas meter, to which a ‘ Porter’ motor is attached, which is run by a single secondary cell with a capacity of 25 ampere hours. The drum revolves twice per minute, the gearing being so arranged that about 15 cubic feet of air or other gas can be drawn through the absorbing tower or other apparatus per hour. The advantage of this form of aspirator is its even- ness and continuity. The single cell is sufficient to run the meter for thirty hours. TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22. The following Papers and Report were read :— 1. The Detection and Estimation of Carbon Monowide in Air. By Dr. J. HAupane. This method for the determination of small percentages of carbonic oxide in air depends on the following facts :— Hemoglobin, the colouring matter of blood, readily combines to form similar compounds with both oxygen and carbonic oxide. Both compounds are disso- ciated in a vacuum, but the carbonic oxide compound (6r carboxyhemoglobin) is much more stable than the oxygen compound (or oxyhemoglobin), In presence of a gas mixture containing both oxygen and carbonic oxide a mixture of carboxy- hemoglobin and oxyhzemoglobin is formed; and the proportions in which the hemoglobin divides itself between the oxygen and carbonic oxide depends on the ratios of the percentage of oxygen to that of carbonic oxide multiplied by a constant. Hence if the percentage of oxygen in the gas mixture be known, as in the case of ordinary air, the percentage of carbonic oxide can be inferred if the proportions be known in which hzemoglobin brought into contact with the mixture divides itself between the two gases. Now, it is extremely easy to determine these proportions colorimetrically by taking advantage of the fact that in dilute solution carboxyhmoglobin has a pink colour, while oxyhemoglobinis yellow. By adding a certain amount of dilute carmine solution to oxyhzmoglobin solution, the tint of carboxyhemoglobin solution can be exactly reproduced. In the case of a mixture of oxyhemoglobin and carboxyhemoglobin, the less the proportion of the latter present the less will be the amount of carmine required; and from the amount of carmine needed the proportion of carboxyhzmoglobin can easily be estimated. The author then described the process in its simplest form. A solution of blood is first prepared of such strength as to show the difference of tint between oxy- hemoglobin and carboxyhsemoglobin ; a suitable dilution can easily be guessed from the depth of colour, About 1 in 100 is very good. A solution of carmine of a corresponding or slightly greater depth of colour (about ‘01 per cent.) is also pre- pared. The carmine is dissolved in a minimum of ammonia, and then diluted down. _ The sample. of air to be examined should be collected in a small, dry, and clean bottle of 100 or 200 c.c. capacity, and closed with a cork soaked in paraffin wax. This bottle is opened under the blood solution in a basin, and about 5 c.c. of air allowed to bubble out, so as to introduce a corresponding quantity of 760 REPORT—1896. hemoglobin solution into the bottle. The bottle is then recorked, removed from the basin, and shaken for ten minutes, so that a maximum saturation with carbonic oxide may be attained. During the shaking the bottle must be covered, as bright daylight alters the result very markedly. The blood solution in the bottle is then poured out into one of three narrow test-tubes of equal diameter. Into another of these test-tubes 5 c.c. of the original solution of blood are measured out with a pipette. The third is filled with the same blood solution after the hemoglobin has been completely converted into carboxyhsemoglobin by shaking for about a minute with coal gas. Carmine is now added from a burette to the 5 c.c. of oxyhemoglobin until first the tint of the solution from the bottle of air, and afterwards the tint of the solution saturated with coal gas attained. Water may also be added if the car- mine solution alters the depth of colour of the liquid. From the readings of the burette the proportion of carboxyhiemoglobin to oxyhsmoglobin may easily be calculated. In practice the estimation may be 2 per cent. too low or too high, but this is about the limit of error. When 0:09 per cent. of carbonic oxide is present in the air the hemoglobin is shared equally between the oxygen and carbonic oxide. The affinity of carbonic oxide for hemoglobin is thus about 230 times as great as that of oxygen when twice 0:09 or 0:18 per cent. of carbonic oxide is present ; two-thirds of the heemo- globin go to the carbon oxide and one-third to the oxygen, and so on. Roughly speaking, the percentage of carbonic oxide in the air can be calculated by multi- plying the number of parts of carboxyhemoglobin to one part of oxyhzmoglobin by 0:09. Thus, if the hemoglobin were found to be 10 per cent. saturated with carbonic oxide, then, as there would be to each part of oxyhzemoglobin one-ninth of carboxyhemoglobin, one-ninth of 0:09 or 0:01 per cent. of carbonic oxide would be present in the air. It is evident that the method cannot be used directly when high percentages of carbonic oxide are present. The sample in such a case must be diluted. Coal gas, for instance, requires dilution to about ;45th with air when this method is employed. When the oxygen percentage in the air is much diminished the sample must also be largely diluted with air, or a correction made in calculating the result. Blood solution was originally suggested by Vogel as a qualitative test for CO in air. He used the spectroscopic test, and found he could detect 0:2 per cent. of the gas. 2. The Detection and Estimation of Carbon Monoxide in the Air by the Flame-cap Test. By Professor Frank Crowes, D.Sc. The detection of carbon monoxide in the air is mainly of importance on account of its poisonous nature when inhaled. It would rarely happen that serious ex- plosions arise from its being fired in admixture with air, since a carbon monoxide explosion is of a comparatively mild character, and further air only commences to be feebly explosive when the carbon monoxide is present in the proportion of at least 13 per cent, ; this is an amount which would render the air rapidly fatal to life. The introduction of carbon monoxide into the air may arise from leakage of many forms of gaseous fuel, such as coal-gas, producer-gas, Dowson-gas, water-gas, and flue-gas from smelting works, whether the metal is smelted by the old reducing methods, or by the newer method more recently applied by Mr. Mond to the smelting of nickel ores. This gas is also produced by the detonation of the nitro- cotton explosives, and by the imperfect combustion of any ordinary fuel which may occur either slowly or explosively. Hence cases of poisoning by this gas have mainly arisen from the ‘gas’ taken from the iron blast-furnace, from water-gas either used alone or in the enrichment of coal-gas, from coal-gas leakage, and from the ‘after-damp’ of the colliery explosion or ‘ gob-fire.’ It will be seen that this insidious poison is, therefore, of not infrequent occurrence in the air. The author finds that 0-25 per cent. of the gas can be detected in the air by a ‘cap’ 0°5 inch in height over the standard hydrogen flame. ‘This test is, therefore, sufficiently sensitive for practical application, and furnishes the most rapid means of detecting TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 761 the gas. It further serves to measure the percentage of carbon monoxide present in the air, since the height of the cap regularly increases as the amount of gas increases. It is applied either by carrying an ordinary miner's safety-lamp provided with a hydrogen flame into the atmosphere to be tested ; or, since this would probably be attended with danger from carbon monoxide, the atmosphere can be made to pass over the flame by means of a pump. This test, however, fails to distinguish carbonic oxide from other combustible gases, and therefore recourse must be had to the ordinary. process of absorption with cuprous chloride solution when the distinction, as well as the estimation of this gas, is necessary. The euprous chloride method does not readily measure less than 05 per. cent. of the gas in the air, and this is a seriously poisonous proportion. Dr. Haldane’s method of detection and estimation, by means of suitably diluted blood, possesses the advantage of being delicate and distinctive, but requires good daylight, and cannot be carried out so rapidly as the flame-cap test can, It is, however, undoubtedly the most satisfactory method yet known of detecting and estimating minute proportions of carbon monoxide in the air, and should take its place amongst acknowledged methods in the chemical laboratory, 3. Chemical Education in England and Germany. By Sir H. E. Roscoz, F.R.S. 4. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools. See Reports, p. 268. 5. The Teaching of Science in Girls’ Schools. By L. Epna Watter, B.Sc., A.C.G.1. The object of teaching girls science at all is not to make them botanists, doctors, chemists, or engineers—at least below the age of fifteen—but to train their intelligence. There are two reasons why most schools fail so lamentably in the results achieved by what is intended to be science training; the first is that only the faculty of observation is as a rule cultivated, the second that the work is not commenced low enough down in the school. Botany, though so generally adopted, has a very limited educative value ; physiology, though called 2 science, is acarcely ever taught as a science at all; and domestic economy is quite pernicious. Physical geography has an educative function of its own, but, though of immense value, its strength does not lie in the direction of scientific training. ‘What is wanted to obtain this pre-eminently important effect is a gently graduated scientific course beginning with the simplest experiments for quite young children, and gradually increasing in complexity till the girls reach the age of about sixteen. It should be recognised that from beginning to end the course should be practical in character and quantitative as far as possible. Such a course as this can be followed if practical arithmetic be made the starting-point, This Jeads naturally to elementary physics, chiefly hydrostatics, and finally to a course of elementary chemistry. For this latter no finer scheme could be suggested than that outlined in Dr. Armstrong’s contribution to the Report of the British ‘Association Committee (Newcastle-on-Tyne meeting, 1889), which is of inesti- mable value to all who are interested in the teaching of chemistry. It is an important feature of the course I suggest that the children should use no text- ‘books; their own notes written in their own words should form their books of reference. In this way their literary powers are also cultivated; but, above all, the children learn to rely on themselves. The aim of science training is to teach the girls to think for themselves, rely on themselves, and work for themselves. ‘They must learn to do something, and this will never happen while science work is confined to mere lesson learning, : ’ 1896. ee 9 762 REPORT—1896. Section C.—GEOLOGY. PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—J.-E. Marr, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., Sec. G.S, THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 17. The President delivered the following Address :— TueE feelings of one who, being but little versed in the economic applications of his science, is called upon to address a meeting of the Association held in a large in- dustrial centre might, under ordinary circumstances, be of no very pleasant character; but I take courage when I remember that those connected with my native county, in which we are now gathered, have taken prominent part in advancing branches of our science which are not directly concerned with industrial affairs, I am reminded, for instance, that one amongst you, himself a busy professional man, has in his book on ‘The Origin of Mountain Ranges’ given to the world a theoretical work of the highest value; that, on the opposite side of the county, those who are responsible for the formation and management of that excellent educational institution, the Ancoats Museum, have wisely recognised the value of some knowledge of geology as a means of quickening our appreciation of the beauties of Nature ; and that one who has done solid service to geology by his teachings, who has kept before us the relationship of our science to that which is beautiful—l refer to the distinguished author of ‘Modern Painters’—has chosen the northern part of the county for his home, and has illustrated his teaching afresh by reference to the rocks of the lovely district around him, Noy can I help referring to one who has recently passed away—the late Sir Joseph Prestwich— the last link between the pioneers of our science and the geologists of the present day, who, though born in London, was of Lancashire family, and whom we may surely therefore claim as one of Lancashire’s worthies. With these evidences of the catholicity of taste on the part of geologists connected with the county, I feel free to choose my own subject for this address, and, my time being occupied to a large extent with academic work, I may be pardoned for treating that subject in academic fashion. As I have paid considerable attention to the branch of the science which bears the somewhat uncouth designation of stratigraphical geology, I propose to take the present state of our knowledge of this branch as my theme. Of the four great divisions of geology, petrology may be claimed as being largely of German origin, the great impetus to its study having been given by Werner and his teachings, Paleontclogy may be as justly claimed by the French nation, Cuvier having been to so great an extent responsible for placing it upon a scientific basis. Physical geology we may partly regard as our own, the principles laid down by Hutton and supported by Playfair having received illustration from a host of British writers, amongst whom may be mentioned Jukes, Ramsay, and TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 763 the brothers Geikie; but the grand principles of physical geology have been so largely illustrated by the magnificent and simple features displayed on the other side of the Atlantic that we may well refer to our American brethren as leaders in this branch of study. The fourth branch, stratigraphical geology, is essentially British as regards origin, and, as everyone is aware, its scientific principles were established by William Smith, who was not only the father of English geology, but of stratigraphical geology in general. Few will deny that stratigraphical geology is the highest branch of the science, for, as has been well said, it ‘gathers up the sum of all that is made known by the other departments of the science, and makes it subservient to the interpretation of the geological history of the earth.’ The object of the stratigraphical geologist is to obtain information concerning all physical, climatic, and biological events which have occurred during each period of the past, and to arrange them in chronological order, so as to write a connected history of the earth. If all of this information were at our disposal, we could write a complete earth-history, and the task of the geologist would be ended. As it is, we have barely crossed the threshold of discovery, and the ‘imperfection of the geological record,’ like the ‘glorious un- certainty ’ of our national game, gives geology one of its great charms. Before passing on to consider more particularly the present state of the subject of our study, a few remarks upon this imperfection of the geological record may not be out of place, seeing that the term has been used by so many modern writers, and its exact signification occasionally misunderstood. The imperfection of the paleontological record is usually understood by the term when used, and it will be considered here as an illustration of the incompleteness of our knowledge of earth- history ; but it must be remembered that the imperfection of the physical record is equally striking, as will be insisted on more fully in the sequel. Specially prominent amongst the points upon which we are ignorant stands the nature of the Precambrian faunas. The extraordinary complexity of the earliest known Cambrian fauna has long been a matter for surprise, and the recent dis- coveries in connection with the Olened/us fauna do not diminish the feeling.? After commenting upon the varied nature of the earliest known fauna, the late Professor Huxley, in his Address to the Geological Society in 1862, stated that ‘any admissible hypothesis of progressive moditication must be compatible with peeeience without progression, through indefinite periods. . . . Should such an ypothesis eventually be proved to be trus,.. . the conclusion will inevitably present itself, that the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic faune and flor, taken together, bear somewhat the same proportion to the whole series of living beings which have occupied this globe, as the existing fauna and flora do to them.’ Whether or not this estimate is correct, all geologists will agree that a vast period of time must have elapsed before the Cambrian period, and yet our ignorance of faunas existing prior to the time when the Olened/us fauna occupied the Cambrian seas is almost complete. True, many pre-Cambrian fossils have been described at various times, but, in the opinion of many competent judges, the organic nature of each. one of these requires confirmation. I need not, however, enlarge upon this matter, for 1 am glad to say we have amongst us a geologist who will at a later stage read a paper before this Section upon the subject of pre-Cambrian fossils, and there is no one better able, owing to his intimate acquaintance with the actual relics, to present fairly and impartially the arguments which have been advanced in favour of the organic origin of the objects which have been appealed to as evidences of organisms of pre-Cambrian age than our revered co-worker from Canada, Sir J. William Dawson. We may look forward with confidence to the future discovery of many faunas older than those of which we now possess certain 1 Dr. C. D. Walcott, in his monograph on ‘The Fauna of the Lower Cambrian or Olenellus Zone ’ (Washington, 1890), records the following great groups as represented, in the Olenellus beds of America:—Spongie, Hydrozoa, Actinozoa, Echinodérmata, Annelida, ? (trails, burrows, and tracks), Brachiopoda, Lamellibranchiata, Gasteropoda, - Pteropoda, Crustacea, and Trilobita. Others are known as occurring in.beds of the same age in the Old World. i ee 3D2 764 REPORT—1896. knowledge, but until these are discovered the palzontological record must be admitted to be in a remarkably incomplete condition. In the meantime a study of the recent advance of our knowledge of early life is significant of the mode in which still earlier faunas will probably be brought to light. In 1845 Dr. E. Emmons described a fossil, now known to be an Olenellus, though at that time the earliest fauna was supposed to be one containing a much later group of organisms, and it was not until Nathorst and Brégger established the position of the Olenedlus zone that the existence of a fauna earlier than that of which Paradoxides was a member was admitted ; and, indeed, the Paradovides fauna itself was proved to be earlier than that containing Olenws, long after these two genera had been made familiar to paleontologists, the Swedish paleontologist, Augelin, having referred the Paradoatdes fauna to a period earlier than that of the one with Olenus. It is quite possible, therefore, that fossils are actually preserved in our museums at the present moment which have been extracted from rocks deposited before the period of formation of the Olenel/us heds, though their age has not been determined. The Olenellus horizon now furnishes us with a datum-line from which we can work backwards, and it is quite possible that the Meobolus beds of the Salt Range," which underlie beds holding Olenel/us, really do contain, as has been maintained, a fauna of date anterior to the formation of the Olenel/us beds; and the same may be the case with the beds containing the Proto/envs fauna in Canada, for this fauna is very different from any known in the Olenellus beds, or at a higher horizon, though Mr. G. F. Matthew, to whom geologists owe a great debt for his admirable descriptions of the early fossils of the Canadian rocks, speaks very cautiously of the age of the beds containing Protolenus and its associates, Note withstanding our ignorance of pre-Cambrian faunas, valuable work has recently been done in proving the existence of important groups of stratified rocks deposited previously to the formation of the beds containing the earliest known Cambrian fossils; I may refer especially to the proofs of the pre-Cambrian age of the Torridon sandstone of North-west Scotland, lately furnished by the officers of the Geological Survey, and their discovery that the maximum thickness of these strata is over 10,000 feet.s Amongst the sediments of this important system, more than one fauna may be discovered, even if most of the strata were accu- mulated with rapidity, and all geologists must hope that the officers of the Survey— who, following Nicol, Lapworth, and others, have done so much to elucidate the geological structure of the Scottish Highlands—may obtain the legitimate reward of their labours, and definitely provethe occurrence of rich faunas of pre-Cambrian age in the rocks of that region, But, although we may look forward hopefully to the time when we may lessen the imperfection of the records of early life upon the globe, even the most hopeful cannot expect that record to be rendered perfect, or that it will make any near approach to perfection. The posterior segments of the remarkable trilobite Mesonacis vermontana are of a much more delicate character than the anterior ones, and the resemblance of the spine on the fifteenth ‘body-segment’ of this species to the terminal spine of Olenelius proper suggests that in the latter sub- genus posterior segments of a purely membranous character may have existed, devoid of hard parts. If this be so, the entire outer covering of the trilobites, at a period not very remote from the end of pre-Cambrian times, may have been mem- branous, and the same thing may have occurred with the structures analogous to the hard parts of organisms of other groups. Indeed, with our present views as to development, we can scarcely suppose that organisms acquired hard parts at a very early period of their existence, and fauna after fauna may have occupied the globe, and disappeared, leaving no trace of its existence, in which case we are not likely ever to obtain definite knowledge of the characters of our earliest faunas, 1 See I. Noetling, ‘On the Cambrian Formation of the Eastern Salt Range,’ Records Geol. Survey India, vol. xxvii. p. 71. 2G. F. Matthew, ‘The Protolenus Fauna,’ Trans. New York Acad. of Science, vol. xiv. 1895, p. 101. 3 Sir A. Geikie, ‘Annual Report of the Geological Survey [United Kingdom] .. « for the year ending December 31, 1893.’ London, 1894, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 765 and the biologist must not look to the geologist for direct information concerning the dawn of life upon the earth. ; Proceeding now to a consideration of the faunas of the rocks formed after pre-Cambrian times, a rough test of the imperfection of the record may,be made by examining the gaps which occur in the vertical distribution of forms of life. If our knowledge of ancient faunas were very incomplete, we ought to meet with many cases of recurrence of forms after their apparent disappearance from inter- vening strata of considerable thickness, and many such cases have actually been described by that eminent paleontologist, M. Barrande, amongst the Paleozoic rocks of Bohemia, though even these are gradually being reduced in number owing to recent discoveries ; indeed, in the case of the marine faunas, marked cases of recurrence are comparatively rare, and the occurrence of each form is generally fairly unbroken from its first appearance to its final extinction, thus showing that the imperfection of the record is by no means so marked as might be supposed. Freshwater and terrestrial forms naturally furnish a large percentage of cases of recurrence, owing to the comparative rarity with which deposits containing such organisms are preserved amongst the strata. A brief consideration of the main reasons for the present imperfection of our knowledge of the faunas of rocks formed subsequently to pre-Cambrian times may be useful, and suggestive of lines along which future work may be carried out. That detailed work in tracts of country which are yet unexplored, or have been but imperfectly examined by the geologist, will add largely to our stock of information needs only to be mentioned ; the probable importance of work of this kind in the future may be inferred from a consideration of the great increase of our know- ledge of the Permo-Carboniferous faunas, as the result of recent labours in remote regions. It is specially desirable that the ancient faunas and floras of tropical re- gions should be more fully made known, as a study of these will probably throw considerable light upon the influence of climate upon the geographical distribution of organisms in past times. The old floras and faunas of Arctic regions are becoming fairly well known, thanks to the zeal with which the Arctic regions have been explored. But, confining our attention to the geology of our own country, much remains to be done even here, and local observers especially have opportuni- ties of adding largely to our stock of knowledge, a task they have performed so well in the past. To give examples of the value of such work, our knowledge of the fauna ot the Cambrian rocks of Britain is largely due to the present President of the Geological Society, when resident at St. David’s; whilst the magnificent fauna of the Wenlock limestone would have been far less perfectly known than it is, if it were not for the collections of men like the late Colonel Fletcher and the late Dr. Grindrod. Again, the existence of the rich fauna of the Cambridge Greensand would have been unsuspected, had not the bed known by that name been worked for the phosphatic nodules which it contains. It is very desirable that large collections of varieties of species should be made, for in this matter the record is very imperfect. There has been, and, I fear, is still, a tendency to reject specimens when their characters do not conform with those given in specific descriptions, and thus much valuable material is lost. Local observers should be specially careful to search for varieties, which may be very abundant in places where the conditions were favourable for their production, though rare or unknown elsewhere, Thus, I find the late Mr. W. Keeping remarking that ‘ it is noteworthy that at Upware, and indeed all other places known to me, the species of Brachiopoda [of the Neocomian beds] maintain much more distinctness and isolation from one another than at Brickhill.’!_ The latter place appears to be one where conditions were exceptionally favourable in Neocoméan times for the pro- duction of intermediate forms, A mere knowledge of varieties is, however, of no great use to the collector without a general acquaintance with the morphology of the organisms whose _Yemains he extracts from the earth’s strata, and one who has this can do signal ___} W. Keeping, Sedgwick Essay: The Fossils and Paleontological Affinities of the Neocomian Deposits of Upware and Brickhill. Cambridge, 1883. 766 REPORT—1896. service to the science. It is specially important that local observers should be willing to devote themselves to the study of particular groups of organisms, and to collect large suites of specimens of the group they have chosen for study. With a group like the graptolites, for instance, the specimens which are apparently best preserved are often of little value from a morphological point of view, and frag- ments frequently furnish more information than more complete specimens. These fragments seldom find their way to our museums, and accordingly we may examine a large suite of graptolites in those museums without finding any examples showing particular structures of importance, such as the sac-like bodies carried by many of these creatures. As an illustration of the value of work done by one who has made a special study of a particular group of organisms, I may refer to the remarkable success achieved by the late Mr. Norman Glass in developing the calcareous supports of the brachial processes of Brachiopods. Work of this cha- racter will greatly reduce the imperfection of the record trom the biologist’s point of view. The importance of detailed work leads one to comment upon the general methods of research which have been largely adopted in the ease of the stratified rocks, The principle that strata are identifiable by their included organisms is the basis of modern work, as it was of that which was achieved by the father of English Geology, and the identification of strata in this manner has of recent years been carried out in very great detail, notwithstanding the attempt on the part of some well-known writers to show that correlation of strata in great detail is impossible. The objection to this detailed work is mainly founded upon the fact that it must take time for an organism or group of organisms to migrate from one area to another, and therefore it was stated that they cannot have lived con- temporaneously in two remote areas. But the force of this objection is practically done away with if it can be shown that the time taken for migration is exceedingly short as compared with the time of duration of an organism or group of organisms upon the earth, and this has been shown in the only possible way—namely, by accumulating a very great amount of evidence as the result of observation. The eminent writers referred to above, who were not trained geologists, never properly grasped the vast periods of time which must have elapsed during the occurrence of the events which it is the geologist’s province to study. An historian would speak of events which began at noon on a certain day and ended at midnight at the close of that day as contemporaneous with events which commenced and ended five minutes later, and this is quite on a par with what the geologist does when correlating strata. Nevertheless, there are many people who still view the task of correlating minute subdivisions of stratified systems with one another with a certain amount of suspicion, if not with positive antipathy; but the work must be done for all that. Brilliant generalisations are attractive as well as valuable, but the steady accumulation of facts is as necessary for the advancement of the science as it was in the days when the Geological Society was founded, and its members applied themselves ‘to multiply and record observations, and patiently to await the result at some future period.’ I have already suggested a resemblance between geology and cricket, and I may be per- mitted to point out that just as in the game the free-hitter wins the applause, though the patient ‘ stone-waller’ often wins the match, so, in the science, the man apt at brilliant generalisations gains the approval of the general public, but the patient recorder of apparently insignificant details adds matter of permanent value to the stores of our knowledge. In the case of stratigraphical geology, if we were contpelled to be content with correlation of systems only, and were unable to ascertain which of the smaller series and stages were contemporaneous, but could only speak of these as ‘ homotaxial,’ we should be in much the same position as the would-be antiquary who was content to consider objects fashioned by the Romans as contemporaneous with those of medieval times. Under such circum- stances geology would indeed be an uncertain science, and we should labour in the field, knowing that a satisfactory earth-history would never be written: Let us hope that a brighter future is in store for us, and let me urge my countrymen to continue to study the minute subdivisions of the strata, lest they be left behind by TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 767 the geologists of other countries, to whom the necessity for this kind of study is apparent, and who are carrying it on with great success. , _ The value of detailed work on the part of the stratigraphical geologist is best grasped if we consider the recent advance that has been made in our science owing to the more or less exhaustive survey of the strata of various areas, and the appli- cation of the results obtained to the elucidation of earth’s history. A review of this nature will enable us not only to see what has been done, but also to detect lines of inquiry which it will be useful to pursue in the future; but it is obvious that the subject is so wide that little more can be attempted than to touch lightly upon some of the more prominent questions. A work might well be written treating of the matters which I propose to notice. We have all read our ‘ Prin- ciples of Geology,’ or ‘The Modern Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants considered as illustrative of Geology,’ to quote the alternative title; some day we may have a book written about the ancient changes of the earth and its inhabitants considered as illustrative of geography. Commencing with a glance at the light thrown on inorganic changes by a detailed examination of the strata, | may briefly allude to advances which have recently been made in the study of denudation. The minor faults, which can only be detected when the small subdivisions of rock-groups are followed out carefully on the ground, have been shown to be of great importance in defining the direction in which the agents of denudation have operated, as demonstrated by Professor W. C. Broégger, for instance, in the case of the Christiania Fjord ;' and I have recently endeavoured to prove that certain valleys in the English Lake District have been determined by shattered belts of country, the existence of which is shown by following thin bands of strata along their outcrop. The importance of the study of the strata in connection with the genesis and subsequent changes of river-systems is admirably brought out in Professor W. M. Davis’s paper on ‘The Development of certain English Rivers,” a paper which should be read by all physical geologists; it is, indeed, a starting-point for kindred work which remains especially for local observers to accomplish. Study of this kind not only adds to our knowledge of the work of geological agencies, but helps to diminish the im- perfection of the record, for the nature of river-systems, when rightly understood, enables us to detect the former presence of deposits over areas from which they have long since been removed by denudation. An intimate acquaintance with the lithological characters of the strata of a district affords valuable information in connection with the subject of glacial denudation, The direction of glacial transport over the British Isles has been largely inferred from a study of the distribution of boulders of igneous rock, whilst those of sedimentary rock have been less carefully observed. The importance of the latter is well shown by the work which has been done in Northern Europe in tracing the Scandinavian boulders to their sources, a task which could not have been performed successfully if the Scandinavian strata had not been studied in eat detail. I shall presently have more to say with regard to work connected with the lithological characters of the sediments. Whilst mentioning glacial denudation, let me allude to a piece of work which should be done in great detail, though it is not, strictly speaking, connected with stratigraphy, namely, the mapping of the rocks around asserted ‘rock-basins.’ I can find no actual proof of the occurrence of such basins in Britain, and it is very desirable that the solid rocks and the drift should he carefully inserted on large-scale maps, not only all ‘around the shores of several Jakes, but also between the lakes and tbe sea, in order to ascertain whether the lakes are really held in rock-basins, Until this work 1 W. C. Brogger, Nyt. Mag. for Naturvidensk, vol. xxx. 1886, p. 79. 2 W. M. Davis, Geograph. Journ., vol. vy. 1895, p. 127. 5 It is desirable that the boulders of sedimentary rock imbedded in the drifts of East Anglia should be carefully examined and fossils collected from them. The calcareous strata associated with the Alum Shales of Scandinavia and the strata of au Saher mt emp y ee of that region may be expected to be represented amongst e boulders, 768 REPORT—1896. is done, however probable the occurrence of rock-basins in Britain may be cons sidered to be, their actual existence cannot be accepted as proved. When referring to the subject of denudation, mention was made a moment ago of the study of the lithological character of the sediments. Admirable work in this direction was carried out years ago by one who may be said to have largely changed the direction of advance of geology in this country owing to his researches ‘On the Microscopical Structure of Crystals, indicating the Origin of Minerals and. Rocks.” I refer, of course, to Dr. H.C. Sorby. But since our attention has been so largely directed to petrology, the study of the igneous and metamorphic rocks has been most zealously pursued, whilst that of the sediments has been singularly little heeded, with few exceptions, prominent amongst which is the work of Mr. Maynard Hutchings, the results of which have been recently published in tho ‘Geological Magazine,’ though we must all hope that the details which havo hitherto been supplied to us, valuable as they are, are only a foretaste of what is to follow from the pen of this able observer. Descriptions of the lithological changes which occur in a vertical series of sediments, as well as of those which are observed when any particular band is traced laterally, will no doubt throw lighs upon a number of interesting questions. Careful work amongst the ancient sediments, especially those which are of organic origin, has strikingly illustrated the general identity of characters, and therefore of methods of formation, of deposits laid down on the sea-floors of past times and those which are at present in course of construction. Globigerine-oozes have been detected at various horizons and in many countries. Professor H: Alleyne Nicholson ! has described a pteropod-ooze of Devonian age in the Hamilton Limestone of Canada, which is largely composed of the tests of Styliola; and to Dr. G. J. Hinde we owe the discovery of a large number of radiolarian cherts of Paleozoic and Neozoic ages in various parts of the ylobe. The extreme thinness of many argillaceous deposits, which are represented elsewhere by hundreds of feet of strata, suggests that some of them, at any rate, may be analogous to the deep- sea clays of modern oceans, though in the case of deposits of this nature we must depend to a large extent upon negative evidence. The uniformity of character of thin marine deposits over wide areas is in itself evidence of their formation at some distance from the land; but although the proofs of origin of ancient sedi- ments far from coast-lines may be looked upon as permanently established, the evidence for their deposition at great depths below the ocean's surface might be advantageously increased in the cuse of many of them. The fairly modern sedi- ments, containing genera which are still in existence, are more likely to furnish satisfactory proofs of a deep-sea origin than are more ancient deposits. Thus the existence of Archeopneustes and Cystechinus in the oceanic series of Barbadoes, as described by Dr. J. G. Gregory, furnishes strong proofs of the deep-sea character of the deposits, whilst the only actual argument in favour of the deep-sea character of certain Palaeozoic sediments has been put forward by Professor Suess, who notes the similarity of certain structures of creatures in ancient rocks to those possessed by modern deep-sea crustacea, especially the co-existence of trilobites which are blind with those which have enormously developed eyes. A question which bas been very prominently brought to the fore in recent years is that of the mode of formation of certain coral-reefs, The theory of Charles Darwin, lately so widely accepted as an explanation of the mode of formation of barrier-reefs and atolls, has been, as is well known, criticised by Dr. Murray, with the result that a large number of valuable observations have been recently made on modern reefs, especially by biologists, as a contribution to the study of reef formation. Nor have geologists been inactive. Dr. E. Mojsisovics and Professor Dupont, to mention two prominent observers, have described knoll- like masses of limestone more or less analogous, as regards structure, to modern coral-reefs. They consider that these have been formed by corals, and indeed Dupont maintains that the atoll-shape is still recognisable in ancient Devonian 1 Nicholson and Lydekker, Manuai of Palaontology, chap. ii. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 769 coral-reefs in Belgium.! I would observe that all cases of ‘ knoll-reefs’ of this character have been described in districts which furnish proofs of having been subjected to considerable orogenic disturbance, subsequent to the formation of the rocks composing the knoll-shaped masses, whilst in areas which have not been affected by violent earth-foldings, the reef-building corals, so far as I have been able to ascertain, give rise to sheet-like masses, such as should be produced accord- ing to Dr. Murray’s theory. I would mention especially the reefs of the Corallian Rocks of England, and also some admirable examples seen amongst the Carbo- niferous Limestone strata of the great western escarpment of the Pennine Chain which faces the Eden Valley in the neighbourhood of Melmerby in Cumberland. Considering the number of dissected coral-reefs which exist amongst the strata of the earth’s crust, and the striking way in which their structure is often displayed, it is rather remarkable that comparatively little attention has been paid to them by geologists in general, when the subject has been so prominently brought before the scientific world, for we must surely admit that we are much more likely to gain important information, shedding light upon the methods of reef-formation, by a study of such dissected reefs, than by making a few bore-holes on some special coral island. I would specially recommend geologists to make a detailed study of the British coral-reefs of Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Jurassic ages. Turning now to organic deposits of vegetable origin, we must, as the result of detailed work, be prepared to admit the inapplicability of any one theory of the formation of coal seams. The ‘ growth-in-place’ theory may be considered fairly well established for some coals, such as the spore-coals, whilst the ‘drift’ theory furnishes an equally satisfactory explanation of the formation of cannel-coal. It is now clear that the application of the general term coal to a number of materials of diverse nature, and probably of diverse origin, was largely responsible for the dragging-out of a controversy, in which the champions of either side endeavoured to explain the origin of all coal in one particular way. The stratigraphical geologist, attempting to restore the physical geography of former periods, naturally pays much attention to the positions of ancient coast- lines ; indeed, all teachers find it impossible to give an intelligible account of the stratified rocks without some reference to the distribution of land and sea at the time of their formation. The general position of land-masses at various times has been ascertained in several parts of the world, but much more information must be gathered together before our restorations of ancient sea-margins approximate to the truth. The Carboniferous rocks of Britain have been specially studied with reference to the distribution of land and water during the period of their accumu- lation, and yet we find that owing to the erroneous identification of certain rocks of Devonshire as grits or sandstones, which Dr. Hinde has shown to be radiolarian cherts, land was supposed to lie at no great distance south of this region in Lower Carboniferous times, whereas the probabilities are in favour of the existence of an open ocean at a considerable distance from any Jand in that direction. This case nr us with an excellent warning against generalisation upon insuflicient ata. As _a result of detailed study of the strata, the effects of earth-movements have been largely made known to us, especially of those comparatively local disturbances spoken of as orogenic, which are mainly connected with mountain-building, whilst informaticn concerning the more widely spread epeirogenic movements is also furnished by a study of the stratified rocks, The structure of the Alps, of the North-West Highlands of Scotland, and of the uplifted tracts of North America is now familiar to geologists, whilst the study of comparatively recent sediments has proved the existence of widespread and extensive movements in times which are geologically modern; for instance, the deep-water deposits of late Tertiary age found in the West Indies indicate the occurrence of considerable uplilt in that region. But a great amount of _.' Similar knoll-like masses have been described in this country by Mr. R. H. Tiddeman as occurring in the Craven district of Yorkshire, but he does not attribute their formation to coral-growth to any great extent. 770 REPORT—1896. ‘work yet remains to be done in this connection, especially concerning horizontal distortion of masses of the earth’s crust, owing to more rapid horizontal advance of one portion than of another, during periods of movement. Not until we gather together a large amount of information derived from actual inspection of the rocks shall we be able to frame satisfactory theories of earth-movement, and in the meantime we are largely dependent upon the speculations of the physicist, often founded upon very imperfect data, on which is built an imposing super- structure of mathematical reasoning. We have been told that our continents and ocean-basins have been to a great extent permanent as regards position through long geological ages; we now reply by pointing to deep-sea sediments of nearly all geological periods, which have been uplifted from the ocean-abysses to form portions of our continents ; and as the result of study of the distribution of fossil organisms, we can point almost as confidently to the sites of old continents now sunk down into the ocean depths. It seems clear that our knowledge of the causes of earth-movements is still in its infancy, and that we must be content to wait awhile, until we have further information at our disposal. Recent work has proved the intimate connection betwixt earth-movement and the emission and intrusion of igneous rocks, and the study of igneous rocks has advanced beyond the petrographical stage ; the rocks are now made to contribute their share towards the history of ditlerent geological periods. The part which volcanic action has played in the actual formation of the earth’s crust is well exemplified in Sir Archibald Geikie’s Presidential Addresses to the Geological Society, wherein he treats of the former volcanic history of the British Isles.‘ The way in which extruded material contributes to the formation of sedimentary masses has, perhaps, not been fully grasped by many writers, who frequently seem to assume that deposition is a measure of denudation, and vice versd, whereas deposition is only a measure of denudation, and of the material which has been ejected in a fragmental condition from the earth’s interior, which in some places forms a very considerable percentage of the total amount of sediment. The intruded rocks also throw much light on past earth-history, and I cannot give a better illustration of the valuable information which they may furnish to the stratigraphical geologist, when rightly studied, than by referring to the excellent and suggestive work by my colleague, Mr. Alfred Harker, on the Bala Voleanie Rocks of Carnarvonshire.” Perhaps the most striking instance of the effect which detailed stratigraphical work has produced on geological thought is supplied by the study of the crystal- line schists. Our knowledge of the great bulk of the rocks which enter into the formation of a schistose complex is not very great, but the mode of production of many of them is now well known, and the crude speculations of some of the early geologists are now making way for theories founded on careful and minute obser- vations in the field as well as in the laboratory. Recent work amongst the erystal- line schists shows, furthermore, how careful we should be not to assume that because we have got at the truth, we have therefore ascertained the whole truth. We all remember how potent a factor dynamic metamorphism was supposed to be, owing to discoveries made in the greatly disturbed rocks of Scotland and Switzer- land; and the action of heat was almost ignored by some writers, except as a minor factor, in the production of metamorphic change. The latest studies amongst the foliated rocks tend to show that heat does play a most important part in the manufacture of schists. The detailed work of Mr. George Barrow, in North-east ‘Forfarshire,’ has already thrown a flood of light upon the origin of certain schists, and their connection with igneous rocks, and geologists will look forward with eagerness to further studies of the puzzling Highland rocks by this keen observer. The subject of former climatic conditions is one in which the geologist has very largely depended upon followers of other branches of science for light, and yet it is one peculiarly within the domain of the stratigraphical geologist; and ) Sir A. Geikie, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vols. xlvii. and xlviii. 2 Alf. Harker, Sedgwick Essay for 1888 (Camb. Univ. Press, 1889). 3 G. Barrow, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlix. 1893, p. 330. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 771 ‘information which has already been furnished concerning former climatic condi- tions, as the result of careful study of the strata, is probably only an earnest of what is to follow when the specialist in climatology pays attention to the records of the rocks, and avoids the theories elaborated in the student’s sanctum. The recognition of an Ice Age in Pleistocene times at once proved the fallacy of the supposition that there has been a gradual fall in temperature throughout geological ages without any subsequent rise, and accordingly most theories which have been put forward to account for former climatic change have been advanced with special reference to the Glacial period or periods, although there are many other interest- ing matters connected with climate with which the geologist has to deal. Never- theless, the occurrence of glacial periods is a matter of very great interest, and one which has deservedly received much attention, though the extremely plausible hypothesis of Croll, and the clear manner in which it has been presented to general readers, tended to throw other views into the shade, until quite recently, when this hypothesis has been controverted from the point of view of the physicist. In the meantime considerable advance has been made in our actual knowledge, and this year, probably for the first time, and as the result of the masterly réswmé of Professor Edgworth David,! the bulk of British geologists are prepared to admit that there has been more than one glacial period, and that the evidence of glacial conditions in the southern hemisphere in Permo-Carboniferous times is esta- blished. Croll’s hypothesis of course requires the recurrence of glacial periods, but leaving out of account arguments not of a geological character, which have been advanced against this hypothesis, the objection raised by Messrs. Gray and Kendall,” that in the case of the Pleistocene Ice Age ‘the cold conditions came on with extreme slowness, the refrigerations being progressive from the Eocene period to the climax,’ seems to me to be a fatal one. At the same time, rather than asking with the above writers ‘the aid of astronomers and physicists in the solution of’ this problem, I would direct the attention of stratigraphical geologists to it, believing that, by steady accumulation of facts, they are more likely than any one else to furnishjthe true clue to the solution of the glacial problem. I have elsewhere called attention to marked changes in the faunas of the sedimentary rocks when passing from lower to higher levels, without the evidence of any apparent physical break, or any apparent change in the physical conditions, -so far as can be judged from the lithological characters of the strata, and have suggested that such sudden faunistic variations may be due to climate. I refer to the matter as one which may well occupy the attention of local observers. One of the most interesting points connected with climatic conditions is that of the former general lateral distribution of organisms, and its dependence upon the distribution of climatic zones. The well-known work of the late Dr. Neumayr® has, in the opinion of many geologists, established the existence of climatic zones whose boundaries ran practically parallel with the equator in Jurassic and Cretaceous times, and the possible existence of similar climatic zones in Palxozoic times has been elsewhere suggested; but it is very desirable that much more work should be done upon this subject, and it can only be carried out _by paying close attention to the vertical and lateral distribution of organisms in the stratified rocks. So far we have chiefly considered the importance of stratigraphical geology in connection with the inorganic side of nature. We now come to the bearing of detailed stratigraphical work upon questions concerning the life of the globe, and here the evidence furnished by the geologist particularly appeals to the general educated public as well as to students of other sciences, 1T. W. E. David, ‘Evidences of Glacial Action in Australia in Permo- Carboniferous Time,’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lii. p. 289. * J. W. Gray and P. F, Kendall, ‘The Cause of an Ice Age, Brit. Assoc. Rep. (1892), p. 708. * M. Neumayr, ‘ Ueber klimatische Zonen wihrend der Jura- und Kreidezeit,’ Denkschr. der math.-naturwissen. Classe der h. hk. Ahad. der Wissenschaften, vol. xlvii. ‘Vienna, 1883. 772 REPORT—1896. Attention has just been directed to the probable importance of former climatic changes in determining the distribution of organisms, but the whole subject of the geographical distribution of organisms during former geological periods, though it has already received a considerable amount of attention, will doubtless have much further light thrown upon it as the result of careful observations carried out amongst the stratified rocks. So long ago as 1855, Pictet laid it down as a paleontological law that ‘the geographical distribution of species found in the strata was more extended than the range of species of existing faunas.’ One would naturally expect that at a time when the diversity of animal organisation was not so great as it now is, the species, having fewer enemies with which to cope, and on the whole not too complex organisations to be affected by outward circumstances, would spread further laterally than they now do; but as we know that in earliest Cambrian times the diversity of organisation was very considerable, it is doubtful whether any appreciable difference would be exerted upon lateral distribution then and now, owing to this cause. At the time at which Pictet wrote, the rich fauna of the deeper parts of the oceans, with its many widely distributed forms of life, was unknown, and the range in space of early organisms must have then struck every one who thought upon the subject as being greater than that of the shallow- water organisms of existing seas, which were alone known. It is by no means: clear, however, with our present knowledce, that Pictet’s supposed law holds good, and it will require a considerable amount of work before it can be shown to be even apparently true. Our lists of the fossils of different areas are not sufficiently complete to allow us to generalise with safety, but a comparison of the faunas of Australia and Britain indicates a larger percentage of forms common to the two areas, as we examine higher groups of the geological column. If this indication be fully borne out by further work, it will not prove the actual truth of the law, for the apparent wider distribution of ancient forms of life might be due to the greater probability of elevation of ancient deep-sea sediments than of more modern ones which have not been sub- jected to so many elevatory movements. Still, if the law be apparently true, it is a matter of some importance to geologists; and I have touched upon the matter here in order once again to emphasise the possibility of correlating comparatively small thicknesses of strata in distant regions by their included organisms. Mention of Pictet’s laws, one of which states that fossil animals were con- structed upon the same plan as existing ones, leads me to remark upon the frequent assumption that certain fossils are closely related to living groups, when the resemblances between the hard parts of the living and extinct forms are only of the most general character. There is a natural tendency to compare a fossil with its nearest living ally, but the comparison has probably been often pushed too far, with the result that biologists have frequently been led to look for the ancestors of one living group exclusively amongst forms of life which are closely related to those of another living group. The result of detailed work is to bring out more and more prominently the very important differences between some ancient forms and any living creature, and to throw doubts on certain compari- sons; thus I find several of the well-known fossils of the Old Red Sandstone, formerly referred without hesitation to the fishes, are now doubtfully placed in that class. The importance of detailed observation in the field is becoming every day more apparent, and the specialist who remains in his museum examining the collections amassed by the labours of others, and never notes the mode of occurrence of fossils in the strata, will perhaps soon be extinct, himself an illustration of the principle of the survival of the fittest. In the first place such a worker can never grasp the true significance of the changes wrought on fossil relics after they have become entombed in the strata, especially amongst those rocks which have been subjected to profound earth-movements; and it is to be feared that many .‘ species’ are still retained in our fossil lists, whose supposed sperific characters are due to distortion by pressure. But a point of greater importance is, that one who confines his attention to museums cannot, unless the information supplied to TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 773 him be very full, distinguish the differences between fossils which are variations from a contemporaneous dominant form, such as ‘sports,’ and those which have been termed ‘ mutations,’ which existed at a later period than the forms which they resemble. The value of the latter to those who are attempting to work out phylogenies is obvious, and their nature can only be determined as the result of very laborious and accurate field-work ; but such labour in such a cause is well worth performing. The student of phylogeny has had sufficient warning of the dangers which beset his path from an inspection of the various phylogenetic trees, constructed mainly after study of existing beings only, so ‘, . . like the borealis race, That flit ere you can point their place ;’ but recent researches amongst various groups of fossil organisms have further illustrated the danger of theorising upon insufficient data, especially suggestive being the discovery of closely similar forms which were formerly considered to be much more nearly related than now proves to be the case; thus Dr. Mojsisovics! has shown that Ammonites once referred to the same species are specifically dis- tinct, though their hard parts have acquired similar structures, sometimes con- temporaneously, sometimes at different times, and Mr. S. S. Buckman? has observed the same thing, which he speaks of as ‘heterogenetic homceomorphy’ in the case of certain brachiopods, whilst Prof. H. A. Nicholson and I* have given reasons for supposing that such heterogenetic homceomorphy, in the ease of the graptolites, has sometimes caused the inclusion in one genus of forms which have arisen from two distinct genera. As the result of careful work, dangers of the nature here Suggested will be avoided, and our chances of indicating lines of descent correctly will be much increased. It must be remembered that, however plausible the lines of descent indicated by students of recent forms may be, the actual links in the chains can only be discovered by examination of the rocks; and it is greatly to be desired that more of our geologists who have had a thorough training in the field should receive in addition one as thorough in the zoological laboratory. Shall I be forgiven if I venture on the opinion that a certain suspicion which some of my zoological fellow countrymen have of geological methods is due to their compara- tive ignorance of paleontology, and that it is as important for them to obtain some knowledge of the principles of geology as it is for the stratigraphical paleontologist to study the soft parts of creatures whose relatives he finds in the stratified rocks ? The main lines along which the organisms of some of the larger groups have been developed have already been indicated by several paleontologists, and detailed work has been carried out in several cases. As examples, let me allude to the trilobites, of which a satisfactory natural classification was outlined by the great Barrande in those volumes of his monumental work which deal with the fossils of this order, whilst further indication of their natural inter-relationships has been furnished by Messrs. C. D, Walcott, G. F, Matthew, and others; to the graptolites, whose relationships have been largely worked out by Professor C. Lapworth, facile princeps amongst students of the Graptolitoidea, to whom we look for a full account of the phylogeny of the group; to the brachiopods, which have been so ably treated by Dr. C. EK. Beecher,* largely from a study of recent forms, but also after careful study of those preserved in the fossil state ; and to the echinids and lamellibranchs, whose history is being extensively elucidated by Dr. R, T. Jackson * by methods somewhat similar to those pursued by Dr. Beecher. 1 E. Mojsisovics, Abhandl. der hk. k. geol. Reichsanst., vol. vi. 1893. ? §. 8. Buckman, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. li. 1895, p. 456. *° H. A, Nicholson and J. E. Marr, Geol. Mag., Dec. 4, vol. ii, 1895, p. 531. - 4C, E. Beecher, ‘Development of the Brachiopoda,’ Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. iii. vol. xli. 1891, p. 343, and vol. xliv. 1892, p. 133. 5 R. T. Jackson, ‘ Phylogeny of the Pelecypoda,’ Mem. Boston Soc. Nat: Hiist., vol. iv. 1890, p. 277; and ‘Studies of Palvechinoidea,’ Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol, vii. 1896, p. 171. 774 REPORT—1896. I might give other instances," but have chosen some striking ones, four of which especially illustrate the great advances which are being made in the study of the paleontology of the invertebrates by our American brethren. I have occupied the main part of my address with reasons for the need of con- ducting stratigraphical work with minute accuracy. Many of you may suppose that the necessity for working in this way is so obvious that itisa work of supererogation to insist upon it at great length; but experience has taught me that many geologists consider that close attention to details is apt to deter workers from arriving at important generalisations in the present state of our science, A review of the past history of the science shows that William Smith, and those who followed after him, obtained their most important results by steady application to details, and subsequent generalisation, whilst the work of those who theorise on insufficient data is apt to be of little avail, though often demanding attention on account of its very daring, and because of the power of some writers to place erroneous views in an attractive light, just as ; *, . . the sun can fling Colours as bright on exhalations bred By weedy pool or pestilential swamp, As on the rivulet, sparkling where it runs, Or the pellucid lake.’ Nor is there any reason to suppose that it will be otherwise in the future; and I am not one of those who consider that the brilliant discoveries were the exclusive reward of the pioneers in our science, and that labourers of the present day must be contented with the gleanings of their harvest; on the contrary, the discoveries which await the geologist will probably be as striking as are those which he has made in the past. The onward march of science is a rhythmic movement, with now a period of steady labour, anon a more rapid advance in our knowledge. It would perhaps be going too far to say that, so far as our science is concerned, we are living in a period rather of the former than of the latter character, though no great geological discovery has recently affected human thought in the way in which it was affected by the proofs of the antiquity of man, and by the publication of ‘The Origin of Species.’ If, however, we are to some extent gathering materials, rather than drawing far-reaching conclusions from them, I believe this is largely due to the great expansion which our science has undergone in recent years. It has been said that geology is ‘not so much one science, as the application of all the physical sciences to the examination and description of the structure of the earth, the investigation of the agencies concerned in the production of that struc- ture, and the history of their action’; and the application of other sciences to the elucidation of the history of our globe has been so greatly extended of recent years that we are apt to lose sight of the fact that geology is in itself a science, and that it is the special province of the geologist to get his facts at first hand from exami- nation of the earth. The spectroscope and the telescope tell the geologist much ; but his proper instrument is the hammer, and the motto of every geologist should be that which has been adopted for the Geological Congress, ‘ Mente et malleo.’ At the risk of being compared to a child playing with edged tools, I cannot help referring to the bearing of modern stratigraphical research on the suggested replacement of a school of uniformitarianism by one of evolution. The distin- guished advocate of evolutionism, who addressed the Geological Society in 1869 upon the modern schools of geological thought, spoke of the school of evolution as though it were midway between those of uniformitarianism and catastrophism, as 1 #g., the following papers treating of the Cephalopoda :—A. Hyatt, ‘ Genesis of the Arietide,’ Smithsonian Contributions, vol. xxvi. 1889; M. Neumayr, Jura- Studien L, ‘ Ueber Phylloceraten,’ Jahrb.' der hk. k. Geol. Reichsanst., vol. xxi. 1871, p- 297; L. Wiirtenberger, ‘Studien iiber die Stammesgeschichte der Ammoniten,’ Leipzig, 1880; S. S. Buckman, ‘A Monograph of the Inferior Qolite Ammonites of the British Islands,’ 1887 (Monogr. Paleontographical Soc.). ; TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 775 indeed it is logically, though, considering the tenets of the upholders of catastro- phism, as opposed to those of uniformitarianism, at the time of that address, there is no doubt that evolutionism was rather a modification of the uniformitarianism of the period than intermediate between it and catastrophism, which was then practically extinct, at any rate in Britain. One of my predecessors in this chair, speaking upon this subject, says that ‘the good old British ship ‘‘ Uniformity,” built by Hutton and refitted by Lyell, has won so many glorious victories in the past, and appears still to be in such excellent fiehting trim, that I see no reason why she should haul down her colours, either to ‘‘ Catastrophe ” or “Evolution.” ” It may be so; but I doubt the expediency of nailing those colours to the mast. That Lyell, in his great work, proved that the agents now in operation, working with the same activity as that which they exhibit at the present day, might pro- duce the phenomena exhibited by the stratified rocks seems to be generally admitted, but that is not the same thing as proving that they did so produce them. Such proof can only be acquired by that detailed examination of the strata which I have advocated in this address, and at the time that the last edition of the ‘Principles’ appeared, our knowledge of the strata was far less complete than it has subsequently become. It appears to me that we should keep our eyes open to the possibility of many phenomena presented by rocks, even newer than the Archean rocks, having been produced under different conditions from those now prevalent. The depths and salinity of the oceans, the heights and extent of con- tinents, the conditions of volcanic action, and many other things may have been markedly different from what they are at present, and it is surely unphilosophical to assume conditions to have been generally similar to those of the present day on the slender data at our disposal. Lastly, uniformitarianism, in its strictest sense, is opposed to rhythmic recurrence of events. ‘Rhythm is the rule with nature; she abhors uniformity more than she does a vacuum,’ wrote Professor Tyndall, many years ago, and the remark is worth noting by geologists. Why have we no undoubted signs of glacial epochs amongst the strata from early Cambrian times to the Great Ice Period, except in Permo-Carboniferous times? Is there not an apparent if not a real absence of manifestation of volcanic activity over wide areas of the earth in Mesozoic times? Were not Devonian, Permo-Triassic, and Miocene times periods of mountain-building over exceptionally wide areas, whilst the intervening periods were rather marked by quiet depression and sedimentation? A study of the evidence available in connection with questions like these suggests rhythmic recurrence. Without any desire to advocate hasty departure from our present methods of research, I think it should be clearly recognised that evolution may have been an important factor in changing the conditions even of those times of which the geologist has more direct knowledge. In this, as in many other ques- tions, it is best to preserve an open mind ; indeed, I think that geologists will do well to rest satisfied without an explanation to many problems, amongst them the one just referred to; and that working hypotheses, though useful, are better retained in the manuscript notebooks of the workers than published in the ‘Transactions of learned societies, whence they filter out into popular works, to the great delight of a sceptical public should they happen to be overthrown. May I trespass upon your patience for one moment longer? As a teacher of geology, with many years’ experience in and out of a large university, I have come to the conclusion that geology is becoming more generally recognised as a valuable instrument of education. The memory, the reasoning faculties, and the powers of observation are alike quickened. The work in the open air, which is inseparable from a right understanding of the science, keeps the body in healthy condition, But over and above these benefits, the communing with Nature, often in her most impressive moods, and the insignificance of events in a man’s lifetime, as compared with the ceaseless changes through the long eons which have gone before, so influence man’s moral nature that they drive out his meaner thoughts and make him ‘live in charity with all men.’ 776 REPORT—1896. ~* ‘The following Papers were read :— On the Geology of the Isle of Man. By Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, J/.4., F.R.S. The geology of the Isle of Man presents many points worthy of the attention ef the Geological Section. The following notes are based on my survey, during the last ten years, on the 6-inch scale, and on borings carried out under my advice through the thick covering of drift in the north of the island. The Ordovician Massif. The massif of the island consists of Ordovician clay-slates, phyllites, and quartzites, locally much folded and contorted, traversed by numerous volcanic dykes, and penetrated at Foxdale, the Dhoon, and Santon by three bosses of granite. They are for the most part unfossiliferous, the only three fossils as yet found being Palcochorda, Dictyonema, and a trilobite,’ sufficiently perfect to be identified with one or other of the Ordovician genera. They are probably the south-western prolongation of the Skiddaw slates of the Lake Country beneath the Irish Sea. They are of unknown thickness, and have a general dip seawards, from an axis running from N.E. to 8.W., the slates and shales forming the central nucleus of hills—Snaefel, North and South Barule, Cronk-na-Trelay, &¢.-— and the quartzites for the most part occurring in the littoral areas, and more particularly along the south-eastern seaboard, from Ramsey to Langness. These rocks have been locally very much altered by the heat caused by crushing. Where the slates, for example, have been traversed by white quartz veins, the friction, caused by the smashing of the quartz into the softer slates, has caused the development of mica-schist at the point of contact, and more rarely also of hornblende. The crush-conglomerates (of Ballanayre and Sulby Glen), mainly occurring in the north of the Massif, formed by the smashing of thinly bedded quartzites and harder slates, and their being driven into the softer slates, testify to the enormous subterranean forces-which have been at work, as Mr. Lamplugh has conclusively shown.? The result is a conglomerate, composed of blocks great and small, mostly rounded, and some scored like those from the glacial drift, each being covered by a thin film of sericite. The Carboniferous Limestone of the South. The Carboniferous Limestone series is seen in the south of the island, in the area of Castletown, Langness, and Ballasalla, to rest on a sea-worn floor of the highly contorted Ordovician rocks. At the base is the Red Conglomerate, some 15 feet thick, out of which the arches at Langness have been cut by the sea. It is formed of pebbles, red and white vein-quartz and red quartzite, derived from the break-up of the strata below, the grey Ordovician quartzite, with iron pyrites, having been oxidised into the red quartzite of the pebble. On this rest the thinly bedded limestones and shales of Castletown Bay and Derbyhaven. The beds of limestone increase in thickness to the west of Castletown Bay and at Port . St. Mary. To the upper portion of this series belong the black and white lime- stones and black Poseidonia shales of Pool Vaish, and the interbedded volcanic agglomerate, between that place and Scarlet Point. The latter is proved to have been the site of the eruption by the Augite Porphyrite of the Stack. The dykes of Olivine-dolerite * which riddle the limestone on the shore between this point and Castletown and Kentraugh are post-Carboniferous, and are referred by Horne and A. Geikie to the Early Tertiary age. The most important of these is the Strandhall dyke, which cuts the lode in the Ballacorkish lead-mine, the fore- 1 Bolton, Geological Magazine, Dec. iii. vol. x. p. 29. 2 Quarterly Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. li. 1895, p. 565. 2 Hobson, Quarterly Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvii. p. 432. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 7 shore at Strandhall, and then runs across the peninsula of Scarlet, appearing again on the foreshore at Knock-Rushen. It is probably continued through the Bay of Castletown, and is represented by the network of dykes on the foreshore close to the Langness copper-mine, and crossing the peninsula of Langness. The Carboniferous Limestone is highly faulted and folded, has a westerly dip, and has been faulted down into the Ordovician strata by the Port St. Mary fault, extending from the sea near that place, across Bay ny Carrickey to Ballashimmin, the throw being to the east. In consequence of this the upper strata of the Car- boniferous Limestone are unrepresented in the south of the island. The Permian Strata of the North of the Island, The series of Red Sandstones and Conglomerates, to the east of Peel, con- sidered by some geologists to belong to the Old Red Sandstone, and by others to the basement beds of the Carboniferous, are of Permian age. They extend along the shore-line from the Cregmalin to Willstrand, being faulted at both these points against the Ordovician slates. Inland their boundary is concealed by the thick covering of drift. It probably does not extend further than about one hun- dred yards to the south of the main road from Peel to Kirk Michael, a boring at Ballagar having proved the slate. It consists of, A, the Peel Sandstones, and irregular conglomerates, red, and reddish-grey and buff, 913 feet in thickness, plunging seawards at an angle from 4U°.to 45°; and, B, the Stack conglomerates and breccias, mare or less calcareous, red, sandy, and grey, 455 feet thick.! The true base of these strata is concealed by the glacial drift, unless it be represented by the Red Conglomerates of the small and obscure patches faulted into the shales near Glenfaba. ‘The Peel Sandstones are the equivalent of the Rot-todt-liegende of the fae and the Lower Permian Sandstones of St. Bees Head and the Vale of iden. The Stack conglomerates and breccias represent the base of the Magnesian Limestone of the Upper Permian, of the North of England, described so well by Sedgwick and Binney. They are identical in physical characters with ‘the brock- ram’ of the Cumbrian area, and are proved to be post-Carboniferous by the pre- sence of pebbles of Carboniferous Limestone. The Strata underneath Drift-covered Northern Plain, The glacial drift occupies by far the greater portion of the island, and forms a thick mantle over the plain, extending from the abrupt Ordovician escarpment, sweeping westwards from Ramsey towards Kirk Michael. The contrast between this plain and the hilly region to its south rendered it probable that the strata underneath the drift are not Ordovician; and the nigh northern dip of all the rocks, Ordovician and Permian, rendered it probable that Carboniferous Rocks, and possibly Coal Measures, occurred below. Under these circumstances four borings were put down in 1891-96 by Messrs. Craine, Mr. Todd being the engineer in charge, with the following results. The boring at Lhen Moar? proved the existence of the Carboniferous Lime- stone underneath the sands, clays, and gravels of the Drift at a depth of 167 feet 6 inches from the surface. The limestone dips at an angle of 40°, and is massive. It was penetrated to a depth of 66 feet. The next borehole at Ballawhane, near Blue Point, about 4,050 feet to the north-east of that at Lhen Moar, gave a most interesting section. Feet Inches Boulder Drift sands, gravels, and clays : : : cee LT 0 Triassic Sandstone, red and grey . : : : 373 2 Permian Marls and Sandstones of the Stack series. . 136 2 Carboniferous Limestone, grey and red, with crinoids He 3aT 10 ! For details see Manchester Geol. Soc., 1894, vol. xxii.; Dawkins, on the Geology _of the Isle of Man, Part I. . # For details see Dawkins, Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc., vols, xxii. and xxiii. ; Oo eaG of the Isle of Man, Parts I. and II. 3 . E 778 REPORT—1896. In this section the Triassic Sandstone cores prove a dip of 10°, while the Stack series below have a dip of from 30° to 40°. The absence of the Peel Sand- stones proves that the Permians are faulted against the Carboniferous Limestone. The Triassic Sandstone probably belongs to the Lower or Bunter series. A third boring at Knock-y-Dooney, near Rue Point, at a distance of 1,670 yards to the north-east of Ballawhane, recently completed, has added another group of rocks to Manx geology. ‘The section is as follows :— Feet Inches Glacial drift “a 5 i F . a : ‘ TS 0 Triassic Sandstone A “ . é Hl 5 ; - 463 4 Permian rocks of the Stack series ; y - 7, we 28 3 Yoredale’sandstones and shales . 3 ; 2 ‘ A te 0 Carboniferous Limestone . . : F 3 ; » Jhe 4 961 11 This, the deepest boring in the island, proves the existence of the Yoredales, dipping at an angle of 50°, and passing into the Carboniferous Limestone, here, as before, full of crinoids.' : The fourth boring, close to the Lighthouse at the Point of Ayre, has completed the catalogue of the Manx rocks. Here the roclis are as follows :— Feet Boulder drift . 4 e ; 5 : : ; . . - 298 Marls, red, brown, and grey, with gypsum and rock salt a . 392 —_ 690 The salt sets in at 500 feet below the surface, and the total thickness of the rock salt is 88 feet 6 inches, the two thickest beds being 20 feet and 9 feet. 6 inches. Besides these a brine run, 2 feet 6 inches in depth, occurs at a depth of 615 feet 5 inches from the surface. The depth of the salt-field remains unproved. The discovery of this salt-field is of considerable value, because it links on the salt-field at Carrickfergus with those of Barrow and of Cheshire, and shows that the Irish Sea is a basin in which the salt-bearing Triassic Marls were deposited. They have since been broken up and denuded, and it remains to be proved how far they are continuous under the sea, eastwards to Barrow and to the north-west in the direction of Carrickfergus. General Conclusions as to Solid Geology. It remains now to sum up the general results of the study of the Manx Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata. The Ordovician Massif is practically identical with the Skiddaw series of the Lake Country, the volcanic ash being left out. In Man and in the Lake Country there is the same relation between the Ordovician Massif and the Carboniferous Limestone, the Yoredale and the Permian strata, and the same unconformity between the Paleozoic strata below and the Triassic strata above. The Triassic Sandstone is probably the same as that of Aldingham and Barrow, which is sandwiched in between the Magnesian Limestone (Sheet 91, N.W. Geological Survey) and the Saliferous Marls of Barrow. We may also conclude, from this identity of structure between the districts of Barrow and Black Combe in the Lake district and of the rocks of the north of Man, that there is little hope of the south-western extension of the Whitehaven coalfield, so gal- lantly sought for by Messrs. Craine in their borings. The discovery of a salt-field is a most valuable addition to the mineral wealth of the island. “ Broken rings of Permian and Triassic rocks similar to those encircling the Jumbrian Massif probably surround that of Man, being mostly covered by the sea or by thick masses of drift. In the north of the island they probably dip northwards, and occupy a position approximately represented by the map on the wall, in which the uncoloured part of the northern plain is a terra incognita, only to be explored by further borings. ' 1 For details of this section see report of Mr. Todd, published in the Journal of the Isle of Man Natural History and Antiquarian Society, vol. iii. p. 65. el TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 779 The Boulder-drift of the North, ‘The Boulder-drift of the northern plain is deposited on a floor of solid rocks, which sinks rapidly from 160 feet on the south-west at Ballawhane to 298 feet below high-water mark on the north-east at the Point of Ayre. It is no less than 450 feet in thickness, when the cliffs and hills of the plain are taken into account. It contains the usual marine shells. Inland the drift occurs to a height of more than 600 feet above the sea. The distribution of the Foxdale granite boulders proves that the glaciation was from north to south. The Prehistoric Strata, With regard to the prehistoric river terraces, and alluvia, and the peat-beds which are considerable in the north, I will only add that the discovery of the great Irish Elk in the peat near St. John’s, and in the forest on the shore-line near Strandhall, proves that the island was united to Ireland or Britain in the pre- historic age, 2. Observations on some of the Footprints from the Trias in the Neighbourhood of Liverpool. By H, C, Brastey, The footprints generally known as those of the Cheirotherium or Cheirosaurus have been the subject of much speculation and some study for a long time past, but unfortunately without any very certain result; their general character is, however, so well known that I hardly need refer to them. Besides this large and rather singular form we have a great number and variety of smaller footprints. A number of quite distinct forms may be traced, indicating that the fauna was rich both in individuals and in species. A slab in University College, on which about ninety-five footprints are shown ou an area of about three square feet, illustrates this. The footprints are generally found in relief as natural casts in sandstone of prints made in the underlying marl or clay where the wet mud has taken the impression and afterwards been covered with sand, They occur most plentifully along certain beds, but this is because only at those places were the conditions favourable for their presentation. The author particularly draws attention to the fact that the prints indicate animals of terrestrial and not marine habits; for, although in older accounts webbed feet are described and figured, his own observations point to these being of very rare occurrence. This would necessitate the existence of dry land in the neighbourhood, and must be taken into account in any attempt to understand the formation of the Keuper. They are found at intervals from just above the conglomerates at the base to the lower part of the Keuper marls, the highest beds of the Keuper exposed. They have not been found in the Bunter in this district. The Liverpool Free Museum has lately acquired a slab from Storeton which shows some interesting forms; one, the largest about two inches long, is possibly of a chelonian, In the less perfect examples it is represented by an oval pad and four projecting points slightly removed from it on one side, but in more perfect examples it is seen that these are connected by toes with the pad, and that the projecting points are portions of strong curved claws. On the slab it is difficult to trace a regular series, but from measurements taken at the quarry from portions of the same bed the author found that the feet had a stride of about nine inches, whilst the width of the track—that is, between the line of impressions of the right foot and those of the left—was eight inches, indicating a broad-bodied animal. Another footprint well shown on the slab is much smaller, being about three-quarters of an inch long, and consists of three toes of nearly equal length—the middle one being the longest—and a very small toe on one side projecting from what appears to be the palmar portion of the foot. The three longer toes lie very closely together, and quite parallel, and often the rint shows no division between them, and each terminates in a short sharp claw. this is the form described to the Geological Section by Mr. O, W. Jeffs at the Oxford.méeting.! They are, perhaps, better shown on a slab from the same bed of 1 Brit. Assoc. Report, 1894, p. 658. ; 3E2 780 ; REPORT—1896, rock in the museum of University College. The slab also has a profusion of the prints attributed to the Rhynchosaurus. ‘The author has lately been endeavouring to classify under certain types the more common forms for the sake of facilitating reference ; the results are given in his paper lately published.t_ Any one interested in the subject can see numerous examples in Liverpool Museum or at University College. But perhaps the most interesting collection is that at the Bootle Free Museum, where what are probably the type specimens described some sixty years ago are carefully preserved and well exhibited. 3. Recent Borings in the Red Marl, near Liverpool. By G. H. Morron, /.GS. Boring in the Red Marl near Altcar, North of Liverpool. During the years 1890-92 an important boring was made in the Red Marl, rather under a mile N.N.E, of Altcar, and nearly two miles east from Formby Station. Previous to 1890 the formation was supposed not to exceed 400 feet in thickness, the amount proved at Birkdale many years ago. The following is a section of the strata passed through, condensed from details for which I am indebted to Mr. E. Fidler, who was connected with the undertaking. Feet Inches Peat : : : : : e 2 . : a : 5 0 Loam and sand F é é - 3 5 . y 1268 6 Boulder clay . : : : 5 ; : > - - 16 0 Sand and marl 4 4 é ; : - : 3 Z 8 6 Red Marl : = 4 : é * : : : iD 0 Keuper Sandstone . : : : : : - . 2 «62 0 1,091 0O The diamond boring machine was used, and the diameter of the bore-hole was 13 inches near the surface, 7 and 6 inches through most of the Red Marl, ang 5 inches in the Keuper Sandstone. The dip of the strata was supposed to be & few degrees to the north-east, as determined by the cores brought up. The marl separated with thin laminz, and the surfaces were often covered with pseudo- morphic crystals of chloride of sodium from an eighth to an inch across, and they were most numerous in the middle and lowest beds, There were many seams of gypsum, which varied in thickness from a quarter of an inch to 3 or 4 inches, and a few diagonal cracks filled with the same mineral traversed the beds, and often contained fragments of marl and presented a brecciated appearance, The surfaces of the cores of gypsum exhibited pseudomorphs like those on the marl. Most of the marl was red, but sometimes a greenish grey, and the lower beds contained the tracks of annelids, which have been found on the same horizon in several other places in Lancashire and Cheshire. The Keuper Sandstone below the Red Marl was red and grey in colour, and there was an abrupt change from one formation to the other without any transitional strata between. The object of the boring was to find brine or rock-salt, but it was unsuc- cessful, and the attempt was made in consequence of a tradition that prevails in the neighbourhood that salt water occurs below the surface. Mr. J. Dickinson, F.G.S., in his Parliamentary Report on ‘The Salt Districts,’ refers to a brine spring mentioned by Dr. Browning, and Baines, in his ‘ History of Lancashire,’ states that it ‘contained as much sait as that at Northwich.’ Mr, Fidler in- formed me that, though salt water has been frequently found near the surface in various places in the district, fresh water was found on penetrating to a greater depth. I am inclined to think that the salt water found about the surface of the country is in consequence of frequent floods from the sea in former years and the deposit of spray during storms. The wind carries the fine spray for many ' Troc, Liv. Geol. Soc., 1896. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 78L miles inland, and a film of salt has been found coating windows at a distance of twenty or thirty miles from the sea after storms, so that it is certain to impart a saltness to the soil over the land along the coast. Boring in the Red Marl at Ford, on the West of Bidston Hill. Another boring in the Red Marl has been in progress during the last two years on the east bank of the Fender, a brook running from south to north into the Birkett and finally into Wallasey Pool. The object of the boring was to obtain an additional supply of water for Birkenhead, and I am indebted to Mr. W. A. Richardson, C.E., for the following section of the strata passed. through. Feet Surface soil . : ; : 3 . . . . : i Boulder clay . : : : : 5 F : : e4S Sand and gravel - 3 3 ; : , : : . 16 Red Marl. : 5 : ‘ , : 3 ; : . 454 Keuper Sandstone . ‘ : 2 ‘ é : : . 244 Fault rock ; : ; 3 : ‘ ; C : ’ 7 Upper Soft Sandstone of the Bunter. : - J ‘lon 900 he boring was made with a revolving iron disc with steel chisels, two feet in diameter, suspended by a flat rope; but the cores brought up were only 4 inches across, most of the rock having been broken into fragments, sand and clay. The cores showed that the strata were horizontal. The Red Marl was found to be much harder than usual, and principally composed of tough argillaceous sand- stones and shales, nearly all of a red colour. Very little gypsum was found, and the entire absence of pseudomorphic crystals remarkable. It seems probable that the deposit was formed in deeper water than the Red Marl at Altcar. At Greasby, a village two miles west of the boring, there are some beds, about two inches thick, containing small ramifying tube-like cavities from 4, to 4 inch in diameter. They have been supposed to be at the base of the Red Marl, but were found at several horizons in the boring, and evidently do not indicate the base, so that the beds at Greasby may be considerably above it. The Red Marl ended at the depth of 516 feet below the surface, so that deducting 62 feet for the superficial deposits the thickness is 454 feet, being about double the amount it was expected to be. There was an abrupt change from the Red Marl into the underlying IKeuper Sandstone, which was penetrated to the depth of 244 feet, when a fault was crossed and the Upper Soft Sandstone of the Bunter proved to the depth of 135 feet. The Geological Survey Map of the district (Sheet 79, N.E.) distinguishes the Red Marl from the ‘ Waterstones’ at the base over the centre of Wirral, but it does not seem possible to have made such a distinction in South-west Lancashire, where both are included in the Red Marl. At Ford most of the marl is of an ‘arenaceous character, while on the east of Liverpool the beds are softer and includ more shale andclay. It seems, however, that the Keuper Sandstone in Wirral is of less thickness than it is under Liverpool, and that the upper beds there are represented by the ‘ Waterstones.’ 4. Erosion of the Sea Coast of Wirral. By G. H. Morton, F.G.S. The oldest maps of the coast of Wirral, the north-western extremity of Cheshire, afford very little information on the exact outline of the coast in former years. It was not until the publication of the 6-inch map of the Ordnance Survey in 1880 that it became possible to make exact observations on the erosion of the coast. The late Sir James Picton, F.S.A., in 1846, was the first to direct attention to the waste of the land, but he had not made any personal investigation, and more recent writers on the subject have confined themselves to showing the incorrect- ness of some of his statements, rather than making original observations. The 782 REPORT —1896. object of this paper is to record the result of close attention given to the subject for many years. Half a mile south-west of the Leasowe Embankment, and about 100 yards from Seabank Cottages, there is an old weather-beaten brick and stone house, known as the ‘ Warren,’ and evidently the oldest in the neighbourhood. According to the G-inch Ordnance Map, the distance between the house and the sea was about 150 yards, when the country was surveyed in 1871, but I found it to be 70 yards in 1890, 55 yards in March 1894, and only 45 yards in May 1896, and the residents have ts me the position of several high sand-hills that once formed part of the lost land. In an affidavit, filed in a recent case concerning the extension of the Embank- ment, George Banks states that he had been born and had lived in the house ever since. It was only 60 yards from high-water mark aft spring tides in 1892, ‘whereas when he first remembered it the house stood at least 350 yards from high-water mark at spring tides, and the land washed away included some sand- hills 80 and 40 feet, and one 50 or 60 feet in height.’ The greatest erosion by the sea along the coast has taken place at Dove Point, about 350 yards to the south-west of the house. In 1862 there were two ‘ perches’ constructed of timber, one being 10 yards from the edge of the sand-hills, which were then about 12 feet high, and the other 150 yards behind, near the boundary of the inclosed land. The seaward Perch is shown in the frontispiece of the ‘Geology around Liverpool.’ On January 20, 1863, this Perch had become close to the edge of the cliff and fell down on the shore, its original position being indi- cated by several masses of masonry and large stones which had formed the foun- dation of the structure. The Perch was re-erected on the sand-hills, and is shown on the 6-inch map, but it was afterwards removed, with the one behind, to the north-east of the ‘ Warren,’ so that neither of them is now in the place shown on the map. The foundation stones still lie on the shore in their original position. In consequence of the continual erosion by the sea the stones have gradually become further from the coast line, and in September 1894 the distance was 144 yards, showing the erosion of the coast from 1863 to 1894 to have been between 4 and 5 yards per annum. In May 1896 the distance had been increased to 152 yards, proving an erosion of 8 yards in 20 months, but as they included two winters the loss would be 4 yards per annum. South of Dove Point the erosion gradually decreases, but 50 yards of the sand- hills have been washed away on the north-east of Sandhey, though not in recent, years, as there is now a fringe of grass growing in the denuded bay for about 100 yards, when it gradually dies away. The grounds along the sea-front at Sandhey are protected by an embankment and groins, which arrest the encroachment of the sea. Beyond, in front of Hoylake, there is no erosion, and the Red Stones at Hilbre Point protect the land from the sea. 5, Oscillations in the Level of the Land as shown by the Buried kiver Valleys and later Deposits in the Neighbourhood of Liverpool. By T. Metiarp Reapg, F£.G.S. The author, after describing the extensive post-Glacial deposits on the coasts of Lancashire and Cheshire, consisting of blown sand resting upon a peat- and forest- bed, which again rests upon scrobicularian clays and silts—the tree remains, con- sisting of stools of oak, Scotch fir, and birch rooted into the estuarine deposits— shows that the whole series rest upon an eroded surface of the low-level marine Boulder-clays and Sands, which again repose upon the Triassic rocks. The surface of the Trias, whether Bunter or Keuper, is worn into a system of hills and valleys which are largely obscured and filled up with Boulder-clay. After a discussion of these facts the author concludes that they point to the existence of three land surfaces—the first in time being pre-Glacial or at least pre-Boulder-clay ; the second, post-Glacial, represented by the buried eroded surface ——s TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C., 783 of the Boulder-clay, and the third by the peat- and forest-beds which run down to below low-water mark. All these land surfaces represent periods when the land was higher relatively to the sea-level than at present, the deposits resting severally upon them represent- ing each a period of depression when the land was relatively lower, as respects the sea, than at present. It was pointed out that these indubitable earth-movements could not be accounted for on the principle of isostasy, or loading and unloading, nor could they be explained away by alterations of the sea-level, nor by subterranean denudation, and that we must therefore look for their explanation, not to external causes, but to forces acting over large areas and hidden deep down in the interior of the earth, 6.. Tertiary Deposits in North Manzland. By AtFrep Bett. After suggesting that local agencies were sufficient to account for the glacial phenomena in the centre and south of the island, the writer proceeds to give reasons in support of his proposition that the deposits in the north, instead of being, as usually supposed, of glacial origin, are really pre-Glacial, as he finds that there are no traces of till or a ground moraine, and that the clays throughout are to a large extent free from stony matter, except such as may have been due to floating ice, brought in after the shingle beach with Pliocene shells had been formed. The shells he does not consider ‘ remanie,’ but contemporaneous with the beach they occur in, and to belong to the same series of pre-Glacial deposits containing similar shells at Wexford, Aberdeen, and Iceland, of Weybourn Crag age, possibly an unopened chapter in Pliocene geology. Not finding any shingle in the cliffs, he concludes that the rolled stones on the beach are far travelled, having no connection with the island deposits. The list of shells is the first localised one of any of the deposits in the island, and is supplemented by notices of such species as were not personally collected by him at Shellag. : 7. On the Occurrence of Sillimanite Gineisses in Central Anglesey. By Epwarp GRrEENLY, 2.GS. The author records the occurrence of the mineral Sillimanite in certain gneisses and schists of Central Anglesey, which are traversed by great numbers of sills and thin bands of growth, often injected ‘lit par lit.’ There is an absence of chilled edges, the granite being quite coarse at the points of contact which have been observed. The whole series closely resembles that recently described in eastern Sutherland by Mr. J. Horne and the author, but it is also associated with the Erenendic gneisses, whose Hebridean or Lewisian aspect has been noted by Sir A. Geile, 8. On Quartzite Lenticles in the Schists of South-eastern Anglesey, By Epwarp GREENLY, /.GS. The author describes the occurrence of numerous lenticles of quartzite in the chloritic schists of Beaumaris. They are generally from quarter of an inch to a foot in length, but four large masses also occur, of which the largest, the quartz- rock of Pen-y-pare, is a lenticle some 700 feet in length, These quartzite lenticles are ascribed to a cataclastic origin, the structures resembling on a large scale (except that the matrix is crystalline) those of the mylonites of the N.W. Highlands of Scotland. The author also compares them to the ‘ crush-conglomerates’ of the Isle of Man, The whole series is probably due to the breaking down of a group 784: REPORT—1896. of alternating shales and thin grits, containing also a few thick beds of quartzite. Their present condition furnishes evidence of the intensity of the earth-movements which have affected the schistose rocks of Anglesey. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18. The following Papers and Report were read :— 1. Pre-Cambrian Fossils. By Sir Witt1AmM Dawson, LL.D., FRS. The author stated that it was his object merely to introduce the specimens he proposed to exhibit by a few remarks rendered necessary by the present confusion in the classification of pre-Cambrian rocks. He would take those of Canada and Newfoundland as at present best known, and locally connected with the specimens in question. He referred first to the ‘ Olenellus Zone,’ and its equivalent in New Brunswick, the ‘Protolenus Fauna’ of Matthew, as at present constituting the base of the Cambrian and terminating downward in barren sandstone. This Lower Cambrian had in North America, according to Walcott, afforded 165 species, including all the leading types of the marine invertebrates. Below the Olenellus Zone, Matthew had found in New Brunswick a thick series of red ard greenish slates, with conglomerate at the base. It has afforded no Trilobites, but contains a few fossils referable with some doubts to Worms, Mollusks, Ostracods, Brachiopods, Cytideans, and Protozoa. It is regarded as equivalent to the Signal Hill and Random Sound Series of Murray and Howley in Newfoundland, and to the Keweniar, and the Chuar and Colorado Canon Series of Walcott in the west. The latter contains laminated forms apparently similar to Cryptozoon of the Cambrian and Archiozoon of the Upper Laurentian. The Etcheminian rests unconformably on the IIuronian, a system for the most part of coarse clastic rocks with some igneous beds, but including slates, iron ores, and limestones, which contain worm-burrows, sponge-spicules, and laminated forms comparable with Cryptozoon and Eozoon. The Huronian, first defined by Logan and Murray in the Georgian Bay of Lake Huron, has been recognised in many other localities, both in the west and east of Canada and the United States; but has been designated by many other local names, and bas been by some writers included, with the Etcheminian and sometimes with part of the Laurentian, in the scarcely defined ‘ Algonkian ’ group of the United States Geological Survey. Below the Huronian is the Upper Laurentian or Grenville system, consisting of gneisses and schists (some of which, as Adams has shown, have the chemical com- position of Paleozoic slates), along with iron ore, graphite, and apatite, and great bands of limestone, the whole evidently representing a long period of marine deposition, in an ocean whose bed was broken up and in part elevated before the production of the littoral clastics of the Huronian age. It is in one of the lime- stones of this system that, along with other possible fossils, the forms known as Eozoon Canadense have been found. The author did not propose to describe these remains, but merely to exhibit some microphotographs and slices iliustrating their structure, referring to previous publications for details as to their characters and mode of occurrence. Below the Grenvillian is the great thickness of Orthoclase gneiss of various textures, and alternating with bands of hornblende schist, constituting the Ottawa gneiss or Lower Laurentian of the Geological Survey. No limestones or indica- tions of fossil remains have yet been found in this fundamental gneiss, which may be a truly primitive rock produced by aqueo-igneous or ‘crenitic’ action, before the commencement of regular sedimentation. The author proposed, with Matthew, to regard the Etcheminian series and its equivalents as pre-Cambrian, but still Palsozoic; and, as suggested by himself many years ago, to classify the Huronian and Grenvillian as Eozoic, leaving the TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 785 term Archean to be applied to the Lower Laurentian gneiss, until it also shall have afforded some indications of the presence of life. He insisted on the duty of paleontologists to give more attention to the pre- Cambrian rocks, in the hope of discovering connecting links with the Cambrian, and of finding the oceanic members of the Huronian, and less metamorphosed equi- valents of the Upper Laurentian, and so of reaching backward to the actual beginning of life on our planet, should this prove to be attainable. 2. Some Features of the Early Cambrian Faunas. By G. ¥. Matruew, D.Sc, F.RS.C. Trilobites. The larval features of the early Cambrian Trilobites are chiefly referred to in this paper because in them we may look for points of structure which will appear in the adult condition of their predecessors. The early Cambrian Brachiopoda and Ostrocoda are also briefly considered. Except in Olenellus and its allies the larval forms of the earliest trilobites are little known; but in those of the Paradoxides beds a number of them belonging to different genera are known, so that in these we have fuller data for comparison. The abundance and variety of trilobites in the Cambrian rocks are truly yemarkable; and the flexibility of the type is indicated by the numerous genera that appeared successively in that early age. They thus become valuable in marking the divisions of these rocks, as the vertebrates do those of the Tertiary ; and their remains enable us to recognise different parts of the Cambrian system with ease and certainty in all the regions around the Atlantic ocean. This being the case, it may be profitable to examine the forms of the earliest Cambrian trilobites, and note how they compare with the larve of the trilobites of the Paradoxides beds. The law of development would lead us to expect that in the pre-Paradoxides faunas of the Cambrian certain features of the larval forms of the trilobites of the Paradoxides beds should appear as permanent adult features in their predecessors. And such is the case. In 1892 Dr. J. Bergeron summed up the evidence on this point, derivable from the trilobites of the Paradoxides and Olenellus faunas, in his article, “ Is the fauna called primordial the most ancient fauna’ ”! He utilised the studies of Barrande, Walcott, Ford, and others for this purpose, and his conclusion was that there must have been a more ancient fauna. Discoveries of other faunas beside that of Olenellus, older than the Paradoxides beds, have been made since Bergeron wrote upon this subject, and we may now place his theory against some additional facts which bear upon it. To make the application clearer, the author briefly presented some of the characteristics of the earliest larval stages of the trilobites of the Paradoxides beds, as shown in the young of Paradoxides, Ptychoparia, Conccoryphe, Microdiscus, and Agnostus. Among them are the following :— 1. Predominance of the cephalic over the caudal shield. 2, A long narrow giabella, with nearly parallel sides. In these early moults the posterior lobes of the axial rachis (which includes the glabella) are short and weak,.as compared with the anterior, and especially the first.” 3. The eyes are absent; when they first appear they are near the lateral margin, and in several genera are elongated. 4, There are no movable cheeks; when these first appear they are narrow and marginal. 5. There is no thorax; this region begins with one segment, and in some genera never exceeds the number of 2 to 4. The pleure at first are short. 6. The pygidium at first is quite short and of one segment. 1 Revue générale des Sciences, Paris, 1892. ; * Paradoxides is apparently an exception to this rule, but we do not know“its earliest stages. y 786 REPORT—1896. Three local faunas, all older than Paradoxides, have been made known since Bergeron’s paper was written. They all show more or less the increasing prevalence of larval features in the trilobites as we go back in time. J. C. Moberg has described a number of species from Sweden, including two species of Olenellus, in which some of the above larval characters are shown. J. F. Pompeckj has just described a pre-Paradoxides fauna from Bohemia in which are a few trilobites that possess larval characters. Thus his Ptychoparia is referred to sub-genus Conocephalites, probably because it has a long eyelobe.! It is a primitive form with short pleure, if we may judge from the short posterior extension of the dorsal suture. His Solenopleura also differs from that genus in its long eyelobe and long glabella, but these also are larval features. Another species of Solenopleura, however, cited by Pompeckj, has shorter eyelobes. It is the Protolenus fauna of the St. John group (Cambrian), however, which shows most decidedly larval traits in its adult trilobites. Among these trilobites all (so far as their remains show it) have prolonged eyelobes, a peculiarity which marks the early Olenide. Many of them have long cylindrical glabellas, also a larval character. Many have a short posterior extension of the dorsal suture, indicating the primitive feature of short pleure. Many have small and weak pygidia ; this is inferred from the rarity of this part of the organism in the collections preserved. Protolenus (typical), which has a general resemblance to Paradoxides, differs from it in the absence of a clavate glabella, and the small anterior lobe of this part of the head-shield; but these are characters found in the larval stages of Paradoxides. A genus of this fauna, although not as common as Protolenus, is Ellipsocephalus : this genus also abounds with Protaspian peculiarities. Lastly, one may refer to the genus Micmacca, which has the following larval features, long cylindrical glabella, long eyelobes, short posterior extension of the dorsal suture. If Zacanthoides, of the middle Cambrian, were shorn of its long posterior extension of this suture and its long pleure, it would not differ greatly trom Micmacca. In the Olenellus fauna, also, are genera such as Olenellus, Protypus, Avalonia, and Olenelloides, which retain marked larval characters. Brachiopoda, If we turn our attention to the Brachiopoda, we note that they show a special development in the early Cambrian, different from that of the Paradoxides beds, and the later members of the Cambrian system. The most notable feature is the large percentage of Obolide (including Siphonotretine). The older Cambrian holds in common with the Paradoxides beds, the small shells of Acrothele, Acrotreta, and Linnarssonia; but it also has a series of larger forms peculiar to it: such are Obolus, Botsfordia, 'rematobolus and Siphonotreta of the Protolenus fauna, and Schizambon and Michwitzia of the Olenellus fauna. This great development of oboloid shells is not repeated until Ordovician time, Not only are these old Cambrian faunas remarkable for the peculiar types of Brachiopods which they possess, but they are also notable for those they lack. A true Lingula has not been found, though Lingulella is a common genus. The larval growths of Ordovician and Silurian Lingule carry us back to a form which is Oboloid. Thus in Z. guadrata, L. Howleyi, &e., the cell is first circular as in Obolus, then oval as in LZ. Quebecensis, &c., and finally takes on the sub- quadrate form of the adult shell. But there is a more elementary form of the Brachiopod shell than the circular shell of Obolus: this is seen in Paterina and the young shell of Botsfordia, which is nearly semicircular. Both these shells come from beds that are older than Paradoxides, \ Tn the larval forms of P'tychoparia and Solenopleura of the Paradoxides beds, however, the eyelobe is short. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 787 Ostracoda. The Ostracoda also give us definite forms peculiar to the early Cambrian beds. Such are the types represented in Beyrichona and Hipponicharion; such also are those with flexible tests represented by Aluta. Other Ostracoda are present in more varied forms than in the Paradoxides beds. To sum up these distinctive features of the animals of the earliest Cambrian faunas, we may say— 1. That the Trilobites retain larval characteristics to an unusual degree. 2. The Brachiopoda have a large percentage of Obolide. 3. The Ostracoda are plentiful and varied, and present some peculiar types. 3. Report on Life Zones in British Carboniferous Rocks. See Reports, p. 415. 4. The Range of Species in the Carboniferous Limestone of North Wales. By G. H. Morton, £.G.8. Attention having recently been directed to this subject, I have been induced to present the results of many years’ collecting in the Carboniferous Limestone of North Wales. The formation there presents four well-defined subdivisions, each of them, with the exception of the highest, having distinct lithological characters, viz.—Lower Brown Limestone, Middle White Limestone, Upper Grey Limestone, and the Upper Black Limestone. Lists of the fossils have been made, collected more or less continuously along the country from each subdivision. In North Wales the occurrence and succession of the species in the subdivisions vary in different areas, and the Jarger the area examined the more difficult it becomes to find species peculiar to certain horizons, In order to obtain a definite result, I have compiled three separate lists of the species vbtained in that number of distinct areas. There are the Llangollen, the Flintshire, and the Vale of Clwyd Lists. Each of the lists shows the relative scarcity and abundance, and the range of the species in the subdivisions; and although future search will doubtless add to the rare and occasional species, the number and range of the common and very common must be very nearly correct. Neither the rare nor the occa- sional species are of much use in defining distinct horizons in consequence of their rarity, and it is only the common and very common species that can be expected to indicate a definite horizon or zone. In North Wales a great difficulty arises from the occurrence of all the common and very common species in the Upper Grey Limestone, with the exception of Productus comoides, and although all pass downwards, they become scarce in consequence of the general paucity of fossils in the inferior subdivisions. In the Llangollen List there are 69 rare, 28 occasional, 16 common, and 27 very common species. Deducting Foraminifera, which are not in the other lists, there are 36 species that are common and very common, and they all occur in the Upper Grey Limestone, with the exception of Posidonomya Gibsoni from higher strata, and Productus comoides in the Lower Brown Limestone, all the other species in the list being rare and occasional forms. In the Flintshire List there are 92 rare, 35 occasional, 30 common, and 1? very common species, and of the 41 common and very common, 87 species occur _ in the Upper Grey Limestone, 4 of the remaining species, Posidonomya Becheri, Aviculopecten granosus, and A. papyraceus occurring in the Upper Black Lime- stone, and Productus comoides in the Lower Brown Limestone. In the Vale of Clwyd List, which includes the Great Orme’s Head, there are 16 rare, 22 occasional, 12 common, and 10 very common species; and of the 22 common and very common, 21 species occur in the Upper Grey Limestone, the exceptional species being Productus comoides. None of the 21 species are peculiar 788 REPORT—1896. to the subdivision, for they all occur in the underlying Middle White Limestone. The number in the list is less than in the others, on account of the Upper Grey Limestone having been considerably denuded in the Vale of Clwyd. Nearly the whole of the common and very common fossils occur in each of the three lists, for there are few that are not found in all the areas. _ Of the numerous common aud very common species found in the Carboniferous Limestone of North Wales, it is impossible to find any that are restricted to horizons of Jess importance than the subdivisions into which the formation is naturally divided. An examination of the first appearance and continuity of the species seems to indicate that they were introduced from some pre-existing area, and that the upper beds cf the formation are more recent than in Derbyshire and Yorkshire, where the thickness of the Limestone is very much greater. The sudden appearance of species in restricted areas, like those found in the Upper Grey Limestone at Axton, in Flintshire, where 20 species occur, and at Graig-fawr, in the Middle White Limestone, where 6 species occur, not found elsewhere in North Wales; and the early appearance of 3 species in beds of black limestone and shale at the base of the Middle White Limestone at the Great Orme’s Head seem to indicate migration from some other area. The latter species are Orthis Michelina, Spirifera humerosa, and S. rotundata. Spirifera humerosa had only been previously found at Llangollen and in Flintshire, while S. rotundate is rare in North Wales ; but none of the 3 species had been previously found at a lower horizon than the Upper Grey Limestone. Productus giganteus first appears in the Lower Brown Limestone, and very large specimens occur within 50 feet from the base at Moel Hiraddug, a few miles from Rhyl. The species occur all through the Carboniferous Limestone, and thousands may be seen in the Upper Grey Limestone. In this paper the range of the species found is confined to North Wales, but when the subdivisions of the Carboniferous Limestone in other parts of the eountry are worked out, and the species from each tabulated, it will be interesting to compare the result with that obtained in North Wales. 5. On the Source of Lava. By J. LoGaN Losrey, L.G.S., Professor of Astronomy and Physiography, City of London College. The object. of this paper, which was illustrated by diagrams, was to show that small columns of lava cannot pass through thirty miles of earth crust, and that therefore the source of lava cannot be at that distance from the surface, as is so often assumed The reasons adduced were : First, that from the pressure of overlying rocks there can be no fissures giving a passage to lava below ten miles from the surface, since this pressure, much greater than the crushing weight of rocks, would cause lateral extension where possible. Secondly, if even a way were open, lava rising from a source thirty miles deep, would by contact with cooler rock masses lose its fluidity at twenty miles from the surface. The temperature of lava at i's source cannot be very much greater than that of the contiguous solid rocks, and lava would lose heat continuously and increasingly as it ascended the voleanic conduit. The temperature at twenty miles below the surface is much under rock-fusion temperature, and the lava- eolumns giving small or even moderate emissions are so insignificant in volume that they would there be so cooled as to solidify. Estimates of the volume of lJava-columns were given in illustration; and it was further shown that a column of lava 300 feet in diameter and thirty miles high would require a dynamic force ef 820,800,000 tons to sustain it even without ejection. The author’s conclusion is that lava is not derived from! a central source, but ' Brit, Assoc. Report, 1888, p. 670. ra) TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 789 that, in accordance with his previously stated hypothesis, by combined physicat and chemical action rocks are fused and lava produced within the outer rind of the globe of ten miles in thickness. 6. On the Post-Cambrian Shrinkage of the Globe. Ly J. Locan Lostry, F.GS., Professor of Astronomy and Physiography, City of London College. The author, having previously shown that a shrinkage of the globe sufficient to produce the rock-foldings of post-Cambrian times would require an interior tem- perature previous to the shrinkage 5,000° F. higher than now,! in the present paper gave his reasons for concluding that such a temperature of the interior mass of the globe would give a surface temperature that would render impossible those geological agencies of erosion and sedimentation which the Cambrian strata show to have been in full operation when those rocks were formed. Calculations founded on the British Association rate of increase of underground temperature, both on the supposition of a solid globe and of’ one with a fused interior, showed that with an increase of 5,000° F, the surface temperature would be very much above the critical point of water, the existence of which on the surface would be thereby rendered impossible. It was further shown that if the author’s estimate of the increase of internal temperature required is too high, and only 1,000° F. increase be allowed for the interior heat in Cambrian times, the surface temperature would even then be quite incompatible with known Cambrian conditions. The author’s conclusion is that since Cambrian times there has been no appreci- able loss of planetary heat, and consequently no appreciable shrinkage of the globe; and that therefore another explanation must be found for rock-crushing, rock-folding, elevations, and subsidences of land areas, the uprise and issue of lava and of seismic phenomena. A table was appended showing the temperature of isogeotherms for every mile of thickness of an earth-crust of thirty miles, with a base temperature of 3,700° F, 7. On the Cause of the Bathymetric Limit of Pteropod Ooze. By Percy F. Kenna, £.G.S, Preliminary.—Two forms of carbonate of lime are known to the mineralogist, viz., Aragonite, rhombic, sp. gr. 2°93, H. = 3-5 —4, and Calcite, hexagonal (rhombo- hedral), sp. gr. 2°72, H.=2'5-3'5, The former can be prepared artificially by precipitation from a fot solution (90° C.), while the latter is precipitated at all lower temperatures. Both forms occur in organic structures, and it is found that Aragonite structures when deprived of animal matter are opaque, while Calcite structures are translucent. There is no perceptible difference in solubility between the two mineral species when dealt with in powder or when of inorganic origin ; but in porous formations of every geological age it is found that Aragonite shells, of whatever thickness, disappear by solution before thin and delicate Calcite shells of Foraminifera and Polyzoa are even sensibly affected. It is probable that Aragonite is penetrated by extremely slender fibrille of organic matter, whose- removal produces the characteristic opacity. Solvent action of sea-water,—Sea-water exercises a solyent action upon cal- careous bodies, especially upon and about coral reefs and in the profound depths. The solvent is almost certainly carbonic acid disengaged from decomposing organic: - matter. The ‘Challenger’ observations show that carbonic acid is present in great A} abundance in the bottom water at great depths ; it is further known that solution is rendered much more rapid by the immense pressures prevailing in deep water. 2 Report of the British Assceiation for the Advancement of Science, Oxford Meeting, 1894, p. 649. 790 REPORT—1896. Tt follows from this that the calcareous parts of the inhabitants of the ‘denthos” would be liable to solution during life, unless (a) they were protected by the flesh of the animal or by epidermis, or (4) they consisted of Calcite. The deep-sea mollusca are mainly composed of Aragonite, but they generally have an extremely thick epidermis. The deep-sea calcareous corals are almost exclusively simple forms, and the lower portion of stony structure is gradually left bare as the creature grows. All the forms examined by the author, eg., Caryo- phyllia, Parasmilia, Cyclocyathus, Stephanophyllia,! are of Calcite, whereas nearly all reef-building Actinozoa produce Aragonite structures. The effects of solution upon the nature and distribution of deep-sea deposits.— Deep-sea deposits are mainly derived from two sources: (a) land detritus and vol- canic ejecta carried seaward by currents; (4) remains of free-swimming pelagic organisms. Inshore the deposits usually contain a large percentage of detrital materials, while towards the deep the organic remains tend to preponderate. As the water deepens another factor, solution, comes into play, and the calcareous elements of the deposits are progressively removed by solution. The solution is, according to Murray, Agassiz, and others, effected in part during the slow sinking of surface organisms, and in part while lying upon the floor of the ocean. Agassiz assigns the greater importance to solution during descent, but the fact recorded by him, that ‘the more numerous the shells are in the surface waters, the greater is the depth at which they will accumulate at the bottom,’ seems to show that solution at the bottom is very considerable. In the profoundest depths the deposits consist almost wholly of non-caleareous materials. Two principal calcareous deposits occur below 500 fathoms, viz., Globigerina ooze, which covers 49} million square miles of the ocean floor and has a bathymetric range from 400 to 2,925 fathoms, and Pteropod ooze, which is a Globigerina ooze characterised by the presence of a large number of shells of Pteropods and Heteropods. It occurs only where the surface waters are warm, and hence is limited to tropical and sub- tropical regions. It covers an area of 400,000 square miles, and ranges in depth from 395 fathoms to 1,525 fathoms, below which the Pteropod shells disappear, leaving a normal Globigerina ooze. It is generally agreed that the limitation in depth of the Pteropod remains is due to solution, for the living Pteropods swarm over the surface in prodigious numbers, whatever be the depths below. Agassiz succinctly states the facts as follows: ‘The Pteropod and Heteropod shells are the first to disappear from deposits, then the more delicate surface Foraminifera, and finally the larger and heavier ones.’ The fact that these rela- tively large shells wholly disappear by solution under conditions that the minute Foraminifera survive is beyond doubt, and demands explanation. Several explana~ tions have been proposed. Fuchs in 1877 suggested that Globigerina might be composed of Calcite and the Pteropods of Aragonite, and the author independ- ently made the same suggestion. Dr. Murray and the Abbé Renard, however, rejected that hypothesis, and considered that the Globigerina survived by reason of their greater thickness. The author, with the assistance of Mr. Albert Jowett, a student in the Geological Laboratory of the Yorkshire College, has made a number of determina- tions of the relative thickness of Globigerina and Orbulina, the most characteristic Foraminifera of the deep-sea oozes and of Styliola and Cavolinia as representing the Pteropods. He failed to find any such difference of thickness as would account for the much greater durability of the Foraminifera, the range of thickness of the two classes being practically identical. It may be represented by the numbers 2-6°5 in each case. The mineral constitution was also successfully determined. Prof. W. J. Sollas determined the sp. gr. of Globigerina by an extremely ingenious adaptation of heavy solutions to be approximately that of Calcite. This has been confirmed by the author, who has also obtained a uniaxial optical figure from specimens of Orbulina, showing that the low sp. gr. is due to Calcite constitution, and not to the presence of animal matter. 1 These are corals of deep-sea types from the Cretaceous rocks, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 791 _ Similar tests were applied to the Pteropods Cavolinia and Stiliola. No com- pletely satisfactory optical figure could be obtained, though the optical test seemed to indicate a biaxial substance (Aragonite) ; but the sp. gr. determinations many times repeated were conclusive that those Pteropod-genera are Aragonite. Conclusions :—1. The effect of difference of thickness of calcareous shells upon their rate of solution is quite insignificant in comparison with that of difference of mineral constitution; thus in the Coralline Crag shells of Voluta and Cyprina (Aragonite), a third of an inch thick, have been quite removed, while the delicate Polyzoa (Calcite) which encrusted them are perfectly preserved, together with remains of Vitreous Foraminifera (Calcite). 2. There is no noteworthy difference in thickness between the Pteropods and Globigerine. 3. Pteropod-shells consist of Aragonite, while Globigerina and all other Vitreous Foraminifera examined are composed of Calcite. 4. The disappearance of Pteropods at 1,500 fathoms, while the Globigerine extend to 2,925 fathoms, is due to the mineral character of the shells, and not to their thickness. 8. On the Conditions under which the Upper Chalk was deposited. By Percy F. Kenpatn, 7.G.8, Attempts to determine the approximate depth of the Chalk sea from the comparison of the Cretaceous fauna with the Molluscan inhabitants of the existing seas are unsatisfactory, because there are no grounds for the belief that the low temperatures at present found in the ocean depths prevailed in Cretaceous times; hence temperature did not limit distribution to the extent that it does now. Solution dependent upon the depth of water would, however, act as it does in existing seas, and the author has applied certain principles stated in another paper read before the Section to the case of the Upper Chalk. Calcareous organisms consist in some cases of aragonite, and in others of calcite. Aragonite in organic structures is so much more soluble than calcite (though of identical chemical composition) that gigantic aragonite shells may be ‘completely dissolved, while calcite Foraminifera exposed to exactly the same conditions remain perfectly preserved. The distribution in depth of the Pteropod Ooze of the tropical seas indicates the depth at which slender aragonite shells are diesolved. Pteropods swarm in the surface waters in such numbers that the sea is literally thick with them, yet, being composed of aragonite, their remains practically disappear from the oozes in depths exceeding 1,500 fathoms, and only sporadic examples are met with. The remains of globigerin», which live side by side with the pteropods, survive by virtue of their calcite composition down to 2,925 fathoms, nearly twice the depth, These facts seem to show that 1,500 fathoms is the depth at which the more delicate aragonite shells yield to solution. Turning to the Upper Chalk, we find that all aragonite structures, large and small, have been wholly dissolved away, while calcite Foraminifera and Polyzoa are well preserved and retain their fine markings. The question arises, When did the solution take place? ‘To this we may answer with some confidence that it has been effected mainly prior to consolidation, for chalk is a rock which takes and preserves impressions remarkably well; yet casts of aragonite shells are extremely rare, and are almost invariably of large and robust shells. The Cephalopods furnish the best illustrations of these facts; the phragmoccne of Belemnitella mucronata, an aragonite structure, has never been found in this country, though the guards (calcite) occur by thousands. If the solution of the phragmocones had taken place subsequently to deposition, empty alveoli would be found ; but in no case has the author seen a Belemnitella in this condition, but always with the alveolus filled with chalk, Casts of Ammonites (aragonite) are very rare in the Upper Chalk, such as occur being usually of very large size, but the Aptychi (calcite) of small species are occasionally found well preserved. Many considerations render it probable that 792 : REPORT—1896. the consolidation of the chalk took place concurrently with deposition ; for example, bands of rolled nodules of chalk occur at varions horizons, and the same is probably the case with the Globigerina ooze of the existing oceans, for the ‘Challenger’ dredged nodules of hardened ooze from a depth of 1,700 fathoms. The author concludes that the Upper Chalk was probably deposited in a depth of at least 1,500 fathoms, a conclusion which Dr. Hume and Mr. Jukes Browne appear to have reached by entirely different methods. 9. The Highwood Mountains of Montana and Magmatic Differentiation. A Criticism. By H. J. Jounston-Lavis, W.D., #.G8., &e. The author brings forward a new interpretation of the facts described by Messrs. W. I. Weed and L. V. Pirrsson (‘ Bull. Geol. Soc.,’ America, vol. vi. pp. 389-422, pts. 24-26) in their account of the remarkably interesting volcanic region of the Highwood mountains, with reference, more especially, to Square Butte. ; This mountain they show to be a dismantled laccolite intrusion into Cretaceous sandstones. The peripheral part of this intrusion is composed of a dark basic rock, that they call shonkinite, containing about 47 per cent. of silica, poor in alumina and alkalies, but rich in iron, lime, and magnesia. The core is composed of a white syenite containing about 57 per cent. of silica, is rich in alumina and alkalies, but poor in iron and alkaline earths. The authors conclude, therefore, that this is a case of magmatic differentiation in which the bases have concentrated to the sides by a process of diffusion or liquation. The author suggests that what really took place at Square Butte was as follows: In the first stage a conduit containing a paste sensibly approaching the syenite in composition was injected into the Jurassic and other basic sedimentary rocks subjacent to the Cretaceous sandstone, which forms a more superficial part of the original country. Here the upper intratelluric portion of the intrusion underwent basification by interosmotic action with the conduit walls. In the second stage this, now shonkinite, paste or magma was pushed on and formed a blister or laccolite in the sandstone smaller than the complete one of Square Butte. This, having undergone partial lapidification and becoming highly viscous, was in turn pushed up and aside by the intrusion of the syenite. This latter paste had probably re- mained a shorter time in the conduit, the walls of which had already been in part exhausted in osmotic interchange or diffusion by the earlier batch of paste that had remained in contact with them, and had been so basified to the composition of shonkinite. In consequence of this the second batch, which formed the syenite mass, was less or entirely unchanged in composition. The peculiar plate-like structure of the peripheral portion, which is erroneously attributed by the authors to cracking, set up parallel to the isotherms of cooling, is, in fact, evidence of shearing planes or fluxion structure in a viscous mass the homogeneity of which was not perfect at the time of its being stretched over the uprising boss of syenite. The phenomenon is met with in domes of all viscid magmas, and is beautifully shown in the island of Basiluzzo; the writer suggests that the cleavage of gneiss, forming mantles to granite intrusions, may have also so arisen. The partial fusion together of the shonkinite and syenite shows that the former was yet very hot, as indicated by the plasticity that must have existed to allow of the formation of the concentric shear-planes referred to. Ilad the shonkinite not been to some extent plastic it would have been more fractured, and fragments of it would have become enveloped in the syenite. The shonkinite, however, was in that state of which the author first showed the important bearing in volcanic rocks, and which may conveniently be called viscous inertia, in which a viscous body responds instantaneously to a shock as if it were a solid. The shonkinite, although plastic, was at such a critical point that when it was suddenly stretched out over the back of the new syenite intrusion it TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 793 cracked, and, syenite being injected, the white band described by the authors was produced in exactly the situation one would have expected to have found it. The plate structure of this white band being continuous with that of the in- closing shonkinite is not an objection to its dyke-like nature, for there are several ways in which such cleavage may be developed. At any rate the presence of this white band is quite inexplicable on the ‘ segregation’ or ‘liquation’ hypothesis, and is the insurmountable obstacle to the acceptance of Messrs. Weed’s and Pirrsson’s generalisations as to magmatic differentiation. SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19. The following Papers and Reports were read :— 1. The Depths of the Sea in Past Epochs. By E. B, WeTueRen, F.G.S. The author referred to the teachings of Hutton that the past history of our planet is to be explained by what we see going on at the present time. ‘Till the reports of the ‘Challenger’ Expedition were published our knowledge of the ‘depths of the sea’ was very meagre, and the teachings of Hutton could not be applied for want of this knowledge. After reading thé report on ‘ Deep Sea Deposits,’ by Mr. Murray, it occurred to the author that it would be of interest to study in detail the ‘ Depths of the Sea in Past Epochs,’ so far as possible, by a microscopic examination of limestones which contain what is preserved of the fauna of the sea in which these rocks were formed, and thus to further test the teachings of Hutton. The author has, however, only accomplished a small part of the work indicated, and in this paper he only gives an outline of his investigations so far done. Commencing with the Wenlock Limestone of the Silurian system, the author referred to the leading fossils, and remarked on the very fragmentary condition cf the calcareous remains which have contributed to the building up of this limestone. Judging by the high percentage of detrital matter in the rock, in one bed amount- ing to 30°4 per cent., he thinks that land was not far off, and therefore the shells and skeletons of marine creatures may have been subjected to the action of waves, which would account for the fragmeutary condition in which they were finally deposited on the floor of the sea. Reference was next made to the work of encrusting organisms which had not been pointed out prior to the author’s researches. In some beds of the Wenlock Limestone the majority of the organic calcareous fragments are partially or entirely inclosed by a crust which was the work of the little-understood genus Girvanella. This organism consists of a minute calcareous tube, as small as ‘01 of a millim. in diameter, with well-defined walls. So important has been the work of this tubular form of life that the crusts produced by the growth and multiplication of the tubules have in some cases become the chief factor in building up beds of limestone. Passing to the Carboniferous period, the author referred to the known fact that mollusca, corals, crinoids, polyzoa, &c., were very numerous in the sea of this epoch, and their shells and skeletons have contributed to the calcareous deposits which accumulated on the floor of the Carboniferous sea, which deposits are now known as the Carboniferous Limestone. It is, however, an error to suppose that the remains of these creatures were the chief constituents of the calcareous deposits in the depths of the Carboniferous sea. If the great central mass of the Carboniferous Limestone be examined microscopically, it will be found that the tests of micro- scopic life form the material with which this strata has been built up. Indeed, microscopic life must have been quite as abundant in Carboniferous waters as it Was in the sea in which the chalk was formed, and not unlike what we find at the _ present time. We know that the chalk is largely built up of the remains of _ Foraminifera, and the calcareous ooze drawn up from the Atlantic has been proved 1896. 3 F 794 REPORT—1896. to be full of the tests of Foraminifera associated with other organisms. This is deeply interesting, but it is at least equally so to know that in Palzozoic seas the condition of things was similar, The chalk has been spoken of as the Cretaceous equivalent of the calcareous ooze drawn up from the Atlantic of to-day, but the Carboniferous Limestone is very much older chalk. Another microscopic form of life which existed in great profusion on the floor of the Carboniferous sea is the remarkable genus Calcisphera. It consists of a hollow calcareous sphere averaging in diameter about ‘004 of an inch, and when cut in section has the appearance of a ring. In such numbers did this spherical object exist that we could scarcely section a small piece of limestone from the middle series of the Carboniferous Limestone without finding several specimens or fragments of Calcisphera. The author next referred to the encrusting organisms which lived in the Car- boniferous sen. The work was similar to that described in the Wenlock sea, and to such an extent had the encrusting been carried on that some beds of the Carboniferous Limestone are practically built up of the minute sphericles so produced. As, too, in the case of the Wenlock sea, the encrusting process was chiefly done by the genus Girvanelia, but there was also another encrusting organism at this period, namely, the genus Mitcheldeania, which was a more complicated form of life compared with Girvanella. Passing to the Oolitic system of the Jurassic period, the author pointed to the profusion of marine life which existed, but the point of interest to which he desired to especially refer was the formation of the oolitic granules, of which these rocks were chiefly constructed. Up to the time of the author’s investigations these granules were regarded as chemical concretions, but in the ‘ Geological Magazine’ of 1889 he showed that the larger types of oolitic granules, known as Pisolite, were not concretions but the work of organisms. He has since been forced to the conclusion that this organic origin applies to all oolitic granules, large and small. The author then referred back to the encrusting processes which took place on the floor of the Wenlock and Carboniferous seas for the purpose of pointing out that the granules so formed were really oolitic granules, In the Jurassic Oolite sea, however, the encrusting organisms had greatly increased, and they have been the chief builders of the oolitic rocks. The process was briefly this. As the fragmental remains of calcareous organisms settled on the floor of the sea they were seized hold of, so to speak, by the encrusting organisms which gradually inclosed them. At times nearly every fragment was so captured, and became the nucleus for the encrusting growth; in this way the Jurassic freestones were constructed. Further proof of the organic origin of oolitic granules has been produced by Rathplatz, who has shown that oolitic granules collected on the shores of the Red Sea and Great Salt Lake are the work of calcareous alge. This again bears out the truth of Hutton’s statements, that we are to understand the past by the present, 2. The Rippling of Sand. By Vaucuan Cornisu. The author distinguishes three principal kinds of rippled sand, viz.— 1, The Ripple Mark of Sea. 2. The Ripple Mark of Streams. 8. The Ripple Mark of Dunes. In (1) symmetrical, knife-edged ridges are built up, owing, as is well known, to the complete reversal of the current at short intervals, which results in an effective co-operation of the direct current with the vortex formed in the lee of projections of the rough surface of the sand. This mechanism in the vertical plane raises the ridges, and, in plan, extends them laterally, so that the mottled. surface of the initial stage is changed into long lines of parallel ridge and furrow. If the direction of the waves changes another set of ridges is formed, and this TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ‘Cc. 795 produces polygonal figures. These have an even number of sides, and the sides are arranged in opposing pairs. This serves to discriminate hexagonal forms due to fossil ripple mark from Hitchcock’s supposed fossil tadpole-nests. 2. The symmetrical, rounded, ripple-mark of the sandy bottom of a stream is formed by the alternate acceleration and retardation of current which occurs wherever the surface of the water is corrugated by a train of standing waves. This form has been called Ripple Drift. The ridges only travel when the whole train of water-waves travels; when the train of waves arises from a fived obstacle the sand ridges are stationary ; where, however, there is much sedimentation of floating sand, the weather slope receives most of the sand shower, and the ridges travel upstream. 3. The Ripple Mark of Dunes is produced when sand grains roli before the wind. These ripples are not symmetrical, but they preserve their sectional shape during their growth, the height and length increasing in the same proportion. They grow laterally in the same way as (1). They are produced by the steadiest natural wind, and by a steady artiticial blast even the resistance offered by the sand grains being sufficient to produce in yielding air a periodic motion such as must be independently produced in water for the formation of the regular ripple mark of sea or stream. Flying-sand falling upon the surface of a sand-dune blurs the pattern of the ripples; but if the shower be not too thick the grains are soon sorted into position as they roll. 3. Are there Fossil Deserts ? By Professor Dr, JoHaNNES WALTHER. If we accept the postulate of Lyell, that the phenomena of former periods must be explained by the existing phenomena of our earth, we must look around to find the regions over which transported material is deposited. It is well known that on the bottom of the seas ana lakes the transporting action comes to an end, and that: no material is carried out of them. Therefore it is the opinion of most geologists that the greater part of our sedimentary rocks were deposited from water. The author has spent much time in travelling, for the sake of studying the areas occupied by deserts, and finds that, besides the old sea and lake bottoms, there is a large area of no drainage in the existing deserts. On our globe there is a harmonious system of climatic zones. The largest of these is the tropical zone, which forms more than half the surface of the earth. The smallest area is the polar regions, which contain only one-eighth of the earth’s surface. Between these are intercalated in each hemisphere a temperate zone, and a zone of desert, arranged quite symmetrically. By the postulate of Lyell we must believe that similar deserts must have existed in the past. The investigation of these ancient wastes is a problem not yet worked out. 4. Notes on the Ancient Rocks of Charnwood Forest. By W. W. Warts, ILA., F.GS. [Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey.] In the course of the re-survey of sheet 155 for the Geological Survey, the author was instructed to examine the ancient rocks of Charnwood Forest. The boundaries dividing these rocks from the Carboniferous, Triassic, and Plutonic rocks had already been mapped by his colleague Mr. Fox Strangways, who had also determined with much accuracy the position and general character of all the exposures of the older rocks, It was merely left to the author to endeavour to get out the succession and structure of these older rocks. The ancient rocks of Charnwood Forest appear in isolated spots, sometimes of considerable size, through the Trias of the Midland Plain. The oldest rock in _ contact with them is the Carboniferous Limestone of Grace Dieu, which is dolomitised. Evidence as to their exact age cannot, therefore, be obtained from superposition. 3F2 796 : REPORT—1896. They clearly existed as islands in the Triassic and Carboniferous seas, and most probably stood up as mountains on the land in Old Red Sandstone times. The Trias runs up into the hollows and valleys of the old rocks, and from the small amount of débris which extends beyond the margins of the masses it is obvious that the smaller of these at any rate have been uncovered at a time geologically very recent. Their features are not those of the present day, but date dack partly to the subaérial denudation of Old Red Sandstone and probably earlier times, and partly to the aqueous denudation of Carboniferous and Triassic times. This is the reason for the peculiar character of the surface features presented by the old rock ; escarpments are practically absent, hard beds are cut off abruptly, the rocks strike across the ridges, and the landscape generally is not of the usual subaérial cha- racter. Present-day denudation, by clearing out the Triassic débris, has done little more than expose to-day a pre-Triassic landscape. The ancient rocks themselves may be classified as follows, in descending order :— Swithland and Groby slates . | Conglomerate and Quartzite . . | The Brand series. Purple and green beds . © . . j The olive hornstones of Bradgate . The Woodhouse beds. : : | Slate Agglomerate of Roecliffe Hornstones of Beacon Hill Felsitic Agglomerate : ; Rocks of Blackbrook . : : The Blackbrook series. The Maplewell series. This general succession corresponds with that made out by Messrs. Hill and Bonney, with whose observations the author is in substantial agreement. These divisions sweep round the semidome, which is exposed; it is elongated from N.W. to §.E., and broken by several longitudinal faults in the same direction. Probably there are some cross faults as well. The succession is most easily made out in the eastern side of the anticline, but even here the details are very much complicated, and it is not possible to trace some of the beds for any considerable distance, although the general succession seems quite clear. As Messrs. Bonney and Hill pointed out, the two agglomerates form a most useful index, and one which can be traced for a great part of the way round the Forest. The same may be said of the Beacon Hill beds and of the Brand series. The bulk of the rocks are made of volcanic ingredients, even the fine horn- stones and slates being made of volcanic dust, interleaved with tuffs and breccias. When the lower part of the Maplewell series is traced round to the north-west it becomes coarser, and eventually passes into a mass of very coarse agglomerates in which the succession is not easy to unravel, while it is much confused by faulting and the intrusion of igneous rocks, possibly also by the out- flow of lava. Bardon Hill presents exceptional difficulties. While the chief rocks are like those of Grace Dieu, Cademan, and Whitwick, it lies altogether out of the line of these rocks, and must owe its position to faulting. The agglomerates are also associated with a mass of porphyroid like that which occurs in a normal position at Peldar Tor and High Sharpley. At Bardon this rock appears to be intrusive into the agglomerates, and a similar explanation may have to be adopted for Sharpley, Peldar, and Ratchet. Many difficulties would still have to be met, not the least of which is the occurrence of boulders of Peldar rock in some of the agglomerates. A possible explanation of this is found at High Sharpley, where porphyroid, which is now acknowledged to be either an intrusion or a lava, is nodular in structure; it has been subsequently sheared so as to put on the aspect of an agglomerate. The porphyroid would appear to have been the first rock intruded before much movement had taken place in the rocks; it is sheared, cleaved, and crushed along the N.W. and 8.F. lines. —o TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 797 Syenite was next intruded, generally along the main movement planes such as faults, and the junction of the Brand series with the Maplewell series. It has been somewhat crushed by the movement, and its main divisional planes agree with the cleavage and faulting directions in the country. A still later intrusion appears to be the Mount Sorrel granite, which does not penetrate into the Forest proper while it is in contact with rocks whose relation to the rest of the Forest has not been ascertained with certainty. It is the only igneous rock which effects any considerable amount of metamorphism in the clastic rocks with which it is in contact. As to the age of the rocks we have little to guide us. They are unlikely to be later than Cambrian ; they are not at all like the fossiliferous Cambrian rocks of Nuneaton ; they do not contain Cambrian fossils, nor do the Nuneaton diorites penetrate them. On the other hand, the movement by which they were affected came from the direction 8.W. to N.E., whilst Lower Silurian and Cambrian rocks are generally, except at Nuneaton, affected by forces which acted at right angles to this. Professor Lapworth, when with the author in Charnwood, succeeded in finding a worm burrow in the slates low down in the Brand series, and Mr. Rhodes has since obtained one or two additional examples: these are the first undoubted fossils found in Charnwood. 5. The Geology of Skomer Island. By F. T. Howarp, JZA., F.G.S., and E. W. Smatt, I.A., B.Sc., F.GS. I. Previous Literature.—De la Beche (in ‘Trans. Geol. Soc.,’ 2nd series, vol. ii.) mentions the presence of a ‘quartzose and striped cornean,’ of ‘ bedded greenstone,’ and ‘massive compact greenstone.’ Murchison (Silurian system) gives a section across part of the island, and indicates the occurrence of Upper Cambrian rocks. Rutley and Teall have described the microscopic characters of some of the rocks, but none of these authorities gives exact localities, or describes the relationship of the different beds. II. General Character and Arrangement of the Sedimentary and Igneous Rocks.—The general strike of the beds is more or less east and west, with a southerly dip. A well-marked ridge of felsitic conglomerate running from the west side of the Wick in an east by north direction to the north of Welsh Way serves as a convenient base line; beneath it are finer conglomerates, sandstones rich in felspar, and red shales; above it finer beds occur to the south, faulted against basalt in the Wick, conformably passing beneath the basalt at High Cliff. This basalt forms the southern promontory of the island except near the Mewstone, where quartz grits occur. Beneath the conglomerate, between the Wick and Tom’s House, a very coarse breccia occurs, resting upon and derived from a highly siliceous banded and spherulitic felsite, which weathers white and shows spherules up to several inches in diameter. This appears to be the felsite described by Rutley, and is probably the striped quartzose cornean of De la Beche. In the cove west of Tom’s House a basalt appears to pass quite regularly beneath the felsite. Massive and thinly bedded basalts follow to the north, but in Pigstone Bay thin felsites, grits, and shales are seen, and a conglomerate of basalt and felsite frag- ments resting upon an uneven floor of basalt. The section here shows clearly the interbedded character of the igneous rocks. North of Bull Hole we meet with felsite again, which occupies the northernmost part of the island, including the outlying Garland stone. Some bands of ash are seen in the basaltic cliffs between the north point of the island and North Castle. Sedimentary grits and shales _ occur in North and South Haven, and at the Rye Rocks; they pass beneath a basalt which apparently forms all the remaining portion of the Neck. IIL. Influence of the Geological Structure on the Physical Featwres,—The two marked inlets of North and South Haven, as also the channel separating (at high _ water) the Mewstone from the main parts of the island, have been formed by the more rapid erosion of the sedimentary strata, and the Wick has been clearly eaten out along a line of fault between basalt and sedimentary beds. A curious series of 798 REPORT—1896. ridges running across the island in a more or less east and west direction mark the outcrops of massive basalts, felsites, and hard felsitic conglomerates, the lower ground between them being formed of softer sedimentary strata, or of more thinly bedded rocks of basaltic character. 1V. Age of the Rocks.—No fossils have yet been found on Skomer, but along the south side of the promontory at Wooltack Park, on the mainland, some grits and shales occur, containing tentaculites, &c., which closely resemble those of Skomer, and have the same general dip. ‘These beds are mapped by the Survey as Llandeilo, but are probably somewhat later in age. We are therefore inclined to regard the corresponding beds on Skomer, with their associated igneous rocks, as of Bala or Llandovery age. V. Microscopic Characters of the Rocks. (a) SEDIMENTARY.—The grits consist of clear quartz grains, with the angles rounded off, a felspar weathered beyond recognition, and, rarely, some mica. A granite pebble from the conglomerate ridge comes from the same mass as the Brimaston granite. (4) Frnsires.— Several of the slides show good flow structure, with phenocrysts of felspar, some- times largely kaolinised. A section cut from the more coarsely spherulitic part of the rock to the east of Tom’s House shows five well-marked whitish spherules (of about 2-inch diameter) in a greenish granular ground. The spherules are much cracked, and show dusty brown material in concentric bands towards the edges. Under crossed Nicols a well-marked fibrous radiating structure is apparent, but the crystallisation is somewhat confused, and the spherules do not show a clearly defined black cross. In two places the slide shows patches of crystalline character, which appear to be basaltic inclusions. (c) Basatrs anD PorPpHyrites.—The slides cut from specimens obtained from the west side of Tom’s House, the cave at the bottom of the Wick, the west side of South Haven, and from North Castle, all show porphyritic felspars, often with good crystal outlines, granules of augite, and much ilmenite or magnetite. The rock from the Neck, opposite Midland Island, is a porphyrite, showing fine laths of plagioclase felspar, and much black granular material, probably ilmenite, with no phenocrysts. The Skomer Head rock is a basalt—ophitic in parts—with lath-shaped felspar crystals, much augite (some of which is quite fresh), magnetite or ilmenite, and greenish decomposition products. The basalt of the Pigstone Rock shows good phenocrysts of felspar in a fine-grained dusty ground-mass ; the augite is small, and mostly altered, The rock seen at the Table is a porphyritic basalt, with large felspars showing very distinct crystal out- lines, some olivine, a little augite, and numerous opaque granules of ilmenite. Some of the basalts (e.g., that north of Bull Hole) show distinct flow structure, the small lath-shaped felspars being seen to bend round larger crystals. 6. Notes on Sections along the London Extension of the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln Railway between Rugby and Aylesbury. By Horace B. Woopwarp, F.&.S., £.G.S. [Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey. ] Commencing at Willoughby, near Braunston, attention was drawn to cuttings in the Lower Lias, from the zone of Ammonites armatus to that of A. capricornus at Catesby. The Catesby tunnel was excavated partly in the higher beds of Lower Lias, and partly in the Middle Lias, zone of 4. margaritatus. The Marl- stone rock-bed occurred above the tunnel and was exposed at its southern entrance. At Charwelton a mass of Upper Lias was let down by a trough-fault between beds of Middle Lias. Gravel containing pebbles of chalk and derived Jurassic fossils occurred also at Charwelton. Sections of Upper Lias were noted at Woodford Halse and Banbury Lane, near Moreton Pinkney. Boulder Clay was first encountered south of Woodford Halse, the vale of Lower Lias not exhibiting any section of it, It covers considerable tracts of the higher grounds onwards towards Steeple Claydon, and is an extension of the East Anglian Chalky Boulder Clay. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 799 Cuttings near Sulgrave and onwards to Helmdon and Brackley showed peeitorons marls and limestones of the Great Oolite with underlying Estuarine 8. At one point east of Hill Farm, south of Radstone, where the Boulder Clay rested on the marls and limestones of the Great Oolite, streaks of reddish brown clay were noticed at the base of the grey Glacial Clay. Elsewhere the Boulder Clay was seen resting on a piped surface of Great Oolite, the ‘ pipes’ being filled with reddish-brown clay. In places the Great Oolite was somewhat disturbed and nipped up. Evidently the agent which produced the Boulder Clay was forced over an old land-surface formed of Great Oolite. That formation was disturbed in places, and portions of the old soil were stripped off and incorporated in the Boulder Clay. Further south the Boulder Clay was banked up against a bed of coarse boulder-gravel, such as is found near Buckingham, near the southern margin of this Glacial drift. In places pebbles from overlying gravel were noticed to occur a foot or two down, in Great Oolite Clay. In dry weather, when clays become deeply fissured, stones from overlying drift or soil may drop into crevices, and become embedded ina much older deposit to a depth of four or five feet. No cornbrash was shown in any of the cuttings. South-west of Rosehill Farm, near Chetwode, the Oxford Clay appeared, and it was well seen north-east of Charndon Lodge Farm, where clays of the zone of Ammonites ornatus were exposed. Near Steeple Claydon a specimen of 4. Sutherlandie with A. Lamberti attached was picked up on the embankment. The fossils were identified by Mr, G. Sharman. 7. Report on the Stonesfield Slate—See Reports, p. 356. 8. Report on the Investigation of a Coral Reef.—See Reports, p. 377. 9. Report on Geological Photographs.—See Reports, p. 357. MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21. The following Reports and Papers were read :— 1. Report on the Hoxne Excavation.—See Reports, p. 400. 2. On the Discovery of Marine Shells in the Drift Series at High Levels in Ayrshire, N.B. By Joun Situ. By rye best developed the Ayrshire Drift Beds are arranged in the following order :— - Upper Boulder-clay, often with large blocks. . Stratified sand and gravel. - Boulder-clay, blocks generally small. - Gravel, sharp sand, hour-glass sand, and muddy sand. » Laminated mud or clay, sometimes with one or two beds of Boulder-clay. » Lower Boulder-clay, often with large blocks. - Mammoth and Reindeer bed at Kilmaurs. In bed No. 1 marine shells occur at 40 and 1,061 ft. above sea-level, and at many intermediate heights, In bed No. 2 I have got marine shells frequently up to a little above 200 ft. above sea-level, and in one instance at about 800 feet. In bed No, 8 marine fossils are frequent up to at least 600 ft, above sea-level. “ID Orie COD 800 REPORT—1896, In bed No. 5 (laminated mud or clay) I have not yet found any fossils. In the lower Boulder-clay (6) marine fossils are occasionally got, but it is, generally speaking, much obscured by talus along the river banks. The Boulder-clays in fresh cuttings often look as if they were massive, but weathered exposures often show lines of stratification, and sometimes there are thin horizontal bands of sand or gravel through them. Striated stones are got in them lying beside perfectly unscratched and angular stones, and far-travelled stones and boulders are got beside those of the district. The Boulder-clays, generally speaking, take their colour from the formations on which they rest, or at Jeast from one not far away. About the middle of the county some stones and boulders from the north are mixed with those from the south. . At about 700 feet of altitude in certain districts there is no Boulder-clay to be seen on top of the sand and gravel, the latter being well bedded and the gravel well rounded. Up to 800 feet in the open country there are many drums of drift, and in the narrow glens under certain conditions the drums are got up to a much higher alti- tude, the Boulder-clay reaching to over 1,700 feet, and the sands and gravel inter- bedded with it to over 1,000 feet. ‘In the sand and gravel beds there are cecasionally large boulders, as well as in the laminated mud. The interstratified beds are sometimes much contorted Under the Boulder-clay the rock is sometimes crushed, the fragments being often mixed into the bottom of the clay. The Boulder-clay appears sometimes to have been dragged a bit, and then the stones are more intensely striated and the sheily fragments scratched. Sometimes the stones are standing on edge in the Boulder-clay. : The ‘25 foot’ beach always rises on a platform cut out by the waves, but the ‘40-foot’ one is sometimes seen resting on drwms of Boulder-clay. The great bulk of the marine shells occur as fragments, although there are some very good specimens. The fragments are mostly sharp-edged, and many have the epidermis, a few being scratched and polished. The fossils that turn up most frequently are: Astarte compressa, Astarte suleata, Cyprina islandica, and Leda pernula. The occasional being: Pecten islandicus, Cardium, Natica, Buccinum or Fusus, Littorina littorea (worn), Plates of Balani, and burrows of bering sponges. Many fragments cannot be determined. What looks like Melobesia (sticking to stones) has turned up in three localities. 3. Notes on the Superficial Deposits of North Shropshire. By C. Catuaway, D.Se., F.GS. The author gives a sketch of observations on the sandy and shingly deposits that lie scattered over the plain of North Shropshire. They are found as high as 1,100 feet at Gloppa, while erratics occur on the Longmynd hills as high as 1,050 feet. That the gravels and sands are of marine origin is inferred from their arrangement, which is similar to that of ordinary littoral deposits, and from their abundant molluscan fauna, which is entirely marine. Under the former head attention is called to the frequent occurrence of ripple-marks in the sands, and under the latter it is remarked that the comminuted condition of many of the fossils is to be expected from littoral conditions. It is pointed out that, in the ~ eastern part of the area, chalk flints are abundant, which is hardly consistent with a north-western derivation; while the discovery of a Cornbrash fossil in the sands at Wellington proves derivation from the east or south. In conclusion, the author insists upon the decisive fact that the hills and crags of the area do not present the rounded outlines to be expected in a glaciated district. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 801 4. The Glacial Phenomena of the Vale of Clwyd. By J. Lomas A.R.C.8., and P. F. Kennan, £.G.8. The Vale of Clwyd is a V-shaped valley running almost N. and 8S. The floor is composed of Triassic rocks, while the sides consist of Silurian slates and grits with faulted inliers of Carboniferous age at intervals along the inner edges. The tract of land occupying the mouth of the Vale is low and marshy. As the solid rock is reached in this district only at a considerable depth below O. D., and there are evidences of a pre-Glacial line of cliffs along the neighbouring coasts, we must regard it as an arm of the sea which has been filled up with drift deposits. . About St. Asaph and southwards the ground rises into mounds which run nearly parallel to the axis of the Vale. Where gaps appear in the Moel Fammau range the drift mounds curve round so as to be parallel with the opening. Further south, beyond Denbigh, the ground is again flat, and this character con- tinues to the end of the open part of the Vale. “The deposits at the north consist of clays and sands with shell fragments similar to those spread over the plains of Lancashire and Cheshire, and contain erratics from the N. * At St. Asaph, Colwyn, and other :places these northern drifts are seen to overlie an older deposit -yielding Welsh erratics exclusively, and containing no shell fragments. The northern drift extends as far as Tremeirchion on the east, and a boulder of Scotch granite has been found near Denbigh on the west. Above Denbigh only Welsh drift is found. Near Llanfair the Clwyd leaves the main valley and goes through a gorge con- tinuing tonear Corwen. At Pwll-glas, Derwen, Gwyddelwern, and other places the valley is blocked by mounds of gravel which run athwart the valley. They repre- sent terminal moraines laid down by a glacier proceeding down the Vale from the Dee Valley. Sequence of Events.—The Welsh hills nursed glaciers during the early part of the Glacial period. These increased and spread out from Arenig Mawr asa centre. So great was the ice-spread that boulders were carried over the highest points in the Moel Fammau and the Mynydd Hiraethog and Cyrn-y-Brain ranges. The ice from Scotland, Lake District, and Ireland, creeping southwards and filling the shallow Ivish Sea, cleaved on reaching the N. Wales massif about the Gt. Orme’s Head. So great was the pressure that the Welsh ice was also divided into two streams, one going west through the Menai Straits and over Anglesey, and the other going eastwards and joining with the great sheet which swept over Cheshire into the Midlands, Evidence of this cleavage we have in the Glacial strie which are divergent E. and W, of the Conway and in the character of the boulder transport. The E. side of the Vale of Clwyd is covered with great deposits of red drift derived from the floor of the Vale, while the W. side contains no Triassic rocks. Through the opening about Bodfari enormous masses of red sand were carried, and formed the well-known deposits of the Wheeler Valley. On the dwindling of the ice the valleys still retained small glaciers, the deposits of one being found in the Upper Clwyd. Conclusions. —The Drift lends no countenance to the theory that this portion of North Wales was submerged during the Glacial period. In fact the absence of northern Drift with shells in places at a level below the shell-bearing beds on each _ side directly contradicts the assumption. | 5. On some Post-Pliocene Changes of Physical Geography in Yorkshire. By Percy F, Kenpat, £.G.S. The drift deposits of Yorkshire are extensively developed over all the low grounds and in much of the hill country. They have been attributed by the 802 REPORT—1896. officers of the Geological Survey, the late Professor Carvill Lewis, Mr. Lamplugh, and other geologists, to the action of glaciers descending all the principal valleys, from Teesdale on the north to Airedale on the south, with a great main stream occupying the Vale of York almost as far as the Humber, and a Scandinavian ice-sheet abutting against the whole coast-line. Pre-Glacial valleys have been detected beneath the drift at depths exceeding 170 feet below O.D. The irregular accumulation of the glacial deposits produced many changes in the courses of the rivers, and a great area was added to the coast-line. The Derwent has been shown by Mr. Fox Strangways to have reversed its flow, and instead of discharging into Filey Bay, it now flows westward, passes through the Howardian Hills in a narrow gorge 150 feet deep, and ultimately joins the Ouse. The change of direction has been ascribed to the formation of a ridge of boulder-clay, which extends across the valley behind Filey, and has a minimum altitude of 130 feet, which is only 70 feet below the top of the notch in the Howardian Hills. The author considers it more probable that the diversion was effected by an ice-barrier. At one-stage a lake would be formed occupying the whole Vale of Pickering, and lacustrine deposits are found, having a thick- ness of over 90 feet. The river system of the Vale of York is very peculiar. The Tees crosses a very broad tract of soft rocks without receiving a single tributary from the south. The Wiske rises in the north-western corner of the Cleveland Hills, and approaches within two miles of the Tees, then turns south and joins the Swale. The Drift is very deep along the line of the Tees, and thins to the south, so that the solid rocks are exposed at many places along a line running through Northallerton and Bedale. ‘This was the pre-Glacial Watershed. Northward of it the Drift is mainly boulder-clay, while southward gravels largely predominate ; exactly the same fact is observed south of the watershed between the Mersey and the Severn. The Swale and Wiske were formerly tributaries of the Tees. No study has yet been made of the Ure. The Mdd furnishes an example of a diversion different from any yet noted. Down to Ripley it flows through a wide and open valley, but below that village it enters a narrow and deep gorge or ravine cut partly through grits and shales of the Millstone Grit series, and partly through Magnesian Limestone. For long distances its banks are extremely steep, and in places, as at Knaresborough and Plumpton, even vertical, producing scenery unrivalled in any part of Yorkshire. This 1s obviously so recent a channel that the author was impelled to seek an older one, and discover the cause of its abandonment. Such an old valley is clearly traceable from Ripley, past Nidd Hall and Brearton, out into the Vale of York. It is broad and well defined, and its sides have a very gentle slope, like those of the upper part of the valley, and there are extensive marshy patches in its course. Near Nidd Hall a large lateral moraine of a glacier, which came down Uredale, obstructs the old valley. Many excavations display the usual structure of moraines. The Wharfe presents similar features to those of the Nidd. Its valley is wide and open until the town of Wetherby is reached; then the river, instead of pur- suing a north-easterly course through a valley extending through the town, turns abruptly to the south-east, and runs through a gorge in the Magnesian Limestone down to Tadcaster. The valley across the site of Wetherby is filled with a great thickness of excessively coarse morainic gravel, thrown down by the side of the same glacier as that which deflected the Nidd, and it seems probable that this also is a case of diversion. There are numerous small diversions of the Aire by terminal moraines—for example, near Keighley and Bingley—but its lower course appears quite normal. Great changes have been wrought in the upper part of the Calderdale by the events of the Glacial period, but they and the remarkable vicissitudes of the Trent will be dealt with in a future communication. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 803 6. Report on Erratic Blocks.—See Reports, p. 366. 7. Another Possible Cause of the Glacial Epoch. By Professor Epwarp Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.LS. The author gave an account of the results arrived at by Professor J. W. Spencer, Ph.D.,in his memoir on ‘ The Reconstruction of the Antillean Continent’ (‘Bull. Geol. Soc.,’ America, January 1895) from observations laid down on the Admiralty charts of the east coast of North America and the shores of the West Indian Islands and Gulf of Mexico. He shows that the ‘continental shelf’ lying between the coast and the 100-fathom line is succeeded by a second and deeper plateau, called by Professor A. Agassiz ‘the Blake plateau,’ the average depth of which may be taken at 2,700 feet, separated from the continental shelf by a steep descent, and in its turn bounded by a second steep descent leading down to the abysmal depths of the Atlantic Ocean at 12,000 or 13,000 feet below the surface. A careful investigation of the soundings shows that these plateaus are traversed by channels, sometimes of great depth and with precipitous sides, leading down from the embouchures of the existing rivers which open out on the coast, and con- nected with the outer margins of the plateaus by wide embayments. The form of these channels would in some cases entitle them to be called ‘ cafions’ or ‘fjords’ ; and, as Professor Spencer truly considers that such channels could only be formed by river erosion, he concludes that the whole eastern coast and the West Indian Isles were elevated to the extent of the outer embayments where they open out on the floor of the ocean. Such an elevation of 12,000 feet or so would have con- nected North and South America along the line of the Antilles, constituting a angle continent,' and are termed ‘ stupendous changes of level’ of the Pleistocene epoch. The author of this paper proceeds to discuss some of the climatic conditions which would result from such changes, and supposes that the elevation of the Antillean continent would have shut out the northern branch of the great equatorial current known as the Gulf Stream from the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, causing it to enter the North Atlantic directly ; and he comes to the conclusion that the Atlantic current would have crossed the 40th parallel with surface temperature of only 74° F., instead of 84° F., as is the case at the present day. The author then discusses the question to what extent such a lowering of the temperature of the present Gulf Stream would have affected the climate of the regions bordering the North Atlantic, and considers that this effect may be approximately arrived at by transferring the climatic conditions of the isotherm of annual mean temperature of 30° F. (the freezing point of water) to those of the 42° F. of the present day, resulting in sub-glacial conditions along the line of this isotherm. Proceeding next to examine the effects of the elevation of the American con~ tinent to the extent required by Professor Spencer’s conclusions, the author considers it as extremely probable that the cold produced by this physical change, added to that due to the lowering of the temperature of the Atlantic current, would result in bringing about the conditions of the Glacial epoch; and as similar elevation of land has been determined in the case of the platform of the British Isles and North-western Europe—though to a much smaller extent than in the case of the American continent—the increased cold due to this cause, added to that due to the diminished temperature of the Atlantic current, would have been, if not a vera causa of the Glacial epoch of Europe, a most material cause in bringing about the climatic conditions of that epoch. 8. Final Report on the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava and Kintyre.—See Reports, p. 378. : ? For those who are unable to obtain Professor Spencer's original memoir, the review thereof by Mr. A.J. Jukes-Browne, F.G.S., in the Geological Magazine for April 1895, will probably suffice. 804 REPORT—1896. 9. Interim Report on the Singapore Caves.—See Reports, p. 399. 10. Interim. Report on the Calf Hole Exploration. 11. Interim Report on the High-level Flint-drift at Ightham. TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22. The following Reports and Papers were read :— 1. Interim Report on the Investigation of the Locality where the Cetiosaurus Remains in the Oxford Museum were found. 2. Interim Report on the Eurypterid-bearing Deposits of the Pentland Hills. 3. Interim Report on the Paleozoic Phyllopoda. 4. Interim Report on the Registration of Type Specimens. 5. Fifth Contribution to Rhetic Literature. Ly Montacu Browne, F.G.S., F.Z.8. The Rhetic Bone-bed of Aust Cliff, and the Rock-bed above it. The Rheetic bone-bed of Aust Cliff seldom yields perfect examples of vertebrate remains, and still more rarely, if ever, objects in association. An examination of the rock shows the reason for this. It is made up largely of sub-angular frag- ments or rolled boulders of the Keuper sandstone to be found immediately below it, around which are sands, probably of Keuper age, so arranged, and so highly charged with fragmentary remains of Rheetic vertebrata and their excretée, as to denote currents of considerable turbulence, such as now obtain in seas or estuaries of no great depth. Of quite a different character are the black shales above, and the bed of stone resting thereupon. This band of stone, which has been described by Wright, and is known as the Pullastra arenicola bed, shows it to have been much more quietly deposited, and it is in this that bones are more likely to be found in association at Aust and Westbury-on-Severn. This band of stone is the so-called bone-bed. of the ‘Garden Cliff,’ Westbury-on-Severn, of Penarth, Lavernock, and Watchet, the true bone-bed of Aust not being represented at those places, or if at Lavernock in a very attenuated form. Neither at Pylle Hill, Bristol, nor at the Spinney Hills, nor at’ Wigston, Leicester, nor at Walton, Leicestershire, nor in the Notting- hamshire Rheetics does a bone-bed exist of the same character as that at Aust; the bone-bed of the Spinney Hills, though not of like extent, is on the same horizon, and contains specimens in the same state of mineralisation as at Aust Cliff. Another point which lends colour to this theory of partial similitude is that in both Aust and the Spinney Hill bone-bed remains of Ceratodus have been found, which have not yet been obtained.in the lower Pullastra arenicola or Isodonta Ewaldi beds. It is therefore in the first band of stone containing these invertebrate fossils, and which never es immediately upon the ‘ tea-green marls,’ that the most perfect ~ TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 805 remains of the lesser Dinosauria, Labyrinthodontia, and of other vertebrata must be sought, and from this bed at Aust was procured the fine jaw with teeth of Saurichthys described by Mr. A. Smith Woodward, and several unusually perfect specimens obtained by the writer at Aust Cliff and Westbury-on-Severn.. The genus Sphenonchus, i.e., Head-defences of certain Hybodont Sharks. Sphenonchus hamatus, Agassiz. This species, already recorded in Britain from the Lias, has now been discovered by the author in the Rhetic bone-bed of Aust Cliff. Other specimens examined by him were collected by Mr. Storrie from the Lavernock bone-bed, and by Mr. T. Burrows in the bone-bed of the Spinney Hills. 6. On the Skull of the South African Fossil Reptile Diademodon. By H. G. Srzxey, F.2.S., Professor of Geology in King’s College, London. Only two or three teeth have hitherto been known. The crowns are of mammalian type, and although referred to the Gomphodont division of the Theriodontia, no proof of the structure of the skull has been previously available. The skull now described was found at Wonderboom by Dr. Kannemeyer. It gives evidence of ten premolar and molar teeth,of which four are counted as premolars and six as molars. The molar teeth are transverse, with a type of crown which closely resembles Diademodon Brownii. ‘The last molar is small, with a narrow posterior talon. The skull is fractured, so that the cerebral region is lost, and the snout is lost by a vertical fracture, which passes through tbe hemi- spherical pits upon the pre-orbital angle at the junction of the frontal nasal and maxillary bones ; so that the canine teeth are not preserved. The author described the limits of the pre-frontal and post-frontal bones, and states that the post-frontat differs from that of Ornithorhynchus in its different relation to the small brain cavity, and in contributing to form the circular orbit of the eye. 7. Note on examples of Current Bedding in Clays. By H.G. Szexey, 7. 2.S., Professor of Geology in King’s College, London. The author remarked that, although thin layers are defined by differences of colour in some slates, it is rare for bedding in the great clays to be marked unless by changes in mineral character. He has observed current bedding in the mottled clays of the Woolwich and Reading beds, and in Wealden purple clays near Tunbridge Wells. About two years since current bedding was uncovered in Messrs. Poulton's pit in the Reading beds at Katesgrove, near Reading. Above the current bedded sand, with bands of pipe-clay and fossil leaves, which occur towards the base of the deposit, crimson and green clays occurred in regular alternations of about twenty thin beds, which thickened from the west to the east. They were laid down in the usual curved succession of thin layers horizontally truncated above by the rapidity of flow of the current. The layers thickened to the west, beyond the sheltering bank of the deposits. Each of these beds, which was only two to four inches thick in the western corner of the pit in which the current bedding is seen, spreads over the pit as one of the nearly horizontal layers of mottled clay, which form the part of the section between the yellow sands below and the brown clay above with marine fossils. There is no evidence of the laminated structure being due to sand, but a few small irregular calcareous concretions, about an inch or two in diameter, occur in the beds of green colour. The second example was first observed by the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, F.R.S., at the new Recreation Ground, Tunbridge Wells, and at his request the author examined the section. The deposit is a purple clay of Wealden age, and either Weald Clay or a subordinate deposit in the Tunbridge Wells sand. It has at first 806 REPORT—1896. the aspect of a boulder clay with bedding inclined tothe east. Every layer, in the thickness exposed of 14 feet, is full of fragments of yellow sandstone, all apparently derived from one deposit, such as the Ashdown sand. They are all angular, and vary in size from one inch to two feet in length. There is no trace of smoothing or grooving on any of the large number of fragments examined, and therefore no ground for attributing their transport to ice. The volume of water which would effect transport of such a thickness of clay may have been merely the result of exceptionally heavy rain, for the large fragments appear to be torn away by their natural joints and bedding planes, and the small fragments are such as the action of varying temperature would produce in a terrestrial surface. The angle of dip was about 15°. Mr, F. G. Smart, M.A., F.L.S., of Tunbridge Wells, photo- graphed the sections at the author's request. It is remarked that, although alternating green and red clays in geological deposits are generally of freshwater origin, there is a similar alternation in some of the old Cambrian slates. 8. On some Crush-Conglomerates in Anglesey. By Sir Arcuipatp Geixiz, PS. The important observations made by Mr. Lamplugh among the ‘ crush- conglomerates’ of the Isle of Man suggest that the phenomena described by him may have a much wider range than had previously been supposed. Ever since the author had the opportunity of going over the Manx evidence with him, he has sus- pected that some of the fragmental rocks which he has himself regarded as volcanic agglomerates might prove to be due, not to volcanic explosions, but to the same kind of underground movements which have undoubtedly given rise to the enor- mous masses of ‘ crush-conglomerate ’ in the Isle of Man. The breccias of Anglesey seemed to the author likely, on renewed examination, to prove to belong to the latter series. Accordingly he recently took occasion to revisit these rocks, both in the centre and along the north coast of the island. The result was entirely con- firmatory of his suspicions. The breccias in question are, he now feels convinced, true crush conglomerates. The amount of mechanical deformation which these rocks have undergone is one of their most obvious characteristics. On the supposition of their volcanic origin, it was quite conceivable that coarse agglomerates and volcanic breccias might undergo crushing together with the sedimentary series to which they belonged, so that the evidence of deformation formed is itself no proof that they were not of pyroclastic derivation. But more detailed investigation, in the light of the Manx examples, bringsto view proofs that the conglomeratic structure has been produced by the breaking up of stratified rocks zz situ, At Llangefni, for example, the strata affected appear to have been originally shales or mudstones (with possibly some fine felsitic tutis), alternating with bands of hard siliceous grit. They have been crumpled up and crushed into fragments, which have been driven past each other along the planes of movement. Every stage may be traced, from a long piece of one of the grit-bands down to mere rounded and isolated pebbles of the same material. The grits, being much more resisting, have withstood the deformation better than the argillaceous strata, which have been crushed into a kind of broken slate or phyllite. Kyerywhere the signs of movement, or ‘flow-structure,’ meet the eye. It is not that the rocks have been merely crushed to fragments; the differential movements which produced the ruptures also made the materials to flow onwards, the dislocated bands of grit being reduced to separate blocks and pebbles entirely surrounded in the moving matrix of finer shaly paste. The ‘agglomerates’ on the coast near Cemmaes, so singularly deceptive as to be easily mistaken for volcanic necks, prove to be capable of a like interpretation. The huge blocks of limestone there to be seen, isolated among fragmentary grits and slates, are referable to the disruption of some of the limestone bands which occur abundantly in the neighbourhood. A gradation may be traced from the slates and grits outside the areas of more severe dislocation into the intensely crushed and sheared ‘agglomerate.’ The dykes which cut through these rocks F oo ihe TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 807 and increase the likeness to true volcanic vents are later than the period of crushing, and may be traced in the surrounding slates and grits. But though the volcanic nature of the rocks formerly believed to be agglome- rates must be abandoned, the question of the original formation of the strata which have been so greatly ruptured remains quite distinct. The author agrees with Mr. Blake in regarding these strata as largely composed of volcanic detritus. The breccias and fine tuffs which alternate with and overlie the Lower Silurian black shales can be traced upward into the mass of the Amlwch slates, which are full of volcanic dust. The evidence for the existence of Lower Silurian volcanoes in the north of Anglesey remains quite valid and ample, though we must abandon the voleanic origin of the ‘agglomerates’ which seemed to form part of that evidence. The crush-conglomerates have involved the volcanic as well as the non-volcanic paris of the series in the same destruction. But it is obvious that in a region which has undergone such severe compression and disruption it cannot be always an easy task to distinguish between breccias due to original volcanic explosions and those produced among these yery volcanic rocks by subsequent mechanical stresses. 9. Report on Seismological Investigations.—See Reports, p. 180. 10. Note on some Fossil Plants from South Africa. By A. C. Sewarp, JLA., FGA. The author has recently had an opportunity, through the kindness of Mr. Dayid Draper, F.G.S., of examining a collection of fossil plants from a locality a short distance south of Johannesburg. The collection forwarded to England by Mr. Draper includes examples of Glossopteris,, Vertebraria, and other genera, asso- ciated with specimens of Lepidophloios The occurrence of Lepidodendrons in strata containing typical members of the Glossopteris flora is extremely important from the point of view of the geological and geographical distribution of fossil plants, and specially interesting in connection with a similar association lately recorded by Professor Zeiller in Brazilian plant-bearing beds. In South Africa, as in South America, we have evidence of the existence of a plant genus characteristic of the Upper Paleozoic flora of the northern hemisphere, in the same region with the Permo-Carboniferous Glossopteris flora. 11. On the Production of Corundum by Contact Metamorphism on Dartmoor. Ly Professor Karu Busz. At South Brent the valley of the Avon cuts right through the contact-zone of the Dartmoor granite. The clay-slate is altered into chiastolite slate and spotted _ mica schist, and small interbedded seams of limestone are represented by aggregates of garnet, malacolite, axinite, and what seems to be anorthite. The crystals of andalusite in one of the altered slates have proved to contain a small quantity of cassitorite in minute crystals. This stream also exposes the intimate contact between a felspar porphyry and clay-slate: irregular pieces of the latter rock are included in the former. Around these pieces there occurred a large number of minute colourless hexagonal crystals, which, when isolated by the action of hydro- fluoric and hydrochloric acids, proved to consist of alumina with a very little iron oxide, Their hardness was also greater than that of topaz, so that it is clear they must consist of corundum. In the opinion of the author the melted porphyry has dissolved the clay, and thus become supersaturated with alumina, which has erystallised out as crystalline corundrum. 12. Interim Report on the Age and Relation of Rocks near Moreseat, Aberdeen. 808 REPORT—1896. Section D.—ZOOLOGY. PRESIDENT OF THE SEecTION—E. B. Pourton, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the University of Oxford. THURSDAY,.SEPTEMBER 17. The President delivered the following Address :— A Naruratist’s ConTRIBUTION TO THE DISCUSSION UPON THE AGE OF THE EARTH. A very brief study of the proceedings of this Section in bygone years will show that Presidents have exercised a very wide choice in the selection of subjects. At the last Meeting of the Association in this city in 1870 the Biological Section had as its President the late Professor Rolleston, a man whose remarkable personality made a deep impression upon all who came under his influence, as I have the strongest reason for remembering, inasmuch as he was my first teacher in zoology, and I attended his lectures when but little over seventeen. His address was most characteristic, glancing over a great variety of subjects, literary as well as scientific, and abounding in quotations from several languages, living and dead. A very different style of address was that delivered by the distinguished zoologist who presided over the Meeting. Professor Huxley took as his subject ‘The History of the Rise and Progress of a Single Biological Doctrine.’ O ithese two types I selected the latter as my example, and especially desired to attempt the discussion, however inadequate, of some difficulty which confronts the zoologist at the very outset when he begins to reason from the facts around him—a difficulty which is equally obvious and of equal moment to the highly trained investigator and the man who is keenly interested in the results obtained by others, but cannot himself lay claim to the position and authority of a skilled observer—to the naturalist and to one who follows some other branch of know- ledge, but is interested in the progress of a sister science. Two such difficulties were alluded to by Lord Salisbury, in his interesting presi- dential address to the British Association at Oxford in 1894, when he spoke of ‘two of the strongest objections to the Darwinian explanation’ of evolution—viz., the theory of natural selection—as appearing ‘ still’to retain all their force.’ The first of these objections was the insufficiency of the time during which the earth has been in a habitable state, as calculated by Lord Kelvin and Professor Tait, 100 million years being conceded by the former, but only ten million by the latter. Lord Salisbury quite rightly stated that for the evolution of the organic world as we know it by the slow process of natural selection at least many hundred million years are required; whereas, ‘if the mathematicians are right, the biologists cannot have what they demand. . . . The jelly-fish would have been dissipated in steam long before he had had a chance of displaying the advantageous variation which was to make him the ancestor of the human race.’ The second objection was that ‘we cannot demonstrate the process of natural selection in detail; we cannot even, with more or less ease, imagine it.’ ‘In natural selection who is to supply the breeder’s place ?’ ‘There would be nothing TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 809 but mere chance to secure that the advantageously varied bridegroom at one end of the wood should meet the bride, who by a happy contingency had been advan- tageously varied in the same direction at the same time at the other end of the wood. It would be a mere chance if they ever knew of each other’s existence—a still more unlikely chance that they should resist on both sides all temptations to a less advantageous alliance. But unless they did so the new breed would never even begin, let alone the question of its perpetuation after it had begun.’ Professor Huxley, in seconding the vote of thanks to the President, said that he could imagine that certain parts of the address might raise a very good dis- cussion in one of the Sections, and I have little doubt that he referred to these criticisms and to this Section. When I had to face the duty of preparing this address, I could find no subjects better than those provided by Lord Salisbury. At first the second objection seemed to offer the more attractive subject. It was clear that the theory of natural selection as held by Darwin was misconceived by the speaker, and that the criticism was ill-aimed. Darwin and Wallace, from the very first, considered that the minute differences which separate individuals were of far more importance than the large single variations which occasionally arise— Lord Salisbury’s advantageously varied bride and bridegroom at opposite ends of the wood. In fact, after Fleeming Jenkins’s criticisms in the ‘ North British Review’ for June 1867, Darwin abandoned these large single variations altogether. Thus he wrote in a letter to Wallace (February 2, 1869): ‘I always thought individual differences more important ; but I was blind, and thought single variations might be preserved much oftener than I now see is possible or probable. I mentioned this in my former note merely because I believed that you had come to a similar conclusion, and I like much to be in accord with you.’ Hence we may infer that the other great discoverer of natural selection had come to the same conclusion at an even earlier date. But this fact removes the whole point from the criticism I haye just quoted. According to the Darwin-Wallace theory of natural selection, individuals sufficiently advantageously varied to become the material for a fresh advance when an advance became necessary, and at other times sufficient to main- tain the ground previously gained—such individuals existed not only at the opposite ends of the wood, but were common enough in every colony within its confines. The mere fact that an individual had been able to reach the con- dition of a possible bride or bridegroom would count for much. Few will dispute: that such individuals ‘have already successfully run the gauntlet of by far the greatest dangers which beset the higher animals (and, it may be added, the lower animals also |—the dangers of youth. Natural selection has already pronounced a satisfactory verdict upon the vast majority of animals which have reached maturity.’ ? But the criticism retains much force when applied to another theory of evolution _ by the selection of large and conspicuous variations, a theory which certain writers have all along sought to add to or substitute for that of Darwin. Thus Huxley from the very first considered that Darwin had burdened himself unnecessarily in rejecting per saltum evolution so unreservedly.’ And recently this view has been revived by Bateson’s work on variation and by the writings of Francis Galton. I had at first intended to attempt a discussion of this view, together with Lord Salisbury’s and other objections which may be urged against it; but the more the two were considered, the more pressing became the claims of the criticism alluded to at first—the argument that the history of our planet does not allow sufficient time for a process which all its advocates admit to be extremely slow in its operation. I select this subject because of its transcendent importance in relation to organic evolution, and because I hope to show that the naturalist has something of weight to contribute to the controversy which has been waged intermittently ever since Lord Kelvin’s paper ‘On Geological Time’ * appeared in 1868. It has _ been urged by the great worker and teacher who occupied the Presidential Chair 1 Life and Letters, vol. iii. 2 Poulton, Colours of Animals, p. 308. 3 See his letter to Darwin, November 23, 1859: Life and Letters, vol. ii. ‘ Trans. Geol. Soc., Glasgow, vol. iii. See also‘ On the Age of the Sun’s Heat,’ Macmillan, March 1862: reprinted as Appendix to Thomson and Tait, Natural Philo- 1896. 3G 810 REPORT—1896. of this Association when it last met in this city that biologists have no right to take part in this discussion. In his Anniversary Address to the Geological So- ciety in 1869 Huxley said: ‘ Biology takes her time from geology... . If the geological clock is wrong, all the naturalist will have to do is to modify his notions of the rapidity of change accordingly.’ This contention is obviously true as regards the time which has elapsed since the earliest fossiliferous rocks were laid down. For the duration of the three great periods we must look to the geologist ; but the question as to whether the whole of organic evolution is comprised within these limits, or, if not, what proportion of it is so contained, is a question for the ’ naturalist. The naturalist alone can tell the geologist whether his estimate is suffi- cient, or whether it must be multiplied by a small or by some unknown but cer- tainly high figure, in order to account for the evolution of the earliest forms of life Inown in the rocks, This, I submit, is a most important contribution to the discussion. Before proceeding further it is right to point out that obviously these argu- ments will have no weight with those who do not believe that evolution is a reality. But although the causes of evolution are greatly debated, it may be assumed that there is no perceptible difference of opinion as to evolution itself, and this common ground will bear the weight of all the zoological arguments we shall consider to-day. It will be of interest to consider first how the matter presented itself to naturalists before the beginning of this controversy on the age of the habitable earth. I will content myself with quotations from three great writers on biological problems—men of extremely different types of mind, who yet agreed in their conclusions on this subject. In the original edition of the ‘ Origin of Species’ (1859), Darwin, arguing from the presence of trilobites, Nautilus, Lingula, &c., in the earliest fossiliferous rocks, comes to the following conclusion (pages 306, 307) : ‘Consequently, if my theory be true, it is indisputable that before the lowest Silurian stratum was deposited long periods elapsed, as long as, or probably far longer than, the whole interval from the Silurian age to the present day; and that during these vast yet quite unknown periods of time the world swarmed with living creatures.’ The depth of his conviction in the validity of this conclusion is seen in the fact that the passage remains substantially the same in later editions, in which, how- ever, Cambrian is substituted for Silurian, while the words ‘ yet quite unknown’ are omitted, as a concession, no doubt, to Lord Kelvin’s calculations, which he then proceeds to discuss, admitting as possible a more rapid change in organic life, induced by more violent physical changes.* We know, however, that such concessions troubled him much, and that he was really giving up what his judgment still approved. Thus he wrote to Wallace on April 14, 1869: ‘Thomson’s views of the recent age of the world have been for some time one of my sorest troubles... .’ And again, on July 12, 1871, alluding to Mivart’s criticisms, he says: ‘I can say nothing more about missing links than what I have said. I should rely much on pre-Silurian times ; but then comes Sir W. Thomson, like an odious spectre.’ Huxley’s demands for time in order to account for pre-Cambrian evolution, as he conceived it, were far more extensive. Although in 1869 he bade the naturalist stand aside and take no part in the controversy, he had nevertheless spoken as a naturalist in 1862, when, at the close of another Anniversary Address to the same Society, he argued from the prevalence of persistent types ‘that any admissible hypothesis of progressive modification must be compatible with per- sistence without progression through indefinite periods’; and then maintained that ‘should such an hypothesis eventually be proved to be true . . . the conclusion will inevitably present itself that the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic fauns sopiy, vol. i. part 2, second edition; and ‘On the Secular Cooling of the Earth,’ Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1862. 1 6th ed., 1872, p. 286. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 811 and flore, taken together, bear somewhat the same proportion to the whole series of living beings which have occupied this globe as the existing fauna and flora do to them.’ Herbert Spencer, in his article on Illogical Geology in the ‘ Universal Review ’ for July 1859,' uses these words: ‘ Only the last chapter of the earth’s history has come down to us. The many previous chapters, stretching back to a time immeasurably remote, have been burnt, and with them all the records of life we may presume they contained.’ Indeed, so brief and unimportant does Herbert Spencer consider this last chapter to have been that he is puzzled to account for ‘such evidences of progression as exist’; and finally concludes that they are of no significance in relation to the doctrine of evolution, but probably represent the succession of forms by which a newly upheaved land would be peopled. He argues that the earliest immigrants would be the lower forms of animal and vegetable life, and that these would be followed by an irregular succession of higher and higher forms, which ‘ would thus simulate the succession presented by our own sedimentary series.’ We see, then, what these three great writers on evolution thought on this subject: they were all convinced that the time during which the geologists con- cluded that the fossiliferous rocks had been formed was utterly insufficient to account for organic evolution. Our object to-day is first to consider the objections raised by physicists against the time demanded by the geologist, and still more against its multiplication by the student of organic evolution ; secondly, to inquire whether the present state of paleontological and zoological knowledge increases or diminishes the weight of the threefold opinion quoted above—an opinion formed on far more slender evidence than that which is now available. And if we find this opinion sustained, it must be considered to have a very important bearing upon the controversy, The arguments of the physicists are three :— ’ First, the argument from the observed secular change in the length of the day the most important element of which is due to tidal retardation. It has been known for a very long time that the tides are slowly increasing the length of our day. Huxley explains the reason with his usual lucidity: ‘That this must be so is obvious, if one considers, roughly, that the tides result from the pull which the sun and the moon exert upon the sea, causing it to act as a sort of break upon the solid earth.’ ” A liquid earth takes a shape which follows from its rate of revolution, and from which, therefore, its rate of revolution can be calculated. The liquid earth consolidated in the form it last assumed, and this shape has persisted until now, and informs us of the rate of revolution at the time of con- solidation. Comparing this with the present rate, and knowing the amount of lengthening in a given time due to tidal friction, we can calculate the date of consolidation as certainly less than 1000 million years ago, This argument is fallacious, as many mathematicians have shown. The present shape tells us nothing of the length of the day at the date of consolidation ; for the earth, even when solid, will alter its form when exposed for a long time to the action of great forces. As Professor Perry said in a letter to Professor Tait: % ‘T know that solid rock is not like cobbler’s wax, but 1000 million years is a very long time, and the forces are great.’ Furthermore, we know that the earth is always altering its shape, and that whole coast-lines are slowly rising or falling, and that this has been true, at any rate, during the formation of the stratified rocks. This argument is dead and gone. Weare, indeed, tempted to wonder that the ' Reprinted in his Essays, 1868, vol. i. pp. 324-376. 2 Anniv. Address to Geol. Soc., 1869. » Nature, Jan. 3, 1895. ‘ It must not be forgotten, however, that this argument and those which follow it - have done very good work in modifying the unreasonable demands of geologists a quarter of a century ago, 3G2 812 : REPORT—1896. physicist, who was looking about for arguments by which to revise what he con- ceived to be the hasty conclusions of the geologist as to the age of the earth, should have exposed himself to such an obvious retort in basing his own con- clusions as to its age on the assumption that the earth, which we know to be always changing in shape, has been unable to alter its equatorial radius by a few miles under the action of tremendous forces constantly tending to alter it, and having 1000 million years in which to do the work. With this flaw in the case it is hardly necessary to insist on our great uncer- tainty as to the rate at which the tides are lengthening the day. The spectacle presented by the geologist and biologist, deeply shocked at Lord Kelvin’s extreme uniformitarianism in the domain of astronomy and cosmic physics, is altogether too comforting to be passed by without remark; but in thus indulging in a friendly tu guogue I am quite sure that I am speaking for every member of this Section in saying that we are in no way behind the members of Section A in our pride and admiration at the noble work which he has done for science, and we are glad to take this opportunity of congratulating him on the half-century of work and teaching——both equally fruitful—which has reached its completion in the present year. The second argument is based upon the cooling of the earth, and this is the one brought forward and explained by Lord Salisbury in his Presidential Address. It has been the argument on which perhaps the chief reliance has been placed, and of which the data—so it was believed—were the least open to doubt. On the Sunday during the meeting of the British Association at Leeds (1890): I went for a walk with Professor Perry, and asked him to explain the physical reasons for limiting the age of the earth to a period which the students of other sciences considered to be very inadequate. He gave me an account of the data on which Lord Kelvin relied in constructing this second argument, and expressed the strong opinion that they were perfectly sound, while, as for the mathematics, it might be taken for granted, he said, that they were entirely correct. He did not attach much weight to the other arguments, which he regarded as merely offering support to the second. This little piece of personal history is of interest, inasmuch as Professor Perry has now provided us with a satisfactory answer to the line of reasoning which so fully satisfied him in 1890, And he was led to a critical examination of the sub- ject by the attitude taken up by Lord Salisbury in 1894. Professor Perry was not present at the meeting, but when he read the President’s address, and saw how other conclusions were ruled out of court, how the only theory of evolution which commands anything approaching universal assent was set on one side because of certain assumptions as to the way in which the earth was believed to have cooled, he was seized with a desire to sift these assumptions, and to inquire whether they would bear the weight of such far-reaching conclusions. Before giving the results of his examination, it is necessary to give a brief account of the argument on which so much has been built. Lord Kelvin assumed that the earth is a homogeneous mass of rock similar to that with which we are familiar on the surface. Assuming, further, that the tem- perature increases, on the average, 1° F. for every 50 feet of depth near the surface everywhere, he concluded that the earth would have occupied not less than twenty, nor more than four hundred, million years in reaching its present condition from the time when it first began to consolidate and possessed a uniform temperature of 7000° F. If, in the statement of the argument, we substitute for the assumption of a homogeneous earth an earth which conducts heat better internally than it does toward the surface, Professor Perry, whose calculations have been verified by Mr. O. Heaviside, finds that the time of cooling has to be lengthened to an extent which depends upon the value assigned to the internal conducting power. If, for instance, we assume that the deeper part of the earth conducts ten times as well as the outer part, Lord Kelvin’s age would require to be multiplied by 56. Even if the conductivity be the same throughout, the increase of density in the TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 813 deeper part, by augmenting the capacity for heat of unit volume, implies a longer age than that conceded by Lord Kelvin. If the interior of the earth be fluid or contain fluid in a honeycomb structure, the rate at which heat can travel would be immensely increased by convection currents, and the age would have to be correspondingly lengthened. If, furthermore, such conditions, although not obtaining now, did obtain in past times, they will have operated in the same direction. Professor Tait, in his letter to Professor Perry (published in ‘Nature’ of January 3, 1895), takes the entirely indefensible position that the latter is bound to prove the higher internal conductivity. The obligation is all on the other side, and rests with those who have pressed their conclusions hard and carried them far. These conclusions have been, as Darwin found them, one of our ‘sorest troubles’; but when it is admitted that there is just as much to be said for another set of assumptions leading to entirely different conclusions, our troubles are at an end, and we cease to be terrified by an array of symbols, however unintelligible to us. It would seem that Professor Tait, without, as far as I can learn, publishing any independent calculation of the age of the earth, has lent the weight of his authority to a period of ten million years, or half of Lord Kelvin’s minimum. But in making this suggestion he apparently feels neither interest nor responsibility in establishing the data of the calculations which he borrowed to obtain therefrom a very different result from that obtained by their author. Professor Perry’s object was not to substitute a more correct age for that obtained by Lord Kelvin, but rather to show that the data from which the true age could be calculated are not really available. We obtain different results by making different assumptions, and there is no sufficient evidence for accepting one assumption rather than another. Nevertheless, there is some evidence which indicates that the interior of the earth in all probability conducts better than the surface. Its far higher density is consistent with the belief that it is rich in metals, free or combined. Professor Schuster concludes that the internal electric conductivity must be considerably greater than the external. Geologists have argued from the amount of folding to which the crust has been subjected that cooling must have taken place to a greater depth than 120 miles, as assumed in Lord Kelvin’s argument. Professor Perry’s assumption would involve cooling to a much greater depth. Professor Perry’s conclusion that the age of the habitable earth is lengthened by increased conductivity is the very reverse of that to which we should be led by a superficial examination of the case. Professor Tait, indeed, in the letter to which I have already alluded, has said: ‘Why, then, drag in mathematics at all, since it is absolutely obvious that the better conductor the interior in comparison with the skin, the longer ago must it have been when the whole was at 7000 F., the state of the skin being as at present?’ Professor Perry, in reply, pointed out that one mathematician who had refuted the tidal retardation argument ' had assumed that the conditions described by Professor Tait would have involved a shorter period of time. And it is probable that Lord Kelvin thought the same; for he had assumed conditions which would give the result— so he believed at the time—most acceptable to the geologist and biologist. Professor Perry’s conclusion is very far from obvious, and without the mathematical reasoning would not be arrived at by the vast majority of thinking men. The ‘natural man’ without mathematics would say, so far from this being ‘absolutely obvious,’ it is quite clear that increased conductivity, favouring escape a heat, would lead to more rapid cooling, and would make Lord Kelvin’s age even shorter. The argument can, however, be put clearly without mathematics, and, with Professor Perry’s help, I am able to state it in a few words. Lord Kelvin’s assumption of an earth resembling the surface rock in its relations to heat leads to the present condition of things, namely, a surface gradient of 1° F. for every 50 feet, in 100,000,000 years, more or less. Deeper than 150 miles he imagines 1 Rev. M. H. Close in R. Dublin Soc., February 1878. 814 REPORT—1896. that there has been almost no cooling. If, however, we take one of the cases put by Professor Perry, and assume that below a depth of four miles there is ten times the conductivity, we find that after a period of 10,000,000,000 years the gradient at the surface is still 1° F. for every 50 feet; but that we have to descend to a depth of 1500 miles before we find the initial temperature of 7000° F. undiminished by cooling. In fact the earth, as a whole, has cooled far more quickly than under Lord Kelvin’s conditions, the greater conductivity enabling a far larger amount of the internal heat to escape; but in escaping it has kept up the temperature gradient at the surface. Lord Kelvin, replying to Professor Perry’s criticisms, quite admits that the age at which he had arrived by the use of this argument may be insufficient. Thus, he says, in his letter: ! ‘I thought my range from twenty millions to 400 millions was probably wide enough, but it is quite possible that I should have put the superior limit a good deal higher, perhaps 4000 instead of 400.’ The third argument was suggested by Helmholtz, and depends on the life of the sun. Ifthe energy of the sun is due only to the mutual gravitation of its parts, and if the sun is now of uniform density, ‘the amount of heat generated by his contraction to his present volume would have been sufficient to last eighteen million years at his present rate of radiation.’* Lord Kelvin rejects the assump- tion of uniform density, and is, in consequence of this change, able to offer a much higher upward limit of 500 million years. This argument also implies the strictest uniformitarianism as regards the sun. We know that other suns may suddenly gain a great accession of energy, so that their radiation is immensely increased. We only detect such changes when they are large and sudden, but they prepare us to believe that smaller accessions may be much more frequent, and perhaps a normal occurrence in the evolution of a sun. Such accessions may have followed from the convergence of a stream of meteors. Again, it is possible that the radiation of the sun may have been diminished and his energy conserved by a solar atmosphere. Newcomb has objected to these two possible modes by which the life of the sun may have been greatly lengthened, that a lessening of the sun’s heat by under a quarter would cause all the water on the earth to freeze, while an increase of much over half would probably boil it all away. But such changes in the amount of radiation received would follow from a greater distance from the sun of 15} per cent., and a greater proximity to him of 18:4 per cent., respectively. Venus is inside the latter limit, and Mars outside the former; and yet it would be a very large assumption to conclude that all the water in the former is steam, and allinthe latter ice. Indeed, the existence of water and the melting of snow on Mars are considered to be thoroughly well authenticated. It is further possible that in a time of lessened solar radiation the earth may have possessed an atmosphere which would retain a larger proportion of the sun’s heat ; and the internal heat of the earth itself, great lakes of lava under a canopy of cloud for example, may have played an important part in supplying warmth. Again we have a greater age if there was more energy available than in Helmholtz’s hypothesis. Lord Kelvin maintains that this is improbable because of the slow rotation of the sun, but Perry has given reasons for an opposite conclusion. The collapse of the first argument of tidal retardation and of the second of the cooling of the earth warn us to beware of a conclusion founded on the assumption that the sun’s energy depends, and has ever depended, on a single source of which we know the beginning and the end. It may be safely maintained that such a conclusion has not that degree of certainty which justifies the followers of one science in assuming that the conclusion of other sciences must be wrong, and in disregarding the evidence brought forward by workers in other lines of research. We must freely admit that this third argument has not yet fully shared the fate 1 Nature, January 3, 1895. 2» Newcomb’s Popular Astronomy, p. 523. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 815 of the two other lines of reasoning. Indeed, Professor George Darwin, although not feeling the force of these latter, agrees with Lord Kelvin in regarding 500 million years as the maximum life of the sun.! We may observe, too, that 500 million years is by no means to be despised; a great deal may happen in such a period of time. Although I should be very sorry to say that it is sufficient, it is a very different offer from Professor Tait’s ten million. In drawing up this account of the physical arguments, I owe almost everything to Professor Perry for his articles in ‘ Nature’ (January 3 and April 18, 1895), and his kindness in explaining any difficulties that arose. I have thought it right to enter into these arguments in some detail, and to consume a considerable pro- portion of our time in their discussion. This was imperatively necessary, because they claimed to stand as barriers across our path, and, so long as they were admitted to be impassable, any further progress was out of the question. What I hope has been an unbiassed examination has shown that, as barriers, they are more imposing than effective; and we are free to proceed, and to look for the conclusions warranted by our own evidence. In this matter we are at one with the geologists; for, as has been already pointed out, we rely on them for an estimate of the time occupied. by the deposition of the stratified rocks, while they rely on us for a conclusion as to how far this period is sufficient for the whole of organic evolution. First, then, we must briefly consider the geological argument, and I cannot do better than take the case as put by Sir Archibald Geikie in his Presidential Address to this Association at Edinburgh in 1892. Arguing from the amount of material removed from the land by denuding agencies, and carried down to the sea by rivers, he showed that the time required to reduce the height of the land by one foot varies, according to the activity of the agencies at work, from 730 years to 6800 years. But this also supplies a measure of the rate of deposition of rock; for the same material is laid down elsewhere, and would of course add the same height of one foot to some other area equal in size to that from which it was removed. The next datum to be obtained is the total thickness of the stratified rocks from the Cambrian system to the present day. ‘On a reasonable computation these stratified masses, where most fully developed, attain a united thickness of not less than 100,000 feet. If they were all laid down at the most rapid recorded rate of denudation, they would require a period of seventy-three millions of years for their completion. If they were laid down at the slowest rate, they would demand a period of not less than 680 millions,’ The argument that geological agencies acted much more vigorously in past times he entirely refuted by pointing to the character of the deposits of which the stratified series is composed. ‘We can see no proof whatever, nor even any evidence which suggests that on the whole the rate of waste and sedimentation was more rapid during Mesozoic and Paleozoic time than it is to-day. Had there been any marked difference in this rate from ancient to modern times, it would be — that no clear proof of it should have been recorded in the crust of the earth. It may therefore be inferred that the rate of deposition was no nearer the more rapid than the slower of the rates recorded above, and, if so, the stratified rocks would have been laid down in about 400 million years. There are other arguments favouring the uniformity of conditions throughout the time during which the stratified rocks were laid down, in addition to those which are purely geological and depend upon the character of the rocks themselves. ee etae more biological than geological, these arguments are best) considered ere. The geological agency to which attention is chiefly directed by those who desire to hurry up the phenomena of rock formation is that of the tides, But it seems * British Association Reports, 1886, pp. 514-518. 816 REPORT—1896. certain that the tides were not sufficiently higher in Silurian times to prevent the deposition of certain beds of great thickness under conditions as tranquil as any of which we have evidence in the case of a formation extending over a large area. From the character of the organic remains it is known that these beds were laid down in the sea, and there are the strongest grounds for believing that they were accumulated along shores and in fairly shallow water. The remains of extremely delicate organisms are found in immense numbers, and over a very large area. The recent discovery, in the Silurian system of America, of trilobites, with their long delicate antennz perfectly preserved, proves that in one locality (Rome, New York State) the tranquillity of deposition was quite as profound as in any locality yet discovered on this side of the Atlantic. There are, then, among the older Palzeozoic rocks a set of deposits than which we can imagine none better calculated to test the force of the tides; and we find that they supply evidence for exceptional tranquillity of conditions over a long period of time. There is other evidence of the permanence, throughout the time during which the stratified rocks were deposited, of conditions not very dissimilar to those which obtain to-day. Thus the attachments of marine organisms, which are per- manently rooted to the bottom or on the shores, did not differ in strength from those which we now find—an indication that the strains due to the movements of the sea did not greatly differ in the past. We have evidence of a somewhat similar kind to prove uniformity in the movements of the air. The expanse of the wings of flying organisms certainly does not differ in a direction which indicates any greater violence in the atmo- spheric conditions. Before the birds had become dominant among the larger flying organisms, their place was taken by the flying reptiles, the pterodactyls, and before the appearance of these we know that, in Paleozoic times, the insects were of immense size, a dragon-fly from the Carboniferous rocks of France being upwards of 2 feet in the expanse of its wings. As one group after another of widely dissimilar organisms gained control of the air, each was in turn enabled to increase to the size which was best suited to such an environment, but we find that the limits which obtain to-day were not widely different in the past, And this is evidence for the uniformity in the strains due to wind and storm no less than to those due to gravity. Furthermore, the condition of the earth’s surface at present shows us how extremely sensitive the flying organism is to an increase in the former of these strains, when it occurs in proximity to the sea. Thus it is well known that an unusually large proportion of the Madeiran beetles are wingless, while those which require the power of flight possess it in a stronger degree than on continental areas. This evolution in two directions is readily explained by the destruction by drowning of the winged individuals of the species which can manage to live without the power of flight, and of the less strongly winged indi- viduals of those which need it. Species of the latter kind cannot live at all in the far more stormy Kerguelen Land, and the whole of the insect fauna is wingless, The size and strength of the trunks of fossil trees afford, as Professor George Darwin has pointed out, evidence of uniformity in the strains due to the condition of the atmosphere. We can trace the prints of raindrops at various geological horizons, and in some cases found in this country it is even said that the eastern side of the depressions is the more deeply pitted, proving that the rain drove from the west, as the great majority of our storms do to-day. When, therefore, we are accused of uniformitarianism, as if it were an entirely unproved assumption, we can at any rate point to a large body of positive evidence which supports our contention, and the absence of any evidence against it. Furthermore, the data on which we rely are likely to increase largely, as the result of future work. After this interpolation, chiefly of biological argument in support of the geo- logist, I cannot do ister than bring the geological evidence to a close in the words which conclude Sir Archibald Geikie’s address: ‘ After careful reflection on the subject, I affirm that the geological record furnishes a mass of evidence which no > —s « TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION. D. 817 arguments drawn from other departments of Nature can explain away, and which, it seems to me, cannot be satisfactorily interpreted save with an allowance of time much beyond the narrow limits which recent physical speculation would concede.’ In his letter to Professor Perry,! Lord Kelvin says :— ‘So far as underground heat alone is concerned, you are quite right that my estimate was 100 million, and please remark * that that is all Geikie wants; but I should be exceedingly frightened to meet him now with only twenty million in my mouth.’ We have seen, however, that Geikie considered the rate of sedimentation to be, on the whole, uniform with that which now obtains, and this would demand a period of nearly 400 million years. He points out, furthermore, that the time must be greatly increased on account of the breaks and interruptions which occur in the series, so that we shall probably get as near an estimate as is possible from the data which are available by taking 450 million as the time during which the stratified rocks were formed. Before leaving this part of the subject, I cannot refrain from suggesting a line of inquiry which may very possibly furnish important data for checking the estimates at present formed by geologists, and which, if the mechanical difficulties can be overcome, is certain to lead to results of the greatest interest and importance. Ever since the epoch-making voyage of the ‘Challenger,’ it has been known that the floor of the deep oceans outside the shallow shelf which fringes the continental areas is covered by a peculiar deposit formed entirely of meteoric and volcanic dust, the waste of floating pumice, and the hard parts of animals living in the ocean, Of these latter only the most resistant can escape the powerful solvent agencies. Many observations prove that the accumulation of this deposit is extremely slow. One indication of this is especially convincing: the teeth of sharks and the most resistant part of the skeleton—the ear- bones—of whales are so thickly spread over the surface that they are continually brought up in the dredge, while sometimes a single haul will yield a large number of them. Imagine the count- less generations of sharks and whales which must have succeeded each other in order that these insignificant portions of them should be so thickly spread over that vast area which forms the ocean floor! We have no reason to suppose that sharks and whales die more frequently in the deep ocean than in the shallow fringing seas; in fact, many observations point in the opposite direction, for wounded and dying whales often enter shallow creeks and inlets, and not uncom- monly become stranded. And yet these remains of sharks and whales, although well known in the stratified rocks which were laid down in comparatively shallow water and near coasts, are only found in certain beds, and then in far less abun- dance than in the oceanic deposit. We can only explain this difference by supposing that the latter accumulate with such almost infinite slowness as compared with the continental deposits that these remains form an important and conspicuous constituent of the one, while they are merely found here and there when looked for embedded in the other. The rate of accumulation of all other constituents is so slow as to leave a layer of teeth and ear-bones uncovered, or covered by so thin a deposit that the dredge can collect them freely. Dr. John Murray calculates that only a few inches of this deposit have accumulated since the Tertiary period. These most interesting facts prove, furthermore, that the great ocean basins and continental areas have occupied the same relative positions since the formation of the first stratified rocks ; for no oceanic deposits are found anywhere in the latter. We know the sources of the oceanic deposit, and it might be possible to form an esti- mate, within wide limits, of its rate of accumulation. If it were possible to ascertain its thickness by means of a boring, some conclusions as to the time which has elapsed during the lifetime of certain species—perhaps even the lifetime of the oceans themselves—might be arrived at. Lower down the remains of earlier species would probably be found. The depth of this deposit and its character at deeper levels are questions of overwhelming interest; and perhaps even more so is 1 Nature, Jan. 3, 1895. 2? P. L. and A,, vol. ii. p. 87. 818 REPORT—1896. the question as to what lies beneath. Long before the ‘Challenger’ had proved the persistence of oceanic and continental areas, Darwin, with extraordinary fore- sight, and opposed by all other naturalists and geologists, including his revered teacher, Lyell, had come to the same conclusion. His reasoning on the subject is so convincing that it is remarkable that he made so few converts, and this is all the more surprising since the arguments were published in the ‘ Origin of Species,’ which in other respects produced so profound an effect. In speculating as to the rocks in which the remains of the ancestors of the earliest known fossils may still exist, he suggested that, although the existing relationship between the positions of our present oceans and continental areas is of immense antiquity, there is no reason for the belief that it has persisted for an indefinite period, but that at some time long antecedent to the earliest known fossiliferous rocks ‘continents may have existed where oceans are now spread out; and clear and open oceans may have existed where our continents now stand.’ Not the least interesting result would be the test of this hypothesis, which would. probably be forthcoming as the result of boring into the floor of a deep ocean; for although, as Darwin pointed out, it is likely enough that such rocks would be highly metamorphosed, yet it might still be possible to ascertain whether they had at any time formed part of a continental deposit, and perhaps to discover much more than this. Such an under- taking might be carried out in conjunction with other investigations of the highest interest, such as the attempt to obtain a record of the swing of a pendulum at the bottom of the ocean. We now come to the strictly biological part of our subject—to the inquiry as to how much of the whole scheme of organic evolution has been worked out in the time during which the fossiliferous rocks were formed, and how far, therefore, the time required by the geologist is sufficient. It is first necessary to consider Lord Kelvin’s suggestion that life may have reached the earth on a meteorite—a suggestion which might be made the basis of an attempt to rescue us from the dilemma in which we were placed by the insufficiency of time for evolution. It might be argued that the evolution which took place elsewhere may have been merely completed, in a comparatively brief space of time, on our earth. : We Imow nothing of the origin of life here or elsewhere, and our only attitude towards this or any other hypothesis on the subject is that of the anxious inquirer for some particle of evidence. But a few brief considerations will show that no escape from the demands for time can be gained in this way. Our argument does not deal with the time required for the origin of life, or for the development of the lowest beings with which we are acquainted from the first formed beings, of which we know nothing. Both these processes may have required an immensity of time ; but as we know nothing whatever about them, and have as yet no prospect of acquiring any information, we are compelled to confine ourselves to as much of the process of evolution as we can infer from the structure of living and fossil forms—that is, as regards animals, to the development of the simplest into the most complex Protozoa, the evolution of the Metazoa from the Protozoa, and the branching of ‘the former into its numerous Phyla, with all their classes, orders, families, genera, and species. But we shall find that this is quite enough to necessitate a very large increase in the time estimated by the geologist. The Protozoa, simple and complex, still exist upon the earth in countless species, together with the Metazoan Phyla. Descendants of forms which in their day constituted the beginning of that scheme of evolution which I have defined above, descendants, furthermore, of a large proportion of those forms which, age after age, constituted the shifting phases of its onward progress, still exist, and in a sufficiently unmodified condition to enable us to reconstruct, at any rate in mere outline, the history of the past. Innumerable details and many phases of supreme importance are still hidden from us, some of them perhaps never to be recovered. But this frank admission, and the eager and premature attempts to expound too much, to go further than the evidence permits, must not be allowed TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 819 to throw an undeserved suspicion upon conclusions which are sound and well supported, upon the firm conviction of every zoologist that the general trend of evolution has been, as I have stated it, that each of the Metazoan Phyla originated, directly or indirectly, in the Protozoa. The argument founded on the meteorite hypothesis would, however, require that the process of evolution went backward on a scale as vast as that on which it went forward ; that certain descendants of some central type, coming to the earth on a meteorite, gradually lost their Metazoan complexity and developed backward into the Protozoa, throwing off the lower Metazoan Phyla on the way, while cer- tain other descendants evolved all the higher Metazoan groups. Such a process would shorten the period of evolution by half, but it need hardly be said that all available evidence is entirely against it. 4 The only other assumption by means of which the meteorite hypothesis might be used to shorten the time is even more wild and improbable. Thus it might be supposed that the evolution which we believe to have taken place on this earth really took place elsewhere—at any rate as regards all its main lines—and that samples of all the various phases, including the earliest and simplest, reached us by a regular meteoric service, which was established at some time after the com- pletion of the scheme of organic evolution. Hence the evidences which we study would point to an evolution which occurred in some unknown world with an age which even Professor Tait has no desire to limit. If these wild assumptions be rejected, there remains the supposition that, if life was brought by a meteorite, it was life no higher than that of the simplest Proto- zoou—a supposition which leaves our argument intact. The alternative supposition, that one or more of the Metazoan Phyla were introduced in this way while the others were evolved from the terrestrial Protozoa, is hardly worth consideration. In the first place, some evidence of a part in a common scheme of evolution is to be found in every Phylum. In the second place, the gain would be small; the arbitrary assumption would only affect the evidence of the time required for evolu- tion derived from the particular Phylum or Phyla of supposed meteoric origin. The meteoric hypothesis, then, can only affect our argument by making the most improbable assumptions, for which, moreover, not a particle of evidence can be brought forward. We are therefore free to follow the biological evidence fearlessly. It is neces- sary, in the first place, to expand somewhat the brief outline of the past history of the animal kingdom, which has already been given. Since the appearance of the ‘Origin of Species,’ the zoologist, in making his classifications, has attempted as far as possible to set forth a genealogical arrangement. Our purpose will be served by an account of the main outlines of a recent classification, which has been framed with a due consideration for all sides of zoological research, new and old, and which has met with general approval. Professor Lankester divides the animal kingdom into two grades, the higher of which, the Enterozoa (Metazoa), were derived from the lower, the Plastidozoa (Protozoa). Each of these grades is again divided into two sub-grades, and each of these is again divided into Phyla, cor- responding more or less to the older sub-kingdoms. Beginning from below, the most primitive animals in existence are found in the seven Phyla of the lower Protozoan sub-grade, the Gymnomyxa. Of these unfortunately only two, the Reticularia (Fora- minifera) and Radiolaria, possess a structure which renders possible their preservation in the rocks. The lowest and simplest of these Gymnomyxa represent the starting- point of that scheme of organic evolution which we are considering to-day. The higher order of Protozoan life, the sub-grade Corticata, contains three Phyla, no one of which is available in the fossil state. They are, however, of great interest and importance to us as showing that the Protozoan type assumes a far higher organ- isation on its way to evolve the more advanced grade of animal life. The first- _ formed of these latter are contained in the two Phyla of the sub-grade Ccelentera, the Porifera or Sponges, and the Nematophora or Corals, Sea-anemones, Hydrozoa and allied groups. Both of these Phyla are plentifully represented in ‘the fossil state. Itis considered certain that the latter of these, the Nematophora, 820 REPORT—1896. gave rise to the higher sub-grade, the Ccelomata, or animals with a ccelom or body-cavity surrounding the digestive tract. This latter includes all the remain- ing species of animals in nine Phyla, five of which are found fossil—the Echino- derma, Gephyrea, Mollusca, Appendiculata, and Vertebrata. Before proceeding further I wish to lay emphasis on the immense evolutionary history which must have been passed through before the ancestor of one of the higher of these nine Phyla came into being. Let us consider one or two examples, since the establishment of this position is of the utmost importance for our argu- ment. First, consider the past history of the Vertebrata—of the common ancestor of our Balanoglossus, Tunicates, Amphioxus, Lampreys, Fishes, Dipnoi, Amphibia, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals. Although zoologists differ very widely in their opinions as to the affinities of this ancestral form, they all agree in maintaining that it did not arise direct from the Nematophora in the lower sub-grade of Metazoa, but that it was the product of a long history within the Ccelomate sub- grade. The question as to which of the other Coelomate Phyla it was associated with will form the subject of one of our discussions at this meeting; and I will therefore say no more upon this period of its evolution, except to point out that the very question itself, ‘the ancestry of Vertebrates,’ only means a rela- tively small part of the evolutionary history of the Vertebrate ancestor within the Coelomate group. For when we have decided the question of the other Ceelomate Phylum or Phyla to which the ancestral Vertebrate belonged, there remains of course the history of that Phylum or those Phyla earlier than the point at which the Vertebrate diverged, right back to the origin of the Coelomata; while, beyond and below, the wide gulf between this and the Ccelentera had to be crossed, and then, probably aftera long history as a Ccelenterate, the widest and most significant of all the morphological intervals—that between the lowest Metazoon and the highest Protozoon—was traversed. But this was by no means all. There remains the history within the higher Protozoan sub-grade, in the interval from this to the lower, and within the lower sub-grade itself, until we finally retrace our steps to the lowest and simplest forms. It is impossible to suppose that all this history of change can have been otherwise than immensely prolonged ; for it will be shown below that all the available evidence warrants the belief that the changes during these earlier phases were at least as slow as those which occurred later. If we take the history of another of the higher Phyla, the Appendiculata, we find that the evidence points in the same direction. The common ancestor of our Rotifera, earthworms, leeches, Peripatus, centipedes, insects, Crustacea, spiders and scorpions, and forms allied to all these, is generally admitted to have been Cheetopod-like, and probably arose in relation to the beginnings of certain other Ccelomate Phyla, such as the Gephyrea and perhaps Mollusca. At the origin of the Ccelomate sub-grade the common ancestor of all Coelomate Phyla is reached, and its evolution has been already traced in the case of the Vertebrata. What is likely to be the relation between the time required for the evolution of the ancestor of a Coelomate Phylum and that required for the evolution, which subsequently occurred, within the Phylum itself? The only indication of an answer to this question is to be found in a study of the rate of evoluticn in the lower parts of the animal kingdom as compared with that in the higher. Con- trary, perhaps, to anticipation, we find that all the evidences of rapid evolution are confined to the most advanced of the smaller groups within the highest Phyla, and especially to the higher classes of the Vertebrata. Such evidence as we have strongly indicates the most remarkable persistence of the lower animal types. Thus in the class Imperforata of the Reticularia (Foraminifera) one of our existing genera (Saccamina) occurs in the Carboniferous strata, another (Trochammina) in the Permian, while a single new genus (Receptaculites) occurs in the Silurian and Devonian. The evidence from the class Perforata is much stronger, the exist- ing genera Nodosaria, Dentalina, Textularia, Grammostomum, Valvulina, and Nummulina all occurring in the Carboniferous, together with the new genera Archeediscus (?) and Fusulina. I omit reference to the much-disputed Eozoon from the Laurentian rocks far TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 821 below the horizon, which for the purpose of this address I am considering as the lowest fossiliferous stratum. We are looking forward to the new light which will be thrown upon this form in the communication of its veteran defender, Sir William Dawson, whom we are all glad to welcome. Passing the Radiolaria, with delicate skeletons less suited for fossilisation, and largely pelagic, and therefore less likely to reach the strata laid down along the fringes of the continental areas, the next Phylum which is found in a fossil state is that of the Porifera, including the sponges, and divided into two classes, the Calcispongie and Silicospongize. Although the fossilisation of sponges is in many cases very incomplete, distinctly recognisable traces can be made out in a large number of strata. From these we know that representatives of all the groups of both classes (except the Halisarcide, which have no hard parts) occurred in the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous systems, The whole Phylum isan example of long persistence with extremely little change. And the same is true of the Nema- tophora: new groups indeed come in, sometimes extremely rich in species, such as the Palzozoic Rugose corals and Graptolites; but they existed side by side with representatives of existing groups, and they are not in themselves primitive or ancestral. A study of the immensely numerous fossil corals reveals no advance in organisation, while researches into the structure of existing Aleyonaria and Hydro- corallina have led to the interpretation of certain Palzeozoic forms which were pre- viously obscure, and the conclusion that they find their place close beside the living species, All available evidence points to the extreme slowness of progressive evolu- tionary changes in the Ceelenterate Phyla, although the Protozoa, if we may judge by the Reticularia (Foraminifera), are even more conservative. When we consider later on the five Coelomate Phyla which occur fossil, we shall find that the progressive changes were slower and indeed hardly appreciable in the two lower and less complex Phyla, viz., the Echinoderma, and Gephyrea, as compared with the Mollusca, Appendiculata, and Vertebrata. Within these latter Phyla we have evidence for the evolution of higher groups presenting a more or less marked advance in organisation. And not only is the rate of development more rapid in the highest Phyla of the animal kingdom, but it appears to be most rapid when dealing with the highest animal tissue, the central nervous system. The chief, and doubtless the most significant, difference between the early Tertiary mammals and those which succeeded them, between the Secondary and Tertiary reptiles, between man and the mammals most nearly allied to him, is a difference in thesize of the brain. In all these cases an enormous increase in this, the dominant tissue of the body, has taken place in a time which, geologically speaking, is very brief. hen glancing later on over the evolution which has taken place within the Phyla, further details upon this subject will be given, although in this as in other cases the time at our disposal demands that the exposition of evidence must largely yield to an exposition of the conclusions which follow from its study. And undoubtedly a study of all the available evidence points to the con- clusion that in the lower grade, sub-grades, and Phyla of the animal kingdom evolution has been extremely slow as compared with that in the higher. We do not know the reason. It may be that this remarkable persistence through the stratified series of deposits is due to an innate fixity of constitution which has rigidly limited the power of variation; or, more probably perhaps, that the lower members of the animal kingdom were, as they are now, more closely confined to particular environments, with particular sets of conditions, with which they had to cope, and, this being successfully accomplished, natural selection has done little more than keep up a standard of organisation which was sufficient for their needs ; while the higher and more aggressive forms, ranging over many environments and always prone to encounter new sets of conditions, were compelled to undergo respon- sive changes or to succumb. But, whatever be the cause, the fact remains, and is of importance for our argument. When the ancestor of one of the higher Phyla was associated with the lower Phyla of the Ccelomate sub-grade, when further back it passed through a Ccelenterate, a higher Protozoan, and finally a lower 822 REPORT—1896. Protozoan phase, we are led to believe that its evolution was probably very slow as compared with the rate which it subsequently attained. But this conclusion is of the utmost importance ; for the history contained in the stratified rocks nowhere reveals to us the origin of a Phylum. And this is not mere negative evidence, but positive evidence of the most unmistakable character. All the five Coelomate Phyla which occur fossil appear low down in the Paleozoic rocks, in the Silurian or Cambrian strata, and they are represented by forms which are very far from being primitive, or, if primitive, are persistent types, such as Chiton, which are now living. Thus Vertebrata are represented by fishes, both sharks and ganoids; the Appendiculata by cockroaches, scorpions, Limulids, Trilobites, and many Crustacea ; the Mollusca by Nautilus and numerous allied genera, by Dentalium, Chiton, Pteropods, and many Gastropods aud Lamellibranchs; the Gephyrea by very numerous Brachiopods, and many Polyzoa ; the Echinoderma by Crinoids, Cystoids, Blastoids, Asteroids, Ophiuroids, and Echinoids. It is just conceivable, although, as 1 believe, most improbable, that the Vertebrate Phylum originated at the time when the earliest known fossiliferous rocks were laid down. It must be remem- bered, however, that an enormous morphological interval separates the fishes which appear in the Silurian strata from the lower branches, grades, and classes of the Phylum in which Balanoglossus, the Ascidians, Amphioxus, and the Lampreys are laced. The earliest Vertebrates to appear are, in fact, very advanced members of the Phylum, and, from the point of view of anatomy, much nearer to man than to Amphioxus. If, however, we grant the improbable contention that so highly organised an animal as a shark could he evolved from the ancestral vertebrate in the period which intervened between the earliest Cambrian strata and the Upper Silurian, it is quite impossible to urge the same with regard to the other Phyla, Tt has been shown above that when these appear in the Cambrian and Silurian, they are flourishing in full force, while their numerous specialised forms are a positive proof of a long antecedent history within the limits of the Phylum. If, however, we assume for the moment that the Phyla began in the Cambrian, the geologist’s estimate must still be increased considerably, and perhaps doubled, in order to account for the evolution of the higher Phyla from forms as low as many which are now known upon the earth ; unless, indeed, it is supposed, against the weight of all such evidence as is available, that the evolutionary history in these early times was comparatively rapid. To recapitulate, if we represent the history of animal evolution by the form of a tree, we find that the following growth took place in some age antecedent to the earliest fossil records, before the establishment of the higher Phyla of the animal kingdom. The main trunk representing the lower Protozoa divided, originating the higher Protozoa; the latter portion again divided, probably in a threefold man- ner, originating the two lowest Metazoan Phyla, constituting the Ocelentera. The branch representing the higher of these Phyla, the Nematophora, divided, origin- ating the lower Coelomate Phyla, which again branched and originated the higher Phyla. And, as has been shown above, the relatively ancestral line, at every stage of this complex history, after originating some higher line, itself continued down to the present day, throughout the whole series of fossiliferous rocks, with but little change in its general characters, and practically nothing in the way of progressive evolution. Evidences of marked advance are to be found alone in the most advanced groups of the latest highest products—the Phyla formed by the last of these divisions. It may be asked, How is it possible for the zoologist to feel so confident as to the past history of the various animal groups? I have already explained that he does not feel this confidence as regards the details of the history, but as to its general lines. The evidence which leads to this conviction is based upon the fact that animal structure and mode of cevelopment can be, and have been, handed down from. generation to generation from a period far more remote than that which is represented by the earliest fossils; that fundamental facts in structure and development may remain changeless amid endless changes of a more general character; that especially favourable conditions have preserved TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 823 ancestral forms comparatively unchanged. Workirg upon this material, com- parative anatomy and embryology can reconstruct for us the general aspects of a history which took place long before the Cambrian rocks were deposited. This line of reasoning may appear very speculative and unsound, and it may easily become so when pressed too far. But applied with due caution and reserve, it may be trusted to supply us with an immense amount of valuable information which cannot be obtained in any other way. Furthermore, it is capable of stand- ing the very true and searching test supplied by the verification of predictions -made on its authority. Many facts taken together lead the zoologist to be- lieve that A was descended from C through B; but if this be true, B should possess certain characters which are not known to belong to it. Under the in- spiration of hypothesis a more searching investigation is made, and the characters are found. Again, that relatively small amount of the whole scheme of animal evolution which is contained in the fossiliferous rocks has furnished abundant confirmation of the validity of the zoologist’s method. The comparative anatomy of the higher vertebrate classes leads the zoologist to believe that the toothless beak and the fused caudal vertebrae of a bird were not ancestral characters, but were at some time derived from a condition more conformable to the general plan of vertebrate construction, and especially to that of reptiles. Numerous secondary fossils prove to us that the birds of that time possessed teeth and separate caudal vertebre, culminating in the long lizard-like tail of Archzeopteryx. Prediction and confirmation of this kind, both zoological and paleontological, haye been going on ever since the historic point of view was adopted by the naturalist as the outcome of Darwin's teaching, and the zoologist may safely claim that his method, confirmed by palzontology so far as evidence is available, may be extended beyond the period in which such evidence is to be found. And now our last endeavour must be to obtain some conception of the amount of evolution which has taken place within the higher Phyla of the animal kingdom during the period in which the fossiliferous rocks were deposited. The evidence must necessarily be considered very briefly, and we shall be compelled to omit the Vertebrata altogether. The Phylum Appendiculata is divided by Lankester into three branches, the first containing the Rotifera, the second the Chzetopoda, the third the Arthropoda. Of these the second is the oldest, and gave rise to the other two, or at any rate to the Arthropoda, with which we are alone concerned, inasmuch as the fossil records of the others are insufficient. The Arthropoda contain seven classes, divided into two grades, according to the presence or absence of antennze—the Ceratophora, containing the Peripatoidea, the Myriapoda, and the Hexapoda (or insects); the Acerata, containing the Crustacea, Arachnida, and two other classes (the Pantopoda and Tardigrada) which we need not consider. The first class of the antenna- bearing group contains the single genus Peripatus—one of the most interesting and ancestral of animals, as proved by its structure and development, and by its immense geographical range. Ever since the researches of Moseley and Balfour, extended more recently by those of Sedgwick, it has been recognised as one of the most beautiful of the connecting links to be found amongst animals, uniting the antenna-bearing Arthropods, of which it is the oldest member, with the Cheetopods. Peripatus is a magnificent example of the far-reaching conclusions of zoology, and of its superiority to paleontology as a guide in unravelling the tangled history of animal evolution. Peripatus is alive to-day, and can be studied in all the details of its structure and development; it is infinitely more ancestral, and tells of a far more remote past than any fossil Arthropod, although such fossils are well known in all the older of the Paleozoic rocks, And yet Peripatus is not known as a fossil. Peripatus has come down, with but little change, from a time, on a mode- _ Tate estimate, at least twice as remote, and probably many times as remote, as the earliest known Cambrian fossil. The agencies’ which, it is believed, have crushed and heated the Archzean rocks so as to obliterate the traces of life which they contained were powerless to efface this ancient type; for, although the passing generations may have escaped record, the likeness of each was stamped on that 824 REPORT— 1896. which succeeded it, and has continued down to the present day. It is, of course, a perfectly trite and obvious conclusion, but not the less one to be wondered at, that - the force of heredity should thus far outlast the ebb and flow of terrestrial change throughout the vast period over which the geologist is our guide. If, however, the older Paleozoic rocks tell us nothing of the origin of the antenna-bearing Arthropods, what do they tell us of the history of the Myriapod and Hexapod classes ? The Myriapods are well represented in Paleozoic strata, two species being found in the Devonian and no less than thirty-two in the Carboniferous. Although placed in an order (Archipolypoda) separate from those of living Myriapods, these species are by no means primitive, and do not supply any information as to the steps by which the class arose. The imperfection of the record is well seen in the traces of this class ; for between the Carboniferous rocks and the Oligocene there are no remains of undoubted Myriapods. We now come to the consideration of insects, of which an adequate discussion would occupy a great deal too much of your time. An immense number of species are found in the Paleozoic rocks, and these are considered by Scudder, the great authority on fossil insects, to form an order, the Palzodictyoptera, distinct from any of the existing orders. The latter, he believes, were evolved from the former in Mesozoic times. These views do not appear to derive support from the wonderful discoveries of M. Brongniart ! in the Upper Carboniferous of Commentry in the Department of Allier in Central France. Concerning this marvellous assemblage of species, arranged by their discoverer into 46 genera and 101 species, Scudder truly says :— ‘Our knowledge of Paleozoic insects will have been increased three or four fold at a single stroke... . . No former contribution in this field can in any way compare with it, nor even all former contributions taken together.’ * When we remember that the group of fossil insects, of which so much can be affirmed by so great an authority as Scudder, lived at one time and in a single locality, we cannot escape the conclusion that the insect fauna of the habitable earth during the whole Palzozoic period was of immense importance and variety. Our knowledge of this single group of species is largely due to the accident that coal- mining in Commentry is carried on in the open air. Now, these abundant remains of insects, so far from upholding the view that the existing orders had not been developed in Palzozoic times, are all arranged by Brongniart in four out of the nine orders into which insects are usually divided, viz., the Orthoptera, Neuroptera, Thysanoptera, and Homoptera. The importance of the discovery is well seen in the Neuroptera, the whole known Paleozoic fauna of this order being divided into 45 genera and 99 species, of which 33 and 72 respectively have been found at Commentry. Although the Carboniferous insects of Commentry are placed in new families, some of them come wonderfully near those into which existing insects are classified, and obviously form the precursors of these. This is true of the Blattidee, Phasmide, ‘Acridiidee, and Locustide among the Orthoptera, the Perlide among the Neuroptera, and the Fulgoridz among the Homoptera. The differences which separate these existing families from their Carboniferous ancestors are most interesting and instructive. Thus the Carboniferous cockroaches possessed ovi- positors, and probably laid their eggs one at a time, while ours are either vivi- parous or lay their eggs ina capsule. The Protophasmide resemble living species in the form of the head, antenne, legs, and body; but while our species are either wingless or, with the exception of the female Phyllide, have the anterior pair reduced to tegmina, useless for flight, those of Paleozoic times possessed four well- developed wings. The forms representing locusts and grasshoppers (Paleacridiidie) possessed long slender antenne like the green grasshoppers (Locustide), from which the Acridiide are now distinguished by their short antenne. The diver- gence and specialisation which are thus shown are amazingly smallin amount. In 1 Ch, Brongniart.—‘ Recherches pour servir 4 l’Histoire des Insectes fossiles des temps primaires, précédées d’une Etude sur la nervation des ailes des Insectes.’ 1894. 2 §. H. Scudder, Am. Journ. Sci., vol. xlvii. February 1894. Art. Vili. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 825 the vast period between the Upper Carboniferous rocks and the present day the cock- roaches have gained a rather different wing venation, and have succeeded in laying their eggs in a manner rather more specialised than that of insects in general; the stick insects and leaf insects have lost or reduced their wings, the grasshoppers have shortened their antennz. These, however, are the insects which most closely resemble the existing species ; let us turn to the forms which exhibit the greatest differences. Many species have retained in the adult state characters which are now confined to the larval stage of existence, such as the presence of tracheal gills on the sides of the abdomen. In some the two membranes of the wing were not firmly fixed together, so that the blood could circulate freely between them. On the other hand, they are not very firmly fixed together in existing insects. Another important point was the condition of the three thoracic segments, which were quite distinct and separate, instead of being fused, as they are now, in the imago stage. This external difference probably also extended to the nervous system, so that the thoracic ganglia were separate instead of concentrated. The most interesting distinction, however, was the possession by many species of a pair of prothoracie appendages much resembling miniature wings, and which especially suggest the appearance assumed by the anterior pair (tegmina) in existing Phasmide. There is some evidence in favour of the view that they were articulated, and they exhibit what appears to be a trace of venation. Brongniart concludes that in still earlier strata, insects with six wings will be discovered, or rather insects with six of the tracheal gills sufficiently developed to serve as parachutes. Of these the two posterior pair developed into the wings as we know them, while the anterior pair degenerated, some of the Carboniferous insects presenting us with a stage in which degeneration had taken place, but was not complete. One very important character was, as I have already pointed out, the enormous size reached by insects in this distant period. This was true of the whole known fauna as compared with existing species, but it was especially the case with the Protodonata, some of these giant dragon-flies measuring over two feet in the expanse of the wings. As regards the habits of life and metamorphoses, Brongniart concludes that some species of Protoephemeride, Protoperlide, &c., obtained their food in an aquatic larval stage, and did not require it when mature. He concludes that the Protodonata fed on other animals, like our dragon-flies; that the Paleeacridiida were herbivorous like our locusts and grasshoppers, the Protolocustide herbivorous and animal feeders like our green grasshoppers, the Palzoblattidee omnivorous like our cockroaches. The Homoptera, too, had elongated sucking mouth-parts like the existing species. It is known that in Carboniferous times there was a lake with rivers entering it, at Commentry. From their great resemblance to living forms of known habits, it is probable that the majority of these insects lived near the water and their larvee in it. When we look at this most important piece of research as a whole, we cannot fail to be struck with the small advance in insect structure which has taken place since Carboniferous times. All the great questions of metamorphosis, and of the structures peculiar to insects, appear to have been very.much in the position in which they are to-day. It is indeed probable enough that the orders which zoologists have always recognised as comparatively modern and specialised, such as the Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Hymenoptera, had not come into existence. But as regards the emergence of the class from a single primitive group, as regards its approximation towards the Myriapods, which lived at the same time, and of both towards their ancestor Peripatus, we learn absolutely nothing. AJL. we can say is that there is evidence for the evolution of the most modern and specialised members of the class, and some slight progressive evolution in the rest. Such evo- lution is of importance as giving us some vague conception of the rate at which the process travels in this division of the Arthropoda. If we look upon development as a series of paths which, by successively uniting, at length meet in a common point, _ then some conception of the position of that distant centre may be gained by ————eEeEr measuring the angle of divergence and finding the number of unions which occur in a given length. In this case the amount of approximation and union shown in 1896. 30 $26 REPORT—1896. the interval between the Carboniferous period and the present day is relatively so small that it would require to be multiplied many times before we could expect the lines to meet in the common point, the ancestor of insects, to say nothing of the far more distant past, in which the Tracheate Arthropods met in an ancestor presenting many resemblances to Peripatus. But it must not be forgotten that all this vast undefined period is required for the history of one of the two grades of one of the three branches of the whole Phylum. Turning now to the brief consideration of the second grade of Arthropods, distinguished from the first grade by the absence of antenne, the Trilobites are probably the nearest approach to an ancestral form met with in the fossil state. Now that the possession of true antenne is certain, it is reasonable to suppose that the Trilobites represent an early class of the Aceratous branch which had not yet become Aceratous. They are thus of the deepest interest in helping us to under- stand the origin of the antennaless branch, not by the ancestral absence, but by the loss of true antennz which formerly existed in the group. But the Trilobites did not themselves originate the other classes, at any rate during Paleozoic times. They represent a large and dominant class, presenting more of the characters of the common ancestor than the other classes; but the latter had diverged and had become distinct long before the earliest fossiliferous rocks; for we find well-marked representatives of the Crustacea in Cambrian, and of the Arachnida in Silurian strata. The Trilobites, moreover, appear in the Cambrian with many distinct and very different forms, contained in upwards of forty genera, so that we are clearly very far from the origin of the group. Of the lower group of Crustacea, the Entomostraca, the Cirripedes are repre- sented by two genera in the Silurian, the Ostracodes by four genera in the Cambrian and over twenty in the Silurian: of these latter, two genera (Cythere and Bairdia) continue right through the fossiliferous series and exist at the present day. Remains of Phyllopods are more scanty, but can be traced in the Devonian and Carboniferous rocks. The early appearance of the Cirripedes is of especial interest, inasmuch as the fixed condition of these forms in the mature state is certainly not primitive, and yet, nevertheless, appears in the earliest representatives. The higher group, the Malacostraca, are represented by many genera of Phyl- locarida in the Silurian and Devonian, and two in the Cambrian. These also afford a good example of the imperfection of the record, inasmuch as no traces of the group are to be found between the Carboniferous and our existing fauna in which it is represented by the genus Nebalia. The Phyllocarida are recognised as the ancestors of the higher Malacostraca, and yet these latter already existed— in small numbers, it is true—side by side with the Phyllocarida in the Devonian. The evolution of the one into the other must have been much earlier. Here, as in the Arthropoda, we have evidence of progressive evolution among the highest groups of the class, as we see in the comparatively late development of the Brachyura as compared with the Macrura. We find no trace of the origin of the class, or of the larger groups into which it is divided, or, indeed, of the older among the small groupings Into families and genera.' Of the Arachnida, although some of the most wonderful examples of persistent types are to be found in this class, but little can be said. Merely to state the bare fact that three kinds of scorpion are found in the Silurian, two Pedipalpi, eight scorpions, and two spiders in the Carboniferous, is sufficient to show that the period computed by geologists must be immensely extended to account for the development of this class alone, inasmuch as it existed in a highly specialised condition almost at the beginning of the fossiliferous series; while, as regards so extraordinarily complex an animal as a scorpion, nothing apparent in the way of progressive development has happened since. Professor Lankester has, however, pointed out to me that the Silurian scorpion Palezeophonus possessed heavier limbs than those of existing species, and this is a point in favour of an aquatic life like that of its near relation, Limulus. If so, it is probable that it possessed external ‘ For an account of the evolution of the Crustacea see the Presidential Addresses to the Geological Socie in 1895 and 1896 by Dr. Henry Woodward. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 827 gills, not yet inverted to form the lung-book. The Merostomata are of course a Paleozoic group, and reach their highest: known development at their first appear- ance in the Silurian ; since then they have done nothing but disappear gradually, leaying the single genus Limulus, unmodified since its first appearance in the Trias, to represent them. It is impossible to find clearer evidence of the decline rather than the rise of a group. No progressive development, but a gradual cr rapid extinction, and consequent reduction in the number of genera and species, is a summary of the record of the fossiliferous rocks as regards this group and many others, such as the Trilobites, the Brachiopods, and the Nautilide. All these groups begin with many forms in the oldest fossiliferous rocks, and three of them have left genera practically unchanged from their first appearance to the present day. What must have been the time required to carry through the vast amount of structural change implied in the origin of these persistent types and the groups to which they belong—a period so extended that the interval between the oldest Paleozoic rocks and the present day supplies no measurable unit ! But I am digressing from the Appendiculate Phylum. We have seen that the fossil record is unusually complete as regards two classes in each grade of the Arthropod branch, but that these classes were well developed and flourishing in Paleozoic times. The only evidence of progressive evolution is in the development of the highest orders and families of the classes. Of the origin of the classes nothing is told, and we can hardly escape the conclusion that for the development of the Arthropod branches from a common Chetopod-like ancestor, and for the further development of the classes of each branch, a period many times the length of the fossiliferous series is required, judging from the insignificant amount of development which has taken place during the formation of this series. It is impossible to consider the other Coelomate Phyla as I have done the Appendiculata. I can only briefly state the conclusions to which we are led. As regards the Molluscan Phylum, the evidence is perhaps even stronger than in the Appendiculata. Representatives of the whole of the classes are, it is believed, found in the Cambrian or Lower Silurian. The Pteropods are generally admitted to be a recent modification of the Gastropods, and yet, if the fossils described in the genera Conularia, Hyolithes, Pterotheca, &c., are true Pteropods, as they are supposed to be, they occur in the Cambrian and Silurian strata, while the group of Gastropods from which they almost certainly arose, the Bullide, are not known before the Trias. Furthermore, the forms which are clearly the oldest of the Pteropods—Limacina and Spirialis—are not known before the beginning of the Tertiary period. Either there is a mistake in the identification of the Paleozoic fossils as Pteropods, or the record is even more incomplete than usual, and the most specialised of all Molluscan groups had been formed before the date of the -earliest fossiliferous rocks. Even if this should hereafter be disproved, there can be no doubt about the early appearance of the Molluscan classes, and that it is the irony of an incomplete record which places the Cephalopods and Gastropods in the Cambrian, and the far more ancestral Chiton no lower than the Silurian. Through- out the fossiliferous series the older families of Gastropods and Lamellibranchs are followed by numerous other families, which were doubtless derived from them ; new and higher groups of Cephalopods were developed, and, with the older groups, either persisted until the present time or became extinct. But in all this splitting up of the classes into groups of not widely different morphological value, there is very little’ progressive modification ; and, taking such changes in such a period as our unit for the determination of the time which was necessary for the origin of the classes from a form like Chiton, we are led to the same conclusion as that which followed from the consideration of the Appendiculata, viz., that the ego series would have to be multiplied several times in order to rovide it, ; Of the Phylum Gephyrea I will only mention the Brachiopods, which are found in immense profusion in the early Paleozoic rocks and which have occupied the subsequent time in becoming less dominant and important. So far from helping us to clear up the mystery which surrounds the origin of the class, the earliest forms are quite as specialised as those living now, and, some of them (Lingula, 3H 2 ~ 828 REPORT—1896. Discina) even generically identical. The demand for time to originate the group is quite as grasping as that of the others we have been considering. All the classes of Echinoderma, except the Holothurians, which do not possess a structure favourable for fossilisation, are found early in the Paleozoic rocks, and many of them inthe Cambrian. Although these early forms are very different from those which succeeded them in the later geological periods, they do not possess a structure which can be recognised as in any way primitive or ancestral. The Echiaoderma are the most distinct and separate of all the Ccelomate Phyla, and they were apparently equally distinct and separate at the beginning of the fossiliferous series. In concluding this imperfect attempt to deal with a very vast subject in a very short time, I will remind you that we were led to conclude that the evolution of the ancestor of each of the higher animal Phyla probably occupied a very long period, perhaps as long as that required for the evolution which subsequently occurred within the Phylum. But the consideration of the higher Phyla which occur fossil, except the Vertebrata, leads to the irresistible conclusion that the whole period in which the fossiliferous rocks were laid down must be multiplied several times for this later history alone. The pericd thus obtained requires to be again increased, and perhaps doubled, for the earlier history. In the preparation of the latter part of this address I have largely consulted Zittel’s great work. I wish also to express my thanks to my friend Professor Lankester, whom I have consulted on many of the details, as wellas the general plan which has been adopted. The following Papers and Reports were read :-— 1. On the Cultivation of Oysters as Practised by the Romans. By R. T, Gonrner, JA. 9. On the Function of certain Diagnostic Characters of Decapod Crustacea. By Waurer Garstane, I/.A., Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. The author deals with the functions of various minor characteristics of Decapod Crustacea, especially the Brachyura. A crab’s carapace shows two regions subject to great variability of form. These regions are— 1. The frontal area between the orbits. 2. The pair of lateral margins. The variability consists in the absence or presence of spines and teeth, and the varying length, shape, and number of these structures. These characters are employed by systematic writers to distinguish the different species and genera from one another. The author's investigations show that it is not merely the function of the spines and teeth which is to be considered, but also the function of the spaces and notches between them. The frontal area of crabs is frequently either 3- or 5-toothed—z.ec., either 9- or 4-notched. Examination of living crabs shows that the notches are corre- lated functionally with the play of the two pairs of antenne. When the frontal area is 3-toothed (e.¢., Portunus pusillus) the first antenne are lodged in the two notches, and the second antennz project on each side of the frontal prominence. When the frontal area is 5-toothed (e.g., Polybius Henslowit) the first antennze are lodged in the inner, and the second antennz in the outer pair of notches. This type of denticulation is simply an arrangement by which crabs may have their antennz protected by a projection of the frontal area, while the possibility of free movement for the antenne is provided by the notches along its margin. It is scarcely needful to point out that the antenne of a crab are organs of great importance to it in the search for food, and that in the case of the antennules a TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 829 power of free movement is necessary to enable the crab to detect the direction of odoriferous bodies in its neighbourhood. At the same time the situation of the antenne in front of the body renders these organs particularly liable to injury unless specially protected. In regard to the denticulation of the lateral margins of the carapace experi- ments show that in sand-burrowing species a most important function of the denticulated margins is in connection with the process of respiration. It may be termed the ‘sieve-function.’ It is not generally known that a crab’s chelipeds are in many cases not merely organs of prehension, but important agents in the respiratory process. The principal afferent apertures to the branchial chambers are situated at the base of the chelipeds. When the chelipeds are folded’ against the sides of the carapace (for which purpose they are in many forms specially curved and moulded) a pair of lateral slit-like channels is produced which lead directly downwards to the afferent apertures at the basement of the chelipeds. The lateral denticulated margins of the crab’s carapace overhang the slit-like orifices of these accessory water-channels. When the crab is partially imbedded in sand it is possible, by the addition of colouring matter to the water, to demonstrate that a constant stream of water flows from above downwards through these accessory channels between chelipeds and carapace. The stream enters through the gaps between the teeth or spines on the lateral margins of the carapace. The teeth act asa coarse sieve or grating over the slit-like orifice, and prevent foreign bodies, such as particles of sand and shell, from falling into the channel and blocking its lumen. The water, after traversing these channels, enters the branchial chambers by the afferent apertures at the base of the chelipeds, and emerges in front by the lateral apertures at the sides of the mouth. As examples of sand-burrowing crabs to which the above remarks apply, Bathynectes longipes and Atelecyclus heterodon may be mentioned. In each case the lateral denticulated margins of the carapace subserve this sieve-function. The number of teeth is five in Bathynectes and nine in Atelecyclus, but in each case the extent of the denticulated area is commensurate with the extent of the lateral inhalant gap between chelipeds and carapace. This view is confirmed by the fact that in Ebalia and other Leucosiide, in which the afferent water-channel is entirely independent of the chelipeds, the lateral margins of the carapace are smooth and free from denticulations. In Calappa granulata of the Mediterranean the chelipeds can be pressed against the smooth sides of the carapace with extreme nicety. The author has not yet had an opportunity of studying this crab alive; but, if the chelipeds are held tightly to the body when the animal is buried in the sand, it must be impossible for water to enter between them and the carapace, except at one point on each side, between the anterior margin of the carapace and the curious cock’s- comb-like crests with which the chelipeds in this genus are provided. The antero-lateral margin of the carapace is smooth throughout, but the crests of the chelipeds are conspicuously denticulated. The structure of the surrounding parts renders it extremely probable that the inhalant current of water passes to the afferent aperture through the notches between the spines on the crest-like expansions. In Matuta victor, an East Indian sand-burrowing crab, the inhalant current actually seems to enter through the crab’s orbits, flowing thence downwards through a special pair of orbital gutters. Here also we find the marginal teeth of the carapace obsolete and scarcely recognisable. A complete reversal of the ordinary branchial currents may take place in certain sand-burrowing crabs, as the author has experimentally determined in the ease of Corystes cassivelaunus, Atelecyclus heterodon, and Platyonichus nasutus. A similar reversal probably occurs also in Albunea symnista, Platyonichus latipes, and several other forms. In Corystes and Atelecyclus filtration is effected during reversal by an inhalant sieve-tube formed by the second antenne, with the participation of the third maxillipeds. In A/bunea a similar tube is formed by the apposition of the first 830 REPORT—1896. antenne. In Platyonichus nasutus, which burrows in coarse shell gravel, a remarkable and characteristie prominence of the frontal area protects the anterior apertures from the accidental intrusion of foreign bodies. It thus appears that many of the specific and generic characteristics of Crustacea, which have been hitherto regarded as features of trivial significance are really of primary importance to their possessors under the particular conditions of their existence. : It is both remarkable and interesting that the same function in relation to the process of respiration should be discharged by organs and parts so dissimilar from one another as are the first antenne of Albunea, the second antennie of Corystes, the frontal area of Platyonichus nasutus, the five lateral spines of the carapace of Bathynectes, the nine lateral spines of Atelecyclus, the crests of the chelipeds of Calappa granulata, and the orbits of Matuta victor. 3. Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—See Reports, p. 492. 4, Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Marine Liological Laboratory, Plymouth.—See Reports, p. 485. 5. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station, Naples. See Reports, p. 478. 6. Report on the Fauna and Flora of the West Indies. See Reports, p. 493. 7. Report on the Biological Investiyation of Oceanic Islands. See Reports, p. 487. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18. 1. A Discussion on Neo-Lamarckism was opened by Professor Luoyp- Morean. The following Reports and Papers were read :— 2. Report on the Coccide of Ceylon.—See Reports, p. 450. 3. Report on the Transmission of Specimens by Post.—See Reports, p. 477. 4. Report on Zoological Bibliography and Publication. See Reports, p. 490. 5. Report on the Index generum et specierum animalium. See Reports, p. 489. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 831 6. On the Life-history of the Tiger Beetle (Cicindela campestris). By ¥. Enocx. 7. The Hatchery for Marine Fishes at Flodevigen, Norway. By G. M. Dannevic. [Communicated by J. W. WOODALL. ] The Flodevigen Hatchery for Salt-water Fish was, at Captain Dannevig’s proposal, erected in 1883 by a private society in Arundal, with the object of ascertaining whether it was possible to produce large numbers of fry of the better class of salt-water fish at a reasonable cost, the decrease in the fisheries, especially the cod fishing, being then greatly felt. The work commenced in February 1884, and, as neither methods nor service- able apparatus were invented, the troubles at the beginning were great and many. Five millions of cod and nearly two millions of flounders and dabs were hatched at a cost of about 1s. 3d. per 1000 fry. The author gave details of the operations carried on from 1884 until the present year. During the later period —1890-96—1203 millions of fry were hatched at a cost of 0:65d. per 1000 fry. The last season the cost was one-third of a penny per 1000, and there is still a good chance of diminishing the expenses. The hatchery cost about 800/., and the annual expenditure is about 500/. The practical result of the work is that the cod is rapidly increasing on the south coast, and more especially where fry have been planted. 8. On the Necessity for a British Fresh-water Biological Station. By D. J. ScourFieELD. Although there are fresh-water biological stations actively at work in Germany, Bohemia, the United States, and other countries, the idea of founding such an institution in this country has received very little attention. In fact the only tangible proposal to found such a station appears to be that made by the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society. But surely it is time, now that the more pressing need for British marine biological stations has been largely satisfied, and the anticipations as to their value are being steadily realised, to consider it the careful study of fresh-water biology in this country cannot be helped forward by the establishment of a properly equipped station. There can be no doubt that many of the most interesting problems in fresh-water biology, problems of great general importance bearing on vexed points of variation, heredity, selection, and the influence of environment, will never be solved without the continuity of observation which can practically only be secured by means of a station definitely working towards this end. Of the three principal districts in England and Wales offering suitable con- ditions for a fresh-water station, viz., the Lake District, North Wales, and the Norfolk Broads, the main work to be done in the two former would probably be directed towards the fresh-water ‘plankton,’ while in the latter the influence of the gradation from fresh to brackish water would be the most characteristic feature. Many other lines of investigation could of course be followed in either district, and the mere working-up of the aquatic fauna and flora of the immediately surrounding neighbourhood, which is almost esseutial as a preliminary step to deeper investigation, would be in itself no small gain to science. The minimum cost of an efficient fresh-water station would probably amount to about 500/., and the cost of maintenance to 250/. a year ; for it is evident that if the station is to be a success there must be at least one trained biologist to live and work at it continuously. 1 See Trans. Norf. and Norm. Nat. Soc., vol. vi. Part I. p. 108; also Natural Science, Jan. 1896, p. 8. 832 REPORT—1896. Compared with the large sums spent on marine biological stations, the amount required for a fresh-water station, even if provided with a little more than the minimum outfit, is evidently very modest, and it seems hardly necessary to advo- cate the formation of a special society to carry out the proposal to found such a station. A little co-operation on the part of the many existing institutions interested in biology with a local society willing to undertake the work of organ- isation and supervision seems to be all that is required. At least, so far as the Norfolk Broads are concerned, this method would suffice, for there is the proposal of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society already in the field, and it would be a great pity if a scheme should be allowed to fall through which, if carried out, would remove the reproach that the United Kingdom is almost the only country in Europe without a heshiarater biological station. 9. On Improvements in Trawling Apparatus. By J. WH. Macrure. SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 39. The following Report was read :— Report on the Migration of Birds.—See Reports, p. 451. MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21. 1. A Discussion was held in conjunction with Sections H and I on the Ancestry of the, Vertebrata. The following Paper was read :— 2. On Paleospondylus Gunni. By Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S. TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22. i. A Discussion was held in conjunction with Section K on the Cell Theory. The following Papers and Report were read :— 2. The Theory of Panplasm. By Professor Cuarxes 8. Minor, Harvard University, Boston. The author reviews the series of theories which attribute essential general vital functions to small particles, which may be called life units, and are present in large numbers within a single cell. Such life units have been named Gemmules, Physiological Units, Pangenes, Biophores, Plastidules, Ids, Idiosomes, &e. The author regards all these theories as erroneous. They are to be looked upon as little more than survivals of the old conception of absolute distinction between living and non-living matter. The Theory of Panplasm supposes that all the materials by their interaction TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 833 produce the vital phenomena of Protoplasm, and that therefore life can exist only in Protoplasm of relatively large bulk, as compared with the hypothetical life units. This view has experimental support. It also is in accordance with Biitschli’s foam theory of Protoplasm, All vital phenomena depend upon the arrangement and composition of the multifarious constituents of Protoplasm. The Theory of Panplasm, therefore, calls for a chemical explanation of Protoplasmatic functions. 3. On Multiple Cell Division as compared with Bi-partition as Herbert Spencer's limit of growth. By Professor Marcus Hartoe, I.A., D.Sc., ELS. Herbert Spencer showed that the growth of the cell without change of shape necessarily reduced the area of surface in proportion to the mass, and gave this as a sufficient explanation of ordinary cell-division. Another type of cell-division is that in which successive divisions occur without any interval for growth; such divisions are variously known as Sporulation, Segmentation, and Brood formation, but a more convenient term is ‘multiple cell-formation.’ This frequently occurs determined by considerations of space; as, for instance, when an elongated cell rounds off, its superficial area is much reduced, and multiple cell-formation restores the necessary ratio. Another case is that of a cell in which the food has been utilised largely for the storage of reserve materials instead of for the growth of protoplasm. Judging from what takes place in plants, we might anticipate that the protoplasm could not utilise these materials without the previous formation of a zymose or chemical ferment with which to render such reserves available for growth. This antici- pation has been confirmed; by appropriate methods the author has extracted a peptonising zymose from the segmenting egg of the frog at a time when the hypoblast was still visible through the blastopore; and from the hen’s embryo at twenty-four hours, and from the extravascular blastoderm at later stages. This affords a key to multiple cell-formation in a large number of cases, where the secretion of a ferment has, by an abundant food-supply, determined protoplasmic growth at the expense of the reserves, and so determined the need for an extension of surface. A probable deduction from this observation is that where reserves are to be utilised by the containing-cell, the antecedent formation of a zymose is necessary, and that digestion is a function, not of protoplasm, but of the ferments which protoplasm may secrete. The zymoses obtained by the author from segmenting embryos were active in neutral as well as in acid solution, and in this respect appear to differ from the ferments observed in protozoa. 4. The Present Position of Morphology in Zoological Science. By EK. W. MacBripe, J/.A., Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge ; Univer- sity Demonstrator of Animal Morphology. For some time back a distrust of the morphological method of studying evolution has been growing up amongst zoologists. Alternative methods have been suggested as more fruitful lines of research. These will be examined in the first place to show that they labour from defects from which morphology is free ; then the causes of the discontent with morphology will be inquired into; and finally some new points of view from which morphological facts may be regarded will be put forward. ; 4 The most important alternative methods which have been put forward are three :— 1. Mechanics of development or experimental embryology. In this method the endeavour is made to separate into its factors the complex ye 834: REPORT—1896. process known as develovment, and it is shown that the organs of the adult are not traceable back into definite areas of the ovum, or even blastula. So far as it oes, this is a most valuable kind of dissection; but it does not touch the question of how the hereditary powers of animals may be altered and so congenital inherit- able variations produced ; and this is the main problem of zoology. 2. The study of individual variations. The drawbacks to this method are— (a) It is often quite impossible to distinguish a congenital variation from a variation produced in the particular individual examined by some accident in the environment. (b) Many of the most conspicuous variations are shown by a study of specific and generic characters to have had no part in the evolutionary process. © (c) It is not enough that a variation should occur ; it must occur in a sufficient number of individuals to prevent its being immediately swamped by intercrossing. 3. The statistical study of individual variations or mathematical zoology. The drawbacks to this method are— (a) It is only capable of application to one character at a time, and a character is only a mental abstraction; natural selection acts on the balance of all the characters. (6) Even if we could establish that a certain value of a given character was accompanied by a low death rate, and that therefore this value was likely to become a specific character, the success of its possessors might be due to some obscure constitutional change associated with it. (c) But the only way it is possible to get such a result is to compare the variations with respect to a particular character of young and fully adult animals. To attribute the lesser number of deviations from the mean in the latter case to the death of individuals which had widely varied is to overlook the possibility of a self-regulating tendency in growth. The reason of the discontent with the morphological method is that it proves too much, z.c., the most contradictory conclusions may be drawn from the same premisses, for (a) Evolution is not only a progress from the simple to the complex ; degene- racy or simplification of structure plays an important part, and so also does homoplasy or parallel development, the evolution of similar structures in different animals independently. (5) It has been customary to postulate modifications as part of evolutionary history, the utility of which is to be taken on faith; and if this principle be admitted, the evolutionary theorist can, armed with progressive degeneracy, as well as progressive differentiation, derive any one animal from any other. Suggestions as to better ways of dealing with morphological facts :— 1. There are many cases where the fact that a certain modification has taken place is doubted by no one; for instance, no one seriously doubts that Teredo and Pecten have been derived from the ordinary Lamellibranch type. The evolutionary changes which can be deduced from such cases as these are really the data the morphologist has to go on; if he departs from these he is on unsafe ground. It is possible that by a comparative study of such cases, ‘laws of evolution’ might be formulated. 2. In reiation to the question of how degenerate and primitive structures are to be distinguished, we have to consider two subsidiary questions :— (az) Does the fact that an animal is obviously degenerate in some points invalidate any conclusions that may be arrived at as to its general primitive eharacter ? (>) Can an animal which has descended to a degenerate mode of life give rise to highly organised descendants P The answer to the first question is that all animals which in their general organisation are primitive are likewise degenerate, since they have by their degeneracy escaped competition with their more highly organised relatives. a TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 835 Amount of modification is an ambiguous term, and covers two distinct varieties of evolution: (i.) Increase in differentiation of organs fulfilling the main functions (nervous, muscular, circulatory, and reproductive organs, for instance), correlated with greater intensity of metabolism. Gi.) Modification of shape, size, and external organs. (i.) is regarded by most zoologists as the essence of progressive evolution. The lesser value assigned to (ii.) justifies the separation of the Thylacine and Dog. The answer to the second question is, so far as can be inferred from data laid down above, in the negative. Hence it is not legitimate to assume that Vertebrata are directly descended from Balanoglossus or even Amphioxus. On the main question as to the criteria of primitive and degenerate cha- racters. Primitive structures are synthetic in nature; they either serve to link together different groups, as the flat foot of Nucula connects Gastropods and Lamellibranchs, or different organs, as the ccelom of the lower Annelids and of Brachiopods unites the functions of the renal and reproductive organs; for new organs have not arisen de novo from functionless rudiments, but by the modifica- tion of pre-existing organs. Degenerate structures do not recall structures of other groups, and their con- dition does not correspond to the evolutionary level deducible from the condition of the other organs of the body. Example: Rudimentary limbs of certain Urodeles. 8. One of the most vexed questions in zoology is the value to be attached to ontogeny as a record of phylogeny. Some have denied that it has any such value, but cases exist where the phylogenetic value is simply undeniable. It is highly improbable that ontogeny is a process of an essentially different nature in different cases; therefore there is probably a phylogenetic element in all ontogeny. Many features in embryology are, as all admit, secondary. The key to the puzzle is that the embryo is a modified larva, and that the larva recapitulates not primarily ancestral structure but— (a) Ancestral habits. (6) Ancestral level of differentiation of functions, and ancestral structure so far as is demanded by these conditions. 4, In relation to the question as to how far homoplasy interferes with the conclusions we are accustomed to base on similarity of structure, it must be admitted that parallel development has not only taken place in widely separated groups, where there is no danger of confusion, but again and again in narrow circles of affinity; the researches of modern systematists seem to show that it is the normal thing. Instances of this, Arion and Limax amongst Pulmonata, &c. Criticism of the conception of identity of ancestry. We do not mean that animals belonging to different families are ultimately descended from the same pair. We mean only from ancestors so similar as to have been able to pair with one another, or in other words belonging to same species. Species are, however, often separated by trivial marks, so far as we can see, of a non-adaptive character. It is a gratuitous assumption that similarity in broad outlines of structure which are adaptive indicates descent from same species. Closely allied species exposed to same environmental influence would undergo the same change; descent from same species is only the extreme term in a series in which there is a gradual passage from what would be called homology to undeniable homoplasy. Structural resemblance indicates not primarily identity of ancestry, but similarity of past environment; and there may be all degrees ‘in this similarity, both in extent and duration. A conclusion like this is tacitly admitted by systematists who make the basis of their system minute and apparently unimportant peculiarities of external form, 836 REPORT—1896. colour, or arrangement of similar organs; it is, however, the origin and history of adaptations which interest the morphologist, and his task must be, not primarily to draw up genealogical trees, but to correlate these adaptations as far as possible to the external conditions which have caused them. 5. The Olfactory Lobes. By Professor Cuarues 8. Minor, Harvard University, Boston. The author reports observations on the stratification and on the cell forms to be found in the developing and mature olfactory lobes, and deduces the con- clusion that the lobes must be regarded as modifications of the cortex cerebri. He also emphasises the fact that the form of the cells of the cerebral cortex is extremely variable, so that the current descriptions, especially of the pyramidal cells, are really more or less conventionalised. These variations greatly facilitate the comparison of the cells of the cortex proper with those of the olfactory lobe. 6. On the relation of the Rotifera to the Trochophore. By Professor Marcus Harros, I.A., D.Sc., LS. The author gave reasons for regarding the usually accepted affinities of the Rotifera to the Trochophore as due to similarity of conditions and to no more morphological identity. He regards the Rotifera as primitively aproctous, and suggests that the anus has been formed by the fusion of the blind end of the gut with a genito-urinary cloaca, This is indicated by the absence of the anus in the males of most Rotifers and the females of one family. Again, while the anus of the Trochophore is formed from part of the blastoporal area, the proctodeum in Rotifera is formed outside this area. The author regards the Rotifera as corre- sponding with Pilidum, in which the apical organ has been transformed into glands for attachment, as occurs in the larva of certain Echinoderms. All the orientation of the Rotifera is, according to this view, comparable with that of the cuttlefish. ‘ Anterior’ und ‘ posterior’ become replaced by oral and apical ends, ‘dorsal’ and ‘ ventral’ by anterior and posterior, while right and left are unchanged. 7. Statistics of Wasps. By Professor F. Y. Epczwortu. By new methods and a new application of old methods (which are described in the ‘Journal of the Royal Statistical Society ’ for June 1896) the writer confirms the conclusion formerly obtained, that the average duration of a wasp’s absence from the nest is about a quarter of an hour in the evening. But for the daytime the average duration of a voyage is considerably longer. 8. Note on Genyornis, Stirling, an Extinct Ratite Bird supposed to belong to the Order Megistanes. By Prof. A. Newton, /.R.S. 9. Report on the Fauna of African Lakes.—See Reports, p. 484. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23. The following Report and Papers were read :— 1, Report on the Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Irish Sea. See Reports, p. 417. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 837 2. Phoronis, the Earliest Ancestor of the Vertebrata. By A. T. Masterman. The constitution of the group Chordata. The Hemichorda—Balanoglossus— Cephalodiscus, Rhabdopleura—The claims of Phoronis to be allied to the Hemi- chorda—Structural comparison of Phoronis to the Hemichorda (1) to Cephalodiscus, (2) to Balanoglossus—Absence of gill-slits and notochord—The ‘branchial fissure ” —Discovery of notochord in Actinotrocha—Structure and relations of notochord in Actinotrocha—Segments of the mesoblast in Actinotrocha—Relationship to Tornarta—Sugegested group ‘ Diplochorda’ and division of Chordate into Trimeta- mera and Polymetamera—Relationship to lower organisms (Echinodermata, &c.). 3. The Effects of Pelagic Spawning Habit on the Life Histories of Fishes. By A. T. MAsterMan. The present position of work on Teleostean development—The ‘ontogenetic migration ’ as exemplified by plaice, herring, and sand-ee!—Method of investigation —Division of eggs into ‘pelagic’ and ‘demersal ’—Suggested ancestral character of pelagic eggs—Explanation of ontogenetic migration by phyletic migrations— Reasons for holding ‘ pelagic’ spawning habit to be ancestral—Effect of physical surroundings upon the pelagic stage—(1) Surface-currents (¢.g., plaice)—Displace- ment in two directions. (2) Change of salinity—Plaice of the Baltic—Fresh- water fish of pelagic descent—Flounder—Eel. (3) Temperature—Hastening of development and of ontogenetic migration—Fatality to fry—Plaice in Danish waters. (4) Change of life habit of fish—Change to demersal (littoral)—The ‘ demersal ’ a specialised development—Littoral fish—Graphic representation of the life histores and solution of types from ‘pelagic’ type. 4. The Structure of the Male Apus. By Dr. BenwaAm. 5. On the Life History of the Haddock. By Prof. W. C. M‘Intosu, ID., F.R.S. 838 REPORT—1896. Section E.—GEOGRAPHY. PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION —Masor Darwin, Sec. R.G.S. THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1i. The President delivered the following Address :— In reviewing the record of geographical work during the past year, all other performances pale in comparison with the feat accomplished by Nansen, It is not merely that he has gone considerably nearer the North Pole than any other explorer, it is not only that he has made one of the most courageous expeditions ever recorded, but he has established the truth of his theory of Polar currents, and has brought back a mass of valuable scientific information. When Nansen comes to England I am certain that we shall give him a reception which will prove how much we admire the heroism of this brave Norwegian. Besides the news of this most remarkable achievement, the results of a con- siderable amount of useful exploratory work have been published since the British Association met last at Ipswich. With regard to other Arctic Expeditions, we have had the account of Lieutenant Peary’s third season in Northern Greenland, from which place he came back in September last, and to which he has again returned, though without the intention of passing another winter there. In October the ‘Windward’ brought home more ample information as to the progress of the Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition than that communicated by telegram to the Association at Ipswich, and on her return from her remarkably rapid voyage this sum- mer she brought back the record of another year. As to geographical work in Asia, Mr. and Mrs. Littledale returned safely from their explorations of the little knowr parts of Tibet; the Pamir Boundary Commission, under Colonel Holdich, has collected a great deal of accurate topographical information in the course of its labours; Dr. Sven Hedin continues his important researches in Turkestan; and — the Royal Geographical Society was glad to welcome Prince Henry of Orleans when he came to tell us about his journey near the sources of the Irrawaddy. As to Africa, the most important additions to our knowledge of that continent are due to the French surveyors, who have accurately mapped the recently discovered series of lakes in the neighbourhood of Timbuktu, Lake Faguibine, the largest, being found to be 68 miles in length; Dr. Donaldson Smith has filled up some large blanks in the map of Somaliland; and Mr. and Mrs. Theodore Bent have investigated some interesting remains of ancient gold werkings inland of the Red Sea. In other parts of the world less has been done, because there is less to do. Mr. Fitzgerald has proved for the first time the practicable character of a pass across the Southern Alps, thus supplementing the excellent work of Mr. Harper and other pioneers of the New Zealand Alpine Club; and Sir W. M. Conway has commenced a systematic exploration of the interior of Spitzbergen, a region to which the attention of several other geographers is also directed. 'VRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 839 It is impossible in such a brief sketch to enumerate even the leading events of the geographical year ; but what I have said is enough to remind us of the great amount of valuable and useful work which is being done in many quarters of the world. It is true that if we compare this record with the record of years gone by we find a marked difference. Then, there was always some great geographical problem to be attacked: the sources of the Nile had to be discovered ; the course of the Niger had to be traced ; and the great white patches on our maps stimulated the imagination of explorers with the thought of all sorts of possibilities. Now, though there is much to be learned, vet, with the exception of the Poles, the work will consist in filling in the details of the picture, the general outlines being all drawn for us already. Personally I cannot help feeling a completely unreasoning regret that we have almost passed out of the heroic period of geography. What- ever the future may have in store for us, it can never give us another Columbus, another Magellan, or another Livingstone. The geographical discoverers of the future will win their fame in a more prosaic fashion, though their work may in reality be of even greater service to mankind. There are now few places in the world where the outline of the main topographical features is unknown; but, on the other hand, there are vast districts not yet thoroughly examined. And, in examin- . ing these more or less known localities, geographers must take a far wider view than heretofore of their methods of study in order to accommodate themselves to modern conditions. But even if we confine our attention to the older and more narrow field of geography, it will be seen that there is still an immense amount of work to be done. We have been filling in the map of Africa during recent years with extraordinary rapidity, but yet that map is likely to remain in a very unsatisfactory condition for a long time to come. Englishmen and other Europeans have always shown themselves to be ready to risk their lives in exploring unknown regions, but we have yet to see how readily they will undertake the plodding work of recording topographical details when little renown is to be won by their efforts. It should be one of the objects of geographical societies to educate the public to recognise the importance of this work, and General Chapman deserves great credit for bring- ing the matter before the International Congress last year in such a prominent manner. He confined himself to four main recommendations: (1) The extension of accurate topographical surveys in regions likely to be settled by Europeans. (2) The encouragement of travellers to sketch areas rather than routes. (3) The study of astronomical observations already taken in the unsurveyed parts of Africa in a systematic manner, and the publication of the results. (4) The accurate determination of the latitude and longitude of many important places in unsurveyed Africa. I am certain that all geographers are in hearty accord with General Chapman in his views, and it is, perhaps, by continually bringing this matter before the public that we shall best help this movement forward. Not only do we want a more accurate filling in of the picture, but we have yet to learn to read its lessons aright. The past cannot be understood, and still less can the future be predicted, without a wider conception of geographical facts. Look, for example, at the European colonies on the West Coast of Africa. Here we find that there have been Portuguese settlements on the Gold Coast since the year 1471, the French possibly having been established there at an even earlier date ; whilst we English, who pride ourselves on our go-ahead character, have had trading factories on the Coast since 1667, I have here a map showing the state of our geographical knowledge in 1815. Why was it that Europeans have never, broadly speaking, pushed into the interior from their base on the coast, which they had occupied for so many centuries? That they had not done go, at least to any purpose, is proved by this map. Why had four centuries of contact with Europeans done so little even for geographical knowledge at that time? The answer to this question may be said to be mainly historical; but the history of our African colonies can never be understood without a study of the distribution of the dense belt of unhealthy forest along the shore; of the distribution of the different types of native inhabitants; and of the courses of the navigable rivers, all strictly geo- a . . . _ graphical considerations. 4 : i 84.0 REPORT—1896. Geography is the study of distribution, and early in that study we must be struck with the correlation of these different distributions. If we take a map of Africa, and mark on it all the areas within the tropics covered with dense forest or scrub, we shall find we have drawn a map showing accurately the distribution of the worst types of malarial fever ; and that we have also indicated with some approach to accuracy—with, however, notable exceptions—the habitat of the lowest types of mankind. These are the facts which give the key to understanding why the progress of European colonisation on the West Coast has been so slow. Along the coast of the Gulf of Guinea we find settlements of Europeans at more or less distant intervals. All along, or nearly all along, this same coast we find a wide belt of fever-stricken forest, fairly thickly inhabited by uncivilised Negro and Bantu tribes. Inside this belt of forest the country rises in altitude, and becomes more open, whilst at the same time there is a distinct improvement in the type of native ; and the more we proceed inland, the more marked does this improvement become. There appear in fact to have been a number of waves of advancing civilisation, each one pressing the one in front of it towards these inhospitable forest belts. Near the ¢oast the lowest type of Negro is, generally speaking, to be found; then, as the more open country is reached, higher types of Negroes are encountered: for example, the Mandingoes of the Senegal region are distinctly higher than the Jolas inhabiting the mouths of the Gambia; and the Hausas of the Sokoto Empire are vastly superior to the cannibals of the Oil Rivers. Tn both these cases the higher types are probably not pure Negroes, but have Fulah, Berber, or Arab blood in their veins; for we see, in the case of the Fulahs, how they become absorbed into the race they are conquering; near the Senegal River they are comparatively light in colour, but in Adamawa they are hardly to be dis- tinguished by their features from the negroes they despise. Thus the process appears to have been a double one; the higher race driving some of the lower aboriginal tribes before them out of the better lands, and, at the same time, raising other tribes by means of an admixture of better blood. These waves of advancing civilisation seem to have advanced from the north and east, for the more we pene- trate in these directions, the higher is the type of inhabitant met with, until at last we reach the pure Berbers and the pure Arabs. Thus there are two civilising influences visible in this part of Africa: one coming from the north and east—a Mahommedan advance—which keeps beating up against this forest belt and occa- sionally breaking into it; the other, a Christian movement, which, until the middle of this century, was brought to a dead halt by this same obstacle. The map of Africa, showing the state of geographical knowledge in 1815, makes it clear that, except in a few cases where rivers helped travellers through these malarial regions, nothing was known about the interior. No doubt much has been done since those days, but this barrier still remains the great impediment to progress from the West Coast; and those who desire our influence to spread more effec- tively into the interior must wish to see some means of overcoming this obstacle. On the East Coast of Africa the conditions are. somewhat different, as there is comparatively little dense forest there; but the districts near that coast are also usually unhealthy, and how to cross those malarial regions quickly into the healthy or less unhealthy interior is the most important problem connected with the development of Tropical Africa. Other influences have been at work, no doubt, in checking our progress from the West Coast. In old days the European possessions in these districts were mere depéts for the export of slaves. As the white residents could not hope to compete with the natives in the actual work of catching these unfortunate creatures, and as the lower the type the more easily were they caught, as a rule, there was no reason whatever for attempting to penetrate into the interior, where the higher types are met with. But, though this export trade in human beings is now no longer an impediment to progress, the slave trade in the interior still helps to bar the way. When the forest belt is passed, we now come, generally speaking, to the line of demarcation between the Mahommedan and the Pagan tribes, and here slave catching is generally rife; when it is so, the constant raids of the Mahommedan chiefs keep these border districts in a state of unrest which in every way tends to TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 841 impede progress. Thus a mere advance to the higher ialand regions will not by any means solve all our difficulties; but it will greatly lessen them; and it is universally admitted that the more communication with the interior is facilitated, the more easy will it be to suppress this terrible traflic in human beings. By the General Act of the Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference of 1890-91, it was agreed by the assembled delegates that the construction of roads, and, in particular, of rail- ways, connecting the advanced stations with the coast, and permitting easy access to the inland waters, and to the upper courses of rivers, was one of the most effec- tive means of counteracting the slave trade in the interior. Here, then, we have the most formal admission which could be given of the necessity of opening up main trunk lines of communication into the interior. But not only does geographical knowledge help to demonstrate the necessity of improving the means of communication between the coast and the interior, but it helps us to decide where it is wise to make our first efforts in this direction. In the first place, it is essential to note that ifthe Continent of Africa is compared with other Continents, its general poverty is clearly seen. Mr. Keltie, in his excel- lent work on the Partition of Africa, tells us that ‘ at present (1895) it is estimated that the total exports of the whole of Central Africa by the east and west coast do not amount to more than 2U,000,000/. sterling annually.’ For the purposes of com- parison it may be mentioned that the export trade of India is between sixty and seventy millions sterling annually, and that India is only about one-seventh or one-eighth of the area of the whole of Africa. On the other hand, the trade of India has been increasing by leaps and bounds, largely in consequence of the country being opened out by railways, and there is every reason to hope that some- what similar results would occur in Africa under similar circumstances, though the lower civilization of the people would prevent the harvest being so quickly reaped. But, however it may be as to the future, the present poverty of Africa is enough to demonstrate the necessity of pushing ahead cautiously and steadily, and of doing so in the most economical manner possible. M. Decle, in an interesting paper, read before the International Geographical Congress in London last year, strongly advocated the construction of cheap roads for use by the natives, taking precautions to prevent any traffic in slaves along them. His suggestions are well worthy of consideration ; but the cost of transport along any road would, I should have thought, soon have eaten up any profits on the import or export trade to or from Africa. What must be done in the first instance is to utilise to the utmost all the natural lines of communication which require little or noexpenditure to render them serviceable; in fact, to turn our attention at first to the rivers and to the lakes. I have already pointed out that the early maps of Africa prove that the rivers have almost invariably been the first means of communication with the interior, and until this continent is rich enough to support an extensive railway system, we must rely largely on the waterways as means of transport. It may be as well here to remark that geographical knowledge is often required in order to control the imagination. I do not know why it is, but almost everyone will admit that if he sees a lake of considerable size depicted on a map, he immedi- ately feels a desire to visit or possess that locality in preference to others. A lake may be of far lesa commercial value than an equal length of thoroughly navigable river, and yet it will always appear more attractive. Look at the way in which the English, the French, and the Germans are all pressing forward to Lake Chad ; and yet Lake Chad is in reality not much more than a huge swamp, and, in all pro- bability, it is excessively unhealthy. Again, it is probable that the Albert Nyanza will prove to be of comparatively small value, because the mountains come down so close to its shores. Of course, the great lakes form an immensely important feature in African geography, but we must judge their commercial value rationally, and without the bias of imagination. , To develop the traffic along the rivers and on the lakes is the first stage in the commercial evolution of a continent like Africa. But it cannot carry us very far. Africa is badly supplied with navigable rivers, chiefly as a natural result of the general formation of the land. ‘The continent consists, broadly speaking, 1896. Be 842 REPORT—1896. of a huge plateau, and the rivers flowmg off this plateau are obstructed by ‘cataracts in exactly the places where we most want to use them—that is, when approaching the coasts. The second stage in the commercial evolution will therefore be the construction of railways with the view of supplementing this river traffic. Finally, no doubt, a further stage will be reached, when railways will cut out the rivers altogether; for few of the navigable rivers are really well suited to serve as lines of communication. This last stage is, however, so far off that we may neglect it for the present; though it must be noted that there are some parts of Africa where there are no navigable rivers, and where, if anything is to be done, it must be entirely by means of railways. Thus, as far as the immediate future is concerned, the points to which our attention should be mainly directed are (1) the courses of the navigable parts of the rivers, and (2) the routes most suitable for the construction of railways in order to connect the navigable rivers and lakes with the coast. As to the navigable rivers, little more remains to be discovered with regard to them, and we can indicate the state of our geographical knowledge on this point with sufficient accuracy for our purposes by means of a map. Of course the commercial value of a waterway depends greatly on the kind of boats which can be used, and that point cannot well be indicated cartographically. As to the railways, we must study the physical features of the country through which the proposed lines,of communication would pass. All the obstacles on rival routes should be most carefully surveyed when considering the construction of railways in an economical manner. Great mountain chains are seldom met with in Africa, and from that point of view the continent is as a whole remarkably free. from difficulties. But drifting sand is often a serious trouble, and that is met with commonly enough in many parts. Wide tracks of rocky country also form serious impediments, both because of the cost of con- struction, and also because the supply of water for the engines becomes a problem not to be neglected. Such arid and sandy districts are of course thinly in- habited, and we may therefore generally conclude that where the population is scanty, there railway engineers will have special difficulties to face. On the other hand, dense forests are also very unsuitable. We have not much ex- perience to guide us, but it would appear probable that the initial expense of clearing the forest, and the cost of maintenance, in perpetually battling against the tropical vegetable growth, will be very heavy; for it will not do to allow the line to be in constant danger of being blocked. The dampness of the forest, which will cause all woodwork and wooden sleepers to rot, will be no small source of trouble, and the virulent malarial fevers, always met with where the vegetation is very rank, will add immensely to the difficulty both of construction and of maintenance. The health of the European employés will be a most serious question in considering the construction of railways in all parts of tropical Africa, for the turning up of the soil is the most certain of all methods of causing an outbreak of malarial fever; and the evil results would be most severely felt in constructing ordinary railways in dense forests. In making the short Senegal railway, where the climate is healthier than in many of the districts further south, the mortality was very great. Perhaps we shall have to modify our usual methods of construction so as to mitigate this danger, and, in connection with this subject, I may perhaps mention that the Lartigue system seems to be specially worthy of consideration—a system by which the train is carried on a single ele- vated rail. This is perhaps travelling rather wide of the mark of ordinary geo- graphical studies, but it illustrates the necessity of a thorough examination of the environment: before we try to transplant our own methods to other climes. We may, however, safely conclude that we must as far as possible ayoid both dense forests and sandy and rocky wastes in the. construction of our first railways. Thon, as to the lines of communication, considered as a whole, rail and river combined, we must obviously, if any capital is to be expended, make them in the directions most likely to secure a profitable traffic. In considering this part of the question, it will be seen that there are several different problems to be discussed : a ~~ 2 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 843 (1) trade with the existing population in their presenticondition ; (2) trade with the native inhabitants when their countries have been further developed with the aid of European supervision; and (8) trade with actual colonies of European settlers: To many minds the last of these problems will appear to be the mest important, and in the end it may prove to be so. But the time at my disposal compels me to limit myself to the consideration of trade with the existing native races within the tropics, with only an occasional reference to the influence of white residents. We must, no doubt, carefully consider which are the localities most likely to attract those Europeans who go to Africa with the view of establishing commercial intercourse and commercial methods in the interior; and there can be no doubt that considerations of health will play a prominent part in deciding this point. Moreover, as the lowest types of natives have few wants, the more primitive the inhabitants of the districts opened up, the less will be the probability of a profitable trade being established. For both these reasons the coast districts are not likely in the end to be as good a field for commercial enterprise as the higher lands in the interior; for the more we recede from the coast, the less unhealthy the country becomes, and the more often do we find traces of native civilisation. To put it simply, we must consider both the density of the population and the class of inhabitant in the districts proposed to be opened up. Of course, ‘the exact nature of the products likely to be exported, and the probability of demands for European goods arising amongst the natives of different districts, are vitally important considerations in estimating the profits of any proposed line of railway ; but to discuss such problems in commercial geography at length would -open up too wide a field on an occasion like this. If the importance of considering the density of the population in the different districts in such a preliminary survey is admitted, we may then simplify our inquiry by declining to discuss any lines of communication intended to open up regions where the population falls below some fixed minimum—whatever we may like to decide on. Of course, the question of the greater or less probability of a locality attracting white temporary residents is very important, but unless there is ‘a native population ready to work on, there will be little done for many years to come. Politically it may or may not be right to open up new districts by railways for the sake of finding outlets for our home or our Indian population; but here I am considering the best lines for the development of commerce, taking things as they are. What then shall be this minimum of population? The population of Bengal is 470 per square mile; of India, as a whole, about 180; and of the United States, about 21,or 22. If it is remembered that the inhabitants of the United States are, per head, vastly more trade-producing than the natives of Africa, it will be admitted that we may for the present exclude from our survey all districts in which the population does not reach a minimum of 8 per square mile; it might be right to put the minimum much higher than this. On the map now before you, the uncoloured parts show where the density of population does not come up to this minimum, and we can see at a glance how enormously this reduces the area to be considered. The light pink indicates a population of from 8 to 82 per square mile, and the darker pink a denser population than that. Of course, such a map, in the very imperfect state of our knowledge, must be very inaccurate, as I am sure the compiler would be the first to admit. On the same map are marked the navigable parts of rivers. I should like to have shown the dense forests also, but the difficulty of giving them with any approach to correctness is at present insuperable. | oHn Here, then, is the kind of map we want in order to consider the broad outline of the questions connected with the advisability of attempting to push lines of communication into the interior. The problem is how to connect the inland. parts of Africa, which are coloured pink on this map, with the coast, by practicable lines -of communications, at the least cost, with the least amount of dense forest to be traversed, and, in the case of railways, whilst avoiding as far as possible all thinly ‘populated districts, It is of course quite impossible here to discuss all the great routes into the interior, and I should like to devote the remaining time at my disposal to: the 312 844 REPORT—1896. consideration of this problem as far as a few of the most important districts are concerned, confining myself, as I have said, to trade with existing native races within the tropics. Taking the East Coast first, and beginning at the north, the first region sufficiently populous to attract our attention is the Valley of the Nile, and parts of the Central Sudan. Wadai, Darfur, and Kordofan are but scantily inhabited, according to our map, and this is probably the case now that the Khalifa has so devastated these districts ; but, without doubt, much of this country could support a teeming population, and is capable of great commercial develop- ment. The Bahr-el-Ghazal districts are especially attractive, being fertile and better watered than the somewhat arid regions further north. These remarks remind me how difficult it is at this moment to touch on this subject without trenching on politics. Few will deny that the sooner this region is connected with the civilised world the better, and it is only as to the method of opening it up, and as to who is to undertake the work, that burning political questions will arise. The geographical problems connected with the lines of communication to the interior can be considered whilst leaving these two points quite on one side. A glance at the map reminds us of the well-known fact that, below Berber, the Nile is interrupted by cataracts for several hundred miles, whilst above that town there is a navigable water-way at high Nile until the Folarapids are reached, a distance of about 1,400 miles, not to mention the 400 to 600 miles of the Blue Nile and the Bahr-el-Gazal, which are also navigable. The importance of a rail- way from Suakin to Berber is thus at once evident, and there is perhaps only one other place in Africa where an equal expenditure would open up such a large tract of country to European trade. This route, however, is not free from difficulties. Suakin is hot and unhealthy. ‘Then the railway, about 260 miles in length, passes over uninhabited or thinly inhabited districts the whole way. Though the hills over which it would pass are of no great height, the highest part of the track being under 3,000 feet above the sea, it is often said that the desert to be traversed would add greatly to the difficulty of construction. According to Lieut.-Colonel Watson, R.E., however, these difficulties have been greatly exag- gerated, for the water supply would give no great trouble. The sixth cataract, between Metemma and Khartum, would make navigation for commercial purposes impossible when the waters are low; it is probable that this impediment could be overcome by erecting locks, but it is impossible to estimate the cost of such works. Then, again, the Nile above Khartum is much obstructed by floating grass or sudd, making navigation at times almost impossible; but it was Gordon’s opinion that a line of steamers on the river, even if running at rare intervals, would keep the course of the stream clear; this, however, remains to be proved. If the canalisation of the sixth cataract should prove to be too costly an under- taking, then it would be most advisable to carry on the railway beyond that obstacle. This might be done by prolonging the line along the banks of the Nile, or by adopting an entirely different route from Suakin through Kassala, I hope we shall hear something from Sir Charles Wilson as to the relative merits of these proposals during the course of our proceedings. Proposals have also been made for connecting the Nile with other ports on the Red Sea, and all of these suggestions should be carefully examined before a decision is made as to the exact route to be adopted. But in any case, considering the matter merely from a geographical standpoint, and putting politics on one side—a very large omission in the case of the Sudan—it would appear that one or other of these routes should be one of the very first to be constructed in all Africa. Passing further south, it is obvious from the configuration of the shore, and from the distribution of the population, that the lines of communication next to be considered are those leading to the Victoria Nyanza, and on to the regions lying north and west of the lake. Two routes for railways from the coast to the Victoria Nyanza have been pro- posed, one running through the British and the other through the German sphere of influence. Looking at the matter from a strictly geographical point of view, there is perhaps hardly sufficient information to enable us to judge of the relative merits of the two proposals. Both run through an unhealthy coast zone, and TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 845 both traverse thinly inhabited districts until the lake is reached. The German route, as origiually proposed, would be the shorter of the two; but there is some reason to think that the British line will open up more country east of the lake, which will be suitable for prolonged residence by white men. Sir John Kirk, in discussing the question of the possible colonisation of tropical Africa by Europeans, said: ‘These uplands vary from 5,000 to 7,000 feet in height, the climate is cool, and, as far as known, very healthy for Europeans, This district is separated from the coast by the usual unhealthy zone, which, however, is narrower than elsewhere on the African littoral. Between the coast zone and the highlands stretches a barren belt of country, which attains a maximum width of nearly 200 miles, The rise is gradual, and throughout the whole area to be crossed the climate is drier and the malarial diseases are certainly much less frequent and less severe than in the regions further south.’ These very advantages, however, may have to be paid for by the greater difficulty of railway construction. Putting aside future prospects, the map shows that the populous region to the west of the lake makes either of these proposed lines well worthy of consideration, though it would perhaps be rash to predict how soon the commerce along them would pay for the interest on the capital expended. What will be the fate of the German project I do not know, but we may prophecy with some confidence that the British line, the construction of which has been commenced, will be completed sooner or later. The two lines of communication we have discussed—the Suakin and the Victoria Nyanza routes—are intended to supply the wants of widely separated districts ; but, looking to a more distant future, they must sooner or later come into competition one with the other, in attracting trade from the Central Sudan, Before this can occur, communication by steamboat and by railway must be opened up between the coast and the navigable Nile by both routes. This will necessitate a railway being constructed, not only to the Victoria Nyanza, but also from that lake, or round it, to the Albert Nyanza ; and, as the Nile is rendered unnavigable by cataracts about Du- file, and as the navigation is difficult between Dufile and Lado, here also a railway would be necessary in order to complete the chain of steam communication with the coast. If goods were brought across the Victoria Nyanza by steamer, and taken down the Nile in the same manner from the Albert Nyanza to Dufile, this route would necessitate bulk being broken six times before the merchandise was under way on the Nile; by the Suakin route, on the other hand, bulk would only have to be broken twice, provided the sixth cataract were rendered navigable. Thus, if this latter difficulty can be overcome, and if the sudd on the Nile is not found to impede navigation very much, this Nyanza route will certainly not compete with the Suakin route for any trade on the banks of the navigable Nile until a railway is made from the coast to Lado, a distance of over 800 miles as the crow flies, and certainly over 1,000 miles by rail. It must be remembered also that the Nyanza route passes over mountains 8,700 feet above the sea; that the train will have to mount, in all, nearly 13,000 feet in the course of its journey from the coast; and that a diffieult gorge has to be crossed to the eastward of the Victoria Nyanza. From these facts we may conclude that it will be a very long time before the Nyanza route will draw any trade from the Central Sudan. The line through the British sphere of influence runs to the northern end of Victoria Nyanza, but from Mr. Vandeleur’s recent expedition into these regions we learn that a shorter route, striking the eastern shore of the lake, is under considera- tion. To lessen the expense of construction would be a great boon, but if we look to the more ambitious schemes for the future, something may be said in favour of the original proposal as being better adapted to form part of a line of railway reaching the navigable Nile. With regard to the comparison between the German and British routes to the Victoria Nyanza, the latest accounts seem to imply that the Germans have prac- tically decided on a line from the coast to Ujjiji, with a branch from Tabora to the Victoria Nyanza. ‘his would be a most valuable line of communication ; but it seems a pity that capital should be expended in compctitive routes when there are so many other directions in which it is desirable to open up the continent. If the Germans wish to launch out on great railway projects in Africa, let them make a 846 REPORT— 1896. line from the south end of Lake Tanganyika to the northern end of Lake Nyasa, and thence on to the coast; they would thus open up a vast extent of territory, and Baron von Schele tells us that a particularly easy route can be found from Kilva to the lake. Such a line of communication, especially if eventually con- nected with the Victoria Nyanza to the north, would be more valuable than any other line in Africa in putting an end to the slave trade, as it would make it pos- sible to erect a great barrier, as it were, running north and south across the roads traversed by the slave traders. A line through German territory connecting Lake Nyasa with the sea would, no doubt, come into competition with the route connecting the southern end of that lake with the Zambesi, and thus with the coast. The mouths of the Zambesi, though they are passable, will always present some impediment to commerce. But after entering the river navigation is not obstructed until the Murchison Rapids on the Shiré River arereached. Here there are at present sixty miles of portage to be traversed, and this transit must be facilitated by the construction of a railway, if this route is to be properly developed ; Mr. Scott Elliot tells us that 120 miles of railway, from Chiromo to Matope, would be necessary for this purpose. Beyond this latter point there isa good waterway to Lake Nyasa. Thus a comparatively short line of railway would open up this lake to European commerce, and this route is likely to be developed at a much earlier stage of the commercial evolution of Africa than the one through German territory above suggested. It will be seen that these routes connect fairly populous districts with the coast, and it must also be recollected that the high plateau between Lake Nyasa and the Kafue River is one of the very few regions in tropical Africa likely to attract white men as more or less perma- nent residents. Further south we come to the Zambesi River, which should, of course, be utilised as far as possible. But this line of communication to the interior has many faults. The difficulties to be met with at the mouths of the Zambesi have already been ailuded to. Then the whole valley is unhealthy, and white travellers would prefer any route which would bring them on to high land more quickly. Moreover the Kebrabasa rapids cause a serious break in the waterway, and, as the river above that point is only navigable for canoes, it is doubtful if it would ever be worth making a railway for the sole purpose of connecting these two portions of the river. As the population of the upper Zambesi valley is considerable, and as the country further from its banks is said to be likely to be attractive to white men, there can be no doubt of the advisability of connecting it with the coast. This naturally leads us to consider the Beira route, as a possible competitor with the Zambesi. A sixty centimetre railway is now open from Fontesvilla to Chimoio (190 kilometres), and it is probable that during the course of the next two years the construction of the railway will be completed from the port of Beira itself as far as the territory of the Chartered Company. This will form the first step in the construction of a much better line of communication to the Upper Zambesi regions than that afforded by the river itself. It is true that the gauge is very narrow, and that the first part of the line passes through very unhealthy districts; but this line will nevertheless be a most valuable addition to the existing means of. penetrating into the interior of the continent. It is needless to say that the object of this railway is to open up communications with Mashonaland, not for the purposes now suggested. South of the Zambesi the map shows us that there are no regions in tropical Africa where the density of the native population reaches the minimum of eight per square mile. Here, however, we come to the gold fields, where there is attractive force enough to draw white men in great numbers within the tropics, and where, no doubt, some of the most important problems connected with railway communications will have to be solved in the immediate future. But, for reasons of time and space, I have limited myself to the discussion of districts within the tropics, where trade with the existing native races is the object in view. The Beira railway does not in reality come within the limits I have imposed on myself, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 847 except as to its future development. Had time permitted, I should like to have discussed the route leading directly from the Cape to Mashonaland, its relative merits in comparison with the Beira railway, and as to where the two will come into competition one with the other. But I must pass on at once to consider the main trunk routes from the West Coast leading into the interior of Africa. Passing over those regions on the West Coast where railways would only be commenced because of the probable settlement, temporary or permanent, of white men—passing over, that is, the whole of the German sphere of influence—we first come to more dense native populations near the coast towns of Benguela and St. Paul de Loanda. The latter locality is the more hopeful of the two, accord- ing to our map, and here we find tbat the Portuguese have already con- structed a railway leading inland for 191 miles to close to Ambaca. The intention of connecting this railway with Delagoa Bay was originally announced, and I am not aware to what extent this vast project has now been cut down, so as to bring it within the region of practical proposals. A further length of 35 miles is, at all events, being constructed, and 87 more miles have been surveyed. The Portuguese appear to be very active at present in this district, as there are several other rail- ways already under consideration ; one from Benguela to Bihe, of which 16 miles is in operation, another from Mossamedes to the Huilla Plateau, and a third from the Congo to the Zambesi. It is difficult to foretell what will be the outcome of these schemes, but our population map is not very encouraging. Next we come to the Congo, and here there is a grand opportunity of opening up the interior of the continent. In going up this great stream from the coast we first traverse about 150 miles of navigable waterway, and afterwards we come to some 200 miles of cataracts, through which steamers cannot pass. Round this im- pediment a railway is now being pushed, 18 kilometres of rails (117 miles) being already laid. Then we enter Stanley Pool, and from this point we have open before us—if Belgian estimates are to be accepted—7,000 miles of navigable water- way. If this fact is correct, and if the population is accurately marked on our map, then there is no place in all Africa where 200 miles of railway may be ex- pected to produce such marked results. The districts traversed are unhealthy, and the natives are, generally speaking, of a low type; but in spite of these draw- backs, which no doubt will delay progress considerably, we may contidently predict a grand future for this great natural route into the interior. To. the north of the Congo, the next great navigable waterway met with is the Niger. Again, granting the correctness of the population map, it can be scen at a glance that there is no area of equal size in all Africa so densely inhabited, and no district where trade with the existing native population appears to offer greater inducement to open up a commercial route into the interior. Luckily little has to be done in this respect, for the Niger is navigable for light-draught steamers in the full season as far as Rabba, about 550 miles from the sea; here the navigation soon becomes: obstructed by rocks, and at Wuru, about 70 miles further up the river, the rapids are so unnavigable that even the light native canoes have to be emptied before attempting a passage, and there are frequent upsets. From Wuru the rapids extend to Wara, after which a stretch of clear and slow-running river is met with. Above this, again, the Altona Rapids extend for a distance of 15 miles ; then 15 miles of navigable waterway, and then 20 miles more of rapids are encountered. Yelo, the capitalof Yauui, is situated on these latter cataracts, above which the Middle Niger is navigable for a considerable length. ‘The Binue is also navigable in the floods for many miles, the limits being at present unknown ; part of the year, however, it is quite impassable except for canoes. The trade with the Western Sudan, which has been made possible by the opening up of this river, is still only in its infancy, and to get the full benefit of this waterway a line of railway ought to be carried on from Lokoja to Kano, the great commercial centre of Hausal and Mr. Robinson's recent journeys over this country, which we hope to hear about at a later period of our proceedings, have served to confirm the impres- sion that no great physical difficulties would be encountered. The political con- dition of the country may, however, make the construction of this railway quite impossible for the present; for here we are on the borderland between Mahom- 848 REPORT-—1896., medanism and Paganism, where the slave trade always puts great impediments in the path of progress, but where the same circumstances make it so eminently desir- able to introduce a higher condition of civilisation. The only drawback to the Niger as a line of communication to the Western Sudan is the terribly unhealthy nature of the coast districts which have to be traversed. Any man, who finds a means of combating the deadly diseases here met with, will be the greatest bene- factor that Africa has ever had; but of such a discovery there are but few signs at present. lt is perhaps too soon to speculate as to the best means of opening a trade route to Wadai and the more central parts of the Western Sudan; for we may be sure that little will be done in this direction for years to come. Several com- peting routes are possible. From the British sphere, we may try to extend our communications eastward from the navigable parts of the Binue. The French, on the other hand, may push northwards from the Ubangi; whilst, in a later stare of commercial evolution, the best route of all may be found through German terrritory, by pushing a railway from the shore in a direct line towards Bagirmi and Wadai. To compare the relative merits of these trunk lines is perhaps looking too far into the future, and traversing too much unknown country, to make the discussion at all profitable. Proceeding northwards, or rather westwards, along the coast we find ourselves skirting the belt of dense forest already described as being the great cbstacle to advance in this part of Africa. It is to be hoped that this barrier will be pierced in several places before long. Naturally we turn our attention to the different spheres of British influence, and here we are glad to learn that there are several railways being constructed or being considered, with a view to opening up the interior, At Lagos a careful survey of a railway running in the direction of Rabba has been made, and the first section is to be commenced at once. To connect the Niger with the coast in this way would require 240 miles of railway, but the immediate objectives are the towns of Abeokuta and Ibadan, which are said to contain more than a third of a million inhabitants between them. No doubt the populous coast region makes such a line most desirable; but whether it would be wise to push on at all quickly to the Niger, and thus to come into competition with the steamboat traffic on that river, is a very different question. Surveys have also been made for a railway to connect either Kormantain or Apan on the Gold Coast with Insuaim, a town situated on a branch of the Prab. It is believed that the local traffic will be sufficiently remunerative to justify the construction of this line. But, looking to the further prolongation of this rail- way into the interior, it appears possible that those who selected this route were too much influenced by the desire to reach Kumasi, which is a political rather than a commercial centre. According to the views I have been advocating to-day, the main object of a railway in this quarter should be the crossing of the forest belt, and if, as there is some reason to believe, that belt is exceptionally wide and dense in this locality, the choice of Kumasi as a main point on the route will have been an unfortunate selection. A little further south, nearer the banks of the Volta, it ie probable that more open land would be met with, and moreover that river itself, which is navigable for steam launches from Ada to Akusi, would be of use as a preliminary means of transport. Itis to be hoped that the merits of a line from Accra through Odumase will be considered before it is too late. I am now approaching the end of my brief survey of tropical Africa, for the best method of opening communication between the Upper Niger and the coast is the last subject I shall touch on. With this object in view, the French have con- structed a railway from Kayes, the head of steam navigation during high water, on the Senegal to Bafulabé, with the intention of ultimately continuing the line to Bamaku on the Niger Unexpected difficulties have been met with in the construction of this railway, and, as the Senegal River between Kayes and St. Louis is only navigable for about a quarter of the year, it would hardly appear as if the selection of this route had been based on sound geographical information. No doubt the French will find some other practicable way of connecting the Upper TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 849 Niger with the coast, and surveys are already in progress with that object in view. It may be worth mentioning that the Gambia is navigable as far as Yarbutenda, and that it affords on the whole a better waterway than the Senegal ; it is possible, therefore, that a railway from Yarbutenda to Bamaku might form a better means of connecting the Niger with the coast, than the route the French haye selected. : At Sierra Leone a railway is now being constructed in a south-easterly direction with a view of tapping the country at the back of Liberia. But here, as in the case of the Gambia route, political considerations are of paramount im- portance ; for no doubt the best commercial route, geographically speaking, would have been a line run in a north-easterly direction to some convenient point on the navigable part of the Upper Niger. If such a railway were ever constructed, it would connect the longest stretch of navigable waterway in this region with the best harbour on the coast. But the fact that it would cross the Anglo-French boundary is a complete bar to this project at present. Proposals for connecting Algeria with the Upper Niger by rail have often been discussed in the French press, the idea being to unite the somewhat divided parts of the French sphere of influence by this means, If the views here sketched forth as tu the necessity of selecting more or less populous districts for the first. opening up of lines of communication into the interior are at all correct, these projects would be simple madness. For many a year to come Algeria and the Niger will be connected by sea far more efficiently than by any overland route, and I feel sure that when the details of these plans are properly worked out we shall not find the French wasting their money on such purely sentimental schemes. I must now conclude, and must give place to the other geographers who have kindly undertaken to read papers to us on many interesting subjects, All I have attempted to do is briefly to sketch out some of the main geographical problems connected with the opering of Central Africa in the immediate future. Such a review is necessarily imperfect, but its very imperfections illustrate the need of more accurate geographical information as to many of the districts in question. Many blunders may have been made by me in consequence of our inaccurate know- ledge, and, from the same cause, many blunders will certainly be made in future by those who have to lay out these routes into the interior. In fact my desire has. been to prove that, notwithstanding the vast strides that geography has made in past years in Africa, there is yet an immense amount of valuable work ready for anyone who will undertake it. Possibly, in considering this subject, I have been tempted to deviate from the strictly geographical aspect of the case. Where geography begins and where it ends is a question which has been the subject of much dispute. Whether geography should be classed as a separate science or not has been much debated. No doubt it is right to classify scientific work as far as possible; but it is a fatal mistake to attach too much importance to any such classification. Geography is now going through a somewhat critical period in its development, in consequence of the solution of nearly all the great geographical problems that used to stir the imagina- tion of nations; and for this reason such discussions are now specially to the fore. My own humble advice to geographers would be to spend less time in considering what geography is and what it is not; to attack every useful and interesting problem that presents itself for solution; to take every help we can get from every quarter in arriving at our conclusions ; and to let the name that our work goes by take care of itself. The following Papers were read :— 1. On a Journey in Tripoli. By H. 8. Cowper. The author gave some account of a short journey made in March, 1896, in the Tarhuna and M’salata districts of Tripoli. During his visit he examined or noted about forty additional megalithic ruins of the type called by the Arabs Senam. The route taken was by the Wadi Terr’qurt, a fine valley running parallel to the 850 ; REPORT—1896. Wadi Doga, by which he entered the hills in 1895. He then proceeded to the districts of Ghirrah and Mamurah, south of Ferjana, through which runs a great wadi, the Tergilat. This reaches the sea at Kam, twelve miles south-east of the ruins of Leptis Magna, and is undoubtedly the Cinyps of Herodotus. On reaching the coast a week was spent at the ruins of Leptis and the Kam district, and the return journey was made to Tripoli by sea. 2. The Land of the Hausa. By Rev. J. C. Ropryson. 3. Photographic Surveying. By JoHN Couzs, This paper contains a concise history of the application of perspective drawings and photographs to surveying. It then states the manner in which photographs taken with an ordinary camera may be utilised in filling in the details of a map, and proceeds to describe two surveying cameras of recent date, constructed on different principles. The paper concludes with a reference to the method of photographic surveying, which is being extensively employed by the department of the Surveyor-General of the Dominion of Canada. 4. Marine Research in the North Atlantic. By H. N. Dickson, /.R.S.L. 5. On a Proposed Geographical Description of the British Islands. By Hucu Roserr Mitt, D.Sc, /RSL. The scheme submitted ig that of providing for each sheet of the 1-inch Ordnance Survey map a memoir giving a succinct account of the geography of the district represented. For this purpose it would be necessary to give an index of the names on the map, certain measurements of natural features, e.g., mean height of land, length of rivers, &c., a full discussion of the physical geography in the light of modern geographical methods, and an indication of the influence exerted by geographical conditions on the utilisation of natural resources, the sites of towns, and the movements of population. The scheme has been published in full in the ‘Geographical Journal’ for April 1896 ; but since, if it is ever to be carried out, it will require the co-operation of an immense number of workers throughout the country, it is desirable that no opportunity be lost for making it known and eliciting criticisms or suggestions. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18. The following Papers were read :— l. The Weston Tapestry Maps. By Rey. W. K. R. Beprorp, JA. William Sheldon, of Weston and Beoley (died 1570), was an enterprising man, who conceived the idea of introducing the art of tapestry weaving into England. He sent to Flanders one Richard Hicks, of Barcheston, to learn the work and bring back artisans. Among other results of the looms which were kept in work for at least half a century after Sheldon’s death are five maps of the Midland counties which were bought by Horace Walpole after the mansion at Weston was pulled down in 1776 for the sum of thirty guineas, and given by him to Earl Harcourt, who presented two to the Bodleian and kept three at Nuneham, where they TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 851 remained until 1827, when Archbishop Harcourt presented them to the Museum at York. Gough has described them at this period in his British Topographer, 1780. The first noticed represents Warwickshire, and is now at York. It is 13 ft. x 17 ft. x 3 ft. exclusive of the border, and contains a long inscription copied from Camden. Its date is ascertained by the arms of Sheldon impaling Markham, viz., Edward Sheldon, grandson of William, who married Elizabeth Markham about 1588, which date is on the map. The second of the York maps is the most modern, having the arms of Ralph Sheldon, born 1623, and his wife Henrietta, daughter of Viscount Rocksavage. In this map the north is at the top, but in the former map the north is upon the east side. This represents the valley of the Thames from Chippenham (spelt Chipnam) to London Bridge, the dimensions are 13 ft. x 17 ft. 9 inches. The third map at York is one of Worcestershire, and is so begrimed with soot as to be almost undecipherable, though enough can be made out to identify it with Gough’s description. The Bodleian maps are much mutilated. A large fragment cut off one made into a screen was sold at the Strawberry Hill Sale, 1842, and Mr. D. P. (Dudley Perceval ?) in ‘Notes and Queries,’ June 26, 1869, says that he had lately been offered a portion of the West of Gloucestershire at an old curiosity shop. Still there are remnants of great beauty and interest. On the fragments of the border are many ornamental and allegorical figures, one favourite subject being the exploits of Ifercules. There is a small map of Africa also which has unfortunately suffered terribly, though the Capo de Bona Speranza and the island of Madagascar are quite distinct. Another feature is that poetical inscriptions in decorative panels torm part ofthe border. On this side which the sonne doth warme With his declining beames, Severn and Teme in channell deepe Doo run, too ancient stremes, Thes make the neibor’s pasture riche. Thes yeld of fruit great store, And do convey tho out the shire, Commodities many more. Again, under the word Occidens, Here hills do lift their heads aloft. From whence sweet springes doo flow, Whose moistur good doth firtil make The vallies coucht below. Here goodly orchards planted are, Infinite which doo abounde Thine ey wold make thin heart rejoyce To see such pleasant grounde. The Tudor arms also date the map as having been executed before the accession of James I., and Richard Hyckes has placed his name upon it. ‘Wigom: comit: Compiletata, Rich. Hyckes.’ The remaining map is one of the valley of the Thames similar to the one at York already described. It was from this that Walpole cut the piece for the screen. Fortunately, the piece containing London is intact 18 x 36 inches, and gives a most graphic and curious portraiture of the suburbs. The manor houses and deer parks, the churches, villages, bridges, and windmills, are all represented in a bird's-eye view, and the colours have stood the test of time remarkably well. Every village is named, and the spelling even to some obvious mistakes seems to follow that of Saxton’s maps, but these maps are so much larger a scale, 3 inches to the mile, that it is evident some personal observation or survey was undertaken, I am inclined to believe, by Francis Hicks, of Barcheston, who was a student at St. Mary Hall, Oxford, and a good scholar. He died in 1630, , 2. The Altels Avalanche. By Tempest AnvERsON, JLD., B.Sc. On September 11, 1895, an enormous avalanche fell from the Altels mountain and overwhelmed a large pasture ; it destroyed 6 men and 150 cattle. About two hours to the south of Kandersteg the Gemmi path traverses an upland valley with the Altels rising steeply from the stream on the east side and with gentle slopes on the west, rising to the foot of the Oeschinen Grat, a precipi- tous wall of rocks which separates it from the Oeschinen Thal. The basin_of 852 REPORT—1896. Spittalmatte thus formed is about 14 mile long from north to south and 3 mile wide. Its southern portion is diversified by low wooded hills, the Arvenwald, obviously formed by avalanches in past ages, and the northern portion was an open pasture or Alp now overwhelmed, The Altels is a roughly pyramidal mountain. The west face from which the avalanche descended slopes at a high angle, and the limestone strata of which it is composed dip at about the same angle. The upper part is, or rather was, covered with snow and glacier ice, At a certain distance from the top the glacier ceases to spread, and becomes confined within rocky walls on either side, where the strata, formerly continuous, have been removed in past ages by avalanches. The whole width of the glacier at the place where it has slid appears from the Sigfried map to be about a kilometre, and the middle half of this descended, leaving a portion of about + kilometre standing at each side. The portion on the south side which has not descended is separated from the rest by a wall of rock, and this separation probably accounts for it not having come down at the same time ; it extends lower down the mountain than the fallen part appears to have done. The avalanche descended to the bottom of the valley, a vertical distance of about 4,000 feet, and the acquired momentum carried the greater part of it up the slope on the other side to a height of about 400 feet above the lowest point. Here it spread out in a fan shape, and formed a return current on each side, the northern one of which descended again quite to the bottom of the valley. There were also local return slips, The stream was covered up by the avalanche ice, but. speedily worked a way underneath it, and the glacier bridge thus formed had not quite melted on a second visit a year after the event, The area covered was about 1 mile by } mile. The average thickness, as estimated in the sections exposed by the return slips, was about 6 feet, but there were places 20 feet thick, and some doubtless more, near the bed of the stream. The materials of which the avalanche was composed were an intimate mixture of snow and glacier ice with stones and mud, the two former, perhaps, on the whole, predominating ; but in one good exposure, though the ice and snow predominated in the upper part the stones and mud did so near the base. Many of the stones showed marks of rubbing and scratch- ing, especially those at the parts of the avalanche further from the Altels; nearly all of these, however, retained some angle unworn, and thus differed from ordinary river gravel. The effects of the wind which always accompanies avalanches was strikingly shown by the over-turning of about 1,000 trees and the destruction of some chalets, the materials of which were carried above 100 yards. The tops of the trees all pointed radially away from the direction of the couloir, down which the avalanche had fallen. This destruction by the wind was in an area outside that actually overwhelmed by the avalanche, and here also large boulders could be seen which had been rocked by the force of the wind, Six men were killed in the chalets, and about 160 cattle on the pasture. The ice cliff left standing by the fall of the avalanche was semi-elliptical in shape, about 4 a kilometre in extent, and from 50 feet to 70 feet high. Nearly all of it presented the appearance of a perfectly fresh fracture. There were blue veins of more compact ice in many parts, and also a few dirt bands of stones in the substance of the ice. One was specially conspicuous towards the south end of the cliff, and about one-third of its height from the bottom. Its presence here was very remarkable, as there are no rocks overhanging the glacier from which the stones could have fallen. A few rocks just peep through the snow at the edge of the aréte, and if the stones did not come from this source, which seems unlikely, they must have been picked up by the glacier from its floor. There were slight indications of another crack in the glacier parallel with, and perhaps 100 yards further up than, the cliff, but the author is inclined to think that it was only the usual bergschrund. The rocky floor of the glacier left exposed by the fall was singularly smooth, and its inclination coincided with the dip of the limestone strata of which it was composed. Dr. Heim believes that the glacier is usually frozen in its bed, and that the catastrophe is due to the unusual period of hot weather which preceded it. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 853 A similar avalanche which took place at the same place in 1782 also followed a period of unusual heat. The author visited and photographed the scene of the avalanche in the first instance on September 23, 1895, and following days, and again visited it Sep- tember 9, 1896. A good deal of ice still remains unmelted. The stones, having been washed by rain, show their scratchings much more conspicuously than last year. Vegetation is beginning to show itself in many places, spreading chiefly from sods and pieces of earth dislodged by, and mixed up with, the avalanche material. The ice cliff has altered very little in appearance, though it is somewhat rounded by melting. The dirt bands are still conspicuous. The total loss in land and eattle has been estimated at 130,000 frances, or above 5,0002. 3. On Uganda and the Upper Nile. By Lieutenant C. F. 8. Vanpeeur, Scots Guards. Lieutenant Vandeleur started from Mombasa on September 7, 1894, with Mr. Jackson and Captain Ashburnham, and a large caravan of about 400 men, carrying arms and ammunition, and after a most successful march reached Uganda at the end of November, at the time Colonel, now Sir H. E. Colvile, was Commissioner. He started again with Major Cunningham on December 19 for Unyoro and Lake Albert. The road used at that time led by Singo and across the river Kafu at Barauwa, and was a very bad one, crossing many large and deep swamps. The first Wanyoro were met with at Kaduma, and there is a marked difference between them and the Waganda, the former having much sharper features, and being of a slighter build than the Waganda. Having arrived at Fort Hoima, the headquarters, on January 1, 1895, after a halt of five days they continued their journey to the Albert Nyanza. On nearing the lake the country became more open and rocky in places, until the edge of the escarpment was reached, where the lake lies 1,200 feet below it, bordered by a strip of yellow sand, the Sudanese fort and the native village called Kibero looking mere specks close to the water's edge. Lieutenant Vandeleur then described the journey down the Nile in a steel boat with a crew of sixteen men. A friendly Wanyoro chief called Keyser, who spoke the Lure language, and had lived at Wadelai, went as guide. They sailed all the first day with a good breeze, and camped on the western shore at Mahagi after dark, where they had difficulty in finding a landing place, owing to the reeds and swampy nature of the shore. They eventually reached Wadelai, and camped one mile further on at Emin Pasha’s old fort, which was then completely overgrown. The natives appeared very hostile, and had evidently thrown in their lot with Kabba Rega, king of Unyoro. After Wadelai the stream was very strong, and they glided rapidly past narrow channels through the floating vegetation and papyrus, stopping sometimes near the villages on the banks to ask for news, at all of which they were informed that the dervishes were advancing from Dufile by both banks. The first Madi village was met with at Towara, and the natives became more friendly as they made their way down the river. The natives are continually fighting among themselves, and lead a pre- carious existence; several of the latter came to have their wounds dressed. An enormous amount of floating vegetation passes down the Nile; it is gradu- ally broken off from the sides of the river by the force of the current, and floats down until it attaches itself to the sides again, or reaches the cataracts below Dufile, where it gets broken up into little pieces. After Bora, an old Egyptian fort on the right bank, the river is very broad, about 13 miles, though the actual channel through the mud is only about 500 yards in breadth. The banks between Uniewe and Dufile seemed well populated; several of the villages were hidden away among the high rocks and boulders on small hills close to the river, and there was a certain amount of dbhurra and mtama cultivation, but very few sheep and goats. Late in the afternoon of January 14 they arrived at the old fort at Dufile, situated close to the water’s edge at a bend of the river on the 854 REPORT—1896, left bank. The parapet and ditch were still very distinct ; some mud-brick houses, some lemon and cotton trees, were the only signs remaining of the Egyptian occupation. It is believed they were the first white men to have reached Dufile since the abandonment of the place in 1888. The native reports proved quite untrue, and the deryishes were now at Regaff, below the cataracts, which they went to inspect the next day. The Madi natives are a fine, strong-looking race ; they wear little or no clothes, and have no wants excepting beads and iron wire. At Umiaa’s village, at the bend of the Nile, a representative of Abu Sulla was met with, an important chief living one day’s march below Dufile, on the right bank, He was dressed in white cloth, which was probably obtained from the Arabs or Mahdists to the north. Most of the villages are reached by narrow channels, cut through the floating vegetation, and are almost impossible to find. The return journey to the Albert Nyanza was long and tedious, owing to the strong stream. On reaching the Albert Nyanza camp was pitched at Boki; it was a very dark night, and a large herd of elephants came down on both sides of the camp to drink, some of them coming unpleasantly close. The people on the west of the Albert Nyanza used to pay tribute to Kabba Rega, but that is at an end now. The Shulis, in the angle contained by the two Niles, are inclined to be friendly. With steamers on the lake and railway com- munication, a large extent of country would be opened for trade, and there is no limit at present to the ivory to he obtained from the countries bordering the Albert. There. is no hindrance to navigation down to Dufile. The road now used between Unyoro and Uganda passes by Mrulfi at the junction of the Kafu river, where there is a fort garrisoned by Sudanese, and on along the Victoria Nile to Lake Kioja, from where it runs in a direct line to Mengo, the capital of Uganda. The road is a very good one, and has been carried across the swamps or causeways. In Kampala there are broad roads which enclose houses and shambas.. The railway will make a great difference to this country. There is a large demand for European clothes, boots, and shoes; the people are very imitative, and already the king and chiefs have given orders to traders for various articles which they see the Europeans possess.. A great deal of rice and a certain amount .of English potatoes and native coffee are grown in Uganda. Cotton has been found to grow well. One result of the railway will be that horses and donkeys will be trans- ported rapidly through the belt of country infested by the tsetse fly, and ought to reach Uganda in good condition. Animals do well there, if well looked after, though dangers exist in snakes and bad grass met with in places. 4. Coast-forms of Romney Marsh, By Dr. F. G. Guiniver. Dungeness Point in south-eastern England projects from. the dissected Weald dome into the English Channel. It consists of two classes of recent deposits, shingle and marsh, It is proposed here to discuss these deposits, formed during the present cycle of shore development, as representing a coastal form characteristic of a certain stage of a cycle. The whole deposit may be called a cuspate foreland.’ Foreland is here used as a technical term, meaning those deposits which are built in front of the oldland, including all those forms that project into the sea beyond the initial coastline, “which was formed where the sea surface intersected the land at the-beginning of the cycle. This initial coast was attacked by the sea, and early in the development of the coast and shore form a low cliff or ‘nip’ was made in the coast all along the shore. At a later stage in the development the supply of load was just enough to equal the ability of the sea to transport, and a graded condition resulted. A beach now was seen at the foot of the cliff. This equilibrium would not last at all 1 Bull. GS.A., vol. vil. 1895, p. 399. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 855 points, and aggradation would necessarily occur when more waste was supplied than the sea could carry. This aggradation would take place where the action of the sea wasting was least. The writer has suggested eddies in the tidal in and outflow as the determining agent in the location of some of the cuspate forelands.' Topley recognised the action of the sea upon the oldland previous to the build- ing out of this foreland. He said: ‘Along the northern boundary of Romney Marsh the termination of the Weald Clay is certainly an old sea-cliff, now worn down into undulating ground.’* The much fresher cliff north from Rye along the military road indicates a more recent action of the sea upon this portion of the initial shoreline. The geographic interpretation from form is corroborated by the history and tradition of Romney Marsh.’ The historical students of Romney Marsh do not sufficiently regard the line of former shorelines indicated by the ridges of shingle, but place rather too much reliance upon outlines given on early maps, many of which show poor sketching and little knowledge of geographic form. It has been very common to attribute the formation of this great deposit to the tides, but the details of the process have not been explained except in a most general manner by such expression as the ‘meeting of the tides.’ Diagrams were shown illustrating the formation of tidal cuspate forelands, and it was pointed out that Dungeness with its included marshes corresponds to the filled stage plus cutting back and rebuilding of the Point. The most recent curves of aggradation are very prettily shown at the Point when ‘looking toward the centre of the cuspate foreland from the lighthouse. Recent observations at the Point indicate that this shoreline is here advancing at the rate of 9 feet a year. A mile to the west the sea is at present cutting into the shingle. Upon the eastern side of this foreland there are some twenty-three successive shorelines shown between Lydd and the present shoreline. These all curve sympathetically, indicating steps in the eastward growth of the foreland. These ridges are not absolutely parallel or continuous, for some twenty lines of ‘aggradation at the Point were traced by the writer into fourteen at a point a mile north, and these fourteen were in turn traced into seventeen ridges at a point a couple of miles further north! At one time there seems to be greater advance in one place, and when thé complex conditions which govern depositions are changed another point receives the most waste, The hypothetical initial) shoreline ‘was indicated by a diagram. Where the cliffs are high the initial land has presumably been most cut back. Behind the foreland the land probably did not extend a great deal farther than the present low cliff or ‘ nip’ which was made in the youth of the present cycle. On account. of the graded form the present coast may appropriately be said to be in adolescence, following Professor Davis’ use of this term for land surfaces.* English sailors have recognised forms similar to Dungeness, and have applied the same name to forelands of like geological structure in Puget Sound, and south of Patagonia in the Straits of Tierra del Fuego. f 5, Last Year's Work of the Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition. By A. Monreriore Brice, » Loe. cit:, p. 413. 2 Geol. Weald, pp. 251, 302. 3 See Cingue Ports, by. Montague Burrows; also writings of Robertson, Wn. Hollaway, Wm. Somner, F. H. Appach, Hasted, A. J. Burrows, and many other refe- rences in Topley’s Geology. of the Weald. ‘ 4See Geog. Jour., vol. v. 1895, p. 127; ‘Rivers and Valleys of Pennsylvania.’ ‘Nat. Geog. Mag., p.1; ‘Geog. Development of N. New Jersey’ (with J, W. Wood, jun.), Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 1889. 856 REPORT—1896. 6. The Influence of Climate and Vegetation on African Civilisations. By G. ¥. Scorr-Exxiot, 7.L.8., FRG. An attempt is made in this paper to connect the various African states of civilisation with the climate and vegetation of the particular districts in which they took origin. For this purpose the continent is divided into four main groups or divisions, which are characterised by the following points :— I. ‘The wet jungle, which is marked roughly by the presence of the oil or cocoanut palm, numerous creepers—especially the Landolphia (rubber vines)—and such forms as Sesamum, Cajanus indicus, and Manihot as cultivated plants. This region is characterised by creat heat and continuous humidity, without a season sufficiently dry to leave a mark on the vegetation. Il. The deserts.—Characterised by xerophytic adaptations, by Zilla, Mesem- bryanthemum, Capparis sodada, &c. The climate is distinguished by possessing no proper rainy season whatever. 4 Ill. The acacia and dry grass region.—Characterised by acacias, tree euphor- bias, giant grasses, or frequently grassy plains in which each tuft of grass is isolated. The climate is marked from all the remaining regions by distinct dry and wet seasons; the dry season occupies from five to nine months, and leaves a distinct mark on the vegetation. This region occupies practically all Africa between 3,000 feet and 5,000 feet, and also extends below 3,000 feet wherever the above climatic conditions prevail. IV. The temperate grass and forest area.—This region is distinguished by having at no season of the year such drought as leaves a permanent mark on the vegetation, by a moderate rainfall, by moderate heat, &c. The grass resembles the turf of temperate countries, and the forest shows the same sorts of adap- tation as occur in temperate countries. This region is found between 4,600 feet and 7,000 feet. The paper is an attempt to trace the native races inhabiting these divisions comparing their civilisations, so far as this is possible. i I. The wet jungle is shown to be limited by the direction of the prevalent winds (‘Challenger’ Reports), by various meteorological considerations, and by the elevation. It extends to 3,000 feet, but often ceases below this level. Reference is given to the works of many travellers, to the Report of the British Association dealing with African meteorology, and by the assistance of these data an attempt is made to trace its boundaries exactly. Then it is shown that it is. everywhere inhabited by small tribes of a weak, enfeebled character and on the lowest stage of civilisation. All these tribes have been subdued by Arabs and Europeans without difficulty. Il. The desert is very shortly disposed of. The account is directed chiefly to the extreme severity of the climate and the exceedingly healthy and vigorous nature of the tribes inhabiting it.. A short account of the causes leading to its present condition is also given. ILI. The acacia region is more clearly and carefully detined, and hints are given as to the easiest means of recognising the climate from the vegetation. Itis shown to vary much in character, and a brief sketch is given of the Upper Scarcies and Niger region about Falaba, of the Mombasa to Kibwezi tract, of the Shiré High- lands, and the Victoria Nyanza basin. The region is shown to be every where rather densely inhabited, but there has not been a swarming centre, and no emigration in large numbers has taken place from this acacia region. The nations inhabiting it have also fallen under the Arab and European with scarcely a struggle. An explanation is given of the reason of this, LV. The temperate grass and forest regions above 5,000 feet are then shown to be the only places in Africa that have acted as swarming centres of population. 'The character of the native races inhabiting them is shown to be vigorous and turbulent, and often raiding is carried on. The differences in climate, ‘Vegetation and abundance of wild and domestic animals are shown to explain why it is that TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 857 these races only have, except in one instance, resisted both Arab and European. In a note an attempt is made to reconcile the classification given by Herr Engler with that adopted in this paper. 7. Sand Dunes. By Vaucuan Cornisu, I.Sc. In the sorting of materials by wind the coarser gravel is left on stony deserts or sea-beaches, the sand is heaped up in dune tracts, and the dust (consisting largely of friable materials which have been reduced to powder in the dune dis- trict itself) forms widely scattered deposits beyond the limits of the dune district. Three principal factors operate in dune tracts, viz. (1) the wind ; (2) the eddy in the lee of each obstacle ; (3) gravity. The wind drifts the fine and the coarse sand. The upward motion of the eddy lifts the fine sand and, co-operating with the wind, sends it flying from the crest of the dune. The backward motion of the eddy arrests the forward drift of the coarser sand, and thus co-operates with the wind to build the permanent structure of the dune. Gravity reduces to the angle of rest any slopes which have been forced to a steeper pitch either by wind or eddy ; hence in a group of dunes the amplitude cannot be greater than (about) one-third cf the wave-length. This limit is most nearly approached when the wind blows alternately from opposite quarters, but does not hold in one quarter sufficiently long to completely reverse the work of preceding winds. Gravity also acts upon the sand which flies from the crests, causing it to fall across the stream lines of the air, the larger or heavier particles falling more steeply. To the varying density of the sand-shower is due the varying angle of the windward slope of dunes. When there is no sand-shower the windward becomes as steep as the leeward slope. When the dune tract is all deep sand the lower part of the eddy gouges out the trough, and, when the sand-shower fails, the wind by drifting and the eddy by gouging form isolated hills upon a hard bed. On the other hand, the sand-shower sometimes smooths over a dune tract, leaving lines of hollows (‘ Fuljes’), where the troughs were deepest and the wind strongest. The encroachment of a dune tract being due not only to the march of the dunes (by drifting) but also to the formation of new dunes to leeward from material supplied by the sand-shower, it follows that there is both a ‘group velocity’ and a ‘ wave velocity’ of dunes. Since the wave velocity decreases as the amplitude increases, a sufficiently large dune is a stationary hill, even though composed of loose sand throughout. Bind- ing the surface will stop the wave-motion, but not the group motion. Both may be arrested by promoting the growth of the dune. The fundamental forms of sand-dunes include the longitudinal, formed where _ the strength of the wind is too great to permit free lateral growth. Where the _ wind begins to decrease a form is met with intermediate between the longitudinal and the transverse. Conical dunes may be produced by the action of varying winds upon the rudimentary longitudinal dunes, called Barchanes. Where material is accumulated by the action of tidal currents, forms homolo- gous with the ground plan of dunes are produced. SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19. The following Papers and Report were read :— 1. World Maps of Mean Monthly Rainfall. By Anprew J. Hersertson, /.R.SL., PRG. For practical purposes it is almost as important to know how rainfall is distributed throughout the year, as to know the total annual precipitation. The best way to show this is to make maps of mean monthly rainfall that will be comparable. Each month must be considered one-twelfth of a year and the 1896, 3K ———— 858 ; REPORT—1896. ‘ average monthly rainfall reduced accordingly. This is being done at present by Dr. Buchan, Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological Society, and the author, and, as far as they are aware, it is the first attempt to do so for the whole world. The scanty records of some regions make the positions of the lines of equal rainfall (tsohyets) somewhat uncertain. These are dotted onthe maps. The other isohyets are shown by firm lines, and the different intensities of colour indicate different quantities of water precipitated. From such maps the relationship of the distri- bution of rainfall to latitude and altitude, to remoteness from the coast and the nature of the land around, to the changing seasons or prevalent winds, is clearly seen. Some typical examples were given, especially those of economic importance. 2. The Climate of Nyasaland. By J. W. Morr. 3. Report on African Climate.—See Reports, p. 495. 4. Practical Geography in Manchester. By J. Howarp ReEep. The author believes the Manchester Geographical Society has demonstrated that geography is popular among the people. Mr. Eli Sowerbutts, secretary of the Manchester Society, commenced giving popular geographical lectures some years ago. The demands for work of this kind grew to such proportions that a body of prominent members of the Society, including the chairman, took up the lecturing work, which has increased year by year ever since. The lecturers now form an organised body of expert geographers and practised speakers, who freely volunteer their services for the purpose of spreading reliable geographical information. The lectures are all given in a popular manner, and are mostly illustrated by lantern views. During the past five years over three hundred lectures have been delivered in Manchester and the surrounding districts, and over ninety thousand hearers have been reached. The audiences are principally of the working class, but also include the members of many well-known literary and scientific clubs, and students of continuation schools. The lectures given include such titles as: ‘ Shaping of the Earth’s Surface by Water-action, ‘Map Projection,’ ‘ India,’ ‘ China, Corea, and Japan,’ ‘Polar Exploration,’ ‘ Across the Rocky Mountains,’ ‘Canada,’ ‘ Across Africa with Stanley, ‘ Uganda,’ &c. Applications for lectures are made to an hon. secretary, who conducts all correspondence and makes arrangements with the local societies and clubs and the lecturers. The engagement of halls, printing, and similar matters are carried out on the spot by the local people. This system has proved so satisfactory, and the enthusiasm of the voluntary workers has been so well maintained, that no hitch has ever occurred. The terms on which the lectures are given are very simple. Any member of the Manchester Geographical Society or any affiliated society is entitled to apply for lectures. Lantern apparatus and volunteer operator are supplied when required. A nominal fee is charged for each lecture, travelling and lantern expenses being added when incurred. Any balance in hand at the end of each season is applied to the upkeep of lantern plant and the making and purchase of new slides. Another important branch of voluntary work consists in the analysis of some two hundred British and foreign scientific journals. This is most useful for scholars and students. It enables them to follow up, with ease, the literature on any special subject. It has received the commendation of several high authorities. The Manchester geographers intend to follow up the work they are doing, and hope to more fully occupy the field. They are conscious that there is ample room for development. The author feels sure they would be glad to hear of similar organised effort in other parts of the country. 5, Canada and its Gold Discoveries. By Sir JAMES GRANT. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 859 MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21, The following Papers were read :— 1. A Journey towards Lhasa. By W. A. L. Firtcuer. 2. The Northern Glaciers of the Vatna Jékull, Iceland. By FREDERICK W. W. Howe t. The route taken was from Seydifjordr on the east coast, up the valley of the fine river lake Lagarflj6t. At Valthjéfstadr is the finest skogar, or wood, in the country, some trees (birch) being 20 to 25 feet high. Hengifoss is the loftiest waterfall in Iceland, the upper portion having a perpendicular drop of 350 feet. Surturbrand in the gil, Fleadquarters at Valthjofstadr. Thence two journeys: first vid Bri to the unknown valley of the Kverka, which river was followed to its source in an ice-cave in the Briar Jékull ; it abounds in quicksands, The second journey was from Valthjéfstadr to Snaefell and the Eyjabakka Jokull. In the winter of 1889-90 a volcanic eruption took place under the ice of these two glaciers, causing an enormous Jékulhlaup, or glacier leap. The whole face of the 30 mile wide Briar Jékull was carried forward, in some places for nearly 6 English miles; and the face of the 15 mile wide Eyjabakka Jékull for 2 to 3 miles. The former has since retired 16 yards, and the latter about one-eighth of a mile. New cones on the Eyjabakka Jékull, reaching a height of 4 feet. 6in., afford an index to the rate of surface diminution which is not less than 8 inches per annum, The face of this glacier is extremely fine, the ice cliff being 100 feet high; and, being undermined by the river, it frequently gives way, exposing fresh sections. The flowers in the valley of the Jokulsa-i-Fljdtsdal call for special notice, Columnar basalt occurs throughout the district. Sneefell is not a single mountain, but a handsome group of ten to twelve peaks, mostly composed of tufa and cinder, The glaciers upon it are small, and lie at a high level. The junction of Jékulkvisl with Jékuls4-4-Brii is wrongly marked. Reindeer abound in the district. 3. Notes on the less-known Interior of Iceland. By Karu GrossMann, M.D., FRC SE., PGS. The author's last journey to Iceland, which was undertaken in the summer 1895, for the purpose of investigating leprosy amongst the inhabitants, admitted of an exploring excursion into the lonely district to the east of Hekla, while the crossing of the island from north to south gave occasion for examining parts equally interesting and equally unvisited. The eruptions of the various vents comprised under the name of the Hekla group are particularly rich in obsidian lavas. A very finely vesicular obsidian goes as far south as Storolfshvoll. Of very rugged character is the landscape of the Hrafntinnuhraun, most desolate, void of vegetation, full of voleanic ashes and sand and large torrents of a peculiar obsidian lava, on which in many places the three stages of pumice, obsidian, and banded rhyolite are seen in the same blocks, _ tlie three parts following in the order given from above downwards. The landscape in the neighbourhood of the large lake of Sudur Namur resembles a lunar landscape in appearance, Various exquisite craters are found here, amongst others one that is probably the finest ring crater in Iceland. On climbing up the wall of the ring a central cone is seen of perfect shape, built up of slags which form a sharp-edged hemispherical cup of beautiful regularity. The journey across the island was made from Akureyi by way of the Kyjafjardaré valley. The dense fogs made this part of the journey both difficult and obscured the views. When the plateau was reached, the clouds lifted, and the Hofsjékull was seen in all its enormous extent. 3K 2 860 REPORT — 1896. The country nortan of tae Hofsjékull is absolutely barren, and consists of gently undulating territory of loose débris, many water-worn pieces of obsidian and obsidian bombs being found scattered everywhere. The hot sunshine made it impossible to cross the swollen Jékulsa vestri, which was followed up to its source on the Hofsjékull; but the mud and slush prevented a crossing. Nor could the horses be brought over the glacier itself. For more than twenty-four hours they had not had a blade of grass to eat, and it seemed impossible to proceed further southwards; but, after a severe night’s frost, a fording was ultimately effected in the small hours of the following morning some miles below the source of the river, The Hveravellir were examined and a large series of photographs taken. The sinter crater and terraces of these hot springs are the most beautiful in the island, and the territory round them forms one of the richest oases. To the east of the Hverayellir a wide crater resembling Hverfjall, but not complete to the S.W., was seen, which is neither the Strytur nor Difufell of Thoroddsen’s map. On the E. it is flanked by a large lake, which was named Karlsvatn. The lava flow between Hveravellir and the crater mentioned has on its surface a fine layer of black tachylite, } inch thick (specimens were shown). The further progress S was of equal interest. The “high peak” called Blagnypa could not be seen at all, although the weather was perfect during that part of the journey. On the other hand, very clear photographs were taken of a big mountain chain of quite alpine character, contrasting most strikingly with the flat and tame polagonite plateau on which the enormous ice-sheet of the Hofsj6kull rests. This mountain chain, going from N. to S., has large glaciers quite of alpine appearance; that they must be permanent is clear from the fact that the snow had melted more than usually during that year, so that the snowcap of Skjaldbreid had disappeared altogether some four weeks previously. Thoroddsen does not mention these mountains and glaciers, nor does he show them in his map; he cannot have seen them, as they are not what he figures as the Kerlingafjéll, although they take the place immediately north of where he puts the latter. The district of the Hvitarvatn was also visited. All this district is highly interesting and full of surprises. It will well repay a careful exploration, as hitherto only a very sketchy and fragmentary outline of it is known. 4. The Relativity of Geographical Advantages. By Grorce G. Cuisuowm, I,A., B.Sc. The considerations to which attention is drawn in this paper are for the most part obvious and familiar, and the only excuse for laying them before the British Association is that they are nevertheless apt to be overlooked, especially in esti- mates of past conditions, and still more in forecasts based on geography as to the condition of the future. Geographical advantages may be considered—(1) as relative to the physical condition of the surface of a country, e.g. the extent of forests, marshes, &c. The former and present relative importance of Liverpool and Bristol may be explained in part at least by changes that have taken place under this head. Also the dif- ference in direction of some of the great Roman roads and those of the present day, and the consequent fact that some important Roman stations in Britain are now represented not even by a hamlet. (2) As relative to the political condition of a country and of other countries. (8) As relative to the state of military science. Under these two heads the difference in the situation of the Roman wall between Tyne and Solway and the Anglo-Scottish boundary suggests some considerations. Also the difference in the situation of some important Roman towns or stations and their modern representatives (Uriconium, Shrewsbury ; Sorbiodunum, Salis- bury). (4) As relative to the state of applied science—well illustrated in this country, as in the history of the iron and textile industries. (5) As relative to the density of population—another important consideration in the industrial history of our own country. (6) As relative to the mental attitude of the people where TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 861 . . . . _ the geographical advantages exist. Many Chinese travellers and students of China have recognised the excessive reverence for ancestors in that country as one great _ hindrance in the way of turning the advantages of the country to account. 5. The various Boundary Lines between British Guiana and Venezuela attributed to Sir Robert H. Schomburgk. By Ratpu RicHarpson, FRS.E., Hon. Sec., RS.GS., FSA. Scot. As a Geographical curiosity, if nothing else, the Protean forms assumed by the celebrated ‘ Schomburgk Line’ are worth noticing. Let us tabulate them as laid down by various eminent authorities in the course of their discussion of the ques- tion of the Western boundary of British Guiana: 1. The Schomburgk Line 1841-42 of the Map in the British Government's Blue Book, March, 1896.—Commencing at the mouth of the River Amacura, this line runs along that river’s eastern bank, including as British territory the whole basin of the River Barima, and then proceeds S.E. to the River Acarabisi, after which it follows the course of the River Cuyuni, and passes S.E. to the summit of Mount Roraima, where it stops. It may be noticed that, whilst this Line was drawn in 1841-42, Schomburgk’'s surveys were not completed till 1844. 2. The ‘ Historic’ Schomburgk Line of Dr. Emil Reich. ‘ Times, March 14, 1896 —Dr. Reich considers that the ‘Schomburgk Line, if drawn from the mouth of the River Wainy, is borne out by irrefragable historic arguments.’ No map, however, shows a Schomburgk Line drawn from the mouth of the river Waini. 3. The ‘Legal’ Schomburgk Line of Dr. Emil Reich. ‘ Times, March 14, 1896.—Dr. Reich holds that the Schomburgk Line, ‘if drawn from the mouth of the Barima, may be defended successfully by legal arguments.’ He states that the line so appears ‘in all current maps’; but current maps belonging to the R.S.G.S. represent the Schomburgk line as drawn not from the mouth of the Barima, but of the Amacura. 4. The ‘ Reliable’ Schomburgk Line of Mr. John Bolton, F.R.G.S. ‘ Nineteenth Century,’ February, 1896.—Mr. Bolton says the Schomburgk Line first appeared on a crude sketch map, lithographed by Arrowsmith in 1840, and presented to Parliament, and that it was not till 1841 that Schomburgk surveyed the country _ north of the River Cuyuni, the original drawing of this survey being sent to the ~ Colonial Secretary in 1841. It has never heen reproduced, but this, the only reliable Schomburgk Line, begins at the Amacura mouth, includes as British territory the whole basin of the Barima, and stops at the junction of the Acarabisi and Cuyuni rivers. The ‘Blue Book, published by the British Government in August, 1896, contains a facsimile of Schomburgk's Map of 1841, showing that his 1841 Line did not stop at the Acarabisi, but was continued along the upper course of the Cuyuni. 5. The ‘ Provisional’ Schomburgk Line of Mr. George G. Dixon. ‘ The Geo- graphical Journal, April 1895.—This line corresponds to No. 1, but is derived from a map published in 1875 attributed to Sir Robert H. Schomburgk, who died in 1865. The 1875 map in Proceedings R.G.S. 1880 contradicts this one. 6. The ‘ Modified’ Schomburgk Line of ‘The Statesman's Year-Book,’ 1896, corresponds to Nos. 1 and 5. The ‘ original’ Schomburgk Line is, however, also _ given, and is stated to have been drawn in 1840, 7. The ‘Venezuelan Government's’ Schomburgk Line. Mapa de la Parte Oriental de Venezuela, published with Government authority ct Caracas, 1887.— Generally speaking, this Line is similar to the ‘original’ Schomburgk Line, although the former gives Venezuela both banks of the Amacura and Otomonga rivers, whereas the ‘ original’ line gives Venezuela only their western banks. __. 8. The ‘ Original’ Schomburgk Line. Reisen in Britisch-Guiana von Richard chomburgk. Mit Abbildungen und einer Karte von Britisch-Guiana aufgenommen von Sir Robert Schomburgk. 2 vols, Leipzig: J. J. Weber. 1847.—Three years _ after Sir Robt. H. Schomburgk had completed his surveys, his brother and fellow- ; traveller, Richard, published this important work, to which, with the authority of 862 REPORT-—1896. Sir Robert, he appended the latter’s map of British Guiana as prepared by Siz Robert for the British Government, and showing on it the well-known ‘ original’ Schomburgk Line. The map is dated 1846 and represents the results of Sir Robert’s surveys during 1835-44 as lodged in the Colonial Office, London. Cartographers of all nations have ever since (?.c., tor 50 years) represented this ‘original’ Schomburgk Line as the western boundary of British Guiana. It was also recognised as the boundary by the Crown Surveyor of British Guiana in 1875 (Map in Proceedings R.G.S. 1880); by M. Smidt, Governor of Dutch Guiana, in the ‘Kaart van Guiana’ (1889); by Professor Sievers, of Giessen, in the ‘Globus’ (January, 1896); and by Mr. Gignilliat, of the U.S. War Department, in the ‘National Geographic Magazine’ (Washington, February 1896). With only two exceptions, all the atlases belonging to the R.S.G.S. give the ‘original’ Schomburgk Line as the British boundary, thus leaving the British title to terri- tory west of that Line to be proved by treaty rights and by occupation during a prescriptive period. 6. A Journey in Spitzbergen in 1896. By Sir W. Martin Conway, J.A. 7. The Present Condition of the Ruined Cities of Ceylon. By Henry W. Cave, J/.A., Queen’s College, Oxford. The conversion of the Singhalese to Buddhism in the third century B.c —The first monastic establishment at Mibintale—The granite stairway of 1,840 steps illustrated and described—The Maha Seya Dagaba—Ancient rock insecriptions— The foundation of the Maha Vihara or sacred quarter of the city of Anuradhapura— Erection of the Thuparama Dagaba—Curious vessels and their uses—The Sacred Bo-Tree—The Isurumuniya Temple carved out of the natural rock, third century B.c.—Remarkable frescoes and sculptures on the terraces of the Isurumuniya Temple—The Loha Pasada or Brazen Palace—The Ruanweli or Gold-dust Dagaba—Specimens of Sculpture in the early centuries of the Christian era— Unexplored ruins of Anuradhapura—The stone-built Pokunas or baths—The Abhayagiria Dagaba, the largest tope in the world—The Peacock Palace erected in the first century of the Christian era—The Jetawanarama Dagaba (third century)—Remains of religious edifices of third century, not yet identified—Im- ortant archeological discoveries—Hermit cells of the third century—The first alada Maligawa, or Temple of the Tooth of Buddha (fourth century)—The past and the present condition of native life contrasted—Remains of an ancient street-— The hill fortification of Sigiriya (fifth century )—Present-day travelling illustrated— Success of heretic invaders—Downfall of the sacred city of Anuradhapura and the establishment of a new capital—The journey to Polonnaruwa—Ancient irrigation systems—The Minneria Tank—Remains of seventh to twelfth century buildings at Polonnaruwa—The Rock Temples of Dambulla—The Aluwihari at Matale—A glimpse at modern Ceylon, 8. Earthquakes and Sea-Waves. By Professor Joun Mine, F.R.S. TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22. The following Papers and Report were read :— 1. The Southern Alps of New Zealand ; and a proposed Ascent of Aconcagua. By A. EH. FirzGErayp. The New Zealand Alps have in past years been much neglected by travellers. Few people realise that there exists in our antipodean colony a chain of Alps un- i et” ie TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 863 surpassed by anything in Switzerland, while the glaciers that roll down from these great mountains exceed in length and area any of those we know in Europe. The Southern Alps, which were explored by the author and Mr. C. G. Barrow in 1894-95, lie close to the west coast of the South Island. Mount Cook, the monarch of the range, rises to a height of 12,349 feet, and is situated at not more than fifteen miles from the sea-coast. The author's work was confined to the | Mount Cook district, between Mount McKerrow and the Whymper Glacier. His object was to find a pass feasible for tourist traffic during the summer months between The Hermitage, a small inn in the Tasman Valley, at the foot of the Hooker and Miiller Glaciers, and the country of Westland, so beautiful in its luxuriant subtropical vegetation and its great glaciers that roll down amidst lianas _, and tree ferns to within 600 feet of the sea level. The part of Canterbury situated near these ranges is extremely bare and rugged. A great plateau or table land, called the McKenzie country, reaches up towards the Tasman Valley, and in this are two great elacier-fed lakes, Pukaki and Tekapo. All up and along this great plain, some 2,000 feet above sea level, can be seen traces of ancient glacier action. . Huge mounds of moraine matter are strewed about, while a low species of snow grass covers the whole, rendering it all a dreary brown colour. Mount Sealy, 8,631 feet ; Mount Tasman, second highest in the Colony, 11,475 feet; Mount Haidinger, 10,107 feet; the Silberhorn, 10,250 feet; and Mount Sefton, 10,359 feet, were ascended. In these ascents much trouble was given by the rotten condition of the rocks, and by the huge overhanging glaciers, caused no | doubt by the enormous rainfall, and therefore snowfall, in high altitudes. The snow line is very low, not more than 6,000 feet. This, combined with the fact that one had to commence operations from almost sea-level, renders ascents far more difficult than in Switzerland. When on the top of Mount Sefton the author was fortunate enough to see how a pass could be effected to the Karangarua River in Westland, and accordingly ten days later he set out with his guide Zurbriggen to cross the ranges, and accomplished this journey in three days, after many difficulties and hardships, over a saddle 7,180 feet above sea-level, which the New Zealand Government have named the Fitzgerald Pass. This passage could be rendered easy for tourists by a path being made, and it is only twenty-two miles in length. He came back over some of the largest glaciers in the Colony, and several high Alpine passes, when four consecutive nights were spent in the open. Mr. Harper, one of the New Zealand Government Surveyors, accompanied the expedition on its return, In a few weeks the author proposes to leave for South America to try and climb the mountain Aconcagua, which rises to a height of about 23,000 feet, and is the highest mountain in South America—in fact, outside of the Himalayan range it is the highest mountain in the world. His plan is to proceed from Buenos Ayres to Mendoza, and thence towards the Cordilleras de los Andes. The party will consist of Mr. C. L. Barrow, who was with the author in New Zealand; Mr. de Trafford ; Mr. Stewart Vines ; Mr. Philip Gosse, who will be charged with the natural history collections which will be made; and Zurbriggen, with three other guides and a porter from Switzerland. The author intends to cover as much of the country as possible ; to ascend several peaks; and to bring back natural history and geological specimens. He hopes to ascend Aconcagua gradually, moving slowly upwards and establishing several camps ; and by leaving one of the party at each camp he expects to keep up communication and to facilitate the supply of provisions, while at the same time he hopes to report the ascent to London immediately on reaching the summit if he should be successful. 2. The Egyptian Sudan. By General Sir Cuartes Witson, .C.B., FBS. 864. REPORT—1896. 3. The Teaching of Geography in Relation to History. By A. W. ANDREWS. The study of the physical geography of a country should proceed and be co- extensive with that of its history. The ideal of history teaching in English schools. A lack of perspective in the teaching of English history, owing to the neglect of physical geography. Teachers and writers of school histories may be themselves geographers, but usually fail to appreciate the standpoint of the student. As a consequence, physical geography, or the physical side of history is rele- gated to special text-books and special lessons, not taught in conjunction with history. ial asia? of physical geography would give the student a firm standpoint for the appreciation of the events ot history, and prevent much of the present confusion, At present the teaching of geography in connection with history is chiefly con- fined to the use of topographical maps. Teachers, however, forget that a topographical map is merely a diagrammatic method of learning statistics relating to the distribution of names. The danger of both history and geography being taught as a mere verbal record of statistics. The different branches that make up history, such as geography, social life, literature, parliament, &c., must not be studied in complete isolation. There must always in the study of history be comparison and contrast, and this would be gained in English history by a more detailed study of some half- dozen periods, ¢.9. (1) The present physical geography of Great Britain in connection with the main and essential ideas of the history of to-day. (2) Some few epochs of history studied in sufficient detail for a similarly com- prehensive view of the life of the time, as in (1) e.g. :— The Times of Chaucer, 1350-1400, A. Physical geography of British Isles at that date compared with— I. Causes which led population to centralise at different points; physical changes (Cinque Ports); [population in E. & S.J; coal and iron manufactures, «ce. II. Means of Communication—Ocean routes, sailing vessels, roads, railways, steam, canals, Xe. III. The widening of the horizon of thought coextensive with the exparsion of geographical knowledge. IV. Influence of geographical conditions on the ideas of the time. B, A knowledge of the main factors that made up life in England at that date grouped round some prominent figure like Chaucer, ¢.g.: literature, social life, trade, religion, &c., considered not merely as independent streams of knowledge, but as they affected the life of an average per- son at that date. Threefold advantages of studying geography and history together. (1) It provides a standard of comparison with the past. (2) It assists a student to visualise history, 7.c. to think of it not merely asa series of isolated branches of knowledge, but as the different manifestations of a living people at different epochs. (3) It is the one factor of history of which it is impossible to limit the influence. It is invaluable for teaching the student to think. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 865 ‘4. The Border-land of British Columbia and Alaska. By E. Opium. In this paper it is shown how the building of the transcontinental railway by the Canadian Pacific Company opened British Columbia, how the rapid influx of population into the fishing, mining, and lumbering centres led to the study of the boundaries, and how, especially the goldfields of the Yukon River, which is partly in Canada and partly in Alaska, forced the question of delimitation on both countries. The southern cause of dispute—viz., the Portland Channel claim, with the adjacent islands of Mary, Revilla Gegido, Annette, and Gravina, with the Oolachan fisheries, the Tsimpsen Indians, who removed from Canada to Annette Island, and other matters in this area of over 5,000 square miles—was referred to first in order. Then followed the central or great gold-bearing strip, in which, or adjacent to which, are the mines of silver, Bow Basin, the Junean, and the Treadwell, the latter being one of the largest in the world. Lastly, the northern portion was considered. This includes the Lynn channel and the Chilcat and Chilcoot inlets, the whole giving the only waterway from the Pacific into the north of British Columbia and that portion of Canada north of lat. 60°. The author in the paper gives an account of the excellent climate and the vast resources of that part of Western Canada. The value of the Chinook winds and the ‘Kuro Siwa’ or Japanese current in modifying the ccast and the Canadian prairies was indicated. The paper sets forth that all matters relating to what is called the disputed territory are being handled by the two governments in the most friendly spirit. Reference was made to the inadequate nature of the British school maps and geographies in relation to Western and Central Canada, and the speaker affirmed that this central and western part of the Dominion will yet contain scores of millions of loyal British people. 5. Some Remarks on Dr. Nansen and the Results of his Recent Arctic Expedition. By J. Scorr KEtriz. 6. An Apparatus to Illustrate Map Projections. By Anprew J. Hersertson, /.AS.L., FR.GS. Every teacher of geography experiences a difficuity in trying to give his pupils a vivid idea of the various map projections. This is in part overcome by using a candle and a skeleton hemisphere formed of a wire network of meridians and paral- lels, and, if possible, with an outline of the continents, such as the author has recently devised, and Messrs. Philip make, By altering the position of the lighted’ candle, different projections of the network can be thrown on a flat screen, and the pupils can see the different distortions of the network that result for themselves, By using half a cylinder or half a cone, various cylindrical and conical projections can be illustrated in the same graphic way. 7. A New Population Map of the South Wales Coal District. By B. V. Darpisuire, M.A, The population maps one sees in atlases are mostly on a comparatively small scale, and of course are much generalised. The usual method is to show by different depth of colouring the approximate number of inhabitants to the square mile. This, of course, is the only method possible when large areas are under considera- tion. In representing the distribution of population within a small area we shall be able to do without generalisation, and to deal with, and to show on our map, the actual facts on which the generalisations for larger areas should be based, 866 REPORT—1896. and—most important of all—to make clear the connection between the physio- graphy and the anthropogeography of a region. The map shown is an attempt in this direction. It is reduced from the One-inch Ordnance Map (1 : 63860) to the scale of 1:100000, with contours at intervals of 200 feet. On it are inserted all detached houses, and all villages and towns shown on the Ordnance Map. Of course a map of this kind does not show the actual number of persons living on a given area. But it does show clearly various facts which are much more interesting to the geographer than mere numerical strength. It shows the distribution of human settlements, and it shows how that distri- bution has been influenced by physical features. It shows the different nature of the settlements in industrial districts and in agricultural districts. It brings out clearly the facts that go to make a great seaport. It even enables us by a study of the shape of villages and towns to get an idea of the circumstances to which they owe their origin, and makes clear many other facts which are masked by the amount of detail shown on the Ordnance Map. 8. Report on Geographical Teaching—See Reports, p. 494. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 867 Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. PRESIDENT OF THE Section.—The Right Hon. Leonarp Courtney, M.A., M.P, THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 17. The following Address by the PResIDENT was read by Professor Gonner :— WHEN the British Association revisits a town or city, it is the laudable custom of the President of a Section to refer to what was said by his predecessor in the same chair on the former occasion. -I should in any case be disposed to follow this practice, but I could not choose to do otherwise when I find it was my honoured friend Professor Jevyons who occupied this place in Liverpool in 1870. He was one of a group which passed away in quick succession, to the great loss of the study of Economics in this country, since each had much premise of further usefulness, and left us with labours unfulfilled. Bagehot, Cairnes, Cliffe Leslie, Fawcett, Jevons, occupied a large space in the field of economic study, and no one among them excelled Professor Jevons in the vigour and clearness of his analysis or in the sin- cerity and range of his speculations. His first work which arrested public attention was perhaps not so much understood as misunderstood. This busy, bustling, hurrying world cannot afford time to pause and examine the consecutive stages of a drawn- out argument, and too many caught up and repeated to one another the notion that Jevons predicted a speedy exhaustion of our coalfields, and they and their successors have since been congratulating themselves on their cleverness in disbelieving the prophecy. No such prophecy was in truth ever uttered. The grave warning that ‘was given was of the impossibility of continuing the rate of development of coal production to which we had been accustomed, of slackening, and even arrested growth, and of the increasing difticulty of maintaining a prosperity based on the relative advantages we possessed in the low cost of production of coal; and this warning has been amply verified in the years that have since passed, as will be at once admitted by all who are competent to read and understand the significance of our subsequent experience. But I must not dwell on this branch of Jevons’s work nor on the many other contributions he made to the study of our economic life. Tam concerned with what he said here twenty-six years since. At first sight the address of my predecessor may seem loose and discursive ; but viewed in due perspective, it appears a serious inquiry into the apparent failure of economic teaching to change the course and elevate the standard of our social life, and an earnest endeavour to impress these principles more strongly on the public mind so that the future might better the history he reviewed. He referred to the repeal of the Corn Laws, and owned with regret that the condition of the people was little changed, that pauperism had scarcely abated, that little forethought was shown by the industrial classes in preparing for the chances of the future ; and he dwelt on the mischievous influence of the unthinking benevolence of the wealthy in undermining provicence by its constant and increasing activity in mitigating the 868 REPORT—1896. evils of improvidence. Jevons was not content to condemn the doles of past testators ; he wanted the reorganisation of the Hospital service of our towns, so that as far, at least, as the ordinary and inevitable casualties of sickness and accident are concerned, they might be met by the co-operation of workers inspired by motives of self-reliance instead of by ever open gratuitous service making forethought un- necessary and even foolish. In this connection it may be noticed that while giving a hearty welcome to Mr. Forster’s Education Act, passed in the same year that he spoke, he noted with satisfaction that primary education had not been made gra- tuitous so as to take away another support of prudence. It is strange, too, in the light of our recent experience, to find him regretting that the task of remodelling local taxation had not been undertaken, so that local wants might be met by a just apportionment of their charge and the principles of association of the members of local communities placed on a firmer basis. It will be seen that what really occupied the mind of my predecessor was the apparent slow success of Economic thinkers in influencing political action, and we, looking back over the intervening twenty-six years, have certainly no more cause of congratulation than he felt ; we are forced to ask ourselves the same ques- tion what is the reason of our apparent failure; we are driven to examine anew whether our principles are faulty and incomplete or whether the difficulties in their acceptance, they being sound, lie in the prejudices of popular feeling which politi- cians are more ready to gratify than to correct. I do not pause to meet the charges of inhumanity or immorality which have in other times been brought against Economists. Jevons pleaded for the benevolence of Malthus, who might indeed be presumed, as an English clergyman, to be not altogether inhuman or immoral. In truth everyone who has ever had any thought about social or fiscal legislation—and we have had such laws among ourselves for five centuries—everyone who has ever tried to influence the currents of foreign trade—and such attempts date from an equally remote past—has been moved by some train of economic reasoning, and must strictly be classified as an Economist ; and the only difference between such men and those who are more usually recognised by the name is that the latter have attempted to carry their thoughts a little further, and have been more busy to examine the links of their own reasoning and the soundness of their conclusions. The men who attempted to fix wages, to limit the numbers in special trades, to prohibit or to compel certain specific exports, all had some notion that they were engaged in doing something to strengthen if not to improve the better organisation of communities. Even the aims which appear to us most selfish were disguised as embodying social necessities, But by the beginning of the present reign it may be said that the study of Political Economy in this country had worked itself free from earlier errors, and it had come to be believed that the secret of social regeneration lay in the utmost allowance of free- dom of action to every individual of the community, so far at least as that action affected himself, coupled with the most complete development of the principle of self-reliance, so as to bring home to every member, freed from legal restraint on his liberty of action, the moral responsibility of self-support and of discharging the duties, present and to come, of his special position. With this education of the individual in self-reliance, and with this liberation of the same individual in the conduct of life, it was held that by certain, if slow, stages the condition + the ‘ sepamshan would be improved, and a wholesome reorganisation naturally effected. Whatever view we may now hold of this belief, whether we must discard it as incomplete or even erroneous, or whether we remain strong in the conviction of its intrinsic soundness and in the possibility of realising the hopes it offered, it must still be evident that those who professed it were imbued with the deepest interest in the well-being of their fellow creatures, and that the aim of all their speculations was the purification of social life, and its healthy and abundant development. Such was the theory more or less openly expressed by Economie thinkers when the British Association was founded, and the same theory, as I conceive, lay at the base of Jevons’s address in 1870. Can we hold it now, or must it be recast ? Since 1870 Primary Education has practically been made gratuitous. The ——————oee eee TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 869 Legislature had an opportunity for abolishing the mischief of doles, but showed no inclination to make use of it, and there were even traces of a feeling of favour for the maintenance of these bequests of the past. The indiscriminate multiplication of so-called charitable institutions has in no way been reformed, and there is as great activity as ever in the zeal of those who would mitigate or relieve the effects of improvidence without touching improvidence itself. As far as the course of legislation is concerned, it may be feared that it has been directed to diminish rather than to increase the spirit of self-reliance. Codes of regulations have been framed for the supervision of the conduct of special industries, and their sphere has been extended so as to embrace at no distant period, if not now, the whole industrial community. The reformed Poor Law, which was regarded as a great step in the education of the workman, especially of the agricultura! labourer, in independence, stands again upon its trial, and proposals are at least in the air for assuring to the aged poor a minimum measure of support without any regard to the circumstances of their past lives, or to the inevitableness of their condition. The suggestions made by responsible statesmen have indeed been more limited and cautious, but it will be acknowledged of those, as of the German system, from which they may be said to be in some measure borrowed, that they involve a great depar- ture from that ideal of individual development to which I have referred. Add to this that there isa movement, which has become practical in many large cities and towns, for the community itself to engross some forms of industrial activity, and to under- take in respect of them to meet the wants of their inhabitants. All these develop- ments and more may be summed up as illustrations of Collectivity—an ideal which has its advocates and professors, and which looks in the future for regulated civic and national monopolies instead of unrestricted freedom of individual activity, and for the supervision and control of those industries which may yemain unabsorbed by state or town. In pursuit of this last conception there have been put forward not: only requirements as to hours and conditions of labour, but a demand also for a Living Wage or a minimum, below which no workman shall be paid; and this principle has been already adopted by some muni- cipalities in respect of their monopolised industries. The State itself indeed has, through the popular branch of the legislature, declared more or less clearly in favour of the same principle in respect of the industries which are conducted in its service. We have not only to acknowledge the coutinued slowness of politicians to adopt and enforce the teaching of Economists such as Jevons contemplated, but also the rise of another school of Economic thought which competes for, and in some measure successfully obtains, the attention of the makers of laws. The question which has already been suggested thus becomes inevitable. We must inquire whether the failure of former teaching has not been due to errors in itself rather than to the indocility of those who have neglected it. The greatest difficulty which the teachers of the past have to overcome when put upon their self-defence lies in the suspicion, or more than suspicion, of an occupied multitude that their promises have failed. It is thought of them, if it is not openly said, that they had the ear of legislators for a generation, that the course and conduct of successive administrations were governed by their principles, and yet society, as we know it, presents much the same features, and the lifting up of the poor out of the mire is as much as ever a promise of the future. Some quicker method of introducing a new order is called for, and any scheme offering an assurance of it is welcomed. A ready answer can be given to much of the suspicion of failure that is entertained. That freedom of industrial action, which is the first postulate of the Economists, has never been secured. We are so much accustomed to the conditions of our own life that this declaration may seem strange to many, who will say that at least in England labour and trade are free ; but it must be admitted, on reflection, that in one great sphere of action the liberty so postulated has, for good or bad reasons, never been conceded. The limitations and restrictions necessarily consequent upon the system of land laws established among us are not commonly understood, but although much has been done to libe- rate agriculture from their fetters, its perfect freedom has not been attained. There 870 REPORT—1896. may be free trade in the United Kingdom and free land in the United States, but the country is yet to be found in which both are realised, and even if both these requisites were attained the sores of social life would not be removed unless the spirit of self-reliance were fully developed: and how little has been done to secure this essential condition of progress! nay, how much has been done by law, and still more by usage, to weaken and destroy its power! The Economist of whom I have been speaking may boldly claim that so far as he has had a free hand, his promises have been realised; there has been a larger population with increased means of subsistence and diminished necessity of toil, a people better housed, better fed, better clothed, with fewer relative failures of self- support ; and if the teaching which has been partially adopted has brought about so much, everything it promised would have been secured had it been fully followed. If the teaching had been fully followed? This raises the question whether there are inherent difficulties in the nature of man preventing such a con- summation, and many will be ready with the answer that such difficulties exist, are permanent and cannot be surmounted. As long as human nature is what it is —so runs the current phrase—men will not see misery without relieving it, they will not wait to inquire into its cause and whether it could have been prevented, and it is claimed that this instinct is one of the best attributes of humanity, which we should not attempt to eradicate. This kind of reply easily catches the popular ear. It seems generous, sympathetic, humane. But it is based on a view of human nature being incapable of education which has been and will long be the excuse for acquiescence in all imperfections and even iniquity; nor can that be said to be truly generous, sympathetic, or humane which refuses to inquire into the possi- bility of curing disease, and prefers the selfishness of self-relief to the patient endeavour to probe and remove the causes of the sufferings of others. The Economist ofthe past generation would, I think, be justified in repudiating with warmth the feeble temper which recoils from the strenuousness of endeavouring to deal with social evils at their origin, and in reprobating the acceptance as inevi- table of vices we take no pains to prevent. This, however, does not conclude the whole matter. Even if we did attain the ideal of bringing home to all the members of the community the fatal consequences of improvidence and vice, should we find improvidence and vice ever narrowing into smaller and smaller circles, or should we be confronted with their existence as before, with this difference, that past attempts toalleviate their miserable consequences would be discredited and abandoned? I fear I must here confess to a somewhat faltering faith. That a vigorous enforcement of the penalties of improvidence would diminish it, is a conclusion justitied by experience as well as suggested by theory ; but that it and its consequences would not still remain gross and palpable facts is a conclusion I have not the courage to gain- say. At all events, I cannot refuse to consider the question whether something more than the complete freedom of the individual is not necessary for the reforma- tion of society, and to examine with an open mind any supplementary or alternative proposals that may be made to reach this end. Yet one thing must be said, and said with emphasis, of the theory of the Economist. It was a working theory. No theory can be accepted even for examination which does not show a working organisation of society, and the theory we have had under review has this necessary characteristic, even if it does not open up a certain way to a perfect reconstruction of our social system. It will be conceded by the most fearless and thorough-going advocates of the liberty of individual development, that it must be supported by large measures of co-operative action. No individual can by any amount of forethought protect himself by himself against the chances and accidents of the future. No one can tell beforehand what is in store for himself in respect of sickness, or accident, or those changes of cir- cumstances which may arise from the default of others ; and mutual aid is necessary to meet such contingencies. The freedom and activity of association thus indicated are in no way inconsistent with the fullest theory of individual responsibility. Nor is there any departure from it in the voluntary combination among themselves of persons, individually weak, to supervise and safeguard the economic conditions into which they may enter with others relatively stronger. A single workman may be TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 871 powerless to induce his employer to modify in any particular the terms of his employment, but when workmen band together they may meet employers as equal powers. Such liberty of combination is a development and not a limitation of - Individual liberty. Another step is taken when the parties to such an arrange- ment as has been suggested seek to make its provisions compulsory on others, be they workmen or employers, who may enter into similar relations; and the prin- ciples of former Economists would generally prompt them to condemn such attempts at compulsion, The Factory Acts were opposed in this way, although - they rested upon different grounds; for, though in their consequences they affected _ the labour of adults, they were propounded for the defence of young persons and children unable to protect themselves or to be the parties to free contracts. Legis-~ lation has, however, been extended to control directly the employment of fully responsible persons, and this has been defended by three lines of argument. It is urged that when the unchecked liberty of individuals destroys in fact the liberty of action of larger multitudes, it is in defence of liberty of action that those individuals are controlled. If a sea wall is necessary to prevent a large tract from being periodically inundated, it cannot be permitted to the owner of a small patch along the coast to leave the wall unbuilt along his border, and thus threaten the lands of his neighbours with inundation. Again, it is urged that when the over- whelming majority of persons engaged in a particular industry, employers and employed, are agreed upon the necessity of certain rules to govern the industry, it is not merely a convenience, but is a fulfilment of their liberty, to clothe with the sanction of law the regulations upon which they are agreed. Lastly, it is sub- mitted that there are individuals in whom the sense of responsibility is so weak and whose development of forethought is so hopeless, that it is necessary the law should regulate their conduct as it may regulate the conduct of children. I do not propose to examine in detail these real or apparent limitations of individual liberty. The first plea appears to me to be sound in principle, though it may often have been applied to cases not properly coming within it. As to the second, the convenience of giving to an all but universal custom the force of law is incontestable, but it is at least doubtful whether this is sufficient to deprive individuals who deliberately wish to put themselves outside it of the liberty of doing so. Unless their action could be brought within the first line of argument, sufficient reason for restraint does not appear. As for the hopeless class whose existence is made a plea for restrictive legislation, the Economist may forcibly argue that they have never been left to learn the full force of the lessons of experience, and it is the impatient interference of thoughtless men and thoughtless laws which allows this class to be perpetually recruited. The limitations of individual liberty, to which I have referred, are familiar to us, and have obtained’a firm hold in our legislation; but we enter upon compara- tively new ground when we turn to the proposals that an increasing number of industries should be undertaken and directed by State or Municipality, and that a minimum and not inadequate subsistence should be assured to all those engaged in such industries, if indeed the principle be not presently extended outside the monopolies so established. The ideas which are clothed in the phrases ‘The socialisation of the instruments of industry,’ and ‘The guarantee of a minimum wage to all workmen,’ appear to involve a complete reorganisation of society, and an absolute abandonment of the theories of the past. This is not enough to justify their immediate rejection or their immediate acceptance. The past has not been so good that we can refuse to look at any proposals, however strange in appearance, offering a better promise for the future. It has not been so bad that we must abandon its methods in despair, as if no change could be for the worse, if not: for the better. A patient inquirer, feeling his way along the movement of his time, may even be constrained to accept a patchwork covering of life instead of the ideal garment woven without seam throughout; or he may be led to see that the harmony of society, like the harmony of the physical universe, must be the result of divers forces, out of which is developed a perfect curve. No one could now be found to deny the possibility, and few to question the utility, of the socialisation of some services. The post office is in all civilised 872 REPORT—1896. countries organised as a national institution, and the complaints that are some- times heard as to ¢efects in its administration never extend to a demand for its abolition. Jevons, in a careful paper, showed that the same financial success which marks our present postal system, must not be expected from the nationalisa- tion of the telegraph service, and he dismissed even suggestions for the nationalisa- tion of railways. His predictions have been amply verified with respect to the telegraph account; but telegraphs are a national service amongst ourselves, and railways are largely nationalised in ‘many continental countries, and in some of our own colonies and dependencies. Some of our largest municipalities have under- taken the supply of water and of gas, or even of electric light, to the inhabitants, and a movement has begun, which seems likely to be extended, of undertaking the service of tramways. Demands have also been made for the municipalisation or nationalisation of the telephone service. It may be said of all the industries thus described as taken over, or likely to be taken over, by the nation and local communities, that when they are not so taken over they require for their exercise special powers and privileges conceded by the State or community, and the conditions of such concessions are settled by agree- ment between the community and the body or bodies exercising such industries. These conditions may involve the payment of a fixed sum, or of a rent for the concession, or the terms upon which the services are to be rendered may be prescribed in a stipulated tariff of charges, or the amount of profit to be realised by the concessionaires may be limited with provisions for reduction of charge when such limit is reached, or it may be required that in working such industries certain limits of wages shall be observed as the minima to be paid to the work- men employed upon them. Speaking very broadly, it may be said that the community delegates or leases the right of practising the industry, and there is no impassable gulf between prescribing the terms on which a lease shall be worked and assuming the conduct of the industry leased. There may be difficulties in the management by a community of a cumbrous and unwieldy undertaking, but there is no difficulty affecting the organisation of society when the undertaking must be created and shaped by the community in the first place. The arguments against the assumption of such monopolies by State or Local Authorities are those of expediency, founded on a comparison cf gain and loss. It may be urged that there are more forcible motives of economy on the part of a concessionaire than on the part of a community working the undertaking itself; that improvements of method and reductions of cost will be more carefully sought; and although such improvements and reductions might in theory be realised by the workmen and agents of a community, which would thus secure all the savings effected by them, yet private interest is quicker in discovery and more fertile in suggestion, and it is more profitable in the end for the community to allow a concessionnaire to secure such profits, subject to a stipulation that some part of them should return to the community in the way either of increased money payment, or of reduced rates of charge fur the services performed. It may be urged that when a community works an industry itself, it may do so at a loss, thus benefiting those who specially require its services at the cost of the whole body; but this objection is not peculiar to undertakings so directly worked. It is a matter of common experience for State. or Municipality to grant important subventions to persons willing to undertake such works on stipulated terms of service, and such subventions involve a levy from the whole community for the benefit of those availing themselves of the services. New considerations of great difficulty arise when we pass to the suggestion of the undertaking by local authorities of productive industries not in the nature of monopolies. In monopolies direct competition, often competition in any shape, is practically impossible; in other industries competition is a general rule; and it is by virtue of such competition that the members of the community do in the long run obtain their wants supplied in the most economical manner. When com- modities are easily carried without serious deterioration, the constantly changing conditions of production and of transport induce a constant variation in the sources. of cheapest supply—that is of supply under conditions of least toil and effort--- TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 873 and any arrest of this mobility involves a corresponding set-back in the advance- ment of the economic condition of mankind. It is a necessary consequence of this process that the local production of special commodities should be subject to diminution. and extinction, and that the labours hitherto engaged in such local production should become gradually worthless, Quite as much labour as before might be expended in achieving the result, but it would be misapplied; it ought not to command the same return; it should cease. It is at least difficult to foresee how far the production of commodities exposed to free competition could be maintained by communities themselves in face of the movement we have described. There would be a danger of pressure to do away with invasive com- petition—action which, in my judgment, would be destructive of the most powerful cause of improvement in the condition of the people. There would be an allied danger of a refusal to recognise the possibility of a diminished worth of work which remains as toilsome as ever, and of an increasing congestion of labour when the great movement of the world demands its dispersion. It may be that those evils are not inevitable, but they would require to be faced if any serious attempt were made to increase the range of national or municipal industries, and I have not yet seen any attempt at their serious investigation. The position thus taken may be illustrated by an experience to which I have elsewhere referred, but so pregnant with suggestion that I need not apologise for recalling it. My native county, Cornwall, was in my boyhood the scene of wide- spread activity in copper and tin mining. There had not been wanting warnings that the competition of richer deposits in far countries would put an end to these industries in the county, but the warnings had not been realised and remained unheeded. In the years that have since passed they have been gradually and almost completely fulfilled. There are no copper mines now in Cornwall, and the tin mines, which were scattered far and wide throughout the county, are reduced to two or three within one limited area. It is not the case that the ores have been exhausted; they could still be raised, but at a cost of production making the process unprofitable. The mines were abandoned one by one, and the population of the county has steadily diminished in every recent census. What would the experience have been had the mines been a county or national property worked by county or nation? I do not stop to comment on the difficulty of expropriating present owners, which, however, must not be forgotten. If the collective owner had leased the mines to companies of adventurers (to use the local phrase), the lessees would have gradually relinquished their concessions, as they have done when taking them from private owners. Nor would the case have been materially different even if the collective owner had introduced the novel stipulation into his leases that the working miners should be paid according to prescribed rates of wages. The process of relinquishment might have been precipitated and accelerated by insisting on such a condition, but otherwise the experience would have been the same. The shrinkage of industry would go on without a check, and it is to be hoped that the workmen who found their work failing would, with the fine courage and enterprise they have in fact shown, have betaken themselves to the fields of mining industry displacing their own in all parts of the world. Can one think that the same process would have been maintained had the collective owner worked the mines directly, and the working men looked to county or nation for the con- tinuance of work and wages? The attachment which all men have for the homes of themselves and their fathers would have stimulated a demand for a recurrence to the other resources of the collective owner for the maintenance of an industry that was dying. Some demand might even be made for a repression or prohibition of that competition which was the undoing of the local industry. These possi- bilities may be regarded as fanciful, and it is true that forces might be kept under control that operated within an area and affected a population relatively so limited. But what if the warnings of Jevons respecting coal in England proved like the warnings of the men who foresaw the cessation of tin mining in Cornwall, and the community had to deal with the problem of the dwindling coal industry in face of nationalised coal mines and_armies of workmen employed by the nation ? The initial difficulties of the nationalisation of that which for centuries has been 1896. 3.1L 874, REPORT—1896. the subject of private property are formidable, but they could doubtless be overcome by the short and simple process of confiscation, This transformation is theoretically conceivable. It is in the subsequent development of the scheme of nationalised and municipalised industries that we are confronted with tasks not so easy of solution. How is its working to be reconciled with that opening up of more and more pro- ductive fields which is one of the prime factors of social progress? How is the allotment of men to be directed so that they may be shifted about as new centres open and old centres close? What checks or commands can be invoked to restrain the growth of population in a district when it should be dwindling? These are questions that can scarcely be put aside, and it may even be acknowledged that they gain fresh force when viewed in the light of another experience. Agricul- tural industry has recently been subjected to severe trials through a great breadth of this country. This has been due to cheaper importations from other lands, and though the competition has in my judgment been aggravated by causes into which I will not now digress (which aggravation however might and should be dealt with), the importation of food at less cost is a result no Economist wil] regard as otherwise than beneficial to the community as a whole. It is well that bread and flesh and the sustenance of life should be procured with as little toil as possible, however severe the trial for those who have been engaged hitherto in the production of those necessaries. We know that it has been so severe that demands for relief and assistance have been loudly made, and their power has been such as to have been in some measure successful; but had land been nationalised and farms held from the State or from county, town, or parish, they would have assumed a different shape, have been urged with greater purpose, and have received larger treatment. The difficulties of such a nationalised industry, passing into what may be described as a water-logged condition, would test beyond the straining point such statesmanship as our experience warrants us to believe possible. However much we may contemplate the reconstruction of an industrial system, it must, if it is to be a living social organism, be constantly responsive to the ever- changing conditions of growth ; some parts must wax whilst others wane, extend- ing here and contracting there, and manifesting at every moment those phenomena of vigour and decline which characterise life. Inthe development of industry new and easier ways are constantly being invented of doing old things; places are being discovered better suited for old industries than those to which resort had been made ; there is a continuous supersession of the worth of known processes and of the utility of oldforms of work involving a supersession, or at least a transfer, of the labour hitherto devoted to them. All these things compel a perpetual shifting of seats of industry and of the settlements of man, and no organisation can be enter- tained as practicable which does not lend itself to those necessities. They are the pre-requisites of a diminution of the toil of humanity. As I have said before, the theory of individual liberty, however guarded, afforded a working plan; society could and did march under it. The scheme of collective action gives no such pra of practicability ; it seems to lack the provision of the forces which should ring about that movement upon which growth depends. The Economist of the past generation still holds his ground, and our best hope lies in the fuller accept-— ance of his ideas. Such, at least, appears to me to be the result of a dispassionate inquiry ; but what may be wanting is something more than a dispassionate temper— a certain fervour of faith. The Economist must feel, if he is to animate multitudes and inspire legislatures, that he, too, has a religion. Beneath the calmness of his analysis must be felt the throb of humanity. Slow in any case must be the secular progress of any branch of the human family ; but if we take our stand upon facts, if our eyes are open to distinguish illusions from truth, if we are animated by the single purpose of subordinating our investigations and our actions to the lifting up of the standard of living, we may possess our souls in patience, waiting upon the ’ promise of the future, —_ = se ltl TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 875 _ The following Papers were read :— 1. Some Economic Issues in regard to Charitable or Philanthropic Trading. By C.8. Locu. Philanthropic trading is, for the purposes of this paper, defined as trading undertaken, in the case of a municipality, to provide, not the common wants of the community, but those of its individual members. The definition thus excludes trading in gas or water, but includes, for instance, the supply of artisans’ dwellings or municipal common lodging houses. In the case of institutions philanthropic trading is defined as trading undertaken to supply the general market, whether with the object primarily of reforming or occupying inmates or dependents, or solely with the purpose of raising funds, Of the relation of philanthropic trading to the use of capital and credit three examples are given: the provision of dwellings for artisans and labourers by the municipality, and the methods adopted, one by the Salvation Army, and one by a philanthropic home, in order to raise capital. By detailed reference to the Goldsmith’s Row and Boundary Road schemes of the London County Council, it is shown that, in accordance with the general evidence on the subject, there is loss on the purchase of land when it is utilised for artisans’ dwellings in the centre of London; that those displaced by a scheme do not return to occupy the new buildings; and that the system competes with private agencies, who, it they take the land at all for artisans’ dwellings, will only do so at such specially reduced rates as will enable them to make a profit. The one economic result of this philanthropic trading is to undersell the capital and eredit of the ordinary trader, who practically pays in diminished business for the advantage which the community receive—namely, the difference between the 24 or 3 per cent. at which the London County Council, with the credit of the community behind it, can raise money and the 4} or 5 per cent. that the private capitalist would require. Other results are to cause waste, consisting (1) of the difference between the value of the land in the market and its value when reserved for artisans’ dwellings ; (2) of the continuing loss on the site, for though rateable value will increase when the dwellings are built, it will increase at a lesser rate than it would if the site were used for commercial purposes; (8) of the loss due to misdirection, since, after all, the dwellings do not as a rule provide for the very poor, but for the better class, who secure a better article at the usual rates of rental prevailing in the neighbourhood, For all these forms of waste the ratepayer has to pay. Socially, the system is wrong, as it tends to increase the density of the population instead of spreading it over a larger area. And the supply of house accommodation does not, in fact, demand State or municipal intervention more than the supply of food or clothing. In the former case the market lies at hand or the goods are brought to the house; in the latter the market, the cheaper accommodation, has to be sought (always a difficult matter with the poor) in the cheaper districts in the outskirts of the town. ‘General’ Booth’s loans at 43 per cent. are next referred to. In this case spiritual credit is used for the philanthropic trading of the Salvation Army, which undertakes to ‘supply shopkeepers at wholesale prices? &c. The parallel is drawn kage the conditions of municipal trading and of such philanthropic trading as this. Of philanthropic retail trading four instances are given: the supply of common lodging houses, the Salvation Army tea trade, the depéts of the Church Extension Association, and. the free or part-pay supply of medicine and medical advice in out-patient departments, In the philanthropic supply of common lodging houses by the municipality the ratepayer pays twice over—tirst to meet waste of the kind referred to above in connection with the capital expenditure, and next in order to maintain the persons who resort to these institutions, and immediately or soon after apply for: relief _ from the rates, This is shown in detail in the case of the Blackfriars shelter of the Salvation Army and from evidence from Manchester and Whitechapel. 3L2 876 . .. REPORT—1896. The Salvation Army tea trade is lucrative. They supply (with a philanthropic capital) ‘the best possible teas at the lowest price at which they can be purchased elsewhere.’ But those who pledge themselves (as they are asked to do) to buy their teas do not thereby themselves pay towards the support of the Army. Those who actually pay are the merchants and others who are engaged in the tea trade, whose business is philanthropically diverted, and who are thus made to contribute to the funds of the Salvation Army not merely without their consent but to their detriment. In regard to the philanthropic employment of labour in institutions, instances are given showing the economic and social results of such interference upon unskilled labour, and the principles that should limit and guide its introduction are stated. 2. Trade Combinations and Prices. By H. J. Faux, IA. ‘Definitions. Trada Combination an ambiguous term; Combinations of Capital and Combinations of Labour. Misuse of word Trust for former. A distinctive terminology suggested. Trade Combmation in general. Its general effect. Combinations of Capital primarily Trusts for Partners or Shareholders and not Public Trusts. Their Formation and Constitution actual and ultimate or ideal. Brief history of Combinations of Capital. Distinction between old monopolies created by law and voluntary combinations. Purpose of Combinations. Protessed and Actual:—Reduction of cost; advance of price, Indirect effect of premium- hunting, and of Stock-Exchange value of shares in a business upon management of combinations and prices. Liffect on prices.—Difference between effect of combinations of capital and com- binations of labour. Actual effect and ideal or ultimate effect. Four stages. First, monopoly complete or tentative. Second, competition with tacit combina- tion of competitors. Third, thorough competition. Fourth, survival of fittest by ultimate economy, (A) Effect upon cost. Economy of material. Concentration of work, Elaboration of new methods from larger views. Better synthesis and organisation. (B) Effect upon distribution. Larger production tends to better arrangement of sales. Its various effects upon prices. Wider acquaintance with consumers and demand. Lconomy in handling. Direction of channels of distri- bution. Indirect effect through reaction upon cost of knowledge gained in distribu- tion. Collateral effects on prices of allied products. Remedies for evils of primitive stages of combination.—General remedies are better statistics and more knowledge of economics in industrial world. Education of commercial men as industrial trustees. Growing experience of public, both as shareholders and consumers. Mistrust of uneducated plutocrats and their methods. Methods of inducing ultimate economies of combination. Example of railways and banks. Ultimate effect on prices.—Progress towards a rational ideal of profit and industrial methods accelerated by combination. Law of average operates. Forces tending to produce result. Trade of individuals menaced, selfish instincts tend to economy ; trade of country attacked, patriotic instincts add to effort. Increase of education and the new industrial religion. The artist’s view of production. The worthy product and its price. 3. Les Crises Commerciales. By Monsieur CLimEntT JUGLAR. Statistics indicative of commercial activity during long periods of time exhibit an ebb and flow extending over a variable number of years, and due to some owerful force acting continuously in the same direction for a considerable time. he movement so observed is more or less uniform in all countries at the same time. The circulation of banks in England, France, and America, since 1800 affords an example. The cyclical period is not constant, but the credit-movement TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 877 showsa succession of stages of expansion, shock (or crisis), contraction (or liquida- tion), stagnation, and renewed expansion. The crash or the Copper Syndicate, of the Panama Canal Company and the Daring crisis fit in with a movement of this kind. The International Institute of Statistics had propounded the question, What is the best measure of the economic condition of a nation? The consumption of coal, iron, and corn, had been suggested as the measure ; but these are partial at best. The credit circulation, on the contrary, embraces the whole industrial and commercial activity of the country, cash and credit alike, for the second carries with it the first. A remarkable confirmation of the pervading power of credit is afforded by diagrams showing the number of marriages and births in London and Paris, in France, England, Germany, Prussia, Austria, Italy, Belgium, Switzerland. These expand and contract with striking similarity, increasing in good times when credit is active, contracting in bad times when credit is diminishing or sluggish, Similar diagrams of the number of deaths show no such concordance with the movements of credit, because, unlike credit, they are largely determined independently of human volition, though the minimum on this curve usually occurs in a period of prosperity. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18. The following Papers were read :— 1. That Ability is not the Proper Basis of Local Taxation. By Evwin Cannan, JA. The assessment of the poor rate, to which nearly all other English rates are now mere additions, was originally founded on the principle of ability to pay, and that principle has never been expressly repudiated. But the successive steps by which it has been practically abandoned have been called for by public opinion, and, in spite of complaints, loud rather than dezp, the present system is generally approved. en portion of public expenditure on what are realiy national objects is still raised by local taxation, in order to secure economy and efficiency of administra- tion, The making of this expenditure a local charge is in itself a negation of the principle of taxation according to ability, and the only question is whether an attempt should be made to re-establish in each locality a principle which has been abandoned as regards the nation as a whole. The answer is in the negative. Most people migrate before reaching the prime of life, and the effect of their consideration where to settle is to equalise tue advantages and dis- advantages of different localities as places of business and residence. Local taxation is a disadvantage duly taken into account, and consequently, no matter what it is laid upon in the first instance, it tends to reduce the value of the land and other fixed property of the locality. This being the case, it is expedient to levy it directly in respect of such property, Even, therefore, if all local expendi- ture were of this class, ability would not be the proper basis of local taxation. But by far the greater portion of modern local expenditure is of a class to which it would be unjust as well as inexpedient to apply the principle of taxation according to ability, either locally or nationally. The principle is approved in the case of national taxation, because the benefits produced by the national! expendi- ture are of such a kind that their distribution cannot be traced and their amount measured. The ideal commonly held is practically equal distribution modified by differences of need, and this communistic principle has its natural counterpart in payment according to ability. But the greater portion of modern local expendi- ture is calculated (owing to the competition between localities) to produce com- mensurable pecuniary benefits to the owners of land and other fixed property. 878 REPORT—1896, The proper principle of contribution is therefore not the communistic one of pay- ment according to ability, but the joint-stock principle of payment according to share or interest. 2. Some Observations on the Distribution and Incidence of Ratesand Taxes ; with special reference to the transfer of charges from the former to the latter. By G. H. Buunpen. Expenses of kinds formerly provided for by the levy of rates are now met by the imposition of Imperial taxation to the amount of 8,000,000/. (including 1,000,000/. transferred by the Agricultural Rates Act, 1896). Who gains by the Spas ai reduction of the rates, and who loses by the corresponding imposition of taxes ! Calculations have been made which show that the payers of Income Tax con- tribute 29 per cent. of the rates as occupiers of houses, and 31 per cent. as ced SER and consumers ; or 6/)-per cent. in all. Non-payers of Income ax are shown to pay 32 per cent. of the rates as occupiers of houses, and 8 per cent. as property-owners and consumers; or 40 percent. in all. Ofthe rates levied, 12°6 per cent, are borne by certain kinds of real property, 12-1 per cent. by some forms of personal property, and 75:3 per cent. by the community as occupiers and consumers. Much of both real and personal property does not contribute. Of the Imperial taxes levied, 3 per cont. is borne by real property, 10:4 per cent. by other rateable property, 16-2 per cent. by non-rateable property, 5:5 falls on the earnings of personal exertion, as such; and 64:9 on the consumers of taxed commodities. One-half of the Imperial taxes are contributed by the classes who fall below the Income Tax standard. The transferred charges prior to 1896 are held to have fallen equally on the payers of Income Tax and the consumers of tea, coffee, cocoa, and dried fruits. As between those who pay Income Tax and those who do not, the shares of the burden remain practically unaltered. But those of the former class who own rate-bearing property gain largely at the expense of those who do not; and the share of the latter class is less evenly distributed among its members, to the disadvantage of the poorer of them. : The Agricultural Rates Act reduces the quota of the rates borne by real pro- perty from 12°6 per cent. to 75 per cent. The cost of the transfer falls upon the whole community. 3. Proposed Modifications of the Rating System. By W. H. Smirn. | The changes in local taxation usually proposed involve financial questions that are matters of controversy ; but the rating system ought to continue in some form the main source of local revenue, and it is probable that many grievances alleged against it can be mitigated by modifications of the system which may be viewed as the development, rather than the supersession, of the broader principles upon which it rests. Thus, it should be observed that the primary question arising is one between the persons interested in competing properties, and not between those who are variously interested in a single property. Changes, mostly unfore- seen, occur in the relative values of properties put to similar uses. These changes, which necessitated ‘ reassessment,’ speedy in their operation, demand that reassess- ment be associated, not with ‘an equal £ rate,’ but with a rate which, ceteris paribus, would vary more widely than the rateable value varies. ‘To the grievance of the ratepayer as tradesman, there is added his complaint as private householder. As such, he occupies property whose value depends much on the building as dis- tinguished from the site. Moreover, as one descends socially, the demand for house accommodation becomes ineffectual more rapidly than the demand for other comparative necessaries. It is to be considered whether this is in any measure a result of the present distribution of local taxation. A question also arises as to the effect, as regards the individual ratepayer, of the subsidies received by local authorities in the shape of profits from undertakings, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 879 4, Farm Labour Colonies and: Poor Law Guardians. By Haroxtp E. Moors, F.S.1. With the experience now gained it is possible to divide Farm Labour Colonies into two distinct classes. The first may be considered to be colonies for the reception of well-conducted men of the working classes temporarily out of employment, These colonies can be made self-supporting if managed under proper conditions, as appears from the evidence collected by Mr. W. Mather, then M.P. for the Gorton division of Lancashire, and placed before the Parliamentary Committee on the Unemployed, in the scheme which that gentleman advocated for the foundation of éolonies for this class from national resources. The second class of colonies may be considered to be those for the reception of men who would otherwise be in the casual wards or inmates of workhouses. This kind of colony must be worked either by Boards of Guardians or in close connection with the same. The advantages claimed for such colonies are the reduction in cost of Poor Law Relief, and the giving of more hope to those engaged than if they were employed in other classes of forced labour. Old enactments not yet repealed give Boards of Guardians power to take land not exceeding fifty acres for each parish and to pay wages for working the same. At the time of passing the Poor Law Act of 1834 many such farms were in operation. To continue this class of work was, however, contrary to the spirit of that Act, and has been discouraged. In 1894, however, the Local Government Board consented to consider any schemes submitted by Guardians for providing employment on land. The proposals made by various Boards seem to have been either (a) to allow part of the cost of men sent to colonies under private control to be paid by Guardians; or (4) to sanction acquirement of land to be worked by paid labour; or (c) to permit the acquirement of small areas mainly for purposes of test work. The first-named proposition has been approved, the second rejected, and the third has received favourable consideration. These decisions of the Local Government Board seem to have been generally prudent, for if land is to be worked for the class named it must be (a) largely waste land, to admit of the employment of intermittent and unskilled labour 3; (4) not of such a size as to involve usual farm risks; (c) used only for growth of such crops as can be consumed in the workhouses or by the men employed; (@) managed on a system giving a reward for labour on the basis of piece-work. The experience quoted showed if these considerations were adhered to the cost of Poor Relief would be lessened with benefit to the men helped. More especially has this been the case where assistance of Guardians has been in the nature of a subsidy to colonies carried on by voluntary committees. An extension of this system can, therefore be recommended, especially in view of the recommendations of the Parliamentary Report on the Unemployed, published in July 1896. 5. Raffeisen Village Banks in Germany. Ly Professor W. B. Borromuey. 6. The Decay of British Agriculture : its Causes and Cure. Sy Cuaries Rintout. The decay of agriculture may be attributed to the abolition of the Corn Laws in 1846, which Act was a security to the farmer for the safe investment of his capital and labour in producing food for the nation. This did not immediately follow, as trade and manufacture, which were languishing under the Corn Laws, became very prosperous, together with several other reasons, but as soon as the prairie lands of virgin soil abroad were broken up and reaped with the labour-saving string-binder, and produce sent into this country at very low freights, the exhausted and clay lands, which then could not compete, began to become derelict. Large tracts are thrown out of cultivation, and labourers who formerly produced food . 880 REPORT—1896. supplies are driven into towns to compete with wage-earners there, or to emigrate, and thus their services are lost to the country. Three important remedies :— First: That rents should be adjusted in accordance with the prices, and that permanent improvements executed by the tenantry should be secured to them. Second: That all city refuse be returned to the soil to restore fertility. This is being done in Glasgow at a profit, details of which are given in the paper. Government ought to assist in making this universal. ‘The fertilising matter at resent cremated, or thrown into the sea, is a national loss, and could be turned into a national gain. Third: A national system of reclamation of all suitable tidal wastes, to provide virgin soil and marsh pastures, so that the raw material now necessary for successful agriculture be kept up. Some details of what has been accomplished in Scotland and Holland are given. In the event of war, the limited supply of home produce and steady increase of population in this country are regarded as serious, and ought to be provided for, SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19. The following Papers were read :— 1. Metric Measures and our Old System. By F. Toms. The metric system of weights and measures will doubtless be legalised in this country before long. But, admirable as this system is for scientific purposes and large commercial transactions, the decimal divisions are not well adapted to the small dealings which prevail among the less educated portion of the community, who form the great mass of the British nation. In legalising the new code, how- ever, there is no need to sweep away the method now in force, as the two systems may be combined, and the retention of old forms will make our untaught popula- tion familiar with new principles. Our English measures may be made to accord with the French by dividing the metre into eleven equal parts and taking ten of those parts as the basis of our yard. The divisions and multiples of our old system could be retained as heretofore, the oniy difference being that inches, feet, yards, furlongs, &c., would all be reduced by a small fraction (-006). ‘lhis done, the metres would be exactly converted into yards when multiplied hy 1:1, and yards would be con- verted into metres when divided by 1:1. At the same time, the complications of our present land measures would be simplified. A somewhat similar course might be taken with weights and measures of capacity—old names being applied to new equivalents. If half a kilogramme be taken as the new pound, and half a dekaiitre as the new gallon, their divisious and multiples would follow the same course as that now in vogue, and retezin the same nomenclature. 2. Comparison of the Age-Distribution of Town and Country Population in Different Lands. By A. W. Fuux, IA. MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21. The following Papers were read :— 1. Mercantile Markets for ‘ Futures” By Evisan Hem. Origin and purpose of dealings in ‘Futures’ in the commercial markets— Utility of the system to industry and commerce—It constitutes a method of insurance to producers and distributors against the risks of fluctuating prices—Its ew —— Ee ee TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 881 effect upon prices examined in the light of the law of supply and demand—Its influence in rising and falling markets respectively—It has accentuated the fall of prices of commodities within the last twenty years—Its development assisted by the telegraph and the telephone—Why it is confined to the markets for raw materials—lts indirect effect in the markets for manufactures—Its connection with speculative operations—How far these. can be differentiated from pure gambling—The system, properly organised and controlled, is, on the whole, economically beneticial—The demand for legislative suppression not justifiable. 2. Grain Futures, their Effects and Tendencies. By H. R. RATHBONE. Futures trading, or ‘ options’ as they are generally called, has been of recent growth in the grain trade, and has only during the last ten years exercised a para- mount influence on the trade. Its introduction has increased the tendency already in operation to reduce the margin of profit iu distribution to a minimum. Owing to the tendency of speculators to overtrade the margin is generally against the importer, and, except under rather unusual cireumstances, the cost of distribution is borne chiefly by the speculators. In America, where the system has reached a perfection unknown elsewhere, the option-market is the invariable basis of trading both for the farmer, the distributor, and the miller. In fact, the option-market is looked upon by the trader as a sort of insurance system. The rapidity with which the trade can be executed in these speculative markets has invited operators from all parts of the world, and undoubtedly during the great fall in prices since 1891, the world used the American markets in which to insure their holdings. But itis quite impossible to prove that this fall in values was brought about by option- trading, although a natural fall is accentuated just as a rise is by the existence of the option-market. On the other hand, it may easily be shown that much of the shrinkage in values is due to a fall in freight both ocean and inland. It is evident that this speculative trading by reducing margins and by making large operations less risky and dangerous is steadily concentrating the grain trade of England into fewer and fewer hands. ‘There are unmistakeable signs that this concentration may eventually take the form of large trusts or syndicates for the distribution of our breadstufts. As long as England follows her Free Trade prin- ciples, it is unlikely that any such abuse of their powers will be possible as we are familiar with in protectionist America. And the hope of the Fabian, that such trusts are only the stepping-stones to the nationalisation of commerce, if not brought about by abuse, is still less likely to be brought about on the ground of economy. For, as long as mankind remains what it is, with an inherent, insatiable passion for speculation, I can imagine no cheaper means for distribution than that in which option-trading plays so important a part. 3. Cotton Futures, what they are, and how they operate in Practice. By CuHarves STEWART. Avoiding trade technicalities where possible, and explaining them where unavoidable, the paper commences by a description of what a Cotton Futures con- tract is, its method of working as a contract in suspense and at maturity, and how differences in value are adjusted through the medium of the Clearizg House of the Liverpool Cotton Association. The subject is afterwards separated into two divisions: the utility of Cotton Futures as ‘ Hedges,’ first as sales, second as purchases. The sales are again divided: Ist. As sales by planters in order to secure a favourable current price while the crop is growing, the feature dwelt upon being that such a sale can always be immediately effected, and a ruling good or fair price instantaneously secured. 2nd. The sales of Futures by importers as a hedge against shipments, this operation fully protecting the value interest not only of the importer while the cotton is in transit or in the warehouse, but also the interest of the banker: 382 OC REPORT—1896. financing the bills of exchange drawn for the value of the shipment. This feature is specially emphasised as an insurance against loss in value in a declining market, it being pointed out that without such protection cotton importing would be a sheer gamble and speculation. 3rd. The sales of Futures by spinners, manufac- turers, and their agents against accumulated and accumulating stocks of yarn and eta = times when from temporary and local causes production is ahead of emand, The purchase of Cotton Futures as a hedge is divided into two sections: 1st. As purchases by shippers against contracts made for forward delivery, during such time as their agents, spread over the cotton belt, can lay their hands upon the actual specialties required. 2nd. As purchases by spinners against contracts made for forward delivery of yarn, by manufacturers against contracts made for forward delivery of cloth, and their agents, it being pointed out that after a sale is effected on a recognised basis a cover-purchase of practically equivalent value can be made immediately, the question of selection being a matter of detail and convenience, The fidelity of contracts is explained, also the rapidity and facility of effecting _ either sale or purchase, Cotton Futures being designated as the consols of produce. It is claimed that the system of dealing in Futures is the natural outcome of the expansion of trade, particularly the feature of the development of such by tele- graphy. The increase in the size of the crops, the small margin of present-day profits, the greater speed in transit, the increased magnitude of producing con- cerns, the necessarily greater increase in the capital for their requirements, are all demonstrated. Throughout the paper ignores theory or fallacy, and is devoted to a simple explanation of practice. 4, The Influence of Business in Futwres on Trade and Agriculture. By J. SILVERBERG. Agitation against the system of dealing in produce for future delivery in America, England, and Germany. The opponents allege that — 1. The system of selling fictitious produce is the cause of the decline and of constant low prices. 2. That the system overrules the law of supply and demand. 3. That statistical figures prove this contention. 4, They stigmatise the magnitude of these transactions, which they brand as gambling. 5. They produce evidence from their supporters. As against these it is argued that the system operates as part of the law of supply and demand. : The statistics are unreliable. The magnitude of the transactions in futures is immense. Futures may be classed as follows :— 1. Speculation pure and simple is only a comparatively small part. Itis diffi- cult to trace ard to distinguish it from other business ; it is impossible to legislate against it and to stop it. 2. Selling against imports, called ‘hedging,’ quite legitimate and supremely non- speculative. 3. ‘ Jobbing’ transactions, balancing one another mostly on the same day, and not to be deprecated, having the advantage of creating a broad market. 4. ‘Straddling’ transactions not altering the position, being identical with transposing quantities from one side of an arithmetical equation to the other, by changing the signs. Evidence given by opponents mostly biassed and contradictory ; they plead their, own cause, while pretending to pose as public benefactors. Dealers and importers of the old school are speculators, while the importer now- adays finds in the system the means of eliminating the element of speculation. The system moves the crops with ease and safety, draws them to our ports, and makes these the centres of distribution, which is a great benefit. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, - 888 The influence of the system on agriculture is salutary :— 1. It furnishes buyers at a time when supplies are enormous and a congestion likely to occur. 2. It increases the number of buyers, which is always an advantage to sellers. 3. It brings consumers into closer contact with producers, and the saving hereby effected benefits producers. 4, It engenders speculative investments by capitalists. 4 5. It ensures banking facilities to the small shippers, and thus increases competition. 6. It gives producers the cardinal advantage of making produce at all times _ areadily saleable commodity. 7. It has a decidedly levelling effect on prices, while the abuses, such as arti- ficial depression or artificial inflation, are only rare occurrences, and have only a temporary effect. The low price of produce is due to natural causes, ruled by the inexorable law of supply and demand, and the trading in futures has nothing to do with it. ‘Bear’ selling is too sweepingly cendemned by the opponents; on the con- trary, it very frequently acts beneficially. In summing up, the conclusion is reached that the system of dealing in futures is a branch of business with which, under modern conditions of trade, we cannot dispense; and that the excrescences and abuses are insignificant compared with the advantages which it confers on trade and agriculture. 5. The Cowrse of Average General Prices. By Henry Binns. TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22. The following Papers were read :— 1, The Currency Question in the United States and its bearing on British Interests. By Arruur Lee. Recent developments of the currency question in the United States have rudely dispelled many illusions. Both great parties bimetallist: the Republicans declare for international bimetallism; the Democrats for national bimetallism. No proper gold monometallist party now in the United States. The attitude of England towards international bimetallism a potent factor in the development of strength of the free silver party. In whatever way struggle results it will vitally affect British interests: 1. If the Republicans win, by operation of a new McKinley tariff especially hostile to British trade; by non-settlement of silver question and four years of continual agitation; by prospect of free silver victory in 1900 and consequent uncertainty as to future. 2. If Democrats win, by reduction in exchangeable value of gold; by increase in exchangeable value of silver; by a violent change in relative values of gold and silver, and consequently of the three standards of value now in existence in British Empire. Can the United States alone make a coinage ratio of 16 tol effective? Opinion _ generally held in this country that they cannot do so. Not supported on any definite scientific ground. Factors in the problem: Amount of gold now in the States; how much of this can be absorbed by gold-standard countries; how “much silver will probably rise and gold will probably fall. Argument of those _ who maintain that ratio cannot be made effective. Effect of throwing one-seventh of the total stock of gold in the world on the gold-standard countries. Effect of a _ demand for one-seventh of the total silver money in existence. Gregory King’s law. Professor Thorold Rogers on Gregory King’s law. No reason why law, eo 884 REPORT—1896. should not apply in present case. United States cannot exchange one-ninth of total world’s stock of gold for silver without bringing market ratio of precious metals below 16 to 1. Probability that the United States will retain large pro- portion of her present holding of gold. In that case coinage ratio of 16 to I will be effective. Effect on the various currencies of the British Hmpire. Interest of the British Empire in stability of ratio between gold and silver money. But sudden change will work terrible disturbance, Will affect British Empire more than any other. Effect of turning a deaf ear to proposals with respect to international agreement. Appreciation of gold has been of advantage to certain classes in this country although injurious to producing classes. But this class benefit dependent on action taken by foreign powers. Settlement of the question an important British interest. One for trained political economists, not for popular vote. Should be result of calm deliberation and conference between wisest heads of principal trading nations. Strength of Republican position the hope that international agreement may be brought about. If this hope definitely abandoned free silver agitation will become irresistible. England’s responsibility. Present British attitude: Gives strength to present free silver agitation ; may result in abandonment of any attempt at international settlement. But question will be settled. Alternative settlement: Violent change as a consequence of a popular vote after appeals to popular passion and prejudice. Scant consideration of British interests. Wild revolution instead of wise reform. 2. Standard of Value and Price. By Witu1AM Fow Ler. Low Prices Origin of Contest of Standards.—Is it a monetary question? No lack of gold or of standard money (state of banks, treasuries, &c.). Standard money less and less used in trade. Increased output of gold. What ts Price?—The fundamental question. It is the record in money of a bargain depending on markets, not on supplies of money. Prices may aflect money, not money prices (Giffen). Money a measure and not creator of price. Price affected by money supply only in case of alarm. If credit maintained, prices not so affected, e.g., dear money and high prices 1864-67. At present time cheap money and low prices. (This true, though word money often used in different senses.) Supply and demand of goods real source of changes of price. Low Prices chiefly due to Excess of Supplies—caused by (1) inventions, cheap carriage, cheap production. (2) Increase of capital applied to production by (a) limited liability, (4) capital set free by changes in trade (telegrapbs, &c.). (ec) Accumulations. (3) Special case of silver—great supplies—lessened demands owing to demonetisation caused by great supplies. Fall in prices irregular, but if caused by want of gold should act on all alike, e.g., minerals and wheat fallen much and meat little. The causes atlecting them must be contrasted. Wages have risen though labour is a commodity. Gold depreciated as against labour. Allegation that Low Price of Silver affects (a) Prices, (b) Trade.) It affects exports from silver-using countries, e.y., imports of wheat from India. Russia and Argentine (paper) and U.S A. (gold) now rule our markets as to grain. (2) Cheap silver discourages our exports to silver countries (silver prices). But our exports to gold countries have fallen in twenty years far more than our exports to silver countries (Whitehead). Our real rival in the East as to our exports—local manufacture—cheap labour—cheap materials. Discoveries of gold may cause speculative demands for goods—Query any recent evidence of this affecting prices ? Bimetallism. What is it ?—What is a standard? Is a double standard con- ceivable ? Objections to change of standard. Bimetallism attempts to create a price by law. It says gold worth so many times silver—market or no market. Is this possible? ‘Fixed price’ impossible (Giffen), e y., France in 1873—Sherman Act of 1890—France before and after 1850—Fall in silver from 1890 to 1898 (58d. to 38d.). Can legislation secure circulation ? e.g., silver holding of America TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ¥. 885 and France. Law as to circulation of two metals as legal tender money ; cheaper remains, dearer goes, e¢g., America all silver 9234, all gold ’34~’73. Demand for gold outside nations agreeing on ratio for (a) hoarding ; (6) war treasure. Danger if not certainty of silver monometallism (Giffen), Danger of panic and hoarding if free coinage of silver as legal tender seriously entertained—United States in 93, and now. Permanent and unconditional agreement of all great nations impossible. What is the ratio approved. No agreement (Cernuschi in France). May not silver suit some and gold others? Danger of agreements in giving power over us to others. Danger of loss of position—what is a pound ? Is it honest to pay gold debt in silver? Desiderata—permanence and stability. No proof of probable gain—certainty of dangers if standard made uncertain, 3. The Monetary Standard. By Major L. Darwin. In this paper the author discusses the law which it is desirable that a metallic standard of value should follow with reference to the price of commodities. Taking the case of stagnant trade, when the production of commodities is neither increasing nor diminishing, he shows that objectionable results will arise if the standard is one which either tends to raise or to depress prices. Taking the case of progressive trades, there are two standards to be considered, one which tends to keep the price of the output per man per day constant, and the other which tends to keep the price of the commodities produced constant. These standards are compared under certain hypothetical conditions (also assumed in the case of stagnant trade), and it is shown that both have merits, but that the standard of constant price of output is on the whole the best. But in considering the various facts of real life, omitted in such hypothetical discussions—such as the variations in prices due to causes other than curreucy causes, the effect of charges of the nature of mining royalties, and the influences which tend to revive trade in periods of depression—all these circumstances show the desirability of keeping up prices at a higher level than these theoretical discussions would indicate as ad- visable. ‘Thus in times of progressive trade it would seem best that the standard should tend to keep prices between the two extremes above mentioned—that it should make the price of commodities fall, and the price of the average output of human labour rise, the latter perhaps more than the former. 886 REPORT—1896, Section G.m—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Sir DoverAs Fox, Vice-President of the Institution of Civil Engineers. THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1i. The PresivEnT delivered the following address :— Iv is rather over a quarter of a century since the British Association last held its meeting in the hospitable city of Liverpool. The intervening period has been one of unparalleled progress, both generally and locally, in the many branches of knowledge and of practical application covered by Civil and Mechanical Engi- neering, and therefore rightly coming within the limits for discussion in the important Section of the Association in which we are specially interested. During these twenty-five years the railway system of the British Isles, which saw one of its earliest developments in this neighbourhood, has extended from 15,376 miles, at a capital cost of 552,680,000/., to 21,174 miles, at a capital cost of 1,001,000,0002, The railway system of the United States has more than trebled in the same period, and now represents a total mileage of 181,082, with a capital cost of $11,565,000,000. The Forth and Brooklyn, amongst bridges, the Severn and St. Gothard, amongst tunnels, the gigantic works for the water-supply of towns, are some of the larger triumphs of the civil engineer; the substitution of steel for iron for so many purposes, the perfecting of the locomotive, of the marine engine, of hydraulic machinery, of gas and electric plant, those of the mechanical branch of the pro- fession. The city of Liverpool and its sister town of Birkenhead have witnessed wonderful changes during the period under review. Great and successful efforts have been made to improve the watergate to the noble estuary, which forms the key to the city’s greatness and prosperity ; constant additions have been made to the docks, which are by far the finest and most extensive in the world. The docks on the two sides of the river have been amalgamated into one great trust. In order properly to serve the vast and growing passenger and goods traffic of the port, the great railway companies have expended vast sums on the connections with the dock lines and on the provision of station accommodation, and there have been introduced, in order to facilitate intercommunication, the Mersey Railway, crossing under the river, and carrying annually nearly 10 millions of passengers, and the Liverpool Overhead Railway, traversing for six miles the whole line of docks, and already showing a traffic of 7} millions of passengers per annum. A very complete waterside station connected with the landing-stage has been lately opened by the Dock Board in connection with the London and North-Western Railway. In addition to this, the water-supply from Rivington and Vyrnwy has now been made one of the finest in the world. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 887 The following comparative figures, kindly supplied by Mr. K. Miles Burton, may be of interest :— 1871 1895 Population of Liverpool. . . . 493,405 ., . 641,000 (Estimated) ra Birkenhead - . e 65,971 = ° 109,000 ” Area of docks, Liverpool, about . . 236 acres, 3624 acres s » Birkenhead, about . ° na - (aa 383 5224 Number of steamers using the port c 7,448 ° ° 18,429 Average tonnage of six largest vessels entering the port ° - . ‘ 2,890 ° . 6,822 The following figures show the importance of the local railway traffic :— Number of passenger stations within the boroughs : : - : “ — ¥ 58 Number of goods stations. A F — H q 50 Number of passengers crossing the Mer- sey in the twelve months (Woodside Ferry). ¢ : : : i Number of passengers crossing the Mer- sey in the twelve months (Mersey Railway) e . . . . . Tis . e 6,976,299 ° » 17,143,088 To the hydraulic engineer there are few rivers of more interest, and present- ing more complicated problems, than the Mersey and its neighbours the Dee and the Ribble. They all possess vast areas of sand covered at high water but laid dry as the tide falls, and in each case the maintenance of equilibrium between the silting and scouring forces is of the greatest importance to the welfare of the trading communities upon their banks. The enclosure of portions of the areas of the respective estuaries for the purposes of the reclamation of land, or for railway or canal embankments, may thus have-far-reaching effects, diminishing the volume of the tidal flow and reducing the height of tide in the upper reaches of the rivers. Some idea of the magnitude of these considerations may be derived from the fact that a spring tide in the Mersey brings in through the narrows between Birkenhead and Liverpool 710 millions of cubic yards of water to form a scouring force upon the ebb. The tidal water is heavily laden with silt, which is deposited in the docks, and, at slack water, upon the sandbanks. The ‘former is removed by dredging, and amounts to some 1,100,000 cubic yards per annum ; the latter is gradually fretted down into the channels and carried out to sea before the ebb. Whilst a considerable portion of the narrows is kept scoured, in some places right down to the sandstone rock, there is a tendency, on the Liverpool side near the landing-stage, to silt up, a difficulty counteracted, to some extent by the extensive sluicing arrangements introduced by Mr. George Fosbery Lyster the engineer of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board. ‘ Very extensive and interesting operations have been carried on by the Board in connection with the bar at the mouth of the river, Dredgers specially designed for the purpose have been employed for some six years, with the result that 15,142,600 tons of sand and other dredged matter have been removed and the available depth of water at low-water increased from 11 to 24 feet in a channel 1,500 feet in width. Those who have made the transatlantic passage in former years can more readily appreciate the very great advantage accruing from this great improvement Formerly vessels arriving off the port on a low tide had to wait for some hours for the water-level to rise sufficiently to enable them to cross the bar; the result of a large vessel lying outside, rolling in the trough of the sea with her engines stopped was that not infrequently this proved to be the worst part of the voyage ee New York and Liverpool, and passengers who had escaped the malady of sea- 888 _ REPORT—1896. sickness throughout the voyage were driven to their cabins and berths within three or four hours of landing. Owing to the very successful dredging operations, ships of largest size can now enter or depart from the Mersey at any state of the tide, and they are also able to run alongside the landing-stage without the’ intervention of a tender. Such vessels as the ‘ Teutonic’ or ‘ Majestic,’ of nearly 10,000 registered tonnage, 566 feet in length, 57 feet wide, and 37 feet deep; or the still larger vessels, the ‘Campania’ or ‘ Lucania,’ of nearly 13,000 tons tegister, 601 feet in length, 65 feet in width, and 38 feet in depth, can be seen, on mail days, lying alongside. Whilst the estuary of the Mersey presents a narrow entrance with a wide internal estuary, the Dee, owing to extensive reclamation of land in the upper reaches, has a wide external estuary leading to an embanked river of very limited width, up which the tide rushes with great velocity laden with silt, rising in some two hours, then, during a short time of slack water, depositing the silt, which is not removed by the ebb-tide, spread over some ten hours, and therefore having comparatively little velocity. In this case, also, the outer estuary shows a great tendency to silt up beyond the reach of any but the highest spring tides. The reclamation of the Ribble has not yet proceeded so far as to so seriously affect the general conditions of the estuary ; but here, also, there is a constant tendency in the channels to shift, and the erosion which takes place when a high tide and wind combine is very remarkable. ; A most important improvement was introduced in 1886, by Mr. G. F. Lyster, when it was decided to raise the water-level in certain of the docks by pumping, the wharves being heightened in proportion, and half-tide basins, or locks, made use of to compensate for the difference of level. The area of the docks so treated in Liverpool is 78 acres, whilst at Birkenhead the whole area of the docks on that side of the river, amounting to 160 acres, is so raised. The hydraulic power used in the docks is very large, the indicated horse-power of the engines amounting to 1,673 in the case of Liverpool, and 874 in that of Birkenhead; whilst the Hydraulic Power Company are supplying some 1,000 h.p. to railways and private firms. The direct-acting hydraulic lifts of the Mersey Railway have now been at work for ten years, and through these, at St. James's Station, no less than 75,000,000 to 80,060,000 of passengers have passed with regularity and safety. It is remarkable that, whilst Great Britain led the van in the introduction of steam locomotion, she has lagged in the rear as regards electric and other mechanical traction. This arose in the first instance from mistaken legislation, which strangled electrical enterprise, which is still much hampered by the reluctance of public authorities to permit the introduction of the necessary poles and wires into towns. At the date of the latest published returns there were at work in the United States no less than 12,133 miles of electric, in addition to 599 miles of cable, tramway. Hardly a large village but has its installation, and vast have been the advantages derived from these facilities. In Brooklyn one company alone owns and works 260 miles of overhead trolley lines. With the exception of some small tramways at Portrush, Brighton, Blackpool, South Staffordshire, Hartlepool, &c., the only examples in this country of serious attempts to apply electro-motive force to the carriage of passengers are the City and South London Railway and the Liverpool Overhead Railway, the latter being the latest constructed, and haying, therefore, benefited by the experience gained upon the London line. This railway is over six miles long, a double line of the normal, or 4 ft. 83 in. gauge, running on an iron viaduct for the whole length of the docks ; the installa- tion is placed for convenience of coal supply about one-third of the distance from the northern end. Particulars of this interesting work will be placed before the Section, but suffice it to say that a train service of three minutes each way is readily maintained, with trains carrying 112 passengers each, at an average speed of twelve miles per hour, including stoppages at fourteen intermediate stations. EEO TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 859 ®Ouring the last year, as before stated, 7} million passengers were carried, the cost of traction per train mile being 34d. The Hartlepool Tramway is proving successful, overhead trollies and electric traction having taken the place cf a horse tramroad, which was a failure from a “traffic point of view. Careful researches are being prosecuted, and experiments made, with the intention of reducing the excessive weight of storage batteries. If this can be -effected, they should prove very efficient auxiliaries, especially where, in passing -through towns, underground conductors are dangerous, and overhead wires objectionable. In connection with electric traction, it is very important to reduce, if possible, the initial force required for starting from rest. Whether this will be best attained by the improvement of bearings and their better lubrication, or by the storage, for starting purposes, of a portion at least of the force absorbed by the brakes, remains .to be seen, but it is a fruitful field for research and experiment. In the United States there is a very general and rapid displacement of the cable tramways by the overhead wire electric system. The latter has many oppo- nents, owing, probably, to causes which are preventable. Many accidents were caused by the adoption of very high tension currents, which, on the breakage of a wire, were uncontrollable, producing lamentable results, The overhead wires were placed in the middle of the street, causing interference ‘with the passage of fire-escapes. The speed of the cars was excessive, resulting in many persons being run over. The cable system, therefore, found many advocates, but the result of experience iis in favour of electrical traction under proper safeguards. The cable system can only compete with the electric system when a three- minute or quicker service is possible, or, say, when the receipts average 20/. per mile per day; it is impossible to make up lost time in running, and the cars cannot he ‘backed.’ If anything goes wrong with the cable the whole of the traffic is disorganised. The cost of installation is much greater than in the case of elec- tricity, and extensions are difficult. On the other hand, electricity lends itself to the demands of a growing district, and extensions are easily effected; it satisfies more easily the growing demands on the part of the public for luxury in service and car appointment. It is less expensive in installation, and works with greater economy. By placing the wire at the side of the street, and using a current of low voltage, the objections are greatly minimised, and the cars are much more easily controlled and manipulated. In cases of breakdown these are limited to the half-mile section, and do not completely disorganise the service. Electric cars have been worked successfully on gradients of 1 in 7. ead The conduit slot system can be adopted with good results, provided care is taken in the design of the conduit, and allowance made for ample depth and clearance ; a width of 3-inch is now proved to be sufficient. Where, however, there are frequent turnouts, junctions, and intersecting lines, the difficulties are great, and the cost excessive. The following figures represent the cost of a tramway, on this system, in America :— £ Cost of track and conduit . : . 5,600 (per mile of single track) Insulator, boxer, and double conductor. 480 Asphalte paving on 6 inches of concrete to 2 feet outside double track . . 1,500 Complete cost of operating 4 miles of double track for 24 hours per day with 23-minute service, 455d. per train mile (exclusive of interest, taxes, &c.). One train consists of one motor car and one trailer. 1896. 3M 890 REPORT—1896. The trains make a round trip of eight miles in one hour, with three minutes lay-off at each end. The cost of keeping the slot clean comes to about 40/. per quarter, and the repairs to each plough conductor about 50s. per quarter. Attempts have been made to obviate the necessity of the slot by what is lnown as the closed conduit : but at present the results are not encouraging. The following figures will help to convey to the mind the great development . which is taking place in America, as regards the earnings upon lines electrically equipped. They are derived from the Report of the State Board of Railroad Com- missioners for Massachusetts. 1888 1894 Increase Net earnings per passenger carried Beets ‘78 62°5 per cent. Net earning per car mile - 2°78 4:83 356, Net earning per mile of road . . . £484 £762 57 ” In addition to the application of electricity for illuminating purposes, and for the driving of tram cars and railways, it has also been applied successfully to the driving of machinery, cranes, lifts, tools, pumps, &c., in large factories and works. This has proved of the greatest convenience, abolishing as it does the shafting of factories, and applying to each machine the necessary power by its own separate motor; the economy resulting from this can hardly be over-estimated. It is also successfully employed in the refining of copper, and in the manu- facture of phosphorus, aluminium, and other metals, which, before its application, were beyond the reach of commercial application. The extent of its development for chemical purposes in the future no one can foresee. It is hardly necessary to call attention to the successful manner in which the Falls of Niagara, and the large Falls of Switzerland, and elsewhere, are being harnessed and controlled for the use of man, and in which horse-power by thousands is being obtained. At Niagara, single units of electrical plant are installed equal to about 5,000 horse-power output. These units are destined to be utilised for any of the purposes previously suggested, and it is computed that one horse-power can be obtained from the river, and sold for the entire year day and night continuously, for the sum of 3/. 2s. 6d. per annum. Electric head lights are being adopted for locomotives in the United States. The use of compressed air and compressed gas for tractive purposes is at present in an experimental stage in this country. The latter is claimed to be the cheapest for tramway purposes, the figures given being— : d Single horse cars - 3 : . . ; : : 2 Blectrical cars, with overhead wires. i 4h Gascars . ‘ : 4 4 Combination steam and electric locomotives, gazoline, compressed air, and hot- water motors are all being tried in the United States, but definitive results are not yet published. The first electric locomotive practically applied to hauling heavy trains was put into service on the Baltimore and Ohio Railway in 1895 to conduct the traffic through the Belt Line Tunnel. It is stated that, not only was the guaranteed speed of 30 miles per hour attained, but, with the locomotive running light, it reached double that speed. On the gradient of 8 per cent. a composite train of forty-four cars, loaded with coal and lumber, and three ordinary locomotives—weighing altocether over 1,800 tons—was started easily and gradually to a speed of 12 miles an hour without slipping a wheel. The voltage was 625. The current recorded was, at starting about 2,200 ampéres, and, when the train was up to speed, it settled down to about 1,800 ampéres. The drawbar pull was about 63,000 Ibs. The actual working expense of this locomotive is stated to be about the same as for an ordinary goods locow otive—viz., 23 cents per engine mile. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 891 The rapid extension of tunnel construction for railway purposes, both in towns and elsewhere, is one of the remarkable features of the period under review, and has been greatly assisted by the use of shields, with and without compressed air. This brings into considerable importance the question of mechanical ventilation. Amongst English tunnels, ventilation by fan has been applied to those under the Severn and the Mersey. The machinery for the latter is, probably, the most complete and most scientific application up to the present time. There are five ventilating fans, two of which are 40 feet in diameter, and 12 feet wide on the blades; two of 30 feet, and 10 feet wide; and one quick- running fan of 16 feet in diameter, all of which were ably instailed by Messrs. Walker Brothers of Wigan. They are arranged, when in full work, to throw 800,000 cubic feet of air per minute, and to empty the tunnel between Woodside and St. James’s Street in eight minutes ; but, unfortunately, it is found necessary, for financial reasons, not to work the machinery to its full capacity. The intended extension of electrical underground railways will render it neces- sary for those still employing steam traction either to ventilate by machinery or to substitute electro-motive force. Great improvements have been lately made in the details of mechanical venti- lators, especially by the introduction of anti-vibration shutters, and the driving by belts or ropes instead of direct from the engine. The duties now usually required for mining purposes are about 300,000 cubic feet of air per minute with a water-gauge of about 4 inches; but one installation is in hand for 500,000 cubic feet of air per minute, with a water-gauge of 6 inches. Water-gauge up to 10 inches can now be obtained with fans of 15 feet diameter only. An interesting installation has been made at the Pracchia Tunnel on the Florence and Bologna Railway. The length of the tunnel is 1,900 metres, or about 2,060 yards; it is for a single line, and is on a gradient of 1 in 40, When the wind was blowing in at the lower end, the steam and smoke of an ascending train travelled concurrently with the train, thus producing a state of affairs almost unimaginable except to those engaged in working the traffic. Owing to the height of the Apennines above the tunnel, ventilating shafts are impracticable ; but it occurred to Signor Saccardo that, by blowing air by means of a fan into the mouth of the tunnel, through the annular space which exists between the inside of the tunnel arch and the outside of the traffic gauge, a sufficient current might be produced to greatly ameliorate the state of things. The results have been most satisfactory, the tunnel, which was formerly almost dangerous, under certain conditions of weather, being now kept cool and fresh, with but a small expenditure of power. In an age when, fortunately, more attention is paid than formerly to the well- being of the men, the precautions necessary to be observed in driving long tunnels, and especially in the use of compressed air, are receiving the consideration of engineers. In the case of the intended Simplon Tunnel, which will pierce the Alps at a point requiring a length of no less than 123 miles, a foreign commission of engineers was entrusted by the Federal Government of Switzerland with an investigation of this amongst other questions. During the construction of the St. Gothard Tunnel, which is about 10 miles in length, the difficulties encountered were, of necessity, very great; the question of ventilation was not fully understood, nor was sanitary science sufficiently ad- vanced to induce those engaged in the work to give it much attention. The results were lamentable, upwards of 600 men having lost their lives, chiefly from an insidious internal malady not then understood. But the great financial success of this international tunnel has been so marked, as to justify the proposed construction of a still longer tunnel under the Simplon. The arrangements which are to be adopted for securing the health of the employés are admirable, and will surely not only result in reducing the death rate to a minimum, but also tend to shorten the time necessary for the execution of the undertaking to one-half. The quantity of air to be forced into the workings will he twenty times greater than 3M 2 892 REPORT—1896. in previous works. Special arrangements are devised for reducing the temperature of the air by many degrees, suitable houses are to be provided for the men, with excel- lent arrangements for enabling them to change their mining clothes, wet with the water of the tunnel, before coming in contact with the Alpine cold; every man will have a bath on leaving ; his wet clothes will be taken care of by a custodian, and dried ready for his return to work; suitable meals of wholesome food will be provided, and he will be compelled to rest for half-an-hour on emerging from the tunnel, in pleasant rooms furnished with books and papers. This may appear to some as excessive care; but kind and humane treatment of men results, not only in benefit to them, but also in substantial gain to those employing them, and the endeavour of our own authorities, and of Parliament, to secure for our own worl- people the necessary protection for their lives and limbs in carrying out hazardous trades and employments, is worthy of admiration. The great improvements in sub-aqueous tunnelling can be clearly recognised from the fact that the Thames Tunnel cost 1,150/. per lineal yard, whilst the Blackwall Tunnel, consisting of iron lined with concrete, and of 25 feet internal diameter, has, by means of Greathead’s shield and grouting machine, been driven from shaft to shaft a distance of 754 yards for 875/. per yard. Tunnels have now been successfully constructed through the most difficult strata, such as waterbearing silt, sand, and gravel, and, by the use of grouting under pres- sure, subsidence can almost entirely be avoided, thus rendering the piercing of the substrata of towns, underneath property without damaging it, a simple operation ; and opening up to practical consideration many most important lines of communi- cation hitherto considered out of the question. On the other hand, very little improvement has taken place in the mode of constructing tunnels in ordinary ground, since the early days of railways. The engineers and contractors of those days adopted systems of timbering and construc- tion which have not been surpassed. The modern engineer is, however, greatly assisted by the possibility of using Brindle bricks of great strength to resist pres- sure, combined with quick-setting Portland cement, by the great improvements which have taken place in pumping machinery, and by the use of the electric light during construction. A question which is forcing itself upon the somewhat unwilling attention of our great railway companies, in consequence of the continual great increase of the population of our cities, is the pressing necessity for a substantial increase in the size of the terminal stations in the great centres of population. Many of our large terminal stations are not of sufficient capacity to be worked properly, either with regard to the welfare of the staff or to the convenience of the travelling public. Speak to station-masters and inspectors on duty, when the holiday season js on, and they will tell you of the great physical strain that is produced upon them and their subordinates, in endeavouring to cope with the difficulty. This, if nothing else, is a justification for the enterprise of the Manchester, Shef- field and Lincolnshire Railway Company in providing an entirely new terminus for London. It is thirty years since the last, that of St. Pancras, was added, and during that period the population of London has increased by no less than two millions. The discussion, both in and out of Parliament, of the proposals for light rail- ways has developed a considerable amount of interest in the question. Experi- ence only c2n prove whether they will fulfil the popular expectations. If the intended branch lines are to be of the standard gauge, with such gradients and curves as will render them suitable for the ordinary rolling-stock, they will, in many cases, not be constructed at such low mileage costs as to be likely to be remunerative at rates that would attract agricultural traffic. The public roads of this country (very different from the wide and level military roads of Northern Italy and other parts of the Continent) do not usually present facilities for their utilisation, and, once admitted, the necessity for expropriating private property, the time-honoured questions of frontage severances and interference with amenities will force their way to the front, fencing will be necessary, and, TRANSACTIONS OF SECYION G. 893 even if level crossings be allowed at public roads, special precautions will have to be taken. Much must then depend upon the regulations insisted upon by the Board of Trade. If, in consideration of a reduction in speed, relaxation of existing safe- guards are permitted, much may, no doubt, be effected by way of feeders to existing main lines. If, on the other hand, the branches are of narrower gauge, separate equipment will be necessary, and transhipment at junctions will involve both expense and delay. It is very doubtful whether the British farmer would benefit much from short railways of other than standard gauge. He must keep horses for other pur- poses, and he will probably still prefer to utilise them for carting his produce to the nearest railway station of the main line, or to the market town. The powers granted by the Light Railways Act, in the hands of the able Commissioners appointed under the Act, cannot, however, fail to be a public boon. Special Acts of Parliament will be unnecessary, facilities will be granted, procedure simplified, some Government aid rendered, and probably the heavy burden of a Parliamentary deposit will be removed. It would seem quite probable, that motor cars may offer one practical solution of the problem how best to place the farms of the country in commercial touch with the trunk railways, seaports, and market towns. They could use existing roads, could run to the farmyard or field, and receive or deliver produce at first hand. Such means of locomotion were frequently proposed towards the end of the last century, and in the early part of the present one, and it was not until the year 1840, that the victory of the railway over steam upon common roads was assured, the tractive force required being then shown to be relatively as 1 to 7. The passing of the Act of 1896, superseding those of 1861 and 1865, will undoubtedly mark the commencement of a new era in mechanical road traction. The cars, at present constructed chiefly by German and French engineers, are certainly of crude design, and leave much to be desired. They are ugly in appear- ance, noisy, difficult to steer, and vibrate very much with the revolutions of their engines, rising as they do to 400 per minute; those driven by oil give out offensive odours, and cannot be readily started, so that the engine runs on during short stops. There would seem to be arising here an even more important opening for the skill of our mechanical engineers than in the case of bicycles, in which wonderful industry the early steps appear also to have been foreign. It is claimed for a motor car that it costs no more than carriage, horse, and harness, that the repairs are about the same, and that, whilst a horse, travelling 20 miles per day, represents for fodder a cost of 2d. per mile, a motor car of 2} horse-power will run the same distance at 3d. per mile. The highway authorities should certainly welcome the new comer, for it is estimated that two-thirds of the present wear and tear of roads is caused by horses, and one-third only by wheels. Perhaps no inyention has had so widespreading an influence on the construction of railways as the adoption of the Bessemer process for the manufacture of steel rails. This has substituted a homogeneous crystalline structure, of great strength and uniformity, for the iron rails of former years, built up by bundles of bars, and therefore liable to lamination and defective welds. The price has been reduced from the 13/. per ton, which iron rails once reached, to 3/. 15s. as a minimum for steel. There are, however, not infrequently occurring, in the experience of rail- way companies, the cracking, and even fracture of steel rails, and the Government has lately appointed a Board of Trade Committee for the investigation, inciden- tally of this subject, but specially of the important question of the effect of fatigue _ upon the crystallisation, structure, and strength, of the rail. Experience proves, at any rate, that it is of great importance to remove an ample length of crop end, as fractures more frequently take place near the ends, aided by the weakening caused by bolt holes. Frequent examination by tapping, as in the case of tyres, seems, at present, the most effective safecuard. It is open to serious question, whether the great rigidity of the permanent way of the leading railways of this country is an advantage. Certainly the noise is 894 REPORT—1896. very great, more so than in other countries, and this points to severe shocks, heavy wear and tear of rails and tyres, and—especially when two heavy locomotives are run with the same train—liability to fracture. Whilst the tendency in this country, and in the United States, has been to gradually increase the weight of rails from 40 lb. up to 100]b. per lineal yard, there are engineers who think that to decrease the rigidity of rail and fishplate, and weight of chair, and to increase the sleepers, so as to arrive as nearly as possible at a continuous bearing, would result in softness and smoothness of running. The average and maximum speeds now attained by express trains would appear to have reached the limit of safety, at any rate under the existing conditions of junctions, cross-over roads, and other interferences with the continuity of the rail. If higher speeds are to be sought, it would seem to be necessary to have isolated trunk lines, specially arranged in all their details, free from sharp curve and severe gradient, and probably worked electrically, although a speed of 100 miles per hour is claimed to have been reached by a steam locomotive in the United States. The grain trade of the port of Liverpool has assumed very large proportions, and the system of storage in large silos has been adopted, with great advantage, both as regards capital, outlay, and the cost of working, per ton of grain. The Liverpool Grain Storage Warehouses at Bootle will be open to Members of the Association, and there can be seen the latest development of the mechanical unloading, storing and distribution of grain in bulk ; the capacity is large, being :— Warehouse No. 1, 56,000 tons - », 2,80,000 _,, ho 4,240,000 bushels, Quay Stores 20,000 ,, thus constituting this granary as one of the largest, if not the largest, in the world. . The question of the pressure of grain is a very difficult one, and, in constructing the brick silos, which are 12 feet across at the top, by nearly 80 feet in depth, large allowance has been made both for ordinary pressure, and for possible swelling of the grain. The grain is unloaded by elevators, and then transported on bands, the result being its cooling and cleansing, as well as its storage and distribution. The question of the early adoption in England of the metric system is of im- portance not only to the engineering profession, but also to the country at large. The recommendation of the recent Royal Commission, appointed for the consideration of the subject, was, that it should be taught at once in all schools, and that, in two years’ time, its adoption should be compulsory ; but it is much to be regretted that, up to the present time, nothing has been done. The slight and temporary inconvenience of having to learn the system is of no moment compared to the great assistance it would prove to the commercial and trading world; the simplification of calculations and of accounts would be hailed with delight by all so soon as they realised the advantages. England is suffering greatly in her trade with the Continent for want of it. Our foreign customers, who have now used it for many years, will not tolerate the inconvenience of the endless variety of weights and measures in use in England, and they consequently purchase their goods, to a great extent, from Germany, rather than use our antiquated English system. It is no exaggeration to say that, with their knowledge of the metric system, they regard ours as completely obsolete and unworkable, just in the same way as we should were we to buy our corn, our wine, our steel and iron, by the hin, the ephah, or the homer, or to compute cur measurements by cubit, stadium, or parasang. It behoves all who desire to see England regain her trade to use all their influence in favour of the adoption of this system, as its absence is, doubtless, one of the contributory causes for the loss that has taken, and is taking, place. An important argument in favour of the metric system of weights and measures is that it is adopted all over the civilised world by physicists and chemists; and it may be stated with confidence, that the present international character of these sciences is largely due to this. all atta ta TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 895 It is interesting also to notice, that the metric system is being gradually intro- duced into other branches of science. Anthropometric measurements made by the Committees of the British Association in this country and in Canada are invariably given in metres, and a comparison with meesurements made in other countries can be at once made. The period of twenty-five years under review has indeed witnessed great advances, both in scientific knowledge and practical application. This progress has led to powerful yet peaceful competition between the leading nations. Both from among our cousins of the United States, and from our nearer neighbours of Europe, have we, at this Meeting, the pleasure of welcoming most respected repre- sentatives. But their presence, and the knowledge of the great discoveries made, and colossal works carried out, by them and their brother scientists and engineers, must make us of Great Britain face with increased earnestness the problem of maintaining our national position, at any rate, in the forefront of all that tends towards the ‘utilisation of the great sources of power in Nature for the use and convenience of man.’ Those English engineers who have been brought in contact with engineering thought and action in America and abroad have been impressed with the thoroughness of much of the work, the great power of organisation, and the careful reliance upon scientific principles constantly kept in view, and upon chemical and mechanical experiments, carried out often upon a much more elaborate scale than in this country. This is not the place from which to discuss the questions of bounties and tariffs, which have rendered possible powerful com- petition for the supply of machinery and railway plant from the Continent to our own Colonies ; but there is certainly need for advance all along the line of mechani- cal science and practice, if we are to hold our own—need especially to study the mechanical requirements of the world, ever widening and advancing, and to be ready to meet them, by inventive faculty first, but also by rigid adherence to . sound principles of construction, to the use of materials and workmanship of the hichest class, to simplicity of design and detail, and to careful adaptation of our productions to the special circumstances of the various markets. It is impossible to forecast in what direction the great advances since 1871 will be equalled and exceeded in the coming quarter of a century. Progress there will and must be, probably in increased ratio ; and some, at the end of that period, may be able to look back upon our gathering here in Liverpool in 1896 as dealing with subjects then long since left behind in the race towards perfection. The mechanical engineer may fairly hope for still greater results in the per- fection of machinery, the reduction of friction, the economical use of fuel, the substitution of oil for coal as fuel in many cases, and the mechanical treatment of many processes still dependent upon the human hand. The electrical engineer (hampered as he has been in this country by unwise and retrograde legislation) may surely look forward to a wonderful expansion in the use of that mysterious force, which he has already learned so wonderfully to control, especially in the direction of traction. The civil engineer has still great channels to bridge or tunnel, vast communi- ties to supply with water and illuminating power, and (most probably with the ‘assistance of the electrician) far higher speeds of locomotion to attain. He has ‘before him vast and ever-increasing problems for the sanitary benefit of the world, and it will be for him to deal from time to time with the amazing internal traffic of great cities. China lies before him, Japan welcomes all advance, and Africa is great with opportunities for the coming engineers. Let us see to it, then, that our rising engineers are carefully educated and prepared for these responsibilities of the future, and that our scientific brethren may be ever ready to open up for them by their researches fresh vistas of possibili- ties, fresh discoveries of those wonderful powers and facts of Nature which man to all time will never exhaust. The Mechanical Section of the British Association has done good work in this direction in the past, and we may look forward with confidence to our younger brethren to maintain these traditions in the future. 896 REPORT—1896. The following Papers were read :— 1. Physical and Engineering Features of the River Mersey and the Port of Liverpool. This Paper was ordered by the General Committee to be printed zz extenso.— See Reports, p. 548. 2. The Cause of Fracture of Railway Rails. By W. Worsy Beaumont, I Jnst.C.£. In this paper the author gives an explanation of the apparently anomalous fractures of railway rails. Attention is first directed to the leading features in the history and characteristics of fractured rails, and from these the conclusion is drawn that the failure of any rail, however perfect, is chiefly a question of the number and weight of the trains passing over it. The effect of the rolling of the heavily loaded wheels of engines and vehicles! is the gradual compression of the upper part of the rails and the production thereby of internal stresses which are cumulative and reach great magnitude. That which takes place in the material of a rail head under the action of very heavy rolling loads at high speed, is precisely that which is purposely brought into use every day in our ironworks. The effect is, however, obscured by the slowness of the growth and transmission of the forces which are ultimately destructive. When a piece of iron or steel is subjected to pressures exceeding the limit of elastic compression, by a rolling or hammering action, or by both these combined, the result is spreading of the material and general change of the dimensions. This is equally the case with a plate pane hammered on one side or rolled on one side while resting on a flat surface, or with a rivet when hammered over. In all these cases and many others, the hammering or rolling work done upon the surfaces tends to compress the material beneath it, but being nearly incompressible and unchangeable in density, the material flows, and change of form results. Generally the material thus changed in form suffers permanently no greater stresses than those within its elastic limit of compression or extension. When, however, the material is not free to flow or to change its form in the directions in which the stresses set up would act, the effect of continued work done on the surface is the growth of compressive stress exceeding elastic resistance. In the case of railway rails the freedom for the flow of the material is very limited, especially when considered with reference to the rolling and hammering media and the surface contact between rails and wheels. Hardening of the surface takes place and destructive compression of the surface material is set up, If the material be cast iron, the destructive compression causes crumbling of the superficial parte and the consequent relief of the material immediately below it from stress eyond that of elastic compression ; but when the material is that of steel rails, the stress accumulates, the upper part near the surface being under intense compression, differentiating from a maximum at the surface. This compression gives rise to molecular stresses analogous to those which, on the compression side or inner curve of a bar bent on itself, originate traverse flaws on that side. This condition of compression exists along the whole length of a rail, so that when its magnitude is sufficient to originate crumbling or minute flaws, any unusual impact stress, or a stress in the direction opposite to that brought about by the usual rolling load, the rail may break into two or into numerous pieces. Stresses originating in the same manner explain the fracture of railway tyres as described fully by the author in the ‘ Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ 1876, vol. xlvii. 1 The static pressure per square inch of surface contact between wheel and rail with locomotive weights now common is considerably more than 30 tons, and the pressure under heavily balance-weighted locomotive wheels at high speed is much greater than this. ’ : | TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 897, FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18. The following Papers were. read :— 1. Report on the Effect of Wind and Atmospheric Presswre on the Tides. See Reports, p. 503. 2. Report on the Calibration of Instruments in Engineering Laboratories. See Reports, p. 538. 3. Description of General Features and Dimensions of the Tower Bridge. By J. Wore Barry, C.L., PLS. London Bridge built in 1280.—\ts dimensions.—The houses upon it.—Its im- provement in 1758: ¥ New London Bridge built in 1824 to 1831.—Its approaches.—Only one bridge- for metropolis till 1729, when Putney Bridge was built in spite of opposition of Corporation of London. Eight more bridges built between 1730 and 1830.—Development of South Lon- don and distribution of population.—Reference'to Thames Tunnel and Tower Sub- way. S eeoprolitan Board of Works proposed Bridge in 1879.—Proposal by private: company for Subway in 1883.—Subway of Metropolitan Board of Works in 1884, and duplex bridge.—Proposal for bascwe bridge.—Description and views of original design by Sir Horace Jones. Corporation of London apply for permission to build present Tower Bridge in 1885.—Description of Upper and Lower Pool of Thames.—Temporary works for constructing the Bridge——Action of Government authorities and approval of the Queen.—Detailed description of piers and bascule chamber.—Mode of construction of substructure of piers.—The Caissons.—Mode of sinking Caissons.—Construction of pier within Caissons—The Abutments.—The opening span.—Its dimensions.— Mode of construction and weight.—Mode by which it is actuated.—The hydraulic machinery.—Pumping engines and accumulators.—Estimated wind pressure.— Requirements of Board of Trade and actual wind pressure.—Lifts for foot passen- gers.—The fixed superstructure——The masonry of the towers and differences of opinion asto employment of stone round the steel pillars of the tower.—The rollers carrying the chains.—Description of the chains and anchorages.—Total weight of steel and iron in the bridge.—Erection of superstructure.—Temporary bridge— expedients adopted.—The approaches.—Opening of the bridge in June 1894,— Estimates of river traffic as compared with actual traffic—The vehicular and foot traffic across bridge-—Cost of the bridge defrayed by Bridge House Estates Com- mittee —Acknowledgments of assistance rendered by various persons. 4. On the Liverpool Waterworks. By J. Parry. Early history of the Liverpool water supply—Enyineering and chemical ideals of a century ago—Private enterprise and public spirit—Competition and its conse- quences—Bootle Company’s works—Harrington Company’s works—Purchase by Corporation—Schemes of 1846—Rivington scheme and its lessons—Investigations for additional supplies 1866-1880—Joint schemes for Manchester and Liverpool— Vyrnwy works—Filtration: Rivington and Vyrnwy—Experiences of introducing a new supply—Consumption of water—Supply of towns and villages on the lines of aqueduct. * 5. The Present Position of the British North Atlantic Mail Service. By A. J. Macrnnis. ~ 898 REPORT—1896, SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19. The Section did not meet, MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21, The following Report and Papers were read :— 1. Report on Small Screw Gauges.—See Reports, p. 527. 2. Test of Glow Lamps. By W. H. Preece, C.B., F.R.S. 3. The Liverpool Overhead Railway and the Southern Extension of it. By 8. B. Corrrett. 4. Notes on Electric Cranes. By E. W, ANDERSON. After some introductory remarks, the author states that his object is to give an account of the experience gained during the last eight years at the Erith Iron Works, where two electric travelling cranes have been in constant use for about that eriod. 3 No actual experiments are, however, given, as a paper with all such informa- tion is to be read by Mr. Rayenshaw at the Institution of Civil Engineers, and it is not considered advisable to forestall this in any way. A brief description of a 20-ton crane in the foundry is given, to which electricity was applied as a motive power early in 1888, and of which a full account was written in a paper read before the British Association in the same year by Dr. W. Anderson, C.B., F.R.S. This crane is driven by one single motor which actuates all the different motions, and the paper describes some of the difficulties at first experienced with it, and the way in which they were overcome. c A self-contained steam crane was shortly afterwards placed in the foundry of the same size, and enabled a comparison to be made of the practical advantages of each, and of the amount of repairs required by them, resulting in the practical proof of the superiority of the electric one, by the fact that early prejudice against it had been quite overcome, and that now it was greatly preferred to the other. Not only are the repairs required less, but in several other ways the electric crane is both more convenient and less costly. Attention is called to the first motion gearing of the electric crane, which though satisfactory was very noisy, and the means whereby it was much improved are mentioned, though from the necessities of the particular circumstances it can- not be made quite as noiseless as it should be. A description then follows of a second crane in the turnery to which electricity was applied shortly after the first was started, but which had to be dealt with in a different manner, namely, by applying a separate motor for each motion, the first motion gear consisting of short belts with jockey pulleys. The motions were therefore controlled by three reversing switches, and a brake for lowering. The method of collecting the current was different from that used in the foundry, and is fully described. This crane has also proved very successful, and has given very little trouble. The belt reduction gear is quite noiseless. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 899 The author sums up the experience with these cranes by stating that in his opinion electricity applied to this purpose has proved itself to be remarkably efficient, even in the somewhat trying atmosphere of a foundry. Various practical points are then discussed relating to efliciency, cost, and general convenience. A comparison is made of the relative merits of the single motor system as used in the foundry, and the three-motor arrangement as in the turnery. Several methods of reducing the comparatively high speed of the motor to the slow speed of the gearing shafts, as required in cranes and similar machines, are described and commented upon. The paper concludes with a brief comparison of the merits of hydraulic and electric transmission as applied to cranes, pointing out that the adaptability of one or the other must depend entirely on the circumstances of the case, but at the same time showing that for travelling cranes the difficulty of conveying the pres- sure-water to the crane practically precludes its adoption, while in this respect electricity stands foremost, especially where there is a long travel. 5. Hauperiments on the Hysteresis of Iron in evolving Magnetic Fields. By Professor J. A. Fuemine, F.A.S., R. Beatie, and R. C. CLinKer. 6. Street Lighting by Electric Incandescent Lamps. By Witi1amM GEorGeE Watker, I Jnst.I£., A.M Inst.C.£. Great difference exists between the quality of the illumination required for the various streets of a large town. Arc lamps are undoubtedly the right thing for busy streets, but would prove an extravagant illumination for ordinary bye- streets or roads of country towns. It may roughly be taken that the quality of the illumination necessary is of two kinds—firstly, where a flood of light is necessary on account of the nature of the traffic; secondly, where the light is necessary for the demarcation of the roads, At present very little street lighting by glow lamps has been carried out in this country. It has, however, been tried with success on a fairly large scale in America and on the Continent. There are many objections to taking the current off the ordinary low pressure mains that serve for house lighting. Esti- mates show that the parallel system is generally impracticable on account of the great cost of the copper mains required for the proper distribution of small incan- descent lamps in streets. The parallel system becomes practical in congested districts, and where natural water power can be obtained. It has been felt that a way out of the adoption of a ‘series system’ of distribution. The main difficulty against this system is that the failure of a lamp filament is liable to put out all the lamps on the circuit. In the town of Temesvar in Hungary, nearly ten years ago, 750 16-candle-power lamps on the multiple series system were installed, with satisfactory results, the wires being overhead, The series system has been installed in the parishes of Kingswood and Keynsham, near Bristol, with considerable success during the four and a half years which it has been at work. At Kingswood, about seven miles of roads are lighted by circuits of 2, 24 and 3 miles respectively from the central station. The lamps are spaced at 60 yards apart, and are elevated at from 14 to 16 feet from the level of the road on wooden poles, which also carry the overhead wires. There are 150 street lamps of candle power varying from 100 to 25, The indicated horse-power of the engine at full load is 32. The revenue from street lighting at 24d. per unit is 650/. per annum, leaving a clear profit of 100/., after allowing for depreciation and all expenses. Lighting hours, 4,250 per annum. Total cost of plant, about 3,5007. ‘The chief feature of this installation is the automatic cut out, so that the failure of one lamp 900 . REPORT—1896. does not affect the lamps in series with it. Each circuit is divided into two branches, taking equal amounts of current. Each lamp has in series with it an electro-magnet. A resistance is placed as a shunt to the lamp. The normal current will not lift the armature of the electro-magnet, but when a lamp breaks, double the current passes through the allied lamp, and lifts the armature, com- pleting the circuit through the shunt, the resistance of which is equal to the lamp. a series system with overhead wires is suitable for scattered districts, and is as cheap as gas. Now that it is possible to obtain lamps suitable for working at 250 volts, and when used in conjunction with a three-wire system, it may be worth while to pay for the extra copper. An alternating system might be considered with a small transformer for each lamp, reducing the voltage in the primary mains from, say, 2,000 to 250 in the secondary wire, on which the glow lamp would be placed. TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22. The following Papers were read :— 1. Armour and Heavy Ordnance—Recent Developmenis and Standards. By Captain W. H. Jaques, of the United States of America. When I picked up the last issue of Brassey's‘ Naval Annual’ (1896), and upon the title-page read— ‘No system of conduct, however correct in principle, can protect Neutral Powers from injury from any party. A defenceless position and a distinguished love of peace are the surest invitations to war. —THoMAs JEFFERSON. it occurred to me how little our legislators are influenced by the words of the eminent statesman which have been selected by the editor of a British Annual of the record of the naval events of the year as a warning to Great Britain, the first naval power of the world, that its preparations for defence must be liberal and continuous. The situation and policy of the United States could not be more accurately de- scribed than by these words of Jefferson, ‘A defenceless position and a distinguished love of peace,’ yet little heed is given to his warning that these conditions ‘ ave the surest wnvitations to war. In fact our engineers and manufacturers are the only ones who have awakened to the situation,and this awakening will no doubt be attributed to the hope of pecuniary gain. They have, however, no matter whatever the incentive, attained the highest standards in the production of armour, heavy ordnance, and projectiles. All we need in the United States are adequate budgets and well-planned ship- building programmes, That we are gradually reaching out in the right direction is shown by the following table of estimates for 1896-7, taken from Brassey’s ‘ Annual’ for 1896 :— £ England. : P : : ; : : . 21,823,000 France : : : : : i ; : . 10,637,096 Russia . : - : 5 > - : ; . 6,440,666 United States. : : : : : : . 5,862,228 Germany . : : : ; : : 3 . 4,372,068 Italy . - - : - : : : . 9,641,324 although in the table of effective fighting ships, built and building, the United ae a left out, England, France, Russia, Italy, and Germany only being included, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 901 The progress in armour-making referred to in my last public pamphlet (1894) has been continuous, and the United States (The Carnegie Steel Co., Ltd.) and Germany (Krupp) have produced armour fully 15% if not 20% better than the best plain steel Harveyed armour that Great Britain has placed upon her hattleships ; although one is handicapped in making thorough comparison so long as England continues to determine the value of her battleship armour by firing 6-inch soft Holtzer shells against 6-inch plates at velocities below 2,000 ft. sec. In making a comparison of the tests I have cited, we must not lose sight of the fact that the German and French plates were eaperimental, and made to secure the greatest resistance possible, whereas those of the United States were service plates representing hundreds of tons of armour from which the inspectors had selected what they considered were the poorest of the lot. A summary of recent advances will include the cheapening and more extensive use of nickel; the substitution of the hydraulic forging-press for hammers and rolls ; better means of removing scale; simplification of the methods, and more uniform results of supercarburisation ; utilisation of the valuable sub-forging pro- cess (now required for all United States armour); improved facilities for harden- ing, and improvements in the machines and tools for shaping and finishing. While in the United States the increased resistance of armour has determined the authorities to retain the higher calibres of heavy ordnance, the Navy Depart- ment having ordered 13-inch B.L. rifles for battleships, and the War Department having commenced a type gun of 16-inch calibre (both adhering to the forged- hooped type), Great Britain still keeps the 12-inch as her limit, and continues the radical departure to wire construction made by Dr. Anderson when he became Director-General, and so successfully carried out by him. France adheres to types containing too many parts, and Germany is satisfied to possess a large number of comparatively low ballistic power. No matter which type, hooped or wire, is adhered to, improved armour and projectiles must be met by greater energies, which involve higher pressures, shorter guns (for utility), and stronger material. That this last is to be obtained in the United States is evident from the following requisites in a 38-inch test piece for nickel steel tubes for cannon of 8-inch calibre and over :— Tensile Strength *itesboterelas - 90,000 Ib. per sq. in. Elastic Limit . : c ; : ePID yeni, Vashi one! hy Elongation . : . . : c - 20 per cent. Contraction of Area . : : : sO enn 5 Equally favourable progress has been made with projectiles, but as yet very few truly competitive results are at hand. The uncertainty of their relative value still causes a very large unknown quantity in the valuation of armour comparisons. f In conclusion we may count, at least in the United States, as commercial com- modities, armour having a resistance 10% better than the best of last year; heavy ordnance giving service velocities of 200 ft. sec. higher, and armour-piercing pro- jectiles, that to be accepted must perforate a thickness of nickel-steel carburised armour equal to their calibre. Truly an excellent record ! 2. A new Spherical Balanced Valve for all Pressures. By James Casey, Consulting Marine Engineer. In this paper the author deals with the avoidable loss of life and damage to property caused through explosions of defective valves, whether from steam, water, or other fluid, where extreme pressures were used. Having described the valves generally in use, he points out that in many cases water that had passed into the valye-hox and steam-pipes from the boilers had caused danger and even fatal results, often attributed to defective steam-pipes, whereas both valve-box and 902 REPORT—1896, pipes were charged with water from the steam leaking and passing into the main steam-pipe and getting condensed into water. No means were afforded under the present valve system of draining this water, and hence it happened that the moment the stop-valves were opened on the boilers full to the engines a hammer- ing took place, the explosion immediately following. From the design of these valves he did not see how it was possible for a satisfactory drainage to be applied that could be always available and keep the steam-pipes free of water and of the danger to which he referred. The importance of haying reliable valves under extreme pressure, whether for steam, water, or other fluid, could not be overestimated. Having regard to this, he had designed a valve of globe form which, he might say with perfect confidence, was balanced under all or any pressures. The valve formed a complete sphere, with openings in the same at right angles to each other, with spindle cast on, working in a fixed and adjustable seating, and so arranged that the pressures were balanced or equalised, and friction was reduced to a minimum. This sphere was fitted into a valve-box, sometimes made in two parts for convenience in adjusting the sphere and its seatings, such being adopted to allow for contraction and expansion under pressure. Suitable openings were formed in the valve-box corre- sponding with those in the globe, so that when the globe was turned by its spindle to the required position the same might’be turned off or on. ‘The openings in the valve-box and in the sphere respectively were arranged to correspond with the full supply of steam, water, or other fluid. The globe or ball was perforated with a small passage corresponding to a similar passage in the valve casing, and when opposite to each other any condensed steam or waterescaped from the steam- pipes or valves either to the condenser or ran to waste, thereby effectually clearing the pipe of water and preventing any chance of explosion. As showing some of the defects arising from the existing system in connection with boilers, steam-pipes, and heating-apparatus in mills, on board ship, in public buildings and places of business, the author gave particulars derived from Board of Trade reports of official inquiries under Act of Parliament. These clearly pointed to the necessity of a new departure in the valve system if the present destruction of life and property was to be obviated. For hydraulic purposes the author claims that with the new valve no grit or sandy matter could get between the valve and seatings, for the simple reason that it worked in and on the seatings, and no foreign matter could be introduced. A valve on this principle has now been at work close upon eighteen months, and it had been found upon examination that it was as good nowas on the first day it was put in place, and had not cost a penny for repairs or even adjustment, although in daily work at a pressure of 750 lb. per square inch. In the use of higher pres- sures the limit of its working was the cohesive strength of the material of which it might be constructed, and being balanced it was manipulated by a small lever which a boy could work. The system which the author had advocated possessed equal advantages in connection with fire hydrants and water supply generally owing to its simplicity and the ease with which it could be worked. Briefly what the author claimed was that by the adoption of his valve system the follow- ing, amongst other advantages, would he attained :— 1. The substitution of a perfectly balanced spherical valve under all pressure for one on the old principle of lifting, which is liable to get out of order or to cause explosion, consequent on faulty construction and the absence of proper means of draining steam-pipes and other connections therewith. 2, The valve can be worked. easily and instantaneously, and is. not affected where dirty or gritty water is used. 3. The valve can be adopted for steam, hydraulic, gas, mining, and all other purposes for which valves are in daily use, and made of cast iron or gun metal. 4, The valve drains itself and the connections of boilers, &c., of all water created by condensation of steam, thereby preventing dangerous hammering in the pipes and obviating, under certain conditions, the bursting or freezing of pipes and concomitant dangers. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 903 3. Engineering Laboratory Apparatus. By Professor H. S. Hete-Suaw, If Inst.0.£. At the Liverpool Meeting of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1891 an account was given of the chief appliances in the Walker Engineering Labora~ tories at Liverpool. A description of the Triple-Expansion steam engine and boiler, and the alterna tive centre 100 ton testing Machine will be found illustrated in the Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers for 1891. The first intention of the author on the present occasion was to give a descrip= tion of certain appliances which are of a novel character and which were to be shown in operation together with other experimental arrangements at the Walker Engineering Laboratories after the reading of the paper. These appliances might be conveniently arranged under the three following heads, which constituted in fact the three divisions of Laboratory teaching, viz. :— 1. The steam engine. 2. Hydraulics. 3. Testing the strength and properties of materials, The apparatus to be mentioned under the first head were as follows :— 1. Hydraulic brake and integrator. 2. Spring dynamometer. 3. Arrangement for drawing crank-effort diagrams. » | 4, Arrangement in connection with steam-engine indicators. 5. General arrangements in connection with the experimental courses of instruction. Under the head of Hydraulics :— 1. Hydraulic tank, valve-boxes and sump, Under the third head :— 1. An extensometer of novel design. 2. Arrangement for testing the torsion of shafts. 3. A convenient gauge in connection with crushing and bending experiments. ‘When, however, the author came to actually prepare the paper and diagrams, he found that it would be impossible to deal ina satisfactory manner with all these subjects, many of which were entirely new, all possessing novel features, representing the hitherto unpublished work of some years. He therefore limited himself to the experimental steam engine and the hydraulic tank, merely indicating by means of diagrams various matters without attempting to describe them fully, which might be seen in operation at the laboratories, where actual trials would be conducted by the students in the same way as during the work of the college classes.! bea of In the above-mentioned paper the brake which was described was of the ordinary friction type, except that the flywheel rim was hollow through which 1 The following demonstrations were given :— to} 5 1. Full trial of experimental steam engine by third year students. Conditions :—Triple expansion, unjacketed, condensing. Boiler pressure 100 lb. per square inch. Natural draught, 2. Testing various specimens of wrought iron, and taking their stress-strain diagrams, in the 100-ton testing machine. 3, Finding the deflection of beams, and value of E. 4. Experiments on the angle of torsion, and value of coefficient of rigidity. 5. Finding modulus ofrupture and strength of cast-iron bars. ‘6. Gauging and cement testing. 7. Experiments on the flow of water through orifices with the hydraulic tank. 8. Drawing crank-effort diagrams by a new apparatus. 9. Experiments on the whirling and vibration of shafts. 04, REPORT—1896. water circulated, a weight of 1,500 lb. being required to take the power of the engine. This brake never worked satisfactorily, and though every expedient was tried, it was found impossible to conduct a trial with any regularity beyond 30 indicated horse-power. Moreover, owing to the flywheel being overhung, and a weight hanging upon it, during a long trial, the bearing nearest the wheel almost 4nvariably became heated. Beyond this, it was found that for practical pur- poses a 3-ton wheel was unnecessarily large for any trials. A brake, of which a descriptive diagram was shown, was therefore designed, the weight of the fly- -wheel being about 15 ewt., instead of 3 tons, and the framing being so arranged that the load was taken off the bearing. This brake at once remoyed the difficulty of heating, and a regular series of trials were made up to about 60 horse-power, which during one session served quite satisfactorily for the work of the students. Beyond this, however, it was impossible to get regular runnings with the brake. The loads were taken by a hemp cable, five coils of which passed round the wheel, which is in the form of a broad pulley, and acted by taking advantage of the power of coil friction. To get steady runnings it was found necessary to keep the rope wet, a stream of water flowing upon it. It had been originally intended to have the form of Froude hydraulic brake, as modified by Professor Osborne Ieynolds, and it became evident that nothing but a hydraulic brake would solve the problem of taking up continuously 150 horse- power. The question of cost had prevented this form of brake from being obtained originally from Messrs. Mather and Platt, and the same reason led toa modified design of the hydraulic brake, in which the chief cause of expense in the Reynolds type “was avoided, viz. by doing away with the considerable amount of coring for air and water passages in the castings, and also in constructing the main part in cast iron instead of gun-metal, and further, in having it single acting. For this, and other apparatus, funds were provided through the kindness of Mr. Charles W. Jones (of Messrs. Lamport and Holt) and Mr. R. R. Heap. The author then proceeded to explain by means of models the action of the brake, and the features which were peculiar in the new brake, which were as follows :— (1) The vortex is artificially produced. (2) The brake is single acting. (3) The pressure is downwards, so as to take the weight of the brake off; in fact, practically not to take off the weight of the brake only, but also of the flywheel. (4) Autographic recording and registering arrangements are employed. (5) Special arrangements are adopted by which automatic action is secured. These various points were considered in detail and described by means of draw- ‘ings, but it was pointed out that as far as the actual work of the trials for the students were concerned, none of the refinements mentioned were necessary. An extremely simple form of brake was quite sufficient to maintain the engine running perfectly steady under the highest steam pressures The various features in which the engine itself has been improved were then mentioned, and may be summarised as follows :— () A sid of drain tanks, so as to measure the water condensed in the steam jackets, (2) A erate tank has been provided, into which the water from these drain tanks is thereby checked. (3) A new special tank for the exact calibration of feed-water supply has been rovided, which works in connection with the injector by which the oiler is supplied. (4) A special arrangement has been devised by which the indicator diagrams can be conveniently and rapidly taken by students, (5) A system of checking and graduating the indicator springs, which has been found most valuable in operation by means of a duplex standard steam gauge. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 905 (6) An arrangement was shown in operation for obtaining the diagrams of crank effort, by means of a special apparatus which is done on smoked glass. These can either be printed off, or used direct in the lantern for illustration upon the screen. The dynamometer coupling was then described and illustrated, after which a diagram giving a complete table of the results of several trials of the experimental engine was shown, and copies were distributed amongst members of the Section." The various conditions of the trials were as follows :— Triple unjacketed condensing. Triple jacketed condensing. Jompound unjacketed condensing. (I. and II.) Compound jacketed condensing. (I. and II.) Compound unjacketed condensing. (II. and III.) Compound unjacketed non-condensing. (II. and III.) Single unjacketed condensing. (II.) Single jacketed condensing. (II.). These tables showed at a glance the method adopted for tabulating the results of the trials which had been carried out by the senior lecturer, Mr. Dunkerley. The hydraulic tank and sump was next alluded to, and the new form of valves for rapidly operating with the jet under pressure was mentioned ; a brief descrip- tion of the other laboratory apparatus illustrated on the diagrams then concluded the paper. 4. Development of the Art of Printing in Colours. By T. Conn. 5. Expanded Metal. By H. B. Tarry. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23. The following Papers were read :— 1. Wreck Raising. By J. BEL. 2. Horseless Road Locomotion. By A. R. SENNETT. 3 Since’ published in Engineering, October 9, 1896. 1896. 3.N 906 REPORT—1896. Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.—ARtTHUR J. Evans, M.A., F.S.A, THURSDAY,-SEPTEMBER 17. The PrusipEnt delivered the following Address :— ‘The Hastern Question’ in Anthropology. TRAVELLERS have ceased to seek for the ‘Terrestrial Paradise,’ but, in a broader sense, the area in which lay the cradle of civilised mankind is becoming generally recognised. The plateaux of Central Asia have receded from our view. Anthropo- logical researches may he said to have established the fact that the White Race, in the widest acceptation of the term, including, that is, the darker-complexioned section of the South and West, is the true product of the region in which the earliest historic records find it concentrated. Its ‘Area of Characterisation’ is -conterminous, in fact, with certain vast physical barriers due to the distribution of sea and land in the latest geological period. The continent in which it rose, shut in between the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans, between the Libyan Desert, and what is now Sahara, and an icier Baltic stretching its vast arms to the Ponto- ‘Caspian basin, embraced, together with a part of anterior Asia, the greater part of Europe, and the whole of Northern Africa. The Mediterranean itself—divided into smaller separate basins, with land bridges at the Straits of Gibraltar, and from Sicily and Malta to Tunis—did not seriously break the continuity of the whole. The English Channel, as we know, did not exist, and the old sea-coast of what are now the British Islands, stretching far to the west, is, as Professor Boyd Dawkins has shown, approximately represented by the hundred-fathom line. ‘To this great continent Dr. Brinton, who has so ably illustrated the predominant part played by it in isolating the white from the African black and the yellow races of mankind, has proposed to give the useful and appropriate name of “Eurafrica.’ In ‘ Eurafrica,’ in its widest sense, we find the birthplace of the highest civilisations that the world has yet produced, and the mother country of its dominant peoples. It is true that later geological changes have made this continental division no longer applicable. The vast land area has been opened to the east, as if to invite the Mongolian nomads of the Steppes and Tundras to mingle with the European population ; the Mediterranean bridges, on the other hand, have been swept away. Asia has advanced, Africa has receded. Yet the old underlying connexion of the peoples to the north and south of the Mediterranean basin seems never to have been entirely broken. Their inter-relations affect many of the most interesting phenomena of archeology and ancient history, and the old geographical unity of ‘ Eurafrica ’ was throughout a great extent of its area revived in the great political system which still forms the basis of civilised society, the Roman Empire. The Mediterranean was a Roman lake. A single fact brings home to us the extent to TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 907 which the earlier continuity of Europe and North Africa asserted itself in the imperial economy. At one time, what is now Morocco and what is now Northumberland, with all that lay between them on both sides of the Pyrenees, found their administrative centre on the Mosel. It is not for me to dwell on the many important questions affecting the physio- logical sides of ethnography that are bound up with these old geographical relations. I will, however, at least call attention to the interesting, and in many ways original, theory put forward by Professor Sergi in his recent work on the ‘ Mediter- ranean Race.’ Professor Sergi is not content with the ordinary use of the term ‘ White Race.’ He distinguishes a distinct ‘brown’ or ‘brunette’ branch, whose swarthier com- plexion, however, and dark hair bear no negroid affinities, and are not due to any. ‘intermixture on that side. This race, with dolichocephalic skulls, amongst which certain clearly defined types constantly repeat themselves, he traces throughout the Mediterranean basin, from Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor, through a large part of Southern Europe, including Greece, Italy, and the Iberic peninsula, to the British islands. It is distributed along the whole of North Africa, and, according to the theory propounded, finds its original centre of diffusion somewhere in the parts of Somaliland. It may be said at once that this grouping together into a consistent system of ethnic factors spread over this vast yet inter-related area—the heart of ‘ Eurafrica’— presents many attractive aspects. The ancient Greek might not have accepted -kinship even with ‘the blameless Ethiopian,’ but those of us who may happen to combine a British origin with a Mediterranean complexion may derive a certain ancestral pride from remote consanguinity with Pharaoh. They may even be willing to admit that ‘the Ethiopian’ in the course of his migrations has done much to ‘change his skin.’ In part, at least, the new theory is little more than a re-statement of an ethno- graphic grouping that commands a general consensus of opinion. From Thurnam’s time onwards we have been accustomed to regard the dolichocephalic type found in -the early Long Barrows, and what seem to have been the later survivals of the same stock in our islands, as fitting on to the Iberian element in South-western Europe. The extensive new materials accumulated by Dr. Garson have only served “to corroborate these views, while further researches have shown that the character- istic features of the skeletons found in the Ligurian caves, at Cro Magnon and -elsewhere in France, are common to those of a large part of Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia, and extend not only to the Iberic group, but to the Guanche interments -of the Canary Islands. The newly correlated data unquestionably extend the field of comparison; but ‘the theories as to the original home of this ‘ Mediterranean race’ and the course of its diffusion may be thought to be still somewhat lacking in documentary evidence. They remind us rather too closely of the old ‘ Aryan’ hypothesis, in which we were almost instructed as to the halting places of the different detach- ments as they passed on their way from their Central Asian cradle to rearrange themselves with military precision, and exactly in the order of their relationship, in their distant European homes. The existing geological conditions are made - the basis of this migratory expansion from Ethiopia to Ireland ; parallel streams move through North Africa and from Anatolia to Southern Europe. One cardinal fact has certainly not received attention, and that is, that the existing evidence of this Mediterranean type dates much further back on European soil than even in ancient Egypt. Professor Sergi himself has recognised the extraordinary continuity of the cranial type of the Ligurian caves among the modern population of that coast. But this continuity involves an extreme antiquity for the settlement of the -4 Mediterranean Race’ in North-western Italy and Southern France. The cave interments, such as those of the Finalese, carry back the type well into Neolithic _times. But the skeletons of the Baoussé Roussé caves, between Mentone and Ventimiglia, which reproduce the same characteristic forms, take us back far behind any stage of culture to which the name of Neolithic can be properly applied. 3.N 2 908 REPORT—1896. The importance of this series of interments is so unique, and the fulness of the evidence so far surpasses any other records immediately associated with the earliest remains of man, that even in this brief survey they seem to demand more than a passing notice. So much, at least, must be admitted on all hands: an earlier stage of culture is exhibited in these deposits than that which has hitherto been regarded as the mini- mum equipment of the men of the later Stone Age. The complete absence of pottery, of polished implements, of domesticated animals—all the more striking from the absolute contrast presented by the rich Neolithic cave burials a little further up the same coast —how is it to be explained? The long flint knives, the bone and shell ornaments, might, indeed, find partial parallels among Neolithic remains; but does not, after all, the balance of comparison incline to that more ancient group belonging to the ‘ Reindeer Period’ in the South of France, as illus- rated by the caves of La Madeleine, Les Eyzies and Solutré ? Tt is true that, in an account of the interments found in 1892 in the Barma Grande Cave, given by me to the Anthropological Institute, I was myself so pre- possessed by the still dominant doctrine that the usage of burial was unknown to Paleolithic man, and so overpowered by the vision of the yawning hiatus between him and his Neolithic successor, that I failed to realise the full import of the evidence. On that occasion I took refuge in the suggestion that we had here to deal with an earlier Neolithic stratum than any hitherto recorded. ‘ Neolithic,” that is, without the Neolithic. But the accumulation of fresh data, and especially the critical observations of M. d’Acy and Professor Issel, have convinced me that this intermediate position is untenable. From the great depth below the original surface, of what in all cases seem to have been homogeneous quaternary deposits, at which the human remains were found, it is necessary to suppose, if the interments took place at a later period, that pits in many cases from 80 to 40 feet deep must have been excavated in the cave earth. But nothing of the kind has been detected, nor any intrusion of extraneous materials. On the other hand, the gnawed or defective condition of the extremities in several cases points clearly to superficial and imperfect interment of the body ; and in one case parts of the same core from which flints found with the skeleton had been chipped were found some metres distant on the same floor level. Are we, then, to imagine that another pit was expressly dug to bury these ? Tn the case of a more recently discovered and as yet unpublished interment, at the excavation of which I was so fortunate as to assist, the superficial character of the deposit struck the eye. The skeleton, with flint knife and ochre near, decked out with the usual shell and deer’s tooth ornaments, lay as if in the attitude of sleep, somewhat on the left side. The middle of the body was covered with a large flat stone, with two smaller ones lying by it, while another large stone was laid over the feet. The left arm was bent under the head as if to pillow it, but the extremities of the right arm and the toes were suggestively deficient : the surface covering of big stones had not sufficiently protected them. The stones themselves seem in turn to have served as a kind of hearth, for a stratum of charred and burned bones about 45 cm. thick lay about them. Is it reasonable to suppose that a deposit of this kind took place at the bottom ofa pit over 20 feet deep, left open an indefinite time for the convenience of roasting venison at the bottom ? A rational survey of the evidence in this asin the other cases leads to the conclu- sion that we have to deal with surface burial, or, if that word seems too strong, with simple ‘ seposition ’—the imperfect covering with handy stones of the dead bodies as they lay in the attitude of sleep on the then floor of the cavern. In other words, they are 77 situ in a late quaternary deposit, for which Professor Issel has proposed the name of ‘ Meiolithic.’ But if this conclusion is to hold good, we have here on the northern coast of the Mediterranean evidence of the existence of a late Paleolithic race, the essential features of which, in the opinion of most competent osteological inquirers, reappear in the Neolithic skeletons of the same Ligurian coast, and still remain characteristic of the historical Ligurian type. In other words, the ‘ Mediterranean Race’ finds TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 909 its first record in the West; and its diffusion, so far from having necessarily followed the lines of later geographical divisions, may well have begun at a time when the land bridges of ‘ Eurafrica’ were still unbroken. There is nothing, indeed, in all this to exclude the hypothesis that the original expansion took place from the East African side. That the earliest homes of primeval man lay in a warm region can hardly be doubted, and the abundant discovery by Mr. Seton Karr in Somaliland of Paleolithic implements reproducing many of the most characteristic forms of those of the grottoes of the Dordogne affords a new link of connexion between the Red Sea and the Atlantic littoral, When we recall the spontaneous artistic qualities of the ancient race which has left its records in the carvings on bone and ivory in the caves of the ‘ Reindeer Period,’ this evidence of at least partial continuity on the northern shores of the Mediterranean suggests speculations of the deepest interest. QOverlaid with new elements, swamped in the dull, though materially higher, Neolithic civilisation, may not the old xsthetic faculties which made Europe the earliest-known home of anything that can be called human art, as opposed to mere tools and mechanical contrivances, have finally emancipated themselves once more in the Southern regions, where the old stock most survived? In the extraordinary manifestations of artistic genius to which, at widely remote periods, and under the most diverse political conditions, the later populations of Greece and Italy have given birth, may we not be allowed to trace the re-emergence, as it were, after long underground meanderings, of streams whose upper waters had seen the daylight of that: earlier world ? But the vast gulf of time beyond which it is necessary to carry back our gaze in order to establish such connexions will hardly permit us to arrive at more than vague probabilities. The practical problems that concern the later culture of Europe from Neolithic times onwards connect themselves rather with its relation to that of the older civilisations on the southern and eastern Mediterranean shores. Anthropology, too, has its ‘ Eternal Eastern Question.’ Till within quite recent years, the glamour of the Orient pervaded all inquiries as to the genesis of European civilisation. The Biblical training of the northern nations prepared the ground. The imperfect realisation of the antiquity of European arts; on the ether hand, the imposing chronology of Egypt and Babylonia; the abiding force of classical tradition, which found in the Phoenician a deus ex machind for exotic importations; finally, the ‘Aryan Hypothesis,’ which brought in the dominant European races as immigrant wanderers from Central Asia, with a ready-made stock of culture in their wallets—these and other causes combined to create an exaggerated estimate of the part played by the East as the illuminator of the benighted West. More recent investigations have resulted in a natural reaction. The primitive ‘Aryan’ can be no longer invoked as a kind of patriarchal missionary of Central Asian culture. From d’Halloy and Latham onwards to Penka and Schrader an array of eminent names has assigned to him an European origin. The means by which a kindred tongue diffused itself among the most heterogeneous ethnic factors still remain obscure; but the stricter application of phonetic laws and the increased detection of loan-words has cut down the original ‘ Aryan’ stock of culture to very narrow limits, and entirely stripped the members of this linguistic family of any trace of a common Pantheon. Whatever the character of the original ‘ Aryan’ stage, we may be very sure that it lies far back in the mists of the European Stone Age. The supposed common names for metals prove to be either a vanishing quantity or strikingly irrelevant. It may be interesting to learn on unimpeachable authority that the Celtic words for ‘gold’ are due to comparatively recent borrowing from the Latin; but nothing is more certain than that gold was one of the earliest metals known to the Celtic races, its knowledge going back to the limits of the pure Stone Age. We are told that the Latin ‘ensis, ‘a sword, is identical with the Sanskrit ¢ asi’ and Iranian ‘ahi, but the gradual evolution of the sword from the dagger, only completed at a late period of the Bronze Age, is a commonplace of prehistoric - archeology. If ‘ensis,’ then, in historical times an iron sword, originally meant a 910 REPORT—1896. bronze dagger, may not the bronze dagger in its turn resolve itself into a flint knife P The truth is that the attempts to father on a common Aryan stock the beginnings of metallurgy argue an astonishing inability to realise the vast antiquity of languages and their groups. Yet we know that, as far back as we have any written records, the leading branches of the Aryan family of speech stood almost as far apart as they do to-day, and the example of the Egyptian and Semitic groups, which Maspero and others consider to have been originally con- nected, leads to still more striking results. From the earliest Egyptian stela to the latest Coptic liturgy we find the main outlines of what is substantially the same language preserved for a period of some six thousand years. The Semitic languages in their characteristic shape show a continuous history almost as ex- tensive. For the date of the diverging point of the two groups we must have recourse to a chronology more familiar to the geologist than the antiquary. As importer of exotic arts into primitive Europe the Phoenician has met the fate of the immigrants from the Central Asian ‘ Arya.’ The days are gone past when it could be seriously maintained that the Phcenician merchant landed on the coast of Cornwall, or built the dolmens of the North and West. A truer view of primitive trade as passing on by inter-tribal barter has superseded the idea of a direct commerce between remote localities. The science of prehistoric archzology, following the lead of the Scandinavian School, has established the existence in every province of local centres of early metallurgy, and it is no longer believed that the implements and utensils of the European Bronze Age were imported wholesale by Semites or ‘ Etruscans.’ It is, however, the less necessary for me to trace in detail the course of this re« action against the exaggerated claims of Eastern influence that the case for the independent position of primitive Europe has been recently summed up with fresh arguments, and in his usual brilliant and incisive style, by M. Salomon Reinach, in his ‘ Mirage Orientale”’ For many ancient prejudices as to the early relations of East and West it is the trumpet sound before the walls of Jericho. It may, indeed, be doubted whether, in the impetuousness of his attack, M. Reinach, though he has rapidly brought up his reserves inhis more recent work on primitive European sculpture, has not been tempted to oceupy outlying positions in the enemy’s country which will hardly be found tenable in the long run. I cannot myself, for instance, be brought to believe that the rude marble ‘ idols’ of the primitive AZgean popula- tion were copied on Chaldean cylinders, I may have occasion to point out that the oriental elements in the typical higher cultures of primitive Europe, such as those of Mycene, of Hallstatt, and La Téne, are more deeply rooted than M. Reinach will admit. But the very considerable extent to which the early European civilisation was of independent evolution has been nowhere so skilfully focussed into light as in these comprehensive essays of M. Reinach. It is always a great gain to have the extreme European claims so clearly formulated, but we must still remember that the ‘Sick Man’ is not dead. The proofs of a highly developed metallurgic industry of home growth accu- mulated by prehistoric students part passu over the greater part of Europe, and the considerable cultural equipment of its early population—illustrated, for example, in the Swiss Lake settlements—had already prepared the way for the more start- ling revelations as to the prehistoric civilisation of the AZgean world which have resulted from Dr. Schliemann’s diggings at Troy, Tiryns, and Mycenz, so admirably followed up by Dr. Tsountas, This later civilisation, to which the general name of ‘ Avgean’ has been given, shows several stages, marked in succession by typical groups of finds, such as those from the Second City of Troy, from the cist-graves of Amorgos, from beneath the volcanic stratum of Thera, from the shaft-graves of Mycenz, and again from the tombs of the lower town. Roughly, it falls into two divisions, for the earlier of which the culture illustrated by the remains of Amorgos may be taken as the sages point, while the later is inseparably connected with the name of ycene. The early ‘ Aigean’ culture rises in the midst of a vast province extending from’ TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 9T1 Switzerland and Northern Italy through the Danubian basin and the Balkan peninsula, and continued through a large part of Anatolia, till it finally reaches Cyprus. It should never be left out of sight that, so far as the earliest historical tradition and geographical nomenclature reach back, a great tract of Asia Minor is found in the occupation of men of European race, of whom the Phrygians and their kin—closely allied to the 'Thracians on the other side of the Bosphorus— stand forth as the leading representatives. On the other hand, the great antiquity of the Armenoid type in Lycia and other easterly parts of Asia Minor, and its priority to the Semites in these regions, has been demonstrated by the craniological researches of Dr. yon Luschan, This ethnographic connexion with the European stock, the antiquity of which is carried back by Egyptian records to the second millennium before our era, is fully borne out by the archeological evidence. Very similar examples of ceramic manufactures recur over the whole of this vast region. The resemblances extend even to minutiz of ornament, as is well shown by the examples compared by Dr. Much from the Mondsee, in Upper Austria, from the earliest stratum of Hissarlik, and from Cyprus. It is in the same Anatolo-Danubian area—as M. Reinach has well pointed out—that we find the original centre of diffusion of the ‘Svastika’ motive in the Old World. Copper implements, and weapons too, of primitive types, some reproducing Neolithic forms, are also a common characteristic, though it must always be remembered that the mere fact that an implement is of copper does not of itself necessitate its belonging to the earliest metal age, and that the freedom from alloy was often simply due to a tem- porary deficiency of tin. Cyprus, the land of copper, played, no doubt, a leading part in the dissemination of this early metallurgy, and certain typical pins and other objects found in the Alpine and Danubian regions have been traced back by Dr. Naue and others to Cypriote prototypes. The same parallelism throughout this vast area comes out again in the appearance of a class of primitive ‘idols’ of clay, marble, and other materials, extending from Cyprus to the Troad and the Aigean islands, and thence to the pile settlements of the Alps and the Danubian basin, while kindred forms can be traced beyond the Carpathians to a vast northern Neolithic province that stretches to the shores of Lake Ladoga. It is from the centre of this old Anatolo-Danubian area of primitive culture, in which Asia Minor appears as a part of Europe, that the new A®gean civilisation rises from the sea. ‘Life was stirring in the waters” The notion that the maritime enterprise of the Eastern Mediterranean began on the exposed and comparatively harbourless coast of Syria and Palestine can no longer be main- tained. The island world of the 4igean was the natural home of primitive navi- gation. The early sea-trade of the inhabitants gave them a start over their neighbours, and produced a higher form of culture, which was destined to react on that of a vast European zone—nay, even upon that of the older civilisations of Egypt and Asia. The earlier stage of this Aigean culture culminates in what may conveniently be called the Period of Amorgos from the abundant tombs explored by Dr. Diimm- ler and others in that island. Here we already see the proofs of a widespread commerce, The ivory ornaments point to the South ; the abundance of silver may even suggest an intercourse along the Libyan coast with the rich silver-producing region of South-eastern Spain, the very ancient exploitation of which has been so splendidly illustrated by the researches of the brothers Siret. Additional weight is lent to this presumption by the recurrence in these Spanish deposits of pots with rude indications of eyes and eyebrows, recalling Schliemann’s owl-faced urns; of stone ‘idols,’ practically identical with those of Troy and the Agean islands, here too associated with marble cups of the same simple forms; of triangular daggers of copper and bronze, and of bronze swords which seem to stand in a filial relation to an ‘Amorgan’ type of dagger. In a former communication to this Section I ventured to see in the so-called ‘Cabiri’ of Malta—very far removed from any Pheenician sculpture—an intermediate link between the Iberian group and that of the Aigean, and to trace on the fern-like ornaments of the altar-stone a comparison with the naturalistic motives of proto-Mycenzan art, as seen, for instance, on the early vases of Thera and Therasia. : 912 REPORT— 1896. A Chaldean influence cannot certainly be excluded from this early Augean art. It reveals itself, for instance, in indigenous imitations of Babylonian cylinders. My own conclusion that the small marble figures of the Augean deposits, though of indigenous European lineage, were in their more deyeloped types influenced by Istar models from the East, has since been independently arrived at by the Danish archeologist, Dr. Blinkenburg, in his study on pree-Mycenzan art. - More especially the returning-spiral decoration, which in the ‘ Amorgan Period’ appears upon seals, rings, bowls, and caskets of steatite, leads us to a very interest- ing field of comparison. This motive, destined to play such an important part in the history of European ornament, is absent from the earlier products of the great Anatolo-Danubian province. As a European design it is first found on these insular fabrics, and it is important to observe that it first shows itself in the form of reliefs on stone. The generally accepted idea, put forward by Dr. Milchhéfer, that it originated here from applied spirals on metal work is thus seen to be bereft of historical justification. At a somewhat later date we find this spiraliform motive communicating itself to the ceramic products of the Danubian region, though from the bold relief in which it sometimes appears, a reminiscence of the earlier steatite reliefs seems still traceable. In the late Neolithic pile-station of Butmir, in Bosnia, this spiral decoration appears in great perfection on the pottery, and is here associated with clay images of very advanced fabric. At Lengyel, in Hungary, and elsewhere, we see it applied to primitive painted pottery. Finally, in the later Hungarian Bronze Age it is transferred to metal work. But this connexion—every link of which can be made out—of the lower Danubian Bronze Age decoration with the Egean spiral system—itself much earlier in origin—has a very important bearing on the history of ornament in the North and West. The close relation of the Bronze Age culture of Scandinavia and North-western Germany with that of [Hungary is clearly established, and of the many valuable contributions made by Dr. Montelius to prehistoric archeology, none is more brilliant than his demonstration that this parallelism of culture between the North-west and South-east owes its origin to the most ancient course of the amber trade from the North Sea shores of Jutland by the valley of the Elbe and Moldau to the Danubian Basin. As Dr. Montelius has also shown, there was, besides, a western extension of this trade to our own islands. If Scandinavia and its borderlands were the source of amber, Ireland was the land of gold. The wealth of the precious metal there is illustrated by the fact that, even as late as 1796, the gold washings of County Wicklow amounted to 10,0007. A variety of evidence shows a direct connexion between Great Britain and Scandinavia from the end of the Stone Age onwards. Gold diadems of unquestionably British—probably Irish—fabric have been found in Seeland and Fiinen, and from the analysis of early gold ornaments it clearly results that it was from Ireland rather than the Ural that Northern and Central Europe was supplied. Mr. Coffey, who has made an exhaustive study of the early Irish monuments, has recently illustrated this early connexion by other comparisons, notably the appearance of a design which he identifies with the early carvings of boats on the rocks of Scandinavia. This prolongation of the Bronze Age trade route—already traced from the Middle Danube—from Scandinavia to Ireland, ought it to be regarded as the historic clue to the contemporary appearance of the spiral motive in the British Islands? Is it to this earlier intercourse with the land of the Vikings that we must ascribe the spiral scrolls on the slabs of the great chambered barrows of the Trish Bronze Age—best seen in the most imposing of them all, before the portal and on the inner chambers of New Granze ? The possibility of such a connexion must be admitted; the probability is great that the contemporary appearance of the spiraliform ornamentin Ireland and on the Continent of Europe is due to direct derivation. It is, of course, conceivable that such a simple motive as the returning spiral may have originated independently in various parts of Europe, as it did originate in other parts of the world. But anthropology has ceased to content itself with the mere accumulation of sporadic coincidences. It has become a historic study. It is not sufficient to know how TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 915 such and such phenomeua may have originated, but how, as a matter of fact, they did. Hence in the investigation of origins and evolution the special value of the European field where the evidence has been more perfectly correlated and the continuous records go further back. An isolated example of the simple volute design belonging to the ‘Reindeer Period’ has been found in the grotto of Arudy. But the earliest cultural strata of Europe, from the beginning of the Neolithic period onwards, betray an entire absence of the returning spiral motive. When we find it later propagating itself as a definite ornamental system in a regular chronological succession throughout an otherwise inter-related European zone, we have every right to trace it to a common source. But it does not therefore follow that the only alternative is to believe that the spiral decoration of the Irish monuments necessarily connects itself with the ancient stream of intercourse flowing from Scandinavia. We have to remember that the Western lands of gold and tin were the goals of other prehistoric routes. Especially must we bear in mind the early evidence of intercourse between the British Isles and the old Iberic region of the opposite shores of the Continent. The derivation of certain forms of Bronze Age types in Britain and Ireland from this side has already been demonstrated by my father, and British or Ivish bronze flat axes with their characteristic ornamentation have in their turn been found in Spain as well asin Denmark. The peculiar technique of certain Irish flint arrowheads of the same period, in which chipping and grind- ing are combined, is also characteristic of the Iberian province, and seems to lead to very extended comparisons on the Libyan side, recurring as it does in the exquisite handiwork of the non-Egyptian race whose relics Mr. Petrie has brought to light at Nagada. In prehistoric Spanish deposits, again, are found the actual wallet-like baskets with in-curving sides, the prototypes of a class of clay food- vessels which (together with a much wider distribution) are of specially frequent occurrence in the British Isles as well as the old Iberian area. If the spiral decoration had been also a feature of the Scandinavian rock carvings, the argument for derivation from that side would have heen strong. But they are not found in them, and, on the other hand, the sculptures on the dolmens of the Morbihan equally show certain features common to the Irish stone chambers, including the primitive ship figure. The spiral itself does not appear on these ; but the more the common elements between the Megalithic piles, not only of the old Iberian tract on the mainland, including Brittany, but in the islands of the West Mediterranean basin, are realised, the more probable it becomes that the impulse came from this side, The prehistoric buildings of Malta, hitherto spoken of as ‘Phcenician temples, which show in their primitive conception a great affinity to the Megalithic chambers of the earliest British barrows, bear witness on this side to the extension of the Aigean spiral system in a somewhat advanced stage, and accompanied, as at New Grange, with intermediate lozenges. In Sardinia, as I hope to show, there is evidence of the former existence of monu- ments of Mycenzan architecture in which the chevron, the lozenge, and the spiral might have been seen associated asin Ireland. It is on this line, rather than on the Danube and the Elbe, that we find in a continuous zone that Cyclopean tradition of domed chambers which is equally illustrated at Mycenz and at New Grange. These are not more thau indications, but they gain additional force from the converging evidence to which attention has already been called of an ancient line of intercourse, mainly, we may believe, connected with the tin trade between the East Mediterranean basin and the Iberian West. A further corroboration of the view that an A’gean impulse propagated itself as far as our own islands from that side is perhaps afforded by a very remarkable find in a British barrow. I refer to the Bronze Age interment excavated by Canon Greenwell on Folkton Wold, in Yorkshire, in which, beside the body of a child, were found three carved chalk objects resembling round boxes with bossed lids. On one of these lids were rouped together, with a lozenge-shaped space between them, two partly spirali- form partly concentric circular ornaments, which exhibit before our eyes the degeneration of two pairs of returning spiral ornaments. Upon the sides of two of these chalk caskets, associated with chevrons, saltires, and lozenges, were rude 914 REPORT—1896, indications of faces—eyes and nose of bird-like character—curiously recalling the early Aigean and Trojan types of Dr. Schliemann. These, as M. Reinach has pointed out, also find an almost exact parallel in the rude indications of the human face seen on the sculptured menhirs of the Marne and the Gard valleys. To this may be added the interesting comparisons supplied by certain clay vessels, of younded form, somewhat resembling the chalk ‘caskets’ discovered by MM. Siret in Spanish interments of the early metal age, in which eyes and eyebrows of a primitive style are inserted, as on the British relics, in the inter-spaces of linear ornamentation. The third chalk disc exhibits, in place of the human face, a butterfly with volute antenne, reminding us of the appearance of butterflies as a decorative motive on the gold roundels from the shaft-graves of Mycene, as also on early Mycenzean gems of steatite from Crete ; in the latter case with the feelers curving outwards in the same way. The stellate design with central circles on the lid of one of the chalk caskets is itself not impossibly a distant degeneration of the star-flowers on the same Mycenzan plates. Putting all these separate elements of resemblance together—the returning spiral and star, the rude face and butterfly— the suggestion of A2gean reminiscence becomes strong, but the other parallels lead us for the line of its transmission towards the Iberian rather than the Scandi- navian route.! : So much, at least, results from these various comparisons that, whether we find the spiral motive in the extreme West or North of Europe, everything points to the ‘Hgean world as its first European centre. But have we any right to regard it, even there, as of indigenous evolution ? It had been long my own conviction that the A‘gean spiral system must itself be regarded as an offshoot of that of ancient Egypt, which as a decorative motive on scarabs goes back, as Professor Petrie has shown, to the Fourth Dynasty. During the time of the Twelfth Dynasty, which, on general grounds, may be sup- posed roughly to correspond with the ‘Amorgan Period’ of A%gean culture, it attained its apogee. The spiral conyolutions now often cover the whole field of the scarab, and the motive begins to spread to a class of black bucchero vases the challx inlaying of whose ornaments suggests widespread European analogies. But the important feature to observe is that here, as in the case of the early Agean examples, the original material on which the spiral ornament appears is stone, and that, so far from being derived from an advanced type of metal work, it goes back in Egypt to a time when metal was hardly known. The prevalence of the spiral ornamentation on stone work in the A%gean islands and contemporary Egypt, was it merely to be regarded as a coincidence? To turn one’s eyes to the Nile Valley, was it simply another instance of the ‘ Wrage Orientale’? For wy own part, I ventured to believe that, as in the case of Northern Europe, the spread of this system was connected with many collateral symptoms of commercial inter-connexion, so here, too, the appearance of this early /®gean ornament would be found to lead to the demonstration of a direct inter- course between the Greek islands and Egypt at least a thousand years earlier than any that had hitherto been allowed. . One’s thoughts naturally turned to Crete, the central island, with one face on the Libyan Sea—the natural source and seminary of Ai’gean culture—where fresh light was already being thrown on the Mycenzan civilisation by the researches of Professor Halbherr, but the earlier prehistoric remains of which were still unex- plored. Nor were these expectations unfounded. As the result of three expe- ditions—undertaken in three successive years, from the last of which I returned three months since—it has been my fortune to collect a series of evidences of a very early and intimate contact with Egypt, going back at least to the Twelfth 1 A further piece of evidence pointing in this direction is supplied by one of the chalk ‘caskets.’ On the upper disc of this, in the place corresponding with the double-spirals on the other example, appears a degeneration of the same motive in a more compressed form, resembling two sets of concentric horseshoes united at their bases. This recurs at New Grange, and single sets of concentric horseshoes, or semi- circles, are found both there and at Gavrinnis. The degeneration of the returning spiral motive extends therefore to Brittany, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 915 Dynasty, and to the earlier half of the third millennium before our era. It is not onJy that in primitive deposits, like that of Hagios Onuphrios, scarabs, acknow- ledged by competent archeologists to be of Twelfth Dynasty date, occurred in association with steatite seals presenting the Aigean spiral ornamentation, and with early pottery answering to that of Amorgos and the second city of Troy. This by itself might be regarded by many as convincing. But,—what from the point of view of intercourse and chronology is even more. important,—in the same deposit and elsewhere occurred early button-shaped and triangular seals of steatite with undoubted indigenous copies of Egyptian lotos designs characteristic of the same period, while in the case of the three-sided bead-seals it was possible to trace a regular evolution leading down to Mycenzean times. Nor was this all, Through- out the whole of the island there came to light a great variety of primitive stone vases, mostly of steatite, a large proportion of which reproduced the characteristic forms of Egyptian stone vases, in harder materials, going far back into the Ancient Empire. The returning spiral motive is also associated with these; as may be seen from a specimen now in the collection of Dr. Naue, of Munich. A geological phenomenon which I was able to ascertain in the course of my recent exploration of the eastern part of the island goes far to explain the great importance which these steatite or ‘soapstone’ fabrics played in the primitive culture of Crete and the Aigean islands. In the valley of the Sarakina stream I came upon vast deposits of this material, the diffusion of which could be further traced along a considerable tract of the southern coast. The abundant presence of this attractive and, at the same time, easily workable stone—then incomparably more valuable, owing to the imperfection of the potter’s art—goes far to explain the extent to which these ancient Egyptian forms were imitated, and the conse- quent spread of the returning spiral motive throughout the Aigean. In the matter of the spiral motive, Crete may thus be said to be the missing link between prehistoric Ireland and Scandinavia and the Egypt of the Ancient Empire. But the early remains of the island illustrate in many other ways the comparatively high level of culture already reached by the AMgean population in pre-Mycenzean times. Especially are they valuable in supplying the antecedent stages to many characteristic elements of the succeeding Mycenzan civilisation. This ancestral relationship is nowhere more clearly traceable than in a class of relics which bear out the ancient claim of the islanders that they themselves had invented a system of writing to which the Pheenicians did not do more than add the finishing touches. Already, at the Oxford meeting of the Association, I was able to call attention to the evidence of the existence of a prehistoric Cretan script evolved by gradual simplification and selection from an earlier picture writing. This earlier stage is, roughly speaking, illustrated by a series of primitive seals belonging to the ‘Period of Amorgos.’ In the succeeding Mycenzan age the script is more conventionalised, often linear, and though developments of the earlier forms of seals are frequently found, they are usually of harder materials, and the system is applied to other objects. As the result of my most recent investigations, I am now able to announce the discovery of an inscribed pre- historic relic, which surpasses in interest and importance all hitherto known objects of this class. It consists of a fragment of what may be described as a steatite ‘Table of Offerings,’ bearing part of what appears to be a dedication of nine letters of probably syllabic values, answering to the same early Cretan script that is seen on the seals, and with two punctuations. It was obtained from the lowest level of a Mycenzan stratum, containing numerous votive objects, in the great cave of Mount Dikta, which, according to the Greek legend, was the birthplace of Zeus. This early Cretan script, which precedes by centuries the most ancient records of Phcenician writing, and supplies, at any rate, very close analogies to what may be supposed to have been the pictorial prototypes of several of the Phcenician letters, stands in a direct relation to the syllabic characters used at a later date by the Greeks of Cyprus. The great step in the history of writing implied by the evolution of symbols of phonetic value from primitive pictographs is thus shown to have effected itself on European soil. In many other ways the culture of Mycene—that extraordinary revelation from 916 REPORT—1896. the soil of prehistoric Greece—can be shown to be rooted in this earlier ASgean stratum, The spiral system, still seen in much of its pure original form on the gold vessels and ornaments from the earlier shaft-graves of Mycenie, is simply the translation into metal of the pre-existing steatite decoration.’ — The Mycenzan repoussé work in its most developed stage as applied to human and animal subjects has probably the same origin in stone work. Cretan examples, indeed, give the actual transition inwhich an intaglio in dark steatite is coated with a thin gold plate impressed into the design. On the other hand, the noblest ef all creations of the Mycenzean goldsmith’s art, the Vaphio cups, with their bold reliefs, illustrating the hunting and capture of wild bulls, find their nearest analogy in a fragment of a cup, procured by me from Knésos, of black Cretan steatite, with naturalistic reliefs, exhibiting a fig-tree in a sacred enclosure, an altar, and men in high action, which in all probability was originally coated, like the intaglio, with thin plates of gold. In view of some still prevalent theories as to the origin of Mycenean art, it is important to bear in mind these analogies and connexions, which show. how deeply set its roots are in A%gean soil. The Vaphio cups, especially, from their superior art, have been widely regarded as of exotic fabric. That the art of an Huropean population in prehistoric times should have risen above that of contemporary Hgypt and Babylonia was something beyond the comprehension ef the traditional school ‘These most characteristic products of indigenous skill, with their spirited representations of a sport the traditional home of which in later times was the Thessalian plains, have been, therefore, brought from ‘Northern Syria’! Yet a whole series of Mycenzan gems exists executed in the same bold naturalistic style, and of local materials, such as lapis Lacedeemonius, the subjects of which are drawn from the same artistic cycle as those of the cups, and not one of these has as yet been found on the Hastern Mediterranean shores. Like the other kindred intaglios, they all come from the Peloponnese, from Crete, from the shores and islands of the .Mgean, from the area, that is, where their materials were procured. Their Jentoid and almond-shaped forms are altogether foreign to Semitic usage, which clung to the cylinder and cone. The finer products of the Mycenzan glyptic art on harder materials were, in fact, the outcome of long apprentice studies of the earlier Ag¢ean population, of which we have now the record in the primitive Cretan seals, and the explanation in the vast beds of such an easily worked material as steatite. But the importation of the most characteristic Mycensean products from ‘Northern Syria’ has become quite a moderate proposition beside that which we have now before us. In a recent communication to the French Academy of Inscriptions, Dr. Helbig has re-introduced to us a more familiar figure. Driven from his prehistoric haunts on the Atlantic coasts, torn from the Cassiterides, dis- lodged even from his Thucididean plantations in pre-Hellenic Sicily, the Phoenician has returned, tricked out as the true ‘ Mycenzean.’ A great part of Dr. Helbig’s argument has been answered by anticipation. Regardless of the existence of a regular succession of intermediate glyptic types, such as the ‘ Melian’ gems and the engraved seals of the geometrical deposits of the Greek mainland, like those of Olympia and of the Heron at Argos, which link the Mycenzean with the classical series, Dr. Helbig takes a verse of Homer to hang from it a theory that seals and engraved stones were unknown to the early Greeks. On this imaginary fact he builds the astounding statement that the engraved gems aud seals found with Mycenw#an remains must be of foreign and, as he believes, Phoenician importation, The stray diffusion of one er two examples of Myceniean pots to the coast of Palestine, the partial re- semblance of some Hittite bronze figures, executed in a more barbarous Syrian style, to specimens of quite different fabric found at Tiryns, Mycenz, and, it may ke added, in a Cretan cave near Sybrita, the wholly unwarranted attribution to Pheenicia of a bronze vase-handle found in Cyprus, exhibiting the typical lion- headed demons of the Mycenzeans—these are only a few salient examples of the 1 See Hellenic Journal, xii. 1892, p. 221. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 917 reasoning by which the whole prehistoric civilisation of the Greek world, so. instinct with naturalism and individuality, is handed over to the least original member of the Semitic race. The absence in historic Greece of such arts as that ef intarsia in metal work, of glass-making (if true) and of porcelain-making, is used as a conclusive argument against their practice by an /Hgean population, of uncertain stocls, a thousand years earlier, as if in the intervening dark ages between. the primitive civilisation of the Greek lands and the Classical Renaissance no arts: - could have been Jost! Finally, the merchants of Kefté depicted on the Eeyptian monuments are once: more claimed as Phcenicians, and with them—-though this is by no means a necessary conclusion, even from the premise—the precious gifts they bear, in- cluding vases of characteristic Mycenrean form and ornament. All this is diametrically opposed to the conclusions of the most careful inquirer into the origins of this mysterious people, Dr. W. Max Miiller (to be distinguished from the eminent Professor), who shows that the list of countries in which Kefté occurs: places them beyond the limit of Phcenicia or of any Semitic country, and connects. them rather with Cilicia and with Cyprus, the scene, as we now know, of important Mycenzan plantations. It is certain that not only do the Keftiu traders bear articles of Mycenzean fabric, but their costume, which is wholly un-Semitic, their leggings and sandals, and the long double locks of hair streaming down below their armpits, identify them with the men of the frescoes of Mycenze, and of the Vaphio and Knosian cups. The truth is that these Syrian aud Phoenician theories are largely to be traced to the inability to understand the extent to which the primitive inhabitants of the Agean shores had been able to assimilate exotic arts without losing their own individuality. The precocious offspring of our Continent, first come to man’s estate in the A‘gean island world, had acquired cosmopolitan tastes, and already stretched forth his hands to pluck the fruit of knowledge from Oriental boughs. He had adopted foreign fashions of dress and ornament. Tis artists revelled in lion- hunts and palm-trees, His very worship was infected by the creations of foreign religions. The great extent to which the Mycenzans had assimilated exotic arts and ideas can only be understood when it is realised that this adaptive process had begun at least a thousand years before, in the earlier period of AJgean culture. New impulses from Egypt and Chaldza now succeed the old. The connexion with Kighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasty Ezypt was of so intimate a kind that it can only be explained by actual settlement from the Avgean side. The abundant relics of ASgean ceramic manufactures found by Professor Petrie on Egyptian sites fully bear out this presumption. The early marks on potsherds discovered by that explorer seem to carry the connexion back to the earlier Aigean period, but the painted pottery belongs to what may broadly be described as Mycenzean times. ‘The earliest relics of this kind found in the rubbish heaps of Kahun, though it can hardly be admitted that they go quite so far back as the Twelfth Dynasty date assigned to them by Mr. Petrié (c. 2500 B.c.), yet correspond with the earliest Mycenzean classes found at Thera and Tiryns, and seem to find their nearest: parallels in pottery of the same character from the cave of Kamares on the northern steep of the Cretan Ida, recently described by Mr. J. L. Myres and by Dr. Lucio Mariani. Vases of the more typical Mycenzean class have been found by Mr. Petrie in a series of deposits dated, from the associated Egyptian relics, from the reign of Thothmes III. onwards (1450 B.c.), There is nothing Phoenician about these— with their seaweeds and marine creatures they are the true products of the island world of Greece. The counterpart to these Mycenzan imports in Egypt is seen in the purely Egyptian designs which now invade the northern shores of the Augean, such as the ceiling of the sepulchral chamber at Orchomenos, or the wall-paintings of the palace at Tiryns—almost exact copies of the ceilings of the ‘Theban tombs—designs distinguished by the later Egyptian combination of the spiral and plant ornament which at this period supersedes the pure returning spiral of the earlier dynasties. The same contemporary evidence of date is seen in the scarabs and porcelain fragments with the cartouches of Queen Tyi and Amenhotep IIL, 918 REPORT—1896. found inthe Mycenzan deposits. But more than a mere commercial connexion between the Aigean seat of Mycenzean culture and Egypt seems to be indicated by some of the inlaid daggers from the Acropolis tombs. The subject of that repre- senting the ichneumons hunting ducks amidst the lotos thickets beside a stream that can only be the Nile, as much as the intarsia technique, is so purely of Egypt that it can only have been executed by a Mycenzan artificer resident within its borders. The whole cycle of Egyptian Nile-pieces thoroughly penetrated Mycenzean art,—the duck-catcher in his Nile-boat, the water-fowl and butterflies among the river plants, the spotted cows and calves, supplied fertile motives for the Mycenzean goldsmiths and ceramic artists. The griffins of Mycene reproduce an elegant creation of the New Empire, in which an influence from the Asiatic side is also traceable. The assimilation of Babylonian elements was equally extensive. It, too, as we have seen, had begun in the earlier Aigean period, and the religious influence from the Semitic side, of which traces are already seen in the assimilation of the more primitive ‘idols’ to Eastern models, now forms a singular blend with the Egyptian, as regards, at least, the externals of cult. We see priests, in long folding robes of Asiatic cut, leading griffins, offering doves, holding axes of a type of Egyptian derivation which seems to have been common to the Syrian coast, the Hittite regions of Anatolia, and Mycenzean Greece. Female votaries in flounced Baby- lonian dresses stand before seated Goddesses, rays suggesting those of Shamas shoot from a Sun-God’s shoulders, conjoined figures of moon and star recall the symbols of Sin and Istar, and the worship of a divine pair of male and female divinities is widely traceable, reproducing the relations of a Semitic Bel and Beltis. The cylinder subjects of Chaldean art continually assert themselves: A Mycenzean hero steps into the place of Gilgames or Eabani, and renews their struggles with wild beasts and demons in the same conventional attitudes, of which Christian art has preserved a reminiscence in its early type of Daniel in the lions’ den. The peculiar schemes resulting from, cr, at least, brought into continual prominence by the special conditions of cylinder engraving, with the constant tendency to which it is liable of the two ends of the design to overlap, deeply influenced the glyptic style of Mycenz. Here, too, we see the same animals with crossed bodies, with two bodies and a single head, or simply confronted. These latter affiliations to Babylonian prototypes have a very important bearing on many later offshoots of European culture. The tradition of these heraldic groups preserved by the later Mycenzan art, and communicated by it to the so-called ‘ Oriental ’ style of Greece, finds in another direction its unbroken continuity in ornamental products of the Hallstatt province, and that of the late Celtic metal workers, ‘But this,’ exclaims a friendly critic, ‘is the old heresy—the “ Mirage Orientale” overagain. Such heraldic combinations have originated independently elsewhere :—why may they not be of indigenous origin in primitive Europe? ’ They certainly may be. Confronted figures occur already in the Dordogne caves. But, in a variety of instances, the historic and geographical connexion of these types with the Mycenan, and those in turn with the Oriental, is clearly made out. That system which leaves the least call on human efforts at inventive- ness seems in anthropology to be the safest. Let us then fully acknowledge the indebtedness of early Aigean culture to the older civilisations of the East. But thisindebtedness must not be allowed to obscure the fact that what was borrowed was also assimilated. On the easternmost coast of the Mediterranean, as in Egypt, it is not in a pauper’s guise that the Mycenzan element makes its appearance. It is rather the mvasion of a conquering and superior culture. It has already outstripped its instructors. In Cyprus, which had lagged behind the A%gean peoples in the race of progress, the Mycenzan relics make their appearance as imported objects of far superior fabric, side by side with the rude insular products. The final engrafting on Cypriote soil of what may be called a colonial plantation of Mycen later reacts on Assyrian art, and justifies the bold theory of Professor Brunn that the sculptures of Nineveh betray Greek handiwork. The concordant Hebrew tradition that the Philistines were immigrants from the Islands of the Sea, the name ‘ Cherethim,’ or Cretans, actually TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 919 ‘applied to them, and the religious ties which attached ‘Minoan’ Gaza to the cult of the Cretan Zeus, are so many indications that the Avgean settlements, which in all probability existed in the Delta, extended to the neighbouring coast of Canaan, and that amongst other towns the great staple of the Red Sea trade bad passed into the hands of these prehistoric Vikings. The influence of the Mycenzwans on the later Phoenicians is abundantly illustrated in their eclectic art. The Cretan evidence tends to show that even the origins of their alphabet receive illustration from the earlier AXgean pictography. It is not the Mycenzans who are Pheeni- cians. Itis the Phoenicians who, in many respects, acted as the depositaries of decadent Mycenzean art. If there is one thing more characteristic than another of Phoenician art, it is ite borrowed nature, and its incongruous collocation of foreignelements. Dr. Helbig himself admits that if Mycenzean art is to be regarded as the older Phcenician, the Pheenician historically known to us must have changed his nature. What the Mycenzans took they made theirown. They borrowed from the designs of Babylon- ian cylinders, but they adapted them to gems and seals of their own fashion, and rejected the cylinders themselves. The influence of Oriental religious types is traceable on their signet rings, but the liveliness of treatment and the dramatic action introduced into the groups separate them, toto celo, from the conventional schematism of Babylonian cult-scenes, The older element, the sacred trees and pillars which appear as the background of these scenes—on this I hope to say more later on in this Section—there is no reason to regard here as Semitic. It belongs to a religious stage widely represented on primitive European soil, and nowhere more persistent than in the West. Mycenzean culture was permeated by Oriental elements, but never subdued ‘by them. This independent quality would alone be sufficient to fix its original birthplace in an area removed from immediate contiguity with that of the older civilisations of Egypt and Babylonia. The Aigean island world answers admirably to the conditions of the case. It is near, yet sufficiently removed, combining maritime access with insular security. We see the difference if we compare the civilisation of the Hittites of Anatolia and Northern Syria, in some respects so closely parallel with that of Mycense. The native elements were there cramped and trammelled from the beginning by the Oriental contact. No real life and freedom of expression was ever reached ; the art is stiff, conventional, becoming more and more Asiatic, till finally crushed out by Assyrian conquest. It is the same with the Phcenicians. But in prehistoric Greece the indigenous .element was able to hold its own, and to recast what it took from others in an original mould. Throughout its handiwork there breathes the European spirit of individuality and freedom. Professor Petrie’s discoveries at Tell-el-Amarna show the contact of this Aigean element for a moment infusing naturalism and life into the time-honoured conventionalities of Egypt itself. A variety of evidence, moreover, tends to show that during the Mycenzan period the earlier Aigean stock was reinforced by new race elements coming from north and west. The appearance of the primitive fiddle-bow-shaped fibula or safety-pin brings Mycenzan Greece into a suggestive relation with the Danube Valley and the Terremare of Northern Italy. Certain ceramic forms show the same affinities; and it may be noted that the peculiar ‘two-storied’ structure of the ‘ Villanova’ type ef urn which characterises the earliest Iron Age deposits of Italy finds already a close counterpart in a vessel from an Akropolis grave at Mycenze—a parallelism which may point to a common Illyrian source. The ‘painted pottery of the Mycenzans itself, with its polychrome designs, betrays Northern and Western affinities of a very early character, though the glaze and exquisite technique were doubtless elaborated in the Augean shores. Examples of »spiraliform painted designs on pottery going back to the borders of the Neolithic “period have been found in Hungary and Bosnia. In the early rock-tombs of Sicily ‘of the period anterior to that marked by imported products of the fully developed Mycenzan culture are found unglazed painted wares of considerable. brilliancy, and allied classes recur in the heel of Italy and in the cave deposits of Liguria of _ ‘the period transitional between the use of stone and metal. The ‘household gods,’ 920 REPORT—1896. if so we may call them, of the Mycenzans also break away from the tradition of the marble Aigean forms. We recognise the coming to the fore again of primitive Huropean clay types in a more advanced technique. Here, too, the range of comparison takes us to the same Northern and Western area. Here, too, in Sicily and Liguria, we see the primitive art of ceramic painting already applied to these at the close of the Stone Age. A rude female clay figure found in the Arene Candide cave near Finalmarina, the upper part of the body of which, armless and rounded, is painted with brown stripes on a pale rose ground, seems to me to stand in a closer relation to the prototype of a well-known Mycenzan class than any known example, A small painted image, with punctuated cross-bands over the breast, from a sepulchral grotto at Villafrati, near Palermo, belongs to the same early family as the bucchero types of Butmir, in Bosnia. Unquestionable parallels to the Mycenzean class have been found in early graves in Servia, of which an example copied by me some years since in the museum at Belgrade was found near the site of that later emporium of the Balkan trade, Viminacium, together with a cup attesting the survival of the primitive %gean spirals. These extensive Italian and Illyrian comparisons, which find, perhaps, their converging point in the North-Western corner of the Balkan peninsula, show, at least approximately, the direction from which this new European impulse reached the AJgean shores. It is an alluring supposition that this North-Western infusion may connect itself with the spread of the Greek race in the Avgean islands and the Southern part of the Balkan peninsula. There seems, at least, to be a reasonable presumption in favour of this view. The Mycenzean tradition, which underlies so much of the classical Greek art, is alone sufficient to show that a Greek element was at least included in the Mycenzean area of culture. Recent criticism has found in the Mycenzean remains the best parallel to much of the early arts and industries recorded by the Homeric poems. The megaron of the palaces at Tiryns and Mycenz is the hall of Odysseus; the inlaid metal work of the shield of Achilles recalls the Egypto-Mycenzan intarsia of the dagger blades ; the cup of Nestor with the feeding doves, the subjects of the ornamental design—the siege-piece, the lion- hunt, the hound with its quivering quarry—all find their parallels in the works of the Mycenzan goldsmiths. The brilliant researches of Dr. Reichel may be said to have resulted in the definite identification of the Homeric body-shield with the most typical Mycenzan form, and have found in the same source the true expla- nation of the greaves and other arms and accoutrements of the epic heroes. That a Greek population shared in the civilisation of Mycenz cannot reasonably be denied, but that is far from saying that this was necessarily the only element, or even the dominant element. Archeological comparisons, the evidence of geo- graphical names and consistent tradition, tend to show that a kindred race, repre- sented later by the Phrygians on the Anatolian side, the race of Pelops and Tantalos, the special votaries of Kybelé, played a leading part. In Crete a non- Hellenic element, the Eteocretes, or ‘true Cretans,’ the race of Minés, whose name is bound up with the earliest sea~empire of the Aigean and perhaps identical with that of the Minyans of continental Greece, preserved their own language and nationality to the borders of the classical period. The Labyrinth itself, the double- headed axe as a symbol of the divinity called Zeus by the Greek settlers, the common forms in the characters of the indigenous script, local names and historical traditions, further connect these Mycenzan aborigines of Crete with the primitive population, it, too, of European extraction, in Caria and Pisidia, and with the older elements in Lycia. It is difficult to exaggerate the part played in this widely ramifying Mycenzan culture on later European arts from prehistoric times onwards. Beyond the limits of its original seats, primitive Greece and its islands, and the colonial plantations thrown out by it to the west coast of Asia Minor to Cyprus, and in all probability to Egypt and the Syrian coast, we can trace the direct diffusion of Mycenz#an products, notably the ceramic wares, across the Danube to Transylvania and Moldavia. In the early cemeteries of the Caucasus the fibulas and other objects indicate a late Mycenzean source, though they are here blended with allied elements of a more Danubian character. The Mycenzan impress is very strong in Southern TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 921 Italy, and, to take a single instance, the prevailing sword-type of that region is of Mycenzan origin. Along the western Adriatic coast the same influence is traceable to a very late date in the sepulchral stele of Pesaro and the tympanum relief of Bologna, and bronze knives of the prehistoric Greek type find their way into the later Terremare. At Orvieto and elsewhere have even been discovered Mycenzean lentoid gems. In Sicily the remarkable excavations of Professor Orsi have brought to light a whole series of Mycenzan relics in the beehive rock-tombs of the south- eastern coast, associated with the later class of Silkel fabrics. Sardinia, whose name has with great probability been connected with the Shardanas, who, with the Libyan and Algean races, appear as the early invaders of Egypt, has already produced a Mycenean geld ornament. An unregarded fact points further to the probability that it formed an important outpost of Mycenzan culture. In 1853 General Lamarmora first printed a MS. account of Sardinian antiquities, written in the latter years of the fifteenth century by a certain Gilj, and accompanied by drawings made in 1497 by Johan Virde, of Sassari. Amongst these latter (which include, it must be said, some gross falsifications) is a capital and part of a shaft of a Mycenzean column in a style approaching that of the facade of the ‘Treasury of Atreus.’ It seems to have been found at a place near the Sardinian Olbia, and Virde has attached to it the almost prophetic description, ‘columna Pelasyica. That it is not a fabrication due to some traveller from Greece is shown by a curious detail. Between the chevrons that adorn it are seen rows of eight-rayed stars, a detail unknown to the Mycenzan architectural decora- tion till it occurred on the painted base of the hearth in the megaron of the palace at Mycenze excavated by the Greek Archeological Society in 1886. In this neglected record, then, we have an indication of the former existence in Sardinia of Mycenzean monuments, perhaps of palaces and royal tombs comparable to those of Mycene itself. More isolated Mycenzan relics have been found still further afield, in Spain, and even the Auvergne, where Dr. Montelius has recognised an evidence of an old trade connexion between the Rhone valley and the Eastern Mediterranean, in the occurrence of two bronze double axes of ASgean form. It is impossible to do more than indicate the influence exercised by the Mycenan arts on those of the early Tron Age. Here it may be enough to cite the late Mycenzean parallels afforded by the gina Treasure to the open-work groups cf bird-holding figures and the pendant ornaments of a whole series of characteristic ornaments of the Italo- Hallstatt culture. In this connexion, what may be called a sub-Mycenzan survival in the North- Western corner of the Balkan peninsula has a special interest for the Celtic West. Among the relics obtained by the fruitful excavations conducted by the Austrian archeologists in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and notably in the great prehistoric cemetery of Glasinatz,a whole series of Early Iron Age types betray distinct Mycenzan aflinities. The spiral motive and its degeneration—the concentric circles grouped together with or without tangential lines of connexion—appear on bronze torques, on fibulee of Mycenzan descent, and the typical finger-rings with the besil at right angles to the ring. On the plates of other ‘spectacle fibule ’ are seen triquetral scrolls singularly recalling the gold plates of the Akropolis graves of Mycenz. These, as well as other parallel survivals of the spiral system in the Late Bronze Age of the neighbouring Hungarian region, I have elsewhere ' ventured to claim as the true source from which the Alpine Celts, together with many Italo- Illyric elements from the old Venetian province at the head of the Adriatic, drew the most salient features of their later style, known on the Continent as that of La Téne. These Mycenzan survivals and Illyrian forms engrafted on the ‘ Hallstatt.’ stock were ultimately spread by the conquering Belgic tribes to our own islands, to remain the root element of the Late Celtic style in Britain—where the older spiral system had long since died a natural death—and in Ireland to live on to supply the earliest decorative motives of its Christian art. ' Rhind Lectures, 1895, ‘On the Origins of Celtic Art,’ summaries of which - appeared in the Scotsman. 1896. 30 922 REPORT—1896, From a Twelfth Dynasty scarab to the book of Durrow or the font of Deerhurst isa farcry. But, as it was said of old, ‘Many things may happen in a long time.’ We have not to deal with direct transmission per saltwm, but with gradual propa- gation through intervening media. This brief survey of ‘ the Eastern Question in Anthropology ’ will not have been made in vain if it helps to call attention to the mighty part played by the early Aigean culture as the mediator between primitive Europe and the older civilisations of Egypt and Babylonia. Adequate recognition of the Eastern background of the European origins is not the ‘ Oriental Mirage.’ The independent European element is not affected by its power of assimi- lation. In the great days of Mycene we see it already as the equal, in many ways the superior, of its teachers, victoriously reacting on the older countries from which it had acquired so much, I may perhaps be pardoned if in these remarks, availing myself of personal investigations, I have laid some stress on the part which Crete has played in this first emancipation of the European genius. There far earlier than elsewhere we can trace the vestiges of primeval intercourse with the valley of the Nile. There more clearly than in any other area we can watch the con- tinuous development of the germs which gave birth to the higher Agean culture. There before the days of Phcenician contact a system of writing had already been worked out which the Semite only carried one step further. To Crete the earliest Greek tradition looks back as the home of divinely inspired legislation and the first centre of maritime dominion. Inhabited since the days of the first Greek settlements by the same race, speaking the same language, and moved by the same independent impulses, Crete stands forth again to-day as the champion of the European spirit against the yoke of Asia. The following Report and Papers were read :— 1. Report on the Mental and Physical Condition of Children. See Reports, p. 592. 2. Stone Implements in Somaliland. By H. W. Srron-Karr, The author exhibited at Ipswich (‘ Proc. Brit. Assoc.,’ 1895, pp. 824-5) specimens of Paleolithic implements collected in Somaliland (1893-4-5), mostly broad- trimmed flakes of ‘le Moustier’ type. He has since (1895-6) revisited the country with the special object of collecting such implements, and secured many hundreds of them, ranging up to nine inches in length, during a journey of nineteen days, in about 8° N. latitude, and 1,000-2,000 feet above Red Sea level. They are some- times eroded even to a depth of +4, inch; the eroded areas have a chalcedonic ap- pearance, and the chipping is only preserved on the raised patches. These are the first Palzeoliths from this part of tropical Africa. ‘They seem to be scattered all over the country, and to have been washed out of sandy or loamy deposits by the action of rain, or in some instances to have been laid bare by the wind. Their great interest consists in the identity of their forms with those found in the Pleistocene deposits of W. Europe and elsewhere. . . . Under any circumstances this discovery aids in bridging over the interval between Palzo- lithic man in Britain and in India, and adds another link to the chain of evidence by which the original cradle of the human race may eventually be identified, and tends to prove the unity of race between the inhabitants of Asia, Africa, and Europe in prehistoric times.’ (Sir John Evans, ‘Communication to the Royal Society,’ April 27, 1896.) On the way home the author stayed some days on the Upper Nile, and found implements, perhaps Paleolithic, on the undisturbed surface of the Egyptian desert plateau. The author calls attention to the fact that in the later Paleolithic age the glacial cold may have driven Paleolithic man towards the equator; and that although hitherto more Paleolithic implements have been found in well-searched . TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION EH. 923 temperate than in unexplored tropical regions, yet that under more favourable conditions more Paleolithic implements were found in Somaliland than in Egypt, and in Egypt than in Europe. He infers that Africa may have been the prim- eval home of man, and notes the fact that Somaliland is about midway between the sources of the Nile and the Persian Gulf, two sites which have been suggested for the ‘Garden of Eden.’ [Cf. Besides the references given above :— Spron-Karr, Jowr. Anthr. Inst., No. 94, p. 271, ff. Pl. xix.-xxi.; No. 96. p. 65 ff. FLInDuRs Pereig, Lilahun, p. 51, Tell-el-Amarna, p. 37 ; Koptos (forthcoming). Archeological Journal, xlix. p. 49 (Egyptian Flints of the Fourth Dynasty), and p. 53 (Early Sickles in Egypt). DL’ Anthropologie, vol. vi. No. 4.] 3. The Older Flint Implements of Ireland. By W. J. Kxrow.es, WRIA. Locality.—Large rudely made implements have been observed by the author in a raised beach of sand and gravel on the N.E. coast of Ireland. Good sections occur at the Curran near Larne, along the harbour railway, &c. Cores and imple- ments occur at all depths to 16 ft. to 20 ft. in the gravel, and even in the estuarine clay, below sea level, at 28 ft. (in a shaft cut for the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club). Similar implements are found in débris from this gravel on the shores of Belfast, Lough, Larne, and Island Magee.” Weathering.—The implements have a thick deeply stained crust, and have undergone protracted weathering and rolling. This weathering results from atmospheric exposure; for flints from peat bogs and boulder clay retain their broken surfaces fresh. Successive layers of weathering seem to indicate repeated arrest of the process, ¢.e. repeated burial. Neolithic implements very rarely have any such weathered surface crust, and those actually found on this raised beach show no signs of it. At Ballyrudder, seven miles north of Larne, a glacial gravel with shells, over- lain by 30 ft. of boulder clay, yield flints fresh, slightly and deeply weather- stained. At Whitepark Bay, co. Antrim, neolithic settlers have carried away, to sites among the sandhills, the weathered cores and flakes from the raised beach, and worked them up into fresh implements, which still show the older flaked surfaces. Their new surfaces, however, are still fresh.* Similar old cores and flakes in a reworked condition have been found by the author at Portstewart, co. Derry; Dundrum, co. Down; Glenluce, Scotland ; and elsewhere. Forms.—tThree types of implement found, besides flakes :— 1. Chipped all over; usually triangular in section, with a blunt point at each end. 2. Split pebbles (a) chipped to a point, (6) dressed to a circular shape as knives or scrapers. 3. Partially and irregularly dressed to a pear shape, with extreme economy of labour ; but certainly intended, in the author's opinion, as striking weapons. Age.—The raised beach has yielded a mammoth tooth; and as, according to Professor Boyd Dawkins,‘ it is highly probable the mammoth is preglacial in Ireland, the associated implements may be so too. Some bear strise which haye been pronounced to be glacial. 1 Annual Report, 1889-90, p. 205. The Clubs’ Committee call the objects found in the estuarine clay ‘flint-chips,’ bearing a considerable resemblance to flakes. 2 Proceedings Royal Trish Academy, 2nd series, vol. ii., No.5. Polite Lit. and Antigq. p. 209.‘ Belfast Nat. Field Club Report,’ 2nd series, vol. ii. p. 541. — § Journal Royal Historical and Archeological Association, vol. vii. pp. 124-125. 4 Karly Man in Britain, p. 152. 302 924 REPORT—1896. 4, The Dolmens of Brittany. By Professor W. A. Herpman, 7.2.S., and Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, ’.2.S. 5. The Sculptured Stones of Scotland. By Miss C. Mactacan. The followizg classes of sculptured stones were described in outline :— 1. § Cup and Ring’ markings: engraved probably with stone tools in the later Stone Age on ice-worn and other rock surfaces; common in the Cheviot Hills ; occasionally found inside Brochs ; not confined to Scotland. The authoress believes that they were used for purposes of divination. 2. Symbolic or Hieroglyphic sculpture: worked with metal tools; peculiar to Scotland. 3. Ogham inscriptions: the earliest indigenous alphabetic script. 4, Runic inscriptions: the characters of which are modified from the Roman alphabet. 5. Christian monumental art: represented by the schools of St. Minian, of Iona, of Arbroath, of St. Andrews, and of Fearn Abbey. In the East its rise is evadual; the stones are large, upright, carved on both sides, one of which has always a cruciform scheme. Ships are not represented, but riding, hunting, and frequently fighting with crossbows and spears. ‘There are no inscriptions, but symbolic devices occur. In the West the sword is more frequent than the cross, and the latter is always small. Ships and short inscriptions are frequent, but symbols are absent.’ 6. The ‘ Brochs’ of Scotland (with Model). By Miss C. Mactacan. The ‘ Brochs’ are buildings of rough masonry, with a circular enclosure open to the sky, and sometimes surrounded by a portico akout 8 feet from the ground. The height varies from 30 feet to 45 feet, and the diameter in proportion. The encircling wall, which is often built hollow, is from 9 feet to 20 feet thick. The entrance is by a doorway in the outer wall, closed by a massive doorstone never more than 2} feet wide, and therefore not intended to admit long-horned cattle, as has been supposed. The door is secured by a stone bolt, and could not be opened or closed from without; therefore the brochs cannot be sepulchres. Secondary chambers in the thickness of the wall, reached by a spiral staircase similarly con- structed, and opening by windows into the inner court, seem to indicate that the brochs were fortified dwellings. There is sometimes a doorkeeper’s chamber below, and often a look-out opening in the top of the wall. These structures are often surrounded by a fortified enclosure of large stones set vertically, which have been mistaken for ‘ Druidic’ circles. 7. Ancient Measures in Prehistoric Monuments.” By A. L. Lewis, £.C.A., Treasurer, Anthropological Institute. The author, having analysed the measurements of the ruins in Mashonaland given by Messrs. Bent and Swan, and the indications of sun and star worship or observance contained in them, finds many instances of peculiarities of position and 1 300 sheets of rubbings, by Miss Maclagan, are in the MS. Department of the British Museum. 2 Lewis, Proc. Soc. Antiq., April 28, 1892; Journ. Anthr. Inst., Aug. 1895; Proc. Shropshire Archaeol. Suc., 1892; Jown. Roy. Inst. Cornwall, 1896; Nature, June 9, 1892; W. M. Flinders Petrie, Znductive Metrology, London, 1877; J. T. Bent, The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland, London, 1893 ; R. W. M. Swan, The Orientation and Mensuration of the Zimbabwe Temples (in the last-named work); ‘Some Notes on Ruined Temples in Mashonaland,’ Journ. Anthr. Inst., August 1896; C, W. Dymond, ‘The Megalithic Antiquities of Stanton Drew,’ 1896 (privately printed, cf. Journ. Brit. Arch@ol. Assoc., XXxiii., 1877, pp. 297-307). TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 925 measurement in connection with British stone circles which he believes to be the game in principle and often in detail. The measurements of the circles at Stanton Drew by Mr. Dymond, and of those on Bodmin Moor by the author, show that there was in all the same fundamental idea of expressing something by propor- tioned measurements, although the unit of measurement and the manner of using it were different in each case. It may therefore be contended that, though the circles were sometimes used for burials, they were not, as some haye suggested, merely the outer railings of family cemeteries, but had other objects and meanings, which it is worth some pains to discover. 8. Paleolithic Spear- and Arrow-heads. By H. Stopes. From the terrace gravels of the lower Thames Valley a large number of worked stones have been obtained. Of these some closely resemble in size and shape spear heads and arrow tips, and they also present signs of wear or use that indicate similar employment. The number exhibited was :— No. 1. Very small tips not exceeding 1} in. in length : : 110 2. Larger and thicker points not exceeding 2 ins. in length 150 3. Still larger and thicker pointsnot exceeding 3} ins. in length 64 4, Very large points exceeding 3} ins. by 12 in. wide to 53 ins. by 23 ins... é : 4 4 : ; 28 352 These represent two per cent. of the total number found, so their occurrence is not rare. 9. Palewoliths Derived and Re-worked. By H. Stopss. Great numbers of worked stones are being continually found in the terrace gravels of the Lower Thames Valley. The worked surfaces of the majority of these implements are of the same date as the latest deposition of the gravel, but a considerable number give unmistakable evidence that they have been derived from older gravels, so that their more recent fashioners and users have utilised stones which already had attained great antiquity. Some, nevertheless, still show that they had been skilfully fashioned into form, and had been largely used by man once, or, in rarer cases, twice before. Highty such stones were exhibited, which is less than two per cent. of the number obtained from the gravels of the Kentish shore, all at or above the level of 70 feet above O.D. Commonly abcut one worked stone in seven found in this position gives signs of reworking, but the proportion of such stones is largest in the higher terraces. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18. 1. The Centenary of the Birth of A. Rerzius was commemorated. The following Papers and Report were read :— 2. Physical Anthropology of the Isle of Man. By A. W. Moorr, V.A., and JouN Breppor, ID., F.R.S. This Paper consists mainly of an analysis by Mr. Moore of the ‘ Description - Book of the Royal Manx Fencibles,’ in which are contained particulars of 1,112 native Manxmen, enrolled between 1803 and 1810, Their average stature was 926 REPORT—1896. 5 feet 7°52 inches (1,715 mm.), which is probably about equal to that of the general population of the Isle of Man. It seems to be highest in the north-western parishes, where also dark hair and dark eyes are least prevalent. Dark hair, usually coupled with grey eyes, is most abundant in the somewhat rough and in- fertile parishes of Maughold and Lonan; while dark eyes are comparatively fre- quent in the central parishes, which contain the two towns of Douglas and Peel, where the Scandio-Gaelic stock is probably less pure. 3. The Trinil Femur (Pithecanthropus erectus) contrasted with the Femora of various Savage and Civilised Races. Ly Davip Hepsurn, J.D., LRS. Ed., Lecturer on Regional Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh. In this paper the Trini femur was criticised from the standpoint claimed for it by Dr. Dubois, namely, that it presents a conjunction of three features not found on human femora : 1. ¢ The trochanteric line is less raised.’ 2. ‘The shaft is on the inner side far more round.’ 3. ‘The popliteal space is less developed, convex in its middle, so that at this height the shaft is almost round instead of flattened.’ According to Dr. Dubois this last feature has never been found by him ‘in human femora, even separately.’ Dealing especially with the popliteal space, the author presented the results of a detailed examination of the varied collection of human femora in the Anatomical Museum of the University of Edinburgh, in which he followed the methods of enquiry adopted by Professor Manouyrier, of Paris. The femora examined in this research were: 13 Maori, 14 Aboriginal Australian, 12 Andamanese, 5 Sandwich Islands, 4 Lapp, 4 Eskimo, 6 Hindu, 2 Bengalee, 2 Sikh, 2 Malay, 2 Chinese, 2 Bushman, 2 Kaffir, 9 Negro, 2 Creole, 1 Egyptian, 3 Guanche, and several dozens of British femora obtained from the dissecting-room and used for the ordinary purposes of anatomical teaching. As the majority of these race femora formed natural pairs, attention was drawn to the absence of symmetry existing between the two femora of the same individual. Reference was made to the signification of the antero-posterior diameters of the popliteal region which Professor Manouvrier has symbolised as ‘mn’ and ‘ mp,’ and attention drawn to the fact that ‘mp’>‘mn’ implies either flattening or con- vexity of this surface, which in modern European femora tends to show concavity, and therefore ‘mp ’<‘ mn.’ The author has found ‘mp’>‘ mn’ in the following femora: Lapp 1, Eskimo 1, Maori 1, Hindu 2, Negro 3, Bushman 2, Andaman 5, Aboriginal Australian 4, Guanche 2, British 4. Measurements and indices of these femora were given and their significance commented upon, in the course of which the factors concerned in producing a high popliteal index: were criticised and their fallacies pointed out. In an Australian femur from Swan Hill, N.S.W., the same popliteal measure- ments and zvdez as given for the Trinil femur were obtained. The differences in the popliteal indices of the two femora forming a natural pair were given and commented upon, in order to show that the appearances found in one bone form no certain guide to the state of its fellow. The author therefore claims convexity of the popliteal surface of the femur as a human character, and, moreover, he has seen the condition of the anterior intertro- chanteric line, and the convexity of the inner aspect of the femoral shaft conjoined on one bone, as in the Trinil femur, c.g. in Australian and Negro femora. In endeavouring to explain the causes of convexity of the popliteal surface the author divided them into normal and pathological groups. In the former he referred to mechanical needs for resisting strain, and to the special features resulting from muscular and aponeurotic attachments, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 927 The pathological causation of convexity of the popliteal surface being admis- sible by reason of the exostoses shown by the Trinil femur, the author drew attention to the influence of rachitis in producing convexity of the popliteal surface. Finally, special reference was made to the condyles of the Trinil femur, which are human and not simian in type. The author arrives at the following conclusions :— 1. The distinguishing features of the Trinil femur are found both singly and in conjunction on human femora, with sufficient frequency to enable them to rank as human characters. 2. The features of the Trinil femur do not entitle it to the distinction of a sepa- rate genus, but it is a human femur which, from the geological horizon connected with its discovery, associates the genus Homo with a period immensely more remote than any former discovery of man’s remains. Reasoning from the above conclusions, with regard to the femur, either the skull-cap and the molar teeth discovered by Dr. Dubois were also parts of a human being, or it has yet to be proved that they really formed parts of the individual who provided the femur. [Dupors. ‘'Trans. Roy. Soc. Dub.’ i. 1896. MANOUVRIER. Deuwiime Etude sur le ‘P. erectus, Sc., ‘Bull. Soc. Anthrop. de Paris,’ tom. vi. 1896, fasc. v (4° série). HEPBURN. The Comparative Anatomy of the Muscles and Nerves of the Superior and Inferior Extremities of the Anthropoid Apes, ‘Journ. Anat. and Phys.’ vol. xxvi. p. 333.] 4. Proportions of the Human Body. By J. G. Garson, ILD. The author began by giving a short historical outline of the study of the canon of proportion of the human body from the time of the Ancient Egyptians to the present. The Egyptian canon showed that the models from whom it was made out were negroes. The Greeks appear to have adopted that of the Egyptians. The canon of modern artists is essentially an ideal one, apt to vary as opinions change. The first real attempt at a scientific canon was that of Quetelet; it was, however, based upon too small a number of observations. The canon which has been published by Professor Topinard of Paris is much more reliable. As a number of circumstances would appear to modify the proportions of the people of different countries, such as the race elements of which a nation is composed, the social condition of the models, climatic conditions, &c., the author considered that no better data could be obtained for establishing the true canon of the people of Great Britain than the measurements which were made in the anthropometric laboratory of the British Association on its members during seven successive meetings, the models being persons living under the most favourable conditions of life. The method of obtaining the mean dimensions of each measurement, so as to eliminate causes of error, was explained. The mean stature thus obtained is 5 ft. 72in. This being taken as 100, the proportions of the various parts of the head and face, as well as the trunk and limbs, were shown expressed in per- centages. The head is 12°6 per cent., the neck and truuk 40, the lower limbs 47°5, the arm 43:1, the span 102'5. The canon of the head and of the span indicated, differ considerably from that of artists. The paper will be published in full in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute. 5. Some Pagan Survivals. By F. T, Etworruy. 928 REPORT—1896. SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19. The following Reports and Papers were read :-— 1. Report on the Ethnographical Survey of Great Britain and Ireland. See Reports, p. 607. 2. Kent in Relation to the Ethnographical Survey. By BE. W. Brasroor, F.S.A. [Published in full in the ‘ Archeological Journal, 1896, liii., pp. 215-234.] 3. An Imperial Bureau of Ethnology. By C. Hs Reap, Sec. S.A., Keeper of the Ethnographical Department of the British Museum. The author proposed the establishment of a bureau in London, in which should be gathered information relating to the manners and customs, religious beliefs, and laws of all the primitive races inhabiting the British Colonies, or upon the borders of the Empire. He strongly urged that it was not only the duty of the Govern- ment to place on record such fects connected with races that were in a condition either of decay or of constant change, but that it would be to the interest of the nation to have such information at hand. He contended that the possession of such facts would enable the settler or traveller to avoid many misunderstandings with natives that are now so prolific a cause of disaster. A valid reason for the prompt establishment of such a bureau is, in Mr. Read’s opinion, that the raachinery for the collection of the necessary data already exists ; that such officers as those of the Intelligence branch of the War Office, the surgeons in the navy, and many others, are quite competent to furnish such returns as are required by the bureau ; and if they obtained credit at home for intelligence in this direction, many men of these branches of the service would be very ready to spend their leisure in such pursuits. Thus only a small staff at home would be required for arranging and editing the material. Mr. Read spoke in the highest terms of the work done by the United States Bureau of Ethnology which the government of that country had thought it worth while to establish and endow for the preserva- tion of memorials of a single race—that of the American Continent. 4. Anthropological Opportunities in British New Guinea. By Stpney H. Ray. The purpose of the author was to reaffirm the danger of delay in commencing an investigation of the Anthropology of British New Guinea, and to call attention to the opportunities which exist at the present time for successfully carrying out a system of ethnographical and philological enquiry. If anything is to be done, it should be done soon. Already there are signs of change, customs and languages are dying out before the advance of civilisation. Stress is laid upon languages as folk-lore, religious beliefs, and practices, and legal customs can only be thoroughly studied through the medium of the languages. We want to know the native’s reason for his thought and practice. An European observer will make his observations from his own standpoint, and, without a knowledge of inner motives, will often draw the most erroneous conclusions from native practices. The opportunity besides being in time is also fortunate in circumstances. The country is singularly quiet and safe for Europeans. Sir William MacGregor says: ‘In gaining the confidence and respect of the natives the Government has been more successful than could ever have been expected. They begin to think in may places that whatever is ordered or required by the Government is right. ‘hey fear the TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 929 Government greatly.’ Other advantages are the facilities which would doubtless be afforded by the New Guinea Government. It is fortunate for anthropological science that the affairs of the Possession are in the hands of so enlightened an administrator as Sir William MacGregor. Lastly, the cost would not be exces- sive. 5. Interim Report on the Immediate Investigation of Oceanic Islands. See Reports, p. 487. 6. On a Method of Determining the Value of Folk-lore as Ethnological Data, illustrated by Survivals of Fire-worship in the British Isles. By G. LAURENCE GoMME. Appendix to Ethnographical Survey Report.—See Reports, p. 626. 7. Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada. See Reports, p. 569. 8. The Coast Indians of British Columbia. By Professor E. ODLUM. 9. The Growth of Agriculture i Greece and Italy, and its Influence on Early Civilisation. By Rev. G. Harrwett Jonss, M.A. 10. Report on the North Dravidian and Kolarian Races of India. See Reports, p. 659. MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21. The following Papers and Report were read :— 1. Cyprus and the Trade Routes of S.E. Europe. By Joun L. Myrss, IZA., FSA. , Several considerations indicate that Cyprus may have been the first centre of copper-working in the Mediterranean, and that the knowledge of copper in Europe was probably derived hence, vid Asia Minor, Hissarlik and the Dardanelles, and the valley routes of the Hebros, Morawa and Danube. 1. Copper is found abundantly and accessibly in Cyprus; but is not here asso- ciated with tin. Cyprus had in early times abundant supplies of timber, in fact all the necessaries for an extensive and easy manufacture. There is, however, no native copper, which corresponds with the fact that the early implements in Cyprus appear to be usually cast. 2. The Copper Age in Cyprus seems to overlap the Stone Age of the Levant. 3. The persistence of early types in Cyprus would be inexplicable if Cyprus had been importing implements from the more progressive areas of the Augean and the Danube basin. The late arrival in Cyprus of both tin and amber confirms this supposition. The view that copper implements are simply bronze weapons made during a scarcity of tin fails to account for the predominance of primitive types among the pure copper weapons. 4, Cypriote types determine those of the neighbouring mainland, and of the 930 REPORT—1896. earliest implements of Hissarlik and Central Europe ; though local industries soon arise in Central Europe, and outstrip the parent industry. 5. The Bronze Age pottery of Cyprus is followed in fabric and ornament, and to some extent in forms, by the pottery of Hissarlik and Central Europe at the point where copper implements first appear. As this Cypriote pottery itself does not seem to have been exported northward, the knowledge of the fabric must have been introduced in connection with some other object of commerce, presumably with the copper. 6. The fully-developed Copper Age in Cyprus can be dated by objects of Egyptian twelfth-dynasty styles ; and the beginnings of copper-working in Cyprus must consequently be earlier. 7. The early existence of a trade route between south-west Asia Minor and the Danube valley is indicated by the catalogue of the allies of Troy in Homer’s liad II. The Trojan War may represent an attempt on the part of the Aigean thalassocracy to force a way into the Euxine, and obtain possession of the fortress which commanded the ferry on the older land route.1 2. The Transition from Pure Copper to Bronze made with Tin. By Dr. J. H. Guapstone, /.R.S. This communication was supplementary to a paper read at the Meeting at Nottingham three years ago, and to matters published in the Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology for March 1890, February 1892, and February 1894. The new matter consisted mainly of the analysis of some metal tools obtained by the author last winter in Egypt, and of borings of implements of the supposed Libyan race found at Nagada, and of a dagger-lmife from Cyprus, which had been given him by Mr. Arthur Evans. ' The use of copper in Egypt can be traced from the fourth dynasty, when King Seneferu captured the copper and turquoise mines of the Sinaitic peninsula. Tools made of this metal have been found not only in Egypt, belonging to the fourth, sixth, and twelfth dynasties, but also in Assyria, at Lachish in Palestine, Hissarlik in Asia Minor, and Nagada, Attempts were made to render this copper harder and stronger, and that in three ways. First, the admixture of a large quantity of suboxide of copper, or of its formation in the process of smelting, as seen in adzes from Egypt and Palestine, and perhaps Nagada. Second, the presence of a little arsenic or antimony, as shown in many tools from Kahun dating from the twelfth dynasty, and from the Sinaitic mines, as shown in a com- munication to the French Academy by Berthelot a few weeks since. Third, the admixture of a little tin, as at Kahun, the Sinaitic mines, and Cyprus, perhaps not exceeding one per cent. When, however, the superiority of tin, as the hardening material, came to be acknowledged, it was added in larger quantities, and formed the alloy known as bronze. Such proportions as four and six per cent. occur in early specimens, as at Hissarlik; but subsequently about ten per cent. was usually employed. Tools of this composition are found not only in Egypt during the eighteenth dynasty, but in most countries, and for an immense variety of purposes. This indicates a large traffic in the metals, and probably in the manufactured tools themselves. The similarity of pattern observed in the instruments is also suggestive of the latter hypothesis. 3. Hallstatt and the Starting-point of the Iron Age in Europe. Ly Professor W. Ripceway, JA. The origin of the Iron Age is one of the most important points in European archeology. Scandinavia cannot be its place of origin, for there the Iron Age 1 Cf. Much, Kupferzeit in Europa, Wien (2nd ed.), 1893; Virchow, Zitschr. d. Anthr. Gesellsch. xii. p. 73 ; Naue, ‘ Die Bronzezeit auf Cypern,’ Korresp.-Blatt, 1888, p. 124; Myres, ‘Early Man in the Eastern Mediterranean,’ Science Progress, July 1896. Myres & Ohnefalsch Richter, Cyprus Museum Catalogue, Oxford, 1896, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 931 began late. It is admitted that the Iron Age comes in per sa/twm in Swiss lake dwellings, in Italy, in Greece, in France, and in Britain. Iron is found going with the Kelts into these various regions. Hallstatt, in Austria, is the only place in Europe where articles of iron are found gradually replacing those of the same kind made in bronze. It has not been hitherto pointed out that within avery short distance of the Hallstatt cemetery lies one of the most famous iron mines of antiquity. Strabo (v.i. 8) tells us of the ironworks of Noreia, the chief town of the Keltic Taurisci, which gave its name to Noricum, and to the Noricus ensis so dreaded by the Romans. From this centre the use of iron spread into Italy, Switzerland, Gaul, Spain, Greece, and into Eastern Germany, where the mining of iron by the Keltic Cotini is mentioned by Tacitus (Germ. 43). At many places in the Alps it is possible that there may have been outcrops of terrestrial iron. Men would thus find ready to hand sources of iron, and there is no need to suppose that meteorites first supplied him with that metal. 4, The Tyrrhenians in Greece and Italy.‘ By Dr. OscAR MonreELIvs. The author brings a great variety of evidence in support of the following con- clusions :— 1. That the Oriental civilisation long before 1500 B.c. was brought over to the Greek coasts and isles. 2. That during this so-called Mycenean period an influence can also be traced in Greece from the Phcenicians and from Egypt. 3. But that the main influence came from Asia Minor. 4, That it was due to the immigration of peoples from this part of Asia. 5. That these are the peoples generally called Pelasgi or Tyrrhenians by the Greek authors. 6. That the Oriental civilisation advanced farther to the West, and was intro- duced in the eleventh century B.c. into that part of Central Italy which the Romans called Etruria and the Greeks Tyrrhenta. 7. That it was due, there also, to the immigration of a people of Oriental origin, the Tyrrhenians, coming from over the sea, not over the Alps. This people was consequently a non-Italian one. The question is reserved whether it was of Aryan race or not. 5. Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury.—See Reports, p. 656. 6. Sergi’s Theory of a Mediterranean Race. By J. L. Myrus, ILA. 7. Boat Graves in Sweden. By Dr. H. STOuPE. 8. Notes on a Prehistoric Settlement in Co. Kerry.” By R. A. S. Macauister, JA. The Barony of Corkaguiney, co. Kerry, is remarkable for the number and interest of its antiquities; and foremost among these must be placed a settlement of stone-built dwellings at its south-west corner, between Dunmore Head and Ventry Harbour. These consist of beehive-shaped houses—single, double, and triple, some alone, some congregated together, and surrounded by a strong enclosing ' The Paper will be published in full in Journ. Anthr. Inst., Feb. 1897. 2 To be published in full in a forthcoming work on the Barony of Corkaguiney. 932 REPORT—1896. wall, In the modern village of Conmeenoole, at the western end of the settle- ment, the ancient style of building is perpetuated in some of the cow-houses. The most remarkable building is Dunbeg Fort, a great wall 22 feet thick, cutting off a tongue of land which projects into the sea, and on which is built one of the finest of the domestic buildings. The whole settlement has suffered by recent restorations. Though the settlement is not unlike the monastic remains of the west of Ireland in some respects, it is in others widely different from them, especially in size, in the absence of any distinctly ecclesiastical building contemporary with the rest, and in the prevalence of multiple clochans or houses. The fact that a stone was found in Caher Glengaun, used as building material, which bears Christian symbols, proves nothing but that this particular building probably dates from the Pagan-Christian overlap. On the other hand, an Ogham inscription on Dunmore Head, which is entirely destitute of any trace of Christian influence, and which probably commemorates some notable resident in the settlement, seems to put the latter back to Pagan times. The person commemorated was a descendant of Duibne, the ancestress of the clan from whom the Barony of Corkaguiney is named, The people were agricultural, and open to the attacks of enemies, especially from Ventry ; this is evident from an examination of the remains. A great battle was at some time fought at Ventry; the historical facts are obscured by fictitious accretions, but the site is still in existence, showing some remarkable earthworks. The conclusion to be drawn from these remains is, that Ptolemy and other ancient geographers were right in asserting the existence of towns, z.e. centres of a concentrated population, in ancient Ireland, and that archeologists have been wrong in denying their existence. Other places might be mentioned where the magnitude of the remains proves the former existence of such centres, but their habitations in these places not being of stone, have all perished. TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER, 29. The three following Papers were read as contributions to a discussion on the ‘Karly Civilisation of the Mediterranean. 1. ‘ Who Produced the Objects called Mykenean?’! By Prof. W. RipGEeway. The discovery of Mylkenzean remains in various parts of the Greek world out- side of Peloponnese, such as Attica, Thessaly, Crete, Cyprus, Rhodes, Egypt, Asia Minor, Italy and Sicily, makes it desirable to re-examine the question of the origin of these remains. In Peloponnese and Crete we are fairly limited to the same possibilities of race. For in Peloponnesos either the Greeks of classical times, or the Achzans of the Homeric Age, or the older race, who preceded the Achzans, and who, according to the consensus of Greek history, continued to occupy Arcadia in historical times, must be the producers of the objects termed Mykenzan. Homer enumerates” the races which occupied Crete—viz., Eteocretes, Kydonians, Achveans, Dorians, and Pelasgians. As there is no evidence that the first two ever played any important part in Peloponnese, they may be jetisoned, and the claim for precedency must be fought out by the same three as in Peloponnese. 1. Busolt and others put forth a claim for the Dorians as the builders of My- ken and Tiryns, but as this not only gives the lie direct to all Greek history, but also makes the Dorians build the walls of Tiryns, and create beautiful works of art—though in historical times they were notoriously incapable in building and ’ Printed in full in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xvi. (1896), pp. 77 ff. 2 Od. xix. 175. —s TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 933 art—we may leave them aside. As, moreover, Attica, which was not conquered by the Dorians, shows Mykenzean remains, we may boldly reject the Dorian claim. 2, It then rests between Achzeans and the older race, who were called Pelas- gians by the Greeks. Homer gives us a picture of a culture which Schliemana and Helbig (till lately), followed by most scholars, have sought to identify with that of Mykenze. This involves many difficulties: (1) The age of Mykenee is that of Bronze; that of Homer's Achieans is distinctly of Iron. (2) Engraved gems are characteristic of Mykenze, but such engraved gems, used either as signets or as ornaments, are unknown to Homer. (3) No fibude have been found in the Acropolis of Mykenze, but Homer’s Achieans use them to keep on their dress. (4) The My- kenzans were skilled in painting, but when Ilomer mentions it he speaks of it as ‘Carian’ art. (5) The Mykenwans had a peculiar oblong shield, like the figure 8 ; they had no breastplate, no greaves of metal, and wore their hair in three locks behind ; whilst the Achzans had round shields, bronze breastplates and greaves, and wore their hair flowing. To obviate such difficulties Reichel,' followed by Leaf, would make wholesale excision of passages which describe Achzean warriors as armed with round shields, breastplates, and greaves. But such passages cannot he ‘late, even though later than some other parts of the poems; for if interpolation had been practised in late times, we should have the use of coined money, signets, and alphabetic writing, colonies in Asia Minor and Italy, and Dorians in Peloponnese, alluded to as they are by the tragic poets when they treat of the Heroic Age. 3. The Greelis themselves thought that Mykene and Tiryns were built before the Achveans entered Peloponnese, and by the Pelasgians. The Greek historians declared that Attica was never inhabited by any other race than the Pelasgians, and as Mykenzean remains have been found in abundancein Attica, the conclusion is that it was the same race who made similar monuments in Peloponnese. There is no need to cut Homer to pieces to fit the Mykenean Age. The Acheans came into Peloponnese marrying the heiresses of the kings of the older race—e.g., Menelaos married the daughter of Tyndaros. The Mykenzean culture is that of the Bronze period, which was supplanted by the Iron Age, which was introduced by the Achzans into Greece. 2. Preclassical Chronology in Italy and Greece.” By Dr. Oscar Monve.ivs. For chronological purposes, Italy and Greece must be taken together, because their early culture has a large common element, and because whereas Greek evidence supplies the more accurate date-marks, Italy affords a vastly larger mass of material hitherto, owing to the more scientific manner in which the content of each tomb has been registered in recent Italian excavations. The author’s examination of the extant evidence enables him to construct a relative chronology of short intervals, which divides the Bronze Age into seven periods, and the lron Age in Central Italy, down to the end of the VIth century, B.C., into stv’ more. During the Bronze Age the evolution was the same in Northern and in Central Italy; but from the beginning of the Iron Age the development in Etruria, south of the Apennines, is quite distinct from that in Northern Italy. The typological analysis shows evolution within each period; the periods them- selves, therefore, must have been of considerable length, each period of the Iron Age in Central Italy being of the approximate length of a century The absolute chronology is fixed by the occurrence of a series of exactly dateable objects imported from Greece in the eighth to fifth centuries B.c., and associated in Italian tombs with objects characteristic of successive periods in the lower part of the series. The result of the Author’s analysis is to raise to the ninth century B.c. certain tombs (the Regulini-Galassi tomb at Cervetri, &c.) com- ' Homerische Waffen. Wien, 1895. 2 The Paper will be published in full in Journ. Anthr. Inst., Feb. 1897. 934 REPORT—1896. monly assigned to the time about 600 3.c., and to expand the whole series upwards in proportion. The fifth period of the Italian Bronze Age is proved by fibule, Greek pottery, and Egyptian scarabs to be contemporaneous with Amenhotep IIL, of the XVIIIth Egyptian Dynasty, who lived in the X Vth century, B.c. 3. Pillar and Tree Worship in Mycenean Greece. By Anrtuur J. Evans, M.A., F.S.A. New evidence, supplied by finds in Crete and the Peloponnese, is brought for- ward to show the great part played in the Mycenzan religion by the worship of deities in aniconic shape as stone pillars or as trees. On a gold ring obtained by Mr. Evans from the site of Knésos in Crete, and dating from the early Mycenzean period (about 1500 3.c.), a dual cult of a male and female divinity in their pillar shape is illustrated, and an armed Sun-god is being brought down on to his obelisk or ‘Beth-el’ by ritual incantation. Parallels to this dual cult of deities in a columnar form are cited from Cypriote cylinders of Mycenzean date, and the later cone of Aphrodite at Paphos is shown to be a survival of a cult once common to prehistoric Greece, and of ‘ Aigean’ rather than Semitic importation into Cyprus. Various religious designs on signets recently discovered by Dr. Tsountas at My- cenae are described for the first time, which throw additional light on the cult of Mycenzan deities in the shape of pillars and trees enclosed in small shrines, and the column of the Lion’s Gate at Mycense is identified with the aniconic idol of the Phrygian goddess Kybelé, whose anthropomorphic image later supplants the pillar form in the same position between the lion supporters. It is pointed out that a confusion seems at times to have taken place between the pillar form of the divi- nity and the tombstone of the god himself, or some allied hero who is really his double ; and reasons are adduced for identifying the traditional ‘Tomb of Zeus’ in Crete with the remains of a prehistoric sanctuary visited by Mr. Evans on Mount Juktas. Attention is further called to a low-walled building in the great Mycenan city of Goulas, in the same island, as probably actually representing one of the small shrines which contained a sacred tree. An interesting fragment of a Mycenzan steatite vase also obtained by the author from the site of Knésos is described, in which an altar appears in front of a stone enclosure containing a sacred fig tree, and the cult of this tree, illustrated by other Mycenzan relies, is compared with that of the ficws ruminalis in Ancient Rome, where (as in Cyprus) the traditional Arcadians represent a Mycenzean influence. The early sanctity of the dove is also seen associated throughout Mycenzan Greece with this primitive worship, and new evidence is adduced as to the part played by it in the religion of prehistoric Crete. Finally, the pillar and tree worship of Mycenzean Greece is seen largely to survive in the rustic cult of classical Greece at a time when in the more civilised centres the images of the gods had been mainly anthropomorphised. This is illustrated by the rural sanctuaries with their sacred trees and stones so well represented on the Pompeian frescoes. 4. The Ornament of N. E. Europe. By G. Corrry. 5. Manx Crosses as Illustrations of Celtic and Scandinavian Art.' By P. M. C. Kermope. Nearly a hundred crosses and inscribed stones have been found in the Isle of Man, dating from the beginning of the sixth to the first quarter of the thirteenth century. 1 Cumming, Runic Remains, 1854 (poor figures of about forty examples); other examples in Trans. Cambrian Society (passim) ; Kermode, Catalogue of Manx Crosses (the second edition gives eighty-five examples; a larger, fully illustrated work is in preparation). TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 935 The earlier Ce/tic examples are mostly undecorated ; the Calf of Man crucifix is an unique, elaborately-carved specimen of the early ninth century. Celtic erosses are also found of the tenth and early eleventh centuries. The Scandinavian crosses are dated by style and inscriptions to the eleventh and following centuries. The style gradually becomes bolder, though it lacks accuracy, and later fails through over-elaboration. Celtic geometrical patterns and ‘tendril’ and ‘loop’ forms of ‘ twist’ are developed with much artistic skill, and the characteristic Scandinavian ‘ vertebral ’ motive is introduced. The absence of foliage, of panel arrangement, and of diagonal and spiral patterns, and the characteristic type of zoomorphism, are also derived from the Celtic prototypes. An analysis of Manx decorative art—Geometric, Zoomorphic, and Pictorial— indicates, as peculiar features: (1) the ‘tendril’ variety of ‘twist’; (2) the treat- ment of the head of the cross; (3) the representation of Pagan mythological scenes from the Norse Sagas, especially from the Volsungsaga. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23. The following Papers were read :— 1. An Ethnological Storehouse. By Professor W. M. Fuinpers Perris, D.C.L. MermoRsNDUM ON PRoPosED REPOSITORY FOR PRESERVING ANTHROPOLOGICAL oR oTHER Oxsects. (Drawn up by Professor FLrInDERS PETRIE, for the use of a Committee of the Council.) NecEsstty.—The impossibility of preserving more than a small portion of the material for anthropology in the very limited area of London or town museums leaves only the alternatives of—(1) the destruction of materials which can never be replaced, illustrating modern races that are fast disappearing, and ancient races as revealed by excavation; or (2) the storing of such materials accessibly in a locality and a manner which shall yield the greatest possible storage space for a given expenditure. Scopr.—Such a repository might be solely anthropological, including an example of every variety of object of human work of all ages. Or it might be extended to zoology, mineralogy, geology, &c. Here we only consider the human side. The minimum use of such a place would be only to store the surplus objects which cannot find place in existing museums. The maximum development of it would be to form a systematic scientific collection of man’s works, ancient and modern, reserving to existing museums such objects as illustrate the subject best to the general public, and such as need the protection due to their market value. All such exhibition objects could be properly replaced in the repository collection by photographs. If fully developed such a repository would become a centre for study and higher education; a reference library would then be needed; but the value of land would be so enhanced that further expenditure would be covered by rents of adjacent ground. Form.—tThe conditions of such a repository are so wholly different from those of existing museums that the proportions of expenditure are entirely changed. The essential and primary condition is that space shall be of minimum value ; and therefore wages and the cost of moving objects and arranging them will be a far larger item in proportion. It is therefore needful that changes shall not be necessitated by any amount of expansion. The type of structure must therefore be along gallery, with lateral expan- sions to be built as any section increases. ‘The galleries must be sufficiently apart to allow of any likely increase, irregularly distributed. The type of gallery which would seem most economical would be about 54 936 REPORT—1896. feet wide, divided into a nave and two aisles across the breadth, and into bays of 16 feet along the length. A blocked doorway in each bay would allow of opening laterally, into added buildings, for expansion of any section. It should be well lighted, about one-fourth of the roof to be of glass. The walls should be low— say 10 feet—so that the area of lighting would be near the objects. The essence of the scheme is that the site shall be ordinary agricultural or wooded land, so that a space far larger than is likely to be wanted can be utilised for irregular expansion as any section grows ; while all that is not actually in use for galleries will continue to be productive, as before, Thus every possible need of the future can be accommodated without incurring more immediate expense than is now requisite, and without any loss of interest on capital not utilised. For this purpose it would not be unreasonable to secure abont 500 acres, in view also of the probable rise in the value of land for building as such an institution grew. On this land galleries of 54 feet wide, built in blocks of 100 bays or 1,600 feet length at once, should be placed at about a furlong apart. This would allow of each gallery expanding on either side for about 250 feet of outbuilding. Each gallery should have in the middle of its length a policeman’s cottage (fire-proof), with its windows looking along the inside of the gallery. Srrp.—tThe site should be within about half an hour's journey from London. Flat, for view along the galleries. Healthy for residence. Fairly dry, and sandy if possible. Wooded, so that belts of trees should occupy the spaces between the galleries, and thus reduce the effect of wind and rain. Near a railway ; but, for cheapness, far from a station, as the institution would soon claim a station for its own use. A siding for goods should be provided. Firrines.—No glass cases would he required, except for a few objects that needed to be kept dry by lime. There would be little dust in a wooded country, without any internal heating, and with air all filtered on passing in. Where glass was desirable, large loose sheets could be laid over boxes or shelves ; cost about a tenth of the price of the cheapest cases. Thus specimens could be put out of reach by having strips screwed down to secure the glass. REGISTRATION.—Perhaps a system of photographic registration would be cheapest, as it would be worked on large groups of objects, continuously in a fixed place and in routine. Such register photographs should he to one of two or three definite scales; and they should he sold, thereby helping the cost of the registration. Constitution.—A body of Trustees would be supreme. One possible system would be for one Trustee to be nominated by each of the following persons :—The Principal Librarian of the British Museum, the Director of the Natural History Museum, the Director of the South Kensington Museum, the Presidents of the British Association, the Royal Society, the Society of Antiquaries, and the Anthropological Institute. Such nominees to hold office for seven years each, retiring in rotation, but capable of re-nomination. Active men with snfficient time to attend to the work might thus be obtained to represent the various interests involved. The Keeper should be solely an administrator and organiser, and not a specialist in any line. Acquisitions.—Any object might be refused by the Keeper, subject to an appeal to the Trustees. Objects might be deposited by any public body or private person, the legality of their removal to the Repository being provided in the constituting Act. All objects deposited for over thirty years, without claim and re-deposit, should become the property of the Trust. Unless depositors make conditions, any duplicates may be lent to any public museum by the Keeper, sanctioned by the Trustees. No responsibility will attach to the Trustees for the safety or condition of any object deposited. Presented objects may be kept together in any system required by the donor for thirty years. Objects found together, or required to illustrate each other, shall be perma- nently inseparable. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 937 Cost.—The site would continue to be productive except where actually built over. For every 100 bays, or 1,600 feet of gallery, a clearance 75 feet wide would be needed, or an area of 22 acres. Capital value (say) 1007. The estimate for the gallery is 200/. per bay of 16 feet length, or for 1,600 feet 20,0007. For cottage and ends (say) 500/. For comparison it may be stated that the whole exhibition floor-area of the British Museum for antiquities and ethnology is about equal to 3,200 feet length of such galleries, or two galleries such as above described, which would cost about 42,0007. Thus the exhibiting space of the British Museum might be reduplicated at a prime cost equal to three or four months’ maintenance of the existing Museum. If the repository were started with one gallery, equal to half the British Museum exhibiting area, and if a full allowance of ground were secured for future expansion, the cost might be estimated as follows :— Prime Cost per Cost. Annum. 500 acres at (say) £40. R ; 5 . =£20,000 at 24% £500 [Any increase in the cost of the land above this amount might be balanced by the produce of the land, the loss remaining at £500. | Building 100 bays of gallery . : : ; £20,000 at 22% £500 Repairs and renewals (say) : : : : . : 4 250 Shelving and glass (say) . - ; - : 2 : : : 200 Keeper and house. : : ; : 3 : ; “ - 500 Policeman, carpenter, and labourers ‘ ‘ 4 i s - 600 Total cost perannum . ° . : ‘ - £2,450 for a building equal to half the British Museum exhibiting area, and the securing of space for future building up to 50 or 100 times the present ex- hibiting area. This amounts to 14 per cent. on the present annual grant of the British Museum at Bloomsbury. The foregoing memorandum was submitted for criticism by the Committee of the Council to several distinguished men of science, and the remarks received in reply show what points of the scheme should be discussed more fully and modified and what points need further explanation. I therefore beg to suggest the follow- ing amendments and additions to the memorandum :— The scope in one opinion should be restricted to anthropology. As the utility . of such space for other subjects was only hinted at, and does not enter into the proposals, this limitation may be accepted without altering any point. In form the use of such long low galleries is said to be ‘simply impossible, on account of its extreme ugliness.’ As part of the original proposal is to entirely screen the buildings with trees outside, and divide them by stands and cases inside, the zsthetic consideration need hardly compel extra expense, for the building would not be seen. Another proposal is to add a second story or provide for such. As the extra building work would be more than double the proposed, and the added floor equal in cost to a roof, there would only be saved the value of land and a concrete floor. Against this the lighting would be so bad in a low wide gallery with only side windows that the space gained would be worth far less than if all were top- lighted. As the essence of the scheme is cheap space, there does not seem to be much gained by a second story. In the question of fire, insurance is stated by one authority to be essential. If, however, there be nothing inflammable in the construction (for the building itself may be absolutely incombustible), and if there is only the risk of detached stands and cases being set on fire, the risk is so very minute that even if insured 1896. 3P 938 REPORT—1896. the cost would be only nominal. A system of dividing the groups of cases into bays by brick and slate shelvings at intervals would still further reduce any possibility of combustion. Regarding fittings, one opinion is that glass cases to protect smaller specimens would be necessary. It was already proposed to cover such things by large sheets of glass screwed down; and such covering would be effective, and cost little more than the glass at 3d. a square foot. Where a permanent fitted case was required such can be thoroughly well made and finished at 1s. 4d. a cubic foot. ‘The amount already provided in the estimate for shelving and glass would allow of adding 3,000 cubic feet of glass cases yearly if such were required. Another opinion is that dust would be so serious that a great part of the things ‘must be placed in good cases.’ It is already proposed to filter all-the air passing into the building, which would be quite practicable in a place where no crowds would assemble and but little change of air was wanted. And the use of sheets of glass laid over boxes and shelves may be made quite as dust-tight as the best made cases if a line of cotton wool be laid to bed the glass upon. It must be considered that the conditions of exhibiting would be very different from those in a crowded city museum. , Regarding registration, the difficulty and time involved in photographic regis- tration seems to be overestimated by those only accustomed to the tedious work of arranging objects on a screen in an ordinary room. By having two fixed scales of reduction (say $ and ;4,) the need of focussing and time required for that would be abolished, for with the rapid plates now used a very small stop is enough, and differences due to thickness of objects would entirely disappear. The proposal is to have a glass table (say), 80 x 100 inches, with white ground below, on which to lay out objects for 4, scale, avoiding all the delay of fixing on screens and all the shadows; a second glass shelf (say), 16 x 20 inches, at a high level for small things on } scale, the camera fixed looking down vertically on the tables, and two slides for plates according to which table was in use. This would give suitable scales on whole plate size. The lighting should be quickly adjustable by strips of blind round three sides of the room. With such a routine arrangement a man at labourer’s wages would be quite capable of working it for all ordinary instances. In the matter of constitution two opinions are that such a repository should belong to one definite existing museum only. This would be very well for that one museum; but there are many museums which require such an addition; and it would tie down what is essentially required to be a very elastic and experi- mental institution to the existing routine of one body whose ideas are all based on a very different order of things. To expect any one body with the traditions and system which are requisite for a very different institution to adopt and work flexibly in an entirely changed set of conditions is hardly promising. The reason for hinting at a combined representation of many bodies on the management is that no one set of traditions would prevail, and an energetic Keeper might have a chance of a free policy. In any case the constitution is by no means an essential Deak and I merely express the difficulty that I see in keeping new wine in old skins. On the subject of allowing a donor the privilege of making conditions about his donations for (say) thirty years, one opinion is that no such conditions should be allowed. That is purely a matter of experience, and of no essential importance. If people will give things as freely when they are not allowed any voice as to their disposal times have changed. The past history has been that too many collections have been bound by a name, not for thirty years only, but far longer. On the very important question of site two opinions are against the requisite cheap land being within half an hour of London. It is very probable that it might be requisite to go further out, an hour from London. The speed varies much on different lines, any line east of Aldershot being much slower than others. The half-hour from London by good trains reaches to Harold Wood, Hatfield, Watford, Slough, and Aldershot. The hour circle touches Witham, Hitchin, Leighton, Reading, and nearly Basingstoke; that is, half Essex, most of Hertfordshire, half TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 989 Buckinghamshire, part of Berks, and Hants. If land were to be purchased within this distance it seems that some reasonably cheap part might be found. But as we can afford to wait for opportunities, if the scheme be otherwise well formulated, it seems not chimerical to hope for the chance of an appropriation of open land for such a public purpose out of some of the numerous downs, commons, and heaths within the hour's distance. There remain some other questions that have been raised outside of the memo- randum :-— 1. That the plan is impracticable for want of funds. The amount suggested is 2,500/. a year. Supposing even that this was doubled, that would be 5,000U. a year. Now the British Museum alone has increased its budget by 100,000/. per annum within fifty or sixty years. Is, then, an increase of 5,0002. more not to be thought of for twenty or thirty years to come? Or, looking at’ capital expense, the cost of the small increase of room in the White Wing and Mausoleum Room has been much more than the capital cost of a space equal to half the museum. It may be safely said that long before we can hope to see this economical system in working order the British Museum budget will have increased by many times the amount required for this. 2. The cost of packing and carriage of things from existing institutions would of course be met by those places which had the benefit of the relief of valuable space. For other cases of private donation 10 per cent. extra on the estimate would probably quite provide. In any case this cannot make the scheme unworkable. 3. The proposal to avoid acquiring things that are not worth the most expen- sive accommodation in the city museums is fatal to scientific study. And equally fatal would be the idea of leaving all preservation to local museums, for the main purpose of this is not local English, but mankind in general—the colonies and other lands—as no student could be expected to visit Dakota, Brazil, Uganda, and Mongolia to collect the information he might need, even if there was a uniform appreciation in every country of the desirability of preserving history. The broad view remains untouched by all these minor details. We cannot at present preserve large quantities of irreplaceable antiquities and ethnographic specimens, owing to the existing costliness of museum accommodation, and which come from countries where no local museums are possible. By the time every country came up to the level of England in local museums there would be nothing left to preserve. And yet, making every allowance for the unexpected, and even tripling all the presumed costs, a space equal to the whole British Museum can be provided for less than the average increase in Government grants for museums during four or five years. So that if this repository should not be realised in less than twenty years hence—as I quite expect—the cost of it will have been spent many times over in increased grants, which will only provide an invisible fraction of the space that might thus be had. It is not proposed as an additional expense, but as a vastly more economical mode of spending the normal increase which is always being made on the existing lines. The real question is not whether money can be found—money is certain to be found during the next twenty years for fresh museum space. The real question is whether we shall have a small increase in our present London museums which cripple our study, or a great increase in another form which shall give a new life altogether to our study of man. 2. The Duk Duk and other Customs as Forms of Expression of the Intellectual Life of the Melanesians. By Grar von Pret. The European who has a sufficiently prolonged experience of the natives of the Bismarck Archipelago is particularly struck by their very apparent desire towards physical and psychical seclusion. Left to themselves, the natives confine their intercourse to members of their own village and at most to those of immediately neighbouring villages. The fact is that twenty years’ intercourse with White Men has failed to win the natives to any of the ways of civilisation; they care more for the tobacco brought by the White Man than for anything else he brings them. 3P2 940 REPORT—1896. The natives hate the foreigners, and distrust even their fellow-countrymen. This seclusive disposition is taken as a key with which to open, to some extent at least, the mysteries with which the Melanesian loves to surround his actions. A lengthly description of the Duk Duk is not given, as it is fairly well known. It is here viewed psychologically. The ceremony apparently serves two purposes: (a) The first is to propitiate evil-disposed spirits—and there is no doubt that this part still represents some of the original traits of worship of the departed. It is, however, next to impossible to gain sufficient insight into the ceremony to establish a plausible theory. (6) The other purpose is a very materialistic one, as it is nothing but a clever system of levying black-mail from the women who may not be, and from the men who are not, members of the Duk Duk. The ZEineth ceremony is celebrated at irregular intervals, Within a dense hedge square huts are built, on the white clay plaster of which curious figures of birds, crocodiles, &c., are painted. On surrounding trees other figures, such as snakes, the sting-ray, &c., are drawn, and two shapeless figures, which are stated to be the spirits of deceased people. Only members of the Duk Duk can enter the enclosure. Amongst other ceremonies observed is that of placing a ‘tambu’ on certain articles of food as well as on certain actions and words, During this period of tambu the participators meet at intervals and perform simple dances, The Marawot is celebrated only at very long intervals, A platform, 15 feet square and 50 to 60 feet high, is erected, and entirely covered with leaves; on this a sort of war dance is held. The meaning of this was not discovered. It is important—nay more, it is necessary—to clear up all the affected mysti- cism connected with the Duk Duk and the customs related to it before it is too late. The people themselves are forgetting their customs, because the Europeans, to whose trading interests they form an impediment, sneer them into derision, and the Duk Duk begins to retire into remoter parts. It is only through the study of the habits of people who, like the Kanakas, still live in a primeval state, that the development and history of our own race can ever be thoroughly understood. 3. An Ancient British Interment. By F. T. Exiworrny. The author exhibited photographs of an ancient British interment discovered on August 29, 1896, by men in quarrying on the top of Culbone Hill, Somersetshire, close to the road from Porlock to Lynton. The kist is still 2 situ, but will have to be removed as the quarry advances. It is at about 5 feet from the surface of the soil; there is no appearance of there ever having been a cairn or barrow above it. The direction of the grave is due north and south, it measures 3 feet 6 inches long by 1 foot 10 inches by 1 foot Ginches high. It is constructed with four upright slabs of light-blue Devonian slate, of which plenty is to be found eight or nine miles off, but it is totally different from the Old Red Sandstone immediately beneath the interment. In the kist were found a yery perfect skull, together with several bones of the skeleton, of which photographs in three positions were shown. Alongside the skull at the north end of the kist was found an urn of yery early pottery, measur- ing 62 in. high x 5 in, diam. There were no weapons or other objects found. The find was on the property of Earl Lovelace, and it is hoped that on his return from abroad he will grant the request of the County Society, that the entire interment may be placed in their Museum at Taunton. Some sketches in oil by Mr. Whyte Holdich showing the general surroundings were also exhibited. The interment was pronounced by Dr. Montelius, Mr. Coffey, Dr. Munro, Sir John Evans and the President, to be certainly of the early Bronze Age, not later than the second millenium, B.c, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 941 4. On the Aboriginal Stick and Bone Writing of Australia. By Dr. Grorce Hartery, /.R.S. The Australian aborigines use a script of straight incised lines or notches, which resemble Ogam characters, except that they are written without a stem line. They are arranged in groups, across a perpendicular column, sometimes on one side, sometimes on the other, and occasionally across the centre. Sometimes the perpendicular columns are two or more in number. Different sizes of characters are used in the same communication; and an emphatic form occurs with longer lines, more widely spaced. Inscriptions on bone are found in Australia, as in Ireland, in the Ogam script; and the Australians, like the old Scandinavians, tie hair, human or other, to their letters. Similar straight line scripts are found among the Gilas in Central America, and among the Samoyeds, and are all written in the same way. The question remains open whether these are independent inventions, or derived from a common source, 5. The Straw Goblin. By C. G. LELAND. 6. Marks on Ancient Monuments. By C. G. Letanp, 942 REPORT—1896. Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExperimenraL PatHoioey and EXPERIMENTAL PsycHOLOGyY). PRESIDENT OF THE SectTion.—W. H. GasKELL, M.D., LL.D., M.A., E.R.S. The PresrpenT delivered the following Address on Monday, September 21. WueEn I received the honour of an invitation to preside at the Physiological Section of the British Association, my thoughts naturally turned to the subject of the Presidential Address, and it seemed to me that the traditions of the British Association, as well as the fact that a Physiological Section was a comparatively new thing, both pointed to the choice of a subject of general biological interest rather than a special physiological topic ; and I was the more encouraged to choose such a subject because I look upon the growing separation of physiology from morphology as a serious evil, and detrimental to both scientific subjects. I was further encouraged to do so by the thought that, after all, a large amount of the work done in physiological laboratories is anatomical—either minute anatomy or topographical anatomy, such as the tracing out of the course of nerve-fibre tracts in the central and peripheral nervous system by physiological methods. Such methods require to be supplemented by the morphological method of inquiry. If we can trace up step by step the increasing complexity of the vertebrate central nervous system ; if we can unravel its complex nature, and determine the original simpler paths of its conducting fibres, and the original constitution of the special nerve centres, then it is clear that the method of comparative anatomy would be of immense assistance to the study of the physiology of the central nervous system of the higher vertebrates. So also with numbers of other physiological problems, such as, for instance, the question whether all muscular substances are supplied with inhibitory as well as motor nerves; to which is closely allied the question of the nature of the mechanism by which antagonistic muscles work harmoniously together. Such questions receive their explanation in the researches of Biedermann on the nerves of the opening and closing muscles of the claw of the crayfish, as soon as it has been shown that a genetic relationship exists between the nervous system and muscles of the crayfish and those of the vertebrate. Take another question of great interest in the present day, viz. the function of such ductless glands as the thyroid and the pituitary glands. The explanation of such function must depend upon the original function of these glands, and cannot, therefore, be satisfactory until it has been shown by the study of compara- tive anatomy how these glands have arisen. The nature of the leucocytes of the blood and lymph spaces, the chemical problems involved in the assigning of carti- lage into its proper group of mucin compounds, and a number of other questions of physiological chemistry, will all advance a step nearer solution as soon as we definitely know from what group of invertebrates the vertebrate has arisen. I have therefore determined to choose as the subject of my address ‘The TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 9493 Origin of Vertebrates,’ feeling sure that the evidence which has appealed to me as a physiologist will be of interest to the Physiological Section; while at the same time, as I have invited also the Sections of Zoology and Anthropology to be present, I request that this address may be considered as opening a discussion on the subject of the origin of vertebrates. I do not desire to speak ex cathedrd, and to suppress discussion, but, on the contrary, I desire to have the matter threshed out to its uttermost limit, so that if I am labouring under a delusion the nature of that delusion may be clearly pointed out to me. The central pivot on which the whole of my theory turns is the central nervous system, especially the brain region. There is the ego of each animal; there is the master-organ, to which all the other parts of the body are subservient. It is to my; mind inconceivable to imagine any upward evolution to be associated with a degradation of the brain portion of the nervous system, The striking factor of the ascent within the vertebrate phylum from the lowest fish to man is the steady increase of the size of the central nervous system, especially of the brain region. However much other parts may suffer change or degradation, the brain remains intact, steadily increasing in power and complexity. If we turn to the inverte- brate kingdom, we find the same necessary law: when the metamorphosis of an insect tales place, when the larval organs are broken up by a process of histolysis, and new ones formed, the central nervous system remains essentially intact, and the brain of the imago differs from that of the larva only in its increased growth and complexity. A striking instance of the same necessary law is seen in the case of the transformation of the larval lamprey, or Ammoccetes, into the adult lamprey, or Petromyzon; here also, by a process of histolysis, most of the organs of the head region of the animal undergo dissolution and re-formation, while the brain remains intact, increasing in size by the addition of new elements, without any sign of preliminary dissolution. On the other hand, when, as is the case in the Tunicates, the transformation process is accompanied with a degradation of the central nervous system, we find the adult animal so hopelessly degraded that it is impossible to imagine any upward evolution from such a type. It is to my mind perfectly clear that, in searching among the Invertebrata for the immediate ancestor of the Vertebrata, the most important condition which such ancestor must fulfil is to possess a central nervous system, the anterior part of which is closely comparable with the brain region of the lowest vertebrate. It is also clear on every principle of evolution that such hypothetical ancestor must resemble the lowest vertebrate much more closely than any of the higher vertebrates, and therefore a complete study of the lowest true vertebrate must give the best chance of discovering the homologous parts of the vertebrate and the invertebrate. For this purpose I have chosen for study the Ammoccetes, or larval form of the lamprey, rather than Amphioxus or the Tunicates, for several reasons. n the first place, all the different organs and parts of the higher vertebrates can be traced directly into the corresponding parts of Petromyzon, and therefore of Ammoceetes. Thus, every part of the brain and organs of special sense—all the cranial nerves, the cranial skeleton, the muscular system, &c., of the higher vertebrates can all be traced directly into the corresponding parts of the lamprey. So direct a comparison cannot be made in the case of Amphioxus or the Tunicates. Secondly, Petromyzon, together with its larval form, Ammoccetes, constitutes an ideal animal for the tracing of the vertebrate ancestry, in that in Ammoccetes we have the most favourable condition for such investigations, viz. a prolonged larval stage, followed by a metamorphosis, and the consequent production of the imago or Petromyzon—a transformation which does not, as in the case of the Tunicates, lead to a degenerate condition, but, on the contrary, leads to an animal of a distinctly higher vertebrate type than the Ammoccetes form. As we shall see, the Ammo- ccetes is so full of invertebrate characteristics that we can compare organ for organ, structure for structure, with the corresponding parts of Limulus and its allies. Then comes that marvellous transformation scene during which, by a process of histolysis, almost all the invertebrate characteristics are destroyed or 944. REPORT—1896. changed, and there emerges a higher animal, the Petromyzon, which can now be compared organ for organ, structure for structure, with the larval form of the Amphibian ; and so through the medium of these larval forms we can trace upwards without a break the evolution of the vertebrate from the ancient king-crab form. On the other hand, Amphioxus and the Tunicates are distinctly degenerate ; it is easier to look upon either of them as a degenerate Ammocete than as giving a clue to the ancestor of the Ammoccete. It is to my mind surprising how difficult it appears to be to get rid of preconceived opinions, for one still hears, in the assertion that Petromyzon as well as Amphioxus is degenerate, the echoes of the ancient myth that the Elasmobranchs are the lowest fishes, and the Cyclostomata their degenerated descendants, The characteristic of the vertebrate central nervous system is its tubular character ; and it is this very fact of its formation as a tube which has led to the disguising of its segmental character, and to the whole difficulty of connecting vertebrates with other groups of animals. The explanation of the tubular character of the central nervous system is the keystone to the whole of my theory of the origin of vertebrates. The explanation which I have given differs from all others, in that I consider the nervous system to be composed of two parts—an internal epithelial tube, surrounded to a greater or less extent by a segmented nervous system ; and I explain the existence of these two parts by the hypothesis that the internal epithelial tube was originally the alimentary canal of an arthropod animal, such as Limulus or Eurypterus, which has become surrounded to a greater or less extent by the nervous system. Any hypothesis which deals with the origin of one group of animals from another must satisfy three conditions :— 1. It must be in accordance with the phylogenetic history of each group. It must therefore give a consistent explanation of all the organs and tissues of the higher group which can be clearly shown not to have originated within the group itself. At the same time, the variations which have occurred on the hypothesis must be in harmony with the direction of variation in the lower group, if not actually foreshadowed in that group. This condition may be called the Phylogenetic test. 2. The anatomical relation of parts must be the same in the two groups, not only with respect to coincidence of topographical arrangement, but also with respect to similarity of structure, and, to a large extent, also of function. This condition may be called the Anatomical test. 3. The peculiarities of the ontogeny or embryological development of the higher group must receive an adequate explanation by means of the hypothesis, while at the same time they must help to illustrate the truth of the hypothesis. This condition may be called the Ontogenetic test. I hope to convince you that all these three conditions are satisfied by my hypothesis as far as the head region of the vertebrate is concerned. I speak only of the head region at present, because that is the part which I have especially studied up to the present time, and also because it is natural and convenient to consider the cranial and spinal nerves separately ; and I hope to demonstrate to you that not only the nervous system and alimentary canal of such a group of animals as the Gigantostraca—i.e. Limulus and its allied forms—is to be found in the head region of Ammoceetes, but also, as must logically follow, that every part of the head region of Ammoccetes has its homologous part in the prosomatic and mesosomatic regions of Limulus and its allies. I hope to convince you that our brain is hollow because it has grown round the old cephalic stomach; that our skeleton arose from the modifications of chitinous ingrowths ; that the nerves of the medulla oblongata—z.e. the facial, glosso-pharyngeal, and vagus nerves—arose from the mesosomatic nerves to the branchial and opercular appendages of Limulus, while the nerves of the hind brain are derived from the nerves of the prosomatic region of Limulus ; that our cerebral hemispheres are but modifications of the supra-cesophageal ganglia of a scorpion, while our eyes and nose are the direct descendants of its eyes and olfactory organs. In the first place, I will give you shortly the reasons why the central nervous $45 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I Fig. 1.—Comparison of Vertebrate Brain from Mammalia to Ammoccetes. (Epithelial parts represented by dotted lines.) AMPHIBLA, MAMMALIA, Me es sects rene £ \\ sTomacn Z | 7 < Z , f fe F/ 3 i AMMOCETIS. ; TELEOsT, 946 » REPORT—-1896. | system of the vertebrate must be considered as derived from the conjoined central nervous system and alimentary canal of an arthropod. Comparison of the Central Nervous System of Ammocetes with the Conjoined Central Nervous System and Alimentary Canal of an Arthropod Animal such as Limulus. 1. The phylogenetic test proves that the tube of the central nervous system was originally an epithelial tube, surrounded to a certain extent by nervous material. The anatomical test then proves that this epithelial tube corresponds in its topographical relations to the nervous material exactly with the alimentary canal of an arthropod in its relations to the central nervous system ; and, further, that the topographical relations, structure, and function of the corresponding parts of this nervous material are identical in the Ammocecetes and in the arthropod. We see from these diagrams, taken from Edinger, how the greater simplicity of the brain region as we descend the vertebrate phylum is attained by the reduction Fig. 2.— Dorsal and Lateral view of the Brain of Ammoccetes. of the nervous material more and more to the ventral side of the central tube, with the result that the dorsal side becomes more and more epithelial, until at last, as is seen in Ammoceetes, the roof of the epichordal portion of the brain consists entirely of fold upon fold of a simple epithelial membrane, interrupted only in one place by the crossing of the [Vth nerve and commencement of the cerebellum. In the prechordal part of the brain this simple epithelial portion of the tube is continued on in the middle line as the first choroid plexus of Ahlborn, and the lamina terminalis round to the ventral side; where, again, in the infundibular region, the epithelial saccus vasculosus, which has been becoming more and more 7 : TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 947 conspicuous in the lower vertebrates, together with the median tube of the infundibulum, testifies to the withdrawal of the nervous material from this part of the brain, as well as from the dorsal region. Further, as already mentioned in my previous papers, the invasion of this epithelial tube by nervous material during the upward development of the vertebrate is beautifully shown by the commencing development of the cerebellar hemispheres in the dogtish; by the dorsal growth of nervous material to form the optic lobes in the Petromyzon ; by the occlusion of _ the ventral part of the tube in the epichordal region to form the raphé, as seen in its commencement in Ammoccetes. Finally, evidence of another kind in favour of _ the tubular formation being due to an original non-nervous epithelial tube is given by the frequent occurrence of cystic tumours, and also by the formation of the sinus rhomboidalis in birds. The phylogenetic history of the brain of vertebrates, in fact, is in complete harmony with the theory that the tubular nervous system of the vertebrate originally consisted of two parts—viz. an epithelial tube and a nervous system outside that tube, which has grown over it more and more, and gives not only no support whatever, but is in direct opposition, to the view that the whole tube was originally nervous, and that the epithelial portions, such as the choroid plexuses and roof of the fourth ventricle, are thinned-down portions of that nerve tube. Passing now to 2. The anatomical test, we see immediately why this epithelial tube comes out so much more prominently in the lowest vertebrates, for, as can be seen from the diagrams, and is more fully pointed out in my previous papers,' every part of the central tube of the vertebrate nervous system corresponds absolutely, both in position and structure, with the corresponding part of the alimentary canal of the arthropod, and the nervous material which is arranged round this epithelial tube is identically the same in topographical position, in structure, and in function as _ the corresponding parts of the central nervous system of an arthropod. Especially noteworthy is it to tind that the pineal eye (PN), with its large optic ganglion, the ganglion habenule (GHR), falls into its right and appropriate place as the right median eye of such an animal as Limulus or Eurypterus. In the following table I will shortly group together the evidence of the anatomical test. A. Coincidence of Topographical Position. LIMULUS AND ITS ALLIES. AMMOC@®TES AND VERTEBRATES. Alimentary Canal :— 1. Cephalic stomach. 2. Straight intestine, ending in anus. Ventricles of the brain. Spinal canal, ending by means of the neurenteric canal in the anus. Median infundibular tube and saccus vasculosus. 3. Gsophageal tube. Nervous System :— 1. Supra-cesophageal ganglia. Brain proper, or cerebral hemispheres. 2. Olfactory ganglia. Olfactory lobe. 3. Optic ganglia of the lateral eyes. Optic ganglia of the lateral eyes. 4. Optic gangliaof the median eyes. Ganglia habenule. 5. Median eyes. Pineal eyes. 6. Gsophageal commissures. Crura cerebri. 7. Infra-cesophageal or prosomatic Hind brain, giving origin to the I[IIrd, ganglia, giving origin to the IVth, and Vth cranial nerves. i prosomatic nerves. 8. Mesosomatic ganglia, giving origin Medulla oblongata, giving origin to the to the mesosomatic nerves. 9. Metasomatic ganglia. VIlIth, [Xth, and Xth cranial nerves. Spinal cord. | ' Gaskell, Journ. of Anat. and Physiol. vol. xxiii. 1888; Journ. of Physiol. vol. x. 1889; Brain, vol. xii. 1889; Q. J. of Mier. Scr. 1890. a 948 REPORT—1896. B. Coincidence of Structure and Physiological Function. 1. The simple non-glandular epithelium of the nerve tube coincides with the simple non-glandular epithelium of the alimentary canal, ciliated as it is in Daphnia.! 2. The structure and function of the cerebral hemispheres, olfactory lobes, and optic ganglia closely resemble the corresponding parts of the supra-cesophageal ganglia. © 3, The structure of the right pineal eye, with its nerve end-cells and rhabdites, is of the same nature as that of a median arthropod eye. 4, The structure of the right ganglion habenule is the same as that of the optic ganglion of the median eye. 5. The region of the hind brain, like the region of the infra-cesophageal ganglia, is concerned with the co-ordination of movements. 6. The region of the medulla oblongata, like the mesosomatic region of Limulus and its allies, is concerned especially with the movements of respiration. 7. The centres for the segmental cranial nerves resemble closely in their groups of motor cells and plexus substance the centres for the prosomatic and mesosomatic nerves, with their groups of motor cells and reticulated substance (Punkt-Substanz). 3. The third test is the ontogenetic test. The theory must be in harmony with, and be illustrated by, the embryonic development of the central nervous system. Such is the case, for we see that the nerve tube arises as a simple straight tube opening by the neurenteric canal into the anus, the anterior part of the tube, ze. the cephalic stomach region, being remarkably dilated ; the anterior opening of this tube, or anterior neuropore, is considered by most authors to have been situated in the infundibular region, Next comes the formation of the cerebral vesicles, indicating embryologically the constricting growth of nervous material outside the cephalic stomach. First, the formation of two cerebral vesicles by the growth of nervous material in the position of the ganglia habenulz, posterior commissure, and Meynert’s bundle, 2.e. the constricting influence of commissures between the optic part of the supra-ceso- phageal ganglia and the infra-cesophageal ganglia; then the formation of the third cerebral vesicle by the constricting influence of the [Vth nerve and commencing cerebellum. Subsequently the first cerebral vesicle is divided into two parts by another nerve commissure—the anterior commissure, z.e. by nerve material joining the supra-cesophageal ganglia. Further, the embryological evidence shows that in the spinal cord region the nerve masses are at first most conspicuous ventrally and laterally to the original tube, such ventral masses being early connected together with the strands of the anterior commissure; ultimately, by the growth of nervous material dorsalwards, the dorsal portion of the tube is compressed to form the posterior fissure and the substantia Rolandi, the original large lumen of the old intestine being thus reduced to the small central canal of the adult nervous system. Finally, this nerve tube is formed at a remarkably early stage, just as ought to be the case if it represented an ancient alimentary caval. The ontogenetic test appears to fail in two points :— 1. That the nerve tube of vertebrates is an epiblastic tube, whereas if it repre- sented the old invertebrate gut it ought to be largely hypoblastic. 2. The nerve tube of vertebrates is formed from the dorsal surface of the embryo, while the central nervous system of arthropods is formed from the ventral surface. With respect to the first objection, it might be argued, with a good deal of plausibility, that the term hypoblast is used to denote that surface which is known by its later development to form the alimentary canal; that in fact, as Heymons? has pointed out, the theory of the germinal layers is not sufficiently well esta- blished to give it any phylogenetic value. It is, however, unnecessary to discuss * Hardy and McDougall, Proc. Camb. Philos. Soc. vol. viii. 1893. * Heymons, Die Embryonalentwichl. v. Dermapteren wu. Orthopteren, Jena, 1895. : TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 949 this question, seeing that Heymons has shown that the whole alimentary tract in such arthropods as the earwig, cockroach, and mole cricket, is, like the nerve tube of vertebrates, formed from epiblast. The second objection appears to me more apparent than real. The nerve layer, in the vertebrate, as soon as it can be distinguished, is always found to lie ventrally to the layer of epiblast which forms the central canal. In the middle line of the body, owing to the absence of the mesoblast layer, the cells which form the noto- chord and those which form the central nervous system form a mass of cells which cannot be separated in the earlier stages. The nerve layer in the arthropod lies between the ventral epiblast and the gut; the nerve layer in the vertebrate lies between the so-called hypoblast (7.e. the ventral epiblast of the arthropod) and the neural canal (7.e. the old gut of the arthropod). The new ventral surface of _ the vertebrate in the head region is not formed until the head fold is completed. - Before this time, when we watch the vertebrate embryo lying on the yolk, with its nervous system, central canal, and lateral pee of mesoblast, we are watching the embryonic representation of the original Limulus-like animal; then, when the lateral plates of mesoblast have grown round, and met in the middle line to assist in forming the new ventral surface, and the head fold is completed, we are watching the embryonic representation of the transformation of the Limulus-like animal into the scorpion-like ancestor of the vertebrates. In the Arthropoda, the simple epithelial tube which forms the stomach and intestine is not a glandular organ, and we find that the digestive part of the ali- mentary tract is found in the large organ, the so-called liver. This organ, together with the generative glands, forms an enormous mass of glandular substance, which, in Limulus, is tightly packed round the whole of the central nervous system and alimentary canal, along the whole length of the animal (represented in fig. 4 by the dark dotted substance). The remains of this glandular mass are seen in Ammoceetes in the peculiar so-called packing tissue around the brain and spinal cord (represented in fig. 6 by the dark dotted substance), It satisfies the three tests to the following extent :— 1. The phylogenetic test.—As we descend the vertebrate phylum, we find that the brain fills up the brain-case to a less and less extent, until finally in Ammoccetes a considerable space is left between brain and brain-case, filled up with a peculiar glandular-looking material, interspersed with pigment, which is not fat tissue, and is most marked in the lowest vertebrates. The natural interpretation of this phylogenetic history is that the cranial cavity is too large for the brain in the lowest vertebrates, and is filled up with a peculiar glandular substance because that glandular substance pre-existed as a functional organ or organs, and not because it was necessary to surround the brain with packing material in order to keep it steady, owing to the unfortunate mistake having been made of forming a _ brain much too small for its case. : 2. The anatomical test shows that this glandular and pigmented material is in the same position with respect to the central nervous system of Ammoccetes as the generative and liver material with respect to the central nervous system and alimentary canal of Limulus. 3. The ontogenetic test remains to be worked out. Ido not know the orgin of this tissue in Ammoccetes ; the evidence has not yet been given by Kuppfer.t. He has, however, shown that the neural ridge gives origin to a mass of mesoblastic cells, the further fate of which is not worked out. The whole story is very sugges- tive from the point of view of my theory, but incomprehensible on the view that the neural ridge is altogether nervous. Finally, we ought to find in the invertebrate group in question indica- tions of the commencement of the enclosure of the alimentary canal by the central nervous system; such is, in fact, the case. In the scorpion group a marked process of cephalisation has gone on, so that the separate ganglia, both of the prosomatic and mesosomatic region, have fused together, and fused ‘ Kuppfer, Studien 2. vergleich. Entwicklungsgesch. d. Kopfes der Kranioten 2. Heft, Miinchen u. Leipzig, 1894. 950 REPORT— 1896. also with the large supra-cesophageal mass. In the middle of this large brain mass a small canal is seen closely surrounded and compressed with nervous matter, as is shown in this specimen of Thelyphonus; this canal is the alimentary canal. Again, Hardy, in his work on the nervous system of Crustacea, has sections through the brain of Branchipus which demonstrate so close an attachment between the nervous matter of the optic ganglion and the anterior diverticulum of the gut that uo line of demarcation is visible between the cells of the gut wall and the cells of the optic ganglion. For all these reasons I consider that the tubular nature of the vertebrate central nervous system is explained by my hypothesis much more satisfactorily and fully than by any other as yet put forward; it further follows that if this hypothesis enables us to homologise all the other parts of the head region of the vertebrate with similar parts in the arthropod, then it ceases to be an hypothesis, but rises to the dignity of the most probable theory of the origin of vertebrates. Origin of Segmental Cranial Nerves. 1. The phylogenetic test.—It follows from the close resemblance of the brain region of the central nervous systems in the two groups of animals that the cranial nerves of the vertebrate must be homologous with the foremost nerves of such an animal as Limulus, and must therefore supply bomologous organs. Leaving out of consideration for the present the nerves of special sense, it follows that the seg- mental cranial nerves must be divisible into two groups corresponding to two sets of segmental muscles, viz. a group supplying structures homologous to the appen- dages of Limulus and its allies, and a group supplying the somatic or body muscles ; in other words, we must find precisely what is the most marked characteristic of the vertebrate cranial nerves, viz. that they are divisible into two sets correspond- ing to a double segmentation in the head region. The one set, consisting of the Vth, VIIth, [Xth, and Xth nerves, supply the muscles of the branchial or visceral segments; the other set, consisting of the IlIrd, IVth, Vith, and XIfth nerves, the muscles of the somatic segments. Further, we see that the nerves supplying the branchial segments, like the nerves supplying the appendages in Limulus, are mixed motor and sensory, while the nerves supplying the somatic segments are all purely motor, the corresponding sensory nerves running separately as the ascending root of the fifth nerve; so also in Limulus, the nerves supplying the powerful body muscles arise separately from those supplying the appendages, and also are quite separate from the purely sensory or epimeral (Milne Edwards) ’ nerves which supply the surfaces of the carapace in the prosomatic and mesoso- matic regions. Finally, the researches of Hardy* have shown that the motor portion of these appendage nerves, just like the nerves of the branchial segmentation in vertebrates, 7.e. the motor part of the trigeminal, of the facial, of the glosso-pharyngeal, and of the vagus, arise from nerve centres or nuclei quite separate from those which give origin to the motor nerves of the somatic muscles. The phylogenetic history, then, of the cranial nerves points directly to the conclusion that the Vth, Vilth, [Xth, and Xth nerves originally innervated structures of the nature of arthropod appendages. We can, however, go further than this, for we find, as we trace downwards throughout the vertebrate kingdom the structures supplied by these nerves, that they are divisible into two well-marked groups, especially well seen in Ammo- coetes, viz. :-— 1. A posterior group, viz. the VIIth, IXth, and Xth nerves, which arise from oe medulla oblongata and supply all the structures within a branchial chamber. 2. An anterior group, viz. the Vth nerves, which arise from the hind brain and supply all the structures within an oral chamber. 1 Milne Edwards, ‘Recherches sur l’Anatomie des Limulus,’ Ann. des Sc. Nat., 5th ser. 2 Hardy, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 1894. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 951 The reason for this grouping is seen when we turn to Limulus and its allies, for we find that the body is always divided into a prosoma and mesosoma, and that the appendage nerves are divisible into two corresponding well-marked groups, viz. -— 1. A posterior or mesosomatic group, which arise from the mesosomatic ganglia and supply the operculum and branchial appendages. Fi@. 3.—Head Region of Ammoceetes, split longitudinally into a ventral and dorsal half. (Ventral Half.) = = =| = = =| = = yy 3 SE =\ Appendages § Nerves (2 =) TENTACULAR |= = v™ 1-4 ff VELAR Jie yu 5 i OPERCULAR fff CILIATED Vile GROOVE BRANCHIAL Ist BRANCAHIAL — = | OPENINGS Ix 2nd BRANCHIAL xt -2 3rd BRANCHIAL fe he a es a —— 3 ! All=ank: 3 = THYROID ORIFICE 4th BRANCHIAL x3 5th BRANCHIA xi 6th BRANCHIAL x5 7th BRANCHIAL xe 2. An anterior or prosomatic group, which arise from the prosomatic ganglia and supply the oral or locomotor appendages. 952 REPORT—1896. Comparison of the Branchial Appendages of Limulus, Eurypterus, &c., with the Branchial Appendages of Ammocetes. Meaning of the 1Xth and Xth Nerves. We will first consider the posterior group—the VIIth, IXth, and Xth nerves— and of these I will take the [Xth and Xth nerves together, and discuss the VIIth separately. These nerves are always described as supplying in the fishes the Vig. 3.—Head Region of Ammoceetes, split longitudinally into a ventral and dorsal half. (Dorsal Half.) Appendages 5 Nerves TENTACULAR ym i-a TRABECULZ PITUITARY BODY ‘OLD GSOPHAGUS HRRATED EDGE CILIATED GROOVE yu 5 OPERCULAR Wit ist BRANCHIAL Ix 2nd BRANCHIAL jf "il ATTA —== COT. em 1 ? = " 3rd BRANCHIAL Hy x? Ei 4th BRANCHIA 5th BRANCHIAL is x4 | 6th BRANCHIAL |i x* SOMATIC MUSCLE 7th BRANCHIAL SPLANCHNIC MUSCLE xs CARTILAGE MUCO-CARTILAGE muscles and other tissues in the walls of a series of gill-pouches, so that the respi- ratory chamber is considered to consist of a series of pouches, which open on the one hand into the alimentary canal, and on the other to the exterior. Sucha description is possible even as low down as Petromyzon, but when we pass to the Ammoccetes we find the arrangement of the branchial chamber has become so different that it is no longer possible to describe it in terms of gill-pouches, The TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 953 Fic. 4.—Limulus. Nerves of Appendages and Cartilages. CHILARIA (M) JFLABELLUM yyy BRANCHIAL CARTILAGES ENTAPOPHYSIAL CARTILAGINOUS LIGAMENTS Fig. 56.—Eurypterus. 1896. 3 954 REPORT—1896, Fic. 6.—Ammoceetes, Nerves of Visceral Segments and Cartilages. PROSOMA a! ‘ ZZ) / NY MESOSOMA ¥ SUBCHORDAL BRANCHIAL CARTILAGINOUS CARTILAGES LIGAMENTS In all three Figures v,—v,=Prosomatice appendages and nerves ; vii=1st mesosoniatic ap- pendage or opercular appendage and nerves; ix, x,... = remaining mesosomatic appendages and nerves; M = Chilaria in Limulus, metastoma in Eurypterus. nature of the branchial chamber is seen in fig. 3, which demonstrates clearly that the [Xth and Xth nerves supply a series of separate gill-bearing struc- tures or appendages, which hang freely into a common respiratory chamber; each one of these appendages is moved by its own separate group of branchial muscles, and possesses an external branchial bar of cartilage, which, by its union with its fellows, contributes to form the extra-branchial basket-work so characteristic of this primitive respiratory chamber. The segmental branchial unit is clearly in this case, as Rathke originally pointed out, each one of these suspended gills, or rather gill-bearing appendages; it is absolutely unnatural, as Nestler! attempts to do, to take a portion of the space between two consecutive gills and call that a gill-pouch. It is, to my mind, one of the most extraordinary and con- fusing conceptions of the current morphology to describe an animal in terms of the spaces between organs, rather than in terms of the organs by which those spaces are formed. We might as well speak of a net as a number of holes tied together with string. Another most striking advantage is obtained by considering the segmental unit to be represented by each of these separate branchial append- ages—viz. that we can continue the series in the most natural manner (as seen in fig. 3) in front of the limits of the IXth and Xth nerves, and so find a series of appendages in the oral chamber serially homologous with the branchial append- ages. The uppermost of the respiratory appendages is the hyo-brancbial, supplied 1 Nestler, Archiv f. Naturgeschich. 56, vol. i. Pee, eS TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I, 955 by the VIIth nerve, then, passing into the oral chamber, we find a series of non- branchial appendages, viz. the velar and tentacular appendages, supplied by branches of the Vth nerve. In fact, by simply considering the tissue between the so-called gill-pouches as the segmental unit, we no longer get lost in a maze of hypothetical gill-pouches in front of the branchial region, but find that the resemblances between the oral and branchial regions, which have led to the endless search for gill-slits and gill-pouches, really mean that the oral chamber contains appendages just as the branchial chamber, but that the former were not gill-bearing. The study of Ammocetes, then, leads directly to the conclusion that the ancestor of the vertebrate possessed an oral or prosomatic chamber, which contained a series of non-branchial, tactile and masticatory appendages, which were innervated from the fused prosomatic ganglia or hind brain, and a branchial or mesosomatic chamber, which contained a series of branchial appendages which were innervated from the fused mesosomatic ganglia or medulla oblongata. These two chambers did not originally communicate with each other, for the embryological evidence shows that they are separated at first by the septum of the stomatodeum, and also that the oral chamber is formed by the forward growth of the lower lip. The phylogenetic test on the side of Limulus and its congeners agrees in a remarkable manner with the conclusions derived from the study of Ammoceetes, for we see that the variation which has occurred in the formation of Eurypterus from Limulus is exactly of the kind necessary to form the oral and branchial chambers of the Ammoccetes. Thus, we find with respect to the mesosomatic appendages that the free, many-jointed appendages of the crustacean become con- verted into the plate-like appendages of Limulus, in which the separate joints are still visible, but insignificant in comparison with the large branchis-bearing lamella ; then comes the in-sinking of these appendages, as described by Macleod,! to form the branchial lamellz, or so-called lung-books of Thelyphonus, and the branchise of Eurypterus, in which all semblance of jointed and free appendages disappears and the branchiz project into a series of chambers or gill-pouches, each pair of which in Thelyphonus open freely into communication. In this way we see already the commencement of the formation of a branchial chamber similar to that of Ammoceetes. So also with the innervation of these mesosomatic appendages, originally a series of separate mesosomatic ganglia, each of which innervates a separate appendage ; then a process of cephalisation takes place, in consequence of which, in the first place, a single ganglion, the opercular ganglion, fuses with the already fused proso- matic ganglia, as is seen in the stage of Limulus; then, as pointed out by Lankester, in the different groups of scorpions more and more of the mesosomatic ganglia fuse together, and so we find the upward variation in this group is distinctly in the direction of the formation of the medulla oblongata coincidently with the formation of a branchial chamber. In a precisely similar way, we find the variation which has occurred in the prosomatic appendages leads directly to the formation of the oral chamber and oral appendages of Ammoccetes ; for the original chelate and locomotor appendages of Limulus become converted into the tactile non-chelate appendages of Eurypterus (cf. figs. 4 and 5), and the small chilaria (M) of Limulus, according to Lankester, fuse in the middle line and grow forward to form the metastoma of Eurypterus, thus forming an oral chamber, into which the short tactile appendages could be withdrawn, closely similar in its formation to the oral chamber of Ammoccetes. The prosomatic ganglia supplying these oral appendages have already, in Limulus (see fig. 4), been fused together to form the infra-cesophageal ganglia or hind brain. The phylogenetic test, then, both on the side of the vertebrate and of the inver- tebrate, points direct to the conclusion that the peculiarities of the trigeminal and vagus groups of nerves are due to their origin from nerves supplying prosomatic and mesosomatic appendages respectively. 2. The anatomical test confirms aud emphasises this conclusion in a most striking manner, for we find not only coincidence of topographical arrangement, as 1 Macleod, Archiv. de Biologie, vol. v. 1884. Q2 956 REPORT—1896. already mentioned, but also similarity of structure ; thus we see that the blood in the gill lamellee and velar appendages of Ammoccetes does not circulate in distinct capillaries, but, as in the arthropod appendages, in lacunar spaces, which by the fubdivizion of the surface of the appendage to form gill lamellee become narrow channels; that also certain of the branchial muscles and of the muscles of the velar appendages are of the invertebrate type of so-called tubular muscles. These inver- tebrate muscles are not found in higher vertebrates, but only in Ammoccetes, and moreover disappear entirely at transformation. Origin of the Vertebrate Cartilaginous Skeleton. Perhaps, however, the most startling evidence in favour of the homology between the branchial segments of Ammoccetes and the branchial appendages of Limulus is found in the fact that a cartilaginous bar external to the branchie exists in each one of the branchial appendages of Limulus, to which some of the branchial muscles are attached in precisely the same way as in Ammoceetes. The branchial cartilages of Limulus (see fig. 4) spring from the entapophyses and form strong cartilaginous bars which are extra-branchial in position, just as in Ammo- coetes, in addition to each branchial bar, a cartilaginous ligament passes from one entapophysis to another, so as to form a longitudinal or entapophysial ligament, more or less cartilaginous, which extends on each side along the length of the mesosoma. In precisely the same way the branchial bars of Ammoccetes are joined together along each side of the notochord by a ligamentous band of more or less continuous cartilaginous tissue, forming a subchordal or parachordal carti- laginous ligament. Further, we see that this cartilage of Limulus is of a very striking structure, quite different from that of vertebrate cartilage, and that it is formed in a fibro- massive tissue which, like the matrix of the cartilage, gives a deep purple stain with thionin, thus showing the presence of some form of chondro-mucoid. This fibro-massive tissue is closely connected with the chitinogenous cells of the entapo- hyses. arene is it to find that the branchial cartilages of Ammoccetes possess identically the same structure as the cartilages of Limulus; that the branchial cartilages are formed in a fibro-massive tissue which, like the matrix of the cartilage, gives a deep purple stain with thionin, and that this fibro-massive tissue, to which Schneider! gives the name of muco-cartilage, or Vorknorpel, entirely disappears at transformation. Further, according to Shipley,” the cartilaginous skeleton of the Ammoccetes when first formed consists simply of a series of straight branchial bars, springing from a series of cartilaginous pieces arranged bilaterally along the notochord. The formation of the trabecule, of the auditory capsules, of the crossbars to form the branchial basket-work, all occur subsequently, so that exactly those parts which alone exist in Limulus are those parts which alone exist at an early stage in Ammoceetes. Another distinction is manifest between these branchial cartilages and those of the trabecule and auditory capsules, in that the latter do not stain in the same manner; whereas the matrix of the branchial cartilages stains red with picro-carmine, that of the trabeculze and auditory capsules stains deep yellow, so that the junction between the trabecule and the first branchial bar is well marked by the transition from the one to the other kind of staining. The difference cor- responds to Parker’s * soft and hard cartilage. The new cartilages which are formed at transformation, either in places where muco-cartilage exists before or by the invasion of the fibrous tissue of the brain- case by chondroblasts, are all of the hard cartilage variety. The phylogenetic, anatomical, and ontogenetic history of the formation of the 1 Schneider, Betirdge z. Anat. u. Entnicklungsgesch. der Wirbelthiere. Berliv. 1879. 2 Shipley, Quart. Journ. of Micr. Sci. 1887. 8 Parker, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 1883. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I, 957 vertebrate skeleton all show how the bony skeleton is formed from the cartilaginous, and how the cartilaginous skeleton can be traced back to that found in Petromyzon, and so to the still simpler form found in Ammoccetes ; from this, again, we can pass directly to the cartilaginous skeleton of Limulus, and so finally trace back the cranial skeleton of the vertebrate to its commencement in the modified chitinous ingrowths connected with the entapophyses of Limulus. A similar explanation of the origin of cartilage from modifications of the chitinous ingrowths of Limulus was suggested by Gegenbauer! so long ago as 1858, in consideration of the near chemical resemblances between the chitin and mucin groups of substances. Comparison of the Thyroid and Hyo-branchial Appendage of Ammocetes with the Opercular Appendage of Eurypterus, Thelyphonus, ée. Meaning of the VIIth Nerve. Seeing, then, how easily the IXth and Xth nerves in Ammoccetes correspond to the mesosomatic nerves to the branchial appendages in Limulus, and therefore to the corresponding nerves in such an animal as Eurypterus, we may with con- fidence proceed to the consideration of the VIIth nerve, and anticipate that it will be found to innervate a mesosomatic appendage in front of the branchial appendages, and yet belonging to the branchial group; in other words, if the VIIth nerve is to fit into the scheme, it ought to innervate a structure or structures corresponding to the operculum of Limulus or of Thelyphonus, &c. Now we see in figs. 5 and8 the nature of the operculum in Eurypterus and in Thelyphonus, Phrynus, &c. It is in reality composed of two parts, a median and anterior portion which bears on its under surface the external genital organs, and a posterior part which bears branchie ; so that the operculum of these animals may be considered as a genital operculum fused to a branchial appendage, and therefore double. It is absolutely startling to find that the branchial segment immediately in front of the glosso-pharyngeal seg- ment in Ammoceetes (fig. 3) consists of two parts, of which the posterior, the hyo-branchial, is gill-bearing, while the anterior carries on its under surface the pseudo-branchial groove of Dohrn, which continues as a ciliated groove up to the opening of the thyroid gland. Again, the comparison of the ventral surfaces of Kurypterus and Ammoccetes (of. fig. 8) brings to light a complete coincidence of position between the median tongue of the operculum in the one animal and the median plate of muco- cartilage in the other animal, which separates in so remarkable a manner the cartilaginous basket-work of each side, and bears on its under surface the thyroid gland. Finally, Miss Alcock has shown that not only the hyo-branchial, but also the thyroid part of this segment, is innervated by the VIIth nerve; so that every argument which has forced us to the conclusion that the elosso-pharyngeal and vagus nerves are the nerves which originally supplied branchial appendages equally points to the conclusion that the facial nerve originally supplied the opercular appendage—an appendage which closed the branchial chamber in front, which con- sisted of two parts, a branchial and a genital, probably indicating the fusion of two segments ; and that the thyroid gland belonged to the genital operculum, just as the branchize belonged to the branchial operculum. This interpretation of the parts supplied by the facial nerve immediately explains why Dohrn is so anxious to make a thyroid segment in front of the branchial segments, and why a controversy is still going on as to whether the facial supplies two segments or one. What, then, is the thyroid gland? Of all the organs found in the vertebrate, with perhaps the single exception of the pineal eye, there is no one which so clearly is a relic of the invertebrate ancestor as the thyroid gland. This gland, important as it is known to be in the higher vertebrates, remains of much the same type of structure down to the fishes, and even to Petromyzon; suddenly, when we pass to the Ammoceetes, to that larval condition so pregnant with inver- tebrate surprises, we find that the thyroid has become a large and important organ, 1 Gegenbauer, ‘ Anat. Untersuch. eines Limulus,’ Abhandl. dex Naturf. Gesclisey. an Halle, 1858. 958 ; REPORT—1896, totally different in structure from the thyroid of all other vertebrates, though resembling the endostyl of the Tunicates. The thyroid of Ammoccetes may be described as a long tube, curled up at its posterior end, which contains in its wall, along the whole of its length, a peculiar glandular structure, confined to a small portion of its wall. A section through this tube is given in fig. 7, and shows how this glandular structure possesses no alveoli, no ducts, but consists of a column of elongated cells arranged in a wedge-shaped manner, the apex of the wedge being in the lumen of the tube; each cell contains a spherical nucleus, situated at the very extreme MUCO-CARTILAGE OPERCULUM BRANCHIAL Zs Thyroid (Ammoccetes). Thyroid (Scorpion), end of the cell, farthest away from the lumen of the tube. Such a structure is different form that of any other vertebrate gland. Its secretion is not in any way evident. It certainly does not secrete mucus or take part in digestion, and for a long time I was unable to find any structure which resembled it in the least degree, apart, of course, from the endostyl of the Tunicates. Guided, however, by the considerations already put forward, and feeling therefore convinced that in Eurypterus there must have been a structure re- sembling the thyroid gland underneath the median projection of the operculum, I proceeded to investigate the nature of the terminal genital apparatus under- lying the operculum in the different members of the scorpion family, and reproduce here (fig. 8) the figures given by Blanchard ! of the appearance of the terminal male genital organs in Phrynus and Thelyphonus. Emboldened by the striking appear- ance of these figures, I proceeded to cut sections through the operculum ot the European scorpion, and found that that part of the genital duct which underlies the operculum, and that part only, contains within its walls a glandular structure which resembles the thyroid gland of Ammoccetesin a remarkable degree. A section is represented in fig. 7, and we see that under the operculum in the middle line is situated a tube, the walls of which in one part on each side are thickened by the formation of a gland with long cells of the same kind as those of the thyroid; the nucleus is spherical, and situated at the farther end of the cell, and the cells are arranged in wedges, so that the extremities of each group of cells come to a point on the surface of the inner lining of the tube. This point is marked by a small round opening in the internal chitinous lining of the tube. ‘These cells form a column along the whole length of the tube, just as in the thyroid gland, so that the chitinous lining along that column is perforated by numbers of small round 1 Blanchard, L’ Organisation du Régne Animal. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 959 Fig. 8 —Comparison of the Ventral Surface of the Branchial Region. THELYPHONUS. EURYPTERUS, 960 REPORT—1896. AMMOCGTESs, In all figures the opereular appendage is marked out by its dotted appearance. holes, This glandular structure is not confined to the male scorpion, but is found also in the female, though not so well developed. So characteristic is the structure, so different from anything else, that I have no hesitation in saying that the thyroid of Ammoccetes is the same structurally as the thyroid of the scorpion, and that, therefore, in all probability the median projection of the operculum in the old forms of scorpions, such as Kurypterus, Pterygotus, Slimonia, &c., covered a glandular tube of the same nature as the thyroid of Ammoceetes, We see, then, that the structures innervated by the VIIth, IXth, and Xth nerves are absolutely concordant with the view that the primitive vertebrate respiratory chamber was formed from the mesosomatic appendages of such a form as Limulus by a slight modification of the method by which the respiratory apparatus of Thelyphonus and other Arachnids has been formed, according to acleod. The anterior limit of this chamber was formed by the operculum, the basal part of which formed a septum which originally separated the branchial from the oral chamber. Comparison of the Oral Chamber of Ammoceetes with that of Burypterus. Meaning of the Vth Nerve. Passing now to the oral chamber—zi.. to the visceral structures innervated by the Vth nerve—we find, as already suggested, distinct evidence in Ammoceetes of the presence of the modified prosomatic appendages of the original Eurypterus- like form. The large velar appendage is the least modified, possessing as it does the arthropod tubular muscles, a blood system of lacunar blood-spaces, and a surface covered with a regular scale-like pattern, formed by cuticular nodosities, similar to that found on the surface of Eurypterus and other scorpions. The velar appendages show, further, that they are serially homologous with the re- spiratory appendages, in that they have been utilised to assist in respiration, their movements being synchronous with the respiratory movements. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 961 The separate part of the Vth nerve which supplies the velar appendage passes within it from the dorsal to the ventral part of the animal, and then, as Miss Alcock has shown, turns abruptly forward to supply the large median tentacle. This extraordinary course leads directly to the conclusion that this median tentacle, which is in reality double, constitutes, with the velum of each side, the true velar appendages. Again, on each side of the middle line there are in Ammoceetes four large tentacles, each of which possesses a system of muscles, muco-cartilage, and blood- spaces, precisely similar to the median ventral tentacle already mentioned. Each of these is supplied, as Miss Alcock has shown, by a separate branch of the motor part of the Vth nerve (see fig. 6), and each branch is comparable with the branch supplying the large velar appendage. That such tentacles are not mere sensory papillz surrounding the mouth, but have a distinct and important morphological meaning, is shown by the fact that they are transformed in the adult Petromyzon into the remarkable tongue and suctorial apparatus: a modification of oral appendages into a suctorial apparatus which is abundantly common among Arthropods. Finally, the Vth nerve innervates the visceral muscles of the lower and upper lips of Ammoccetes. In order, then, for the story to be complete, the homologues of the lower and upper lips must also be found in the system of prosomatic appendages of forms like Limulus and Eurypterus. The lower lip, like the opercular or thyroid appendage, possesses a plate of muco-cartilage, and, as already mentioned, falls into its natural place as the metastoma of the old Eurypterus-like form, by the enlargement and forward growth of which the oral chamber of Ammoccetes was formed. The meaning of the upper lip will be con- sidered with the consideration of the old mouth tube. The comparison of the metastoma of Eurypterus with the lower lip of Ammoccetes demonstrates the close resemblance between the oral chambers of Eurypterus and Ammoccetes. In order to obtain the condition of affairs in Ammoccetes from that in Eurypterus, it is only necessary that the metastoma should increase in size, and that the last oral appendage, the large oar-appendage, should follow the example of the other oral appendages, and be withdrawn into the oral cavity, and so form the velar appendage. Thus we see that, just as the mesosomatic appendages of Limulus can be traced into the branchial and thyroid appendages of Ammoccetes through the inter- mediate stage of forms similar to Eurypterus, so also the prosomatic appendages and chilaria of Limulus can be traced into the velar and tentacular appendages and lower lip of Ammoccetes through the intermediate stage of forms similar to Eurypterus. 3. Lastly comes the ontogenetic test. The concordant interpretation of the origin of the motor part of the Vth, of the VIIth, IXth, and Xth nerves giver by the anatomical and phylogenetic tests must explain and be illustrated by the facts of the development of Ammoccetes. We see :— 1. The oral chamber of Ammoccetes is known in its early stage by the name ot the stomatodeum, and we find, as might be anticipated, that it is completely separated at first from the branchial chamber by the septum of the stomatodzum. 2. This septum is the embryological representative of the basal part of the operculum, and demonstrates that originally the operculum separated the oral and branchial chambers, 3. Subsequently these two chambers are put into communication by the break- ing through of this septum, illustrating the communication between the two chambers by the separation of the median basal parts of the operculum. 4, The velar appendages, the tentacular appendages, the lower lip, all form as out-buddings, just as the homologous locomotor appendages are formed in arthropods. 5. The branchial bars are not formed by a series of inpouchings in a tube of uniform thickness, but, as Shipley! has pointed out, by a series of ingrowths at » Loe. cit. 962 - REPORT—1896. regular intervals ; in other words, the embryological history represents a series of buddings—?.e. appendages within the branchial chamber similar to the buddings within the oral chamber—and does not indicate the formation of gill-pouches by the thinning of an original thick tube at definite intervals. 6. The communication of the branchial chamber with the exterior by the formation of the gill-slits represents a stage in the ancestral history which is con- ceivable, but cannot at present be explained with the same certainty as most of the embryological facts of vertebrate development. I can only say that Striibel? has pointed out, and I can confirm him, that after the young Thelyphonus has left the ege, and is on its mother’s back, before the moult which gives it the same form as the adult, the gills and gill-pouches are fully formed, but do not as yet communi- cate with the exterior. 7. The branchial cartilages in the Ammoccetes are formed distinctly before the auditory capsules and trabeculee, illustrative of the fact that they alone are formed in Limulus. Comparison of the Auditory Apparatus of Ammocetes with the Flabellum of Limulus. Meaning of the VILIth Nerve. The correctness of a theory is tested in two ways:—(1) It must explain all known facts; and (2) it ought to bring to light what is as yet unknown, and the more it leads to the discovery of new facts, the more certain is it that the theory is true. So far, we see that the prosomatic and mesosomatic regions of the body in Limulus and the scorpions are comparable with the corresponding regions of Ammocecetes as far as their locomotor and branchial appendages are concerned, and that, therefore, a satisfactory explanation is given of the peculiarities of the Vth, VIilth, 1Xth, and Xth nerves. In all vertebrates, however, there is invariably found a special nerve, the VIIIth nerve, entirely confined to the innervation of the special sense-organs of the auditory apparatus. It follows, therefore, that if my theory is true the VIIIth nerve must be found in such forms as Limulus and its allies, and that, therefore, a special sense-organ, probably auditory in nature, must exist between the prosomatic and mesosomatic appendages, at the very base of the last prosomatic appendage. At present we know nothing about the nature or locality of the hearing apparatus of Limulus. It is, therefore, all the more in- teresting to find that in the very position demanded by the theory, at the base of the last prosomatic appendage, is found a large hemispherical organ, to which a movable spatula-like process is attached, known by the name of the flabellum. This organ is confined to the base of this limb; it is undoubtedly a special sense- organ, being composed mainly of nerves, in connection with an elaborate arrange- ment of cells and innumerable fine hairs, which are thickly imbedded in the chitin of the upper surface of the spatula. The arrangement of these cells and hairs is somewhat similar to that of various sense-organs described by Gaubert,? and supposed to be auditory. When the animal is at rest this sensory surface projects upwards and backwards into the crack between the prosomatic and mesosomatic carapaces, so that while the eyes only permit a look-out forwards and sidewards, and the whole animal is lying half buried in the sand, any vibrations in the water around can still pass through this open crevice, and so reach the sensory surface of this organ. Finally, the most striking and complete evidence that this sense-organ of Limulus is homologous with the auditory capsule of Ammoccetes is found in the fact that m each case the nerve is accompanied into the capsule by a diverticulum of the liver and generative organs. (See dotted substance in figs, 4 and 6.) In Limulus the liver and generative organs, which surround the central nervous system from one end of the body to the other, do not penetrate into any of the appendages, with the single exception of the flabellum. In Ammoceetes the peculiar glandular and pigmented tissue which surrounds ' Striibel, Zool. Anzeiger, vol. xv. 1892. * Gaubert, Ann. d. Sci. Nat., Zool., Tth ser., tome 13, 1892. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 963 the brain and spinal cord, and has already been recognised as the remains of the liver and generative organs, does not penetrate into the velar or other appendages, but is found only in the auditory capsule, where it enters with and partly surrounds the auditory nerve. The coincidence is so startling and unexpected as to bring conviction to my mind that in the flabel/um of Limulus we are observing the origin of the vertebrate auditory apparatus ; and it is, to say the least of it, suggestive that in Galeodes the last locomotor appendage should carry the extraordinary racquet-shaped organs which Gaubert has shown to be sense-organs of a special character, and that in the scorpion a large special sense-organ of a corresponding character, viz. the pecten, should be found which, from its innervation, as given by Patten,! appears to belong to the segment immediately anterior to the operculum, rather than to that imme- diately posterior to it. Comparison of the Olfactory Organ of Ammocetes with the Camerostome of Thelyphonus. Meaning of the Ist Nerve. Also comparison of the Hypophysis with the Mouth-tube of Thelyphonus. In precisely the same way as the theory has led to the discovery of a special sense-organ in Limulus and its allies which may well be auditory, so also it must lead to the discovery of the olfactory apparatus of the same group, for here also, just as in the case of the auditory apparatus, we are at present entirely in the dark. The olfactory organ in such an animal as Thelyphonus ought to be innervated from the supra-cesophageal ganglia, and ought to be situated in the middle line, in front of the mouth. The mouth is at the anterior end in these animals, the lower lip or hypostoma (see fig. 9) being formed by the median projecting flanges of the basal joints of the two pedipalpi; above, in the middle line, is a peculiar median appendage called the camerostome. Still more dorsal we find in the median line the rostrum, with the median eyes near its extremity, and laterally on each side of the camerostome, and dorsal to it, are situated the powerful chelicerze, which are considered by some authorities to represent antennze. Of these parts the camero- stome is certainly innervated from the supra-cesophageal ganglia, and upon cutting sagittal and transverse sections in a very young Thelyphonus we find that the surface is remarkably covered with very fine sense-hairs, arranged with great regu- larity and connected with a conspicuous mass of large cells. Upon making trans- verse sections through this region we see that the camerostome projects into the orifice of the mouth, and that its sense-epithelium forms, together with a similar epithelium on the lower lip, a closed cavity surrounded by a thick hedge of fine hairs. Here, then, in the camerostome of Thelyphonus 1s a special sense-organ which, from its position and its innervation, may well be olfactory in function, or at all events subserve the function of taste. Upon comparing this organ with the olfactory organ of Ammoccetes we see a most striking resemblance in general arrangement and structure. Just as the mouth tube of Thelyphonus is formed of two parts, the pedipalp and camerostome, so, according to Kuppfer, the nasal tube of Ammoccetes is composed of two parts, the upper lip and the olfactery protuberance. Of these two parts we see that the upper lip, or hood, like the pedipalp, is innervated by the Vth nerve, or nerve of the prosomatic appendages, while the olfactory protuberance, like the camerostome, is innervated by the Ist nerve. Kuppfer’s investigations show us further (fig. 9) how the olfactory protuberance is at first free, is directed ventralwards, and lies at the opening of the hypophysial tube ; how afterwards, by the forward and upward growth of the upper lip to form the hood, the nasal tube is formed, with the result that the nasal opening lies on the dorsal surface just in front of the pineal eye. Kuppfer, like Dohrn and Beard, looks upon this hypo- physial tube as indicating the paleeostoma, or original mouth of the vertebrate, a view which harmonises absolutely with my theory, and receives the simplest of explanations from it, for, as you see on the screen, sections through the mouth tuhe ' Patten, Quart. Jown. of Mier. Sci. vol. xxxi. 1890. 964 REPORT—1896. of Thelyphonus correspond absolutely with sections through the nasal tube of Ammoceetes; here in the one section is the projecting camerostome, there is the corresponding projection of the olfactory protuberance, here is the sense-epithelium of the lower lip or hypostoma, there is the sense-epithelium of the upper lip or hood. Here, as fig. 9 shows, the mouth tube passes in the ventral middle line to where it turns dorsalwards into the middle of the conjoined nervous mass Fie. 9. JOTOCHORD NOTOCHORD —S Oral Cuma tee ec A.—Median sagittal section through head of young Thelyphonus. B— ,, 5. a Pe a ES Ammoceete (after Kuppfer). C- 4, A t, ig » full-grown Ammoccete (after Kuppfer.) of the supra- and infra-cesophageal ganglia. There the nasal tube ends blindly at the spot where the infundibular tube lies on the surface of the brain. Further, the topography of corresponding parts is absolutely the same in the two animals: in the dorsal middle line the rostrum, with the two median eyes near its extremity ; in the corresponding position the two pineal eyes ; below this, in the middle line, the camerostome: corresponding to it in the Ammoceetes the olfactory TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 965 protuberance; then the modification of the median projections of the foremost ventral appendages—the pedipalpi—to form the hypostoma, in the corresponding position the upper lip or hood of Ammoccetes, which forms the hypostoma as far as the hypophysial tube or palzostoma is concerned, but an upper lip as far as the new mouth is concerned. The muscles of this upper lip belong all to the splanch- nic and not to the somatic group, and are innervated by the appropriate nerve of the prosomatic appendages, viz. the motor part of the Vth. Ventral to the pedi- palpi in Thelyphonus there is nothing, ventral to the corresponding lip in the Ammoceetes is the lower lip, and we have seen that, although such a structure is absent in the land scorpions of the present day, it was present in the sea scorpions of old time, was known as the metastoma, and is supposed to be a forward growth which started at the junction of the prosoma with the mesosoma. Precisely corre- sponding to this we see from Kuppfer that the lower lip of Ammoccetes is a forward growth from the junction of the stomatodeum with the respiratory chamber. We see then, so far, that the comparison of the vertebrate nervous system with the conjoined central nervous system and alimentary canal of the arthropod has led to a perfectly consistent explanation of almost all the peculiarities of the head region of Ammoccetes. We have solved the segmentation of the skull and the mysteries of the cranial nerves, for we have found that the cranial segmentation of the vertebrate can be reduced to the segmentation of the prosomatic and mesoso- matic regions of the Limulus, that the cranial skeleton arose from the modified internal chitinous skeleton of the Limulus, that the new mouth was formed by the forward growth of the metastoma, leading to the formation of an oral chamber, while the old mouth remained as the hypophysial tube, guarded by its olfactory and taste organs. Search as we may in the prosomatic and mesosomatic regions of scorpion-like animals, there are but few points left for elucidation; among these the most important are, 1, the fate of the coelomic cavities and coxal gland ; 2, the fate of the heart ; 3, the fate of the external chitinous covering. Comparison of the Head Cavities of the Vertebrate with the Prosomatic and Mesosomatic Celomic Spaces of Limulus. A recent paper by Kishinouye ' on the development of Limulus enables us to compare the coelomic cavities in the head region of a vertebrate with those of the prosomatic and mesosomatic segments of Limulus, and we see that the comparison is wonderfully close ; for whereas each mesosomatic segment possesses a coelomic cavity, just as each of the segments of the branchial chamber supplied by the vagus, glosso- pharyngeal, and facial nerves possesses a coelomic cavity, this is not the case with the prosomatic segments. In these latter the first coelomic cavity isa large preeoral one, common to the segment of the first appendage and all the segments in front of it; the segments belonging to the second, third, and fourth appendages have no coelomic cavities formed in them, the second ccelomic cavity belongs to the segment of the fifth appendage. Similarly in the vertebrate in the region corresponding to the prosoma there are only two head cavities recognised, viz. the Ist przoral head cavity of Balfour and V. Wijhe ; and 2nd or mandibular head cavity, associated especially with the Vth nerve. According to my view the motor part of the Vth nerve represents the locomotor prosomatic appendages of Limulus, and we see that already in Limulus the three foremost of these appendages do not form cceelomic cavities. In fact, the agreement in the formation and position of the ccelomic cavities in the head region of the vertebrate and in the prosomatic and mesosomatic regions of Limulus could not well be more exact; further, these cavities agree in this, that in neither case are they permanent; both in the vertebrate and in the arthropod they are supplanted by vascular spaces. 1 Kishinouye, Jowrn. of Coll. of Sci. Tokio, vol. v. 1891. 966 REPORT—1896, Comparison of the Pituitary Gland with the Coxal Gland of Limulus. In connection with the second ccelomic cavity in Limulus is found an ancient gland, partially degenerated according to some views, which was probably excretory in function and has been considered as homologous to the crustacean green glands. In a precisely corresponding position, and presenting a structure fairly similar to that of the coxal gland of Limulus, we find in Ammoccetes and in other vertebrates the pituitary gland. How far this gland tissue is developed in connection with the mandibular head cavity I do not know, but I venture to suggest that the complete evidence of its homology with the coxal gland will be found in its developmental connection with the walls of the 2nd or mandibular head cavity. Comparison of the Vertebrate Heart and Ventral Aorta with the Ventral Longitudinal Branchial Sinuses of Limulus and its Allies. The heart of the vertebrate presents two striking peculiarities, which make it different from all invertebrate hearts: first, its developmental history is different; and, secondly, it is at first essentially a branchial rather than a systemic heart. The researches of Paul Mayer ! have shown that the subintestinal vein, from which in the fishes the heart and ventral aorta arise, is in its origin double, so that in all vertebrates the heart and ventral aorta arise from two long veins which are originally situated on each side of the middle line. By the formation of the head fold these come together ventrally, coalesce into a single tube to form the subintestinal vein and heart, still remaining double as the two ventral aortz with their branchial branches into each gill, as is well shown in the case of Ammoceetes. It is a striking coincidence that in Limulus and the Scorpions two large venous collecting sinuses are found situated in the same ventral position, for the same purpose of sending blood to the branchiw, as already described for the vertebrate ; still more striking is it to find, according to the researches of Milne Edwards and Blanchard, that these longitudinal sinuses have already begun to function as branchial hearts, for they are connected with the pericardium by a system of transparent muscles, described by Milne Edwards and named by Lankester veno- pericardiac muscles. These muscles are hollow, both near the vein and near the pericardium, so that the blood in each case fills the cavity, and, as they contract with the heart, that part of them in connection with the venous collecting sinus already functions, as pointed out by Milne Edwards and Blanchard, as a branchial heart. By this theory, then, even the formation of the vertebrate heart is prevised in Limulus, and I venture to think that in Ammoccetes we see the remnant of the old dorsal single heart of the arthropod in the form of that peculiar elongated organ composed of fattily degenerated tissue which lies between the spinal cord and the dorsal median skin. Comparison of the Cuticular and Laminated Layers of the Skin of Ammocetes with Chitinous Layers. The external epithelial cells of Ammoccetes possess a remarkably thick cuticular layer. The striated appearance of this layer is due to a number of pores through which the glandular contents of the cells are poured when the surface is made to secrete. That this striated appearance is due to true porous canals, just as in chitin, and not to a series of rods, is easily seen by the inspection of sections, and also by watching the secretion through them of rose-coloured granules when the living cell is stained with methylene blue. The surface layer of this cuticular layer, according to Wolff, resists reagents in the same manner as chitin. » Mayer, Mitth. a. d. Zool. St. zu Neapel, vol. vii. 2 Wolff, Jen. Zeitsehr. vol. xxiii. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 967 Internal to the epithelial cells of the skin of Ammoccetes is a remarkable layer of tissue, generally called connective tissue. It resembles, however, histo- logically, in the Ammoccetes, a section through chitin most closely ; the layers are perfectly regular and parallel; cells are found in it with great sparseness, and it is not until after transformation, when it is altered and invaded by new cell elements, that it can be looked upon as at all resembling connective tissue. It resembles chitin in its reaction to hypochlorite of soda. In order to completely dissect off this laminated layer from an Ammoceetes, all that is necessary is to place the animal in a weak solution of hypochlorite of soda, and in a short time it entirely disappears, bringing to view the muscles, branchial cartilages, pigment, front dorsal part of the central nervous system, &c., in a most striking manner. At present I am puzzled that so manifest a chitinous covering should lie internal to the epithelial cells of the surface; such a position is not, however, unknown among invertebrates, and may be accounted for in various ways. For the sake of clearness I will sum up before you in the form of a table the corresponding parts in Ammoccetes and in Limulus and its allies, as far as I have discussed them up to the present, from which you will see that there is not a single organ which is present in the prosomatic and mesosomatic regions of Limulus and its allies which is not found in the corresponding situation and of corresponding structure in Ammoccetes. Table of Coincidences between Limulus and its Allies, and between Ammocetes and Vertebrates. LIMULUS AND ITS ALLIES. AMMOC@TES AND VERTEBRATES. Central Nervous System. Supra-cesophageal ganglia. . Cevebral hemispheres. Optic part. ; H . Optic thalami, ganglia habenule, &c. Olfactory part é : . Olfactory l»bes. (Esophageal commissures . - Crura cerebri. Infra-cesophageal ganglia. . Epichordal brain. Prosomatic ganglia P - Hind brain, cerebellum, post-corp. quadrig. Mesosomatic ganglia, - Medulla oblongata. Ventral chain. Metasomatic ganglia. - Spinal cord. Alimentary Canal. Cephalic stomach , ° ° . Ventricular cavities of brain. Straight intestine e : - Central canal of spinal cord. Terminal part 2 : . Neurenteric canal. Qsophagus . : 5 : . Infundibular tube and saccus vasculosus. Mouth tube . F : ‘ . Hypophysial tube, later nasal canal. Liver . . Part of subarachnoideal glandular tissue. Appendages and Appendage Nerves. Prosomatic or locomotor append- ages . Pp : “ . Appendages of oral chamber or stoma- todzum. Foremost appendages . - Upper lip and tentacles. Last appendages , - - Velar appendage and median ventral tentacle. Metastoma . : : - Lower lip. Nerves of prosomatic appendages. Various branches of Vth nerve. Mesosomatic or branchial append- ages . A - : . Appendages of branchial chamber. Opercular appendages . . Appendage innervated by VIIth nerve. Genital part . : . ‘Thyroid glandand pseudo-branchial groove. Branch. part . i - Hyobranchial. Basal part - : . Septum of stomatodzum. Branchial appendages Branchial appendages innervated by IXth and Xth nerves. Speciai Sense Organs and Nerves. Lateral eyes and optic nerves . Lateral eyes and optic nerves. Median eyes and nerves j . Pineal eyes and nerves. 968 Camerostoma and olfactory nerves Flabellum and nerve REPORT—1896. Olfactory organ and Ist nerve. Auditory organ and VIIIth nerve. Epimeral nerves to surface of pro- soma and mesosoma > Internal and External Skeleton. Internal skeleton. Branchial cartilages . Entapophysial cartilaginous ligaments Fibro-massive tissue (fore- runner of cartilage or ‘ Vorknorpel’). External skeleton. Chitinous layer Sensory part of Vth nerve. Branchial cartilages. Subchordal cartilaginous ligaments. Muco-cartilage or ‘ Vorknorpel.’ Cuticular layer on surface of body and subepithelial laminated layer. Excretory Organs and Calomic Cavities. Coxal gland . Ist head cavity, preoral 2nd head cavity. Cavity of pro- somatic segments Cavities to each mesosomatic segment. : . Heart and Vascular System. Dorsal heart . ; Longitudinal venous sinuses | ‘ Lacunar blood spaces of ap- pendages . . : ‘ Pituitary gland. Ist head cavity, proral. 2nd head cavity, mandibular. Cavities of hyoid and branchial segments. Column of fatty tissue dorsal to spinal cord. Heart and ventral aorte. Lacunar blood spaces in velar and branchial appendages. The Possible Meaning of the Notochord. Although we can say that every structure and organ in the prosomatic and mesosomatic regions of Limulus, &c., is to be found in the head region of Ammo- coetes, we cannot assert the reverse proposition, that every organ in the head region of Ammocecetes is to be found in Limulus, &c., for we find a notable exception in the case of the notochord, a structure which is par excellence a vertebrate structure, and has in consequence given the current name to the group. Such a structure is clearly not to be found in Limulus and its allies; it has evidently arisen in connec- tion with the formation of the vertebrate alimentary canal from the oral and branchial chambers, and it evidently at one time possessed a functional significance, for the lower we descend in the vertebrate scale the more conspicuous it becomes. Unfortunately we know nothing of the condition of the notochord in the early extinct fishes, so that we are reduced to the embryological method of enquiry in our endeavours to find out the meaning of this organ. This method appears to point to the origin of the notochord from a tube connected with the alimentary canal, originally “therefore an accessory digestive tube; the reasons why such a view has been put forward are, first, the origin of the notochord from hypoblast ; secondly, the evidence that it is to a certain extent tubular; and thirdly, that it is an unsegmented tube extending from the oral to the anal regions of the body. Another argument, to my mind stronger than any other, is based on the principle that nature repeats herself, and if, therefore, we find the same proliferation of cells in the same place forming a series of solid notochordal rods, we may fairly argue that we are observing a series of repetitions of the same process for the same object. Now the formation of the head region of Petromyzon shows that at first a median proliferation of hypoblastic cells occurs to form the notochord, which then separates off from the hypoblast; later on a similar proliferation takes place to form the subnotochordal rod, which similarly separates off from the hypoblast ; later still, at the time of transformation, a third median proliferation of the cells of the hypoblast takes place, to form a solid rod of cells. This solid rod then com- mences to hollow out at the end nearest the intestine, and the hollowing out TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 969 process extends gradually to the oral end, until a hollow tube is formed connecting the mouth with the intestine. In this way the new gut of the adult Petromyzon is formed from a solid median rod of cells closely resembling in its formation the original notochord. I put it forward therefore as a suggestion, that in the ancient times when the Merostomata were lords of creation and the competition was keen among these ancient arthropod forms, in which the nervous system was so arranged that increase of brain substance tended more and more to compress the food channel, and therefore to compel to the suction of liquid food instead of the mastication of solid, accessory digestive apparatuses were formed, partly in connection with the formation of the oral and respiratory chambers, and partly by means of the formation of the notochord. Of these accessory methods of digestion the former became permanent, while the latter becoming filled up with the peculiar notochordal tissue became a supporting structure, still showing by its unsegmented character its original function. That a tube formed from the external surface either as notochord or as the respiratory portion of the alimentary canal in Ammoccetes should be capable of acting as a digestive tube is clear from the researches of Miss Alcock,’ for she has shown that the secretion of the skin of Ammoceetes easily digests fibrin in the presence of acid. Such a secretion, like the similar secretion of the carapace of Daphnia and other crustaceans, was originally for the purpose of keeping the skin clean. The evidence which I have put before you is in agreement with the conclusion that the fore gut of the vertebrate arose gradually from a chamber formed by the lamellar branchial appendages, which functioned also as a digestive chamber. By the growth of the lower lip, or metastoma, and the modification of the basal portion of the last locomotor appendage, which basal part was inside the lower lip, into a valvular arrangement like the velum, the animal was able to close the opening into the respiratory chamber and feed as blood-sucker in the way of the rest of its kind, or, when living food was scarce, keep itself alive by the organic material taken into its respiratory chamber with the muddy water in which it lived. The Possible Formation of the Vertebrate Spinal Region. It remains to briefly indicate the evidence as to the formation of the rest of the alimentary canal and the spinal region of the body. The problems connected with the formation of this region are of a different nature from those already considered in connection with the cranial region. In the cranial region the variation that has taken place within the verte- brate group and in the course of the formation of the vertebrate is, on the whole, of the nature called by Bateson substantive, ze. increase or suppression ef parts, while throughout the parts remain constant in their relations to each other. It matters not whether it is frog, fish, bird, or mammal we are considering ; we always find the same cranial nerves supplying the same segments. When we consider the spinal cord and its immediate junction with the cranial region, this is no longer so; here we find a repetition of similar segments, with great variation in the amount of that repetition ; here we find the characteristic feature is meristic variation rather than substantive, and so indetermined is the vertebrate in this respect that even now the same species of animal varies in the number of its segments and in the arrangement of its nerves. In this part of the vertebrate body this repetition is seen not only in the central nervous system and its nerves, but also in the excretory organs, so that embryology teaches us that the vertebrate body has grown in length by a series of repetitions of similar segments formed between the head end and the tail end; such lengthening by repetition of segments has been accompanied by the elongation of the unsegmented gut, of the unsegmented notochord, and of the unsegmented neural canal, To put it shortly, all the evidence points to and confirms the view so strongly urged by Gegenbauer, that the head region is the oldest part and the spinal : ' Alcock, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. vol. vii. 1891, 1896. 3R 970 REPORT—1896. region an afterthought, that the attempt so often made to find vertebre and spinal nerves in the cranial region is an attempt to put the cart in front of the horse—to obtain youth from old age. Wemay, it seems to me, fairly argue from the sequence of events in the embryology of: vertebrates that the primitive vertebrate form was chiefly composed of the head region, and that between the head and the tail was a short body region. In other words, the respiratory chamber and the cloacal region were originally close together, just as would be the casein Limulus if the branchial appendages formed a closed chamber. According, then, to my view, there would be no difficulty in the respiratory chamber opening originally into the cloacal region, z.c. the same cloacal yegion into which the neurenteric canal already opened. The short junction tube thus formed would naturally elongate with the elongation of the body, and, as it originally was part of the respiratory chamber, it equally naturally is innervated by the vagus nerve. This, then, is the explana- tion of that most extraordinary fact, viz. that a nerve essentially branchial should innervate the whole of the intestine except the cloacal region. Whether this is the true explanation of the formation of the mid-gut of the vertebrate cannot be tested directly, but certain corollaries ought to follow: we ought to find, on the ground that the sequence of the phylogenetic history is repeated in the embryo, that, 1, the growth in length of the embryo takes place between the cranial and sacral regions by the addition of new segments from the cranial end; 2, the formation of the fore-gut and hind-eut ought to be completed while the mid-gut is still an undifferentiated mass of yolk cells; 3. the cloacal region ought to be innervated from the sacral nerves, while the stomach, mid-gut and its appendages, liver and pancreas, ought to be innervated from the vagus. The first proposition is a well-known embryological fact. The second pro- position is also well known for all vertebrates, and is especially well exemplified in the embryological development of Ammoccetes, according to Shipley. The third proposition is also well known, and has received valuable enlargement in the recent researches of Langley and Anderson.! Further, we see that in this part of the body the ancestor of the vertebrate must have had a ccelomic cavity the walls of which were innervated, not from the mesosomatic nerves or respiratory nerves, but from the metasomatic group of nerves; and in connection with this body cavity there must have existed a kidney apparatus, also innervated by the metasomatic nerves; with the repetition of segments by which the elongation of the animal was brought about the body cavity was elongated, and the kidney increased by the repetition of similar excretory organs. All, then, that is required in the original ancestor in order to obtain the permanent body cavity and urinary organs charac- teristic of the vertebrate is to postulate the presence of a permanent body cavity in connection with a single pair of urinary tubes in the metasomatic region of the body. As yet I have not worked out this part of my theory, and am therefore strongly disinclined to make any assertions on the subject. I should like, however, to point out that, according to Kishinouye,”? a permanent body cavity does exist in this part of the body in spiders, known by the name of the stercoral pocket; into this coelomic cavity the excretory Malphigian tubes open. The Paleontological Evidence, It is clear, from what has already been said, that the paleeontological evidence ought to show, first, that the vertebrates appeared when the waters of the ocean were peopled with the forefathers of the Crustacea and Arachnida, and, secondly, the earliest fish-like forms ought to be characterised by the presence of a large cephalic part to which is attached an insignificant body and tail. Such was manifestly the case, for the earliest fish-like forms appear in the midst of and succeed to the great era of strange proto-crustacean animals, when the sea swarmed with Trilobites, Eurypterus, Slimonia, Limulus, Pterygotus, Ceratiocaris, and a number of other semi-crustacean, semi-arachnid 1 Langley and Anderson, Journ. of Physiology, vols. xviii. xix. 2 Kishinouye, Journ. of Coll. of Sci, Tokio, vol. iv. 1890, vol. vi. 1894, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 971 creatures. When we examine these ancient fishes we find such forms as Pteraspis, Pterichthys, Astrolepis, Bothriolepis, Cephalaspis, all characterised by the enormous disproportion between the extent of the head region and that of the body. Such forms would have but small power of locomotion, and further evolution consisted in gaining greater rapidity and freedom of movements by the elongation of the abdominal and tail regions, with the result that the head region became less and less prominent, until finally the ordinary fish-like form was evolved, in which the head and gills represent the original head and branchial chamber, and the flexible body, with its lateral line nerve and intestine innervated by the vagus nerve, represents the original small tail-like body of such a form as Pterichthys. Nay, more, the very form of Pterichthys and the nature of its two large oar-like- appendages, which, according to Traquair, are hollow, like the legs of insects, sug- gest a form like Eurypterus, in which the remaining locomotor appendages had shrunk to tentacles, as in Ammoccetes, while the large oar-like appendages still remained, coming out between the upper and lower lips and assisting locomotion. The Ammoccetes-like forms which in all probability existed between the time of Eurypterus and the time of Pterichthys have not yet been found, owing possibly to the absence of chitin and of bone in these transition forms, unless we may count among them the recent find by Traquair of Paleeospondylus Gunni. The evidence of paleontology, as far as it goes, confirms absolutely the evi- dence of anatomy, physiology, phylogeny, and embryology, and assists in forming a perfectly consistent and harmonious account of the origin of vertebrates, the whole evidence showing how Nature made a great mistake, how excellently she rectified it, and thereby formed the new and mighty kingdom of the Vertebrata. Consideration of Rival Theories. Tn conclusion I would ask, What are the alternative theories of the origin of vertebrates? It is a strange and striking fact how often, when a comparative anatomist studies a particular invertebrate group, he is sure to find the vertebrate at the end of it: it matters not whether it is the Nemertines, the Capitellide, Balanoglossus, the Helminths, Annelids, or Echinoderms ; the ancestor of the verte- brate is bound to be in that particular group. Verily I believe the Mollusca alone have not yet found a champion. On the whole I imagine that two views are most prominent at the present day—(1) to derive vertebrates from a group of animals in which the alimentary canal has always been ventral to the nervous system; and (2) to derive vertebrates from the appendiculate group of animals, especially annelids, by the supposition that the dorsal gut of the latter has become the ventral gut of the former by reversion of surfaces. Upon this latter theory, whether it is Dohrn or van Beneden or Patten who attempts to homologise similar parts, it is highly amusing to see the hopeless confusion into which they one and all get, and the extraordinary hypotheses put forward to explain the fact that the gut no longer pierces the brain. One favourite method is to cut off the most important part of the animal, viz. his supra-cesophageal ganglia, then let the mouth open at the anterior end of the body, turn the animal over, so that the gut is now ventral, and let a new brain, with new eyes, new olfactory organs, grow forward from the infra-cesophageal ganglia. Another ingenious method is to separate the two supra-cesophageal ganglia, let the mouth tube sling round through the separated ganglia from ventral to dorsal side, then join up the ganglia and reverse the animal, The old attempts of Owen and Dohrn to pierce the dorsal part of the brain with the gut tube either in the region of the pineal eye or of the fourth ventricle have been given up as hopeless. Still the annelid theory, with its reversal of surfaces, lingers on, even though the fact of the median pineal eye is. sufficient alone to show its absolute worthlessness. Then, as to the other view, what a demand does that make upon our credulity! We are to suppose that a whole series of animals has existed on the earth, the development of which has run parallel with that of the great group of appendiculate animals, but throughout the group the nervous system has always been dorsal to the alimentary canal. Of this great group no trace remains, either alive at the 3R2 972 REPORT—1896. present day or in the record of the rocks, except one or two aberrant, doubtful forms, and the group of Tunicates and Amphioxus, both of which are to be looked upon as degenerate vertebrates, and indeed are more nearly allied to the Ammo- ccetes than to any other animal. This hypothetical group does not attempt to explain any of the peculiarities of the central nervous system of vertebrates; its advocates, in the words of Lankester, regard the tubular condition of the central nervous system as in its origin a purely developmental feature, possessing no phylogenetic importance. Strange power of mimicry in nature, that a tube so formed should mimic, in its terminations, in its swellings, in the whole of its topo- graphical relations to the nervous masses surrounding it, the alimentary canal of the other great group of segmented animals so closely as to enable me to put before you so large a number of coincidences. Just imagine to yourselves what we are required to believe! We are to suppose that two groups of animals have diverged from a common stock some- where in the region of the Ccelenterata, that each group has become segmented and elongated, but that throughout their evolution the one group has possessed a ventral mouth, with a ventral nervous system end a dorsal gut, while in the other—the hypothetical group—the mouth and gut have throughout been ventral and the nervous system dorsal. Then we are further to suppose that, without being able to trace the steps of the process, the central nervous system in the final members of this hypothetical group has taken on a tubular form of so striking a character that every part of this dorsal nerye-tube can be compared to the dorsal alimentary tube of the other great group of segmented animals. The plain, straightforward interpretation of the facts is what I have put before you, and those who oppose this interpretation and hold to the inviolability of the alimentary canal are, it seems to me, bound to give asatisfactory explanation of the vertebrate nervous system and pineal eye. The time is coming, and indeed has come, when the fetish-worship of the hypoblast will give way to the acknowledgment that the soul of every individual is to be found in the brain, and not in the stomach, and that the true principle of evolution, without which no upward progress is possible, consists in the steady upward development of the central nervous system. In conclusion, I would like to quote a portion of the last letter which I ever received from Professor Huxley ; his words, in reference to this very subject, were as follows: ‘Go on and prosper, there is nothing in the world of science half so good as an earthquake hypothesis, if it only serve to show the firmness of the foundations on which we build.’ I have given you the earthquake hypothesis ; it is for those of you who oppose my conclusions to prove the firmness of your foundations. THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1i. The following Papers and Report were read :— 1. The Genesis of Vowels. By R. J. Luoyn, D.Lit., A. After a general description of the vocal organs, the author classified vocal sounds according to origin as follows :— 1. Glotial (originating from the glottis). 2. Stomatic (originating from the stoma, or voice-passage), 3. Glotto-stomatic (originating from both simultaneously). Class 2 may also be called toneless; but the others always either possess tone or are whispered. Class 2 cannot, strictly speaking, be either intoned or whispered. The movable units of speech (corresponding roughly to the letters of the alpbabet) are called phones, Phones are either vowels or consonants. The received division is somewhat arbitrary. Any phone which is the most sonorous phone in a syllable is the vowel of that syllable. There is hardly any phone which does not function in some locution of some language asa vowel. In the English words able, bitten, paddled, hadn't, 1 and n are yowels, but we are afraid TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 973 to call them so, because the Zatin grammar forbids it. It is clear from their function that the best phones for vowels must always be the strongest phones. The strongest phones all belong to Class 1, because here only does the larynx vibrate with perfect freedom. But there are wide differences within this class. The sounds of m, n, and 2g, issuing only through the nostrils, are obstructed by insufficiency of exit, and the same applies to the sounds of J, untrilled 7, conso- nantaly, and w, Thus good vowels are limited to glottal phones possessing a sufficient exit. There is still a further limitation. The number of possible vocalic articulations is infinite. The number of articulations which produce vowels possessing a definite individuality of timbre is very few. These are the useful vowels, the cardinal vowels of human speech [Diagrams of the articulations of English long vowels were here exhibited]. Vowels produced in other positions are much more feebly differentiated to the ear. In a paper read at the Cardiff meeting in 1891, the author laid down as the first law of vowel-production Like articulations produce itke vowels in all organisms, great or small. He now discussed the converse pro- position, and showed its limitations: (1) in different individuals, (2) in the same individual on different occasions. He then discussed the differences between sung and spoken vowels, and concluded by pointing out the occasional effects of the uvula, the nose, and the trachea on vowels. 2. The Interpretation of the Phonograms of Vowels. By R. J. Luoyp, D.Lit., WA. Following up his papers ‘On the Analysis of Vowel-Sounds,’ read at Cardiff in 1891, and ‘On the Genesis of Vowels,’ read at the present Meeting, the author proceeded to discuss the phonographic evidence which has become accessible in the last five years, and the right principles of its interpretation. Their general result is to confirm the theory then advanced by the author, that a given vowel is essentially distinguished by the interval or ratio between its resonances and not by their actual pitch. Detailed results were exhibited in a table. The figures of actual pitch therein given are true only of full-sized male organisms, articulating widely, as in singing. In actual speech the air-spaces are more or less compressed and the resonances are higher. This is especially true of the middle members, marked c in the series. This letter c (=circa) indicates also in the same vowels a resonance which spreads some distance both ways from the value given. The identification of the 8-resonances with those of the mouth is fairly certain; that of the a-resonances with those of the pharynx is more tentative, and subject to certain qualifications, especially in the latter half of the table. The y-resonance seems special to the a vowels, and is perhaps due to the trachea, 3. Report on Physiological Applications of the Phonograph. See Reports, p. 669. 4. On a New Method of Distingwishing between Organic and Inorganic Compounds of Iron in the Tissues. By Professor A. B. Macatium, V.B., Ph.D., Toronto. The reagents hitherto at the service of the physiologist for distinguishing between organic and inorganic iron compounds have not enabled the investigator to determine whether iron compounds in the foetal liver, the placenta and spleen, which react almost immediately with ammonium sulphide, are of inorganic or organic nature. An additional reagent is to be found in an absolutely pure aqueous solution of hematoxylin, which gives a yellow colour to all preparations of tissues, but when inorganic iron compounds are present these change the colour to blue or bluish-black. Organic iron compounds have no effect on the reagent, 974. REPORT—1896. 5. On the Different Forms of the Respiration in Man. By W. Marcet, .D., LBS. The different forms may be thus stated :—- 1. Normal, automatic (unconscious) breathing. 2. Forced breathing 8. Breathing in exercise. 4, Breathing under the influence of a strong effort of volition. Forced breathing.—If a succession of deep inspirations be taken, the tracing rises much more steeply than normal, a pause (apnoea) follows, and then breathing returns increased beyond normal, after which the line returns parallel to normal. Forced breathing includes sneezing, and sighing, and yawning. Exercise breathing.—In exercise such as stepping, the line rises more steeply than normal, there is no pause or cessation of exercise, but the line continues steeper than normal for some time and gradually returns parallel to normal. Volition breathing.—If the volition be exercised strongly towards muscular work of some kind, though with the musclesat rest, the volume of the air inspired is increased beyond the normal. On dropping the effort of volition a respiratory pause follows, and then increased breathing and gradual return to normal, the tracing taking much the same direction as in forced breathing. If, however, the volition be directed towards the respiration there is no pause, but the line returns parallel to normal almost directly. Volition for any kind of muscular exercise produces the pause, but when the attention is directed towards the respiration there is no apnoea. ; Even when exercise such as stepping or gyrating the arms is taken, when the volition is exerted as strongly as possible towards the exercise,on dropping the effort of volition, even though the exercise be continued, the pause is still strongly marked. The only possible explanation of the occurrence of the pause is that when the attention is directed towards the respiration only one brain centre is concerned, and hence when the effort of volition is dropped no time is lost before the centre of respiration asserts itself; whereas when the volition is exerted towards some form of exercise, two brain centres are concerned, and on dropping the effort of volition, some time (a few seconds) is lost before the centre of respiration has shaken off the influence of the centre of locomotion; and it is to this that the pause must be due, and not any excess of oxygen in the blood, as the automatic respiration of 50 per cent. oxygen produces no pause. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18. The following Papers were read :— 1. The Occurrence of Lever in Mice. By Professor J. Lorrain Suiru, IA., ILD., Queen’s College, Belfast, and F. F. Wesproox, JZ.D., Minneapolis, U.S.A. Krehl’s investigation on the production of fever in various species of animals has proved that a great difference exists in the extent to which some of the smaller mammals react to fever-producing substances. It is comparatively easy, he found, to produce fever in rabbits. Guinea-pigs and dogs were more resistent, and in the case of the hedgehog it was impossible, so far as his research was carried, to pro- duce the condition at all. Similar results were obtained with pigeons and chickens. The present research attempts to discover whether in the case of mice the same difficulty in the production of fever exists; and, if so, whether thereis at the same me an absence of the changes in metabolism which in other animals accompany ever. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 975 A variety of microbes were used, including B. pyocyancus, B. anthracis, B. murisepticus, and hay infusion. These were used in various degrees of virulence, but whether the rapidly fatal form or that which was more attenuated was inoculated, in no case did the effects include a rise in temperature. In three of the mice the respiratory exchange, and in five others the respiratory and nitrogenous exchanges, were observed. The temperature of the mouse varies from 35° C. to 39-2° C., and the average of seventy observations on normal mice, living in ordinary conditions, was 37°6° C. The highest temperature we obtained in inoculated mice was 40° C., and this we observed only once. ’ The variations in respiratory exchange were never so great as to be compared with those which can be obtained by giving food, or especially those due to vary- ing the temperature of the surrounding air. As regards nitrogen it is possible in the case of mice to approximate very closely to balance in the normal condition. In the case of infected mice there was never obtained any increase in the excretion of nitrogen sufficient to warrant us in inferring that the metabolism had been disturbed. The food supplied to the mice was dog biscuit, and with this the amount of nitrogen consumed per kilo was somewhere about twenty times as great as that taken by man per kilo (19°58 per kilo being the average). This result is important, inasmuch as the gaseous exchange in the two cases shows an almost similar ratio. Since the demands for heat production in the economy of the mouse must be enormously greater than those in man this result throws some doubt on any attempt to regard the oxidation of carbon, &c., as exclusively concerned in heat production. The conclusion involves the severance between fever and the infectious process in some of the most susceptible animals, and indicates anew the necessity of study- ing the occurrence of this condition in the separate species. 2. The Physiological Effects of ‘ Peptone’ when Injected into the Circulation. By Professor W. H. Tuompson, I.D., Queen’s College, Belfast. This communication dealt with two of the effects of Witte’s ‘ peptone ’ when introduced into the system of the dog by intravenous injection, viz. (1) Its influence on the rapidity of blood coagulation, and (2) the manner in which this substance brings about its well known vascular dilatation. The animals were anesthetised in the first place by a hypodermic injection of morphine and atropine, and subsequently, when necessary, by chloroform or a mixture of chloroform and ether. Curare was administered in certain cases, A solution of Witte’s ‘peptone’ in 0°7 per cent. sodium chloride was then rapidly injected into the femoral vein, blood-pressure being recorded from the carotid artery. The results obtained were :— 1. That Witte’s peptone in doses below two centigrammes per kilo hastens blood-coagulation, while in larger doses retardation of this process is caused, as other observers have found. 2. That this substance produces a fall of blood-pressure in doses as low as fifteen or even ten milligrammes per kilo. Differences between these results and those of others, in regard to the magnitude of the dose, probably depend on differ- ences in the rate of injection employed. When slowly injected considerable quantities may be introduced without affecting blood-pressure. 5. That the fall of blood-pressure produced by this substance is due to a peripheral dilating influence on the blood-vessels. No ‘central’ influence has so far been proved. 4. That the vascular dilatation is not confined to the splanchnic area, but extends to other blood-vessels as well. 5. Thatethe peripheral dilating influence is brought about by depressing the irritability of the neuro-muscular apparatus of the blood-vessels, rendering it ‘irresponsive to vaso-constricting impulses, 976 : REPORT—1896. G. It is probable that the depression of irritability is chiefly limited to the nervous segment of the neuro-muscular couple, In arriving at the above results the following series of experiments were per- formed :— Series a, in which the effects of small doses on blood-coagulation and blood- pressure were observed. Series 4, in which the effects of ‘peptone’ on blood-pressure after section of the spinal cord were observed. Series c, in which its effects on blood-pressure during excitation of the spinal cord (after section) were studied. Series d, in which its influence on blood-pressure during excitation of the great splanchnics (after section) was noted. Series e, in which its effects on blood-pressure were recorded, the great splanchnics being severed and the spinal cord excited (after section) during and subsequent to the injection. The research was carried out in Monsieur Dastre’s laboratory at the Sorbonne, Paris. 3. On the Nerves of the Intestine and the Effects of Small Doses of Nicotine upon them. By J. L. Buncn, ILD., BSc. (From the Physiological Laboratory, University College, London.) 1. Description of method adopted in the research for recording movements of the intestine, 2. When means are taken to eliminate its action on the heart, stimulation of the peripheral cut end of the vagus is found not to influence the intestinal movements (Dog, Cat). * 3. The splanchnics probably contain fibres causing both contraction and dilatation of the intestine. Stimulation of the peripheral cut end usually causes contraction ; rarely dilatation, never simple inhibition of movements. 4. The nerve roots which cause the maximum effect on the intestine when electrically stimulated are the 8th to 13th post-cervical. 5. Intravenous injection of small doses of nicotine puts the nerve roots out of action before the splanchnics; there is probably, therefore, a cell station for these fibres in the ganglia of the chain. 4. On the Effect of Peritonitis on Peristalsis. By A. S. Grinbaum, M.A., MB. (Cantab.), M_R.C.P. Peritonitis was excited in rabbits by the injection of turpentine and other substances into the peritoneal cavity. The peristalsis was examined in the first instance through the shaved abdominal wall, and subsequently, by opening the abdomen with the animal immersed in normal saline solution at 38° to 39° C. In the first twenty-four hours the peristalsis of both large and small intestine was increased; it then gradually diminished until complete paralysis resulted in about four days. The large intestine became paralysed before the small intestine. 5. The Glucoside Constitution of Proteid Matter. By ¥F. W. Pavy, 1D., LL.D., FR.S. Glucosides have long been known to chemists as a class of bodies which by the agency of ferments, or by the action of acids and alkalies, and even to a slight extent of water at elevated temperatures, undergo a cleavage or disruption with a carbohydrate as one of the products. Until recently it is only in connection with the vegetable kingdom that these TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 977 bodies have been recognised as existing, but it can now be said that it will probably be found that they play an important part as constituents of the animal economy, They are met with as bodies presenting all grades of complexity of composition, In some, of which salicin may be adduced as an example, only the three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are present. In others, of which amygdalin is an example, the four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, exist. In myronie acid, a glucoside obtainable from the seed of the black mustard, we have the four elements that have been named, with the addition of sulphur. ‘hese are bodies of comparatively simple composition, and from them advance can be made to the complex bodies forming the basis of living matter. Mucin, found not only in mucus, but forming also a constituent of connective tissue, was a short time ago shown by Landwehr to fall in the category of glucosides. In my ‘ Physiology of the Carbohydrates,’ published in 1894, p. 27 ct seq., I supplied evidence showing that proteid matter generally, alike of the animal and vegetable kingdoms of nature, is in constitution a glucoside. As mentioned in the work referred to, I was led to this discovery in the course of my quantitative examination of the various structures of the body for glycogen, ‘lhe process I had for many years adopted consisted of dissolving by boiling with potash, pouring into alcohol, collecting the precipitate, converting into glucose with sulphuric acid, and titrating with the copper test. I had been regarding the product derived from the structures as consisting of glycogen, but I subsequently learnt that it was influenced in quantity by duration of the exposure in contact with potash, and by the strength of the potash solution employed. If glycogen only had constituted the source of the product obtained, the cir- cumstances ought to have been otherwise. The treatment with potash should have produced no eflect beyond dissolving the associated nitrogenous matter and placing it in a position to be separable by the agency of the alcohol, and no difference in the amount of product obtained should have resulted from varying the strength of the alkali or the length of time of contact. The conclusion became inevitable that there must be something besides glycogen to give rise to the result, and the only feasible conclusion was that an amylose carbohydrate was derived from a cleavage of the proteid molecule. Having found that from a variety of proteids drawn from both animal and vegetable sources I could obtain carbohydrate, evidently derivable from a breaking- up of the proteid, and it is to be said in no insignificant amount, I took purified egg albumen as a material for the further study of the subject. Summarily, it may be stated, as the result of this study, that by the agency of potash an amylose carbohydrate, corresponding with Landwehr’s animal gum, is procurable, which is convertible by sulphuric acid into a body giving the various characteristic reactions of sugar. By the direct action of sulphuric acid sugar at once is yielded, and the same occurs as a result of pepsin digestion. Details are given in full upon these points in my work, to which I have already referred; and in my ‘ Epicriticism’ (Churchill, 1895) analytical evidence is sup- plied from the laboratory of Mr. Ling, affording conclusive proof that the osazone obtainable from the product is a sugar osazone. Since the publication of my results I have found that they are to the fullest extent corroborated by analytical experiments performed by the distinguished chemist Schiitzenberger upwards of twenty years ago. Schiitzenberger studied the products arising from the breaking-up of egg albumen by strong chemical agents, and his paper on the subject is contained in the ‘ Bull. de la Soc, Chim. de Paris,’ vol. xxiii. (1875), p. 161. Speaking of the products derived from the treatment with sulphuric acid, he mentions a non-azotised body which energetically reduced Fehling’s solution, was precipitable by the ammoniated acetate of lead solution, and which, in his own words, ‘ parait étre de Ja glucose ou un corps analogue.’ Again, after exposing egg albumen with baryta to 100°C. for 120 hours, he obtained a non-azotised body, insoluble in alcohol, precipitable by the ammoniated 978 REPORT—1896. acetate of lead, not reducing Fehling’s solution, but transformable by boiling with sulphuric acid into a body which does so. Its elementary composition was found to be very close to that of dextrose, with which, remarks Schiitzenberger, it pre- sents the greatest analogy. Evidently, he continues, there is a connection between the body obtained in the experiments with baryta and the cupric oxide reducing substance obtained in the experiments with sulphuric acid. My own experiments were started upon grounds totally different from those which suggested the purely chemical investigation of Schiitzenberger. Sulphuric acid was used in common by us, but baryta took the place of the potash used by me. It is interesting to note the strict conformity traceable in the results, but persons have failed to see the importance of Schiitzenberger’s work, for till now all the attention it has received is a passing allusion here and there to the bare facts observed. That proteid matter, however, should thus constitute a glucoside is, I consider, a point of the deepest physiological interest, and that such should be its nature simply stands in harmony with what is to be learnt with respect to its formation. For instance, taking Pasteur’s experiments on the growth of yeast, irrefutable evidence is afforded that carbohydrate matter is appropriated in the construction of proteid. Pasteur showed that yeast cells freely multiply in a medium consisting of sugar, ammonium tartrate, the ash of yeast, and water. The growth that takes place implies a growth of cell protoplasm, and with it a corresponding formation of proteid matter. The ammonium nitrate, which contains no carbon, may be sub- stituted for the ammonium tartrate, and then absolutely the only source for the carbon of the proteid is the sugar that is present. Incorporated during its construction, the carbohydrate can be withdrawn, as I have shown, from proteid matter by the cleaving power of chemical and ferment action. The position we are thus placed in is this. The carbohydrate of our food is in part applied to the construction of proteid matter, and in this locked-up state may be conveyed to the tissues for their growth and renovation without running off as waste material through the kidney, as could not do otherwise than occur if it were conveyed as sugar in a free form, From the proteid of the tissues it may be cleaved off by ferment agency, and probably this is the source of the carbohydrate found to be present to a certain extent in a free state in connection with the various components of the body. There is no doubt that in the grave form of diabetes the sugar eliminated is derived, not only from the food, but also from the tissues, and the glucoside constitution of proteid matter fits in with and affords a ready explanation of the state of things, all that is wanted being the existence of the requisite ferment agency. 6. The Discharge of a Single Nerve Cell. By Professor F. Gotcu, /.A.S. The electrical organ of Malapterwrus electricus is innervated on each side by the axis-cylinder branches of a simple nerve cell. The response of the organ to stimulation presents characteristics which can only be explained on the assump- tion that it is the change in the nerve endings of these axis-cylinder branches, In consequence of these two facts, the time relations of the organ response to reflex stimulation afford grounds for deductions as to those of the single nerve cell dis- charge by which the response is evoked. These time relations may be divided into two classes: (1) The propagation time through the cell and its connections, ze. central delay ; (2) the periodicity of the excitatory changes issuing from the cell, z.e. reflex rhythm. 1, Experiments show with regard to the central delay, that it has a minimum of ‘01 second. ‘This delay is, in the opinion of the author, due to the character of the structural path, which in the central mechanism consists of (a) fine axis- cylinder branches of both afferent nerves and cell processes; (6) an unknown field of conjunction ; (c) the body of the nerve cell. In the efferent nerve branches a delay of ‘003 second exists both in muscles and in electrical organs, which is termed the nerve ending excitatory delay, If such delay, due to retarded propagation, is present in the central fine nerve TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 979 endings, then ‘006 second of the total time would be accounted for ; the remaining time would then be distributed over the other structures. 2. The rhythm of the electrical reflex responses is a slow one in Malapterurus with a maximal rate of 12 per second. Superimposed on this rhythm is a rapid peripheral organ rhythm due to self-excitation, and in no way due to central nervous discharge. . The rate of 12 per second is not often met with, and a series of this type has very few members, at most two or three. The most frequent rate is one of 4 per second. The number of members of even this slower type is limited to from two to six. The experiments thus show that the single nerve cell discharge can occur at 12 per second, but that it generally occurs at slower intervals, and in all cases rapidly fails. The contrast offered by these results to those of Torpedo, in which the central rhythm varies from 100 to 30 per second, suggests that the latter owes its rapid periodicity to the large number of nerve cells which innervate the Torpedo organ, and which are thrown into successive activity. SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19. The following Papers were read :— 1. On the Principles of Microtome Construction. By Cuar.es 8. Minot, Professor at the Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts. With the advance of biology, particularly in the domains of embryology and cytology, we have passed during the last twenty-five years through a complete revolution of methods, with the result that the microtome has become as indispen- sable as the microscope, and hence the construction of microtomes may fittingly eccupy the attention of the Physiological Section of this Association. _ The first object of a microtome is to make sections of even and known thickness ; the second object is to make sections in large numbers of uniform thickness ; the third object is to make sections rapidly. Finally, in recent years, there has been a growing and justified demand for microtomes to make good sections of great thinness, if possible not over one five-hundredth of a millimeter or two microns (0:002 mm.). Now, sections which vary more than one-tenth from their supposed thickness, can in the case of stained animal tissues be readily recognised by the naked eye as uneven, hence, it is obvious that the thinner the section the less must be the amount of absolute error in the cutting. For example, an error of 0:002 mm. is the maximum admissible for sections of 0:002 mm. (500 to a millimeter), though a much greater error would not be noticeable in sections of 0:01 mm. Applied to the microtome this means that a roughly made instrument is sufficient for thick sections, but the most perfect construction is necessary to secure a micro- tome for fine cutting. In the automatic microtome, worked by a revolving wheel, which I have devised, and which is now made in England, Germany and France, as well as in America, the attempt is made to secure mechanical perfection, and so far success- fully that sections of 1/300 mm. may be made with it. The microtome is, how- ever, adapted only to cutting objects imbedded in paraffin. The model shown is the latest American pattern, and has certain minor improvements which have increased the accuracy and precision of the instrument. A second microtome was also shown, which is novel in construction, and is suited for both paraffin and celloidine cutting. In designing this microtome precision was made the first object. The usual sources of error are—(1) in the bending of the knife; (2) the yielding of the object to be cut, chiefly because it is borne on an arm, which acts as a lever; (3) the ‘jumping’ of the sliding gear. All these defects are at their maximum in the Rivet type of microtome, of which 980 REPORT— 1896, the best known form is the Heidelberg or Thoma-Jung microtome. To obviate these errors we have :— 1, Arranged to clamp the knife at both ends, either placed transversely (paraffin cutting), or obliquely (celloidine cutting); also the knife is made very heavy and of the chisel type, not of the razor type. It is known that the razor is a worthless type for fine microtome knives, because the elasticity of the thin blade introduces a gross error, except of course with very small and soft objects. 2. We have provided a support for the object to be cut immediately under the object itself, and this support is very wide, thus reducing the possible tilting to an extreme minimum. 3. To prevent jumping, the knife is kept immovable, the object alone moves, and is clamped in the securest manner in the object-holder, while movable gibs fasten the carriage to the ways. The apparatus includes two forms of movement, one of which is entirely automatic, for raising the object. There are also simple devices for removing the alcohol, when that is used for cutting, without any of the liquid falling on the working gear. Other details need not be described, as they are mainly for con- venience in use. In working out the construction of the microtome, I have had the constant co-operation of Mr. Edward Bausch. His suggestions proved essential to the success achieved. The microtome has been placed upon the market by Messrs. Bausch & Lomb, of Rochester, New York. The price will probably be seventy to eighty dollars. 2. Fragments from the Autobiography of a Nerve. By A.W. Watter, JD., F.R.S. Principle of method.—The isolated living nerve is stimulated at regular intervals and the series of electrical responses graphically recorded; various chemical reagents alter the character of the response. The nerve is practically submitted to question and answer at regular short intervals, the question being constant and the answer varying with the state of the nerve. The method lends itself to a large range of inquiries, such as the action of anesthetics, narcotics, sedatives, stimulants, &c. Nerve-records were presented exhibiting that— 1. Chloroform is more toxic than ether. 2. Carbon dioxide is typically an anesthetic. 3. Nitrous oxide is inert. 4, The basic is more effective than the acid moiety of a neutral salt. (1llus- trated by records of potassium bromide, sodium bromide, potassium chloride.) 5. Illustrations of the action of alkaloids—morphine, atropine, aconitine, aconine, veratrine, curarine, digitaline. 3. Structure of Nerve Cells as Shown by Wax Models. By Gustav Mann, ID. Edin. General Method of Making Wax Models.—(1) Fix in picro-corrosive fluid (sp. gr. 1:020), take through alcohol and paraffin. (2) Make a complete series of sections of known thickness. (8) Multiply the thickness by the magnifying power used to ascertain the thickness of each wax plate to be used, e.g., thickness of sections=5 micromillimeters, the magnification = 1,000, therefore each section to be represented by a wax plate 5,000 micromillimeters or 5 millimeters. (4) The wax plates 1-2} mm. thick, and for fine processes paper or cardboard soaked in wax. (5) With camera lucida make accurate outlines of all portions of cell and and all processes whether of same cell to be represented or others. (6) The trans- ferring paper for tracing outlines on the wax plates. (7) With sharp pointed knife cut out cell and its processes, if the latter are detached from the body of the cell leave them joined by strips of wax, which must be removed after fitting the various : TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 981 sections together. (8) Adjust wax plates in pairs, fix to one another by piercing with hot tools and continue this till cell built up. (9) Smooth outlines with hot brass instruments and give final touches with a knife, controlling each touch by carefully focussing in the microscope the level of the proximal and distal ends of each process. Some New Observations Obtained by this Method.—(1) The unipolar cells of spinal ganglia and multipolar cells of sympathetic ganglia are spherical or oval in the central parts of the ganglion and flattened parallel to the surface at the periphery of the ganglion. (2) The distal process of the bipolar cells from the spinal ganglion of the guinea-pig is thinner than the proximal process. (3) The cells from Clarks Column are frequently essentially bipolar, 7.e., one axis cylinder passes upwards and another downwards, while the dendritic processes are com- paratively very few and insignificant. (4)-The motor cells in the spinal cord have winglike processes. (5) In Malapterurus the cell body appears much broken up, because of the great development of the dendritic processes. Fritsch’s idea of a ‘ Bodenplatte’ from which the axis cylinder is supposed to spring is erroneous. This method of studying series of sections through the same cell has definitely shown tliat sensory, motor, and sympathetic nerve cells all possess an essential fibrillar structure, with chromatic granules lying between the fibrils. 4. Cell Granulations under Normal and Abnormal Conditions, with special reference to the Leucocytes. By R. A. M. Bucuanan, JL.D., Liverpool. Classification of granules :— 1, Normal cells with granules. 2. Granules of ingestion. 3. Granulation associated with the life-history of the cell. (a) Pigment granules. (6) Secretion granules, (ec) Abnormal granules of degeneration. (d) Specific granules of doubtful significance. Kanthack and Hardy’s classification of leucocytes was used as a foundation. There is considerable evidence to show that the granules of leucocytes are of definite formation, and analogous to secretion granules, They are not structural internodal points. In certain diseased conditions the granulation of one type of cell may so alter as to simulate another. Abnormal granulations may occur in the way of increase or decrease in amount or size, and histo-chemical reaction. Leucocytes may be classified according to the histo-chemical reactions of their granules into two main groups—(1) Oxyphile, and (2) Basophile. In the oxyphile group are included— (a) Finely granular oxyphile leucocytes. (6) Coarsely granular oxyphile leucocytes. (c) Myelocytes questionably. In the basophile group are included— (a) Lymphocytes : (6) Hyaline eeantal Leaded Siero (c) Finely granular basophile cells. (d) Coarsely granular basophile cells. Though definite distinctions exist in many ways between the members of each main group there is evidence to show that they are closely interdependent, and probably derivations from one definite ancestral group; the differences arising from environment, &c. 982 REPORT—1896. In certain abnormal conditions either group may be affected separately or together. Under abnormal conditions leucocytes are found exhibiting both oxyphile and basophile granulation at one time. 5, Some Points of Interest in Dental Histology. By F. Paur, £.R.C.S., Liverpool. The author sketched the development of teeth, and referred more in detail to various unsolved points. In regard to the enamel organ he explained the cavities or spaces frequently met with near the dentine as due to uncalcified processes of dentine matrix. All spaces or tubes in enamel were between and never within the prisms, and were due to imperfect calcification or absence of intercellular substance. In regard to calcification of dentine and enamel, he thought that the question of ‘conversion or secretion’ had caused the essential difference in the process as occurring in the two tissues to be overlooked. In enamel the change occurred in connection with the cells, whilst in dentine, as in other connective tissues, the change was effected by the cells on the intercellular matrix. He believed tubular enamel to be more common than was supposed, since in appear- ance it resembled dentine, though its tubular structure was due to a totally different reason ; indeed, tubular enamel was a negative picture of tubular dentine, the tubes being represented by the intercellular matter in enamel and by the cells in dentine. Another point which has been raised in regard to the enamel organ was the presence of blood-vessels in the enamel jelly. Professors Howes and Poulson have stated that this structure in the rat was vascular. The author had never yet seen a vessel inside the enamel organ. He believed the contrary cbservation was a mistake, and showed slides to explain how it might have originated. In some animals the stellate-celled connective tissue of the sac is almost indistinguishable from the stellate cells of the enamel organ, whilst the condensed tissue of the outer limit of the sac might easily be mistaken in small animals for the atrophying external enamel epithelium. This connective tissue is, of course, highly vascular, and if assumed to be the enamel jelly would lead to the error. The structure of Nasmyth’s membrane was another moot point. It was, how- eyer, readily shown to be an epithelial tissue if unworn fresh teeth were placed in a decalcifying phloroglucin solution for a few minutes, washed, stained in Ehrlich’s acid heematoxylin and washed again. On now peeling off and mounting the loose bits of membrane in Farrant’s solution they would be found to show epithelium with the nuclei well stained. Nasmyth’s membrane was without doubt a remnant of the external enamel epithelium, 6. The Effect of the Destruction of the Semicircular Canals upon the Movement of the Hyes. By Epcar Stevenson, JfD., Liverpool. The semicircular canals were destroyed on both sides in a small dog, an interval of some weeks being made between the operations on each side. Com- parison of the eye movements before and after one ear had been operated on showed a very marked difference in the mobility of the eyes. The right ear was first treated, and it was found that the right eye lost about three-quarters of its - power of movement in any direction, the permanent position of the eye being a divergent squint, showing only very slight concomitant movements with the other eye. The results after the left ear had been operated on were even more striking, for now both eyes lost almost altogether the power of movement, the muscles supplied by the third nerve seeming to suffer most, a double divergent squint being now produced. The movements before and after operation were tested both by observation—the dog’s head being held fast and food being passed in front of him in various directions—and also graphically by means of Professor TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 983 Knoll’s ingenious apparatus, by which he recorded the eye movements in brain anemia. These observations may have some practical significance from the fact that there are some cases on record of impairment of the movements of the eyes in middle ear disease, and also from the fact that certain ophthalmic surgeons hold that Meniére’s disease, or auditory vertigo, is not due to a primary ear lesion, but to defective balance of the extrinsic muscular innervation of the eye. MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21. The President’s Address (see p. 942) was delivered, and was followed by a discussion on the ‘ Ancestry of the Vertebrata’ at a joint meeting of Sections D, H, and I. TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22. The following Papers were read :— 1. Photometry and Purkinje’s Phenomena. By Professor J, B. HAycrarr, 2. The Physical Basis of Life. By Professor F, J, Atuen, ID, Cantab, The most prominent function of living matter is what may be called Trading in Energy—i.e., the occlusion of radiant energy, storage thereof in the potential form, and subsequent dispersion in the form of heat, mechanical work, &c. The explanation of this function is to be sought in the peculiar properties of nitrogen. The most salient feature of nitrogen compounds is their liability to change their constitution under slight variations in the energy equilibrium of their surroundings, So wavering is the state of nitrogen under the conditions present on our planet, that it may be called the Critical Element. The importance of carbon must not, however, be underrated. Its main function is the storing of energy. In this function it is largely assisted by hydrogen. Oxygen is the medium of exchange between the three other elements just mentioned, The elements N, O, C, and H may be called the dynamic elements, because they are the chief agents in the trade in energy; but their action may be intimately dependent on the assistance of other elements present in living matter. The properties of living matter seem to indicate that— 1, Every vital phenomenon is due to a change in a nitrogenous compound, and _ indeed zm the nitrogen atoms of that compound. 2, There is no vital action without transfer of oxygen, and the transfer is per- formed by nitrogen (often assisted by iron). 3. In the anabolic action of light on plants, the nitrogen compounds are affected primarily and the CO, and water secondarily. 4, In the living and active molecule the nitrogen is centrally situated and often in the pentad state. In the dead molecule it is usually peripheral and in the triad state. 5. The oxygen store of the living molecule is more or less united with the nitrogen, but passes to some other element at death. 6. The nitrogen of the living molecule is combined in a compiex and perhaps changeable manner, the compound resembling in some respects the cyanogen compounds, in other respects the explosives such as nitroglycerine ; other analogies are also traceable, 984 REPORT—1896. In accounting for the first origin of life on this earth, the nitrogen theory does not require that the planet should have been at a former period, as Pfliiger suggests, ‘a glowing fire-ball.” The author prefers to believe that the circum- stances which support life would also favour its origin. The theory may, however, be extended to the whole universe. For, even if there be no other world where nitrogen is the critical element, yet other elements may be in the critical state on the moon, or Mars, or the sun, or even in unknown and unimagined regions of the universe. 3. The Réle of Osmosis in Physiological Processes. By Dr. Lazarus Bartow. 4. The Organisation of Bacteriological Research in Connection with Public Health. By Sims Woopnean, M.D., Director of the Conjoint Labora- tories of the Royal Colleges of Surgeons and Physicians, London. Dr. Woodhead pointed out that it was not an easy matter to define accurately where pure science ends and applied science begins, but he maintained that Pasteur, Lister, and Koch had all proved to demonstration that the most notable advances in our knowledge of the causes, prevention, and treatment of disease are extremely closely bound up with the increase in our knowledge of bacteriology, and he maintained that the practical needs in connection with the treatment and pre- vention of disease had been the prime moving forces in determining the lines on which great scientific advances had been made in the subject of bacteriology. Anyone who had followed the work of Pasteur, Koch, and such investigators would be struck by the fact that in every instance the work carried on and the results obtained were the outcome of a desire to find a means of removing some specific evil which was either commercially or through the public health crippling some section of the community. In the same way the development of the great principle of the antiseptic treatment of surgical wounds was the direct outcome of a desire on the part of Sir Joseph Lister to remedy those evils which had for so long a period crippled surgery, especially in our large hospitals. Turning to the value of bacteriological research in public health questions, he spoke of the work that had been done abroad in connection with the treatment of diphtheria, tetanus, rabies, snake-bite, and numerous other diseases, and pointed out what admirable work was being done in Government and municipally-supported foreign laboratories. In this country we have numerous laboratories in all our large Universities and University Colleges, but all are crippled by want of funds. Speaking of the work that had been done in this country, he mentioned the pathological laboratories of University College, Liverpool, Owens College, Man- chester, the British Institute of Preventive Medicine and the Laboratories of the ‘Conjoint Board of the Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons, London, where large numbers of investigations had been going on, and at the same time numerous questions concerning the public health, often raised by medical officers of health, had been worked out. In the University Colleges investigations on cholera, on ‘typhoid, diphtheria, tuberculosis, and similar subjects had been carried on; in the British Institute of Preventive Medicine similar work had been done, and various antitoxic serums had been prepared and distributed to medical men, and several most important questions connected with the bacteriology of water and sewage had been investigated with most satisfactory results. In the laboratories of the ‘Conjoint Board, with the work of which he was of course more specially ac- quainted, they had examined for the Metropolitan Asylums Board during last year 11,500 specimens from the throats of patients suspected to be suffering from diphtheria, while they had already examined nearly 11,000 specimens during the current year. They had prepared antitoxine for the treatment of these patients with such satisfactory results that he was now in a position to state that, since the figures given by their President in his opening address were published, in one hospital TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 985 during the first six months of the year, and in one other, and probably two, during the first eight months of the year, several hundreds of cases of post-scarlatinal diphtheria had been treated without the occurrence of a single death, the early diagnosis and the serum treatment combined bringing about this satisfactory result. Dr. Woodhead proceeded to say that bacteriological laboratories were hampered by want of funds, and were thus prevented from attaining their full value to the community. Where assistance had been given from public authori- ties, as in the case of the Royal Commission on tuberculosis, valuable results had been achieved. Taking the laboratories of the University College, Liverpool, and others, such as Owens College, Manchester, was not the cry there, ‘Oh, that they had funds with which they might assist or endow the men they had trained, and who they knew were capable of turning out really good work?’ On the other hand, public health authorities were dependent in many respects upon the work of such laboratories. Had not the time arrived for the two sets of authorities to agree on some concerted line of action? Bacteriological laboratories existed for the public good ; scientific men used them for the benetit of the community, but the community had not realised the immense possibilities of the work. He suggested that County and City Councils should become patrons of research, as they had in many cases become patrons of teaching, For a certain sum per annuum, sufficient to cover expenses and pay salaries, they should have the right, through their medical officers, official veterinary surgeons, or other officials or committees, to submit for bacteriological examination material from hospitals, food stuffs, milk, water, oysters, the carcasses of, or discharges from, animals suffering from infectious diseases ; in fact, to call in for consultation the director and obtain from him reports on any subject in which bacteriological examination might be deemed necessary. He would go even further than this, as he maintained that in the present state of the antitoxine question, taking that as an example of the work that had been done for the benefit of the community, it was absolutely necessary that addition to large central laboratories which should be devoted to the testing of the various antitoxic serums offered for sale, there should be facilities in all bacterio- logical laboratories for the examination of any of the serums that had already been distributed. This opened up a very large question, but it was one which had to be faced, and the sooner that this was recognised the better for all concerned. 5. Bacteria and Food. By A. A. Kantuack, ID. The author stated that—(1) The quantitative bacteriological analysis is inade- quate, since sound food frequently, if not generally, contains as many micro- organisms as suspected or condemned food. This is well illustrated by the results obtained from an examination of milk, sandwiches, oysters, and ice-creams. (2) The qualitative examination of food is also of comparatively little value, since in sound food all the species of bacteria may be found which occur in suspected or in unsound food. Two organisms which have been specially singled out as proof against the soundness or integrity of food are the Bacteriwm coli commune and roteus forms, The significance of these microbes is more fully discussed, and the view that the Bacterium coli implies feecal or sewage contamination is assailed. These two organisms occur in food, because their distribution is almost ubiquitous. The Bacterwm coli is present in the intestines and in feces because it is ubiquitous, and it is illogical to assume that its presence outside the digestive track signifies direct fecal or filth contamination. (8) Lastly, the question of obligatory and facultative symbiosis is touched upon, and the question of adaptation between man and bacteria is raised. Many plants do not thrive in sterile surroundings; it is possible that Pasteur’s opinion, expressed in 1885, that animals would do badly without the assistance of bacteria, may prove to be correct. It is well that we should know the bacterial flora of good and unsuspected food, and become familiarised with the idea that many articles of food generally consumed teem with bacteria, described by many bacteriologista as characteristic of fecal or decomposing matter. 1896. 38 986 REPORT—1896. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23. The following Papers and Report were read :— 1. The Minute Structure of the Cerebellum. By ALEXANDER Huu, M.D. The relations between the various cell-layers were pointed out, and the probable nath of the nervous impulses indicated, ‘The final ramifications, under the micro- scope, appeared to be in anatomical contact, thus getting over the difficulty of physiological action at a distance. Certain new cells were described, and an explanation given of certain granules, seen long ago by Dr. Hill in the molecular layer by the aid of Golgi's method. 2 The Basis of the Bacteriological Theory, founded upon Observations upon the Fermentation of Milk. By Professor A. P, Fokker. _ The author described a previously unrecorded albuminous substance, occurring in the filtrate of sour milk, which takes part in the fermentation of the milk. He also described the quantity of the bacteria present in this filtrate, and discussed the question of their origin. 3. Report on Oysters under Normal and Abnormal Environments. See Reports, p. 663. 4. The Presence of Iron and of Copper in Green and in White Oysters. By Cuartes A. Konn, Ph.D., BSc. The object of the experiments undertaken is to show whether the green colour of the gills of certain types of French oysters (Huztres des Marennes) is due to iron, which Chatin and Muntz regard as the cause of the colouration. Electrolytic methods of analysis were employed, as these offer special advantages for the deter- mination of minute quantities of metals when derived from organic matter. The results show that white oysters contain quite as much iron, both in their gills and in the rest of their bodies, as green oysters ; and, further, that the quantity of iron present in the gills of green oysters is not proportionately sufficient to attribute the colouration to its presence. The total quantity of iron foundin French, Dutch, and American oysters varied from 1:8 to 4:0 milligrammes per six oysters. Copper is also a normal constituent of both green and of white oysters, but the amount present in the gills of the former is quite insufficient to account for their colour, Although iron may be a constituent of the green colouring matter, it is certainly not the cause of the colouration— a conclusion confirmed by Professor erdman’s experiments, in which he showed that no colouration was produced by crowing oysters in very dilute saline solutions of iron salts. 5. Experiments on the Action of Glycerine upon the Growth of Bacteria. By S. Moncxton Copeman, J.A., M.D. (Cantab.), M.R.C.P.; and Frank R. Briaxan, M.D. (Lond.), D.P.H. (From the Bacteriological Laboratory of the Westminster Hospital Medical School.) The paper forms a preliminary account of a series of experiments which are being carried out as an extension of earlier work on the bacteriology of small-pox TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 987 and vaccinia, and, as an outcome of this, on the questionof the purification and preservation of vaccine lymph. i Vaccine lymph as ordinarily obtained and stored is apt to contain, in addition to the specific veins, certain microbes, of which some, when inoculated in the act of vaccination, are liable to be productive of dangerous complications. It was shown, however, in the Transactions of the Congress of Hygiene for 1891, that this difficulty could be avoided by the admixture with the lymph material of an equal quantity of a 50 per cent. solution of pure glycerine in water, prior to storage in capillary tubes. When this process is adopted, and the tubes kept protected from the light for a period of from two to six weeks, it is found, after this lapse of time, that gelatine plates made from such tubes remain absolutely sterile. The lymph, however, is still perfectly active as vaccine, the specific virus being able to with- stand the action of the glycerine. In view of the publication of the Report of the Royal Commission on Vaccina- tion, it appeared to be desirable to investigate more accurately the action of glyce- rine on various micro-organisms of a pathogenic or non-pathogenic nature respec- tively. ‘Method.—This has been done by the addition of known quantities of glycerine to tubes of beef-peptone broth, which are subsequently inoculated with equal quantities of pure cultivations, and incubated at blood-heat and at the room tem- perature respectively. Control inoculations in ordinary beef broth have also invariably been employed. Subsequently an inoculation is made from the broth- tubes on to solid media, at varying intervals of time, in order to see whether the particular microbe is still capable of growth, or not. In all, some hundreds of inoculations have been made thus far, and the paper includes a table in which are given the maximum limits of substance attained in the different series, Practi- éally, the results of each similar series were found to agree very closely. The micro-organisms employed for the inoculations comprised Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus, S. pyogenes albus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Bacillus pyocyaneus, B. subtilis, B. coli communis, B. diphtheria and B. tuberculosis, Small-pox and vac- cine material in the form of ‘crusts’ and lymph was also employed. Results.—1. No visible development of the micro-organisms employed takes place in the presence of more than 30 per cent. of glycerine. 2. All the micro-organisms experimented with are killed out in less than a month in the presence of from 30 per cent. to 40 per cent. glycerine, with the ex- ception of B. coli communis and B, subtilis, when kept in the cold. 3. B. coli communis, unlike B. typhosus, resists the action of 50 per cent. elycerine, in the cold, for a considerable period, a fact which is likely to prove a valuable addition to our present methods of differentiating these microbes from one another. 4, Small-pox and vaccine material, whether as ‘crusts’ or lymph, are sterilised completely, so far as extraneous microbes are concerned, in a week by the presence of glycerine to the extent of 40 per cent. in the broth-tubes. 6. Some Points in the Mechanism of Reaction to Peritoneal ? Infections. By Hersert E. Duruan, Gull Research Student, Bacteriological Laboratory, Guy’s Hospital. Shortly after intra-peritoneal injections of various substances (guinea-pigs), there is a remarkable disappearance of the wandering cells normally present in the peritoneal fluid. ‘I'hree kinds of wander cells, or leucocytes, are found in normal peritoneal fluid—viz., hyaline cells, coarsely granular oxyphil, or ‘megoxyphil’ cells as it is proposed to call them, and lymphocytes. The above disappearance affects the hyaline and megoxyphil cells; the lymphocytes remain. For the period of the paucity of cells in the fluid, the term leucopenia or leucopenic stage, proposed by Léwit, may be pace The onset of leucopenia is described to be instantaneous by Kanthack, and Hardy, and by Issaeff. The author's observations in more than 200 instances 282 988 REPORT—1896. (guinea-pigs) show that the onset is never less than 5 minutes after injection. The time of onset varies somewhat according to the nature and temperature of the injected fluid. Metschnikoff, and Kanthack, and Hardy attribute the leucopenia to a sudden destruction of the cells. Metschnikoff considers that this solution of cells (‘ pha- golyse’) imbues the peritoneal fluid with increased bactericidal power. The author does not agree with these statements; first, because the cells may be found again during the leucopenic stage, and secondly because. when inert resistance substances (e.g., carbon particles) are introduced, they disappear in considerable proportion at the same time as the cells. His observations are con- sequently in accordance with those of Mesnil on the leucopenia which occurs after intra-vascular injections ; this observer has shown that the cells are stopped by adhesion to capillary walls—more particularly in the liver. At the beginning of the year (Wiener klin. Wochenschr Nos. 11 and 12, 1896), it was shown by Prof. Gruber, and the author, that large numbers of the cells become deposited upon the omentum, though some become adherent to other parts of the peritoneal lining after intra-peritoneal injections. The mechanism of this deposit appears to be as follows: the hyaline and megoxyphil cells adhere together into masses or ‘ balls’; these ‘balls’ are driven by the peristaltic, and other abdominal movements, to the omentum and upper region of the cavity, where they become adherent. In animals killed at recent periods after intra~peritoneal injection, the peristaltic movements are exceptionally active. At the same time numbers of bacteria, in the case of infections, also become deposited on the omentum, etc. ; especially if some serum having a ‘clumping’ action has been mixed with the bacterial emulsion. By the use of indian ink the phenomenon may be demonstrated to the naked eye by removing samples with capillary tubes. By the action of the abdominal movements the omentum becomes rolled up; it is also intensely injected in acute infections. Soluble substances such as carmine, or potassium ferrocyanide solutions, have a predilection fur the omentum apparently independently of the leucocytes. It is suggested that possibly bacterial toxins may be dealt with to some extent in this manner. The leucopenic stage lasts about an hour, when a cell normally foreign to the peritoneal cavity (the finely granular oxyphil (K. and H.) or ‘microxyphil’ cell, or polynuclear leucocyte) makes its appearance. The period of leucopenia has been called a ‘ period of negative chemiotaxis’ by Issaeff; however, especially with microbes of a comparatively low degree of virulence, very active phagocytosis is established by the hyaline cells; these cells ingest the microbes without any pre- liminary intervention on the part of the megoxyphil cells; the microbes attached to the hyaline cells may be almost countless, whilst many of the megoxyphil cells are free from or at any rate only have a few attached microbes. One indu- bitable instance of phagocytosis by megoxycytes has been observed. Metschnikoff states that ‘ phagolyse’ does not occur after injections during the leucocytotic condition induced by an injection (e.g., pepton-broth) given twenty-four hours previously, The author does not agree with this statement, for he finds that the cells then present (microxyphil cells and macrophages) ‘dail’ together, and disappear by adhesion to the peritoneal linings, in a manner similar to that which occurs in normal (previously untreated) animals. This has been demonstrated to the naked eye by giving coloured injections (e.7., indian ink, or carmine granules) during the leucocytotic period, and seeing the disappearance of the coloured material from capillary samples; also by marking the cells by previous injections (e.g., peptonate of iron, carmine, etc.), and watching their disappearance. The disappearance can also be traced by care after bacterial inoculations; but owing to the abundance of cells, only a proportion of which disappear, the observation is less readily made than when coloured materials are used. The ‘ncreased re- sistance’ first identified by Issaeff, obtained by producing a leucocytosis by means of simple injections, is suggestive of being of great practical value in the treat- ment of peritoneal cases in man, where there is some risk of infection (perityphilitic, pelvic abscesses, &c.), if operation is undertaken: these points will be more fully TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 989 discussed elsewhere in conjunction with a number of observations on peritonitis in man. Another factor in the production of leucopenia remains to be discussed—the action of the lymph paths. The lymph paths from the peritoneal cavity have received scant attention in the past: recently Starling has observed that the lymph vessels in the anterior mediastinum become filled with coloured material at remote periods after injection of similar material into the peritoneal cavity. The first observation of the author was made in December 1894. It was found that carbon particles began to reach the lymph glands, situated in the first intercostal space (guinea-pigs and rabbits), in eight minutes after injection. Solutions (car- mine, pot. ferrocyanide) pass up more rapidly, and these upper glands were filled in three minutes. Though absorption may take place in other regions of the ‘peritoneal lining, and other lymph paths may be utilised, the course through diaphragmatic lymphatics to the vessels and glands of the anterior mediastinum, and so to the blood-vessels, is par ea:cellence the route of peritoneal lymph absorp- tion. Bacteria, and cells are carried along these paths from the peritoneal cavity. Bacteria have been seen in the lymph vessels of the diaphragm, and falciform ligament six minutes after injection. Bacteria have been found in the blood capillaries of the Jiver within half an hour of intra-peritoneal injection. The process is therefore both rapid and early. In man the same lymph paths have been found affected in acute and in chronic (tuberculous, malignant) peritonitis ; they should always be evamined in peritonitic cases. Ina case of ruptured tubal gestation these lymphatics were beautifully injected with blood, and could readily be traced into the root of the neck. Though microxyphil cells do not become free in the peritoneal fluid till about an hour after experimental injections, they begin to make invasion much earlier. Mm animals killed six to eight minutes after injection the capillaries of the mesen- tery (especially) are becoming blocked with microxycytes. These cells wander out of the vessels, and eventually through the peritoneal endothelium. Their invasion is associated with an increase in the amount of peritoneal fluid, followed (about sixteen to twenty hours) by diminution of fluid in recovering cases. The megoxyphil cells do not invade the cavity in significant numbers; they may be almost absent, and are variable and inconstant in numbers. The microxyphil cells, and macrophages, on the other hand, come in such Jarge numbers in all recovering cases that they must be considered of much signi- ficance, in the question of the battle against the microbes. The presence of microxycytes (and macrophages) in the peritoneal fluid is associated with an increase of bactericidal power of the fluid (vide Hahn’s similar observations with pleural fluid), apart from phagocytosis. A combination ot cellular and humoral theories is necessary for the explanation of the processes of reaction in peritoneal infection. The rapidity with which the lymph paths are brought into action, and with which intra-vascular changes commence, is an argument against a too rigid theory of coelomic and hzemal white corpuscles. There would appear to be a definite peritoneal circulation of cells and fluid from (especially the mesenteric) blood-vessels to the anterior mediastinal lymph- vessels, almost from the moment after intraperitoneal injection, until the normal condition has been re-established. The observations upon which these statements are based, were made in Pro- freon Cons laboratory in Vienna, and the Bacteriological Laboratory of Guy’s ospital. 7. On the Agglutinating Action of Human Serum on certain Pathogenic Micro-organisms (particularly on the Typhoid Bacillus). By ALBERT S. Grinpaum, J.A., MB. (Cantabd.), MRCP. The serum of an animal immunised against the typhoid bacillus or other motile pathogenic micro-organism has a peculiar action on an emulsion (in bouillon) of the bacillus of the corresponding disease. If a drop of serum and a drop of 990 REPORT—1896, ‘emulsion be mixed, and examined under the microscope, the bacilli will be seen to collect together in clumps, and to lose their motility. This reaction is nearly specific, and can be used to differentiate or identify certain bacteria. The pheno- menon, although noticed by Bordet, was first thoroughly studied and its import- ance recognised by Durham and Gruber. The latter termed the active conglome- rating substances ‘agglutinines,’ and they seem to play an important part in immunisation. The serum of normal guinea pigs or rabbits does not, as a rule, cause any reac- tion. Human serum is very different in this respect. In a comparatively large percentage of individuals (particularly those affected with jaundice) the serum has a very distinct agglutinating action on the cholera, coli, and typhoid bacilli, generally more on one than on the other. But the action is so little specific that, in normal individuals, it may be equal on any two or on allthree. This does not occur with the serum of immunised animals. But the strength of action is incomparably smaller with human serum. That of ahighly immunised animal can be diluted to one in a thousand or more, and still show a clumping effect, that of man hardly ever more than one in eight. Only in cases of typhoid fever (and the action is here much more specific) does tt react in a dilution of one to sixteen (or more). Hence the reaction can be used for purposes of diagnosis, The agglutination is sometimes more marked with the diluted than with the pure serum, possibly through there being separate substances for the inhibition of movement and the agglutination. Individuals who have had typhoid fever do not, apparently, preserve any excess of typhoid ‘ agglutinines’ in their serum for any great length of time. Agglutinines present in the maternal blood are not necessarily present in the child’s blood (at birth); the former may react strongly, and the latter not at all. But in this case, and generally in man, the immunising power seems to be only very partly dependent on the agglutinating power of the serum. 8. The Detection of Lead in Organic Fluids. By Joun Hitt Asram, M.D. (Lond), M.R.C.P., and Prosper H. Marspen, /.C.S. [From the Pathological Laboratory, Univ. Coll., Liverpool. ] In the usual methods adopted for the detection of lead in organic fluids, the organic matter is destroyed by means of hydrochloric acid and chlorate of potash, and the solutions or precipitates obtained are then subjected to the ordinary tests, or preferably, as Dr. Kohn has shown, to electrolysis. With regard to the organic fluids (urine, vomit), with which we (the writers) have more particularly to deal, Dr. Kohn states that the destruction of the organic matter by HCl and KCl1O, may be omitted, as the quantity thereof in urine, &c., is small, this is a great gain, and electrolysis is both delicate and accurate. One of us whilst reading von Jaksch’s book on Clinical Diagnosis, was struck by a simple method there described. It is not there claimed by von Jaksch, nor is any reference given, and so far no reference to the process has been discovered us. Von Jaksch states that to detect lead the fluid should be partially evaporated on the water bath and the organic matter decomposed, thus apparently not relying on the method to be described. The details given are as follows:—‘A strip of magnesium, free from lead, is placed in the fluid, when metallic lead will be deposited upon it, and can then be dissolved in nitric acid and confirmatory tests applied to the solution.’ We have modified the test slightly by adding ammonium oxalate in the proportion of 1 grm. to 150 e.c. of fluid, and by using acetic acid as the solvent. We have found the addition of the oxalate to be a great advantage, and we have to thank Dr. Kohn for the suggestion. Coloration is seen on the magnesium within an hour, but we have usually allowed the strip to remain for 24 hours. The magnesium is then taken out, washed with distilled water, and the following confirmatory tests applied :— TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 991 1. The slip is warmed gently with a crystal of iodine, when the yellow iodide of lead is formed. 2. The lead is dissolved off with acetic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen passed through the solution. The magnesium strips can of course be used repeatedly, after carefully washing with acid and distilled water. The method is at bottom an electrolytic one, but its simplicity, and so far as our experiments go, its accuracy strongly recommend it to clinicians. There is no necessity for any special apparatus, and the actual working time may be safely put as less than one hour. In aqueous solution we have obtained results when lead has been present in the proportion of 1 part in 50,000. The results have been equally good in urine. Clinically we have found lead in the urine of two cases under the care of one of us in the Royal Infirmary, and in the vomit from one case. 992 REPORT—1896. SECTION K.—BOTANY. PRESIDENT OF THE SectIon.—D. H. Scort, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Honorary Keeper of the Jodrell Laboratory, Royal Gardens, Kew, THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER li. The PresIDENT delivered the following Address :— Present Position of Morphological Botany. TH object of modern morphological botany (the branch of our science to which I propose to limit my remarks) is the accurate comparison of plants, both living and extinct, with the object of tracing their real relationships with one another, and thus of ultimately constructing a genealogical tree of the vegetable king- dom. The problem is thus a purely historical one, and is perfectly distinct from any of the questions with which physiology has to do. Yet there is a close relation between these two branches of biology; at any rate, to those who maintain the Darwinian position. For from that point of view we see that all the characters which the morphologist has to compare are, or have been, adaptive. Hence it is impossible for the morphologist to ignore the functions of those organs of which he is studying the homologies, To those who accept the origin of species by variation and natural selection there are no such things as morphological characters pure and simple. There are not two distinct categories of characters—a morphological and a physiological category— for all characters alike are physiological. ‘ According to that theory, every organ, every part, colour, and peculiarity of an organism must either be of benefit to an organism itself, or have been so to its ancestors. . . . Necessarily, according to the theory of natural selection, structures either are present because they are selected as useful, or because they are still inherited from ancestors to whom they were useful, though no longer useful to the existing representatives of those ancestors.’ ! The useful characters may have become fixed in comparatively recent times, or a long way back in the past. In the latter case the character in question may have become the property of a large group, and thus, as we say, may have become morphologically important, For instance, parasitic characters, such as the suppression of chlorophyll, are equally adaptive in Dodder and in the Fungi. In Dodder, however, such cha- racters are of recent origin and of little morphological importance, not hinder- ing us from placing the genus in the natural order Conyolvulacee; while in Fungi equally adaptive characters have become the common property of a great class of plants. Then, again, the existence of a definite sporophyte generation, which is the great character of all the higher plants, is in certain Fungi inconstant, even among members of the same species, Although there is no essential difference between adaptive and morphological ' Lankester, Advancement of Science, p. 307. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 993 characters, there is a great difference in the morphologist’s and the physiologist’s way of looking at them. ‘The physiologist is interested in the question how organs work ; the morphologist asks, what is their history ? The morphologist may well feel discouraged at the vastness of the work before him. The origin of the great groups of plants is perhaps, after all, an insoluble problem, for the question is not accessible either to observation or experiment. All that we can directly observe or experiment upon is the occurrence of varia- tions—perhaps the most important line of research in biology, for it was the study of variation that led Darwin and Wallace to their grand generalisation. Many observers are working to-day in the spirit of the great masters, and it is certain that their work will be fruitful in results. It is evident, however, that such investigations can at most only throw a side light on the historical question of the origin of the existing orders and classes of living things. The morphologist has to attack such questions by other methods of research. The embryological method has so far scarcely received justice from botanists. A great deal of what is called embryology in botany is not embryology at all, but relates to pre-fertilisation changes. Of real embryology—that is to say, the development of the young plant from the fertilised ovum—there is much less than we might expect. Thus no comparative investigation of the embryology of either Dicotyledons or Monocotyledons has ever been carried out, our knowledge being entirely based on a few isolated examples. In the cases which have been investigated perhaps excessive attention has been devoted to the first divisions of the ovum, the importance of which, as Sachs long ago showed, has been overrated, while the later stages, when the differentiation of organs and tissues is actually in progress, have been comparatively neglected. The law of recapitulation (or repetition of phylogeny in ontogeny) has been very inadequately tested in the vegetable kingdom. Whatever its value may be, it is certainly desirable that the development of plants as well as animals should be considered from this point of view ; and this has so far been done in but very few cases. M. Massart, of Brussels, has made some investigations with this object on the development of seedlings and of individual leaves. He is led to the con- clusion that examples of recapitulation are rare among plants.’ So far, at least, embryological research has only yielded certain proof of re- capitulation in a few cases, as in the well-known example of the phyllode-bearing acacias, in which the first leaves of the seedling are normal, while the later formed ones gradually assume the reduced phyllode form. A less familiar example is afforded by Gunnera. Here, as is well known, the mature stem has a structure totally different from that of ordinary Dicotyledons, and much resembling that characteristic of most Ferns. In most species of Gunnera there are a number of distinct vascular cylinders in the stem, instead of one only, and there is never the slightest trace, so far as the adult plant is con- cerned, of the growth by means of cambium, which is otherwise so general in the class. The seedling stem, however, is not only monostelic below the cotyledons, but in this region, though nowhere else, shows distinct secondary growth. Thus, if we were in any doubt as to the general affinities of Gwnnera, owing to its extraordinary mature structure, we should at once be put on the right track by the study of the embryonic stem, which alone retains the characteristic dicotyledonous mode of growth. It is only in a few cases, however, and for narrow ranges of affinity, that the doctrine of recapitulation has at present helped in the determination of relationships among plants. Beyond this, conclusions based on embryology alone tend to become merely conjectural and subjective. In fact, all comparative work, in so far as it is limited to plants now living, suffers under the same weakness that it can never yield certain results, for the question whether given characters are relatively primitive or recently acquired is one upon which each naturalist is left to form his own opinion, as the origin of the characters cannot be observed. La Récapitulation et l’Innovation en Embryologie Végétale,’ Bull. de la Soc. roy. de Bot. de Belgique, vol, xxxiii., 1894, 994, REPORT—1896, To determine the blood-relationships of organisms it is necessary to decipher their past history, and the best evidence we can have (when we can get it) is from the ancient organisms themselves. The problem of the morphologist is an historical one, and contemporary documentary evidence is necessarily the best. It is paleontology alone which can give us the real historical facts. ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS. In judging of the affinities of fossil plants we are often compelled to make great use of vegetative characters, and more particularly of characters drawn from anatomical structure. It is true that in many cases we do so because we cannot help ourselves, such anatomical features being the only characters available in many of the specimens as at present known. But the value of the method has been amply proved in other cases where the reproductive structures have also been discovered, and are found to fully confirm the conelusions based on anatomy. I need only mention the great groups of the Lepidodendrew and the Calamites, in - each of which the anatomical characters, when accurately known, put us at once on the right track, and lead to results which are only confirmed by the study of the reproductive organs In this matter fossil botany is likely to react in a beneficial way on the study of recent plants, calling attention to points of structure which have been passed over, and showing us the value of characters of a kind to which systematists had until recently paid but little attention, At present, owing to the work of Radlkofer, Vesque, and others, anatomical characters are gradually coming into use in the classification of the higher plants, and in some quarters thore may even be a tendency to over-estimate their importance. Such exaggeration, however, is only a temporary fault. incident to the introduction of a comparatively new method. In the long run nothing but good can result from the effort to place our classification on a broader basis. In most cases the employment of additional characters will doubtless serve only to further confirm the affinities already detected by the acumen of the older taxonomists. There are plenty of doubtful points, however, where new light is much needed ; and even where the classifica- tion is not affected it will be a great scientific gain to know that its divisions are based on a comparison of the whole structure, and not merely on that of particular organs. e The fact that anatomical characters are adaptive is undeniable, but this applies to all characters, such difference as there is being merely one of degree. Cases are not wanting where the vegetative tissues show greater constancy than the organs of reproduction, as, for example, in the Marattiacew, where there is a great uniformity in anatomical structure throughout the family, while the sporangia show the important differences on which the distinction of the genera is based. It is in fact a mistake to suppose that anatomical characters are neces- sarily the expression of recent adaptations. On the contrary, it is easy to cite examples of marked anatomical peculiarities which have become the common property of large groups of plants. For instance, to take a case in which I happen to have been specially interested, the presence of bast to the inside as well as to the outside of the woody zone is.a modification of dicotyledonous structure which is in many groups, at least of ordinal value. The peculiarity is constant throughout the orders Onagraces, Ly- thracez, Myrtacez, Solanacexz, Asclepiadacew, and Apocynacee, not to mention some less important groups. In other families, such as the Cucurbitaces and the Gentianee, it is nearly constant throughout the order, but subject to some exceptions. Among the Composite a similar, if not identical, peculiarity appears in some of the sub-order Cichoriaceze, but is here not of more than generic value. In Campa- nula the systematic importance of internal phloém is even less, for it appears in some species and not in others. Lastly, there are cases in which a similar character actually appears as an individual variation, as in Carum Carvi, and, under abnor- mal conditions, in Phaseolus multiflorus, These latter cases seem to me worthy of special study, for in them we cau TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 995 trace, under our very eyes, the first rise of anatomical characters which have else- where become of high taxonomic importance. A comparative study of the anatomy of any group of British plants, taking the same species growing under different conditions, would be sure to yield interesting results if any one had the patience to undertake it. Enough has been said to show that a given anatomical character may be of a high degree of constancy in one group while extremely variable in another, a fact which is already perfectly familiar as regards the ordinary morphological charac- ters. For example, nothing is more important in phanerogamic classification than the arrangement of the floral organs as shown in ground-plan or floral diagram. Yet Professor Trail’s observations, which he has been good enough to communicate to me, show that in one and the same species, or even individual, of Polygonum, almost every conceivable variation of the floral diagram may be found. There is, in fact, no ‘royal road’ to the estimation of the relative importance of characters ; the same character which is of the greatest value in one group may be trivial in another; and this holds good equally whether the character be drawn from the external morphology or from the internal structure. Our knowledge of the comparative anatomy of plants, from this point of view, is still very backward, and it is quite possible that the introduction of such charac- ters into the ordinary work of the Herbarium may be premature ; certainly it must be conducted with the greatest judgment and caution. We have not yet got our data, but every encouragement should be given to the collection of such data, so that our classification in the future may rest on the broad foundation of a com- parison of the entire structure of plants. In estimating the relative importance of characters of different kinds we must not forget that characters are often most constant when most adaptive. Thus, as Professor Trail informs me, the immense variability of the flowers of Polygonum goes together with their simple method of self-fertilisation. The exact arrange- ment is of little importance to the plant, and so variation goes on unchecked. In flowers with accurate adaptation to fertilisation by insects such variability is not found, for any change which would disturb the perfection of the mechanism is at once eliminated by natural selection. HisrToLoey. I propose to say but little on questions of minute histology, a subject which lies on the borderland between morphology and physiology, and which will be dealt with next Tuesday far more competently than I could hope to treat it. Last year my predecessor in the presidency of this Section spoke of a histological dis- covery (that of the nucleus, by Robert Brown) as ‘the most epoch-making of events’ in the modern history of botany. The histological questions before us at the present day may be of no less importance, but we cannot as yet see them in proper perspective. The centrosomes, those mysterious protoplasmic particles which have been supposed to preside over the division of the nucleus, and thus to determine the plane of segmentation, if really permanent organs of the cell, would have to rank as co-equal with the nucleus itself. If, on the other hand, as some think, they are not constant morphological entities, but at most temporary structures differentiated ad hoc, then we are brought face to face with the question whether the causes of nuclear division lie in the nucleus itself or in the surrounding protoplasm. Nothing can be more fascinating than such problems, and nothing more difficult. We have, at any rate, reason to congratulate ourselves that English botanists are no longer neglecting the study of the nucleus and its relation to the cell. Fora long time little was done in these subjects in our country, or at least little was published, and botanists were penealle content to take their information from abroad, not going beyond a mere verification of other men’s results. Now we have changed all that, as the communications to this Section sufficiently testify. Nothing is more remarkable in histology than the detailed agreement in the structure and behaviour of the nucleus in the higher plants and the: higher 996 REPORT—1896. animals, an agreement which is conspicuously manifest in those special divisions which take place during the maturation of the sexual cells. Is this striking agree- ment the product of inheritance from common ancestors, or is the parallelism dependent solely on similar physical conditions in the cells? This is one of the great questions upon which we may hope for new light from the histological dis- cussion next week, ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS, We have known ever since the great discoveries of Hofmeister that the develop- ment of a large part of the vegetable kingdom involves a regular alternation of two distinct generations, the one, which is sexual, being constantly succeeded—so far as the normal cycle is concerned—by the other which is asexual. This alternation is most marked in the mosses and ferns, taking these words in their widest sense, — as used by Professor Campbell in his recent excellent book. In the Bryophyta, the ordinary moss or liverwort plant is the sexual generation, producing the ovum, which, when fertilised, gives rise to the moss-fruit, which here alone represents the asexual stage. The latter forms spores from which the sexual plant is again developed. In the Pteridophyta the alternation is equally regular, but the relative develop- ment of the two generations is totally different, the sexual form being the insigni- ficant prothallus, while the whole fern-plant, as we ordinarily know it, is the asexual generation. The thallus of some of the lower Bryophyta is quite comparable with the pro- thallus of a fern, so as regards the sexual generation there is no difficulty in seeing the relation of the two classes; but when we come to the asexual generation or sporophyte the case is totally different. There is no appreciable resemblance between the fruit of any of the Bryophyta and the plant of any vascular Cryptogam, There is thus a great gap within the Archegoniate ; there is another at the base of the series, for the regular alternation of the Bryophyta is missing in the Algz and Fungi, and the question as to what corresponds among these lower groups to the sporophyte and odphyte of the higher Cryptogams is still disputed. Now as reyards this life-cycle, which is characteristic of all plants higher than | Alge and Fungi, there are two great questions at present open. The one is general: are the two generations, the sporophyte and the odphyte, homologous with one another, or is the sporophyte a new formation intercalated in the life- history, and not comparable to the sexual plant? The former kind of alternation has been called homologous, the latter antithetic. This question involves the origin of alternation; its solution would help us to bridge over the gap between the Archegoniatz and the lower plants. ‘The second problem is more special : has the sporophyte of the Pteridophyta, which always appears as a complete plant, been derived from the simple and totally different sporophyte of the Bryophyta, or are the two of distinct origin ? At present it is usual, at any rate in England, to assume the antithetic theory of alternation. Professor Bower, its chief exponent, says:1 ‘It will also be assumed that, whatever may have been the circumstances which led to it, anti- thetic alternation was brought about by elaboration of the zygote [2.e. the fertilised ovum] so as to form a new generation (the sporophyte) interpolated between suc- cessive gametophytes, and that the neutral generation is not in any sense the result of modification or metamorphosis of the sexual, but a new product having a distinct phylogenetic history of its own.’ In his essay on ‘ Antithetic as distinguished from Homologous Alternation of Generations in Plants,’ the author describes the hy po- thetical first appearance of the sporophyte as follows: ‘Once fertilised, a zygote might in these plants [the first land plants] divide up into a number of portions ceamposperers each of which would then serve as a starting-point of a new indi- vidual. 1 «Spore-producing Members,’ Phil. Trans. vol. clxxxv. B. (1894) p, 473. 2 Annals of Botany, vol. iv. (1890), p. 362. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 997 On this view, tke sporophyte first appeared as a mere group of spores formed by the division of the fertilised ovum. Consequently the inference is drawn that ail the vegetative parts of the sporophyte have arisen by the ‘sterilisation of potentially sporogenous tissue.’ That is to say, there was nothing but a mass of spores to start with, so whatever other tissues and organs the sporophyte may form must be derived from the conversion of spore-forming cells into vegetative cells. Professor Bower has worked out this view most thoroughly, and as the result he is not only giving us the most complete account of the development of sporangia which we have ever had, but he has also done much to clear up our ideas, and to show us what the course of evolution ought to have been if the assumptions required by the antithetic theory were justified. Without entering into any detailed criticism of this important contribution to morphology, which is still in progress, I wish to point that we are not, after all, bound to accept the assumption on which the theory rests. There is another view in the field, for which, in my opinion, much is to be said. The antithetic theory is receiving a most severe test at the friendly hands of its chief advocate. Should it break down under the strain we need not despair, for another hypothesis remains which I think quite equally worthy of verification. This is the theory of Pringsheim, according to which the two generations are homologous one with another, the odphyte corresponding to a sexual individual among Thallophytes, the sporophyte to an asexual individual. To quote Prings- heim’s own words:! ‘The alternation of generations in mosses is immediately related to those phenomena of the succession of free generations in Thallophytes, of which the one represents the neutral, the other the sexual plant.’ Further on* he illustrates this by saying: ‘The moss sporogonium stands in about the same relation to the moss plant as the sporangium-bearing specimens of Saprolegnia stand to those which bear odgonia, or as, among the Floridex, the specimens with tetraspores are related to those with cystocarps.’ This gets rid of the intercalation of a new generation altogether; we only require the modification of the already existing sexual and asexual forms of the Thallophytes. The sudden appearance of something completely new in the life-history, as required by the antithetic theory, has, to my mind, a certain improbability. Ha nthilo nihil fit. We are not accustomed in natural history to see brand-new structures appearing, like morphological Melchizedeks, without father or mother. Nature is conservative, and when a new organ is to be formed it is, as every one knows, almost always fashioned out of some pre-existing organ. Hence I feel a certain difficulty in accepting the doctrine of the appearance of an intercalated sporophyte by a kind of special creation. We can have no direct knowledge of the origin of the sporophyte in the Bryo- hyta themselves, for the stages, whatever they may have been, are hopelessly lost. n some of the Algze, however, we find what most botanists recognise,as at least a parallel development, even if not phylogenetically identical. In Gidogonium, for example, the odspore does not at once germinate into a new plant, but divides up into four active zoospores, which swim about and then germinate. In Coleochete the odspore actually becomes partitioned up by cell-walls into a little mass of tissue, each cell of which then gives rise to a zoospore. In both these genera (and many more might be added) the cell-formation in the germinating odspore has heen generally regarded as representing the formation of a rudimentary sporophyte generation. If we are to apply the antithetic theory of alternation to these cases, we must assume that the zoospores produced on ger- mination are a new formation, intercalated at this point of the life-cycle. But is this assumption borne out by the facts? I think not. In reality nothing new is intercalated at all. The ‘ zoospores’ formed from the odspore on germination are identical with the so-called ‘ zoogonidia,’ formed on the ordinary vegetative plant at all stages of its growth. In science, as in every subject, we too easily become the slaves of language. 1 Gesammelte Abhandlungen, II. p. 370. 2 Ibid, p. 371. 3 See Bower, Antithetic Alternation, p. 361. 998 REPORT—1896. By giving things different names we do not prove that the things themselves are different. In this case, for example, the multiplication of terms serves, in my opinion, merely to diseuise the facts. The reproductive cells produced by the ordinary plant of an CEdogonium are identical in development, structure, behaviour, and germination with those produced by the odspore. The term ‘zoogonidia’ applied to the former is a ‘question-begging epithet,’ for it assumes that they are not homologous with the ‘ zoospores 4 produced by the latter. I prefer to keep the old name zoospore for both, as they are identical bodies. To my mind the point seems to be this. An Cdogonium (to keep to this example) can form zoospores at any stage of its development ; there is one particu- lar stage, however, at which they are always formed—namely, on the germination of the odspore. Nothing new is intercalated, but the irregular and indefinite succession of sexual and asexual acts of reproduction is here tending to become regular and definite. rt In Spheroplea, as was well pointed out by the late Mr. Vaizey,' though his view of alternation was very different from that which I am now putting forward, the alternation is as definite as in a moss, for here, so far as we know, zoospores are only formed on the germination of the fertilised ovum. If Spheroplea stood alone we might believe in the intercalation of these zoospores, as a new stage, but the comparison with Ulothrix, Gidogonium, Bulbochete and Coleochete shows, I think, where they came from. : The body formed from the odspore is called by Pringsheim the first neutral generation. In Gidogonium this has no vegetative development, for the first thing that the odspore does is to form the asexual zoospores, and it is completely used up in the process. In other cases it is not in quite such a hurry, and here the first neutral generation has time to show itself as an actual plant. This is soin Ulothrix, a much more primitive form than Gdogonium, for its sexuality is not yet com- pletely fixed. Here the zygospore actually germinates, forming a dwarf plant, and in this stage passes through the dull season, producing zoospores when the weather becomes more favourable. On Pringsheim’s view the dwarf plant is not a new creation, but just a rudimentary Ulothrix, which soon passes on to spore-formation. So, too, with the cellular body formed on the germination of the odspore of Coleochete; this also is looked upon as a reduced form of thallus, On any view this genus is especially interesting, for the sporophyte remains enclosed by the tissue of the sexual generation, thus offering a striking analogy with the Bryophyta. In the Phycomycetous Fungi—plants which have lost their chlorophyll, but which otherwise in many cases scarcely differ from Algze—the odspore in one and the same species may either form a normal mycelium, or a rudimentary mycelium bearing a sporangium, or may itself turn at once into a sporangium (producing zoospores) without any vegetative development. Here it seems certain that Pringsheim’s view is the right one, for all stages in the reduction of the first neutral generation lie before our eyes. Nowhere, either here or among the green Algiv, do I see any evidence for the intercalation of a new generation or a new form of spore on the germination of the fertilised ovum. Pringsheim extends the same view to the higher plants. The sporogonium of a moss is for him the highly modified first neutral generation, homologous with the vegetative plant, but here specially adapted for spore-formation. I have elsewhere pointed out* that this view has great advantages, for not only does it harmonise exactly with the actual facts observed in the green Algze and their allies, but it also helps us to understand the astoundingly different forms which the archegoniate sporophyte may assume. Tt seems to me that Pringsheim was right in regarding the fruit-formation of Floride as totally different from the sporophyte-formation of Coleochete or the Bryophyta. The cystocarp bears none of the marks ofa distinct generation, for throughout its whole development it remains in the most complete organic connec- 1 Annals of Botany, vol. iv., p. 373. 2 Nature, February 21, 1895. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 999 tion with the thallus that bears it. The whole Floridean process, often so com- plicated, appears to be an arrangement for effecting the fertilisation of many female cells as the result of an original impregnation by a single sperm-cell. There is here still a great field for future research; but in the light of our present knowledge there seems to be no real parallelism with the formation of a sporophyte in the higher plants. The gap between the Bryophyta and the Algm remains, unfortunately, a wide and deep one, and it is not probable that any Algs at present known to us lie at all near the line of descent of the higher Cryptegams. Riccia is often compared with Coleochete, but it is by no means evident that Riccia is a specially primitive form. In Anthoceros, which bears some marks of an archaic character, the sporo- phyte is relatively well developed. To those who do not accept the theory of intercalation it is not necessary to assume that the most primitive Bryophyta must have the most rudimentary sporophyte. Apart from other differences, Bryophyta differ from most green Algze in the fact that asexual spores are only found in the generation succeeding fertilisation. The spores moreover are themselyes quite different from anything in Alge, and - the constancy of their formation in fours among all the higher plants from the liverworts upwards, is a fact which requires explanation. I should like to sug- gest to some energetic histologist a comparison of the details of spore-formation m the lower liverworts and in the various groups of Algz, especially those of the green series. It is possible that some light might be thus thrown on the origin of tetrad-spore-formation, a subject as to which Professor Farmer has already gained some very remarkable results, On Pringsheim’s view some indications of homo- logy between bryophytic and algal spore-formation might be expected, and any- how the tetrads require some explanation. The peculiarities of ths sporophyte in the Archegoniatz, as compared with any algal structures, depend, no doubt, on the acquirement of a terrestrial habit, while the odphyte by its mode of fertilisation remains ‘ tied down to a semi-aquatic life.’ 1 Professor Bower's phrase ‘ amphibious alternation ’ expresses this view of the case very happily, and indeed his whole account of the rise of the sporophyte is of the highest value, even though we may not accept his assumption as to its origin de novo. I attach special weight to Professor Bower's treatment of this subject, because he has shown how the most important of all morphological phenomena in plants, namely the alternation of generations in Archegoniatz, may be explained as purely adaptive in origin. All Darwinians owe him a debt of gratitude for this demonstration, which holds good even if we believe the sporophyte to be the modification of a pre-existing body, and not a new formation. APOSPORY AND APOGAMY, We must remember that the theory of homologous alternation has twice received the strongest confirmation of which a scientific hypothesis is susceptible— that of verified prediction. In both cases Pringsheim was the happy prophet, Convinced on structural grounds of the homology of the two generations in mosses, he undertook his experiments on the moss-fruits, in thehope,as he says,” that he would succeed in producing protonema from the subdivided seta of the mosses, and thus prove the morphological agreement of seta and moss-stem. His experi- ment, as everybody knows, was completely succcessful, and resulted in the first observed cases of apospory, i.e. the direct outgrowth of the sexual from the asexual generation. Here he furnished his own verification ; in the second case it has come from other hands. In the paper of 1877, so often referred to, he says (p. 391): ‘ Here, however [7.e. in the ferns], the act of generation, that is, the formation of sexual organs and the origin of an embryo, is undoubtedly bound up with the existence of the spore, wntil those future ferns are found which I indicated as conceivable in ' Bower, Antithetic Alternation. * Ges. Abh. II. p. 407. 1000 REPORT—1896. my preliminary notice, in which the prothallus will sprout forth directly from the ond.’ ‘ It is unnecessary to remind English botanists that Pringsheim’s hypothetical aposporous ferns are now perfectly well known in the flesh; such cases having been first observed by Mr. Druery and then fully investigated by Professor Bower. A very remarkable case of direct origin of the odphyte from the sporophyte has lately been described by Mr. E. J. Lowe, in a variety of Scolopendrium vulyare. Here the young fern-plant produced prothalli bearing archegonia as direct out- growths from its second or third frond. The specimen had a remarkable history, for the young plants were produced from portions of a prothallus which had been kept alive and repeatedly subdivided during a period of no less than eight years. I cannot go into the interesting details here, they will be published elsewhere ; but I wish to call attention to the fact that in this case the production of the sexual from the asexual generation, occurring so early in life, has no obvious relation to suppressed spore-formation, and so appears to differ essentially from the cases first described, which occurred on mature plants. I believe Mr. Lowe’s case is not an altogether isolated one. The converse phenomenon—that of apogamy—or the direct origin of an asexual plant from the prothallus without the intervention of sexual organs, has now been observed in a considerable number of ferns, the examples already known belonging to no less than four distinct families: Polypodiacez, Parkeriaceze, Osmundacez, and Hymenophyllacee. In Trichomanes alatum Professor Bower found that apospory and apogamy co-exist in the same plant, the sporophyte directly giving rise to a prothallus, which again directly grows out into a sporophyte ; the life- cycle is thus completed without the aid either of spores or of sexual organs. Dr. W. H. Lang who has recently made many interesting observations on apogamy, will, I am glad to say, read a paper on the subject before this section, so I need say no more. Imust, however, express my own conviction that the facility with which, inferns, the one generation may pass over into the other by vegetative growth, and that in both directions, is a most significant fact. It shows that there is no such hard and fast distinction between the generations as the antithetic theory would appear to demand, and in my opinion weighs heavily on the side of the homology of sporo- phyteand odphyte. I cannot but think that the phenomena deserve greater attention from this point of view than they have yet received. A mode of growth which affords a perfectly efficient means of abundant propa- gation cannot, I think, be dismissed as merely teratological. Since the foregoing paragraph was first written Dr. Lang has made the remark- able discovery (already communicated to the Royal Society) that in a Lustrea sporangia of normal structure are produced on the prothallus itself, side by side with normal archegonia and antheridia. I cannot forbear mentioning this striking observation, of which we shall hear an account from the discoverer himself. The strongest advocate of the homology of the prothallus with the fern plant could scarcely have ventured to anticipate such a discovery. RELATION BETWEEN MossEs AND FERNS. Goebel said, in 1882: ‘The gap between the Bryophyta and the Pteridophyta is the deepest known to us in the vegetable kingdom, We must seek the starting- point of the Pteridophyta elsewhere than among the Muscinez : among forms which may have been similar to liverworts, but in which the asexual generations entered from the first on a different course of development.’! I cannot help feeling that all the work which has been done since goes to confirm this wise conclusion. Attempts have been made in the most sportsmanlike manner (to adopt a phrase of Professor Bower's) to effect a passage over the gulf, but the gulf is still unbridged. I cannot see anywhere the slightest indication of anything like an intermediate form between the spore-bearing plant of the Pteridophyta and the spore-bearing 1 Schenk’s Handbuch der Botanik, vol. ii. p. 401. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1001 fruit of the Bryophyta. The plant of the Pteridophyta is sometimes small and pels, but the smallest and simplest seem just as unlike a bryophytic sporogonium as the largest and most complex. On the side of the moss group, Anthoceros has been often cited as a form showing a certain approach towards the Pteridophytes, and Professor Campbell in particular has developed this idea with remarkable in- genuity. An unprejudiced comparison, however, seems to me to show nothing more here than a very remote parallelism, not suggestive of affinity. ‘ There is no reason to believe that the Bryophyta, as we know them, were the precursors of the vascular Oryptogams at all. There is a remarkable paucity of evidence for the geological antiquity of Bryophyta, though mary of the mosses at any rate would seem likely to have been preserved if they existed. Brongniart said, in 1849, ‘ The rarity of fossil mosses, and their complete absence up to now in the ancient strata, are among the most singular facts in geological botany ;’* and since that time it is wonderful how little has been added. Things seem to point to both Pteridophyta and Bryophyta having had their origin far back among some unknown tribes of the Alge. If we accept the homologous theory of alternation, we may fairly suppose that the sporophyte of the earliest Pterido- phyta always possessed vegetative organs of some kind. The resemblance between the young sporophyte and the prothallus in some lycopods indicates that at some remote period the two generations may not have been very dissimilar. At least some such idea gives more satisfaction to my mind than the attempt to conceive of a fern-plant as derived from a sterilised group of potential spores. The Bryophyta may have had from the first a more reduced sporophyte, the first neutral generation having, in their ancestors, become more exclusively adapted to spore-producing functions. I must not omit to mention the idea that the Bryophyta, or at any rate the true mosses, are degenerate descendants of higher forms. The presence of typical stomata on the capsule in some cases, and of somewhat reduced stomata in others, has been urged in support of this view. It is possible ; but if so, from what have these plants been reduced ? Few people, perhaps, fully realise how absolutely insoluble such a problem as we have been discussing really is. I say nothing as to the mosses, which may have arisen relatively late in geological history. ‘he Pteridophyta, at any rate, are known to be of inconceivable antiquity. Not only did they exist in greater development than at present in the far-off Devonian period, but at that time they were already accompanied by highly organised gymnospermous flowering-plants. Probably we are all agreed that Gymnosperms arose somehow from the vascular ‘Cryptogams. Hence, in the Devonian epoch, there had already been time not only for the Pteridophyta themselves to attain their full development, but for certain e#mong them to become modified into complex Phanerogams. It would not be a rash assumption that the origin of the Pteridophyta took place as long before the period represented by the plant-bearing Devonian strata as that period is before our own day. Can we hope that a mystery buried so far back in the dumb past will be revealed P It will be understood that I do not wish to assume the réle of partisan for the homologous theory of alternation. Possibly the whole question lies beyond human ken, and partisanship would be ridiculous. But I do wish to raise a protest against anything like a dogmatic statement that alternation of generations must have been the result of the interpolation of a new stage in the life-history. Let us, in the presence of the greatest mystery in the morphology of plants, at least keep an open mind, and not tie ourselves down to assumptions, though we may use them as working hypotheses. HistoLocicaL CHARACTERS OF THE TWO GENERATIONS. There is one histological question upon which I must briefly touch, because it bears directly on the subject which we have been considering. I shall say very little, however, in view of the discussion next, Tuesday. ' Tableau des Genres,de Végétaux Fossiles, ps 13. 1896. 37 1002 REPORT—1896, It is now well known that in animals and in the higher plants a remarkable numerical change takes place in the constituents of the nucleus shortly before the act of fertilisation. The change consists in the halving of the number of chromo- somes, those rod-like bodies which form the essential part of the nucleus, and are regarded by Weismann and most biologists as the bearers of hereditary qualities. Thus in the lily the number of chromosomes in the nuclei of vegetative cells is twenty-four ; in the sexual nuclei, those of the male generative cell and of the ovum, the number is twelve. When the sexual act is accomplished the two nuclei unite, and so the full number is restored and persists throughout the vegetative life of the next generation. The absolute figures are of course of no importance; the point is, the reduction to one half during the maturation of the sexual cells, and the subsequent restoration of the full number when their union takes place. I say nothing as to the details or the significance of the process, points which have been fully dealt with elsewhere, votably in an elaborate recent paper by Miss E. Sargant. Now, in animals (so far as I am aware) and in angiospermous plants the reduc- tion of the chromosomes takes place very shortly before the differentiation of the sexual cells. Thus in a lily the reduction takes place on the male side immediately prior to the first division of the pollen mother-cell, so that four cell-divisions in all intervene between the reduction and the final differentiation of the male generative cells. On the female side the reduction in the same plant takes place in the primary nucleus of the embryo-sac, so that here there are three divisions between the reduction and the formation of the ovum. I believe these facts agree very closely with those observed in the animal kingdom, and so far there is no par- ticular difficulty, for we can easily understand that if the number of chromosomes is to be kept constant from one generation to another, then the doubling involved in sexual fusion must necessarily be balanced by a halving. There are, however, a certain number of observations on Gymnosperms and archegoniate Cryptogams which appear to put the matter in a different light. Overton ! first showed that in a Cycad, Ceratozamia, the nuclei of the prothallus or endosperm all have the half-number of chromosomes. Here then the reduction takes place in the embryo sac (or rather its mother-cell), but a great number of cell-generations intervene between the reduction and the maturation of the ovum. In fact the whole female odphyte shows the reduced number, while the sporophyte has the full number. The reduction takes place also in the pollen mother-cell. Further observations have extended this conclusion to some other Gymnosperms. In Osmunda among the ferns there is evidence to show that reduction takes place in the spore mother-cell, and that the sexual generation has the half-number throughout. Professor Farmer has found the same thing in various liverworts, and shown that the reduction of chromosomes takes place in the spore mother-cell ; and his observations of cell-division in the two generations have afforded some direct evidence that the odphyte has the half-number and the sporophyte the full number throughout. Professor Strasburger fully discussed this subject before Section D at Oxford,? and came to the conclusion that the difference in number of chromosomes is a difference between the two generations as such, the sexual generation being characterised by the half-number, the asexual by the full number. The importance of this conception for the morphologist is that an actual histological difference appears to be established between the two generations; a fact which would appear to militate against their homology. Some botanists even xo. so far as to propose making the number of chromosomes the criterion by which the two generations are to be distinguished. Considering that the whole theory rests at present on but few observations, I venture to think this both premature and objectionable ; for nothing can be worse for the true progress of science than to rush hastily to deductive reasoning from imperfectly established premises. The facts are certainly very difficult to interpret. Those who accept the antithetie theory of alternation suppose the sexual generation to be the older, and 1 Annals of Botany, vol. vii. p. 139. 2 See Annals of Botany, vol. viii. p. 281 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1008 that in Thallophytes the plant is always an oéphyte, whether ‘actual’ or ‘ potential.’ Hence they believe that in Thallophytes the plant should show throughout the reduced number of chromosomes, reduction hypothetically taking place immediately upon the germination of the odspore. If this were true it would lend some support to the idea of the intercalation of the sporophyte, but at present there is not the slightest evidence for these assumptions. On the contrary, in the only Thallophyte in which chromosome-counting has been successfully accomplished (Fucus) Professor Farmer and Mr. Williams find exactly the reverse; the plant has throughout the fw// number of chromosomes; reduction first takes place in the odgonium, immediately before the maturation of the ova, and on sexual fusion the full number is restored, to persist throughout the vegetative life of the plant. Fucus is, no doubt, a long way off the direct line of descent of Archegoniatz, but still it is a striking fact that the only direct evidence we have goes dead against the idea that the sexual generation (and who could call a Fucus-plant anything else but sexual?) necessarily has the reduced number of chromosomes. This fact is indeed a rude rebuff to deductive morphology. I am disposed to regard the different number of chromosomes in the two generations observed in certain cases among Archegoniate not as a primitive but as an acquired phenomenon, perhaps correlated with the definiteness of alternation in the Archegoniatz as contrasted with its indefiniteness in Thallophytes. In Fucus, in flowering plants, and in animals the soma or vegetative body has the full number of chromosomes. With these the sporophyte of the Archegoniate agrees ; it is the odphyte which appears to be peculiar in possessing the half-number, so that if the evidence points to intercalation at all, it would seem to suggest that the odphyte is the intercalated generation—obviously a reductio ad absurdum. I do not think we are as yet ina position to draw any morphological conclusions from these minute histological differences, interesting as they are. The question how the number of chromosomes is kept right in cases of apospory and of apogamy is obviously one of great interest, and I am glad to say that it is receiving attention from competent observers. SEXUALITY OF FUNGI, Only a few years ago De Bary’s opinion that the fruit of the ascus-bearing Fungi is normally the result of an act of fertilisation was almost universally accepted, especially in this country, Although the presence of sexual organs had only been recorded in comparatively few cases, and the evidence for their functional activity was even more limited, yet the conviction prevailed that the ascocarp is at least the homologue of a sexually produced fruit. The organ giving rise to the ascus or asci was looked upon as homologous with the odgonium of the Peronosporex, the supposed fertilising organ either taking the form of an antheridial branch as in that group, or, as observed by Stahl in the lichen Codlema, giving rise to distinct male cells, or spermatia. More recently there has been a complete revolution of opinion on this point, and a year ago or less most botanists probably agreed that the question of the sexuality of the Ascomycetes had been settled in a negative sense. This change was due, in the first place, to the influence of Brefeld, who showed, in a great number of laborious investigations, that the ascus-fruit may develop without the presence of anything like sexual organs; while Mdller proved that the supposed male cells of lichens are in a multitude of cases nothing but conidia, capable of independent germination. The view thus gained ground that all the higher Fungi are asexual plants, fertilisation only occurring in the lower forms, such as the Peronospore and Mucorinez, which have not diverged far from the algal stock. The ascus, in particular, is regarded by this school as homologous with the asexual sporangium of a Mucor. This theory has been brilliantly expounded in a remarkable book by Von Tavel, which we cannot but admire as a model of clear morphological reasoning, whether its conclusions be ultimately adopted or not. Still, it must be admitted that the Brefeld school were rather apt to ignore 34 2 1004 REPORT—1896. such pieces of evidence as militated against their views, and consequently their position was insecure so long as these hostile posts were left uncaptured. Quite recently the whole question has been reopened by the striking observa- tions of Mr. Harper, an American botanist working at Bonn. Zopf, in 1890,! pointed out th it up to that time it had not been possible in any Ascomycete to demonstrate a true process of fertilisation by strictly scientific evidence, namely, by observing the fusion of the nuclei of the male and female elements. Exactly the proof demanded has now been afforded by Mr. Harper’s observations, for in a simple Ascomycete, Spherotheca castagnet, the parasite causing the hop-mildew, he has demonstrated in a manner which appears to be conclusive the fusion of the nucleus of the antheridium with that of the ascogo- nium.? It is impossible to evade the force of this evidence, for the fungus in question is a perfectly typical Ascomycete, though exceptionally simple, in so far as only a single ascus is normally produced from the ascogonium. It is unnecessary to point out how important it is that Mr. Harper’s observations should be con- firmed and extended to other and more complex members of the order. In the mean time the few who (unlike your President) had not bowed the knee to Brefeld may rejoice ! It is impossible to pursue the various questions which press upon one’s mind in considering the morphology of the Fungi. The occurrence not only of cell-fusion, but of nuclear fusion, apart from any- definite sexual process, now recorded in several groups of Fungi, urgently demands further inquiry. Such unions of nuclei have been observed in the basidia of Agarics, the teleutospores of Uredinex, and even in the asci of the Ascomycetes. That such a fusion is not necessarily, as Dangeard * has supposed, of a sexual nature, seems to be proved by the fact that it occurs in the young ascus of Spherotheca long after the true act of fertilisation has been accomplished. It is possible, however, that these phenomena may throw an important side-light on the significance of the sexual act itself. Another question which is obviously opened up by the new results is that of the homologies of the ascus. The observations of Lagerheim + on Dipodascus point to the sexual origin of a many-spored sporangium not definitely characterised as an ascus, On the other hand, not only sporangia, but true asci are known to arise in a multitude of cases direct from the mycelium. It is of course possible that as regards the asci these are cases of reduction or apogamy ; on the other hand, it is not wholly impossible that the asci may turn out to be really homologous with a sexual sporangia, even though their development may often have become associated with the occurrence of a sexual act. However this may be, there is at present no reason to doubt that a very large proportion of the Fungi are, at least functionally, sexless plants. CHALAZOGAMY. Among the most striking results of recent years bearing on the morphology of the higher plants, Treub’s discovery of the structure of the ovule and the mode of fertilisation in Casuarina must undoubtedly be reckoned. The fact that the pollen-tube in this genus does not enter the micropyle, but travels through the tissues of the ovary to the chalaza, thus reaching the base of the embryo-sac, was remarkable enough in itself, and when considered in connection with the presence of a large sporogenous tissue producing numerous embryo-sacs, appeared to justify the separation of this order from other angiosperms. Then came the work of Miss Benson in England, and of Nawaschin in Russia, showing that these remarkable peculiarities are by no means confined to Casuarina, but extend also in various modifications to several genera of the Cupuliferze and Ulmacew. They are not, however, constant throughout these families, so that we are no longer able to attach to these characters the same fundamental systematic importance which their first discoverer attributed to them. It is remarkable, however, that these ‘Die Pilze,’ Schenk’s Handbuch der Botanik, Bd. iv. p. 341. Berichte der deutschen bot. Gesellschaft, vol. xiii., January 29, 1896 Le Botaniste, vols. iv. and v. Pringsheim’s Jahrbu *».f. Wiss. Bot. 1892. 1 2 3 4 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1005 departures from the ordinary course of angiospermous development occur in families some of which haye been believed on other grounds to be among the most primitive Dicotyledons. EVIDENCE OF DescENT DERIVED FROM FossiL Botany. At the beginning of this Address I spoke of the importance of the comparatively direct evidence afforded by fossil remains as to the past history of plants. It may be of interest if I endeavour to indicate the directions in which such evidence seems at present to point. It was Brongniart who in 1828 first arrived at the great generalisation that ‘nearly all of the plants living at the most ancient geological epochs were Cryptogams,’! a discovery of unsurpassed importance for the theory of evolution, though one which is now so familiar that we almost take it for granted. Those paleozoic plants which are not Cryptogams are Gymnosperms, for the angiospermous flowering plants only make their appearance high up in the secondary rocks. Even the Wealden flora, recently so carefully described by Mr. Seward, one of the secretaries to this section, has as yet yielded no remains referable to Angio- sperms, though this is about the horizon at which we may expect their earliest trace to be found. Attention has already been called to the enormous antiquity of the higher Cryptogams—the Pteridophyta—and to the striking fact that they are accompanied, in the earliest strata in which they have been demonstrated with certainty, by well-characterised Gymnosperms. The Devonian flora, so far as we know it, though an early, was by no means a primitive one, and the same statement applies still more strongly to the plants of the succeeding Carboniferous epoch. The palzozoic Cryptogams, as is now well known, being the dominant plants of their time, were in many ways far more highly developed than those of our own age; and this is true of all the three existing stocks of Pteridophyta, Ferns, Lycopods, and Equisetinez. We cannot, therefore, expect any direct evidence as to the origin of these groups from the paleeozoic remains at present known to us, though it is, of course, quite possible that the plants in question have sometimes retained certain primitive characters, while reaching in other respects a high development. For example, the general type of anatomical structure in the young stems of the Lepidodendrex was simpler than that of most Lycopods at the present day, though in the older trunks the secondary growth, correlated with arborescent habit, produced a high degree of complexity. On the whole, however, the interest of the paleozoic Cryptogams does not consist in the revelation of their primitive ancestral forms, but rather in their enabling us to trace certain lines of evolution further upward than in recent plants. From the Carboniferous rocks we first learn what Cryptogams are capable of. In descending to the early strata we do not necessarily trace the trunk of the genealogical tree to its base; on the contrary, we often light on the ultimate twigs of extensive branches which died out long before our own period. In a lecture which I had the honour of giving last May before the Liverpool Biological Society, I pointed out how futile the search for ‘ missing links’ among fossil plants is likely to be. The lines of descent must have been so infinitely complex in their ramification that the chances are almost hopelessly great against our happening upon the direct ancestors of living forms. Among the collateral lines, however, we may find invaluable indications of the course of descent. Fossil botany has revealed to us the existence in the Carboniferous epoch of a fourth phylum of vascular Cryptogams quite distinct from the three which have come down—more or less reduced—to our own day. This is the group of Sphenophyllez, plants with slender ribbed stems, superposed whorls of more or less wedge-shaped leaves, and very complex strobili with stalked sporangia. The group to a certain extent combines the characters of Lycopods and Horsetails, resembling the former in the primary anatomy, and the latter, though remotely, in external habit and fructification. Like so many of the early Cryptogams, Spheno- 1 Williamson, Remétniscences of a Yorkshire Nataralist, 1896, p. 198. 1006 REPORT—1896. phylum possessed well-marked cambial growth. One may hazard the guess that this interesting group may have been derived from some unknown form lying at the root of both Calamites and Lycopods. The existence of the Sphenophyllez certainly suggests the probability of a common origin for these two series. In few respects is the progress made recently in fossil botany more marked than in our knowledge of the affinities of the Calamarieze. ven so recently as the publication of Count Solms-Laubach’s unrivalled introduction to ‘ Fossil Botany,’ the relation of this family to the Horsetails was still so doubtful that the author dealt with the two groups in quite different parts of his book. This is never likely to happen again. The study of vegetative anatomy and morphology on the one hand, and of the perfectly preserved fructifications on the other, can leave no doubt that the fossil Calamariez and the recent Equiseta belong to one and the same great family, of which the paleozoic representatives are, generally speaking, by far the more highly organised. This is not only true of their anatomy, which is characterised by secondary growth in thickness just like that of a Gymnosperm, but also applies to the reproductive organs, some of which are distinctly heterosporous. In the genus Calamostachys we are,I think, able to trace the first rise of this phenomenon. The external morphology of the cones is also more varied and usually more complex than that of recent Equiseta, though in some Carboniferous forms, as in the so-called Calamostachys tenuissima of Grand’ Fury, we find an exactly Equisetum-like arrangement. The position of the Sigillaria as true members of the Lycopod group is now well established. The work of Williamson proved that there is no fundamental distinction between the vegetative structure of Lepidodendron, which has always been recognised as lycopodiaceous, and that of Stgillaria. Secondary growth in thickness, the character which here, as in the case of the Calamodendrez, misled Brongniart, is the common property of both genera. Then came Zeiller’s dis- covery of the cones of Sigillaria, settling beyond a doubt that they are hetero- sporous Cryptogams. A great deal still remains to be done, more especially as to the relation of Stigmaria to the various types of lycopodiaceous stem, At present we are perhaps too facile in accepting Stigmaria jicoides as representing the underground organs of almost any carboniferous Lycopod. We are now in possession of a magnificent mass of data for the morphology of the paleeozoic lycopods, and have perhaps hardly yet realised the richness of our material. I refer more especially to specimens with structure, on which, here as elsewhere, the scientific knowledge of fossil plants primarily depends. It is scarcely necessary to repeat what has been said so often elsewhere, that the now almost universal recognition of the cryptogamic nature of Calamodendreve and Sigillarie is a splendid triumph fur the opinions of the late Professor Williamson, which he gallantly maintained through a quarter of a century of controversy. Perhaps, however, the keenest interest now centres in the Ferns and fern-like plants of the carboniferous epoch. No fossil remains of plants are more abundant, or more familiar to collectors, than the beautiful and varied fern-fronds from the older strata. The mere form, and even the venation of these fronds, however, really tell us little, for we know how deceptive such characters may be among recent plants. In a certain number of cases, discovery of the fructification has come to our aid, and where sori are found we can have no more doubt as to the specimens belonging to true Ferns. The work of Stur and Zeiller has been especially valuable in this direction, and has revealed the interesting fact that a great many of these early Ferns showed forms of fructification now limited to the small order Marattiacee. I think perhaps the predominance of this group has heen somewhat exaggerated, but at least there is no doubt that the marattiaceous type was much more important then than now, though it by no means stood alone. In certain cases the whole fern-plant can be built up. Thus Zeiller and Renault have shown that the great stems known as Psaronius, the structure of which is perfectly preserved, bore fronds of the Pecopteris form, and that similar Pecopteris fronds produced the fructification of Asterotheca, which is of a marat- TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1007 traceous character. Hence, for a good many Carboniferous and Permian forms there is not the slightest doubt as to their fern-nature, and we can even form an idea of the particular group of Ferns to which the affinity is closest. I will say nothing more as to the true Ferns, though they present innumerable points of interest, but will pass on at once to certain forms of even greater import- ance to the comparative morphologist. A considerable number of paleozoic plants are now known which present characters intermediate between those of Ferns and Cycadee. I say present inter- mediate characters, because that is a safe statement; we cannot go further than this at present, for we do not yet know the reproductive organs of the forms in question. In Lyginodendron, the vegetative organs of which are now completely known, the stem has on the whole a cycadean structure ; the anatomy, which is preserved with astonishing perfection, presents some remarkable peculiarities, the most striking being that the vascular bundles of the stem have precisely the same arrangement of their elements as is found in the leaves of existing Cycads, but nowhere else among living plants. The roots also, though not unlike those of certain ferns in their primary organisation, grew in thickness by means of cambium, like those of a Gymmnosperm. On the other hand, the leaves of Lyginodendron are typical fern-fronds, having the form characteristic of the genus Sphenopteris, and being probably identical with the species S. Haninghaust. Their minute structure is also exactly that of a fern-Srond, so that no botanist would doubt that he had to do with a Fern if the leaves alone were before him. This plant thus presents an unmistakable combination of cycadean and fern- like characters. Another and more ancient genus, Heterangiwm, agrees in many details with Lyginodendron, but stands nearer the ferns, the stem in its primary structure resembling that of a Gleichenia, though it grows in thickness like a eycad. These intermediate characters led Professor Williamson and myself to the conclusion that these two genera were derived from an ancient stock of Ferns, combining the characters of several of the existing families, and that they had already considerably diverged from this stock in a cycadean direction. I believe that recent investigations, of which I hope we shall hear more from Mr. Seward, tend to supply a link between Lyginodendron and the more distinctly cycadean stem known as Cycadoxylon. Heterangium first appears in the Burntisland beds, at the base of the carboni- ferous system; from a similar horizon in Silesia, Count Solms-Laubach has de- scribed another fossil, Protopitys Bucheana, the vegetative structure of which also shows, though in a different form, a striking union of the characters of Ferns and Gymnosperms. Count Solms shows that this genus cannot well be included amone the Lyginodendrez, but must be placed in a family of its own, which, to use his own words, ‘ increases the number of extinct types which show a transition between the characters of Filicine: and of Gymnosperms, and which thus might represent the . descendants in different directions of a primitive group common to both.’ ? Another intermediate group, quite different from either of the foregoing, is that of the Medulloseze, fossils most frequent in the Upper Carboniferous and Per- mian strata. The stems have a remarkably complicated structure, built up of a number of distinct rings of wood and bast, each growing by its own cambium. Whether these rings represent so many separate primary cylinders, like those of an ordinary polystelic Fern, or are entirely the product of anomalous secondary growth, is still an open question, on which we may expect more light from the investigations of Count Solms. In any case, these curious stems (which certainly suggest in themselves some relation to Cycadex) are known to have borne the _ halal as Myeloxylon which have precisely the structure of cycadean petioles. Renault has further brought forward convincing evidence that these Myeloxy.«n petioles terminated in distinctly fern-like foliage, referable to the form-genera ' Bot. Zeitung, 1893, p. 207. 2 Seward, Annals of Botany, vol. vii. p. 1. 1008 REPORT—1896. Alethopteris and Neuropteris. Hence it is evident that the fronds of these types, like some specimens of Sphenopteris, cannot be accepted as true Ferns, but may be strongly suspected of belonging to intermediate groups between Ferns and Cycads. : It is not likely (as has been repeatedly pointed out elsewhere) that any of these intermediate forms are really direct ancestors of our existing Cycads, which certainly constitute only a small and insignificant remnant of what was once a great class, derived, as I think the evidence shows, from fern-like ancestors, probably by several lines of descent. One of the greatest discoveries in fossil botany was undoubtedly that of the Cordaitesee—a fourth family of Gymnosperms, quite distinct from the three now existing, though having certain points in common with all of them. They are much the most ancient of the four stocks, extending back far into the Devonian. Nearly all the wood of Carboniferous age, formerly referred to Conifers under the name of Dadozylon or Araucarioxylon, belonged to these plants. Thanks chiefly to the brilliant researches of Renault and Grand’ Eury, the structure of these’ fine trees is now known with great completeness. The roots and stems have a coniferous character, but the latter contain a large, chambered pith different from anything in that order. The great simple lanceolate or spatulate leaves, sometimes a yard long, were traversed by a number of parallel vascular bundles, each of which has the exact structure of a foliar bundlé in existing Cycadez. This type of vascular bundle is evidently one of the most ancient and persistent of characters. Both the male and female flowers (Cordaianthus) are well preserved in some cases. The morphology of the former has not yet been cleared up, but the stamen, consisting of an upright filament bearing 2-4 long pollen-sacs at the top, is quite unlike anything in Cycades ; a comparison is possible either with Gingko or with the Gnetacez. In the female flowers—small cones—the axillary ovules appear to have two integuments, a character which resembles Gnetaces rather than any other Gymno- sperms. Renault’s famous discovery of the prothallus in the pollen-grains of Cordaites indicates the persistence of a cryptogamic character; but it cannot be said that the group as a whole bears the impress of primitive simplicity, though it certainly combines in a remarkable way the characters of the three existing orders of the Gymnosperms. There is one genus, Poroxylon, fully and admirably investigated by Messrs. Bertrand and Renault, which from its perfectly preserved vegetative structure (and at present nothing else is known) appears to occupy an intermediate position between the Lyginodendrex and the Cordaiter. The anatomy of the stem is almost exactly that of Lyginodendron, the resemblance extending to the minutest details, while the leaves seem to closely approach those of Cordaites. Poroxylon is at present known only from the Upper Carboniferous, so we cannot regard it as in any way representing the ancestors of the far more ancient Cordaitew. The genus suggests, however, the possibility that the Cordaitee and the Cycadex (taking the latter term in its wide sense) may have had a common origin among forms belonging to the filicinean stock. It is also possible that the Cordaitex, or plants allied to them, may in their turn have given rise to both Conifers and Gnetacez. It is unfortunate that at present we do not know the fructification of any ot the fossil plants which appear to be intermediate between ferns and Gymnosperms. Sooner or later the discovery will doubtless be made in some of these forms, and most interesting it will be. M. Renault’s Cycadospadix from Autun appears ‘to show that very cycad-like fructifications already existed in the later Carboniferous period, and numerous isolated seeds point in the same direction, but we do not know to what plants they belonged. I think we may say that such definite evidence as we already possess decidedly points in the direction of the origin of the Gymnosperms generally from plants of the Fern series rather than from a lycopodiaceous stock. I must say a few words before concluding on the cycad-like fossils which are so strikine a feature of mesozoic rocks, although I feel that this is a subject with TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, 1009 which my friend Mr. Seward is far more competent to deal. Both leaves and trunks of an unmistakably cycadean character are exceedingly common in many mesozoic strata, from the Lias up to the Lower Cretaceous. In some cases the structure of the stem is preserved, and then it appears that the anatomy as well as the external morphology is, on the whole, cycadean, though simpler, as regards the course of the vascular bundles, than that of recent representatives of the group. 3 eae to say, however, it is only in the rarest cases that fructifications of a truly cycadean type have been found in association with these leaves and stems, In most cases, when the fructification is accurately known, it has turned out to be of a type totally different from that of the true Cycadez, and much more highly organ- ised. This is the form of fructification characteristic of Bennettites, a most remark- able group, the organisation of which was first revealed by the researches of Carruthers, afterwards extended by those of Solms-Laubach and Lignier. The genus evidently had a great geological range, extending from the Middle Oilite (or perhaps even older strata) to the Lower Greensand. Probably, all botanists are agreed in attributing cycadean affinities to the Bennettitee, and no doubt they are justified in this. Yet the cycadean characters are entirely vegetative and anato- mical ; the fructification is as different as possible from that of any existing cycad, or, for that matter, of any existing Gymnosperm. At present, only the female flower is accurately known, though Count Solms has found some indications of- anthers in certain Italian specimens. The fructification of the typical species, B. Gibsonianus, which is preserved in marvellous perfection in the classical specimens from the Isle of Wight, terminates a short branch inserted between the leaf-bases, and consists of a fleshy receptacle bearing a great number of seeds seated ona long pedicel with barren scales between them. The whole mass of seeds and inter- mediate scales is closely packed into a head, and is enclosed by a kind of pericarp formed of coherent scales, and pierced by the micropylar terminations of the erect seeds. Outside the pericarp, again, is an envelope of bracts which have precisely the structure of scale-leaves in cycads. The internal structure of the seeds is per- fectly preserved, and strange to say, they are nearly, if not quite, exalbuminous, practically the whole cavity being occupied by a large dicotyledonous embryo. This extraordinary fructification is entirely different from that of any other known group of plants, recent or fossil, and characterises the Bennettitez, as a family perfectly distinct from the Cycadex, though probably, as Count Solms- Laubach suggests, having a common origin with them at some remote period. The- Bennettitex, while approaching Angiosperms in the complexity of their fruit,. retain a filicinean character in their ramenta, which are quite like those of ferns, and different from any other form of hair found in recent Cycadexe. Probably the bennettitean and cycadean series diverged from each other at a point not far re- moved from the filicinean stock common to both. I hope that the hasty sketch which I have attempted of some of the indications of descent afforded by modern work on fossil plants may have served to illustrate- the importance of the questions involved and to bring home to botanists the fact that phylogenetic problems can no longer be adequately dealt with without taking into account the historical evidence which the rocks aftord us. Before leaving this subject I desire to express the great regret which all botanists musi feel at the recent loss of one of the few men in England who have carried on original work in fossil botany. At the last meeting of the Association we had to lament the death, at a ripe old age, of a great leader in this branch of science, Professor W. C. Williamson. Only a few weeks ago we heard of the premature decease of Thomas Hick, for many years his demonstrator and colleague. Mr. Hick profited by his association with his distinguished chief, and made many valuable original contributions to paleobotany (not to mention other parts of botanical science), among which I may especially recall his work, in conjunction with Mr. Cash, on ; : DI Eee i. ” 7 - ‘. Greece | Sisymbrium 32 4 eae ele! op nanum. . Stony places Malcolmia 9, 10 + . Spain, Algiers Matthiola5 . . . Desert / % ll. . . Maritime sands Vella i * 4 . Mom. calear., Spain Cerastium latifolium . Alpine Farsetial,2,3. . . Dry rocks | ” tomentosum . Mountains, Greece Aubrietia . - « Syria, arid places { a pedunculatum i ” » 1 The numbers correspond to those in Nyman’s Cox: pectus, 1014 REPORT—1896. Taste 1V.—Vypes of Sonchus spinosus or Zilla myagroides. Lepidium 15. p . Palestine Sisymbrium 17 A . Australia Matthiolall . : . Greece and arid coun- Zilla . “1 5 . Egyptian desert tries | Delphinium 10 4 . Waste places, Darda- Oudneya . A . . Algerian deserts nelles Farsetia linearis. . Egyptian desert + antheroidenm Dry sandy places co zegyptiaca > » t TasLeE V.—The Aptosimum Type. Sisymbrium 20,21 . . Spain, Syria Matthiola humilis , 4 Egyptian desert Alyssum 26,27 . : . Sunny places, Orient Fumaria 20 . . s Greece Matthiola acaulis . . lgyptian desert TasLeE V1.—Small-leaved or Retama-like Plants. Delphinium 14 . : . Leaves reduced . 2 . Desert es nanum . 5 a 5 ; : . Stony places Za Balas . s > absent . 5 . Desert ae virgatun " » itew 4 5 . Sandy waysides a Sal tr 5 : » very few 5 - Desert Lepidium 15 F : ; - - 5 ‘ . Palestine Parsetia linearis A : » reduced . Bi . Egyptian desert bs eegyptiaca = “A an . . a “A Cardamine 12. : : - an 5 4 . Plaines marceageuses Sisymbrium 3 é A Bem, = = . Syria = 9,11 ; . Rigid virgate shrub . . Spain tS 25 4 - “i » s ; . Arabia, Palestine Iberis, 25 ‘ : . Nearly leafless variety . Caleareous soil in hot countries 3. A Discussion on the Movement of Water in Plants was opened by Mr. Francis Darwin, F.R.S. Mr. Darwin’s Paper was ordered by the General Committee to be printed in eatenso. See Reports, p. 674. SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19. The following Papers were read :— 1. Changes in the Tentacle of Drosera rotundifolia, produced by Feeding with Egg Albumen. By Lity H. Huis, Physiol. Labor., Oxford. {Communicated by Dr. Gustay Mann. ] In unfed leaves fixed in watery picro-corrosive (sp. gr. 1020) and stained with Eosin-Toluidin blue, the apical and lateral glands of the first or outer layer and also all the cells of the second or middle layer show a deep-blue cytoplasm, with nuclei possessing little chromatin proper, but large nucleoli and a granular nucleo- plasm. Within one minute after feeding the blue cytoplasm becomes purple ; after one hour it is greatly vacuolated and reddish purple ; after twenty-four hours the blue material has disappeared, and only a few strands of a pink cytoplasm are to be seen. The nucleus after feeding loses the granular cytoplasm, the nuclear chromatin segments enlarge enormously, reminding one of the early stages of mitosis. The nucleolus has lost its red chromatin, and is not easy to see. Recuperation of the cytoplasm is the result of nuclear activity, for the chromo- somes enlarge during the period preceding the appearance of the granular nucleo- plasm, which latter in every respect resembles the granular deposit of cytoplasm in immediate contact with the outer surface of the nuclear membrane. The cytoplasm is at first purple in colour, but becomes blue after 6-7 days. After the ‘secretion’ of the cytoplasm the nuclear chromatin segments diminish in size, while the nucleoli become more and more evident, and the nucleoplasm has the same appearance as in a leaf which has never beenfed. The third layer of gland- cells, perhaps concerned in the secretion of mucus, also shows marked changes ; for the long spindle-shaped nuclei of the resting condition shorten within one TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1015. minute, after ten minutes they are more or less globular, then pass through changes similar to those described above, and after some days resume their spindle shape—an indication of rest. 2.. On the so-called Tubercle Bacillus. By A. Coreen Jones, F.L.S. (Communicated by A. VAUGHAN JENNINGS, F.L.8., F.G.S., &c.] Since the demonstration by Robert Koch in 1882 of a specific micro-organism constantly associated with and capable of producing tuberculous disease, the Bacillus tuberculosis has been the object of a great amount of investigation, which has resulted in a vast accumulation of literature. The minute rod-like organism which bears the name is better known to pathologists than any other pathogenic fungus, and may be easily diagnosed by the characteristic and unique appearance of its pure cultures on solid media, by the difficulty of staining it with the ordi- nary aniline dyes, and by the resistance it offers when stained to the decolorising action even of mineral acids. Its claim to be regarded as a true bacillus has only very recently been ques- tioned, but there are several considerations which tend to modify our views with respect to its biological status ; and the following observations, made during the last few years, and continued up to the present time, are, from this point of view, not without interest :— 1, While the well-known simple rod-like form is by far the commonest, and, n fact, the only form to be found in the vast majority oi cases, whether in the tissues, in sputum, or in cavity contents, there may be observed, not infrequently, elongated examples which develop lateral outgrowths, twigs, or incipient branching. 2. In rarer cases this process results in the formation of definite threads or hyphee, which exhibit true branching, and often contain one or more spores, forming oval, highly refracting, deeply stained swellings on the course of the filaments. It is to be particularly noted, first, that these spores have far more resemblance to the chlamydospores of the true filamentous fungi than to the typical endospores of bacteria ; and, secondly, that they must on no account be confounded with the unstained intervals on the course of the rods or filaments of the tubercle organism. These were formerly described by Koch as spores, but are really vacuoles in the cell contents, or, in some cases, spaces caused by the plasmo- lytic shrinkage of the protoplasm. Occasionally, in cavity contents, densely matted mycelial growths have been observed. 3. When old cultures are examined by means of sections it is found that the growth does not consist of separated rod-like forms, isolated from one another and lying at all angles, but of strands of parallel filaments, frequently showing dichotomous branching 4. These facts indicate that the so-called ‘tubercle bacillus’ is! really a stage in the life-history of some higher form of fungus with a definite mycelial growth. From a systematic point of view, it cannut be regarded as coming within any definition of the genus Bacillus, and it is suggested that a more appropriate name would be Tuberculomyces. Pathologists, who for the most part believe strongly in the constancy of form of the species of bacteria, may not be inclined at first to accept these conclusions. Bearing in mind the controversies of the past on the specific distinctness of micro- organisms and the many erroneous observations which have led to false statements as to polymorphism, such scepticism is both natural and desirable; but in the present case the tracing of all stages between the short rods and the branched hyphal filaments, their identical behaviour towards reagents, and the occurrence of all these forms in pure cultures, place their genetic relationship beyond a doubt. Brefeld has proved that a number of the higher thallus-forming fungi may, under certain conditions, multiply for innumerable generations as mere unicellular rods or spheres (‘oidia,’ &c.), and yet retain the power of again forming, when placed under suitable conditions, the mycelium from which they arose. It is 1016 REPORT —1896. therefore no far-fetched supposition to regard the rod-like form of the tubercle parasite as an adaptive modification of some higher fungus, existing perhaps as a saprophyte outside the animal body. Further support for such a view may be seen in the fact that the tubercle fungus occupies a unique position among the patho- genic micro-organisms resembling only the well-known hyphomycete Actinomyces. The resemban22 of these two forms was pointed out in 1892 by Fischel, and the present writer has been able to show that the tubercle organism is accompanied in a large proportion of cases by club-shaped growths identical with those so characteristic of Actinomycosis. Now it has been placed beyond a doubt that Actinomyces is primarily a parasite saprophytic on cereal plants, and that its occurrence as an animal parasite can only be regarded as secondary and accidental. Whether the change in our view as to the real nature of the tubercle fungus will in the future be of any diagnostic value it is impossible to say, as compara- tively few cases showing the filamentous growth have yet been observed; but there is some evidence in support of the idea that the hyphal type may be correlated with more chronic stages of the disease, where actual tissue destruction is relatively slight. 3.1 Preliminary Notes on Florali\Deviations in sone Species oy { Poly- gonum. Sy J. W. H.\ Tram, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in the Oniversity of Aberdeen. The genus has long beent known to show considerable departures from the arrangement and number of parts accepted as most typical (Per. 5. St. 5+3, C. 3), such as is found in P. convolvulus. Lichler’s ‘ Bliithendiagramme,’ for example, shows diagrams of several species as if characterised by constant differences of structures. Observation shows that in some species (e.g. Convolvulus) variations are comparatively infrequent and slight, but that in most (e.g. Perstcaria and aviculare) they are extremely frequent, and lead to very great changes in floral structure. Often it is scarcely possible in such species to find two flowers alike on the same branch, or even on the same plant. Within a species individual plants show wide differences in the frequency and extent of variations. A comparison of different species shows that while each varies, so as in the more variable species to cover almost the whole range observed in the genus, each shows a tendency to certain lines of variation. These tendencies are more alike usually in the more nearly allied species, so as to correspond in the main with the groups based on habit, and they lead from group to group. The modes of variation commonly observed include almost all the recognised modes of departure from floral, symmetry. They affect all the whoris. The perianth in some species is very constant. In others it habitually shows cohesion of two or more segments, or abortion in different degrees, or suppression of one or two (usually the inner) segments. Chorisis of a segment is less frequent. Enations from one or more segments are frequent in certain species, rare or absent in others. The outer stamens often show cohesion of the two in each pair, varying from the slightest union of the bases of the filaments to absolute union of even the anthers. Abortion (in all degrees to complete suppression) of one or more stamens is not rare, frequently reducing this whorl to 3 (less often to 2) in aviculare. Chorisis is not rare, especially of the unpaired stamen. The inner stamens seldom show cohesion (except in aviculare and its allies) with stamens of the outer whorl. Abortion (in all degrees to complete suppression) is very fre- quent, and in certain species (amphibiwm) this whorl has completely disappeared. In aveulare and allied species the inner whorl shows abortion less than the outer. Chorisis in the inner whorl most frequently shows itself in the posterior stamen. Adhesions of stamens to perianth segments and petalody of stamens are not frequent. (In P. amphibium the land form near Aberdeen very generally has the anthers very small or abortive, and the stamens hidden within the perianth, while the form growing in water has the anthers well developed, and some or all exserted; neither form appears to seed habitually.) TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1017 The pisti in some species is very constant, while in others it shows all stages of cohesion and reduction to two carpels, this being the almost invariable number in certain species. Abortion is less frequent, and complete suppression cannot be distinguished from complete cohesion. Chorisis is very frequent in aviculare and some other species, in all degrees from a mere enlargement of one or more stigmas to an increase in number (up to seven), with corresponding modifications in structure in the ovary. Only one ovule has been observed in each ovary, Markedly teratological forms have been met with, but are not included in this summary. No very definite relation has been traced between the position of a flower on the axis and deviations in structure, though pressure tends to abortion or suppres- sion of parts, especially of the sexual organs, (The flowers examined have chiefly been those sufficiently open to allow the natural arrangement to be noted without manipulation, to avoid displacement of parts, hence cleistogamous flowers are scarcely included.) The variability appears rather to express the result of an innate tendency to vary where not subject to the check of loss of fertility, the variations in Polygonum not leading to this loss. The same number of parts in a whorl may be due to very different causes, and still more may the same number of stamens express very different arrangements in the flower; hence such a statement in a specific description as ‘stamens usually six’ is insufficient. 4, On the Singular Effect produced on certain Animals in the West Indies by feeding on the Young Shoots, Leaves, Pods, and Seeds of the Wild Tamarind or Jumbai Plant (Leucena glauca, Benth.). By D. Morris, C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.LS., Assistant Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. The seeds of many species of Leguminosee are well known to be poisonous. The most striking instance is the Calabar bean of West Tropical Africa (Physo- stigma venenosum). This plant closely resembles a Phaseolus, but the poisonous character of the seeds is so well recognised that it has been long used by the people of West Africa as an ordeal in state trials. The seeds of Abrus precatorius, popularly called Crab’s Eyes, are harmless when eaten, but rapidly produce fatal effects when introduced beneath the skin in very small quantity. Even the seeds of the common Laburnum (Laburnum vulgare) are responsible for more than one death amongst children in this country every summer; and recently ten cattle were poisoned in Mid-Lothian by eating the leaves of this plant. The most remarkable effects are produced on horses in the Western States of America by feed- ing on species of Astragalus and Oxytropis, locally known as Crazy or Loco plants. The animals pass through a stage of temporary intoxication and act as if attacked with blind staggers, and ultimately die. Lastly, there is paralysis of the hinder extremities produced in horses (also in human beings) by feeding on the seeds of the Bitter Vetch (Zathyrus sativus), This has occurred very widely in India. The condition so induced is known as ‘lathyrismus.’ The subject of this note is a plant that has received little or no attention. As far as I am aware, its singular properties have not been placed on record in this country. The Wild Tamarind of Jamaica and the Jumbai or Jumbie of the Bahamas (Leucena glauca, Benth.) is commonly found along roadsides and in waste places in Tropical America. It presents the appearance of a weedy-looking Acacia, and belongs to the tribe Ewmimosee of the N. O. Leguminosae. The plant is now so widely distributed in tropical countries that its native habitat, according to Bentham, is unknown. There is, however, no doubt of its American origin. The extensive distribution of so unattractive a plant is probably due: (1) to the facility with which the small flat seeds are carried about by man or animals; (2) to the use to which the seeds are put in making ornamental articles such as artificial flowers, bracelets, brooches, baskets, &c. A set of these is shown in the Kew Museums. The following is a brief description of the species :— Leucena glauca, Benth, in ‘Hook, Journ, Bot.’ IV. 1842, 416, A small 1896. 3U 1018 REPORT—1896. unarmed tree or shrub, extremities, young leaves, and inflorescence puberulous. Pinne 3-6-jugate, occasionally a sessile gland between the lowest pair; leaflets linear, glaucous beneath, often sub-falcate, acute, 3-3 inch long. Heads globose, white, 2 inch in diameter, on peduncles of #1} inch from the upperaxils, Legume flat, thinly coriaceous 4-6 inches long, 3-{ inch broad, narrowed at the base into the stipes 3-3 inch. Acacia glauca, Willd., A. leucocephala, Link. Distribution :—West Indies, Bahamas, Demerara; Brazil, Peru; gardens of S. Europe and North Africa ; widely found in tropical Africa, East Indies, Ceylon, Mauritius, Java, and China. Probably introduced into Africa and Asia. Thirteen years ago I drew attention to the properties of this plant in a few words that appeared in the ‘ Report of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, 1883, p- 19, as follows: Wild Tamarind. Mr. Robert Russell, of St. Ann’s, informs me that horses feeding on the leaves of this plant completely lose the hair from their manes and tails. He adds, “ Horses from Llandovery, Richmond, and that side of the parish where the Wild Tamarind abounds, are frequently to be seen tail-less and mane-less.”’ This statement was supported by the testimony of so many people acquainted with the facts that there was no reason to doubt it. Many years afterwards (in December 1895) I renewed my acquaintance with the plant in the Bahamas. The plant was much more plentiful there than in Jamaica; it was, in fact, distinctly encouraged in the former islands as a fodder plant. The people were fully aware of the singular effect it produced on horses, and added that it also affected mules and donkeys. Its effect on pigs was still more marked. These animals assumed a completely naked condition, and appeared without a single hair on their body. Horses badly affected by Jumbai were occasionally seen in the streets of Nassau, where they were known as ‘ cigar-tails.’ Such depilated animals, although apparently healthy, were considerably depreciated in value. They were said to recover when fed exclusively on corn and grass. The new hair was, however, of a different colour and texture, ‘so the animals were neyer quite the same.’ One animal was cited as having lost its hoofs as well, and in consequence it had to be kept in slings until they grew again and hardened. The effects of the Jumbai on horses, mules, donkeys, and pigs were regarded as accidental— due to neglect or ignorance. The plant was really encouraged to supply food for cattle, sheep, and goats. The latter greedily devoured it and were not perceptibly affected byit. It will be noticed that the animals affected were non-ruminants, while those not affected were ruminants. The probable explanation is that the ruminants, by thoroughly mixing the food with saliva and slowly digesting it, were enabled to neutralise the action of the poison and escape injury. The seeds probably contain the deleterious principle in a greater degree than any other part of the plant. It was a common experience that animals introduced from other localities suffered more than the native animals. The latter were either immune or had learnt to avoid the plant as noxious to them. The active principle in Leucena glauca has not yet been investigated. There is abundant material at hand for this purpose in almost every part of the world. It is probable that the active principle may consist of a volatile alkaloid somewhat similar to that found in Lathyrus sativus. A certain amount of parallelism is to be noticed in the effects produced by these two plants. In ‘lathyrismus’ (ignoring the effect on man) the chief sufferer is undoubtedly the horse. The effect on mules and donkeys is not given, but is probably the same. Although pigs fatten on Lathyrus, they lose the use of their hinder extremities, as in the horse. Hence the non-ruminating animals as a class suffer from Lathyrus as they do from Leucena. The similarity in ruminants is also very close. For instance, cattle are reported to grow lean if fed exclusively on Lathyrus, but are not otherwise affected. Sheep are not affected at all. I am not disposed to attach much importance to the parallelism here noticed. It is possible that ruminants generally are less susceptible to the action of certain poisons than non-ruminants. It is evident, however, that in Leucena glauca we possess a plant with singular properties. It is a vegetable depilatory of a very decided character. No other plant appears to produce exactly identical results. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1019 MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21. The following Papers were read :— 1. On the Number of Spores in Sporangia. By Professor F. O. Bower, /.2.S. 2. The Polymorphism of the Green Alge, and the Principles of their Evolu- tion. By R. Cuopat, Professor of Botany in the University of Geneva. The paper treats of the following subjects: Primitive and Nodal Types; Pre- ponderance of Fluctuating Characters in the different Series; Specialisation of Characters and their Fixation; Sexuality: its Origin and Tendencies; supposed Relations with the Archegoniate. 3. On some Peculiar Cases of Apogamous Reproduction in Ferns. By Wituiam H. Lane, IB., B.Sc., Robert Donaldson Scholar, Glasgow Unwwersity. In order to ascertain to what extent apogamy in Nephrodium filiz-mas, Desv., is correlated with the cresting of the fern plant, from which the spores were de- rived, cultures of normal and crested forms were made. Of the three cultures of normal forms one was unsuccessful ; one of the others was exclusively apogamous, while the other has, as yet, reproduced in the ordinary way. Seven crested varie- ties were sown ; five of these were apogamous and the other two normal. Three of the crested varieties were known with certainty to be wild finds; two of these were apogamous. From these results it appears that apogamy in WN. filiz-mas stands in no definite relation to cresting. When the ferns sown were divided into Wollaston’s species, NV. filix mas, N. pseudo-mas, and N. propinquwm, it was found that all the varieties of the two former were apogamous, while both normal and crested forms of NV. propinguum were normally reproduced. The basis of observa- tion is, however, too limited to allow of any generai conclusion being drawn as to the constancy of this difference. Cultures were also made of crested varieties of other species. In all in which young plants were produced their development was at first normal. After the cultures had continued for nine months young plants, developed apogamously, were found in Scolopendrium vulgare, Athyrium filix feemina and Aspidium aculea- tum, var. angulare. It is impossible at present to decide how far the result can be ascribed to cresting of the parent plant. Possibly the prolonged cultivation of unfertilised prothalli is the more important factor in these cases, the cresting aiding as a predisposing cause. Unfertilised prothalli of Scolopendrium vulgare formed a cylindrical, fleshy prolongation of the midrib, the tip of which became in time covered with ramenta, and was continued directly as the axis of the young sporophyte. Archegonia were present just below the ramenta. In some prothalli of a fern from Mr. Druery’s collection, which was labelled Lastrea dilatata, vay. cristato-gracilis, a similar prolongation of the median region was found. Upon this sporangia were borne, sometimes singly, in other cases grouped together so as to resemble a sorus. The sporangia had a well-developed annulus which sometimes showed the characteristic reddish-brown thickenings of the wall. The prolongation on which the spcrangia were situated bore archegonia and antheridia which sometimes intervened between two groups of sporangia. Its prothallial nature was, therefore, beyond doubt. The sporangia were borne on prothalli on which no trace of a young sporophyte could be detected. 1020 REPORT—1896. Consideration of the theoretical bearings of these facts is deferred until they have been investigated in detail. 4, A Lecture on the Geographical Distribution of Plants was delivered by Mr. W. T. TutsEvton-Dyer, F:R.S., C.M.G., C.I.E., Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22. The following Papers were read :— 1, A Discussion on the Cell was opened by the reading of the following “Paper :— Some Current Problems connected with Cell-Division. By Professor J. BRETLAND FARMER. The great mass of information concerning the phenomena of cell-structure forms the excuse for attempting to test some of the leading hypotheses and theories as to the meaning of the observed facts. And firstly, it is necessary to exercise great care in laying the foundations of our knowledge, since these depend so much on material which has been subjected to an elaborate technical treatment before it can be appropriately examined. Secondly, there is a widespread tendency to generalise from a study, exhaustive it may be, of a few types. But there is so much variety, that, save in the broadest outlines, it is hardly possible to speak of a type at all. This is illustrated by the present position of the centrosome question. Fev people are agreed as to what its very nature actually is, and perhaps still fewer as to the part which it plays in the cell. Some regard it as the active agent in bringing about nuclear division, whilst others believe it to be a transient structure, called into existence by the forces which are at work during karyokinesis. The occurrence and behaviour of centrosomes during karyokinesis (nutosis) require a comparative treatment. Whilst it is quite possible that in the cells of some organisms the centrosome may possess a marked individuality, it does not there- fore necessarily follow that it must occur universally, or that it is concerned, as a principal, with the process; and this latter remark applies even to those instances in which it appears most prominently. Post hoc does not always imply propter hoc. The present position of the question as to the origin and nature of the achro- matic spindle, also, is a very uncertain one. Does the spindle arise as the result of an onward development of a pre-existing rudiment, or is it a new formation in the protoplasm? In the answer to this question, no less than in the conclusion to which we arrive as to the nature of the centrosome, an important principle is involved. It is, doubtless, simpler to admit a variety of ‘organs’ in the cell, but does such an admission bring us any nearer to understanding the actual processes of cell life ? Again, the chromosomes themselves present abundant difficulties, when one tries to arrive at a rational account which shall embrace the facts which even yet have been ascertained respecting them. If individuality be conceded to the chro- mosomes, how can this be reconciled with the facts of reduction and fertilisation ? It would seem that the reduction can be effected in various and radically different ways. But this touches very nearly their claims to the possession of that compli- cated structure which has been regarded as probable by some writers, and which is supposed by them to be intimately associated with different hereditary properties. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1021 2. On the Heterotype Divisions of Lilium Martagon, By Erne Sarcanr. There are two series of nuclear divisions in the life-history of Lilium Martagon which exhibit twelve chromosomes in place of twenty-four. I. Spermatogenesis :— 1. First division of pollen mother-cell nucleus. 2. Second division of pollen mother-cell nucleus. 3. Division of pollen-grain nucleus into vegetative and generative nuclei. 4. Division of generative nucleus in pollen-tube. IT, Odgenesis :— 1. Division of primary embryo-sac nucleus into micropylar and chalazal nuclei. 2. Division of micropylar daughter nucleus. 3. Division of both daughter nuclei of the micropylar nucleus. My preparations include the whole odgenetic series and the first three divisions of the spermatogenetic series. The second and third divisions in both are precisely similar to vegetative nuclear divisions except in possessing only half the number of chromosomes. They are called homotype. The first nuclear division on either side is called heterotype, because the process of karyokinesis differs from that of the vegetative nucleus. The chief points which distinguish it are :— 1. The resting nucleus, after some increase in size, passes into a contracted state called synapsis. 2. The chromatic ribbon of the spirem is not homogeneous, but is composed of an erythrophilous ribbon bearing a double row of cyanophilous dots. 3. Longitudinal fission appears in the spirem ribbon before its division into chromosomes. 4, A second longitudinal fission appears in each segment of the immature chromosomes. 5. The segments of each chromosome are tightly twisted on each other, and separate from near the middle or fromeither end. The untwisting of the segments from each other as they separate gives a contorted appearance to each chromosome of the nuclear plate, and adjacent chromosomes are otten of totally different shape. The appearance of the heterotype spindle is therefore much less regular than that of the homotype spindle. 6, The chromosomes of the diaster stage are usually V-shaped. 3. On the Cells of the Cyanophycee. By Professor E. Zacwartas. My recent researches on the Cyanophycee have confirmed and extended my former statements. Cell protoplasm, containing the coloured matter, surrounds a central body which is colourless. This body is not homogeneous in the living state ; when treated with reagents, it shows apparently a spongy structure ; in its sur- face, in eertain cases outside of it, are distributed granules of different shape and size, becoming deeply stained, when treated with methylen-blue. These granules (‘Centralsubstanz,’ as I have named them formally) agree, as stated some years ago, in their reactions with the chromatin of the nucleus of other organisms. However, I recently found slight differences, which, combined with certain con- siderations, render it doubtful whether the ‘Centralsubstanz’ contains nuclein like the Chromosomes or not. Iodine reactions observed in Gloiotrichia pisum render it probable that the central body of the spore and of those cells immediately above it contains glycogen. The cell protoplasm contains in different stages of cell-life different quantities of granules, which are chemically different from the central substance. Both kinds of granules are stored in the spores of Gloiotrichia. By certain methods of culture the granulations can be made to vanish entirely out of the cells. 1022 REPORT—1896. The whole of my experiments lead me to suppose that the granules in the cell- protoplasm are increased in size and number when the cells are able to assimilate carbon, although under conditions that do not allow them to grow. The cell-division takes place, as I have stated previously, without showing karyokinetic processes. Sometimes the disposition of the constituents of the central body may remind one of karyokinetic stages ; nevertheless this disposition is entirely variable and without rule. Reviewing the facts which we know at the present time, we are obliged to admit that the central body of the Cyanophycee differs in important points from the nucleus of other organisms. It is highly remarkable that often nuclein has not been found in the dividing cells of Cyanophycee, while in other organisms, as far as we know, the nuclein augments when the cells begin to divide. In connection with the previous statements, I wish to add some words on micro-chemical methods. A mixture of methylen-blue and fuchsin 8. may be used with great advantage to study the distribution of nuclein in the cell. If one treats tissues of different origin with diluted hydrochloric acid and afterwards adds the said mixture, the constituents of the cell which contain nuclein are stained deeply blue, the parts without that substance being red. Sperm cells of the Rhine- salmon were treated by me with diluted hydrochloric acid to remove protamin. Afterwards I stained them with the methylen-blue fuchsin S. mixture. Instantly the envelopes of the heads which contain the nucleic acid were beautifully dyed bright blue, the inner part ofthe heads seemed to be colourless, the tails were dyed. red. Similarly treated, the chromatin bodies of all the nuclei, which as yet have been examined, are stained blue, the rest of the nuclei and the cell protoplasms red. That the chromatin bodies contain nuclein had also been proved by their other reactions. However, it is easily understood, but often not sufficiently attended to, that it is necessary to treat the tissues quite similarly if one wishes to obtain com- parable results. Lilienfeld states that white of an egg coagulated by alcohol can- not be stained, and removes the colour from the dye-mixture. I, on the contrary, have stated that white of anegg coagulated by alcohol is stained red by the above- mentioned mixture. I recently made out that this difference of results must have been caused by the different ways in which Lilienfeld and I have obtained the coagulated white of an egg. If one squeezes some white of an egg through a cloth, and then adds just enough alcohol to coagulate it, the substance thus obtained cannot be stained red, but removes the colour from the dye-mixture. But if the coagulate is washed with water, it can now be stained reddish blue, and after washing if) with alcohol, pure red. The water used for washing has an alkaline reaction, and removes the colour from the dye-mixture. 4. Ona New Hybrid Passion Flower. By Dr. J. Witson. 5. Observations on the Loranthacece of Ceylon. By ¥F. W. Keesre, B.A. Cantab. I. Emergences on the.Embryo of Loranthus neelgherensis.—The hypocotyl of the fully developed embryo is densely covered with green columnar emergences, whose cortical cells contain chlorophyll, starch, tannin, and a substance giving the reactions of a fat. Irregular masses of a similarly reacting material are fre- quently found covering the cuticle. A single stoma occurs on the free surface of each emergence, and in the embryo of this species stomata are confined to the emergences. The cuticle covering the general epidermis is continuous over the guard-cells of each stoma, except for a small oval slit which allows of communication between the intercellular space and the air. The stomata thus suggest either a xerophytic habit for the plant or an abnormal function for themselves. The emergences flourish during the germinating (epiphytic) stage, and later, when semi-parasitism is achieved, cease to be functional. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1028 IT, Mode of penetration into the host of L. neelgherensis— Unlike many species, L. neelgherensis develops no well-marked organ of attachment (suctorial disc) at the free end of its hypocotyl. Where much resistance to the entry of the sucker is offered by the host, there are formed at the edges of the attached surface of the hypocotyl a series of acropetally arising, hair-bearing cortical ridges. The later-formed ridges, wedging themselves in between the older ones and the bark, force these older ridges away. The firmly attached hairs of each ridge so forced away tear off masses of the bark, and thus the softer tissues, through which the sucker readily and cleanly bores, are exposed by instalments. Where the sucker comes in contact with lignified structures, dissolution is more gradual, and stages of disintegration (erosion figures) are to be observed. In Z. loniceroides, where a well-marked suctorial disc is formed, attachment occurs once for all. This attachment is maintained (1) by the growth of the edge of the disc hard against the bark; (2) by the outgrowing hairs forming a matted sclerotic mass firmly fixed into the outer layers of the host. 6. Specimens of Recent and Fossil Plants were demonstrated in the Zoological Laboratory by Dr. D. H. Scorr, Professor Maenus, Pro- fessor ZACHARIAS, Miss E. Sarcant, Mr. A. C. Sewarp, Mr. W. H. Lane, and others. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER. 23. The following Papers were read :— 1. On Latent Life in Seeds. By M. Casimir DE CANDOLLE. In this paper M. de Candolle gave an account of some experiments which he has recently carried out on the power of germination of seeds exposed for different periods to low temperatures, He also recorded striking instances of the develop- ment of normal seedlings from seeds which have been kept for a great number of years. From seeds of Nelumbium speciosum, more than a hundred years old, Robert Brown obtained perfect seedlings, Similar results were recorded from experiments made on very old seeds in the Tournefort Herbarium, Paris. Plants buried under rubbish-heaps collected by the Greeks have been found to grow and develop flowers from seeds which must have been at least 1,500 years old. To test the condition of a dormant seed, M. de Candolle exposed the seeds of several plants to a temperature too low to admit of the continuance of the process of respiration. Seeds of corn, oats, Feniculum officinale, Mimosa pudica, Gloxinia, and other plants were exposed for 118 days to a temperature of 40°F. below zero. The means of carrying out these experiments was afforded by refrigerating machines placed at the disposal of M. de Candolle by a Liverpool firm of meat importers. The machines worked about eight hours a day, and during that time the tempe- rature often fell considerably below 40°F. below zero. Nearly all the seeds of corn, oat, and Feniculum germinated, and a great many in the case of Mimosa. The Gloxinias did not develop, but-there is reason to suppose that they were not good seeds, as others from the same lot did not germinate freely even under normal conditions. The conclusion to be drawn from the experiments seems to be this: In resting seeds the protoplasm is not actually living, but has reached a stage of inaction in which, although not dead, it is endowed with potential life. In other words, protoplasm in resting seeds is not analogous to a smouldering fire, but rather to those chemical mixtures made up of bodies capable of combining when certain conditions of temperature and illumination are realised. .A good example of this condition is afforded by a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen, which can be preserved indefinitely without combining if kept in the dark, but under the influence of certain rays of light combine with explosive violence. 1024 REPORT—1896. 2. On some Carboniferous Fossils referred to Lepidostrobus. By D. H. Scort, IA., Ph.D., PRS. 1. The specimens described by the late Professor W. C. Williamson under the name of Lepidodendron Spenceri' consist entirely of pedunculate strobili, and therefore, if their Lepidodendroid affinities were established, would be placed in the genus Lepidostrobus. Under the name Z. Spencert two distinct species are in- cluded, differing in the dimensions of the axis, the arrangement of the sporophylls, and the size, arrangement, and forms of the spores. The smaller kind, which is the more frequent, is alone figured in Williamson’s memoirs, and must retain the specific name of Spenceri. The structure is pre- served with great perfection. The anatomy of the peduncle and axis is consistent with the attribution of the species to Lepidostrobus; but in several points, notably the form of the sporophylls and the insertion of the sporangia, the cone differs from all known Lepidostrob:. It agrees most nearly with a form described by M. Zeiller as Siyillartostrobus Crepini.?. If the latter be a true Sigillario- strobus then L. Spencert should also be placed in that genus. In that case it would be the first fructification of Sigillaria discovered with structure preserved. The second and larger species appears to be co-generic with the former. : 2. A fragment of stem from the Burntisland beds at the base of the Car- boniferous formation was described by Williamson in 1872° as possibly forming part of the axis of the Zepzdostrobus found in the same deposits. A renewed examination of the specimen has shown that it differs in many respects from any Lepidodendroid axis, as shown by the pitted, as distinguished from scalariform tracheides, by the di- or trichotomous leaf-traces, and by the presence of a ventral lobe on the leaf. The specimen represents a new type of stem, having some points in common with Sphenophyllum, but so far of uncertain affinity. 3. A New Cycad from the Isle of Portland. By A. C. Sewarp, J/.4., F.GS. Dr. Woodward lately obtained an exceedingly fine specimen of a cycadean stem from the Purbeck beds of Portland, which is now in the fossil plant gallery of the British Museum. The stem, which is probably the largest known, has a height of 1m, 185 cm., and measures 1 m. 7 cm. in girth at the broadest part. A striking feature of the specimen is the conical apical bud enclosed by tapered bud scales, bearing numerous ramental outgrowths on the exposed surface. The surface of the stem presents the appearance of a prominent reticulum of projecting ridges, of which the meshes were originally occupied by the persistent petiole bases. The substance of theleafstalks has for the most part disappeared, while the interpetiolar ramental tissue has been mineralised and so preserved as a projecting framework. In structure the ramenta are practically identical with those of Bennettites, as described by Carruthers and other writers. The petiole bases also agree very closely with those of Bennettites, consisting of a mass of parenchymatous tissue traversed by numerous vascular bundles and secretory canals, with a distinct band of cork at the periphery. No trace of any inflorescence has been found. It is proposed to name the plant Cycadeowdea gigantea. ’ 4. Note on a Large Specimen of Lyginodendron. By A. C. Sewarp, JILA., £.G.S8. The specimens on which this description is based are in the Botanical Depart- ment of the British Museum and in the recently acquired Williamson Collection. 1 «Organization of the Fossil Plants of the Coal-measures,’ parts ix., x., XVi., and xix., 1878-93, Phil. Trans. 2 Flore fossile du Bassin Houiller de Valenciennes, pl. Ixxvii. fig. 3. 3 « Organization,’ &c, part iii. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1025 The block, from which several sections have been prepared, is a striking example of the preservation of the minute structure of a Coal Measure plant on a large scale; it consists of a mass of wood at least 6 cm. thick in a radial direction, and a pith about 3 cm. in diameter, but without any trace of cortical tissue. Sections obtained from this block, and included in the Williamson Collection, were described at some length in the recently published memoir by Williamson and Scott on Lyginodendron and Heterangium. The examination of additional specimens has led to a somewhat fuller diagnosis of the structure and a more detailed comparison with Lyginodendron Oldhamium and other plants. The main mass of the wood possesses a structure practically identical with that of Lyginodendron Oldhamium and recent cycadean stems; internal to the centrifugally developed secondary wood there is a fairly complete and narrow ring of centripetally developed xylem, In the pith there are numerous secretory canals and nests of dark-coloured sclerous cells. No definite traces of primary xylem like that of Lyginodendron Oldhamiuni have been detected. As a matter of convenience the specimen may be designated Lyginodendron robustum. 5. A New Species of Albuca (A. prolifera, Wils.). By Dr. J. Wixson. 6. Observations on Hybrid Albucas. By Dr. J. Witson. 1896. ” SS Bias i ™ ‘beta a ; ate wadiactt perks wut os ae yh oe iam Spain ‘ wa conte tn oat at bance tars 35 ot Oh cee oY’ ig er oui a2 parti Paha ann Poe By ‘ y Wik NO» ie" is eedihag ke > peers deena § ti4 Hada iz pat? dat Tahouses bagatowals 7 Uaadtenstay-y Fol ater begga hs dugremss ‘Vo. an p60 thy ean wf presates he polly Aral +a! suit fog alpoz 2 YO vos Ect Mi wavisg A) arden Liss epee its giles vyemlng Yo ethos : jap arate iets Of go cat bark od} egacte wie: j to bier a @ ee , juonat “a ‘ atk ty iets ane (en ilo da) sons € ast “a te te obs ' - eer? $0 sit pare Hi dyl waren Eis Le be ; re al ty pee De INDEX. References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italics. An Asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given. The mark + indicates the same, but a reference is given to the Journal or Newspaper where the paper is published in extenso. BJECTS and rules of the Association, XXxvii. List of Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local Secretaries, 1831-1897, xxxvilii. List of Trustees and General Officers, 1831-1897, 1. List of former Presidents and Secretaries of Sections, li. List of evening lectures from 1842, lxix. Lectures to the Operative Classes, Ixxii. Officers of Sections present at Liverpool, lxxiii. Officers and Council for 1896-97, Ixxv. Treasurer’s account, Ixxvi. Table showing the attendance and re- ceipts at the annual meetings, Ixxvii. Report of the Council to the General Committee at Liverpool, Ixxx. Resolutions passed by the Committee at Liverpool : (1) Committees receiving grants of money, lxxxiv. (2) Committees not receiving grants of money, lxxxix. (3) Papers ordered to be printed in extenso, Xciil. (4) Resolutions referred to the Coun- cil for consideration, and ac- tion if desirable, xciv. Synopsis of grants of money appropriated to scientific purposes in 1896, xcv. Places of meeting in 1897, 1898 and 1899, xcvi. General statement of sums which have been paid on account of grants for scientific purposes, xcvii. General meetings, exii. Address by the President, Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., D.C.L., Pres. R.S.,3. General ABBOTT (George) on District Unions of Scientific Societies, 33. ABERCROMBY (Hon. R.) on meteorvlogieal observations on Ben Nevis, 166. ABNEY (Capt. W. de W.) on the best methods of recording the direct inten- sity of solar radiation, 241. on mave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and compounds, 273. on the action of light upon dyed colours, 347. ABRAM (Dr. J. Hill) and PRosprr H. MARSDEN on the detection of lead in organic fluids, 990. Acetylene, limiting explosive proportions of, and detection and measurement of the gas in air, Prof. F. Clowes on, 746. Aconcagua, a proposed ascent of, A. E. Fitzgerald on, 862. ADAMS (Prof. W. G.) on practical elec- trical standards, 160. —— on seismological investigation, 180. —— on the comparison and reduction of magnetic observations, 231. Africa, the climatology of, Fourth re- port on, 495. —— South, fossil plants from, A. C. Seward on some, 807. African civilisations, the influence of climate and vegetation on, G. F. Scott- Elliot on, 856. —— Lake fauna, Report on, 484. Agriculture, the decay of British; its causes and cure, C. Rintoul on, 879. z in Greece and Italy, the growth of, and its influence on early civilisation, Rev. G. Hartwell Jones on, 929. Air at different densities, measurements of electric currents through, Lord Kelvin, Dr. J. T. Bottomley, and Dr. Magnus Maclean on, 710. Alaska and British Columbia, the border- land of, E. Odlum on, 865. *Albuca, a new species of (A. prolifera, Wils.), Dr. J. Wilson on, 1025. 3x 2 1028 *Albucas, hybrid, Dr. J. Wilson on, 1025. Algwe, the polymorphism of the Green,and the principles of their evolution, Prof. R, Chodat on, 1019. Algological notesfor the Plymouth district, by George Brebner, 485. ALLEN (Prof. ¥. J.) on the physical basis of life, 983. —— (J. Romilly) on an ethnographical survey of the United Kingdom, 607. Altcar, north of eshte a boring in the Red Marl near, G. H . Morton. on, 780. Altels avalanche, Dr. Tempest Anderson on the, 851. Amides of the alkali metals, and some of their derivatives, A.W. Titherley on, 748. Analysis of the results from the Kew declination and horizontal force mag- netographs during the selected ‘quiet’ days of the six years 1890-95, 231. Ancient rocks of Charnwood Forest, W. W. Watts on the, 795. ANDERSON (E. W.) on electric cranes, 898. (Dr. Joseph) on an ethnographical survey of the United Kingdom, 607. (Dr. Tempest). on the collection of photographs of geological interest in the United Kingdom, 357. ——— on the Altels avalanche, 851. —— (Dr. W.) on the establishment of a National Physicat Laboratory, 82. ANDREWS (A. W.) on the teaching of geography in relation to history, 864. Anglesey, Central, E. Greenly on silli- manite gneisses in, 783. —— S. Eastern, E. Greenly on quartzite enticles in the schists of, 783. -——, crush-conglomerates in, Geikie on some, 806. ‘Anthropological opportunities in British New Guinea, Sidney H. Ray on, 928. Anthropology, Address by A. J. Evans to the Section of, 906. —— of the Isle of Man, the physical, Dr. John Beddoe and A. W. Moore on, 920. Apogamous reproduction in Ferns, some peculiar cases of, W. H. Lang on, 1019. *Apus, the structure of the male, Dr. Benham on, 837. Argon, the discovery of, in the water of an Austrian well, Prof. Max Bamberger on, 757. *Arithmetical machine of 1780, Stanhope, Rev. R. Harley on, 728. Armour and heavy ordnance; recent developments and standards, Capt. W. H. Jaques on, 900. ARMSTRONG (Prof. H. E.) on the in- vestigation of isomeric naphthalene derivatives, 265. Sir A. the —— onthe teaching of science in elemen- | tary schools, 268. REPORT—1896. ARMSTRONG (Prof. H. E.) on the pro- duction of haloids from pure materials, 347. Aspirator, a new form of, Dr, C. A. Kohn and T. Lewis Bailey on, 759. Astronomical photography, a method of allowing for the effect of atmospheric refraction on the apparent diurnal movement of the stars in, Prof. A. A. Rambaut on, 726. *Atlantic, marine research in the North, H. N. Dickson on, 850. Australia, the aboriginal stick and bone writing of, Dr. G. Harley on, 941. Avalanche, the Altels, Dr. Tempest Anderson on, 851. Aylesbury and Rugby, sections along the new railway between, H. B. Woodward on, 798. Ayrshire, the discovery of marine shells in the Drift series at high levels, John Smith on, 799. AYRTON (Prof. W. E.) on the establish- ment of a National Physical Labora- tory, 82. on practical electrical standards, 150. Bacillus, the so-called tubercle, A. Coppen Jones on, 1015. Bacteria, and food, Dr. A. A. Kanthack on, 985. —— the action of glycerine upon the growth of, Dr. G. M. Copeman and Dr. F. R. Blaxall on, 986. Bacteriological research, the organisation of, in ccnnection with Public Health, Dr. Sims Woodhead on, 984. BAILEY (G,. Percy) on the electrolytic methods of quantitative analysis, 244. (I. Lewis) and Dr. C. A. KoHN on a new form of aspirator, 759. BALFOUR (Prof. I, Bayley) on the preser- vation of plunts for exhibition, 684. *BAMBERGER (Prof. Max) on excrescent resins, 750. —— on the discovery of argon in the water of an Austrian well, 757. *Banks in Germany, Raffeisen village, Prof. W. B. Bottomley on, 879. ° *BARLOW (Dr. Lazarus) on the réle of osmosis in physiological processes, 984. (W.)on homogeneous structures and the symmetrical partitioning of them, with application to crystals, 731. BARNES (C. K.) on the electrolytic methods of quantitative analysis, 244. BARRINGTON (R. M.) on making a digest of the observations on the migration of birds, 451. _ Barry (J. Wolfe), Description of the general features and dimensions of the Tower Bridge by, 897. INDEX. BATHER (F. A.) on the compilation of an index generwm et specierum animalium, 489. — on zoological bibliography and publi- cation, 490. *BAUER (Dr. L. A.) on the component fields of the earth’s permanent mag- netism, 713. BAUERMAN (H.) on the proximate con- stituents of coal, 340. BHARE (Prof. T. H.) on the calibration of instruments used in engineering laboratories, 538. BEASLEY (H.C.) on some of the foot- prints from the Trias near Liverpool, 779. *BEATTIE (R.), Prof. J. A. FLEMING, and R. C. CLINKER, on the hysteresis of iron in revolving magnetic fields, 899. BEAuMONT (W. W.) on the cause of fracture of railway rails, 896. Becquerel rays, the relation between kathode rays, Rontgen rays and, Prof. 8. P. Thompson on, 712, 713. BEDDOE (Dr. John) on an ethnographical survey of the United Kingdom, 607. and A. W. Moore on the physical anthropology of the Isle of Man, 925. BEDELL (Frederick) on the division of an alternating current in parallel cir- cuits with mutual induction, 733. BEDFORD (J. E.) on the collection of photographs of geological interest in the United Kingdom, 357. — (Rev. W. K. R.) on the Weston tapestry maps, 850. BEDSON (Prof. P. P.) on the proximate constituents of coal, 340. *Beetle, Tiger, (Cicindela campestris), F. Enock on, 831. BELL (Alfred) on Tertiary deposits in north Manxland, 783. —— (Dugald) on the erratic blocks of the British Tsles, 366. — on the character of the high- level shell-bearing deposits at Kintyre, _ 378. —— (Sir I. Lowthian) on the proximate constituents of coal, 340. *____ (J.) on wreck raising, 905. Ben Nevis, meteorological observations on, Report on, 166. *BENHAM (Dr. W. B.) on the structure of the male Apus, 837. Bessel functions, Third report on tables of the, 98. Bibliography of spectroscopy, Highth ' (interim) report on the, 243. zoological, and publication, Report on, 490. BINNIE (A. R.) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. *BINNS (Henry) on the course of average general prices, 883. _ | 1029 Biological Association at Plymouth, the Marine, Report on investigations made at the laboratory of, 485. | —— Station, the necessity for a British fresh-water, D. J. Scourfield on, 831. Bird migration in Great Britain and Ireland, A digest of the observations on, by W. Eagle Clarke, 451. Birds the sailing flight of, G. H. Bryan on, 726. BLANFORD (Dr. W. T.) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. on the zoology of the Sandwich Islands, 492. BLAXALL (Dr. F. R.) and Dr. §. M. COPEMAN, on the action of glycerine upon the growth of bacteria, 986. : BLUNDEN (G. H.) on the distribution and incidence of rates and taxes; with special reference to the transfer: of charges from the former to the latter, 878. Boas (Dr. Franz) on the Indians of British Columbia, 569. *Boat graves in Sweden, Dr. H. Stolpe on, 931. BONNEY (Prof. T. G.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 31. —— on the collection of photographs of geological interest in the United King- dom, 357. on the ervatic blocks of the British ~ Isles, 366. —— on the structure of a coral reef, 377. BoseE (Prof. J. Chunder) on a complete | apparatus for the study of the proper- ties of electric waves, 725. Botany, Address by Dr. D. H. Scott to the Section of, 992. Botany, geology, and zoology of the Frish Sea, Pinal report on the, 417. —— and zoology of the West India Islands, Ninth report on the present state of our knowledge of the, 493. BOTHAMLEY (C. H.) on the production of haloids from pure materials, 347, BoTroMueEy (J.'T.) on practical electrical standards, 150. —— on seismological investigation, 180. ——, Lord .KELVIN, and Dr. MAGNUS MACLEAN on measurements of electric currents through air at different densi- ties down to one five-millionth of the density of ordinary air, 710. Banks in Germany, 879. BOURNE (G. C.) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. on investigations made at the Marine Biological Association labora- tory at Plymouth, 485. on the necessity for the immediate investigation of the ee y of eceanic islands, 487. 1030 BouRNnE (G. C.) on the possible infectivity of the oyster, and on the green disease im oysters, 663. “Bower (Prof. F. O.) on the number of spores in sporangia, 1019. Boyck (Prof. Rubert B.) on the possible infectivity of the oyster, and on the green disease in oysters, 663. BRABROOK (EH. W.) on the physical and mental defects of children in schools, 592. —— on an ethnographical survey of the United Kingdom, 607. +—— on Kent in relation to the ethno- graphical survey, 928. BRADSHAW (T. BR.) on the behaviour of litmus in amphoteric solutions, 752. BRAMWELL (Sir F. J.) on seismological investigation, 180. on the B. A. screw gauge, 527. BREBNER (George) Algological notes for the Plymouth district by, 485. British Columbia and Alaska, the border- land of, Prof. E. Odlum on, 865. *____ the Coast Indians of, Prof. E. Odlum on, $29. the Indians of, Dr. F. Boas on, 569. British interment, an ancient, F, T. Elworthy on, 940. —— Isles, a proposed geographical description of the, Dr. H. R. Mill on, 850. ‘ Brochs’ of Scotland, Miss C. Maclagan on the, 924. Bronze made with tin, the transition from pure copper to, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on, 930. Brown (Prof. A. Crum) on meteoro- logical observations on Ben Nevis, 166. BROWNE (Montagu) on Rhetic geology, 804, BRYAN (G. H.) on the uniformity of size of pages of Scientific Societies’ publica- tions, 86. —— on some difficulties connected with the kinetic theory of gases, 717. —— on the sailing flight of birds, 726. BUCHAN (Dr. A.) on meteorological obser- vations on Ben Nevis, 166. BUCHANAN (Dr. R. A. M.) on cell granu- lations under normal and abnormal conditions, with special reference to the:leucocytes, 981. BUCKNEY (T.) on the B.A. screw gauge, 527. BULLEID (A.) on the lake village at Glastonbury, 656. BurRBuRY (8. H.) on the stationary motion of a system of equal elastic spheres in a field of no forces when their aggregate volume is not infinitely small compared with the space in which they move, 716. Bu&KE (John) on absorption of rays and fluorescence, 731, REPORT—1896. BuRTON (Dr. C. V.) on the uniformity of size of pages of Scientific Societies’ publications, 86. Busz (Prof. Karl) on the production of corundum by contact metamorphism on Dartmoor, 807. *Calf Hole exploration, Interim report on the, 804. Calibration of instruments used in engi- neering laboratories, Report onthe, 538. CALLAWAY (C.) on the superficial depo- sits of North Shropshire, 800. Cambrian faunas, some features of the early, G. F. Matthew on, 785. See ‘ Pre-Cambrian.’ Canada, North-Western tribes of the Do- minton of, Eleventh report on the, 569. Siathreport on the Indians of British Columbia, by Dr. F. Boas, 569. *_____ and its gold discoveries, Sir James Grant on, 858. CANNAN (Edwin), that ability is not the proper basis of taxation, by, 877. CAPPER (Prof. D. 8.) on the calibration of wmstruments used in engineering laboratories, 538. Carbohydrates of cereal straws, First report on the, 262. Carbon monoxide in air, the detection and estimation of, Dr. J. Haldane on, 759. —— monoxide in the air, the detection and estimation of, by the flame-cap test, Prof. F. Clowes on, 760. Carbonic anhydride, the determination of, a modified form of Schrdtter’s ap- paratus for, Dr. C. A. Kohn on, 758. Carboniferous fossils referred to Lepi- dostrobus, Dr. D. H. Scott on, 1024. —— Limestone of N. Wales, the range of species in the, G.H. Morton on, 787. —-- rocks, Report on the life-zones in the British, 415. CARRUTHERS (W.) on the zoology and botany of the West India Islands, 493. CASEY (James) on a new spherical bal- anced valve for all pressures, 901. Cathode rays, and their probable con- nection with Réntgen rays, Prof. P. Lenard on, 709. see ‘ Kathode.’ Cathodic rays, the photo-electric sensiti- sation of salts by, Prof. J. A. Hlster and Prof. H. Geitel on, 731. CAVE (Henry W.) on the present con- dition of the ruined cities of Ceylon, 862. Caves, the Selangor, Preliminary report on, 399. Cell, one-volt standard, with small tem- perature coefficient, W. Hibbert on a, 713. Cell-division, multiple, compared with INDEX. bipartition as Herbert Spencer’s limit of growth, Prof. Marcus Hartog on, 833. ——- some current problems connected with, Prof. J. B. Farmer on, 1020. Cell granulations under normal and ab- normal conditions, with special refe- rence to the leucocytes, Dr. R. A. M. Buchanan on, 981. *___ theory, Discussion on the, 832, 1020. Cells of the Cyanophyceex, Prof. E. Zacharias on the, 1021. Celtic and Scandinavian art, Manx crosses as illustrations of, P. M. C. Kermode on, 934. Cerebellum, the minute structure of the, Dr. Alex. Hill on, 986. *Cetiosaurus remains in the Oxford Mu- seum, the investigation of the locality of the, Interim report on the, 804. Ceylon, ‘Coccide of, Report on the publi- cation of B. FE. Green’s, 450. the present condition of the ruined cities of, Henry W. Cave on, 862. — the Loranthacez of, F. W. Keeble on the, 1022. Chalk, Upper, the conditions of the de- . position of the, P. F. Kendall on, 791. Charitable or philanthropic trading, . some economic issues in regard to, C. 8. Loch on, 875. Charnwood Forest, the ancient rocks of, W. W. Watts on, 795. Chemical action, the retardation of, from diminution of space, Prof. Oscar Lie- breich on, 748. *___ education in England and Ger- many, Sir H. E. Roscoe on, 761. Chemistry, Address by Dr. Ludwig Mond to the Section of, 734. Children in schools, the physical and mental defects of, Report on, 592. CHISHOLM (G. G.) on the relativity of geographical advantages, 860. *Chlorine, the manufacture of, by means of nitric acid, Dr. F. Hurter on, 758. CHODAT (Prof. R.) on the polymorphism of the Green Algz, and the principles of their evolution, 1019. CHREE (C.) on the comparison and re- duction of magnetic observations. Non- cyclic effects at Kew Observatory during the selected ‘quiet’ days of the ' sia years, 1890-95, 231. on the best methods of recording the direct intensity of solar radiation, 241. CHRISTIE (W. H. M.) on the comparison and reduction of magnetic observations, 231. CHRYSTAL (Prof. G.) on practical elec- trical standards, 150. —— on the comparison and reduction of magnetic observations, 231. Chytridiaceous genus Ulrophlyctis, some 1031 species of the, Prof. P. Magnus on, 1010. Circulation, the physiological effect of ‘peptone’ when injected into the, Prof. W. H. Thompson on, 975. *Civilisation of the Mediterranean, the early, Discussion on, 932. Civilisations, African, the influence of climate and vegetation on, G. F. Scott- Elliot on, 856. CLARKE (W. Eagle), A digest of the ob- servations on the migration of birds in Great Britain and Ireland by, 452. Clava, Kintyre, Sc.,the high-level shell- bearing deposits of, Report on, 378. CLAYDEN (A. W.) on the application of photography to the elucidation of meteorological phenomena, 172. Clays, current bedding in, examples of, Prof. H. G. Seeley on, 805. CuirtTon (Prof. R. B.) on the establish- ment of a National Physical Labora- tory, 82. Climate and vegetation, the influence of, on African civilisations, G. F. Scott- Elliot on, 856. Climatology of Africa, Fifth report on the, 480 *CLINKER (R. C.), Prof. J. A. FLEMING, and R. BEATTIE on the hysteresis of iron in revolving magnetic fields, 899. CLowes (Prof. F.) on the electrolytic methods of quantitative analysis, 244. on the proximate constituents of coal, 340. —— on limiting explosive proportions of acetylene, and detection and measure- ment of the gas in air, 746. —— on the accurate determination of oxygen by absorption with alkaline pyrogallol solution, 747. —— on the detection and estimation of carbon monoxide in the air by the flame-cap test, 760. Clwyd, Vale of, the glacial phenomena of the, J. Lomas and P. F. Kendall on, 801. Coal, the proximate constituents of, Report on, 340, Coccide of Ceylon, Report on the publi- cation of Mr. E. E. Green's life-history, and economic relations of the, 450. *CoFFEY (G.) on the ornament of N, E. Europe, 934. CoLEs (John) on photographic survey- ing, 850. Commercial crises, M. Clément Juglar on, 876. *ConpD (T.) on the development of the art of printing in colours, 905. *Conway (Sir W. Martin) on a journey in Spitzbergen in 1896, 862. CooKE (C. W.) on the B.A. screw gauge, 527. 1032 Cooper (H. §.) on a journey in Tripoli, 849. COPELAND (Prof. R.) on meteorological observations on Ben Nevis, 166. CoPpEMAN (Dr. 8. Moncton) and Dr. F. R. BLAXALL on the action of glycerine upon the growth of bacteria, 986. Copper, the transition from pure, to bronze made with tin, Dr. J. H. Glad- stone on, 930. Coral reef, Interim report on the inves- tigation of the structure of a, 377. Corallorhiza innata, R. Br., and its asso- ciated fungi, A. Vaughan Jennings on, 1011. CORDEAUX (J.) on making a digest of the ob- servations on the migration of birds, 451. CORNISH (Vaughan) on the rippling of sand, 794. on sand dunes, 857. Corresponding Societies Committee ; Report, 31. Conference at Liverpool, 32. : List of Corresponding Societies, 42. Papers published by Local Societies, 45. Corundum, the production of, by contact metamorphism on Dartmoor, Prof, Karl Busz on, 807. *COTTRELL (S. B.) on the Liverpool Overhead Railway and the southern extension of it, 898. CouRTNEY (Rt. Hon. L.), Address to the Section of Economic Science and Sta- tistics by, 867. Cranes, electric, E. W. Anderson on, 898. CREAK (Capt.E.W.) onthe comparisonand reduction of magnetic observations, 231. CROMPTON (R. E.) on the B.A. screw gauge, 527. Cross (C. F.) on the carbo-hydrates of cereal straws, 262. Crosses, Manx, as illustrations of Celtic and Scandinavian Art, P. M. C. Ker- mode on, 934. Crush-conglomerates in Anglesey, Sir A. Geikie on some, 806. Crustacea, Decapod, the function of cer- tain diagnostic characters of, W. Gar- stang on, 828. Crystals, homogeneous structures and the symmetrical partitioning of them with application to, W. Barlow on, 731. CUNNINGHAM (Lt.-Col. Allan) on tables of the Bessel functions, 98. on the connexion of quadratic forms, 716. (Prof. D. J.) on an ethnographical survey of the United Kingdom, 607. Curcumine or sun yellow. the constitu- tion of, and allied colouring matters, A. G. Green and André Wahl on, 753. Currency question in the United States and its bearing on British interests, | * Arthur Lee on the, 883. REPOR1T—1896. Current bedding in clays, examples of, Prof. H. G. Seeley, 805. Cyanophycew, the cells of the, Prof, E. Zacharias on, 1021. Cycad, a new, from the Isle of Portland, A. C. Seward on, 1024. Cyprus and the Trade routes of S.E. Europe, John L. Myres on, 929, DANNEVIG (G. M.) on the hatchery for marine fishes at Flodevigen, Norway, 831. DARBISHIRE (B. V.) on a new popula- tion map of the South Wales coal dis- trict, 865. Dartmoor, the production of corundum by contact metamorphism on, Prof. Karl Busz on, 807. DARWIN (Francis) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. on the ascent of water in trees, 6T4. (Prof. G. H.) on seismological in- vestigation, 180. on the structure of acoral reef, 37T. ——— on periodic orbits, 708. —— (Horace) on seismological investi- gation, 180. —— on the comparison and reduction of magnetic observations, 231. — (Major L.) Address to the Section of Geography by, 8388. —— on the monetary standard, 885. DAvipson (A.) and J. A. HARKER on rheostene, a new resistance alloy, 714. DAVISON (Dr. C.) on seismological inves- tigation, 180. on seismological instruments used in Italy, 220. DAWKINS (Prof. Boyd) on the collection of photographs of geological interest in the United Kingdom, 357. on the structure of a coral reef, 377. on an ethnographical survey of the United Kingdom, 607. ——- on the lake village at Glastonbury, 656. —— on the Geology of the Isle of Man, 776. ‘4 and Prof. W. A. HERDMAN on the Dolmens of Brittany, 924. DAWSON (Dr.G.M.)on the North- Western tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 569. (Sir W.) on Pre-Cambrian fossils, 784. DEACON (G. F.) on seismological investi- gation, 180. on the effect of wind and atmo- spheric pressure on the tides, 503. DE CANDOLLE (Casimir) on latent life in seeds, 1023. Deep-sea deposits, the bathymetric limit of Pteropod ooze in, P. F. Kendall on the cause of, 789. INDEX, 1033 Dental histology, some points of interest , *Earthquakes and sea-waves, Prof. John in, F. Paul on, 982. Depths of the sea in past epochs, E. B. Wethered on the, 793. DE RANCE (C. E.) on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 366. Deserts? Are there fossil, by Prof. J. Walther, 795. DEWAR (Prof. J.) on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and compounds, 273. 7 on low temperature research, 758. Diademodon, the skull of the S. African fossil reptile, Prof. H. G. Seeley on, 805. Dickson (H. N.) on the climatology of Africa, 495. *____ on marine research in the North Atlantic, 850. Differential resolvents, results connected with the theory of, Rev. R. Harley on, 714. *Discussion on Neo-Lamarckism opened | by Prof. Lloyd-Morgan, 830 *___on the ancestry of the Verte- brata, 832, 983 [See ‘GASKELL (Dr. W .H.)’). *___on the cell, 832, 1020 [See ‘FARMER (Prof. J. B.)’]. *___on early civilization of the Medi- terranean, 932 [See ‘ RIDGEWAY (Prof. ' W.),’ ‘MoNTELIUS (Dr. O.),’ ‘ EVANS (A. J.)’]. —— on the movement of water in plants. 1014 [See ‘ DARWIN (Francis) ’] Dixon (Prof. H. B.), E. H. STRANGE and E. GRAHAM on reflected waves in the explosion of gases, 746. *Dolmens of Brittany, Prof. W. A. Herd- man and Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins on the, 924. Dravidian race, the North,(the Uranws), linguistic and anthropological charac- teristics of, Report on the, 659. Drift series, marine shells in the, at high levels in Ayrshire, John Smith on the discovery of, 799. Drosera retundifolia, changes in the tentacle of, produced by feeding with ege albumen, Lily H. Huie on, 1014. DukDuk and other customs as forms of expression of the intellectual life of the Melanesians, Graf von Pfeil on, 939. DUNSTAN (Prof. W. R.) on the teach- ing of science in elementary schools, 268. on the production of haloids from pure materials, 347. DURHAM (Herbert E.) on some points in the mechanism of reaction to peri- toneal infections, 987. Dyed colours, the action of light upon, Report on, 347. * Milne on, 862. See ‘ Seismological investigation.’ Economic Science and Statistics, Ad- dress to the Section of, by the Rt. Hon. L. Courtney, 867. EDGEWORTH (Prof. F. Y.) on statistics of wasps, 836. Eel, the life-history of the, H. C. Wil- liamson on, 478. *Egyptian Sudan, Sir Charles W. Wilson on the, 862. Electric currents, measurements of, through air at different densities, Lord Kelvin, Dr. J. T. Bottomley, and Dr. Magnus Maclean on, 710. waves, a complete apparatus for the study of the properties of, Prof. J- Chunder Bose on, 725. Electrical current in parallel circuits, the division of an alternating, with mutual induction, Frederick Bedell on, 733. —— measurements, experiments for im- proving the construction of practical standards for, Report on, 150. Appendix : I. Hatracts from letters dealing with the question of the unit of heat, 154. Il. Lhe capacity for heat of water fron: 10° to 20° C. referred to its capacity at 10° C.as unity, 162. Ill. Recalculation of the total heat of mater from the experiments of Reg- nault and of Rowland, by W. N. Shan, 162. * resistance, the measurement of, E. H. Griffiths on, 729. +—— submarine cables, disturbance in, W. H. Preece on, 732. —— waves, a magnetic detector of, E- Rutherford on, 722. Electricity, the communication of, from electrified steam to air, Lord Kelvin, Dr. Magnus Maclean, and Alex. Galt on, 721. , the laws of the conduction of, through gases exposed to the Rontgen rays, Prof. J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford on, 710, Electrolysis and electro-chemistry, In- terim report on, 230. Electrolytic methods of quantitative ana- lysis, Report on the, 244. ELLs (William) on the comparison and reduction of magnetic observations, 231, 238. —— (W. G. P.) on a parasitic disease of Pellia epiphylla, 1010. ELPHINSTONE (G. K. B.) on the B.A. serem gauge, 527. ELSTER (Prof. J.) and Prof. GEITEL on the photo-electric sensitisation of salts by cathodic rays, 731. t 1034 *ELWORTHY (F. T.) on some pagan sur- vivals, 927. on an ancient British interment, 940. Engineering laboratories, calibration of instruments used in, Report on, 538. laboratory apparatus, Prof. H. S. Hele Shaw on, 902. *ENOCK (F.) on the life-history of the Tiger Beetle (Cicindela campestris), 831. Erosion of the sea coast of Wirral, G. H. Morton on the, 781. Erratic blocks of the British Isles, Report on the, 366. ERRERA (Prof. L.) on the preservation of plants for exhibition, 684, 686. Ethnographical survey of the United King- dom, Fourth report on an, 607. Appendix : ; I. The ethnographical survey of Ireland, 609. i II. The ethnographical survey of Pem- brokeshire, 610. Ill. On folklore in Gallonay, by Rev. Dr. Walter Gregor, 612. IV. On the method of determining the value of folklore as ethnological data, by G. Laurence Gomme, 626. +___Survey, Kent in relation to the, E. W. Brabrook on, 928. Ethnological Storehouse, Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie on an, 935. Ethnology, an Imperial bureau of, C. H. Read on, 928. *Hurypterid-bearing deposits of the Pent- land Hills, Interim report on the, 804. EVANS (Arthur J.) on an ethnographical survey of the United Kingdom, 607. on the lake village at Glastonbury, 656. Address to the Section of Anthro- pology by, 906. ——on pillar and tree worship in Mycen- zean Greece, 934. (Sir John) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 31. — on the relation of Paleolithic man to the Glacial epoch, 400. on the lake village at Glastonbury, 656. EVERETT (Prof. J. D.) on practical elec- trical standards, 150. Ewart (Prof. J. Cossar) on the occupa- tion of a table at the Zoological Station at Naptes, 478. Ewine (Prof. J. H.) on seismological investigation, 180. on the calibration of instruments used in engineering laboratories, 538. *Hxpanded metal, H. B. Tarry on, 905. Explosion of gases, reflected waves in the, Prof. H. B. Dixon, E. H. Strange, and E. Graham on, 746. REPORT—1896. Eyes, the movement of the, the effect of the destruction of the semicircular canals upon the, Dr. E. Stevenson on, 982. FALK (H. J.) on trade combinations and prices, 876. Farm labour colonies and Poor Law guardians, Harold EH. Moore on, 879. FARMER (Prof. J. B.) on the preservation of plants for exhibition, 684. on some current problems connected with cell-division, 1020. FAWCETT (Hon. P.) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. Feeding Drosera rotundifolia with egg albumen, changes produced in its tentacle by, Lily H. Huie on, 1014. Femur, the Trinil, D. Hepburn on, 926. Fermentation of milk, the basis of the bacteriological theory founded upon observations upon the, Prof. A. P. Fokker on, 986. Ferns, some peculiar cases of apogamous reproduction in, W. H. Lang on, 1019. Fever in mice, the occurrence of, Prof. J. Lorrain Smith and Dr. F. F. Wesbrook on, 974. Fishes, the effects of pelagic spawning habit on the life-histories of, A. T. Masterman on, 837. the Flodevigen hatchery for marine, G. M. Dannevig on, 831. FITZGERALD (A. E.) on the Southern Alps of New Zealand ; and a proposed. ascent of Aconcagua, 862. FITZGERALD (Prof. G. F.) on practical electrical standards, 150. FITZPATRICK (Rev. T. C.) on practical electrical standards, 150. on electrolysis and electro-chemistry, 230. FLEMING (Dr. J. A.) on practical elec- trical standards, 150. * R. BEATTIE, and R. C. CLINKER on the hysteresis of iron in revolving magnetic fields, 899. FLETCHER (A. E.) on the electrolytic methods of quantitative analysis, 244. ~ (W. A. L.) on a journey towards Llasa, 859. Flight of birds, the sailing, G. H. Bryan on, 726. Flint implements of Ireland, the older, W. J. Knowles on, 923. Flodevigen hatchery for marine fishes, G. M. Dannevig on the, 831. Floral deviations in some species of Polygonum, Prof. J. W. H. Trail on, 1016. FLOWER (Sir W. H.) on the Selangor caves, 399. ——on the necessity for the immediate INDEX. investigation of the biology of oceanic islands, 487. —— on the compilation of an index generum et specierum animalium, 489. -——on zoological bibliography and pub- lication, 490. Fluorescence and the absorption of rays, John Burke on, 731. *FLUx (A. W.), Comparison of the age- distribution of town and country popu- lation in different lands by, 880. FOKKER (Prof. A. P.) on the basis of the bacteriological theory founded upon | observations upon the fermentation of milk, 986. Folklore as ethnological data, the method of determining the value of, G. Lau- rence Gomme on, 626. in Galloway, Rev. Dr. W. Gregor on, 612. Food and bacteria, Dr. A. A. Kanthack on, 985. Foorp (A, H.) on life zones in the British Carboniferous rocks, 415. FoRBES (G.) on practical electrical | standards, 150. — (H. 0.) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. on the marine zoology, botany, and geology of the Irish Sea, 417. —— on Post Office regulations regarding the carriage of Natural History specimens to foreign countries, 477. —— on the necessity for the immediate investigation of the biology of oceanic islands, 487. Ford, on the west of Bidston Hill, a boring in the Red Marl at, G. H. Morton on, 780. Forsytu (Prof. A. R.) on the calculation of the G (x, v)-integrals, 70. Foster (A. de Neve) on the B.A. scren- gauge, 527, 536. — (Dr. C. Le Neve) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. —— (Prof. G. C.) on the establishment of a National Physical Laboratory, 82. —— on practical electrical standards, 150. —— (Prof. M.) on the occupation of a table atthe Zoological Station at Naples, | 478. on investigations made at the Marine Biological Association laboratory at | Plymouth, 485. FOWLER (William) on the standard of value and price, 884. Fox (Sir Douglas), Address to the Section of Mechanical Science by, 886. | Fracture of railway rails, W. W. Beau- mont on the cause of, 896. *Francis (Dr. F. E.) on abnormalities in the behaviour of ortho-derivatives of o-amido-and nitro-benzylamine, 756, 1035 | FRANKLAND (Prof. Percy) on the elec- trolytic methods of analysis, 244. FRASER (James) on the character of the high-level shell-bearing deposits at Kin- tyre, 378. Fresh-water biological station, the neces- sity for a, D. J. Scourfield on, 831. Fungi associated with Corallorhiza innata, R.Br., A. Vaughan Jennings on, 1011. ‘Futures,’ mercantile markets for, E. Helm on, 880. —— grain, their effects and tendencies, H. R. Rathbone on, 881. _— cotton, what they are, and how they operate in practice, C. Stewart on, 881. —_—— the influence of business in, on trade and agriculture, J. Silverberg on, 882. quantitative Galloway, Rev. Dr. W. Gregor on folk- lore in, 612. *GALT (Alex.) Lord KELVIN and Dr. MAGNUS MACLEAN on the commu- nication of electricity from electrified steam to air, 721. GALTON (Sir Douglas), on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 31. on the establishment of a National Physical Laboratory, 82. on the physical and mental defects of children in schools, 592. (Francis) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 31. on the establishment of a National Physical Laboratory, 82. on an ethnographical survey of the United Kingdom, 607. GARDINER (W.) on the preservation of plants for exhibition, 684. GARSON (Dr. J. G.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 31. —— onthe physical and mental defects of children tn schools, 592. on an ethnographical survey of the United Kingdom, 607. on the proportions of the human body, 927. GARSTANG (Walter) on the function of certain diagnostic characters of De- capod Crustacea, 828. GaArwoop (E. J.) on the collection of photographs of geological interest in the United Kingdom, 357. on life-zones in the British Carbo- niferous rocks, 415. Gases, the kinetic theory of, some diffi- culties connected with, G. H. Bryan on, 721. GASKELL (Dr. W. H.) Address to the Section of Physiology by, 942. Gauge for small screws, the British Association. See‘ Serem Gauge.’ 10856 GEIKIE (Sir Archibald) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. ——on some crush-conglomerates in Anglesey, 806. (Prof. J.) on the collection of photographs of geological interest in the United Kingdom, 357. GEITEL (Prof. H.) and Prof. J. ELSTER on the photo-electric sensitisation of salts by cathodic rays, 731. *Genyornis, Stirling, an extinct ra- tite bird supposed to belong to the order Megistanes, Prof. A. Newton on, 836. Geographical advantages, the relativity of, G. G. Chisholm on, 860. — description of the British Isles, Dr. H. R. Mill on a proposed, 850 *____ distribution of plants, W. T. Thisel- ton-Dyer on the, 1020. Geography, Address by Major Darwin to the Section of, 838. 2 —- Interim report on the position of, in the educational system of the country, 494. in relation to history, A. W. An- drews on the teaching of, 864. — in Manchester, J. Howard Reed on practical, 858. Geological Sections along the new rail- way between Rugby and Aylesbury, Horace B. Woodward on, 798. Geology, Address by J. E. Marr to the Section of, 762. , botany, and zoology of the Irish Sea, Report on the, 417. of the Isle of Man, Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins on the, 776. —— of Skomer Island, F. T. Howard and E. W. Small on the, 797. GiBBs (Prof. Wolcott) on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and compounds, 273. Glacial epoch, the relation of Paleolithic man to the, Report on, 400. epoch, another possible cause of the, Prof. E. Hull on, 803. —— phenomena of the Vale of Clwyd, J. Lomas and P. F. Kendall on the, 801. Glaciers of the Vatna Jdékull, Iceland, F. W. W. Howell on the Northern, 859. GLADSTONE (G.) on the teaching of science in elementary schools, 268, (Dr. J. H.) on the teaching of science in elementary schools, 268. on the transition from pure copper to bronze made with tin, 930. —— and W. HIBBERT on the action of metals and their salts on ordinary and on Rontgen rays: a contrast, 746, GLAISHER (J, W. L.) on the calculation of the @ (a, v)-integrals, 70. REPORT—1896. GLAISHER (J. W. L.) on tables of the Bessel functions, 98. ; Glass, transparency of, to the Réntgen rays, Prof. A, W. Riicker and W. Watson on the, 710. Glastonbury, the lake village at, Report on, 656. GLAZEBROOK (R. T.) on the establish- ment of a National Physical Labora- tory, 82. on the uniformity of size of pages of Scientific Societies’ publications, 86. on practical electrical standards, 150. *Glow lamps, tests of, W. H. Preece on, 898. Glucoside constitution of proteid matter, Dr. F. W. Pavy on the, 976. *Goblin, the straw, C. G. Leland on, 941, GODMAN (F. Du C.) on the present state of our knowledge of the zoology and botany of the West India Islands, 493. *Gold discoveries in Canada, Sir James Grant on, 858. GoMME (G. Laurence) on the method of determining the value of folklore ag ethnological data, 626. GOODCHILD (J, G.) on the collection of photographs of geological interest in the United Kingdom, 357. GoTCH (Prof. F.) on the discharge of a single nerve cell, 978. GRAHAM (E.), Prof. H. B. Drxon, and E. H. STRANGE on reflected waves in the explosion of gases, 746, *GRANT (Sir James) on Canada and its gold discoveries, 858. GRAY (W.)on the collection of photographs of geological interest in the United Kingdom, 357.» Great circle routes on a chart, the plot- ting of, H. M. Taylor on, 716. Greece and Italy, the Tyrrhenians in, Dr. O. Montelius on, 931. —— Preclassical chronology in, Dr. O. Montelius on, 933. GREEN (A. G.) and ANDRE WAHL on the constitution of sun yellow or curcu- mine, and allied colouring matters, 753. (the late Prof. A. H.) on seismo- logical investigation, 180. on the Stonesfield slate, 356. —— on the structure of a coral reef, 377. —— (Mr. E. E.) Report on the publica- tion of the life-history, and economic relations of the Coccide of Ceylon by, 450. (Prof. J. R.) on the preservation of plants for exhibition, 684. GREENHILL (Prof. A. G.) on tables of the Bessel functions, 98. GREENLY (Edward) on the occurrence INDEX. of sillimanite gneisses in Central Anglesey, 783. +— on quartzite lenticles in the schists of South-Eastern Anglesey, 783. GREGOR (Rev. Dr. W.) on folklore in Galloway, 612. GruGory (J. W.) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. GRIFFITHS (E. H.) on practical electrical standards, 150. * on the measurement of electrical resistance, 729. GROSSMANN (Karl) on the less-known interior of Iceland, 859. GRUNBAUM (A. S.) on the effect of peri- tonitis on peristalsis, 976. — on the agglutinating action of human serum on certain pathogenic micro-organisms (particularly on the typhoid bacillus), 989. Guiana, British, and Venezuela, the various boundary lines between, attri- buted to Sir R. H. Schomburgk, Ralph Richardson on, 861. GULLIVER (Dr. F. G.) on coast-forms of Romney Marsh, 854. Guns, heavy, and armour, recent develop- ments and standards, Capt. W. H. Jaques on, 900. GUNTHER (Dr. A. C. L. G.) on the zoology and botany of the West India Tslands, 493, *____(R. T.) on the cultivation of the oyster as practised by the Romans, 828. Guppy (H.B.) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. GWYNNE-VAUGHAN (D. T.) on the arrangement of the vascular bundles in certain Vympheacee, 1012. Habitat, the influence of, upon plant- habit, G. F. Scott-Elliot on, 1013. *Haddock, the life history of the, Prof. W. C. M‘Intosh on, 837. HADDON (Prof. A. C.) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. on the marine zoology, botany, and geology of the Irish Sea, 417. — on the necessity for the immediate investigation of the biology of oceanic islands, 487. —— on an ethnographical survey of the United Kingdom, 607. on the linguistic and anthropological characteristics of the North Dravidian and Kolarian races—the Urdnws, 659. HALDANE (Dr. J.) on the detection and estimation of carbon monoxide in air, 759. HALE (H.) on the North-Western tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 569. HALIBURTON (R. G.) on the North- 1037 Western tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 569. Hallstatt and the starting-point of the Iron age in Europe, Prof. W. Ridgeway on, 9380. Haloids, the production of, from pure materials, Interim report on, 347. HAMPSON (Sir G. F.) on the zoology and botany of the West India Islands, 493. HANITSCH (Dr. R.) on the Selangor caves, 399. Harcourt (Prof. L. F. Vernon) on the effect of wind and atmospheric pressure on the tides, 503. HARKER (J. A.) and A. DAVIDSON on rheostene, a new resistance alloy, 714. HARLEY (Dr. George) on the original stick and bone writing of Australia, 941. —— (Rev. R.) on the calculation of the G (1, v)-integrals, 70. : ——0n results connected with the theory of differential resolvents, 714. * on the Stanhope arithmetical ma- chine of 1780, 728. HARRISON (Rev. 8. N.) on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 366. HARTLAND (EH. Sidney) on an ethno- graphical survey of the United Kingdom, 607. —— onthe linguistic and anthropological characteristics of the North Dravidian and Kolarian races—the Urdnws, 659. HARTLEY (Prof. W. N.) on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and compounds, 273. HART0OG (Prof. Marcus) on multiple cell- division as compared with bipartition as Herbert Spencer’s limit of growth, 833. —— on the relation of the Rotifera to the trochophore, 836. HARVIE-BROWN (J. A.) on making a digest of the observations on the migra- tion of birds, 451. Hatchery for marine fishes at Flodevigen, Norway, G. M. Dannevig on, 831. * Hausa, the land of the, Rev. J. OC. Robinson on, 850. HAWKSHAW (J. C.) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. * Haycrart (Prof. J. B.) on photometry and Purkinje’s phenomena, 983. Heat of water, Recalculation of the total, from the experiments of Regnault and of Rowland, by W. N. Shaw, 162. —— The capacity of water for, from 10° to 20° C. referred to its capacity at 10° C. as unity, 162. —— the unit of, Extracts from letters dealing with the question of, 154. *HEEN (Prof. P.de) on certain photo- graphic effects, 731. 1088 HELE-SHAw (Prof. H. 8.) on engineer- ing laboratory apparatus, 902. *Helium, Prof. W. Ramsay on, 757. HELM (Elijah) on mercantile markets for ‘futures,’ 880. HEPBURN (David) on the Trinil femur (Pithecanthropus erectus) contrasted with the femora of various savage and civilised races, 926. HERBERTSON (A. J.) on the position of geography in the educational system of the country, 494. ——— on world maps of mean monthly rainfall, 857. on an apparatus to illustrate map projections, 865. HERDMAN (Prof. W. A.) on the marine zoology, botany, and geology of the Irish Sea, 417. on African Lake fauna, 478. — on zoological bibliography and publi- cation, 490. ——— on the possible infectivity of the oyster, and on the green disease in oysters, 663. ba and Prof. W. BoyD DAWKINS on the dolmens of Brittany, 924. Heterotype nuclear divisions of Ziliwm Martagon, Ethel Sargant on the, 1021. Hewitt (C. J.) on the B.A. screw gauge, 527. HIBBERT (W.) on a one-volt standard cell withsmall temperature co-efficient, 713. ——-and Dr. J. H. GLADSTONE on the action of metals and their salts on ordinary and on Rontgen rays: a con- trast, 746. Hicks (Dr. H.) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. (Prof. W. M.) on tables of the Bessel Junctions, 98. Hickson (Prof. 8S. J.) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. on the occupation of a table at the Zoological Station at Naples, 478. on the present state of owr know- ledge of the zoology of the Sandwich Tslands, 492. * High-level flint-driftatIghtham, Interim report on the, 804. Highwood mountains of Montana and magmatic differentiation, H. J. John- ston-Lavis on, 792. Hitt (Dr. Alexander) on the minute structure of the cerebellum, 986. HILTON-PRICE (F. G.) on an _ ethno- graphical survey of the United King- dom, 607. History, the teaching of geography in relation to, A. W. Andrews on, 864. Houmes (T. V.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 31. REPORT—1896. HOPKINSON (Dr. J.) on practical electri- cal standards, 150. (J.) on the work of the Correspona- ing Societies Committee, 31. on the application of photography to the elucidation of meteorological phenomena, 172. HoRNE (J.) on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 366. on the character of the high-level shell-bearing deposits at Kintyre, 378. *Horseless road locomotion, A. R. Sen- nett on, 905. Howarp (¥.T.) and E. W. SMALL on the geology of Skomer Island, 797. HOWELL (F. W. W.) on the northern glaciers of the Vatna Jokull, Iceland, 859. HowEs (Prof. G. B.) on the marine xvo- logy, botany, and geology of the Irish Sea, 417. ——on Mr. E. E. Green’s ‘ Coccide of Ceylon,’ 450. on African Lake fauna, 478. HowortH (Sir Henry) on an ethno- graphical survey of the United Kingdom, 607. Hoxne, the relation of Paleolithie man to the Glacial epoch at, Report on, 400. HOYLE (W. E.) on the marine zoology, botany, and geology of the Irish Sea, 417. —— on zoological bibliography and publi- cation, 490. HvuGHEs (Prof. T. McK.) on the collection of photographs of gevlogical interest in the United Kingdom, 357. Hutz (Lily H.) on changes in the tentacle of Drosera rotundifolia pro- duced by feeding with egg albumen, 1014. HULL (Prof. E) on the proximate con- stituents of coal, 340. on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 366. on another possible cause of the Glacial epoch, 803. Human body, the proportions of the, Dr. J. G. Garson on, 927. HUMMEL (Prof. J. J.) on the action of light upon dyed colours, 347. *HURTER (Dr. F.) on the manufacture of chlorine by means of nitric acid, 758. *HYNDMAN (H.H.F.) on the x-rays, 713. Hyperphosphorescence, Prof. §. P. Thompson on, 713. Iceland, the less-known interior of, Karl Grossmann on, 859. —— the northern glaciers of the Vatna Jokull, F. W. W. Howell on, 859. *Tghtham, the high-level flint-drift at, Interim report on, 804. INDEX. Imperial bureau of ethnology, C. H. Read on an, 928. Index generum et specierum animatium, Report on the compilation by C. Davies Sherborn of an, 489. Infections, the mechanism of reaction to peritoneal, H. E. Durham on some points in, 987. Integrals, the G (x, v)-, Preliminary re- port on the calculation of, 70. Interment, an ancient British, F. T. Elworthy on, 940. Ireland, the older flint implements of, W. J. Knowles on, 923. Trish Sea, the marine zoology, botany, and geology of the, Final report on, 417. Tron in the tissues, a new method of distinguishing organic and inorganic, Prof. A. B. Macallum on, 973. Tron-age in Europe, Hallstatt and the starting-point of the, Prof. W. Ridge- way on, 930. Tsomeric naphthalene derivatives, Tenth report on the investigation of, 265. Italy and Greece, the Tyrrhenians in, Dr. O. Montelius on, 931. —— —— Preclassical chronology in, Dr. O. Montelius on, 933. *Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition, last year’s work of the, A. Montefiore-Brice on, 855. JAMIESON (T. F.) on the character of the high-level shell-bearing deposits at Kintyre, 378. JAQUES (Capt. W. H.) on armour and heavy ordnance—recent developments and standards, 900. JEFFS (O. W.) on the collection of photographs of geological interest in the United Kingdom, 357. JENNINGS (A. Vaughan) on Corallorhiza innata, R. Br., and its associated fungi, 1011. — on a new genus of Schizomycetes showing longitudinal fission (Ast70- bacter Jonesit), 1012. JOHNSTON-LAVIS(H. J.) on the Highwood mountains of Montana and magmatic differentiation : a criticism, 792. JONES (A. Coppen) on the so-called tubercle bacillus, 1015. *____ (Rey. G. Hartwell) on the growth of agriculture in Greece and Italy, and its influence on early civilisation, 929. ——- (Prof. J. Viriamu) on practical elec- trical standards, 150. JUDD (Prof. J. W.) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. JUGLAR (Clément) sur les crises com- merciales, 876. KANTHACK (Dr. A. A.) on bacteria and food, 985. 1039 Kathode rays, Rontgen rays, and Bec- querel rays, the relation between, Prof. S. P. Thompson on, 712, 713. see ‘Cathode’ and ‘ Roéntgen rays.’ KEEBLE (F. W.) on the Loranthacez of Ceylon, 1022. KEELER (James E.) on measurement by means of the spectroscope of the velocity of rotation of the Planets, 729. KELTIE (J. Scott) on the position of geography in the educational system of this country, 494. + on Dr. Nansen and the results of his recent Arctic expedition, 865. KELVIN (Lord) on the establishment of a National Physical Laboratory, 82. on tables of the Bessel functions, 98. on practical electrical standards, 150. on seismological investigation, 180. on the comparison and reduction of magnetic observations, 231. on the B.A. screw gauge, 527. — on the molecular dynamics of hydro- gen gas, oxygen gas, ozone, peroxide of hydrogen, vapour of water, liquid water, ice, and quartz crystal, 721. Dr. J. T. BorTromMugEy, and- Dr. MAGNUS MACLEAN, on measurements of electric currents through air at different densities down to one five- millionth of the density of ordinary air, 710. | % Dr. MAGNUS MACLEAN, and ALEX. GALT on the communication of elec- tricity from electrified steam to air, 721. KENDALL (P. F.) on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 366. on the character of the high-level shell-bearing deposits at Kintyre, 378. — on the cause of the bathymetric limit of Pteropad ooze, 789. —— on the conditions under which the Upper Chalk was deposited, 791. —on some Post-Pliocene changes of physical geography in Yorkshire, 801. —— and J. LomAs on the Glacial phe- nomena of the Vale of Clwyd, 801. KENNEDY (Prof. A. B. W.) on the cali- bration of instruments used in engineer- ing laboratories, 538. +Kent in relation to the ethnographical survey, E. W. Brabrook on, 928. KERMODE (P. M. C.) on Manx crosses as illustrations of Celtic and Scandinavian art, 934. Kerry, a prehistoric settlement in the County of, R. A. S. Macalister on, 931. Kew Observatory, non-cyclic effects at, during the selected ‘quiet’ days of the siz years 1890-95, C. Chree on, 231. KIDSTON (R.) on the collection of photo- 1040 graphs of geological interest in the United Kingdom, 357. Kinetic theory of gases, some difficulties connected with the, G. H. Bryan on, 721 Kintyre, Report on the character of the high-level shell-bearing deposits in, 378. KIRK (Sir John) on the climatology of Africa, 495. Kwnotr (Prof. C. G.) on seismological investigation, 180. —— on earthquake frequency, 220. KNOWLES (W. J.) on the older flint implements of Ireland, 923. of the observations on the migration of birds, 451. Koun (Dr. C. A.) on the electrolytic methods of quantitative analysis, 244. — on a modified form of Schrditter’s apparatus for the determination of carbonic anhydride, 758. — on the presence of iron and of copper in green and in white oysters, 986. on a new form of aspirator, 759. Lake fauna, African, Report on, 484. village at Glastonbury, Report on the, 656. LAMPLUGH (G.W.)on the marine zoology, botany, and geology of the Irish Sea, 417. Lamps, electric incandescent, street lighting by, W. G. Walker on, 899. LANG (W. H.) on some peculiar cases of apogamous reproduction in ferns, 1019, LANKESTER (Prof. E. Ray) on the oceu- pation of a table at the Zoological Station at Naples, 478. on African lake fauna, 484. on investigations made at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Plymouth, 485. LAPWORTH (Prof. C.) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. Lava, the source of, J. Logan Lobley on, 788. Lead, the detection of, in organic fluids, Dr. J. Hill Abram and Prosper H. Marsden on, 990. LEBOUR (Prof. G. A.) on seismological investigation, 180. LEE (Arthur) on the currency question in the United States, and its bearing on British interests, 883. *LELAND (C. G.) on the straw goblin, 941. *____ on marks on ancient monuments, 941. LENARD (Prof. Phillipp) on cathode rays and their probable connection with Roéntgen rays, 709. REPORT—1896. Lepidostrobus, some Carboniferous fossils referred to, Dr. D. H. Scott on, 1024. Leucocytes and cell granulations, Dr. R. A. M. Buchanan on, 981. LEwEs (Prof. Vivian B.) on the proximate constituents of coal, 340. Lewis (A. L.) on ancient measures in prehistoric monuments, 924. LIEBREICH (Prof. Oscar) on the retarda- tion of chemical action from diminution of space, 748. Life, the physical basis of, Prof. F. J. Allen on, 983. _ Life-zones in the British Carboniferous KNUBLEY (Rev. E. P.) on making a digest | rocks, Report on, 415. Light, the action of, wpon dyed colours, Report on, 347. Lilium Martagon, the heterotype divi- sions of, Ethel Sargant on, 1021. Linguistic and anthropological character- astics of the North Dravidian and Kolarian races, the Urdnws, Report on the, 659. LISTER (Sir Joseph), Presidential Address by, 3. : Litmus, the behaviour of, in amphoteric solutions, T. R. Bradshaw on, 752. LIVEING (Prof. G. D.) on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and compounds, 273. Liverpool, footprints from the Trias near, H. C. Beasley on, 779. ——- oscillations in the level of the land near, T. Mellard Reade on, 782. *____ Overhead Railway, S. B. Cottrell on the, 898. port of, the physical and engi- neering features of the, G. F. Lyster on, 548. waterworks, J. Parry on the, 897. *Llasa, a journey towards, W. A. L. Fletcher on, 859. : Luoyp (R. J.) on the genesis of vowels, 972. —— on the interpretation of the phono-- grams of vowels, 973. *LLOYD-MorRGAN (Prof.) opened a Dis- cussion on Neo-Lamarckism, 830. LoBLey (J. Logan) on the source of Lava, 788. ——— on the Post-Cambrian shrinkage of the globe, 789. Locu (C. 8.) on some economic issues in regard to charitable or philanthropic trading, 875. LockYER (J. N.) on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and com- pounds, 273. LopGE (Prof. A.) on the calculation of the G@ (1, v)-integrals, 70. —— on tables of the Bessel functions, 98. —— (Dr. O. J.) on the establishment of a National Physical Laboratory, 82. | —__on practical electrical standards, 150. INDEX. LomAs (J.) and P. F. KENDALL on the Glacial phenomena of the Vale of Clwyd, 801. Loranthacee of Ceylon, F. W. Keeble on the, 1022. *Low temperature research, Prof. J Dewar on, 758. LuBebock (Sir John) on the teaching of Science in elementary schools, 268. Lyginodendron, a large specimen of, A. C. Seward on, 1024. LysTER (G. Fosberry) on the physical and engineering features of the river Mersey and port of Liverpool, 548. MACALISTHR (R. A. S.) on a prehistoric settlement in Co. Kerry, 931. MACALLUM (Prof. A. B.) on anew method of distinguishing organic and inorganic iron in the tissues, 973. MACBRIDE (E W.) on the present position of morphology in zoological science, 833. M‘InTosH (Prof. W. C.) on the occupa- tion of a table at the Zoological Station at Naples, 478. * on the life-history of the haddock, 837. McKeEnprIcK (Prof. J. G.) on physio- logical applications of the phonograph, 669. —— (J. 5.) on physiological applications of the phonograph, 669. MACKINDER (H. J.) on the position of geography in the educational system of the country, 494. McLACHLAN (R.)on Mr. EL. EH. Green’s ‘ Coccide of Ceylon, 450. —— on Post Office regulations regarding the carriage of natural history speci- mens to foreign countries, 477. MAcLAGAN (Miss C.) on the sculptured stones of Scotland, 924. — on the ‘Brochs’ of Scotland, 924. McLaren (Lord) on meteorological ob- servations on Ben Nevis, 166. MACLEAN (Dr. Magnus) and J. T. BOTTOMLEY on measurements of electric currents through air at differ- ent densities 710. *___, Lord KgLvIN, and ALEX. GALT on the communication of electricity from electrified steam to air, 721. McLEoD (Prof. H.) on the best methods of recording the direct intensity of solar radiatiwn, 241. — on the bibliography of spectroscopy, 243. *MACLURE (J. H.) on improvements in trawling apparatus, 832. Macmanon (Prof. P. A.) on tables of the Bessel functions, 98. 1896. 1041 MADAN (H. G.) on the bibliography of spectroscopy, 243. *MAGINNIS (A. J.) on the present posi- tion of the British North Atlantic Mail service, 897. Magmatic differentiation and the High- wood mountains of Montana, H. J. Johnston-Lavis on, 792. Magnetic detector of electrical waves, HK. Rutherford on a, 724. instruments, Report on the com- parison of, 87. observations, Report on the compari- son and reduction of, by C. Chree, 231. * —_ permeability, an instrument for measuring, W. M. Mordey on, 732. *Magnetism, the earth’s permanent, the component fields of, Dr. L. A. Bauer, on, 713. MAGNUS (Sir P.) on the teaching of science in elementary schools, 268. —— (Prof. P.) on some species of the Chytridiaceous genus Urophlyctis, 1010. *Mail service, the British North Atlantic, A. J. Maginnis on the present position of, 897. Man, Isle of, Prof. Boyd Dawkins on the geology of the, 776. the physical anthropology of the, Dr. John Beddoe and A. W. Moore on 925. . Tertiary deposits in North Manx- land, Alfred Bell on, 783. Manchester, practical geography in, J. Howard Reed on, 858. MANN (Dr. Gustav) on the structure of nerve-cells as shown by wax models, 980. Manx crosses as illustrations of Celtic and Scandinavian art, P. M. C. Ker- mode on, 934. Map projections, an apparatus to illus- trate, A. J. Herbertson on, 865. Maps of rainfall, mean monthly world, A. J. Herbertson on, 857. -—— the Weston tapestry, Rev. W. K. R. Bedford on, 850. MABCET (Dr. W.) on the different forms of the respiratioa in man, 974. Marine zoology, botany, and geology of the Trish Sea, Final report on the, 417. MArR (J. E.) on Life-zones in the British Carboniferous rocks, 415. —— Address to the Section of Geology by, 762. MARSDEN (Prosper H.) and Dr. J. H1tu ABRAM on the detection of lead in organic fluids, 990. MARSHALL (Dr. Hugh) on the electrolytic methods of quantitative analysis, 244. MASTERMAN (A. T.) on Phoronis, the earliest ancestor of the Vertebrata, 837. -——- on the effects of pelagic spawning habit on the life-histories of fishes, 837. 3¥ 1042 Mathematical and Physical Science, Address by Prof. J. J. Thomson to the Section of, 699. Mathematical functions (Bessel's), Third report on tables of, 98. MatTrHew (G. F.) on some features of the early Cambrian faunas, 785. Measures in prehistoric monuments, A. L. Lewis on ancient, 924. Mechanical Science, Address by Sir Douglas Fox to the Section of, 886. *Megohms for high voltages, carbon, W. M. Mordey on, 732. Melanesians, the Duk Duk and other customs as forms of expression of the intellectual life of the, Graf von Pfeil on, 939. MELDOLA (Prof. R.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 31. —— on the application of photography to the elucidation of meteorological phe- nomena, 172. . on seismological investigation, 180. on the action of light upon dyed colours, 347. on Mr. EB. E. Green's ‘Coccide of Ceylon,’ 450. on an ethnographical survey of the United Kingdom, 607. Mental and physical defects of children in schools, Report on the, 592. Mersey, the physical and engineering features of the river, G. F. Lyster on, 548. Metamorphism, the production of corundum on Dartmoor by contact- Prof. Karl Busz on, 807. Meteorological observations on Ben Nevis, Report on, 166. phenomena, the application of photo- graphy to the elucidation of, Sixth report on, 172. Metric measures and our old system, ¥. Toms on, 880. MIALL (Prof. L. C.) on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 366. on Mr. E. E. Green’s ‘Coccide of Ceylon,’ 450. Mice, the occurrence of fever in, Prof. J. Lorrain Smith and Dr. F. F. West- brook on, 974. Microtome construction, the principles of, Prof. C. §. Minot on, 979. Migration of birds, Report of the Com- mittee for making a digest of the ob- servations on the, 451; digest by W. Eagle Clarke, 452. Mruu (Dr. H. R.) on the position of geo- graphy in the educational system of the country, 494. —— on the climatology of Africa, 495. on a proposed geographical de- scription of the British Isles, 850. REPORT—18Y6. MILNE (Prof. J.) on seismological investi- gation, 180. on earthquakes and sea-waves, 862. Minor (Prof. C. 8.) on the theory of panplasm, 832. on the olfactory lobes, 836. on the principles of microtome construction, 979. *Morr (J. W.) on the climate of Nyasa- Jand, 858. Molecular dynamics of hydrogen gas, oxygen gas, ozone, peroxide of hydro- gen, vapour of water, liquid water, ice, and quartz crystals, Lord Kelvin on the, 721. Monp (Dr. Ludwig) on the proximate constituents af coal, 340. -_—. Address to the Section of Chemistry by, 734. *MONTEFIORE-BRICE (A.) on last year’s work of the Jackson-Harmsworth Ex- pedition, 855. MoNTELIUS (Dr. Oscar) on the Tyrrheni- ans in Greece and Italy, 931. on Preclassical chronology in Italy and Greece, 933. *Monuments, marks on ancient, C. G. Leland on, 941. Moors (A. W.) and Dr. JOHN BEDDOE on the physical anthropology of the Isle of Man, 925. —— (Harold E.) on farm labour colonies and Poor Law Guardians, 879. *MorpzEy (W. M.) on carbon megohms for high voltages, 732. “i on an instrument for measuring magnetic permeability, 732. * Moreseat, the age and relation of rocks near, Interim report on, 807. Morphology, the present position of, in zoological science, E. W. Macbride on, 833. Morris (Dr. D.) on the singular effects produced on certain animals in the West Indies by feeding on the Wild Tamarind or Jumbai plant (Lewcena Glauca, Benth.), 1017. Morsk (Miss E.) on the relation of Pale- olithie man to the Glacial epoch, 400. MorTON (‘3. H.) on recent borings in the Red Marl near Liverpool, 780. ——— on the erosion of the sea coast of Wirral, 781. — on the range of species in the Carboniferous Limestone of N. Wales, 787. Motion, the stationary, of a system of equal elastic spheres in a field of no forces, when their aggregate volume is not infinitely small compared with the space in which they move, 8. H. Bur- bury on, 716. MuIRHBAD (Dr. A.) on practical elec- trical standards, 150. * INDEX. Munro (Dr. Robert) on the lake village at Glastonbury, 656. Murray (George) on the zoology and botany of the West India Islands, 493. —— (Prof. G. G.) on physiological appli- cations of the phonograph, 669. —— (Dr. John) on meteorological obser- vations on Ben Nevis, 166. —— on the structure of a coral reef, 377. —— on African Lake fauna, 484. —— on the necessity for the immediate investigation of the biology of oceanic islands, 487. Museums, Local, Prof. Flinders Petrie on a Federal Staff for, 38. Mycenzan Greece, Pillar and Tree Wor- . ship in, A. J Evans on, 934. Mykenzan?’ ‘ Who produced the object called, Prof. W. Ridgeway on, 982. Myrus (J. L.) on the linguistie and anthropological characteristics of the North Dravidian and Kolarian races, the Urduws, 659. on Cyprus and the trade routes of §.E. Europe, 929. *____ on _Sergi’s theory of a mediter- ranean race, 931. Nacuu (D. H.) on the bibliography of spectroscopy, 243. —— on the electrolytic methods of quanti- tative analysis, 244. *Nansen and the results of his recent Arctic Expedition, J. Scott Keltie on, 865. Naphthalene derivatives, Tenth report on the investigation of isomeric, 265. Naples, Zoological Station at, Report on the occupation of a table at, 478. National Physical Laboratory, Report on the establishment of a, 82. Natural history specimens, Post Office regulations regarding the carriage of, to foreign countries, Report on, 477. *Neo-Lamarckism, discussion on, opened by Prof. Lloyd-Morgan, 830. Nerve, fragments from the autobio- graphy of a, Dr. A. W. Waller on, 980. Nerve-cell, the discharge of a single, Prof. F. Gotch on, 978. Nerve-cells, the structure of, as shown ny wax models, Dr. Gustav Mann on, 80. New Guinea, British, anthropological opportunities in, Sidney H. Ray on, 928. New Zealand, the Southern Alps of, A. E. Fitzgerald on, 862. NEWSTEAD (R.) on Mr. HE. E. Green’s ‘Coccide of Ceylon,’ 450. NEWTON | Prof. A.) on making a digest of the observations on the migration of birds, 451. —— on the necessity for the immediate 1043 investigation of the biology of oceanic islands, 487. Newton (Prof. A.) on the present state of our knowledge of the zoology of the Sandwich Islands, 492. ——on owr knowledge of the zoology and botany of the West India Islands, 493. * on Genyornis, Stirling, an extinct ratite bird supposed to belong to the order Megistanes, 836. (W.) on nitrates: their occurrence and manufacture, 756. Nile, the Upper, and Uganda, Lieut. C. F. S. Vandeleur on, 853. Nitrates: their occurrence and manu- facture, W. Newton on, 756. North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada, Eleventh report on the, 569. Siath report on the Indians of British Columbia, by Dr. F. Boas, 569. *Nyasaland, the climate of, J. W. Moir on, 858. Nympheacee, the arrangement of the vascular bundles in certain, D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan on, 1012. Oceanic islands, Report on the necessity for the immediate investigation of the biology of, 487. Op.LuM (Prof. E.) on the borderland of British Columbia and Alaska, 865. *____ on the Coast Indians of British Columbia, 929. Olfactory lobes, Prof. C. 8. Minot on the 836. Orbits, periodic, Prof. G. H. Darwin on, 708. Organic fluids, the detection of lead in, Dr. J. Hill Abram and Prosper H. Marsden on, 990. *Ornament of N. E. Europe, G. Coffey on, 934. *Ortho-derivatives of o-amido and nitro- benzylamine, abnormalities in the behaviour of, Dr. F. E. Franci- on, 756. Oscillations in the level of the land near Liverpool, T. Mellard Reade on, 782. *Osmosis, the role of, in physiological processes, Dr. Lazarus Barlow on, 984. Ova, pelagic teleostean, the absorption of the yolk in, H. C. Williamson on, 478. Oxygen, the accurate determination of, by absorption with alkaline pyrogallol solution, Prof. F. Clowes on. 747. Oyster, the possible infectivity of the, and upon the green disease in oysters, Report on, 663. = , the cultivation of the, by the Romans, R. T. Giinther on, 828. Oysters, the presence of iron and of copper in green and in wh te, C. A. Kobn on, 986. 3-Y 2 1044 Pages of Scientific Societies’ publications, Report on the uniformity of size of, 86. Paleolithic man, Report on the relation of, to the Glacial epoch, 400. —- spear- and arrow-heads, H. Stopes on, 925. Palzoliths derived and reworked, H. Stopes on, 925. * Paleospondylus ‘Traquair on, 832. Panplasm, the theory of, Prof. C. S. Minot on, 832. Parry (J.) on the Liverpool waterworks, 897. *Passion Flower, a new hybrid, Dr. J Wilson on, 1022. PAUL (F.) on some points of interest in dental histology, 982. Pavy (Dr. F. W.) on the glucoside con- stitution of proteid matter, 976. PEARSON (Prof. Karl) on the calculation of the G (x, v)-integrals, 70. PEEK (Cuthbert E.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 31. on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, 569. Pelagic spawning habit, the effects of, on the life-histories of fishes, A. T. Masterman on, 837. Pellia epiphylla, a parasitic disease of, W. G. P. Ellis on, 1010. *Pentland Hills, the eurypterid-bearing deposits of the, Interim report on, 803. ‘Peptone,’ the physiological effect of, when injected into the circulation, Prof. W. H. Thompson on, 975. Periodic orbits, Prof. G. H. Darwin on, 708. Peristalsis, the effect of peritonitis on, A. S. Griinbaum on, 976. ; Peritoneal infections, some points in the mechanism of reaction to, H. E. Dur- ham on, 987. Perit onitis, the effect of, on peristalsis, A. S. Griinbaum on, 976. PHuRKIN (Dr. W. H.) on the action of light upon dyed colours, 347. Perey (Prof. John) on practical electrical standards, 150. on seismological investigation, 180. —— on the Perry tromometer, 218. PeTrig (Prof. W. M. Flinders) on a Federal Staff for local museums, 38. on an ethnological storehouse, 935. Pret. (Graf von) on the Duk Duk and other customs as forms of expression of the intellectual life of the Mela- nesians, 939. Phonograph, Report on physiological applications of the, 669. Ph>ronis, the earliest ancestor of the Vertebrata, A. T. Masterman on, 837. Phospnorescence, hyper-, Professor S. P. Thompson on, 713. Gunni, Dr. B. H. REPORT—1896. Photo-electric sensitisation of salts by cathodic rays, Prof. J. A. Elster and Prof. H. Geitel on the, 731. *Photographic effects, Prof. P. de Heen on certain, 731. Photographs of geological interest in the United Kingdom, Seventh report on the collection, preservation, and systematic registration of, 357. Photography, the application of, to the elucidation of meteorological pheno- mena, Sixth report on, 172. *Photometry and Purkinje’s phenomena, Prof. J. B. Haycraft on, 983. *Phyllopoda of the Paleozic rocks, In- terim report on the, 804. Physical Laboratory, Report on the esta- blishment of a National, 82. —— and Mathematical Science, Address by Prof. J. J. Thomson to the Section of, 699. ——- basis of life, Prof. F. J. Allen on the, 983. Physiology, Address by Dr. W. H. Gaskell to the Section of, 942. Pillar and Tree Worship in Mycenzan Greece, A. J. Evans on, 934. PirT-RiveRs' (Gen.) on an ethnogra- phical survey of the United Kingdom, 607. —— on the lake village at Glastonbury, 656. Planets, velocity of rotation of the, measurement by means of the spectro- scope of the, J. E. Keeler on the, 729. Plant-habit, the influence of habitat on, G. F. Scott-Elliot on, 1013. Plants for exhibition, preservation of, Interim report on the, 684. - fossil, from South Africa, A. C. Seward on some, 807. * recent and fossil, Demonstrations of, by Dr. D. H. Scott, Prof. Magnus, Prof. Zacharias, Miss EK. Sargant, Mr. A.C. Seward, Mr. W. H. Lang, and others, 1023. Plymouth, Report on the occupation of a table at the Marine Biological Labora- tory, 485. Polygonum, floral deviations in some species of, Prof. J. W. H. Trail on, 1016. Poor Law Guardians and farm labour colonies, Harold E. Moore on, 879. *Population, comparison of the age-dis- tribution of town and country, in different lands, A. W. Flux on, 880. Population map of the South Wales coal district, B. V. Darbishire on a new, 865. Porcelain, transparency of, to the Ront- gen rays, Prof. A. W. Riicker and W, Watson on the, 710. INDEX. Post Office regulations regarding the car- riage of Natural History specimens to foreign countries, Report on the, 477. Post-Cambrian shrinkage of the globe, J. Logan Lobley on the, 789. Post-Pliocene changes of physical geo- graphy in Yorkshire, P. F. Kendall on some, 801. Pouuton (Prof. E. B.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 31. —— Address to the Section of Zoology by, 808. Poyntine (Prof. J. H.) on seismological investigation, 180. Pre-Cambrian fossils, Sir W. Dawson on, 784. Preclassical chronology in Italy and Greece, Dr. Oscar Montelius on, 933. PREECE (W. H.) on practical electrical standards, 150. — on the B.A. screw gauge, 527. on disturbance in submarine cables, 732. *____ on tests of glow lamps, 898. Prehistoric monuments, ancient measures in, A. L. Lewis on, 924. —— settlement in co. Kerry, R. A. S. Macalister on a, 931. PRENTICE (Manning) on the carbo- hydrates of cereal straws, 262. Presidential Address at Liverpool by Sir Joseph Lister, 3. PRICE (Prof. B.) on tables of the Bessel Functions, 98. —— (W. A.) on the B.A. scren gauge, 527, 537. *Prices, the course of average general, H. Binns on, 883. *Printing in colours, the development of the art of, T. Cond on, 905. Proportions of the human body, Dr. J. G. Garson on the, 927. Proteid matter, the glucoside constitu- tion of, Dr. F. W. Pavy on, 976. Pteropod ooze, the bathymetric limit of, P. F. Kendall on the cause of, 789. Public health, the organisation of bac- teriological research in connection with, Dr. Sims Woodhead on, 984. Publication, zoological, and bibliography, Report on, 490. Publications, Scientific Societies’, Report on the uniformity of size of pages of, 86. *Purkinje’s phenomena and photometry, Prof. J. B. Haycraft on, 983. ‘Quadratic forms, connexion of, Lieut.- Col. Allan Cunningham on the, 716. Yuantitative analysis, the electrolytic methods of, Report on, 244. Quartzite lenticles in the schists of South-eastern Anglesey, E. Greenly on, 783. 1045 *Railway, the Liverpool Overhead, and the southern extension of it, S. B. Cottrell on, 898. ——— rails, the cause of fracture of, W. W. Beaumont on, 896. Rainfall, mean monthly, A. J. Herbert- son on world-maps of, 857. RAMBAUT (Prof. A. A.) on the effect of atmospheric refraction on the apparent diurnal movement of stars, and a method of allowing for it in astrono- mical photography, 726. *RAMSAY (Prof. W.) on helium, 757. Rates and taxes, the distribution and incidence of, G. H. Blunden on, 878. RATHBONE (H. R.) on grain ‘futures,’ their effects and tendencies, 881. Rating system, proposed modifications of the, W. H. Smith on, 878. RAVENSTEIN (EH. G.) on the position of geography in the educational system of the country, 494. on the climatology of Africa, 495. on an ethnographical survey of the Onited Kingdom, 607. RAWSON (Sir Rawson) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 31. Ray (Sidney H.) on anthropological opportunities in British New Guinea, 928. RAYLEIGH (Lord) on the establishment of a National Physical Laboratory, 82. on tables of the Bessel functions, 98. on practical electrical standards, 150. RAYNBIRD (Hugh),junr., on the linguistic and anthropological characteristics of the North Dravidian and Kolarian races,—The Urduws, 659. Reaction (solidification, crystallisation, &e.), the velocity of, before perfect equilibrium takes place, Meyer Wilder- mann on, 751. READ (C. H.) on an Imperial Bureau of Ethnology, 928. READE (T. Mellard) on oscillations in the level of the land, as shown by the buried river valleys and later deposits near Liverpool, 782. Red Marl near Liverpool, G. H. Morton on recent borings in the, 780. REED (J. Howard) on practical geo- graphy in Manchester, 858. Refraction, the effect of atmospheric, on the apparent diurnal movement of stars, Prof. A. A. Rambavt on, 726.; Reichsanstalt, Charlottenburg, Berlin, Financial statement about the, 86. REID (A. 8.) on the collection of photo- graphs of geological interest in the United Kingdom, 357. — (Clement) on the Selangor caves, 399. —— onthe relation of Paleolithic man .. tothe Glacial epoch, 400. 1046 BEID (Clement) on the marine zoology, botany, and geology of the Irish Sea, 417. RENNIE (J.) on practical electrical standards, 150. *Resins, excrescent, Prof. M. Bamberger on, 750. Resistance alloy, rheostene, a new, J. A. Harker and A. Davidson on, 714. Respiration in man, the different forms of the, Dr. W. Marcet on, 974. *Retzius, commemoration of the cen- tenary of the birth of, 925. REYNOLDS (Prof. J. Emerson) on the electrolytic methods of quantitative analysis, 244. Rhetic geology, Montagu Browne on, 804. Rheostene, a new resistance alloy, J. A. Harker and A. Davidson on, 714. RICHARDSON (Ralph) on the various boundary lines between British Guiana and Venezuela attributed to Sir R. H. Schomburgk, 861. RIDGEWAY (Prof. W.) on Hallstatt and the starting-point of the Iron Age in Europe, 930. —— on ‘Who produced the object called the Mykenzan 2’ 932. RiIDuEY (E. P.) on the relation of Palao- lithic man to the Glacial epoch, 400. ——(H M.) onthe Selangor caves, 399. — on the relation of Paleolithic man to the Glacial epoch, 400. Rie@ (H.) on the B.A. screw gauge, 527. RinTOUL (Charles) on the decay of British agriculture: its causes and cure, 879. Rippling of sand, Vaughan Cornish on the, 794. ROBERTS (Dr. I.) on seismological investi- gation, 180. —— on the evolution of stellar systems, 707. ROBERTS-AUSTEN (Prof. W. C.) on the bibliography of spectroscopy, 243. ROBERTSON (David) on the character of the high-level shell-bearing deposits at Kintyre, 378, 389. *RORINSON (Rev. J. C.) on the land of the Hausa, 850. *Romans, the cultivation of the oyster by the, R. T. Giinther on, 828. Romney Marsh, coast-forms of, Dr. F. G. Gulliver on, 854. Rontgen rays, the action of metals and their salts on ordinary and on, Dr. J. H. Gladstone and W. Hibbert on, 746. —— cathode rays and their probable connection with, Prof. P. Lenard on, 709. +—— the law of electricity of the conduction through gases ex- REPORT—1896. posed to the, Prof. J. J. Thomson and EK. Rutherford on, 710. —— the transparency of glass and por- celain to the, Prof. A. W. Riicker and W. Watson on, 710. ——. the duration of x-radiation at each spark, ¥. T. Trouton on, 711. ——. the relation between kathode rays, x-rays, and Becquerel rays, Prof. 8. P. Thompson on, 712, 713. *_____ the x-rays, H. H. F. Hyndman on, 713. ——. photo-electric sensitisation of salts by cathode rays, Prof. Elster and Prof. Geitel on, 731. Roscoxk (Sir H. HE.) on the establishment of a National Physical Laboratory, 82. —— onthe best methods of recording the direct intensity of solar radiation, 241. on the teaching of science in ele- mentary schools, 268. on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and compounds, 273. * on chemical education in England and Germany, 761. Rotifera, the relation of the, to the tro- chophore, Prof. Marcus Hartog on, 836. RUCKER (Prof. A. W.) on the establish- ment of a National Physical Labora- tory, 82. on the uniformity of size of pages of Scientific Societies’ publications, 86. on the comparison of magnetic instru- ments, 87. on practical electrical standards, 150. on the comparison and reduction of magnetic observations, 231. and W. WATSON on the trans- parency of glass and porcelain to the | Roéntgen rays, 710. Rugby and Aylesbury, sections along the new railway between, H. B. Wood- ward on, 798. RUSSELL (Dr. W. J.) on the action of light upon dyed colours, 347. RUTHERFORD (H.) on a magnetic detec- tor of electrical waves, 722. +—— and Prof. J. J. THomson on the laws of conduction of electricity through gases exposed to the Rontgen rays, 710. SALVIN (0O.) on the zoology of the Sand- nich Islands, 492. Sand, the rippling of, Vaughan Cornish on, 794. Sand-dunes, Vaughan Cornish on, 857. Sandwich Islands, the zoology of the, Fifth report on, 492. SARGANT (Ethel) on the heterotype divisions of Liliwm Martagon, 1021. INDEX. Schizomycetes, a new genus of, showing longitudinal _ fission (Astrobacter Jonesii), A. Vaughan Jennings on, 1012. Schools, the physical and mental defects of children in, Report on, 592. SCHUSTER (Prof. A.) on the establishment of a National Physical Laboratory, 82. ——on the comparison of magnetic instru- ments, 87. —— on practical electrical standards, 150. on the comparison and reduction of magnetic observations, 231. on the best methods of recording the direct intensity of solar radiation, 241. on wave-length tables af the spectra of the elements and compounds, 273. Science, the teaching of; in elementary schools, Report on, 268. —— in girls’ schools, L. Edna Walter on, 761. Scientific Societies, District Unions of, George Abbott on, 33. SCLATER (Dr. P. L.) on the occupation of a table at the Zvological Station at Naples, 478. on the compilation of an index generum et specierum animalium, 489. — on zoological bibliography and publication, 490. —— on the present state of our know- ledge of the zoology of the Sandwich Islands, 492. —— on the zoology and botany of the West India Islands, 493. Scotland, the sculptured stones of, Miss C. Maclagan on, 924. —— the ‘Brochs’ of, Miss C. Maclagan on, 924. Scott (Dr. D. H.) on the preservation of plants for exhibition, 684. —— Address to the Section of Botany by, 992. —— on some Carboniferous fossils re- ferred to Lepidostrobus, 1024. Scort-ELLioT (G. F.) on the influence of climate and vegetation on African civilisations, 856. — on the influence of habitat upon plant-habit, 1013. SCOURFIELD (D. J.) on the necessity for a British fresh-water biological station, 831. Serem gauge proposed in 1884, Report on the means by which practical effect can be given to the introduction of the, 527. Sculptured stones of Scotland, Miss C. Maclagan on the, 924. Sea in past epochs, the depths of the, E. B. Wethered on, 793. *Sea waves and earthquakes, Prof, John Milne on, 862. 1047 SEDGWICK (A.) on the occupation of a table at the Zoological Station at Naples, 478. on zoological bibliography publication, 490. Seeds, latent life in, Casimirde Candolle on, 1023. SEELEY (Prof. H. G.) on the skull of the 8. African fossil reptile Diademodon, 805. on examples of current bedding in clays, 805. Seismological investigation, First report on, 180. Selangor caves, Preliminary report on the, 399. Semicircular canals, the effect of the destruction of the, upon the movement of the eyes, Dr. E. Stevenson on, 982. *SENNETT (A. R.) on horseless road loco- motion, 905. : *Sergi’s theory of a Mediterranean race, J. L. Myres on, 931. Serum, the agglutinating action of hu- man, on certain pathogenic micro-or- ganisms, particularly the typhoid ba- cillus, A. S. Griinbaum on, 989. SETON-KARR (H. W.) on stone imple- ments in Somaliland, 922. SEWARD (A.C.) on some fossil plants from $8. Africa, 807. on a new Cycad from the Isle of Portland, 1024. on a large specimen of Lyginoden- dron, 1024, SHARP (D.) on zoological bibliography and publication, 490. on the zoology of the Sandwich Tslands, 492. on the zoology and botany of the West India Islands, 493. SHARP (Dr. D.) on Mr. E. EL. Green's ‘ Coccide of Ceylon,’ 450. SHAw (W. N.) on practical electrical standards, 150. recalculation of the total heat oy mater from the experiments of Regnault and of Rowland, 162. on electrolysis and electro-chemistry, 230. Shell-bearing deposits at Kintyre, the high-level, Report on the character of, 378. SHENSTONE (W. A.) on the production of haloids from pure materials, 347. SHERBORN (C. D.) on zoulogical biblio- graphy and publication, 490. SHERRINGTON (Prof. C.8.) on the pos- sible infectivity of the oyster, and on the green disease in oysters, 663. SHIPLEY (A. E.) on the necessity for the immediate investigation of the biology of oceanic islands, 487. and 1048 Shrinkage of the globe, the Post-Cam- brian, J. Logan Lobley on, 789. Shropshire, North, the superficial de- posits of, C. Callaway on, 800. Sillimanite gneisses in Central Anglesey, E. Greeuly on, 783. SILVERBERG (J.) on the influence of busi- ness in ‘ futures ’on trade and agricul- ture, 882. Skomer Island, the geology of, F. T. Howard and E. W. Small on, 797. Skull of the 8. African fossil reptile Dia- demodon, Prof, H. G. Seeley on, 805. SLADEN (Percy) on the occupation of a table at the Zoological Station at Naples, 478. SMALL (E. W.) and IF. T. HOWARD on the geology of Skomer Island, 797. SMITH (E. A.) on the present state of our knowledge of the zoology of the Sandwich Islands, 492. (John) on the discovery of marine shells in the Drift series at high levels in Ayrshire, 799. -— (Prof. J. Lorrain) and Dr. F. F. WESTBROOK on the occurrence of fever in mice, 974. —— (W.H.) on proposed modifications of the rating system, 878. -—- (the late Dr. Wilberforce) on the physical and mental defects of children in schools, 592. Solar radiation, Twelfth report on the best methods of recording the direct intensity of, 241. SOLLAS (Prof. W. J.) on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 366. on the structure of a coral reef, 377. Somaliland, stone implements in, H. W. Seton-Karr on, 922. South Wales coal district, a new popu- lation map of the, B. V. Darbishire on, 865. ; ‘SSOWERBUTTS (Eli) on the position of geography in the educational system of the country, 494. Species, the range of, in the Carbonife- rous Limestone of N. Wales, G. H. Mor- _ ton on, 787. Spectra of the elements and compounds, nave-length tables of the, Report on, 273. Spectroscope, measurement by means of the, of the velocity of rotation of the planets, J. E. Keeler on the, 729. Spectroscopy, the bibliography of, Highth (interim) report on, 2438. Spencer’s, Herbert, limit of growth, mul- tiple cell division as compared with bi-partition as, Prof. Marcus Hartog on, 833. ‘*Spitzbergen, a journey in 1896 in, Sir - W. Martin Conway on, 862. *Spores, the number of, in sporangia, Prof. F. O. Bower on, 1019. REPORT—1896 Standard cell, one volt, with small tem- perature coefficient, W. Hibbert on a, 713. Standard of value, W. Fowler on, 884. —— the monetary, Major L. Darwin on, 885. Statistics and Economic Science, Ad- dress to the Section of, by the Rt. Hon. L. Courtney, 867. —— of wasps, Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth on, 836. STEBBING (Rev. T. R. R.) on zoological bibliography and publication, 490. Stellar systems, Dr. Isaac Roberts on the evolution of, 707. STEVENSON (Dr. Edgar) on the effect of the destruction of the semicircular canals upon the movement of the eyes, 982. STEWART (Prof. A.) on the structure of a coral reef, 377. ——- (Charles) on cotton ‘ futures,’ what they are, and how they operate in practice, 881. STILES (Dr. C. W.) on Post Office requia- tions regarding the carriage of natural history specimens to foreign countries, 477. STOKES (Sir G. G.} on the best methods of recording the direct intensity of solar radiation, 241. *STOLPE (Dr. H.) on boat graves in Sweden, 931. Stone implements in Somaliland, H. W. Seton-Karr on, 922. Stonesfield slate, Final report on opening further sections of the, 356. Stoney (Dr. G. Johnstone) on the uni- Sormity of size of pages of Scientific Societies’ publications, 86. — onpracticalelectrical standards, 150. on the best methods of recording the direct intensity of solar radiation, 241, Stores (H.) on Paleolithic spear- and arrow-heads, 925. — on paloliths derived and re- worked, 925. STRANGE (E. H.), Prof. H. B. Dixon, and E. GRAHAM on reflected waves in the explosion of gases, 746. Straws, the carbohydrates of cereal, First report on, 262. Street-lighting by electric incandescent lamps, W. G. Walker on, 899. STROH (A.) on the B.A. screw gauge, 527, 534. STROUD (Prof. W.) on the action of light upon dyed colours, 347. *Sudan, the Egyptian, Wilson on, 862. Superficial deposits of North Shropshire, C. Callaway on, 800. Surveying, photographic, John Coles on, 850. Sir Charles INDEX. *Survivals, pagan, F. T. Elworthy on some, 927, *Sweden, boat graves in, Dr. H. Stolpe on, 931. SWINBURNE (J.) on the uniformity of size of pages of Scientific Societies’ publica- tions, 86. SWINHOE (Col. C.) on Mr. HE. LE. Green’s * Coccide of Ceylon,’ 450. —— on Post Office regulations regarding the carriage of natural history speci- mens to foreign countries, 477. Sworn (8. A.) on absolute mercurial thermometry, 729. SyMONS (G. J.) on the work of the Corre- sponding Societies Committee, 31. —— on the application of photography to the eiucidation of meteorological phenomena, 172. —— on seismological investigation, 180. —— on the best methods of recording the direct intensity of solar radiation, 241. on the climatology of Africa, 495. Tamarind, the wild, the singular effect produced on certain animals by feed- ing on, Dr. D. Morris on, 1017. Taxation, That ability is not the proper basis of, by Edwin Cannan, 877. Taxes and rates, the distribution and in- eidence of, G. H. Blunden on, 878. TAYLOR (H.) on practical electrical standards, 150. — (H. M.) on the plotting of great circle routes on a chart, 716. TEALL (J. J. H.) on the collection of photographs of geological interest in the United Kingdom, 357. Teleostean ova, the absorption of the yolk in pelagic, H. C. Williamson on, 478. *TERRY (H. B.) on expanded metal, 905. Tertiary deposits in North Manxland, Alfred Bell on, 783. Thermal Unit, see ‘ Llectrical Measwre- ments.’ Thermometry, absolute mercurial, S. A. Sworn on, 729. *THISELTON-DYER (W. T.) on the geo- graphical distribution of plants, 1020. THOMAS (J. W.) on the prowimate consti- tuents of coal, 340. THOMPSON (I. C.) on the marine zoology, aes and geology of the Irish Sea, —— (Prof. Silvanus P.) on the uniformity of size of pages of Scientific Societies’ publications, 86. on practicalelectricalstandards, 150. on the teaching of science in element- . ary schools, 268. on the relation between cathode | | i | | 1049 THOMPSON (Prof. Silvanus P.) on hyper- phosphorescence, 713. | —— (Prof. W. H.) on the physiological effect of ‘ peptone’ when injected into the circulation, 975. THomson (Prof. J. J.) on practical electrical standards, 150. ___ Address to the Section of Mathe- matical and Physical Science by, 699. | +—— and E. RUTHERFORD on the laws of conduction of electricity through gases exposed to the Réntgen rays, 710. THORPE (Dr. T. E.) on the establishment of a National Physical Laboratory, 82. on the action of light wpon dyed colours, 347. TIDDEMAN (R. H.) on the collection of photographs of geological interest im the United Kingdom, 357. on the erratic blocks of the British Isles, 366. Tides, the effect of wind and atmospheric pressure on the, Report on, 503. | TILDEN (Prof, W. A.) on the investiga- tion of isomeric naphthalene deriva- tives, 265. | TITHERLEY (A. W.) on the amides of the alkali metals, and some of their derivatives, 748. Toms (F.) on metric measures and our old system, 880. Tower Bridge, Description of the general features and dimension of the, by J. Wolfe Barry, 897. Trade combinations and prices, H. J. Falk on, 876. ° Trade Routes of §8.E. Europe and Cyprus, John L. Myres on, 929. Trading, some economic issues in regard to charitable or philanthropic, C. 8. Loch on, 875. | Tray (Prof. J. W. H.) on the preserva- tion of plants for exhibition, 684, 692. ——— on floral deviations in some species rays, Rontgen rays, and Becquerel | rays, 712, 713. of Polygonum, 1016. Transparency of glass and porcelain to the Réntgen rays, Prof. A. W. Riicker and W. Watson on the, 710. *TRAQUAIR (Dr. BR. H.) on Paleospondy- lus Gunni, 832. *Trawling apparatus, improvements in, J. H. Maclure on, 832. Trees, the ascent of water in, Francis Darnin on, 674. Trias, footprints in the, near Liverpool, H. C. Beasley on, 779. Trinil femur (Pithecanthropus erectus) contrasted with the femora of various savage and civilised races, D. Hepburn on the, 926. Tripoli, H. S. Cooper on a journey in, 849. TRISTRAM (Rev. Canon H. B.) on the work of the Corresponding. Societies Com- mittee, 31. 1050 Trochophore, the relation of the Rotifera to the, Prof. Marcus Hartog on, 836. TROTTER (A. P.) on a direct-reading Wheatstone’s bridge, 732. TROUTON (Dr. F. T.) on the duration of x-radiation at each spark, 711. Tubercle bacillus, the so-called, A. Cop- pen Jones on, 1015. TURNER (Prof. H. H.) on the comparison of magnetic instruments, 87. —— on seismological experiments at Ox- ford, 216. TyLok (Dr. E. B.) on the North- Western tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 569. *Type specimens, geological, Interim re- port on the registration of, 804. Typhoid and oysters, Prof. Rubert W. Boyce and Prof. W. A. Herdman on, 663. Typhoid bacillus, the agglutinating ac- tion of human serum on certain patho- genic micro-organisms, particularly the, A S. Griinbaum on, 989. Tyrrhenians in Greece and Italy, Dr. Oscar Montelius on, 931. Uganda and the Upper Nile, Lieut. C. F. S. Vandeleur on, 853. United States, the currency question in the, and its bearing on British interests, Arthur Lee on, 883. UNWIN (Prof. W. C.) on the effect of wind and atmospheric pressure on the tides, 503. — on the calibration of instruments used in engineering laboratories, 538. Uranws, Report on the linguistic and an- thropological characteristics of the, 659. Urophlyctis, some species of the genus, Prof. P. Magnus on, 1010. Value, the standard of, W. Fowler on, 884. Valve, a new spherical, balanced for all pressures, James Casey on, 901. VANDELEUR (Lieut. C. F.S.) on Uganda and the Upper Nile, 853. Vascular bundles, the arrangement of the, in certain Nympheacee, D. T. Gwynne- Vaughan on, 1012. Vatna Jokull, Iceland, the northern glaciers of, F. W. W. Howell on, 859. Venezuela and British Guiana, the vari- ous boundary lines between, attributed to Sir R. H. Schomburgk, Ralph Richardson on, 861. *Vertebrata, the ancestry of the, Discus- sion on, 832,983. [See ‘ GASKELL (Dr. W. H.)’} ; —— Phoronis the earliest ancestor of the, A. T. Masterman on, 837. VINES (Prof. S. H.) on investigations made at the Marine Biological Asso- ciation Laboratory at Plymouth, 485. REPORT—1896. Vowels, the genesis of, R. J. Lloyd on,,. 972. the interpretation of the phono- grams of, 973. WaAuL (André) and A. G. Green on the constitution of sun yellow or curcu- mine, and allied colouring matters, 753. WALFORD (Edwin A.) on the Stonesfield slate, 356. WALKER (A. 0.) on the marine zoology, botany, and geology of the Irish Sea, 417. —— (W. G.) on street lighting by electric incandescent lamps, 899. WALLACE (A. Russel) on the Selangor caves, 399. WALLER (Dr. A. W.) on fragments from the autobiography of a nerve, 980. WALLIS (KE. White) on the mental and physical defects of children in schools, 592. WALSINGHAM (Lord) on Mr. Green’s ‘Coccide of Ceylon, 450. on Post Office regulations regarding the carriage of Natural History speci- mens to foreign countries, 477. WALTER (L. Edna) on the teaching of science in girls’ schools, 761. WALTHER (Prof. J.). Are there fossil deserts ? 795 WARINGTON (Prof. R.) on the carbo- hydrates of cereal straws, 262. WARNER (Dr. Francis) on the physical and mental defects of children in schools,. 592. Wasps, statistics of, Prof. F. Y. Edge- worth on, 836. E. EL. | Water, The capacity of, for heat from 10° to 20° C referred to its capacity at 10° as unity, 162, —— total heat of, Recalculaticn of the,. from the eaperiments of Regnault and of Rowland, by W. N. Shan, 162. —— the ascent of, in trees, Francis Darwin on, 674. Waterworks, the Liverpool, J. Parry on,,. 897. WATKIN (Col.) on the B.A. screw gauge, 527, 532. WATSON (W.) on the comparison of mag- netic instruments, 87. —— and Prof. A. W. RUCKER on the transparency of glass and porcelain to the Rontgen rays, 710. Watts (Dr. Marshall) on wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements ana compounds, 273. (W. W.) on the collection of photo- graphs of geological interest in the United Kingdom, 367. —— on the ancient rocks of Charnwood Forest, 795. INDEX. Wave-length tables of the spectra of the elements and compounds, Report on, 273. Waves, reflected, in the explosion of gases, Prof. H. B. Dixon, E. H. Strange, and E. Graham on, 746. WEBBER (Maj.-Gen.) on the B.A. screw gauge, 527. Weiss (Prof. F. E.) on the marine zoology, botany, and geology of the Irish Sea, 417. —— on the preservation of plants for exhibition, 684. WELDON (Prof. W. F. R.) on the necessity Sor the immediate investigation of the biology of oceanic islands, 487. -— on zoological bibliography and pub- lication, 490. West India Islands, Ninth report on the soology and botany of the, 493. WESTBROOK (Dr. F. F.)and Prof. J. LOBRAIN SMITH on the occurrence of fever in mice, 974. Weston tapestry maps, Rev. W. K. R. Bedford on the, 850. WETHERED (KE. B.) on the depths of the sea in past epochs, 793. WHARTON (Adm. W. J. L.) on the struc- ture of a coral reef, 377. Wheatstone’s bridge, a direct-reading, A. Trotter on, 732. WHHELER (W. H.) on the effect of wind and atmospheric pressure on the tides, 503. WHETHAM (W. C. D.) on electrolysis and electro-chemistry, 230. WHITAKER (W.) on the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 31. WILDERMANN (Meyer) on the velocity of reaction before perfect equilibrium takes place, 751. WILLIAMS (Prof. W. Carleton) on the electrolytic methods of quantitative analysis, 244. WILLIAMSON (H. C.) on the life-history of the eel, 479. —— on the absorption of the yolk in pelagic teleostean ova, 479. *WILSON (Sir Charles) on the Egyptian Sudan, 862. *____ (Dr. J.) on anew hybrid Passion Flower, 1022. *____on a newspecies of Albuca (A. pro- lifera, Wils.), 1025. * on hybrid Albucas, 1025. (W. E.) on the best methods of recording the direct intensity of solar radiation, 241. Wind and atmospheric pressure, Report on the effeot of, on the tides, 503. WINDOES (J.) on the Stonesfield slate, 356. 1051 WINGATE (David 8.) on physiologicat applications of the phonograph, 669. Wirral, erosion of the sea coast of, G. H. Morton on the, 781. Woop (Sir H. T.) on the B.A. screw gauge, 527. WOODHEAD (Dr. Sims) on the organisa- tion of bacteriological research in con- nection with Public Health, 984. WoopwaARD (Dr. H.) on the Stonesfield slate, 356. —— on the compilation of an index generum et specierum animalium, 489. —-- (H. B.) on the Stonesfield slate, 356. —— on the collection of photographs of geological interest in the United King- dom, 357. on sections along the new railway between Rugby and Aylesbury, 798. *Wreck raising, J. Bell on, 905. Writing of Australia, the aboriginal stick and bone, Dr. G. Harley on, 941. X-radiation, the duration of, at each spark, Dr. F. T. Trouton on, 711. *X-rays, H. F. Hyndman on the, 713. , sce * ROntgen rays.’ Yorkshire, Post-Pliocene changes in physical geography in, P. F. Kendall on some, 801. ZACHARIAS (Prof. E.) on the cells of the Cyanophycez, 1021. Zoological bibliography and publication, Report on, 490. —— science, the present position of morphology in, E. W. Macbride on, 833. —- Station at Naples, Report on the occupation of a table at the, 478. Appendiz: I. On the life-history of the eel: on the absorption of the yolk in pelagic tele- ostean ova, by H. C. Williamson, 479. Il. List of naturalists who have worked at the Station from July 1, 1895, to June 30, 1896, 481. Ill. List of papers published in 1895 naturalists who have occupied tables at the Station, 482. Zoology, Address by Prof. EK. B. Poulton to the Section of, 808. -— of the Sandwich Islands, report on the, 492. —— and botany of the West India Tslands, Ninth report on the present state of our knowledge of the, 493. ——, botany, and geology of the Irish Sea, Final report on the, 417. Sieth ¢ gerd fitentt} (er Kao tet | Ne am ee le Ns spelt ge ae ' ie Witirsct re ot! £3 1 poheeey shee ivi the = i tert) Seth h mipon die ey ent Poiocl ane OR ‘tyeee’ 2 Me aR wh wt —_ pore Revane Fk ue bytedoiat bev " ie td f eee hee oii oR og eedyl te eqktesit * 15 ss ‘Bakes’ a re. od) Wah ecu ers SE Je | er ose ii: wae 2 wh yn he Gaeth t fr Ma. “ Bete oiuaice ny aheah See we, gray ae Je: cevqhiisiel a eb, S| See uit ht CALE . Ne sigur gree "he ew Le Va B12 ea be eat Su -, pr iectioaies s Sdihbiepeos } 1 Sta Ce , Be r3 Ae a romans Al - eet uy a) ors “sev Bey Pts oly ) 0? voce Dan tage ees e yah eee ‘ogra x . Mab oqe lips pilceri(* meas gent ; ala contd ate Neve | wt ots COI whe a Cee ene net yeh ade beth ane 7S ly wider: oT eee oT ee Ms eed i me cle at be WN oe Pala NS F vt ie De + Yc Se hp SR A =z) 2 Phen, $8, “na tapan bees eli pie! tel ey pata B' OMe oT vias aphi So whet odd. pee CUI eS Oe a ri? . ree W if Soa et “ies oe i 4 grey Py fete Bik ay * OSs ats if i Sa ‘ a adn NT 4 ae ' a: os abi | 4 % t asin ety == po = ES Oe ee en eae a 5 A 5 opal Sa ay ' es aes ies Reet oe ah i ; Beusecy nisinitein Se seater . > .” -” gt Stay ieF ‘ ‘ = Late ve h ot duro i bee staph } 5 ih vo Pee mintt. Se ahi te : = oe: Co Ag a rs eee ae “Us * a? 2 ay r ~ a. Wey, coma ANY = ll ~f aligning we ih b Parone Tt Ag QED red atene dU Ne Tees ening ‘ wih hiker she aati WRIT, 6 a ea WAL Dirk wart ee ti ee 5 er mga a : he Weargarnve ea CRs me 7 “4 bo Capit? seat Speen ap ie. yar a, BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. Life Members (since 1845), and all Annual Members who have not intermitted their Subscription, receive gratis all Reports published after the date of their Membership. Any other volume they require may be obtained on application at the Office of the Association, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London, W., at the following prices, viz.—Reports for 1831 to 1874 (of which more than 15 copies remain), at 2s. 6d. per volume ; after that date, at two-thirds of the Publication Price. A few sets, from 1831 to 1874 inclusive, may also be obtained at £10 per set. Associates for the Meeting in 1895 may obtain the Volume for the Year at two-thirds of the Publication Price. REPORT or tae SIXTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Ipswich, Septem- ber, 1895, Published at £1 4s. CONTENTS. PAGE Rules of the Association, Lists of Officers, Grants of ites CA OE 2) a Ox Address by the President, Sir Douglas Galton . : Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee . : 4 4 : See) Twenty-first Report on Underground Temperature. 75 Report on the Uniformity of Size of Pages of Scientific Societies’ Publications 77 Interim Report on the Comparison of Magnetic Instruments. 79 Fifth Report on the Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteoro- logical Phenomena 80 Eleventh Report on the best “Methods of Recording the Direct Intensity of Solar Radiation. 81 Fourteenth and Fifteenth Reports on the Harthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of Japan ‘ é : 2 é : » +, ok Fifth Report on Earth Tremors in this Country . ‘ , : ; . 184 Eleventh Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis . : : . 186 Report on Electrical Standards . ; . 195 Report on the Comparison and Reduction of Magnetic Observations . . . 209 Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools : : : . 228 Second Report on Quantitative Analysis by means of Electrolysis. ; . 235 Interim Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy . A ; ; : . 263 1054 PAGE Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours . 5 : : ‘ - 263 Ninth Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives . 272 Report on the Preparation of a New Series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds . 273 Report on the Production of Haloids from Pure Materials. 341 How shall Agriculture best obtain the Help of Science? By Professor R. WARINGTON 341 Report on the High- level Flint-drift in the Chalk near r Ightham : = . 349 Final Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius : 351 Fourth Report on the Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales 352 Interim Report on the Structure of a Coral Reef : . 392 Twenty-first Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters. i : . 393 Appendix—Second List of Works. By W. WHITAKER . 394 Report on the Examinaticn of the Ground from which the Remains of the Cetio- saurus in the Oxford Museum were obtained : 403 Sixth Report on the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic. Registration of Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom : 404 Second Report on the Stonesfield Slate : : - . 414 Twelfth Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Palxozoic Rocks : 416 Twenty-second and Twenty-third Reports on the Erratic Blocks of F England, Wales, and Ireland 5 : : 426 Some Suffolk Well-sections. By W. WHITAKER 3 436 On the Dip of the Underground Palzozoic Rocks at Ware and Cheshunt. By J. FRANCIS . 441 Report on the Physiological ‘Applications of the Phonograph, and on the True Form of the Voice-curves made by the Instrument . 454 Third Report on the Marine Zoology, Botany and Geology of the Irish Sea . 455 Fifth Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands : 467 Report on Investigations made at the sence age of the Marine ‘Biological Association at Plymouth : 469 Eighth Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands, and on taking Steps to Investigate ascer- tained Deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora ; . 472 Report on the Compilation of an Index Generum et Specierum Animaliam . 473 Report on making a Digest of the Observations on the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Light-vessels : ; . 473 Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at t Naples : . 474 Fourth Report on the Climatology of Africa : : . 480 Report on the Exploration of Southern Arabia . 1 - 491 Report on the Calibration of Instruments used in Engineering Laboratories ~ AST Report on an Ancient Kitchen Midden at Hastings, and a Barrow at the ~«- Wildernesse . : - : - . . 500 Report on Anthropometric Measurements in Schools . : Z : : . 503 Report on the Mental and Physical Defects of Children . : ; , . 503 Report on an Ethnographical Survey of the United ear ‘ : : . 509 Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury d : : : . 519 ‘Tenth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada : . . ; . 522 The Transactions of the Sections : : : , 2 : 3 : . 595 Index . : : : : : : : 5 : : : - 859 List of Publications. 5 é : : : : : : : | 881-884 (Appendix, List of Members, pp. 1-115). The following Publications are also on sale at the Office of the Asso- ciation :— Lithographed Signatures of the Members who met at Cambridge in 1833, with the Proceedings of the Public Meetings, 4to, 4s. Index to the Reports, 1831-1840, 12s. (carriage included). Index to the Reports, 1861-1890, 15s. (earriage, 43d.). Lalande’s Catalogue of Stars, £1 1s. Rules of Zoological Nomenclature, 1s, Vi 1055 ‘On the Regulation of Wages by means of Lists in the Cotton Industry :—Spin- ning, 2s.; Weaving, 1s. Report on the best means for promoting Scientific Education in Schools, 6d. Second Report on the present Methods of Teaching Chemistry, 1889, 6d. Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical Measurements, 6d. Second Report on the Development of Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science, 1892, 1s. Report of the Ethnographical Survey Committee, 1893, 6d. The Action of Magnetism on Light, by J. Larmor, F.R.S., 1893, 1s. Table of Electro-chemical Properties of Aqueous Solutions, compiled by Rev. T. C. Fitzpatrick, 1893, 1s. 6d. Report on Electrical Standards, with seven Appendices, 1894, 1s. Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Thermodynamics, Part II., by G. H. Bryan, with an Appendix by Prof. L. Boltzmann, 1894, 1s. Report on Planimeters, by Prof. O. Henrici, F.R.S., 1894, 1s. Discussion on Agriculture and Science, Ipswich, 1895, 3d. Tenth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, 1895, ls. Fourth Report on the Erosion of the Sea Coast, 1895, 9d. Second Report on a Gauge for Small Screws, 1884, reprinted 1895, 6d. First Report on giving practical effect to the Introduction of the British Association Screw Gauge, 1896, 6d. Digest of Observations on the Migration of Birds made at Lighthouses, by W. Eagle Clarke, 1896, 6d. Report on Tables of the Bessel Functions, 1896, 1s. Report on the Comparison of Magnetic Instruments, 1896, 4d. The President’s Address, and Sectional Addresses, for 1889, 1892, 1893, 1895, 1896, each 1s, ue seal ‘epta ie wile 4 am ee 4! a oo aL a ie 90 Fly Mapesrcugad® CEL trgoets yee on ited FTE Ps SM , wit ttn] i: ; t ay D Ae zs ae we aha. id BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. Lise OF OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS, CORRECTED TO OCTOBER 31, 1896. Office of the Association: BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W. “our Wert. we Ti td) ay ae mee wb ok earn TG SR REE A oo, a eee "et ml ee ea mA ‘aig 00 Bory: spon a sa r Kaas ut otro Alao ie 9d b P ‘s s No atu. is ~ / tor gh, —<. - é Te Shien Ah tea, f ' UF oe * Pet Die fer ree oe ‘ he = um) r ak aan - aed . a ae *Borromiry, JawEs THomson, M.A., D.Sce., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S The University, Glasgow. soar *Bottomley, Mrs. The University, Glasgow. {Bottomley, W. B., B.A., Professor of Botany, King’s College London. e aed t Bottomley, William, jun. 6 Rokeley-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow §Boulnois, Henry Percy, M.Inst.C.E. Municipal Offices, Liverpool {Bourdas, Isaiah. Dunoon House, Clapham Common, London, {Bourny, A. G., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.LS., Professor of Biology i Presidency College, Madras. Ia na 1893.§§ Bourne, G. C., M.A., F.L.S. New College, Oxford. 1889. 1866. 1890. 1884. 1888. 1881. 1856. 1886. 1884. 1880. 1887. 1865. 1887. 1896. 1884. 1871. 1865. 1884. {Bourne, R. H. Fox. 41 Priory-road, Bedford Park, Chiswick § BouRNE, STEPHEN, F.S.8. 5 Lansdown-road, Lee, S.E. {Bousfield, C. E. 55 Clarendon-road, Leeds. §Bovey, Henry T., M.A., Professor of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics in McGill University, Montreal. Ontario- avenue, Montreal, Canada. , tBowden, Rev. G. New Kingswood School, Lansdown, Bath. *Bower, F. O., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow. *Bowlby, Miss F. E. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham. { Bowlby, Rev. Canon. 101 Newhall-street, Birmingham. t Bowley, Edwin. Burnt Ash Hill, Lee, Kent. {Bowly, Christopher. Cirencester. tBowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester. §Bowman, F. H., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. Mayfield, Knutsford Cheshire. ; §Box, Alfred Marshall. 68 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge. *Boycgr, Ruzert, M.B., Professor of Pathology, University College Liverpool. : *Boyd, M. A., M.D. 30 Merrion-square. Dublin. {Boyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh. tBoytn, The Very Rev. G. D., M.A. The Deanery, Salisbury. *Boyle, R. Vicars, C.S.I. Care of Messrs, Grindlay & Co., 55 Parliament-street, London, 8S. W. } Year of LIST OF MEMBERS. 17 Election. 1892.§§Bors, CHARLES VERNON, F.R.S., Assistant Professor of Physics in 1872. 1869. 1894. 1893. 1892. 1857. 1863. 1880. 1864, 1870. 1888. 1879. 1865. 1872. 1867. 1861. 1885. 1890. 1868. 1877. 1882. 1866. 1891. the Royal College of Science, London, 8.W. *Brasroox, EH. W., F.S.A. 178 Bedford-hill, Balham, London, S.W. *Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington, Middlesex. *Braby, Ivon. Bushey Lodge, Teddington, Middlesex. §Bradley, F. L. Bel Air, Alderley Edge, Cheshire. §Bradshaw, W. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham. *Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A. Trinity Vicarage, West Bromwich. tBrapy, Grorez S., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland. *Brady, Rev. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham, S.0., Essex. {Brawam, Puirre. 3 Cobden-mansions, Stockwell-road, London, 8.1. tBraidwood, Dr. 35 Park-road South, Birkenhead. §Braikenridge, W. J., J.P. 16 Royal-crescent, Bath. {Bramley, Herbert. 6 Paradise-square, Sheffield. §Bramwett, Sir Freperick J., Bart., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, London, S.W. {Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton. tBrand, William. Milnefield, Dundee. *Brandreth, Rey. Henry. The Rectory, Dickleburgh. *Bratby, William, J.P. Oakfield Hale, Altrincham, Cheshire. *Bray, George. Belmont, Headingley, Leeds. tBremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C. tBrent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth. *Bretherton, C. E. Goldsmith-buildings, Temple, London, E.C. tBrettell, Thomas. Dudley. tBrice, Arthur Montefiore, F.G.S8., F.R.G.S. 159 Strand, London, WwW C. 1886.§§Bridge, T. W., M.A., D.Se., Professor of Zoology in the Mason 1870. 1887. 1870. 1886. 1879. 1870. 1890. 1893. 1868. Science College, Birmingham. *Bridson, Joseph R. Bryerswood, Windermere. tBrierley, John, J.P. The Clough, Whitefield, Manchester. tBrierley, Joseph. New Market-street, Blackburn. TBrierley, Leonard. Somerset-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. tBrierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth. *Briae, Joun, M.P. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorlshire. {Brigg, W. A. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire. tBright, Joseph. Western-terrace, The Park, Nottingham. {Brine, Admiral Lindesay, F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W. 1893.§§Briscoe, Albert E., A.R.C.Se., B.Sc. Battersea Polytechnic, 1884. 1879. 1878. 1884, 1896. 1859. 1883. 1865. London, 8.W. tBrisette, M. H. 424 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada. *Brirrarn, W. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Alma Works, Sheffield. {Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum, London, 8.W. *Brittle, John R:, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 9 Vanbrugh Hill, Black- heath, London, S.E. *Brocklehurst, 8. Olinda, Sefton Park, Liverpool. *Bropuurst, BerNaRD Epwarp, F.R.C.S. 20 Grosvenor-street, Grosyenor-square, London, W. *Brodie, David, M.D. 12 Patten-road, Wandsworth Common, London, 8. W. {Bropre, Rey. Perpr BrrrrncErR, M.A., F.G.S. Rowington Vicar- age, near Warwick. 1896. B 18 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1884. {Brodie, William, M.D. 64 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan, US.A 1883. *Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. The Gore, Eastbourne, 1881.§§Brook, Robert G. Raven-street, St. Helens, Lancashire. 1855. {Brooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire. 1864, *Brooke, Ven. Archdeacon J. Ingham. The Vicarage, Halifax. 1855. tBrooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire. 1888. {Brooke, Rev. Canon R. E., M.A. 14 Marlborough-buildings, Bath, 1887. §Brooks, James Howard. Elm Hirst, Wilmslow, near Manchester. 1863. tBrooks, John Crosse. 14 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 1887. {Brooks, S. H. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester. 1887. *Bros, W. Law. Sidcup, Kent. 1883.§§Brotherton, E. A. Fern Cliffe, Ilkley, Yorkshire. 1883. *Brough, Mrs. Charles 8. Rosendale Hall, West Dulwich, S.E. 1886. §Brough, Professor Joseph, LL.M., Professor of Logic and Philosophy in University College, Aberystwith. 1885. *Browett, Alfred. 29 Wheeley’s-road, Birmingham. 1863. *Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Bel- grave-crescent, Edinburgh. 1892. {Brown, Andrew, M.Inst.C.E. Messrs. Wm. Simons & Co., Renfrew, near Glasgow. 1896. §Brown, A. T. The Nunnery, St. Michael’s Hamlet, Liverpool. 1867. tBrown, Charles Gage, M.D., C.M.G. 88 Sloane-street, S.W. 1855. {Brown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow. 1871. t{Brown, David. Willowbrae House, Midlothian. 1863. *Brown, Rev. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle. 1883. +Brown, Mrs. Ellen F, Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liverpool. 1881. {Brown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford. 1883. {Brown, George Dransfield. Henley Villa, Ealing, Middlesex, W. 1884. {Brown, Gerald Culmer. Lachute, Quebec, Canada. 1883. {Brown, Mrs. H. Bienz. 62 Stanley-street, Aberdeen. 1883. {Brown, Mrs. Helen. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace, Edinburgh. 1870. §Brown, Horace T., F.RS., F.C.S., F.G.S. 52 Nevern-square, London, 8. W. Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire. 1883. {Brown, Miss Isabella Spring. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace, Edinburgh. 1895.§§Brown, J. Atxey, J.P., F.R.G.S., F.G.S. 7 Kent-gardens, Ealing, London, W. 1870. *Brown, Professor J. Campsett, D.Se., F.C.S. University College, Liverpool. 1876. §Brown, John. Longhurst, Dunmurry, Belfast. 1881. *Brown, John, M.D. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire. 1882. *Brown, John. 7 Second-avenue, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham. 1895. *Brown, John Charles. 7 Second-avenue, Nottingham. 1859. tBrown, Rev. John Crombie, LL.D. Haddington, N.B. 1894. {Brown, J. H. 6 Cambridge-road, Brighton. 1882. *Brown, Mrs. Mary. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire. 1886. §Brown, R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Perth. 1863. {Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 1896. §Brown, Stewart H. Quarry Bank, Allerton, Liverpool. 1891. SBE0Te aL Forster, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Guildhall Chambers, ardiff. 1865. t{Brown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham, 1885. {Brown, W. A. The Court House, Aberdeen. 1884. ¢Brown, William George, Ivy, Albemarle Co,, Virginia, U.S.A. LIST OF MEMBERS. 19 Year of Election. 1863. 1892. 1895. 1879, 1891. 1862, 1872. 1887. 1865. 1883. 1855. 1892. {Browne, Sir Benjamin Chapman, M.Inst.C.E. Westacres, New- castle-upon-Tyne. {Browne, Harold Crichton. Crindon, Dumfries, *Browne, Henry Taylor. 10 Hyde Park-terrace, London, W. Browne, Sir J. Cricuton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S.E. 61 Carlisle- place-mansions, Victoria-street, London, S.W. §Browne, Monracu, F.G.S. Town Museum, Leicester, “Browne, Robert Clayton, M.A. Sandbrook, Tullow, Co. Carlow, Ireland. {Browne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Redcot, Bradbourne, Sevenoaks, Kent. {Brownell, T. W. 6 St. James’s-square, Manchester. {Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 63 Strand, London, W.C. {Browning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge. {Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow. {Bruce, James. 10 Hill-street, Edinburgh. 1893.§§Bruce, William S. University Hall, Riddle’s-court, Edinburgh. 1863. 1863. 1875. 1896. 1868. 1878. 1886. 1894, 1884. “Brunel, H. M., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W. {Brunel, J. 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W. {Brunlees, John. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W. “Brunner, Sir J. T., Bart., M.P. Druid’s Cross, Wavertree, Liverpool. {Brunron, T. Lauper, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 10 Stratford-place, Oxford-street, London, W. §Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil. “Bryan, G. H., D.Sc., F.R.S. Thornlea, Trumpington-road, Cam- bridge. § Bryan, Mrs. R. P. Thornlea, Trumpington-road, Cambridge. tBryce, Rev. Professor George. The College, Manitoba, Canada. 1894.§§Brydone, R. M. Petworth, Sussex. 1890. §Bubb, Henry. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham. 1871. 1867. 1881. 1871. 1884. 1883. 1886. 1864. 1865. 1886. 1884, 1880. 1869. 1851. 1887. 1875. 1883. 1893. 1871. 1881. 1883. 1865, §Bucnan, ALEXANDER, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scottish Meteorological Society. 42 Heriot-row, Edinburgh. {Buchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee. *Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk. {Bucwanan, Joun Youne, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S., F.C.S. 10 Moray-place, Edinburgh. {Buchanan, W. Frederick. Winnipeg, Canada. tBuckland, Miss A. W. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, London, W. *Buckle, Edmund W. 23 Bedford-row, London, W.C, {Bucxtiz, Rev. Grorcr, M.A. Wells, Somerset. *Buckley, Henry. 8 St. Mary’s-road, Leamington. §Buckley, Samuel. Merlewood, Beaver Park, Didsbury. *Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S, 16 Heathfield-road, Mill Hill Park, London, W. {Buckney, Thomas, F.R.A.S. 53 Gower-street, London, W.C. {Bucxni11, Sir J.C., M.D., F.R.S. East Cliff House, Bournemouth. *Buckton, GrorcE Bownter, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S. Weycombe, Haslemere, Surrey. {Budenberg, C. F., B.Sc. Buckau Villa, Demesne-road, Whalley Range, Manchester. {Budgett, Samuel. Kirton, Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent. {Buick, Rev. George R., M.A. Cullybackey, Co. Antrim, Ireland, §BuLierp, ARTHUR. Glastonbury. {Bulloch, Matthew. 48 Prince’s-gate, London, S.W. tBulmer, T. P. Mount-villas, York. {Bulpit, Rev. F. W. Crossens Rectory, Southport. {Bunce, John Thackray. ‘ Journal’ Office, New-street, Birmingham. B2 20 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1895 1886. 1842. 1875. 1869. 1881. 1891. .§§Bunte, Dr. Hans. Karlsruhe, Baden. deat S.H., M.A., F.R.S. 1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, *Burd, John. Glen Lodge, Knocknerea, Sligo. {Burder, John, M.D. 7 South-parade, Bristol. tBurdett-Coutts, Baroness. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W. {Burdett-Coutts, W. L. A. B., M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W. tBurge, Very Rev. T. A. Ampleforth Cottage, near York. 1894. §Burke, John. Owens College, Manchester. 1884. 1888. 1883. 1876. 1885. 1877. 1884. 1883. 1887. 1883. 1860. 1894. 1891. 1888. 1888. Baran ee Jeffrey H. 287 University-street, Montreal, anada. {Burne, H. Holland. 28 Marlborough-buildings, Bath. *Burne, Major-General Sir Owen Tudor, K.C.S.L, C.L.E., F.R.G.S. 132 Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, London, W. tBurnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow. *Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. 11 Belmont-street, Aberdeen. {Burns, David. Alston, Carlisle. {Burns, Professor James Austin. Southern Medical College, Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A. - {Burr, Percy J. 20 Little Britain, London, E.C. {Burroughs, Eggleston, M.D. Snow Hill-buildings, London, H.C. *Burrows, Abraham. Russell House, Rhyl, North Wales. {Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford. {Burstall, H. F. W. 76 King’s-road, Camden-road, London, N.W. {Burt, J. J. 103 Roath-road, Cardiff. {Burt, John Mowlem. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, London, W. {Burt, Mrs. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, London, W. 1894.§§ Burton, Charles V. 24 Wimpole-street, London, W. 1866 1889. 1892. 1887. 1895. 1878. 1884. 1884. 1888. 1884. 1872. 1883. 1887. 1868. 1881. 1872. 1854, 1885. 1852. 1883. 1889. 1892. 1894. 1863. . *Burron, Frepericxk M., F.LS., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough. tBurton, Rey. R. Lingen, Little Aston, Sutton Coldfield. {Burton-Brown, Colonel Alexander, R.A., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. St, George’s Club, Hanover-square, London, W. *Bury, Henry. Trinity College, Cambridge. §Bushe, Colonel C. K., F.G.S. Bramhope, Old Charlton, Kent. {Burcuer, J.G., M.A. 22 Collingham-place, London, 8.W. *Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Clydesdale, Windsor. tButler, Matthew I. Napanee, Ontario, Canada. tButtanshaw, Rev. John. 22 St. James’s-square, Batb. *Butterworth, W. Greenhill, Church-lane, Harpurhey, Manchester. }Buxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk. {Buxton, Miss F. M. Newnham College, Cambridge. *Buxton, J. H. Clumber Cottage, Montague-road, Felixstowe. {Buxton, S. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich. {Buxton, Sydney. 15 Eaton-place, London, S.W. {Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S. Warlies, Waltham Abbey, Essex. {ByErtey, Isaac, F.L.S. 22 Dingle-lane, Toxteth-park, Liverpool. {Byres, David. 63 North Bradford, Aberdeen. {Byrne, Very Rev. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh. {Byrom, John R. Mere Bank, Fairfield, near Manchester. {Cackett, James Thoburn. 60 Larkspur-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. tCadell, Henry M., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Grange, Bo'ness, N.B, {Caillard, Miss KE. M. Wingfield House, near Trowbridge, Wilts. {Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire. LIST OF MEMBERS. 21 Year of Election. 1861. 1886. 1868. 1857. 1887. 1892. 1884. 1876. 1857. 1884. 1870. 1896. 1884, 1876. 1882. 1890. 1888. 1894. 1880. 1883. 1887. 1873. 1896. 1877. 1867. 1884. 1884. 1854. 1889. 1893. 1889. 1867. 1886. 1883. 1861. 1868. 1866. 1855, 1870. 1883. 1883. 1896. 1878. 1870. *Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, Dundee. *Caldwell, William Hay. Cambridge. tOaley, A. J. Norwich. {Callan, Rev. N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth College. {Cartaway, Cuaries, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. 35 Huskisson-street, Liverpool. {Calvert, A. F., F.R.GS. The Mount, Oseney-crescent, Camden- road, London, N. t{Cameron, Aineas. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada. {Cameron, Sir Charles, Bart., M.D., LL.D. 1 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow. t{Cameron, Sir Cuartes A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin. {Cameron, James C., M.D. 41 Belmont-park, Montreal, Canada. {Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool. §Cameron, J. H. 307 Sherbourne-street, Toronto, Canada. t{Campbell, Archibald H. Toronto, Canada. {Campbell, James A., LL.D., M.P. Stracathro House, Brechin. Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh. {Candy, F.H. 71 High-street, Southampton. t{Cannan, Edwin, M.A., F.S.S. 24 St. Giles’s, Oxford. {Cappel, Sir Albert J. L., K.C.LE, 27 Kensington Court-gardens, London, W. §Capper, D. S., M.A., Professor of Mechanical Engineering in King’s College, London, W.C. {Capper, Robert. 18 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W. tCapper, Mrs. R. 18 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W. {Capstick, John Walton. University College, Dundee. *Carpurt, Sir Epwarp Hamer, Bart., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Hyde Park- gardens, London, W. *Carden, H. V. Surbiton. tCarkeet, John. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth. {Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee. {Carnegie, John: Peterborough, Ontario, Canada. {Carpenter, Louis G. Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado, U.S.A tCarpenter, Rev. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport. {Carr, Cuthbert Ellison. Hedgeley, Alnwick. {Carr, J. Wesley, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in University College, Nottingham. {Carr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick. {CarRurHeRs, WitiiaAM, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S8. Central House, Central Hill, London, 8.E. }CarstaKe, J. Barwam. 380 Westfield-road, Birmingham. {Carson, John. 51 Royal Avenue, Belfast. *Oarson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., M.R.I.A. _ 1 Trinity College, Dublin. jOarteighe, Michael, F.C.S. 172 New Bond-street, London, W. {Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham. tCarter, Richard, F.G.S. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire. {Carter, Dr. William. 78 Rodney-street, Liverpool. tCarter, W. C. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport. {Carter, Mrs. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport. §Cartwright, Miss Edith G. 69 Gloucester-road, Kew, Surrey. *Cartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.D. 1 Courtfield-gardens, S.W. §Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.I., Borough and Water Engineer. Albion-place, Bury, Lancashire. 22 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1862. {Carulla, F. J. R. 84 Argyll-terrace, Derby. 1884. *Carver, Rev. Canon Alfred J., D.D., F.R.G.S. Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, London, 8.W. 1884. {Carver, Mrs.. Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, London, 8.W. 1887. {Casartelli, Rev. L. C., M.A., Ph.D. St. Bede’s College, Manchester. 1866, {Casella, L. P., F.R.A.S, The Lawns, Highgate, London, N. 1896. *Casey, James. 10 Philpot-lane, London, E.C. 1871. {Cash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry. 1873. *Cash, William, F.G.S. 35 Commercial-street, Halifax. 1888. {Cater, R. B. Avondale, Henrietta Park, Bath. 1874, {Caton, Richard, M.D. Lea Hall, Gateacre, Liverpool. 1859. {Catto, Robert. 44 King-street, Aberdeen. 1886. *Cave-Moyles, Mrs. Isabella, Devonshire House, New Malden, Surrey. Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough. Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire. 1871. *Cecil, Lord Sackville. Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent. 1883, {Chadwick, James Percy. 51 Alexandra-road, Southport. 1859, {Chadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester. 1883. {Chalk, William. 24 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport. 1859, {Chalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen. 1883, {Chamberlain, George, J.P. Helensholme, Birkdale Park, South- port. 1884, {Chamberlain, Montague. St. John, New Brunswick, Canada. 1883, {Chambers, Mrs. Colaba Observatory, Bombay. 1883, {Chambers, Charles, jun., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Coldba Observatory, Bombay. *Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York. 1881. *Champney, John E. Woodlands, Halifax. 1865, {Chance, A.M. Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1865. *Chance, James T. 1 Grand Avenue, Brighton. 1886. *Chance, John Horner. 40 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1865. {Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1888, {Chandler, S. Whitty, B.A. Sherborne, Dorset. 1861, *Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. Hill End, Mottram, Man- chester, 1889, {Chapman, L. H. 147 Park-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 1884, {Chapman, Professor. University College, Toronto, Canada. 1877. {Chapman, T. Algernon, M.D. Firbank, Hereford. 1874, {Charles, J. J., M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in Queen’s College, Cork. Newmarket, Co. Cork. 1874. {Charley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland. 1866, {CuarNock, Ricuarp Srepuen, Ph.D., F.S.A. Crichton Club, Adelphi-terrace, London, W.C. 1886. {Chate, Robert W. Southfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1884, gpk ee George, M.A., M.Inst.0.E. 46 Queen Anne’s-gate, Lon- on, S.W. 1886. §Chattock, A. P. University College, Bristol. 1867. *Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S. High Lawn, Broad Oak Park, Worsley, Manchester. 1884, {Cuavveav, The Hon. Dr. Montreal, Canada. 1883. {Chawner, W., M.A. Emmanuel College, Cambridge. 1864, {CuEapiz, W.B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hyde Park-place, Cum- berland-gate, London, 8. W. 1887. {Cheetham, F. W. Limefield House, Hyde. 1887. {Cheetham, John. Limefield House, Hyde. 3896. §Chenie, John, Charlotte-street, Edinburgh. LIST OF MEMBERS. 23 Year of Election. 1874. *Chermside, Lieut.-Colonel H. C., R.E., 0.B. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co., Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, London, 8. W. 1884. {Cherriman, Professor J. B. Ottawa, Canada. 1896. §Cherry, R. B. 92 Stephen’s Green, Dublin. 1879. *Chesterman, W. Belmayne, Sheffield. 1865. *Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Holywell Lodge, Oxford. 1883. tChinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington. 1884. {Chipman, W. W. L. 957 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada. 1889. {Chirney, J. W. Morpeth. 1894. {Chisholm, G. G., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.G.S. 26 Dornton-road, Balham, London, S. W. 1842. *Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-grove, Plymouth-grove, Manchester. 1882. {Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex. 1887. tChorlton, J. Clayton. New Holme, Withington, Manchester. 1893. *Curzun, Cuartzs, D.Sc., Superintendent of the Kew Observatory, Richmond, Surrey. 1861. Christie, Professor R. C., M.A. 7 St. James's-square, Manchester. 1884. *Christie, William. 29 Queen’s Park, Toronto, Canada. 1875. *Christopher, George, F.C.S. 3 Tankerville-road, Streatham, London, S.W. 1876. *Curystat, Grorcr, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mathe- matics in the University of Edinburgh. 5 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh. 1870. §CHuRcuH, A. H., M.A.,F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry to the Royal Academy of Arts. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road, Kew, Surrey. 1860. {Church, William Selby, M.A. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, H.C. 1857. {Churchill, F., M.D, Ardtrea Rectory, Stewartstown, Co. Tyrone. 1896. §Clague, Daniel. 5 Sandstone-road, Stoneycroft, Liverpool. 1890. {Clark, E. K. 81 Caledonian-road, Leeds. 1877. *Clark, F. J., J.P., F.L.S. Netherleigh, Street, Somerset. Clark, George T. 44 Berkeley-square, London, W. 1876. {Clark, George W. 31 Waterloo-street, Glasgow. 1892. §Clark, James, M.A., Ph.D. Yorkshire College, Leeds. 1892. {Clark, James. Chapel House, Paisley. 1876. {Clark, Dr. John. 188 Bath-street, Glasgow. 1881. {Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. 12 Feversham-terrace, York. 1861. {Crarx, Latruer, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.Inst.C.E. 11 Victoria-street, London, 8.W. 1855. {Clark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow. 1883. {Clarke, Rev. Canon, D.D. 59 Hoghton-street, Southport. 1887. §Clarke, C. Goddard. Ingleside, Elm-grove, Peckham, 8.E. 1875. {Clarke, Charles S. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol. 1886. {Clarke, David. Langley-road, Small Heath, Birmingham. 1886. §Clarke, Rev. H. J. Great Barr Vicarage, Birmingham. 1875. {Ciarxer, Jonn Henry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol. 1861. *Clarke, John Hope. 62 Nelson-street, Choriton-on-Medlock, Man- chester. 1877. { Clarke, Professor John W. University of Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. 1883. {Clarke, W. P., J.P. 15 Hesketh-street, Southport. 1896. §Clarke, W. W. Albert Dock Office, Liverpool. 1884, {Claxton, T. James. 461 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada. 1889, §CLaypEn, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s, Polsloe-road, Exeter. 1866. {Clayden, P. W. 13 Tavistock-square, London, W.C. 1890, *Clayton, William Wikely. Gipton Lodge, Leeds. 1859. {Cleghorn, John. Wick. 1875, {Clegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire. 24 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1861.§§CLELaND, Joun, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Glasgow. 2 The University, Glasgow. 1886, {Clifford, Arthur. Beechcroft, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1861. *Cxuirron, R. Bertamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi- mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 38 Bardwell- road, Banbury-road, Oxford. 1893. {Clofford, William. 36 Manstield-road, Nottingham, Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway. 1878. §Close, Rev. Maxwell H., F.G.S. 88 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin. 1873. {Clough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire. 1892. {Clouston, T.S., M.D. Tipperlinn House, Edinburgh. 1883. *Crowrs, Franx, D.Sc., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in Univer- sity College, Nottingham. 99 Waterloo-crescent, Nottingham. 1863. *Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington, 1881. *Clutton, William James. The Mount, York. 1885. {Clyne, James. Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen, 1891. *Coates, Henry. Pitcullen House, Perth. Cobb, Edward. Falkland House, St. Ann’s, Lewes. 1884. §Cobb, John. Summerhill, Apperley Bridge, Leeds. 1895, *CopzBoLp, Ferix T., M.A. The Lodge, Felixstowe, Suffolk. 1889. {Cochrane, Cecil A. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 1889. {Cochrane, William. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 1892. {Cockburn, John. Glencorse House, Milton Bridge, Edinburgh. 1883. {Cockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport. 1861. *Coe, Rev. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Whinsbridge, Grosvenor-road, Bournemouth. 1881. *Corrin, Watrer Harris, F.C.S. 94 Cornwall-gardens, South Kensington, London, 8.W. 1865. {Coghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme. 1896. *Coghill, Perey de G. Camster, Cressington. 1884, *Cohen, B. L., M.P. 30 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W. 1887. {Cohen, Julius B. Yorkshire College, Leeds. 1894. *Colby, Miss E. L. Carreg-wen, Aberystwith. 1895. *Colby, James George Ernest, M.A., F.R.C.S. Malton, Yorkshire. 1895. *Colby, William Henry. Carreg-wen, Aberystwith. 1853. {Colchester, William, F.G.S. Burwell, Cambridge. 1893. {Cole, Grenville A. J., F.G.S. Royal College of Science, Dublin. 1879, {Cole, Skelton. 887 Glossop-road, Sheffield. 1894, {Colefax, H. Arthur, Ph.D., F.C.S. 14 Chester-terrace, Chester- square, London, 8.W. 1893. {Coleman, J. B., F.C.S., A.R.C.S. University College, Nottingham. 1878. {Coles, John, Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, London, W. ; 1854, *Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire. 1892.§§Collet, Miss Clara E. 7 Coleridge-road, London, N. 1892. §Collie, Alexander, Harlaw House, Inverurie. 1887. {Cottre, J. Norman, Ph.D., F.R.S. University College, Gower-street, London, W.C. 1887. {Collier, Thomas. Ashfield, Alderley Edge, Manchester. 1869, {Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon. 1893.§§Collinge, Walter E. Mason College, Birmingham. 1854, {CoLLinewoop, Curuperr, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 69 Great Russell- street, London, W.C. 1861. *Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 96 Great Portland-street, London, W. 1865. *Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1876. {Corxins, J. H., F.G.S. 60 Heber-road, Dulwich Rise, London, 8.E. Year of LIST OF MEMBERS, 26 Election, 1892. 1868. 1882. 1884, 1896. 1888. 1884, 1891. t{Colman, H. G. Mason College, Birmingham. *CormAN, J. J. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon-street, London, E.C, {Colmer, Joseph G.,O.M.G. Office of the High Commissioner for Canada, 9 Victoria-chambers, London, 8. W. t{Colomb, Sir J.C. R., M.P., F.R.G.S. Dromquinna, Kenmare, Kerry, Treland; and Junior United Service Club, London, 8.W. *Comber, Thomas. Leighton, Parkgate, Chester. tCommans, R. D. Macaulay-buildings, Bath. tComnoy, A. A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 63 Eaton-rise, Ealing, Middlesex, W. {Common, J. F. F. 21 Park-place, Cardiff. 1892.§§Comyns, Frank, M.A., F.0.8S. The Grammar School, Durham, 1884 . {Conklin, Dr. William A. Central Park, New York, U.S.A. 1896, 1890. 1871. 1881, 1893. 1876. 1895. 1882, 1876, 1881. 1868. 1868. 1884, 1878, 1881, 1865. 1896. 1888. 1884. §Connacher, W.S. Birkenhead Institute, Birkenhead. tConnon, J. W. Park-row, Leeds. *Connor, Charles C. Notting Hill House, Belfast. tConroy, Sir Joun, Bart., M.A., F.R.S. Balliol College, Oxford. {Conway, Sir W. M., M.A., F.R.G.S. The Red House, Hornton- street, London, W. tCook, James. 162 North-street, Glasgow. §Cooke, Miss Janette E. Holmwood, Thorpe, Norwich. tCooxz, Major-General A. C., R.E., C.B., F.R.G.S. Palace-chambers, Ryder-street, London, 8. W. *CooxE, Conrap W. 28 Victoria-street, London, 8S. W. tCooke, F. Bishopshill, York. {Cooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich. {Cooxs, M. C., M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, N. tCooke, R. P. Brockville, Ontario, Canada. Cooke, Samuel, M.A., F.G.S. Poona, Bombay. Cooke, Thomas. Bishopshill, York. {Cooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham. §Cookson, E. H. Kiln Hey, West Derby. tCooley, George Parkin. Cavendish Hill, Sherwood, Nottingham. tCoon, JobnS. 604 Main-street, Cambridge Pt., Massachusetts, U.S.A. 1895.§ §Cooper, Charles Friend, M.I.E.E. 68 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W. 1893. 1883. 1868. 1889. 1884, 1878. 1871. 1885. 1881. 1842. 1891. 1887. 1894, 1881. 1883, 1870. 1893. tCooper, F. W. 14 Hamilton-road, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham. {Cooper, George B. 67 Great Russell-street, London, W.C. tCooper, W. J. New Malden, Surrey. tCoote, Arthur. The Minories, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. {Cope, E. D, Philadelphia, U.S.A. {Cope, Rev. 8. W. Bramley, Leeds. {CorELand, Rarpu, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh. {Copland, W., M.A. Tortorston, Peterhead, N.B. {Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holgate-lane, York. Corbett, Edward. Grange-avenue, Levenshulme, Manchester. §Corbett, E. W.M. Y Fron, Pwllypant, Cardiff. *Corcoran, Bryan. 9 Alwyne-square, London, N. §Corcoran, Miss Jessie R. The Chestnuts, Sutton, Surrey. §Cordeaux, John. Great Cotes House,,R.S.O., Lincoln. *Core, Professor Thomas H., M.A. Fallowfield, Manchester. *CoRFIELD, W. H., M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiene and Public Health in University College. 19 Savile-row, London, W. *Corner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. 95 Forest-road West, Nottingham. 26 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1889. 1884, 1885. 1888. 1891. 1891. 1883. 1891. 1874. 1864, 1869. 1879. 1876. 1876. 1889. {Cornish, Vaughan. Ivy Cottage, Newcastle, Staffordshire. *Cornwallis, F.S. W. Linton Park, Maidstone. tCorry, John. Rosenheim, Parkhill-road, Croydon. {Corser, Rey. Richard K. 12 Beaufort-buildings East, Bath. {Cory, John, J.P. Vaindre Hall, near Cardiff. {Cory, Alderman Richard, J.P. Oscar House, Newport-road, Cardiff. {Costelloe, B. F. C., M.A., B.Sc. 83 Chancery-lane, London, W.C. *Cotsworth, Haldane Gwilt. G.W.R. Laboratory, Swindon, Wilts. *CorreritL, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechanics. Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E. {Corron, General Freprrick C., R.E., C.S.I. 18 Longridge-road, Earl’s Court-road, London, 8. W. {Corron, Wint1aM. Pennsylvania, Exeter. tCottrill, Gilbert I. Shepton Mallet, Somerset. {Couper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow. {Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow. {tCourtney, F. 8. 77 Redcliffe-square, South Kensington, London, S.W. 1896.§§Courtnny, Right Hon.. Leonarp, M.P. 15 Cheyne Walk, 1890. 1896. 1863. 1863. 1872. 1895. 1871. 1867. 1867. 1892. 1882. 1888. 1867. Chelsea, S. W. {Cousins, John James. Allerton Park, Chapel Allerton, Leeds. §Coventry, J. 19 Sweeting-street, Liverpool. Oowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh. {Cowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham. {Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham. *Cowan, Thomas William, F.L.S., F.G.S8. 81 Belsize Park-gardens, London, N.W. Cowie, The Very Rev. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., D.D., Dean of Exeter. The Deanery, Exeter. *CowELL, Puitirp H. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, 8.E. tCowper, C. E. 6 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W. *Cox, Edward. Cardean, Meigle, N.B. *Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee. {Cox, Robert. 34 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh. {Oox, Thomas A., District Engineer of the S., P., and D. Railway. Lahore, Punjab. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament- street, London, S.W. {Cox, Thomas W. B. The Chestnuts, Lansdowne, Bath. tCox, William. Fogegley, Lochee, by Dundee. 1883.§§Crabtree, William, M.Inst.C.E, 126 Manchester-road, Southport. 1890. 1892. 1884, 1876. 1858. 1884, 1887. 1887. 1871. 1871. 1846, 1890, 1883. 1870, tCradock, George. Wakefield. *Craig, George A. 66 Edge-lane, Liverpool. §Craiciz, Major P. G., F.S.8. 6 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, London, N.W. tCramb, John, Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B. tCranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire. {Crathern, James. Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada. tCraven, John. Smedley Lodge, Cheetham, Manchester. *Craven, Thomas, J.P. Woodheyes Park, Ashton-upon-Mersey. *Orawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Slate- ford, Edinburgh. *CRAWFORD AND Batcarrus, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Dun Echt, Aberdeen. *Crawshaw, The Right Hon, Lord. Whatton, Loughborough, §Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury. *Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S. 25 Tollington-park, London, N. *Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Caversham Park, Reading. LIST OF MEMBERS. 27 Year of Election. 1885. 1896. 1879. 1876. 1887. 1896. 1896. 1880. 1890. 1878. 1857, 1885. 1885. 1885. 1885. 1887. 1887. §Creak, Captain E. W., R.N., F.R.S. 36 Kidbrooke Park-road, Blackheath, London, 8.E. §Cregeen, A.C. 21 Prince’s-avenue, Liverpool. {Creswick, Nathaniel. Chantry Grange, near Sheffieid. *Crewdson, Rev. George. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Windermere. *Crewdson, Theodore. Norcliffe Hall, Handforth, Manchester. §Crewe, W. Outram. 121 Bedford-street, Liverpool. §Crichton, H. 6 Rockfield-road, Anfield, Liverpool. *Orisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.LS., F.G.8. 5 Lansdowne-road, Notting Hill, London, W. *Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire. {Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A. University College, Stephen’s Green, Dublin. tOrolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland. {Crombie, Charles W. 41 Carden-place, Aberdeen. {Crombie, John, jun. Daveston, Aberdeen. {tCromsrs, J. W., M.A., M.P. Balzownie Lodge, Aberdeen. tCrombie, Theodore. 18 Albyn-place, Aberdeen. {Crompton, A. 1 St. James’s-square, Manchester. §Croox, Henry T. 9 Albert-square, Manchester. 1865.§§Crooxns, W., F.R.S., F.C.S. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, W. 1879. 1870. 1894. 1870. 1890 {Crookes, Mrs. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, London, W. tCrosfield, C. J. Gledhill, Sefton Park, Liverpool. *Crosfield, Miss Margaret C. Undercroft, Reigate. *CRosFIELD, WittIam. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool. tCross, E. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent, Scarborough. 1887.§§Cross, John. Beaucliffe, Alderley Edge, Cheshire. 1861. 1886. 1853. 1870. 1887. 1894, 1894. 1883, 1882. 1890. 1883. 1863. 1885. 1888. 1873. 1883. 1883. 1878. 1883. 1874. 1861. 1861. 1882. tCross, Rey. John Edward, M.A., F.G.8. Halecote, Grange-over- Sands. tCrosskey, Cecil. 117 Gough-road, Birmingham. {Crosskill, William. Beverley, Yorkshire. *Crossley, Edward, F.R.A.S. Bemerside, Halifax. *Crossley, William J. Glenfield, Bowdon, Cheshire. *Crosweller, William Thomas, F.Z.S., F.I.Inst. Kent Lodge, Sidcup, Kent. §Crow, C. F. Home Lea, Woodstock-road, Oxford. {tCrowder, Robert. Stanwix, Carlisle. §Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire. *Crowley, Ralph Henry. Bramley Oaks, Croydon. {Crowther, Elon. Cambridge-road, Huddersfield. {Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. {Cruickshank, Alexander, LL.D. 20 Rose-street, Aberdeen. tCrummack, William J. London and Brazilian Bank, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. tCrust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding. *Cryer, Major J. H. The Grove, Manchester-road, Southport. Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin. *CULVERWELL, Epwarp P., M.A. 40 Trinity College, Dublin. tCulverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin. {Culverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol. tCumming, Professor. 33 Wellington-place, Belfast. se Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Man- chester. *Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester. *CunnineHam, Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN, R.E., A.I.C.E. 20 Essex- villas, Kensington, London, W. 28 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1887. 1877, 1891. 1852. 1892, 1885. 1869, 1885, 1892. 1850, 1892. 1885. 1892. 1884, 1878. 1884. 1883. 1881, 1889. 1854, 1883. 1889. 1863. 1867. 1894, 1870. 1862. 1876. 1896, 1849. 1894, 1861. 1896. 1882. 1881. 1878. 1894, 1882, 1888. 1872. {Cunningham, David, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., F.S.S. Harbour- chambers, Dundee. *CunnincHaM, D. J., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Anatomy in Trinity College, Dublin. {Cunningham, J. H. 4 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh, {Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast. tCunningham, Very Rev. John. St. Bernard’s College, Edinburgh. {CunnincHaM, J. T., B.A. Biological Laboratory, Plymouth. {CunnineHaM, Rosert O., M.D., F.L.S., F.G.8., Professor of Natural History in Queen’s College, Belfast. *CuNNINGHAM, Rey. Wituiam, D.D., D.Sc. Trinity College, Cam- bridge. t Cunningham, William. 14 Inverleith-gardens, Edinburgh. Cunningham, Rey. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland. §Cunningham-Craig, E. H. 144 Dublin-street, Edinburgh. tCurphey, Wilkam S. 15 Bute-mansions, Hill Head, Cardiff. *Currie, James, jun., M.A. Larkfield, Golden Acre, Edinburgh. {Currier, John McNab. Newport, Vermont, U.S.A. {Curtis, William. Caramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin. {Cushing, Frank Hamilton. Washington, U.S.A. tCushing, Mrs. M. Croydon, Surrey. §Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depét, Belvedere-road, Lambeth, London, 8. W. tDageger, John H., F.I.C. Endon, Staffordshire. }Daglish, Robert. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan. {Dihne, F. W., Consul of the German Empire. 18 Somerset-place, Swansea. *Dale, Miss Elizabeth. Westbourne, Buxton, Derbyshire. tDale, J. B. South Shields. tDalgleish, W. Dundee. }Dalgleish, W. Scott, M.A., LL.D. 25 Mayfield-terrace, Edin- burgh, {DariinerrR, Rev. W. H., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Ingleside, New- stead-road, Lee, London, S.E. Dalton, Edward, LL.D. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth. tDansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. The Crouch, Seaford, Sussex. {Dansken, John. 4 Eldon-terrace, Partickhill, Glasgow. §Danson, F. C. Liverpool and London Chambers, Dale-street, Liverpool. *Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada. {Darbishire, B. V., M.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, London, W. *DARBISHIRE, ROBERT DUKINFIELD, B.A., F.G.S. 26 George-street, Manchester. §Darbishire, W. A. Nantlle, Penygroes, R.S.0. North Wales. Darwin, Francis, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wychfield, Hun- tingdon-road, Cambridge. *Darwin, Groner Howarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. Newnham Grange, Cambridge. *Darwin, Horace. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge. §Darwin, Major Lronarp, Sec. R.G.S. 18 Wetherby-place, South Kensington, London, S.W. tDarwin, W. E., B.A., F.G.S. Bassett, Southampton. {Daubeny, William M. 1 Cavendish-crescent, Bath. }Davenport, John T. 64 Marine-parade, Brighton. LIST OF MEMBERS. 29 Year of Election. 1880. 1884. 1870. 1885. 1891. 1890. 1875. 1887. 1870. 1887. 1893. 1896. 1887. 1873. 1870. 1864, 1842. 1882. 1883. 1885. 1891, 1886. 1886. 1864. 1857. 1869, 1869, 1860. 1864. 1886. 1891. 1885. 1884. 1855. 1859. 1892. 1870. 1861. 1887. 1861. 1884. 1866. 1884. 1893. 1878. 1884, 1870. 1896. 1889. 1896. 1889, “Davey, Henry, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 3 Prince’s-street, West- minster, S.W. tDavid, A. J., B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C. {Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool. {Davidson, Charles B. Roundhay, Fonthill-road, Aberdeen. tDavies, Andrew, M.D. Cefn Parc, Newport, Monmouthshire. {Davies, Arthur. East Brow Cottage, near Whitby. {Dayies, David. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol. §Davies, David. 55 Berkley-street, Liverpool. {Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool. *Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales. *Davies, Rey. T. Witton, B.A. Midland Baptist College, Nottingham. *Davies, W. V. 3 Burn’s-avenue, Liscard. {Davies-Colley, T. C. Hopedene, Kersal, Manchester. *Davis, Alfred. 13 St. Ermin’s-mansions, London, 8.W. *Davis, A. S. St. George’s School, Roundhay, near Leeds. }Davis, Cartes E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath. Davis, Rev. David, B.A. Almswood, Evesham. {Davis, Henry C. Berry Pomeroy, Springfield-road, Brighton. {Davis, R. Frederick, M.A. Earlstield, Wandsworth Common, S.W. *Davis, Rev. Rudolf. Almswood, Evesham. tDavis, W. 48 Richmond-road, Cardiff. {Davis, W. H. Hazeldean, Pershore-road, Birmingham. {Davison, Cartes, M.A. 373 Gillott-road, Birmingham. *Davison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire. {Davy, E. W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, Dublin. tDaw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter, tDaw, R. R. M. Bedford-circus, Exeter. *Dawes, John T., F.G.8. Cefn Mawr Hall, Mold, North Wales. {Dawkrns, W. Boyn, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology and Paleontology in the Victoria University, Owens College, Manchester. Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Manchester. tDawson, Bernard. The Laurels, Malvern Link. tDawson, Edward. 2 Windsor-place, Cardiff. *Dawson, Lieut.-Colonel H. P., R.A. East Holt, Alverstoke, Gosport. {Dawson, Samuel. 258 University-street, Montreal, Canada. §Dawson, Sir Wittiam, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 293 University-street, Montreal, Canada. *Dawson, Captain William G. The Links, Plumstead Common, Kent. {Day, J.C., F.C.S. 36 Hillside-crescent, Edinburgh. *Dracon, G. F., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Warwick-square, London, S. W. tDeacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington. tDeakin, H. T. Egremont House, Belmont, near Bolton. tDean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire. “Debenham, Frank, F.S.S. 1 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, London, N.W. {Desvus, Herwricu, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S. 4 Schlangenweg, Cassel, Hessen. {Deck, Arthur, F.C.S. 9 King’s-parade, Cambridge. §Deeley, R. M. 10 Charnwood-street, Derby. {Delany, Rev. William. St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore. *De Laune, C. De L. F. Sharsted Court, Sittingbourne, tDe Meschin, Thomas, B.A., LL.D. Dublin. §Dempster, John. Tynron, Noctorum, Birkenhead. {Dendy, Frederick Walter. 3 Mardale-parade, Gateshead. §Denison, Miss Louisa E. 16 Chesham-place, London, S.W. buatie te F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the Firth College, effield. 30 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1874, 1896. 1874, 1878. 1894. 1868, 1881. 1883, 1884. 1872. 1887. 1884, 1873. 1896. 1889. 1863. 1887. 1884, 1881. 1887. 1885. 1885. 1862. 1877. 1869. 1884, 1874, 1883 1888 1886 1879 1885. 1896 1887 1885 1890, Dent, William Yerbury. 5 Caithness-road, Brook Green, London, W. §De Rance, Cuarzes E., F.G.S, 55 Stoke-road, Shelton, Stoke- upon-Trent. §Dersy, The Right Hon. the Earl of,G.C.B. Knowsley, Prescot, Lancashire. *Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. 63 Queensborough-terrace, London, W. {De Rinzy, James Harward. Khelat Survey, Sukkur, India. *Deverell, F. H. 13 Lawn-terrace, Blackheath, London, S.E. {Dewar, James, M.A., LL.D., F.BS., F.RS.E., F.C.S., Fullerian Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge. {Dewar, Mrs. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge. {Dewar, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. Drylaw House, Davidson’s Mains, Midlothian, N.B. *Dewar, William, M.A. Rugby School, Rugby. {Dewick, Rev. E. S., M.A., F.G.S. 26 Oxford-square, W. {Dz Wrnzron, Major-General Sir F., G.C.M.G., C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W. {De Wolf, 0. C., M.D. Chicago, U.S.A. *Dew-Surru, A. G., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. §D’Hemry, P. 186 Prince’s-road, Liverpool. tDickinson, A. H. The Wood, Maybury, Surrey. {Dickinson, G. T. Lily-avenue, Jesmond, Neweastle-upon-Tyne. {Dickinson, Joseph, F.G.S. South Bank, Pendleton. tDickson, Charles R., M.D. Wolfe Island, Ontario, Canada. {Dickson, Edmund, M.A., F.G.S. 11 West Cliffroad, Birkdale, Southport. §Dickson, H. N., F.R.S.E. 2 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford. {Dickson, Patrick. Laurencekirk, Aberdeen, {Dickson, T. A. West Cliff, Preston. *Dirxe, The Right Hon. Sir Cuartes Wenrwortn, Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. 76 Sloane-street, London, S.W. {Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 86 Dawson-street, Dublin. {Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock. {Dix, John William H. Bristol. *Drixon, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork, Mentone Villa, Sunday’s Well, Cork. . {Dixon, Miss E. 2 Cliff-terrace, Kendal. . §Dixon, Edward T. Messrs. Lloyds, Barnetts, & Bosanquets’ Bank, 54 St. James’s-street, London, 8S, W. . t{Dixon, George. 42 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. . *Drxon, Harorp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in the Owens College. Birch Hall, Rusholme, Manchester. . {Dixon, John Henry. Inveran, Poolewe, Ross-shire, N.B. . §Dixon-Nuttall, F. R. Ingleholme, Ecclestone Park, Prescot. . {Dixon, Thomas. Buttershaw, near Bradford, Yorkshire. . {Doak, Rev. A. 15 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen, . {Dobbie, James J., D.Sc. University College, Bangor, North Wales. 1885. §Dobbin, Leonard. The University, Edinburgh. 1860 1892 . *Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. 34 Westbourne-park, London, W. . {Dobie, W. Fraser. 47 Grange-road, Edinburgh. 1891, {Dobson, G. Alkali and Ammonia Works, Cardiff. 1893, {Dobson, W. E., J.P. Lenton-road, The Park, Nottingham. 1894 1875 . {Dockar-Drysdale, Mrs. 39 Belsize-park, London, N.W. . *Docwra, George, jun. 108 London-road, Gloucester. Year of LIST OF MEMBERS. 31 Election. 1870. 1876. 1889. 1893. 1885, 1882. 1869, 1877. 1889. 1896, 1861. 1881. 1867. 1863. 1877. 1884. 1890. 1883. 1884, 1884, 1876. 1894, 1884. 1857. 1865, 1881. 1887. *Dodd, John. Nunthorpe-avenue, York. fDodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge. {Dodson, George, B.A. Downing College, Cambridge. {Donald, Charles W. Kinsgarth, Braid-road, Edinburgh. {Donaldson, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Senior Principal of the University of St. Andrews, N.B. {Donaldson, John. Tower House, Chiswick, Middlesex. tDonisthorpe,G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter. *Donkin, Bryan, M.Inst.C.E. The Mount, Wray Park, Reigate. {Donkin, R. 8.,M.P. Campville, North Shields. §Donnan, F. E. Ardenmore-terrace, Holywood, Ireland. {Donnelly, Major-General Sir J. F. D., R.E., K.C.B. South Ken- sin¢ton Museum, London, S.W. {Dorrington, John Edward, Lypiatt Park, Stroud. {Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire. *Doughty, Charles Montagu. Henwick, Newbury. *Doverass, Sir James N., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E, Stella House, Dul- wich, London, 8.E. fDouglass, William Alexander. Freehold Loan and Savings Com- pany, Church-street, Toronto, Canada, {Dovaston, John. West Felton, Oswestry. tDove, Arthur. Crown Cottage, York. {Dove, Miss Frances. St. Leonard’s, St. Andrews, N.B. TDowe, John Melnotte. 69 Seventh-avenue, New York, U.S.A. {Dowie, Mrs. Muir. Golland, by Kinross, N.B. fDowie, Robert Chambers. 13 Carter-street, Higher Broughton, Manchester. *Dowling, D. J. Bromley, Kent. : TDowning, S., LL.D. 4 The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin. *Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffoll:, “Dowson, J. Emerson, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Great Queen-street, S.W. }Doxey, R. A. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester. 1894.§§Doyne, R. W., F.R.C.S. 28 Beaumont-street, Oxford. 1883 1892. 1868. 1890. 1892. 1887. 1893. 1889. 1892, 1889, 1856. 1870. 1895. 1867. 1852. 1877. 1875. . {Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York. *Dreghorn, David, J.P. Greenwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow. tDrussrr, Henry E., F.Z.S. 110 Cannon-street, London, E.C. {Drew, John. 12 Harringay-park, Crouch End, Middlesex, N. {Dreyer, John L. E., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.A.S. The Observatory, Armagh. {Dreyfus, Dr. Daisy Mount, Victoria Park, Manchester. §Drucz, G. CLariner, M.A., F.L.S. 118 High-street, Oxford. {Drummond, Dr, 6 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, {Du Bois, Dr. H. Mittelstrasse, 39, Berlin. }Du Chaillu, Paul B. Care of John Murray, Esq., 504 Albemarle~ street, London, W. *Duciz, The Right. Hon. Henry Jonn Reynorps Moreron, Farl of, F.R.S.,F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, London, W. ; and Tort- worth Court, Wotton-under-Edge. {Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. Christchurch Vicarage, Chester. *Duddell, William. Kensington Infirmary, Marloes-road, London, W. *Durr, The Right Hon. Sir Mounrstvart ELPHINsTONE GRANT-, G.C.S.L, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. York House, Twickenham. {Durrerin and AvA, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.P., G.C.B., G.C.M.G., G.C.S.1., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Clande- boye, near Belfast, Ireland. {Duffey, George F., M.D. 30 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin. {Duffin, W. E. L’Estrange. Waterford. 32 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1890. {Dufton,S. F. Trinity College, Cambridge. 1884, {Dugdale, James H. 9 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W. 1883. §Duke, Frederic. Conservative Club, Hastings. 1892. {Dulier, Colonel E.,C.B, 27 Sloane-gardens, London, 8.W. 1866. *Duncan, James. 9 Mincing-lane, London, E.C. 1891. *Duncan, John, J.P. ‘South Wales Daily News’ Office, Cardiff. 1880. {Duncan, William S. 143 Queen’s-road, Bayswater, London, W. 1896. §Duncanson, Thomas. 16 Deane-road, Birkenhead. 1881. t{Duncombe, The Hon. Cecil, F.G.S. Nawton Grange, York. 1893. *Dunell, George Robert. 9 Grove Park-terrace, Chiswick, Middlesex. 1892. {Dunham, Miss Helen Bliss. Messrs. Morton, Rose, & Co., Bartholo- mew House, London, F.C. 1881. {Dunhill, Charles H. Gray’s-court, York. 1396. §Dunkerley, S. 23 Kelvin-grove, Prince’s-road, Liverpool. 1865. {Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B. 1882. {Dunn, J. T., M.Sc. F.C.S. Northern Polytechnic Institute, Holloway-road, N. 1883. {Dunn, Mrs. Northern Polytechnic Institute, Holloway-road, N. 1876. {Dunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow. 1878. {Dunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Logic in the Catholic Uni- versity of Ireland. 4 Clanwilliam-place, Dublin. 1884.§§Dunnington, F. P. University Station, Charlottesville, Virginia, Wiss: 1859. 1893. 1891, 1885. 1869, 1895, 1887. 1884. 1885. 1869. 1895, 1868. t{Duns, Rev. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh. *Dunstan, M. J. R. Newcastle-circus, Nottingham. {Dunstan, Mrs. Newcastle-circus, Nottingham. *Dunstan, WynpHAM R., M.A., F.R.S., Sec.C.S., Director of the Scientific Department of the Imperial Institute, London, 8.W. {D’ Urban, W. 8. M., F.L.S. Moorlands, Exmouth, Devon. *Dwerryhouse, Arthur R. 8 Livingston-avenue, Sefton Park, Liver- ool. en John Sanford, F.R.G.S. Boscobel-gardens, N. W. {Dyck, Professor Walter. The University, Munich. *Dyer, Henry, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow. *Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Bletchley. §Dymond, Thomas S., F.C.S. County Technical Laboratory, Chelms- ford. tEade, Sir Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 1895.§§ Earle, Hardman H. 29 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, 5. W. 1877. 1888. 1874. 1871. 1863. 1876. 1883. 1898. 1887. 1884, 1861. 1870. 1887, 1884. {Earle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon. tEarson, H. W.P. 11 Alexandra-road, Clifton, Bristol. tEason, Charles. 80 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin. *Easton, Epwarp. 11 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W. tEaston, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham. tEaston, John. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helensburgh, N.B. tEastwood, Miss. Littleover Grange, Derby. §Ebbs, Alfred B. Northumberland-alley, Fenchurch-street, H.C. *Eccles, Mrs. S. White Coppice, Chorley, Lancashire. tEckersley, W. T. Standish Hall, Wigan, Lancashire. tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley. *Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. 6 Park-square, Leeds. *Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton. tEde, Francis J., F.G.S. Silchar, Cachar, India. *Edgell, Rev. R. Arnold, M.A., F.C.S. The College House, Leamington. Year LIS! OF MEMBERS. 33 of Election. 1887. §EpcewortH, F. Y., M.A, D.C.L., F.S.S., Professor of Political Economy in the University of Oxford. All Souls College, Oxford. 1870. *Edmonds, F. B. 6 Furnival’s Inn, London, E.C. 1883. {Edmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Colyton, Devon. 1888, *Edmunds, Henry. Antron, 71 Upper Tulse-hill, London, S.W. 1884, *Edmunds, James, M.D. 29 Dover-street, Piccadilly, London, W. 1883, {Edmunds, Lewis, D.Sc., LL.B., F.G.S. 1 Garden-court, Temple, London, E.C. 1867. *Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee. 1855. *Epwarps, Professor J. Baxnr, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada. 1884, {Edwards, W. F. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A. 1887. *Egerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Lord. Tatton Park, Knutsford. 1896. §Ekkert, Miss Dorothea. 95 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool. 1876, 1890. 1885. 1868, 1885. 1883. 1891. 1864, 1883. 1879. 1886. 1877. 1875. 1880, 1891. 1884, 1869, 1887, 1862. 1883. 1887. 1870. 1863, 1891. 1891. 1884, 1863. 1858. tElder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow. §Elford, Percy. St. John’s College, Oxford. *Exear, Francis, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. , M.Inst.C.E. 113 Cannon- street, London, E.C. fElger, Thomas Gwyn Empy, F.R.A.S. Manor Cottage, Kempston, Bedford. tEllingham, Frank. Thorpe St. Andrew, Norwich. fEllington, Edward Bayzand, M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers, Bridge- street, Westminster, S. W. fElliott, A. C.,D.Se., Professor of Engineering in University College, Cardiff. 2 Plasturton-avenue, Cardiff, tZilott, E. B. Washington, U.S.A. *Etxiort, Epwiy Barry, M.A.) -F-R.S., FR.A.S, Waynflete Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Oxford. 4 Bardwell-road, Oxford. Elliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham. {Hliott, Joseph W. Post Office, Bury, Lancashire. tEllioit, Thomas Henry, F.S.8. Board of Agriculture, 4 Whitehall- place, London, S.W. tEllis, Arthur Devonshire. Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire. *Ellis, H. D. 6 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W. “ELLs, JouN Henry. Woodland House, Plymouth. §Ellis, Miss M. A. 2 Southwick-place, London, W. tEllis, W. Hodgson. Toronto, Canada. tEtris, Wittram Horton. Hartwell House, Exeter. Ellman, Rey. E. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex. tEImy, Ben. Congleton, Cheshire. fElphinstone, Sir H. W., Bart., M.A. , F.LS. 2 Stone-buildings, Lincoln's Inn, London, W.C. tElwes, Captain George Robert. Bossington, Bournemouth. §Etwortuy, FrepErick T, Foxdown, Wellington, Somerset. *Exy, The Right Rey. Lord Atwynz Compton, D.D., Lord Bishop of. The Palace, Ely, Cambridgeshire. tEmbleton, Dennis, M.D. 19 Claremont-place, Ni ewcastle-upon-Tyne, {Emerton, Wolseley. Banwell Castle, Somerset, {Emerton, Mrs. Wolseley. Banwell Castle, Somerset. tEmery, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A. tEmery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire. {£mpson, Christopher. Bramhope Hall, Leeds. 1890. {Emsley, Alderman W. Richmond House, Richmond-road, Head- ingley, Leeds. 1894, {Emtage, W. T. A. University College, Nottingham, wee aa Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham. 896. c at aon 34 _ LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1884. 1853. 1883. 1869. 1894. 1864. 1862. 1878. 1887. 1887. 1869. 1888. {England, Luther M. Knowlton, Quebec, Canada. tEnglish, E. Wilkins, Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate, Hull. {Entwistle, James P. Beachfield, 2 Westclyffe-road, Southport. *Enys, John Davis. Enys, Pearyn, Cornwall. : §Erskine-Murray, James R. 40 Montgomerie-drive, Glasgow. *Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins-hey, Liverpool. *Hsson, Professor WittraM, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Merton Col- lege, and 13 Bradmore-road, Oxford. tEstcourt, Charles, F.C.8. 8 St. James’s-square, John Dalton-street, Manchester. hot" *Estcourt, Charles. Vyrniew House, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Manchester. *Estcourt, P. A., F.C.S., F.1.C. 20 Albert-square, Manchester. ‘{Eruerriner, R., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 14 Carlyle-square, 8. W. {Etheridge, Mrs. 14 Carlyle-square, S.W. 1883.§§Eunson, Henry J., F.G.S., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Vizianagram, Madras. 1891. 1881. 1889. 1887. 1870. 1896. 1865. 1891. 1889. 1884. 1883. 1883. 1861. 1881. 1875. 1865. 1891. 1886. 1871. 1868. tEvan-Thomas, C., J.P. The Gnoll, Neath, Glamorganshire. tEvans, Alfred, M.A., M.B. Pontypridd. *Evans, A. H. Care of R. H. Porter, 18 Prince’s-street, W. *Evans, Mrs. Alfred W. A. Spring Bank, New Mills, near Stockport. *Evans, ARTHUR JouNn, M.A., F.S.A. Youlbury, Abingdon. §Evans, Edward, jun. Spital Old Hall, Spital, Cheshire. *Eyans, Rey. Cuarits, M.A. 41 Lancaster-gate, London, W. tEvans, Franklen. Llwynarthen, Castleton, Cardiff. {Evans, Henry Jones. Greenhill, Whitchurch, Cardiff. tEvans, Horace L. 6 Albert-buildings, Weston-super-Mare. *Eyans, JamesC. Morannedd, Eastbourne-road West, Birkdale Parl, Southport. *Eyans, Mrs. JamesC. Morannedd, Fastbourne-road West, Birkdale Park, Southport. *Eyvans, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., Treas.R.S., F:S.A., F.LS., F.G.S. (Presippnt. Exzcr). Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead. {Evans, Lewis. Llanfyrnach R.S.0., Pembrokeshire. {Evans, Sparke. 38 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol. *Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth. tEvans, William Llewellin. Guildhall-chambers, Cardiff. tEve, A. S. Marlborough College, Wilts. {Eve, H. Weston, M.A. University College, London, W.C. *Everert, J. D., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of oe Philosophy in Queen’s College, Belfast. Derryvolgie, Belfast. 1895.§§Everett, W. H., B.A. Derryvolgie, Belfast. 1863. 1886. 1883. 1881. 1874. 1876. 1883. 1871. 1884. 1882. *Everitt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire. {Everitt, William EK. Finstall Park, Bromsgrove. jEves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge. tEwart, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. {Ewart, Sir W. Quartus, Bart. Glenmachan, Belfast. *Ewine, James Atrrep, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst. C.E., Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. tEwing, James L. 52 North Bridge, Edinburgh. *Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol. *Eyerman, John, F.Z.S. Oakhurst, Easton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. tEyre, G. E. Briscoe.. Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants, Eyton, Charles, Ilendred House, Abingdon. LIST OF MEMBERS. 35 Year of Election. 1890. 1896. 1865. 1886. 1896. 1883. 1877. 1891. 1892. 1886. 1879. 1883. 1883. 1885. 1886. 1859. 1885. 1866. 1883. 1857. 1869. 1883. 1887. 1890. {Fazer, Epmunp Brcxert. Straylea, Harrogate. §Fairbrother, Thomas. Lethbridge-road, Southport. *Farr ey, Tomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds. {Fairley, William.. Beau Desert, Rugeley, Staffordshire. §Falk, Herman John, M.A. Thorshill, West Kirby, Liverpool. {Fallon, Rev. W.S. 9 St. James’s-square, Cheltenham. §Farapay, F. J., F.LS., F.S.8. | College-chambers, 17 Brazenose- street, Manchester. tFards, G. Penarth. *Faruer, J. Brerianp, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, 8.W., 4 Lichfield-road, Kew. {Farncombe, Joseph, J.P. Lewes. *Farnworth, Ernest. Rosslyn, Goldthorn Hill, Wolverhampton. tFarnworth, Walter. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn. {Farnworth, William. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn. {Farquhar, Admiral. Cuarlogie, Aberdeen. {Farquharson, Colonel J., R.E. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton. tFarquharson, Robert F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen. {Farquharson, Mrs. R. F.0. Haughton, Aberdeen. *Farrar, The Very Rev. Freperic Witttam, D.D., F.R.S.- The Deanery, Canterbury. tFarrell, John Arthur. Moynalty, Kells, North Ireland. {Farrelly, Rev. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth. *Faulding, Joseph. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent. {Faulding, Mrs. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent. §Faulkner, John. 13 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Manchester. *Faweett, F. B. University College, Bristol. 1886.§§Felkin, Robert W., M.D., F.R.G.S. 8 Alva-street, Edinburgh. 1864. 1852. 1885. 1890. 1876. 1883, 1871. 1896. 1867. 1883. 1883. 1862. 1873. 1892. 1882. 1887. 1875. 1868. 1886. 1869. 1882. Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverstone, Lancashire. *Fettows, Frank P., K.S.J.J., F.S.A., F.S.S. 8 The Green, Hamp- stead, London, N.W. {Fenton,S.Greame. Keswick, near Belfast. tFenwick, KE. H. 29 Harley-street, London, W. {Fenwick, T. Chapel Allerton, Leeds. {Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow. {Ferguson, Mrs. A. A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow. *Farevson, Jonun, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow. *Ferguson, John. Colombo, Ceylon. {Ferguson, Robert M., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Learmouth-terrace, Edinburgh. tFernald, H. P. Alma House, Cheltenham. *Fernie, John. Box No.2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A. {Frrrers, Rev. Norman Macrxop, D.D., F.R.S.. Caius College Lodge, Cambridge. }Fergter, Davin, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Neuro- Pathology in King’s College, London, 84 Cavendish-square, London, W. tFerrier, Robert M., B.Sc. College of Science, Neweastle-upon-Tyne. §Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. The Grammar School, Southampton. {Fiddes, Thomas, M.D. Penwood, Urmston, near Manchester. {Fiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol. tField, Edward. Norwich. {Field, H.C. 4 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. *Fretp, Roerrs, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 4 Westminster-chambers, West- minster, S.W. }Filliter, Freeland. St. Martin's House, Wareham, Dorset. Cc 2 36 Year LIST OF MEMBERS. ot Election, 1883. *Finch, Gerard B., M.A. 1 St. Peter’s-terrace, Cambridge. Finch, John. Bridge Work, Chepstow. 1878. *Findlater, William. 22 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin. 1892. {Findlay, J. R., B.A. 3 Rothesay-terrace, Edinburgh. 1884. {Finlay, Samuel. Montreal, Canada. 1887. {Finnemore, Rey. J., M.A., Ph.D., F.G.S. 12 College-road, Brighton. 1881 . {Firth, Colonel Sir Charles. Heckmondwike. Firth, Thomas. Northwich. 1895.§§Fish, Frederick J. Park-road, Ipswich. 1891. {Fisher, Major H.O. The Highlands, Llandough, near Cardiff. 1884. *Fisher, L. C. Galveston, Texas, U.S.A. 1869. tFisner, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, near Cambridge. 1873. {Fisher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire. 1875. *Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford. 1858. 1887. 1885. 1871. 1871. 1883. 1878. 1878. 1885. tFishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale. *Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. 25 Blenheim-gardens, Willesden Green, London, N.W. }Fison, E. Herbert. Stoke House, Ipswich. *Fison, Frenerick W., M.A., M.P.,F.C.S. Greenholme, Burley-in- Wharfedale, near Leeds. {Frren, Sir J. G., M.A., LL.D. Atheneum Club, London, 8. W. tFitch, Rev. J. J. Ivyholme, Southport. {Fitzgerald, C. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin. §FirzGrraLp, Grorcr Francis, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Naturaland Experimental Philosophy in Trinity College, Dublin. *FitzGerald, Professor Maurice, B.A. 32 Eglantine-avenue, Belfast. 1894. §Fitzmaurice, M., M.Inst.C.E. Blackwall Tunnel Office, East 1857. 1888. 1865. 1881. 1876. 1876. 1867. 1870. 1890. 1892. 1869. 1888, 1862. Greenwich, London, S.E. {Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 31 Lower Bagot-street, Dubiin. *Frrzpatrick, Rev. Toomas C. Christ’s College, Cambridge. {Fleetwood, D. J. 45 George-strect, St. Paul's, Birmingham. tFleming, Rev. Canon J., B.D. St. Michael's Vicarage, Ebury— square, London, S.W. {Fleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, near Glasgow. {Fleming, Sandford, C.M.G., F.G.S. Ottawa, Canada. §Frercuer, ALFRED E., F.C.S. Delmore, Caterham, Surrey. {Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich. {Fletcher, B. Morley. 7 Victoria-street, London, S.W. tFletcher, George, F.G.S. 60 Connaught-avenue, Plymouth. {Frercuer, Lavineton E., M.Inst.C.E, Alderley Edge, Cheshire. *Fietcuer, Lazarus, M.A., F.RS., F.G.S., F.C.S., Keeper of Minerals, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road, London, 8.W. 36 Woodville-road, Ealing, London, W. §Frower, Sir WittrAm Heyry, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., D.Se., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.C.S., Director of the Natural History De partments, British Museum, South Kensington, London. 26 Stanhope-gardens, London, 8. W. 1889. {Flower, Lady. 26 Stanhope-gardens, London, S.W. 1877. *Floyer, Ernest A., F.R.G.S., F.L.8. Downton, Salisbury. 1890. *Flux, A. W., M.A. Owens College, Manchester. 1887. {Foale, William. 8 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth. 1883. tFoale, Mrs. William. 3 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth. 1891. 1879. §Foldvary, William. Museum Ring, 10, Buda Pesth. tFoote, Charles Newth, M.D. 3 Albion-place, Sunderland. 1880. {Foote, R. Bruce, F.G.S. Care of Messrs. H. 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, Iondon, E.C. LIST OF MEMBERS. 37 Year of Election. 1873. *Forses, Grorcz, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 34 Great 1883. 1885. 1890. 1875. 18838. 1894. 1887. 1867. i883, 1884. 1877. 1882. 1896. 1875. 1865. 1865. George-street, London, 8. W. {Forses, Henry O., LL.D., F.Z.S., Director of Museums for the Cor- poration of Liverpool, The Museum, Liverpool. tForbes, The Right Hon. Lord. Castle Forbes, Aberdeenshire. {Forp, J. Raw1inson. Quarry Dene, Weetwood-lane, Leeds. *Forpuam, H. Grorcx, F.G.S. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts. §Formby, R. Kirklake Bank, Formby, near Liverpool. §Forrest, Frederick. Castledown, Castle Hill, Hastings. +Forrest, Sir Joun, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S., F.G.S. Perth, Western Australia. {Forster, Anthony. Finlay House, St. Leonards-on-Sea. {Forsyru, A. R., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Sadlerian Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Trinity College, e Cambridge. : {Fort, George H. Lakefield, Ontario, Canada. {Forrescuz, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon. {Forward, Henry. 10 Marine-avenue, Southend. §Forwoob, Sir Witt1am B., J.P. Ramleh, Blundellsands, Liverpool. {Foster, A. Le Neve. 51 Cadogan-square, London, 8.W. tFoster, Sir B. Walter, M.D., M.P. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham. *Foster, Crement Le Neve, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Mining in the Royal College of Science, London. Llandudno. 1883. {Foster, Mrs. C. Le Neve. Llandudno. 1857. *Foster, Gzorce Oarery, B.A., F.RS., F.C.S., Professor of 1896. 1877. 1859. 1863. 1896. 1866. 1868. 1888. Physics in University College, London. 18 Daleham-gardens, Hampstead, London, N.W. §Foster, Miss Harriet, Cambridge Training College, Wollaston-road, Cambridge. §Foster, Joseph B. 4 Cambridge-street, Plymouth. *Fosrer, Micuart, M.A., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L., Sec.R.S., F.LS., F.C.S., Professor of Physiology in the University of Cambridge. Great Shelford, Cambridge. tFoster, Robert. The Quarries, Grainger Park-road, Newcastle- upon-Tyne. §Fowkes, F. Hawkshead, Ambleside. tFowler, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham. {Fowler, G. G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk. §Fowler, Gilbert J. Dalton Hall, Manchester. 1892.§§Fowler, Miss Jessie A. 4 & 5 Imperial-buildings, Ludgate-cireus, 1876. 1882. 1884. 1883. _ 1883. 1896. 1883. 1847. 1888. 1886. 1881. 1889 London, F.C. *Fowler, John. 16 Kerrsland-street, Ililihead, Glasgow. {Fowrer, Sir Jouy, Bart., K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 Queen Square-place, Westminster, 5S. W. {Fox, Miss A.M. Penjerrick, Falmouth. *Fox, Charles. 104 Ritherdon-road, Upper Tooting, London, 8.W. §Fox, Sir Cuartes Dovetas, M.Inst.C.H. 28 Victoria-street, West- minster, S.W. §Fox, Henry J. Bank’s Dale, Bromborough, near Liverpool. {Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Falmouth. *Fox, Joseph Hoyland. The’Clive, Wellington, Somerset. t{Fox, Thomas. Court, Wellington, Somerset. {Foxwell, Arthur, M.A., M.B. 17 Temple-row, Birmingham. *FoxwrEtt, Herzen S., M.A., F.S.S., Professor of Political Economy in University College, London. St. John’s College, Cambridge. E ies Joseph, M.D. Grosvenor-place, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon- yne. 38 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. Francis, Witi1aM, Ph.D., F.L.S.,F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court, Fleet-street, E.C. ; and Manor House, Richmond, Surrey. 1845. {FRANKLAND, Epwarp, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Yews, Reigate Hill, Surrey. 1887. *FRANKLAND, Percy F., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry and Metallurgy in the Mason College, Birmingham. 1894, §Franklin, Mrs. E. L. 9 Pembridge-gardens, London, W. 1895. §Fraser, Alexander. 63 Church-street, Inverness. 1882, {Fraser, Alexander, M.B. Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin. _ 1885. {Fraser, Ancus, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. 282 Union-street, Aberdeen. 1865. *Fraszr, Jonn, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton. 1871. {Frasrr, Toomas R., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Materia Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh. 13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh. 1859. *Frazer, Daniel. Rowmore House, Garelochhead, N.B._, 1871. {Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull. 1884. *Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Sc. (Univ. de France). Room 1042, Drexel Building, Philadelphia, U.S.A. 1884,.*Fream, W., LL.D., B.Sc, F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.S. The Vinery, Downton, Salisbury: 1877. §Freeman, Francis Ford. Abbotsfield, Tavistock, South Devon. 1884, *FremanTLeE, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. 10 Sloane-gardens, London, 8. W. 1869. {Frere, Rey. William Edward. The Rectory, Bitton, near Bristol. 1886. {Freshfield, Douglas W., F.R.G.S. 1 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, London, W. 1887. {Fries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A. 1887. {Froehlich, The Chevalier. Grosvenor-terrace, Withington, Man- chester. 1892. *Frost, Edmund. The Elms, Lasswade, Midlothian. 1882. §Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire. 1883. {Frost, Major H., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire. 1887. *Frost, Robert, B.Sc. 53 Victoria-road, London, W. 1875. tFry, F. J. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol. 1875. *Fry, Joseph Storrs. 13 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol. 1884. §Fryer, Joseph, J.P. Smelt House, Howden-le-Wear, Co. Durham. 1895.§§Fullarton, Dr. J. H. Fishery Board for Scotland, George-street, Edinburgh. 1872. *Fuller, Rev. A. 7 Sydenham-hill, Sydenham, London, 8.E. 1859. [Futter, Freperick, M.A. 9 Palace-road, Surbiton, — . ‘ 1869. {Futer, G., M.Inst.C.E. 71 Lexham-gardens, Kensington, W,, 1884, §Fuller, William, M.B. Oswestry. 1891. {Fulton, Andrew. 238 Park-place, Cardiff. 1881. {Gabb, Rey. James, M.A. Bulmer Rectory, Welburn, Yorkshire. 1887. {Gaddum, G. H. Adria House, Toy-lane, Withington, Manchester. 1836, *Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey. 1857. {Gacrs, AtpHonsE, M.R.I.A. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin. 1863. *Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hall, Spilsby. 1896. §Gair, H. W. 21 Water-street, Liverpool. 1876. {Gairdner, Charles. Broom, Newton Mearns, Renfrewshire. 1850, ¢{Garrpner, W. T., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Medicine in the University of Glasgow. The University, Glasgow. 1876. {Gale, James M. 23 Miller-street, Glasgow. 1863. {Gale, Samuel, F.C.S. 225 Oxford-street, London, W. 1885. *Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B. LIST OF MEMBERS. 39 Year of Election. 1861. 1889. 1875. 1887. 1860. 1860. 1869. 1870. 1889. 1870. 1888. 1877. 1868. 1889, 1887. 1882. 1894, 1896. 1882, 1884, 1887. 1882. 1873. 1883. 1894. 1874. 1882. 1892. 1889. 1870. 1870. 1896. 1896. 1862. 1890. 1875. 1892, 1871. 1883. 1885. 1887. 1867. tGalloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester, tGalloway, Walter. Eighton Banks, Gateshead. {Gattoway, W. Cardiff. *Galloway, W.J.,M.P. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford, Manchester. *Gatton, Sir Doveras, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D. F.RS., F.L.S., E.G.S., F.R.G.S. 12 Chester-street, Grosvener-place, London, S.W *Gatron, Francis, M.A., D.C.L., D.Se, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 42 Rutland-gate, Knightsbridge, London, 8. W. tGatron, Joun C., M.A., F.L.S. New University Club,: St. James’s-street, London, S. W. §Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel D.,C.B. St. Helens, Lancashire. §Gamble, David, jun. Ratonagh, Colwyn Bay. tGamble, J. C. St. Helens, Lancashire. *Gamble, J. Sykes, M.A., F.L.S. Dehra Duin, North-West Provinces, India. tGamble, William. St. Helens, Lancashire. {Gamern, ArrHuR, M.D., F.R.S. 8 Avenue de la Gare, Lausanne, Switzerland, tGamgee, John. 6 Lingfield-road, Wimbledon, Surrey. {Garpiver, Watrter, M.A., F. R. 8., F.L.S. 46 Hills-road, cent bridge. *Gardner, IL Dent, F.R.G.S. Fairmead, 46 The Goffs, Biasthouene: Gardner, J. Addyman. 5 Bath-place, Oxford. §Gardner, James. The Grove, Grassendale, Liverpool. tGARDNER, JOHN STARKIN, F.GS. 29 Albert Embankment, S.E. {Garman, Samuel. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A. *Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, near Bolton, Lancashire. {Garnett, William, D.C.L. London County Council, Spring-gardens, London, 8. W. fGarnham, John. Hazelwood, Crescent-road, St. John’s, Brockley, Kent, 8.E. §Garson, J.G.,M.D. 64 Harley-street, London, W. §Garstang, Walter, M.A., F.Z.S. Lincoln College, Oxford. *Garstin, John Ribton, M. A., LL.B. M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans- town, Castlebellincham, Treland. tGarton, William, Woolston, Southampton. §Garvie, James. Devanha House, Bowes-road, New Southgate, N. tGarwood, H. J., B.A., F.G.8. Trinity College, Cambridge. tGaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool. *Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Clayton Lodge, Aigburth, betel’ §GASKELL, WALTER Horsroox, M.A. M.D., BEDI F.R.S. «The Uplands, Great Shelford, near Cambridge. §Gatehouse, Charles. Westwood, Noctorum, Birkenhead. *Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., Die D., F.R.S. E,, F.LS., F,G.S. Fel- bridge Place, East Grinstead, Sussex. {Gaunt, Sir Edwin. Carlton Lodge, Leeds. {Gavey, J. Hollydale, Hampton Wick, Middlesex. tGeddes, George H. 8 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh. {Geddes, John. 9 Melville- crescent, Edinburg h. tGeddes, John. 33 Portland-street, "Boutiiport. tGeddes, Professor Patrick. Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh. tGee, W. W. Haldane. Owens College, Manchester. {GurKin, Sir Arcuibatp, LL.D., D.Se., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United King- dom. 10 Chester-terrace, Regent’s-park, London, N.W. 40 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1871. {Gurxte, James, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Murchison Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh. 31 Merchiston-avenue, Edinburgh. 1882, *GenzsE, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University Col- lege, Aberystwith. 1875. *George, Rey. Hereford B., M.A., F.R.G.S. New College, Oxford. 1885. {Gerard, Robert. Blair-Devenick, Cults, Aberdeen. 1884, *Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. 20 St. John-street, Oxford. 1884, {Gibb, Charles. Abbotsford, Quebec, Canada, 1865. {Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham. 1874. {Gibson, rr Right Hon. Edward, Q.C. 23 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin. 1892. §Gibson, Francis Maitland. Care of Professor Gibson, 20 George- square, Edinburgh. 1876. *Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Secretary to the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. 17 Alva-street, Edinburgh. 1896. §Gibson, Harvey, M.A., Professor of Botany, University College, Liverpool. 1884. {Gibson, Rev. James J. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada. 1889. *Gibson, T.G. Lesbury House, Lesbury, R.S.O., Northumberland. 1893. {Gibson, Walcot, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W. 1887. {Grrren, Sir Roprrt, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.S.S. Board of Trade, London, 8.W. 1888. *Gifford, H. J. Liyston Court, Tram Inn, Hereford. 1884. tGilbert, HK. E. 245 St. Antoine-street, Montreal, Canada. 1842, GuiLBERt, Sir JosepH Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Har- penden, near St. Albans. 1883.§§Gilbert, Lady. Harpenden, near St. Albans. 1857. {Gilbert, J. T., MR.I.A. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin. 1884, *Gilbert, Philip H. 63 Tupper-street, Montreal, Canada. 1895.§§ Gilchrist, J. D. F. Carvenon, Anstruther, Scotland. 1896. *Gilchrist, Perey C. Frognal Bank, Finchley-road, Hampstead, N.W. Gilderdale, Rev. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex. 1878, {Giles, Oliver. Crescent Villas, Bromsgrove. Giles, Rey. William. Netherleizh House, near Chester. 1871. *Grtt, Davin, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal Observatory, Cape Town. 1888. §Gill, John Frederick. Douglas, Isle of Man. 1888. {Gilland, E, T. 259 West Seventy-fourth-street, New York, U.S.A. 1884, {Gillman, Henry. 130 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A. 1896. §Gilmour, H. B, Underlea, Aigburth, Liverpool. 1892, *Gilmour, Matthew A. B. Saffronhall House, Windmill-road, Hatnilton, N.B. 1867. {Gilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee. 1898. *Gimingham, Edward. Stamford House, Northumberland Park, Tottenham, London. 1867. {Gunspure, Rev. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Holmlea, Virginia Water Station, Chertsey. 1884. {Girdwood, Dr. G. P. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada. 1886. *Gisborne, Hartley. Qu’Appelle StationP.O., Assa.,N.-W.T., Canada. 1883, *Gladstone, Miss. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W. 1883. *Gladstone, Miss E. A. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W. 1850. *Gladstone, George, F.C.S., F.R.G.S. 84 Denmark-villas, Hove, Brighton, LIST OF MEMBERS. 41 Eleotion. 1849. *Guapstonn, Jonn Hatt, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Pem- bridge-square, London, W. 1890. *Gladstone, Miss Margaret E. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W. 1861. *GuaisHER, James, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Shola, Heathfield-road, South Croydon. 1871. *GuaisHeER, J. W.L., M.A.,D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Trinity College, Cambridge. 1883. {Glasson, L. T. 2 Roper-street, Penrith. 1881. *GuazEBRook, R. T., M.A., F.R.S. 7 Harvey-road, Cambridge. 1881. *Gleadow, Frederic. 38 Ladbroke-grove, London, W. 1859. {Glennie, J. S. Stuart, M.A. Verandah Cottage, Haslemere, Surrey. 1867. {Gloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh. 1874. {Glover, George IT. 30 Donegall-place, Belfast. Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport. 1870. {Glynn, Thomas R., M.D. 62 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 1889. {Goddard, F. R. 19 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 1872. {GoppaRrD, RicHarD. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire. 1886, {Godlee, Arthur. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham. 1887. tGodlee, Francis. 8 Minshall-street, Manchester. 1878. *Godlee, J. Lister. Whip’s Cross, Walthamstow. 1880. {Gopman, F. Du Cane, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 10 Chandos-street, Cavendish-square, London, W. 18838. {Godson, Dr. Alfred. Cheadle, Cheshire. 1852. tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast. 1879.§§Gopwin-AvstEen, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., ¥.Z.S. Shalford House, Guildford. 1876. {Goff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire. 1881. {GotpscumipT, Kpwarp, J.P. Nottingham. 1886. {Gotpsmip, Major-General Sir F. J., C.B., K.C.S.L, F.R.GS. Godfrey House, Hollingbourne. 1890. *GonneR, E. C. K., M.A., Professor of Political Hconomy in Univer- sity College, Liverpool. 1884, tGood,Charles E. 102 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada. 1852. tGoodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland. 1878. {Goodbody, Jonathan, jun. 50 Dame-street, Dublin. 1884. {Goodbody, Robert. J*airy Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin. 1886, {Goodman, F. B. 46 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1885. {Goopmay, J. D., J.P. Peachfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1884. *Goodridge, Richard E. W. 1030 The Rookery Building, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. 1884. oon Professor W.L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, anada. 1883. {Goouch, B., B.A. 2 Oxford-road, Birkdale, Southport. 1885. {Gordon, General the Hon. Sir Alexander Hamilton. 50 Queen’s Gate-gardens, London, S.W. 1885. {Gordon, Rey. Cosmo, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Chetwynd Rectory, Newport, Salop. 1871. *Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne's Mansions, West- minster, S.W. 1884. *Gordon, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. 8 St. Mary-street, St. Andrews, N.B. 1857. {Gordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin. 1885. {Gordon, Rev. William. Braemar, N.B. 1887. {Gordon, William John. 3 Lavender-gardens, London, S.W. 1865, {Gorz, Gzorer, LL.D., F.R.S. 67 Broad-street, Birmingham. 1896. §Gossage, F. H. Camphill, Woolton, Liverpool. 42 LIST OF MEMBERS, Year of Election. 1875. 1873. 1849. 1881 1894 1888 1867 1876. 1883. 1873. 1886. 1875 1892. 1893. 1896. 1892. 1864. 1881. 1890, 1864. 1865. 1876. 1881. 1893. 1870. 1892. 1892. 1887. 1887. 1886. 1881. 1878. 1883. 1883. 1886. 1866. 1893. 1869. 1872. 1872. 1888. 1887. 1887. 1858. *Gorcu, Francis, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in the University of Oxford. tGott, Charles, M.Inst.C.E. Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire. , , tGough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham. t{Gough, Thomas, B.Sc., F.C.S. Elmfield College, York. tGould, G. M. 119 South 17th-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A. tGouraud, Colonel. Little Menlo, Norwood, Surrey. . {Gourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee. {Gow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow. §Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow. §Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford, Yorkshire. Bo a tGrabham, Michael C., M.D. Madeira. {GranHAme, James. 12 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. §Grange, C. Ernest. 57 Berners-street, Ipswich. tGranger, F. 8., M.A., D.Litt. 2 Cranmer-street, Nottingham. §Grant, Sir James, K.C.M.G. Canada. tGrant, W. B. 10 Ann-street, Edinburgh. {Grantham, Richard F., F.G.S. Northumberland-chambers, Northum- berland-avenue, London, W.C. Gray, Alan, LL.B. Minster-yard, York. {Gray, Professor ANDREW, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Univer- sity College, Bangor. *Gray, Rev. Canon Charles. The Vicarage, Blyth, Rotherham. t{Gray, Charles. Swan Bank, Bilston. tGray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasgow. tGray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York. tGray, J. C., General Secretary of the Co-operative Union, Limited, Long Millgate, Manchester. tGray, J. Macfarlane. 4 Ladbrole-crescent, W. *Gray, James H., M.A., B.Sc. The University, Glasgow. . §Gray, John, B.Sc. 351 Clarewood-terrace, Brixton, London, 8.W. tGray, Joseph W., F.G.S. Cleveland Villa, Shurdington Road, Cheltenham. {Gray, M. H., F.G.S. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent. *Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent. {Gray, Thomas, Professor of Engineering in the Rane Technical In- stitute, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A. t{Gray, William, M.R.I.A. 8 Mount Charles, Belfast. *Gray, Colonel Wirt1Am. Farley Hall, near Reading. t{Gray, William Lewis. 386 Gutter-lane, London, E.C. {Gray, Mrs. W. L. 36 Gutter-lane, London, E.C. {Greaney, Rev. William. Bishop’s House, Bath-street, Bir- mingham. §Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby. *Greaves, Mrs. Elizabeth. Station-street, Nottingham. {Greaves, William. Station-street, Nottingham. tGreaves, William. 33 Marlborough-place, London, N.W. *Grece, Clair J.. LL.D. Redhill, Surrey. §GREEN, JosEPH R., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 17 Blooms- bury-square, London, W.C. {Greene, Friese. 162 Sloane-street, London, 8.W. pears Richard. 1 Temple-gardens, The Temple, London, “Greenhalch, Thomas. Highfield, Silverdale, Carnforth. LIST OF MEMBERS. 43 Year of Election. 1882. 1881. 1884, 1884, 1884, 1887. 1863, 1890. 1875. 1877. 1887. 1887. 1861. 1860. 1868. 1894, 1896. 1883. 1881. 1859, 1870. 1878. 1836. 1894, 1894. 1859. 1870. 1884, 1884. 1891. 1847. 1870. 1888. 1884. 1881. 1894, 1894, 1896. 1892. 1891. 1863. 1869. 1886. 1891. 1887. {GreEnuitt, A. G., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich. 10 New Inn, W.C §Greenhough, Edward. Matlock Bath, Derbyshire. 3 tGreenish, Thomas, F.C.S. 20 New-street, Dorset-square, London, N.W tGreenshields, E. B. Montreal, Canada. tGreenshields, Samuel. Montreal, Canada. tGreenwell, G. C., jun. Driffield, near Derby. tGreenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire. tGreenwood, Arthur. Cavendish-road, Leeds. Greenwood, F., M.B. Brampton, Chesterfield. tGreenwood, Holmes, 78 King-street, Accrington. tGreenwood, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Adderley Park. Rolling Mills, Birmingham. ; *Greg, Arthur. Eagley, near Bolton, Lancashire. *Grec, Ropert Purries, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting- ford, Herts. aT, TH t{Greeor, Rev. Watrer, M.A. Lauder Villa, Bonnyrigg, Midlothian. tGregory, Sir Charles Hutton, K.0.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. 2 Delahay- street, Westminster, S.W. tGregory, J. Walter, D.Sc., F.G:S. British Museum, Cromwell- road, London, 8. W. §Gregory, R. A. 11 Southey-road, Wimbledon, Surrey, tGregson, G. E. Ribble View, Preston. tGregson, William, F.G.S. Baldersby, S.O., Yorkshire. tGrierson, THomas Borie, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire. tGrieve, John, M.D. Care of W. L. Buchanan, Esq., 212 St. Vin- cent-street, Glassow. {Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. Grithn, 8. F. Albion Tin Works, York-road, London, N. *Griffith, C.L. IT. College-road, Harrow, Middlesex. *Griffith, Miss F. H. College-road, Harrow, Middlesex. *GrirFitH, G., M.A. (Assistant GENERAL SECRETARY.) College- road, Harrow. ; {Grifith, Rev. Henry. Brooklands, Isleworth, Middlesex, t{Grirrirus, E. H., M.A., F.R.S. 12 Park-side, Cambridge. tGriffiths, Mrs. 12 Park-side, Cambridge. {Griffiths, P, Rhys, B.Se., M.B. 71 Newport-road, Cardiff. tGriffiths, Thomas. The Elms, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir- mingham. tGrimsdale, T. F.,M.D. Hoylake, Liverpool. *Grimshaw, James Walter, Australian Club, Sydney, New South Wales. tGrinnell, Frederick. Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A. tGripper, Edward. Mansfield-road, Nottingham. {Groom, P., M.A., F.L.S. 38 Regent-street, Oxford. tGroom, T. T. The Poplars, Hereford. §Grossmann, Dr. Karl. 70 Rodney-street, Liverpool. tGrove, Mrs. Lilly, F.R.G.S. Mason College, Birmingham. {Groyer, Henry Llewellin. Clydach Court, Pontypridd. *Groves, THomas B., F.C.S. Belmont, Seldown, Poole, Dorset. tGruss, Sir Howarp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 51 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin. tGrundy, John. 17 Private-road, Mapperley, Nottingham. tGrylls, W. London and Provincial Bank, Cardiff. {GuittemarD, F.H. H. Eltham, Kent. Guinness, Henry, 17 College-green, Dublin. 44 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1842. 1891. 1877. 1866. 1894. 1880. 1896. 1876. 1883. 1896. 1857. 1876. 1884. 1887. 1884. 1881. 1842, 1888. 1892. 1870. 1879. 1887. 1879. 1883. 1881, 1854, 1887. 1885. 1896, 1884, 1866. 1896. i891. 1891. 1873. 1888. 1858. 1883. 1885. 1869. 1881. 1892. 1878. 1875. 1861. 1890. Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin. ¢Gunn, John. Llandaff House, Llandaff. tGunn, William, F.G.S. Office of the Geological Survey of Scot- land, Sheriff's Court House, Edinburgh. {Gtynruer, Abert C. L. G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S8., Pres.L.8., F.Z.8. 23 Lichfield-road, Kew, Surrey. {Ginther, R. T. Magdalen College, Oxford. §Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea. *Gustav, Jarmay. Hartford Lodge, Hartford, Cheshire. tGuthrie, Francis. Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope. tGuthrie, Malcolm. Prince’s-road, Liverpool. §Guthrie, Tom, B.Sc. Yorkshire College, Leeds. tGwynne, Rev. John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland. tGwyruer, R. F., M.A. Owens College, Manchester. tHaanel, E,, Ph.D. Cobourg, Ontario, Canada. tHackett, Henry Eugene. Hyde-road, Gorton, Manchester. {tHadden, Captain C. F., R.A. Woolwich. *Happon, ALFRED Cort, M.A.,F.Z.S. Inisfail, Hills-road, Cambridge. Hadfield, George. Victoria-park, Manchester. *Hadfield, R. A. The Grove, Endcliffe Vale-road, Sheffield. tHaigh, E., M.A. Longton, Staffordshire. Haigh, George. 27 Highfield South, Rock Ferry, Cheshire. tHaxnr, H. Witson, Ph.D., F.C.S. Queenwood College, Hants. { Hale, The Hon. E. J. 9 Mount-street, Manchester. *Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield. *Hall, Miss Emily. Burlington House, Spring Grove, Isleworth. {Hall, Frederick Thomas, F.R.A.S. 15 Gray’s Inn-square, London, W.C. *Hatt, Hue Ferein, F.G.8. Staverton House, Woodstock-road, Oxford. tHall, John. Springbank, Leftwich, Northwich. §Hall, Samuel. 19 Aberdeen Park, Highbury, London, N. §Hall, Thomas B, Larchwood, Rockferry, Cheshire. tHall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto, Canada. *Hatt, TownsHenD M.,F.G.S. Orchard House, Pilton, Barnstaple. §Hall-Dare, Mrs. Caroline. 13 Great Cumberland-place, London, W. *Hallett, George. Cranford, Victoria-road, Penarth, Glamorganshire. §Hallett, J. H., M.Inst.C.E. Maindy Lodge, Cardiff. *Haiert, T.G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath. §Hatirpurton, W. D., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in King’s College, London. 9 Ridgmount-gardens, Gower-street, London, W.C. Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol. *Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S. Holmeside, Hazelwood, Derby. *Hamel, ee D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth. tHamilton, David James. 14 Albyn-place, Aberdeen. tHamilton, Rowland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W. *Hammond, Robert. Ormond House, Great Trinity-lane, London, E.C. tHanbury, Thomas, F.L.S. La Mortola, Ventimiglia, Italy. tHance, Edward M., LL.B. Municipal Buildings, Liverpool. tHancock, C. F., M.A. 125 Queen’s-gate, London, 8.W. tHancock, a 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, Lon- don, E.C. tHankin, Ernest Hanbury. St. John’s College, Cambridge. LIST OF MEMBERS. 45 Year of Election. 1882. tHankinson, R. C. Bassett, Southampton. 1884.§§Hannaford, E. P. 2573 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada. 1894. §Hannah, Robert, F.G.S. 82 Addison-road, London, W. 1886, §Hansford, Charles. 3 Alexandra-terrace, Dorchester. 1859, *Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres.C.8. (GENERAL SECRETARY.) Cowley Grange, Oxford. 1890, *Hanrcourt, L. F. Vernon, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 6 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, 8. W. 1886. *Hardcastle, Basil W., F.S.S, 12 Gainsborough-gardens, Hampstead, London, N.W. 1892. *Harden, Arthur, Ph.D., M.Sc. Ashville, Upper Chorlton-road, Man- chester. 1865. tHarding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham. 1869. {Harding, Joseph. Millbrook House, Exeter. 1877. tHarding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol. 1869, {Harding, William D. Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk. 1894. {Hardman, 8. C. 225 Lord-street, Southport. 1894, t{Hare, A. T., M.A. Neston Lodge, East Twickenham, Middlesex. 1894. {Hare, Mrs. Neston Lodge, East Twickenham, Middlesex. 1838. *Harr, Cuartzs Joun, M.D. Berkeley House, 15 Manchester- square, London, W. 1858. tHargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds. 1883. {Hargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport. 1883. {Harereaves, Thomas. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport. 1890. {Hargrove, Rev. Charles. 10 De Grey-terrace, Leeds. 1881. {Hargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York. 1890. §Harker, ALFRED, M.A.,F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge. 1896. §Harker, Dr. John Allen. Springfield House, Stockport. 1887. tHarker, T. H. Brook House, Fallowfield, Manchester. 1878. *Harkness, H. W., M.D. California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, California, U.S.A. 1871. {Harkness, William, F.C.S. Laboratory, Somerset House, London. 1875. *Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.A. The Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex. 1877. *Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton, Sussex. 1883. *Harley, Miss Clara. Rosslyn, Westbourne-road, Forest-hill, London, S.E 1883. *Harley, “Harold. 14 Chapel-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C 1862, *Hartry, Rev. Ropert, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Rosslyn, West- bourne-road, Forest-hill, London, S.E. 1868. *Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich. 1881. *Harmer, Srpyey F., M.A., B.Sc. King’s College, Cambridge. 1882. {Harper, G. T. Bryn Hyfrydd, Portswood, Southampton. . tHarpley, Rey. William, M.A. Clayhanger Rectory, Tiverton. 1884. {Harrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in McGill University, Montreal. Wallbrac-place, Montreal, Canada. 1872. *Harris, Alfred. Lwunefield, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland. 1888. {Harris,C.T. 4 Kilburn Priory, London, N.W. 1842. *Harris, G. W., M.Inst.C.E. Moray-place, Dunedin, New Zealand. 1889, §Harris, H. Grawam, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great.George-street, West- minster, S.W. 1884. {Harris, Miss Katherine E, 73 Albert Hall-mansions, Kensington- gore, London, S.W. 1888. {Harrison, Charles. 20 Lennox-gardens, London, 8. W. 1860, {Harrison, Rev. Francis, M.A. North Wraxall, Chippenham. 46 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1864, 1874. 1858. 1892. 1889. 1870. 1853. 1892. 1895. 1886. 1876. 1875. 1893. 1871. 1896. 1890. 1886. tHarrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire. tHarrison, G. D. B. 3 Beaufort-road, Clifton, Bristol. *Harrison, JAMES Park, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park London, W. tHarrison, Joun. Rockville, Napier-road, Edinburgh. §Harrison, J.C. Oxford House, Castle-road, Scarborough, tHarrison, Rearnatp, F.R.O.S. 6 Lower Berkeley-street, Port- man-square, London, W. tHarrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull. tHarrison, Rev. 8. N. Ramsay, Isle of Man. §Harrison, Thomas. 48 High-street, Ipswich. tHarrison, W. Jerome, F.G.S. Board School, Icknield-street, Bir- mingham. *Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn. tHart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry. *Harrianp, E. Sipney, F.S.A. Highgarth, Gloucester. Hartley, James. Sunderland. t{Harriny, Watter Nort, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. 36 Water- loo-road, Dublin. §Hartley. W. P., J.P. Aintree, Liverpool. *Hartnell, Wilson. 8 Blenheim-terrace, Leeds. *Hartoe, Professor M. M., D.Sc. Queen’s College, Cork. 1887.§$Hartog, P. J., B.Sc. Owens College, Manchester. 1885.§§Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B. 1862. *Harwood, John. Woodside Mills, Bolton-ie-Moors. 1884. 1882. 1898. 1875. 1889. 1893. 1857. 1896. 1887. 1872. 1864. 1884, 1889, 1887. 1887. 1886. 1890. 1877. 1861. 1885, 1891. 1894. 1896. 1896. 1873. 1858. 1896. tHaslam, Rev. George, M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada. tHaslam, George James, M.D. Owens College, Manchester, §Haslam, Lewis. Ravenswood, near Bolton, Lancashire. *Hastines, G. W. 23 Kensington-square, London, W. tHatch, F. H., Ph.D., F.G.8. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W. {Hatton, John L.S. People’s Palace, Mile End-road, London, E. tHavenron, Rev. Samvet, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.G.S., Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. §Hause, Edward M. 42 Bedford-street, Liverpool. *Hawkins, William. LEarlston House, Broughton Park, Manchester. *Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St, James’s, 8. W. *HawksHAw, JoHN Crarke, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 Down- street, W., and 33 Great George-street, London, 8. W. *Haworth, Abraham. Hilston House, Altrincham. tHaworth, George C. Ordsal, Salford. *Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire. tHaworth, S. E. Warsley-road, Swinton, Manchester. tHaworth, Rev. T. J. Albert Cottage, Saltley, Birmingham. tHawtin, J. N. Sturdie House, Roundhay-road, Leeds. tHay, Arthur J. Lerwick, Shetland. *Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Joun C. D., Bart., K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, London, 8. W. *Haycraft, John Berry, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology, University College, Cardiff. tHayde, Rev. J. St. Peter's, Cardiff. tHayes, Edward Harold. 5 Rawlinson-road, Oxford. §Hayes, F.C. The Rectory, Raheny, Dublin. §Hayes, Wiliam. Fernyhurst, Rathgar, Dublin. *Hayes, Rev. William A., M.A. Dromore, Co. Down, Ireland.. *Haywarp, R.B,M.A.,F.R.S. Ashcombe, Shanklin, Isle of Wight. *Haywood, A. G. Rearsby, Merrilocks-road, Blundellsands. LIST OF MEMBERS. 47 Year of Election. 1879. 1851, 1883. 1883. 1883. 1871. 1883. 1861. 1883. 1883. 1882. 1877. 1877. 1883. 1866. 1884. 1883. 1865. 1892. 1889. 1884. 1835. 1888. 1888. 1855. 1867. 1887. 1881. 1887. 1867. 1873. 1883. 1891. 1892. 1880, 1896. 1885. 1892. 1856, 1873. *Hazelhurst, George S. The Grange, Rock Ferry. §Heap, Juremran, M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. 47 Victoria-street, West- minster, S.W. {Headley, Frederick Haleombe. Manor House, Petersham, S.W. {Headley, Mrs. Marian. Manor House, Petersham, S.W. §Headley, Rev. Tanfield George. Manor House, Petersham, S.W. §Healey, George. Brantfield, Bowness, Windermere. *Heap, Ralph, jun. 1 Brick-court, Temple, London, E.C. *Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, Manchester, tHeape, Charles. Tovrak, Oxton, Cheshire. {Heape, Joseph R. 96 Tweedale-street, Rochdale. *Heape, Walter, M.A. Heyroun, Chaucer-road, Cambridge. {Hearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth. tHearder, William Keep, F.S.A. 195 Union-street, Plymouth. {Heath, Dr. 46 Hoghton-street, Southport. tHeath, Rev. D. J. Esher, Surrey. tHeath, Thomas, B.A. Royal Observatory, Edinburgh. }Heaton, Charles, Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport. tHeaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, Birmingham. *Heaton, Witiiam H., M.A., Professor of Physics in University College, Nottingham. *Heaviside, Arthur West. 7 Grafton-road, Whitley, Newcastle-upon- Tyne. §Heaviside, Rev. George, B.A., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. 7 Grosyenor- street, Coventry. ; : {Hxuavisivz, Rev. Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich. *Heawood, Edward, M.A. 3 Underhill-road, Lordship-lane, London, S.E. *Heawood, Percy Y., Lecturer in Mathematics at Durham University. 41 Old Elvet, Durham. i tHecror, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand. : tHeddle, M. Forster, M.D., F.R.S.E. St. Andrews, N.B. *Hepers, KintmvewortH, M.Inst.C.E. Wootton Lodge, 39 Streat- ham hill, London, S.W. *Hete-Suaw, H.8., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in Uni- versity College, Liverpool. 20 Waverley-road, Liverpool. §Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S. Sussex Lodge, Sidcup, Kent. tHenderson, Alexander. Dundee. *Henderson, A..L. 277 Lewisham High-road, London, 8.E. tHenderson, Mrs. A. L. 277 Lewisham Hich-road,-London, 8.E. *Henverson, G.G., D.Sc., M.A.,F.C.S., F.L.C., Professor of Chemistry in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. 204 George-street, Glasgow. } {Henderson, John. 3 St. Catherine-place, Grange, Edinburgh. *Henderson, Captain W. H., R.N. 21 Albert Hall-mansions, London, 8. W. §Henderson, W. Saville, B.Sc. Beech Hill, Fairfield, Liverpool. tHenderson, Sir William. Devanha House, Aberdeen. §Henigan, Richard. Alma-road, The Avenue, Southampton: Hennessy, Henry G., F.R.S., M.R.I.A. Clarens, Montreux, Switzerland. *Henricr, Oraus M. F. E., Ph.D:, F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the City and Guilds of London Institute. Central Institution, Exhibition-road, London, S.W. 384 Clarendon-road, Notting Hill, W. 48 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1884. 1892. 1855. 1855. 1890. 1890. 1892. 1887. 1893. 1891. 1871. 1874. 1895. Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester. Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight. Henry, Mitchell. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, W. t{Henshaw, George H. 43 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada. {Hepburn, David, M.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Edinburgh. *Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Oakfield Cottage, Dartford, Kent. tHepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W. {Hepper, J. 43 Cardigan-road, Headingley, Leeds. {Hepworth, Joseph. 25 Wellington-street, Leeds. *Herbertson, Andrew J. University Hall, Edinburgh. *HerpMan, WittraM A., D.Sce., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in University College, Liverpool. *Herdman, Mrs. 32 Bentley-road, Liverpool. tHern, 8. South Cliff, Marine Parade, Penarth. *HerscHEL, ALEXANDER S., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Honorary Professor of Physics and Experimental Philosophy in the Uni- versity of Durham. Observatory House, Slough, Bucks. §HerscHet, Colonel Jonny, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Observatory House, Slough, Bucks. §Hesketh, James. Scarisbrick Avenue-buildings, 107 Lord-street, Southport. 1894.§§Hewetson, G. H. 39 Henley-road, Ipswich. 1890. {Hewetson, H. Bendelack, M.R.C.S., F.L.S. 11 Hanover-square, Leeds. 1884.§§ Hewett, George Edwin. Cotswold House, St. John’s Wood Park, 1894, 1896. 1893, 1885. 1882, 1883. 1866. 1879. 1861. 1886. 1833. 1887. 1888. 1875, 1877. 1886. 1884, 1887. 1864, 1875. 1871. 1891, London, N.W. {Hewins, W.A.S.,M.A.,F.S.S. 26 Cheyne-row, Chelsea, London,S8. W. §Hewitt, David Basil. Oakleigh, Northwich, Cheshire. {Hewitt, Thomas P. Eccleston Park, Prescot, Lancashire. t{Hewson, Thomas. Care of J. C. C. Payne, Esq., Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast. tHeycock, Charles T., M.A., F.R.S. King’s College, Cambridge. §Heyes, Rev. John Frederick, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.G.S. Crowell, Tetsworth, Oxford. *Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire. tHeywood, A. Percival. Duffield Bank, Derby. *Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere. §Heywoop, Henry, J.P., F.C.S. Witla Court, near Cardiff. *Heywoon, JAmgs, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.S.A., F.R.G.8., F.S.8. 26 Ken- sington Palace-gardens, London, W. {Heywood, Robert. Mayfield, Victoria Park, Manchester. Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester. {Hichens, James Harvey, M.A., F.G.S. The College, Cheltenham. tHicxs, H., M.D., F.R.S., Pres.G.S. Hendon Grove, Hendon, N.W. §Hicxs, Professor W. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of Firth College, Sheffield. Firth College, Sheffield. tHicks, Mrs. W. M. Dunheved, Hndcliffe-crescent, Sheffield. tHickson, Joseph. 272 Mountain-street, Montreal, Canada. *Hicxson, Sypney J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in Owens College, Manchester. *Hiern, W.P., M.A. Castle House, Barnstaple. tHiggins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., F.R.S.E, Alfred House, Birkenhead. tHieers, Crement, B.A., F.C.S. 5 Trebovir-road, Earl’s Court, London, S.W. §Higgs, Henry, LL.B., F.S.S. 12 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, London, N.W. Yeur LIST OF MEMBERS. 49 of Election. 1894 1885 1872 1881 1887. 1884. 1886, 1881. 1885, 1888, 1876. 1885. 1886. 1863, 1887. 1858. 1870. 1883. 1888. 1886. 1881. 1884. 1884. 1890. 1858. 1884. 1881. 1879. 1887. 1883. 1883. 1877. 1883. 1877. 1876. 1852. 1863. 1887. 1896. 1880 Hildyard, Rey. James, B.D., F.C.P.S. Ingoldsby, near Grantham, Lincolnshire. . §Hill, Rev. A. Du Boulay. The Vicarage, Downton, Wilts. . *Hill, Alexander, M.A., M.D. Downing College, Cambridge. .§§Hill, Charles, F.S.A. Rockhurst, West Hoathly, Kast Grinstead. *Hill, Rev. Canon Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory, Harlow. . “Hit, Rev. Epwiy, M.A., F.G.S. The Rectory, Coclifield, R.S.O., Suffolk. tHill, G. H., F.G.S. Albert-chambers, Albert-square, Manchester. THill, Rev. James Edgar, M.A., B.D. 2488 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada. tHitt, M. J. M., M.A., D.Sce., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics in University College, London. tMili, Pearson. 50 Belsize Park, London, N.W. *Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol. {Hill, William. Hitchin, Herts. THill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B. *Hittmovusp, WititaM, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Mason Science College. 95 Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. §Hillier, Rev. E. J. Cardington Vicarage, Bedford. tHills, F.C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S.E. tHilton, Edwin. Oak Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester. {Hincxs, Rev. Tuomas, B.A., F.R.S. Stokeleigh, Leigh Woods, Clifton, Bristol. tHinpg, G. J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Avondale-road, Croydon, Surrey. *Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington. *Hindmarsh, William Thomas, F.L.S. Alnbank, Alnwick. tHingley, Sir Benjamin, Bart. Hatherton Lodge, Cradley, Wor- cestershire. tHingston, J.T. Clifton, York. tHineston, Witt1am Hates, M.D., D.C.L. 37 Union-avenue, Montreal, Canada. tHirschfilder,C. A. Toronto, Canada. *Hirst, James Andus. Adel Tower, Leeds. tHirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester. tHoadrey, John Chipman. Boston, Massachusetis, U.S.A. Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W. §Hobbes, Robert George, M.R.I. Livingstone House, 374 Wands- worth-road, London, S.W. tHobkirk, Charles P., F.L.S. Hill House, Park-road, Dewsbury. *Hobson, Bernard, B.Sc., F.G.S. Tapton Elms, Sheffield. tHobson, Mrs. Carey. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, London, W. tHobson, Rev. E. W. 55 Albert-road, Southport, tHockin, Edward. Poughill, Stratton, Cornwall. tHocking, Rey. Silas K. 21 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport. tHodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth, tHodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast. tHodges, John F., M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s College, Belfast. *Hopexin,THomas, B.A.,D.C.L. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. *Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Laryngology at Owens College, Manchester. 18 St. John-street, Manchester. §Hodgkinson, Arnold. 16 Albert-road, Southport. -§§Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich. 8 Park-villas, Blackheath, London, S8.E. 1896. D 5U LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1873. 1884. 1863. 1863. 1896. *Hodgson, George. Thornton-road, Bradford, Yorkshire. {Hodgson, Jonathan. Montreal, Canada. tHodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland. tHodgson, R. W. 7 Sandhill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. §Hodgson, Dr. Wm., J.P. Helensville, Crewe. 1894.§§Hogg, A. F. 73 Stanhope-road, Darlington. 1894, 1854. 1883. 1873. 1885. 1883. 1884. 1896. 1887. 1891. 1879. 1896. §Holah, Ernest. 5 Crown-court, Cheapside, London, E.C. *Holcroft, George. Tyddyngwladis, Ganllwyd, near Dolgelly. tHolden, Edward. Laurel Mount, Shipley, Yorkshire. *Holden, Sir Isaac, Bart. Oakworth House, Keighley, Yorkshire. tHolden, James. 12 Park-avenue, Southport. tHolden, John J. 23 Dulke-street, Southport. tHolden, Mrs. Mary E. Dunham Ladies’ College, Quebec, Canada, §Holder, Thomas. 2 Tithebarn-street, Liverpool. *Holdsworth, C.J. Hill Top, near Kendal, Westmoreland. tHolgate, Benjamin, I.G.S. Cardigan Villa, Grove-lane, Head- ingley, Leeds. {Wolland, Calvert Bernard. Hazel Villa, Thicket-road, Anerley, S.E. §Holland, Mrs. Hooton. . *Holland, Philip H. 38 Heath-rise, Willow-road, Hampstead, N.W 1889.§§ Holliinder, Bernard. King’s College, Strand, Londen, W.C. 1886. 1865. 1883. 1883. 1866. 1892, 1882. 1896. 1896. 1896. 1891. 1875. 1847, 1892. 1865, 1877. 1856. 1842. 1884. 1865. 1884. 1882. 1870. 1871. 1858. 1891. 1885, tHolliday, J. R. 101 Harborne-road, Birmingham. tHolliday, William. New-street, Birmingham. tHollingsworth, Dr. T.S. Elford Lodge, Spring Grove, Isleworth. *Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 5 Freeland-road, Ealing, Middlesex, W. *Holmes, Charles, St. Helen’s, Dennington Park-road, West Hamp- stead, London, N.W. tHolmes, Matthew. Netherby, Lenzie, Scotland. *Hotmns, Tomas VINCENT, F.G.S. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich, S.E. §Holt, Alfred. Crofton, Aigburth, Liverpool. §Holt, R. D. 1 India-buildings, Liverpool. §Holt, William Henry, 11 Ashville-road, Birkenhead. *Hood, Archibald, M.Inst.C.E. 42 Newport-road, Cardiff. *Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester. tHooxrr, Sir Joserm Datron, K.C0.8.1., C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., FE.RS., F.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. The Camp, Sunningdale. §Hooker, Reginald H., M.A. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C. *Hooper, John P. Deepdene, Rutford-road, Streatham, London, 5. W *Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. Holy Trinity Vicarage, Blackheath Hill, Greenwich, 8.1. tHooton, Jonathan. 116 Great Ducie-street, Manchester. Hope, Thomas Arthur, 14 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, London, W. * Hopkins, Edward M. Orchard Dene, Henley-on-Thames. tHopkins, J.S. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham. *Hopxinson, CHARLES. The Limes, Didsbury, near Manchester. *Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Oakleigh, Timperley, Cheshire. *Horxinson, Joun, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Holmwood, Wimbledon, Surrey. *Horxinson, Joun, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. 34 Margaret- street, Cavendish-square, London, W.; and The Grange, St. Albans. {Hopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield. {Horder, T. Garrett. 10 Windsor-place, Cardiff. Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool. tHorne, Jonn, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh, LIST OF MEMBERS. 51 Year of Election. 1875. 1884. 1887. 1892. 1893. 1884. 1868. 1859. 1896. 1886. 1887. 1896, 1884. 1883. *Horniman, F. J., M.P., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Surrey Mount, Forest Hill, London, S.E. *Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax. tHorsfall, T. C. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield. t Horsley, Reginald E., M.B. 46 Heriot-row, Edinburgh. *Horstey, Victor A. H., B.Se., F.R.S., F.R.C.S. 25 Cavendish- square, London, W. *Hotblack, G.S. 52 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich. {Hotson, W. C. Upper King-street, Norwich. tHough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton. *Hough, 8.8. St. John’s College, Cambridge. fHoughton, F. T.S., M.A., F.G.S. 188 Hagley-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. {Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart., M.P. Norbury Booths, Knutsford. §Hoult, J. South Castle-street, Liverpool. tHouston, William. Legislative Library, Toronto, Canada. *Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.S., F.G.S. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road, West Dulwich, Surrey, S.E. Hovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath. 1893.§§ Howard, F. T., M.A., F.G.S. University College, Cardiff. 1883. 1886, 1887. 1882. 1886. 1876. 1885. 1889. 1857. 1868. 1891. 1886. 1884. 1884. 1865. 1863. 1883. 1883. 1887. 1888. 1888. 1894, 1867, 1858. 1892. 1887. 1883. tHoward, James Fielden, M.D., M.R.C.S. Sandycroft, Shaw. *Howarp, James L., D.Sc. 86St. John’s-road, Waterloo, near Liverpool. *Howard, S. 8. 58 Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent. tHoward, William Frederick, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 18 Cavendish- street, Chesterfield, Derbyshire. tHowatt, David. 3 Birmingham-road, Dudley. tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glasgow. tHowden, James C., M.D. Sunnyside, Montrose, N.B. §Howden, Robert, M.B. University of Durham College of Medicine, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. tHowell, Henry H., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. Geological Survey Office, Edinburgh. tHowett, Rey. Canon Hryps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich. §Howell, Rev. William Charles, M.A., Vicar of Holy Trinity, High Cross, Tottenham, Middlesex. §Howes, Professor G. B., F.L.S. Royal College of Science, South Kensington, London, 8. W. tHowland, Edward P.,M.D. 21 413-street, Washington, U.S.A. tHowland, Oliver Aiken. Toronto, Canada. *How tert, Rey. Freperick, F.R.A.S. East Tisted Rectory, Alton, Hants. tHoworrn, Sir H. H, K.CIE., MP., DCL, FRS., E.S.A. Bentcliffe, Eccles, Manchester. tHoworth, John, J.P. Springbank, Burnley, Lancashire. tHoyle, James. Blackburn. §Hoytz, Wittram E., M.A. Owens College, Manchester. tHudd, Alfred E., F.8.A. 94 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol. tHupson, C. T., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. 2 Barton-crescent, Dawlish. §Hudson, John E. 125 Milk-street, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A. *Houpson, Wittram H. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in King’s College, London. 15 Altenberg-gardens, Clapham Common, London, 8. W. *Hueerns, WinriaM, D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 90 Upper Tulse Hill, Brixton, London, 8.W. t Hughes, Alfred W. Woodside, Musselburgh. t{Hughes, E.G. 4 Roman-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester. §Hughes, Miss KE. P, Cambridge Teachers’ College, Cambridge. D2 52 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1871. *Hughes, George Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum- berland. 1887. tHughes, John Taylor. Thorleymoor, Ashley-road, Altrincham. 1896. §Hughes, John W. New Heys, Allerton, Liverpool. 1870. *Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-chambers, Liverpool. 1891.§§Hughes, Thomas, F.C.8. 31 Loudoun-square, Cardiff. 1868.§§Hueues, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of Geology in the University of Cambridge. 1891. t{Hughes, Rev. W. Hawker. Jesus College, Oxford. 1865. tHughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham. Birmingham. 1867. §Hut1, Epwarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 20 Arundel-gardens, Notting Hill, London, W. *Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. Breamore House, Salisbury. 1887. *HumMeEt, Professor J. J. 152 Woodsley-road, Leeds. 1890. {Humphrey, Frank W. 68 Prince’s-gate, London, 8. W. 1878. {Humphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon. 1880. {Humphreys, Noel A., F.S.S.. Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on- Thames. : 1877. *Hunt, AntHuR Roors, M.A., F.G.S. Southwood, Torquay. 1891. *Hunt, Cecil Arthur. Southwood, Torquay. 1886. tHunt, Charles. The Gas Works, Windsor-street, Birmingham. 1891. tHunt, D. de Vere, M.D. Westbourne-crescent, Sophia-gardens, Cardiff. 1875. *Hunt, William. Northcote, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol. 1881. tHunter, F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham. 1889. {Hunter, Mrs. F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.” 1881. {Hunter, Rey. John. University-gardens, Glasgow. 1884, *Hunter, Michael. Greystones, Sheffield. 1869. *Hunter, Rev. Robert. LL.D., I.G.8. Forest Retreat, Staples-road, Loughton, Essex. 1879. {Hunrineron, A. K., F.C.S., Professor of Metallurgy in King’s College, London. King’s College, London, W.C. 1885. {Huntly, The Most Hon. the Marquess of. Aboyne Castle, Aber- deenshire. 1863. {Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford. 1883. *Hurst, CuaRtes Herpert, Ph.D. Royal College of Science, Dublin. 1869. tHurst, George. Bedford. 1882. { Hurst, Walter, B.Sc. West Lodge, Todmorden. 1861. *Hurst, William John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn, Treland. 1896, *Hurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Holly Lodge, Cressington, Liverpool. 1887. {Husband, W. I. 56 Bury New-road, Manchester. 1882. tHussey, Major E. R., R.E. 24 Waterloo-place, Southampton. 1894, *Hutchinson, A. Pembroke College, Cambridge. 1876. { Hutchinson, John. 22 Hamilton Park-terrace, Glasgow. 1896. §Hutchinson, W. B. 144 Sussex-road, Southport. Hutton, Crompton. Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire. 1864. oes 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, 1887. *Hutton, J. Arthur. The Woodlands, Alderley Edge, Cheshire. 1861. *Hurron, T. Maxwett. Summerhill, Dublin. Hyde, Edward. Dukinfield, near Manchester. 1883. t{Hyde, George H. 23 Arbour-street, Southport. 1871. *Hyett, rea A. Painswick House, Painswick, Stroud, Glouces- tershire, LIST OF MEMBERS. 58 Year of Election. 1882. 1883 *T’Anson, James, F.G.8. Fairfield House, Darlington. . §Idris, T. H. W. 58 Lady Margaret-road, London, N.W. Ihne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg. 1884. *Iles, George. 5 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada. 1885. {im-Thurn, Everard F., C.M.G., M.A. British Guiana. 1888. 1858. 1893. 1876, *Ince, Surgeon-Lieut.-Col. John, M.D. Montague House, Swanley, Kent. fIngham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds. tIngle, Herbert. Pool, Leeds. TInglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow. 1891. {Ingram, Lieut.-Colonel C. W. Bradford-place, Penarth. 1852. 1885. 1886. 1892. tIneram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Senior Lecturer in the Univer- sity of Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin. tIngram, William, M.A. Gamrie, Banff. tInnes, John. The Limes, Alcester-road, Moseley, Birmingham. tIveland, D. W. 10 South Gray-street, Edinburgh. 1892. {Irvine, James. Devonshire-road, Birkenhead. 1892. {Irvine, Robert, F.R.S.E. Royston, Granton, Edinburgh. 1882 1888, 1883. 1881. 1891. 1886. 1859. 1884. 1876. 1883. 1883. 1883. 1883. 1874. 1887. 1885. 1866. 1869, 1887. 1874. 1865. 1891. 1891. 1891. 1860. 1886. 1891. 1891. 1891. 1891. . §Invine, Rey. A., B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Hockerill, Bishop Stortford, Herts. *Isaac, J. F. V., B.A. Royal York Hotei, Brighton. tIsherwood, James. 18 York-road, Birkdale, Southport. fIshiguro, Isoji. Care of the Japanese Legation, 9 Cavendish-square, London, W. *Ismay, THomas H. 10 Water-street, Liverpool. tIzod, William. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham, tJack, John, M.A. Belhelvie~-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire. tJack, Peter. People’s Bank, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. *Jack, William, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Glasgow. 10 The College, Glasgow. *Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc., F.C.S. 358 Collins-street, Mel- bourne, Australia. tJackson, Frank. 11 Park-crescent, Southport. *Jackson, F. J. 1 Morley-road, Southport. tJackson, Mrs. F. J. 1 Morley-road, Southport. *Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Belmont, Lyme Regis, Dorset. *Jackson, George. 53 Elizabeth-street, Cheetham, Manchester, tJackson, Henry. 19 Golden-square, Aberdeen. tJackson, H. W., F.R.A.S. 67 Upgate, Louth, Lincolnshire. §Jackson, Moses, J.P. 189 Lower Addiscombe-road, Croydon. §Jacobson, Nathaniel, Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Man- chester. *Jaffe, John. Villa Jaffe, Nice, France. *Jaffray, Sir John, Bart. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham. {James, Arthur P. Grove House, Park-grove, Cardiff. *James, Charles Henry. 8 Courtland-terrace, Merthyr Tydfil. *James, Charles Russell. 6 New-court, Lincoln's Inn, London, W.C. tJames, Edward H. “Woodside, Plymouth. tJames, Frank. Portland House, Aldridge, near Walsall. tJames, Ivor. University College, Cardiff. {James, John. 24 The Parade, Cardiff. {James, John Herbert. Howard House, Arundel-street. Strand, London, W.C. tJames, J. R., L.R.C.P. 158 Cowbridge-road, Canton, Cardiff. 54 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1858. 1896. 1884. 1881. 1887. 1885. 1885. 1859. 1889. 1870. 1891. 1891. 1855. 1867. 1885. 1887. 1864. 1891. 1878. 1880. 1852. 1893. 1878. 1889. 1884, 1891. 1884, 1884. 1883. 1883. 1871. 1883. 1865. 1888. 1875. 1872. 1870. 1863. 1881. 1890. 1887. 1883. 1883. 1861. 1883. f{James, William C. Woodside, Plymouth. *Jameson, H. Lyster. Killencoole, Castlebellingham, Ireland. tJameson, W.C. 48 Baker-street, Portman-square, London, W. {Jamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Arts, Glasgow. §Jamieson, G. Auldjo. 87 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh. {Jamieson, Patrick. Peterhead, N.B. t{Jamieson, Thomas. 173 Union-street, Aberdeen. *Jamieson, Thomas F., LL.D., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire. *Jarp, F. R., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Aberdeen. tJarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich. tJasper, Henry. Holmedale, New Park-road, Clapham Park, London, S.W. {Jefferies, Henry. Plas Newydd, Park-road, Penarth. *Jeffray, John. 9 Winton-drive, Kelvinside, Glasgow. {Jetireys, Howel, M.A. 61 Bedford-gardens, Kensington, London, W. tJeffreys, Dr. Richard Parker. Eastwood House, Chesterfield. §Jzrrs, OsmunD W. 164 Falkner-street, Liverpool. tJelly, Dr. W. Aveleanas, 11, Valencia, Spain. tJenkins, Henry C., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., }'.C.S. Royal College of Science, South Kensington, London, 8. W. §Jenkins, Major-General J. J. 16 St. James’s-square, London, S.W. “Jenkins, Sir Jonn Jones, M.P. The Grange, Swansea. tJennings, Francis M., F.G.S., M.R.LA. Brown-street, Cork. §Jennings, G. H. Ashleigh, Ashleigh-road, Leicester. {Jephson, Henry L. Chief Secretary’s Office, The Castle, Dublin. Jessop, William, jun. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield. tJevons, F. B., M.A. The Castle, Durham. tJewell, Lieutenant Theo. F. Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode Island, U.S.A. tJohn, E. Cowbridge, Cardiff. tJohns, Thomas W. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada. §JoHNsoN, ALEXANDER, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in McGill University, Montreal. 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Mont- real, Canada. {Johnson, Miss Alice. Llandaff House, Cambridge, tJohnson, Ben. Micklegate, York. *Johnson, David, F.C.S., F.G.S. 1 Victoria-road, Clapham Common, London, 8. W. tJohnson, Edmund Litler. 73 Albert-road, Southport. *Johnson, G. J. 86 Waterloo-street, Birmingham. {Johnson, J. G. Southwood Court, Highgate, London, N. {Johnson, James Henry, F.G.S. 73 Albert-road, Southport. {Jobnson, J.T. 27 Dale-street, Manchester. tJohnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. 46 Jermyn-street, Liverpool. tJohnson, R. S. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham. {Johnson, Sir Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham. *Jounson, THomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. r {Johnson, W. H. Woodleigh, Altrincham, Cheshire. {Johnson, W. H. F. Liandaff House, Cambridge. tJohnson, William. Harewood, Roe-lane, Southport. tJohnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham, Cheshire. tJohnston, Sir H. H., K.C.B., F.R.G.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions, 8. W. LIST OF MEMBERS, 55 Year of Election. 1859. 1864, 1884. 1885. 1884. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1864, 1864, 1871. 1888. 1896. 1888. 1881. 1849, 1887, 1891. 1896. 1890. 1891. 1887, 1891. 1883. 1895. 1884, 1877. tJohnston, James, Newmill, Elgin, N.B. {Johnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, N.W. tJohnston, John L. 27 St. Peter-street, Montreal, Canada. tJohnston, Thomas. Broomsleigh, Seal, Sevenoaks. tJohnston, Walter R. Fort Qu’Appelle, N.W. Territory, Canada, *Johnston, W. H. County Offices, Preston, Lancashire. tJounston-Lavis, H. J., M.D., F.G.S. Beaulieu, Alpes Maritimes, France. tJohnstone, G. H. Northampton-street, Birmingham. *Johnstone, James. Alva House, Alva, by Stirling, N.B. tJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath. {Jorty, Wittiam, F.RS.E., F.G.S., H.M. Inspector of Schools. St. Andrew’s-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow. tJolly, W.C. Home Lea, Lansdowne, Bath. §Joly, C. J.. M.A. Trinity College, Dublin. tJory, Joun, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. 39 Waterloo-road, Dublin. tJones, Alfred Orlando, M.D. Cardigan Villa, Harrogate. tJones, Baynham. Walmer House, Cheltenham. tJones, D..E., B.Sc., H.M. Inspector of Schools. 7 Marine-terrace, Aberystwith. tJones, D. Edgar, M.D. Spring Bank, Queen-street, Cardiff. §Jones, E. Taylor. University College, Bangor. §Jones, Rev. Edward, F.G.S. Fairfax-road, Prestwich, Lancashire. tJones, Dr. Evan. Aberdare. tJones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Beaufort House, Alexandra Park, Manchester. *Jonus, Rev. G. Hartweit, M.A. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, Surrey. *Jones, George Oliver, M.A. Inchyra House, Waterloo, Liverpool. §§Jones, Harry. Engineer’s Office, Great Hastern Railway, Ipswich. tJones, Rey. Harry, M.A. 8 York-gate, Regent’s Park, London, N. W. tJones, Henry C., F.C.S. Royal Coliege of Science, South Kensing- ton, London, 8.W. 1881. *Jonzs, J. Virtamu, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of the University 1873. 1880. 1860. 1896. 1883. 1891. 1875, 1884. 1891. 1891. 1879. 1890, 1872 College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff. tJones, Theodore B. i Finsbury-circus, London, E.C. tJones, Thomas. 15 Gcwer-street, Swansea. Jones, Toomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S. 17 Parson’s Green, Ful- ham, London, 8.W. §Jones, W. Hope Bank, Lancaster-road, Pendleton, Manchester. tJones, William. Elsinore, Birkdale, Southport. tJones, William Lester. 22 Newport-road, Cardiff. *Jose, J. E. 49 Whitechapel, Liverpool. {Joseph, J.H. 738 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada. {Jotham, F. H. Penarth. tJotham, T. W. Penylan, Cardiff. t{Jowitt, A. Scotia Works, Sheffield. jJowitt, Benson R. Elmhurst, Newton-road, Leeds. tJoy, Algernon. Junior United Service Club, St. James's, S.W. 1848, *Joy, Rev. Charles Ashfield. West Hanney, Wantage, Berkshire. 1883. 1886. 1896, 1891, 1848, 1870 tJoyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester, tJoyce, The Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester. §Joyce, Joshua. 151 Walton-street, Oxford. {J ove John J. Great Western Colliery, near Coleford, Gloucester- shire. *Jubb, Abraham. Halifax. . {Jupp, Joun Wester, C.B., F.R.S.,F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Royal College of Science, London. 16 Cumberland-road, Kew. 56 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1883. tJustice, Philip M. 14 Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane, London, W.C. 1868. *Kaines, Joseph, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Osborne-road, Stroud Green-road, London, N. 1888, {Kapp, Gisbert, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.E. 38 Lindenallee, Westend, Berlin. 1887. {Kay, Miss. Hamerlaund, Broughton Park, Manchester. 1859. {Kay, David, F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington, W. 1884, {Keefer, Samuel. Brockville, Ontario, Canada. , 1875. {Keeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney. 1886. tKeen, Arthur, J.P. Sandyford, Augustus-road, Birmingham. 1894.§§Keene, Captain C. T. P., F.LS., F.Z.S., F.S.8. 11 Queen’s-gate, London, S.W. 1894 §§Keightley, Rev. G. W. Great Stambridge Rectory, Rochford, Essex. 1892. {Keiller, Alexander, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 54 Northumberland- street, Edinburgh. 1887. {Kellas-Johnstone, J. F. 55 Crescent, Salford. 1884, {Kelloge, J. H.,M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A. 1864, *Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset. 1885. §Keltie, J. Scott, Assist.Sec.R.G.S., F.S.S. 1 Savile-row, London, W. 1847, *Ketvin, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., LL.D. D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. The University, Glasgow. 1877, *Kelvin, Lady. The University, Glascow. 1887. {Kkemp, Harry. 254 Stretford-road, Manchester. 1884, {Kemper, Andrew U., A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati, U.S.A. 1890. §Kempson, Augustus. Kildare, Arunde!-road, Eastbourne. 1891. §Kenpatt, Percy F., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in Yorkshire College, Leeds. 1875, {Knnnepy, ALEXANDER B. W., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 17 Victoria- street, S.W., and 1 Queen Anne-street, Cayendish-square, London, W. 1884, {Kennedy, George L., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and Geology in King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada, 1876. {Kennedy, Hugh. 20 Mirkland-street, Glasgow. 1884, {Kennedy, John. 113 University-street, Montreal, Canada. 1884. {Kennedy, William. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. 1886. {Kenrick, George Hamilton. Whetstone, Somerset-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1898. §Kent, A. F. Stanley, F.G.S. St. Thomas's Hospital, London, S.E. Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester. 1886. §KENWARD, JAmzEs, F.S.A. 43 Streatham Hich-road, London, 8.W. 1857. *Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland. 1876. {Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow. 1881. {Kermode, Philip M. C. Ramsey, Isle of Man. 1892.§§Kerr, J. Graham, Christ’s College, Cambridge. 1884. {Kerr, James, M.D, Winnipeg, Canada. 1887. {Kerr, James, Dunkenhalgh, Accrington. 1883. ne Rev. Joun, LL.D., F.R.S. Free Church Training College, xlasrow. 1889. {Kerry, W. H. R. Wheatlands, Windermere. 1887. {Kershaw, James. Holly House, Bury New-road, Manchester. 1869, *Kesselmeyer, Charles A. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon, Cheshire. 1869. tear William Johannes. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon, ‘heshire, LIST OF MEMBERS, 57 Year of Election. 1883. *Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge. 1876. {Kidston, J. B. 50 West Regent-street, Glasgow. 1886, §Kipston, Rosert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 24 Victoria-place, Stirling, 1885, *Kilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen. 1896. *Killey, George Deane. Bentuther, 11 Victoria-road, Waterloo, Liverpool. 1890. {Kimmins, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Downing College, Cambridge. 1878, {Kinahan, Sir Edward Hudson, Bart. 11 Merrion-square «North, Dublin. 1860. {Krvanan, G. Henry, M.R.1.A., Dublin. 1875. *Kincu, Epwarp, F.C.S. Royal Agricultural College, Ciren- cester. 1888. {King, Austin J. Winsley Hill, Limpley Stoke, Bath, 1888. *King, E. Powell. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants, 1883. *King, Francis. Alabama, Penrith. 1875. *King, F. Ambrose. A-vonside, Clifton, Bristol. 1871. *King, Rev. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath. 1855, {King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow. 1883. *King, John Godwin. Stonelands, East Grinstead. 1870, {King, John Thomson. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool. King, Joseph. Welford House, Greenhill, Hampstead, N.W. 1883. *King, Joseph, jun. Lower Birtley, Witley, Godalming, 1860. *King, Mervyn Kersteman. 3 Clifton-park, Clifton, Bristol, 1875. *King, Percy L. 2 Worcester-avenue, Clifton, Bristol. 1870. {King, William. 5 Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool. 1889, §King, Sir William. Stratford Lodge, Southsea, 1869, {Kingdon, K. Taddiford, Exeter. 1875, §Kinezerr, Cuartes T., F.C.S, Elmstead Knoll, Chislehurst Kent. 1867. {Kinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland. 1892. {Kinnear, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E. Blair Castle, Culross, N.B. 1870. {Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool. 1870. {Kitchener, Frank E. Newcastle, Staffordshire. 1890. *Kirson, Sir James, Bart., M.P. Gledhow Hall, Leeds. 1896. §Klein, L. de Beaumont. 6 Devonshire-road, Liverpool, 1886. {Klein, Rev. L. Martial. University College, Dublin. 1869, {Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter. 1886, {Knight, J. M., F.G.S. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex. 1888. {Knott, Professor Cargill G., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 42 Upper Gray-street, Edinburgh. .1887. *Knott, Herbert. Aingarth, Stalybridge, Cheshire. 1887, *Knott, John F. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire. 1887. {Knott, Mrs. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire. 1874. {Knowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co. Antrim. 1883. {Knowlys, Rev. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport. 1883. {Knowlys, Mrs. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport. 1876. {Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 24 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow. *Knox, George James. 27 Portland-terrace, Regent's Park, N.W. 1875. *Knubley, Rev. E, P., M.A. Staveley Rectory, Leeds. 1883. {Knubley, Mrs. Staveley Rectory, Leeds. 1892. {Kohn, Charles A., Ph.D. University College, Liverpool. 1890, *Krauss, John Samuel, B.A. Wilmslow, Cheshire. 1888, *Kunz,G. F. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 11 Union-square, New York City, U.S.A. 188]. ma pee hig Legation of Japan, 9 Cavendish-square, Lon- on, 1870. {Kynaston, Josiah W., F.C.S. Kensington, Liverpool. 58 LIST OF MEMBERS, Year of Election. 1858. 1884. 1885. 1870. 1877. 1859, 1889. 1887. 1887. 1885. 1883. 1896, 1893. 1884. tLace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds. {Laflamme, Rev. Professor J. C. K. Laval University, Quebec, Canada. *Laing, J. Gerard. 111 Church-street, Chelsea, S.W. §Laird, John. Grosvenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead. tLake, W.C., M.D., F.R.G.S. Teignmouth. {Lalor, John Joseph, M.R.I.A. City Hall, Cork Hill, Dublin. *Lamb, Edmund, M.A. Old Lodge, Salisbury. t{Lams, Horacs, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the Owens College, Manchester. Burton-road, Didsbury, Manchester. {tLamb, James. Kenwood, Bowdon, Cheshire. tLamb, W. J. 11 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport. tLamsert, Rev. Brooks, LL.B. The Vicarage, Greenwich, S.E. §Lambert, Frederick Samuel. Balgowan, Newland, Lincoln. t{Lambert, J. W., J.P. Lenton Firs, Nottingham. tLamborn, Robert H. Montreal, Canada. 1893.§§Lamplugh, G. W.,F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street, 1890. 1884, 1871. 1886. 1877. 1883. 1859, 1886. 1870. 1865. 1880. 1884. 1878. 1885. 1887. 1881, 1883. 1896. 1870. 1870. 1891. 1888. 1892. 1888, 1870. 1878. 1884. 1870. 1881. London, S.W. t{Lamport, Edward Parke. Greenfield Well, Lancaster. tLancaster, Alfred. Fern Bank, Burnley, Lancashire. tLancaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire. tLancaster, W. J., F.G.S. Colmore-row, Birmingham. tLandon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.A.S. 59 Tresillian-road, St. John’s, London, 8.E. tLang, Rey. Gavin. Inverness. tLang, Rev. John Marshall, D.D. Barony, Glasgow. *Lanetey, J.N., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge. tLangton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool. tLanxester, E. Ray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Linacre Professor of Human and Comparative Anatomy in the University of Oxford. 2 Bradmore-road, Oxford. * LANSDELL, Rev. Henry, D.D., F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S. Morden College, Blackheath, London, 8.E. § Lanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, tLapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin. t{Lapworru, Cuares, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology and Physiography in the Mason Science College, Birmingham. 13 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. tLarmor, Alexander. Clare College, Cambridge. t{Larmor, Jospen, M.A.,D.Se., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge. §Lascelles, B. P., M.A. The Moat, Harrow. *Last, William J. South Kensington Museum, London, 8.W. *LarHam, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 7 Westminster-chambers, Westminster, S. W. tLaughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.G.S. Catesby House, Manor- road, Barnet, Herts. tLaurie, A. P. 49 Beaumont-square, London, E. tLaurie, Colonel R. P., C.B. 79 Farringdon-street, London, E.C. §Laurie, Malcolm, B.A., B.Se., F.L.S. King’s College, Cambridge. tLaurie, Major-General. Oakfield, Nova Scotia. *Law, Channell. Jlsham Dene, Torquay. tLaw, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-chambers, London, S.W. §Law, Robert, F.G.S. Fennyroyd Hall, Hipperholme, near Halifax, Yorkshire. tLawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool. tLawrence, Rey. F., B.A. The Vicarage, Westow, York Year LIST OF MEMBERS. 59 of Election, 1889. §Laws, W. G., M.Inst.C.E. 5 Winchester-terrace, Newcastle-upons 1885. 1853. 1888. 1856. 1883. 1875. Tyne. iganson, James. 8 Church-street, Huntly, N.B. tLawton, William. 5 Victoria-terrace, Derringham, Hull. §Layard, Miss Nina F. 2 Park-place, Fonnereau-road, Ipswich. tLea, Henry. 38 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham. *Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland. tLeach, Colonel Sir G., K.C.B., R.E. 6 Wetherby-gardens, London, S.W 1870. “Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Pembury-road, Tun- 1894, 1884. 1884, 1847. 1863. 1884. 1872. 1884, 1895. 1861. 1896, bridge Wells. *Leahy, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Firth College, Sheffield. *Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland. tLearmont, Joseph B. 120 Mackay-street, Montreal, Canada. *Leatham, Edward Aldam. 46 Eaton-square, London, S.W. tLeavers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham. *Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport, Mas- sachusetts, U.S.A. tLezsovr, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Col- lege of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. tLeckie, R. G. Springhill, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia. *Ledger, Rev. Edmund. Barham Rectory, Claydon, Ipswich. tLee, Henry. Sedgeley Park, Manchester. §Lee, Rev. H. J. Barton. Ashburton, Devon. 1891.§§Lee, Mark. The Cedars, Llandati-road, Cardiff. 1884. *Leech, Sir Bosdin T, Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire. 1896. 1887. *Leech, Lady. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire. tLeech, D. J., M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the Owens College, Manchester. Elm House, Whalley Range, Manchester. 1892. *Lurs, CuartEs H., M.Se. 6 Heald-road, Rusholme, Manchester. 1886. *Lees, Lawrence W. Claregate, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton. 1882. 1859. 1896. 1883, 1889. 1881. 1872. 1869. tLees, R. W. Moira-place, Southampton. tLees, William, M.A. 12 Morningside-place, Edinburgh. §Lees, William. 10 Norfolk-street, Manchester. *Leese, Miss H. K. 3 Lord-street West, Southport. *Leese, Joseph. 3 Lord-street West, Southport. *Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., C.M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Clifden House, Twickenham, Middlesex. tLe Fevverr, J. E. Southampton. {Lurevee, The Right Hon. G.SHaw, F.R.G.S. 18 Bryanston-square, London, W. tLe Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance. 1892. {Lehfeldt, Robert A. Firth College, Sheffield. 1868. {LxrrcesterR, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G. Holkham, Norfolk. 1856. {Lxrien, The Right Hon. Lord. Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth, 1890. {Leigh, Marshall. 22 Goldsmid-road, Brighton. 1891. 1867. 1859. 18282. 1867. 1878. 1887. 1871. tLeigh, W. W. Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire. {Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool. tLeith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B. § Lemon, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Lansdowne House, Southampton, tLeng, Sir John, M.P. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee. {Lennon, Rev. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland. *Leon, John T. 38 Portland-place, London, W. {Lronarp, Hueu, M.R.I.A. 24 Mount Merrion-avenue, Blackrock, Co. Dublin. 1874, {Lepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast. 60 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1884, 1890. 1883. 1880, 1894. 1896. 1887, 1890. 1893. 1879. 1870. 1891. 1891. 1891. 1891. 1891. 1884, 1860, 1876, 1887. 1887. 1878. 1881. 1871. 1883. 1895, 1882. 1888, 1861. 1876. tLesage, Louis, City Hall, Montreal, Canada. *Lester, Joseph Henry, 651 Arcade-chambers, St. Mary's Gate, Manchester. §Lester, Thomas. Fir Bank, Penrith. tLercuer, R. J. Lansdowne-terrace, Walters-road, Swansea. }Leudesdorf, Charles. Pembroke College, Oxford. §Lever, Mr. Port Sunlight, Cheshire. *Levinstein, Ivan. Hawkesmoor, Fallowfield, Manchester. tLevy, J. H. Florence, 12 Abbeville-road South, Clapham Park, London, S.W. *Lewes, Vivian B., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E. fLewin, Colonel, F.R.G.S. Garden Corner House, Chelsea Embank- ment, London, 8S. W. tLewis, Atrrep Lionen. 54 Highbury-hill, London, N. tLewis, D., J.P. 44 Park-place, Cardiff. §Lewis, D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwith, tLewis, W. Lyncombe Villa, Cowbridge-road, Cardiff, tLewis, W. 22 Duke-street, Cardiff. tLewis, W. Henry. Bryn Rhos, Llanishen, Cardiff. *Lewis, Sir W. T., Bart. The Mardy, Aberdare. {LrppEc1, The Very Rev. H. G., D.D. Ascot, Berkshire. tLietke, J.O. 30 Gordon-street, Glasgow. *Lightbown, Henry. Hayfield*Mills, Pendleton, Manchester. *Liverick, The Right Rev. Caartzs Graves, Lord Bishop of, D.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA. The Palace, Henry-street, Limerick. tZimpach, Dr. Crumpsall Vale Chemical Works, Manchester. tLincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire. *Lindley, William, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 74 Shooters Hill-road, Black- heath, London, S.E. tLindsay, Rey. T, M., M.A., D.D, Free Church College, Glasgow. tLisle, H. Claud. Nantwich. § Lister, Sir Joseru, Bart., D.C.L., Pres.R.S. (PRESIDENT.) 12 Park- crescent, Portland-place, W. *Lister, Rev. Henry, M.A. Hawridge Rectory, Berkhampstead. tLister, J. J. Leytonstone, Essex, N.E. *Liveine, G. D., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge. *LIVERSIDGE, ARCHIBALD, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.GS., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, N.S.W. Care of Messrs. Kegan Paul & Co., Charing Cross-road, W.C. 1864.§§Livesay, J.G. Cromartie House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight. 1880. 1889. 1842, 1865. 1865. 1886, 1891. 1886, 1865. 1854, {LLEWELYN, Sir Joun T. D., Bart., M.P. Penllegare, Swansea. Lloyd, Rey. A. R. Hengold, near Oswestry. ener , Rey. Canon. The Vicarage, Rye Hill, Newcastle-upon- yne, Lloyd, Edward. King-street, Manchester. tLloyd, G. B., J.P. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham. tLloyd, John, Queen’s College, Birmingham. tLloyd, J. Henry, Ferndale, Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Bir- mingham. *Lloyd, R. J., M.A., D.Litt. 4 Halkyn-avenue, Sefton Park, Liverpool. {Lloyd, Samuel. Farm, Sparkbrook, Birmingham. *Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Myvod House, Wednesbury. *Losiey, James Logan, F.G.8. City of London College, Moorgate- street, London, E.C. LIST OF MEMBERS. 61 Year of Election. 1892. 1867. 1892. 1863. 1886. 1875. 1894, 1889. 1896. 1876, 1883. 1883. 1883. 1866, 1883. 1883. 1876. 1872. 1881. 1883. 1861. 1894. 1889. 1883. 1896. 1887. 1886. 1876. 1883. 1875. 1892. 1889. 1867. 1885. 1891. 1885. 1892. 1861. 1886. 1850. 1894. 1881. 1853. 1881. 1870. 1889. 1878, §Loch, C.S., B.A. 154 Buckingham-street, London, W.C. *Locke, John. 163 Holland-road, Kensington, London, W. tLockhart, Robert Arthur. 10 Polwarth-terrace, Edinburgh. {Locxyer, J. Norman, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal College of Science, South Kensington, London, 8. W. *Lopen, ALFRED, M.A., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Staines. *Lopexz, OrtveR J., D.Sce., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in University College, Liverpool. 2 Grove-park, Liverpool. *Lodge, Oliver W. F. 2 Grove-park, Liverpool. tLogan, William. Langley Park, Durham. §Lomas, J. 16 Mellor-road, Birkenhead. tLong, H. A. Charlotte-street, Glasgow. *Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington. tLong, Mrs. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington. tLong, Miss. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington. tLongden, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby. tLonge, Francis D. Coddenham Lodge, Cheltenham. tLongmaid, William Henry. 4 Rawlinson-road, Southport. *Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.S.8. Highlands, Putney Heath, S.W. a el Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, urrey. *Longstatf, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey. *Longton, E. J., M.D. The Priory, Southport. *Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden. tLord, Edwin C. E., Ph.D. 247 Washington-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A. tLord, Riley. 75 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. *Louis, D. A., F.C.S. 77 Shirland-gardens, London, W. §Louis, Henry, Professor of Mining, Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. *Love, A. E. H., M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge. *Love, E. F. J..M.A. The University, Melbourne, Australia. *Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.8S., F.Z.S. 33 Clanricarde-gardens, London, W. tLove, James Allen. 8 Eastbourne-road West, Southport. *Lovett, W. Jesse, F.I.C. 29 Park-crescent, Monkgate, York. §Lovibond, J. W. Salisbury, Wiltshire. tLow, Charles W. 84 Westbourne-terrace, London, W. *Low, James F. Monifieth, by Dundee. §Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex. §Lowdon, John. St. Hilda’s, Barry, Cardiff. *Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex. tLowe, D. T. Heriot’s Hospital, Edinburgh. *LowE, Epwarp JosEru, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S. Shirenewton Hall, near Chepstow. *Lowe, John Landor, M.Inst.C.E, The Birches, Burton-road, Derby. ee oo Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin- urgh. {Lowenthal, Miss Nellie. 60 New North-road, Huddersfield. tLubbock, Arthur Rolfe. High Elms, Farnborough, R.S.O., Kent. *Lussock, The Right Hon. Sir Jonn, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., E.R.S.,F.LS., F.G.S. High Elms, Farnborough, R.S.0., Kent, tLubbock, John B. 14 Berkeley-street, London, W. tLubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, London, W. tLucas, John. 1 Carlton-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead, tLucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, London, 8S. W. 62 LIST OF MEMBERS. Year of Election. 1889. 1891. 1875. 1881. 1866. 1873. 1850. 1892. 1853. 1883. 1874. 1864. 1871. 1884. 1884. 1874, 1885.§ 1896. 1896. 1862. 1854. 1876, 1868. 1878. 1896. 1896. 1879. 1883. 1883. 1866. 1896. 1884. 1834. 1840. 1896. 1884. 1886. 1887. 1884. 1884, 1891. 1876, tLuckley, George. The Grove, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. *Lucovich, Count A. The Rise, Llandaff. {Lucy, W. C., F.G.S. The Winstones, Brookthorpe, Gloucester. tLuden, C.M. 4 Bootham-terrace, York. *Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire. tLund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire. *Lundie, Cornelius. 382 Newport-road, Cardiff. t{Lunn, Robert. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court House, Edinburgh. tLunn, William Joseph, M.D. 25 Charlotte-street, Hull. *Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., Professor of Coal Mining in Yorkshire College, Leeds. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds. *Lupton, Sypney, M.A. bare? a) a I i oe nde Ieee ane ts | ake.) Pediat 3a hs as hy ee Vt =o Ciltioed, Tonner tyr @ My = wr, Pa ha) cone Ee wht 1 YA a ay ; ih Mey ee 4 : HA Ty.) Ve a tat ie t hy é' saps fi , . a eet Lc ‘ : 5 eivite 5